UNIVERSITY OF B.C. LIBRARY

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STCSAGE I'lEM
PFCCESSING-CNE

THE LIBRARY

THE UNIVERSITY OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA

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Metropolitan
Health Committee

►

THE

DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2010 with funding from

University of British Columbia Library

http://www.archive.org/details/diseasesdisorderoxOOgres

THE

DISEASES AND DISORDERS

OF

THE OX.

WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF THE DISEASES OF THE

SHEEP.

BY

GEOKGE GRESSWELL,

RECENTLY LECTUBEB IN PHYSICAIi SCIENCE AT THE DIOCESAN COLLEGE NEAB CAPE TOWN ;

AUTHOR OF "an EXAMINATION OP THE THEORY OF EVOLDTION,"

AND OF OTHER WORKS.

WITH ADDITIONS ON HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE PATHOLOGY

de. albert geesswell.

LONDON :

W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13 WATEELOO PLACE. S.W.

1889.

[All Bights Reserved.]

LONDON :

PRINTED BY W. H. ALLEN AND CO., 13 WATERLOO PLACE^

PALL MALL. S.W.

TO

Dr. GEORGE FLEMING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.C.V.S.,

PRINCrPAIi VETERINABY SUBGEON OF HBB MAJESTY'S AKMY,

THE ILLUSTRIOUS MASTER OF COMPARATIVE

MEDICINE AND SURGERY,

WHOSE LIFE HAS BEEN MOST HONOURABLY DEVOTED TO

THE ADVANCEMENT OF PATHOLOGY,

THIS WORK IS

DEDICATED.

" All truth is precious, if not all divine,
And what dilates the pow'rs must needs refine."'

— COWPEB.

PREFACE.

Now at length we have completed the task we set before us,
and we have great pleasure in offering to our kind friends
the public the final outcome of our work and the enterprise
of our publishers in the shape of the volume which now lies
before the reader.

The ox is of use to mankind in several different ways.
Indeed, the relations in which that animal stands to human
beings are very numerous, and we have not been able to
discuss any of them thoroughly in the pages which follow.
The chief point we have tried to insist upon is the fact
that the diseases and disorders which aflflict human beings are
causally connected with those of lower animals, and of these
in a high degree with the maladies of oxen, in various im-
portant ways. In proportion as the Science of Pathology
advances, the numerous and intricate connections which subsist
betwixt the diseases of man and those of animals will in all
probability be seen to be much more intimately allied than we
can at present understand. By way of example, it may be
mentioned that it is impossible to over-estimate the far-reaching
importance of the discovery of Dr. Klein and Mr. Power that

Vlll PREFACE.

human scarlet-fever may be derived from a disease afiQicting cows.
Indeed, the announcement of this fact and of the facts on whicli
it is founded was received by the scientific world as a revelation
of a startling kind, and as one of the greatest importance.

Those who can understand the advances which have been
recently made in science, and in the field of Pathology in
particular, cannot but feel rejoiced at the prospect in store
for those who will come after us. As each year pursues its
course^ our knowledge of diseases, of medicines, and of thera-
peutic appliances becomes more wide ; and it should not be
forgotten that facts and principles derived from the study of
maladies as they are manifested by the lower animals, have even
already aflected the art and science of human medicine and
surgery, and must still more importantly influence them in the
future. There can be no doubt that, in proportion as micro-
scopical methods advance in perfection, we shall learn more
and more concerning the relations which subsist betwixt human
diseases and those which afflict animals. It is possible we may
find that there is a much more far-reaching interaction between
those disorders which afflict man and those of the animals which
he has domesticated, than we can now form any conception
of. If this is so, the clue is certainly one of the utmost value.

Hence it is obviously very important that the diseases of
animals should be well managed, and that the whole subject of
sanitary science in relation to animals should be thoroughly
attended to. Especially is this necessity manifest, when we
consider that plagues of different kinds among animals very
frequently break out. It is well known that the ancient records,
Ijoth of Scriptural and of Pagan history, repeatedly mention
the occurrence of epidemics among cattle. We read that in
the time of Moses the cattle of Egypt were decimated by
the " murrain," and that all kinds of animals died in con-

PREFACE. IX

sequence thereof. Indeed, epizootic disorders have attracted
the attention of the historians of all nations. For example,
Homer, who flourished about 900 years before the Christian
era, alludes to these visitations; and, moreover, Virgil writes: —

On winter seas we fewer storms behold

Than foul diseases that infect the fold.

Nor do these ills on single bodies prey,

But oft'ner bring the nation to decay,

And sweep the present stock and future hope away.

A dire example of this truth appears
When, after such a length of rolling years,
We see the naked Alps and their remains
Of scattered cots and yet unpeopled plains,
Once fill'd with grazing flocks, the shepherd's happy reigns.

Here, from the vicious air and sickly skies,
A plague did on the dumb creation rise ;
During the autumnal heats the infection grew,
Tame cattle and the beasts of nature slew.

Sheep, oxen, horses fell, and, heaped on high,'
The diff'i-ing species in confusion lie.

Georijic iii., 1, 711-829, Drydens translation.

The above doubtless refers to an epizootic raging among the
Alps, probably not less than 2,000 years ago.

Again, Plutarch narrates how in the days of Komulus, about
the time that Eome was founded, viz. 750 B.C., a great plague,
after destroying the fruits of the earth and the cattle, swept off
many of the people ; and Livy writes that " the consuls had the
greater difficulty to raise their recruits, because the plague,
which the year before had raged among horned cattle, broke
out among men."

Turning now our attention to these present times ; as is well
known, we find that in recent years men Iwive been made very
familiar indeed with outbreaks of disastrous diseases among
animals, and some of these — canine rabies more especially —
have attracted the most earnest research. Anthrax also has

X PREFACE.

been thoroughly investigated, and likewise many other maladies
have been carefully studied.

In the following pages we treat more particularly of the
diseases and disorders of the ox and sheep ; but now and again
we have discussed our subjects from a more general aspect.
We may say here, what we shall afterwards have occasion to say
again, that the maladies with which the sheep is liable to be
afiflicted are of vastly greater importance than is often recog-
nised, and that a great deal of wealth might be saved by
thoroughly careful management of sheep. In so far as we
may have cleared up any obscure points connected with the
disorders of sheep, we feel pleasure in the achievement of
our purpose in this respect. Our readers will see a great
resemblance betwixt the diseases of cattle and those of sheep,
and hence it would have been a pity to have omitted the latter.

The veiy fullest possible acknowledgment is due, and is hereby
made, for the kindly aid and unremitting help and encouragement
of Dr. Albert Gresswell, whose part in the production of this book
is also stated on the title-page. Without his assistance the
work could not have been carried through to completion.

Another brother, Dr. D. Astley Gresswell, has kindly read
through the proof sheets of this work, as it has passed
through the press. He has corrected certain errors, has rectified
several inaccuracies, and made valuable improvements and
additions.

To Mr. James Brodie Gresswell, F.R.C.V.S., the authors
arc also grateful for certain notes supplied, also for verbal
information now and again made use of — for instance, of
cases of disease in stock to which this distinguished veterinarian
has been summoned, diseases which have been met with in the

prefacp:. XI

course of the extensive and well-managed veterinary practice
carried on by him at Louth, in Lincolnshire, as a centre.

It remains to be added that very much of the information
contained in this work has been derived from the authors' father,
the late Mr. Alderman Dan Gresswell, F.R.C.V.S., whose long
and honourable connection with Science, as one of her most
persevering, enthusiastic, and successful votaries, is known
throughout the world.

Suggestions are thankfully acknowledged from other brothers,
namely, the Eev. Henry William Gresswell, M.A., Oxon; Mr.
Charles Gresswell, late Deputy-Examiner for the Koyal College
of Veterinary Surgeons; Mr. Edmund Gresswell; and Mr.
Samuel Gresswell. It may truly be said that much of the work
contained in these pages is original, and that the book as a whole
represents the work of years of study and research.

The account of the Ligaments and Muscles has been
abstracted from Strangeways' Veterinary Anatomy, revised by
I. Vaughan, F.L.S., F.Z.S., which book has also been
referred to for some other information here and there in
the account of the Anatomy of Ruminants.

We are very grateful to Dr. Klein and Professor Simonds
for allowing us to use several illustrations, and also to Mr.
Armatage, the Eoyal Agricultural Society, Messrs. J. & A.
Churchill, Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Messrs. Clowes & Sons,
the Editor of The Yorkshire Post, and Messrs. Arnold & Sons,
for likewise giving us similar permission.

One of the chief remarks by way of acknowledgment, which
we have much pleasure in making, is that portions of what
is contained in this book originally appeared in that valuable
journal, The Yorkshire Weekly Post,

Xll PEBFACE.

While now saying farewell to each and att, we hope that our
kind and indulgent friends, many of whom we, perhaps, have
been brought into relations with on previous occasions — we
trust with as much pleasure and interest on their part as on
our own — will, as heretofore, excuse all errors of omission
and make allowances for all those of commission, which we
may have to answer for.

Kelsey House, Louth, Liscolxshire.
Tuesday, May 7th, 1889.

WORKS WHICH HAVE BEEN CONSULTED.

The Theory and Practice of Medicine. By Dr. Bristowe. London:

Smith, Elder & Co. 1887.
Diseases of the Nervous System. By Dr. Goweks. London: J. &

A. Churchill. 1886.
The Principles and Practice of Veterinary Medicine. By Principal

William Williams. 1884. (Account of Pleui*o-Pneumonia) .
Abmatage's Cattle Doctor. London : F. Warne & Co. 1882.

The author of this work has also vei-y kindly given us per-
mission to copy some of his pictures. We acknowledge
this kindness with gratitude.
Youatt on Cattle. London : Simpkin, Marshall & Co. 1886.
Youatt on Sheep. London : Simpkin, Marshall & Co. 1883.
J. H. Steel's Diseases of the Ox. London : Longmans, Green &

Co. 1887.
Our Domestic Animals in Health and Disease. Four volumes.

By John Gamgee. Edinburgh. 1861, 1862, 1869, and

1872.
The Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals. By A.

Chauveau. Translated by Dr. Fleming. London : J. & A.

Churchill, New Burlington Street. 1873. Illustrations have

been taken, in accordance with permission, from this work.
Rabies and Hydrophobia. By Dr. George Fleming. London :

Chapman & Hall. 1872.
A Manual of Veterinary Sanitary Science and Police. By Dr.

George Fleming. London : Chapman & Hall. 1875.

XIV WORKS WHICH HATE BEEN CONSULTED.

Dr. E. Klein's Micro-organisms and Disease. London : Mac-
millau & Co. 1886. Illustrations have been taken by per-
mission from this work.

Strangeway's Veterinary Anatomy. Third Edition. Revised and
Edited by J. Vaughan, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Edinburgh : Bell &
Bradfute. 1886.

The Cattle Plague. By John Gamgee. Loudon: Robert Hai'd-
wicke. 1866.

Wood's Bible Animals. London : Longmans, Green & Co.

The Cow and Calf. By John Walker. London: Thomas C
Jack, 45, Ludgate Hill. 1886.

The Sheep and Lamb. By the same Author. London : Thomas
C. Jack, 45, Ludgate Hill.

Aide-Memoire du Veterinaire. By J, Signol. Paris : Bailliere
1884.

Supplements containing Report of the Medical Officer to the 15th
and 16th Annual Reports of the Local Government Board
1885-86 and 1886-87. Four plates illustrating Dr. Klein's
work have been copied from plates in these Supplements.

Diseases of Farm Animals, excepting the Horse. By Principal and
Professor G. T. Brown, C.B., F.R.C.Y.S., &c.

A Lecture on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Maternal Organs
of Beprodtiction in Animals, with the Principles of Practice
applicable to cases of difficult and Preternatural Labour, nnore
especially in the Coiv and Eioe. In accordance with the kind
permission of the Royal Agricultural Society and of Professor
James Beart Simonds, sometime Principal of the Royal
Veterinary College, London, the plates illustrating this
article (which appeared in the Journal of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society, vol. x. July, 1849, page 248 to 275) have
been inserted in the following pages, and some of the article
has been borrowed.

Variola Ovina. By Professor Simonds. And other works.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate 1. — Streptococci of Foot-and-Mouth Disease
Plates 2 and 3. — Streptococci of Scarlet Fever
Plate 4. — Streptococci of Scarlet Fever

To face p. 193

' ,, 350

356

Fig.
1.
2.
3*

4.
5.

6.

7.

8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

22.
23.

24.
25.
26

27.
28.
29.
30.

31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

of

Musk Deer

Skeleton of the Cow ......

Ox's Head — Anterior Face .....

The Teeth of the Ox (CAaMueaw)

Stomach of the Ox seen on its right upper face .

Stomach of the Ox — Right view of the

Stomach of the Ox — Left view of the

A. The Stomach of a Sheep. B. The Stomach

(After Huxley) ......

The Paunch and Honeycomb of the Ox
The Manyplies and Abomasum . . . ■

Right Kidney viewed on its upper and external face
Left Kidney from its internal and inferior face
The Calices in the Left Kidney ....

The Heart and Principal Vessels — Left face

From a Preparation of Human Tuberculous Sputum

Heart's Blood of a Mouse dead of Anthrax

Blood of the Spleen of a Guinea-pig dead of Anthrax

Animal suffering Pain .....

Method of applying Ointment to the Interdigital Space

Cow suffering from Tuberculosis

Human Tuberculous Sputum

Section of a Portion of the Kidney of a Rabbit which died of Artificia

Tuberculosis ..........

Microscopical appearance of a Section of the same Kidney

Section of a Tubercle of the Lung in Acute Miliarj' Turberculosis in

a Child

Caseous Matter from Pulmonary Deposits in Bovine Tuberculosis
Section of Tuberculous Deposits in the Lung of a Cow
Thermometer by means of which the Temperature of a Man or an

Animal may be taken .......

Navel-Hl

Specimen of the Heart's Blood of a Mouse dead of Anthrax
Bacilli of Anthrax Artificially Cultivated ....
Microscopical appearance of a Section of the Kidney of a Rabbit

which died from Anthrax .......

An Injection-Syringe .........

Blood of a Guinea-pig dead of Symptomatic Anthrax

Section cut through the Tongue of a Cow which died of Actinomycosi

Saprolegnia of Salmon Disease .......

Tuft of Actinomyces, highly magnified .....

Nose-pincers ..........

Micrococci in the Fresh Lymph of Human Small-pox .
Lymphatic Vessel from the Skin of a Pock in a case of Sheep-pox
Portion of a Diphtheritic Membrane ......

Milk or Teat Syphon .........

PAGE
32

40
56
58
59
59

61

62

64

71

71

71

75

135

138

139

157

205

208

212

213

214

215
220
221

241
242
245
246

247
250
254
272
274
275
278
304
304
325
345

XV]

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Punctured

of its

Fig.

41. Ox suffering from the early stage of Malignant Catarrh

42. An Ox suffering from Rheumatism ....

43. Nervous Debility in Cows at the Time of Parturition .

44. Digestive Apparatus of a Fowl .....

45. Solanum Dulcamara .......

46. Method of Steaming the Nostrils for Simple Catarrh .

47. Another Method of Steaming the Nostrils .

48. A Beast suffering from Laryngitis, or Sore Throat

49. Last Stage of Sporadic Pneumonia ....

50. Acute Pleurisy ........

51. Method of Drawing the Skin into Folds previous to making the Primary

Incision for Paracentesis Thoracis, in a case of Hydrothorax

52. The Trochar and its outer case, the Canula

53. Fluid flowing from the Chest by means of a Canula

54. The Warble-flv of the Ox, and its Larva .

55. The Gad-fly of the Ox

56. The Dermatodectes Ovis .....

57. The Trichodectes Sphan-ocephalus
57*. A Fluke which has arrived at one-third of its Full Growth

58. Digestive System of a Fluke ....

59. The Shell of Limna^us Truncatulus

60. An Ox suffering from Hoven ....

61. The exact spot in the Flank whereat the Rumen should be

in cases of Tympanites .....

62. A Trocar encased in its Canula ....

63. Passing the Probang ......

64. Opening the Rumen Tor the purpose of a Mechanical Removal

Contents ........

65. Impaction of the Omasum ......

66. Dropping the Cud — Simple Indigestion or Dyspepsia .

67. Chronic Indigestion .......

69. An Ox in a rather late stage of Acute Dysentery

70. An Ox suffering from Chronic Dysentery .

71. A Lamb afflicted with Navel-ill .....

72. A Cow afflicted with Peritonitis .....

73. Nervous Debilitv in Cows at the time of Parturition .

74. Milk Tube . "

75. Chronic Eczema ........

76. Ecthj'ma

77. Ecraseur .........

78. Dermatodectes Bovis .......

79. Twisted Suture

80. Interrupted Suture .......

81. Uninterrupted Suture ......

82. An Ecraseur ........

83. The Pelvic Cavity of a Cow

84. The Reproductive Organs of a Cow ....
85 Natural Presentation .......

86. Calf in Utero aftlicted with Dropsy ....

87. Water on the Brain in the case of a Fietus in Utero

88. Fore-feet presented and head doubled back so that the

neck is ])roHonted .......

89. Head jircscnted, and two fore-legs situated down in tlic

Uterus .........

90. Right fore-foot presented ......

91. Fd'tUK lying on its back ......

92. FdjtUH lying witli its head directed towards the chest of

and having its liiiidor parts presented (first position)

93. Same prc.sonlation (second position)

94. Intra-tradnal Syringe

To

face p.

side of the
To face p.

ody of the
To fare p.

the Cow,
To fare p.

PAGE

359
369
375
379
394
409
410
411
414
417

419
419
419
432
436
437
448
456
456
459
484

486
486
489

496
501
505
507
523
524
533
5:'6
562
585
587
589
591
594
619
619
G20
633
642
644
649
651
652

654

656

65f<
660

6(51'

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER I.
Natural History and General Account of the Ox . 11

CHAPTER II.
The Anatomy op the Ox ....... 31

§1. The Skeleton of the Ox: — General Remarks, the Vertebral
Column, Ribs, Sternum, and Pelvis, 31. — The Hind and Fore Limbs,
36.— The Head of the Ox, 33.

§ II. Ligaments and Muscles : — Ligaments, 45. — Muscles, 46.

§ III. Internal Anatomi/ : — The Organs concerned in the Process
of Digestion, the Spleen, and the Lymphatics, 49. — The Respiratory
System, 69. — The Urinary System, 70. — Generative System, 72. —
Male Organs. 72. — Female Organs, 73. — The Circulatory System,
74. — The Nervous System, 79. — Anatomy of the Ear and Eye, the
Hair, the Horns and Hoof, 80.

CHAPTER in.
Different Breeds op Oxen ...... 82

§ I. The Aliddle-Horned Cattle, 84.

§ II. The Polled ur Hornless Cattle, 100.

§ in. The Irish Cattle and the Lone/horns, 104.

§ IV. The Shorthorns, 110.

g V. Foreign Breeds of Cattle, 114.

XVIU CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.

PAGB

General Accoitnt of the Sheep 119

CHAPTER V.

The Origin of Disease and the Germ Theory. ]]y

Dr. Albert Gresswell ..... 129

CHAPTER VI.
Diseases of the Ox and Sheep ..... 168

§ I. General Diseases : — Pleuro-Pneumonia, 168. — Foot-and-Mouth
Disease, or Aphtha EpizoiJtica, 1S8. — Pseudo Foot-and-Mouth Disease,
197.— Foot-rot in Sheep, 199. — Taberculosis, 200.— Anthrax, or
Charbon in Cattle; Braxy in Sheep, 234. — Black-leg, or Black-
quarter, 253. —Symptoms of Localised Anthrax in Sheep, 258. —
Cattle Plague, 259. — Cattle Plague as it affects the Sheep and the
Goat, 266. — Measles in Sheep, 267. — Actinomycosis: a Newly-
discovered Infectious Disease of Animals and Man, 268. — Rabies or
Hydrophobia, 279. — Variola, Vaccinia, and Vaccination, 301. —
Diphtheria, 322. — Scarlet Fever or Scarlatina. 328. — General Re-
marks, and Malignant Catarrhal Fever, 357. — Purpura Htemor-
rhagica, 360. — Tetanus, or Locked-jaw, 362. — Rheumatism, or
Felon: Joint Felon, Chine Felon, Cold Felon, 366. — Anemia: its
Causes, Consequences, Nature, and Treatment : and Food-supply of
the Cow, 372. — General Disorders due to Dietetic Errors, 378. —
Ancient Medicines, Superstitions, Charlatanry, Poisons, 387.

§ II. Diseases of the Circulatory Si/ste.n, 400.

§ ni. Diseases of the Respiratory System : — General Remarks, and
Catarrh. 407. — Epistaxis, 410. — Laryngitis, 411. — Bronchitis, 412.—
Pneumonia and Pleurisy, 414. — Diseases of the Respiratory System
in Sheep, 420. — General Remarks, Catarrh, Laryngitis, and Tra-
cheitis, 420. — Bronchitis, including Verminous Bronchitis, 422. —
Tuberculo.sis, 424.

§ IV. P<irasi</s/« .-—General Remarks; the 'Warble-fly, and its
Larva; the Gad-fly of the Ox. 426.— Scabies in Sheep, 437.— Certain
External Parasites of the Sheep. Verminous Bronchitis, and General
Remarks on Parasitism, 447. — Tbc Fluke Disease in Sheep, other
Trematodes found in Sheep, the Cestoda or Ta])e\vorms, Sturdy or
Gid, the Nematoda, and the UOstrus ovis. 455.

§ V. Diseases <>/' the Alniitn/ary Systrni : — Diseases of the Mouth
and Tongue; Acute Tympanites, or Ilovon. 4S0. — Chronic Tym-
panites, or Hoven : Obstruction of the (Juliet and Choking, 487.—
Plenalvia, or Engorgement and Inflammation of the Rumen, 492. —
Rupture of tlie Rumen. 497.— Foreign Bodies in the Huuien. the
Reticulum, and the Abomasum, 498. — Engorgement of the t)ma8um.

CONTENTS. Xix

or Third Stomach ; Omasitis, 500. — Inflammation of the Abomasum,
or True Stomach, 50;$. — Indigestion, 504. — Simple Colic, Flatulent
Colic, Constipation, Diarrhoia, and Scouring in Calves, 509. —
Dysentery, 522. — Enteritis, or Inflammation of the Intestines; Acute
Dropsy,' or Red water in Sheep; Navel-ill in Lambs; Peritonitis, or
Inflammation of the Peritoneum ; Ascites, Volvulus, Intussuscep-
tion, Rupture. 526. — The Liver and its Ailments, 541.

§ VI. Diseases of the Nervous System : — General Remarks, 548. —
Stomach - staggers, 553. — Delirium, 553. — Inflammation of the
Brain, 554. — Epilepsy, Megrims, or Staggers, 555. — Apoplexy, 557.
— Hydrocephalus, or Water on the Brain, Turnsick ; Classification of
Nervous Diseases, Myelitis, Paralysis, Adynamia Nervosa Generalis,
Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis, Stringhalt, Milk Fever or Parturient
Apoplexy, and Puerperal Mania, 558.

§ VII. The Urinai}/ System and the Disorders connected there-
with : — General Remarks and Incontinence of Urine, 565. — Diabetes
Insipidus, 568. — Suppression of Urine, 569. — Albuminuria, 569. —
Ha-moglobinuria, Congestion of the Kidneys, Nephritis, or Inflam-
mation of the Kidneys, 570. — Acute Inflammation of the Kidneys in
Lambs, 571. — Uremia, 575. — Hsematuria, 575. — Retention of Urine,
576. — Parasites and Concretions, 577. — Cystitis, or Inflammation of
the Bladder, 579.

§ VIII. The Skin and the Disorders connected therewith : — General
Remarks, and Hide-bound, 582. — Erythema, 584. — Erysipelas, 586.
— Eczema, 587. — Herpes Circinatus, Impetigo Labialis, Urticaria or
Nettle-rash, Prurigo, Ecthyma, Furunculus or Boil, Carbuncle,
588. — Pemphigus, Pityriasis, Naivus, Warts or Angleberries,
Alopecia, ffidema, Emphysema, Mange, Phthiriasis, Warbles, Ring-
worm, 590.

§ IX. Vital Movement and the Disorders of the Organs of Loco-
motion:— The Causation of Vital Movement, 597. — Rheumatism in
Sheep, 599. — Arthritis, 600.— Foul in the Foot, 601. — Laminitis.
602.

§ X. The Eye and the Ear and their Disorders : — General Remarks
on the Eye and the Ear, 603.— Ophthalmia or Conjunctivitis, 608.—
Corneitis, Iritis, Glaucoma, 611. — Retinitis or Specific Ophthalmia,
€12. — Gutta Serena, 612. — Tumours and Ringworm near the Eye, and
General Remarks concluding the Section, 614.

§ XI. Wounds, Fractures, Sprains, Tumours : — Wounds, 616. —
Disorders of the Skeletal Mechanism, and Remarks on Injuries in
General, 623.— Fractures, 626.— Sprains, 628.— Tumours, 629.

§ XII. The Reproductive System and the Disorders connected there-
with:— General Remarks on the Reproduction of the Species, 634. —
The Process of Reproduction in the Cow, 640. — Abnormal Pre-
sentations, 651. — Milk Fever and Puerperal Mania, 660. — Mammitis,
and Injuries and Obstructions in the Teats, 664. — Abortion, 666. —
Retention of the Placenta, 669. — Inversion of the Bladder, Inversion
of the Vagina, Inversion of the Uterus, and Dropsy of the Uterus,
<i70. — The Season of Increase in the Flocks, 671.

XX CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII. PAGE

The Bovine Formulary. An Index of Bovine Diseases

AND Remedies ....... 083

CHAPTER VIII.
CoNciiXJsioN • 723

APPENDIX.

Further Remarks as to the Origin of Human Scarlet
Fea^r (^^bstracted from a leading article iu the
Times of April 22ud, 1889) 737

INDEX 739

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS

OF

THE OX.

INTRODUCTIOlsr.

" Bacon's prophecies of the advance of science have been fulfilled far beyond
what even he could have anticipated. For knowledge partakes of infinity ; it
widens with ovir capacities ; the higher we mount in it, the vaster and more
magnificent are the prospects it stretches out before us. Nor are we in these
days, as men are ever apt to imagine of their own times, approaching to tlie
end of them ; nor shall we be nearer the end a thousand years hence than we
are now. The family of Science has multiplied. New sciences, hitherto un-
named, unthought of, have arisen. The seed which Bacon sowed sprang up and
gi-ew to be a mighty tree, and the thoughts of thousands of men came and
lodged in its branches, and those branches spread ' so broad and long that in
the ground the bended twigs took root, and daughters grew about the mother
tree, a pillared shade high over-arched .... and echoing walks between '
walks where Poetry may wander and wreathe her blossoms around
the mossy stems, and where Religion may hymn the praises of that Wisdom of
which Science erects the hundred-aisled temple." — Anon.

We take our pen in hand to-day with the hope, and in the belief,
that another work on the Diseases and Disorders of the Ox
(albeit that there are already good treatises on this subject) will
be found to be of great value to English-speaking agriculturists.
Notwithstanding that a great deal has been written on the patho-
logy of cattle and sheep, there remain many questions of tran-
scendent interest and importance — many points of doubt and
obscurity and misapprehension, some of which we have endea-
voured to clear up. Indeed, it is very well known and recognised,

1

2 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

no less by veterinary surgeons than by others who have to do
with cattle, that the want of a carefully-written work, dealing
with the more general and practical aspects of bovine and
ovine medicine and surgery, is widely felt. Yet it is far more
easy to realise a deficiency which exists than it is to supply what
is lacking, and in this case the difficulties are perhaps exception-
ally great. Several causes conduce to the fact that the sciences
of therapeutics, surgery, and pathology, in their relation to
cattle, are as yet in their infancy. As years roll on, those who
have to do with oxen will become more and more deeply con-
vinced that it is frequently advisable to hand over to the care of
the veterinary surgeon many cases which are now summarily, and
often without due thought, consigned to the butcher's tender
mercies. It is, indeed, very clear that a great deal of special skill
and practical scientific knowledge is frequently required in order
that one may be able to adequately balance the advantages and dis-
advantages which attach themselves to the alternatives of treat-
ment or slaughter. Evidently it is often of pressing importance
to determine when it would be advisable to avoid the risk of a
lingering illness or that of a fatal termination, whereby the loss
resulting from the carrying out of curative measures may be
made twofold. In many cases, too, such points as the risk of
spreading infection to other animals in contiguity with those
which are suffering, and also the question whether the flesh
would, in case of slaughter, be good for human food or not, pre-
sent themselves for most careful consideration. Of such kind
are the difficulties of judgment with which the veterinary surgeon
and his employer, the owner, have to grapple, often, too, at
very short notice. It is, moreover, clearly manifest that the
mutual advantage of both parties interested will be enhanced in
proportion as the sciences of medicine and surgery primarily, and
those of bovine medicine and surgery specially, advance to
greater precision and accuracy. When one considers that whole
herds of cattle are liable to be mown down by severe plagues,
which may sweep along their terrible course even throughout a
whole country, and when one reflects also that (pertain diseases of
man, such as tuberculosis (generally known as consumption),
scarlet fever, and others, are traceable in many cases to similar
diseases in oxen, it will be seen that the magnitude and import-
ance of the subject we are treating can hardly be over-estimated.

INTRODUCTION. 6

An abundant supply of good meat in the country is one of the
greatest desiderata, and any special knowledge which will aid
such an indispensable condition of our progress as a nation must
be hailed with feelings of relief and rejoicing. Moreover, it is
not too much to say that bovine medicine and bovine surgery
take a rank quite equal to that of equine medicine and surgery
in regard to their influence on one of the most important sciences
of the day — that of comparative pathology.

As an illustration of what we have been saying as to the great
importance to the country of a thorough knowledge of the dis-
eases of cattle, we may note what Professor John Gamgee, whose
work on the The Cattle Plague is one of great power, wrote as
to the prevention of this dreadful scourge. Of the disease itself
we shall have to speak in its right place ; but here we may re-
peat the following remarks taken from the preface of the above-
mentioned admirable treatise : —

" The points on which I have specially had to contend," he says, " with not a
few opponents, were at first the foreign origin of the malady, the impossibility
of its spontaneous development in the London dairies, the insufficiency of any
remedy or class of remedies, the folly of establishing cattle hospitals or sana-
toria, the importance of regulating and controlling the traffic in live stock,
stopping all movement when the disease appeared, and prohibiting importation
from Holland, or establishing foreign stock-markets and slaughter-houses. I
have advocated a system of national insurance or one of indemnity, of slaughter
of the sick and infected animals. I was not in favour of the recommendation of
the majority of the Cattle Plague Commissioners, inasmuch as stopping the
entire traffic of the country without • stamping out ' the disease could not serve
our purpose. A recommendation that Parliament should be at once summoned,
that inspectors should continue the practice of slaughtering, backed with funds
to indemnify owners — all in addition to stopping the traffic — would, in my
ojjinion have been more rational and less embarrassing to Government than the
suggestion which could not be, as indeed it was not, carried into effect."

Thus wrote, in 1866, the man who did so much to suppress
the traffic in diseased animals and to secure a rational system for
the prevention of disease.

In connection with this same terrible disease — cattle plague —
we will quote also the words of Dr. Lionel S. Beale, F.R.S., words
which, we may add, are, albeit that great discoveries have since
been made, still as applicable, as they were at the time when he
wrote, to disease in general : — "Thorough, prolonged, and thought-
ful scientific investigation seems now the only course open to
us, and that ought to be prosecuted by many, and in earnest."

As to the cause of cattle plague, it may be here incidentally

1 *

4 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

mentioned that Klebs and Semmcr hove found the presence of
the disease-germs (micrococci) in the blood and lymphatic
glands."^

Moreover, in view of the fact that the insidious malady known
as '^contagious pleuro-pneuraonia " is still rife in certain places,
it will be seen how important it is to know all that can be
learned as to its causation. Of this disease, too, we shall have
to speak fully in its proper place ; but we may here say that
slaughter of affected animals, and of animals supposed to be in-
fected, and disinfection of the contaminated sheds are, so far as
can be at present decided, the best means of dealing with this
severe cattle scourge.

With regard to pleuro-pneumonia, then, as in the case of all
contagious diseases of lower animals, we must lay the greatest
emphasis of which we are capable on the method of stamping
out by slaughter of all animals affected, or supposed to be
affected. That is one point, and a point of immense im-
portance.

Still, however, this disease breaks out again and again, in
spite of all that can be said, as a result of the fact that cattle-
owners do not grasp the conditions of the problem, and do not
carry out either one rational method or another. If for any
reason any of the members of an affected herd are not slaughtered,
then they should be skilfully inoculated for protective purposes.
As a matter of fact, they are in nine cases out of ten neither
slaughtered nor inoculated, and the only result which could pos-
sibly be expected is that the disease breaks out again and again,
and so spreads and spreads like the leaven in the meal.

One of the questions which most nearly concerns the public
welfare and the public health is the determination when flesh is
good for use as human food. There is no doubt that this point
is at times one of some difficulty. It is possible to be too par-
ticular; but it is probable that the converse mistake is more
usual.

Of the terrors of trichiniasis we need not here speak. They
are well known. How important it is that a knowledge of science

* With micrococci of a first cultivation a calf was inoculated by Semmor and
Archangelski. After seven days it died of cattle plague. If, however, animals
(sheep) aro inoculated with later cultivations, I'.r. with an attenuated virus, they
thereby secure an immunity against attacks of virulent cattle plague.

INTRODDCTIOX. 5

should be more widely diffused is illustrated by the indisputable
fact that many people would be far more careful if they knew
what risks they run in eating meat which has not been properly
cooked. Many of the dangers which are apt to arise might in
many cases be avoided if all meat were thoroughly subjected to
the purifying thereby ensured, Underdone meat, and especially
underdone beef, veal, and pork, are stringently to be avoided.
There can be but very little doubt that the abstention from pork
on the part of the Jews, as also many other, at first sight, inex-
plicable customs of different nations, had its origin in matured
judgment begotten of experience. It is not at all uncommon to
find, on careful scrutiny, that many animals liable to be used for
food are infested with tape-worms in different stages of their life-
history.

If those who are so fond of dogs as occasionally to indulge in
the at first sight apparently harmless but in reality most dange-
rous habit of allowing them to eat from the platters to be em-
ployed afterwards at their own tables, had the barest notion of
the results which might therefrom ensue, they would certainly
abstain from such folly. They would carefully avoid the
dangerous practice of caressing and kissing their pets. If they
would read the late Professor Cobbold's most valuable work on
helminthology, the eyes of some ladies would certainly be opened
in a somewhat startling manner, especially if they knew in what
way all the best authorities explain the fact that so many Ice-
landers are infested with their horrible and uninvited guests.
Some people, however, scarcely know there are such things as
tape-worms, and certainly only those who have seen patients sub-
jected to their presence can form any idea of the inconvenience
and danger resulting from their unwelcome abode inside the
human frame.

From these and other considerations it may be seen how very
important it is to be able to decide when meat is tit and when
unfit for human food.

Before passing on, we may pause to refer briefly to the diffe-
rent contagious diseases of animals which still existed in the
country at the end of 1887. We cannot do better than give a
short abstract of the observations relating to that subject which
appear in that best of papers. The Times (which, by the way,
we congratulate most sincerely on the recent coming round of

6 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

its centeuary), in its issue of January 2, in the course of the
article which sums up the chief aspects of " British Agriculture
in 1887."

We read that in the summer of that year swine fever (thought
by some to be connected with typhoid fever of man) was very
prevalent, while those two greatly-dreaded scourges, pleuro-
pneumonia of oxen, and anthrax (for the most part also afflicting
oxen), appeared and re-appeared from time to time. In reference
to contagious diseases of animals the most important event of
the year 1887 was, perhaps, that which occurred during the
Smithfield week. Representatives from all our leading societies
waited upon Lord John Manners. They urged that the Privy
Council should enforce uniform regulations with respect to these
matters, their contention being that not only those animals which
are actually afflicted with pleuro-pneumonia and anthrax, but
also those which have been in close proximity with animals
which are suffering from those maladies, should be summarily
slaughtered and carefully buried with antiseptic precautions.

Now we may say here, in reference to the question of the more
special investigation of any given outbreak of disease, that it
should include, not only a most careful consideration of the
place where the affected animals are located, their occupation,
the supply of the three requisites, air, food, and water, the cha-
racters of the soil, of the herbage, and so forth, as well as all
other details of management; but also in addition, in all cases
where it may be practicable, the application of the best micro-
scopic methods. At any rate, it is frequently advisable to resort
to this mode of inquiry when we are confronted with an infec-
tious or contagious disease, or one suspected to be of such a
nature. We may here add that, as a rule, infectious maladies are
characterised by a rise of temperature and by the appearance of
an eruption, either on the surface of the skin or on one or more
of the mucous membranes, or in both situations. One attack of
an infectious or contagious disease usually confers an immunity,
the degree of which varies very considerably in different diseases,
^foreover, these diseases can be produced by introducing the
virus into the blood of a susceptible animal. Wherever the in-
fectious disease in question is met with, the particular germs are
to be found. Hence it is very obvious that preventive measures
must be directed to the destructic^n of the germs, or to the pre-

INTRODUCTION. 7

vention of their introduction into animals. It is also highly
necessary that the strength of the affected animals should also
be supported in order that they may thereby rid themselves of
the virus of the disease.

Again, it is to be remembered that diseases like rabies, an-
thrax, cholera, and also snake-poisoning — if we may classify
this dreadful mode of death among diseases, and there certainly
seems to be some possibility that snake-poisons exercise their
astonishingly virulent effects by means of germs — are so swiftly
and dreadfully fatal that only those who have seen human beings
dying from the results of their ravages can form any adequate
conception of their character. So far from attempting to dis-
parage scientific work, all humanitarians ought to join hands in
the great cause of science, and encourage one another to advance
to more complete knowledge with* the greatest enthusiasm and to
the utmost of their power. There can be no doubt that the
recent outbreak of rabies, which at one time seemed to be likely
to extend to a very great extent throughout the country, was
put a stop to — although certainly none too soon — by the
vigorous action taken by all concerned. The Rabies' Order of
1887 soon arrested the progress of that dread disease. The
muzzling of dogs during an outbreak of this scourge, and the
summary slaughter of all animals affected or supposed to be
afflicted with rabies, are indispensable precautions. It would be
a matter of great diflQculty to stamp out anthrax, owing to the
fact that it may arise from badly-drained malarial land in which
the bacilli of anthrax probably exist. M. Pasteur has had con-
siderable success with his methods of protective inoculation
against this scourge. With these and the new method of Dr.
Klein we shall have to deal in due course.

In the fifteenth annual report of the Local Government Board
there is much valuable material for consideration. Dr. Buchanan
sums up the results of present scientific research with the most
important observation that among agencies antagonistic to the
bacteria of disease possibly none will be found to equal in
potency the agency of other bacteria ; that'probably the " sell-
purifying " power of our rivers, for example, is the power of
some stronger septic bacterium to destroy the weaker and more
mischievous bacteria which are discharged by sewers into our
rivers. We recognise among bacteria differences of form, mode

8 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

of growth, manner of reproduction, degree of dependence upon
air and heat, and of behaviour to certain chemical substances.
Exact knowledge of the life-history and of the conditions which
affect all bacteria — that is, not only those which produce dis-
ease, but also those which do not — is therefore requisite, and
of an importance which cannot be over-estimated, so immense
is it.

With regard to the measures to be taken with a view to the
suppression of diseases, the general statement may be made that
mild animal plagues may be dealt with by means of isolation,
tlierapeutic measures, coupled with thorough disinfection; whereas,
on the other hand, the virulent diseases of animals can be sup-
pressed most easily and successfully by immediate slaughter of
all animals affected or exposed to infection, or, if it should be found
impracticable to kill the suspected animals, as, indeed, may often
be the case, by perfect isolation of all animals which have been
exposed to infection until the longest period of incubation has
|;assed by. During the outbreak the animals certainly ought not
to be removed, and all necessary regulations should be made in
regard to fairs and markets.

The obvious objection to this recommendation being adopted
throughout the country is that it would be an expensive matter
at first. Those who support it, however, are of opinion that the
first expense in such cases is the best ; and, moreover, some of
us feel that, so far from flinching from this bold course, we ought
to feel glad that we are enabled on any terms whatsoever to tight
the arch-enemy, as these virulent diseases may well be typified,
with sanguine hopes of success.

There are, of course, other aspects of this question, and it
must in fairness be allowed that it would be a rather serious
matter to decide without a great deal of advice and consultation.
One point is very clear, and that is that as things are now
managed there is serious loss at times. For instance, it may be
mentioned that in the week precedingChristmasl887, this scourge,
pleuro-pneumonia, broke out in one of the best-known dairy
herds in Dorsetshire. The consequinice was that the whole herd
had to b(j destroyed, and the total loss resulting was estimated
at about .£'3,000. Now it is for (lie purpose of avoiding the
continual losses which are apt to arise that agriculturists are
striving to induce the I'rivy Council to exercise the powers vested

INTRODUCTION.

9

in them by the Legislature, and it seems very possible that the
step above spoken of may be carried out before long.

Swine fever existed in England to a large degree at the close
of 1887, and even in October, 1888, this disease is still raging.
We give here the return of cattle diseases as stated in the
London Gazette of Friday for the week ending December 24th,
1887, showing that the undermentioned contagious diseases of
animals at tliat time existed to the following extent : —

Disease.

Number

OF Animals.

Attacked.

Killed.

Died

Pleuro-pneumonia .

.. 36

34

1

Anthrax

.. 34

0

10

Swine-fever ...

.. 948

250

213

Glanders

.. 13

12

0

Farcy

14

13

0

Rabies

2

2

0

In the case of swine fever the small number of animals
slaughtered by the local authorities is most observable, there
being no fewer than 425 pigs attacked that had not died or been
slaughtered, while 60 were said to have recovered. In Essex
140 pigs affected with the disease were allowed to live, and in
Suffolk 66. These two counties, then, supplied nearly one-half
of the diseased animals which were not slaughtered.

Sheep-scab, to the consideration of which we shall come in due
course, also still existed in England at the above date.

As the above table shows us, rabies was not at the dale re-
ferred to entirely stamped out in England, in spite of the very
energetic measures which have fortunately well-nigh succeeded
in staying its terrible ravages. Probably no one who has ever
witnessed this disease in human beings, or indeed in dogs or
any other animals, will hesitate for a single instant to conclude
that the Legislature, Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy
Council, and all those who have aided in carrying out these
various enactments are greatly to be congratulated on account
of the success which has attended their efforts, and the good
results which have accrued to England in consequence of the
measures which have been carried out at different times.

In conclusion, we may lay some emphasis on another point.

10 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

namely, that the exercise of great care and judgment, coupled
with common sense, would suffice to save very many out of the
liundreds of cattle annually lost, owing to the want of the right
kind of assistance. There is no doubt whatever that very many
animals are yearly sacrificed in consequence of the lack of skil-
ful help, or it may be, perhaps, to the want of sufficient faith on
the part of the owner of stock in the resources of the veterinary
art. Yet this is not to be wondered at. Indeed, even human
beings often perish for want of good medical attention. Things
have been so bad with many farmers that they have had plenty
of work to pay their way. We may, however, look with the best
of hopes to a speedy alteration in the agricultural world, and
perhaps the favourable change is very near at hand. The wheel
of Dame Fortune is continually revolving, bringing unexpected
prizes here, and unforeseen losses there. Many farmers and
others connected with agriculture, whether directly or indirectly,
have had great and continued reverses ; but the old halcyon days
will soon come back again to thera, and will find many — for
iarmers are a hardy and vigorous race — none the worse for the
spell of bad luck, for those who have known distress best know
how to steer their course to favouring breezes.

11

CHAPTER I.

NATURAL HISTORY AND GENERAL ACCODNT OF THE OX.

Of all those sources of wealth open to the agriculturist, and
more particularly to the British farmer, perhaps the most
important and the most reliable is the breeding and fattening
of cattle for the meat-market. It is undeniable that these
animals are very closely connected with the comforts — nay,
even almost with the very continuance, of human life. In-
deed, it is a fact which cannot well be too strongly insisted
upon, that the animals of the farm must now-a-days be looked
upon as the chief means whereby the pursuit of agriculture
may be rendered a profitable and remunerative avocation in
these islands. As years roll on, it becomes more and still more
obvious that Great Britain and Ireland must be converted, so
far as may be possible, into pastoral countries. Wherever it
may be found practicable to transform arable soil into grazing
land, no time should be lost in effecting the change. So long
as freights are as low as they are at the present time, when it
is even the case that large quantities of grain are actually
brought over as ballast, it seems well-nigh impossible that
the growing of grain can be a profitable course of action for
the British farmer. Indeed, we may suspect that corn will tend
to remain as cheap as at present, or that it may even become
cheaper ; for in many parts of the world new corn-lands are
being cultivated. By way of example we may point out that
India has developed this industry in a large degree within recent
years, and that it is now rapidly becoming a great corn-growing
country. From the foregoing considerations it will be concluded
that it is a point of great importance that British farmers
should clearly recognize the fact that the breeding and rearing
of horses, and the breeding and fattening of cattle and sheep.

12 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

are to be regarded as offering them the chief hope of gain ; and
that this is true, notwithstanding that immense cargoes of frozen
mutton are in these days landed in a good state of preservation
from the other side of the globe, and that quarters of beef are
imported weekly, as also are live cattle. We need not, however,
despair, for there is no country In the world which possesses
such rich pasture-land, such a suitable climate and such valu-
able breeds of cattle and sheep as we are provided with in these
islands. Hence we feel no surprise to find that, corn being
very cheap, and meat still keeping up its relatively high prices,
the breeding and feeding of cattle has become, and is becoming,
more and more general. About fifty years ago many oxen were
not sent to the butcher before they were upwards of four and a
half years old. In those days the demand for meat in the
north was so small that most of the cattle were sent when lean
to the south, in order that they might be fattened on the pas-
tures and the turnip-fields of the eastern counties of England.
Now, however, the Scotch have no longer any need to send
their cattle southwards, as they used to do in former times.
Nay, even the very reverse of this is now the case, for numbers
of lean cattle are sent from England and Ireland to Scotland to
be fed in that country during the winter. In the month of
June, 1884, the aggregate number of the horses, cattle, sheep
and swine in England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Isle of Man,
and the Channel Islands was 45, 610, 269 ; of these —

1,904,515 were horses,
10,422,762 were cattle,
29,376,787 were sheep,

3,906,205 were swine.

45,610,269

We sec, then, that the cattle ot the Britisli Islands are more
viduable than are tlie horses ; for, while we have only about
1,900,000 horses, we stand possessed of more than 10,000,000
cattle, which, moreover, in point of excellence are in all proba-
bility the best in the whole world.

Every year about 1,600,000 oxen or more an- dis])osed of by
the butcher. We may roughly compute that the average value
of an ox is about £10 per head, and thus we have an aggregate

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE OX. 13

sum of .4*100,000,000 sterling representing the totiil vnlae of the
cattle of these islands. Mr. Youatt estimated the annual loss
to the country resulting from disease among cattle and sheep to
be about 5610,000,000 sterling ; but this sum is probably con-
siderably less than the actual amount. To this we have to add
that disease is a still greater source of loss in our colonies,
and hence there will be no difficulty in coming to the conclusion
that the chief subject we are concerned with in the pages which
follow is one of the very highest moment. A most tran-
scendently important aspect of the diseases of animals is fur-
nished by the consideration that not only are many of these
maladies both preventible and curable, but also that some, at
least, of them, if not arrested, are indubitably capable of being
transmitted to human beings themselves.

One of the points which comes up before us is the decision
of the place which the ox occupies in the scale of animate exist-
ence. Upon inquiry, then, we learn that this animal possesses
a vertebral column, and is therefore classed among the verte-
brata ; that it belongs to the large and important class of the
vertebrata known under the name of the mammalia, animals so
called on account of the fact that the females possess mammary
glands, or mammae, wherewith they suckle their young. Now
this class, the mammalia, is sub-divided into three groups,
respectively designated the Monodelphia, the Didelphia, and the
Ornithodelphia. It is to the first of these, namely to the Mono-
delphia, that the ox belongs, and, in passing, we may mention
that this group, which is sometimes also called the Placentalia,
comprises the greater number of the mammalia. The young of
the animals which compose this group are, while still within the
uterus, nourished by means of an organ, the allantois, a villous
and vascular development which grows out from the foetus. The
vessels of this organ come into close relationship with the blood-
vessels of the uterus, thus forming the placenta, and it is by this
method that an interchange takes place between the blood of
the mother and that of the foetus. This results in an absorption
of nutritive materials by the ffietus and at tife same time in the
removal of some noxious products from the blood of the foetus.
In fact, the allantois comes into contiguity with corresponding
vascular developments projecting from the inner wall of the
uterus, and the interchange spoken of thus takes place

14 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

betwixt the circulating fluids of the mother and those of the
foetus. This organ, the placenta, varies widely in shape and
structure in the various minor divisions of the sub-class Mono-
delphia, which, we may mention, includes the following ten
orders, namely: Primates (man and monkeys) ; Chiroptera
(bats) ; Insectivora (hedgehogs, shrews, moles, &c.) ; Carnivora
(cats, dogs, bears, seals, walruses, sea-lions) ; Cetacea (whales,
cachalots, narwhals, dolphins, porpoises) ; Sirenia (manatee and
dugong) ; Ungulata; Hyracoidea (hyrax) ; Proboscidea (elephant) ;
Rodentia (hares, rats, guinea-pigs, porcupines, beavers, squirrels,
&c). Another group may be placed apart from the rest. This
is the order Edentata, which includes the sloths, the armadillos,
the ant-eaters of America, the pangolins and orycteropus.

Of the mammals, those which may be said to be domesti-
cated are the horse, ass, ox, sheep, goat, camel, llama, pig,
elephant, dog, cat, and rabbit. Of the above the first eight
belong to the order of the Ungulata, or animals provided with
hoofs. The camel, llama, and elephant cannot be said, in any
strict sense of the term, to be domesticated in Europe. The ox,
of course, comes under this order of hoofed quadrupeds.

In the Ungulata the whole surface of the allantois is covered
with villi, and the placenta is thus diffuse. Of the earliest known
representatives of these animals some resembled the Rodents,
while others tended rather to approach the characters presented
by the Insectivora. With the exception of the musk-deer, hoofed
animals are as a rule of large size. Moreover, they are all
terrestrial animals, and all are herbivorous ; but some, e.y. the
pig, are omnivorous. With regard to dentition, we may say that
there is nearly always an interval or diastema in ungulate ani-
mals between the incisor and the molar teeth. Usually all three
kinds of teeth are present ; but the canines frequently disappear.
As our readers well know, the horse possesses canine teeth,
though the mare does not. Large molar teeth are always
present.

Ruminants have their teeth nrningcd as follows: —

Upper jaw ) . . 0 . '^ i r 5^7

T ' '^ . • incisors canines molars from to

Lower jaw) ;{ 1 5 7

The canine is developed especially in males, and it is often
pushed up into close proximity with the incisors. The Bovidee,

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE OX. 15

and in fact all Ruminants, in course of time have their molars
ground down so as to become lunate-shaped.

With regard to the omnivorous and non-ruminating ani-
mals, as we have shown above, the pig is included among them.
The teeth of this animal are suited to the mastication of many
kinds of food. The canine teeth are very prominent, and in the
male they project considerably and are so large that they have
received the name of " tusks," which in the wilder varieties are
formidable weapons. The stomach of a pig is not nearly so
complex as that of the ruminant, and but slightly more so than
that of the horse. The pig is possessed of four digits, two long
ones and two short ones on each of the four legs. The nose or
snout is prominent and cylindrical in form.

The hoofed animals may have either an even number or an odd
number of toes. Those which have an odd number are called
the Perissodactyla, and they include the horse and ass, the tapir,
and the rhinoceros. The two genera Equus and Asinus are
collectively designated the Equidee or Solidungula, and the most
prominent feature which distinguishes them is the possession of
one perfect digit or finger to each leg.

The genus Equus contains only one clearly-defined species, the
difierences in the breeds of horses being in all probability results of
the prolonged influence of different external circumstances, such
as locality, management, climate, and so forth. The stomach of
the horse is simple and rather small.

The Artiodactyla are sub-divided into four sections: —

(1) The non-ruminating Artiodactyla, or Swine, including

the pigs, peccaries, and the hippopotamus.

(2) The cushion-footed or Tylopoda, including the camels

and llamas.

(3) The Tragulina or Chevrotains. These are diminutive

deer-like animals, and they.were formerly thought to
be like the musk-deer.

(4) The Pecora, or true ruminants, comprising the deer,

giraff"es, antelopes, sheep, goats, ajid oxen.

These Artiodactyle Ungulata, as their name implies, are pro-
vided with an even number of toes, while the other group of
Ungulates called the Perissoductyles, have either one toe only or
three. Now, we must here point out, however, that although

16 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

this point at first sight seems to afiFord a very good basis of
classification, it does not on further inquiry turn out to be one of
thorough and entire reliability. The extinct animal called Acero-
therium, in other points approaching the Perissodactyles, was
nevertheless provided with four toes on its fore limbs, as indeed
the tapir of the present day is. Again, the Anoplotherium was
like an Artiodactyle Ungulate, but it had three toes only on its
fore legs, albeit that the hind limbs had only two toes each.
Hence, as regards merely the actual number of the toes, a
gradation can be traced betwixt the Artiodactyles on the one
hand, and the Perissodactyles on the other. However, if we
take as our basis of classification the number of toes on which
the animal stands, in other words the number of those which are
actually used in supporting the animal's weight, we have a far
more strictly correct standard of comparison.

All the Ungulata walk and run. They do not climb, and thev
possess no clavicle or collar-bone. They never have more than four
digits, and they walk on the ends of the digits. The metacarpal
and metatarsal bones tend to assume a vertical direction. These
animals are adapted for swift progression.

Ruminants masticate their food a second time, and they are all
cloven-footed, i.e. they have two proper digits on each foot.
Very generally the skull of a ruminant is provided with two
horns, one on each side; and the ox, sheep, goat, and antelope
are classed as Cavicornia, because their horns are hollow and
supported on bony cores. As a rule ruminants are not pro-
vided with front teeth in the upper jaw, and the stomach in these
animals is very large and complex.

Now in the Cavicornia, or hollow-horned group, including the
sheep and goat (which are very similar to each other), also the
antelopes and the Bovidse, the skin covering the cores afterwards
becomes horn. The plaoentation is cotyledonous.* Horns are
generally present in the males. Camels, tragulida?, and moschida?
have no horns. There are two kinds of antelopes in America,
namely the prong-buck and the mountain-goat. The prong-buck
throws off its hollow horns like the Cervidaj do. The chamois is
an antelope met with in Europe, and there are also some in
North America. Antelopes are chiefly found in Africa. Neither

* That is, the placcntu consists of soi)anito rounded masses cnllod cotylodons.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE OX. 17

the antelope nor the horse is found in South America, although
traces of these animals have been discovered in caves of Brazil.
Sheep and goats comprise a later group in geological history.
The horns of these animals are well developed. Horns are
generally present in the case of wild sheep, although as a rule
they are not found in those which are domesticated.

The antelope has hollow horns over the frontal bone cores.
With regard to the material of horns, the rhinoceros has horn
only, the deer has bone only, the ox has horn and bone, and
finally the giraffe has bone and skin.

The goat has a vacuity between the lachrymal and nasal
bones, but the sheep has not this vacuity. The sheep is a pale-
arctic animal, and only met with for the chief part in the tem-
perate regions of the Old World. The true sheep has no beard.
As for the forehead, it varies in shape. The ibex of the Alps,
Pyrenees, &c. is a wild goat. Fossil forms of the goat are met
with in the drift of Europe, and also in the Post-Pliocene of
America. In the Miocene strata antelopes alone represent the
Cavicorue ruminants.

Bovida. — The domesticated ox has a hairless part in the
front of the mouth. There are no oxen found in Australia
nor in South America. With reference to their distribution
in time, it may be said that they occur in the Pliocene of
Europe, but that no oxen are met with in the Miocene of
Europe, although in the Miocene in India remains of Bovidas
have been found. The Bovidee are descended from Bos primi-
genius, of which the nearest living representative is the Chil-
lingham ox.

The place of the domestic ox in the scale of life is seen to
be as follows, namely, that animal is said to belong to the sub-
genus Bos tHurus, the domestic ox; of the genus Bos, in which
the horns occupy the crest, and project at first sideways and are
hollow or cellular within ; of the tribe Bovidee; of the Pecora
or true ruminants (animals which chew their food a second time);
of the Artiodactyla or even-toed Ungulata ; of the Mono-
delphous Mammalia, and of the Vertebrata, or animals with
back-bones.

(1) There are two types of Bovidse. One of these is the
munk ox. The horns come close down to the nose.
This ox has a long fleece and it is called Ovibos Mos-

18 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

chains. The hair is in fact very long. The tail is
very short. The animal is met with in the North
American region, and it is found in the fossil form in
the caves of France, together with implements.

(2) The Yaks. — These animals have much hair and a large

tail, and they are present on the Himalayas, and are
domesticated in Thibet and Angola.

(3) Bujfaloes. — The buffaloes are really Indian forms. In

Northern Africa the buflFalo is used as a beast of
burden.

(4) Bison. — The bison is an American form ; but there are

a few in Europe. The fore limbs in these animals are
very long.

The ox has six incisor teeth in the lower jaw, none in the
upper jaw, and no tusks in either upper or lower jaw. It has
six molars or large grinding teeth on each side of both jaws,
and the total number of the teeth possessed is thus seen to be
thirty. The forehead in our domesticated cattle is flat, and its
length is greater than its breadth. The horns are smooth,
round, and tapering, and they rise from the extremities of the
frontal ridge. Some breeds of oxen are not provided with
horns, and these appendages differ very greatly in point of
length and curvature in the several varieties. These animals
are probably natives of Asia and Europe, and perhaps also of
Africa, and it is quite possible that they may have been domesti-
cated at different times and in different countries. It cannot be
said that the ox is met with in a truly wild state, although oxen
which are designated wild are found in great numbers on the
pampas or wild grassy plains of South America; but it is
certain that they are not indigenous in that country. More-
over, the wild cattle which still exist in one or two parks in
Britain are in all probability direct descendants of domesticated
oxen. In reference to the remoter origin of the ox, it does not
appear to be decided whether or not the Urus, described by
ancient writers as an inhabitant of Central Europe, was the
progenitor of our domestic ox.

The ox was probably used ns a beast of burden or of draught
before the cow was valued on account of its supply of that
nutritious article of diet, milk. In some parts of Europe this
animal is more often employed in that capacity than is usual

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE OX. 19

amongst us. The gait of the ox is slow and laborious, but the
strength of the animal enables it to perform a considerable
amount of slow and steady work without exhaustion, provided
that the animal is treated with due care. It requires intervals of
rest, partly for chewing the cud, and it is by no means able to
put itself to strenuous exertion as the horse can. The ox is
especially valuable by reason of its flesh and its milk ; but
almost every part of the animal is of use — the skin, the horns,
the fat, and even the hair, and the intestines.

We now give in brief the general characters of the frame and
build of the ox. In the first place it is to be noted that
perhaps the most important point is that there should be a
sufficient capacity of chest, in order that both heart and lungs
may perform their due functions properly. The thoracic cavity,
therefore, should be both wide and deep, and over the whole
length of the ribs both length and roundness should be obser-
vable. The barrel must be both hooped and deep. The space
intervening betwixt the ribs and the hips should be but small.
As for the cow, the belly may be somewhat large and drooping
without disparagement, and should her milk-veins be large and
swollen so much the better, for this will imply capacity for
giving milk. It is most desirable that the roundness and depth
of the belly should be marked behind the point of the elbow
rather than between the shoulders and fore-legs, and also that
the belly should extend low down rather than upwards towards
the withers. The loins should be wide, for they are the prime
parts, and they should also rather seem to extend far along the
back, and although the belly should not hang down in a
pendulous manner, the flanks should be round and deep. The
hips should not be ragged ; but they ought to be large and round
rather than wide, and have plenty of muscle and fat on them.
The thighs, too, should be full and also long, and, when looked
at from behind, in close proximity ; and to this it may be added,
that the further down they continue to be near together the
better may they be considered to be. The legs should be short,
since with the possession of short legs power of fattening is
supposed to be alhed. The bones of the legs should be small,
but not, of course, so unduly small as to indicate weakness of
<;onstitution, and liability to the ravages of disease. In like
manner, the hide should be thin, but not, of course, unduly

2 *

20 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

thin ; movable, but not too loose, mellow, and, moreover, well
covered with soft, fine, and glossy hair.

At about two and a half years of age, the ox has reached
its full development; it is aged when ten years old, and very
rarely is its life prolonged for more than fourteen years. For
ages past the cow has been considered as a valuable possession,
on account of the milk which she yields. The period of
gestation is 270 days, or nine months, and but seldom is it the
case that more than one calf is produced at a birth. After
cows have reached the age of about seven and a half years they
are very rarely used for dairy purposes, since they then yield a
less quantity of milk, and even that is of an inferior description.
Not only are cows a source of profit by reason of their power
of giving milk — from which, of course, butter and cheese are
made — but also in so far as they can give origin to offspring
well adapted for grazing, and capable of being readily fattened
for the meat-market. As a rule, the calf is carefully tended
and fed from the time of its birth until the time of disposal to
the butcher, and oil-cake is now generally considered to be the
best auxiliary food for both old and young stock. In the
pastoral districts of England, the rearing of the cattle to be
afterwards sent to the arable districts is carried out. A great
many oxen are fattened on turnips and mangolds in the winter-
time in Norfolk and other eastern counties, plentiful allowances
of corn and cake being supplied in addition to the roots.
Now-a-days it is the custom to fatten cattle for the market at an
earlier age than was formerly the case.

The ox is, as our readers well know, a sociable or gregarious
animal, and where it is practicable so to do — as, for instance, in
the South American plains — the cattle associate together in such
numbers as to form very large herds. These herds defend
themselves with great vigour against the large feline animals
and other assailants, whenever they are attacked. In order to
meet their fierce adversaries effectively, these creatures draw
themselves up in battle array, placing all the younger and the
weaker in the ceutre, whilst the bulls in the outer ranks con-
front the enemy, with their formidable horns presented all ready
for the furious onset.

In seeking what is known about the history of the ox, we
find that that animal has been present in almost every place

NATUBAL HISTORY OF THE OX. 21

where man himself has lived. In the 19th and 20th verses of
the 4th chapter of the Book of Genesis we read : — " And Lamech
took unto him two wives : the name of the one was Adah, and
the name of the other Zillah. And Adah bare Jabal : he was
the father of such as dwell in tents, and of such as have cattle."
Further, in the 16th verse of the 12th chapter, we find written :
— " And he entreated Abram well for her sake. And he had
sheep, and oxen, and he-asses, and men-servants, and maid-
servants, and she-asses, and camels." This happened in relation
to Sarai, Abram's wife, whom he endeavoured to pass off as his
sister, a deception which was found out after the Lord caused
plagues in Pliaroah's house. This occurrence took place about
130 years before any mention is made concerning the horse.

For some of the observations which now immediately follow,
we are indebted to the valuable work entitled Bible Animals,
written by the Rev. J. G. Wood, that well-known and deservedly
popular author. From him we learn that there are two distinct
kinds of cattle found in Palestine — namely, the ordinary
domesticated ox, and the Indian buffalo, which lives in the low-
lying and marshy valley of the Jordan. As for the domesti-
cated cattle they are very much like our own, although, of
course, as is only to be expected, we do not meet with that
diversity of breed with which we are familiar in the British
Islands, nor is there even that distinction betwixt long-horned
and short-horned oxen, which in this country is so well known.
As is the case in most parts of the world where civilization has
made any progress, so also in Palestine, domesticated cattle
were, and still are, numerous, although it is very evident that,
in the prosperous days of Judaea, there were far greater
numbers of them than there are now, and, moreover, that they
were treated in a much better way.

A constant supply of them was needed for the sacrifices,
certain cattle being appointed to be slain for this purpose. The
ox was in those days largely fed and fattened for the table, while
at the present time the flesh of cattle is scarcely used at all
for food, that of the sheep or goat being alw-ays used, even when
a man gives a feast to his friends.

Calves, and especially bull-calves, were much used for food in
Palestine, and in the households of the wealthy ihey were fattened
for the table. Still, even in ths times of Israel's prosperity, the

22 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

chief use of the ox was in agricultural labour. Ploughing
was and is always performed by oxen, and allusions to this fact
are plentifully scattered through the Old and New Testaments.

Each "yoke" comprised two oxen. The yoke itself, the chief
part of the harness, is of very simple construction. A tolerably
stout beam of wood is cut of a sufiRcient length to rest upon the
necks of the oxen standing side by side, and a couple of hollows
are scooped out to receive the crests '"'f the two necks. In order
to hold this in its place, two flexible sticks are bent under their
necks, and the ends fixed into the beam of the yoke. In the
middle of this yoke the pole of the plough or cart is fastened,
and this comprises all the harness used, even "traces" not being
requisite. The yoke is very frequently mentioned in Holy
Scripture, as in the verse, " Take my yoke upon you ; for my yoke
is easy and my burden light." The instrument used for driving
the cattle was a goad, a long and stout stick, armed at one end
with a spike, and having a kind of spud at the other, by means
of which the earth could be scraped off the share when it became
clogged.

After the land had been ploughed, the seed sown, and the
harvest had ripened, the labours of the oxen were again called into
requisition, firstly for threshing out the corn, and secondly for
taking the grain to the storehouses. The process of threshing
was a very simple one in the early times. A circular piece of
ground, the average diameter of which would be about 75 feet, was
levelled and beaten so as to be very hard and flat, and then on
this ground the corn was thrown, and a number of oxen were driven
about on it, so that the constant trampling of their feet shook
the ripe grain out of the ears. The corn was gathered together
in the middle of the floor, and as fast as it was scattered by
the feet of the oxen, it was thrown back again towards the
centre. Afterwards a rough sledge or " moreg " was introduced.
To this the oxen were harnessed by a yoke, on which the driver
stood as he guided his team round the threshing-floor. The
work of treading out the corn was a hard and trying one to the
oxen, and it was probably for this reason that the kindly edict
was made, that the oxen who trod out the corn should not be
muzzled. Our readers will, perhaps, remember the verse, " Thou
shall not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the corn " (Deut.
XXV. 4).

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE OX. 23

lu the general way, the cattle were not nearly so carefully
fed as they are with us in these clays, and hence the labour
of threshing would be attended with some compensatory advan-
tage in the temporary abundance of which the animals might
take their fill, provided they were not muzzled. After the
corn was threshed, the oxen were used to draw it home in carts,
which were simply trays or shallow boxes mounted on a pair of
wheels. The wheels were merely slices cut from the trunk of a
tree and were not furnished with iron tyres, and they were not
very round, but were soon worn so as to be irregularly oval. The
axle, too, was simply a stout pole fastened to the bottom of the
cart, and having its rounded ends thrust through holes in the
middle of the wheels, and consequently the friction was enormous.
As, moreover, oil and grease were far too precious to be used
for lubricating the axles, the creaking and groaning of the
wheels was extreme. Although the cattle were evidently
then tended with more care than at the present day, those
animals which were used for agriculture seem to have passed
rather a rough life, especially in the winter. The Jews were not
acquainted with the idea of preserving the grass by making it
into hay, and hence the chief food for the cattle was the straw
and chaff which was left on the threshing-floor after the grain
had been separated. Many parts of Palestine are entirely devoid
of cattle, and only those districts in which fresh forage may be
found throughout the year contain them. Except a few yoke of
oxen which are kept in order to draw carts and act as beasts of
burden, the cattle are turned loose for a considerable part of the
year, and they run about in herds from one pasturage to another,
and therefore regain many of the characteristics of wild animals.
Hence have arisen many of the Scriptural allusions such as :
" Many bulls have compassed me, strong bulls of Bashan have
beset me round. They gaped on me with their mouths (or,
their mouths opened against me) as a ravening and a roaring lion.^'

"When I was a boy," writes the Rev. J. G. Wood, the author to whom we are
indebted for some of the foregoing information, "I sometimes amused myself
with going into a field where a number of cows and oxen were grazing, and lying
down in the middle of it. The cattle would soon become uneasy, toss their
heads about, and gradually draw near on every side, until at last they would be
pressed together closely in a circle, with their heads just above the object of
their astonishment. Their curious, earnest looks have always been present to
my mind when reading the above-quoted passage."'

2i THE DISEASES AXD |)ISORDEES OF THE OX.

The bulls of Palestine are gentle in comparison with our own
animals, and in fact in that country a pair of bulls may constantly
be observed attached to the same yoke, a thing that never would
be seen in this country. The cattle are branded with the mark
of their owners, so that there might be no difBcultv in knowing
them when they are recaptured for the plough and the cart. In the
olden times of the Israelitish race, herd-keeping was looked upon
as an honourable occupation, in which men of the highest rank
might engage without any derogation from their dignity. Even
Saul himself, after he had been appointed king, was acting as
herdsman when the people saw the mistake they had made in
rejecting him as their monarch, and came to fetch their divinely
appointed leader from his retirement.

That the ox was tamed at a very early date is shown by the
writings of Moses, and also by the worship of the animal in
Egypt, which worship was imitated by the Israelites when they
made their golden calf at Mount Sinai and at subsequent times.
It is indeed well known that the ancient Egyptians worshipped
the ox, and similarly it is the case that the same animal was held
in veneration by the Indians, whose legends record that the ox
was the first animal created by the three kinds of gods who were
commanded by the Supreme Being to people the earth with
living things. Again, according to the traditions of every
Celtic nation, the cow was one of the earliest productions, and
in some measure was even supposed to be a fit representative
of some divine principle. As we have above implied, the
Israelites learned to worship cattle during their long residence in

Egypt-
Chief among the idols or symbols was the god Apis represented
by a bull. Many other animals, especially the rni and the ibis,
were deeply honoured among the ancient Egyptians, as indeed
we learn both from their own monuments and from the works of
the old historians. All these creatures were, it seems, symbols
in the eyes of the educated, but idols in those of the ignorant.
The bull, Apis, was held in highest honour The particular
animal which represented the deity was lodged with great state
and honour in his temple at Memphis. It was thought to be
divinely selected for the purpose. The colour of this animal was
black, with the exception of a square spot on the Ibrehcad, a
crescent-shaped white spot on the right side, and the figure of an

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE OX. 25

eagle on the back. It was thought necessary that there should
also be under the tongue a knob, shaped like the sacred scarabseus,
and that the hairs of the tail should be double. The animal,
which thus represented the deity was only allowed to live for a
certain time, and when he had reached this allotted period, he
was taken in solemn procession to the Nile, and drowned in the
sacred waters of this river. The body was then embalmed, and
placed with ostentation in the tombs at Memphis. After his
death, whether natural or brought about in any way, the whole
nation went into mourning, exhibiting all the conventional signs
of sorrow, until such time as the priests found another bull which
possessed, or was thought to possess, the distinctive marks. The
people then went out of mourning and donned their best attire, and
the sacred bull was exhibited in state for forty days before he was
taken to his temple at Memphis. Similarly, some of the Indian
cattle are thought to be little less than incarnations of divinity.
In spite of the terrible and swift punishment which supervened
upon the worship of the calf in Aaron's time, the idea of ox-
worship still remained among the people. Five hundred years
afterwards we find a familiar example of it in the conduct of
Jeroboam, " who made Israel to sin," the sin being the open
revival of ox-worship. The king made two calves of gold, and
said: "Behold thy gods, 0 Israel, which brought thee out of
the land of Egypt." Here we have a singular instance of a king
of Israel repeating, after a lapse of five hundred years, the very
acts which had drawn down on the people so severe a punish-
ment, and which were so contrary to the law that they had
incited Moses to fling down and break the sacred tables on which
the commandments had been divinely inscribed. Other monarchs
followed his example, and departed not from the ways of
Jeroboam the son of Nebat, who made Israel to sin.

Another species of the ox tribe now inhabits Palestine, though
commentators rather doubt whether it is not a comparatively late
importation. This is the true bufl"alo {Bubalus huffeluH. Gray),
which is spread over a very large portion of the earth, and is
very plentiful in India. In that country there are two distinct
breeds of the butfalo, viz. the Arnee, a wild variety, and the
Bhainsa, a tamed variety. The former of these is much larger
than the latter, being sometimes more than 10 feet in length
from the nose to the root of the tail, and measuring between

26 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

6 and 7 feet in height at the shoulder. The horns are of enor-
mous length, the tail is very short, and tufts of hair grow on the
forehead and horns. The tamed variety is at least one-third
smaller, and, unlike the Arnee, never seems to become well-
conditioned. It is an ungainly kind of animal, and very
unsightly on account of the bald patches mostly found upon its
hide. The buffalo loves the water, and always inhabits the low-
lying districts. It is fond of wallowing in the marshes, in which
it lies for hours, almost entirely submerged, and tranquilly chew-
ing the cud while enjoying its mud-bath. Little more than the
animal's eyes, ears, and nose remain above the surface, so that
the motionless heads are scarcely distinguishable from the grass
and reed tufts which stud the marshes. One may pass by a
silent and tranquil pool where the muddy surface is unbroken
except by a number of black lumps and tufts of rushes, and then
these tufts may suddenly be transformed into twenty or thirty
huge beasts rising out of the water as if by magic. If so, it is
best to get out of the way as quickly as possible, as the buffalo
is apt to resent being startled out of its state of dreamy repose.

In the Jordan valley the buffalo is found, and is used for agri-
cultural purposes, being of the Bhainsa, or domesticated, variety.
It is larger and stronger than the ordinary cattle, and hence the
animal is useful in drawing the plough ; but its temper is uncer-
tain. As is the case with all half-wild cattle, its milk is very
scanty, but is of a very rich quality.

TheUrus, an animal which possibly was the distant progenitor
of the modern ox, was fierce and of enormous size. Now, it is
to be remembered that in almost every part of the Continent and
of England the skulls of oxen far exceeding in size any now
known have been found. A fine specimen is preserved in the
British Museum. The horns of this skull are of a peculiar de-
scription. They resemble some smaller ones dug up in the mines
of Cornwall, and in some measure those of the wild cattle of
Chillingham Park, and also, although, as is only natural, in a
much less marked manner, those of our native breeds of cattle
now found in Devon and East Sussex, and those of the Welsh
mountains and the Scottish Highlands. It seems impossible to
trace the migrations of the ox, which must have gradually taken
place from its ancient home in Western Asia towards the West;
but wo cannot doubt that the characters of the animal were

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE OX. 27

gradually changed in correspondence with the very different
climatic and other conditions, as of pasture, environment, and so
forth, to which that animal must at various times have been
subjected.

When the ox is domesticated, unless he is taught to draw the
cart or the plough, he is apt to lose in point of instinct. In this
respect the ox of Lancashire and that found in Devonshire offer
a very striking contrast ; for while the former has very little
sense, the latter approaches even the horse in activity and in
docility, is easily broken in to his work, and displays gratitude
towards his feeder. In illustration of the sagacity possessed by
cattle, we now turn for a few moments to the first volume of
BurchelCs Travels into the Interior of Africa. On page 128
this author informs us that the native oxen are usually broken
in, for the purpose of riding, when not more than one year old.
The animal having been thrown upon its back, a slit sufficiently
large to admit a finger is made through the cartilage or septum,
which separates one nostril from the other. A strong stick,
provided with a little forked branch at one end, so that it cannot
slip through on that side, is then procured, and the bark having
been stripped off, it is pushed through the hole in the cartilagi-
nous septum. A thong of hide of sufficient length to reach round
the neck and form the reins is then fastened to each end of this
stick. Across the back is then placed a sheep's skin on which
the wool has been left, o.nother one being folded up and placed
across the back, and kept in position by means of a rein long
enough to pass several times round the body. This contrivance
forms the saddle, and to it stirrups are sometimes added by the
simple device of slinging across it a thong provided at each of
its ends with a loop, which may be stretched by means of a piece
of wood placed so as to form a rest for the foot. While the nose
is still sore, the animal is mounted and trained, and in about a
week and a half is usually made fairly obedient to the rider. The
Hottentots manage the ox with facility and skill, making the
animal walk, trot, or gallop, according to their wish. Their
walking pace is about three or four miles an tour, their trotting
pace about five miles an hour, and they gallop even as much as
about seven and a half miles an hour.

We also find that Major Denhani, in his Travels into Central
Africa, states (on page 321) that the beasts of burden employed

2P> THK DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

by the inhabitants are the bullock and the ass, and that a very
fine breed of asses are found in the Mandara valleys. It appears
also that strangers and chiefs in the service of the sheikh or
sultan alone possess camels. Bullocks are laden with all the grain
and other articles taken to and from the markets. A small saddle
of plaited rushes is laid on the animal, and then sacks of goat-
skins full of corn are lashed on his broad back. A leathern thong
passed through the cartilage of his nose serves the purpose of a
bridle, and the owner or his wife or slave is seated on the top of
the load. Sometimes the daughter or the wife of a rich shouaa,
mounted on her particular bullock, precedes the loaded animals,
extravagantly and luxuriously adorned with amber, silver rings,
coral and all sorts of finery, her hair streaming with fat, a black
rim of kohal, at least an inch wide, round each of her eyes, and
indeed arrayed for conquest at the crowded market. Carpet or
robes being then spread upon her clumsy palfrey, she sits, j'ambe
de c^a,jamhe de Id, and with much grace guides the animal by
the nose, and sometimes even makes him caper and curvet.

Likewise, in illustration of the sagacity of oxen, we may here
point out that Captain Cochrane, in his Travels in Colombia
(vol. ii., page 251), tells us that he was on one occasion suddenly
aroused by a most terrific noise of loud roarings and deep moans,
which at the late hour had a very weird and appalling effect. He
went out at once, attended by the Indians, and found close to
the rancha a large herd of bullocks from the surrounding country
collected together around the spot where a bullock had been
killed in the morning. They roared, moaned, tore up the ground
with their feet, and bellowed forth, perhaps, the most hideous
chorus of grief which mortal ears could hear. It was only witli
the greatest difficulty that they were driven away by men aided
by dogs. This same traveller also informs us that he has wit-
nessed a similar scene in the day-time, and that he observed large
tears rolling down the poor animals' cheeks.

Again, in The Illustrations of Natural History (page 72), we
read that in " the Swiss Canton of Appeusell, pasturage being
tlie chief employment of the inhabitants, the breeding of cattle,
and the subsequent management of the dairy, are carried to the
greatest perfection. The mountaineer lives with his cows in a
perpetual exchange of reciprocal acts of kindness; the latter
aflfording almost all that he requires, while they in their turn axe

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE OX. 29

provided for and cherished by hitn as if they were his children.
They are never ill-treated nor beaten, for his voice suffices to
guide and govern the whole herd, and a perfect cordiality reigns
between them. In the Alps the fine cattle are the pride of their
keepers, who adorn the best of them with a harmonious set of
bells, which chime in accordance with the Ram des vaches. The
finest black cow is adorned with the largest bell, and the two
which come next in appearance wear smallei* ones. Early in the
spring, when they are removed to the Alps, or to some different
pasturage, the owner dresses himself in all his finery, and pro-
ceeds along singing the lianz des vaches. Next come three or
four fine goats, next the finest cow adorned with the great bell,
then the other two with the smaller bells, and these are followed
by the rest of the cattle walking one after another, and behind
them comes the bull having a one-legged milking stool on his
horns, while the procession is closed by a sledge bearing the
dairy implements. It is indeed surprising to observe the pride
and pleasure with which the cows stalk forth, when ornamented
with their bells. If the leading cow is deprived of her honours,
she manifests her sense of the indignity put upon her by inces-
sant lowing, and even, it is said, by loss of appetite, whereby her
condition is impaired. The rival becomes the object of her wrath.
She is butted and wounded in the most furious manner, until the
aggressor either regains her bell, or is removed from the herd.

Oxen are spoken of by Caesar as constituting a chief part of the
wealth of the Britons at the time of the Roman invasion, and the
same writer also mentions that the inhabitants lived in great part on
the flesh and the milk of these animals, somewhat to the neglect
of the use of the plough. It seems that these oxen were neither
large nor beautiful animals. At that time Great Britain com-
prised many petty sovereignties, and only that kind of property
which could be quickly taken away to a place of comparative
safety was really secure. Even many centuries afterwards there
were continual contests among the feudal barons, and it was
therefore still the case that those goods which could be secured
within the walls of a castle, or driven quite-^away to some place
out of the reach of an enemy, were alone to be considered as
being of any great value. Consequently it was a customary pre-
caution to store up in the fortresses immense stocks of provisions
suited for the use both of the vassals and of the cattle, or perhaps

30 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

the latter vvere driven to the lands of some friendly baron, or
concealed in some recess. When, however, the government
became more powerful, and a settled peace and freedom from
internecine struggles and internal dissensions became the order
of the day, property of every description was far more secure and
also more equally divided. The plough, too, then gradually
came into general use ; for then it was reasonably to be expected
that the reaping of agricultural products might be fairly antici-
pated, when once they had been sown. At about this period
cattle were somewhat neglected, and both the number and the
size of them gradually became less. Indeed, it has been only
within the last fifty years or so that serious and successful
attempts have been made for the purpose of improving our breeds
of cattle. As our ancestors roved about, their cattle were apt at
times to stray and to be lost. The countrv at that time con-
tained a great many forests, and the oxen which had strayed
betook themselves to the recesses of these woods, and became
wild, and at length so numerous and ferocious as to be a source
of danger to the people living near. There were, at one time, a
great number of these savage animals in the forests situated near
the metropolis. As the country gradually became more and more
highly civilised, and the forests were thinned, these creatures were
almost entirely stamped out. A few of them, however, still
remain in Chatelherault Park, belonging to the Duke of Hamil-
ton, in Lanarkshire, and also in the park of Chillingham Castle,
in Northumberland, the seat of the Earl of Tankerville.

These peculiar wild cattle we shall describe later on ; but our
consideration of them will best come in our remarks on the
different breeds of cattle, which topic we shall shortly proceed to
discuss.

31

CHAPTER II.

THE ANATOMY OP THE OX.
SECTION I.— THE SKELETON OF THE OX.

Before we introduce our kind and patient readers to a subject
which at first sight seems very dry and uninteresting, we must
beg for an especial degree of indulgence. As a matter of fact,
many topics appear difficult which are really not so if they are
approached in the right way. We are, however, far from think-
ing that we have done this part of our work thoroughly, or, at
any rate, anything like so satisfactorily as we might have hoped
to have done it, had it been possible to have expended more time
upon it. However, we have delayed the appearance of our work
quite as long as was advisable, and hence we must be content to
leave this section in its present state, hoping that if the readers
will peruse our remarks with the aid of actual specimens before
them, so far as possible, they will be able to learn the main points
quickly and correctly.

Speaking generally, the proportion of animal matter in fully-
developed bones may be said to be about one-third. Sometimes,
especially in young animals, there may be too large a proportion
of animal matter, and when young animals suffer from rachitis
their bones may be incapable of supporting the super-incum-
bent weight. Again, bones differ in regard to density. For
example, the bones of the legs of a cart-horse are larger than
those of a thoroughbred; but at the same-^time they do not
weigh so much in proportion to their size, because the shell or
outer layer is thinner. In the case of the thoroughbred it is
clear that a greater compactness of osseous tissue is necessary in
order to resist the great amount of concussion engendered by the

32

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

speedy pace. Hence the shell of the booes is thicker, and thereby,
of course, greater strength is afforded without much increase in
size.

The Vertebral Column. — The ox has 7 cervical vertebrae,
13 dorsal, 6 lumbar, 5 sacral, and from 16 to 20 coccygeal ver-
tebrae. The sheep differs by having 6 or 7 lumbar, 4 sacral, and
also from 16 to 24 coccygeal vertebr©.

Taking first the cervical vertebrae into consideration, we find
that these vertebrae in the case of the ox differ from those of
solipeds by their shortness and by the greater development of

Fig. 1. — Skeleton of the Cow.

the eminences for the insertion of muscles. The bodies of the
cervical vertebrae of the ox are, in fact, shorter than are those of
the horse. The neural spines are large. The atlas, or first
cervical vertebra, is very large, but it is smaller than is that of
the horse. Its alee are more horizontal, and they are turned
up slightly at the external borders. The spinal foramen is large,
and there is uo posterior lateral one. The condyloid articula-
tions are wide. The transverse processes of the atlas are less
inclined than in the case of the horse. The posterior facets for
articulation with the axis are small and nearly flat, and blended
into one.

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 33

The second cervical vertebra, or axis, is short, the odontoid
process being broad and bounded inferiorly by a prominent
articular ridge. The odontoid process in ruminants is spout-
shaped. The neural spine does not bifurcate, nor does it
become continuous with the posterior articular processes. The
pedicles on either side are perforated by a circular foramen.
The body is semi-cylindrical, not conical, and it is so concave
on its upper surface as to present the appearance of a groove.
The spinous process of the axis is not so thick as in the case
of the horse, and it is not bifid posteriorly.

In the five cervical vertebrae which come after the axis, a
rugged continuous lamina unites the anterior articular processes
to the posterior ones. The spinous process inclines forward,
and at its summit is flat in the transverse direction, and is in some
cases bifid. It becomes progressively higher from the third to
the fifth cervical vertebra. The transverse processes of the
sixth vertebra are long, and only provided with two prolonga-
tions, a superior and an inferior one. The latter is large, and
flat on both sides, and is bent abruptly downwards. The spinous
process of the sixth cervical vertebra is long, namely, about
I5 inch in height, and it is flattened laterally. This vertebra
has no inferior spine. The seventh cervical vertebra is provided
with a spinous process which is the longest. It is as much as
4f inches in height, and points backwards and upwards. The
transverse processes are single, and end in rough tuberosities.
This vertebra is not provided with an inferior spine, and only
seldom with a vertebral foramen.

Dorsal Vertebra. — The centra of the dorsal vertebrae of
the ox are very similar to, though longer and thicker than,
those of the horse. Their spinous processes also are larger,
and incline more markedly backwards. Their transverse pro-
cesses are very large, and provided with a facet which is convex
from above downwards, and their posterior notches are nearly
always converted into foramina. These dorsal vertebrae are
more slender in the middle than at the extremities. The spinous
processes diminish in width, especially at their summits, from the
first to the eleventh dorsal vertebra, and then again widen in the
two last. They increase in slope to the tenth, after which they
become more and mure upright. The first four are the longest,
and are nearly of the same height. The others gradually dimi-

3

34 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

nish. The articular facet of each transverse process of the
first four or five vertebree retains its vertical convexity, and is,
moreover, concave in an antero-posterior direction. In the case
of the last vertebra this facet is always absent, and sometimes
also in the last but one. The two last dorsal vertebrae have the
articular processes arranged similarly to those of the lumbar
vertebrae.

The bodies of the dorsal vertebrae of the ox are longer than
are those of the horse ; but they are very similar in form. The
pedicles are almost always pierced by foramina which correspond
to the posterior notches. The transverse processes are large, and
they diminish in size and assume an arched form from before
backwards, and those of the fourth dorsal vertebra are usually
the longest. The dorsal vertebrae of the sheep and goat, a? is
to be expected, are relatively less strong than are those of the
ox. Their spinous processes are, moreover, not so wide, and
their posterior notches are never converted into foramina.

The lumbar vertebrae of the ox are longer and thicker than in
the horse, the bodies being more convex on the lateral and
inferior surfaces. The transverse processes are, as a rule, long
and more strongly developed, concave on the anterior border,
convex on the posterior, and they incline slightly downwards,
■with the exception of the two first, which remain nearly hori-
zontal. Moreover, they increase in length from the first to the
fourth vertebra, those of the fourth being therefore the longest,
though those of the fifth are not much less, and those of the
last suddenly become shorter. Their width gradually diminishes
from before to behind. The lumbar vertebrae do not articulate
■with one another, nor with the sacrum. Their articular pro-
cesses are small and prominent, and further removed from the
median line in the posterior vertebrae.

The Sacrum. — The sacrum of the ox is larger and more
prominently arched than is tliat of the horse, and its superior
surface is more convex. The spinous processes are more firmly
united, and they are also surmounted by a thick rugged lip.
They are lengthened at their base and on each side by a ridge
which represents the rudiments of the articular processes. The
lateral borders are sharp, and bent downwards. The superior
foramina are not very markedly regular, the under surface is
more concave, the promontory is more marked, and the inferior

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 35

foramina are larger. The sacral cornua are large and expanded
for the attachment of ligaments. The lumen of the spinal canal
is of an oval shape, and the articular portion of the body is large.
The transverse processes are short and thick, and their external
extremities are bounded by a vertical border, the inferior angle
of which is directed downwards. The surfaces which serve to
unite the sacrum with the ossa innominata have, in fact, a more
or less vertical direction. There are no lateral facets on the
base of the sacrum for articulation with the transverse processes
of the last lumbar vertebra. In the sheep and goat the sacrum
is shorter, and sometimes the spinous processes are not united.
The coccygeal vertebrae of ruminants are stronger than those of
the horse. They vary in number from fifteen to twenty, and the
anterior of them possess rudimentary articular processes.
The sacrum of rodents presents certain characters not dissimilar
from that of ruminants. As a rule, only one vertebra touches
the ilium on each side. No ruminant has a prehensile tail.
There are no chevron bones in ruminants ; but the ox has
hypopophyses in the tail.

The Ribs. — As a general rule, ruminants possess thirteen pairs
of ribs, of which eight are true and five false. The pig has
fourteen pairs of ribs. They are straight, and broader, longer,
less markedly arched, and more uniform than are the ribs of
solipeds. The superior extremity is large and smooth. The
necks of the foremost ribs are short and thick, and their tubercles
are large. The necks of the posterior ribs are very long and
thin, and also they are smaller than in the horse. The angles
are not very marked, and the front extremities are expanded so
as to articulate with their cartilages by means of true joints
(diarthrodial articulations). In the last rib, and sometimes also
in the last but one, the tuberosity is scarcely perceptible, and it
has no articular facet. In the sheep and goat the sternal ribs
are united with the cartilages.

The Sternum. — The sternum of the domesticated animals,
except solipeds, is flat both above and below, instead of from
side to side. The superior surface is concave, forms the floor
of the chest ; the inferior is convex, but slightly concave from
side to side. On the borders between each two segments are
articular depressions for the costal cartilages. The cariniform
cartilage is small and conical, while the ensiform cartilage is

3 *

36 THE DISEASES AND. DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

large and circular. In the case of the sternum of ruminants
each piece is developed from two centres of ossification situated
side by side. Seven separate bones make up the sternum in
these animals, and they are much more closely united than are
the bones which compose the sternum of the horse. With the
exception of the first piece, the rest are united with one another
by ossification at an early period. The first segment or
manubrium, however, is joined to the second by a true
diartbrodial articulation, whereby it can move laterally. There
is no cervical prolongation, and the xiphoid cartilage is only
slight, and it is, moreover, well detached from the body of
the bone. This diartbrodial articulation between the two first
pieces is not present in the case of the sheep and the goat. In
these animals they are simply united by a layer of cartilage,
which in old animals is completely ossified.

Pelvis. — The pelvis of a ruminant is very long, and the hind
legs are longer than the fore legs. The symphysis also is long.

The OS innominatum is larger, but of the same general ap-
pearance as is the same bone of the horse. The ilium is thick,
and is marked with a prominent line, which runs from the
anterior spine to the superior ischiatic ridge. Its internal sur-
face is very convex, the ridge between the part resting on the
sacrum and that which lies without it being well marked. The
ilio-peclineal eminence is prominent, and the crest and spines
are very strong. The ischium is of about the same size as the
ilium. The anterior extremity has a thick projecting external
portion, which forms part of the cotyloid cavity, and is sur-
mounted by the large superior ischiatic spine, from which a
slight ridge is continued backwards over the thick concave body
to the tuberosity. The inferior ischiatic spine is conical in
shape, and it points outwards and downwards. On the ischial
symphysis inferiorly are a ridge and tubercle, which are absent
in the case of the horse.

The pubis is large and concave. The symphysis pubis is
never completely ossified. The cotyloid cavity is deep, and the
cotyloid notch is narrow and deep, and near the hirge foramen
ovale. Tlie inlet of the pelvic cavity is oval, and its sacro-
pubic diameter is greater than its transverse one, while the sacro-
ischiatic diameter of the outlet is less than the transverse.

The Hind Limb. — The/ew///-, or thigh-bone, is distinguished

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 37

from that of the horse by the absence of the lesser trochanter.
The trochanter iuternus is a round tubercle situated near the
posterior surface. In no ruminant is there a third trochanter.
The head of the bone is small but prominent, the trochanteric
fossa deep but small. The trochanter major has only one emi-
nence, which is not very prominent, and is united to the internal
trochanter by a ridge. The condyles and trochlea are somewhat
small, and the supracondyloid fossa is shallow.

The tibia has no vertical fossa on the anterior tuberosity, and
no articular facet for the fibula. The distal extremitv has its
external malleolus represented by a separate bone called the
malleolar hone. This articulates with the tibia, calcaneum, and
astragalus, and it also represents the distal end of the fibula,
the remainder of which bone is usually replaced by a long liga-
ment which stretches along the whole length of the tibia. As a
rule, in ruminants the fibula is aborted, but this is not the case
in tragulidae. The patella is small, and somewhat conical in
shape.

The tarsus consists of five bones. The astragalus is deep
but narrow, and has a pulley-shaped surface inferiorly as well as
superiorly. The calcaneum is long and square. The great cunei-
form (cuneiforme magnum) and the cuboid are united to form
the cubo-cuneiform bone. The cuboid and scaphoid bones are
never found in ruminants. The cuneiforme medium is like that
of the horse, while the cuneiforme parvum is very small. The
large metatarsal bone has its inferior extremity divided into two
equal parts by a deep fissure, and it has a groove superiorly.
The small metatarsal bones, when present, are rudimentary and
single.

The Shoulder and Fore-arm. — The scapula is large and
very triangular. The spine, which as a rule in ruminants is
short, divides the scapula into two fossae, which, as regards their
extent, stand to each other in the ratio of about one to three.
The spine does not gradually end in the neck as that of the horse
does, but in the abrupt angle prolonged to a point to which the
name acromion process has been given. ' The neck is more
distinct, and the coracoid process and glenoid cavity are both
small, and situated close together.

The bicipital groove of the humerus is single, the external
trochanter is very large, and its summit is curved over the

38 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

bicipital groove. The head is large, the tuberosities on the
contrary being small, while the bone itself is less markedly
twisted than is that of the horse.

The fore-arm is short in the ox, sheep, and pig, although that
of the carnivora is very long. In the case of solipeds, ruminants,
and in pachyderms, in the general way the radius and ulna are
so firmly united by means of an interosseous ligament that these
two bones can only execute slight movements in relation to each
other. The radius and ulna are, in fact, fused ; but they are
separate in tragulus.

In ruminants the ulna is an elongated bone, being longer and
larger than is the ulna of the horse. It extends as far as the
distal end of the radius, and it articulates with the cuneiform
bone. The radius, on the other hand, is short, very flat from
before to behind, and the bicipital tuberosity is scarcely notice-
able. There are two radio-ulnar arches, and they are united
externally by a deep fissure.

In the ox and sheep the carpus is only composed of six
bones in all, four in the upper row, and only two in the lower
row, in which the os magnum and the trapezoides are united.
The four bones of the upper row are the scaphoid and the
lunar, which articulate with the radius, the cuneiform, which
articulates with the radius and the ulna, and the trapezium,
which is small, tuberous in shape, and does not articulate with
the radius. The two bones of the lower row are the os magnum
and the cuneiform, which articulate with the large metacarpal
bone, the trapezoid being fused with the os magnum, or absent,
according to some observers, and the pisiform bone being wanting.
The supercarpal bone has no groove for gliding, and the pyrami-
dalis articulates with the radius and cubitus. T'he bones of the
lower row only articulate with the principal metacarpal bone. Pro-
fessor Gobaux, in 1865, exhibited specimens to prove that the
interval of the two bones of the lower row in the carpus of rumi-
nants really represents two bones, so that these animals actually
have seven carpal bones, like the horse has. Ruminants have
two metacarpal bones, a chief one, which itself results from the
consolidation of the second and third metacarpals, and another
one which is quite rudimentary. In reality the cannon bone
is composed of two bones united. The metacarpals are as a rule
fused. The ox has the second and fifth plialanges only rudi-

THE ANATOMY OP THE OX. 89

mentary. The large metacarpal bone has a vertical groove
down its anterior middle, and this groove marks the original
division of the bone into two. The inferior extremity is divided
by a deep fissure into two articulations, each resembling the
single one of the horse, the external one being always the
smaller. A rudimentary metacarpus is placed postero-exter-
nally. The phalanges and sesamoids in either limb are double,
one set forming each digit. They are small and narrow, the
coffin-bone resembling half of that of the horse. In the adult
ruminant two cardiac bones are frequently found in the heart,
in connection with the auriculo-ventricular rings. The left bone
is much smaller than the right.

The Head of the Ox.
The diflference betwixt the general aspect of the head of the ox
and that of the horse mainly consists in the different extent and
form of the frontal and parietal bones. The frontal bone of the
horse extends but little more than half-way from the orbit of the
eye to the top of the head, and above the frontal bone the two
parietals, thickly covered as they are in the living animal by the
temporal muscles, form the arch-shaped dome of the skull. Now,
in the ox the frontal bone extends from the nose to the superior
ridge of the skull, presenting a flat irregular surface destitute of
muscles to cover it. In the cranium of the ox the frontal bone
is well developed, and it extends from below the eyes to the back
of the skull, and forms the entire forehead and crest. In the
middle of the forehead is the frontal tuberosity, which is espe-
cially large in the case of those oxen which have no horns. The
frontal bone is very thick, and its superior surface is flat and
broad, especially in the case of the male.

Comparing for a moment the skull of the sheep and the deer,
we find that the face is more markedly curved down in reference
to the long axis of the skull in the sheep than it is in the deer.

Reverting now again to the frontal bone of the ox, we find
that it is especially characterised by the conical osseous cores on
which the horns are supported. From the' sides of the crest
these two processes, the horn-cores, arise, and they vary in size
and in degree of curvature, although they correspond to the horns
in shape. These horn-cores are porous, especially at their roots.
They are, moreover, very rough, and also covered with thick

40

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

periosteum, and the}' contain sinuses and large canals and also
foramina, through which pass arteries and veins. The horns of
oxen may be used as very formidable weapons of attack, and
they are, in fact, often used with terrible effect. They must be
securely based on the frontal bone, and, indeed, they may be
looked upon as continuations of tliat bone. The forehead
of the bull is considerably shorter and also broader than that
of the cow or bullock. In the case of some hornless cattle

Fig.

-0x8 Hkad — Anteriok Face

1. Mastoid process. 2. Supra-orbital foramen. 8. Zygoma. 4. Lachrymal
bone. 5. ^laxillary spine. (J. Inferior orifice of the supermaxillo-dental canal.
((Viouffou.)

the frontal bones begin to contract a little above the eyes,
and end in a rather narrow ridge at the top of the head. How-
ever, even these cattle use their heads aggressively, and some-
times butt one another with very great violence. Now, if the
brain were situated immediately beneath the bone, the concussion
might not unfrequcntly be highly dangerous, and even fatal.
Hence the frontal portion of the skull is composed of two plates
separated from each other at least an inch at all places, and in
some parts more than two inches, by numerous vacuities, and

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 41

these cells extend through the whole of the bone. Moreover, we
find that the vacuities in the horn-cores are continuous with the
largely-developed frontal sinuses, and these, in their turn, are
likewise prolonged into the parietal bones, and even into the
occipital bone. In fact, the cavities extend from the extremities
of the cores to the orbit, and nearly as far backwards and down-
wards as the foramen magnum. The two nostrils are, as it were,
merged into one. Indeed, there is one continuous cavity from
the muzzle to the tip of the horn and from one muzzle to
the other.

Inflammation of the Frontal Sinuses. — The sinuses are
lined internally by a prolongation of the membrane of the nose,
and when one part of it is inflamed, the whole is liable to be
affected. Consequently, nasal gleet in the ox ought to be
examined and properly treated at once. After a little cough,
with slight nasal discharge, a beast may rapidly become dull and
drooping,^ and carry the head on one side. Grubs or worms may
have crept up the nostril and be lodged within some of the sinuses,
or perhaps inflammation of the membrane of the nose, the result
of an ordinary cold, may extend along the cavity, and be more
intense in some particular spot than in others. Even suppura-
tion may supervene, and it is more common near the root of one
of the horns. The veterinary surgeon either opens the skull at
the root of the horn with a trephine, or cuts off" the horn at its
root. More than a pint of pus may escape from the orifice.
The opening into the sinus should, however, be speedily closed.
Occasionally the ox suff'ers greatly from the larva of a species of
fly, which creeps up the nose and lodges in some part of the
sinus. The ox is tortured much more than the sheep from
this cause, and the symptoms may even resemble those of in-
flammation of the brain.

The supra-orbital foramina are double, situated far backwards,
and continued by a groove. The frontal arch articulates with
the zygoma. The processes which form the orbital arches rest
by their summits on the zygomatic bone. The supra-orbital
foramen is a true and frequently multiple canal. The inferior
border of the frontal bone is deeply notched in its middle to
receive the nasal bones. In the sheep and goat the frontal bone
is relatively less extensive and strong than it is in the case of
the ox. It does not ascend to the summit of the head, and

42 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

the frontal sinuses are not prolonged beyond its superior
border.

The parietal bone in the ox does not occupy the anterior
aspect of the head ; but it joins with the occipital bone in forming
the base of the neck. The parietal bone is a narrow osseous
plate elongated transversely, and recurved at its two extremities,
and it descends into the temporal fossa to rest upon the sphenoid
bone, and articulate with the sphenoid and temporal bones. The
parietal bones are small. Each is situated below the frontal crest,
and extends under and supports the horn-cores. Beneath the
crest posteriorly the two parietals unite by means of the inter-
parietal suture ; but there is never a central suture in ruminants.
There are no parietal ridges. The parietal bone of the ox is not
involved in the formation of the parieto-temporal canal, and it is
excavated internally by cavities which communicate with the
frontal sinuses. The parietal bone of the sheep and goat is rela-
tively much larger than that of the ox, and in these animals it
takes part in the formation of the parieto-temporal canal, and
has no sinuses.

The occipital bone is much wider from side to side, but at the
same time smaller, than the occipital bone of the horse. The
occipital protuberance is obtuse, and gives rise to the superior
curved lines on each side. In the case of the occipital bone of
the sheep these curved lines are very marked, and they occupy
the summit of the head. The basilar process is wide, short, and
thick. The condyloid foramina are double and sometimes triple.
The foramen lacerum is divided into an anterior foramen and a
posterior one by means of the mastoid portion of the temporal
bone. In the sheep the basi-occipital is square and flat, but
it is longer in otlier groups.

The Ethmoid Bone. — In ruminants the ethmoid bone and
its cells are well developed, and the great ethmoidal cell is of
enormous size. The ethmoid bone has a large volute prolonged
forwards, and it looks like a third turbinated bone prolonged
between the two turbinated bones usually met with. It has been
called the olfactory antrum or cave. The ethmoid bone is closely
fixed between the adjacent bones, in consequence of the slight
development of the sinuses around it.

The Sphengip Bone. — In the ox the pterygoid processes are
large and thin. The sub-sphenoidal canal is not present. The

f

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 43

Sella turcica is deep, and the bony projection separating it from
the basilar process is very prominent. The three suprasphenoidal
canals blend to form a single wide one. There are no notches
in the superior border for the passage of the internal carotid and
spheno-spinous arteries. There is no pterygoid foramen, and
likewise there is no foramen lacerum basis cranii, its place being
occupied by the large auditory bulla ; but there is a large fora-
men ovale through which passes the inferior maxillary nerve.
The foramen lacerum orbitale and the foramen rotundum are not
separated by a plate of bone. In the sheep the osseous promi-
nence which bounds the pituitary fossa behind forms a lamina
which curves forward, and is prolonged at its extremities into
two points, the posterior clinoid processes.

The Temporal Bone. — In the ox, the sheep, and the goat
the petrous and squamous portions of the temporal bone are
always united. The zygoma is slender in ruminants. The
summit of the zygomatic process only articulates with the malar
bone. In the ox the condyle of the zygomatic process is very
wide and large and convex. The mastoid process is large. The
styloid processes are short and wide and greatly curved inwards,
and broader than in the case of the horse. The parieto-temporal
canal is very large, and it is entirely excavated in the temporal
bone. Its superior or internal extremity opens above the petrous
portion in an excavation, which represents the lateral cavity of
the parietal protuberance in the horse. At its inferior extremity-
it always shows several oritices. The mastoid crest is united
with the upper root of the zygomatic process, and it is prolonged
below to the mastoid protuberance, which is very large. The
external auditory meatus is small, and directed slightly down-
wards. The tympanic bulla exists in ruminants, but it is not
markedly developed. In the case of the sheep and goat the
mastoid process is scarcely distinct from the crest, and the mas-
toid portion of the bone is only at a late period united with the
petrous portion.

The superior maxilla is shorter but broader than that of the
horse, the maxillary spine consisting of, or father being repre-
sented by, a rough protuberance, which is not continuous with
the zygoma. In fact, in the ox, sheep, and goat the maxillary
spine does not directly join the zygomatic crest. A curved line,
whose concavity is directed posteriorly, effects the union between

44 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEUS OP THE OX.

these two parts. The inferior orifice of the dental canal of the
superior maxilla or infra-orbital foramen is situated opposite the
first molar tooth. With the exception of the camel, no ruminant
has incisors in the upper jaw. There is no fissure for the forma-
tion of the palatine canal. The cavity of the sinus is more
spacious than in the horse, and in the case of the ox only it is
prolonged between the two laminae of the palatine roof. There
is no alveolus for the tusk.

Premaxillary Bone. — The premaxilla is broad. The in-
ferior or chief portion of this bone is flattened before and behind,
and devoid of alveoli in its external border. It is rarely united
with the adjacent bones, and is never, in the case of the smaller
ruminants, articulated with the nasal bone. The prsemaxillae do
not reach the nasals in the Saiga antelopes, though they do in
the case of other antelopes. The Saiga antelope has a very short
nasal region ; but it is prolonged by means of cartilage anteriorly.
In fact, the nasal bones are very short, and they end near the
orbits in the Saiga antelope.

In the ox the nasal bones are rather long, but shorter and
broader, and not so firmly articulated as are those of the horse.
The superior extremity of each nasal bone is held in a groove in
the inferior border of the frontal bone. The lower end presents
two points having a notch between them. Of these two points
the inner one unites with its fellow to form one projection, so
that in the articulated skull the nasal peak presents three points,
but in the smaller ruminants only two. The palate bone is large
and very well developed in the ox, and it is noted for the breadth
of the palatine portion of its external surface. The palatine canal
is entirely channeled out in its substance. The palatine crest is
very thin and elevated. The lachrymal bone appears on the face,
is large, and at the bottom of the orbit it forms a large pro-
tuberance, which is crossed by the maxillary sinus. The orbital
plate of this bone is thin and fragile. This bone has not its
foramen situated externally. As was said above, the lachrymal
bones do not reach the nasals in the case of the goat, so that in
this animal there is a vacuity left between these two bones ; but
this is not the case in the sheep.

The malar lione is well developed. It is bifid posteriorly.
The superior bnmch meets the orbital process of the frontal
bone, and the posterior branch joins the zygomatic process of

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX, 45

the temporal bone behind the orbital fossa, being formed by the
union of the posterior borders of the palatine and pterygoid
bones, and the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone. The
posterior nares are very narrow, and situated behind the superior
maxillse, and not between those bones. The pterygoid bones are
large, and usually close an opening which is left between the
sphenoid and palatine bones. The superior turbinal is small,
the inferior turbinal being largely developed. The vomer is verv
large, and rests on the anterior half of the maxillary suture. The
inferior maxilla is longer, but less massive than in the horse.
The neck is more constricted, and the symphysis seldom becomes
completely ossified. There are eight small alveoli in front for the
incisors and canines, the latter being close up to the former.
The condyles are small and convex in their short diameter, but
slightly concave in their long diameter, thus allowing of a con-
siderable amount of lateral motion. The coronoid processes are
long, and the sigmoid notches are very deep. The hyoid bone
has one cornu and two cornicula on each side. The two cornua or
stylohyals are suspended from the temporal bone. The spur
process is small and blunt.

SECTION IL— LIGAMENTS AND MUSCLES.

In the ox the dorso-lumbar supraspinous ligament is com-
posed of yellow elastic tissue, and anteriorly is expanded and
attached to the sides rather than to the summits of the neural
spines of the vertebrae. The inferior common ligament is very
strong, and the intervertebral discs are thicker than those of the
horse. The ligamentum nuchse is also stronger, the weight it
has to bear being greater. The sternal ribs articulate with their
cartilages by means of true diarthroses, and they are supplied
with synovial membranes. The sternum has an inferior common
ligament, and the presternum, or manubrium, articulates with
the mesosternum by a diarthrosis. The transverse lumbo-sacral
and interlumbar articulations are peculiar tO'the horse, and not
present in the ox. With regard to the ligaments of the hind
limb, the pubo-femoral ligament is also wanting in the ease of
all the domesticated animals except the horse, and it is owing to
the absence of this ligament that the larger ruminants can

46 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

deliver those sweeping circular blows with the foot, known by the
name of " cow kicks." There is more motion in the tarsus of
ruminants, owing to the greater mobility of the astragalus,
which glides upon the calcaneum, the cubo-cuneiform bone, the
tibia, and the malleolar bone. In the elephant there is no round
ligament, and the femur, instead of being when at rest inclined
downwards and forwards, is almost perpendicular. This accounts
for the peculiar contour of the haunch in that animal.

In ruminants, the panniculus carnosus in the cervical region
is for the most part aponeurotic, and there is a muscle resem-
bling that one which is known as the sterno-maxillaris of the
horse, which is sometimes looked upon as its inferior fleshy
portion. In the head, the panniculus carnosus resembles that
of the horse, but there is an expansion of it in the frontal
region which is called the frontalis muscle.

In the head, the palatine ridges being closer together than is
the case in the horse, the pterygoid muscles originate nearer to
the middle line of the head, and thus the contraction of them
produces more lateral motion in the lower jaw than there is in
that of the horse. There is no digastric muscle in the domesti-
cated animals other than the horse. The muscle which repre-
sents it has only one belly, and in the ox this muscle is
joined to its fellow on the opposite side by a small, square,
transverse muscle. The masseter and temporalis muscles are
both less strong. The frontalis muscle, above spoken of, passes
from the root of the horn-core to the upper edge of the orbital
fossa. It is a flat, thin muscle, and it blends with the external
levator of the eyelid. The levator labii snperioris alaeque nasi
is not present in the smaller ruminants, and in the ox it differs
from that of the horse in that the anterior division, instead of
the posterior one, covers the dilatator naris lateralis, and also that
it covers the nasnlis longus as well. Two accessory muscles
arise in common with this uasalis longus, and they are inserted
in the upper lip. The dilators of the nostril, except the lateralis,
are wanting. The zygomaticus has a long tendinotis origin,
which reaches up to the zygoma. The long tendon of insertion
of the depressor labii inferioris is not present. Thi; hyoideus
magnus has a long tendinous origin, and it forms no sheath,
there being no mesian digastric tendon. The lachrymalis is
closely blended above with the anterior border of the orbicularis

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 47

palpebrarum, and is more strongly developed and thicker than
in the case of the horse.

The Trunk. — The muscle which seems to correspond to
the sterno-maxillaris of the horse is looked upon by Chauveau
as representing the inferior fleshy band of the panniculus car-
nosus. It is attached above to the fascia of the masseter
muscle, and sometimes it may be traced to the zygoma. If this
view is the correct one, it would appear that the sterno-maxil-
laris is represented by the sterno-suboccipitalis, a muscle which
is inserted on the basi-occipital bone, in company with a tendon
of the levator humeri. The sterno-thyro-hyoideus is larger
than in the horse, and is not digastric. The rectus capitis anticus
major is covered by the trachelo-atloideus, a flat muscle which
unites the atlas inferiorly to some of the succeeding vertebrte.
The levator humeri attaches itself anteriorly to the mastoid
process, to the posterior surface of the occipital bone and the
ligamentum nuchae, to the basi-occipital bone, together with
the sterno-suboccipitalis, and to the wing of the atlas by a tendon
separate from that of the splenius and trachelo-mastoideus.
The splenius muscle in the case of ruminants is very small. In
the camel, according to Cuvier, it does not exist, or, if it does,
is so small as to escape observation.

The trapezius and eerratus magnus are largely developed, and
the intercostals and levatores costarum, of course, vary in
number with the ribs. The pectoralis anticus is small, and
considerably blended with the transversus. The abdominal
tunic is large and very thick, and, in fact, it may be said that
its development is always proportional to the magnitude of the
abdominal viscera. The linese transversae of the rectus abdominis
are very well marked. The obliquus internus is large, and it
fills up the space between the ilium, the last rib, and the lumbar
vertebrae. The fascia transversalis is more marked than is that
of the horse. The diaphragm in ruminants is thick and strong,
and is proportionate to the weight of the abdominal viscera.
The crura of the diaphragm are long and large, and the peri-
phery is attached more anteriorly than in trhe horse. In the
camel the diaphragm usually contains a small bone.

Fore Limb. — The extensors of the metacarpus are disposed
as is the case in the horse, with the exception that the tendon of
the obliquus is inserted into the great metacarpal bone. The

48 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

extensor pedis is divided throughout its length, thus giving rise
to an external muscle, the extensor communis digitorum, and an
internal one, the extensor proprius internus, the former of these
two muscles being rather larger than the latter. The tendons
of these muscles run down the metacarpus in company, and at
the commencement of the digits that of the extensor communis
bifurcates, a portion being inserted into the pyramidal process
of each distal phalanx. The tendon of the extensor proprius
internus receives slips from the suspensory ligament about the
middle of the first phalanx, and is attached to the mesial and
outer surface of the internal distal phalanges. The extensor
suffraginis is represented in ruminants by the extensor proprius
extern us, and it differs from the former muscle of the horse in
being thicker and stronger, and in being inserted in the same
manner as the internus. These three muscles are all extensors,
but the communis is also an approximator, while the proprii are
diverters or expansors of the digits. The flexor perforatus is a
double muscle, but unites to form a single tendon, which divides,
and each part behaves as the single portion in the horse, being,
however, assisted in the formation of the sheaths for the per-
forans tendons by two strong slips from the suspensory liga-
ment which correspond to the check ligament. The check
ligament may be said to be attached in tlie ruminant to the
perforatus tendon only. The tendon of the flexor perforans also
divides, the two parts passing through the sheaths formed as
above described, and ending in a manner similar to that of the
horse, becoming, however, blended with the plantar cushion of
the foot, and the inferior interdigital ligament.

Hind Limb. — The gluteus externus is closely blended with
the triceps abductor. The gluteus maximus is nearly covered by
the compound muscle and that of the fascia lata, and is smaller
than in the horse, while the gluteus internus is much larger.
The tensor fasciee latas and triceps abductor are firmly united
over the region of the trochanter major, the former muscle being
largely developed, while the latter has no femoral attachment.
The rectus parvus is absent. The biceps rotator tibialis has no
origin from the sacrum. There appears to be no proper pyri-
formis muscle, but there is a muscle similar to it outside the
pelvis. The tendon of the obturator internus passes through
the obturator foramen. The fibrous portion of the flexor meta-

I

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 49

tarsi and the extensor pedis of the horse have, in the case of the
ox, a common origin, giving rise to three large muscles, of which
the external one is the extensor communis digitorum, and the
internal the extensor proprius internus, the tendons of these two
terminating as in the fore limb. The third of these three
muscles is situated in front of and a little to the inner side of
the others. It is a flexor of the metatarsus, and represents the
fibrous portion of the flexor metatarsi in the horse, forming a
sheath or ring through which the tibialis anticus, a muscle repre-
senting the fleshy portion of the same, passes. The peroneus
is the extensor proprius externus, and it is attached distally, as
in the case of the fore limb. A muscle, the peroneus longus
lateralis, has no representative in the horse. It arises deeply
from the external part of the head of the tibia, and ends in a
long slender tendon, which winds obliquely over that of the
proprius externus at the tarsal joint, and after pursuing a
tortuous course round the outside of the joint, is inserted into
the small cuneiform and metatarsal bones. The gastrocnemius
internus of the ruminant is thicker in the fleshy portion than
that of the horse, and the flexor perforans is more clearly
divisible into two parts.*

SECTION III.— INTERNAL ANATOMY.

The Organs concerned in the Process of Digestion.

As our readers probably know quite well, the organs which
are concerned in the process of digestion in ruminants are of
a characteristic and very complex kind. For example, the
stomach is composed of no less than four compartments in most
ruminants, and each one of these has its own special functions.
We shall describe the stomach in detail later on ; but we may
say here that, having regard to the complexity of the digestive
canal, there is no reason for surprise in the fact that ruminants
are liable to become affected with certain -peculiar kinds of
diseases which are connected with the special features of their

* For the above brief account of Ligaments and Muscles we are, in some
degree, indebted to that valuable work, Strangeway's Veterinary Anatomy,
revised by Vaughan.

4

50 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

system of aiimentation and means whereby their food is converted
into material capable of being absorbed into the blood-stream.
Ruminants, as a matter of fact, do usually extract their nourish-
ment from food which is comparatively innutritions in nature.
Consequently they have to take rather large quantities of food,
and accordingly the digestive canal in this class of animals is
specially constructed so as to be capable of dealing with con-
siderable amounts of ingested substances. Indeed, it may seem
wonderful how the bulky bodies of herbivorous animals can be
maintained by the food supplied to them. On the other hand,
the carnivorous animals, such as the lion, tiger, cat, dog, and so
forth, have much less difficulty in converting the flesh which
they consume into the flesh and blood of their own bodies, and
hence their digestive canals are of a more simple kind.

It may be said that vegetable material requires a longer time
in order to be digested than do other substances. For instance,
in man vegetables are not fully digested in the stomach ; and in
the case of a person who had an artificial anus at the end of the
small intestine, vegetables were found even there to be only in-
completely digested. Hence in ruminants, herbivorous marsu-
pials, and herbivorous quadruraana we find a complex stomach,
a long small intestine, a large-sized caecum and a spirally-shaped
colon. Again, the dugong, the sloth, and the manatee have
stomach and intestines complex, though in diff'erent ways.
Again, the dormouse, wombat, and beaver have little or no
complexity, but have a gland at the side of the stomach.
Finally the perissodactyle ungulates have the stomach simple
but the colon and csecum sacculated. All these animals are
herbivorous, and we see that special arrangements are present
in order to facilitate the digestion of vegetable matters. In this
connection it is well to bear in mind also that vegetable material
does not putrefy so rapidly as fleshy substances do, and hence it
is not necessary that it should be so quickly got rid of.

Again, human beings are omnivorous. Our food consists of
both animal and vegetable material, and under the general circum-
stances of healthy nutrition it is most advisable that we should
take a mixed diet. Indeed, there can be no doubt that the
wisest and best plan is for us to live on fish, flesh, or fowl, as
well as vegetables ; and we may add that a fair amount of water
per diem is requisite, and that we ought to allow a sufficient

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 51

time for the process of digestion of eacli meal before we under-
take hard work of any kind, especially such as is of a mental
character. As an example of the kind of ailment which is
essentially characteristic of ruiTiinants, we may here mention a
disorder which is well known to all who have to do with cattle
and sheep under the name of hoven or tympanitis — a derange-
ment which we shall in due course consider, and one which,
as we shall soon see, is due to a distension of the rumen with
gas resulting from the fermentation of undigested food contained
therein. As another instance of a derangement peculiar to
ruminants, we may mention that food in the case of these animals
may be found to be impacted betwixt the folds of the omasum,
though we must not forget that, even under the ordinary cir-
cumstances of health, hard plates of more or less completely
digested material are found lying between the leaves of that
stomach.

As our readers know, that large class of herbivorous animals, to
which the name of ruminants has been given, are so designated
because it is their habit to hastily swallow a large mass of food
into the capacious paunch or rumen, and then to chew it
leisurely at a convenient subsequent time. These animals,
when in the wild state, have to rely upon their quickness of
sight, their acute powers of hearing, and their great agility in
evading their enemies. They congregate together in large num-
bers, and one or more of the herd may be observed to keep on
the watch, and also to make signals to their companions if any
danger is at hand. If so, these timid creatures seek safety in
flight, and escape by fleetness of limb. In the domesticated
state this power of speedy flight is not possessed ; but the special
features of the digestive system are far too definitely fixed to be
altered very appreciably, although the power of swift motion is
almost entirely lost.

As compared with animals such as the horse, cattle may be
said to be of rather a plethoric habit. Under suitable condi-
tions they rapidly become fat. Another point about ruminants
is that aperient medicines may be given wTth far greater freedom
to them than to certain other animals, as indeed they also may
be administered more freely to the pig and dog than to the horse.
Again, we find that the horse suffers frequently from flatulent
colic in the large intestines, owing to this portion of the alimentary

4 *

52 THE DISEASES AND DISOBDEES OF THE OX.

canal in the horse containing a considerable amount of food which
is liable to undergo fermentation. In the ox, on the other hand,
as also in the sheep, we often meet with distension of the first
stomach, or rumen, a condition known as " hoven," wliich like-
wise arises from the disengagement of gas. Whereas, then, in
the case of the horse it is in the large intestines that this
affection occurs, in the case of ruminating animals it is in the
rumen, or paunch. Again, whereas inflammation of the bowels
may not uncommonly bring about a fatal issue in the horse in
the course of a few hours, the same affection may be continued
for as long as a fortnight in the case of an ox before death
supervenes. Similarly, many other inflammatory affections kill
the horse within a few hours, whereas they may be protracted
for days or even weeks in oxen.

Again, ruminants are possessed of powerful tongues, by means
of which they can take into the mouth long and thick tufts of
grass. The tongue of the ox is rough, and studded with
papillae, which are directed backwards. The upper lip is short
and thick, and the incisor teeth, situated in the front of the
lower jaw, are used for cutting the food pressed against the pad.
The herbage is then slightly masticated by means of a few
strokes of the molar teeth, mixed with the saliva and other
secretions of the mouth, then swallowed and passed down the
oesophagus into the rumen, or paunch, in which stomach it is
tossed about a little and to some extent mixed with the fluid
secreted by the glands contained in the walls thereof. We
may here state that some of the water which is drunk passes
into the rumen. Some of the food is conveyed from the rumen
through the valvular opening into th? reticulum, in which
stomach it is mixed with mucous fluid. The finer part of the
pabulum is then passed to the third compartment, or manyplies,
while the larger portions of the food are at a convenient time
regurgitated into the mouth in order tiiat they may be masti-
cated over again at the animal's leisure. In the process of
chewing the cud the camel moves its jaws laterally from left to
right and from right to left, whereas the ox gives a rotatory
movement.

Kegurgitation is effected by means of the muscular contrac-
tion of the walls of the reticulum, the relaxation of the oesopha-
geal pillars, and the anti-peristaltic action of the oesophageal walls.

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 53

After having been chewed for the second time, the food is thea
again swallowed, and a portion of it now passes into the rumen,
the rest down the oesophageal canal to the manyplies. Here
the solid material is drawn between the leaves of that organ,
while the liquid portion flows on to the aboraasum. Then the
digestive material is at length passed into the intestinal canal.

We must bear in mind that rumination, or chewing the cud,
is entirely under the control of the will, and that it is a process
which may very easily be disturbed. Hence great care should
be taken not to interfere with an ox or a sheep when reclining
and engaged in calmly chewing the cud.

In the winter time some owners of stock have their beasts
inspected at about half-past 8 o'clock, and they are often made
to stand up in order that it may be seen if they stretch them-
selves or not, the fact of them stretching themselves being con-
sidered sufficient evidence that they are well. However, it is
important to remember that one of the best signs of health is
the chewing of the cud.

The processes of digestion comprise all those changes whereby
the nutriment is extracted from the food and rendered capable
of absorption. The food, while it remains in the stomach, is
subjected to slow movement as a result of the muscular motion
of that organ. As it is gradually rolled about, the mass of
food is rendered partly soluble by slow degrees at its surface.
During the process of digestion the mucous surface of the
stomach is more freely supplied with blood and changed from
its usual pale hue to a bright red colour. The food is trans-
formed into chyme in the stomach, and this semi-fluid material
accumulates at the pyloric orifice. This, then, opens and allows
the chyme to escape into the small intestines into which the
bile also flows. Here it undergoes further change, and the
soluble ingredients are absorbed by the blood-vessels and
lacteals in the walls of the intestinal canal.

The lips of the ox are thick and rigid, and only slightly
mobile and prehensile. A large portionj)f the outer and front
part of the upper lip, including the part between the nasal
openings, is devoid of hair, and it constitutes the muzzle. It
varies in colour, but in healthy animals it is always moist. It
is covered with papillae and with the orifices of the ducts of
the subcutaneous glands which moisten it by means of their

54 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

secretiou. The lips of the smaller ruminants are thin and very
mobile and prehensile. The upper lip is divided in front by a
median fissure.

The cheeks of ruminants are provided, on their inner
surface between the angle of the lip and the first molar
tooth with numerous large long conical papillae which point
backwards. The roof also of the mouth is covered with
rough and strongly reverted papillae. Posteriorly a row
of these papillae runs along the level of the upper molars.
Small rouud papillae are also present. The hard palate is
large, its posterior third being smooth. The anterior two-
thirds are covered with straight transverse bars, which are
denticulated, the free edges of the bars projecting backwards.

The ox is provided with a hardened pad, which takes the
place of the upper incisors. Behind this pad of cartilage by
which the upper incisors are replaced, there is, in the middle
line, a mark, which resembles the letter T, with the normal
directed backwards, and at each extremity of the transverse line
is the oral opening of Jacobson's canal. The soft palate is
not so large and pendulous as that of the horse. The isthmus
faucium is always open, thus permitting the animal to breathe
through the mouth, and allowing the upward passage of food.
The tonsils probably are represented in ruminants. The tongue
of the ox is much modified and raised up. Its muscles are well
developed ; it is prehensile, and it has great latitude of
movement. Moreover, it is much rougher, shorter and thicker
than is the tongue of the horse, and it is pointed at the tij).
Again, the papillae are better developed, and the filiform
papillae are very large and numerous near the apex. The
papillae circumvallatae are arranged in two rows, one on each
side of the base, and there are about ten of them on either
side. Between the lower border of the tongue and the sides of
the lower dental arch there is a row of conical papillae, similar
to those on the cheek. The] tongue of the smaller ruminants is
very delicate. The parotid gland is small and red, the duct
follows a similar course to that of the horse, but enters the
mouth much more posteriorly. In small ruminants it crosses
the masseter muscle externally. The submaxillary gland is
very large and of a yellow colour. The duct of Wharton opens
close to the incisors, the papilla^ surrounding the openings being

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 55

lodged in an elliptical fossa. The sublingual gland is divided
into two parts, the posterior of which opens by a single duct
(the duct of Bartholini) close behind the opening of Wharton's
duct, and the anterior by a row of ducts as in the case of the
horse.

With the exception of the camel and the llama, which are not
as a rule domesticted in Europe, the ruminant is possessed of
neither incisor nor canine teeth in the upper jaw. The former
are, as was said above, replaced by a thick cartilaginous pad which
is covered by the mucous membrane of the hard palate. In
the lower jaw there are six incisor teeth and two canines, the
latter closely resembling the incisors in shape and being situated
immediately behind and outside them. Some speak of the in-
cisors as eight in number, i.e. they look upon the canines as
incisors. These teeth are chisel-shaped, rather like the human
incisors, but they have a curved contour, being convex in front
and concave behind. The whole of the crown is covered with
enamel, the neck is small and constricted, and the teeth are
arranged in the jaw in an almost horizontal position, forming a
radiating or fan- like series. They are not firmly fixed in the
alveoli, but have a certain degree of mobility, thus preventing
injury to the cartilaginous pad above. The molars have com-
pound tables like those of the horse, but the teeth are much
smaller and cuboid in shape.

The dental formula of most ruminants is :—

Lpper law > . . 0

T ' • r incisors ,

Lower jaw ) 3 '

canines

0
1 '

premolars

3

molars

3
3 '

= 32.

That of a camel is ;

: —

I-PP^'-J^^ I incisors ^,
Lower jaw ) 3 '

canines

1

premolars

3

2 '

molars

3
"3"'

= 34.

The pharynx is large, but the muscles composing it are not
very distinctly separable. The oesophagus is well developed,
and its muscular walls are red throughout. It expands at its
junction with the stomach, so that its termination is funnel-
shaped. The muscular fibres are capable' of peristaltic and of
anti-peristaltic contraction, and so induce both a downward
and an upward motion of the contents of the tube.

The muscular wall of the oesophagus is strong, and inasmuch
as, preparatory to the re-mastication of the food, the bolus is

66

THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

projected with great force it would probably fly out of the
mouth if the above-mentioned papillae were not present. In
the camel these papillae are situated on the tongue and on the
palate. In the general way in camels there are two ridges
from the anterior nares whereby moisture is carried from the

Thk Tkktii <»i- the Ox.

1. Upper Jaw, with a the friction surface, 6 the external surface. '2. Lower Jaw
with a the dental tables, and /* the external face.

nose to the mouth. This is an example of adaptation. The
camel has also a flap hanging from the palate which aids in
retaining the moisture in tlie mouth. In the case of the male
camel, during the rutting season, this flap can be blown out.

The giraffe differs from other ruminants in that it is provided
with a long tapering muzzle. The girallb also has a very long

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 57

tongue, the muscles of which are very large but have the same
arrangement as is usual. In the giraffe the ninth pair of cerebral
nerves (the hypoglossal) is very large, and these nerves are also
wavy, thus enabling the tongue to be extended without straining
them.

In all ruminants the parotid gland is large, and as a group
the salivary glands are relatively larger than in the case of the
horse. In the oesophagus there are two layers of muscle, the
one layer in these animals running spirally in one direction
and the other in the contrary way. Moreover, in correspon-
dence with their specially marked muscular powers, the fibres
of these muscles of the oesophagus are striated, although they
are for the most part unstriated in other animals. The oesopha-
gus of the giraffe is, as must needs be the case, of great length.

The ruminants (ox, sheep, deer, camels, and giraffes or camelo-
pards),in correspondence with their requirements, possess, as we
have said above, stomachs of considerable size and great com-
plexity. BovidsB especially have a complex stomach divided into
four compartments, whereas in the case of many ruminants there
are only three divisions of this organ. The average collective
capacity of the four compartments in an ox is not less than 55
gallons, and thus the greater part of the abdominal cavity is
taken up by them. The stomach of a ruminant is a very com-
plex organ, and consists of four separate compartments which
differ greatly in size, in form, and in the disposition of their
mucous coats. The first of the four compartments is the rumen
or paunch, the second is the reticulum or honeycomb, the third
is the omasum, psalterium, or manyplies, the fourth is the
abomasum or rennet, or true digestive stomach. The four
cavities form a short continuous chain.

In Moschus (the musk-deer) there are three divisions only,
namely, paunch, reticulum, and abomasum, there being no true
psalterium. The rumen has a conical process below in the sheep
and musk-deer. The relicula are very shallow in the musk-deer
{Moschus). Moreover, the opening which leads from the rumen
to the reticulum is very large in these animals. Hence in them
the stomach as a whole is not so complex as it is in most rumi-
nants.

The first three compartments have but little to do with the
essential process of digestion, being concerned chiefly in macerat-

58

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

ing and preparing the food, and being similar in point of func-
tion to the cuticular portion of the stomach of the horse. In
the adult ox the rumen, into which the gullet opens, is very
large, much the largest compartment of the four, and it occupies
about three- fourths of the abdomen. It constitutes about nine-
tenths of the whole mass, and into its cavity is received the
hastily swallowed and imperfectly masticated food. The rumen is
situated on the left side of the animal's body, and to its left side

Fig. 4. — Stomach of tuk Ox skkx ox its uiuht ltikk fack. the

AliOMA.'^IM BKING DKPKE8SKI).

A. Rumen, left hemisphere, n. Rumen, right hemisphere, c. Teniiination of
the oesophagus, d. Reticulum, e. Omasum, k. Abomasum.

the spleen is attached. It inclines obliquely downwards from
left to right, and is elongated from before backwards. In front
of the rumen lies the reticulum, while, the omasum and the
abomasum are situated on the right.

When it is filled with food, the rumen may be seen above the
level of the animal's spine. The rumen has three tunics, an
outer or serous coat, a muscular coat, and most internally a
mucous coat, in which the glands are imbedded. The internal
surface of the rumen is rough, and covered with hard epithelium,

THE ANATOMY Oi' THE OX.

59

the mucous coat being covered by numerous little papillary pro-
longations, some of which are conical, others foliaceous, while
others are fungiform.

Fig. 5. — Right View of the Stomach of the Ox.

«. Gullet.
b. Paunch.

c. Houej'comb.

d. Manvfold.

e. Rennet, or Reed.

f. Small Intestine.

(Simouds.)

Fig. 6. — Left View of the Stomach of the Ox.

The Manyfold is not seen in the picture.

(Sipionds.)
The letters are explained above.

In the case of the young animal while it lives upon milk, this
stomach is of no use. Indeed the milk passes directly from the
oesophagus into the psalterium and then into the aboraasum.

60 THE DISEASES AND DISOftOEES OF THE OX.

The paunch is the largest of the four compartments in adult
life. It has a thick muscular coat.

The surface of the rumen is divided into two hemispheres by
slight grooves ■which deepen towards the extremities. The sides
are smooth, thick, and rounded. The extremities are divided by
a deep fissure into two lobes. The two fissures mentioned divide
the rumen into a right and left sac. Of these the right sac is the
shorter and it is covered in the greater part of its extent by the
peritoneal omentum. The left is curved on the right at both
extremities, and above it receives the insertion of the cesophagus.
Anteriorly it is also continuous with the second compartment.
The anterior extremity has the second and third compartments
in front of it. and it lies near the diaphragm. The posterior ex-
tremity is contained in the brim of the pelvic cavity, where it
comes into proximity with the glinto-urinary organs. The
superior surface comes into relation with the intestines. The
inferior surface rests upon the floor of the abdominal cavity.
The left side has the spleen attached to it, and it is in contact
with, and attached by cellular tissue to, the wall of the lumbar
region of the abdomen. The right side is in relation with the
fourth compartment in the right hypochondriac and lumbar
regions, and it is embraced by coils of the intestines.

On its internal surface the rumen is incompletely divided into
four sacs by fleshy pillars. The chief of these are the an-
terior and posterior, and they correspond to the two fissures.
Processes from these run from side to side and correspoud
to constrictions on the outer surface. Hence, in front, the
right and left sacs are formed, and the right and left
conical sacs behind. The walls of the rumen, like those of the
other compartments, consist of three coats, an external serous
one, a continuation of the peritoneum which envelopes the
entire organ, with the exception of the place where it comes
into contact with the lumbar region. The middle coat is thick
and composed of muscle, and it is an extension from the oeso-
phageal fibres. The internal mucous coat is cuticular, papillated,
and covered with thick epithelium. These papilhe are leaf-like,
conical, or fungiform, but those which are leaf-like are by far
the most numerous. The opening of the oesophagus into the
rumen and that of tiie rumen into the reticulum are both
situated at the anterior extremity of the left sac. The superior

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX.

61

or oesophageal opening is prolonged over the small curvature
of the second compartment by the medium of the oesophageal
canal. The inferior opening is large and it communicates with
the reticulum. Laterally and inferiorly it is circumscribed by the
free border of a kind of valve which Is formed by the walls of
the rumen together with cells of the second compartment.

This second stomach, or reticulum, or honeycomb, is the

Fig. 7.

A. The Stomach of a Sheep. B. The Stomach of a Musk Deer. CE. Gullet ;
Rn., Paunch: Ret., Honeycomb; Ps., Psalterium ; A., Ab., Abomasum ; Dn.,
Small Intestine ; Py., Pylorus. (After Huxley.)

smallest compartment of the four into which the complex
stomach of the ox is divided.

This stomach varies greatly. In the case of the reindeer and
the giraflfe there is but very little reticulatioin The reindeer
indeed needs little or no actual water, since the food it lives upon
contains much congealed water. The giraffe, too, eats moist
leaves. During lactation the second stomach is small. It is
slightly bent upon itself, elongated from side to side, and placed

62

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

transversely between the posterior surface of the diaphragm and
the anterior extremity of the left sac of the rumen. It derives
its name Reticulum from the net-like {retis, a net) character of
its internal coat, and it is situated under the termination of the
gullet. It is about one-sixth part of the size of the paunch, to
which it is attached in front. The interior of this second stomach
communicates with the left sac of the paunch ; and it commu-
nicates with the manyfold (as shown in the illustration) by an
opening eight or ten times smaller than the opening into the
paunch. It is found that the foreign bodies so frequently
swallowed by ruminants are usually lodged in the honeycomb.

Fig. 8. — The Patjxch and Honeycumb of the Ox, Laid Open, by
Removing the Left Side.
a. The Gullet ; b. The Honeycomb ; c. The anterior pouch of the Rumen ;
d. The Middle ; e. The Postero-Superior ; /. The Postero-Inferior Com-
partment ; (f and h. The Pillars of the Oesophageal Canal ; i. The Entrance
into the ^Manyfold. (Simonds.)

The opening into the manyfold is connected by a groove or
kind of gutter, which appears to continue the gullet into the
interior of the stomach.

The anterior surface of the reticulum adheres to the centre of
the diaphragm by means of cellular tissue, and its posterior
surface is united to the anterior extremity of the rumen. The
inferior convex curvature is situated in the epigastric region,
while the superior curvature which is concave comes partly into
relation with the small curvature of the psalterium. The left
extremity of the reticulum is separated from the rumen by a
fissure, in which runs the inferior artery of the reticulum. The

I

THE ANATO^ry OF THE OX. 63

right extremity forms a round cul-de-sac, and it comes into
relation with the base of the fourth compartment. As regards
the interior, it is to be remarked that the internal surface of the
reticulum is divided into polyhedral cells by means of folds of
the mucous membrane, thus presenting the appearance of a
honeycomb. These folds have papillae upon them, and their
edges are serrated. These cells are further divided by secondary
partitions. Mucous follicles open on the internal surface. The
reticulum opens into tlie left sac of the rumen, and it also com-
municates with the oesophagus, and also with the psalterium.

The communication with the oesophagus on the one side and
with the psalterium on the other is eflFected by the medium of
the oesophageal canal, a sort of continuation of the oesophagus,
which begins at the cardiac orifice, passes along the roof of the
reticulum, and enters the third compartment by a circular
opening. The sides of this canal consist of two movable lips,
the oesophageal pillars. They are continuous with the muscular
wall of the oesophagus and are attached by one border to the
superior wall of the reticulum, the other border being free.
As they approach the opening into the third compartment, they
gradually become thicker and project more markedly. At the
other extremity, where the canal enters the rumen, there is a kind
of valve which is formed by the attachment of the pillars to its
walls. The mucous membrane lining the free surface of this canal
is wrinkled ; but that which forms its internal surface is white and
folded longitudinally and resembles that of the oesophagus. Some
conical papillae are situated at its opening into the psalterium.
The canal is controlled by the action of transverse and longi-
tudinal muscular fibres. For example, we may point out that
the longitudinal fibres, by drawing the tips of the pillars together,
complete the formation of a channel leading from the oesophagus
into the manyplies, thereby quite closing up the openings into
the rumen and the reticulum. The third compartment is called
the omasum, or psalterium, or manyplies. It is situated at the
fore part of the right sac of the rumen. It is intermediate in
point of size between the reticulum and the ab^masum.

The food, after it has been remasticated, enters the third
stomach. The leaves present herein absorb the excess of
alkaline saliva, and so render the food drier for the abomasum.
The leaves are covered with villi. A hard and thick epithelium

64

THE DISEASES AXD DISOBDERS OF THE OX.

covers the leaves, and in fact all the first three stomachs are
covered with hard epithelium. In the sheep and goat this com-
partment is smaller than the reticulum.

When the third compartment is full, it has an ovoid shape and is
slightly curved and depressed from above downwards. Its anterior
surface is attached to the diaphragm by means of cellular tissue,
and the posterior surface is in relation with the rumen. The

Fig. 9.

a. The Manyfold cut open; h. The opening communicating with the Honej'-
comb ; c. The Abomasum, Rennet, or Reed, or true stomach ; d. The Villous
Membrane of the latter. (Simonds.)

greater or convex curvature is turned upwards, and it is attached
by means of a fold of peritoneum to the posterior fissure of the
liver. This fold of peritoneum is continued on to the lesser
curvature of the fourth compartment, and thence to the duodenum.
The lesser curvature has a downward direction and it comes into
relation with the second stomach. The left extremity is thin and
forms the neck which communicates with the reticulum. The
right end is continuous with the base of the fourth compartment

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 65

from which it is separated by a slight constriction. The cavity
of the omasum opens on the one side into the second, and on
the other side into the fourth, compartment. In the interior are
numerous leaves or folds of the mucous membrane. They are
really lengthened elevations of the mucous membrane, each
being formed of two layers of membrane lying against and rather
close to each other. They are arranged transversely, and
follow the long axis of the organ. They vary from 100 to
130 in number. They are not equal in size. By one border
they are attached to the great curvature of the cavity. The
other border is concave and free, and it is turned towards the
lesser curvature. These folds resemble the leaves of a book,
and they are provided with small hooks for catching the
food which has escaped mastication. As we have said above,
the cavity is ovoid in shape, and hence the central leaves are the
longest and largest. Between each pair of large leaves inter-
mediate and small leaves are placed, but these extend only a
little distance. The leaves are formed of an inner framework of
muscular fibres. This is covered on both sides with mucous
membrane which is elevated to form papillae. Some of these
papillae are large and bent, and retain portions of food which
need to be more strongly triturated, while other papillae are
small. The fluid and finer particles of food pass on into the
abomasum. At the entrance of the cBsophageal canal the papillae
are large and hooked. The use of these papillae may be to
retain the alimentary material in the cavity, and for this purpose
also the omasum has a small valve at the orifice which leads to
the abomasum, or fourth stomach, which we now proceed to
describe briefly.

The abomasum or rennet or reed is the true digestive stomach.
In regard to capacity, the abomasum comes next in size after
the rumen. It is situated behind and on the right side of the
manyfold, and is especially large in the young animal. When
removed and dried, the stomach in the calf is termed the rennet.
It is used to coagulate milk in making cheese, for it contains
the gastric glands, i.e. the glands which secrete the gastric juice,
and this fluid acts on the caseine of milk and coagulates it.
The mucous membrane lining this stomach is villous, velvety,
soft, vascular, and of a reddish hue. The velvety or villous
nature of the lining is caused by numerous tiny irregular pro-

5

66 THE DISEASES AXD DISORDERS OF THE OX.

jections arranged in longitudinal folds or ridges which disappear
at the pyloric orifice, the entrance into the intestinal canal.
Along these longitudinal folds the true digestive glands are
arranged. They are embedded in the mucous membrane, and
the function which they discharge is the secretion of the gastric
juice. The abomasum is curved upon itself, and elongated
from before backwards. It is continuous with the psalterium on
the one side and opens into the duodenum on the other. This
stomach, the abomasum, as we have said above, is alone to be
regarded as the truly digestive stomach. The first three com-
partments are to be looked upon in great measure as being
specialised dilatations of the oesophagus. The abomasum, on
the other hand, is provided with peptic glands, and the secretion
which it pours out has an acid reaction. The hard epithelium
above-mentioned is not continued beyond the third stomach.
The muscular coat of the abomasum is well developed, as also is
that of the rumen.

The right side of the abomasum is situated in the epigastric
region, and it comes into relation with the diaphragm, while its
left side is in contiguity with the rumen. The greater curvature
is turned backwards, and from it the great omentum hangs.
The lesser curvature is directed upwards, and it is made fast by
means of serous membrane to the greater curvature of the
manyplies. The base of the abomasum is in contact with the
cul-de-sac of the second compartment, and it is separated from
the manyplies by a constriction. The opening into the duode-
num is directed upwai'ds and backwards, and it is called the
pylorus, and around it the muscle forms a thick sphincter, by
means of which the orifice can be closed or opened as occasion
may require. The interior of this stomacli resembles the villous
portion of the stomach of a horse, and the mucous membrane
is elevated in the form of oblique folds which extend in a spiral
direction from end to end. The serous coat is a continuation
of the great omentum. The muscular coat is similar to that of
the horse's stomach, and the mucous coat containing the glands
and follicles which secrete the gastric juice is covered by
a thin layer of epithelium. Regarding the functions of each of
the four stomachs, tiie rumen is the sac where the aliment in-
gested during feeding time is collected, and then, more or less
softened, transferred to the mouth during rumination. The

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 67

honeycomb is especially to be regarded as a reservoir for liquids,
the solid substances contained in it being always diluted by a
large quantity of water. The oesophageal groove or gutter
conveys into the manyfold the remasticated food swallowed a
second time, or even in small amount that which the ox ingests
for the first time (Chauveau). The manyfold completes the
trituration of the food by compressing it between its folds.
The abomasum is the true stomach in which gastric digestion is
performed.

The stomach as above described may be said to be that of a
typical ruminant, as it exists in the cavicornia, and in most
deer.

The Camel's Stomach. — There are no villi in the rumen of
the camel ; the mucous membrane of that compartment being
smooth. The rumen is, however, in this animal provided with
large and deep cells, in which water is retained. The reticulum
also has cells, as is usual, and it is very large, and appears to
be the chief receptacle for pure water. It is to be borne in
mind that food never passes from the rumen into the reticulum ;
but water can pass from the reticulum into the rumen. In fact,
food may go from the (Esophagus into the first, or the second, or
the third stomach. It passes as a rule into the second, and
only unusually into the first or the third compartment. After
it has been re-masticated, it habitually goes into the psalterium.
In the case of the camel, however, the psalterium is only very
slightly developed, and is not provided with leaves. In the
camel the abomasum is divided into two parts, a cardiac and
a pyloric part.

In one group of the deer tribe, the Tragulidae, the psalterium
is represented merely by a short tube joining the reticulum and
abomasum. In these animals, also, the oesophagus marks the
line of demarcation betwixt the rumen and the reticulum.

The Intestinal Canal. — In regard to the small intestine of
the ox, it may be said that it does not differ very markedly
from that of the horse. It is smaller in calibre, but, as a rule,
of double the length. The duodenum is expanded. The small
intestine as a whole is very long, and there are many series of
convolutions. Peyer's patches are larger than in the horse, but
they are not so numerous.

The cEecum is not provided with longitudinal bunds, and it is

5 *

68 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

devoid of transverse furrows at its extremity. It is simple, and
oblong in shape, and there is a large patch of follicles in the
recess of the caecum. Its blind ending is blunt, rounded and
directed backwards, and it lies freely in the abdominal cavity.
The other extremity, having received the insertion of the ileum,
is continuous with the colon, which is likewise destitute of bands
and furrows. The colon soon becomes much narrower, and then,
preserving about the same diameter for the rest of its extent, it
is arranged in an irregularly elliptic coil situated between the
folds of the mesentery. It is twisted spirally, and finally crosses
over the duodenum. Thus we see there is no such distinct
demarcation betwixt the great and floating colon as there is in
the case of the horse.

Coming now to the large intestine, we find that its total length
in the case of the ox, beginning from the caecum and ending at
the rectum, is about 36 feet; but its capacity is considerably less
than that of the horse.

The Liver of the ox is very thick, and is situated in the right
hypochondriac region. It has two large lobes, right and left,
together with a small spigelian lobe and a small quadrate lobe
situated supero-posteriorly. It is provided with a pt.'ar-shaped
gall-bladder attached above, and lying upon its posterior surface.
The gall-bladder has three coats — serous, muscular, and mucous
— and it is continuous with the biliary ducts. The cystic duct
extends from the gall-bladder almost to the transverse fissure,
where it joins the hepatic duct. In the ox this latter duct
enters the duodenum singly in advance of the pancreatic duct,
being guarded at its orifice by a valve-like doubling of the
mucous membrane. In the smaller ruminants there is a ductus
communis choledochus.

The liver of the giraflFe, like that of the camel, is small, flat,
and light, and it weighs about 6 lbs. The spigelian lobe is
small. In all ruminants the liver is confined to the right hypo-
chondrium and the middle epigastric region, and in these animals
it presents a slight split in the middle. In the whale, in which
animal the body is in a large degree inflexible, the liver is, as is
naturally to be expected, undivided. In human beings, likewise,
the liver is slightly divided, for in them also, as compared with
animals, there is but little movement of one part of the body upon
another. On the other hand, the liver of the cat is very much

THE ANATOMY OP THE OX. 69

divided; but in ruminants this is by no means so markedly the
case. In this connection it may be suggested that in car-
nivorous animals the liver has a great deal more work to do
than it has in those which are herbivorous, and also that the
ingestion of too large an amount of meat has a bad effect upon
human beings, partly on account of the extra work which is
thereby thrown upon the liver. With regard to the gall-bladder,
it is to be remarked that the camel, the giraffe, the cervidee, in
common with the perissodactyle uugulata, have none, whereas all
the cavicornia, together with the musk deer and tragulus, possess
one.

Pancreas. — In all birds the pancreas is contained in a loop
of the duodenum. The pancreas of a mammal is firm and lies
transversely in the abdomen. Moreover, in birds the pancreas
is redder than in mammals, and it is much less divided. In the
ox the pancreatic duct enters the duodenum separately.

Spleen. — The spleen has the serous coat less firmly attached
than is usual in mammals. It is uniform in thickness through-
out its extent, save for its two rounded extremities. This organ
adheres to the left side of the paunch and the diaphragm ; but it
is not supported by the great omentum.

The Lymphatics. — In the large ruminants the thoracic duct
is very complex, very variable, and sometimes double throughout
its extent. Some complexity is generally to be found near its
anterior termination. It is more deeply seated than is the cor-
responding structure in the horse; and it lies between the right
upper part of the aorta and the vertebral column, buried in fat.
It passes through the diaphragm by itself, and not through the
aortic aperture.

In the thorax the lymphatic trunk bifurcates, and the two
trunks perforate the diaphragm. In the case of the ox it forms a
large plexus. No movements, such as those of the lymph-
hearts of frogs, are manifested ; but there is contractile power at
certain parts. The mesenteric glands are very numerous.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSfEM.

The nostrils of the ox are narrow, and, as compared with those
of the horse, they are only capable of a slight degree of dilatation.
There is an additional third turbinal bone. The frontal sinuses
in the ox are continuous with the cavities in the horn cores,

70 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

and with those present in most of the bones of the cranium.
The nasal chambers communicate at the posterior nares below
the lower border of the vomer. Each contains a structure
entitled the canal of Jacobson, which communicates with the
mouth. These canals begin in the floor of the nasal chamber,
one at either side of the septum. They run forwards, and
come to an end behind the pad forming the front of the palate.
These canals contain a number of mucous follicles.

The larynx is simple, the lateral ventricles and true vocal
chords being only slightly developed.

The ox has the lower vocal chord more markedly developed
than the upper, and bellowing is due to the length of the lower
vocal chord. The girafl'e has voice only during that season.

The trachea varies in length in different ruminants. For
example, in the tragulus there are 50, and in the giraffe 100,
tracheal rings. These rings are never perfect as they are in
birds. A third bronchus is present. It passes to the right lung
to supply a separate lobe which is not met with in the horse.

The thorax has a relatively small capacity in ruminants. In
regard to the pleurse it is to be remarked that the posterior
mediastinum is strong and not perforated. It completely
separates one pleural sac from the other. This arrangement
occurs in all domesticated mammals with the exception of the
solipedes. The left lung is divided into two lobes, the right into
four, and the anterior lobe curves over and nearly covers the
front of the heart. In the camel the left lung is only rarely
divided.

The interlobular tissue is thick in ruminants, and hence the
separation between the lobules is distinct. The knowledge of
this arrangement renders intelligible the distribution of pneu-
monic lesions in the larger ruminants.

THE URINARY SYSTEM.
In some animals the kidney almost resembles a bunch of
grapes, each lobule (grape) being provided with its own blood-
vessels and excretory duct. This subdivision occurs in all
animals in early foetal life ; but in most kinds of animals the
outer parts of the lobules coalesce, and the organ becomes a
single mass. The kidney of the ox is intermediate in form, the
inner substance of the organ being united, while the outer sub-

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX.

71

stance is divided into lobes. The pelvis is the name given to
the principal cavity, and there is a diverticulum or calyx for each

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 10. — Right Kidney viewed on its Upper and External Face.
Fig. 11. — Left Kidney from its Internal and Inferior Face. — a. Pelvis;
6. b. b. Branches of the Pelvis terminating in Calices ; c. Ureter; d. Renal

FigV 12.— The Calices in the Left Kidney.— The Contents of the Hilus,
mcluding the Branches of the Pelvis, have been removed to show the Tubercles
at the bottom of these Calices. Only seven are visiblerthe others being beneath
the borders of the Renal Fissure.

lobule, the uriniferous tubes of each calyx opening on a papilla.
The kidney is ovoid and elongated. The smaller ruminants have
a simple kidney, which is more like that of the horse than is that

72 THE DISEASES AXD DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

of the larger ruminants. Tragulus and small ruminants have
simple kidneys, there being no cones at all. In the camel and
other large ruminants the cones are independent towards the
cortex, and unite towards the centre and open on a ridge. In
the bovidse the cones are distinct throughout, and there is one
separate papilla for each cone.

The bladder of the ox is larger than that of the horse, and
its peritoneal covering extends further backwards.

GENERATIVE SYSTEM.
Male Organs. — Now, as regards the male organs of repro-
duction, all ruminants have the scrotum developed. Thej^ have
no OS penis as the carnivorous animals have. The prostatic
glands are large in the case of the ox, and frequently special
glands in connection with the reproductive system are developed
in ruminants. For instance, the musk gland is a preputial
gland. The testicle is ovoid and well developed, its long
axis being nearly vertical. The mediastinum is very strong.
The epididymis has a well-marked globus major. The globus
minor gives off inferiorly a free projection, which doubles upon
itself and leads to the vas deferens. The bulbous portion of the
vas deferens joins its fellow at the neck of the bladder, forming
thereby the common deferent canal, which opens by two orifices
into the urethra. The vesiculse seminales are large, lobulated,
yellow in colour, and glandular in structure. They have been
called the lateral prostates. They discharge their secretion into
the common. deferent canal. The urethra gradually diminishes in
calibre from its origin. Just before the pubis it describes a
double curve on itself like the letter S. The prostate gland is
small, but it extends posteriorly under Wilson's muscle. Cowper*s
glands are present, according to Leyh, although they are very
small. The penis of a ruminant is long and thin, and extends a
long way under the abdomen. It is bent upon itself in the form
of the letter S, a little in front of the bulb, the inferior curvature
being forwards, and the superior backwards. About this level the
suspensory ligaments join the penis, and extend to its extremity.
The glans is small and attenuated, the canal of the urethra
ending in front in a narrow whip-like process of the corpus
spongiosum, which is covered by a rosy, papillated, and sensitive
integument. The sheath extends much farther forwards than in

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 73

the horse, and it presents at its opening a number of long stifif
hairs, the prepuce being prolonged as an elastic sheath. It is
furnished witli four thin muscles, two anterior and two posterior.
The anterior are protractors, and restore the prepuce to its
normal position. The posterior are retractors, and draw the
sheath backwards during the erection of the penis. During
erection the curves in the penis are not shown, but when it is
quiescent and drawn into the sheath by the retractor muscles,
the curvatures are re-formed. The urethra is the mucous canal
inside the corpus spongiosum.

Female Organs. — The ovaries are rather small. The cornua
of the uterus are slightly twisted, and the ligaments are large.
The fundus is short and narrow. The mucous membrane of
the uterus presents a number of rounded vascular processes,
which exhibit eminences and depressions. These processes
are the maternal cotyledons. During gestation there may be
seen in each of the lateral walls of the vagina a mucous canal
which opens into the vulva on either side of the meatus urinarius.
These are the canals of Gartner. They are not present in the
smaller ruminants.

The labia of the vulva are thick, and its inferior commissure
is narrow and furnished with a few hairs. Inside the vulva are
the vulvo-vaginal glands, and there is a small blind cavity, or
diverticulum in the wall of the urethra, covered by a fold of
mucous membrane.

The udder is composed of two symmetrical halves mesially
connected together. Each half is again divided into two
distinct glands, each provided with its own teat, and hence
the udder is composed of four separate mammae. Behind these
four teats there may be two small rudimentary teats. In the
centre of each quarter, just at the base of the teat, is a large
galactopherous sinus, the general receptacle of the milk. From
this sinus, which is sometimes large enough to contain a quart,
one excretory canal proceeds down the centre of the teat.

With regard to the uterus, the horns are very long and
large, and it may be remarked that length of the cornua indi-
cates lowness of development. In its original condition the
uterus was doubtless bifid. The cornua are larger in the goat
and sheep than in bovidse and cervidse. The chorion usually
has villi, and the cotyledons are simply patches of villi. Some

74 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

ungulates have diffuse and some have cotyledonous placenta.
The giraffe has a transitional form of placenta, namely — patches
with occasionally a few villi. Hence in the tragulus and camel
the placentation is diffuse, in the giraffe it is of an intermediate
kind, and in other ruminants it is cotyledonous. In having a
diffuse placentation the tragulus and the camel are like the mare
and the sow. All ruminants are non-deciduate, and in this
point they agree with all cetacea.

Embryology. — Ox. — At twenty-eight days the embryo has a
length of \ inch, and corresponds in its development to the
sheep's embryo of twenty-five days.

Sheep. — The embryo of the sheep at eighteen days has a
length of i inch. At twenty-three days signs of the feet appear.
After twenty-five days it has a length of | inch, and indications
of the eyes, ears, and tail are present. The intestine exists as a
tube connected with the umbilical vesicle. The Wolffian body
is well developed.

I'he giraffe is the only animal which is born with horns. The
embryonic period of the giraffe is 444 days. That of the sheep
is only nine months.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

The blood-corpuscles of ruminants differ from those of other
animals in being rather small. In camels the corpuscles are
elliptic, and some are round. In the llama the round cells are
more numerous, but not so numerous as the elliptic cells. In
the giraffe they are about ^5^,, inch in diameter, in tragulus
"oirnr ii^ch, and in man about -^^-^ inch. The heart is conical
in ruminants. There are bony developments in the heart of
the ox, in that of the red deer, and that of the giraffe, at the
point of union of each auricle with the corresponding ventricle.
They constitute the most prominent chnrncteristic feature of
the heart in ruminants. They appear in adult life, are two in
number, and lie between the auriculo-ventricular rings and the
common aorta on the left and the pulmonary artery on the right
side. The mitral valves are not so separate as the tricuspid.

The moderator band, a muscular development, occurs in the
right ventricle in ruminants as well as in some other animals, e.(/.
the ostrich. There are retia rairabilia in tiie cranium, and large
sinuses run round the base of the sella turcica. Creatures like

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX.

75

the ox have these plexuses most largely developed. In the
giraffe there is scarcely a trace of the plexus, and in this con-
nection it should be said that this animal eats with its head

Fig. 13. — The Heart and Principal Vessels, Left Face.

a. Right ventricle ; h. Left ventricle ; c. Right auricle ; d. Left auricle ; e.
Pulmonary artery ; e '. Obliterated arterial canal ; f. Pulmonary veins ; g.
Anterior aorta ; h. Left axillary artery ; i. Right axillary artery, or brachio-
cephalic trunk ; j. Origin of the dorsal artery ; k. Origin of the superior
cervical artery ; /. Origin of the vertebral artery ; m. Origin of the inferior
cervical artery ; n. Origin of the internal thoracic artery ; o. Origin of the
external thoracic artery ; p. Carotid arteries ; q. Posterior aorta ; r. Anterior
vena cava ; s. Trunk of the axillary vein ; t. Trunk of the internal thoracic
vein ; u. Trunk of the dorso-cervical vein ; v. Posterior vena cava ; v '. Em-
bouchure of the hepatic and diaphragmatic veins ; x. Vena azygos ; y. Thoracic
duct ; z. Embouchure of that vessel, placed near the origin of the anterior vena
cava. 1. Right cardiac artery ; 2. Left cardiac artery ; 3. Auriculo-ventricular
branch of the left cardiac artery ; 4. Its ventricular branch ; 5. Cardiac vein.

high up in the air, whereas most ruminants graze with their
heads near the ground. There is no definite bifurcation of the
carotid arteries in ruminants.

There is a third longitudinal furrow jrunning down the wall

76 THE DISEASES AXD DISORDERS OF THE OX.

of the left ventricle posteriorly. There are usually nine aortic
intercostals, and three anterior ones, i.e. twelve in all. The
cseliac axis reaches the rumen just behind the oesophagus. On
the left the artery of the reticulum is given off. It passes to the
left of the oesophagus, and divides into a superior and an inferior
branch. The splenic artery arises just behind this. Still
farther back arises the hepatic artery. It supplies the liver
and gall-bladder, and gives off the duodenal branch, which
anastomoses with the superior artery of the abomasum, and the
anterior mesenteric artery. The terminal branch of the caeliac
axis divides and forms the superior and inferior arteries of the
psalterium and abomasum. These pass along the surfaces of
these two stomachs, the superior artery anastomosing with the
duodenal artery.

The superior and inferior arteries of the rumen run in the
longitudinal groove. The former usually arises from the splenic
artery, running backwards. The latter is generally given off by
the artery of the reticulum. It runs forwards and between the
anterior sacs to gain the inferior surface, where it passes back-
wards and reaches the grooves between the conical sacs, anas-
tomosing with the superior artery.

The anterior mesenteric artery divides into two branches, an
anterior branch for the small intestine, and a posterior branch
for the large intestine. The former resembles that of the horse
in its distribution. The latter, instead of following the flexures
of the colon, gives off branches which cross them. The posterior
mesenteric artery is small. The middle sacral artery is very large
and gives off the arteries of the tail. It may be looked upon as
the continuation of the posterior aorta. The lateral sacral
arteries are somewhat rudimentary. In the smaller ruminants
the obturator and iliaco-femoral arteries are absent, and are re-
placed by branches from the deep femoral artery. In the ox these
arteries are rudimentary. The uterine artery is very large, and it
arises from a trunk which also gives rise to the umbilical artery.

Of the arteries of the hind limb, the great metatarsal artery,
accompanied by two veins, occupies the mesiau groove on the
front of the metatarsus, passes through the notch between the
distal articular surfaces, and gains the back of tlie digit, where
it is called the common digital artery. Above the distal ends of
the ossa suffragiuis it divides into external and internal ungual

THE ANATOMY OP THE OX. 77

arteries, each of which gains the inner aspect of its respective
digits, and enters the distal phalanx. The lateral digital arteries
pass down the outer sides of the digits, that of the external
digit heing formed by the interosseous plantar and a transverse
communicating branch, while that of the internal digit is given
off by the great metatarsal artery.

The anterior aorta may be either very short or absent. In
case it is wanting, the brachials arise from the common aorta.
The dorsal and vertebral arteries arise from a common trunk.
The former gives off a branch which takes the place of the
superior cervical artery. The vertebral artery is large and does
not inosculate with the occipital, but ends in muscular branches.
The humeral artery is small, as also are most of its branches.
The chief artery supplying the muscles of the posterior brachial
region is the scapulo-humeral branch of the subscapular artery.
The radio-palmar artery forms an inferior arch (as is also the
case in the horse), from which are given off three interosseous
palmar arteries (of which the internal is the largest and most
constantly present), and one dorsal or anterior interosseous
artery which comes to the front of the limb, anastomosing
above with the anterior radial artery, while below it occupies
the vertical groove in the metacarpus, and inosculates with a
recurrent branch of the great metacarpal artery passing between
the articulations at the distal end of the bone. The arteries of
the digit resemble in the main those in the hind limb.

The carotid arteries arise, as in the horse, by a trunk from the
brachio-cephalic artery. At the head they form the external
carotid artery and the occipital artery, which is small. The
carotid arteries in ruminants do not definitely bifurcate, the
function of the internal carotid artery being performed by the
encephalic artery. The occipital artery enters the cranium
by the condyloid foramen, passes backwards and inosculates
with the lateral artery of the spinal cord at about the level of
the internal foramen of the atlas. A branch given off from this
union passes out through the foramen to supply the muscles of
the poll. The lingual artery gives off the -sub-lingual artery,
and is itself a branch of the external carotid artery. The
mastoid artery of the horse is represented in the ox by a branch
of the posterior auricular artery. In the case of the smaller
ruminants the coronary arteries of the lips are formed by the

78 THE DISEASES AND DISOKDEES OF THE OX.

bifurcation of the transverse facial, a branch of the superficial
temporal artery. The internal maxillary artery has no pterygoid
foramen to pass through in any domesticated ruminant. The
largest of the arterial plexuses or retia mirabilia inside the cranium
are formed by branches from the internal maxillary artery. One
of these branches, the spheno-spinal, enters the cranium by the
foramen ovale, and, as a rule, two arteries to the rete enter by the
anterior common foramen. The first of these inclines forwards,
the two latter backwards. The three arteries anastomose by
forming a small and intricate plexus known as the cranial rete
mirabile. It is situated at the side of the sella turcica of the
sphenoid bone, communicating with its fellow posteriorly, and
giving off superiorly the encephalic artery, a branch considered
by Chauveau to be analogous to the intracranial portion of the
internal carotid in the solipede.

From this artery are given off the cerebi'al arteries — anterior,
middle, and posterior. The last passes backwards, and forms a
convergent anastomosis with its fellow, thus constituting the
basilar trunk which leads to the middle spinal artery. Another
arterial plexus is formed on the ophthalmic artery just where the
arteries of the eye are given off. The glosso-facial artery is
present only in the larger ruminants.

Veins. — The subcutaneous abdominal vein is very large in
the oxj the subcutaneous thoracic vein being small in proportion.
The saphenous veins differ from those of the horse, the external
saphenous vein being larger than the internal one.

The valves in the veins are well developed. Each vena
azygos of the two so-called may persist. In some antelopes the
left vena azygos is larger than the right azygos vein. In
ruminants the portal veins have valves, and in these animals
there is provision made for the blood making its way by two
openings, one at the base of the temporal, the other, as in the
case of human beings, through the foramen lacerum posterius.
There is one anterior vena cava.

The jugular vein is large, and there is a small accessory jugu-
lar vein whicli varies much in size, originating in the occipital
vein and joining the greatjugular vein near its termination. The
angular vein of the eye is very prominent in small ruminants.
There are three digital veins of the hind limb, including an ante-
rior or common one between the digits, formed by twigs from the

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 79

solar plexuses of both, and two lateral ones placed on the two
sides of the digits. There are usually five metatarsal veins, two
anterior deep ones which accompany the great metatarsal artery,
an anterior superficial one forming one root of the external
saphenous vein, also an internal and an external posterior vein.
These two last-mentioned veins pass upwards over the tarsus
and assist in forming the saphenous veins. In the anterior
limb there is a fourth or posterior digital vein, which accompanies
the common digital and internal metacarpal arteries.

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

In the giraffe the cervical region of the spinal cord is very
long owing to the great length of the neck. In the porpoise
this part of the cord is the shortest. Tragulus has the spinal
cord small, the animal itself being small. The echidna, hedge-
hog, and some bats have the spinal cord not proportionate to
the weight of the body. The lateral lobes of the cerebellum are
small in tragulus, and the pons also is very small. In the giraffe
it is large. The central lobe is asymmetrically contorted in the
horse, and also in the rhinoceros, and also in the giraffe.

The corpora quadrigemina {Mesencephalon) are relatively
large. This is a mark of low development. The posterior lobes
of the corpora quadrigemina are larger than the anterior, whereas
in carnivorous animals the anterior are the larger. In tragulus
the convolutions are simple. In larger ruminants the convolu-
tions are more numerous, and in the ox they are most numerous.
In all ungulates the convolutions pass from behind forwards
and inwards. The sylvian and the supra-sylvian fissures are very
indistinct and ill-marked. These two fissures are less neatly
and less clearly marked than in the case of the carnivora. The
sylvian and supra-sylvian fissures are most markedly developed
in the proboscidea and cetacea, next in ruminantia, next in car-
nivora.

The olfactory region in ruminants is large. The horse,
having large eyes, has consequently large posterior corpora
quadrigemina. The optic nerve in ruminaffts is large, but the
thalami optici are not large. The retractor bulbi muscle is
supplied by the sixth pair of nerves. The fifth pair of cranial
nerves is large in ruminants, and it supplies the horns and the
sensitive region in connection with them.

80 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

The spinal cord of the ox is not prolonged farther backwards
than in the case of the horse.

As compared with the horse, the optic nerves and pituitary
glands are large, and the testes are more separated from the nates
than is the case in that animal. The cerebral convolutions are
fewer but larger, and the hemispheres are larger posteriorly.
The jugular ganglion and the pharyngeal branch of the tenth
nerve are both very large. The recurrent nerves are separated
from the trunk of the vagus and the carotid artery by the
oesophagus, and the latter is more amply supplied with nerves
than is the gullet of the horse. The superior oesophageal branch
chiefly supplies the rumen, while the inferior oesophageal branch
is distributed to the other compartments of the stomach. The
spinal accessory nerve divides into two brandies, superior and
inferior, the latter supplying the muscles of the lower portion
of the lateral cervical region.

The radial nerve gives off two cutaneous branches which pass
downwards. One of these terminates at the carpus, while the
other, becoming more anterior, descends upon the metacarpus
and supplies the dorsal nerves of the digits. The median and
cubital nerves are not connected at the carpus, but continued
downwards, the former as the internal, the latter as the external,
metacarpal nerve, each supplying its respective digit. Near the
distal end of the metacarpus a branch from the internal meta-
carpal nerve passes across to join the external metacarpal nerve,
while lower down a second branch from the internal nerve forms
the external collateral nerve of the inner digit, and still lower a
third branch from the same source forms the internal collateral
nerve common to both the digits. In the nerves of the lumbo-
sacral plexus it is noticeable that the dorsal nerves of the digits
are given off by the musculo-cutaneous nerve. From the anterior
tibial nerve a branch passes down the anterior groove in the
metatarsus. It divides in the digital notch to form the posterior
deep digital nerves. There is no branch connecting the external
and internal metatarsal nerves.

THE EAR, EYE, HAIR, HORNS, AND HOOFS.

The concha of the ear of Ruminants is widely open, projects
outwards, and is less mobile than that of the horse. The handle
of the malleus is more curved than in the horse.

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 81

The tapetum lucidum of the eye is of a golden green colour,
inclining to blue at the circumference. The " gland of Harder '*
is present in all the domesticated animals. The eye of the
ruminant is in most respects similar to that of the solipede.

The hair on the tail of the ox, as in the ass, is long only at
the end, where it forms a tuft. Between the horns, the hair is
thick and curly, but these qualities vary in degree with the
breed. The wool found on some of the smaller ruminants is a
kind of hair.

The horns consist of a layer of horn tissue which has been
developed by the vascular and nervous membrane which covers
the horn-core, forming at its base a circular pad, continuous with
the dermis. Both the membrane and the pad produce horn-
tissue, and hence the tissue of horns, in like manner with the
wall of a horse's hoof, is derived from two sources. The portion
of the horn surrounding the pad is known as the 7'oot, that cover-
ing the core the bodt/, while the part projecting beyond the core
is the point. The horn presents a number of rings just above
its root. Horns vary greatly in shape. In the bovidsB the
typical form is crescentic, the convexity being turned more or
less downwards and outwards. In the ovidee the horns are, as
a rule, curved spirally, and sometimes very gracefully curled,
the first bend being convex outwards and forwards. In the goat
they are closer together, and more perpendicular, being slightly
curved with the convexity inwards. Camels are devoid of horns,
whereas other ruminants have horns of large size. Animals pos-
sessing horns of the above type are called cavicornia, or hollow-
horned animals. The horns of deer differ in being formed of
solid bone, in having branches, and in falling off every year, to
be replaced by new ones. The hoof is divided into two parts,
one for each digit, each part resembling in shape the distal
phalanx. Their general structure resembles that of the horse's
hoof, but the frog is little developed. A small horny projection
appears on each side of the posterior aspect of the fetlock.
These are rudimentary hoofs, each containing a small bone not
connected with the skeleton. '

82 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

CHAPTER III.

• DIFFERENT BREEDS OF OXEN.

Before we commence to describe briefly the various kinds of
oxen met with in England, we must first point out that they
have been crossed to a very considerable extent. It is, moreover,
a matter of great difficulty to decide which variety of the nume-
rous kinds of cattle now existing in Great Britain is to be looked
upon as most nearly resembling what we may consider the
original British breed to have been. Whether the middlehorns
or the longhorns are to be so regarded, it is next to impossible
to decide positively. As for the shorthorns, they are evidently of
foreign extraction, and polled cattle, although they have existed
in certain districts for as long a time as the residents can re-
member, are, neveitheless, in all probability to be considered
as examples of variation. On the whole, however, the evidence
at our disposal seems to show that the middlehorns constitute
the original British breed, and that the longhorued cattle came
in the first instance from Ireland.

Now, it is clear that when the ancient inhabitants of Great
Britain were at various times repulsed and driven before the
invading foe they carried away their cattle to their strongholds
in North Devon and Cornwall, or to the more mountainous dis-
tricts of Wales, or even to the wealds of East Sussex ; and the
primitive breed of British cattle was thus preserved. Differences
in the characters of the climate and the soil by degrees neces-
sarily brought about certain corresponding changes of bulk and
qualities in the cattle of different districts. The rich pastures of
Sussex, for example, led to the fattening of the oxen of that
district to such a marked extent as ultimately to lead to their
superior size. Again, the herbage occurring in the northern

DIFFERENT BREEDS OP OXEN. 83

part of Devon, plentiful indeed, although not so luxuriant as
that of Sussex, gave rise to the production of a smaller and more
active animal ; and the occasional privations met with in Wales
brought about a lessening of bulk and the development of a
thicker hide.

In turning our attention now to Scotland, we find that the
ancient inhabitants of that country were at times repulsed and
obliged to take refuge in their mountain fastnesses, wherefrom
they could make an effectual stand against their pursuers. Hence
it came about that their cattle, of which they were proud, were
preserved in a state of purity. •

Judging, then, from the above considerations, we see how it
has happened that in Devon, Sussex, Wales, and Scotland the
cattle have always been the same, whereas in all the eastern
parts of England more especially, and indeed in almost every part
of England, the cattle now met with have lost their primitive
characteristics. Oxen emanating from neighbouring, and even
in not a few cases those coming from remoter, districts, were
crossed in all kinds of ways, and they also became gradually
modified in correspondence with the characters of the climate and
the soil. These original cattle, still found in Devonshire,
Sussex, Wales, and Scotland, are possessed of horns of medium
size, they supply a fair amount of milk — which, however, is
noted rather for its quality than for its quantity — are active
workers, and possess a special aptitude for fattening. Of course,
they vary in accordance with the soil, the climate, and so
forth. The cattle of Devon, Sussex, and Hereford are red in
colour, and in this connection it is a very noteworthy fact that
in almost every part of Scotland, as also in some of the moun-
tainous districts of Wales, the milk of a red cow is supposed to
act as a remedy for every disease and every sort of evil. The
Devon cattle resemble the wild breed of Chatelherault Park, or
those of Chillingham Castle, although the colour is not the
same.

With reference to the size of oxen, the numerous varieties
differ in a marked degree — so much so, in tact, that even adult
animals of the Shetland breed are not much larger than the
waives of some other kinds. Some of the cattle found in the
torrid zone are likewise very diminutive ; but, perhaps, the fatty
hump found on the backs of the animals referred to may be

6 *

84 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

owing to a relationship betwixt them and the Indian ox or zebu,
which animal is probably one of a species distinct from the
common ox.

THE MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE.

We now come to a brief consideration of the middlehoras,
under which designation we include the cattle of North Devon,
Cornwall, Dorsetshire, Somersetshire, Herefordshire, Gloucester-
shire, East Sussex, Kent, and most of the cattle of Wales.
These oxen, known as the middlehorns, constitute a distinct,
valuable, and very fine group. The cattle found on the Scottish
and the Welsh mountains are small, and exhibit different
characteristics.

The cattle of North Devon have for a long period of time
been remarkable for their beauty, activity in work, and capa-
bility of being readily fattened. They are rather large, very
muscular and powerful, very gentle and docile, and so well
adapted for draught that much agricultural labour is even
still carried out by teams of these animals in Devonshire.
Erom the earliest times the breed has remained the same,
or, at any rate, has not altered in any essential point until
within the last thirty years or thereabouts. Indeed, the farmers
of the countv did not know until about the close of the last
century that they possessed a breed of cattle superior to other
varieties. In fact, it is only within the last fifty years that any
efforts have been systematically made to improve the cattle in
any part of the kingdom. The splendid specimens of the native
English ox found in Devonshire are no doubt partly due to the
influence of the soil and climate. These oxen of North Devon
have been greatly improved, and, in all probability, if they were
now crossed with any other breed disadvantage would result
from such crossing. The following characteristics of the more
perfect North Devon oxen may be mentioned. The horns should
not be very thick at the root, and they should taper towards the
tips. Their colour, too, should be yellow or wax-like, especially
at the tips. The horns of the bulls are a little shorter, larger,
and thicker, and of a darker colour. The eyes should be clear,
bright, and very prominent, and the countenance should be ani-
mated. The eye ought to show a great deal of its white part, and
it should have a circle of a dark orans'e or other colour sur-

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF OXEK. 85

rounding it. The forehead ought to be flat, small, and indented.
The purity of the breed is in a great measure determined by the
smallness of the forehead. The cheek should be small, the
muzzle fine, and the nose of a clear yellow colour. The muzzle
ought not to be black, nor even mottled. The nostril should be
high and open ; and the hair about the head should be curly,
though this may impart some coarseness of general appearance.
The neck should be thick. As a rule the bulls of this breed are
smaller than the cows, though otherwise the males are very
similar to the females except in the region of the head and neck.
The head of the ox is singularly small in relation to the bulk
of the animal, and yet it has a remarkably broad forehead.
The neck is long and thin, and well suited for the collar and
even for the yoke. It is usually looked upon as a characteristic of
good cattle that the line of the neck, from the horns to the
withers, should scarcely deviate from that of the back. However,
the Devonshire ox has a peculiar rising of the forehand, remind-
ing us of the bloodhorse, and essentially connected with the
swift action for which this breed is distinguished. This ox has
little or no dewlap depending from its neck. The animal is
light in the withers, the shoulders are a little oblique, the breast
is deep, the bosom open and wide. The fore-legs are wide apart,
and look like pillars constructed to support a great weight.
The point of the shoulder is rarely or never seen. Angular
bony projections are not observed in a beast which carries
much flesh and fat. The fineness of the withers, the slanting
direction of the shoulder, and the broad and open breast imply
the possession of strength and the capacity for speed and for
fattening. An animal which has a narrow chest cannot be
useful either for working or for grazing. The legs of the Devon-
shire ox seem to be well under the chest, or rather, we may say,
the breast projects far and wide beyond the legs. The legs
are straight, or at least those of the best-bred animals are. If
they are in-kneed or crooked in the fore-legs, they will be unsuit-
able both for work and for grazing, for they will be hollow be-
hind the withers; and for this defect nothing can compensate,
because it takes away so much from the place where good flesh
and fat should be thickly laid on, and, moreover, implies a
reduced capacity of the chest and consequently a want of power
of producing good arterial blood. The fore-arm is very large and

86 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

powerful, it swells out suddenly above the knee, but is soon lost
in the substance of the shoulder. Below the knee the bone is
very small and apparently, but only apparently, weak, for the
smallness is only in front. The leg is deep, and the sinews stand
out far from the bone. The leg may seem to be a little too
long, but this is all the better for a working ox. There is a
very slight fall behind the withers, but no hollowness, and the
line of the back is straight along its whole length to the point
where the tail begins. The sides of the animal may appear to be
a little too flat ; but this flatness does not seem to interfere with
the feeding, while a deep, though somewhat flat, chest is best
adapted for speed. Not only, however, is the breast broad and
the chest deep ; but the two last ribs are very bold and pro-
minent, thus leaving room for the stomachs and other parts con-
cerned in digestion to be fully developed. The hips are high
and on a level with the back, no matter whether the beast be fat
or lean. The hind-quarters, occupying the space from the hip to
the point of the rump, are very long and well filled up. Hence
room is left for the deposition of flesh in the most valuable part ;
and, moreover, like the extensive quarters of the blood-horse,
they point to the possession of great power behind. The fulness
here and the swelling of the thigh below are of much greater
importance than is the prominence of fat on the rump, which is
so much admired in the case of prize cattle. The tail is on
a level with the back, rarely elevated, and never depressed.
The skin of the Devonshire ox is very mellow and elastic,
although the curliness of the hair might at first sight seem to
point to the possession of a less elastic skin. When the skin
can be easily raised from the hips, we know that there is room
for fat below it. The skin, too, is rather thin. The hair is
curly, as we pointed out above, and these curls look like little
ripples produced by wind on a smooth surface of water. Some
of these cattle, however, have the hair smooth, and, if so, it
should be fine and glossy. Those oxen which possess curly hair
are said to be a little hardier than others not possessed of curly
hair, and to fatten more readily. The colour is blood red,
and this is supposed to indicate purity of breed ; but many good
specimens may be of a chestnut or even of a bay-brown hue. If
the eye be clear and good and the skin mellow, it docs not matter
if the colour is paler than blood-red. If patches of white run, so

DTFFEEENT BREEDS OF OXEN. 87

to say, into the red, the beasts probably come of a valueless breed.
One of the most remarkable points about the Devonshire cattle
is the comparative smallness of the cow. The bull is a great
deal less than the ox, and the cow is as much smaller than the
bull. The cows, however, although small, have the two or
three last ribs so well-rounded and projecting as to make
them roomy. The cow has a full, round, and clear eye, a gold-
coloured circle round the eye, and the same colour prevailing on
the inside skin of the ear. The countenance is animated, the
muzzle orange or yellow, and the rest of the face has neither
black nor white about it. The jaws are not thick, and the
throat has no dewlap. The back and hind-quarters are round
and beautifully made, and they are free from most of those angles
by which good milkers are sometimes characterised.

These oxen of Devonshire are very useful for ploughing land,
provided that it be not too heavy, for they are stout, quick, and
docile. In the case of fallow land, four steers will in one day
plough two acres by means of a double-furrow plough. At the
same time we must remember that these oxen are not of sufficient
strength to allow of their being used for ploughing tenacious
and clayey soils. They are worked in yokes, not in collars; and
four oxen, or perhaps six growing steers, are, as a rule, employed
to draw one plough. As Mr. William Youatt has charmingly
narrated in his book on cattle, a man and a boy attend each team.
The boy chants a pleasing succession of sounds, and it is a very
pleasant thing to listen to the simple music sung by the drivers of
the ploughs as they slowly wend their way up and down the sloping
hills which wall in the valleys. This chanting is said to animate
the oxen, just as the musical bells, which are so prevalent in
the county, likewise cheer. At any rate, it is certainly the
case that the oxen move along with agility, and so willing are
they in their work that we may watch the teams for a long time
without either hearing any harsh word uttered by the drivers or
seeing the whip or the goad being used. In this connection we
may point out that the activity of these oxen is of quite an excep-
tional kind, and that it is entirely unknowff in the case of the
cattle of any other part of the kingdom. During the time of
harvest, these oxen are sometimes trotted along with the empty
wagons at even the rate of six miles an hour.

Lord Somerville states that, after having been worked lightly

88 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OE THE OX.

on the hills for two years, they are hough t, when about four
years of age, hy the tillage-farmer of the vales, and take to hard
work when they are from four to six years old. An ox must be
thus worked in order to attain his full size. At six he reaches
his full stature, but may continue to grow for another half-year.
The oxen of North Devon, although rarely shod, are very seldom
lame. These Devonshire oxen do not, indeed, attain to the
great weight of some breeds ; but they acquire more flesh in a
given time and with less consumption of food, and their flesh is
of a beautiful mottled or marbled character, and is at once very
pleasing to the eye and rich to the taste.

The milk of the Devonshire cows is good, and yields more
than an average proportion of cream and batter ; but it is
deficient in point of quantity. However, according to Mr.
Conyers, of Copt. Hall, near Epping, ten cows gave an average of
five dozen pounds of butter per week in the summer, and of two
dozen pounds in the winter, while a good North Devon cow fat-
tened two calves a year. " My thirty North Devon cows,'^ he said,
" have this year [about 1788] upon an average produced a profit
of £13 14s. per cow." According to ]\Ir. Eogers, two breeders
attempted to cross the North Devons with the Herefords, but
without success. This same veterinary surgeon held the opinion,
■which no doubt is the correct one, that many maladies of cattle
are due to injudicious exposure to cold and wet, and that to the
height and thickness of the Devonshire fences the exemption
from disease on the part of the cattle of that county is in some
measure due.

Mr. Carpenter says that " one cross of the North Devon with
the Hereford is advantageous, as thereby additional size and
aptitude to fatten is gained without loss of activity/' The single
introduction of a Hereford bull of the very best blood may be
tried ; but Hereford heifers should never be crossed with Devon-
shire bulls. After the first cross as aforesaid with one Hereford
bull, the best Devon bull should be again used, until the white
face is almost entirely extinct, when for a second time a Here-
ford bull nuiy be used.

The great secret about breeding successfully is to suit the
breed to the soil and climate. Breeds wliicli have been very
valuable indeed in certain districts have proved entirely prolitless
in others. 'J'he South Devons are equally profitable for the

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF OXEN. 89

grazier, the breeder, and the butcher ; but their flesh is not so
delicate as that of the North Devons, and it will not suit the
fastidious appetites of the inhabitants of Bath and of the
metropolis. A South Devon cow has been known, soon after
■calving, to yield more than two pounds of butter per day, and
many of the old southern native breed are equal to any short-
horns in regard to the quantity of their milk, which, moreover,
is of greatly superior quality.

Of the Cornwall cattle we shall not need to speak here, nor
shall we do more than mention those of Dorsetshire and those of
Somersetshire.

Hence we come next to discuss the characteristics of the
cattle found in Herefordshire.

In the western parts of England as a whole a great variety of
breeds are cultivated both for milking and grazing, and of these
difl*erent breeds the chief are the Devons, which we have just
described. Next come the Herefords, which we now proceed
to describe. The cattle belonging to the Hereford breed are
stouter than those of the Ayrshire variety ; but in some respects
they are more or less similar to them. Both the beef and the
milk are very good. Nevertheless, we find that in the districts
in which these animals formerly abounded oxen of the shorthorn
breed have now in great measure supplanted them. The Herefords
are noble creatures, and in point of feeding powers they are sur-
passed only by the shorthorns. Much of the richest pasture
land in England is stocked with the pure-bred Herefords. They
grow to a large size, and they usually take about a year and a
half longer to arrive at their full degree of development than do
the shorthorns. Up to quite recent times they have been, and
sometimes, though very rarely, even now in these days they
still are, employed in drawing the plough, not being sold off
lo be fattened until they are six or seven years old. Oxen
•of so great an age as this, are now but very rarely met
with, and they are sought after by the graziers who reside
in the rich midland districts on account of their capability
of being readily fattened for the Christtuas meat market.
The Hereford cows are faulty in respect of the supply of milk,
being, in fact, even worse than the shorthorns are for dairy
purposes. In Herefordshire, their native county, the former
■cows are principally used for the rearing of the calves. The

90 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Hereford of this present day is a much better animal than was
its progenitor of some thirty years ago. Moreover, these animals
are not capable even now of readily adapting themselves to the
diverse characteristics of different climates as the shorthorns are.
The Hereford oxen have white faces. With the exception of a few
Alderney and Durham cows, they alone are found in the county.
They are much larger than the oxen of North Devon. As a
rule, too, they are of a darker red colour. Some of them are
brown, some even yellow, and a few are brindled. Their faces,
throats, bellies, the lower part of the legs, and the tip of the tail
are white, and in a few the white colouring extends as far as the
shoulders. The body, however, as we have implied, is of a rich
red hue. On the other hand, the old Herefords were brown or
reddish-brown, and not white in any part of the body. The modern
breed is certainly greatly superior to the old one. The hide of a
Hereford ox is much thicker than that of the Devon oxen, and the
beasts themselves are more hardy. They are shorter in the leg
and also in the carcass than the Devonshire oxen are, also higher
and broader and heavier in the chine, rounder and wider across the
hips, and more thickly covered with fat. The thigh is fuller and
more muscular, and the shoulders are larger and coarser. The
forehead is broad. The hide is thick, but mellow. The hair is soft,
and at times curly. The males are very heavy, and much larger
in proportion than the cows. The flesh is excellent. The ani-
mals are easily fattened, and when fattened they become much
heavier than the Devons, and may be from fifty to seventy stone in
weight. They are not much used for husbandry, although their
form adapts them for rather heavy work, and they exhibit the
docility of the Devon ox, and possess greater strength, if not the
same activity. The Herefordshire oxen readily fatten, even when
young, and hence it is of greater advantage that they should go
to market at three yeurs of age than that they should be kept for
a longer time for the purpose of being employed as beasts of
burden. The Herefords feed even more satisfactorily than the
Devons do, and they will even grow fat in places where a Devon
ox would scarcely live. The meat is finely grained and beautifully
marbled, and these cattle are very highly prized in the meat
market. But for the white face, slightly larger head, and thicker
neck, it would not always be easy to decide positively if a given
animal were a heavy Devon or a light Hereford. The white face

I

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF OXEN. 91

of the Herefords may possibly be due to their having been crossed
with the Montgomery cattle. As a set-off against the good
fattening qualities of the Herefords, it is to be remarked that the
cows are rather bad milkers, and deficient in form. They are
much worse from the point of view of the milk-supply than are
the Devonshire cows. It is, in fact, very rarely the case that we
meet with a dairy depending on Hereford cows. Nevertheless,
although they are not good suppliers of milk as a general rule^
some Hereford cows yield a large quantity. George CuUey^
writing in 1801 concerning the Hereford cattle of that date, says
that the calves run with the cows until they are about eleven or
twelve weeks of age, when they are weaned and turned out to
grass; and also that a good Hereford cow, if well kept after the
calf has been taken away from her, is capable of yielding 7 lbs,
of butter per week for three or four months, and double that
quantity of skimmed-milk cheese, but that these cows do not give
such a large quantity of milk as the Suffolk cows do, though
what they do give is of much richer quality. However, such a
yield as this — a liberal one for any cow after rearing a calf
would not be forthcoming on the part of a modern Hereford cow.
In point of fact, then, we find that the Herefords are good in
regard to the production of meat; but that they are by no means
remunerative for dairy purposes. Hence the cows are valued
only, or very nearly exclusively, for their capacity in the way of
breeding. They are small and delicate, and some persons would
think them also ill-made. When in their usual condition, they
are light-fleshed, and, moreover, they are not allowed to put
on flesh while they are employed for breeding. When they are
being fattened, they spread out and increase in size very rapidly.
The Hereford cow is somewhat less than the ordinary size of
cows, and not unfrequently produces a bull calf which may ulti-
mately become three times her own weight. Very few Hereford-
shire oxen are grazed in their native county, and it is chiefly the
heifers and old cows which are fattened for the home consump-
tion. The oxen are usually sold when they are five or six years
old, and in fair condition, at the Michaelma's fair in Hereford, to
the graziers of Buckinghamshire and those of the counties
lying adjacent thereto. The Herefords are well suited to the
keeping up of good breeding qualities and of good form ; but,
unfortunately, these are not very compatible with the yielding

52 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

of a large amount of milk. The Herefords compare very
favourably indeed with the shorthorns in respect to their capacity
for being fattened by ordinary modes of feeding without being
supplied with artificial food.

We propose to omit a consideration of the cattle of Glouces-
tershire, and, likewise passing over those of Kent, we come next
to a short review of the cattle of Wales.

Now, it is to the Welsh oxen that we look for some traces of
the native breed of cattle, for, as is well known, the inhabitants of
Wales and those who retreated to that country as a place of refuge
were never entirely subjugated by the early invaders. As for
the Romans, they gained possession of only a portion of Wales,
and the Saxons did not penetrate beyond the county of Mon-
mouth. Furthermore, for a long time the sturdy Welshmen
resisted the power of the English under the Norman kings, and
it was not until a late period in the thirteenth century that the
principality of Wales was actually annexed as an appanage of
the English Crown. Howell the Good describes some of the
Welsh cattle in the tenth century as being white and having
red ears. In this respect they resemble the cattle of Chilliugham
Castle.

Speed says that Maud de Breos, in order to appease King
John, whom her husband had offended, sent to his Queen a
present from Brecknockshire of -±00 cows and a bull, all white
and with red ears. The same records which describe the
" white cattle with red ears '^ also speak of the " dark or black-
coloured breed," which now exists, and is generally met with
throughout Wales.

The majority of the cattle of Wales and the most valuable of
them are middlehorns. They are in some degree stunted in their
growth, owing to the scanty food of the Welsh mountains ;
but they exhibit many of the points of the Devon, Sussex, and
Hereford cattle.

The animals of North and South Wales are for the chief part
reared in mountainous districts, where, even in the summer
time, only scant herbage is found, while in the winter season
ihe fare is very poor indeed. When between eighteen months
and three years (^f age, they are sold to the P^nglish graziers
in large herds, which are sold annually. They improve very
rapidly when provided with rich pasturage. These animals are

DIFFEEENT BREEDS OF OXEN. 95

hardy, and they supply some of our best beef. They are fairly
good in so far as milking is concerned, and make very good
crosses with the shorthorns, in some cases having given birth to
steers which have taken prizes in the show-yards, in virtue of being
endowed with splendid flesh, and in being hardy and easily
fattened. Shorthorns are, however, preferable, since they prove
more valuable in the long run. For about the first eighteen
months the Welsh oxen will hold their own; but in the course
of the next year or two a great difference is to be seen. More-
over, after the first cross, the offspring cannot be so greatly
depended upon.

South Wales, Pembrokeshire. — The Pembroke and other
Welsh breeds are not unlike the West Highland breed; but the
cows yield a greater quantity of milk. The Pembroke cow or
ox is a very useful animal, and the colour of most of them is
entirely black. A few have white faces, or show a little white
about the tail or the udder, and the horns also are white. The
horns turn up in a manner which is characteristic of the breed.
These oxen have shorter legs than most of the Welsh breeds ; but
the legs are longer than those of the Montgomery cattle. Their
carcasses are round and deep, the hair is rough but short, and
their hides are not thick. Their bones, although they are not
so small as those of ^the improved longhorns are far from
being large. In fact, the cattle of Pembrokeshire, to a great
extent, combine the two qualities of being at once fair milkers
and of possessing a propensity to become fat. In this connec-
tion it has been suggested, we may observe, that to fatten an
animal, one should bleed it a little now and then. As a rule
the meat of a Pembroke ox is of a fine quality, being beautifully-
marbled. It is, in fact, equal to that of the Scotch cattle, and
some persons even prefer it. These cattle thrive in every
situation, they will live where other oxen starve, and will rapidly
outstrip most other cattle when provided with a sufficiency of
good pasturage. In fact, the Pembroke cow is one of the best
cottager's cows, and it is equally profitable to the larger farmer.

The Pembroke oxen are found in CaermaTth en shire, Cardigan,,
and Brecon, and indeed in every bordering county, mixed with
the difierent breeds of each, and imparting to each its best
qualities. They are also very similar to the Kyloes.

The Pembroke ox is, like the Devon, a speedy and honest

94 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

worker, fit for the road as well as the plough, and when taken
from work it fattens as quickly. A great many of them are
brought to the London market, for which they are ready when
about four years of age. The Pembrokeshire cow is generally
black, and the face may be occasionally dark brown, or some-
times white. There may be a white line along the back. Ac-
cording to Mr. Davies, she is fine-boned, with a clean light neck
and head, small yellow horns inclining upwards, good chine and
loin, round long belly, thin thigh and short legs, is always in
good condition if tolerably well kept, has wavy hair, and an
oily skin. To this we may add that she is a fair milker, and
will yield 5 lbs. of butter per week.

The cattle of Glamorganshire, those of Monmouthshire, those
of Caermarthenshire, of Cardiganshire, of Brecknockshire, and of
Radnorshire, we pass by.

North Wales. — The cattle of North Wales may be said to
approach the next division — namely, that of the longhoms.
They have, however, also a great deal of the characters of the
middlehorns, with the exception perhaps of some of the
Anglesey oxen. North Wales may be divided into two districts
in one of which the rearing of cattle is almost exclusively
attended to, while in the other the dairy is the matter of chief
consideration. The first includes Anglesey, Carnarvon, and
Merioneth, the second the counties of Denbigh, Flint, and
Montgomery.

Anglesey. — The isle of Anglesey, called Mona in ancient
times, the seat of Druidical superstition, and for a long time
the stronghold of British independence, differs from the other
divisions of North Wales in the fact that it does not possess
a mountainous surface. There are only undulations or little
hills covered with grass. Roberts, the author of the Map of Com-
merce published nearly 200 years ago, says that 3,000 head of
cattle were annually caused to swim across the straits of Menai.
The losses were then surprisingly few. At the present time about
10,000 are annually exported from the ishind. The iron bridge
of Meuui is now the means of transit. The Anglesey cattle are
small, black, and hardy animals. Their chests are deep, their
shoulders rather too heavy. The dewlap is enormous, the barrel
round, the haunches are high and spreading, the lace is flat, and
the horns are long, and turn upwards. The hair is apparently

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF OXEN. 95

•coarse ; but the skin is mellow. It is an easy matter to rear
them, and they can be readily fattened when they are taken
to good pasture. Frequently they are fed on very scanty diet.
It is the general opinion that the breed of Anglesey cattle, like
that of Glamorgan, has somewhat deteriorated. The Anglesey
cattle have not improved by being crossed, and certainly not
by being crossed with the Irish oxen, which have been bought
in numbers by the farmers on account of their cheapness. The
breed is improving, and, when growing, the oxen are allowed a
suflEicient amount of food. Many Anglesey oxen are prepared
for the London market in the midland counties and near London.
Like the Scotch cattle, they thrive fairly well where an English
beast would starve. Many yearlings come from Anglesey, and
very few oxen remain there after they are three years old. The
three-year-olds are the most valuable for the English grazier.
They are eventually brought to the market when weighing from
^0 to even 100 stones, and their flesh is more valuable than is
that of larger cattle.

In Anglesey and throughout the greater part of North Wales,
the black cattle were formerly extensively used for the plough,
and even on the road. They were at once docile and hardy.
They are now scarcely at all employed in this manner.

They have a very noble appearance. Formerly they were not
•cut until they were a year old, and hence they gained a fierce
bull-like form about the head and dewlap, a projection of the
breast, a lofty bearing of the head, a haughty look and a stateli-
ness of gait. Early castration, however, is now practised, and
the oxen are consequently becoming lighter about the head and
dewlap. Formerly the oxen were a great deal smaller than they
&re now, and also far less numerous. No more cows are kept
for the dairy in Monmouthshire than are required for home
■consumption.

On the English side of the straits of Menai are the cattle of
Carnarvonshire, Merionethshire, and Montgomeryshire.

Denbighshire and Flintshire. — The Flintshire cattle are at
once excellent milkers and quick feeders. A considerable
amount of good butter is made in this district ; but the attention
of the dairyman is devoted to the making of cheese which, we
may say, is equal to that of Cheshire. Every cow should pro-
duce nearly three hundredweight of cheese annually.

96 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

The Scotch breeds of cattle next present themselves for brief
consideration. As a rule the Scotch cows yield only small
quantities of milk, though what they do supply is of excellent
quality, and when the cows are fed very well, the cream is of a
peculiarly rich quality, and makes excellent butter. Con-
sequently, it is not uncommon for dairy-farmers to introduce
into their herds one or two Highland or Kyloe cows with the
view of increasing the richness of the milk. These quaint and
semi-wild Scotch kine are now only occasionally brought to the
south to be fattened on the luxuriant pastures of England. This
practice was formerly a very general one ; but now-a-days the
Scotch pasture-land is far more carefully cultivated than was
formerly the case.

Scotland contains several distinct and valuable breeds of
cattle coming under the denomination of middlehorns. The
West Highlanders have remained unchanged for many genera-
tions, or perhaps have slightly improved. The North High-
landers are smaller, coarser, and inferior animals, and most of
what is valuable about them is due to crossing with the Western
breed.

The north-eastern cattle were derived from the cattle of the
West Highlands to which, though much larger than them,
they are still very similar. The Fife cattle are almost as
valuable for the dairy as for the grazier, and they are active and
docile. The cattle of the Ayrshire breed are surpassed by none
in reference to their capacity for milking.

Again, many of the varied breeds of the Lowlands are
valuable. The Galloways, which scarcely a century ago were
middle-horned and only distinguishable from the West High-
landers with difficulty, are now polled, larger in size, closely
similar to the Devons and endowed with all their aptitude to
fatten, and with a hardiness of constitution which the Devons
do not possess.

Of the North Highland cattle we propose to give a brief
description of the Forfarshire or Angus breed. These cattle
may be horned or hornless. The horned oxen are generally
black; but some have white spots on the forehead, and are
white on the flanks and belly. Some are brindled, some dark
red, and others of a silvery yellow or dun colour. A few are
black witli white hairs intermingled. Now and again a beast is

DIBTERENT BREEDS OP OXEN. 97

seen which is altogether white with the exception of a few bhick
hairs about the head. The Forfar horned cattle have shorter
legs, thicker shoulders, rounder carcases, straighter backs, and,
carry the head more elegantly than the Aberdeenshire cattle.
The horns are shorter, better proportioned, curved upwards and
forwards, and sharper at the points. We shall give a brief
account of the Angus polled cattle under the heading of
"Polled Cattle."

The "wild ox " now met with only in a few parks, as at Chil-
lingham and Hamilton, is probably a descendant of the original
bovine animals which inhabited many forest districts in Britain,
and particularly those of the north of England and the south of
Scotland. The wild oxen of Chillingham are much smaller than
many of the domestic breeds; they have a graceful form, and are
possessed of sharp horns which are neither very long nor greatly
curved. Every calf which is not perfectly white is destroyed,
and thus this white colour is becoming still more general.
The habits of these wild oxen are very similar to those of
the domesticated races. According to Mr. Culley, these
oxen cannot be tamed, and consequently can only be tept
within walls or good fences. The colour of the wild cattle of
Chillingham Castle is cream white, but their muzzles are black.
The whole of the inside of the ear as well as about one-third of
the outside from the tips downwards is red, the horns are white,
very fine, bent upwards, and provided with black tips. Some of
the bulls are possessed of a thin and upright mane, which is
about an inch and a half or two inches in length. The males
weigh about 40 stones, and the cows about 30 stones (14 pounds
being reckoned to the stone). The beef is finely marbled, and
of excellent quality.

It is very advisable to keep at a distance from these animals.
The cows hide their calves for about a week or ten days in some
sequestered situation, and to this they repair twice or thrice
every day for the purpose of suckling them. If any person
should approach these little animals, they clap their heads
close to the ground and lie down like hares -to hide themselves;
or perhaps, if irritated, they bolt at the legs of anyone who may
be near, with all the force at their command. Moreover, the
dams, if they see anyone touching their calves, will rush to the
attack with headlong impetuosity. Again, if any one of a herd

7

98 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

of these cattle is badly wounded, or weak and feeble owing to
age and sickness, the other members of the herd conspire
together against their debilitated companion and gore him or
her to death.

A few of the wild cattle are found in Androssan Park, which
belongs to the Earl of Eglintown, and in Auchencruive Park, the
seat of Mr. Oswald. They are cream-coloured, and have black
muzzles, and black or brown or red ears.

The animals of the West Highland breed, or Kyloe, differ
but very little from the Chillingham or Hamilton wild oxen,
except as regards their colour, which is black. Their limbs
are short and muscular, the chest is both wide and deep,
the ribs are well arched, the back is straight, the horns are fre-
quently rather long, the muzzle is short but not broad, and
the skin is covered with shaggy hair. The milk is of a very
rich quality, but very small in amount so that the cows are
very unsuitable for dairy-farming. The beef is of the finest
quality, and hence many cattle reared in the Highlands
and in the Hebrides are annually taken to other parts of the
country for the purpose of being fattened on rich pastures. One
great point of advantage about the animals of this breed is that
they are very hardy and likewise very well suited to the region
in which they are found.

The Galloway breed is very similar to the preceding ; but the
animals are larger and devoid of horns, and many cattle are
taken from the hilly parts of Galloway to be fattened on English
pastures for the London market.

The animals of the Ayrshire breed, met with just over the
border, are small but yet highly productive. They are very
serviceable for dairy purposes, and are valued for their milk not
only in Scotland, but also in other parts.

The Ayrshire breed stands in the foremost place in regard to
milking powers. The animals of this breed are rather small,
and their flesh is spread thinly over the body; but yet they can
thrive fairly well even on second-rate and inferior pastures.
Henoe, in Scotland, the Ayrshire cow is preferred to others.
The udders of the cows of this breed are hemispherical in shape,
well formed, and provided behind with loose and soft skin. The
milk is rich and well suited for butter-making, and the time
during which the milk-producing powers continue is lengthy.

I

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF OXEN. 99

The Ayshire cows are noted not only for the great quantity, but
also for the excellent quality of the milk they yield. On the
other hand, they are not capable of being readily fattened, and
their flesh is of an inferior description. Great care has been
taken with the management of this breed in Ayrshire and the
adjacent counties, in which dairy-farming is carried on to a
marked extent. The horns of these oxen are smaller than those
of the animals belonging to the West Highland breed ; the hair
also is much smoother, and the colour, for the most part, is
brownish-red with large patches of white. Sometimes, however,
they may be nearly entirely red. The patches may be almost
fawn-coloured, and occasionally it may happen that prize Ayr-
shire bulls are greyish. The horns are short, they spread out
a little near the head, and then turn upwards. Their heads are
fine and tapering, the neck is thin, and the countenance has a
pleasing look. The chines, backs, and hocks, are narrow, the
ribs are flat, the belly is large, the buttocks are thin, the hair is
thin, the hide is soft, and the bones are finely made.

The climate of Ayrshire is moist but mild, and the soil, with
its produce, is such as to render it the best dairy country in
Scotland, and equal to any in Great Britain. The pasture-
ground is occupied by the beautiful dairy-stock, a very small
portion of it being kept for cows too old to be milked. Accord-
ing to Mr. Alton, the most approved shape of the dairy
animals is as follows: —

Head small but rather long and narrow at the muzzle ; eye
small but smart and lively ; horns small, clear, crooked, and
having their roots at a considerable distance apart from each
other; neck long and slender, tapering towards the head and
with no loose skin below ; shoulders thin ; fore-quarters light ;
hind-quarfers large; back straight and broad behind; the joints
rather loose and open ; carcase deep, pelvis capacious, and wide
over the hips, with round fleshy buttocks; tail long and small ;
legs small and short, with firm joints ; udder capacious, broad,
and square, stretching forward, and neither fleshy, low hung,
nor loose ; the milk veins large and prominont ; teats short, all
pointing outwards, and at considerable distance from each other;
skin thin and loose ; hair soft and woolly ; the head, bones,
horns, and all parts of least value small ; and the general figure
is compact and nicely proportioned.

7 •

100 THE DISEASES AJS'D DISORDERS OF THE OX.

The breed has greatly improved since Mr. Aiton described it.
The animals have short legs, the neck is a little thicker at the
shoulder, but finely shaped towards the head; the horns are
smaller than those of the Highlanders, but clear and smooth,
pointing forwards, turning upwards, and tapering to a point.
They are deep in the carcase, but not round and ample, and par-
ticularly not so in the loins and liaunches. An Ayrshire cow
may give on an average as much as five gallons of milk daily
for two or three months after calving. Then for the next three
months she may give three gallons daily, and for the four months
following this about one gallon and a half. The average quan-
tity per year from each cow may be about 600 gallons, worth, if
sold as new milk, say, 8d. per gallon, or i620 per annum. The
profit may be greater if the milk is used for fattening calves, or
perhaps if converted into butter or cheese. Three and a half
gallons of this milk will yield about a pound of butter (country
weight). When one gallon of -water is added to four of milk,
the butter-milk will sell at 2d. per gallon.

The Ayrshire cattle feed profitably, and their meat is of good
quality. When an Ayrshire cow is sent to England, she loses-
her superiority as a milker, and begins to accumulate flesh.

In the Eastern Counties, where arable farming and the rear-
ing and feeding of cattle are mainly pursued, the Ayrshire gives
place to the Aberdeen, the Angus, and the Teeswater. The cow
is there selected on account of its square and massive frame, soft
skin, and fine meat-producing qualities. The animals of the
Shetland breed are very small and hardy, and noted for the
fine quality of their beef. They are easily fattened, even on
scanty pastures, and their diminutive size being considered^
the quantity of the milk they yield is very large.

THE POLLED OR HORNLESS CATTLE.

Hornless or polled cattle are met with in tlie counties
of SuHolk and Norfolk and alsi> in Galloway, whence they
originally came.

Now it appears to be the case that the remnants of two dis-
tinct breeds of cattle are found in the parks of Chillingham, in
Northumberland, and of Chatelherault, in Lanarkshire. One
of these consists of middle-horned and the other of polled cattle.
The former of these are to be traced in the Devon, the Hereford,

I
1

DrrrERENT breeds or oxen. ]01

the Sussex, and the Highland cattle, while the latter are repre-
sented by the uxen of Galloway, by the Angus Humlies, the
Suffolks, and the Norfolks.

The Suffolk Dun is a hornless breed, being, in fact, the only true
hornless breed found in England, and it is supposed to have been
derived from the polled breeds of Scotland. These animals are
clumsy in form, and they are of but little value to the grazier,
although they yield a very large quantity of milk and are, in
fact, noted for their dairy produce, their rich milk, butter, and
cheese. The colour is light dun or yellowish cream, light red,
or red and white. The carcase is usually rather narrow and flat,
the legs are short and thin, the ribs are well arched, the belly is
heavy, the chine thin and hollow, and the loins are narrow. The
head and throat are nicely proportioned, and the dewlap is not
large. The udder is large and square, and the milk veins are large -
The skin is fine, and the hair is of a silky texture. The Suffolk
cow presents an angular or bony appearance, and does not display
the fine rounded outlines of the Shorthorn, the Devon, and the
Hereford. When dried, and fed on liberal diet, the cow is capable
of being quickly fattened, and it is probable that the breed
might be more widely utilised for our dairies, both as a distinct
breed and for crossing purposes.

Galloway. — As late as the middle of the last century the
greater number of the Galloway cattle were horned. They were
middlehorns, but some of them were polled. For more than
150 years the surplus cattle of Galloway had been sent far into
England, and principally to the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk.
The polled beasts were always liked by the English farmers.
They fatten well, attain a large size, and they are not at all
wild and fierce. The horned breed was at length quite super-
seded by the polled, except that now and again a few of the
Oalloways might have diminutive horns; but these were attached
to the skin and not to the skull.

The Galloway cattle are straight and broad in the back and
nearly level from the head to the rump. They are round in the
ribs, and between the shoulders and the ribs, and between the ribs
and the loins. They are broad in the loin without having large
projecting hook-bones. They show a roundness of barrel and a
fulness of ribs. When looked at from above, the whole body
looks beautifully rounded. They are long in the quarters and

102 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

ribs and deep in the chest. There is less space between the
hook or hip-bones and the ribs than in most other breeds, so
that there is as little space as possible lost in the flank.

The Galloway has short legs, and moderately fine shank
bones. The leg is just strong enough to preserve the hardihood
of the animal. The neck is thick, the head rather heavy, and
the eyes are not prominent. The ears are large, rough, and full
of long hair on the inside. The skin is loose, mellow, and of
medium thickness, and the hair is long, soft, and silky. The
skin is thinner than that of the Leicestershire, but not so fine
as that of the improved Durham, breed, albeit it is soft to
the touch. Most of these cattle are black, a few are dark
brindled brown, and still fewer are speckled with white spots.
Some are of a dun or drab colour, which may, perhaps, have been
acquired from a cross with the Sufi'olk breed of cattle. Those
which are dark in colour are preferred. According to Mr. Culley,
these cattle resemble the longhorns both in colour and shape ex-
cepting in the fact that they have no horns. Their form is shorter,
and their weight less. Their hides stand midway between those
of the longhorns and those of the shorthorns, in being not so
thick as the former, and not so thin as the latter. They put on
fat in the best parts, and their beef is well marbled or mixed
with fat. They are for the most part bred upon the moors or
hilly country in Galloway, until rising four or five years old,
when they are taken to the fairs in Norfolk and Suffolk, pre-
viously to the time for being fed on turnips. The greater num-
ber of them are then removed when fat, in the winter and spring,
to the London meat-market. It is estimated that more than
30,000 of them are annually sent to the south. In the few dis-
tricts of Galloway where cows are introduced they are of the
Ayrshire breed, which are much better milkers than are the
Galloway cows. The calves are reared in a manner wliich is
peculiar to Galloway, being permitted to suck the mother more
or less, beginning from the time when they are born, and
continuing to suck as long as she gives milk. For the first four
or five months they are allowed a liberal supply both morning
and evening, usually more than half the milk of the cow. The
dairymaid takes the milk from the teats on one side, while the
calf di-aws it at the same time and exclusively from the other
side. When the calf begins to graze a little, and is turned upon

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF OXEN. 103

the best young grass on the farm, it is not allowed to suck
for so long a time. In winter the calf is housed during the
night, and fed upon hay with a few turnips or potatoes ; for, if
stinted during the first fifteen months, the animal docs not attain
the natural size^ nor does it feed so well afterwards. The
Galloway farmer holds that an ostensible difference can be dis-
cerned betwixt the calf that sucks its dam and another fed from
the pail ; that while the coat of the former is sleek and glossy,
indicating healthy the hide of the other is dry and hard, and that
this unthrifty appearance is not removed until some time after
the animal has been weaned and fed entirely on grass, and,
finally, that a calf fed from the pail is more liable to die of
stomach complaints than one brought up according to the
method above described. The calves should be born in the
latter part of winter or the beginning of spring. Rarely do
the Gralloway breeders sell their calves for veal. The Galloway
cows do not give a great quantity of milk ; but that which they
do give is rich in quality, and yields a large proportion of butter.
The average amount of milk given by a Galloway cow is about
seven quarts per day during the five summer months after feed-
ing her calf. During the next four months she does not give
more than half that quantity, and for two or three months she
is dry. Young Galloway cattle are said to be especially liable to
two diseases known as redwater and quarter-evil respectively.
The former disease is dealt with by administering a few doses of
Epsom salts at an early period, and then removing the young
animal to good young grass where the land has been recently
limed. The latter disease is best dealt with by setoning the
animals as a preventive. When the Galloways are two years of
age, they are, as a rule, hardy animals.

There is probably no breed of cattle which can with greater
truth be said to be indigenous to the country and incapable of
improvement by any foreign stock than the Galloways. The
shorthorns have almost everywhere else improved the cattle of
the district into which they have been taken, at least in the first
cross. Evei\ in the first cross, however, the shorthorns have
done but little good in Galloway, and as a permanent mixture
the choicest shorthorn bulls have obviously failed. It seems that
the Galloway cattle can only be improved by adherence to the
pure breed, and by careful selection of the best animals of both

104 THE DISEASES AND DISOEPEKS OF THE OX.

sexes. These cattle are very docile, and it is even rare to find
a bull furious or troublesome.

The cattle of Dumfries are also polled.

There have always been some polled cattle also in Angus.

The Norfolk cattle and those of Suffolk are also polled.

THE IRISH CATTLE AND THE LONGHORNS.

Having now briefly considered both the middlehorns and the
polled cattle, we pass on next to a very cursory description of
the Irish cattle, Ireland is noted for the far-famed Kerry cow
as well as for other kinds of cattle ; and to some districts of
Ireland the English shorthorns have been brought, greatly to
the improvement of the herds previously present therein. There
are two distinct breeds of Irish cattle — namely, the middle-
horns and the longhorns. It is clear that the former of these
are an aboriginal breed. They occur on the mountains and in
the ruder parts of the country, being met with in almost every
district. They are small, light, wild, and active, animals. The
head is frequently small, but not small in the case of the cattle
of every district. Some Irish cattle have thick heads and necks.
As the name middlehorns leads us to infer, the horns of the
cattle so designated are shorter than those of the other breed.
They are also fine, some are somewhat upright, and after pro-
jecting forward they may in many cases turn backwards. Al-
though a little deticient in the hind quarters, these oxen are
high-boned, and wide over the hips; but the bone generally is
not heavy. The hair is coarse and long. In some places the
cattle are black, in others brindled, and in others black or
brindled with white faces. Some are finer in the bone and finer
in the neck, have a good eye and a sharp muzzle, and are very
active.

They are very hardy animals, and may gain flesh even in the
winter time on their native mountains and moors. When taken
to a better climate and a more fertile soil, they fatten with great
rapidity like the aboriginal cattle of Wales and the Highlands.
They are, as a rule, very good milkers, and may be even excel-
lent in this respect. When they have much of the Kerry blood
in them, ihey are very wild, and can leap even the highest fences
and the broadest ditches.

The Kerry cow lives well almost everywhere, yields a great

DIFPEBENT BREEDS OF OXEN. 105

amount of milk, and fattens rapidly when fed with that end
in view. The Kerry cow is of a black, or greyish colour, and
may be brindled, is a good supplier of milk, and a very remunera-
tive, hardy, and active little animal. The head is finely made and
of small dimensions, the eyes are bright, the horns short and
turned upwards. The body is rather round and long, the legs
are short, the hind quarters are light but high-boned, and the
animal is wide across the hips. The Kerry cow differs both
from the larger and the smaller longhorned Irish bi'eed and
from the North Devon middlehorned cow by the cloddiness
about the shoulders, and the shortness and thickness of the
lower part of the neck. These cattle are usually small, and con-
fined to the hilly and moory grounds, or to the more restricted
area of the cottager and small farmer. This breed is composed
of cattle of considerable size in Connaught, and these are im-
proved in form as well as in weight. The horns are generally of
middle length and turn upwards, as also do the horns of the cattle
on the mountains; but they are shorter in the leg, and shorter
in the body. Their loins and haunches are heavy and wide, the
hair is thick, the hide is mellow, and they thrive more quickly
than any other breed.

The other breed is of a larger size, and (iomposed of the
old or partially improved Craven, or Lancashire beasts, the
Longhorns.

They very closely resemble the English longhorns, and have
been materially improved by having been crossed with them ;
but it is very difficult to say whether Ireland or England was
the native country of this breed. Thousands of Irish beasts
annually traverse almost every part of Great Britain, from Port
Patrick to the Thames, and it is quite possible that the English
longhorns sprung from some of the Irish ones which stopped
at different places in the course of their journey.

Almost every county and barony of Ireland had its zealous
and successful improver of the native breed, until, in the richer
and more highly cultivated districts, the cattle became as large
and as perfect as any which the Midland districts of England
could produce. Possibly, however, there were two distinct
breeds of long-horned cattle. At any rate at the present time
there are two kinds of cattle in Ireland possessing quite difi'e-
rent characters. The larger are greatly preferable to the smaller

106 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OE THE OX.

kind of Irish longhorns. These latter possess very long horns,
clumsy heads, large bones and thick hides, bulky dewlap, and,
in fact, they have many defects. Thousands of these, and more
perhaps than of the improved breed, are brought to the midland
counties of England, in order to be prepared for the Metro-
politan market. They vary greatly in regard to the way in
which they thrive. In the course of time the English long-
horns began to lose ground even in their native county, in
proportion as the improved shorthorn cattle began to attract
the attention of the breeder, owing to their propensity to fatten
and the comparatively early period at which they arrived at
maturity. The agriculturists of Ireland quickly availed them-
selves of the method of improving the Irish cattle by introducing
the shorthorns. The pure shorthorn, or the first cross of long-
horn and shorthorn weighed as much at three years old as a pure
longhorn at five. The breed, however, rapidly degenerated; but
more systematic and more successful attempts have been made
to introduce the shorthorn blood.

Before the establishment of steam navigation, many difficul-
ties attended the transport of the Irish cattle. Formerly many
were driven even as much as 150 miles to the coast, where, if
the wind was contrary, they were detained, perhaps several days,
being allowed but very little food during the time of their
stay. No food was given to them on the voyage, and when
they arrived at the English shore they were often so weak,
owing to want of food, that they could not walk. In these
days, however, a steam packet with a cargo of fat cattle will
leave Ireland one day, and have delivered on the next day.
Again, cattle may now be slaughtered in the evening at any of
the ports on the eastern coasts of Ireland and sent to Liverpool,
and even to Manchester in time for the next day's market.
The old breed of Irish cattle is most valued for the dairy, since
they give, in proportion to their size, a much greater amount of
milk than the longhorns do, and it is, moreover, richer in butter.
A cow gives about 98 lbs. of butter per year. A very good
cow will yield 1^ cwt., about half of which quantity is con-
sumed by the family or in the country, while the remainder is
exported to England. Very little cheese is made in Ireland,
and that which is produced there is usually of an inferior
quality.

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF OXEN. 107

We next proceed to give our readers a very brief description
of the English longhorus. The earliest records inform us that a
peculiar and valuable breed of cattle, the horns of which were
very long, existed in the district of Craven, a fertile corner of
the West Riding of Yorkshire, bordering on Lancashire. These
longhorned cattle gradually spread along the Western coast of
England, and, after they had been greatly improved by a well-
known breeder called Bakewell, tliey gradually established a
footing throughout the greater part of the midland counties.
At the present time they are rapidly being replaced by the short-
horns. As their name implies, these longhorned cattle are
easily distinguishable by the great length, and sometimes also
by the cumbersome form, of their horns. In the animals of
the old Craven breed the horns often projected in a nearly hori-
zontal direction on each side. However, in the case of the
improved Cravens, which are very valuable animals, the horns
either grew downwards in a perpendicular direction, thereby
rendering the act of grazing a difficult operation, or else in a
curved form so as to present an appearance as if they were about
to meet or cross in front of the muzzle, and thereby also hinder
the animal in the process of grazing, or altogether prevent it
from doing so. Or perhaps they might look as if about to
grow down beneath the under jaw so as to lock it, or as if they
were about to pierce the bones of the nose, or certain other
parts of the face. The horns first take an outward direction,
then curve and may return towards the face. In this connec-
tion we may say that the growth of the teeth in certain rodents
presents some resemblance to this.

Most of the modern English longhorns are possessed of
long, spreading, and sometimes drooping horns. They are
dark red and brindled in colour, white along the back, have
good coats of hair and rather coarse bones, are fairly symmetrical
in build, have a great amount of flesh along the back, a capacity
of attaining great v?eight, and of sound and rather rapid
feeding. Even the Craven group, however, like the whole of
the Irish longhorns, though with no such" wide difference of
value, are divisible into two great and very distinct sections.
The smaller Cravens inhabit the moorlands and hills, are hardy,
and easily kept, yield a great quantity of excellent milk, and
quickly fatten when put upon rich pasture. They are, as a matter

108 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

of course, greatly prized by cottagers and those who have small
farms, on account of the small expense at which they can be
kept, the rather large amount of excellent milk which they
supply, and the rapid rate at which they fatten when placed on
good pasturage. On the other hand, the larger cows of the
Craven breed, which occupy lower, more level, and richer
soil, are fairly good in regard to the supply of milk, albeit
that they are not equal to the smaller Cravens in this respect
in proportion to their size and the quantity and quality of
the food they take. They have a special tendency to fatten
at a rapid rate, and they acquire a large bulk, which is
scarcely less, in fact, than that of the shorthorns of the present
day.

Now, as either of these two kinds of Craven cattle found
their way to other districts, they were mixed to some extent
with the native cattle, and also gradually became adapted to the
changed conditions of climate, soil, and environment — in short,
to their new surroundings. Consequently the cattle of Cheshire,
those of Derbyshire, of Nottinghamshire, of Staffordshire, of
Oxfordshire, and of Wiltshire, were all essentially longhorns ;
but each variety developed in course of time its own distin-
guishing features, which seemed to adapt it for its own particu-
lar situation. On the other hand, the old breed of longhorns
remained much the same. It was formerly the case that the
cattle of this breed were preferred to every other breed ; but at
the present time they are known to be inferior to the short-
horns, and from the point of view of the flesh they yield they are
not equal to any one of several Scotch breeds.

Robert Bakewell, who was borne at Dishley, in Leicester-
shire, in the year 1725, was, as we have above said, the chief
improver of the longhorns. The most general principle which
guided him was probably beauty of form. This point was more
closely attended to at the outset than at present, practical men
now ni;iking a distinction between a useful sort and one which
is merely handsome. Evidently, utility of form is more impor-
tant than beauty of form; and the parts which make offal should,
so far as is consistent with all desirable powers of constitution
and so forth, be small in proportion to the better parts. Again,
the grain of the meat depends wholly on the breed, aud not on
the size of an animal, and one important point is the power to

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF OXEN. 109'

acquire fat at an early age and rapidly, a quality which has been
found to be hereditary.

It appears, iu fact, to have been Bakewell's opinion that all
depends upon the breed and the beauty and utility of the form^
the quality of the flesh and the propensity to fatten on the part
of the ofl'spring being the natural consequence of similar qualities
in the parents. Mr. Bakewell's plan was to unite the superior
branches of the sarae breed. The rapidity of the improvement
which he effected was only equalled by its extent. His stock
was unsurpassed for roundness of form, smallness of bone, and
aptitude to acquire external fat ; but at the same time their
milk-producing qualities were considerably lessened. Other
breeders also aided in improving the longhorned oxen. The
result was that in the districts in which the experiments were
tried a breed of cattle, equalled by few and excelled by none but
the Herefords, was produced. In fact, the whole breed of the
longhorns was improved. The cattle of Lancashire, Derbyshire,
and Staffordshire became, and still are, an improved race, and
they got rid of a portion of their coarse bone. They put on flesh
and fat in the more suitable situations, they became mature at a
somewhat earlier age, and the dairy cattle to some extent
acquired a tendency to convert their food into milk while milk
was wanted, and after that to use the same nourishment for the
accumulation of flesh and fat. The Irish breeders owe every-
thing to the new Leicester cattle, and indeed a new stock has
arisen since the improved longhorns were grafted on the native
Irish stock.

The principle on which Mr. Bakewell seemed to act in breed-
ing so closely in-and-in was a novel, bold, and successful one.
He had a large stock on which to work, and no one knew what
were his occasional deviations from this rule, nor how he skilfully
interposed remoter affinities when he saw or apprehended danger.
When the masters of that day had disappeared, the character
of this breed began to deteriorate slowly, and, in fact, so refined
were many of them that the propagation of the variety was not
always certain. Moreover, the improved aliorthorns began to
occupy the banks of the Tees, they presented greater bulk, equal
aptitude to fatten, and they arrived at maturity at an earlier age.

The county of Westmoreland had been the native land of the
longhorns ; but even in that county the shorthorns made good

llO THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

their footing, spread, established themselves, and in a manner
superseded the longhorns. They found their way to southern
districts, mingled with the native breeds, and it was found that
a cross from them usually increased the amount of milk, the
aptitude to fatten, and the earliness of maturity. The advantages
of the improved longhorns remained ; but the breed itself gradu-
ally diminished. In some places it almost disappeared ; and at
the present time, and even in Leicestershire, the shorthorns are
fast driving the longhorns from the field. To the historian it
might almost seem as if some dread scourge had suddenly swept
away the whole of this valuable breed.

THE SHORTHORNS.

As the name itself manifestly implies, the famous breed of
cattle known as the " Shorthorn " is characterised by the fact
that the animals so-called have shorter horns than almost any
other kind of oxen. They possess, in a high degree, a rare
combination of good qualities, being very attractive to the eye
by reason of their splendid frames and beautiful and varied
colours. These animals were first produced at the beginning of
the nineteenth century, having been originally bred in East
York and afterwards greatly improved in the county of Durham.
In fact, these two counties of York and Durham have for a long
time been noted for their shorthorns, which were remarkable, in
the first instance, principally on account of their great capabili-
ties iu regard to the supply of milk. From this district these
oxen have spread very extensively both in England and in Scot-
land, and they are now met with in nearly all the best grazing
districts. At first the shorthorns were usually large, thin-
skinned, sleek, delicate, coarse in the oflal, and rather deficient
in the fore- quarters. They were good milkers but slow feeders,
and their meat was inferior, not marbled, and rather dark in
colour. The shorthorns which have not been improved at the
present day are very similar to the original shorthorns. After
the lapse of eighty years the shorthorns existing near the banks of
the river Tees — on this account denominated the Teeswater breed
- — had assumed characters very different from those above de-
scribed. They were occasionally red, red and white, and roan,
although the last-named colour was at that time not so prevalent

I

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF OXEN. Ill

as it now is. They possessed a fine mellow skin and flesh, good
hair, light offal, very wide carcases, and very deep and large
fore-quarters. No doubt the judicious and careful breeders who
dwelt on the banks of the river Tees crossed the original short-
horns with other breeds, and it is very possible that one of these
was the white wild breed.

A great many persons might be mentioned as having been
connected with the breeding of shorthorns ; but we may merely
refer to Mr. George Coates, the author of The Shorthorn Herd
Book. This gentleman was very highly successful, but he cer-
tainly made one mistake in not liking to cross his own stock
with that of other breeders.

One of the chief characteristics of the shorthorns is that they
arrive at maturity at an early age. Their capability of con-
tinuing their growth has excited the wonder and approval of all
"who have had to do with them. Not only are they fairly good
in regard to milk supply, but they also possess the power of
fattening rapidly. Indeed, the latter capacity is so marked, and
the improvement in the carcase of the shorthorn has been so
surprising, that many persons have allowed that point to occupy
their entire attention, and hence the supply of milk having been
neglected has fallen off in consequence. Nevertheless, there are
to be met with, improved shorthorns, i.e. shorthorns which have
been very carefully bred, which are not only very suitable for
grazing purposes, but also possessed of most valuable dairy
properties. Some of the best-bred shorthorn cows may yield
upwards of four gallons of milk night and morning, and may
give even as much as 20 lbs. of butter per week.

Many excellent beasts have been bred from improved short-
horn bulls and longhorn cows, especially those of Devon. A
friend of Mr. C. H. Bolton bred with shorthorn bulls from
about a dozen North Devon cows of small size but nice quality,
and the consequence was that all his stock were good milkers.
It is said that occasionally shorthorn bulls may be moderately
worked with advantage ; but, as a rule, shorthorns, which are
as profitably consigned to the butcher at t-,TO years old as other
kinds of cattle at four, ought not to be placed in the yoke.

The shorthorns are now very carefully looked after, and they
are more particularly bred in the northern counties and in
Lincolnshire. It may, in fact, be said that they are the best

112 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

cattle found in Great Britain, and hence we are not surprised
that these English shorthorns are met with in many parts of the
Continent of Europe and also in America and elsewhere. Eor
more than a hundred years the greatest care has been taken to
improve the breed. Genealogies have been recorded, and the
pedigrees of both sires and dams can be traced back for many
generations ; and the enormous sums of money at which first-
rate bulls and cows of this breed sell, show in what estimation
shorthorns which are nearly perfect are held. The colour varies
from pure white to bright red, and it may be dark red, red and
white, or roan. If any black hue is apparent, it is due to an ad-
mixture of other breeds. The improved shorthorns may, then,
be said to be red or white, or red and white combined in various
degrees. It is highly probable that the white colour arose in the
first instance from a cross at an early date with the wild white
breed. The tip of the ear in the case of the white shorthorn, like
the extremity of the ear in the wild oxen^ is characterised by a red
tinge. The head is short and very broad, the chest is wide and
deep, and projects forward. The fore-legs are short, the back is
straight but not very long, and the barrel is full. The animals
of this breed are capable of being very readily fattened, and their
beef is of a very excellent quality. On the other hand, the
shorthorn cows are not so valuable from the point of view of
the dairy as are some other breeds. One good point about the
shorthorns is that they impart their excellent qualities to their
offspring when they are crossed with animals of other breeds.
The progeny which results from such crossing possesses the
capability of being very easily fattened and of growing to a
large size. By way of illustration of this, it may be said
that a cross between a shorthorn bull and an Ayrshire cow gives
rise to offspring which are valuable at once in regard to their
beef and also in respect to the supply of milk. Moreover,
another point of excellence possessed by the shorthorns is that
these animals can readily adapt themselves to different condi-
tions of place and soil, and they are also capable of being readily
fattened. In Lincolnshire and other districts where the pasture-
land is rich, the first batch of large oxen can be removed from
pasture in June, and the next lot before the beginning of winter.
However, as a rule, the shorthorn cows, as we have said above,
are not good suppliers of milk, the milk being only moderate in

DIFFEEENT BREEDS OF OXEN. 113

amount, of very variable quality, and only seldom given for a
long period. For three months they may yield an abundant
supply, then the amount may suddenly be reduced to half the
previous quantity, and soon they may yield none at all. Few
shorthorn cows give milk for longer time than about seven and
a half mouths. However, after they have been used for the pur-
poses of the dairy they can in the general way be quickly fattened
for the meat market.

We may now briefly give the characters of a milch-cow which
is valuable for the dairy and capable of afterwards being quickly
made ready for the market. The head should be long and rather
small ; the eye should be bright, but yet it should manifest a
placid expression ; the chaps should be thin, and the horns
small; the neck may be thin where it joins the head, but it
ought soon to thicken a little, and particularly as it approaches
the shoulder ; the dewlap should be small, the breast ought by
no means to be narrow, and, on the other hand, it ought to pro-
ject in front of the legs; the chine may be slightly fleshy and
even full ; the girth behind the shoulder ought to be deeper
than it generally is in the cows of the shorthorn breed ; the ribs
ought to spread out widely so as to impart a globular form to
the carcase, and each successive rib should project out more
markedly than its predecessor as far as the loins. The cow
should be well formed and symmetrically proportioned across the
hips and on the rump, and there ought to be greater length in
that part than is usually the case in milch-cows. The thighs,
should be somewhat thin and slightly crooked or sickle-hammed.
As for the tail, its upper part ought to be thick, but it should
taper below. The hide should be mellow ; the milk-veins ought
to be large, inasmuch as large milk-veins indicate good power
of secretion of milk. The udder likewise should be large; but,
on the other hand, that organ may be too large. In fact, the
udder ought to be sufficiently capacious to contain the correct
amount of milk ; but if it be too bulky, one might suspect that
it may be thickened or loaded with fat. The skin of the udder
ought to be thin and free from lumps througho-Qt its whole extent.
As for the teats, they should be of moderate size, situated at
equal distances apart from each other, and they ought to be of
an equal size from the udder almost to their extremity, at which,
however, they should run to a kind of point. If they are too

114 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

large near the udder, they allow the milk to flow down too freely
from the bag, and then that fluid is lodged in them. Sometimes
they may be too broad at the end; and, indeed, the orifice may
be so large that the cow cannot retain her milk when the bag
begins to be full. Moreover, the hinder part of the udder ought
to be of a size nearly equal to the front portion of it. Perhaps
the udder should be a little broader and fuller in front than it
is behind.

The following -well-known doggerel lines describe the points
of a good cow.

She 's long in her face, she 's fine in her horn,
She '11 quickly get fat Tnthout cake or corn ;
She 's clean in her jaws, and full in her chine.
She 's heavT in flank, and wide in her loin.

She's broad in her ribs, and long in her rump,
A straight and fiat back, without ever a hump ;
She 's wide in her hips, and calm in her eyes,
She 's fine in her shoulders, and thin in her thighs.

She 's light in her neck, and small in her tail,
She 's wide in her breast, and good at the pail ;
She's fine in her bone, and silky of skin —
She 's a grazier's without, and a butcher's within.

Some of these shorthorn cows give in the beginning of
sunnier as much as thirty quarts per day, and sometimes, thongh
rardv, they have been known to yield as mucli as thirty-six
quarts. The average amount may be estimated at about twenty-
three quarts. It seems that the shorthorn cows are not so very
good in regard to butter, and also tiiat they improve in that
respect as they grow older.

FOREIGN BREEDS OF CATTLE.
Alherney Cattle. — There are two kinds of so-called Alderney
cattle, namely, those which come from Normandy, are larger,
niMl have a superior tendency to fatten, and secondly, those
vhicli are imported from the ishinds on the Frencli coast.
Wl.ctlit r from the continent or from tlie islands, tliey all, when
in England, psiss under the name of .Altlerneys. 'I'liese crumpk'd-
hfrn,or .Alderney, canle are fiirt with on the souiliern coast, and,
in smnlKr numbers, in gentlemen's paiks and pleasure-grounds
in nil pints. Tliey are similar to the caiileof Ayrshire in certain
p(/inlb ; iliiir milk is comparaiivt ly smail in quauiity, but noted

DIFFERENT BREEDS OF OXEN. 115

for its rich cream, for which reason Alderney cows are often kept
for private dairies. If the milk of an Alderney cow be mixed
with that of a dozen other cows, the butter will be of better
quality. As a set-ofi" against their excellent milk-giving pro-
perties, the Alderneys are useless for grazing purposes. With
the exception of the county of Hampshire, they are kept scarcely
anywhere but in the parks of the rich, by whom they are prized
on account of the exceptionally-fine quality of their milk and the
large amount of butter which it yields, occasionally, perhaps,
also on account of the smallness of these animals. According to
John Lawrence they are light-red, yellow, dun, or fawn-coloured,
short, wild-horned, deer-necked, thin, and small-boned, and
irregularly, and often very awkwardly, shaped. The Alderney
has a voracious appetite, but yields very little milk, although
that little is, as we have said, of exceptionally excellent quality,
and is capable of producing a greater quantity of butter than can
be obtained from the milk of any other kind of cow. On the
coast of Hampshire, where these Alderneys can be very readily
procured, they are much sought after. A good point about the
cows is that when they have been dried they fatten with great
rapidity. This is scarcely what might be expected if we con-
sider their gaunt appearance. Some persons have been disposed
to believe that the Norman cattle have had something to do with
the improvement of the shorthorn breed.

Of East Indian cattle several varieties have been imported,
and attempts have been made to naturalise them.

Of the Nagore cattle, a bull and cow, the property of Henry
Perkins, Esq., were exhibited in the year 1832 at the Christmas
cattle show, at which they attracted much attention. They are
not buffaloes, but belong to the highest breed of Indian cattle.
In India they are employed by the higher classes for the purpose
of drawing their state carriages, and, being greatly valued for
their size, speed, and endurance, they fetch very high prices.
Colonel Skinner, who bred these animals, possessed a great num-
ber, and six or seven of them were always kept ready saddled in
order to carry the military despatches. They-can carry a soldier
on their backs for fifteen or sixteen hours in the day, travelling
at the rate of six miles an hour. Tlieir action is said to be very
fine, and they bring down their hind legs under them in as
straight a direction as the horse does. They are, moreover, very

8 *

116 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

active^ and can clear a five-barred gate with the greatest ease.
Mr. Perkins possessed a calf which leaped over an iron fence
higher than any five-barred gate ; and the bull frequently
jumped over the same fence in order to get to the water, and,
when he had drunk his fill, leaped back again.

The bull (Jupiter) was in high condition when exhibited. He
was employed in a light cart in various jobs about the farm, and
drew the light roller over the ploughed laud, being docile and
tractable when one particular man drove him and attended upon
him ; but he now and then showed symptoms of dislike to others.
He was fed entirely on hay, except that when he worked, a little
bran was given to him, and in the turnip season he was treated
now and again with a few slices of swedes, of which he was very
fond. At first it was very difficult to shoe him ; and it was
necessary to erect a break in order to confine him for that pur-
pose. He liked being noticed, and frequently, when he was
lying down, if anyone to whom he was accustomed went and
sat down upon him and stroked him over the face, he would turn
round and put his head on their lap, and lie there contentedly for
a long time. These Brahmin bulls are very strong and swift
animals. The cow was out at grass with the milch cows, and up
with them morning and evening when they were driven to be
milked ; but she was not milked, on account of the probable
danger of the attempt. Two calves were bred from them.

Buffalo and Indian Cattle. — The Duke of Northumber-
land has a fine breed of buffalo cattle in his picturesque park at
Alnwick. They are not of the pure Indian breed, but have been
crossed with the Highland kyloe, the original bull having died
soon after their arrival a^Alnwick. There were about thirty of
them, and only one or two bulls were allowed to be among them
at one time. They have promiscuously bred among each other,
care being taken to preserve those for breeders which possessed
a rather large characteristic hump on the shoulder. They are
treated in great measure like the other cattle, except that it has
been thought wise not to handle them. During severe weather
they have a hovel to run into, and although they do not seem to
bear the cold weather so well as one kind of the progenitors —
the Kyloes — they are usually very healthv.

When the calves are dropped, the mother endeavours to secrete
them in the long grass for a few days, like other wild cattle, so

DIFFERENT BREEDS OP OXEN. 117

that the herdsman has to watch the place and a favourable oppor-
tunity to castrate or spay them. They graze well, the young
ones getting into excellent condition in the summer. They lose
flesh in the winter, yet by the time they are killed towards the
close of the year, when four or five years old, they give very
good beef. The meat is finely marbled and well flavoured.

In Wentworth Park, the chief seat of Earl Fitzwilliam, there
is a herd of very fine Indian cattle. They were presented to Lord
Rockingham by Mr. Verelst, who was at that time Governor of
Bengal. Their meat is not very pleasant to everyone's taste.
Some of the calves were castrated ; but they did not seem to
thrive so well as those that were left in their natural state. In
winter they are driven into a yard provided with sheds ; for they
would almost starve in the open ground.

Another variety of cattle is met with in the Roman States.
These oxen are generally of a bluish ash colour, and they are
possessed of very large and spreading horns.

A large white breed was for a long time kept in Egypt, and a
similar breed, devoid of the hump, characteristic of the Indian
ox, is met with in South Africa, in which country, however, it
has become partially intermixed with European breeds. The
Kafirs, and, indeed, also the white inhabitants of South Africa,
employ oxen very extensively as beasts of burden, and in former
times they were even trained by the Hottentots to aid them in
battle. In fact, the intelligence of the South African ox may in
these cases even exceed that of the horse and even the sagacity
of the dog. Peter Kolben, in his account of the Cape of Good
Hope, written in the year 1705, gives a description of these
trained fighting oxen called backeleyers. It appears that their
oxen are the faithful servants and companions of the Hottentots
— of whom not very many are now extant — the sharers alike of
their pleasures and of their fatigues. They are at once the
protectors and the servants of the Kafir, and help him to tend
his flocks and to guard them against invaders. While the sheep
are grazing, the faithful backely — so this kind of ox is designated
— stands and grazes beside them, and, attentive to the looks and
directions of its master, hastens now and again round the field,
keeping the straying sheep within their proper limits, and showing
not the lef St mercy to robbers nor even to harmless strangers
who may happen to be nigh at hand. Moreover, an army of

118 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

Hottentots contains a herd of these creatures, which, when
let loose against the enemy, overturn men and everything
in their way, striking with their horns and trampling with their
feet everyone who opposes them, and frequently procuring for
their masters an easy victory. In the internecine wars of the
Hottentots one with another these animals (backeleyers) work
terrible havoc, goring and kicking and trampling to death with
almost incredible fury. They are, however, while not excited in
the struggle, very docile creatures, and personally know every
inhabitant of the kraal, being quite harmless to them, but, on
the contrary, very ferocious towards, and ready to run with fury
at, any strangers. The backely lives in the same cottage as it&
master, for whom the animal displays feelings of affection.
When the creature dies, a new backely is selected to succeed him
by a council composed of the old men of the village. The newly-
selected backely is then placed with one of the veterans of his
own kind, and from him he learns his ar^ and is taken for the
term of his life into direct friendship by his master.

The readiness with which the draught oxen of South Africa
observe and obey the words of the driver is said to be very great,
although in the process of training them severe measures are
often required, particularly that of inserting a hooked stick
through the cartilage which separates the two nostrils. This
reminds us of our modern method of ringing bulls before sending
them to exhibitions of cattle. Moreover, oxen which have been
already trained are employed for the purpose of training younger
oxen. Again, in some parts of Africa the ox is employed for
riding as well as for draught. In this case the horns, which are
very long, are first split up into ribbons and shreds, or, perhaps,
curved in various directions, in order to obviate the possibility
of their points coming into contact with the person of the rider
in consequence of any untoward accident. The pace of an ox is
slow, seldom exceeding four and a half miles an hour. We may
conclude our brief review of foreign cattle by the observation
that some of the herds of oxen found in South America have a
skull of peculiar conformation, the bones of the nose and the
jaw-bones being very short.

119

CHAPTER ly.

GENERAL ACCODNT OF THE SHEEP.

" The Lord is my shepherd ; I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down
in green pastures ; he leadeth me beside the still waters." — Psalm xxiii. 1, 2.

We have now concluded our sketch of the various breeds of
cattle ; but so closely is the sheep connected with the ox that we
have determined to give some little attention to that animal also.
Indeed, when we came to deal with the diseases and disorders of
oxen, we found it next to impossible to refrain from discussing
those of the sheep, so netirly allied and so closely similar are
they. Hence we hope, in the pages which follow, to supply our
readers with the chief points regarding what is known concerning
the pathology of the sheep — that docile animal which was so well
tended and cared for by the patriarchs of the Old Testament
history, and also by their descendants who, in later times, took
delight in watching their flocks in Palestine by night. Indeed,
so greatly prized was the sheep in those primitive times that that
humble animal was compared by our Saviour to us human beings
in like manner provided for by the Almighty. This love of the
sheep, so characteristic of shepherds of all times and all nations,
happily still exists in the hearts of many shepherds of this
day.

In point of fact, there is great need for accurate information
concerning the chief ailments to which shelep are liable to be
subjected. Not only is it necessary for those who have to do
with sheep to guard against actually fatal issues, but they
should also strive to do all they can to avoid that weakening
of the geni;ral system of sheep which is unfortunately far too

120 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OP THE OX.

frequent; and although it may be observed that many of the risks
and dangers rather point to the necessity of prevention than to
that of cure, still a knowledge of the causes of loss and damage
is of primary moment, not only in so far as it bears upon the
question of prevention, but also inasmuch as it must and does
facilitate acquisition of an acquaintance v.'ith good and reliable
methods of treatment.

The subject now being entered upon has not as yet been
thoroughly worked out. It is true that some of the most usual
and best known disorders of sheep, such, for instance, as ver-
minous bronchitis, sheep-rot, sheep-scab, small-pox of sheep
{variola ovina), rheumatic arthritis (a disease which at times
seems to assume a peculiar epizootic form, the sheep hobbling
about with swollen hock and knee-joints, from which a greenish
fluid exudes if the joints are opened), braxy (in many cases iden-
tical with anthrax), the mild form of cattle plague which occurred
in English sheep at the time of the grave outbreak among oxen
in this country, foot-and-mouth disease of sheep, and other ovine
diseases are fairly well understood by specialists. But there are
other maladies with which the sheep is liable to be afflicted which
are not yet perfectly comprehended in regard to their origin and
the best means of prevention and cure. A great deal remains
unknown, and it is of paramount importance that connections
betwixt the diseases of sheep and those of other animals should
be well and carefully learnt. With respect to the more common
complaints, it may be said that they are very simihir to those
which occur in oxen, and that similar lines of treatment, but
with much smaller doses, are often indicated. The digestive
system being similarly constituted, and the sheep feeding on
similar food, the derangements of the alimentary mechanism are
also similar. For instance, should the rumen be found to be
engorged, a skilful veterinary surgeon may perform the operation
of rumenotomy in the sheep, as also in the case of the ox.

The sheep, like the ox, when debilitated, is, of course, very
frequently consigned to the butcher, and hence the advice of the
veterinarian in regard to what should be done must, as in the
case of oxen, be always given with this alternative very clearly
in view. Moreover the sheep, being necessarily a much less
valuable animal tlian an ox, in the general way cannot be treated
with the same degree of attention. It is very seldom that the

GENERAL ACCOUNT 01' THE SHEEP. 121

Teterinariau is called upon to treat sheep individually, for only
in the case of valuable breeding ewes or rams is it usually sup-
posed to be worth while to do so. As a rule his advice is sought
when a whole flock of sheep goes wrong, as frequently is the
case. Sometimes a flock of sheep may suffer from verminous
bronchitis, or they may be severely afflicted (especially lambs
and young sheep) with intestinal tapeworms, and sometimes with
divers other kinds of evils, e. g. those incident to ewes before
or at the lambing season, and so forth. The gadfly of the sheep
the (Bstriis ovis, is the source of terrible distress and torment.

That the sheep is liable to the attack of this fly, which deposits
its eggs in the nostrils of the unfortunate animal attacked, was
as well known in ancient as in modern times. Instinctively aware
of the presence of this insidious and dreaded enemy, the sheep
display the greatest terror at the sharp and menacing sound pro-
duced by the gadfly's wings as the insect sweeps through the air.
They congregate together, placing their heads almost in contact
with each other, snort, and paw the ground, and use all means in
their power to prevent the fly from accomplishing its fell pur-
pose. When a gadfly succeeds in attaining its aim, it rapidly
deposits an egg or two in the nostril, and then leaves them there.
The eggs are soon hatched, and the young larvae crawl up the
nostril towards the frontal sinus. There they remain until full
grown, when they crawl through the nostrils, fall on the ground,
burrow therein, and undergo their changes into the pupal and
perfect stages.

Again, sheep-scab is a far more important disease in the case
of the sheep than is scabies in other animals, on account of the
damage it does to the fleece. When we come to the consideration
of braxy, a name given to different diseases of sheep, one of
which is anthrax, we shall have to point out that the carcases of
sheep which have been afflicted with this latter malady should
never be used for human food. Further, when we come to
small-pox of sheep, we shall find that " the resemblance of this
disease to human small-pox is very remarkable, both in symp-
toms, mode of communication, and rate of- mortality " (Dr.
Gregory) ; and also that it sheds some valuable light on the
relations of that disease.

In nearly all cases of disease in sheep, both remedial and pre-
ventive measures have to be undertaken on a large scale. Some

122 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

of these we shall consider in due course. Now, however, we
proceed to give a very brief account of the sheep, having-
gathered some valuable hints from the well-known work on
" Bible Animals," by that deservedly popular and eminent writer
the Rev. J. G. Wood.

The sheep has been domesticated from the very earliest times.
In reading the Bible narrative we should recollect that the
pasture-lands of the East are of very wide extent, very much
more so than are the Downs and the Highlands, which m these
days afford examples of the mode of sheep-keeping described in
the Old Testament. Sir S. Baker, in his work on Abvssinia,
depicts a state of things wherein the Arab herdsmen of to-day
represent the Israelitish shepherds of old. The Arabs with their
goats and sheep gathering round the wells recall the recollec-
tion how "Jacob went on his journey, and came into the land of
the people of the East. And he looked, and behold a well
in the field, and lo ! there were three flocks of sheep lying
by it,'' &c. In fact, the present Arab daily life in the Nubian
deserts furnishes us with a picture of the past. In the days
spoken of in the early Scriptures the necessity of obtaining
water always occupied the shepherd's mind. We, living in this
climate of England, can scarcely appreciate this anxiety with
respect to the supply of water, and we mub^tbear in mind that not
only is there a scarcity of this needful fluid, but also that it is far
more urgently required than it is in temperate and moist coun-
tries. It has been recorded that men have sat down and died of
thirst, even when in sight of the river which, had they but pos-
sessed the strength to reach it, would have supplied them with
the water by which their lives might have been saved. We read
in the Bible narrative how Jacob, and how Moses two hundred
years after him, performed for maidens tending their fathers'^
flocks the courteous oflRce of drawing the water and pouring
it into the sheep-troughs, and how they both married tiie girls
to whose charge the flocks hud been in each case entrusted.
This brings us to the Oriental custom which has been preserved
to tlie present day. The wells at which the cattle are watered at
noon-day are the meeting-places of the tribe, and it is cliiefly at
the well that the young men and wouieu meet each other. As
each successive flock arrives at the well, the number of the people
increases, and wiiile the sheep and goats lie patiently around

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE SHEEP. 12S

the water waiting for the time when the last flock shall arrive
and the stone be rolled from ofl" the mouth of the well, the gos-
sip of the tribe is discussed, and the young people have ample
opportunity for the pleasing business of courtship.

" Passing his whole life with his flock the shepherd was identified
with his sheep far more than is the case in this country. He
knew all his sheep by sight ; he called them all by their names,
and they all knew him and recognised his voice. He did not
drive them, but he led them, walking in their front, and they
followed him. Sometimes he would play with them, pretending
to run away while they pursued him, and consequently they
looked upon him as their protector as well as their feeder, and
were sure to follow wherever he led them.'* (J. G. Wood.)

The shepherds of these days know their sheep by sight ; but
they cannot teach the sheep to recognise their names, though this
appears to be still done in Greece. Owing to the continual
moving of the sheep, the shepherd had very hard work during
the lambing time, and was obliged to carry in his arms the
young lambs which were too feeble to accompany their parents,
and to keep close to him those sheep which were expected soon
to become mothers. At that time of year the shepherd might
constantly be seen at the head of his flock, carrying one or two lambs
in his arms, accompanied by their mothers. The dogs were not
made the companions of man, as they now are among ourselves.
Crouching together outside the strongly-built sheep-fold, in little
knots of six or seven together, they detected the approach of wild
animals, and at the first sign of the wolf or the jackal barked
out a defiance, and scared away the invaders.

To the pastoral inhabitants of Palestine the sheep was, and
indeed still is, one of the chief sources of food, just as the ox
is to the pastoral inhabitants of South Africa. To ordinary
persons, however, it was a luxury seldom tasted, being used, for
instance, at marriage feasts or to welcome the advent of a guest
for whom a young male lamb or kid was slain and cooked.
Boiling was the method of cooking generally adopted. As all
know who have tasted it, the milk of the ewtTis very rich, and in
the East it is valued far more highly than is that of the cow. It
was, however, seldom drunk in the fresh state, but after it had
become sour, curdled, and semi-solid. At the present day this
custom still exists, the curdled milk being known under the

12 i THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

the name of " leben." Similarly, the Kafir tribes of South Africa
also live largely on curdled milk, which goes by the name
" amasi." The fresh milk is placed in a vessel which is never
entirely emptied of already curdled milk, whereby rapid curdling is
brought about. In England the milk of the sheep is scarcely
ever used ; but in Scotland, especially in the great sheep-feeding
districts, it is valued and specially employed for the making of
cheese.

In the ancient times nearly the whole of the clothing was made
of wool, and the wool would therefore be an article of great
value, so that we are not surprised to find that when the King
of Moab paid his tribute to the king of Israel it was carefully
specified that the sheep should not be shorn. Spinning the
wool was exclusively the task of the woman, as it was in this
country up to quite a recent time — a custom pointed to in the
use of the term ** spinster." Sometimes the shepherds and others
who lived in pastoral districts made for themselves coats of the
skins of the sheep, with the wool still adhering to them. The
custom extends to the present day, and even in many parts of
Europe the sheepskin dress of the shepherds is a familiar sight
to the traveller.

In our country we have done our best to produce a hornless
breed of sheep, on the idea that the nutriment is better expended
on the body and fleece ; bntin the East the horns form an im-
portant commodity, and are valued in proportion to their size.
The ram's horn was chiefly used as a vessel for carrying liquids
such as oil. A wooden plug was driven tightly into the larger end,
and often it was covered with raw hide, while a small part of the
pointed end was cut off, and the aperture closed with a small
stopper. The horn thus manipulated resembled the old powder-
horns which were formerly much used in England, and are even
now in vogue in Palestine and many other countries. Trumpets
made of ram's horns were ordered by the Mosaic law to be sounded
at certain times, and their notes formed an important part of the
ritual (Joshua vi.). At the present day one such trumpet at
least is found in every Jewish community, being kept by the mau
who has the privilege of blowing it.

No animal was used so frequently for sacrifice as the sheep.
The young male lamb was usually selected for this purpose, an
example of which is afforded by the sacrifice of the Paschal lamb,

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE SHEEP. 125

the precursor and type of the " Lamb of God who takcth away the
sins of the world."

Sheep are endowed with great powers of adaptation to different
conditions of climate ; they are found in all parts of the world,
and the management of them, of course, varies in accordance with
the characters of the environment to which they are subjected.
While existing in the wild or semi-wild state, they roam about
hither and thither on open fields and plains, and exhibit a
considerable amount of sagacity in regard to the selection of
their food. One of the reasons why the sheep is a specially
valuable animal is because it can be maintained without great
difficulty even in situations where other animals could not find
enough to live upon. Moreover, this useful creature gives a
very good return for the food which it consumes, supplying us as
it does with our woollen clothing as well as with mutton. The
manipulation of its wool alone gives employment to thousands
of artisans. Great credit is due to the breeders who by their
enterprise and by the prolonged exercise of their unremitting
skill and industry have brought about the production of our modern
improved breeds of sheep. We may now give a few hints as to
breeding of sheep. Before setting a flock, the characters of the soil,
situation, and climate should be carefully considered, since such
conditions to a large extent guide us in forming a decision as to
what breed would produce the best return. Then we should select
the most superior animals of the particular breed selected. It is
said that "breeding in the line" is probably the best method, and
that '* crossing " and " breeding in and in " are not advisable.
However, even when using the method spoken of as " breeding in
the line," much depends upon the correct matching of the males
and females, especially if they are chosen from difi'erent families,
even though they belong to the same race but have been raised in
other districts, and have consequently been influenced by climate
soil, situation, and management. A¥hen using rams of the same
flock, they should not be put together nearer than a third remove
in the same line of blood. If this rule is departed from by put-
ting together animals more closely related, it- is very probable
that disappointment will result; but if the third removes are
put together judiciously, first-rate animals may be produced.

It seems that particular kinds of wool are associated with cer-
tain kinds of mutton^ and hence it is seen to be important that

126 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

those animals should be selected which possess both the best
•wool and the best mutton. The best wool is mellow, moderately
long, thick, and bunchy, and under this kind the flesh is mellow
and firm, and spreads more rapidly than any other. Extra firm
or hard flesh is found under short and tine wool, but it does
not expand in proportion. Sheep provided with thin-set and
strong wool have white and objectionable heads, loose or
coarse flesh which is also wanting in point of quality in
proportion to the wool it bears. Consequently such animals
do not spread out widely. It is preferable to select a strong
ram from a well-bred flock belonging to the same family rather
than to step out of " the line " to cross with a large sheep of an
inferior breed. Experience of breeding proves that the produce
of a large inferior sheep selected from a pure-bred flock is far
better than that which results from a good-looking sheep chosen
out of a cross-bred flock. The ewes should possess the larger
frame, and, of course, the strength of breeding animals should
always be very well kept up.

It is said that the " Leicesters," if mixed with the larger
breeds, tend to correct their faults ; but that the larger males, if
put with the best Leicester ewes, do not give rise to improved
off'spring. Mountain breeds may be made larger by crossing ;
but the progeny will not prosper on the hill pastures of their
dams, nor, indeed, on the pastures on which their sires thrive.
In fact, they require intermediate situations ; and we may add
that it is well to bear in mind the general rule that it is always
best to find the pasture which is suitable for the animal rather
than to try to adapt an animal to a pasture which is not suited
to its requirements. Lest it should appear that we are now in-
sisting on a small point, we may say that so great is the efl'ect
of soil and climate, that when a group of animals has been
equally divided and kept apart lor twelve months upon two kinds
of soil possessing opposite characters, the two sub-groups have,
at the expiration of the year, scarcely resembled each other, when
placed side by side, except in the shape and look of the head.

Some breeders hold that a good sheep should resemble the
shape of a soda-water bottle ; but others prefer that the upper
and under lines should be parallel, and the sides together form an
oval. If the sheep has the soda-water-bottle form, the aniunil
has a thin neck, narrow hind-quarters, wide sides, or hanging

GENERAL ACCOUNT OP THE SHEEP. 127

fore-flanks ; it invariably stands on short fore-legs, walks with
diflBculty, and carries its head low. On the other hand, when
the chines or shoulders are well thrown into the back, and the
sheep has well-sprung top ribs and long hind-quarters, while
the flesh and fat are evenly distributed, the animal stands well
upon its fore-legs, and has an easy and graceful deportment.

If the pure breeds are crossed, good results may accrue.
Furthermore, by judicious and repeated crossing, most valuable
breeds may be established. Warmth is much more important in
the case of sheep than is generally recognised. Owners of flocks
ought to take great care that their sheep are fairly warm ;
but, at the same time, if they are kept at ail under cover, there
should always be a continual supply of good air. The ventila-
tion ought to be well attended to. In selecting sheep for breeding,
those provided with a wide and open chest ought to be chosen,
whereas those animals whose chests are contracted should be
avoided. Excessive feeding is to be guarded against. It is
advisable to keep the sheep at an even temperature, so far as may
be possible, and it is very wise to beware of clipping sheep at too
early a date, for the sudden loss of wool is apt to be injurious.
What the breeder should set before himself is to produce sheep
which are at once symmetrical in form, robust, and docile.

After this brief introduction, we purpose to deal with all the
diseases of the sheep, each in due course; and we hope to give
our readers many practical hints from time to time.

At the present day a great deal of the management of the
disorders of sheep is carried out by the shepherds, who give
unremitting attention to their sheep, attention commonly beyond
all praise, and recalling the beautiful and emphatic words and
similes of Scripture. It is no unusual thing to hear that the
shepherd has been up all night tending his sickly charges. His
small stock of remedies is freely used. The resources of science
are not at his command, and hence it happens that mistakes may
be made. There are many fatal diseases {e.g. that called par-
turient septicaemia, wliich often makes such havoc among ewes
at the lambing season) which are readily -amenable to careful
management if taken in hand in time, albeit that in this case, as
in many othei's, prevention by means of isolation, antiseptic
measures, care and cleanliness, must be looked upon as better
than cure.

128 THE DISEASES AJfD DISORDERS OP THE OX.

Our readers, of course, will readily understand that in regard
to the disorders of sheep, as well as, indeed, to those of all kinds
of animals, and even human beings also, there must always he
very great difficulty in laying down hard and fast rules of treat-
ment. In some instances a particular remedy may seem to be
attended with marvellous results, and yet in another apparently
similar case, when pursuing the same method of treatment, we
mav ignominiously fail. The inference to be drawn from this is
that very great experience and judgment, combined with ex-
treme care and wide fertility of resource, are alone sufficient to
achieve great results in the cure of disease. Moreover, as our
readers know, it is to be borne in mind that quite recently,
together with renewed faith in therapeutic measures, there has,
so to say, sprung up among scientific men a new era of manage-
ment of disease, full of novel ideas and fertile with new appliances
and methods. As is quite natural, we find that the diseases of
sheep are not nearly so well known nor so well managed as
those of mankind ; and there is no doubt that a great deal of the
loss which annually occurs among sheep is avoidable, and that a
great many deaths could be obviated by wise methods of cure.

129

CHAPTER y.

ON THE ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GEEM THEORY.*

Just as on the sea-shore the many and varied sounds of the
storm-tossed ocean, rolling onwards to the sandy beach, may be
heard as one harmonious and magnificent monotone of a wild
and yet moderated symphony; just as, too, the beholder, when
he casts his eye upwards to the glorious dome of heaven, with
its fleecy white clouds and its gloomy black clouds, and its
myriad twinkling stars — o'er which the moon, "sweet regent of
the sky," reigns in paramount serenity — gathers up into one
grand picture this resplendent sight ; just as other worlds around
us play, with the earth whereon we live, mutually dependent
parts ; just as all things, though innumerable and infinite, yet
partake of union and express a uniformity in Nature — so, too,
do all things soever which come within the scope of human
cognisance lend themselves, more or less completely, to simple
and easily intelligible provisional modes of explanation.

The rules and the reasonings of common sense admit of almost
indefinite expansion, and we find that the result of an extension
of the universal law that every cause must have an effect, and
inversely, that every effect must have bad a cause, could we but
trace it, does, as a matter of fact, lead us to that belief in evolu-
tion which, having previously been recognised in every other
department of human inquiry, has at length also been admitted
to hold, even in the last strongholds of empiricism, the domains
held by the monsters Disease and Death. For some time it has
been held that the Universe, together with all its multifarious
contents, has gradually been developed from the simplest forms

* By Albert Gresswell, B.M., B.A. , Christ Church, Oxford, M.R.C S.

9

130 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

of matter of a primeval past. The life-work of Charles Darwin,
coupled with that of other writers and investigators, such as
Herbert Spencer, added the link of vital phenomena to the chain
of thought, which was previously incomplete. Now one more link
has been hinted at, it is for the observers of this age to rivet it ;
and we must not forget that the difficulties which will be expe-
rienced by those who try to effect this will proceed rather from
a superabundance than from any deficiency of the facts to be
gathered together into one unique whole. Those who attempt
to trace the idea of evolutiob throughout the mazes of Pathology
will have before them a gigantic task, but yet one which most
urgently i-equires to be fulfilled.

There are so many different points of view from which the
subject can be regarded that one may be apt, while insisting
upon one or other aspect, to lose sight of the rest. The great
thing is that in our investigations we should never put out of
mind the essentials of our pursuit, that we should never be con-
tent with having traced our subject backwards, until we have
actually grasped the very root of the matter, so far as our human
intelligence can enable us to do so. In this our humble attempt
which follows we shall do our best to set forth clearly a few of
the points which have struck us, and we only advance it as a
primary sketch which we hope to be able to fill up more in
detail at some future time.

Now, after this brief introduction, we may begin by repeating
that the theory of evolution is nothing other than a perfection,
or rather, perhaps, an amplification, of the ordinary human
methods of reasoning, and, consequently, it will, of course, be
applicable to all groups of facts when they are thoroughly under-
stood. Granted that there must be in all things an unknown
and unknowable factor, which we cannot discuss even cursorily
in this connection, since it would draw us away much too far
from our subject to do so, we must never rest content with any
explanation of a thing or things until we have cleared the ground
of every other ascertainable factor ; and the degree to which we
succeed in doing this will be a measure of the thoroughness of
our investigations. To those who would object to the theory of
evolution, that it is not complete, because it does not give a
thoroughly intelligible explanation of the actual basis and reality
of things, it is to be replied that it achieves the next best object

OEIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GERM THEORY. 131

to this, viz. the highest provisional rationale which the mind of
man has grasped. Indeed, it may he said to he a universal law of
causation. Naturally it was first recognised where most easily
perceived, and only in quite recent times has the idea of definite
causation been traced into the sphere of vital actions, a sphere
which necessarily was at first replete with doubt and mystery. In
view of the mass of evidence now at our disposal, it may be said
that although the theory does not always strike us as being in
complete accord with all the observed and multifarious facts of
life, yet, nevertheless, the closest examination of difficult points
will invariably reveal that what aspects of life are involved in the
folds of the inexplicable are certainly of no greater magnitude
than are the other equally inscrutable mysteries presented by
many of the inanimate aggregates existing in the universe. In
other words, it may once for all be admitted that, so far as the
need for explanation of their origin and existence is concerned,
living beings cannot now be looked upon as offering greater
difficulties than do the Heavenly bodies, for instance. No doubt
at first sight the various processes displayed by living organisms
are apparently more wonderful than are the other kinds of
phenomena presented on all sides to our consciousness; but in
proportion as by studious investigation we gradually become
more and more familiar with life as displayed by the innumerable
living things around us in earth, sea, and sky, the great question
cannot but present itself whether the marvellously-regulated
motions of the heavenly bodies, and even the bare existence of
them throughout the starry spaces of the heavens, is in essential
reality one whit less wonderful than is the conscious existence
of any human being. In short, the systematic explanation of all
things according to the idea of a gradual evolution of them, i.e.
according to a universal law of causation, is a very great advance
in our methods of reasoning on the erratic and confused concep-
tions which were formerly held in respect to the phenomena
occurring around us. Furthermore, it must be sufficiently
obvious that, since changes or functions displayed by organisms
which depart so far from those of health as -to he called abnor-
mal, can only be classed as part and parcel of the sum total of
processes manifested by them, they, too, can have no other than
a similar relative explanation.

Hence it follows that the idea of evolution in the field of

9 *

132 THE DISEASES AXD DISORDERS OE THE OX.

pathology is in reality not only to be accepted in itself as un-
questionably true, but is rather, as we hope to show, to be
accounted as one of the supports of evolution at large. If it
is true that the numerous and involved processes which
make up healthy life in all its many varied forms and phases
are to be considered in connection not only with one another,
but also with the phenomema from time to time occurring
in the outside world, it is also no less true that the general
statement applies with just the same force to the facts of crea-
tures suflPenng from disease, as it does to the normal functions
of healthy living beings.

We hope that we may, in some degree at least, succeed in
pointing out some few facts of disease which will bear out this
statement, and also in attempting to indicate causation in some
instances where at first sight even connection may not be easily
traced. It is, however, sufficiently manifest that, though we can
to a large extent say definitely of many given structures and
functions that they are either normal or abnormal, as the case
n)ay be, there are instances in which it is extremely difficult to
draw the line of demarcation, and it is quite evident that
the same law of causation which we suppose to be applicable
to the one group applies with equal force to the other. If
a structure is disorganised, *or a function vitiated or altered,
there must always be a cause, could we but trace it, for the
change which has resulted. The origin of the alteration may be
ever so remote. We may possibly have to look back to a far
distant point of time, to progenitors of a bygone age. Still the
cause has existed in some form at some time.

Perhaps one of the most important of all the possible indica-
tions concerning pathology is that the various diseases and
disorders which are liable to afflict human beings present relation-
ships with those of lower animals, just as, indeed, other human
characteristics, whether structural in nature or functional, are
likewise related in certain ways to those of organisms lower in
the scale of vitality. Even now the evidence which supports
this generalisation is very strong indeed, although the science
of pathology has as yet been only cursorily studied from the
comparative point of view. As yet men have scarcely learned
to fully realise the incalculable advantages capable of being
derived from investigating the diseases of human beings by the

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE UERM THEORY. 133

lielp of the light thrown upon them by the normal and abnormal
processes presented by lower animals. Nevertheless, already it
is the case that many talented pathologists are beginning to
track out new paths leading to fertile regions, and now is the
time for very many more earnest and zealous workers. There
are, indeed, immense stores of knowledge to be gained, and
many fruitful opportunities are available for all those investiga-
tors who are desirous of throwing more light on the many
abstruse problems presented by disease. This present time is one
of transition, and many of our ideas as to the processes of life,
both well-ordered and disordered, will probably be ere long very
essentially modified and changed. The mysteries of life, disease,
and death, are now being marvellously cleared up. We are
beginning to see things in their truer light, and to understand
that gradual working, in accordance with necessary causation and
connection is the rationale of all that goes on around us.

Now it is not too much to say that the idea that certain
diseases are caused by the presence and growth of minute vege-
table forms in the blood and tissues is one of the most impor-
tant of all the generalisations which have ever been made in
regard to the causation of diseases, and consequently also in re-
ference to both the prevention and the cure of them. Hence we
propose to introduce our discussion with a few words respecting
this momentous discovery, and we would, while so doing, point
out in passing, that, densely congregated together as human
beings are in the innumerable towns and cities of the world,
they are always liable to imbibe, both by the medium of the lungs
and by that of the stomach, the various poisonous substances
produced in the course of nature, and also the germs of the
numerous diseases liable to be present. A new world of organisms,
doubtless the causes of certain different diseases with which par-
ticular kinds of them are found associated, has been revealed to
investigators by the help of modern microscopic methods. Hence
we have been led to look upon the phenomena of zymotic
diseases in particular, and also to some extent upon all the ab-
normal processes of animals generally, in some measure from
this point of view. Now, men are gradually building up one
true science of pathology and therapeutics, as explained by the
simple yet all-embracing idea of a gradual origin of diseases. It
has been clearly demonstrated that many diseases, as one

134 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

example of which anthrax may here be mentioned, are connected
apparently by way of causation, with the presence of organisms
of microscopic size in the blood, the lymphatics, and in the
different parts of the tissues and organs. No doubt there are
certain conditions of receptivity on the part of the human beings
or the animals liable to be attacked by these germs, and although
at present we know very little indeed definitely on this point,
yet the information gathered in regard to these and allied ques-
tions, is gradually but surely growing, and already much has
been learnt respecting the best methods of coping successfully
with these living germs. Moreover, long and instructive as is
the list of those diseases which have been shown to be dependent
upon the entry of living germs into the blood, or upon the in-
roads made by them upon other fluids or structures of animals,
we may safely infer that the continuance of searching investiga-
tion will lead to similar conclusions regarding the causation of
other diseases not yet thus explained which affect human beings
or lower animals or both. Further, it is important to note that
while many of the maladies known to depend upon the presence
of living vegetable organisms in the fluids or tissues, or both, are
liable to afflict human beings, some are peculiar to lowxr animals,
whereas others are alike capable of attacking both human beings
and animals indiscriminately. In short, the relation betwixt the
diseases of human beings on the one hand, and those which
afflict animals on the other, is a close one, and one of the greatest
significance. The diseases, and especially those of a contagious
and infectious nature, such, for instance, as bovine scarlet fever,
from which Mr. Power and Dr. Klein have shown that in all pro-
bability human scarlet fever is capable of being derived, are now
attracting a very considerable amount of attention on the part of
bacteriologists and comparative pathologists which cannot fail
to affect very deeply all our ideas in regard to the various work-
ings of disease. Of the numerous diseases which afflict human
beings, some at least are liable to be communicated from lower
animals, and consequently our knowledge, in order to be com-
plete, must be supplemented by such information as can be
derived from studying the origin of these particular maladies.
The three dread diseases, known respectively under the names
tuberculosis, anthrax, and rabies, seem to primarily attack lower
animals, although they are also grave scourges to human beings,

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GERM THEORY. 135

and if to these we add scarlet fever we have a list of four. Now,
tuberculosis is very widely prevalent among cattle, and also it
occurs in fowls, and it is not improbable that this disease may be
transmitted from infected oxen to human beings by the medium
of the milk and by that of the flesh. Vendors of milk, there-
fore, ought to be prevented by severe repressive legislation from
selling the milk of diseased cows. Indeed, it is quite as neces-
sary that this precaution should be effectually carried out, as
it is that the prohibition of the sale of flesh for human food
that is unfit for that purpose should be duly enforced. Of late

^'

'/

w

<-7

Fig. 14. — From a Preparation of Hiiman Tuberculous Sputum, stained after
the Ehrlich-Wrigert method. The rod-Hke bodies are the tubercle bacilli
(stained pink). — After Klein.

years great improvements have been made in relation to such
questions as this which we are now considering, and the advances
which have been made in hygienic science have highly con-
duced to the public health ; but we must not forget that though
much has been done, nevertheless there still remains a great
deal more to be achieved in the future at the hands of the various
sanitary authorities. It is to be borne in mind in this connection
that milk especially is, unless due care be taken, from several
different causes, liable to be a source of danger and of death.
Not only the germs of scarlet fever, but also those of diph-
theria, those of typhoid fever, as well as probably those of
many other maladies, may, through the agency of milk, spread
desolation far and wide. These germs mav be conveyed to the

136 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

milk by means of the contact of that fluid with the exhalations
of patients, or they may be communicated to it by the addition
of water into which some infective excretion has been acci-
dentally introduced in consequence of faulty drainage or
other hygienic defects or shortcomings. The chief part of the
danger is owing to the fact that milk is a liquid most admirably
suited to the growth and multiplication of germs, so much so, in
fact, that if only a few gain entrance into it, they very readily
multiply, and this is^ we may suppose, one of the chief reasons
why milk is so liable to become a means of infection. Moreover,
the source of the danger may be of a more direct kind even
than this. It is true that in the case of tuberculosis we cannot
be quite certain that human beings become infected with this
disease as a result of the consumption of either the flesh or the
milk of tuberculous oxen. However, with reference to the trans-
missibility of scarlet fever from oxen to human beings, the recent
evidence supplied by Mr. Power and Drs. Klein and Cameron is
well-nigh conclusive, and we may almost feel quite certain that
one of the most fruitful sources of the dissemiuation of scarlet
fever in our midst is the drinking of that most nutritious but yet
at times most dangerous article of diet — milk. It has been
proved that bovine animals may be affected with a disease
apparently so mild in nature that it may merely be noticed as a
slight eruption, but at the same time capable of spreading scarlet
fever far and wide amongst unsuspecting families. Hence we
cannot be too careful in regard to the selection of the milk we
use, and it is in all cases a very wise precaution to raise the
temperature of that fluid to just below boiling point, and to keep
it at that temperature for some little time, since this is said to
be sufficient to kill the streptococci of scarlet fever, if they be
present therein. Moreover, the milk of one infected cow is
sufficient to vitiate all the milk of a dairy, if it be mixed with
that of others, for these vegetal germs will thrive and multiply
rapidly, and a very few of them will soon lead to almost
incredible swarms.

In reference to this most important topic we here insert the
following hints culled from an able leader in The Times of
December 6th, 1888 : —

A Report, by Professor Brown, C.B. ,on Ertiplirc Diseases of the Teats and
Udders in Cows, in Relation to Scarlet Fever in Man, has recently been issued

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GERM THEORY. 137

by the Agricultural Department of the Privy Council. The report is an
endeavour to minimise, as far as possible, the importance of the facts bearing
upon the same question which were made known by the researches of Mr.
Power, and were pubUshed in 1886 by the Medical Department of the Privy
Council. In December 1885 a sudden and extensive outbreak of scarlet fever
appeared to be associated with the distribution of milk by a retailer in Mary-
lebonc, and also to be limited to the area of distribution of that portion of his
milk which he received from a particular farm at Hendon. It was elicited that
the milk supplied from certain sheds at the Hendon farm could be specially
connected with the outbreak, and also that outbreaks had occurred in various
places at St. John's Wood, in St. Pancras, at Hampstead, and at Hendon, in
connection with the movements from shed to shed of a particular cow, and with
the distribution of the milk which was furnished by the cows occupying the shed
in which she was placed. It was ultimately discovered that a certain cow had
been bought at Derby market, forthwith brought to London, and transferred
on the following day to Hendon dairy. She was suffering from an eruptive
disease affecting her udders, and she is said to have communicated this to other
cows with which she came into contact. As the disease spread in the dairy
the original definiteness of the distribution of scarlet fever by the medium of
the milk supplied from the sheds which the Derby cow from time to time
inhabited became less and less distinct ; and it soon came about that suspicion
attached itself to all the cows which had contracted the same malady.
These were accordingly put together into one shed, and it was decided that the
milk yielded by them should not be sold, but given to pigs. This decision
having become known in the vicinity, certain poor women resident there pre-
vailed upon people employed in the dairy to neglect the order and to give the
milk to them, with the result that their families were stricken down by scarlet
fever of peculiar severity. The assistance of Dr. Klein was then solicited, and
this talented observer succeeded in obtaing a definite microbe (a streptococcus)
from the infecting milk, and by inoculating calves with cultivations of this
streptococcus he produced in them disease of a fatal character, which was
attended by organic changes resembling those of scarlet fever.

Professor Brown seems to assume that he has supplied the true cause by
asserting that a man who lived within a mile of the dairy in question had a
daughter who was attacked by scarlet fever, and a son who made it his amuse-
ment to visit the dairy as often as possible. It is not suggested that the son
had scarlet fever at any time, but the fact that his sister had the disease at the
time that he was going to and fro is mentioned as a possible explanation of a
milk epidemic of wide diffusion and considerable severity. Professor Crook-
shank's researches on this occasion seem to have been directed to prove that
the microbe found by Dr. Klein was the streptococcus pyogenes, one to which
the Professor attributes the power of producing a great variety of morbid
conditions.

On the whole it certainly seems that the case made out by Mr. Power has not
in any important particular been shaken by the Report. Professor Brown, in-
deed, lays much sti-ess upon negative evidence — upon the fact that there does
not appear to have been any general correspondence between sore teats in cows
and outbreaks of scarlet fever in mankind ; and he scarcely seems to give due
weight to the fact that there may be very different forms of sore teats — a
question which requires the most searching investigation.

However, Professor Brown perhaps does well to caution us, inasmuch as,
though we cannot accept his rather optimistic views, still his very opposition
or hesitancy must assuredly help the cause of scientific truth, since it will

138 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

doubtless bring forth still more research, and our readers will be eager to watch
for the results of renewed and prolonged investigation. For our own part we
believe Mr. Power's and Dr. Klein's work is thoroughly established, and we
must here again insist upon the advantage of having all milk boiled before
consumption, since this precaution will, there is good reason to believe, insure
absolute safety against all the ordinary contagions of which milk may be the
carrier ; and, as we do not consume other kinds of animal food without cookery,
there is nothing remarkable in cooking milk as v,-ell as flesh. There is, more-
over, one point of Professor Brown's report with which we are in complete
accord — that, namely, in which he refers to the filthiness of many dairies, and
the necessity which exists for the precautions which are voluntarily taken by
some milk-sellers being enforced bj' law upon those by whom they are as yet
neglected.

Now, in reference to anthrax, more usually known when
afiSicting human beings as woolsorters' disease or as malignant
pustule, it is well known that rod-like bodies swarm in the blood

/
\

Fig. 15. — Heart's Blood of a Mouse Dead of Anthrax. 1. Blood

Discs. 2. White blood-corpuscle. '6. Bacilli anthracis. Magnifying power
700. (Fresh specimen.) — After Klein.

of sufferers from this dreadful scourge, whether they be animals
or human beings. The different varieties of micro-organisms
require various definite conditions for their growth, development,
and multiplication. In very many cases damp and wet are asso-
ciated with putrefactive changes, that is, with the decay of lifeless
organic material, both vegetal and animal. This putrefaction
or decay really depends upon the vital processes of certain micro-
organisms. It is, moreover, by no means diflBcult to see how
an animal, already suffering and debilitated in consequence of
the more direct results of damp and cold, and partially famished
owing to the lack of nutrient material, may readily fall a prey
to the insidious attacks of these minute and rapidly-multiplying
organisms. They may enter tiie body by means of the luugs or
the alimentary canal or may gain access to the blood through

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GERM THEORY.

189

contact with an abraded surface. In the course of ages parti-
cular kinds of schizomycetes, among which bacteria are included
— these are the names by which these germs are known — would
gradually tend to become more dangerous than others in the case
of some of the various groups of animals respectively. It is
quite probable that one kind of germ would become particularly
harmful for one kind of animal and another more especially dan-
gerous in the case of another group, and so on. It may possibly
be the case that germs which were once merely putrefactive
organisms gradually found entrance into the bodies of animals,

Fig. 16 — From a Preparation of the Blood of the Spleen of a
Guinea-Pig dead of Anthrax. 1. White blood-corpuscle. 2. Red blood-
discs shrunken. 3. Chains of bacillus anthracis. 4 Degenerating bacilli, the
sheath only being preserved. Magnifying power 700. (The preparation had
been stained with gentian- violet.) — Klein.

thus becoming pathogenic and often giving rise to fatal
diseases. In some such way as this we may suppose that
certain diseases originally arose. The life-history of septic
micro-organisms outside the animal body is not well known as
yet. The facts that they are modifiable by alterations of tem-
perature and by differences in the medium to which they are
subjected, supply us with clues which are being extensively
worked out. There are, for instance, sorSe bacteria which,
under the influence of certain conditions of this kind, produce
definite pigments. From the results of his many experiments.
Dr. Klein concludes that there are some definite micro-organisms
which, as a rule, exist and grow in various substances, and also

140 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

possess the power of growing and thriving in the bodies of cer-
tain suitable animals, in them producing a definite pathological
condition.

" Just as there are species of plants -(vhich act as jDoisons to the animal body,
and other species of plants which, although belonging to the same groiip and
family, and although very much alike to the others, have no such power, and
cannot acquire such power by any means, so there are micro-organisms which
are pathogenic while others are harmless." — Klein.

The latter remain harmless, no matter under what conditions
and for how long a time they grow. Further, it is most pro-
bable that careful and thorough drainage and the removal of all
tendencies to wet and putrefaction must gradually bring about
a gradual diminution of plagues, at least, such as are similar in
their nature to anthrax. Other diseases also, such as ague and
other malarial fevers, are occasioned by the prevalence of germ-
containing vapours arising from ill-drained marshy lands on
which the vegetation is always liable to undergo putrefactive
change. Having briefly alluded to the germ-theory of disease,
and having attempted to indicate the kind of way in which some
diseases may have first originated, we now proceed to discuss
other aspects of our present subject.

When dealing with the phenomena displayed by higher
animals, we must remember that they, the animals, may all be
considered as being composed of innumerable cells, or struc-
tures more or less closely resembling cells. A cell is a minute
and generally microscopic body consisting of living matter
called protoplasm or bioplasm, and containing in its interior an
independent rounded body, also living, and called a nucleus.
These cells have been modified in all kinds of ways and degrees,
in correspondence with, and, so to say, in order to meet the
many different requirements of more complex conditions. True,
we cannot entirely explain the ways in which such effects are
brought about, but we can very appreciably lessen the difficul-
ties which most gravely impress us. The higher and more
perfect an organism is, the more intimate is the combination of
the many parts of which it is made up. These parts uro united
in various ways, and when thus united they are, moreover, still
more wonderfully blended by connecting links of different kinds.
Hence it comes about that in our attempts to explain the pro-
cesses of life, whether normal or abnormal, we must bear in

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GERM THEORY. 141

mind that there is always a tendency for the constituent por-
tions of higher organisms to dispense, in a greater or less degree,
with the bonds which combine them, however well knit together
the different parts may be.

Furthermore, there is the still greater danger always to be
apprehended that these bonds themselves, among which the
most important are the vascular and the nervous mechanisms,
may be more or less completely rent asunder in any particular
part, or in many different ways interfered with in regard to their
eflSciency. With these few words by way of prelude to the con-
siderations which follow, we now propose to give an account,
firstly, of some structural points bearing upon the question of
evolution in disease, after which we shall discuss some func-
tional aspects of that subject, and then conclude with a brief
reconsideration of the more general points of view. Before
continuing, however, I must here acknowledge the copious use
of a work written some time ago by my brother, Dr. D. Astlev
Gresswell.

We now proceed to discuss " Some abnormal Structural Mani-
festations which point to the idea of Evolution."

Speaking generally, it is, as a matter of fact, found that by
various plants and animals most of the substances known as
carbo-hydrateS;, i.e. starches and sugars, are convertible into
one another, that fats and some of the carbo-hydrates are
mutually convertible, and that albuminates, such as white of
egg, can be split up into fats and other bodies. Among
lowly-developed creatures albuminous infiltration is general, and
it also occurs in higher organisms. Albuminous infiltration,
fatty infiltration, and fatty and pigmentary degeneration mani-
fest themselves in lower organisms, and are also seen in higher
organisms, both as phases of nutrition and, moreover, also as
abnormal or reversional phenomena.

Glancing for a brief space at the lowest forms of life which
are known to us, we observe that they multiply either by split-
ting into two or more independent parts, or by a very closely
allied process, viz. the budding-off of portioris which gradually
increase in size, both before and after they are set free. Re-
generation seems to be the more active the younger the indi-
vidual, and also the lower in the scale of life it may be. It
is said that the ova of higher animals may divide, and that

142 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

each of the two parts may, in the due course of time, develop
into a perfectly- formed adult. With regard to the process of
budding or gemmation above referred to, it may take place in
any part of a lowly-developed organism ; but^ as we advance
gradually up the scale of life, we find that it is only certain
parts which can take on themselves this function of reproduc-
tion. Nevertheless, indications of the primary condition are
manifested by such facts as that an arthropod can throw off a
leg at the joint above a lacerated segment, and then bud out a
new limb from the centre of the stump. Similarly also the newt,
it is said, can replace an eye. It seems also very possible that
the granulations which tend to occur on cut surfaces, the papil-
lomata and other growths which make their appearance on
irritated patches of the skin or mucous membranes, the villi of
the chorion and their abnormal developments, are in reality ex-
pressions of a power or property of cells similar to that of fission
and gemmation as displayed by the lowest organisms.

Moreover, growth and multiplication are enhanced by stimu-
lating, or giving an extra supply of food to, the lower living
things. Further, the same fact shows itself in the case of
endothelium when made to germinate by means of stimula-
tion and also, according to Kremansky, in that of the cells
which are contained in the capsules of cartilage subjected to
cauterisation.

Again, Strieker holds that every living cell of any higher
animal may divide, and similarly Dr. Beale maintains that pus-
cells may develop from bioplasm of any part of the body if too
freely supplied with pabulum. When such processes as these
we are speaking of manifest themselves on a large scale in
higher animals, we speak of them as inflammatory ; but, as a
matter of fact, they are comparable in their essential characters
with those which may from time to time occur among indi-
vidual lower organisms. Certain of the processes, called inflam-
matory, even though they occur in the avascular structures of
higher animals, are in reality the result of greater nutritive
activity, and are represented among living things by the rapid
growth we have spoken of above. In support of this state-
ment, it may be mentioned that the cells which result from
inflammation are certainly fitted for but little more than the
preservation of their own independent vitality, thereby affording

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GERM THEORY. 143

a Striking similarity to the two or more cells produced by the
division of a lowly-developed organism, each part of which is no
sooner set free than it proceeds to go, so to say, adrift, about
its own business, intent upon carrying out merely the objects and
pursuits of its own independent life. In inflammation properly
so-called, as it shows itself in higher animals, the simple pro-
cess here spoken of is complicated with other factors. The
migratory cells are even still more active, and stoppage of the
circulation and the consequent accumulation of leucocytes
and ozone-bearing corpuscles are prominent features of the
process.

Now another step in pathological products which we have
to consider is one in which the growth and multiplication of
cells, instead of being merely transitory phenomena, establish
themselves, more or less persistently, in a permanent form. It
may briefly and unhesitatingly be said that all new formations, as
instances of which the enchondromata may be here mentioned,
are markedly characterised by the preponderance of cellular
elements modified in various ways and degrees.

They may fibrillate and may even become calcified, but very
rarely, if ever, do they develop into the highest forms of tissue,
the muscular or nervous. Of course this is what we might
expect, since it is clear that the tissues of most important
specialisation must necessarily be produced, so to say, with
greatest diflBculty.

Speaking generally, we may say that all the tissues of all
organisms, both low and high, have been proved to be so much
like the modified results of primitive cells, more or less closely
blended together, that we may suppose them in all cases to have
arisen, directly or indirectly, from cells in the first instance.
We have now, however, to add this further fact above men-
tioned, viz. that those growths which are spoken of in patho-
logical language as new formations are also indubitably traceable
to the growth and proliferation of the same units, cells, or, at any
rate, cytodes, i.e. cells without the nucleus. Together with this,
we must also bear in mind the additional statement likewise above
made, viz. that the cells may be modified in various ways and
degrees, or, indeed, on the other hand, so little changed as to be
scarcely distinguishable from those parent cells which originally
gave them birth. In short, new formations clearly point to a

144 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

remote ancestral condition when the primary importance of cells
as units, distinct and not combined, was very much greater than
it can he in higher organisms in which each constituent cell is
most intimately dependent upon the activities of the other cellu-
lar units with which it is so intimately co-ordinated. Among the
different kinds of new formations the enchondromata most
pointedly illustrate the reversional characters of which we are
speaking.

Enchondroma myxomatodes exhibits characters like those of
the notochord found in all vertebrata, and also in some in-
vertebrata. The cells, moreover, of some enchondromata
are stellate, their processes uniting to form a network, and
in the Selachii, the root-forms of the vertebrata, similar cells
are present. Again, these enchondromata are most usually
found in the limbs, and especially in the distal parts of the
limbs. Now the primary condition of the vertebrate limb is
seen in the Selachii, among which animals the limb is composed
of a great number of cartilaginous rods, which are arranged
definitely, and increase in number towards the distal extremity
of the pro-pterygium, the meso-pterygium, and the meta-ptery-
gium. It certainly appears possible that the enchondromata
situated in homologous parts may^ so to say, point backwards
to the ancestral condition of the limb. Corroboration of this
statement is seen in the frequency with which cartilaginous
bodies develop in connection with certain joints of the limbs in
man and animals. These cartilaginous nodules may be either
single or multiple, and some may be as large as a small apple.
Cruveilhier figures several round cartilaginous bodies as occurring
in an elbow-joint, and it has also been observed that cartilage
cells have been found in the synovial tufts of some joints.
Similarly, Mr. T. Smith removed over 250 loose rounded carti-
lages from the knee-joint of a man on December 13th, 1882, at
St. Bartholomew's Hospital, He also operated on a woman
whose case has been recorded by Mr. Harrison Cripps, in The
Transactions of the Patliolof/ical Societf/ of London, vol. xxvi.
This woman, aged twenty-eight, had for six years, in the upper
third of the right arm, immediately beneath the skin, a pyriform
tumour which was 3| inches long, and 2 inches in diameter at
its thickest part, and tapered towards the axilla. Within its
capsule were found one large mass of cartilage, and twelve or

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GERM THEORY. 145

more detached lobulated bits of cartilage. Moreover, in the
axilla there were also similar detached nodules of cartilage.

The cases of supra-scapular developments brought before the
Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society of London by Mr. Willett
and Mr. Walsham were also similarly regarded. Supernumerary
fingers, too, have been supposed to point backwards to the many-
rayed Selachian fin.

Again, new formations of capillary vessels are as a rule
congenital, and they are also much more generally met with in
the skin of the head and neck than elsewhere. These two facts
may suggest the possibility that they are in some degree homo-
logous with the vessels which develop about the epiblastic
involutions lining the visceral arches of the lower vertebrata. In
support of this idea it may be remarked that Dr. D. A. Gress-
well recently observed in a patient a noevus which extended in a
snake-like manner down the right side of the neck. The noevus
was distinctly raised, and, tapering towards its upper extremity,
it passed down the external auditory meatus for some distance.

Having considered some of the indications seen among some
abnormal structural phenomena of higher animals which remind
us of remote ancestral conditions, we now, in pursuance of the
same line of argument, proceed to consider some special facts
connected with the early division of the cells which make up the
developing embryo of a higher animal into the three separate
divisions known as the embryonic layers.

The lowest living beings consist simply of undifferentiated
protoplasm, almost identical throughout, both in regard to form
and in regard to functional capacity. The next stage in animal
life is that which is represented by the Diploblastica, in which
there are two distinct layers of protoplasmic units, either of
which is in some measure capable of discharging the functions
of the other. A third stage is that displayed by the Triplo-
blastica, in which each of the three layers is largely independent,
both in regard to structure and in regard to function, and is by
no means capable of taking on the functions of another layer.

Similarly, stages comparable to these are passed through in the
early development of the embryo of any higher animal, the three
layers being known respectively as the epiblast, the mesoblast, and
the hypoblast. Now, the resemblance which attaches itself to
those parts of higher animals which have been developed from the

10

146 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

epiblast is seen in many ways. For instance, some mammals
develop hair within the mouth, and the majority of the members
of this class of animals are provided with a few hairs within the
nose, and also within the external auditory meatus of the ear,
and some also on the conjunctiva of the eye. Moreover, it is
well known that the Selachii show, in the clearest manner, steps
of transition betwixt scales on the skin on the one hand, and
teeth in the mouth on the other, and it is to be remarked that
both scales and teeth are limited to regions which have deve-
loped from the epiblast. Horny teeth occur in the stomachs of
certain animals. Again, the occurrence of hair all over the body,
with the exception of the palms and soles — an exception which
is what we should expect on account of the friction to which
these parts are constantly subjected — has been noted both in
man and in woman.

The rashes of the specific fevers, too, sometimes illustrate the
similar origin of the parts which they affect. For instance, the
rash of scarlet fever may occur in any part of the skin, and even
on the face, though its early punctate character may be rapidly
obscured owing to the fact that the skin of the face is naturally very
full of blood. The rash occurs also on the scalp, on the oral and
faucial mucous membranes, probably also on the nasal mucous
membrane as is evidenced by the constant thick stream of dis-
charge so frequently seen flowing from both nostrils in infants
and children, also on the conjunctiva, in the external auditory
meatus of the ear, probably also in the middle ear and Eustachian
tube. These latter points lead us to the recollection that the
mucous membranes of the fauces, Eustachian tube, middle ear,
and external ear are derived from the lining of one cleft — the
Tympano-Eustachian cleft, the representative of the permanently
open spiracle of the Selachii.

Similar observations are to be made in regard to the two
diseases, measles and small-pox. Again, in reference to the
drugs, belladonna and jaborandi, we know that belladonna
causes dryness of all parts of the skin, including the mammary
involution, and also of all parts of the mouth and throat, while
jaborandi does the reverse of this.

Similarly, a sufferer from rheumatic fever has a moist tongue
and an especially moist skin, and a phthisical patient also
generally has a moist tongue and skin.

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AN'D THE GERM THEORY. 147

Again, it seems very possible that the comparative frequency
of hair-bearing oysts in the brain and in the ovaries points to
the original development of those structures.

In turning now to a consideration of the erect posture, we find
many points of supreme interest and value bearing upon our
topic.

Before it can stand erect, the newly-born babe is only capable
of crawling as a means of progression, and for some time after
its birth the relation of its head and legs to its trunk is similar
to that presented by a lower animal. At a comparatively early
age the child begins to bear with all its weight upon its legs, and
this fact serves in some degree to explain the greater frequency
of knock-knee and bowed leg in human beings as compared with
animals. Among vertebrates the erect posture is maintained in
the more highly differentiated, and it may be supposed that
remote progenitors of animals which are now erect were prone.
It is clear that the lower surface of a prone animal corresponds to
the front surface of an erect animal. The ventral or abdominal
surface, which in a prone animal is in relation with the earth,
comes to be, in the case of an erect animal, in relation with
space. Herein a great alteration in the supply and loss of heat
is involved. To the prone the earth affords a protection from
excessive radiation. This is illustrated by the fact that rabbits,
when placed in the supine position, die of refrigeration.

Again, it is manifest that the abdominal contents of an erect
animal tend, in case their supporting tissues should yield, to
press upon the pelvic and inguinal structures, while it is equally
clear that in prone animals the pressure is directed downwards
and also perhaps forwards, in accordance with the slope of the
ventral wall of the abdomen. Hence the fact that femoral,
scrotal, and obturator, herniae, are rare in animals as compared
with man, while diaphragmatic and umbilical hernise are equally
common, if not even more so.

The rudimentary condition of the vertebrae of the tail —
coming as they do after those called sacral, which support the
pelvic girdle — has apparently special referen'ce to the erect pos-
ture. There is no doubt that a bulky tail, or even a small one,
could not but embarrass the action of the legs of an erect
animal. Many arboreal animals assume the erect posture, and
yet possess tails ; but in them the tail is used as a prehensile

10 *

148 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

organ. The anthropoid apes, moreover, have the tail only
poorly developed. Again, the shape of the rudimentary tail
changes as prone animals become erect, in such a manner that
it serves in some degree to support the pelvic structures.

In the hind limbs of quadrupeds the circulation of the blood
is feebler than in the fore limbs. Possibly the erect posture
in man may still further impede the circulation of blood in
the lower limbs. Hence, we may explain the frequency with
which gouty deposition in man generally first occurs where the
circulation is most sluggish.

Furthermore the erect posture affords a freer play to the
movements of the fore extremities. The late Dr. Eolleston used
to teach that this additional freedom had removed the necessity
for the continuance of the development of the panniculus
carnosus, which muscle is useful in ridding the skin of some
parasites, also in certain defensive and offensive operations, as
for instance in the erection of the spines of the Diodon, the
scales of serpents, and of the Manis, the quills of the porcupine,
and the bristles of the hedgehog. Human beings, however, in
virtue of their erect posture, possess so much more freedom of
movement of the fore extremities than have prone animals, that
this muscle has atrophied in them as a result of falling out of use.
The fact that man has remnants of this muscle in the platysma
myoides and, according to Henle, in several muscles of the head,
is to be considered in relation with the fact that hairs still flourish
on the head, the face, and upper part of the neck. Birds, how-
ever, are erect, and yet some have a remarkably well developed
panniculus carnosus. An albatross was found by Dr. D. Astley
Gresswell to have large tendons inserted into its feathers and
into its skin. It is, however, very clear that in birds the fore
limbs are specialised for flight ; their freedom of movement in
other directions being consequently correspondingly curtailed.

Man is right-handed, as indeed also are quadrupeds, though
to a far less extent. In human beings, the fore limbs, being
much freer than in animals, Jiave acquired far greater inde-
pendence of action. The fact that the right limbs have taken
on the more complex tasks is attributed to the left side of the
brain receiving a more direct supply of blood, and this view is
strengthened by noting the frequency with which embolism
occurs on the left side of the brain, as compared with its less

OfilGIN OF DISEASE AND THE (JERM THEORY. 149

general occurrence on the right side, just as, simihirly, the greater
frequency with which embolism manifests itself in the left kidney
as compared with the right kidney is attributable to the more
direct course of blood to the former.

In short, numerous connections are to be traced among tlie
phenomena of the diseases and disorders of animals which point
unmistakably to a gradual development. How very important
it is that such connections should be traced will be readily seen.

We now come in due course to another division of our subject,
namely to that of some '•' Abnormal Functional Manifestations of
Evolution."

The functions of an organism, or of the whole aggregate of
organisms, no less than the structures of an organism or of the
whole aggregate of organisms, are most intimately connected one
with another.

Indeed the mutual interdependence of functions is almost
universally admitted. The assertion that the various processes
of change going on in a higher animal, that is, its functions have
been evolved in association with one another, has been amply
supported both inductively and deductively. The phrase
" associated functions,''' like the corresponding idea of " corre-
lated structures " expresses a great and undeniable truth.

A canary, when building in captivity, may be seen to fly about
its cage with the straw before placing it in position, that is to
say, it unnecessarily attempts to do, under altered circumstances,
things which canaries, when making their nests under the
ordinary conditions of nature, are actually compelled to do.
Though, then, in new circumstances, both animals and man
acquire new habits, still, in many cases, relics of the old ones
remain. Those functions which will persist for the longest
time are those which have, by any means whatsoever, been most
strongly impressed upon the organism or upon its progenitors.

If we examine carefully all the numerous processes undergone
by animals, we shall see that they may roughly be divided into
two sets, viz. those of work and those of rest. It is quite true
that these two sets are not entirely distinct^ but rather they are
intimately connected together somewhat in a similar manner to
that which links together heat and cold, or light and darkness.

We shall find it convenient to speak of the one group of
functions as the associates of work, and of the other as the

150 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

associates of rest, and we shall hope to show that when some of
the associates of work are decisively manifested, there will be a
tendency for others to appear ; and similarly in the case of the
phenomena of rest, these, too, are manifested to a great extent in
association with one another.

The one great aggregate of processes is evoked when the
organism must obtain food, effect its escape from pursuers, or
fight an opponent, when, in short, it must exert itself to the
utmost in measures of self-preservation of a direct and active
character. The other great division of functions is exemplified
when these objects have been met, when the end has been
achieved for the time being, or when the mechanism of activity
concerned in work needs rehabilitation and repair. These two
well-marked associations of work and rest, developed in the
healthy animal for the ordinary purposes of life, make their
appearance also in the field of disease. When thus manifested,
certain correlated processes of the one kind or of the other may
in some cases work for good. Probably they may more
frequently be productive of harm, while in some, unless they be
checked, they may actually kill. The organic functions which
make up the state of excitement are in reality processes of work,
of activity. The effects of irritation, howsoever produced, those
of pain, of joy, of fear, of any impulse to movement of whatever
kind, are in some degree similar one to another. In disease we
find phenomena corresponding in some measure with those of
the chase and the fight, with the defensive measures adopted
in cases of fear and so on, and even death may result from
excessive and unequilibrated actions of the vital mechanism, as
in extreme fear and intense pain. While certain associated pro-
cesses may have been, and may still be, of the greatest benefit
under certain conditions, they may none the less work great
harm, so far as the individual is concerned, under certain other
allied conditions. Thus a reaction, of inestimable value under
certain conditions, may be one which under other allied con-
ditions can not only serve no useful purpose, so far as we
can see, but may even impede or retard recovery to a very
considerable extent, and so bring about even a fatal issue.

Turning now to another but an alli(?d point of view, we remark
that the phenomena which consiitule day, like those which
make up night, have likewise in each case been co-existent for

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GERM THEORY. 151

immense periods of time. Moreover, it is to be remarked that
the associates of work have alternated with the associates of rest
to a large extent in the same way as day has alternated with
night, and on a larger scale to some extent as summer with
winter. Consequently we shall not be surprised to find later on
that the rhythm of surrounding conditions has left its impress
on the organic rhythm.

The Phefiomena or Associates of Work. — An animal at work
has an acceleration of pulse and respirations, displays excitement,
increase of perspiration and of fecal discharge, and augmentation
of metabolism and of the temperature of the body. Now there
certainly is evidence to show that, if some of these be aroused
there is a tendency for others, or of all, to be also aroused. If
the temperature of an animal be artificially raised, the pulse and
the respirations are accelerated, and the cutaneous glands are
more active. The converse is the case if the temperature be
reduced. A muscle, while contracting, rises in temperature,
and there seems to be a very considerable total increase of heat
in the body during action. Again, together with action, with
excitement and with alarm, provided it be not too great, there
is also associated an acceleration of the pulse.

In cases of exophthalmic goitre the heart beats more frequently,
the action of the cutaneous glands is increased, there is a mani-
festation of restlessness, the bowels are generally freely open
although the patient be confined to bed, the peripheral tempera-
ture is elevated, and at times also the oral temperature. These
are the associated phenomena of work. Dr. D. A. Gresswell
made daily observations for thirty- three days in regard to a
woman aged 32 years, suffering from this condition, under the
care of Dr. Southey, at St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Her pulse
was always above 110, even when she was asleep. Her respira-
tions were always above 22. The bowels were very freely open
every day, on an average two to four times. The daily discharge
of urine averaged fifty-two fluid ounces, varying, however, from
forty to eighty fluid ounces. She slept fairly when sedatives
were administered, but otherwise she was restless. The skin was
at all times warm and moist, and the tongue also was always moist.
The appetite was always excellent. The oral temperature was
generally normal ; but it rose at times to about 100 deg. F., and
the palmar temperature was generally nearly as high as the oral.

152 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Several other diseases, also, in which the heart's action is
accelerated, illustrate the same points. Looseness of the bowels
is often seen in children at the outset of scarlet fever, small-
pox, and measles, and where Dr. D. A. Gresswell, who has had
wide experience in fevers, has seen cases of typhus fever from
the very outset, the bowels have been loose for a day or two.
The same observer has recorded facts to show that the total
bodily heat is greatly increased when human beings enter the
tropics, and that the increase is greater in children than in
adults; and, moreover, that an increase in the intensity of light
brings on an acceleration of the pulse, most especially in the
young.

Now diarrhoea is also apt to come on on entering the tropics,
and especially in the case of children. Summer diarrhoea, too,
may be due to various causes ; but of these probably an increase
of external light and heat acting directly upon the organism
may be of much importance. Adults also very frequently have
looseness of the bowels when entering the tropics. Henoe.
together with rise of external temperature and increase of inten-
sity of light, there are exhibited rise of body temperature,
acceleration of pulse and respirations, increased action of the
skin and diarrhoea. In fact the associates of work are displayed.
The different processes involved in work have^ it seems, been
evolved in such intimate connection that, when one of them is
excitedj the others also tend to manifest themselves.

With regard to acceleration of the pulse in the tropics, it is to
be said that Dr. D. A. Gresswell's observations on a large num-
ber of persons while passing from temperate through tropical
latitudes, on four different occasions, show that there is an
acceleration of the pulse in the tropics under all ordinary
circumstances. The pulse may, however, be slower in a tropical
latitude when compared with tliat in a colder latitude, if the
body be recumbent ; but this is possibly due to a weak condition
of the heart brought about by previous excessive action.

On the other hand, it is to be noted that a child's temperature
will rise during constipation and fall when the bowels are
relieved, and also that the temperature of a typhoid patient may
rise during the convalescent stage owing to constipation, and
iall after an action of the bowels, induced, it may be, by the
administration of castor-oil, or other means. In tiiese and

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GEEM THEORY. 153

similar cases, the fecal accumulation excites the mucous mem-
branes and the muscular coat of the intestines, and the additional
activity brings with it, according to the view above expressed,
a rise of temperature, and other associates of work. When,
however, the bowels are relieved, this stimulation is no longer
kept up, and the result is that the temperature falls.

The ready response of the temperature of a child or of a
patient convalescing from febrile conditions to changed circum-
stances is well known.

Again, the action of some chemical compounds serves to
illustrate the association of vital processes above mentioned.
For instance, the administration of nicotine produces accelera-
tion of the heart's action, perspiration, and diarrhoea, while
morphine, on the other hand, causes a slowing of the pulse, a
dry skin, constipation, and sleep.

It may very readily be seen that the associates of rest are the
counterparts of those of work ; but we must not forget that a state
of rest may vary from that of simple repose to the pronounced
rest of sleep, or hibernation. Now it is well known that if a
man or an animal abstains from taking physical exercise, con-
stipation very often results ; and it is also to be noted that if
one or more of the associates of work are kept in action, sleep
is not to be obtained. For example, when too hot or greatly
excited from any cause, we cannot sleep.

As we have pointed out above, there is apparently an associa-
tion of certain vital processes, which are concerned in action,
so that if one, or a fortiori, if more than one, be aroused,
the others are generally also induced. There is also another
association of vital processes called rest, and if some of these
are exhibited, then, in the general way, the others will also be
more or less strongly apparent. If we compare these two, work
and rest, together, we meet with many striking points. Further,
if muscles are freely exercised, they may become hypertrophied;
while, if excessive rest be allowed, they become atrophied. This
same rule applies also to other tissues and organs. The two
states, rest and work, ought to be alternatecl with each other.
It is most important that this rhythm of waste and repair should
be attended to, for otherwise the muscle, the limb, or the
organism, as the case may be, must suffer when waste exceeds
repair.

154 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OE THE OX.

Again, if we compare together day and night, we find that
the day-time is characterised by the presence of sun-light and
of sun-heat, and that in the day-time there have been manifested
by animals for untold ages the associates of work. The pulse
and respirations are more frequent in the day-time, and there
is a separation of a greater amount of carbonic-acid gas and
urea. The body temperature also is higher. It has been shown
by Dr. D. A. Gresswell that light stimulates the action of the
heart, and that tropical heat is accompanied by rise of the tem-
perature of the body. The factors, then, which constitute day,
external or inorganic, and internal or organic, are each and
all concerned in adding to the activity of vital processes. The
external factors (light and heat), in reference to the internal
factors, stand, of course, in the relation of. cause to eJGfect, not
only directly, but also indirectly, since they afford opportunities
for working which are not present at night.

In short, a rhythm has thus been established in organisms
in regard to day and night, and this rhythm is, moreover, still
kept up, even when some of the factors concerned in the
causation of it are altered, just as also the variations in the
frequency of the pulse which have reference to meal-times
persist, even if we pass the whole day without food. For
example, if we commence working by night and resting during
the day, it is some time before we obtain a reversal of the
temperature curve, and the reversal is probably never quite
complete. If, on the other hand, we proceed gradually from
one meridian to the antipodal meridian, we gradually
change all the associated factors of what was our day for
those of night, and under those circumstances the daily curve
of body temperature persists, although there are facts which
tend to show that the older-established rhythm does not yield
with the very best grace. Moreover, in pyrexial conditions
the body temperature tends to rise and to fall at the same
times as it does in health. Again, the fact that pain is so
generally more intense by night than it is during the day,
and the greater likelihood of a febrile patient being restless
and afterwarils delirious by night than by day, though the
temperature be no higher, may be compared with the fact that
in health, when hot during the nigiit, we cannot sleep; while
we may, even when hotter, be able to sleep by day. Day

ORIGIN OF DISEASK AND THE GERM THEORY. 155

being the time for action, the febrile temperature is therefore
more easily borne at that time than it is during the night.

The division of time into months has reference to the phases
of the moon. It has been suggested by Darwin that men-
struation points to an ancestral time when spring-tides brought
an extra supply of food. The fact that delivery occurs usually
at the time of a menstrual epoch, and the times at which ante-
partum haemorrhage occurs, may likewise be thus referred to
bygone external agencies.

Next we come to the rhythm presented by the different sea-
sons. Now it is clear that summer and winter differ, in some
degree, as day and night do ; and they likewise merge into each
other imperceptibly. In summer there are more light, more
heat, and more food, and also greater activity of the vital pro-
cesses. In spring and summer, as compared with winter, the
pulse of an animal is quicker, the temperature higher, and, in
shortj metabolism is more active. With each recurrence of
spring, life, comparatively dormant during the winter, bursts
into renewed activity, and the hibernating animal comes out of
its quarters, revives, and takes on renewed activity. Reproduc-
tion of all kinds of animals takes place at tliis season of the
year. There is also a great increase in peripheral growth^ for
instance, of hair, nail, and hoof, and the old hair and cuticle
are shed.

We concluded, above, that increased vital activity had been
for such a long time associated with day as to explain the fact
that organisms exhibit a rhythm corresponding to the alterna-
tion of day and night. Now there is also some evidence to show
that organisms exhibit another rhythm corresponding with the
alternation of summer and winter. According to the Rev. J. G.
Wood, some Australian plants, set in the suburbs of London,
made an attempt to blossom just as our winter set in; but in
the course of a few years they were gradually later in blossom-
ing, until they had found the proper season, and thenceforward
they put forth their leaves and flowers at the same time as our
indigenous plants.

When animals are first introduced into a fresh environment,
they sooner or later enter into competition with one another.
At any time many of them may be called upon to fight, or to
make good their escape. In either case, the associates of work

156 THE DISEASES AND DIfcOEDEES OF THE OX.

are evoked, since, in fighting, anger and rage and redoubled
energy are displayed, and oftentimes pain is inflicted. Now, the
question of pain in its relation to disease on the one hand, and
to the injuries received in figliting, on the other, is one of much
importance.

Speaking generally, and bearing in mind that there cannot
fail to be very important exceptions, which, however, are
for the greater part merely apparent and not real ones, pain
may be said to be one of the most valuable aids, or rather
incitements, to self-preservation wherewith animals are endowed.
The more we consider this point, the more clearly shall we see that
the tendency of measures which are, in the general way, natu-
rally taken to relieve pain, must be usually such as are more
or less directly and more or less markedly productive of ad-
vantage to the animal which manifests them. Now pain may
be said to consist of disagreeable and irritating sensations, and
in response to them an animal may, and often does, put out its
best endeavours to remove itself with all speed from the par-
ticular source of injury, or danger, which may be the cause of
the pain. Or, again, its movements may be determined with
the view of satisfying the pangs of hunger or those of thirst, or
of supplying some other want or wants which entail suffering.
As a matter of fact pain is, among animals, very generally asso-
ciated with the excitement and furious rage aroused in fighting
with competitors or combatants — that is, in direct struggles for
self-preservation. This, of course, is the simplest source of
pain, and it is naturally most clearly illustrative of the point we
are laying stress upon. Among animals which are at any time
liable to be called upon to exert their best efforts in fighting,
the excitement aroused by pain resulting from bodily injury
is especially of incalculable benefit, in so far as it leads to
the redoubling of physical effort, exerted with the purpose of
overcoming an antagonist.

In an animal suffering pain the associates of work are
exhibited. The heart's action is increased, as also is that of
those muscles which in fighting would be more or less directly
concerned. Even the muscles of the ears, eyes, and lips, may
be in some degree brought into action. Likewise when an
animal is undergoing pain, there are exhibited more or less
intense excitement, perspiration, and perhaps screaming. How-

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GERM THEORY. 157

ever, these associated functions concur in animals, and in man,
not only when they are consciously and suitably directed to
the removal of a pain-giving agent, but also when the pain
cannot be thus removed, being due, as in disease, to causes of
quite a different nature. In the former case the reactions are
directed to measures of self-preservation, leading as they do, to
redoubled efforts at defence, while in the latter case they may
be not only not beneficial but even of a very harmful and even
fatal character.

When the pain results from morbid processes, the harm done
by the reactions of the organisms is oftentimes excessive, while

Fig. 17.

the benefit is reduced to a minimum, or may be entirely absent.
Thus, as in the case of ordinary physiological processes, so also
in those which are called abnormal, certain remnants of "antique
customs " still remain to clog the wheels of more highly
developed processes. Just as certain rudimentary structures,
not only useless but even harmful, remain in higher animals to
interfere with the working of newly-constituted organs, so, too,
organisms may be said to make, now and -again, great and
sometimes even fatal mistakes in the processes by which they
attempt to throw off the results of injuries, or to atone for
damaging changes. In other words, it seems that the working
of normal physiological mechanisms may be said to entail even

158 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

fatul mistakes when those mechanisms are set going by processes
of disease. The conditions, though similar, are really different,
and hence the ordinary reaction being put forth cannot be a
successful one.

In an acute attack of gout the manifestations of the febrile
disturbance, which is supposed to be secondary to the joint
affections, are acute pain, rapid pulse, some rise of temperature,
perspiration, great restlessness and excitement, and possibly
screaming.

Further, it is a most noteworthy fact that the pulse of an
animal suffering pain, if not of too intense a character, is
almost invariably accelerated. Restlessness and vigorous action
of the muscles are likewise manifested by animals which are in
pain. The leg of a frog contracts when the toes are irritated
by an acid, or by other means. Indeed, that movement
accompanies the infliction of pain is well known. We are, in
fact, so accustomed to the invariable connection which sub-
sists between these two vital manifestations, pain and movement,
that we are in the habit of inferring the presence or absence of
pain, according as we do or do not observe its correlative signs.
Indeed, it is quite possible we may sometimes be mistaken,
for, on the one hand, a cry of seeming anguish may not in all
cases denote pain, while, on the other, the absence of signs of
pain, as in calm resignation, may not be inconsistent with great
suffering. Speaking generally, however, we find that groaning,
screaming, perhaps sobbing and weeping, grinding of the teeth,
clenching of the hands, violent paroxysms of convulsive move-
ments are seen in most of the higher animals when suffering
pain, and it seems that these and the like phenomena can be
ascribed to their association in the past with pain resulting from
direct struggles with a foe.

In the fight all the muscles and organs of the body receive
an intense impetus. The brain is quick to see in advance the
tactics likely to be used by the opponent. The heart's action
must be accelerated, in order that supplies of blood may be sent
freely to any and every portion of the body. The eyes and ears
Also must be more sharp than usual, and hence the muscles con-
nected with these sense organs must be on the alert, and ready
to set them to the best advantage for hearing and seeing, and
.also to protect them, or at least the eyes, from injuries, as far as

ORIGIN OV DISEASE AND THE GERM THEORY. 159

may be possible. In short, nearly all the muscles of the body
are liable to be called into action. The wild and piercing cries
uttered by a creature almost worsted in the deadly strife, as
they re-echo far and wide, may avert a threatened defeat by
frightening the antagonist, perhaps, or at any rate by attracting
comrades to help. The excitement is associated with more
rapid circulation, with quickened action of the heart, with rise
of the external temperature, and of the body temperature as a
whole.

Now in pain, also, the temperature often rises measurably, and
it falls when, as by the influence of morphine or otherwise, the
suflFering is subdued. In this relation it is well to bear in mind
that peripheral increase of heat may occur, though the oral tem-
perature be not altered. The augmented action of muscles and
organs gives rise to an increased amount of waste products,
and this in due course to sweating and loadening of the rectum
and bladder. A man or a horse suffering from the pain of
enteritis sweats profusely. There may be also, during pain, as
also during excitement, an additional sensibility to cold.

Dilatation of the pupils takes place during pain. Dr. D. A.
Gresswell noticed that the pupils of a lad suffering from Peliosis
rheumatica dilated whenever one of the elbows, which was
exquisitely tender, was accidentally pressed. He has also
observed dilatation of the pupils in vigorous children under-
going tracheotomy, in cases when an anaesthetic could not be
administered. The pupil also frequently dilates in cases of
locomotor ataxy, when an attack of pain comes on. On the
other hand, during sleep, when the centres of sensation are
dulled, the pupil contracts, as also in opium stupor, in the
stupor of typhus fever, in that of typhoid fever, and also in that
of relapsing fever, also in the anaesthesia produced by chloro-
form, notwithstanding that in the stage of profound narcosis
which supervenes immediately before death they may dilate.
Some animals — for instance, the cat — when preparing for action
show dilatation of the pupil ; and also in human beings the
pupil dilates if sensory nerves be strongly irritated, or as a result
of excitement, or during severe muscular exertion.

Dr. D. A. Gresswell ascribes this dilatation of the pupil
which occurs in an animal suffering pain to the necessity of
obtaining a wide field of view, whether in the alertness needed

160 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF TRE OX.

for the fight or for the escape from an enemy. He says that in
uraemic coma the pupils are generally contracted so long as the
patient is free from convulsive movements, but that as soon as a
convulsion comes on the pupils dilate. When the convulsion
ceases the pupils again contract. Similarly, he says, the pupils
dilate in the convulsions of epilepsy. He has noticed also that
when a patient is returning to consciousness after chloroform
narcosis the contracted pupil gradually dilates; but that if the
patient move about the pupil will at once dilate largely, and on
the subsidence of the movement again become smaller. He
connects all these facts, drawn from so-called abnormal states,
with an association (brought about by the struggle for exis-
tence) between alertness for action and increase of field of view
caused by dilatation of the pupil, an association which he says
is due to an inhibition of the nerves of vaso-motor areas in
muscles and to a correlated stimulation of the sympathetic
nerve which innervates the radiating muscle of the iris of the eye.

The endocarditis of chronic Brights' Disease is attributed to
the extra blood-pressure, which indeed is one of the earliest
manifestations of inflammation of the kidney. Hence the value
of the subjugation of pain in cases of endocarditis and of peri-
carditis of rheumatic fever may be to some extent due to the
coincident soothing of the heart.

We see, then, that the occurrence of pain, due to whatso-
ever cause, arouses the associates of work, not only in health
but also in disease, though, of course, we must not forget that
the sufferer may become exhausted, and therefore no longer
able to manifest the processes referred to. Now the constitu-
tional unrest which is set up by the pain cousequent upon
injury must, and does, work harm.

For the sake of example, suppose we consider, for a moment,
the case of an animal which has just gained the victory over
an opponent, and let us further suppose that the ultimate van-
quishing of the foe was the result of the redoubled efforts which
were made owing to the reception of an injury which stimulated,
or rather evoked, the closing energetic and successful struggles.

In connection with this most important question of pain in
its relation to vital activities, Dr. D. A. Gresswell would add
that not pain alone, but the mere apprehension of pain due to
any want of well-directed and sustained effort — which would

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GERM THEORY. 161

give advantage to an opponent — would necessarily come to be
correlated with the associated factors of work.

Now it is clear that the pain, still continuing after the
receipt of an injury, would be of further value, perhaps, only
in so far as it would dictate rest of the parts injured, while,
on the contrary, at the same time, in very many cases it
would undoubtedly be productive of harm by reason of the
general disturbance and unrest still kept up, although pro-
bably it might no longer be necessary for purposes of protec-
tion from the foe. Hence we find that a dog or a deer, for
instance, which has met with a fracture of the leg, or any
other similar injury, seeks quietude and dark seclusion. At
each movement of the fragments pain ensues, and consequently
the poor creature tries to avoid suffering by calm and repose.
The resting of the leg, the general motionlessness of the body
as a whole, the fasting, the absence of disturbing influences, the
darkness, all these factors lead to a diminution of the con-
stitutional excitement. Similarly, it is almost invariably the
case among oxen, that when one member of a herd is taken ill,
the first, or one of the first signs of disorder is that that par-
ticular animal departs from the rest of the herd in order to bear
its sufferings in solitary seclusion.

We cannot finally dismiss the most important topic of pain
without recording some of those wondrous triumphs over pain
which have been acquired by various races of men. The Man-
dans, otherwise called the See-p6hs-ka-numah-ka-kee — that is,
the People of the Pheasants, when visited in 1834 by Mr. Catlin,
the great American traveller, in his journeys through the North
American forests, were a small tribe of 2,000 souls, living in two
villages on the great river Missouri, 1,800 miles above its junc-
tion with the Mississippi. These hardy warriors could endure
with invincible apathy and fortitude all the forms of torture which
the ingenuity of their enemies could devise. This apparent
insensibility to pain and fear is not, however, to be attributed
to more callous frames or nerves of obtuser feeling, but to the
astonishing results of their institutions and tli^e influence of their
public opinion. Place a sufficient motive, indeed, before a
human being, and the proper witnesses around him, and he may
be disciplined to endure anything without showing a subdued spirit.
The Mandans lived in earth-covered lodges, and their villages

11

162 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

were defended by strong piquets or stakes, eighteen feet high, and
a ditch. The chief wore a splendid costume, with a head-dress
of raven's quills, and he carried two pipes of peace in his hand.

In about three years after Mr. Catlin's visit small-pox destroyed
all but thirty-one of the tribe, and these were speedily cut off by
their enemies, and the whole race thus became extinct. While resi-
dent among the tribe, Mr. Catlin painted four notable pictures,
and in reference to them he explained that the subsiding of the
Flood was commemorated at an annual ceremony by the Mandans,
and that at the same time all the young men who had arrived at
manhood during the preceding year went through an ordeal of
voluntary bodily torture, after which they were entitled to the
respect of the chiefs, and to the privilege of going on war parties.

The first picture represents the interior of the Mystery Lodge
of the Mandans during the first three successive days of the
annual ceremony. The young men are seen lying around the
sides of the lodge, their bodies covered with clay of different
colours, and their respective shields and war weapons hanging
over their heads. In the middle lies the old medicine man, who
watches the young men as they fast and thirst four days and
nights preparatory to the torture.

The second picture illustrates the Buffalo Dance, which took
place simultaneously.

The third picture represents the interior of the Mystery Lodge,
as it appeared to Mr, Catlin on the afternoon of the fourth day.
A number of young men are seen reclining and fasting, as in the
first picture ; others of them have undergone the torture and are
taken out of the lodge, and others are seen in the midst of the
most horrid cruelties. A scalping-knife, hacked so as to render
its edge like that of a saw, is passed through the muscular parts
of the body, through the soft parts of the legs and arms and
underneath the muscles of the breast and back. Wooden splints
or large flat skewers made of a strong wood are passed through
these in the flesh, and the young men are hung up to the roof of
the lodge by ropes attached to the splints in the upper parts of
their bodies, while heavy weights, as buffalo skins, war weapons,
&c., are hung upon the splints in the arras and legs, so as to add
to the agony of the sufferer. While they are thus suspended in
the air by means of their own flcsli, each young man is swung
round by another with a polo till he faints, and then he is let

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GERM THEORY. 163

down. One is seen who has been let down, and he is offering to
the Great Spirit the little finger of his left hand, by laying it on
a buffalo skin, while another chops it off with a hatchet. Mr.
Catlin, who painted the pictures from life, says that not so much
as a groan was heard to come from the tortured, who were anxious
to attract his attention that he might represent them with a smile
upon their features, which were calm and serene.

The fourth picture represents what was called "The Last
Race." After they had all been tortured in the above manner,
the young men were led out with their weights, buffalo skins,
&c., still hanging to their flesh. A circle was formed, and each
of the sufferers, taken by two athletic and fresh young men, one
on each side, was forced to run round and round till he fainted
away. He was then dragged with his face in the dirt until all
the weights were disengaged from him, by tearing the flesh out,
when they dropped him, and he lay to all appearance a corpse,
until he gained strength to rise and walk home.

All this is the fruit of scrupulous training, and the triumph
thus obtained over bodily suffering shows the most serene and
sublime ascendency of man's mind over matter, of his spirit over
his body. We might say much more on this all-important topic
of pain; but we have already gone beyond the limits which we
had set.

The subject of irritation may be spoken of separately ; for
though extreme irritation may merge into absolute pain, we
must still draw a line betwixt simple irritation on the one hand
and pain on the other.

Irritation of the conjunctiva causes contraction of the lids,
that of the nasal mucous membrane evokes sneezing, that of the
throat causes attempts at swallowing, that of the rectum causes
tenesmus both in animals and in man. These reactions are
suitable and conservative. Inflammation of these structures,
howevei', has the same effect yet more pronounced, and then the
result is by no means conservative ; but, on the contrary, it is
detrimental. Similarly, an animal suffering pain from internal
causes frequently bites or kicks savagely atr the corresponding
side of the body, and also in a part which has, apparently, a
relation through the medium of nerves with the internal part
which is affected. The relief which follows the application of
one or more leeches, or of a |small blister, to a painful part on

11 *

164 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

the surface of the body in cases when internal structures are
inflamed, is possibly to be in part explained in this way.

Irritation, as we have said above, may be intensified to such
an extent as to be nothing less than actual pain, and when this
is the case, all the intricate mechanism of work, of the fight,,
may be called into action instead of small portions only of that
mechanism. For instance, a sheep, after all attempts to dis-
lodge the oestrus ovis have proved unavailing, runs about madly,,
until well-nigh exhausted with fatigue. A man, too, may be
irritated by the harvest bug until he is in a semi-pyrexial state.

Again, if a nauseous and irritating substance be swallowed,,
vomiting may ensue. In fact, if an irritant be present in any
portion of the digestive tract, either vomiting or defecation, or
both these processes, may occur. In most instances it is with-
out doubt best that substances which are nauseous or irritating
should be thus rejected. This reflex action, however, which is
in these cases of such supreme importance, persists under patho-
logical conditions when it works harm. So alive are the intes-
tines to the reflex effect caused by irritation that vomiting may
occur in enteritis, or owing to compression of a portion of gut in
a case of hernia.

Vomiting may also occur if structures in close relation with
the intestines are injured, for instance in peritonitis, in compres-
sion oi the mesentery in a case of hernia, in biliary colic, in
irritation of the fauces. So also tenesmus may be excited by
irritation and inflammation of the lower part of the intestines.
In many of these cases the reflex effect is productive of harm.
There is reason to believe that the irritation of the throat is a
part cause of the vomiting which occurs at an early stage in
cases of scarlet fever ; and since vomiting also occurs at the onset
of diphtheria and small-pox, in which the fauces are attacked,
and also closely follows the onset of other cases of inflammation
of the fauces, it seems as if in all these cases the irritation were
the cause of the vomiting. Similarly, violent coughing may
bring on retching, which is apparently due to the irritation of a
pellet of mucus which has been coughed up into the throat.

We may sav, then, that the alimentary tract is peculiarly
sensitive, and that while this sensitivity in normal processes
does good, it may in abnormal conditions work a vast amount of
harm. We may also conclude that irritation, in like manner

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GEEM THEORY. 166

•with pain, brings about, to a greater or less extent, the associates
of work, and this not only in healthy animals, but also in those
•which are suffering from the abnormal processes of disease.

In continuance of our discussion we now turn to the subject of
ie&r.

y^ AU gradations may be witnessed in man and animals betwixt
the ready action of fear and the incoordination and paralysis of
fright. Fright may bring on palpitation, an irregular and in-
termittent beat, or a cessation of the beat. The paralysing effect
of fright is well known.

While, then, fear calls up the associates of work, the exertion
needed for escape, or that of the fight, fright is fear carried to
such excess that paralysis ensues.

Hence it is the case that, of our therapeutic measures, those
which excite to action on the one hand, and those which induce
rest on the other, are of great importance. Among the former
we may include physical work, external light and heat, noise,
food, out-of-door scenery, stimulants, tonics ; while among the
latter we may mention reduction of work, of external light and
heat, of noise, and of food, sedatives, venesection, reduction of
irritation, of pain, and of excitement, not only that of pleasure,
but also that produced by fear.

Tales of success excite and stimulate, those of happiness
produce happiness, tales of failure depress, and it must be re-
membered that in some cases of diseases excitement is more
easily produced than it is in health.

Dr. D. A. Gresswell relates the case of a boy in the con-
valescent stage of pneumonia, who was so excited by a noisy
delirious patient in the next bed, that his temperature rose from
the normal point straightway to 104*4 deg. F. About an hour
and a half later, his temperature had fallen 1"8 deg. F., so as to
be 102-6 deg. F., and next morning at 8 a.m. it was 98'2 deg. F.
It then oscillated up and down for seven days, after which
it remained at the normal. Similarly, a patient, convalescing
from enteric fever, if excited by pleasurej)r by fear, almost
always expresses the excitement by a rise of temperature.

And now, in conclusion, let us for a brief moment cast a swift
glance backwards at the glorious history of science. How
clearly does it appear, when we do so, that its gradual but sure
growth in accordance with all the co-operating factors, and also

166 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

in most intimate correspondence with all those various involved
conditions to which man's intellectual powers have been, and are
being, subjected, furnishes in itself one of the very best of all
those innumerable examples which we can adduce in illustration
of the general process of evolution. With exceptional force does
this statement apply to the science of comparative pathology, a
science even yet in its earliest infancy. Indeed it is only most
recently that the gradually increasing firmness of the establish-
ment of the doctrine of evolution as a relatively true, real and
indispensable, fundamental basis of thought and fact, has led men
to inaugurate their initial attempts to unravel by its aid the in-
tricate clues to the varied and at first sight most mysterious
phenomena of disease. The discovery of modern microscopic
methods has concurred to help the tide of progress in medicine
to a marvellous and well-nigh incredible extent. Indeed, in the
field of pathology, the advances made during this present century
now about to close, have been truly wonderful in magnitude and
far-reaching importance. Yet wondrous and great as they have
indubitably been, these discoveries are probably almost as
nothing when compared with the new developments of our
knowledge which we may expect to be made ere long.

Probably the most important epoch of all epochs, so far as
the world of medicine is concerned, may be said to be this pre-
sent one, which has been marked by the promulgation of the
germ theory of disease, and by its subsequent elaboration which
still proceeds, and will continue to proceed with yet more rapid
strides. Indeed, it would be quite impossible to exaggerate the
importance of the influence exerted by recent discoveries, both
in reference to preventive medicine and to our knowledge of the
best modes of treating the different disorders witii which all
human beings and animals are liable to be affected.

Day follows day, the years roll on, and as the wheel of time
revolves, it brings with it more and still more accurate informa-
tion, which is furnishing an entirely new basis for the sciences
of medicine and surgery as pursued by our predecessors.

The discovery of the power for good of vaccination, the recent
establislinunt of the germ-theory of disease, and of its numerous
and weighty implications in regard to actual treatment, the em-
ployment of antiseptic measures, the inoculatory methods which
have proved so higiily successful in the hands of M. Pasteur,

ORIGIN OF DISEASE AND THE GERM THEORY. 167

his co-workers, and others, certain most valuable new lines
o£ medical treatment — all these initiations of quite modern times
are very intimately connected one with another, and they open
up quite a vista of unexplored regions. Just as the elaborate
science of morphology has arisen out of the crude anatomy
of earlier days, so must the true science of pathology be developed
from the basis of our present knowledge, the starting-point from
which we may see a dim vision of a goal.

As a provisional explanation of the mode of development of
organisms, in the case of the tribe no less than in that of the
individual, and in many other ways, the hypothesis of evolution
has already been of incalculable advantage. The benefits hitherto
derived are, however, immeasurably enhanced by the importance
of the light now being thrown upon vital processes, both normal
and abnormal, by those who are, whether consciously or uncon-
sciously, now being guided by the idea of evolution in their
methods of research. In every department of knowledge this
theory is exerting the very greatest influence ; but there is no
science which is destined to be so profoundly affected for good
by it as is that of comparative pathology, the true and rational
science of disease.

In fine, it must be held a primary and fundamental assumption
that just as all animals have presumably had a common origin,
in hke manner all functional and structural disorders present
connections of the very highest interest and importance one with
another. In short, the phenomena of disease are to be studied
from their comparative aspect, no less than by their special
manifestations. This is a point of view which men of light and
leading are now applying with the best results, and herein is
opened out a new field for investigation, which in the very
highest degree demands cultivation on account of the wondrous
usefulness of the knowledge which is to be gained thereby.

And let us never falter or waver on our way upwards towards
the great truths above us, and never rest contented unless we are
climbing — it may be very toilsomely — over rocks and crags, and
huge mountain boulders, and beside deep chasms and pitfalls,
yet still always climbing upwards and onwards, higher and ever
higher, higher and yet higher still.

168 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

CHAPTER YI.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

SECTION I.— GENERAL DISEASES.

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.

Two distinct bovine diseases are known respectively as Sporadic
Pleuro - Pneumonia and Epizootic Pleuro - Pneumonia. The
similarity of the name arises from the fact that in both maladies
the lungs and their coverings are liable to be inflamed. Sporadic
Pleuro-Pneumonia is a disease which is considered to be native,
while the Epizootic form was first known in England in the year
1841, being of foreign origin. While the former is readily
amenable to judicious treatment, the latter is said to be fatal to
the extent of about 52 per cent. The iiost-mortem appearances,
though similar, have distinctive features.

Sporadic Pleuro-Pneumonia, — This disease may commence
either in the lungs or in the pleura. In some cases it is more
like pleurisy and in others more like pneumonia. It is traceable,
as a rule, to such causes as exposure to cold and wet, especially
if the animals are subjected to bad ventilation or faulty drainage
in addition. It is most prevalent in inclement seasons, and it
has apparently no tendency to spread from one animal to anoihor.
Unless all the members of a herd are similarly exposed to the
same predisposing conditions, the malady seems to attack indi-
viduals, and it does not apparently spread by infection.

The onset is sudden, and marked with acute febrile symptoms.
The disease has a rapid course, usually tcniiinating in about nine

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 169

days. It is essentially amenable to judicious treatment, and is
not fatal as a rule, provided that the patients be tended with care
and skill. The malady seems to have no incubative stage.
Both lungs may be more or less uniformly affected throughout
their entire substance. If the lung is examined after death, the
yellowish interlobular bands, so characteristic of the epizootic
pleuro-pneuraonia, are not so markedly visible.

Epizootic Pleuro-Pneumonia (Historical, Geographical,
AND General). — The earliest records which can be found re-
lating to this justly dreaded scourge point to its prevalence in
Central Europe. Valentine speaks of an epizooty, which may
possibly be regarded as contagious pleuro-pneumonia, as having
occurred in Hesse in the year 1693. Bourgelat mentions the
disease existing in Franche-Comte in 1769, calling it murie.
The malady appeared in Prussia in 1802, soon spreading over
North Germany, in Russia in 1824, in Belgium in 1827, in
Holland in 1833. From Holland Epizootic Pleuro-Pneumonia,
then raging in Friesland, was imported into Great Britain in the
year 1841. The scourge is now more or less prevalent in ail our
colonies, and, in fact, in nearly all parts of the world. It is
still, however, said to be almost unknown in Hungary, and has,
we believe, never yet appeared in Normandy nor in Algeria. The
disease, now thoroughly established in the British Isles, breaks
out with greater or less virulence in certain districts frum time
to time, carrying off large numbers of cattle, and this despite
the most stringent regulations which issue from Her Majesty's
Most Honourable Privy Council. This is nowise to be attri-
buted to any omission or to any want of vigilance on the part
of the Agricultural Department of tlie Privy Council Office,
but simply to the fact that there seems to be no possible means
of absolutely stamping out the disease. To this topic we shall
refer again.

The malignant fever we are discussing is spoken of as con-
tagious, or zymotic, or epizootic pleuro-pneumonia, and is also
designated by various other names. It may be described as a
sub-acute specific disease, which spreads With fatal rapidity
through the medium of the air. The manifestations are seen in
the bronchi, and in the lung-tissue and the lining membranes of
one or both lungs. There is an extensive exudation of a fluid
in the interior of, and on the lining membranes of, one or both

170 THE DISEASES AJSTD DISORDEES OF THE OX.

respiratory organs. The name pleuro-pneumonia indicates that
changes of an inflammatory character are found both in the
pleurae (the lining membranes of the lungs, and of the chest
cavity) and in the lungs themselves. There is also an efiFusion
of lymph into the pleural sacs. Usually the bronchi become
more or less stopped up. The inflammatory process spreads
along the lymphatics. Acute pleurisy, with high fever and
various functional derangements, may occur. The disease is of
a highly contagious nature. Bovine animals only seem to be
attacked, though it has been said to extend to the deer, and
some tliiuk it is allied to some forms of acute croupous pneu-
monia of the human subject. It is allied to the general specific
diseases, and one attack apparently confers immunity.

Causes. — We may naturally suppose that there are usually
certain conditions which, while aiding in the development of the
disease, do not actually cause it. They are the following : — Too
much food, improper or sudden changes in the food, prolonged
feeding on the residues of distilleries and breweries ; excessive
milking, hot or damp byres, marshy and badly-drained pastures,
cold, damp, bad water, faulty sanitation. In short, all those
conditions which will damage a healthy animal, will, it is
thought, render it liable to tbe attacks of this disease, if the
specific virus is at hand even in small quantities. The traflBc in
diseased cattle adequately supplies this virus, and thus accounts
for the diffusion of the disease. It is thought that severe
weather, bad feeding, and all conditions of an injurious nature
cause a greater susceptibility to the ravages of this disease, but
that they do not bring about its spontaneous origin.

As yet we have not very accurate information as to the germs
of this disease. It is said by T. Poels and Dr. W. Noleu that
the micrococci of pleuro-pneumonia of cattle have been success-
fully cultivated, and that the pulmonary exudations contain
micrococci identical in form and mode of growth with those
found ill human pneumonia. These observers also make the
important assertion that cultivated micrococci, derived either
from human pneumonia or from pleuro-pneumonia of cattle,
produce in cattle typical pleuro-pneumonia. Dr. Klein, from
his own observations, feels disposed to doubt the accuracy of
these statements. At any rate, it may be regarded as established
that contagious pleuro-pneumonia is generated by, and due to,

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 171

a definite micrococcus, and there can be little doubt that the
virus is inhaled by the animal, and so enters the lungs. It
seems probable that the lining membrane of the air-tubes (the
bronchi) is first affected.

Course oi' the Disease — Period of Incubation. — It is
said that an animal may be infected with the germs of con-
tagious pleuro-pneumonia long before any marked signs of its
presence are indicated. This is called the "period of incuba-
tion," and it bas been said to vary in length from two weeks to
as much as six months. Generally speaking, signs of the disease
are apparent after about thirty-seven days. Owing to this long
period of incubation the disease is especially insidious, since it
may spread among large numbers of cattle before it can even be
detected. Animals, apparently healthy, may convey the disease
to others by exhaling the germs. Very generally the first signs
of the disease are not noticed.

General Characters of the Symptoms. — The disease is
more rapid in young and vigorous animals than in the old, weak,
or sickly. Contagious pleuro-pneumonia may be acute, sub-
acute, or chronic in character. In the first case, large portions
of the lungs may be rapidly invaded. In sub-acute or mild
attacks, the patients may get well in what is called the first stage.
The normal condition of the lungs, however, is rarely, if ever^
regained. In chronic or prolonged cases, too, the animals may
recover, though this is seldom seen. The cough persists for a
long time, and it is accompanied by the expectoration of a great
deal of muco-purulent matter. The recovery is often, we might
say generally, incomplete, signs of the disease remaining one,
two, or three, months, during which the animal may infect others.
The immediate cause of death maybe general weakness, brought
on partly by the absorption of the products of inflammation, partly
from other causes. If the febrile symptoms of the second stage
come on rather late, the disease may last for several months.
We proceed to consider the first or developmental stage, and
shall then go on to the second or febrile stage, in which the
disease comes to a crisis.

First Stage. — This stage may continue only a few days, or it
may be prolonged for from two to six weeks. An elevation of
temperature, or, according to some, a slight cough, is the first
sign of disturbance. Of the members of a herd supposed to be

172 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

infected, those animals whose temperature is under 100"^ F. may
be looked upon as healthy.*

Those oxen in which the temperature is over 100° F. up to as
much as 102° F. may be affected ; while those animals whose tem-
perature is between 102° and 104° F. are very probably subjects
of disease. The temperature may rise as high as 106° F., or
even higher. It is well to bear in mind that this may be ob-
served even a few days before the disease is manifested in other
■ways. If there is reason to suspect the presence of contagious
pleuro-pneumonia, a temperature of 102° F. would prove the
necessity for prompt isolation, thorough disinfection of the sheds,
and precautionary measures; slaughter, if slaughter has been
determined upon ; preventive inoculation, if this is considered
admissible.

The general signs of ill-health soon appear. There mav be a
shivering fit, or more than one. The infected animal may sepa-
rate itself from the herd. The appetite is less keen, or of an
irregular character. The patients chew the cud with less vigour,
more slowly or irregularly ; there is a slight, dry, weak cough,
usually in the morning and evening, when the animal rises or is
disturbed, when it leaves the shed, after drinking, or when
pressure is applied between the ribs. Gradually, as the disease
progresses, the cough becomes more frequent, harsh, and painful,
and when the animal is coughing, its back is arched, and the
head and neck are extended. The number of respirations per
minute is about thirty or more. Breathing is a difficult and
laborious process. The nostrils are dilated, and the flanks
heave, what is called *'a staring condition of the coal" may be
seen, the hair loses its healthy lustre, and here and there stands
upright; the mouth is hot, the muzzle dry, the gums are of a
pale lilac colour, the walls of the chest, and particularly the
spaces between ilie ribs, and the back from the withers to the
loins, are generally all more sensible to pressure than is usually
the case in a healthy beast ; the appetite becomes worse, the
secretion of milk, if the patient be a cow, diminishes, and emaci-

* The late Professor Robertson took the average temperature of ;^')2 oxen,
including 100 cows, " all believed to be in the full enjoyment of health." The
average morning temperature was 101 -65° F. The average evening ten)])erat\ire,
taken from over 200 animals, was 102° F. The average number of respirations
per minute, taken from 250 animals, was 30"25.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SITEEP. 173

ation sets in ; the bowels are irregular, a serous or sticky dis-
charge comes from the nostrils ; the pulse is often quicker tlian
in health ; the ears and horns may be hotter than usual, or they
may vary in temperature.

By auscultation with the ear or with a stethoscope we may
detect sounds of an abnormal character in the bronchial tubes^
and mucous rales and crepitations over the lungs. One or both
lungs, more especially towards the lower third, are affected.
The mischief in the lung or lungs increases slowly in extent and
in intensity. The air-cells become impervious to the air, in
greater or less degree blocked up with the fluid exuded into
them. The lining membranes of the lungs and of the chest-walls
are also infiltrated with a fluid exudation. The bronchi have
inflamed walls, and they may become occluded, being filled with
a solidified lymph, as also may the air-cells. Sometimes the
changes in the lungs may be so extensive that death may occur
during this stage.

We must remember that any division of symptoms into
stages must necessarily be arbitrary, and that probably these
extensive changes we have just described would be more
appropriately considered as a hurried and sudden setting in of
the symptoms to be now described as belonging to the second
stage.

Second Stage. — Many of the symptoms mentioned already are
now exaggerated. The fever is of a more decided character. If
the animal moves, it does so unsteadily and with pain. The
cough is more persistent, harder, more frequent, more pain-
ful, and among the expectorated matter there may be white or
straw-coloured casts, tinged with blood. The mechanism of
breathing is altogether out of order. The respiratory movements
are quicker, more laborious, and accompanied by low moans or
grunts. The whole body often shakes with the agonising efforts
to breathe. Pressure or percussion on the chest, and especially
in the spaces between the ribs, close behind the elbow, or upon-
the back and loins, gives rise to a crouching or shrinking,
together with a low moan devoid of resonance, indicative of pain.
The attitude of the animal also bespeaks tlie desire to facilitate
respiration by whatever means, and to avoid the pain occasioned
by the vigorous respiratory movements. The fore-legs are wide
apart, the elbows being twisted outwards to relieve the chest from

174 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

pressure. The animal often changes the position of the hind-
legs, and seldom if ever lies down.

If, when nearly wearied out by the ravages of disease, the
subjects of pleuro-pneumonia assume the recumbent posture, it
is but for a short time that they do so, and even then the same
untiring effort to breathe may be seen in that they rest on
the middle line of the chest, with limbs doubled up under the
bodv, or perhaps with the fore-limbs extended in front. The animal
stands with muzzle protruded, and with the neck extended almost
in a straight line. The back is arched, the nostrils are more
markedly dilated, and the flanks heave more violently. The
mouth is hot and clammy, the muzzle dry, the breath fetid.
There may be even a suppression of the milk and a complete
loss of appetite. Only small quantities of fluid can be drunk,
and the swallowing even of these produces coughing. There is
a watery discharge from the nose and eyes, and this may become
purulent and offensive in odour. The extremities, horus, ears,
and other parts of the body may be at times hot, at times cold.
The mucous membranes are injected, the bowels costive, the
feces being hard, dark, and rarely voided. The urine is scanty,
and of a high colour; the skin previously dry, harsh, and tightly
bound to the tissues beneath, clinging to the bones and feeling
tense, like parchment, becomes yellow, dirty and scurfy. The
body wastes, and the animal becomes exceedingly weak.

There may be slight shivering fits. The pulse full, fairly firm
and averaging about 73 per minute in the earlier part of this
stage, afterwards becomes much smaller and feebler, and some-
times intermittent and irregular. Indeed it mny be scarcely
perceptible. The heart's beats are of a bounding character, and
are said to become more tumultuous as death approaches. There
may be a venous pulse on account of the obstruction to the
pulmonary circulation. Auscultation and percussion indicate
that extensive alterations are proceeding in the lungs and chest
cavity. If the enr be placed at the bottom of the neck, in close
contact with it, a loud rushing sound of air is heard. At the
top and side of the chest, a little behind the shoulder-blade, the
sounds heard are still louder. Ikdiind and below these parts,
however, no sound, or only slight whifling and wheezing noises,
can be detected. This absence of sound indicates consolidation
of the lung or existence of fluid in the chest, and in these cases

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 175

percussion gives rise to a dull note. The " friction-sound" may
also be heard. It results from the rubbing of the enlarged lungs
against the sides of the chest.

Sometimes only one lung is affected, and then the respiratory
murmur (as the normal sound is called) is heard much more
plainly than usual on the healthy side, being more resonant,
and then called puerile or exaggerated. The unaffected lung in
fact tries to make up by stronger action for the deficiency of its
fellow, thus being to some extent compensatory. Sometimes
the normal functions of the lungs may be gradually resumed, the
products of inflammation being absorbed by slow degrees. Gene-
rally there is water in the chest. A portion of the lung may
become gangrenous and then detached. Sometimes abscesses
form in the substance of the lung, and leave cavities which give
rise to the production of special sounds, which vary in character.

The approach of death is denoted by hurried and anxious
breathing, the cough being almost continuous. The animal
seems unconscious, almost insensible to pain, and is scarcely
able to stand. The attitude of the animal when recumbent is
noteworthy. When lying down, the animal rests on its side with
neck outstretched and discharging from the open mouth a thick
saliva. All the mucous membranes become lividly pale. The
animal groans loudly as if in agony, grinds its teeth as if in de-
spair, though probably these signs do not prove real pain so much
as the very strenuous efforts which are made to breathe. A drop-
sical or cedematous condition of the skin is seen in the region of
the dewlap or beneath the chest and abdomen, and also in the
extremities, in short in those parts where the circulation is most
inactive. The body wastes, and an offensive diarrhoea comes on.
Hoven may be present, the abdomen being blown out with gas.
The animal, having become weaker and weaker, at last drops and
dies.

The end may come in two or three weeks after the second
stage is reached, though the animal may die of asphyxia at
an earlier period. When recovery has not taken place, there
has been, as a rule, progressive consolidation of one or both
lungs, and the gradual increase of effusion of water into the
cavity of the chest and of fluid into the lung-tissue.

Death is said to take place frequently on the sixth, eighth,
tenth, fifteenth, or twentieth day from the beginning of the

176 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OP THE OX.

disease. It is due generally to actual loss of the power of breath-
ing, sometimes to pulmonary gangrene. A fatal termination
may be precipitated or hastened by a sudden distension of the
rumen by gases, a result of the arrest of digestion. Thereby, the
lungs, already fearfully handicapped, are still more markedly
impeded, and asphyxia is the result.

In some cases the animal may linger on for a long time. The
sunken eyes discharge an offensive secretion, and the animal
wastes dav bv day. The temperature sinks to a very low
point. Among the putrid pus which is expectorated portions of
disintegrated lung are coughed up.

Post-mortem Appearances. — In the case of animals which have
died rapidly, the lung tissue is red or even black, loaded with a
great quantity of serum, and very soft and easily broken. The
chest may be opened by an incision, say into an intercostal
space. The ribs being broken at their union with the spine
above, and with the breast-bone below, a yellowish fluid
flows out from the cavity of the chest. This fluid contains
much albumen, and is liable to form a gelatinous clot if it is
exposed to the air. It varies in amount from a few ounces to
several orallons. This flow of fluid is seen in those animals
which have died when the disease is well advanced. Large
flakes of a yellow fragile substance float in this liquid. Further,
if the chest be opened by the divided portions of the sides of
the chest being raised, at certain parts the inside of the chest-
wall is found to be adherent to the lungs, these latter organs
being tied to the inner surfaces of the ribs by means of large
deposits of the same yellowish friable substance which floats in
the liquid. The pulmonary pleurae (the layers which line the
lungs) are nearly always thus invested with a firm, solid layer
on one or both surfaces. These layers constitute the so-called
"false membranes." If the layer on the lung's surface is
stripped off, the lung is left rough and dotted with small
eminences. The lining membranes of the lung and of the chest-
wall, where not connected, have a dull appearance, and both are
covered by a layer of fibrin. The tissue beneath the pleuree,
which is continuous with the bands separating the lobules, is
also infiltrated.

These membranes largely consist of " fibrin," being sometimes
spoken of as congulable lymph, but better called coagulated

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 177

lymph. When a portion is examined with the microscope, cells,
like the colourless corpuscles of the blood, and like pus cells,
are found embedded in it. No doubt they are of the same nature
as these cells. The fluid in the chest and the false membranes
may be considerably less in the pleural cavity on one side of
the chest than in that of the other. The lungs may be also
united by bands of fibrin (which are easily broken) to the heart-
bag (pericardium), and also to the midriff (diaphragm). The
tissue connecting the cardiac fat is thickened. The lining
membranes of the lungs, as well as those of the chest-walls, and
also the bronchial tubes and blood-vessels, are all affected.
There is, in fact, an extensive exudation of a yellowish fluid
called serum or coagulable lymph, in the lungs and the struc-
tures closely connected with it. This coagulates to a greater
or less extent, and thus portions of the lung or lungs become
mechanically obstructed.

It is said that the first change is that the blood-vessels of one
or both lungs dilate. If the animal is killed soon after being
attacked by the disease, a more distinct scarlet hue may be noted
in the affected lung or lungs. These organs, being full of blood
and of the products of the abnormal processes going on, are
consequently heavier, and sink further in water than healthy
lungs do. As the disease proceeds, they become heavier and
heavier. A healthy lung floats in water, has a bright salmon
colour, is smooth, elastic, and yielding, and weighs about 6^ lb.

The detached lungs of an animal that has died of pleuro-
pneumonia are enormously heavy. Indeed, one diseased lung
alone may weigh as much as 301b. The two have been known
to weigh from 201b. to as much as 751b., or even 1 cwt. The
pleural linings are rough and thick, and the lung substance is
hard and inelastic. Being consolidated in a greater or less degree,
they resist pressure and do not crepitate when incised, owing to
the air-cells being blocked up. It is readily seen that such
lungs cannot fill themselves with air by expanding, and empty
themselves by contracting. In other words they cannot fulfil
the function of breathing.

If the lung is cut with a knife, the exposed surfaces present
an appearance most characteristic of this disease. It has been
termed a " marbled " appearance. This same aspect is seen in
the cut surface of the lung of a horse which has died of pleuro-

12

178 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

pneumonia of long standing, and also iu cases of sporadic pleuro-
pneumonia of oxen, but in neither of these instances is it so
■well marked as in contagious pleuro-pneumonia of oxen.

In animals which have only reached the first stage of the
disease, the tissue which binds together the lobules of the lungs
is seen to be chiefly involved. This tissue in the interior of the
lung is continuous with that which surrounds the organ under-
neath the covering called the pulmonary pleura; and it forms,
so to speak, a supporting framework by which the lung is held
together, and divided into lobules. These partitions, or rather
walls, between the lobules are called " interlobular bands." Now
these bands, or rather walls, of the lobules (for it is only in sec-
tions that they look like bands) are impregnated with a yellow
fluid called serum in different parts of the substance, generally
towards the centre, of one or both lungs. Now the " marbled
appearance " results from the existence here and there in the
tissue of the lung of dark red or purple areas engorged with
blood-discs, fibrine, &c., separated by these "interlobular
bands."

The latter are really avails of lobules, but on section they
naturally appear like hands. They vary iu breadth from one-
twelfth to one-third of an inch, are greyish or yellowish, being
sometimes streaked with blood. These interlobular bands are
engorged with fibrin, which seems to have been deposited owing
to the distension of the lymph-vessels which are contained in
them. In accordance with the progress of the disease, these
bands become thicker and firmer, and sometimes they may be so
greatly stained with blood that several lobules may seem to be
united to form one patch of congestion. Here and there, too,
the lung-tissue may be but little affected by disease. Small
groups of lobules or single lobules may be invaded, and those
parts which are affected are not necessarily contiguous, this in-
flammation being in this respect like the pulmonary inflammation
brought on by glanders in the horse.

In accordance with the degree to which the disease has pro-
gressed, the products of the abnormal processes may be absorbed,
or may form new tissue, the air-cells disappearing. The affected
lung-tissue, which was at first brownish-red in colour, gradually
becomes filled up with fibrine or coagulated lymph. Portions of
the lungs which have thus undergone fibrous degeneration are

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 179

deprived of their functions. This solid substance mechanically
alters the processes going on in the lungs, the blood-vessels and
lymphatics being thereby subjected to pressure. The new tissue
may undergo fatty, caseous, calcareous, or in rare cases gan-
grenous degeneration. The air-cells usually contain a little
■serum. Sometimes, though very rarely, they contain fibrine.
They are sometimes, therefore, obliterated, and sometimes densely
packed with red and white cells, as in ordinary pneumonia (red
hepatisalion). The exudation may then become a whitish turbid
fluidj so that the lung appears greyish, and thus we have " grey
hepatisation " instead of the more general "red hepatisation,"
in which the lung tissue looks bluish red or purple.

Sometimes the tissue suppurates, and masses of lung tissue
may be detached and isolated in the midst of a thick purulent
fluid, contained within rigid walls of newly-formed connective
tissue. In some cases these detached portions are decomposed,
friable, oflTensive in smell, and produce gangrene in the adjoin-
ing tissues. Sometimes there may be found large or small
cavities filled with more or less fluid pus. Thus there are
abscesses in the substance of the lung, and sometimes, though
not frequently, they open into the chest cavity, producing what
is called empyema. A cavity is then left in the lung which gives
rise to the amphoric rale. The pus may be partially absorbed,
and produce purulent infection, or the abscess may discharge
itself through the air tubes, in which case there will probably
be an expectoration of fetid pus.

Necrosis may result, too, from pressure of the bronchial
vessels, or from thrombosis of the bronchial arteries. The pul-
monary arteries are liable to thrombosis and embolism, and thus
gangrene may be produced. Gangrene is evidenced by the
brownish or nearly black hue of the lobules, the interlobular
bands being thin and infiltrated with bloody serum, and the
lung tissue being easily torn and fetid.

Blood abstracted at an early stage of the disease is usually
"viscid, thick, and soon coagulates. At a later stage it has
become dark and fluid, and has lost its ciragulabiliLy. " The
stomach contains dry food, and its lining membrane, as
well as that of the intestines, may exhibit patches of conges-
tion."— (Fleming.) It is said that there is more effusion into
the pleural cavities in some epizootics than in others. As a

12 *

180 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

rule the inflammation is more marked in the lung tissue itself
than in the pleurae, but in some cases the reverse is said to be
the case.

The air-tubes, the veins, arteries, and lymphatics, are sur-
rounded externally by exuded lymph, and at the same time
tend to be obliterated internally by the clots which are formed
within them. Many of the air-tubes generally contain frothy
serum, and those of the diseased part are frequently occluded
by clots of fibrine. which may extend into the larger tubes as
hollow cylindrical masses. Thus we find in the interior of the
wind-pipe and of the bronchial tubes large quantities of coagu-
lated lymph, which sometimes blocks up the passages to such
an extent as to form hollow or solid counterparts of the
air-tubes. This has been also seen in cases of sporadic
pleuro-pneumonia.

The lining membrane of the chest, the pleura, is in a healthy
animal smooth, glistening, and transparent ; but when it has
been inflamed, it has an opaque and rough appearance.
Butchers sometimes strip the ribs of their pleural covering in
order to disguise the marks of disease. The ribs will then be
seen to present an unnaturally clean, white appearance. The
flesh of animals which have died of the malady is dark, harsh,
unhealthy in appearance, moist, or even dropsical. The fat also
is yellowish, and there is a general absence of blood.

Preventive Treatment. — We now complete our present
subject, pleuro-pneumonia, and as we approach that part of
it which is at once most interesting and most deeply involved
in doubt, we cannot forbear looking forward in imagination to
the standpoint of men who will be writing on this all-important
topic of preventive measures years hence.

In view of what has already been done by means of vacci-
nation, and also by inoculation with attenuated virus, we may
well believe that by no means the last word has been said
regarding these most important operations.

We liave said above that the mortality in cases of epizootic
pneumonia is about 52 per cent. Oxen which recover, liaving
escaped the notice of those who would otherwise have ordered them
to be slaughtered, may be said to have been, as a rule, afTccted
onlv in one lung. If both are diseased, tliere is small clinnce
of the avoidance of death. With regard to treatment, the first

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 181

point to be noted is that preventive measures alone are allow-
able by law. If a beast is known to be suffering from epizootic
pleuro-pneumonia, it must be slaughtered at once. There is no
alternative. We shall first deal with preventive therapeutics,
then with the methods of inoculation.

There is no doubt that oxen in which the disease is to be
anticipated, owing to their having been exposed to the risks of
contagion, may be so carefully managed that the disease may
be arrested in large measure — almost entirely in many cases —
provided that the precautionary measures dictated by the
sciences of hygiene and therapeutics and preventive inoculation
be carried out with thoroughness. Stringent measures must
be taken at once. If the disease itself were to be treated, the
most effectual agents that could be recommended would be those
of an antiseptic or germicidal character.

The sulphite of sodium, for instance, would be found an in-
valuable agent. The same kinds of drugs are also of service as
preventives. It must, of course, be remembered, in dealing
-with questions such as these, that there are many conditions
■which are absolutely indispensable, in order that the action of
drugs may be properly aided. Preventive inoculation aided by
skilful treatment and care may be thought necessary. On no
account whatever may treatment of the disease itself be carried
out. The sulphite of sodium, the salicylate of sodium, the
fumes of burning sulphur used with the greatest care, carbolic
acid, sulphocarbolate of sodium, or iodine, or the iodides might
be well tried if treatment were allowable.

We will suppose that the veterinary inspector is called to a
case of pleuro-pneumonia affecting a member of a large herd,
and so liable to infect many others. He will at once report the
matter to the sanitary authorities. The best course of opera-
tions would be as follows : — He should at once isolate the
affected animal or animals, and have it or them slaughtered.
This he is bound to order by Act of Parliament, the Contagious
Diseases (Animals') Act of 1878 ; but there is some latitude
necessarily allowed hira as to other measures. Of course, he
will direct that all sheds, byres, crew-yards, which are in any
way liable to be contaminated shall be thoroughly cleansed and
disinfected, and he should give detailed instructions how this
is best to be carried out.

182 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

All sheds, cow-houses, crew-yards and, in short, any place
which has contained cattle diseased or supposed to have been
diseased, owing to their proximity to subjects of pleuro-
pneumonia, should be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected.
Sulphur should be burnt with due precautions in braziers in
different parts of the Z premises. In order to obviate future
outbreaks as far as possible, every part should be thoroughly
steamed out with the fumes of burning sulphur, the gas which
is produced, sulphur dioxide, being perhaps the best and most
reliable of our disinfectants. After this has been done, the
walls, stalls, roofs, and every little nook and corner should be
thoroughly white-washed with lime-wash, with each buckeiful of
which one pint at least of carbolic aoid has been mixed. Prompt
investigation will then reveal if there are any other oxen affected
or likely to be affected. The temperature will serve as a guide in
this inquiry. Unfortunately there is some difference of opinion as
to the best measures to be adopted with those animals in which
the disease is suspected to be lurking. Some think that all
suspected oxen should be killed at once, without hesitation. If
not slaughtered, all that have been exposed to infection should
be strictly isolated. If the animals are " in condition " and
slaughtered thus summarily, before the disease has assumed any
degree of virulence, the flesh may be used as food. If, however,
the animal be for any reae^on greatly debilitated, or if the flesh
has an unhealthy appearance, the meat is not to be deemed fit
for human food, but should be buried with antiseptic precau-
tions. The hides, hoofs. Sec. should be most scrupulously kept
from contact with other cattle.

Dr. Williams held that though the actual disease is not pro-
duced by inoculation, immunity against future attacks is secured.
He thought that the blood and the serous liquid squeezed from
the lungs of an animal in the first stage of pleuro-pneumonia
are the most suitable material for inoculation, and found that
in from ten days to a month symptoms are produced. He
further advises that the inoculation should be performed with
great care, and that towards the tenth day a saline purge may
be given, nnd repeated if necessary. He tells us that the mor-
bid changes do not extend to the lungs, but are merely
localised in the part inoculated, and that the bovine race seems
to be alone affected. We now know that though he may have

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 183

been right in other points, the use of the material he recom-
mended is not advisable.

Method of Inoculation. — The fluid should be obtained from
the interlobular tissue of a lung of an animal suffering from the
first stage of a mild attack, and as soon as possible after
slaughter. The parts which are dark red in colour and are
consolidated, and especially those parts which look gangrenous,
should be most carefully avoided.

The fluid obtained should be of an amber colour, and should
be either fresh or at least preserved, so as to be intact and free
from the least decomposition. A piece of lung, distended with
this yellow semi-fluid substance, should be cut along the lymph-
channels, so as to allow this fluid to ooze out. It should then
be placed while still warm in a strainer over a suitable glass
bowl, covered over witli flannel to keep it warm and clean. The
clear yellow liquid obtained should be preserved in glass tubes
about 4 in. long and f in. in diameter, which, when lull, should
be hermetically sealed by a blow-pipe flame, unless the material
is required at once. The hair from the under surface of the
tail of the animal which it is desired to inoculate should be
clipped off" for about five inches from the tip forwards. Then
the skin should be cut transversely in two places, one distant
about an inch, and the other about three inches, from the tip of
the tail. A needle should then be pushed from the lower up-
wards to the higher incision, and the channel enlarged by a few
rapid movements. A piece of white thick worsted, previously
well-soaked in the yellow fluid, should be passed through the
eye of the needle, pulled through, and left in the skin as a small
seton, the ends being knotted so as to cause it to remain in
position.

The way we have described is as nearly as possible, we believe,
that of Mr. Rutherford, of Edinburgh, a skilled and successful
scientist and veterinary surgeon. Professor Williams recom-
mends that the skin should be slightly scarified, and that one
drop of the fluid should be injected. It is our belief that this
latter method, or rather the simple insertion of the fluid on the
exposed surface, is to be preferred. The Professor adds that
the upper surface should be inoculated, and that the tip of the
tail is selected because, in case of gangrene, which may some-
times occur, the tail may be easily amputated. About the fifth

184 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OP THE OX.

day, or from that to about a period of two months after the
operation, there is a slight local swelling, together with heat,
tenderness, and erythema. At about the tenth day an exudation
of fluid usually occurs. This looks like that found in a diseased
lung. If it is applied to another healthy animal which has
neither been previously inoculated, nor has suffered from pleuro-
pneumonia, it will reproduce itself, and likewise afford pro-
tection against the disease. About the twelfth day there is
usually an eruption, together with slight rigors, loss of appetite,
and a slight diminution in the secretion of milk.

If the virus is bad, or from other reasons the primary swell-
ing be excessive, the tip of the tail may become gangrenous,
and the animal, unless remedial measures are effectual, may
suffer from fever, secondary deposits at the root of the tail,
around the anus, and in the abdominal glands. Death may
then occur in a few days. If the tail should show signs of
gangrene, a portion of it should be removed, and the stump,
after being allowed to bleed freely, should be then cauterised.
In some cases it has been found necessary to amputate the whole
tail, and the operation has been performed with success. When
the exudation of fluid does not appear until the ninth to the
twelfth day, the cases generally do well, tlie fluid dries up, and
the signs of inflammation disappear. The tip of the tail may
in time fall off. After about the twenty-first day all danger
seems to be over.

Oxen which have been inoculated, and especially cows, should
be tended with more than usual care. They should be always
kept warm for at least three weeks after the operation, and should
never be roughly handled, much less struck. It is highly ad-
visable that the operator should see the animals every day, so
as to be ready to act in case of need. If the bowels are con-
stipated, a gentle purgative may be found beneficial. It is
well to be sparing with solid food. Especially should roots be
withheld for about a fortnight. During this time linseed gruel
and the like easily digestible foods should be given. There is
110 harm in supplying good hay or grass or linseed cake, unless
the animal should leave ofl" chewing the cud.

Whatever the weather may be, oxen which have been inocu-
lated should be efieclively secured from exposure to cold, damp,
or draughts. The risks are greatest in the case of cows, and

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEi'. 185

in damp or cold weather. If the weather is severe, cows which
have been inoculated should have their bodies clothed, and straw
should be fastened on to the rafters of the byre. If suffering
from any illness, no animal should be inoculated. It is not
safe to inoculate cows, until at least sixteen days or more have
elapsed since calving. Pregnant cows should not be inoculated
after the seventh month. Mr. Rutherford has arrested the
disease in over a hundred outbreaks, and the average mortality
is not over 2 per cent. Other observers have spoken highly of
inoculation, and among those who thought favourably of it was
the late Mr. D. Gresswell.

Dr. Burdon Sanderson and others have recommended the in-
iection of the lymph into the venous system, e.g. the superficial
aural vein, by means of a small syringe. Professors Thiernesse
and Degive concluded that intravenous injeclion is not dangerous,
if care be taken that not a single particle fall into the cellular
■tissue, and they hold that the animal is by this means protected
from epizodtic pleuro-pneumonia. The steel canula should be
plunged into a vein, and then the syringe adapted carefully ; and
care must be taken that all the fluid is injected into the vein
before withdrawing first the syringe, then the canula. We
certainly do not think that intravenous injection is more safe
than Mr. Rutherford's method, or that of Professor Williams
and other authorities ; and it has the great disadvantage that,
if by any mischance gangrene should set in, death is inevitable;
whereas in the other case the tail can be amputated, if it is the
seat of gangrene, or if there is great local disturbance liable to
be dangerous to the system.

The conclusions of the Belgian Commission were, shortly,
that the phenomena which follow inoculation are those of local
inflammation, which is slight in some cases, but may be exten-
sive and affect the system, and may be complicated by gan-
grenous accidents, so that even death may result ; and that
the inoculation of the liquid from the lungs of an animal affected
with pleuro-pneumonia protects the larger^number of animals
from the malady for a certain period. The number of animals
on which the operation was beneficent was 61'11 per cent., and
the recoveries amounted to 88-88 per cent. This average is
therefore even better than could be expected, if due allowance
be made for accidental factors. Perhaps investigators may ulti-

186 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

mately find that an attenuated virus will be the best to inoculate
with. We are not aware that this has been yet placed beyond
doubt ; but every day adds to our stock of power over disease.
That it may become still more efi&cacious is our fervent hope,
and, we may add, our earnest belief.

A projws of preventive inoculation we extract the following
passage from Kingf Solomon's Mines, which many of our
readers will doubtless recognise. The talented author, Mr. H.
Rider Haggard, will, we feel sure, excuse us quoting from the
remarks he makes as to the selection of a waggon and span of
oxen. The reader, if he has not as yet procured a copy of the
work, is advised to do so without delay, for it is a good book, a
useful and practical book, though full of fancy as of merits — a
book of the very kind that English people want, and, what is
more, will have at any cost. We have read it with intense
interest, and, finding in it veritable mines of wisdom, we feel
pleasure in saying that we laid it not aside until every word had
been read from end to end. Some readers may think there are
too many " ^ood jokes" in the book, for one cannot help
feeling a little disappointment at having to smile in the midst
of an exciting situation. But the book, none the less, will do,
and has done, a great deal of good, and some will be delighted
to hear of Mr. Good and the lovely but unfortunate Kuku-
ana girl, Foulata, who makes a very pretty, and, we will add, a
very pathetic picture of fidelity and love. Even Mr. Good himself
has, after all, more good in, than neat attire on, him, and at
least he will give rise to a very good laugh : —

Having paid this tribute to my bmnp of caution, I bought a waggon and a
span of oxen on Sir Henry's behalf, and beauties they were. It was a twenty-
two foot waggon, with iron axles, very strong, very light, and built throughout
of stink wood. It was not quite a new one, having been to the Diamond Fields
and back, but in my opinion it was all the better for that, for one could see
that the wood was well seasoned. ... It was what we call a " half-tented "
waggon, that is to say, it was only covered in over the after twelve feet,
leaving all the front part free for the necessaries wo had to carry with us. In
this after part was a hide " cartle," or bed, on which two people could sleep,
also racks for rifles, and many other little conveniences. I gave £l'2ii for it,
and think it was cheap at the price. Then I bought a beautiful team of twenty
salted Zulu oxen, which I had had m_v eye on for a year or two. Sixteen
oxen are the usual number for a team, but I had four extra to allow for
casualties. These Zulu oxen are small and light, not more than half the size
of the Africander oxen, which are goncr.ally used for transjiort purposes ; but
they will live where the Africanders will starve, and with a light load will make
five miles a day better going, being quicker and not so liable to get footsore.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 187

What is more, this lot were thoroughly " salted," that is, they had worked all
over South Africa, and so had become proof (comparatively speaking) against
" red -water," which so frequently destroys whole teams of oxen when they get on
to strange " veldt" (grass coimtry). As for "lung sick," which is a dreadful
form of pneumonia, very prevalent in this country, they had all been inoculated
against it. This is done by cutting a slit in the tail of an ox, and binding in
a piece of the diseased lung of an animal which has died of the sickness.
The result is that the ox sickens, takes the disease in a mild form, which causes
its tail to drop off, as a rule about a foot from the root, and becomes proof
against future attacks. It seems cruel to rob the am'mal of his tail, especially
in a country where there are so many flies, but it is better to sacrifice the tail
and keep the ox than to loose both tail and ox, for a tail without an ox is not
much good except to dust with. Still it does look odd to trek along behind
twenty stumps where there ought to be tails. It seems as though nature had
made a trifling mistake and stuck the stern ornaments of a lot of prize bull-
dogs on to the rumps of the oxen. Next came the question of provisioning and
medicines.

We may add that the ready method of inoculation here
described was formerly used in England, but inoculation is
highly dangerous unless performed with excessive care, though
it is said to have been fairly efficacious in some cases.

The current of opinion in regard to preventive inoculation in
cases of epizootic pleuro-pneumonia has recently become some-
what adverse, and the more generally accepted and orthodox
belief now entertained in regard to this disease seems to be that
the stamping-out policy is alone to be advocated. Some of
those who, certainly not without good grounds for so doing,
see the unerring certainty of this course as opposed to the great
risks which cannot but belong to any other line of action, also
as a rule hold that not only is it advisable that such animals as
are undoubtedly the subjects of disease should be summarily
slaughtered, but also that those which are likely to become affected
on account of having been exposed to risks of infection ought
likewise to be killed, and afterwards that their carcases should
be buried with due antiseptic precautions.

This bold and clear policy, they contend, must be effectual,
whereas no other plan can be equally so. Probably this may be
the correct view, and at least it seems to have the recommendation
of certainty; and, though the question of expense is apt to be a
rather serious one, we cannot but conclude, after very much
consideration of the matter in all its bearings, that the keen
reasoning which cuts its way to what appears to be this sure
solution is perchance, in the case of this disease, the best reason-
ing, just as it was indubitably so in the case of cattle-plague.

188 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

and just as it is, with even very much greater potency, likewise
the best in the case ot the two terrible diseases known respectively
as rabies and anthrax. Indeed, in the case of these two diseases,
when afflicting animals, no other course can be contemplated by
those who know their truly dreadful nature as occurring either
in man or in animals. Hence, lest these diseases should be
communicated to human beings, any animals affected with them
must be forthwith^ slaughtered, and the carcases properly buried.

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE, OR APHTHA
EPIZOOTICA.

The highly contagious and infectious eruptive fever, to which
the above name is given, owing to the fact that the foot and the
mouth are the chief regions affected, varies greatly in point
of the intensity of its attack. Although the disease usually
affects the ruminants, it may break out in any warm-blooded
animal, being met with not only in cattle and sheep; but also
in swine, dogs, poultry, and even human beings are not secure
against invasion.

Eoot-and-mouth disease seems to have been recognised for
the first time in England and Ireland in the year 1839, animals
afflicted with the malady having been imported from abroad.
It is possible that since this time Great Britain has never been
entirely free from the germs of the malady, and our readers may
remember that there was a marked outbreak in England which
lasted from about September 1883 until about the middle of the
month of June in the following year. The disease then pre-
sented all possible varieties of intensity, for while on some farms
it was very virulent indeed, on others the malady was manifested
in so mild a form as almost to escape detection. The disease
spread rapidly among cattle and sheep, and the pigs also fre-
quently took the infection. Instances in which the garthmen
and shepherds became affected were not uncommonly met with,
the disease presenting in these cases symptoms similar to those
presented by animals affected with the same malady.

It may be said that one attack, to a large extent, confers
immunity ; but, as in the case of most diseases, both among
men and animals, this statement is by no means to be taken as
an absolute one. Cases are known, for instance, in which
animals have taken the disease twice, thrice, and, though very

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 189~

rarely, even four times. However, it may be held as a fact
quite free from doubt that if a disease appears more than once,
it is, on the second occasion of its appearance, much less severe.
Further, although many adult animals have succumbed from
foot-and-mouth disease, it is not, as a rule, fatal amongst older
oxen and sheep. Again, oxen have it usually more severe than
it is in the case of sheep. The mortality is much higher in
young animals, and the disease often assumes a very virulent
type among animals which are suckling. The virus may be
destroyed by means of the easily-procurable gas chlorine, and
also by other germicidal agents, and, indeed, disinfectants are
most potent in regard to the contagium of this disease. Chlorine
is a yellowish-coloured gas, and is set free when diluted sul-
phuric acid is added to a mixture of salt and the black powder,,
dioxide of manganese.

The disease does not manifest itself in an animal directly the
infection is taken, but, on the contrary, it remains latent for
from one to four days before giving rise to any appreciable
disturbance. Our readers are aware that there is similarly an
incubatory period, which varies in length in the case of other
specific fevers of man and animals, and we have already spoken
of that of pleuro-pneumonia. In the case of measles in human
kind it varies from seven to ten days. In small-pox the average
duration of the stage of incubation is twelve days. So rapid is
the spread of foot-and-mouth disease, owing to its great infectious-
ness, that even before any germ had been actually demonstrated
it was almost certain that it had no other actual cause.

In the case of oxen affected with this malady, the temperature
rises from about lOlf degrees F. to about 105 degrees F.,
the animal has fits of shivering, the appetite is lost, the bowels
are constipated as a rule, and the breath has an offensive smell..
After about two days in most cases, vesicles, varying in size
from that of a threepenny bit to that of a half-crown piece,
appear in patches on the lining membrane of the mouth, i.e. of
the inner surface of the lips and cheeks, and on the tongue,
sometimes on the lips and on the schneiderian membrane, on
the digits, in the case of female animals on the swollen and red
teats, in which case the virus is sure to be communicated to the
milk during the process of milking. These blebs are generally
rounded or oblong, and are elevated above the level of the sur-

190 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

rounding membrane. In colour they are of a yellowish-white
hue.

The mouth is usually so sore that food cannot be taken with
any comfort, much less masticated. Sometimes the mouth is
mainly or only affected, sometimes it is the feet which are
thus singled out, while frequently both parts are the seats of
the vesicular eruption. Especially in sheep, goats, and pigs, the
feet are often invaded. The mouth, if opened, displays the
presence of these vesicles, which may perhaps be of about
the size of a bean or that of a hazel nut. The vesicles are
never depressed in the centre, and they do not become pustular,
the fluid which is contained in them being always clear. In the
course of about twelve hours they usually dry up or burst, and
the red and painful raw and eroded surfaces which are exposed
may either soon be closed with a scale of epithelium, or, on the
other hand, may lead to the formation of ulcers. When this
is the case, the saliva then flows forth in still greater quantity
from the mouth, and collects in the form of frothy foam around
its opening. When the morbid action in the mouth is severe,
a large portion of the epithelial covering of the tongue may
peel off" — like a glove, as it were.

One of the most characteristic of the symptoms of foot-and-
mouth disease is the continual smacking of the lips, together
with champing and dripping of the saliva, and of thick mucus
out of the mouth. The animal grinds the teeth, and suff'ers
much pain, owing to the wretched condition of the lining mem-
brane of the mouth and tongue. In most cases an eruption of
vesicles similar to those just described also appears on the
feet around the coronets, and in the space between the claws of
. cloven-hoofed animals. Indeed, the structures which secrete
the horn may be so greatly inflamed as to lead to the casting
. of the hoofs. The coronets swell, the vesicles may even extend
all round, and, the inflammatory action increasing, the animal
often assumes the recumbent posture, in order to relieve the
pain occasioned by standing. Otherwise the animal may stand
with back arched and four feet close together, reluctant to
move ; or may move its feet up and down even before the
vesicles have appeared between the lo(;s. There is a discharge
from the eyes and nose in animals affected with this disease,
.those organs being inflamed.

DISEASES OF THE OX AKD SHEEP. 191

If the animal is about to recover, the febrile symptoms subside,
and begin to disappear about the fourth day, while at about
the eighth day the appetite is regained and consciousness well
nigh established. If the sufferer be a milk-giving cow, the
secretion of milk returns to the normal point, the epithelium
again grows over the eroded patches on the surface of the
tongue and the lining of the mouth. On the other hand, the
disease will assume a severe character if the animal is destined
to die; the ulceration may spread, the hoofs slough off, and
the animal become extremely prostrated, and die at about the
ninth day. If this is to be the result, it is probable that vesicles
will be formed not only in the mouth and on the feet, but also,
and especially in the case of young animals, on the fauces and
pharynx (the larynx also being irritated), the lining membrane
of the eyelids, that of the windpipe, and also on that of the
whole course of the digestive canal. If the intestines are
affected, diarrhoea will be manifested, while, if the windpipe be
attacked, a hoarse cough is often uttered. If young animals
are very virulently affected, they may die even before any
eruption has occurred, and after death, in such instances, the
lungs will very probably be found to be highly congested. It is
especially when the udder is inflamed, and when the tongue and
feet are much affected that the loss is particularly great.

Puffy swellings are sometimes formed also in parts, and this,
says Williams, was especially the case in the outbreak of 1872,
in which the disease introduced into Edinburgh and Leith
from Iceland assumed a very virulent form.

One of the worst features, however, of foot-and-mouth disease
is the frequency with which it invades the udders of milch cows,
giving rise to mammitis or inflammation of the milk-secreting
organs. The vesicles in these cases are usually formed on the
teats, but may also invade the ducts which conduct the milk
from the cells which secrete it to the openings at the end of the
teats. The calves contract the disease in a very bad form from
the eroded vesicles on the teats, and from the milk contaminated
by the unhealthy secretion from the lining'of the tubes. In
such cases the mortality, unless proper therapeutic and hygienic
measures are taken, is apt to be very serious. Indeed, even the
milk from a cow in which the udder is not especially affected is
•damaging to young animals.

192 THE DISEASES AXD DISORDERS OF THE OX.

The duration of cases of foot-and-mouth disease of average
severity varies from six to fifteen days, from the day of rise of
temperature to the subsidence of the fever. It will be evident
that the more virulent the outbreak the greater the emaciation
of the animal and the fatality of the disease. Should, however,
complications arise, the disease is necessarily protracted. It is
when the udder is inflamed, and when the feet are much in-
volved, that the loss is especially great. Indeed, the loss in
regard to the milk-supply is often very serious, and so also is
the loss of flesh in fattened animals.

In severe cases almost complete cessation of the secretion
of milk may ensue, and even in ordinary cases the quantity is
diminished by one-third of the entire volume.

It has been proved that the germs cannot be destroyed by
means of boiling the milk, and hence it is very clear that on
no account whatsoever should the milk of cows suffering from
foot-and-mouth disease be supplied for the use of human
beings.

The description we have given above applies especially to oxen,
but it mav be taken as a fair general account of the disease.
However, we now proceed to consider specially the case of sheep
and goats. These animals, when attacked with the malady,
become very much emaciated, lose their appetite, and manifest
febrile symptoms, which are, however, usually less severe than
those of cattle, albeit that the temperature may rise as high. In
fact, foot-and-mouth disease, as it appears in sheep, is not in
the general way so serious a complaint as it is when affecting
oxen. The sheep or goat lies down at a distance from the rest
of the flock, looks dull and weak, can only with difiiculty be
made to move on, and when walking walks unsteadily. A
peculiar smacking sound is made with the lips, which the animal
keeps moving, as if in the act of sucking. This is very charac-
teristic, as, indeed, we pointed out above. The mouth is hot and
full of thick saliva, and the vesicles break out especially on the
incisor psid. More rarely they <ire seen on the whole of the lining
of the mouth and on the tongue, and eveu on the eyes they are said
to be sometimes present. In the case of these animals, however,
the eruption is more frequently present on the feet than in
the mouth ; but actual vesicles arc not usually seen. It is most
generally the case that the skin around and between the claws is

PLATE I.

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE.

Fig. a.

1

5

f^

S-'^

c

Fig, B.
a/ •*',,^

•t«

■\ "

o\

"» .w*""

'1

Fig. a. From a microscopic specimen of an artificial cultivation of
the Streptococcus in broth, after three days' growth at 36° c. a Diplo-
coccns. h Short chains. c Complex chains, due to longitudinal
division of the cocci of a chain.
Magnif. power about 1250.

Fjg. B. From an artificial cultivation of the Streptococcus of Foot
and Mouth Disease in Agar- Agar mixture of several weeks' growth.
a Simple Stroptftcoccus— here and there in it a coccus conspicuously
larger than the rest, h Branched Streptococcus, c Streptococcus with
indication of longitudinal division of the cocci.

Magnif. power about 1250.

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 193

swollen and of a reddish colour, and from it a fluid is discharged
which dries and gives rise to the formation of crusts. The in-
flammation occurring in this part may be followed by suppuration.
In short, the feet may be most seriously injured, and the ulcers
which are formed may persist, and bring about great damage and
loss of general condition.

Dr. Klein * has proved that the disease is due to the growth and
multiplication of micrococci, which he has found in the vesicles
present in the mouths of aff'ected sheep. A micrococcus is a very
minute spherical or slightly oval organism, which, like other
bacteria, divides by splitting into two portions, and it does not
possess any cilium or appendage by means of which movement
can be effected. There are many different kinds of micrococci.
The micrococcus, which is the materies morbi of foot-and-mouth
disease, exists singly, or in dumb-bell-like pairs, or in curved
chains. These germs may infect the system through the mouth,
for it has been shown that warm milk from a diseased cow, if
given to pigs, produces the disease in them, or they may infect
the animal by the medium of the lungs. The germs can,
it is said, retain their vitality for three months at the least. It
has been shown that the spread of the disease varies with the
direction of the prevailing wind.

Klein points out how sensitive this germ is to the action of
antiseptics. This fact is of the greatest significance, because it
corresponds with and corroborates our definite opinion which we
shall shortly consider in dealing with the treatment of foot-and-
mouth disease, viz. that antiseptics are of the highest value in
the treatment of this germ disease.

All our readers may not, perhaps, be aware that the Commission
instituted last year for the investigation of cholera in Spain
have recently issued a report, which appears in the proceedings of
the Royal Society. The investigators have discovered a fungus
which belongs to a class which includes many rapidly growing
and virulent parasites of the vegetable kingdom ; for, indeed, it
is now universally held that germs or bacteria are to be regarded

* In the vesicles of sheep ill with this disease I find a micrococcus, singly, in
dumb-bells, and in curved chains. It stains well with the ordinary aniline dyes.
It grows well in milk, in alkaline peptone broth, in nutrient gelatine, and in
agar-agar mixture. It is highly sensitive towards antiseptics. It does not
curdle milk, although it turns the reaction slightly but distinctly acid. (Klein.)

13

194 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

as very low forms of vegetable life. It is not as yet absolutely
proven that this particular germ is the actual exciting factor of
the disease, but its presence in each case at varying depths from
the inner surface of the intestine, and also in the kidneys and
liver, points strongly to the fact that the true cause of cholera
has been at length unearthed.

It would indeed be exceedingly unsatisfactory from all points
of view if. on discovering so much of the actual nature of the
germs of the different fevers, we were to find that man, who so
long has dominated over the largest and fiercest of the beasts of
the field, and the animals he has domesticated, should ever remain
a prey to the attacks of these microscopic vegetable parasites.
We have already spoken of the vast strides made in our know-
ledge of therapeutics, especially in that section which deals with
the antiseptic remedies and methods, and have shown how closely
linked are the sciences of human and veterinary medicine. We
have spoken also of antiseptics in particular, and of the prevention
of disease by hygienic measures, and of the conditions under
which vegetable germs cannot thrive.

To this all-important subject we revert again to day in detail-
ing the special treatment to be adopted in cases of foot-and-mouth
disease. For although medicinal remedies are but seldom
required in mild cases, yet it must be emphatically pointed out
that in the last great outbreak of this disease in England many
animals were lost which with a little care might have been saved.
This was especially the case with suckling calves, many of which
died for want of remedial measures. Also in the cases of milch-
cows, the udders were in many instances left irreparably diseased,
treatment not being deemed likely to be of value. It is sincerely
to be trusted that we shall not yet awhile be troubled with an out-
break of this pestilence ; but, should such ever be the case, it may
earnestly be hoped that simple remedial measures will be adopted
in all cases of young suckling animals, and in all those cases
for adults which are of a severe character.

In an ordinary mild case of foot-and-mouth disease it is neither
customary nor necessary to adminsterany remedial agent.

Treatment. — Laxatives, such as Epsom salts, may be useful.
The affected parts may be dressed with chlorine water (freshly
made, since its composition quickly changes, the chlorine and
the water acting on each other and forming hydrochloric aoid

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 195

and hypochlorous acid), with lotion of carbolic acid, or perhaps
most preferably with ointment of salicylic acid. While the
mouth is sore, the food should be of a moist nature, as the pain
occasioned by the devouring of hard food is apt to be great, and
may prevent the animal from taking a sufficient amount of
nourishment. If it be decided to give any medicine, three
drachms of sulphite of sodium, or two drachms of salicylic acid
may be added to the drinking water, of which the ox should have
a good supply. This dose may be repeated twice daily. It is
not, however, necessary to use such antiseptic agents in the mild
cases, seeing that these almost universally terminate in recovery,
even when no treatment whatever is adopted. Yet it is indeed
probable that antiseptic medicines do materially expedite recovery.

One drachm of sulphite of sodium, or about 15 grains of
salicylic acid, may be given in the drinking-water twice daily to
sheep.

The feet should be well looked to. When the horn is loose,
it should be' removed with great care and judgment, and the
sore parts should be dressed with ointment of salicylic acid or
some other eflfectual antiseptic preparation, such as the ointment
or the lotion of boric acid. The lotion of boric acid contains
one part of the acid to twenty parts of water, and is easily made
by adding water near the boiling point to the powdered acid.
The ointment of boric acid contains one part of the acid to about
six parts of vaseline or lard.

The compound ointment of carbolic acid, made of carbolic acid,
iodoform, oil of eucalyptus, and lard, is also a very eflficacious
antiseptic ointment (vide Gresswell's Veterinary Pharmacopoeia).

A piece of cotton wool or tow may be soaked with the lotion, or,
better still, smeared with the ointment, and then spread over the
affected parts. The foot should then be neatly bandaged up, so
as to keep it quite free from dirt. If the mouth be very sore,
a gargle made of one part of boric acid, five parts of glycerine,
and eleven of water may be used to wash out the mouth several
times daily. On the whole, we recommend the ointment of
salicylic acid for the feet.

When an ox shows symptoms indicating much prostration, a
drench containing three drachms of carbonate of ammonium and
two drachms of salicylate of sodium, and one ounce of nitric
ether may be given in a suflBciency of water three times daily.

13 *

196 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

If prostration be not a special feature, two drachms of salicylate
of sodium, or the same amount of salicylic acid, may be given in
water as a drench twice daily, or three drachms of sulphite of
sodium may be given, as this remedy seems to be of great
efficacy in such cases. If it is deemed desirable to do so, these
remedies maybe mixed with liquid food, and then administered
in cases where the animal does not refuse the liquid food. The
feet should be still more carefully looked after than in the mild
cases, and should be kept strictly clean. They should be well
washed, and then dressed with some strong antiseptic ointment.
That containing carbolic acid, oil of eucalyptus, and iodoform is
especially valuable. Then the foot should be carefully bound up
and dressed likewise again on the following day, and so long as
it continues in an unhealthy condition. In young sucking calves
foot-and-mouth disease often assumes a very virulent type. This
is, no doubt, to be attributed to the contamination of the
milk by the diseased products, and to the direct effect of the
contaminated fluid on the stomach and intestines of the young
animal.

Similarly, in very severe cases of the disease in sheep, the food
should be moist and nutritious, and consist of such things as
linseed cake, gruel, mashes, and soft roots. If an adult sheep is
severely prostrated, a drench containing 20 grains of carbonate
of ammonium, 20 grains of salicylate of sodium, together with
2 fluid drachms of spirit of nitrous ether and a sufficient
quantity of water may be given twice or even thrice daily. If the
animal be not very greatly prostrated, 20 grains of salicylate of
sodium or about 10 grains of salicylic acid may be given in
water twice daily. Instead of either of these. 1^- drachm of
sulphite of sodium may be given. If it is thought well to do so,
these remedies may be mixed with liquid food, and put before
the animal to be drunk. The feet should be well washed, and
dressed with some antiseptic ointment.

If the udder be greatly affected, the lambs should be removed
from the ewes, or the calves from the cows, as the case may be.
To the milk supplied to each calf in the course of the day 1
drachm or 1 ^ drachm of salicylic acid should be added, and to
that given to each lamb about 5 grains. In the case of a calf
at least 20 grains of salicylic acid sliould be given in a little
n)ilk twice every day so long as the disease continues, even if the

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 197

udder of the mother does not seem to be affected. To the cow
herself the same acid should also be administered. When the
udder is greatly inflamed, the affected parts should be thoroughly
fomented with hot water for an hour or two at least once daily,
and the sore parts should be cleaned and dressed regularly with
ointment of salicylic acid. If there is sloughing of an extensive
kind, either on the feet or elsewhere, stronger antiseptic appli-
cations may be used. One part of carbolic acid to nine parts of
either olive oil or glycerine, or one part of carbolic acid and one
of oil of eucalyptus to 12 parts of either olive oil or glycerine,
will be found exceedingly efficacious.

In addition to the above disease, which may be termed true
foot-and-mouth disease, we may point out that there is a particular
kind of enzootic disease of sheep affecting especially the feet, but
also the mouth, which, although resembling true foot-and-mouth
disease in many points, is yet quite distinct from it. According
to the late Mr. D. Gresswell, who had a very wide experience of
the diseases of sheep, and also to Mr. J. B. Gresswell, this
enzootic disease, which affects especially the feet but also the
mouths of sheep and lambs, causing more particularly great loss
among the lambs, is very liable to be mistaken for foot-and-mouth
disease. Many of the older shepherds and veterinary practitioners
were very well acquainted with this malady long before foot-and-
mouth disease was imported into this country about the year
1839. In many cases it seems to be due to the mechanical irri-
tation of dirt and clay leading to erythema in the region of the
coronets, villitis, and consequent separation of horn from the
coronet, also to erythema on the lips and nose.

The malady occurs especially in wet and frosty weather.
It is due to the continued effects of moisture, dirt, frost,
varied with heat (arising from putrefaction), and often breaks out
on ill-drained, clayey turnip-land, and also on wet grass-land,
though to a far less extent and in a much milder form. In-
deed, the piteous spectacle may very frequently be seen of sheep
paddling about in fields of which the soil i_s simply one mass
of sludge and decaying vegetable material. The dirt gets
wedged between the claws, and on the lips, and there it freezes,
producing not only irritation, but also what is very important,
namely, undue expansion of the claws, and the inevitable
result soon shows itself. Formerly the complaint of which

198 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

we are speaking was very frequently met with in the Marsh
and also on the Wolds of Lincolnshire; but improved methods of
management, better drainage, and greater care for the sheep are,
happily, gradually removing such a distressing state of things. It
is, indeed, greatly to be hoped that farmers will see that their
sheep and lambs are properly seen to, especially in severe
weather. The onset of the disease we are speaking of is so
sudden that a whole flock of sheep may become affected in a day
or two, and, indeed, it is by no means an uncommon occur-
rence for a shepherd in the winter-time to find that as many
as 200 sheep out of a flock of about 400 or 500 have been
seized with lameness, even in the course of one single night.
The clay becoming fixed between the claws, freezes there ;
and this, together with the effects of the ice present on the land
and the icy cold water and sludge, weakens the vascular struc-
tures of the parts to such an extent as to cause congestion,
inflammation, and so on.

The effects of water on the hoofs are well illustrated by the
following fact : — When Napoleon's army was on the march near
Moscow, the weather was so wet that the horses had for some
time to travel through water, and so great was the effect of this
on their feet that the hoofs of many of the horses came off.

It is often the case that a great many lambs are lost in
England. Much of the mortality is supposed to be due to
abortion in the ewes, and without doubt many deaths are due
to this cause. There have, however, been several other factors
at work, and a very important one is that numbers of ewes
suffering from the disease above-mentioned have — to use the
shepherd's expression — laid their lambs to death. It is a fact
that ewes, suffering from the above-mentioned enzootic disease
of the feet, do actually lie down on their lambs and so kill them.
On one farm a hundred lambs were lost in great part from
this cause, and in another case a farmer informed us that he
had lost lambs worth £200, partly owing to the above cause,
partly owing to skit.

Many lambs also die from the attacks of rheumatic arthritis,
a disease which we shall consider in due course.

Sheep affected with this disorder have not much elevation of
temperature. In fact, it is seldom above 104 deg., and very un-
usually does it rise above 103° or 102^ F. It is important, also.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 199

to bear in mind that beasts, if turned into the same field, do not
become affected in any way, but, on the contrary, remain per-
fectly healthy. Again, if the affected sheep are taken to places
favourable for recovery and suitably treated, being put into a
dry grass field, for instance, and well looked after, they will
get well, and, moreover, if healthy sheep are put with them,
they will remain quite healthy.

Again, the sheep afflicted with this malady do not secrete a
large quantity of saliva, nor do they smack the lips, nor is
there any vesicular eruption to be seen either inside or outside
the mouth, all of which symptoms are, as we have seen above,
to be noted in typical cases of foot-and-mouth disease.

Before concluding, we may just briefly state the symptoms.
The sheep go lame suddenly, the foot and the coronet are hot
and painful to the touch, and occasionally very small scabs
may be present on the nose or on the lips. The appetite is not
as a rule markedly impaired. The pain which ensues from
progression causes the sheep to sit and lie down. Sometimes
it may be found difficult to move them, and even when they do
move, they will, perhaps, merely limp on for a few yards, and
then squat themselves down again. At this time the coronets,
if examined, will be seen to be affected with acute erythema,
while suppurative laminitis breaks out over the coronet in such
an extreme form that even the hoof may come off. As for
the mouth, the outside of it is sore; but the tongue is perfectly
healthy, and, as we said above, there is no extra discharge of
saliva.

This disease which we have described, our readers will see,
is distinct from foot-and-mouth disease in various particulars,
and from fool-rot in that the mouth is affected, and also that
in this disease there is no ulceration of the foot like that of the
contagious foot-rot, which disease we now proceed to consider.

FOOT-ROT IN SHEEP.

In due course we now come to a consideration of that
important disease which is known as foot-rot of sheep. Now,
at the outset, it is well to draw a clear distinction betwixt that
simple kind of foot-rot with which sheep are liable to be
afflicted when they are kept on wet grass-land — especially if, the

200 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

land not being well drained and the weather wet, there are many
marshy places about — or in filthy yards, and the contagious
foot-rot, which is a much more serious affair.

The simple kind may generally be cured by the obvious
device of removing the sheep to dry situations. It begins in
the interval betwixt the claws, and the formation of purulent
material may spread very rapidly, and even lead to the hoof being
quite undermined and even thrown off. The structures which
secrete the horn, and the structures near those structures, become
inflamed, soften, and split, and frequently all four feet are
similarly attacked. The damage may probably have resulted
from direct irritation ; such, for example, as that wearing away
of the sole to the quick which may easily be brought about by
travelling for long distances on hard roads, or by soaking of the
hoof in wet and sludge, by the effects of ice or icy cold water on
the coronets, by wounds, by collection of dirt between the claws,
or by the sheep standing on hot manure.

However, this non-contagious foot-rot can be easilv cured, as
we have said above; but the contagious form of the disease is a
very much more dangerous malady, on account of its tendency to
spread very rapidly from sheep to sheep throughout a district. It
seems also to be most especially liable to break out in fine-woolled
improved merino breeds. On the other hand, coarse-woolled
sheep are not only less liable to the disease, but, if affected with
it, they are also capable of being more easily cured. The virus
of the malady does not seem to affect other animals besides
sheep. It is communicated through the skin around the claws,
and the period which elapses between the lime at which the
virus gets into contact with the hoof, and the period at which
the disease breaks out, is about four and a half days. This
virulent kind of foot-rot may be mistaken for the mild variety
above described. It is not very possible to mistake a case of
contagious foot-rot for one of aphthous fever, the absence of
symptoms in the mouth proving that the animal cannot be
suffering from the latter malady. Again, mud-balling also, in
whicli mud, having become lodged between the toes, hardens
there and sets up inflammation, is also a very distinct complaint.

Ou the Continent contagious foot-rot has often spread in an
epizootic manner; in Australia it is commonly met with; and
in the United States it is at times very markedly prevalent

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 201

among the merino sheep, being apparently more severe in warm
weather than in more inclement seasons. This contagious form
of foot-rot is probably caused by a parasitic vegetable growth,
and it may often begin even at the top of the hoof — in fact, at any
part where the virus happens to come into contact with the hoof.
When the disease has thoroughly established itself, the sheep,
while grazing, may be seen upon their knees, so much pain does
it cause them to put their feet to the ground. The wool is thereby
worn off, and the knees will therefore be seen to be bare. The
disease begins by the vascular structures of the foot becoming
inflamed, and then ulcerating, and giving rise to the formation
of an offensive purulent fluid, and ultimately the hoofs may come
off, and the disease spread upwards into the bones. The malady
is actually communicated by contagion ; but long marches, lack
of attention to the hoofs, rank grass, standing on manure, the
entrance of dirt into the hoofs, ground which is either too wet or
too dry, or hot, stony, or sandy, may be mentioned as additional
factors. As a rule, only one foot is attacked at first; but the
malady soon passes on to the other feet.

The earliest sign may be that one of the fore limbs is slightly
lame. A day or two after this the hoofs become hot and painful,
especially in the interval between the claws. In fact, the skin
between the claws and above the hoof is red, and exhibits at first
pimples, then vesicles, then pustules, and a foul oily material is
poured out. Soon small ulcers appear, and they gradually unite,
and the discharge which comes from them is yellow and sticky,
and gives out a peculiar ammoniacal odour. Perhaps the first
sign of disturbance is that the heels become hot, and this
inflammation increases rapidly. The skin at the top of the cleft
over the heels becomes in the first instance moist and red, and it
presents a chafed or eroded or even a slightly corrugated look.
It then becomes sore, the discharge increases, and ulceration
supervenes. The inner walls of the hoof also ulcerate, and the
ulcerating process may even give rise to the penetration of
these thin walls. If the horn is removed, it_\vill be seen that the
connection between the horn and the fleshy sole is severed, and
a very fetid or purulent matter is exuded in the crack.

In about three and a half weeks' time the hoof may be seen to
be separating towards the heel. In fact, the hoof gradually
comes off from before to behind, and a dark, greasy, oflensive

202 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

fluid is poured out. The ulceration between the claws becomes
wider and deeper, and gives rise to stiil greater pain than before.
If the loose horn is removed, the structures beneath are seen to
be red and swollen, and covered with the offensive matter above
spoken of. The sheep is dull and feverish, cannot put the
afiiected foot to the ground, in fact can only stand with great
suffering, and therefore assumes the recumbent posture, or,
if grazing, moves about on its knees, or even crawls with its
belly trailing on the ground. Before long the hoof comes off
entirely, or only remains slenderly attached. The mischief, how-
ever, does not end here; for, unless the disease is cured, another
hoof may be secreted, and again thrown off.

If the hoof is not thrown off, it may grow irregularly to a large
size, and be much deformed. Extensive suppuration may super
vene, and gradually advance higher and higher up the leg, even
involving perhaps the second phalanx. In such cases the agony
may be intense, the febrile symptoms continue, the appetite be
quite lost, and the animal's sufferings closed at length by death..
In hot weather even more evil may be occasioned, for the fleshy
sole, having become a black and swollen spongy mass of corruption,
may be invaded with maggots, which, of coui'se, greatly facilitate
the process of decay. As the distressed animal lies upon the
ground in helpless agony, these noisome creatures may be com-
municated to its sides, and set about ravenously devouring their
helpless prey alive.
As a rule, only one hoof is affected at first, but the disease soon
spreads to the other feet, and, unless measures are taken to arrest
its progress, it may break out again and again in the same feet,
and may last for even as long as a year or more before a fatal
result is brought about. Even if the sheep should after all
recover, bony deposits, anchylosis of joints, and deformity of the
hoofs remain. If the disease is of a very intense character, the
digestion being stopped, and marked fever produced, death may
occur in about nine weeks' time.

The virus of the disease is contained in the exudation which
is discharged from the foot and it may be communicated by the
medium of grass, litter, fodder, fairs, markets, roads, sheds, or
stables, by lack of cleanliness in regard to railway-trucks or ships
used for the transport of cattle, or by any means whereby direct
or indirect contact of any kind may be occasioned. It is not

DISEASES OF THE OX AN'D SHEEP. 203

safe to take healthy sheep to pastures which have recently been
used for diseased sheep, since the discharge which is poured out
from the suppurating chiws gets on to the grass, and from this
is communicated to the hoofs of healthy sheep. The malady is
very easily transmitted from sheep to sheep. Hence public
washing-pens are dangerous, especially if not in the course of a
running stream, since sheep may from them easily contract the
disease, or, indeed, other disorders such as scabies. If the
disease is properly taken in hand without delay, the loss ought
not to be great. Foot-rot may, however, exist in a flock for
years, if it is neglected, and thereby serious loss may ensue, not
to speak of great suffering on the part of the sheep. More-
over, one attack of this disease by no means confers immunity
for the future.

In regard to prevention, in the first place we may insist upon
the advisability of thoroughly draining the land. Shepherds
ought to keep an eye to the hoofs of their sheep, and, if neces-
sary, they may occasionally pare them, so that they will not
readily split. Sheds used for sheep ought to be sprinkled over
with lime. Pastures should not be overstocked. Sheep ought not
to be allowed to be taken from infected districts to others which
are free from the disease, and those which have been recently
purchased ought to be kept in quarantine for about a fortnight
before they are put into contact with other sheep. If any
become lame, they should be isolated ; and those which have
been in contiguity with the lame sheep should be watched for
some time, especially if they manifest heat and more sensitivity
of the foot than usual, or an exudation in the interval between
the claws. The healthy sheep should not go near the diseased
sheep, or those which are suspected, nor should they travel by
the same roads, nor eat nor drink at the same places. They
ought to be examined every now and again for a week, and any
which are suspected to be diseased should be isolated.

It is a wise precaution to make all the sheep, whether healthy
or not, pass through a trough containing, to a depth of 4 in. or
more, a solution made by dissolving 1 lb. of chloride of lime
in every bucket of rainwater. This trough may be placed in
such a position that the sheep pass through it once or twice
each day. After the disease has been cured, all the manure should
be taken away from the sheepfold, the floor of which should

204 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

either be dug up to about the depth of 6 in., or thoroughly well
strewed over with lime. Moreover, all walls, mangers, and so forth
should be well lime-washed, or washed with a solution of
chloride of lime. The flock cannot be considered free from the
disease until about six weeks after the last case of recovery has
taken place. All those persons who own flocks in a district in
which the disease has broken out should exercise the greatest
care in regard to their sheep ; but as it appears that other
kinds of animals cannot be attacked, special precautions in
regard to other animals need not be taken. It is possible that
dogs may convey the virus.

With reference to treatment, the first requisite is that all
those sheep which are afilicted should be at once picked out and
placed apart from the rest of the flock in comfortable sheltered
quarters well littered with dry straw, in order that they may be
thoroughly attended to. The field from which they have been
removed should be strewn with lime, and, if it is practicable
to do so, the healthy members of the flock should be taken away to
other pastures. Some practitioners would recommend that an
opening drench should then be given to all those sheep which
are diseased ; but this is not always necessary. The feet should
first be well cleansed by the help of warm water and carbolic-acid
soap, especially between the claws, and then carefully examined,
and if any foreign substance clings to the hoofs, it should be
removed, if necessary, by the help of paring away the diseased
horn, so that the diseased parts are laid bare. The horn should
be pared away down to the very bottom of the disease, that
whicii has separated from the underlying parts being carefully
and gently removed with a drawing knife.

Randall gives very good directions, to some of which we are
indebted. The operator sits down in a chair, having close at hand
two good sharp knives, one of which should be thin and narrow,
a whetstone, strong toe-nippers, and a bucket of carbolised
water with linen rags in it. The assistant catches a sheep, lays
it partly on its back, and holds it between the legs of the
operator, so that the sheep's head is about on a level with his
waist; the assistant presents each foot in turn to the operator,
who then proceeds to shorten the hoof with the toe-nippers.
Should there be any dirt between the toes, it is first removed
with a stick, and then by the help of a rag taken from the

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 205

bucket containing a solution of carbolic acid, which is drawn
between the toes to and fro, and then rinsed. Then the
operator removes the diseased horn. The diseased parts of the
feet should then be well dressed with ointment of salicylic acid,
or with ointment of boric acid, and then poulticed for at least a
day in linseed meal or oilcake poultice. At the expiration of
the twenty-four hours, the feet may be well washed with warm
water, and placed in a fresh poultice for another day, and then
again washed and dressed and poulticed.

Some recommend the application of Stockholm tar, and where
no better substitute is readily to be procured, that simple sub-
stance may be found very useful, and especially in the summer

Fig. 18.
The above pictm-e represents the method of applying any suitable preparation
such as ointment of salicylic acid, by means of a bandage or rag, to the inter-
digital space.

time. Others recommend that the diseased structures should
be corroded with the powerful acids, such as sulphuric acid or
nitric acid. Sulphurous Acid is really the best for this purpose.
In case any acid is applied, it is usual to do it by means of a
feather dipped in the fluid. The pustules are by this means
destroyed, and an eschar forms and falls off in about seven
days. It is advisable then to follow up the treatment by the
application of ointment of salicylic acid, or that of boric acid,
or with a mixture of sulphate of copper and Stockholm tar.
Sometimes, however, it may be necessary toTepeat the applica-
tion of the sulphurous acid, or other acid, and then follow it up
with the ointment.

Some prefer to use nitric acid at first, so as to burn way the
decayed and decaying tissues, and then to dress the surface

206 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

■with a mixture of oil and sulphuric acid. As a matter of fact,
however, if sheep are very badly afflicted with this disease, the
best plan is to have them slaughtered at once. When a valuable
ram or ewe is very severely affected, it may, in some cases,
be wise to amputate the foot well above the point to which the
disease has penetrated. The result will be that the end of the
limb will shortly be covered with a thick, horny scar, and the
animal will be able to graze fairly well, moving about on its
other three legs.

For the diseased sheep, dry and clean situations should be
selected, and it is much better to keep them under cover until
they are cured, as, for instance, in a large stable with a dry
floor on which manure is not allowed to accumulate. The floor
should be covered with plenty of oat-straw, or with pine-sawdust
or tan to the depth of about three inches. At the least the
animals under treatment ought to be sheltered for a few nights,
and they should not be allowed to go into the pasture for
grazing until the dew is off the ground in the morning, nor
remain therein until it is deposited in the evening. Muddy
and damp places are especially to be avoided. As in the case
of scabies, no general treatment is requisite.

TUBERCULOSIS.

There is no subject of greater importance in the whole range
of pathology than the disease which goes by the name Tubercu-
losis. All our readers will be familiar with some aspects of the
subject, and they will therefore be all the more ready to hear
the latest results of research regarding this most serious scourge.
This truly terrible malady occurs in many kinds of animals, and
also in man ; and it may attack the lungs or other organs. The
word " consumption" may be applied to different forms of lung
mischief; but the disease wliich is most generally so designated
is tubercular consumption, that dread and well-known malady.

To the general public the particular form of the disease
known as " consumption " is most familiar, though indeed
" consumption " does not necessarily imply the presence of
tuberculosis, but may arise from other forms of lung mischief.
So highly important is this subject of tuberculosis, and so inti-
mately do all questions connected with this disease in oxen bear

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 207

upon the welfare of human beings, owing to their liability to
become affected with it, that we propose to deal with this im-
portant topic rather fully. Mr. Biand Sutton has recently been
writing upon this dreadful scourge as occurring in birds. He
affirms that it affects chiefly birds which live upon grain, and
that its existence in birds of prey may often be attributed to their
feeding upon smaller birds. As an illustration of this kind of
causation, Mr. Sutton mentions the case of a python which
died of tubercular disease of the livery having been fed upon
fowls, pigeons, and ducks, which are very liable to tuberculosis,
and some of which were, it is to be presumed, certainly afflicted
with the disease.

It is with some pleasure that we take in hand to discuss this
most interesting and dread disease ; for by the help of the re-
searches of Dr. Klein and others we shall be able to throw
some light upon it.

It may be found that bovine tuberculosis can be stamped out,
as cattle-plague, foot-and-mouth disease, sheep scab, pleuro-
pneumonia,* and rabies can ; and there are also some indications
that protective inoculation with tubercular matter obtained
from fowls which have died of the disease might throw some
light upon a method of prevention.

Tuberculosis is unfortunately quite commonly met with among
human beings, oxen, and monkeys. The domesticated oxen
over the entire surface of the globe seem to be afflicted with
it. There are indications that close in-and-in breeding is at
least one of the causes which may make it more general. In
thickly populated districts, and especially when the climate is
for other reasons unhealthy, it is more highly destructive. In
Mexico the disease is so common that about 34 per cent, of the
oxen slaughtered for food are said to show signs of its presence ;
and that in England the disorder is far more prevalent than is
generally supposed, can be seen at once by inspection of the
carcases of cattle slaughtered for human food. In the cow-
sheds of large towns tuberculosis is very commonly met with.

The malady seems to be found more frequently in cattle than

* There are not a few persons who believe that pleuro-pnoumonia cannot be
entirely stamped out, because of the milder forms of the disease not being
recognized in some cases, though in isolated instances it may be arrested by very
Tigorous measures carefully and thoroughly carried out.

208

THE DISEASES AND DISOKDEES OF THE OX.

in other animals. It also occurs, though very rarely, in sheep
and pigs. In solipeds it is not often seen, and in carnivorous
animals it is almost unknown. The disease is also met with in
poultry, and it has been suggested that in some cases the infection
has been conveyed to them by the medium of human tubercular
sputum. Strange to say, fowls seem to be not so capable of
being inoculated or infected with bovine tuberculosis, as of
becoming affected with tuberculosis of a mild type if inoculated
with or fed upon human tubercular matter.

The malady has been induced in many animals of different
species by inoculating or feeding them for a time with tuber-
cular matter obtained from animals affected with the disease.
Guinea-pigs and rabbits may be inoculated either with human

Fig. 19.
The above picture represents a cow suffering from tuberculosis. The poor
cow is, indeed, a pitiful object ; but how much more so is a human being when
afflicted with this trulj' dreadful complaint, only those who have repeatedly seen
them so afTected can know. How earnestly, then, ought we to do all in our
power to find out a means of combating this awful malady !

tuberculosis or with bovine tuberculosis; but the diseases
induced in the two cases are perhaps not identical. Dr. Klein
holds that human tuberculosis is not exactly the same disease
as bovine tuberculosis, and it has not as yet been absolutely
proved that tuberculosis can arise in man from eating the flesh
or drinking the milk of cattle afflicted with tuberculosis. It
has been well established that bovine tuberculosis is transmissible
to pigs, cattle, sheep, monkeys, rodents, &c., by tubercular
matter, and it is probable, although it has not been actually
proved, that human beings can contract human tuberculosis by
feeding on flesh or milk of tuberculous animals.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 209

If guinea-pigs or rabbits are inoculated subcutaneously, or fed
with eitber human or bovine oaseous tubercular matter, tuber-
culosis is produced; but there are differences which show that the
general tuberculosis which is produced in the case of human
tubercular matter being used is not exactly the same as that pro-
duced when bovine tubercular matter is employed. Rabbits readily
get bovine tuberculosis either by inoculation or by feeding, but
human tuberculosis, if communicated to them, takes a slower
course, and involves fewer organs, and even these are less
markedly affected. Fowls, on the other hand, cannot be so readily
inoculated with bovine tuberculosis as with human tuberculosis.
Dr. Klein and Mr. Lingard have proved that while fowls aro
susceptible to tuberculosis as the result of feeding, and also
as a result of subcutaneous inoculation with human tubercular
matter, they appear to be much less susceptible to bovine
tubercular matter, in whatever way it may be introduced into
the system. Fowls may become infected with tuberculosis by
taking food contaminated with humfin tubercular sputum.

It is very noteworthy that fowls infected with human tuber-
cular matter were extremely well nourished, although having
tubercular deposits. In the market they would have been
considered " very fine." Moreover, guinea-pigs and rabbits are
affected differently by the two diseases, human tuberculosis and
bovine tuberculosis respectively. Guinea-pigs fed with bovine
tubercular matter develop tuberculosis more quickly, and with
wider implication of the viscera than guinea-pigs fed with human
tubercle. Two guinea-pigs fed with the tubercular liver of a
fowl became affected with tuberculosis, but the disease was of a
mild character. It is possible, therefore, that by passage through
the fowl human tubercular virus might be so attenuated as to
admit of the idea that it might be used successfully for purposes
of protective inoculation.

At least two most interesting and important points seem to
have been elicited by the experiments of Dr. Klein and Mr.
Lingard. One is that the tuberculosis of fowls is more of the
nature of human tuberculosis than of bovine tuberculosis. The
other is that human tubercular matter, used to produce disease
in fowls, may undergo some loss of its infective power during
its passage through the fowl. Dr. Cash has found that a
restraining influence is exerted by ozone upon human and

14

210 THE DISEASES AND DISOBDEES OF THE OX.

bovine tubercular bacilli. These bacilli do not so readily kill
rodents when exposed to the influence of ozone. This agent,
ozone, has, however, s -eraed to be more antagonistic to putre-
factive bacilli than to the bacilli of disease.

To those who hope for great discoveries in the region of medi-
cine, and to those who, while knowing what great strides have
recently been made in the scope of our powers over disease,
whether by therapeutic appliances or hygienic measures, or other
modes of preventing and combnting the maladies to which
animals are subject, such as preventive inoculation, look for still
greater powers soon to be gained, the fact that the salt known as
perchloride of mercury, or as corrosive sublimate, has the pro-
perty of actually killing the bacilli of various diseases, such as
anthrax and tuberculosis, will be hailed with rejoicing. Even
the most pessimistic cannot but see in this recent discovery, as
in many others made quite lately, that the grand march of
science is nowise either less quick or less sure than in the days
of Bacon, of Newton, and of other great masters. Nay, rather
would we compare its onward progress to thai of the children's
snowball, which, unlike the rolling stone said to gather no moss,
grows larger and larger, and with each successive revolution
adds still a greater quantity of snow than with the last. Thus
is it with science, the great lever by which human beings may hope
not only to remove a great deal of the mystery wrapped up in
life, but also to live in the best way possible, and so do their
duty, so far as it is shown to them, for the brief space during
which they are, for some unknown though doubtless great pur-
pose, sojourners upon the face of the earth.

Before, then, we proceed to the consideration of the causes of
tuberculosis, we now propose here very briefly to mention
tlie valuable results which Dr. Klein and Mr. Lingard
have quite recently obtained regarding the action of perchloride
of mercury on the bacilli found in tuberculosis. A solution of
this salt in the proportion of 1 part in 960 parts of water
completely destroys the infective power of the virus of human
tubercle, if this is exposed to it for from four to eight hours. If
liovine tubercular matter is exposed to the action of the same
solution for five hours, and if then tuberculosis is produced
by the matter so acted upon, there is a marked retardation
of the disease. Tn one case exposure to the solution for eight

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 211

hours destroyed the infective power of the virus, and nine
hours' exposure destroyed the virus in both the cases which
were tried. The bacterial fluid added to the solution of the
mercuric salt was in the proportion of 1 of the former to 100
of the latter.

The above-mentioned observers arrive at the conclusion that
both the restraining and the killing powers of this salt are far
greater than those of any other known chemical substance.
Speaking generally, they hold that organisms which do not
produce disease are less strongly affected by the salt than
organisms such as the anthrax bacillus and the tubercle
bacillus, and other bacilli which produce disease.

Causes. — Tuberculosis is, as our readers are probably aware,
characterised by the deposition of tubercular matter in different
parts of the body. The lungs, intestines, liver, spleen,
lymphatic glands, or other organs may be affected. As a result
of the disease, the tissues waste, and death may occur more or
less rapidly. Now the question naturally presents itself, " By
what means are these changes brought about ? " This question
can now be answered far more clearly than was possible a few
years ago ; but even in these days of scientific exactitude the
word " cause " can only be used in a provisional sense. There
are yet many points admitting of considerable doubt in regard to
the causation of disease, and we do not say this so much from
the philosophical point of view, as from the stand-point of the
practical man. Owing to the recent improvements in that most
useful instrument of scientific research, the microscope, the
observer of this age has been introduced rather suddenly into
new worlds teeming with rich stores, and the mines of wealth
open to exploration are so immense that as yet we have not
had time to devote to this all-iD:iportant question of " germs "
anything like that attention which it deserves.

Tuberculosis may be said to depend upon the presence of
tubercle-bacilli in different parts of the body of the animal which
is affected with it. The bacilli of tuberculosis^were first found by
Koch, and the form and general character of these bacilli may be
seen from an inspection of the diagram on the next page.

Bacilli, so much like these as to be scarcely distinguishable
from them, are present in the caseous tubercular deposits in cases
of tuberculosis in man, cattle, monkeys, and birds, and likewise

14 *

212 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

in animals in which the disease has been artificially produced,
either by inoculation, or feeding, with tubercular matter in the
case of cats, guinea-pigs, rabbits, fowls, and rats. They are also
found in the blood in acute miliary tuberculosis of man.

Many deposits which have been but newly made do not show the
presence of the tubercle-bacilli ; but it is possible, of course, that
they or their spores in such cases may have escaped detection.
These tubercle-bacilli are different from other bacilli; but as
regards their chemical constitution they are not unlike the bacilli
of leprosy. If these bacilli are found in the sputum of a
piitieut, the presence of the disease may be said to be

go Oe®

moj

<^ f\ k\ ^Ko^

I

Fig. 20.

From a preparation of human tuberculous sputum, stained after the Ehrlich-
Weiirert method. The nuclei in the S; ecimen were stained blue, the tubercle-
bacilli pink. Magnifying power 700. After Klein.

osiiiblished beyond all possibility of doubt. Some of the bacilli
look smooth and homogeneous, wliile others are more beaded in
nppearance.

The bacilli are most numerous in the caseous masses found
ill the lungs of affected oxen. They do not move about, and they
are said to contain frequently bright oval granules which may
be spores. It is very probably owing to the presence of these
spores, if spores they be, that human sputum and other tubercular
miitier retains its virulence, even after drying. It has been
ihcjught that such tubercular matter may dry and crumble, so
liiat the germs of the disease may be driven about by the wind.

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP.

218

and so produce tuberculosis in animals subjected to it. Koch
cultivated the bacilli outside the body, and by dint of great care
succeeded in isolating them. The bacilli thus obtained, when
inoculated into suitable animals, always produced tuberculosis.

If these bacilli are injected into the tissue under the skin, or
into the peritoneal or pleural cavity of guinea-pigs and rabbits,
there will be produced after three, four, or more, weeks, a swell-
ing of the lymphatic glands near the seat of the inoculation,
and these glands will subsequently caseate and ulcerate, just as

Fig. 21.
The above picture is a representation of the microscopic appearance presented
by a section of a portion of the kidney of a rabbit which died from the effects
of Artificial Tuberculosis, (a) Blood-vessel filled with caseous matter, and in
it numerous tubercle-bacilli. (6) Nuclei of cells of the tuberculous new
growth, (e) Capillary vessel cut transversely across its lumen. Magnifying
power 700. After Klein.

they would do, if they were affected with the disease in any other
way. The spleen also is enlarged by the growth of numerous
tubercles. The liver also is seen to be mottled by whitish
points and streaks, which afterwards merge and become caseous.
The peritoneum and bronchial glands are also attacked, and
the lungs show isolated tubercles which are at first grey and
transparent, and then become caseous in the centre.

It has been suggested that if the germs of typhoid fever are
inhaled, from drain-pipes or otherwise, the disturbance set up
commences in the lungs, while if the source of mischief has
entered the system by being swallowed, the first signs of the

214

THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OP THE OX.

disease will be set up in the intestinal tract. Our readers will
remember that in dealing with pleuro-pneumonia we pointed out
that the germs of the disease enter the system by the lungs, and
that these organs are chiefly affected. If the germs of the
disease are introduced into the tail, as in preventive inoculation,
the lungs are not affected, though probably the micrococcus is
distributed to all parts of the system. Similarly in tuberculosis,
we find that if the disease is induced by feeding an animal with

Fig. 2-1.

The above illustration represents the microscopical appearance of a section
taken from the same kidney as that from -which the section represented in the
preceding picture was taken, (a) Large arterj- filled with caseous matter, and
in it numerous tubercle-bacilli. (J>) Coat of artery. (c) Nuclei of tho
tuberculous new growth, (d) A Malpighian corpuscle. Magnifying power
about 500.

tubercular matter, the organs which arc first affected are the
intestines themselves, and that the infection gradually spreads
until at length the lungs are attacked. We have just seen above
that if tho tubercular virus is introduced by inoculation, the
lymphatic glands near are first affected. If the disease is
propagated through the air, i.e. by breathing the germs, theo
the lungs seem to be first affected, just as we should expect.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

215

These tubercle-bacilli require a temperature as high as 38° C,
and hence they cannot thrive in the outside world, as some
disease-producing organisms do. Dr. Klein, one of the greatest
authorities on all questions relating to germs, states that the
bacilli of" human tuberculosis are larger than those found in
cases of bovine tuberculosis, and in many instances they seem
to be more regularly granular. The bacilli found in human
tubercular sputum are at least one third as large again as those
found in the caseous masses of the lungs of cattle. Moreover,
the tubercle-bacilli of oxen are always contained in the cells, and
only when these disintegrate, as they do sooner or later, do the

Fig. 23.

From a section through a tubercle of the lung from a case of Acute Miliary
Tuberculosis in a Child. Several Alveoli are seen filled with d€bris, in the
centre of which are seen numerous nuclei, and amongst them the tubercle-
bacilli. Magnifying power about 350. (^Klein.)

bacilli become free in groups. In this respect they are like the
bacilli found in leprosy. In man the tubercle-bacilli are
always scattered between the cells.

It will doubtless be remembered that fowls seem to be not
readily infected with bovine tuberculosis, possibly because they,
being so much mixed up with oxen, have become thoroughly
used to the disease, so that the virus has lost its poisonous
properties. On the other hand they do take human tuber-
culosis, though in a mild form. Guinea-pigs, on the contrary,
are more liable to suffer from being fed with bovine tuber-
cular matter than they are from being fed either with human

216 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEKS OF THE OX.

tubercular matter or with tubercular matter obtained from fowls.
There are other points of difference between bovine and human
tuberculosis to which we shall refer.

In cases of tuberculosis there are tubercles in various stages
of growth which, so far as can be seen, contain no bacilli. Quite
near these, other tubercles may be present in which numbers of
bacilli may be found. Now, it has been proved by Dr. Klein
and Mr. Lingard, working in co-operation, that tubercular
matter in which neither bacilli nor spores of bacilli can be
detected does produce tuberculosis when it is injected into
healthy guinea-pigs. The well-known deposits were found in
the lungs, liver, spleen, and lymphatic glands; and some of
them were caseous and contained tubercle-bacilli. As these
observers remark, it is probable that spores or bacilli were
present, although they could not be detected. This shows that
there need not be many bacilli introduced, in order to cause
the disease, and it possibly indicates that spores of the bacilli
exist, and that they are suflBcient to produce the disease. At
present, however, it seems that there is no known method
of staining spores of tubercle-bacilli, if such spores exist, as
in all probability they do.

There can be no doubt that tuberculosis is capable of being
propagated from the parent to the offspring. The taint of this
dread malady can sometimes be observed in several members of
particular breeds. Cows, and especially milch-cows, seem to be
most frequently affected ; and there is no doubt that dark, filthy,
and badly ventilated, ill-drained, dwellings aid the progress of
the disease. It is said that the chief indirect causes are pro-
longed and excessive milking on the one hand, and on the other
a cold and damp atmosphere. Oxen brought from a milder
country, or from mountainous regions, when transferred to cold
and damp districts, and likewise cattle which are used solely for
dairy purposes, and especially those which are kept for this
object in large towns, and give an abundance of milk, are most
liable to the disease.

Course of the Disease. — Tuberculosis, as is well known, is
generally a disease which is not rapidly fatal, but one which
lasts often for a considerable time. This statement, so far as is
known, applies to all the different kinds of animals liable to be
affected with this malady. Unless complications arise, tuber-

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 217

culosis may be protracted for months, and even a year may
elapse before the symptoms become marked. Indeed, cattle
which would not have been suspected to suffer from the disease
during life are often found after death to have tubercles in their
lungs and other organs. If a severe cold is taken by an animal
afflicted with this insidious disease, and sometimes from other
causes, bovine tuberculosis may suddenly become acute.

Occasionally the veterinary surgeon may be called to investi-
gate and treat an outbreak of more than ordinary virulence. He
may have, as Mr. J. B. Gresswell had recently, a valuable herd
of Alderneys under his care. In this particular instance the
malady took a form so severe that three animals died, while three
cows recovered under treatment, and two more were subsequently
affected dangerously. As is usual, the animals were extremely
weakened with the ravages of the disease, and they suffered
greatly from diarrhoea, the feces being of a creamy consistence.
This last symptom was found to be associated with, and explained
by, the presence of tubercular deposits in the bowels. The
lungs and intestines, indeed, were the organs which had been
especially attacked.

For purposes of convenience, the symptoms of average cases
of bovine tuberculosis may be spoken of as occurring in three
stages.

First Sta(/e. — Though the ox, when attacked with the disease,
is less active and more sensitive to pressure, especially in the
regions of the withers, back, and loins, fattening and the
secretion of milk are not at first interfered with. The milk
is more watery, of a bluish tint, and while it contains less
quantities of nitrogenous mattei's, of fat, and of milk-sugar,
which are the nutritive elements, it is rich in alkaline salts and
other mineral constituents, particularly if the cows receive much
grain and bran or meal. The animal may give utterance to a
dry and deep but feeble cough. This will be noticed perhaps
when the ox passes either from a colder to a hotter atmosphere,
or from a hotter to a colder air, as in leaving or entering its stall.
A similar cough may follow exertion, or it may be brought on
by compression of the windpipe far more readily than in the case
of a healthy animal.

At this early period of the disease there is seldom any
expectoration or nasal discharge. If the lungs are affected, as

218 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

in all probability they will be, tapping with the fingers on the
chest-walls will cause the animal to give a slight grunt of pain.
If the ear is applied to the sides of the chest, the gentle and
regular respiratory murmur, which is heard in the case of a
healthy animal, is found to be replaced by harsher, louder, and
more rasping sounds in certain parts. The animal may be lame,
first in one limb and then in another. Some of the superficial
glands, for instance, that salivary gland which is called the
parotid,'^ because it is near the ear, and also those lymphatic
glands which are situated in the groin and arm-pit, are markedly
enlarged. This first period or stage of the disease may last for
months ; but a sudden chill or severe hardship of any kind may
rapidly usher in the symptoms of the second stage.

Secotid Stage. — The signs mentioned above are now intensified.
The animals are emaciated and sluggish in their movements ;
they have a dull look, and the eyes are drawn back into the
orbital cavities. The skin is dry, that which covers the ribs is
closely adherent to them, and the hair lacks its healthy lustre, and
is often damp. Indeed, a slight amount of exertion produces
sweating, laborious breathing, and great distress. The weakness
may be so overpowering that the animal may try to obtain relief
by lowering its head even to the ground. The lining membranes
of the mouth and other orifices are pale yellow in colour. The
appetite is capricious and smaller than in health, and the function
of digestion is irregularly and weakly performed, so that, after
the animal has been feeding, the stomach may be more or less
blown up with gases, an occurrence which is not uncommon in
the ox, and not very serious, because it can be easily relieved as
a rule. Constipation and diarrhoea may alternate.

The milk is now diminished in amount as well as of inferior
quality. Moreover, cows which are in calf nearly always abort,
and this may cause death, while, even if the act of parturition
takes place at the proper time, it enfeebles the parent, and the
calf is sickly and likewise afflicted with tuberculosis, the same
disease as that Irom which the cow itself is sufiering. The
cough is more persistent, and the animal expectorates a viscid,
usually inodorous, but sometimes offensive, matter, wliic!ii may
contain yellowish cheesy flakes. The breatiiing is quicker and
interrupted.

* Fioui Trapu, •' beside," jiiul ous. "the oar."

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 219

If the chest-walls are subjected to careful and skilful
percussion, dull sounds are produced in some parts, while other
regions will give the same resonance as that which is produced
in the case of a healthy animal. Similarly, if the ear is placed
in direct contact with the chest, the observer will note that the
"respiratory murmur," which he is probably acquainted with as
occurring in a healthy animal, is louder than usual in some parts,
and dull or absent in others. This is because the healthy por-
tions of the lungs are, so to speak, trying to do the whole work
of respiration, which in the normal state the healthy lungs were
accustomed to do. In addition to this, there may be heard
hissing and bubbling sounds.

In some cases the cough may be feeble and dry, and then
crackling sounds, together with a harsh laryngeal blowing, may
be detected. The heart beats strongly, but the pulse is never-
theless small and thready. The parotid glands, which are
situated below and beneath the ears, and have, in common with
other salivary glands, the function of secreting some of the
salivary secretion, are more swollen than before. The super-
ficial lymphatic glands are also still more markedly enlarged, and
they, perhaps, together with other hardened painful swellings,
cause lameness, which is no longer flitting in character, but
constant. The ox may suffer from intense fever, sweat pro-
fusely, and breathe with the most extreme difficulty.

Third Stage. — All the above symptoms are immensely exagge-
rated. The emaciation is excessive, and there is great debility
accompanied by intense lever, which lasts during the whole day
with but a few hours' remission. The cough is distressing, the
back is arched, the head is low and protruded, the mouth partially
open, and the tongue pendulous. The horns, ears, and limbs,
are cold. Breathing is accompanied by moaning, and the
inspirations are irregular and gasping. The animal suflFers from
a dark and ietid diarrhoea, and the rumen is considerably blown
up with the gases which are disengaged, as the result of the
arrest of digestion. The distended rumen can be felt in the left
flank, and it adds to the poor animal's distress. Percussion on
the chest gives rise to pain, and, if the observer places his ear
in contact with the chest-walls, hissing and cavernous sounds are
heard in the lungs, and there are gurgling sounds in the larynx.
The lining membranes of the mouth and other orifices are very

220 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

pale. The action of the heart is tumultuous, and the pulse is
well nigh imperceptible. There is often dropsy of the dependent
parts, and sometimes, though rarely, ulceration of the joints
and glands. The disease in the second and third stages may be
complicated by inflammation of the lungs or of the pleurae,
which latter may be due to perforation of the serous membrane
of the lung, and thus death may quickly ensue.

Post-mortem Appearances. — If the body is examined after
death, tubercles are seen in various parts. These are found in
the external portions of the lungs, and in the connective tissue
beneath their lining membranes, and in that which divides the
lung-tissue into separate lobules. Large portions of the lungs
are replaced by the tubercular matter, and they may weigh as
much as 60 pounds. Tubercles are found in the lungs, pleurse,
lymphatic glands, and other organs. Many tubercles are often
massed together ; but each tubercle itself, the essential element in

Fig. 24.
From a preparation of caseous matter obtained from pulmonary deposits in
Bovine Tuberculosis. Jla^nifying power 700. (After Klein.) The tubercle-
bacilli are seen crowded within two hirfje cells, and also scattered between them
as a result of the disintegration of other cells.

this disease, is a small, round tumour, which is at first semi-
transparent, but may afterwards soften or calcify. It is generally
spherical, and of about the size of a grain of millet, or
hemp-seed. The larger so-called tubercles, spoken of as being
as large as a walnut or larger, are in reality aggregations of the
smaller ones. Each tubercular mass can only with difficulty be
crushed or separated from the surrounding tissues, from which it
is not marked off by any definite wall. A tubercle, though itself
non-vascular, is yet placed near a small artery. At first it is, as
we have said, semi-transparent ; but it afterwards becomes
yellowish and opaque.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

221

When a tubercle is broken up, and inspected with the aid of
the highest powers of the microscope, five or even more giant-
cells provided with nuclei, and smaller cells, also with nuclei^
may be seen. These giant-cells are roundish and transparent^
and their oval nuclei, which may be as many as forty in number,
are arranged around the inner surface of their circumference.
These cells may be about l-200th of an inch in diameter, and
seem to have no cell-wail. The nuclei are not acted upon by
acetic acid, and each is said to be provided with a bright nucleolus,
which latter, however, is not seen in the above figure. These
giant-cells are easily destructible, and hence there may be
many free nuclei, the number of which is great in proportion
to the rapidity of the disease. In each of the above figures the
tubercle bacilli are well seen.

Fig. 25.

From a section through tuberculous deposits in the lung of a cow. Twa
giant-cells and two small cells, all containing tubercle-bacilli, are seen. Magni-
fying power 700. (After K/f'in.) In each of the two giant-cells the tubercle-
bacilli are seen to be arranged in a circle.

Our readers will not be surprised that we have laid especial
stress on this most serious disease. It will be readily seen
why, on coming to tuberculosis in our list of diseases of the ox,
we resolved to treat the subject in detail. Not only is it the
case that large numbers of the cattle in this country are carried
off annually by this insidious and death-dealing?, yet interesting,
malady ; but it is also true that great damage is liable to result
to the oxen of England by a tendency which, one may think,
only requires pointing out in order that it may be guarded
against — we mean the breeding from diseased cattle. There is

222 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

no doubt that a great deal of the bovine tuberculosis wbich
exists is due to this avoidable cause, and it is equally indubitable
that a similar course of action also leads to a most objectionable
result in the case of horses, namely, the prevalence of ** roai'ers.''

We have, in the first place, to complete our account of the
changes which have taken place in the case of oxen which have
died of the malady we are discussing. After death the tuber-
cular deposits can be examined, and thus we are enabled tbe
better to understand the nature of the disease. It has been
found that the centre of each tubercle of a human being is taken
up by small, round, wrinkled, granular, cells, which are not
present in bovine tubercles. This point of difference, however,
does not make us quite certain to what extent we ought to
consider human tuberculosis as different from the closely similar
disease of oxen.

Inside the tubercles there are no blood-vessels ; but around
them and in the interstices of the masses of tubercles these
channels by which they, like all other structures, normal or
abnormal, are supplied with new material are fairly numerous.
The tubercles themselves, therefore, never become large, but
they are continually surrounded by newly-formed ones, and the
tubercular masses thus produced may at length weigh several
pounds. The student of comparative pathology will recollect
that, in this matter of blood-supply, tubercular masses are to be
distinguished from the class of malignant tumours known as
"sarcomata."

Tubercles may become impregnated with earthy matter, and
when thus calcified they are like little yellowish stones about as
large as peas ; and if crushed, they resemble pieces of chalk. If
cut through, a larger petrified portion in the centre is seen to be
surrounded by a fibrous layer cm the outside. The earthy
matter consists mainly of the insoluble phosphates and carbo-
nate of lime, together with a small quantity uf soluble salts
of sodium.

A tubercle, before it is calcified, contains mainly albumen,
with a little fibrin and fat. Now, whether the tubercles do or
do not calcify, they frequently soften and become caseous.
This softening begins in the centre, and travels towards the
circumference of the tubercle. If calcification preceded the
softening, the matter in the centre is found to be white, and to

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 223

contain earthy material. If softening has come on without pre-
vious calcification having occurred, then the central portion of
the tubercle is cheesy, and of a greyish yellow colour, and con-
tains only small grey granules of fat, which are transparent in
the centre and soluble in ether.

The lining membranes of the lungs (the pleurae) are thicker,
and more richly supplied with blood than is usual, and, like
other serous membranes, they may have tubercular deposits upon
them. At first these are very small, but finally they may be
like clusters of grapes, weighing as much as fifteen pounds, and
suspended by peduncles containing blood-vessels. The tubercles
on the surface of the clusters are those which have been most
recently formed ; next to them are the calcified ones, and most
internally situated are those which are oldest and have become
easeous.

In cases of human tuberculosis, tubercles are found in the
midst of the texture of the lymphatic glands, In oxen the
tubercles are found in the connective tissue near these glands,
but, it is said, never in them. When thus enlarged, the bron-
chial lymphatic glands in oxen may measure even a foot in
length, and weigh about eight pounds. Tubercles are seen also
quite close to other lymphatic glands, and often in the liver,
spleen, and kidney, and in the intestines, uterus, and udder, but
seldom in the muscles and bones. There may be abscesses in
the lungs. The muscles of an animal which has suffered
greatly from the ravages of the disease are pale and soft, and
the blood also is of poor quality.

Diagnosis. — An ox attacked with the malady has a dry and
persistent cough, and its breathing is accelerated even during rest,
and especially immediately after exercise. The lymphatic glands
are found to be swollen, and the course of the malady is as
above described.

Treatment, — We have mentioned above that corrosive
sublimate has been found to possess the power of destroying
certain kinds of bacilli. Unfortunately this powerful salt of
mercury is not only a deadly poison to bacilli ,'but it may, unless
used with the most excessive care, and in infinitesimal doses,
destroy the higher animals and man. Nevertheless, the sub-
stance has been used successfully, and can be employed with
safety by the skilful specialist in extremely minute doses, the

224 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

effects of which need most patient watching and attention. We
are glad to hear that it has been given in cases of anthrax in a
man with encouraging results. Of course it would be madness
for any unprofessional or unskilled person to prescribe or use
dangerous drugs. We contend that a man might quite as well
try to navigate a ship over the trackless ocean as to rush im-
petuously and blindly (unequipped with special knowledge) into
the treatment of disease.

The healing art is one which at first sight may, perhaps,
appear to the ordinary observer, to be not a very difficult one.
Herein lies great danger. A long course of study and patient
research is required to obtain ability to doctor either animals or
man with success. The destructive effect of corrosive subli-
mate on the bacilli found in the disease called anthrax, on the
bacillus septicaemise of guinea-pigs, on the streptococcus of foot-
and-mouth disease, and on the bacilli of tuberculosis, has
been proved. Those vegetable organisms which do not give rise
to diseases in animals seem to be less markedly affected by the
poisonous action of this salt than do those which cause disease,
such as the bacilli just mentioned.

The treatment of tuberculosis has as yet been generally
unsuccessful, and it is for this reason, and because it is of the
highest importance that a remedy should be found, that we are
laying some stress on this recent work. It will, no doubt, be
soon recognised among medical men that both for human beings
and for animals at death's door from anthrax, tuberculosis, or
septicaemia, this salt, the perchloride of mercury, in infinitesimal
doses, should certainly be considered and in some cases tried.
Throughout the world, these facts, as yet by no means generally
known, will soon be spread, and we must soon hear more
regarding them, probably in confirmation, but yet possibly in
refutation.

Many of our readers are aware that the gaseous substance,
"ozone," is what is called an allotropic modification of the gas
" oxygen,^' the difference between the two gases consisting in
the fact that there is an alteration in the arrangement of the
constituent molecules of wliicli both gases ultimately consist.
Oxvgen is the most importunt element contained in the air.
On its presence animal life depends, and the purpose of breathing
is, on the one hand, the inhaling or drawing in of this gas

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 225

" oxygen," bv which the various tissues and organs of the body
are kept oxygenated and active, and on the other the expulsion
of carbonic-acid gas, which is poisonous to animal life. Now
oxygen seems to be favourable to the growth and activity of
bacilli, while, strange to say, its more active modification, ozone,
seems to have a distinct retarding effect upon them. This latter
agent, then, may hereafter prove to be of great value in com-
bating germ diseases. For some time it had been thought
possible that this peculiar gaseous substance might have some
of that germicidal power of which we have now some evidence.

Ozone is more active than oxygen. It has greater oxidising
powers. In pure air small quantities are found, and it also
exists naturally in greater amount in sea-air. It is supposed
to be formed, in part at least, by the electric discharges which
take place in storms, and there is no doubt that the reason why
it is not found in the air of cities is that such air contains much
matter which is readily oxidisable, and so the ozone is very soon
decomposed. Its presence in sea air is no doubt one of the
reasons why sea voyages often do so much good to those who
are weak or debilitated with disease.

Recently Dr. Cash has confirmed the results of other investi-
gators in regard to these two gases. He finds that oxygen has
not been observed to destroy bacilli, but, on the contrary, that
during the process of adding oxygen a considerable increase in
the rate of multiplication of the bacilli was brought about. The
reverse is the case with regard to ozone. It had been found by
Binz that the chief action of ozone is a soporific one, and it has
this effect, even when present only in small quantities. Hence
we may explain that drowsiness which people feel when subjected
to the influence of sea air. In larger amounts ozone may bring
on bleeding from the lungs and bronchial catarrh. Different
observers agree that the bacilli which produce putrefaction are
destroyed by ozone, but that this agent has no action on the
"spores" of the bacilli.

Dr. Cash has found that if about "00267 gram, of ozone is
introduced into the quantity of anthrax virus he used for inocu-
lating animals, the virus is destroyed ; and with his careful
experiments he seems to have established the facts that ozone
gradually weakens and ultimately destroys the virus of anthrax,
but that it has no destructive effect upon the " spores." Now

16

226 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

tubercle-bacilli seem to bave a greater resisting power to ozone
tban antbrax-bacilli ; and tbougb ozone has not been sbown to
destroy the tubercle-bacilli, it seems to have retarded their growth
and to have diminished their virulency. These experiments
might well be extended.

In the case of an ox afflicted with a mild attack of tuberculosis,
the best course is perhaps to fatten and then slaughter. In the
case of cows it is well to cease milking, to give fattening food,
such as oil-cake and good hay, and to avoid grasses and roots,
as these are more difficult to digest. If there are scrofulous
glands which are ulcerating, they should be dressed with some
antiseptic, such as a mixture of carbolic acid and chalk.

It has long been known that a warm and equable climate is
favourable to patients suffering from this disease. Men who are
tainted with it, and who could not live in England, will survive
for years at the Cape or in South America, for instance near
Buenos Ayres. Arguing from the experiments spoken of above,
small doses of perchloride of mercury, prescribed most carefully
by the experienced physician, are indicated. A sea voyage, or
even the supply of ozone in the house, together with plenty of
sleep, a nourishing diet, combined in certain cases, and if
necessary, with small doses of alcoholic stimulants, are to be
enjoined.

The Contagiousness of Tuberculosis. — Rabbits, guinea-
pigs, calves and young cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and a porpoise
have all been subjected to tuberculosis by feeding on tubercular
matter from the ox. Inoculations on flesh-eatii)g animals with
tubercular matter as a rule give negative results, but the dog
has been inoculated with tubercular matter obtained from man.
Feeding carnivorous animals, such as the cat and dog, on
tubercular matter from the ox has no effect, probnbly because
they have been accustomed for long ages to feed on all kinds of
flesh, and their systems have become capable of resisting the
action of various kinds of bacilli, not unfrequently met with in
their food, perhaps as a result of that natural law of which we
have heard so much, survival of the fittest. Probably this
statement may hereafter require modification, for Klebs has
accidentally produced the disease in a dog by giving it the milk
from a cow in the last stage of the malady.

As we have implied, tuberculosis may spread from one animal

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 227

to another tlirough the medium of the air. More than this, the
stalls and sheds in which tuberculous oxen have been housed,
unless most thoroughly cleansed and disinfected, will give rise
to the production of the malady in healthy cattle afterwards
placed in them. Tubercular sputum which has been dried for
twenty days or more will, if inoculated into healthy animals,
give rise to the disease. If thoroughly boiled, tubercular matter
seems to lose a great deal of its power for mischief. Mr. Laws
has recently found that, if exposed to a temperature of 45° C. for
twenty-four hours, the anthrax bacillus is completely destroyed,
and that if the temperatures varying from 43° C. to 45° C. are
employed, there seems to be a loss of power in the bacilli them-
selves, and also in those which are generated from them. Ere
long more will be known respecting the action of heat on the
micro-organisms attendant upon disease. Alcohol also has been
said to have a retarding influence upon the tubercular virus ;
but this statement certainly requires confirmation. Speaking
roughly, we may say that the period of incubation of tuberculosis
is about six weeks.

Cattle which have any tendency to the disease should not be
used for breeding purposes, and those which are actually suflFer-
ing from tuberculosis should in the first place be isolated, so
that the malady may not spread. If very slightly afiected, oxen
may be as quickly as possible fattened and slaughtered, and
their flesh, //" yr<?<? /yo/w local disease, may be utilized. We
agree with others, of whom the chief in this country is Dr.
Fleming, in strongly asserting that, if the disease is advanced, it
is not safe to use the milk or the flesh of tuberculous oxen.
Certainly any part of the body in which tubercles are actually
present should be avoided like poison. Yet it is thought to be
not practicable at present to be very stringent in regard to
using the flesh of tuberculous animals. There are few oxen
which have been kept for some time in cowsheds, and fed and
milked in the ordinary way, which are not tainted with the
disease. Of course the danger is the greater in proportion as
the dwellings and general management are bacl. No one could
countenance the use of the flesh of cattle sufiering from the
advanced stages of tuberculosis.

It may be said (although it has not been definitely proved)
that human tuberculosis can be produced by eating tubercular

15 *

228 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

flesh ; it is at least very probable that it can arise in this way.
The diflFerences between the two diseases, human and bovine
tuberculosis, seem to be very slight; and even if it could be
proved that they were essentially dissimilar, it could not be con-
tended that there was not great danger of some disease arising
from eating- the flesh obtained from cattle in which the tubercles
were soft, and in which marked signs of bovine tuberculosis
were present. In any case thorough cooking of meat cannot be
too strongly insisted upon. The danger of damage to the con-
stitution, if this precaution be carried out, is far less, since in this
way many sources of harm are rendered innocuous. This holds
equally with regard to tuberculous flesh as to any that is un-
healthy, whether from parasites or from the fact that the animal
whence it was obtained was suifering from disease of any kind
whatever. Hence all meat should be most thoroughly cooked
as a safeguard against many different diseases and disorders.

If it has been decided to use the flesh as food, great care
should be taken to remove all the affected tissues and organs.
The flesh of tuberculous animals is watery, pale, and the tissue
which binds the muscles and organs together is more or less in-
filtrated with serum. The fat is yellow and pulpy, and likewise
infiltrated with serum. The marrow of the bones is soft, and
looks unhealthy. In the case of a tuberculous ox which has been
slaughtered and dressed by butchers', there may often be seen
traces of attempts at removal of the tubercles from the pleura on
the ribs. The pleura, if affected, is often removed, but one or
two small calcified tubercles may be seen in the first intercostal
space, and at the attachment of the ribs to the sternum.

It is not safe to use the milk of tuberculous cows. Rabbits,
guinea-pigs, and even a dog have taken the disease from drink-
ing the milk of tuberculous cows. Indeed, the milk, unless
boiled, is as dangerous as the flesh. Burning of milk during
boiling must be carefully avoided. If due precautions are taken,
milk can be boiled without being burnt. The disease, when
brought on in this way, begins as intestinal catarrh, and then gives
rise to tubercles in the mesenteric glands, then in the liver and
spleen, and at last in the thoracic organs. The virus cannot be
destroyed by ordinary cooking. Whether or not tuberculosis
can be produced by drinking the milk of tuberculous cows, there
is no doubt that a child with no tendency to the disease may get

DISEASES or THE OX AND SHEEP. 229

it through the milk of the mother or nurse, if either be tuber-
culous. We should most stringently prohibit the use of milk
taken from tuberculous cows, and especially should the greatest
care be taken that infants should not be supplied with milk from
either mother, nurse, or cow, if suffering from the insidious
malady known as tuberculosis.

The marrow, especially the red marrow, of bones, bears
an intimate relation to the blood, being, in fact, the chief source
from which the red blood discs are derived. In many constitu-
tional diseases the marrow of bones becomes seriously impli-
cated. Dr. Klein and Mr. Lingard examined the red marrow
at the end of the tibia and femur of a number of guinea-pigs
which had been inoculated either with human or bovine tuber-
cular matter, and they found that it is in the marrow that the
earliest manifestations of induced general tuberculosis are to be
detected. As early as fourteen days after inoculation, the
marrow of the tibia and femur was in all cases found to
contain small irregular yellow spots, v^hich were seen by the
microscope to be tubercles in the stage of caseation, tubercle
bacilli being present in them singly, in pairs, or in aggregates
of three or more together. Hence it is seen that the marrow
of long bones is the first tissue which becomes the seat of
the general infection in cases of induced tuberculosis. Moreover,
a large number of guinea-pigs having been inoculated in the
usual way with such marrow crushed and distributed in well-
boiled salt solution, all of them became affected with general
tuberculosis.

Muscles taken from all parts of the bodies of animals affected
with general tuberculosis in various advanced stages were
examined, and they were found to be free from tubercle and
tubercle-bacilli, with the exception of those muscles which were
in close proximity to the seat of inoculation.

Subcutaneous inoculation of guinea-pigs with tubercle leads
to the enlargement and caseation of the nearest lymph-glands,
and then to the purulent disintegration o^jhera, whereby an
open discharging sore and abscess is established at or near the
seat of inoculation. This may occur after a few weeks or more.
Now it was only those muscles which were situated immediately
around these abscesses which were invaded with tubercle-bacilli;
in fact this muscular tissue had become generally involved in

230 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

the process. All muscles' distant from the primary seat of
infection were found free from tubercle and tubercle-bacilli.

The disease kno'wn as tuberculosis is at once one of the most interesting and
the most important of all the numerous maladies which affect mankind. As
yet, we may say, but little is known concerning the causes of the occurrence of
tuberculosis, and concerning the therapeutic methods by means of which the
insidious ravages of the tubercle-bacilli can be arrested. Nevertheless, of late
years we have acquired the power and the knowledge which are needed for a
much more far-reaching investigation of this disease, and all other diseases, than
men have heretofore found to be possible. Those of our readers who are most
fully aware of the truly terrible dangers connected with the disease which we
are now considering will also be those who will most clearly realise the pressing
necessity which exists for grappling with this subject in all its bearings, and
the need for finding out, in regard to it, all that can possibly, by any human
skill and research, be learnt. Indeed, tuberculosis is an awful disease, and we
may all well pray most earnestly that we may escape from such insidious
dangers.

As we have said, we now, in these days, know a great deal more about tuber-
culosis than was known some few years ago. At least, several facts and
inferences may be adduced as the results of recent investigation. Of these,
perhaps, the most important is that milk should not be drunk without having
previouslj- been boiled, on account of the liability of its being a means of pro-
pagating various diseases, such as tuberculosis. There is but very little doubt
that the malady is, in large measure, propagated by the medium of milk, which
fluid is also in many cases responsible for the transmission of other diseases of
hnman beings, such as scarlet-fever, diphtheria, typhoid-fever, and so forth.
Milk ought alwaj-s to be boiled, since it is probably as dangerous to drink milk
which has not been boiled as it is to eat meat which has not been cooked.

There is also another point to which we have above drawn attention in due
course, and that is — that the gas ozone possesses a powerful destructive
influence over the bacilli of this dreadful malady. As M. Chauveau has pointed
out, we must now fully recognise the grave possibilities of the transmission of
tuberculosis from animals to human beings by means of the consumption of the
milk and the flesh of tuberculous animals. We read in that valuable Review of
Medicine and Surgery, the Lancet, of September 1st, 1888, that the Congress at
Paris recommended the seizure and destruction of the flesh of every tubercular
beast, no matter what its appearance may be. All persons ought to be aware
of the risks connected with the meat and the milk of tuberculous cattle, and of
the measures wliich ought to be taken with a view to the disinfection of materials
derived from people who suffer from tuberculosis. Dairies and dairy-farms
ought to be rigidly inspected at regular intervals. Experiments have proved
that animals fed ujjon tubercular flesh, or inoculated with the virus in any other
way, do become victims to the disease.

Thorough cooking would doubtless be a safeguard. Several members of the
Congress expressed the opinion that the State should indemnify farmers for the
losses which they would sustain if the stamping -out method should be adopted
in the case of a disease so commonly met with as is bovine tuberculosis.

Another jioint is that the question of being infected or not infected frequently
seems to depend upon the general state of health.

If, then, it be true, as undoubtedly it seems to bo, that this question is
determined by the state of health of the animal, we must realise how very
iniportant it is to preserve our health properly in as thorough a manner as may

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 231

be found possible. Indeed, we ought to be most scrupulously careful about all
such matters, especially when we realise how much miiy depend upon the due
preservation of the life and good health of each individual.

For many of the following remarks we are indebted to the excellent work of
Dr. G. Sims Woodhead, who delivered two lectures on " Tuberculosis " before
the Hon. the Grocers' Company (vide The Lancet of July 14th and July 2l8t
1888) in the University of London on July 9th, 1888.

It seems that tubercles, whether recent or caseous in any part of the body,
must be looked upon as centres from which infection of any part may take
place. Indeed, tuberculosis may be looked upon as the result of the effects of
a specific virus acting upon the tissues which are not able to cope with and
destroy it, and very probably it is necessary for the development of the tubercle-
bacilli that the conditions should be favourable to the existence of those bacilli,
just as in the cases of pyaemia and other allied diseases the conditions must also
be favourable for the development of those maladies. For instance, there must
probably be some weak point in the epithelial surface wherefrom the bacilli may
gain access to the deeper tissues in sufBcient numbers to be able to attack
successfully in the struggle which ensues betwixt the cells and the bacilli.
Those deeper tissues also must be in some measure unable to hold their own,
their cells no longer having the power to deal successfully with the numerous
bacilli which find their way to them.

The bacilli of tuberculosis are not as a rule present in sufficient numbers in
the atmosphere to render them really dangerous to healthy persons breathing
the air. Out of 127 cases of tuberculosis in children it was found that in 43
instances there was tubercular ulceration of the intestine, and that in no less
than 100 cases the mesenteric glands were found to be in some stage or other of
tubercular degeneration. In 14 cases the glands only were affected, i.e. there
was no tubercle found in any other part of the body. In these cases the glands
had become calcified, but in the other instances the glands were markedly
tubercular. There were very few bacilli, and in some cases none could be
shown to be present, and the nature of the growth could only be detected by
inoculation experiments. According to Dr. Goodhart, caseous or tubercular
disease of the mesenteric glands is not uncommonly met with; but yet it is
rare in comparison with the consumption of the bowels which so often occurs
among the poor.

As a rule, infants are suckled during the first year of life at the breast, and
afterwards the diet is almost invariably in part composed of milk. Now it is
a most significant and noteworthy fact that after the first year there is such
a rapid rise in the number of cases in which the mesenteric glands are affected.
Ftirthermore, although tuberculosis is frequently met with in young married
women, still tubercular affection of the breasts is very rare, albeit that Dr. 0.
Hubermaas has recorded no less than eight cases of such affection of the breasts.
In cattle, on the other hand, tubercular affection of the udder is by no means
rarely met with. It is clearly the case that tuberculosis may arise from the
ingestion of milk, especially in the case of young children. Gerlach fed young
animals vrith milk obtained from tuberculous cows, and in manj' instances he
thereby produced tuberculosis of the alimentary tract or of the mesenteric
glands. In another case all the pigs which had been fed on the milk of a
tuberculous cow succumbed to tuberculosis, and in another instance an out-
break of the disease could be distinctly traced to the milk of three cows in
which the udders were markedly affected. Many other observers, including
Klebs, Bollinger, Stein, Johne, Bang, Toussaint, Chauveau, Koch, and others,
concur in the statement that if the milk of cattle having tubercular udders be

232 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OV THE OX.

ingested by animals for any length of time, tuberculosis will be developed.
Bang has recorded the results of an examination of twenty-seven cases of tuber-
cular mammitis, and he was able to prove the presence of tubercle-bacilli in
the milk or in the sediment, and with this milk or sediment he produced tuber-
culosis both by means of inoculation and by ingestion.

Dr. Woodhead, together with Professor McFadyean, found 37 cows out of
600 affected with mammitis. In sis cases they made sure of the existence of
enormous numbers of bacilli in the udder by means of microscopical examina-
tion. They found new tubercular tissue distributed in patches of various size
throughout a portion of the gland, and small round cells jjrovided with large
nuclei and epithelioid cells between or amongst which a fairly well developed
reticulum was seen. The giant-cells were very numerous, and scattered
throughout the new tissue ; but they were not so well defined as in the case of
human tuberculosis. Caseation may occur at certain points. The new growth
of tuberculous tissue gradually invades the lobules of the gland, passing in along
the lymphatics of the interlobular septa. Innumerable bacilli are present in
the parts which are tuberculous. They are first seen as small stained rings
(masses of bacilli) around a slightly granular or homogeneous mass — in fact, the
giant cells seem to consist of the debris of cells, the result of the growth and
processes of the bacilli. These tubercle-bacilli may also be seen in the smaller
cells, and also in the spaces between the cells. At the margin of the new growth,
ulceration into the ducts may be made out. The basement membrane of the
ducts may give way, and a small mass of tubercular granulation may be seen
projecting into the lumen. In the granulation-tissue, the epithelial cells, and
in the lumen of the tubes numerous bacilli may be seen lying free, and hence
they gain entrance into the milk. Giant cells may perhaps be acini or ducts, in
which the bacilli have attacked and destroyed the epithelium.

It seems to be the case that it is only when the functions of the intestine are
interfered with, and when there consequently are temporary or permanent
alterations in structure and also in the chemical constituents of the fluids and gas
in the alimentary canal, that tubercle-bacilli can make their way through the
epithelial barrier.

There are numerous cases in which tubercular disease of bone, of synovial
membranes, &c., has followed on measles, scarlatina, small-pox, and similar
conditions, and when an attack of typhoid fever or other intestinal mischief has
been considered as marking the date at which serious tubercular mischief first
commenced. In the first instance the glands act as vital filters ; but if they
degenerate and become encapsuled in fibrous tissue, they may 8upj)urate, and
80 become centres from which other areas arc affected.

Dr. Woodhead, in common with Koch, Bland Sutton, Watson Cheyne, and
numerous other workers, holds that any differences which may be discerned
between the size, mode of growth, and position of humiin and bovine tubercle-
bacilli are not sufficient to constitute a specific or even a varietal difference.
Some bacilli found present in human sputum were at least one-third or even one-
half larger than others. Again, he showed a specimen of tuberculous udder in
■which were tubercle-bacilli, some of which were embedded in epitlielial cells, whilst
others were lying singly in the spaces between the cells. Klein has shown that
fowls may be successfully inoculated with tubercle taken from a human being,
that with tubercle from a guinea-pig we can inoculate an ox, but that wo cannot
readily succeed in inoculating fowls with tubercular matter taken from an ox.
Koch states that tubercle-bacilli grow at temperatures varying from 80° to
105° F. Outside these limits it is extremely diilioult to ol)tain a luxuriant
growth. In the case of children, especially those who are subject to the

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 233

wretched hygienic treatment and bad feeding to which unfortunately so aiany of
our poorer children are exposed, tuberculosis may be contracted as the result of
the ingestion of milk from tuberculous udders.

A cow may have a tubereuloiis udder without the slightest falling off in the
general condition. The best way to detect tuberculous disease is to stain
specimens of milk, and then search with the highest powers of the microscope
for the tubercle-bacilli. The development of the tubercle in the udder is ex-
tremely rapid, and hence it would be well to have all cows which supply milk
examined every fortnight in order to see if the udders are affected or not.

Dr. Woodhead and Mr. Hare have pointed out " that after one micro-organism
has completed its task, another may step in and continue the process of break-
ing down. How often has a patient suffering from a tubercular abscess of the
kidney or of the lungs succumbed at last (if not carried off by acute tubercular
disease) to pyaemia, and pyasmia in which the symptoms are exceedingly well
defined."

Acute miliary tuberculosis must be looked upon as the result of spreading of
the infective material by the medium of the blood-vessels. In a series of
several cases of acute miliary tuberculosis Weigert was able to determine that
ulceration of the pulmonary vein had taken place. Ponfick previously had
supposed that the bacilli might pass from a tubercular thoracic direct into the
venous trunks, and thus to the general circulation. Probably both observers
were correct. Again, Coats points out that bacilli may pass into the minute
venous radicles in those glands wherein tuberculous changes are occurring.
Tuberculosis is a comparatively curable disease, and, as we gradually gain more
and more knowledge, it is probable that the death-rate may be materially
diminished.

It is highly probable that human beings may become infected with tuberculosis
by means of the transmission of the bacilli through the medium of the milk or
flesh of cattle, or the flesh of swine. It may also be transmitted from a man
afflicted with tuberculosis to other persons.

Weigert has shown that a giant cell is, in some cases, nothing more than a
collection of cells in which the bacilli are causing proliferation at the margin.
In the centre, fusion and degeneration take place, and the result is that a mass
of caseous material occurs in the centre, whilst proliferating cells, with bacilli
between them, are seen at the margin. Klein has seen the giant cells being
formed by means of the fusion of epithelial cells of the air-vesicles. The
presence of these giant cells seems to afford evidence that the cells are making
a determined resistance against the inroads of the bacilli ; that they are slowly
giving way, and so limiting the area of caseation. In many cases where the
giant cells, with their rings of nuclei, are best marked, very few bacilli are to be
found, as they have been destroyed by the phagocytes at the margin, that is, by
the active cells with deeply-stained nuclei. In other cases, however, the bacilli
have taken the place of the nuclei at the margin of the giant cell, the boundary-
line in such cases being determined, for a time, by the basement membrane of
the tube in which the mass is formed.

We are indebted for the following note to Mr. Tedbar Hopkin, F.R.C.V.S..
Manchester (vide The Veterinari/ Journal, J a,n.lSSd) : — A friend of this gentle-
man was called to see a cow suffering from advanced tuberculosis. The cow
was killed, and a heifer, the daughter of this cow, being some time afterwards
slaughtered, was, hy post -mortem examination, found to have tubercles pervading
the viscera. This event was followed by a serious outbreak of tuberculosis in
the fowls on the same homestead, and also in the rabbits on the estate, large
numbers dying of the disease. In an adjoining village a rabbit-warren was

234 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

stocked with rabbits from the above-mentioned estate for the purpose of sup-
plying rabbits for coursing, and the result was that the disease broke out to
such an extent in the new warren that the opinion of the same friend was again
sought. This observer also gave an account of tuberculosis in the horse, and
it seems that the late Professor Robertson was of opinion that tuberculosis does
occasionally occur in the horse ; [but we have never seen a horse so affected.]

" It is quite time." adds Mr. Hopkin, "that more active steps were taken to
prevent the milk from tuberculosed cows being consumed by human beings ; and
it is one of the things, if properly done, that would materially help to lessen our
death-rate in infants."

This gentleman i» quite right, and we earnestly hope that some stringent
measures will be taken by each father and each mother of a family that their
children at least shall not become affected with this dreadful malady by th&
medium of tainted milk or flesh. Let all milk be of the best procurable kind,
let it always be boiled before being used, and let all meat be most thoroughly
cooked.

We cannot close our remarks on tuberculosis without once more, in conclusion,
drawing attention to the fact that recent work has been of such a high and
important nature that we may with good hopes still look onward for yet more
perfect knowledge to be gained in the future. It is with much pleasure that we
sound this note of confidence and aspiration, for everyone who has ever seen
any man, woman, or child, dj-ing from the ravages of that malady must know
how much medical men long for the skill and the power to combat the death-
dealing inroads of the tubercle-bacilli.

If, then, we keep on striving, so far from not succeeding, we shall surely gain
much greater success even than we hope for, and still more perfect knowledge
than we seek. It is quite possible, and, indeed, even probable, that we may be
even now much nearer a solution of this difficult question than we think for.
One point of the utmost importance has been gained, in that we now know that
tuberculosis is by no means an actually incurable disease, as was once thought
to be the case. In great measure we know the causes on which it depends, both
those which are primary and also those which are secondary, and many of these
we can and must surely and strongly oppose and effectually resist.

Indeed, we must emphatically refuse to admit, most especially in so far as
human beings are concerned, that any disease whatsoever is incurable. Com-
paratively speaking, even the very worst diseases are curable, and many of them
are radicallj' curable. While life remains, hope should be continued always,
even almost to the closing scene. In this respect human medicine must always
be most favourably contrasted with veterinary medicine, for never should the-
doctor ever consent to be bafilcd by any disease or disorder of human beings, no
matter how sevei-e it be.

ANTHRAX, OR CHAEBON IN CATTLE; BRAXY IN

SHEEP.
Anthrax is a disease of extreme interest not only to profes-
sional men and agriculturists, but to everyone, from whatever
point of view it may be studied. Owing to the recent inves-
tigations made regarding the germs of this disease, on behalf
of the Government, by Klein and others, together with the
discoveries of Pasteur and Koch, we now possess a considerable
amount of exact information with which tlie general public

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 235

should have some acquaintance. This is, we raay mention,
one very important reason why we lay such special stress upon
our subject, and it is this — anthrax is a malady of which very
little is generally known, and which, if better understood, would,
in consequence, in all probability, become much less prevalent
than at present, owing to the adoption of methods of prevention.
Anthrax, moreover, may be looked upon as a very well-marked
type of disease of man and animals, and an acquaintance with
the chief types is, in all sciences, an aim to be held in view, and
acquired by those who would widen the limits of their obser-
vation and knowledge. An acquaintance with its manifestations
is as necessary as is the knowledge of its causes, prevention, and
methods of treatment, since it is a form of disease often con-
founded by the unskilled with disorders of an essentially difTerent
nature. Among cattle it is better known as "splenic fever" or
" splenic apoplexy," which, although bearing relationship with
" black-leg " or " quarter-evil," is not identical with it.

The cattle and sheep which roam about seeking food on the
hills of Scotland, as well as those which earn their living with
far greater ease in the rich and fertile valleys between, are
liable to suffer very heavily from different forms of anthrax.
It seems that sheep — and especially well-bred sheep — are
more prone than are the other domesticated animals to this
disease. In certain parts of France, Germany, Lower Hungary,
and Scotland anthrax brings about great losses, prevailing for
many years consecutively, and possessing highly contagious
properties. In England the disease seems to be on the increase,
as a consequence, perhaps, of the forcing systems of feeding,
perhaps of too much in-and-in breeding, but far more probably
it is owing to the gradual dissemination of the germs of anthrax
throughout the length and breadth of the country, and to the
existence of conditions more favourable to the growth or main-
tenance of the bacilli of this disease in the environment.

This disease is very often met with in marshy places or
undrained tracts of land ; but it also occurs on mountainous
pastures and on dry grass farms. It is in' the summer and
autumn that the malady especially shows itself, to the inex-
pressible horror of the owner of stock, who may perhaps find
himself suddenly robbed by anthrax of thirty-six beasts out
of a herd of thirty-seven, or of a corresponding number of

236 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

members of his flock. It has been recorded by John Gamgee
that 150,000 sheep die annually from braxy in Scotland alone.
The mortality on the best sheep-walks is something fearful, and
over wide districts every flock of sheep is decimated every year.

The term itself, " braxy," is derived from the word " brock,"
or "brack," which signifies disease. The malady is very
destructive on certain high moorlands, and it rages to a great
extent amongst sheep which, in the beginning of winter, are fed
on turnips, and forced with too much highly nutritious food.
In speaking of braxy, we must not omit to point out that this
name is often applied to other diseases, such, for example, as
chronic diarrhoea, or dysentery, or septicaemia, which are very
different from anthrax. In fact, the malady seems to have
been at first supposed to be inflammation of the intestines,
which indeed are often found in cases of anthrax to be exten-
sively ecchymosed. Moreover, there are certain maladies of
sheep which at present have not been satisfactorily explained.
As an instance of this we may mention that lambs occasionally
go down with a sudden fever, v^hich usually attacks only the
best and most thriving of the lambs of the flock. The head is
suddenly protruded, the animal staggers in his walk, or may
stand still, quite unable to walk, then falls down, struggles a
little, and then dies. A dozen may die in twelve hours.

Indeed, tliis disease is a justly dreaded one, for it attacks
and quickly kills all kinds of animals, including birds and even
fishes, and no clime is exempt from its disastrous ravages. As
a slight exception to the universality of this dread power we may
state that pigs, dogs, and cats are very insusceptible to the
disease ; but the malady has been seen by us in dogs which
have partaken of the flesh of animals which have died of the
disease. Indeed, Koch has shown that the spores of the
germs of anthrax can readily cause infection by finding their
way into the alimentary canal. This fact is of importance as
showing that the flesh of animals dead of anthrax is unfit for
human consumption, and should therefore be prohibited from
being sold.

On January 26th, 1887, a cow died suddenly at Chelmsford,
and within a few iiours several more succumbed. On the 28th
thirty members of the herd had died, and soon afterwards nine
more fell victims. The veterinary surgeon who attended the

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 237

cattle, and also the butchers who cut up some of the carcases,
were accidentally inoculated with the disease.

We read in the Times of March 23rd, 1887, that the Chief
Constable of Cheshire reported the fact of a fresh outbreak of
anthrax in the township of Aston, a locality in which the
disease appeared afresh recently. Colonel Haraersley adds that
during the past week, of thirty-seven animals attacked thirty-six
died, and one was killed.

As we have said before, anthrax is very often encountered by
the breeders of sheep and cattle in various parts of the United
Kingdom and on the Continent. When it affects human beings,
anthrax is generally known as woolsorters' disease, the usual
mode of infection being the inhalation of the spores adhering to
the fleeces of sheep and goats which have had the disease. It
also occurs as the so-called malignant pustule, brought about,
not by inhalation of spores, but as the result of local inocula-
tion proceeding from the handling of the infected wool, or as the
consequence of contact of any abraded part with the carcase of
an animal which has died of anthrax.

In past times anthrax frequently raged as a malignant and
destructive epidemic in man and in the domesticated animals,
and was known at a very early date in history. It is mentioned
in the Scriptures as the grievous murrain and blains which
afflicted man and beast in the days of the captivity of the chil-
dren of Israel in Egypt, and we read in Exodus, chap. ix. 3,
that the murrain was then upon the horses, asses, camels, oxen,
and sheep.

Anthrax also may have been the cause whereby the army of
Sennacherib the Assyrian met with total extermination in one
single night (2 Chronicles xxxii. 21)."^ It was described by
the writers of ancient Greece under the name it still bears, anthrax
— a term signifying a burning coal ; also by the Latin authors.

* And the Lord sent an angel, which cut off all the mighty men of valour
and the leaders and captains in the camp of the king of Assyria.

2. Kings xii. 35: — " And it came to pass that night,, that the angel of the
Lord went out, and smote in the camp of the Assyrians an hundred four score
and five thousand ; and when they arose early in the morning, behold, they were
all dead corpses."

One cannot definitely lay much stress upon this suggsstion ; but the idea is
not an improbable one, for the army may have encamped on a spot where the
germs of anthrax abounded in profusion on the soil.

238 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Horses are occasionally attacked in this country, and the
malady is of common occurrence in the equine tribe in Central
Hindustan and in South Africa.

In Asia Minor it was known at the time of the siege of Troy.
The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were especially re-
markable for the devastations made by many severe outbreaks
of this plague. In 1617 the malady was of so fatal a type that
over 60,000 people died round Naples from eating the flesh of
animals which had died of the disease. At the present date
anthrax often rages in Siberia. In Central Asia it is known
under the name of Loodianah disease, and in Australia as the
Ciimherlarid disease. As Texas /ever, in the United States it
is of common occurrence, and makes serious ravages among the
cattle. According to Toussaint, animals of the value of
20,000,000 francs die annually of splenic fever in France, in
which country the disease is termed charhon. In Germany it is
the viiitz-hrand or miltz-hrand Jieher.

The disease is a contagious fever occasioned by the entrance
of the special germs into the blood, and by their presence and
multiplication in dififerent parts of the body. It may rage as
an epizootic over extensive areas, or it may break out in isolated
spots from time to time. It occurs whenever the conditions are
very favourable to the growth of the germs, which are present
on the land in certain places. It is less commonly met with in
winter than at other seasons of the year, is more prevalent when
the weather is tempestuous, when great heat alternates with
stormy rains, when the atmosphere is cold and laden with mois-
ture, and, as we said above, in the summer and autumn months.
In damp, marshy districts, inundated with water which has
become stagnant, and situated near rivers and streams, especially
if the weather become hot after being damp, the disease is very
frequently met with. As might be expected, when a very hot
summer has been preceded by a great downpour of rain, anthrax
often breaks out.

During hot seasons it prevails especially on badly-drained
lands, and in wet seasons especially on rich and stifl" soils.
Sudden changes of diet are said frequently to favour the produc-
tion of anthrax. For instance, sheep which are suddenly allowed
to have too much cake and oats may be afflicted with it, i.e.,
when there has been a sudden change from a very poor diet to a

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 239

rich one, or from dry, good food, to that which is watery and not
ripe. In fact, animals in poor condition, if placed upon rich
keep, are very liable to anthrax, especially, of course, if they
do not get sufficient exercise, as may be the case, for example, if
sheep are folded on turnips, or if stall-fed cattle are supplied
■with too much food. Even a more steady advance of condition
is not without danger, especially if the animals are confined for
space, being folded on turnips, as above-mentioned, or enclosed
on a rich pasture, or allowed artificial nutriment in order to be
fit for slaughter at an early time. Indeed, strange as it may at
first sight seem, anthrax is most frequently met with where the
land is best and most nourishing, and it also attacks the most
thriving animals.

On some fields in which braxy broke out some time ago, de-
stroying many valuable sheep, the animals had been having too
large an allowance of cake and oats. In this outbreak two doses
of medicine were administered to each member of the flock, the
food was reduced in amount, and no further deaths occurred.
It is especially when the food contains a large amount of nitro-
genous matter that it is apt to favour the development of
anthrax. When the change of food is sudden, as from a very
poor to a rich diet, it may be pointed out that the over-highly
nitrogenised influx into the blood favours the growth and de-
velopment of the germs of the disease. The germs of anthrax
may be transmitted by means of food or of water, and it seems
to be the case that there is much liability of the propagation of
the disease if animals be fed on fermenting grains.

Again, shepherds well know that. when the moon is at the
full the sheep are apt to rove about and stray, refraining from
lying down to rest and chew the cud and digest the food that
has been eaten during the day. On the contrary, they may
at times engorge themselves, and when the morning comes may
be found helpless, struck down with braxy. Many deaths
among sheep occur when the moon is full. On the other
hand, dark, cold, and stormy nights are often attended with a
fearful mortality.

We may allude to ill-drained crew-yards, to the contamina-
tion of food or water with the germs which have emanated
from the carcases of animals dead of anthrax ; and also to
the fact that flies, without being themselves much injured

240 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OE THE OX.

thereby, may yet carry the germs about, as factors in the
causation of the malady.

An OX, smitten with the disease, suddenly ceases to feed, and
to chew the cud, shivers, moves stiffly and unsteadily with
rigid limbs over which control is lost, and soon falls to the
ground exhausted and unable to move. He may stand awhile
with back curved ; but, as a rule, the disease soon lays him
prostrate on the ground. The pulse, which, in the case of a
healthy ox, should number but forty-five, becomes very rapid,
feeble, and irregular, the breathing is much hurried and of a
sighing character, and the temperature is raised several degrees.
The animal may be calmly dejected and look the picture of
misery, or may be wildly delirious.

In most cases the spleen is especially invaded, and hence the
disease has been termed " splenic fever," but in some cases the
bowels are especially affected, the spleen being comparatively
free. Severe convulsions are not uncommonly manifested.
From the mouth a tenacious fluid (mucus) flows, and the tongue
becomes of a darker hue, purplish or dark red. The belly is
blown up, the bowels are freely open and discharge liquid and
blood-stained excreta, and sometimes a large amount of dark
blood. Blood sometimes flows from the nostrils. The white
portion of the eyes becomes dark red, the eyes sink into their
orbits, and tears flow over the face. If the tissues under the
skin of the back and sides be pressed upon, a crackling or
crepitation may be felt, a state of things which is known as
emphysema. Death may ensue even in the course of a few
minutes or a day or longer, and it is only very seldom that
recovery can be hoped for. Indeed, as a rule, an animal affected
with anthrax soon succumbs owing to the high fever set up by
the germs which multiply with incredible rapidity in the blood,
and as a result of the general disturbance set up by the enormous
quantities of them. An affected ox generally dies suddenly, and
frequently in one of those violent fits of convulsions which are
common in cases of acute anthrax, or else perhaps calmly in a
period of quiet. Sometimes, on the other bund, the animal may
be ill for several days, its pulse being rapid and feeble, the
breathing hurried and panting, the eyes injected, the mouth hot
and clammy, and the bowels irregular. Then these symptoms
may subside, the animal may again take its food and chew the

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEKP. 241

cud, and then after all the fever may come on again and lead to
death. In the month of February, 1884, Mr. J. B. Gresswell
found two animals dead out of a herd of forty oxen, and another
beast which had a temperature of 106*4° F. died on the next day.
Twelve other beasts were affected. In one instance after death
the spleen weighed eleven pounds and in another fifteen pounds.
On the fifth day another beast succumbed, and the remaining
ones recovered under the influence of careful treatment and the
wonderful effects of sulphite of sodium, a remedy which is of the
greatest possible value. It requires, of course, to be used with
care, freshly prepared, recently dissolved in a rather large
quantity of pure water, in the correct doses, and for a sufficient
period. It is necessary to give small doses well regulated.

The spleen is quite disintegrated, and if its capsule be cut
into, the contents are seen to resemble a mass of black tarry
blood in a fluid condition. Especially in cases when the disease

Fig. 26.

A Thermometer by means of which the temperature of a man or an animal
may be taken.

takes a slow course is the spleen implicated, and also in these
cases the lungs often become much congested, and decomposition
of the extravasated blood occurs, the breath becoming very fetid
and death resulting. If the animal has passed large quantities
of dark blood during life, the intestines will be found intensely
congested and covered with extravasated patches after death.

On September the 7ih, 1877, the late Mr. D. Gresswell
attended a herd of twelve milch cows suckling twelve calves.
One was dead on his arrival, its spleen was of very great size,
and extravasated patches were seen on the inside lining of the
heart. The intestines were inflamed in patches in many places,
and abundant extravasations of blood were found on the lining
membrane of the paunch, and of the true stomach or abomasum.

The excrement had been blood-stained during the life of the
animal. The lungs in this case were intensely engorged, and
were of a very dark purple colour. Three more of the beasts
died; but the remaining ones recovered. In spite of all the
precautions which were taken, on September the 11th the disease

16

242

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

broke out among ihe horses which had been feeding upon the
same grass and drinking the same water as the beasts. One
horse died within three hours, and three others which were
affected made a slow but perfect recovery. On another occasion
— namely, in February 1878, out of a herd of fifty beasts to
which Mr. D. Gresswell was summoned only two survived. These
animals had been fed upon decomposing grains.

In SHEEP the anthrax germ usually invades the intestinal
tract, the splenic form of the disease, in which the spleen is espe-
cially attacked, being much less commonly met with than is the
case on the Continent, where this kind is the one which generally

Fig. 27. — Navel-ill.

The above picture represents a lamb afflicted with navel-ill. The navel is
seen to be greatly swollen so as to be larger than is natui-al. The poor little
creature's tongue is seen to be protruding, and, indeed, our artist has faithfully
delineated a certain look of helplessness and bewilderment which, in the case of
a living animal, would incite the observer to search out among the resources of
science for some remedy wherewith if possible to remove the cause of the
suffering.

occurs. When this is the case, i.e. when the intestines espe-
cially are affected^ the sheep at first walk with contracted step,
owing to the abdominal pain. Soon they stand with dejected
look, arched back, and then they fall to the ground, and the
belly may be noticed to be swollen and tender. After a time the
wool drops ofif. If, on the other hand, the disease especially
affects the spleen, the symptoms manifested are very similar to
those met with in oxen suffering from the same disease. In
lambs, however, this form of the disease is often characterised
by external swellings oftentimes involving the navel. In the
latter case it is spoken of as " navel-ill."

The symptoms are briefly as follows : — The sheep or other

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 243

animal, lively and apparently in perfect health, suddenly falls
down while grazing, and may perish in convulsions in the very
short space of a few minutes. The affected animal is restless,
lies down and rises again frequently, holds the head low, stands
apart from the rest of the flock with arched back, picks up a
little grass, staggers, stumbles forwards or backwards. The
mouth is hot and red, the pulse is full, strong, and frequent, the
breathing panting and laboured, and there is a burning heat all
over the body. If any feces are voided, they are hard, dry, and
scanty, and the urine also is scanty and of a dark colour. The
eyes, which at first were bloodshot, afterwards become languid
and watery, and the animal drops with a haggard look and ster-
torous breathing. The sheep may perhaps fall into a ditch,
pond, or drain, and be drowned, or may roll over on its back,
and, gasping for air with extended head, may soon die. Even
before death, swellings may be observed. Gas is set free in the
tissues beneath the skin, whereby the latter is elevated along the
back and the sides, which, if pressed, give rise to a crackling
sensation. Abdominal swelling is often observed, particularly
on the left side, owing to the distension of the paunch. Death
is, as a rule, very sudden, and generally occurs about a few
hours after the first signs of the disease are observed. Decom-
position begins very soon after death, and possibly even before
the fatal ending.

If death is not so early, the suffering animal may lie down,
and be unable to rise again. The breathing is hurried and
difficult, the eyes are prominent, the visible mucous membranes
are deeply reddened, and discharges of blood issue forth from
both mouth and nostrils. After a few hours convulsions may
come on, shortly before death. The sheep may, however, con-
tinue living, looking uneasy and dull, refusing to eat, carrying
the head low and the back arched upwards, frequently lying
down and rising again, and refraining from micturition. If the
flock moves on, the suffering animal falls behind, and is left in
the background by its companions, and it may stagger about
slowly. The hair on the face and the wool on -the body are dry.
If bleeding is resorted to, the blood will be seen to be thick and
black, and to flow slowly. The animal looks breathless and
excited, the lining membrane of the nostrils and that of the con-
junctiva is deep red, while that of the mouth, and especially that

16 *

244 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

of the lower lip, is studded with light violet patches. The pulse
is quick and small, the beats of the heart itself are of a tumul-
tuous nature, the temperature of the body in places uncovered
by wool is lower than in health. The sheep may either be con-
stipated or suffer from diarrhcea, and symptoms of abdominal
pain may be manifested.

With the view of deciding if a sheep is suflFering from anthrax
fever, Eeynal advises that the animal's nostrils should be closed
with the fingers for a few seconds. By this means micturition is
brought about, and the urine will then be found to be blood-
coloured if the animal is suffering from anthrax. Urine may be
easily obtained by means of gentle compression over the region
of the bladder.

As the disease progresses, the sheep trembles, cannot stand,
gives out a profuse discharge of tears, and also a flow of blood
from the nose, loses power of vision, and dropsical swellings
may appear on the neck, lower jaw, breast, and flank. Signs
of putrefaction may be seen, convulsions appear, and soon after-
wards the sheep dies. Death may occur in from one to four
hours — it supervenes most quickly in warm weather ; but
occasionally the course of the disease is more prolonged.

After death, as also during life, the germs and their spores may
with the microscope be found in abundance in the blood and
tissues. If a post-mortem examination is made, the spleen is
found to be greatly congested and enormously enlarged, as also
is the liver, and the lining membrane of the intestinal canal is
congested in some degree. The whole of the animal's skin is
puffed out by fetid gas, in consequence of the decomposition
going on in the underlying structures. The muscles are of a
blackish hue, and petechial spots are noticeable in the serous
membranes. The mucous membrane of the intestinal canal is
congested, being coated and infiltrated with blood, which,
indeed, is also mingled with the contents of the canal. About
the nose a frothy mucus tinged with blood is seen. If the skin
is separated, there is a very offensive smell, the blood-vessels
are full of black blood, and frequently the superficial structures
are stained yellowish-red. If the belly is cut, a little straw-
coloured or reddish fluid often escapes, the paunch is distended
with gas and congested, the third stomach is usually full of
solid food, and extravasations of blood are to be observed

i

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 245

beneath the mucous membrane of the digestive tube. The lungs
are turgid with blood, and the heart is marked both externally
and internally with dark purple spots and filled with dark and
partly coagulated blood. As in black quarter, extravasations
of blood are to be seen, and these are probably caused by sudden
congestions, attended by rupture of the vessels and consequent
effusion. Sometimes a sheep may live for several days ; but as
a rule the animal is actually dead within a couple of hours from
the time when it was in the enjoyment of good health. This
suddenness seems to be due to a general clotting of the blood
within the smaller vessels of the tissues.

Now we proceed to give a short description of the germs
which cause anthrax fever. We propose to follow the admirable

/
\

Fig. 28. — Fkesh Specimen of Blood taken from the Heart of a Mouse
WHICH has died of Anthbax.

1. Blood discs. 2. White blood- corpuscle. 3. Bacilli anthracis.
Magnifying power 700. After Klein.

account of them given by our former tutor, Dr. Klein. In the
blood of any animal which has died of anthrax numbers of stiff
rods differing slightly in length are found. Koch succeeded in
cultivating these bacilli artificially, and showed that they multiply
by division, and grow so as to become long, homogeneous-
looking filaments, which are straight or twisted. If free access
of air is allowed, bright oval spores appear in them, and the
filaments become homogeneous and swollen. These spores then
become free, and, when artificially cultivated -ftnd injected into
an animal (rodent), they germinate into the characteristic bacilli.
These bacilli elongate and divide, and in artificial cultures again
grow into long filaments, which again form spores. The single
bacilli measure between 0*005 and 0'02 mm. in length, and
between O'OOl and 0*0012 mm. in breadth.

246

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF TEE OX.

Anyone who casts his eye for a moment on the above picture
will notice the little rods, quite straight for the most part, which
are the much-talked-about bacilli of anthrax, and they will at
once see that in regard to the prevention and cure of this dread
disease, the questions to be decided depend upon the conditions
of growth and development of these minute vegetal organisms.

According to Dr. Klein, any fluid containing proteid material
is a suitable medium for the growth of these bacilli ; and he
also states that they grow abundantly at any temperature
between that of 15 deg. C. and 43 deg. C, elongating and
dividing rapidly, and growing out into long, curved, and pecu-
liarly-twisted filaments, which often form bundles, composed of
filaments twisted round one another like the strands of a cable.

Fig. 29.

The above illustration (after Klein) is one of the bacilli of
anthrax artificially cultivated and showing copious formation of
spores.

They are magnified so as to appear 700 times larger than
they are.

When a tliin layer of the bacilli is dried, they die ; but the
spores remain unaffected. The bacilli of anthrax are truncated,

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

247

and they are not capable of movement. It is very important to
know that if an animal which has died of anthrax be not opened,
its whole body and its excretions being protected from the air
by being buried or otherwise carefully disposed of, the bacilli
become quite innocuous, and die in about a week or a little
more. Hence it is highly necessary that the bodies of animals

Fig. 30.

The above picture represents the microscopical appearance of a small portion
of a section cut through the kidney of a rabbit which died from the results of
anthrax. The capillaries of the cortex are naturally injected with the bacilli
anthracis.

1. A glomerulus. 2. Capillaries surrounding the convoluted uriniferous
tubules, which are not here shown. Magnifying power 450 (Spiller's purple).
—Klein.

which have died of this disease should not-be opened, unless it
should be supposed necessary. Moreover, too much care cannot
be taken by all who have to handle the carcases, since the
disease can very easily be communicated to human beings.
Hence Pasteur's belief, that earthworms are instrumental in
bringing up to the surface of the land the bacilli of anthrax

218 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OP THE OX.

wliich they have been contaminated with in their peregrinations
under the soil, seems very improbable ; and, indeed, Koch has
sliown that the bacilli of anthrax, when mixed with earth in
wliich worms are placed, are not taken up by these creatures.

These bacilli are always present in enormous numbers in
the blood of animals suffering from anthrax. They may be
separated and washed with distilled water, alcohol, and ether,
and dried ; but still, if injected or otherwise introduced into
the blood or tissues of animals, they are capable of producing
anthrax, and cultivations of the germ may be made through
fifty generations with the same result. However, the bacilli of
anthrax have been subjected to such treatment by M. Pasteur
that if they are inoculated into animals they will produce a mild
form of the disease, from which the animal, as a rule, very
speedily quite recovers, being at the same time thereby rendered
secure against the ordinary virulent disease. Every year
thousands of animals are inoculated on the Continent in accord-
ance with the method discovered by M. Pasteur.

This celebrated scientist directs that the germs are to be
exposed to a high temperature, viz. one of about 43 deg. C,
and also that they are to be passed through different species of
animals. The process is, of course, a very elaborate one. It
has been invariably found — and, indeed, is a well-known fact —
that the bacilli taken from the blood of sheep or cattle which
have died of anthrax always cause death when inoculated into
sheep or cattle, although, strange to say, after these bacilli have
been passed through white mice, they have lost much of their
virulence. The blood of white mice which have died of anthrax
does not kill sheep, but only produces a transient illness in
them, which, however — and here is the point of most extreme
importance — protects them against attacks of virulent anthrax.

Further, it is to be remembered with care that the bacilli of
anthrax are capable of living and growing on the surface of the
soil, and they form spores, provided that they are well supplied
with oxygen. If sheep, or cattle, or other animals die of
anthrax, and their carcases are not properly disposed of, or if
fluids escape from their bodies and get on to the ground, the
bacilli thrive on the decaying matter present on the soil,
multiply, and even form spores. It is easy to see that such
land will continue to be a permanent source of infection to

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 249

sheep, cattle, and horses living on it, unless by means of
thorough drainage and efficient dressing with lime the bacilli be
prevented from further multiplication.

As we have above pointed out, Professor Pasteur has intro-
duced a method of inoculating animals in districts where anthrax
is prevalent, with anthrax virus which has been subjected to a
high temperature, and passed through different species of
animals, whereby it becomes attenuated. According to Dr.
Klein, however, this inoculation loses its protective power after
a short time. He has proved the intense potency of small quan-
tities of corrosive sublimate on the germs of anthrax, and he
advocates the use of a " vaccine,'' the virulence of which has
been destroyed by means of this salt of mercury.

He suggests that a culture in broth of anthrax germs together
with spores should be used for the purpose of inoculating a
guinea-pig, and then that another guinea-pig should be inocu-
lated with the blood of this guinea-pig, another with that of this
latter one, and so on. The guinea-pigs die of anthrax before,
or at the end of, the second day after the inoculation. The
blood taken from the dead guinea-pigs (of the fourth remove)
is then to be medicated and then used for inoculating sheep.

Dr. Klein has shown that so potent is the above-mentioned
mercurial salt that one part of it in 25,000 of water will in about
fifteen minutes' time prevent the bacilli of anthrax from pro-
ducing virulent anthrax in sheep, and that sheep inoculated
wiih a mixture thus prepared are thereby protected against
subsequent infection with virulent anthrax material. The blood
of the dead guinea-pigs is to be mixed with 100 times its volume
of a solution of perchloride of mercury of the strength of 1 in
25,000, or 1 grain in about 50 fluid ounces of distilled water.
This should be kept thus mixed for about 15 minutes, and then
about a half, or even the whole, of the contents of a hypodermic
syringe should be injected under the skin of the groin, or inside
the thigh of each sheep. After the lapse of a week the injection
may be repeated with a mixture prepared in the same way,
i.e. the fresh blood of a guinea-pig which has died of virulent
anthrax is to be kept mixed for 15 minutes with 100 times its
volume (as measured) of a solution of perchloride of mercury in
the proportion of one part of that salt to 25,000 parts of
water.

250

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

The beauty of this plan of Klein's lies in its simplicity. The
chief requisite is a guinea-pig just dead of virulent anthrax, the
farther procedures, viz. the preparation of the proper solution
of the salt of mercury, the mixing of this with the blood of the
guinea-pig, and the injection of this mixture by means of a
hypodermic syringe, not demanding such a very high degree of
skill as Pasteur's method does.

If anthrax has existed in a cattle-shed, it must be well swept

Fk;. 31.
This picture represents an injoction-sj'ringe used for hypodermic injection.

out, and all litter, dung, or other things, sucli as implements
and 80 on, which have been in contact with, or used about, the
animal or animals, must then be well disinfected or burnt. The
walls should be whitewashed with limewash containing a pint
of crude carbolic acid to each bucketful, the floors are to be
thorougl)ly washed, and sulphur burnt in the place, so as to fill
it with the fumes. The carcases are to be covered over with

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 251

a sufiBcient quantity of quicklime and with at least six feet of
earth. All animals which die or are killed should be thus
buried without delay, and all fluids or excreta that ooze from
the body should likewise be immediately burned, with the same
precautions.

Braxy mutton is not sold in Scotland, but braxy hams are to
be seen hanging up, and many are smoked in the farm-houses
of sheep-rearing districts. Even abroad the shepherds do not
altogether reject braxy mutton. It has, however, been shown
by Koch that the spores of the germs of anthrax can readily
cause infection by the medium of the alimentary canal. This
fact is of great importance, as showing that the flesh of animals
dead of anthrax is certainly not fit for human consumption, and
on no account should it be sold for food, even for animals ; and,
of course, very much more reason is there why human beings
should not eat such meat. Moreover, if the carcases are opened
for examination or handled, the greatest care and precaution
should be exercised. If there are any cuts or sores upon the
hands or elsewhere, on no account should the carcase be even
touched. If any one does become affected, a doctor should be
at once consulted.

We believe that in past years very much flesh of animals which
have died of anthrax has been consumed ; but now that a know-
ledge of the dangers of this practice has become general, it is
most earnestly to be hoped that on no account will this most
dangerous practice be carried out.

All districts wherein anthrax breaks out irom time to time
should be thoroughly drained, and the fields should be thoroughly
dressed with lime. If an outbreak occurs among a herd of
cattle or a flock of sheep, the infected animals and those which
are suspected to be infected should be at once set apart. Then
either the preventive inoculation above spoken of should be per-
formed on the rest, or to each ox three drachms of sulphite of
sodium, and to each sheep about one drachm of the same salt
should be given twice or thrice daily lor a week dissolved in
water. The food supply should be carefully regulated. More-
over, the healthy sheep or oxen should be taken away to a dry
pasture, the diseased ones alone being left in the field, from
which it is very possible that the germs have arisen. The food
and the water should be very carefully looked to. Fermenting

252 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

grains, mouldy cereals, and tainted water should be most scrupu-
lously avoided.

Of the infected animals, which must on no account be allowed
to come near the healthy ones, the worst should be killed at once,
and their carcases buried six feet deep, and with quicklime upon
them.

All animals which die or are killed should be buried with-
out delay, and all fluids or excreta that ooze from the body
should likewise be buried. Those which are very mildly aflfected,
so that we cannot feel certain that they are suffering from
anthrax fever, may be put under medical treatment. The drugs
which are indicated are percbloride of mercury (which is a deadly
poisonous salt, and can, therefore, only be used with the most
unremitting and extreme care), sulphite of sodium, and also
salicylate of sodium. Tonics also may be useful. All hard
food, straw, and hay must be taken out of the reach of the
animals. Easily digestible, soft, nutritious food may be
supplied.

In case sheep should go down with braxy in frosty weather,
shelter is of very great service.

Farmers should be very careful in regard to taking animals
from poor to rich land, especially on lowland farms, on which the
sudden deaths from braxy are evidently due to a superabund-
ance of rich grass and of turnips. If braxy breaks out, the food
should be checked at once, and on moonlight nights the sheep
should be placed on a bare field. Shelter is one of the often-
lost-sight-of requisites ; but if the flock is kept on the hills,
tlie system of managing them almost precludes the possibility
of drugging, or altering the food supply, or of providing effectual
shelter.

It is a custom with some shepherds, when they observe that
a sheep is suffering from braxy, to cause it to move on briskly,
as, for instance, down a hill, and then to pull out a pocket-
knife and abstract about a teacupful of blood or a little more
from the jugular vein. In no case should more that eight fluid
ounces be removed, whether from this vein, or that of the face,
or that of the thigh. The vein just in front of and below the
sharp prominent process of bone on the side of the face may be
opened, after being first filled by pressing on its continuation at
the side of the jaw. Then they may give about four ounces of

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 253

Epsom salts or of Glauber's salts, or, instead of this, the shep-
herd often prefers about two wineglassfuls of castor oil. Warm
water injections may be of great service in causing the bowels
to act.

This kind of treatment has been highly spoken of; but if it
is curative, we may be disposed to doubt very much if the animal
really suffered from anthrax at all. The abstraction of a little
blood at the very outset of an attack might possibly be of
advantage in the case of very plethoric animals. If, however,
bleeding is resorted to after the very first, it can only do harm,
Owing to its weakening eflfect on the animal.

BLACK-LEG, or BLACK-QUARTER.

The disease known under the names of Black-Leg, Black-
quarter, Inflammatory Fever, Carbuncular Erysipelas, Emphy-
sema Infectuosum, and Speed, is one of great importance to
those owners of stock whose farms are situated in ill-drained,
damp, and marshy districts, in which places the disease is most
liable to break out. In (jertain parts in England and other
countries the malady is very commonly met with, breaking out
time after time, and thwarting the most energetic measures to
stamp it out. Black-leg usually begins by affecting two or three or
more individual members of a herd or flock, and apparently
it spreads from animal to animal through the medium of the
air, so that about six of them or perhaps many more may be
attacked. It is seldom the case that this serious malady has a
favourable termination.

Black-leg is more frequently met with in veterinary practice
in oxen than in sheep ; but this is no doubt largely due to the
fact that farmers as a rule do not seek professional advice for
many disorders of sheep. The complaint seems to break out
more particularly in the spring and in the autumn, while, as
our readers will remember, anthrax most usually occurs in the
summer time. However, these two diseases are very similar in
many points, and they are very often met with on the same
farms. -^

In the case of oxen, the operation of setoning and dressing
the setons with black oil (which must be properly prepared)
seems to act as an almost certain preventive. Although in
some instances animals suffering from this disease may recover.

254 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

as a rule they die in the course of about two or three days from
its commencement.

There is an effusion of fluid into the tissues beneath the
skin and in those which lie between the muscles of one or more
of the legs, or between those of one hind limb and one fore-limb.
As a consequence of this swelling, or of these swellings, the
animal moves with pain and difficulty. The swellings which are
thus formed contain many bacilli, and these small, rod-like
vegetal organisms are likewise present in the internal organs.
According to Dr. Klein, they are about the size of, but a little
thicker than, the bacilli of anthrax fever. Their ends are
rounded, and at one of the ends a bright oval spore is often
enclosed, which is not the case in regard to the bacilli of

Fig. 32.

Blood of a Guinea-Pig dead of Symptomatic Anthrax (Black-leg).

Blood corpuscles, and between them several bacilli. Magnifying po'wer, 700.
(Klein.)

anthrax fever. These bacilli of black quarter are either single
or form short chains, and some of them move about. If a fluid
containing these bacilli be injected under the skin of calves, or
sheep, or guinea-pigs, or rabbits, the same disease, black-
quarter, is thereby occasioned. If only a very small amount of
the fluid containing the bacilli be injected into the veins, only a
slight fever is produced, whereas larger quantities cause death.

Animals, however, which have suffered slight disorder owing
to injection of small quantities of the virus either into the veins
or under the skin, are afterwards protected against what would
otherwise prove a fatal dose. In other words, if the malady is
produced artificially in a mild form, the animal is thereby
ensured against death as a result of this particular disease.

Black leg is a very fatal and infectious disease.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 255

The malady generally attacks calves which are from three to
six months old, and although the disease may occur in oxen of
any age, it is very seldom met with in cattle which are more
than two years old. Moreover, it is generally one-year-old
sheep that are liable to be afflicted, and it is very rare that
animals above two or three years old go down with the disease.
It is, however, believed that this apparent immunity of older
animals is due to the fact of their being located in one district,
and seldom or never being moved ; for in Algeria, where the
animals are moved from place to place, this immunity does not
exist. It is important that stringent preventive and remedial
measures should be taken, for otherwise the disease may spread
and pursue its rapid and fatal course.

It is contended by some that black-leg is a disease caused by
plethora, that is to say, nutrition beyond the limits of health ;
and that the best and fattest animals are those most subject to
attack. Now, although the disease not uncommonly does
manifest itself in the best-nourished animals, it must be pointed
out that the high condition of the animal is not be regarded by
any means as the primary factor in the causation of the disease.
It often happens that scarlet fever and measles and other fevers
of mankind invade the more healthy members of a family, while
the others perhaps escape altogether, yet who would say for a
moment that a healthy condition of the body was a cause of
scarlet- fever or other fevers ?

It is said that black-leg is especially liable to affect young
cattle, taken from a poor to a rich pasture, and especially to
low-lying pastures ; but we think it is the change from a non-
contaminated to a contaminated locality which is the real cause
of outbreaks of both black-leg and anthrax.

Black-leg in most instances attacks animals out at grass, but
those in the yard do not by any means always escape. It is
hardly necessary to speak at great length of the symptoms of
this disease, many of our readers unfortunately being already
too well acquainted with them. The symptoms are somewhat
as follows : — Certain of the best animals of a i^rd or flock, or of
the oxen in the stalls, may perhaps be observed to look dull
and listless, and to move with difficulty, and, in fact, to be lame
on one or two of the limbs, either hind or fore. The poor
creatures rarely move, their limbs are stiff and rigid, and if the

256 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

afflicted animals are made to move, they progress without any
elasticity of step. The appetite fails, the animals lose flesh,
they are very thirsty, and they manifest febrile symptoms. The
temperature rises, the pulse is irregular and weak, and perhaps
full, and it numbers about 95 or even 120 per minute in the ox.
The respirations are very quick, the countenance is much dis-
turbed, the head is protruded, the white parts of the eyes are
bloodshot, the mouth is hot, and the animal utters a low moan-
ing. The animal is stiff and rarely moves, and if pushed
forward it progresses in a laboured manner, staggers, and drops
helplessly to the ground. Rumination is not performed. In
the first instance the bowels are constipated, but afterwards the
feces become soft and tinged with blood. The skin becomes
dry and rough. The urine, at first very high-coloured, after-
wards becomes deeply blood-stained. The loins, back, and ribs
are tender, and if they are pressed pain is occasioned. Swelling
of a painful nature begins, and the swollen part may quickly
mortify, either at a fetlock, knee-joint, or hock-joint, or as
high up as the stifle, elbow, or shoulder.

It is most generally a hind limb which is thus afl'ected.
Sometimes, however, though more rarely, the swelling occurs
on a fore-leg, whereas at other times a fore-leg and a hind one
may be simultaneously attacked. The swelling spreads quickly,
gives rise at first to a considerable amount of pain, and when it
is touched, it is found to be hot and tender. The inflammatory
action proceeds quickly, and soon gangrene sets in. The
swelling becomes insensible to the touch and to cold, and when
it is pressed upon, it crepitates, owing to the presence of gases
in the tissues. This crackling is very significant. The skin
over the swelling sloughs, a discharge flows from the wound
thus resulting, and foul ulcers remain.

In protracted cases small ulcers also break out on the mucous
membranes, especially those of the tongue and cheeks. The
emphysema increases, the extremities and surface of the body
become cold, the pulse is small, and stupor comes on. At an
early period, generally about twelve hours after the first appear-
ance of the swelling, the suffering animal falls to the ground,
and soon becomes comatose, and quickly weaker and still weaker,
until, after a day or a little more, death closes the scene, llarely
the tumours burst, and large ulcerated surfaces remain, and in

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHBBP. 257

this case the animal may recover. The flesh is not fit for human
food. It is of a deep red hue, gives oflF an unpleasant odour, and
soon putrefies.

It is a most important fact that the spores of the bacilli of
this disease, if heated to 85° C. for six hours, lose their virulence.
Hence the danger of consuming the flesh would in this case, as
in others, be very greatly lessened by thorough and effectual
cooking, which, indeed, should always be insisted upon by those
who wish to avoid parasites and other evils, liable, or rather almost
sure, to be sooner or later the results of eating under-done meat.
If the swollen parts are cut into, they are seen to be infiltrated
with a blackish red semi-solid efl'usion.

After death the carcase is seen to be emphysematous all over,
the belly is greatly distended, the body is only slightly rigid, and
a discharge of blood-stained froth flows out of the mouth and
nostrils. When the skin is removed, the cutaneous vessels are
seen to be turgid with blood, and over the part affected or over
the loins, as well as over the shoulder or thigh, the areolar
tissue under the skin is found, as said above, to be infiltrated
with dark-coloured blood, and distended with air. If the tissues
are cut, they are seen to be matted together by a black exuda-
tion, and they are gangrenous. Blood which does not exhibit
any disposition to coagulate is in protracted cases found lying
between the long muscles of the back. The serous membranes
are covered with ecchymoses. The lungs are usually congested.
Other parts of the body, such as the liver, kidneys, the mucous
membrane of the alimentary canal, and the cerebro-spinal cavity,
may be found to be infiltrated with blood. In very rapid cases,
or when animals are slaughtered in the early stage of the disease,
it is only one of the fore or hind quarters which indicates the
existence of the malady.

In certain localities, as we have above pointed out, black-leg
breaks out from time to time. Hence, the first step which is
necessnry is to have the fields or areas in which the malady
breaks out thoroughly drained. In short, the hygienic condi-
tions in such places should be thoroughly iavestigated, and, if
any fault is detected, it should be carefully set right. For
instance, the water should be searchiugly examined. These
remarks apply as much to oxen kept in cow-sheds as to those
which are out at pasture. When the disease breaks out in a

17

^58 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

herd of cattle, the animals which are not attacked should be
separated from those which are, and taken away at once to a
fresh and dry pasture. If the oxen are not out at grass, their
diet should be changed and somewhat restricted in amount.
Boots and grasses, as being less easily digestible, should be
avoided, and a little good hay, together with a diet which is at
once nutritious and laxative in nature, such as one composed
of mashes and linseed or oatmeal gruel, should be supplied
instead.

To each animal an aperient should, in the first instance, be
given, and afterwards two drachms of the sulphite of sodium,
together with one drachm of salicylic acid, may be given to each
ox, or one drachm of sulphite of sodium and fifteen grains of
salicylic acid to each sheep attacked. These two substances
may be administered in the food once every day for five days.
In the case of oxen the healthy ones should be at once setoned,
and the setons should be well dressed twice a day with black oil.
If the animals are actually suffering from the disease, the above
powder should be given both in the morning and at night. The
tumours, if large, should be incised and dressed with a lotion
consisting of one part of carbolic acid in every twenty-five parts
of water.

SYMPTOMS OF LOCALISED ANTHRAX IN SHEEP.
This disease often affects sheep in various countries, and it
seems to single out especially the strongest and best individuals
of the flock. When afflicted with anthracoid erysipelas, as this
disease is also called, the sheep moves stiffly, or even limps. If
the limbs are examined carefully, a tumour of a dark red or
bluish tinge may perhaps be observed inside the thigh. This
tumour is oedematous, and may crepitate, and as it extends to
the abdomen and chest, it soon becomes cold and indolent, the
epidermis covering the tumour comes off, and from the denuded
surface a reddish fluid exudes. The febrile symptoms also are of
a very marked character, the abdomen is distended, and occa-
sionally a blood-tinged foam flows out from the mouth. The
suffering animal may die in a few hours, and rarely lives longer
than thirty-six hours after the attack.

Glossanthrax is one form in which tliis disease appears. It
may occur in sheep ; but it is very much rarer in them than in

DISEASES OF THE OX AN'D SHEEP. 25^

<5attle. It mny, however, be transmitted to sheep, when very
prevalent in oxen. The symptoms are very similar to those
manifested by bovine animals, and unless successful treat-
ment is carried out, sloughing of the tongue, together
with swelling of the head, neck, pharynx, larynx, and other
structures lying near may be so extreme as even to induce
•death by suffocation. Either a few sheep of a flock may be
attacked, or the disease may break out in an epizootic form.
The salivary secretion, which is at first colourless, but after-
"wards blood-stained and offensive to the sense of smell, flows
from the mouth. The head and neck begin to swell, the animal
^breathes with difficulty, and may even be suffocated. Vesicles
may be seen on the side of the tongue ; these grow, break, and
form deep ulcers or abscesses, which in some instances may
■even break on the external surface of the face.

With regard to preventive and curative measures, the sheep
■which are attacked must at once be isolated in a pasture to
themselves. The vesicles on the tongues may then be freely
ilanced, and painted with a mixture made of one part of iodine,
four parts of carbolic acid, and four parts of glycerine ; or, if
(preferred, with the ordinary tincture of iodine. It is generally
best to open any tumours which may appear on the neck or
face. At first the ulcers may be bathed with warm water, then
-with carbolic acid lotion, or they may be dressed with ointment
of salicylic acid. The sheep should have linseed mashes, bran
mashes mixed with oatmeal, carrots, mangold-wurzel, and, if it
is thought to be necessary, good thick gruel may be given by
means of a horn.

In all cases the greatest care must be exercised by persons
having the management of any animals afflicted with anthrax or
•anthracoid diseases, lest in curing and tending their patients
they may risk their own lives. The greatest danger is that of
■catching anthrax fever ; but in all cases of anthracoid disorders
■extreme caution is absolutely necessary.

CATTLE-PLAGUE^^

The dread plague with which we deal to-day is, happily, not
endemic in England. It is, however, of great importance,
inasmuch as it might at any time be imported, and in that case
the most stringent measures would have to be taken, in order to

17 *

260 THE DISEASES ANT) DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Stamp it out immediately. The disease is established, and
seems to have originated, in the far East. Its Asiatic source has
been traced, and Gerlach mentions the Russo-Asiatic Steppes
as the regions in which the malady was possibly primarily
developed. The question of the distribution of disease in the
world in these recent times, when the dependence of specific
maladies on the minute vegetable organisms called germs has
been proved, is seen to be a point of greater significance than
was previously recognised.

Speaking generally of diseases, we may say that they seem
to lose gradually something of their virulence. Animals become
in greater or less degree used to them, as it were. In relation
to cattle-plague, for instance, it has been observed that when
the disease comes regularly to a country, it seems to be less
fatal in character, while if, on the contrary, some interval of
time has elapsed since its last appearance, the attacks are of
a very severe type. If imported into a region never before
invaded, cattle-plague, in common with other scourges, is of an
especially deadly form. We read in the Veterinariati for
March 1887 that cattle-plague existed at that ime in Bess-
arabia, Volhynia, Taurida, St. Petersburg, Warsaw, the Don
Cossack Territory, and in the neighbourhood of Odessa, and
that precautions were being taken at Constantinople to prevent
its spread from Odessa.

Cattle-plague is one of those diseases which are essentially
amenable to the " stamping-out " policy, and it will be remem-
bered that when the British outbreak occurred in 1865-66, owing
to the determined efforts of the authorities, the disease was at
length thoroughly expelled from the country. The advice given
by the eminent veterinarians of the day, among whom the most
able was John Gamgee, was sound and rational. The energetie
action taken by the Government, in accordance with this advice,
was successful in stamping out the plague, and we feel sure that,
should the necessity for prompt measures ever arise again, the
invasion would be nipped in the bud even more decisively.

About June, 1865, the plague broke out in England, after
the first direct importation from Russia, and writing about
February, 1866, John Gamgee, in his classical work on cattle-
plague, says at the close of his introduction to that treatise : —
*' Great, however, as the present calamity is, there are reasons

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 261

to believe that in the end it may tend to do good, by future
generaiions reaping benefit from the costly experiences at the
present time." {The Cattle-Plague. By John Gamgee,
London : Robert Hardwick, 1866. See page 20.)

Cattle-plague is a febrile disease, capable of being readily
transmitted from animal to animal, either by direct contact, or
€ven by propagation of the micrococci, by which the disease is
in all probability caused, through the medium of the air. It
attacks bovine animals and sheep, and may possibly be commu-
nicated to pachyderms. So far as we know, it has not been
proved to attack mankind, though it is quite possible that it
may be capable of doing so.

If an animal recover from one attack, it is very unlikely to
•suffer again from the same disease. There is no doubt that
human beings, as well as animals such as dogs, can carry the
virus of cattle-plague and distribute it. In all cases of infectious
diseases great care should be taken to submit one's clothes to
thorough disinfection, after having attended diseased animals.
The doctor and the veterinary surgeon should always take this
precaution in regard to any disease which is lia,ble to spread by
infection or contagion. It has been said that in Russia one
■common cause of wide-spread outbreaks of cattle-plague was
" the practice of calling priests and people together to pray in
•cattle-sheds that the plague might be stayed, and the assembled
people moving thence from farm to farm." (Gamgee.) It was,
moreover, demonstrated by Vicq d'Azyr in the last century, that
if the clothes, which had been worn by those who tended
diseased cattle, were placed on healthy animals, three out of
«ix would be seized with the malady. These observations
would seem to show that human beings are not, at any rate
easily, susceptible to the disease, but that they can carry the
infection.

The effects of the malady are chiefly upon the lining of the
respiratory and digestive passages. The cells which compose
the outer layer of the skin, and those of-which the internal
lining of the respiratory and digestive passages is made up, are
filled with more plasmic fluid than usual, and then they rapidly
undergo a kind of fatty degeneration.

Recently minute vegetable organisms called " micrococci "
have been found in the blood and in the lymphatic glands of

262 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

animals suffering from cattle-plague. Semmer and Archangelski
have taken " micrococci " from the lymphatic glands of a sheep
which had died as a result of having been inoculated with cattle-
plague, and succeeded in cultivating them in beef-broth and
other suitable fluids. The germs grew very copiously, and with
them a calf was inoculated. After seven days it died of cattle-
plague.

Now if these micrococci are cultivated so as to give rise la
new generations, these germs are less potent for mischief in
proportion to the length of time and the number of generations..
In other words they, in so far as they become accustomed to live
outside living animals, and hence under different conditions,,
become apparently less and less able to cope with the resisting
power possessed by the living cells contained in animals ; that
is, they cannot so easily grow and multiply inside the fluids and
tissues of the higher animals. Further, if sheep are inoculated
with the micrococci of such later generations, they are apparently
protected against the virulent form of the disease. If the germs
are heated to a temperature of about 47 deg. C, they also lose
a great deal of their power, and sheep, inoculated with germs
attenuated by this means, are not liable to attacks of virulent
cattle-plague. Very low temperatures, such as that of about
— 20 deg. C, also destroy the activity of the micrococci of
cattle-plague.

It is on facts of this order that the advisability of the
precaution of protective inoculation in certain outbreaks of
disease is advocated ; but our readers will see that if all this
knowledge and these great results have already been gained,,
still more valuable information will be acquired in the not
distant future. There is room in these days for many more
specialists on germs, for many workers who, being provided with
means, can afford to study under the few first-class workers iu
England and on the Continent. Unfortunately this is not a
field of research which promises ready returns, and even the
skilful must be prepared, before they begin, to exercise their
abilities, not for money, but for very love of the work for the
work's sake.

Itis very difficult to recognise cattle-plague unless its presence
is suspected. This is in part due to the fact ti)at it varies
greatly in the type which it assumes. It is, however, of the

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 26^3

most profound importance that, when seen, cattle-plague should
be at once diagnosed ; otherwise the disease may gain such
headway in the country that even the most severely repressive
measures may for a long time prove ineflFectual in staying its
progress.

For convenience' sake the disease may he studied under the
two chief forms, called respectively benignant and malignant,
into which it has, perhaps somewhat arbitrarily, been divided.

Benignant Cattle-Plague. — This type of the malady is
seen in Eastern Europe, where it is always liable to be met
with. In these regions it is, so to speak, indigenous, and
having broken out among the ancestors of the cattle living there
from time to time, it seems to have lost the great powers which
we may suppose it exercised over the cattle subjected to its
influence in past times. The oxen have become accustomed tp
the invasion of these germs into their blood and tissues, and
cattle have, by reason of the continued survival of those which
are best fitted to resist the attacks of cattle-plague, been
developed with the power of resisting the growth and
multiplication of these micrococci. Indeed, in dealing with
the activities of living organisms, whether animals or plants,
one continually meets with analogous cases in which the power
of adaptation is most strikingly shown.

Opium-eaters, arsenic-eaters, tobacco-chewers, and great
smokers, in common with those who consume large quantities of
alcoholic stimulants, exemplify, in the case of mankind, how
largely the system can gain the power of resisting the influence
of disturbing factors, which in the first instance would have
exerted a highly pernicious influence. Those who are addicted
to the harmful habit of smoking in excess scarcely realise the
potency of the drug which seems to them to be merely a
soothing sedative. Yet it is well known that a few drops of the
fluid which has collected in the stem or bowl of a foul pipe
will, if placed in the mouth of a frog or toad, kill the animal;
and the obvious corollary to this observation is that on no
account should smoking be indulged in to an inordinate degree.
Farther, if the smoker will recall the first pipe or cigarette he
tried, he will recognise that the power of resisting its unpleasant
effects has only gradually been acquired. Thus it is, too, though
bv no means to the same extent, in the case of diseases, and

264 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

*

this is strikingly shown by the fact that if cattle-plague in its
benignant form is propagated from Eastern Europe to other
countries where the disease does not exist, it assumes the
malignant type.

Now, the symptoms of benignant cattle - plague are not
marked, nor is the disease in this form at all fatal in its results.
The manifestations of fever are but feeble and transient, and
the disease may be shown only by signs of fatigue and weakness
in the animals which are attacked. There may be in addition a
slight diarrhoea, and also an eruption of the skin, and possibly
greater or less disturbance of the function of digestion, together
with loss of appetite, shedding of tears, coughing, diminution of
milk in milk-giving cows, slight elevation of the body-tempera-
ture, and finally, as the natural result of these disturbances of
the vital proeesses, general depression. Yet no one can exag-
gerate the importance of bearing in mind that even the very
mildest of these mild cases of cattle-plague are capable of pro-
ducing in the cattle of other countries this disease in its most
deadly form.

Malignant Cattle-Plague. — Among the cattle of eastern
countries, the scourge, though varied and irregular, and, more-
over, gradually produced, is of an exceedingly severe character
The symptoms to be now briefly described are not to be observed
in the same animal, as they vary greatly in intensity and also in
regard to order of succession. The nervous phenomena, though
the most constant, are also variable ; but having regard to the
extreme intricacy of the working of the nervous system, this
may be perhaps rather apparent than real. Sensibility may be
either heightened or diminished. Sometimes the animals may
be afflicted with delirium to such an extent that they present the
appearance of suffering from the violent form of rabies. Breath-
ing is performed with difficulty after exertion, or even during
rest.

The first noticeable sign of the disease is an elevation of
temperature which may be observed by the thermometer or by
placing the hand into the rectum. (Guyot.) This rise of body-
heat usually appears about two days before the changes in the
mucous membranes. In the morning the temperature is lower
tiian in the evening, and it rises during tiie day, and sinks during
tlie night. It may vary about l"" C, but it is generally about

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 265

1*5° C. above the normal. It may quickly rise and reach its
highest point in from one to three days, and then sink rather
rapidly to its ordinary level, and sometimes even below it. In
animals which are about to recover, the temperature is higher
during the fourth and fifth days, and diminishes on the sixth or
seventh, and even then much more slowly than in those animals
which will die. Moreover, if the temperature in the morning
is equal to that in the evening, or if it falls rapidly below the
normal point, the animal will die.

With regard to the temperature on the surface of the body, it
is not equable. The horns, ears, and lower extremities of the
limbs may be either very cold or very hot. The muzzle, too,
Taries in temperature, and it is generally a little moist. The
hair is dull and upright, especially along the spine, and the skin
is not supple. The animal quickly loses condition. The in-
crease of the general temperature is followed in about thirty
hours by a diminution in the quantity of milk secreted.
•Gradually the amount of milk diminishes, and towards death
the secretion of this fluid may be suppressed altogether. The
specific gravity of the milk is also diminished, and sometimes
the milk has a reddish colour at about the fourth day. Coin-
cidently with the first diminution in the secretion of the milk,
the alterations in the mucous membranes, the disturbance of the
functions of the nervous system, dry coughing, difficulty in
breathing, and loss of appetite are very quickly manifested.
Within about three days from the outset, the changes in the
lining membranes of the respiratory and alimentary tracts have
developed themselves, and in about five days they have reached
the most pronounced stage. Death may, however, take place at
the end of the first day succeeding the attack, the disease having
run a very rapid course.

For those who desire detailed information respecting Cattle-
Plague, the work of John Gamgee, above mentioned, is recom-
mended, or Dr. Fleming's Manual of Veterinary Sanitary
Science and Police (1875). Those who wish to read up the
recent experiments are referred to the foreign scientific journals,
such as the Centralb. f. d. med. Wiss., No. 18, 1883, in which
they will find Semmer's investigation conducted in co-operation
with Archangelski. With regard to treatment, no veterinarian
would recommend that any should be tried, if the disease should

266 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

again break out in England. On the contrary, the most deter-
mined " stamping out" would be imperatively demanded in the
interests of the nation; and in burying the carcases of slaugh-*
tered oxen the most stringent antiseptic measures would be
requisite.

CATTLE-PLAGUE AS IT AFFECTS THE SHEEP
AND THE GOAT.

That justly dreaded and well-known scourge known under the
name of cattle-plague, the disease which decimated our herds of
oxen iu Great Britain from 1865 to 1866, is, as we have just
said, frequently met with in certain countries in a mild or be-
nignant form. The oxen of those places have, as it seems, in the
course of many years, gradually become so accustomed to the
disease that it produces very little deleterious effect upon them.
Now all kinds of ruminants, not even excluding deer and camels,,
have been known to suflFer from the ravages of cattle-plague.
As for sheep and goats, they are very much less likely to
contract the disease than oxen, and, moreover, even if they
are attacked by it, they are not so severely affected. It has
been proved that these animals maybe aflQicted with the com-
plaint, both as a result of ordinary infection and also by means
of inoculation, and that the malady may be communicated
from them to oxen or to other sheep or goats. Viseur (quoted
by Dr. Fleming) states that at a place called Auchy-lez-Labas-
see, in France, during the outbreak of cattle-plague in the year
1871, the disease was conveyed from cows to a flock of 400-
sheep, which were very much overcrowded, and that in less than
eight days' time no fewer than 63 sheep were dead.

The symptoms are briefly as follows : — The animals become
weak, lose desire for food, do not chew the cud nor bleat, they
droop the ears, and the rate of the pulse and that of the respira-
tions are both accelerated. The lining membrane of the mouth,
that of the nose, and that of the eyes become greatly congested,
tears in profusion flow down the face, a copious discharge also
issues from the nostrils, and a thick saliva flows from the mouth.
Red spots appear on the inner surface of the lips and gums, and
on the latter a cheese-like substance may be seen. As we said
above, the breathing is (luiok, and we may add that as the disease
advances, each respiratory movement is accompanied by a jerking

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 267

of the head. Moreover, the animal occasionally gives utterance
to a short husky and painful cough, which may be brought on
by causing rapid movement. The animal may grind the teeth..
The tail appears to be paralysed. Only about half of the
sheep which are affected suffer from diarrhoea. They soon look
very emaciated, nearly always assume the recumbent posture, and
when they rise, do so with great difficulty, and stagger about
helplessly to and fro. Their eyes are almost closed, and in some
sheep spots may be seen on the perineum and udder and in other
parts.

At times they appear to be very near death, but even then
they usually recover. The eyes assume a more lively look; on
the following day the animal may eat a little and manifest thirst ;
the pulse and respirations become fairly normal again ; there is
no coughing ; and, finally, the discharge from the nostrils and
the formation of crusts disappear within about eleven days from
the outbreak of the disease. If, on the contrary, the sheep or
goat should die, it will generally be at about the middle of the
third day that death will occur, although it may sometimes
happen that convalescent animals may perish as a result of
exhaustion at about the fourteenth day.

MEASLES IN SHEEP.
So commonly is measles supposed to be a complaint affecting
children only that perhaps some persons may scarcely suppress
a smile when they read that sheep are liable to suffer from
that disease. When thus afflicted, these animals manifest slight
signs of fever — sneeze, cough, give forth a discharge from the
nostrils, and swell in the region of the head, and especially near
the parotid gland. The mouth is hot, the skin dry, and the
animal is constipated, and exhibits little or no inclination for
food. Towards the close of the second day after the beginning
of the illness, an eruption of red and irregular spots appears on
the chest, then on the thighs, the sides of the body, and the face.
When these spots are pressed upon by the finger, they are felt
to be hard iu tlie centre, and after removal of the pressure they
are seen to have lost their red colour for a time and to have
become white. The secretion of the skin possesses a peculiar
odour. The eruption seems to be attended with good consequences,
for about twenty-four hours after its appearance both the febrile

268 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

symptoms and the swelling of the head subside. In about four-
and-a-half days' time the spots become brownish, and at about
the tenth day they disappear. The cuticle then generally peels
off, and some symptoms of catarrh continue. In cases which
have proved fatal it was observed that diarrhoea, coupled with
pain, occurred at about the ninth day. It has been proved that
the disease can be transmitted by means of inoculation with the
matter discharged from the nostrils, or with the scales taken off
the skin. Out of 103 animals which were inoculated, only one
died. Plenty of water should be allowed, and nitre should also
be supplied for the sheep to lick.

ACTINOMYCOSIS : A NEWLY-DISCOVERED INFEC-
TIOUS DISEASE OF ANIMALS AND MAN.

The disease upon which we purpose to discourse to-day is
unfortunately of far more common occurrence than is generally
known, and is a serious source of loss to the stock-breeder and
dairy farmer of our own and other countries. Our knowledge
of its intrinsic nature and of its causes and treatment is of very
recent date, and actinomycosis is consequently spoken of as
" the new infectious disease of animals and man."

At the outset of our description we may briefly state that
actinomycosis is a serious malady characterised by the growth of
tumours of varying size and shape, generally met with on the
tongue, jaw, sockets of the teeth (dental alveoli), bones and soft
tissues of the head, and from such spots it may spread and
invade neighbouring parts. Some of our readers will no
doubt have had the misfortune to have cattle infected in this
manner.

Long before t]ie true nature of actinomycosis was discovered,
the disease was known ; but men had only dim and confused
notions of its actual nature. In our own country it was termed
cancerous tongue, scrofulous tongue, schirrous tongue, glossitis,
and was often spoken of as tubercular in nature, being specified
" tubercular stomatitis." In Germany the disease has been a
very prevalent one, and has been known as Holz-zunge (wooden
tongue), Krebsbacken, Wind-dorn, Schlundbeulen (Throat-
boils).

Bollinger was the first to describe actinomycosis in cattle in
the year 1887, and to him is to be attributed the honour of first

DISEASKS OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 269

showing it to be due to a particulnr fungus termed actinomycea
{aktis, a ray ; muces, a. fungus), or the ray fungus. Often have
we spoken in these pages of the germs of disease, and not yet
can we dismiss them from careful consideration, of such trans-
cendent importance are they. Let us very briefly review the
varieties of vegetable germs, or fungi, which cause so much
misery to man, animals, both high and low, and to plants both
great and small. Their influence is stupendous in all seasons,
and in all climes.

Firstly, there are the Schizomycetes, members of which group
cause anthrax, tubercle, foot-and-mouth disease, cattle-plague,
cholera, swine-fever, scarlet-fever, diphtheria, influenza, measles,
small-pox, typhoid-fever, rabies or hydrophobia, locked-jaw,
and other diseases. However, the actual causation of some of
these diseases has not, as yet, been absolutely demonstrated.
This group, of course, includes also vast numbers of mem-
bers which do not act as causes of disease. Secondly, there
are the Yeasts or Blastomycetes, one member of which causes
the disease termed Thrush. Thirdly and lastly, there are the
Moulds or Hyphomycetes. These, like the second group, have
but little power of invading living tissues. Members of the
Moulds cause the various varieties of Ringworm, the Muscardine
disease of silkworms, the Madura foot of India. Our readers
are probably familiar with the common green mould, Penicillium
Glaucum, which grows on jam, bread, damp leather, old boots,
&c. The fungus itself is found under the microscope to con-
sist of masses of branched filaments springing from a single cell.
To the Moulds belongs the fungus Puccinia Graminis, which
causes the mildew of wheat. " Smut " which attacks the
flower of wheat is caused by the Uredo Segetum, likewise a
mould. " Bunt," or the disease which invades the seed itself,
is caused by another fungus, the Uredo Foetida.

Ergot, which attacks rye and other grain, as well as rye-grass
and other grasses, is composed of the compact filaments or
mycelium, as it is generally termed, of another fungus. When
invading pasture grasses, ergot is said to be the cause of some
outbreaks of abortion in cows and ewes, and to cause that disease
in horses known as " grass staggers," or '* enzootic paraplegia."
The fungus which causes the potato disease is the Botrytis
Infestus. We might enumerate many others, but we shall

27X) THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

only further mention the mould actinomyces, which causes the
disease now under consideration.

The revelations of the microscope have thrown great light
upon the nature of diseases, and we are continually gaining new
supplies of information from the same source. What would our
forefathers have said had it been even suggested to them that
locked-jaw was in reality due to a germ ? Yet surely this was
always probable. We read but a few days ago in one of the
dailies that this disease was breaking out among the persons in-
jured in the recent earthquake in the Riviera, and was spreading,
especially among those who had sustained severe shocks to their
nervous systems. It thus appears, and has often appeared, that
locked-jaw disease can spread by infection, by the germ, no
■doubt, to which the disease is attributable.

To what an extent man, animals, and plants, are the prey of
microscopic organisms of vegetal fungoid nature, is only dimly
realised as yet by mankind at large. Yet in all the workings
of nature one can discriminate most clearly, most distinctly, a
great and mighty hand working with a fixed purpose, to one
•end, with one aim ; good, the final goal of ill. Optimism, yes,
undisguised, unwavering optimism, must ever guide man in his
search for knowledge, in his burning desire to reveal truth.

We will now describe the actinomyces, then speak of the
symptoms, and then of the treatment of this disease.

If one of the tumours be cut into, and examined under the
microscope, there will be seen a thick group of club-shaped cells
— actinomyces — and these will be noticed to radiate from a firm
homogeneous centre, and to be joined to it by filamentous stalks.
Each of the cells is homogeneous and of a bright slightly greenish
lustre. Around the cells is a zone of large cells, each with
one to four nuclei. The periphery of the tumour is made
up of a fibrous capsule with spindle-shaped cells. The whole
together is the nodule or tumour, the ** lesion " of the disease
in fact.

Owing to the radiating arrangement of the fungus, it was at
first believed to be a crystalline substance; but its fungoid
nature is established, and it has been relegated to the Uslilaginese.
The fungus in its growth sets up inflammatory processes among
the tissues, and even cnuses their disintegration. The cellular
growth around the fungus is to be regarded indeed as of inflam-

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 271

matory origin, and it increases as the fungus itself spreads
locally, and even in distant parts.

The tumours themselves are generally roundish, smooth on
the surface, sometimes hardish, and sometimes soft in consistence.
They are generally of a greyish or yellowish white hue, but not
uncommonly assume a darker colour. On their surface one
often finds a number of small yellow nodules, and these, it may
be pointed out, not being found in other growths, are a reliable
«ign as to the nature of the disease.

Johne found in twenty out of twenty-one healthy pigs he
examined that the actinomyces was present in the little crypts of
the tonsils. Now, why does not the fungus cause actinomyces
here ? It is believed that the fungus is pretty widely distri-
huted, but that unless its spores gain access actually into the
tissues, through a wounded or abraded surface, it does not set
up the disease.

We have said that actinomycosis is especially common in the
mouth, and it seems indeed extremely probable that the spores
eaten with the food gain such access through slight injuries of
the lining membrane of the mouth, caused by the food, such as
straw, barley, and chaflF. It has been noticed, too, in Lincoln-
shire, where the disease is very rife indeed, that the malady is
especially common in animals fed on straw, barley, and chaff.
But no doubt many other kinds of food oftentimes wound the
mouth. Why do they, therefore, not cause actinomycosis ? Our
readers are aware that straw is often very mouldy, and infected
with vegetable parasites of countless kinds ; and thus the same
straw which causes the abrasion, implants the spores of the
fungus which sets up the disease.

It has been demonstrated that the disease can spread from one
animal to another ; indeed Johne showed this by actual experi-
mental demonstration. When an ox is so aflBicted in his tongue,
no doubt he conveys the disease to others feeding in the same
crew-yard on the fodder provided for all. There is related the
case of a woman who was attacked with actinomycosis. She
had been often among sick cattle, and had no^oubt become thus
infected. Yet it is probable that the transmission of the disease
from one animal to another, or to man, is rather uncommon.
No doubt the animals derive, as a rule, their infection from one
•common source.

272

THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OP THE OX.

The fungus found in the tumours of cattle forms globular
tufts, from '11 millimetres in diameter. The majority of the-
tufts are aggregated in mulberry- shaped masses of from '5 ta
1 millimetre in diameter, and appear to the unaided eye as
very minute dull-white granules. Of the appearance of the
fungus under the microscope, it is our intention to give a
representation below. The tufts themselves are not uncommonly
calcareous.

There are several reasons why we lay great stress on the-
importance of acquiring a clear knowledge of actinomycosis^

The above picture represents the appearance of a section cut through a
small part of the tongue of a cow which died of Actinomycosis. ' /•'■■c-...

A nodule is shown composed of roiind cells. In the centre is situated the-
clump of actinomj-ces, surrounded by large transparent cells. Magnifying
power, 350. (Klein.)

In the first place, it is much commoner than is generally known,
and it seems to be on the increase. Secondly, very few agri-
culturists have become acquainted with its nature as yet, and, as
a rule, they do not isolate infected animals. Lastly, and chiefly,
it has been stated, and, indeed, has been emphatically held, that
actinomycosis is an incurable disease. So fur from this being
the case, we can definitely affirm tliat almost every case is
curable when treated in the early stages, and very many are
curable even in the late stages, when the fungus has not spread
very widely. During the present year (1887) we have had
seven cases under treatment, and six of them have made a good

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 273

recovery. In sheep we ourselves have not met with any cases.
Doubtless, sheep may become affected ; but, fortunately, it is not
common among them. The goat is sometimes affected.

Of the symptoms and methods of treatment of actinomycosis
we now propose to treat ; but before concluding we ought to
point out emphatically the inadvisability of employing mouldy
food for horses or cattle, for it is so commonly a source of
disease. Mouldy oats, mouldy hay and straw are equally bad
for cattle or horses, and should not be given as food.

Of the many natural groups of the vegetable kingdom pro-
bably no one is less generally studied by agriculturists than
that of the fungi, to which the moulds or hyphomycetes, of
which we spoke above, belong. There is another mould
which we might have mentioned, it being of great interest
as the cause of salmon disease. We allude to the saprolec/nia, a
fungus which consists of colourless tubular filaments forming
gelatinous masses on living or dead animal and vegetable matter
existing in fresh water.

Our readers are aware that no fungus contains any chlorophyll,
the green colouring matter which gives other vegetals the power
of dissociating the carbonic acid gas of the air, so as to retain
the carbon and liberate the oxygen. This, green plants are
enabled to do in the presence of sunlight; but fungi cannot
live without organic matter, living or dead, unless certain
complex organic compounds, such as tartrate of ammonium, be
supplied. The saprolegnia grows on the skin of living fish, and
thus sets up serious mischief, just as Tinea totisuratis grows on
the hair of man, or Tinea circinata on the human skin.

It is to Professor Huxley that the honour of first demonstrating
this fungus as the cause of salmon disease is due.

The filaments of this mould penetrate the scales of the skin
in the affected areas of the saluion, and then they grow inward,
boring their way through the superficial layers of the skin.
The stem portion of the parasite is situated in the scarf-skin or
epidermis, and the root portion in the deeper layers ; each of
the filaments then elongates and branches out." The free ends
of the stem filaments rise above the surface of the skin, and
become converted into flask-shaped zoosporangia, or little
bulbar endings containing in their interior numbers of oval
spores or zoospores possessed of motile power. This power they

18

274

THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

have in virtue of the possession of a little flagellum or elongated
■«-hip-shaped filament at each end. The zoospores or spores
finally escape from their enclosing sac or sporangium, and,
attaching themselves to the skin of the creature they infest, they
repeat the process of penetration.

In the accompanying figure the sporangium A is seen filled

Fig. :U. — Sapkolegnia of Saljion Disease.

A Sporangium filled with zoospores, and in connection with them several j'omig
mycelial threads.

with oval zoospores, C; several young filaments, B, are seen in
connection with some of the spores. Besides this method
of development, the parasite also reproduces itself in another
way, such for example as we may see in the Achlija, which forms
a mould around dead or weak flies and " blue-hottles," ivyberries,
<&c. At the end of a filament a cell forms a large round sphere,

I

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

275

the oogonium. There also grow from the cell thin filaments
termed antheridid, which pass towards the oogonium with the
material of which they merge. The oogonium then develops
into a number of spores which escape and form moulds
again.

The actinomyces which we have already described, when
magnified seven hundred diameters, is seen from the accom-
panying figure to be arranged in a radiate manner around a
central homogeneous mass and is relegated to the Ustilaginese.

We propose, after these preliminary remarks, to consider the
symptoms caused by the growth of the fungus actinomyces.
The usual seat of the tumours caused by tlie actinomyces is
some part of the mouth, in most instances the tongue being

Fig. 35. — Tuft of Actinomyces, Highly Magnified.

the organ only or specially invaded. When in the tongue, the
growths are noticed to vary in size from that of a tiny spot to
that of a small orange. As a rule they grow rapidly, and may
speedily invade the greater part of the tongue, and even the
neighbouring parts. When the tongue is examined, one finds
the elevated portions or prominences in greater or less abundance
on the upper surface or on one or both sides of the organ.
Sometimes they are found covering the entire surface. In
appearance they look like excrescences flattened on the surface,
or, if they have been in existence some time,'they may appear as
irregular ulcers, the inflammatory product caused by the growth
of the fungus having broken up. Such excrescences or ulcers
may be found singly or in little groups. The tongue itself is
enlarged and hardened, and may be ulcerated in one or many

18 *

276 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

parts ; the actual muscle of the organ becomes atrophied by the
growth of the fungus, which not uncommonly spreads to the
jaws, palate, gums, and cheeks, and even sometimes to the gullet
and stomach.

Enke thus describes the tongue taken from a cow freshly
slaughtered after having had actinomycosis six months. The
back portion was much swollen and elevated. About three
inches behind the tip were found a number of irregular sharply
defined warty excrescences over the entire upper surface of the
organ. In size they varied from that of a linseed to a hen's
egg ; the largest having broken through the lining membrane,
while the smaller ones could be felt as little irregular lumps
beneath it. The large ones were like oval flattened warty
growths, without any epithelial coating; their colour was
yellowish, and they were soft and elastic to the touch. The
largest of these was on the right side of the tongue, and it
measured 4^ centimetres long and 3 centimetres broad, and 2^
centimetres high. On the surface of the tongue there were also
found three large well-defined reddish cicatrices with small
irregularities on their surfaces. When the tongue was cut into,
the tissues were found to be very resistant, and the cut surface
showed an enormous number of greyish and yellowish white
nodules imbedded in patches in the pale-red muscular tissue of
the organ. The upper surface of the incised bodies showed a
number of millet-seed yellow nodules. The weight of the tongue
was 5 lb. 7 oz.

In some cases the tumours have been found growing at the
sides of the back of the mouth, where they cause difficulty of
swallowing. When they occur at the opening of the gullet,
they may occlude its channel, and thus the food may pass into
the windpipe and disease of the lungs be set up. Sometimes
the upper portion of the windpipe itself is invaded, and even the
nasal cavities are not uncommonly thus afiFected. In some cases
the bottom lip is greatly indurated and enlarged, this being the
only manifestation of the disease.

We may now consider the actual symptoms manifested by an
infected aiiimal. The first case to which we call attention as
illustrating these was one of a two-and-a-half year old bullock,
the property of a cattle-dealer who had kept and fed him on
the Wolds of Lincolnshire. It was first noticed that the beast.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 277

which had fed badly for some time previously, was slavering
profusely. He would eagerly champ and chew liis hay and
seeds, and would then throw them out of his mouth again.
When the animal had been ailing for about three weeks, Mr. J. B.
Gresswell was called in. The tongue at the time was so bad
that the animal could eat no solid food. At the same time there
was a heifer in a similar condition, and two other bullocks were
also slightly affected. All had several hardened yellow nodulated
masses in their tongues. In the first-mentioned animal the
tongue was very much enlarged and was very tender to the
touch, and the sides and back of it were studded with nodules
varying in size from a marble to a pigeon's egg. One at the
back of the mouth in particular was very large with a superficial
erosion. The animal lived solely on mashes and linseed
gruel, and at this time weighed about forty stones or under that
amount in the opinion of the owner. The heifer was killed ;
but it was decided to adopt curative measures in the case of the
bullock. In this animal the breath was already very fetid, and,
indeedj the breath generally becomes offensive as the disease
becomes established.

On March 12th the animal was cast, and the tongue was care-
fully examined. Into each nodule an incision was made, and
the cut surfaces were painted over. On the 16th of March the
beast was seen again, and it was found that all the incisions were
nearly healed. In many places the nodules were smaller, and
some had quite disappeared. On March 2Ist we saw the
bullock for the last time. He was very much better, and could
eat hay and straw. In April he was turned out to grass. On
September 14th the dealer reported the animal as quite well, and
calculated his weight at not less than seventy stones.

Slavering and champing of the jaws in beasts affected with
actinomycosis is as common, when the disease becomes confirmed,
as it is in the case of foot-and-mouth disease, of which, therefore,
it cannot any longer be regarded as an infallible sign. The loss
of flesh from the inability to eat in cases of actinomycosis is very
common, and the emaciation is often very tfxtreme. In the early
stages, however, the animal's appetite may remain unimpaired;
but with the progress of the disease it almost invariably suffers.

There are instances where it would manifestly not be advisable
to treat cases of actinomycosis, when the disease has made

278

THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

great progress, and has already invaded extensive areas of the
tongue and mouth ; but in most instances treatment should be
adopted, unless the animal be already fattened for the butcher.

Where there are but one, two, or three, tumours, not of large
size in the tongue, it is our custom, after having had the animal
secured, to incise the growths with an ordinary scalpel, and paint
the cut surface with a mixture of carbolic acid and iodine (iodised
pheno]). This operation, in the general way, does not require to
be repeated ; but the tongue may be washed over on alternate
days in the succeeding week with a diluted solution of carbolic
acid and iodine in water. When the growths are already
ulcerated, they should be similarly treated. After the operation,
the animal should be kept up, being fed on mashes and other
soft food. When the incisions are healed, he may be turned out
to graze, unless there should be any fresh manifestations of
mischief.

In very severe cases it will be essential to have the animal
cast before operating ; but in milder ones this is not found
necessary, the beast being secured by the nose-pincers of the
kind here delineated.

Fig. 36. — Nose-pincers.

As a rule, it will not be found that the diagnosis of actinomy-
cosis presents any great difficulty, and the above operation is
not generally one likely to set up any constitutional mischief.
In almost all instances we have found it successful when per-
formed at an early date. When first introduced to the notice of
the profession (vide Veterinary Journal), the disease was held
to be incurable. It is, therefore, fortunate to be able, after a
considerable number of cases treated, to report very favourable
issues in almost every instance. In those cases where the

I

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 279

tongue presents large ulcerated surfaces, incision is not practised,
but lotions of iodine and carbolic acid are used daily.

An animal infected with actinomycosis should not be allowed
to feed from the same fodder as the others, and isolation in a
neighbouring crew yard may be advisable. If the animal is out
at grass, we do not consider isolation necessary ; but it is certain
that one animal may spread infection among a great number of
oxen if they are aggregated together in a crew yard.

RABIES, OR HYDROPHOBIA.

We now come to a consideration of a disease which has
recently excited more interest than any other in the whole range
of pathology. Those of us who have witnessed human diseases
in their worst forms cannot but recognise how important it is
that the investigation of them should be continued with a never-
faltering enthusiasm, and men will be the more ready to exert
their very best efforts, the more deeply they realise how much
remains to be discovered by those who search after the great
truths of nature.

To those who wish to make a special study of this disease we
recommend Dr. Fleming's work on Rabies and Hydrophobia,
and the several other writings on this subject.

With regard to the two names. Rabies and Hydrophobia, it
seems to us preferable to use the former in order to designate
this deadly disease, at any rate as occurring in animals, albeit
that the malady as affecting man is more generally known under
the latter denomination. This latter appellation seems to imply
that an actual fear or dread of water is almost universally a
conspicuous symptom of the malady. Now, it is quite true that
human beings aflQicted with the disease do rather frequently
exhibit a repugnance to fluids. However, this aversion to
liquids seems to have been only seldom observed in the case of
animals suffering from rabies, and probably it is by no means
invariably shown even by human beings so ajBfected. It has
even been said to be rather rarely met with. On the other
hand, it appears to be indisputable that the -symptom of greatest
diagnostic value in the case of mankind is the respiratory spasm
excited by attempts to swallow, and increasing until it resembles
a convulsive action, such as might indeed be prompted by
intense fear of being obliged to try to swallow. The muscular

280 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

difficulty may be either cause or consequence of dread, or the
two phenomena may be so inseparably connected as not to be
capable of being satisfactorily unravelled. In any case, the
fear of liquids seems to be due to the difficulty of swallowing,
and there may be spasms of the pharynx, oesophagus, and other
organs near. A similar fear of water is said to be manifested in
patients suffering from other diseases such as phrenitis, hysteria,
and gastritis. Moreover, rabid animals seem to be possessed
with an intense fear of every object, whether living or inanimate.
On the whole, everything being considered, it may appear to be
the case that by the use of the word hydrophohia we might be
giving undue prominence to one symptom which seems to be a
minor and rather unimportant one, at aay rate so far as animals
are concerned. In short, in reference to animals the name
rahies appears to be the more correct one of the two. Probably
many will prefer the word hydrophohia for the same disease
when attacking human beings.

At the outset we may say that the disturbances of the nervous
system which sometimes mark the beginning of cattle-plague are
to be compared with the symptoms of rabies in the ox. The fits
of delirium which occasionally appear in cattle-plague, as well as
the great depression, apathy, and unsteady gp.it, have some
resemblance to similar manifestations shown at a certain stage of
rabies. This similarity is, however, only very superficial, and
the temperature is much elevated in the case of animals suflering
from cattle-plague.

Some little time ago, in the year 1887, a poor fellow died in
Nottingham of hydrophobia, which, as our readers are fullv aware,
is identically the same as rabies, and can apparently only be
produced as a consequence of tlie bite of rabid animals. (How-
ever, an exception to this last statement has been recorded quite
recently. A short time ago a man died of hydrophobia, and upon
inquiry no history of a bite could be elicited.) A dog had run
into the man's house after a cat. The man, after succeeding in
separating the animals, had received a bite from the dog while
taking it out from the place in which it had secreted itself.
After some time (our readers will recollect tliut a man canuot be
considered safe from the disease until twelve months at least
have elapsed) the man was attacked with this terrible aflliction,
and died in great agony, shrieking out " Oh, why was I

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 281

afflicted with tliis dreadful disease, I with a wife aud family to
support ? "

We may also give the following short account of a death from
this dread disease, which occurred on November 4th, 1887, at
Bradford.

" An adjourned inquest was held on Tuesday — before Mr.
J. G. Hutchinson, borough coroner — in reference to the death
of John Davey (40), farmer, Schoolbrook, Toug, who died on
the 4th inst., at the Bradford Infirmary, from hydrophobia. — Dr.
Vaughan, the house physician at the Bradford Infirmary, said
that the deceased was admitted to the Infirmary on the 2nd of
November, and appeared to be mentally depressed, and was quiet.
Witness inquired about the history of the case, and the deceased
told him that he had complained about a slight pain over the left
eyebrow, but this had become very much worse, and had spread
over the whole of the side of the head and down the neck. He
complained also of stiffness in the neck and a deep-seated pain
behind the left ear, and said that on Monday night whilst going
home from the station he could not face the wind, and that when
he reached home he could take solid food, but any attempt to
drink produced such painful spasms that his wife had to purchase
a rubber tube, so that he might be enabled to take liquid. Having
described the mode of treatment followed and the progress .of the
case, witness said that the cause of death was certainly hydro-
phobia. In his (the doctor's) opinion when the symptoms had
set in to the extent they had in this case, and definitely declared
themselves, there was no cure. In the treatment of the deceased,
witness had the assistance of Dr. Goyder and other medical
gentlemen. — In answer to tlie Coroner, Witness said that he had
seen scores of cases where persons had been bitten by mad dogs,
and not one had proved fatal where there had been an effective
treatment of the wound in the first instance. If the poison,
however, was once absorbed, he thought that the result must
prove fatal. — The jury returned a verdict of 'Death irom hydro-
phobia.' "

The above account is taken, so far as we recollect, from the
Yorkshire Weekly Post. In regard to the question whether
immediate treatment can or cannot put a stop to the effects of
the virus of rabies it is very difficult to speak positively. We
rather incline to the idea that Dr. Vaughan may be right; but

282 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

there is always room for the greatest apprehension after a person
has been bitten by a mad dog, even if the most approved remedies
have been applied locally at once and in the most effectual
manner. Probably permanganate of potassium might be very
valuable if applied at once either as a fine powder or in the form
of a strong solution. This salt seems to be very highly
efficacious in regard to snake-poison.

It would be most interesting, as well as valuable, to discuss
here the rise and progress of various inoculatory methods,
vaccination, inoculation for pleuro-pneumonia, for anthrax, for
cattle-plague, and so on ; but time and space forbid. We have
little hesitation in saying, having regard to the work of the most
noted investigators, that inoculatory methods are now to be
regarded as among the most powerful remedial agents we possess,
and that so far from not receiving endorsement, they will be
proved more and more serviceable in eradicating outbreaks of
disease whether among men or animals, as our knowledge
gradually advances towards greater perfection.

Speaking generally, it may be said that protective inocula-
tion is one of the greatest of modern discoveries, and that
there can be no doubt that continued research will help us
very greatly in regard to our methods of dealing with such
dreadful diseases as that now under discussion. A Select Com-
mittee of the House of Lords on Kabies in Dogs, reported
that while it cannot be absolutely demonstrated that the
disease does not arise spontaneously, it is nevertheless prac-
tically known that subcutaneous inoculation with the virus
of rabies is the only ascertained means by which the disease
can be produced.

The following are the recommendations of the Committee : —
(1) That when rabies is prevalent the muzzle should be
enforced; (2) that the power of the police constable should
be extended to authorise the slaughter of stray dogs; (8) that
the symptoms of rabies should be endorsed on dog licences ;
(4) that local authorities should have power to order that dogs
should wear badges which may identify their owners; (5) that
in populous places local authorities should place restrictions
upon dogs generally, and especiallv deal stringently with
apparently ownerless dogs in their districts ; (0) that in the
event of its being conclusively proved that M. I'asteur's system

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 283

provides a preventive remedy, facilities should be afforded for its
application in England.

Now with regard to this, we wish to point out, firstly, that the
most severe repressive measures are not only absolutely essential,
but also that the Government, in issuing the Kabies' Orders,
and in enforcing them, have deserved well of the country.
Secondly, we have to reiterate to our readers that if there is the
least suspicion of rabies existing in a dog that has bit a man,
that man, if he can possibly do so, ought to submit himself to
the protective measures of M. Pasteur, unless he is prepared to
run the very gravest risk of dying of rabies, and moreover, of
dying in great suffering. M. Pasteur has done a great work
in this subject. His researches on the silk- worm disease, on
anthrax, and on rabies have been wonderfully successful, so
much so that we can hope for success even greater still.

In dealing with rabies, as we have seen, there are two great
things to be done. The disease must be " stamped out,'' and it
must be met, when its presence is suspected in men, by protective
inoculation. Every dog which is even supposed to be affected
should be slaughtered at once and without hesitation. There
are some good people about who would say, perhaps, "Let the
poor dog live"; but if they had the least conception of the
immense issues at stake, even the most humane humanitarians
would not be prepared to risk the untold misery that may
result from one night's freedom of a rabid dog not muzzled.

It seems to be popularly believed that "rabies" is primarily
developed, so to speak, in the dog. The point is not cleared up
in any way, and, indeed, it is one which presents great difficulties.
Probably rabies may originate in the cat, fox, jackal, hyena,
wolf, and perhaps other animals. However this may be, and in
passing we may observe that the whole question of the origin of
diseases requires elucidation, which it may probably soon receive,
it is probable that when once its virus is developed, rabies is
capable of being transmitted to all warm-blooded animals, and
the human race is very liable to suffer from its dreadful ravages.
It cannot be said that any method of treatment Iras as yet been
proved to be thoroughly effectual. Even the preventive inocula-
tion of M. Pasteur does not appear to have been uniformly
successful in arresting the progress of the disease. Some time
ago Dr. Gresswell, while house physician to Dr. Southey at St.

284 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Bartholomew's Hospital, recorded a case of a patient afiflicted
■with this malady. Pilocarpine was used ; but, as has since
been observed in other cases, this drug was powerless to avert
death. No one who has witnessed such a sad spectacle as a
death from hydrophobia is likely ever to forget it.

The helplessness of the physicians to control the effects of the
deadly virus affords matter for painful reflection, and those who
feel this most acutely will be the most ready to acknowledge the
value of the efforts M. Pasteur has made, and to believe that by
renewed attempts alone shall we be able to open completely the
door, probably now very nearly opened, with the key which this
able observer has perhaps all but succeeded in finishing. We
hail with feelings of satisfaction the continued efforts to
complete the work of this most able observer. A man may
be bitten by an apparently healthy dog, and the injury in-
flicted may be so trifling in its appearance as to be unheeded,
or treated in some simple way. A period of perhaps several
months may elapse, and the accident be almost forgotten, and
then distressing symptoms may show themselves suddenly.
After a brief space the doomed victim expires in agonies terrible
to witness, and incapable of being more than slightly alleviated.
Herein is a problem presented which, since the days of the
Asclepiadse, has perplexed scientists of all nations and every age.
In these days we are almost as it were in view of the goal, but
yet the clue seems not quite complete, and even perhaps still not
absolutely certain.

The malady is nearly always propagated by the bite of a rabid
creature ; and it is a most unfortunate characteristic of the
malady that even the most harmless animals, when suffering
from the disorder, seem to be impelled to bite any other animals
which may be near them, and in this way the infecting virus
contained in the saliva finds its way into the blood of any
unfortunate individual, whether man or animal, which may be
the object of attack.

HiSTOKY. — We have evidence of tlie existence of rabies in the
earliest times. Plutarch mentions that the disease was first
observed in the days of the Asclepiadte, the descendants of
iEsculapius, the god of medicine. These men, who were priests,
prophets, and physicians, spread through Greece and Asia
Minor, and seem to have handed down the medical knowledge

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 258

they acquired in the temples as secrets transmitted from father to
son. Aristotle, in the fourth century before our era, asserted that
human beings were exempt from attack. Celsus, three centuries
after Aristotle, maintained that the bites of all animals were
dangerous, owing to the presence of a virus. He recommended
caustics, burning, cupping, and also that the wounds of those
who have been bitten by rabid dogs should be sucked. He
recognised, too, that it is most essential to the safety of the
person who does this that there should be no sores or abrasions on
the lips or in the mouth. He goes on to say that: — " The onlv
remedy is to throw the patient unexpectedly into a pond, and if
he has not a knowledge of swimming to allow him to sink, in
order tliat he may drink, and to raise and again depress him, so
that, though unwillingly, he may be satiated with water; for
thus at the same time both the thirst and the dread of water is
removed."

This formidable treatment has been continued up to a recent
period, and Van Helmont gives a curious illustration of its
application and success in his day : — " I saw a ship passing by
it, and therein an old man, naked, bound with cords, having a
weight on his feet; under his armpits he was encompassed
with a girdle, wherewith he was bound to the sail-yard. I
asked what they meant by that spectacle. One of the mariners
said that the old man was an hydrophobid, or had the disease
causing the fear of water, and had lately been bitten by a mad

dog. I asked did they intend his death ? ' Nay^, rather,'

said the mariner, ' he shall presently return whole ; and such
is the blessing of the sea, that such a kind of madness it will
presently cure.' I offered them some money to take me along
with them, as a companion and witness. , two men with-
drawing the end of the sail-yard, lifted up the top thereof, and bore
the old man on high ; but thence they let him down headlong
into the sea, and he was under the water about the space of a
miserere, whom afterwards they twice more plunged, about the
space of an angelical salutation. But then they placed him
on a smooth vessel, with his back upwards, covefea with a short
cloak. I did think that he was dead; but the mariners derided
my fear, for, his bonds being loosed, he began to cast up all the
brine which he had breathed in, and presently he revived. He
was a cooper of Ghent, who, being thenceforth freed from his

286 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

madness, lived safe and sound. Also the mariners did relate
that the Dutch, by a raw herring salted, applied to the bite of a
mad dog for three days' space and renewed, do take away all
fear of madness. When this has been neglected, at least by the
beheld manner of plunging they are all cured." Helmontii,
Ad Not. Oper. Phijs., p. 62.

Pliny, in common with many other writers, has given credence
to the absurd and unfounded belief that there is a small worm
in a dog's tongue known to the Greeks as lytta (rage or
madness), and that if this worm be taken away from a pup, the
dog will never become mad or lose its appetite. This worm,
after being carried three times round a fire, was given to persons
who had been bitten by a mad dog, in order to prevent their
becoming mad. Strange to say, this removal of the " worm '^
from the dog's tongue, or " worming," as it is called, has been
practised from the days of Pliny, and perhaps earlier, even to
our own time. The same author also informs us that the flesh
of a mad dog was sometimes salted and taken with the food as
a remedy for the disease, and that " so virulent is the poison
of a mad dog, that its very urine even, if trod upon, is injurious,
more particularly if the person has any ulcerous sores about
him," and that " the proper remedy to apply in such a case is
horse-dung, sprinkled with vinegar, and warmed in a tig."
" When a person has been bitten by a mad dog, he may be
preservea from hydrophobia by applying the ashes of a dog's
head to the w^ound. These ashes are yery good, too, taken in
drink, and hence some recommend the head itself to be eaten
in such cases." '' There is beneath the tongue of a mad dog
a certain slimy saliva which, taken in drink, is a preventive of
hydrophobia. But much the most useful plan is to take the
liyer of the dog that has inflicted the injury and eat it raw, if
possible. Should that not be done, it must be cooked in
some way or other, or else a broth must be taken prepared
from the flesh."

Pliny was, moreover, a staunch supporter of the practice of
cauterization, even holding that it was efficacious after the
disease had made its appearance. Columella, who lived about
the same time as Pliny, refers to ** rabies," and says that it
was believed among the shepherds that if the last bone of the
tail was bitten off on the fortieth day after the birth of a

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 287

pup, the sinew following with the portion thus removed, the
tail would not grow, and the dog would be secured from
disease. This absurd and barbarous custom is, in like manner
with the one mentioned above, practised to this day ; but it is
now recognised as cruelty in our courts of justice.

Vegetius Eeuatus mentions rabies with other maladies
which affect the lower animals, and advises tliat cattle which
have been wounded by a mad dog should have the boiled
liver of the dog given them to eat, or else that it should be
made into balls and forced down as a medicine.

In Britain the disease has probably occurred from tlie earliest
times. An Anglo-Saxon manuscript entitled "Medicina de
Quadrupedibus," of Sextus Placitu«, written apparently at the
beginning of the 11th century, is of interest. In it we find a
receipt for " tear of mad hounds " as follows : — " Take the worms
which be under a mad hound^'s tongue, snip them away, lead
them round about a fig tree, give them to him who hath been
rent; he will soon be whole." It will be seen how very
similar this prescription is to that mentioned by Pliny, and
indeed it is remarkable how widely difi'used over the world this
superstition has been.

In the thirteenth century, Albertus Magnus alludes to the
disease and its appearance in horses. In 1271 rabid wolves invaded
the towns and villages of Franconia, and attacked the herds and
flocks, and thirty persons died from the bites. In 1748 many
oxen and swine in the county of Fife, Scotland, suffered from
the bites of mad dogs. In 1752 several mad dogs were
observed about St. James's, London. Orders were issued to
shoot all which appeared there, and in some country towns
similar orders were given. In the nineteenth century the disease
seems to have become much more frequent than before, especially
in, France, Germany, and England.

In the winter and spring of 1837 rabid foxes were killed at
Ulm. The foxes attacked people in the woods or on the public
roads, and even entered villages. Every kind of domestic
animal, including even fowls, and badgers were also infected.
In some places all the foxes died, and so many people suffered
that there was a panic among the villagers. In 1804, at Crema,
in Italy, a mad wolf descended from the mountains in November
and bit thirteen persons, of whom nine died.

288 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

From June, 1843, to July, 1844, an epizooty, which was in
ail probability one of rabies, spread among cattle in the neigh-
bourhood of Heyden, Rheinland. The rabid animals ran, with
heads tossed up and wild looks, madly round the pastures,
goring and striking at all other animals with their horns, and
they bellowed continuously, so as to strike all hearers with
terror. They foamed at the mouth, and the hind quarters grew
more and more weak, and so rapidly that, usually on the third
day, the animals were stretched on the ground. If at large,
they rushed straight on over everything, until they fell over
some obstacle, and lay still, apparently exhausted. Any fluids
poured in the mouth were sucked down, but a motion as of
choking was observed, and a twitching of the muscles of the face.
Most of them died about the end of the fourth day, and Dr.
Adolphi considered this to be an instance of spontaneous rabies,
as no mad dog could be discovered to have been implicated in
the infection.

Jn 1851 a mad wolf near Hue-au-Gal, in France, bit in a
single day forty-six persons and eighty-two head of cattle. One
person died after another in frightful agonies. As for the cattle,
they were purposely destroyed.

In 1856 rabies prevailed in England to a great extent at
Stainborough, near Barnsley. The disease was transmitted to a
herd of deer, probably in the latter part of 1855, very soon after
one or more mad dogs had roamed about the vicinage. About
one hundred deer and six dogs died. These ordinarily innocent
and playful animals foamed at the mouth, and, like dogs, worried
each other, tearing the hair and flesh, and when in confinement
bit at whatever came within their reach. In the same year
rabies broke out in a flock of sheep at Nuffield, in Berkshire.
A strange dog was found by the farmer's son, and beside it two
ewes were lying dead, and two others so badly injured that they
were afterwards killed. The dog on being pelted with stones ran
away. About twenty more sheep were wounded more or less in
the regions of the nose and ears, and they were therefore placed
in a fold by themselves. Two or three weeks afterwards several
of them showed symptoms of madness, and fifteen of them
lambed, the lambs being brought up by hand. Those ewes
which became rabid trotted backwards and forwards by the sides
of the fold, biting at the hurdles, tearing mouthfuls of wool from

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 289

one auotlier, and foaming at the mouth. Twenty-two died after-
wards. The dog, together with other dogs wiiich had been
attacked bv it, was shot.

In 1861, Dr. Fleming informs us (vide page 50, Rahies and
Hydrophobia) that, while he was quartered at Tientsin, near
Peking, North China, the native Chinese suffered from rabies
resulting from the bites of rabid dogs, and that he was assured
that, in some parts of the Flowery liand, the belief exists that a
man affected with rabies is enceinte, and perishes because he
cannot be delivered.

About 1862 Sir Samuel Baker, exploring the Nile tributaries
of Abyssinia, informs us of the existence of rabies in an epi-
zootic form in that part of Africa. Referring to page 164 of
** The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia " we read : — " One night we
were sitting at dinner, when we suddenly heard a great noise,
and the air was illumined by the blaze of a hut on fire. In the
midst of the tumult I heard the unmistakable cries of dogs, and,
thinking that they were unable to escape from the fire, I ran
towards the spot. As I approached, first one and then another
dog ran screaming from the flames, until a regular pack of about
twenty scorched animals appeared in quick succession, all half
mad with fright and fire. I was informed that hydrophobia was
very prevalent in the country, and that the certain preventive
from that frightful malady was to make all the dogs pass through
the fire. Accordingly an old hut had been filled with straw and
fired, after which each dog was brought by its owner and thrown
into the flames."

In 1866 thirty-six deaths were reported as resulting from
hydrophobia; and in 1867 a Metropolitan Streets^ Act was
passed, whereby the police were empowered to seize all
vagrant dogs. In June, 1868, it was put in force, and the
number of cases of rabies soon greatly diminished in and about
London.

Towards the middle of 1870 the authorities were obliged ta
order all dogs to be confined in the district of Windermere,
Cumberland. :,

Id 1872, having regard to the wide prevalence of rabies, the
Duke of Rutland would not allow any bitches to be sent to the
stud hounds at Belvoir; and the Hon. G. Fitzwilliam gave
similar orders with regard to Milton, and he would not permit

19

290 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

hounds to be sent to other kennels. The serious outbreak which
occurred in this year spread widely as a result of the insufficiency
of the police measures. Our readers are fully aware of the
epizooty which has recently prevailed in England in 1887 and
the early part of 1888.

Symptoms of Rabies in the Ox. — An ox suffering from
rabies manifests a diminished or depraved appetite, prostration,
a restless excitability, muscular tremblings, a nearly constant
flow of saliva from the mouth, a difficulty in swallowing,
disagreeable sensations in the seat of the wound, and halluci-
nations. There are paroxysms in which the eyes stare brilliantly
and look inflamed, while the pupils are dilated, and the mouth
is hot and foamy, and the voice dull and hoarse. The animal
bellows frequently, agitates its jaws, scrapes the ground with its
fore-feet, throws behind it the earth or the litter, falls down
and rolls, and if tied up tries to get away for the purpose of
rushing to and fro.

The secretion of milk is suspended in the case of milch
cows, and frequently the animals attack other animals and
men. They strike with their horns, or foreheads if they have
no horns, at any obstacles in their way with such great fury
that their horns are fractured, and the forehead may present the
appearance of a mass of blood. They only very rarely try to
bite. They cease to chew the cud. The feces, at first expelled
at long intervals and in small quantity, become at a later period
liquid, and are often passed involuntarily, though at other times
the rectum itself may be protruded, owing to the energetic
attempts made to expel its contents. The animal becomes
extremely emaciated, and at last paralysis of the posterior
extremities ensues. The cattle then lie down, and are not
capable of getting up, and finally they perish in a state of pro-
found coma. The disease, in the case of the ox, seldom lasts
for more than lour to seven days, and, as in other creatures, it is
always fatal.

In regard to the subject of rabies in ruminants wo think it well hero to add
some observations extracted from the Lawet of September 15th, 1888. It appears
that the paper from which the remarks were taken was inserted in the Journal
Offirirl of August 27th, 1888, and the author of it is M. Pion, veterinary inspector
of the slaughter yards at La Villctte. This veterinarian states that as a rule,
when bovine animals are afflicted with rabies, the disease does not possess either

I

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 291

the violence or the intensity which characterises the rabies of dogs. Indeed,
this malady in the ox is not quite so dangerous as it was formerly supposed to
be. Moreover, certain' syroptoms (not unlike those of rabies) which may be
met with in the ox may be erroneously supposed to be those of rabies. The
late M. H. Bouley, in his work on Rabies in the Bovine Species gives the symp-
toms as observed by him in 27 cases somewhat as follows : —

First Day. — The animal seems to suffer slight colicky pains, and, if he lies down,
almost immediately gets up again. The senses are excited, the temperature
rises very suddenly, and itching pains are felt at the seat of the bite.

Second Day. — The animal is not so greatly agitated, strains slightly, and the
temperature of the body as well as at the seat of the bite becomes lower.

jT^m/Z'rt^.— There are signs of commencing paraplegia. The animal strains
greatly, and discharges fecal material which is covered with mucus of a yellowish-
brown colour. There is loss of sensitiveness of the vertebral column, the temper-
ature diminishes, and these symptoms are accompaned by bellowing.

Fourth Day. — The animal suffers from complete paraplegia, strains violently,
discharges excrement which is covered with frothy mucus, foams at the mouth,
and bellows still more frequently.

Fifth Day. — The same or very similar symptoms are manifested. The
temperature becomes considerably lower, and bellowing is not so frequent.
The sense of taste is not impaired.

As for the average period of incubation, it was from three to six weeks in
about three-fourths of the twenty-seven oxen (out of a herd of eighty) which had
been infected by the same dog. In the others it lasted from six weeks to three
months. All treatment was futile. The only lesions which were observed
after death were on the spinal marrow, which was redder than it usually is in
healthy animals, and it was also dotted, especially at about the level of the loins,
with numerous spots in the form of lentils. In other parts nothing particular was
noticed. Inoculations practised on rabbits with the saliva and with portions of
the bulb, diluted, gave rise to rabies in those animals.

A rabid dog may bring about an immense amount of havoc
among sheep. Mr. Harris stated that thirty sheep died within
three weeks after being bitten by one mad dog, and nearly
all which had been attacked expired before the end of the
seventh week. As a rule the disease appears in sheep before
the close of the second or at any rate the fourth week ; but it
has been known to remain dormant until the eleventh week after
the bite has been inflicted.

Afier having been bitten by a rabid dog, the sheep follow
one another about a great deal for a day or two, during which
they lose condition, although they do occasionally eat their
food. Then they look dull, and the ewes may become paralytic
and die almost without a struggle. Tlie lambs have a series
of convulsive seizures, in which, after a day or two, they die.
When afflicted with this disease, sheep are very thirsty, though
perhaps not so insatiably as rabid dogs often are in ihe later
stages of the disease, and they do not exhibit any fear of water.

19 *

292 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

They strain constantly, they are weak in the loins, and palsy
subsequently manifests itself. An ox suffering from rabies does
not bite, and the sheep also very rarely displays any tendency
to do so. Sheep, however, when afflicted with rabies, are very
irritable, a.nd if they are provided with horns, they make frequent
and violent use of those appendages.

Wethers and rams especially, and occasionally ewes, when
affected with rabies, exhibit more or less ferocity. It is true
they do not try to bite ; but they will nibble ai a stick pre-
sented to them, and they will attack one another, and run
violently against anything which may be within reach, and
indeed, may carry this headstrong impetuosity to such an
extent as almost entirely to strip the skin from off their fore-
heads. Moreover, a mucous discharge flows from the nostrils,
a ropy saliva from the mouth, and froth collects at the corners
thereof. Sheep affected with rabies may devour a large amount
of dirt, nibble wood and swallow the pieces, drink very filthy
water ; and, in fact, thev seem to be in some measure unconscious.
Just as a rabid dog gives utterance to a howl wliich is charac-
teristic, so, too, does the sheep, and especially the lamb, bleat
in a peculiar manner, i.e. they produce a higher note and a
more plaintive tone. Some sheep die on the second or third
day; more usually the fatal result occurs about tlie fifth day;
a few survive the fifth, and these few frequently exhibit symptoms
characteristic of inflammation of the brain.

In this connection wo may here insert the leading particulars of an acconnt of
an attack of rabies in sheep as reported by Messrs. C. Gresswell and Gibbings in
the 22nd volume of the Veterinary Journal , 188(J, page 411. It appears that these
veterinarians were asked to see some sheep which had been bitten by a dog
supposed to be affected with rabies. The dog had been shot previous to their
arrival, and they were thus enabled to make a post-mortem examination. The
larynx and stomach were slightly congested, and in the stomach nothing was
present except such foreign substances as grass and earth. The dog, strnngo
to the neighbourhood, had visited three farms in a semicircle, bit one ewe and
lamb on the first farm, several on the second, and several more on the third.
Altogether about twenty sheep were bitten. Judging from the appearance of
the wounds, the bites must have been short sharp snaps. It seemed that the
dog had no sooner bitten one sheep than he left it and attacked another,
evidently having tried to bite as many as he could, and he had invariably made
the face the point of attack. Now, it cannot for a moment be 8upi)osod that the
dog's object vas to satisfy his appetite, for, if so, instead of worrying and biting
several slieoj) on the face alone, ho would doubtless have killed a single lamb,
and thereu])on have i)roceeded to satisfy his pangs of hunger. Again, having

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 298

regard to the fact that the horn of the dog's toes was considerably worn, it was
inferred that the animal had travelled some distance, presumably in great measure
owing to his rabid state. Moreover, being a small terrier, he could not have
been accustomed to worry sheep, as, if he had displayed such propensities, he
would in all probability have been previously noticed and killed. Besides, his
enmity did not seem to extend so far as actually to try to kill the sheep. From
these considerations it was concluded that the dog had been afflicted with
rabies, and this diagnosis was afterwards proved to be correct by the fact that
on the 14th, loth, and 16th days after they had been attacked, the sheep (ewes
and lambs) were in some cases affected with rabies. Two flocks had been
submitted to this dog's bites on two successive days. Fourteen days after the
first flock was attacked, one ewe became restless, ate nothing, ran after the
other sheep, and butted at them. At first sight she appeared to be under the
influence of great sexual excitement, but the continued and determined manner in
which she charged at almost every sheep in turn, and the short time spent in the
attack in each case, seemed to indicate clearly that she suffered from some affec-
tion of the brain. She was isolated and then all these symptoms disappeared, and
a dull lethargy supervened. However, on putting her back with the other sheep,
she again pursued the same tactics. These symptoms lasted for two days. On
the third day tetanic spasms were manifested, together with frothing at the
mouth, intermittent inversion of the eye-lids, and occasional severe rigidity
of the whole muscular system. On the fourth day she was destroyed. Another
ewe became similarly affected on the loth day, and two more and several lambs
on the 16th day. Out of the first flock, six ewes and four lambs were bitten,
and of these, tive ewes and all the lambs were either killed or died. In all cases
out of the first flock, the affected sheep showed symptoms similar to those of the
first ewe above mentioned ; but in most instances the tetanic spasms appeared
earlier, and generally on the second day.

In the case of the second flock, the ewes and lambs which were bitten were
twelve in number. Of these, one ewe and two lambs died on the third day.
These three deaths, however, were attributed to the extensive lacerations of the
head which they had sustained. On the loth day one ewe was affected with rabies,
and only a second case occurred, which was on the 16th. The immunity from rabies
which this second flock showed was peculiar. The two flocks were a mile and
a half apart. The first was attacked late in the afternoon, the second (very
evidently ) early on the next morning. At any rate they were found at 6 a.m.
in a distressed and frightened condition, while the dog was only half a mile
distant from them. It may have been possible that the second flock was not
inoculated with virus of sufficient quality or quantity to have produced rabies, or
the first flock may have exhausted the supply.

If an examination be made after death has occurred in the
case of a sheep, it may be evident that there has been some
iriflammation of the membranes of the brain, together with
slight congestion of its substance. The upperpart of the wind-
pipe of the sheep is not always inflamed, as it so generally is in
the case of the dog. The chief signs which are diagnostic of
the disease are that the rumen is partially filled with dirt and
filth, sticks, and stones, a very fetid smell being perceptible, and
the inner lining of the paunch being much inflamed, not con-

294 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

tinuously, but in patches, and small spots of extravasated blood
being seen. These signs of the disease, however, may be
absent.

Now, with regard to the measures to be taken, the first point
is that all animals whatsoever which are afflicted with rabies
should be at once slaughtered, in order to obviate the great risk
of the transmission of the disease to human beings. On no
account whatever must the flesh of an animal afflicted with
rabies be sold. It is well known that the virus of this disease
as occurring in the ox, horse, ass, and man, and, according to
some authorities, that of the hen and duck, has been the means
of conveying the disease to human beings. Hence those who
have to deal with any rabid animal cannot be too stringently
upon their guard.

Although no microbes have yet been discovered in connection
with hydrophobia, the presumptive evidence of the existence
of them is very strong indeed. If two brains are brought ta
Pasteur, the one from a rabid animal and the other from a
healthy animal, he can decide at once by the aid of the micro-
scope which is the rabid and whicli the healthy one. In both
are seen an immense number of molecular granules ; but those
in the medulla of the rabid animal are finer and more numerous,
and suggest the idea of a micro-organism of extreme tenuity,
in shape neither a bacillus nor a diplococcus. Tiiey are " dots."
As yet they have not, so far as we know, been cultivated outside
the living bodv.

In the course of his experiments, Pasteur found that the
saliva of the mad dog did not always give rise to rabies,
and that the more virulent matter was situated in the brain and
spinal cord. Both forms of rabies, viz. " furious " and
*' dumb " rabies, arise from the same virus; but experimentally
"furious rabies" can be produced from "dumb rabies," and
vice Versa.

In the saliva of rabid animals the virus is found associated
with various micro-organisms, and the inoculations of this saliva
can give rise to death in one of three modes,
(a.) By the microbe of saliva.
(h.) By reason of excessive development of pus.
(f.) By rabies.
The medulla oblongata of human beings, as well as that of all

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 295

animals which have died of hydropliobia, is always virulent.
Rabies communicated by intravenous injection of the virus very
frequently exhibits characters which differ considerably from
those of furious rabies supervening upon a bite, or after trephin-
ing, and it is very likely that many cases of silent madness
have escaped observation. In such cases of rabies, which
might be termed spinal, early paralysis is a common symptom,
whilst the habitual fury and rabid barks are absent or but
rarely met with ; but, on the other hand, frightful itching of the
skin is at times a marked feature.

Experiments show that after inoculation of the poison into the
blood-system, the spinal marrow is the part first attacked, the
virus locating itself and multiplying there before spreading to
other parts. On the 19th May, 1884, about the fourtli year of
Pasteur's research, he communicated the following observations
to the Academy of Sciences.

"The virus of rabies carried from the dog to the monkey, and
subsequently from monkey to monkey, grows weaker at each
passage. After the virulence has thus diminished by several
passages through monkeys, if the virus be carried back to the
dog, the rabbit, or the guinea-pig, it still remains attenuated.
In other words, the virulence does not go back at one bound to
the di'gree it had in the dog affected with ordinary or street
madness. On the other hand, successive passages from rabbit
to rabbit, and from guinea-pig to guinea-pig, increase the viru-
lence of rabies' virus. This exalted virulence comes to a fixed
maximum in the rabbit. If now transferred to the dog, it
remains exalted, and shows itself to be much more intensely
virulent than the virus of ordinary street rabies. So great is
this acquired virulence, that the new virus injected into the
blood-system of a dog unfailingly gives rise to mortal
madness."

A logical application of the above results gives us the means
of easily rendering dogs refractory to rabies, for we can now
prepare and keep at our disposal a series of attenuated viruses
of different strengths, some not mortal, preserving the animal
economy against the ill-effects of more active ones, and tliese
latter against the effects of mortal ones.

It was not long before Pasteur found that there was no
definite period of incubation, in cases in which the saliva of the

296 THE DISEASES AXD DISORDERS OF THE OX.

mad dog entered the venous system in tbe ordinary way. If a
large dose of the poison entered, tbe period of incubation would
be short. If only a small quantity entered, it might become
localised at tbe seat of inoculation and wither awav, or on a
more favourable soil it might slowly and surely work its way
and develop into madness months later. Tbe difficulty was to
find artificial certainty. If the brains of rabbits were inoculated
with tbe spinal marrow of an ordinary mad dog, Pasteur found
that the disease was usually fatal on tbe fifteenth day. But if
another rabbit were inoculated from tbe first, a third from the
second, and so on, the period of incubation would gradually
diminish with the increasing virulence of the poison. When
the number of passages from rabbit to rabbit extended to the
twenty-fifih rabbit, tbe period of incubation was shortened down
to eight days, and after the next twenty-five passages from
rabbit to rabbit it became shortened to seven days. At the
ninetieth passage tbe maximum of virulence was attained with
the corresponding incubation of seven days, and with a cer-
tainty wljich would be rendered absolute by preserving the
rabbits in perfect health and by taking them at a uniform age
of six months.

It was found that not one out of twenty-three vaccinated dogs
which had been bitten by ordinary mad dogs had taken rabies.
On tbe other hand, within two months after the bites, 66 per
cent, of the ctmtrol dogs which bad been similarly bitten had
become afi'ected with rabies.

According to M. Pasteur, rabies is mainly and essentially a
disease of nerve centres. The virus or infective material exists
more especially in tbe medulla oblongata, in certain parts of the
brain, and in tlie spinal cord. The same tjbserver has shown
that the injection of a few drops of sterilised fluid containing a
small portion of tbe medulla oblongata of a dog which has died of
rabies is sure to cause the appearance of the disease after a period
of incubation of about fourteen days. Similarly, tbe inoculation
of a rabbit by tr-'panning under the dura mater with the rabical
marrow of a mad dog always causes the production of rabies in
the rabbit after about a fortnight has elapsed. Now, if the virus
of this rabid rabbit is passed on to a second, and then if that of
this second is passed on to a third, and so on by the same mode
of inoculation as above-mentioned, the period of incubation

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 297

gradually becomes shorter, and after about twenty-five trans-
missions from rabbit to rabbit, the period of incubation at length
becomes one of only about eight days. After another twenty-
five transmissions, the period of incubation drops to seven days,
and continues to be seven days, even if the virus is passed on
from rabbit to rabbit even to the number of ninety of those
•animals. Now, the marrow of these rabbits, when carefully
suspended in a very dry atmosphere, gradually becomes less
virulent, the rate and degree of diminution depending upon
the thickness of the particles and the external temperature.
The lower the temperature, Lhe longer the virulence is main-
tained.

M. Pasteur's method is somewhat as follows : — Every day a
piece of marrow freshly taken from a rabbit which has died of
rabies contracted after an incubation of seven days is suspended
in a series of flasks. The air contained in the flask is kept dry
by placing fragments of potassium in the bottom of it. Each
day a dog is inoculated with the contents of a syringe full
of " bouillon," with which a small quantity of the marrow
which has been longest in the flasks has been mixed. On the
next day the same operation is performed, but with fresher and
more virulent matter, and so on until at length the very virulent
matter which has only been in the flask for a day or two is used.
By these means the dog is rendered incapable of being attacked
with rabies, even if the virus be injected under the skin, or even
into the surface of the brain by means of the operation of
trepanning. M. Pasteur succeeded in rendering fifty dogs of
various ages and breeds incapable of taking the disease, and did
■not fail in a single case.

Upon the 6th day of July 1885 three persons from Alsace
called at M. Pasteur's laboratory. Of these one was Theodore
Vone, a grocer at Meissengalt, near Schlestadt, and he had been
bitten on the arm two days previously by his own dog, which
had gone mad. Another was Joseph Meister, a boy nine years
of age, who had been bitten by the same deg on the same day.
The dog had pinned him to the ground, and had bitten him so
badly about the hands, legs, and thighs, in fourteen different
places that the boy experienced great difficulty in walking.
When picked up, he was covered with foam and blood. At
■about twelve hours after the accident, tlie bites had been

298 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

cauterised with phenic acid by Dr. Weber. The third person
was the mother of Joseph Meister, but she had not been bitten.
The dog had been killed by its master, and on examination after
death it was found that the stomach was full of hay, straw, and bits
of wood. M. Vone was badly bruised about the arm ; but, the dog's
teeth not haviog penetrated his shirt, he was advised to repair
homewards on the same day; medical friends agreed that he was
not in any danger, his wounds being only contused. The boy
and his mother were kept at the laboratory.

Drs. Vulpian and Graucher saw the fourteen wounds which
had been inflicted on the boy, and they agreed with M. Pasteur
that it was next to impossible that he could escape being seized
with hydrophobia, and, in fact, that he was most certainly doomed
to die i'rom that disease, if no help could be given. M. Pasteur
communicated to them the results of his latest experiments, and
resolved to try the same method which had been so invariably
successful in the case of dogs. It is to be borne in mind that
M. Pasteur had also made several dogs impervious to rabies after
they had been bitten. The mother also urged her entreaties,
and hence M. Pasteur finally agreed to direct the operations of
Drs. Graucher and Vulpian. Accordingly, at 8 p.m. on July 6th,
sixty hours after the bites had been inflicted, in the presence of
Drs. Vulpinn and Graucher, beneath a fold of the skin of the
boy's right hypochondrium they injected half the contents of a
syringeful of suitably prepared marrow whicl) had been taken
from a rabbit which had died of rabies on June 21, and had
been preserved for the intervening fifteen days in a flask, the
air of which had been kept dry. The virus of this marrow had
thus been weakened by being dried in air, that is in contact with
oxygen for a period of fifteen days. It is not to be exposed to
the free atmosphere, where it would undergo decomposition ;
but it is to be suspended in a jar provided with a cotton-wool
stopper at the mouth, and a cotton-wool stopper at an aperture
below, which permits the air to pass througli, lihered and pure.
In order to keep the air dry, some caustic potash is placed at
the bottom of the jar.

Tlie following table shows liow the progres^s was made from
weaker to more intense virulence, each successive inoculation
coming nearer and nearer to the ori<;inal virus of a rabid dog,
and then passing on to the still more intense virulence of a

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 299

rabid rabbit. The inoculations were repeated on the following
days, namely : —

On July 7, at 9 a.m., with marrow of 14 days.

,, 7 „ 6 p.m. „ ,, 12 ,,

,, 8 ,, 9 a.m. ,, „ 11 ,,

„ 8 ,, 6 p.m. ,, ,, 9 ,,

,, 9 ,, 11 a.m. ,, ,, 8 ,,

10 „ 11 „ „ „ 7 „

11 „ 11 „ „ V 6 „
,, 12 ,, 11 ,, ,, ., 5 „
,, 13 ,, 11 ,. ,, ,, 4 ,,
,., 14 ,, 11 „ „ „ B ,,
)) 15 )> 11 j> j> '^ ^ ^'
}) 16 „ 11 „ ,, M 1 j>

Thus thirteen inoculations were made in eleven days. Two
fresh rabbits were trepanned with the various marrows, used so
as to coincide with their degrees of virulence. In otlier words,
in order to test the virulence of the poison, corresponding
injections were made into two healthy rabbits, as each day
passed by. The results showed that the marrow which was
used on each of the days, July 6th, 7th, 8th, 9ih, and 10th was
not virulent, because the rabbits inoculated with it did not go
mad. The marrows, however, of the next six days were all
virulent. For instance, the rabbits inoculated ou July 15ih
and 16th went down with rabies after a period of incubation of
seven days, those inoculated on July 12Lh and 13th after eight
days, and those inoculated on July 11th after fifteen days. Hence
it was quite clear that, during at least the last two days of his
treatment, Joseph Meister had been inoculated with the most
virulent virus — namely, that of the dog reinforced by a number
of transmissions from rabbit to rabbit, and one which com-
municates rabies to dogs after nine or ten days' incubation. In
fact, when the stage of immunity is reached, 4lje strongest virus
can be inoculated even in large quantities. It was evident that
Joseph Meister escaped not only the hydrophobia which his
wounds would doubtless have developed, but also that with
which he had been inoculated in order to verify the immunity
due to the treatment. A very virulent inoculation at the end

300 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

has the further advantage of lessening the period during which
alarm is felt as to the results of having been bitten.

If hydrophobia were about to make its appearance, it would
be hastened by the inoculation of a virus stronger than that
introduced by the bite. When the middle of August had come,
M. Pasteur felt confident that the boy was out of danger, and
when three months and three weeks had elapsed after the accident,
his health was very good. Hence M. Pasteur has proved that if
rabical marrow is placed in contact with dry air, its intensity is
gradually diminished, and finally extinguished. Consequently
it would inimCi facie seem that in the first place virus with no
appreciable activity should be used, next virus with a very little
strength, and finally the strongest virus. But on more careful
consideration this view seems to be a doubtful one. The
lessening of the virulence may possibly be due to the diminished
quantity of the rabical virus, and not to its diminished
virulence. It is a matter of difficulty to decide this question.

Now it is known that many microbes seem to give birth in
their growth to matter which has the property of hindering their
own development. The microbe found in some fevers seems to
be combated by a substance of its own creation, and M. Roulin
has shown that the fungus Aspergillus niger develops a sub-
stance which checks its growth. It is possible, then, that the
rabical virus is formed of two distinct substances, one living and.
capable of developing in the nervous system, and another not
living, but having the faculty of counteractiug or even arresting
the growth and development of the first. It is impossible to
over-estimate the far-reaching importance of this clue, and pro-
bably it will be found in the future to lead to discoveries
the brilliancy of which as yet we can by no means fully
realise.

Before concluding our short review of rabies, we may
repeat that all oxen, sheep, dogs, or any other lower animals
affected with rabies, must be slaughtered, and their carcases
buried with antiseptic precautions. If there is some doubt
whether tiie disease be rabies or not, it is best to have the
animal killed, in order to be on the safe side. The untold havoc
which a rabid dog may bring about, even in one day's peram-
bulations, is Aiglitful to contemplate, and it is most wise that
the muzzling orders should be strictly enforced in all towns and

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 301

districts in which rabies has shown itself. This is especially of
importance when days are hot ; and though we should be verv
sorry to encourage any feelings of panic, we feel it incumbent
upon us again to point out the dreadful, painful, and fatal nature
of the malady, in order that all local authorities may l)e well on
their guard.

VARIOLA, VACCINIA, AND VACCINATION.

It is not the least striking fact about the disease " variola,"
that it probably affiicts almost if not quite all those animals
which subserve the domestic purposes of mankind. Not only is
man himself liable to be the unfortunate prey of the ravages of
small-pox, but in addition the sheep, the horse, the cow, the
goat, the pig, the dog, and even fowls, are subject to a maladv
which is in all essential points identical. In the present state
of our knowledge of the science of disease, but little can be said
definitely regarding the nature and degree of the connections
which evidently exist between the same or similar maladies
affecting different kinds of animals. As we have before pointed
out, these relationships are at the present time receiving a degree
of attention which is becoming very fruitful in its results. The
changed activities of human beings have, in common with their
more conspicuous consequences, also altered the maladies to
which they are subjected, in no small degree. Already much
valuable information has been gained ; but this is as nothino-
compared with what yet remains unknown. It is, indeed, very
probable that there are not a few instances in which the new
conditions attendant upon civilisation have brought in their
train diseases not previously met with. One of the great needs
of the day is to decide in what manner and to what extent the
diseases of animals are connected with those which afflict the
different varieties of the human race.

It will be clearly evident to the earnest investigator into the
field of pathology that we must look to the causal relations
between the diseases of mankind and those of animals, in order
to understand completely the maladies which aflect any individual
group, and at the same time to find out the methods whereby
they may be prevented, or alleviated, or cured.

The virulently infectious fever known as variola presents
one of the best instances of the incalculable value which attaches

302 TEE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

itself to a clear acquaintance with the connections subsisting
between the diseases of animals and those of man. It is true
that Jenner's great discovery of the principle of vaccination, like
many other priceless revelations, seems to have had something
of the nature of an intuitive grasping after hidden truth. If,
then, with the comparatively limited knowledge of the intrinsic
nature of disease possessed at that time, gilted persons could
find out such a preventive measure as that of vaccination, how
much more is it likely that medical and scientific men of light
and leading in these days will be able to trace the many concealed
factors which yet remain to be found, and among these the
numerous links betwixt the disorders of man himself and those
of various animals. Vaccination, in despite of the most reckless
and determined onslaughts against it, has been abundantly
proved to be most necessary to prevent the ravages of small-
Dox, a scourge formerly liable at any time to strike terror and
dismay and wholesale death into the midst of a community.

Inoculation, without doubt, was practised in Asia long before
its employment in Europe. It seems to have been known to the
Chinese, and there is a tradition that it began as early as the
dynasty of Song, in the year of Christ 590. The practice was
kept secret, and probably was not much approved of by the
Chinese. They used to take a few dried small-pox crusts and
add a little musk and wrap up the mixture in a little cotton
wool, and place it in the nostril, so that it could not easily drop
out, and they still carry out this custom This method was also
practised by the Brahmins in Hindostan, by the Persians,
Artneniiins, and Greeks; but the operation generally was that of
scratching or puncturing the skin, and inserting variolous matter
into the wound. The Circassians used three needles tied
together, and having pricked the body in five different places,
inserted vnriolous matter into all.

Lady Mnry Worthy Montague is said to have been the first to
introduce inoculation into England. When residing in Turkey
in 1717, she found that the old women were wont to inoculate
children every autumn, and that the sniull-]iox thus brought
on WHS usiuilly mild. Her son passed fnvourably through the
malady, and in 1722, on her return to Knglnnd, she submitted
her dauf^hicr to the same operation, likewise favourably. Dr.
Keith followed her example, by inoculaling his st)n, and the

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 303

practice soon became rather general. Plunabe states that
" shortly after this, Caroline, Princess of Wales, one of whose
daughters had recently died and been much disfigured by small-
pox, was anxious to have the rest of her children inoculated.
Six condemned felons were pardoned by George the First on
consideration that they should submit to be inoculated. Five
of them contracted the disease favourably, the sixth being not
affected. A seventh escaped hanging by having a few small-pox
crusts thrust up her nose. Eleven children of tlie parish of
St. James's were also inoculated and did well, and, finally, the
Princesses Amelia and Caroline also favourably underwent the
operation. In eight years 845 persons had been inoculated, and
of these 17 died.

In 1746, the Small-pox Hospital was established for the
reception of poor persons suffering from the disease, and for the
gratuitous inoculation of people who had escaped it. However,
the deaths from small-pox, which for ten years (six prior to, and
four subsequent to, the founding of the hospital) had averaged
72| in every 1000, rose during the next ten years to 103, and in
the next to 111.

The scourge of small-pox was by Jenner stripped of its malig-
nancy, and Death halted in the midst of his revellings. In June,
1798, Jenner being satisfied with the result of his experiments,
transmitted his MS. to a person in the confidence of Sir Joseph
Banks, with the request that it should be laid before him. He
received, in reply, an admonition that, as he had gained some
reputation by his former papers to the Royal Society, it was
advisable that this should not be presented, lest it should injure
his credit ! However, the great discoverer sent to the press his
Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Fariolee Vaccince, a
Disease Discovered in some of the Westerti Counties of England,
pariicularly Gloucestershire, and known hy the name of the
Cow-pox. Many were at once convinced of the truth of Jenner's
opinions.

It is interesting to note that Jenner was led to his discovery
by the fact that milkers of vaccinious cows .-generally escaped
small-pox, owing, no doubt, to infection by vaccinia, as was
supposed to be the case by the dairymen in Gloucestershire.
We must also remark that inoculation with cow-pox before the
time of Jenner was never more than a matter of mere accident,

304 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

and occurred only with comparative rarity. "It was matter of
popular tradition ; but was left for Jenner to demonstrate, that
persons who had thus been accidentally vaccinated enjoyed
immunity subsequently from small pox." (E. C. Seaton.) In
the year 1813 a report was published by the Imperial Institution
of France, which stated that 2,671,662 subjects had been
properly vaccinated in France, and that only seven of these had
afterwards taken the small-pox. In Prussia the number of
persons who died from small-pox was reduced from 40,000
annually to 3,000.

Although it is not yet settled beyond doubt, tliere seems to be

Fig. 37. — Micrococci in the fresh Ltmph of Human Small-pox.
1. Singly. 2. In dumb-bell-like pairs. 3. In short chains {after Klein).

Fig. 38. — Lymphatic Vessel from the Skin of a Pock in the
CASE OF Sheep-pox.

The vessel is seen to be filled with micrococci.

every reason to believe that variola depends upon the presence of
a special and very minute micrococcus. Cohn found that the
lymph of vaccinia and that of variola contains numerous micro-
cocci. That the lymphatic vessels of the skin near the pocks
are lull of micrococci, has been shown by Weigert in the case of
small-pox of man, and by Klein in the case of shoep-pox. The
passage of these micrococci through the epidermis at the point
of vaccination in the calf has been traced by Pohl-Pmcus.
When cultivated on the warm stngo, and subjected to examina-
tion by the microscope, the microcdcci are seen to form very
long chains and colonies. Still, as Dr. Klein points out, similar
micrococci occur in the fluid contents of vesicles in the skin

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 305

which have been produced by various non-infective inflammations.
It is therefore manifest that, in order to make sure that they are
the active cause of the disease, it \Yould be necessary to cultivate
them for several generations, and with the latest-formed micro-
cocci to inoculate other animals, and then, if the disease makes
its appearance in these animals experimented upon, the proof
that the micrococci are the exciting cause of the malady would
be complete.

The virus of variola retains its noxious powers for a very long
period. The symptoms of this malady are acute, febrile, and
regular. Betwixt the time of the reception of the virus and the
appearance of febrile symptoms, a period of incubation intervenes.
If the disease has been produced by means of inoculation, this
latent stage lasts about seven days and a half; but if it has been
acquired by ordinary natural means, about twelve days and a half
elapse before the malady expresses itself.

Small-pox (or Variola) of Man.

Small-pox is a specific lever spreading by infection and
contagion, and especially characterised by the appearance on the
third day of a papular eruption which gradually becomes
pustular, and attains its full development on about the eleventh
day of the disease. The eruption is also shown in the mucous
membrane of the mouth, fauces, and larynx.

At about the close of the eighteenth century, Jenner's dis-
covery was made, and since then small-pox has not been so
markedly fatal. Instances are not at all uncommon in which
persons have a second or even a third attack ; but such attacks
are generally mild. People who have not been attacked for
many years, although exposed to contagion, may at last contract
the disease in a severe form.

Supposing it to have arisen by inoculation, on the second day a
small papule shows itself at the seat of puncture, and by the fourth
day this is converted into an umbilicated vesicle. On the seventh
day the vesicle has become a pustule, and the lymphatic glands
are swollen and tender. On this day, or the following day, rigors
and other symptoms occur. About the tenth or eleventh day
the pustule is fully developed, and the general variolous rash
occurs. By the fourteenth day the pustule has dried up into a
scab. The usual period of incubation, when the disease is

20

306 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

developed in the general way, is about ten to sixteen days, or we
may say that the disease manifests itself at about the middle of
the twelfth day.

The incubative stage is not attended with symptoms, or only
•with Slight symptoms. The patient may feel languid and peevish.
The first onset is marked by rise of temperature, chills, followed
by, or alternating with, heat of skin and copious perspiration,
severe sickness, with anorexia, thirst, and constipation (or in
children diarrhnea), headache, aching of the limbs, and intense
pain in the lumbar region of the spine, drowsiness, and some-
times delirium and coma. In children, diarrhoea may take the
place of constipation, and convulsions may occur in them.
Sometimes there may be maniacal excitement, vomiting, con-
stipation, and acute lumbar pain, with frequent convulsions.
The higher the temperature, the more persistent the vomiting,
the acuter the pain in the back, and the more pronounced the
cerebral symptoms, the more quickly will the disease assume
grave proportions. The symptoms usually attain their maximum
on the third day, the day on which the characteristic rash first
manifests itself.

About the third day after the onset of variola, a papular erup-
tion first shows itself in the form of small reddish solid elevations,
each surrounded by a red areola, appearing both on the skin and
also usually on the lining membrane of the mouth, fauces, and
larynx. These papules gradually increase in number, and are, in a
few days' time, transformed into alveolated vesicles, containing a
transparent lymph, which soon becomes purulent. At about the
eleventh day the pustules attain their full development. Many
of them are at first depressed near the centre, but they lose the
peculiar appearance which is thereby caused by reason of a
subsequent distention of their envelopes with the purulent pus.
Afterwards this fluid dries, and then, instead of the pustule, a
dark brown crust is formed, which is finally detached, leaving a
scar. When these vesicles are numerous, the skin between them
is swollen, and when this is the case, the eruption on the lining
membranes of the mouth, fauces, and larynx is also more severe.
The fever is usually most intense before the eruption manifests
itself; but, though it becomes higher as the suppuration advances,
it soon subsides, and when the drying up of the pus begins, it
disappears. Of course, in very bad cases, and especially if

1

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 307

pyaemia sets in, the febrile symptoms beconae very strongly
marked.

Having now considered variola generally, we proceed to deal
firstly with bovine variola, or vaccinia, and then with vaccination.

Bovine Variola, or Cow-pox, or Vaccinia.

This contagious disease probably aflFects cattle in every part
of the earth, and has prevailed in the form of epidemics in every
country of Europe. Its power of protecting mankind from
small-pox has been known for a long time. In hot couotries,
such as India, the pustular eruption, which is generally limited
to the udder, may be more or less general over the body.
Animals kept in stables appear to be more generally attacked
than those which are out at pasture. Probably this arises from
the greater liability of contact. The disease seems to be more
frequent in spring than at other seasons. After calving, when
the mammary gland has an increased supply of blood, the cow
apparently has a greater liability to the malady. In the general
way cows alone appear to be affected. Probably the disease
occurs in male oxen ; but is not so likely to be noticed in them
in consequence of the absence of the udder, an organ to which,
owing to cows being used for milking purposes, much attention
is necessarily directed.

If cow-pox arises, as some have thought, from human small-
pox, it is not difficult to see the reason for this. Whether cow-
pox may arise independently of other animals and man or not,
at any rate it seems to be established beyond doubt that they
may get it from the direct contact of the hands of a milker who
is suffering from small-pox. Male oxen are susceptible to the
disease by inoculation. Moreover, the disease may arise by
means of the virus of horse-pox conveyed by attendants, and
probably, also, by association with horses in stables and pastures.
At least, this is said to be the case ; but we may point out that
a great deal of investigation is needed before such points as these
can be considered to be cleared up.

The rash of cow-pox, as we have said, chiefly affects the
udders and teats of cows, being manifested by the development
of small, pale-red hard nodules or pustules, which vary in size
from that of a pea to that of a haricot bean. These pass
through stages altogether similar to those which characterise

20 *

308 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

the pustules of small-pox. Like them, they begin as papules
which in a few days are converted into vesicles containing
a viscid yellow fluid. These vesicles gradually increase in
size, until in about eight and a half days they are about five-
eighths of an inch in diameter. In the middle they have a
iight-blue tint; but towards the margin they are reddish-blue
or yellow in colour. Their contents then become purulent.
The centre is usually depressed, and a crust begins to form
there, and gradually extends to the periphery. The border is
hard, swollen, and painful, and a red areola forms, together
with much thickening under the skin.

About the fourteenth day a scab, which is thick, dark,
adherent, and shining, is formed, and about the fifteenth day it
becomes detached, leaving a depressed scar, which is at first bluish-
red, and gradually turns pale, and persists for a long time.
The febrile symptoms are very slight, and generally unimportant,
and the infection is not a dangerous one. A partial loss of
appetite, an abstention from chewing the cudj trifliug constipation,
diminution and deterioration of tlie milk are to be observed.
The udder is swollen, especially near the teats, and milking causes
pain. There may be more than one eruption of pustules.

Cow-pox generally lasts about seventeen and a half days, but
may be protracted for about five weeks. The vaccine matter for
vaccination purposes is generally collected at about the fifth
day after the first appearance of the pustule. The course
of the malady is usually favourable, at least in western countries.
The milk should not be used for human food, so long as the cow
is suffering. The disease may be conveyed by contact from cow
to cow, by the hands of milkers both from one cow to another,
and also directly from small-pox pustules of the attendants, or
by injection of the virus into the blood-vessels, or by ingestion
of it thi'ough the mouth. It will be clearly seen that the
animals which are affected should be milked last, in order that
the virus may not be taken from cow to cow. Perfect cleanli-
ness in all points, care in milking, and suitable treatment of any
secondary local results must be thoroughly attended to.

Messrs. Cecly and Badcock inoculated cows with small-pox
lymph, and the result was that at the seat of inoculation pustules
exactly like those of cow-pox were produced. Moreover, with
the contents of these they imparted cow-pox to healthy cattle.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 309

and to the liuman being an affection exactly like that brought
on by ordinary vaccination. It seems highly probable that cow-
pox is nothing else than small-pox communicated to the cow from
man, and thereby deprived of its virulence. In support of this
view, the fact that cow-pox, when inoculated from cow to cow,
tends before long to die out, presents itself for consideration.

Vaccination.

When the material of cow-pox is inoculated on a human
being, about the end of the second day or the beginning of the
third day a small congested papule appears. This papule
gradually increases in size, and about the fifth day becomes a
circular greyish vesicle, with a depressed centre. About the
eighth day it is Inrgest, has a cupped surface, and contains a
colourless and transparent viscid fluid, which about this time
begins to become purulent. A red areola forms, and some
thickening of the inflamed area occurs, and increases until the
tenth day. The areola also attains a diameter of about two
inches. At the close of about ten and a half days the pustule
begins to dry up, and the areola and other signs of inflammation
to subside. At about fourteen and a half days from the outset,
a hard and dark-coloured scab has formed. This blackens, and
at about twenty-two and a half days from the beginning falls
off, leaving a depressed, pitted, permanent scar.

In association with these local changes, there is also manifested
a rise of temperature, even sometimes on the fourth day ; and
at a later time, for instance, from the eighth to the tenth or
eleventh day, together with the development of the areola,
the temperature rises still higher, and there is much restlessness,
and loss of appetite. The glands above the seat of the operation
are enlarged and painlul, and sometimes a roseolous rash spreads
over the vaccinated limb, and perhaps to other parts. This
rash may be vesicular or papular. The consequences of vacci-
nation direct from the cow are identical with those resulting
from vaccination with humanised lymph. If a person is re-
vaccinated, there may be merely a little lotJal irritation or a
development of the typical pock. The papule may attain its
full development about five and a half days after the operation,
and very soon afterwards form a scab, which falls off in the
course of a day or two.

310 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

The first recorded epidemics of small-pox occurred in the
sixth century. Early in the eighteenth century the disease
was deprived of a great deal of its terrors by reason of the
practice of inoculation, which was at that time introduced into
this country by Lady Mary Wortley Montague, who had seen
the efficacy of the method in Constantinople, to which place it
had been imported from Persia and China. In the latter half
of the same century a belief in the protective power of cow-pox
against variola seems to have been entertained in Gloucester-
shire. It is said that a schoolmaster named Plett, in Holstein,
vaccinated two children in the year 1771 ; and it seems to be
established than an English farmer named Benjamin Jesty per-
ibrmed the same operation on his wife and two sons in the year
1774. The value of vaccination was, however, first really proved
bv Edward Jenner, whose first publication on this subject
appeared in 1798.

In the ninety-one years which have elapsed since that date
the practice of vaccination as a preventive of small-pox has been
adopted throughout the whole civilised world. Experience has
shown that successful vaccination is as protective against sub-
sequent attacks of small-pox as an attack of that disease itself
is. Where vaccination is in vogue, small-pox has become
comparatively rare and unimportant. The protective influence
of the vaccine matter is not diminished by its continued trans-
mission from man to man. The immunity becomes less sure
as years pass by ; but if a person who has been vaccinated does
contract small-pox, the disease is as a rule mild, and but very
rarely fatal. The mortality among those suffering from small-
pox who have not been vaccinated has been found to be asmucli
as 37* per cent., whereas of those who had as many as four or
more vaccination marks the mortality was only 0"55 per cent. ;
and even among those who were said to have been vaccinated
but had no cicatrix, the fatal cases were in the proportion of
only 23*57 per cent. 1'hese results were obtained by Mr.
Marson, and represent an experience of twenty years at the
Small-pox Hospital in London, collected from an examination
of 5,000 cases. It has, however, been held that syphilis,
scrofula, and perhaps other diseases miiy possibly be imparted

• In Soaton's account of Marson's work, I find 35 per cent, instead of 37.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEliP. 311

by vacciuatiou. The recorded cases are, however, exiremely
rare, and those few which are really due to this cause are no
doubt attributable to some carelessness.

It is legally enjoined that every child shall be vaccinated
within three months after birth. The operation ought to be
repeated about the age of puberty, and persons who are liable
to be exposed to the contagion of small-pox should be re-
vaccinated, unless they have very recently successfully under-
gone the operation. The lymph to be used for vaccination
sliould on no account be taken from persons who are either
known to be diseased, or suspected to be suffering from any dis-
order, nor from pocks which are ill-developed or purulent, nor
from those produced by re-vaccination. Good lymph is yielded
by normal pocks from about the fifth to the eighth day after
inoculation, and that of later date should never be made use of.
The vesicles are to be punctured with the point of a lancet, care
being taken to avoid bleeding, and the fluid which exudes may
either be used at once, or preserved in capillary glass tubes.
The vesicle should not be squeezed. Lymph may be diluted
with glycerine in the proportion of about 1^ parts of that fluid
to one part of lymph.

Vaccination is generally performed on the upper and outer
part of the upper arm. Groups of parallel or crossed scratches
or fine punctures may be made, so as to allow of a little oozing
of the blood. This latter is to be wiped away, and then the
surface is to be anointed with the vaccine lymph. If the lymph
has been preserved in the dry condition, it is essential that it
should be first well moistened with a little water. If no result
follows the operation, it should be repeated.

Our readers will see that though cow-pox is not a disease of
very great importance in its relation to oxen, it is still one of
the utmost interest and moment, when looked upon from the
standpoint of the welfare of the human race. As we have inti-
mated, the probability is that the virulent disease known as
small-pox of man, when communicated to cows by the medium
of milkers or by inoculation, loses a great deal of its power for
mischief — indeed, to such an extent that when again inoculated
upon man it merely gives rise to transient symptoms, which,
however, protect against small-pox.

We now come to the consideration of " Small-pox in Sheep "

312 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

above mentioned. This disease is known scientifically under
the name of Variola ovina. On this subject a treatise by Pro-
fessor James B. Simonds, sometime Principal of the Royal
Veterinary College, Camden Town, London, N.W., was pub-
lished in the year 1848. From this valuable work we have
gathered many of the observations which follow.

This very destructive disease occurs in most parts of the
Continent, where it frequently assumes an epizootic character.
The first outbreak in England was probably that of the year
1848, when the disease resulted from the importation of infected
animals from abroad.

Rammazini records that at Modena, in 1690, the season was
cold and moist, and that the distemper of that year attacked
all the people who lived in the country, and spread among all
kinds of animals, killing great numbers after a few days' illness.
A discharge appeared on the thighs, neck and head, resembling
the pustules of small-pox ; and most of the animals which had
this appearance lost their eye-sight, and those which did not die
lost flesh. He spoke of this disease as being the small-pox, the
pustules being similar in form, colour, mode of suppuration, and
disappearance. This epidemic continued in 1691, attacking
chiefly the sheep.

In Picardy small-pox broke out in the year 1746, and con-
tinued up to 1792, destroying hundreds of sheep every year
during that interval. Moreover, Rabelais and Joubert mention
the occurrence of c/ar^/e^ (sheep-pox) in France in the sixteenth
century ; and since then, in many parts of that country, there has
been great destruction among the flocks, particularly in 1816.
Hurtrel d'Arboval affirms that since it was first observed this
disease has broken out as an epizootic at intervals of about
twelve and a half Years or so, and Captain Carr has recorded
that small-pox of sheep often appears in different and widely-
separated localities of Germany. Sheep-pox is supposed by
many to have originally come from Asia, and, in like manner
with small-pox, to have gradually extended from Asia to the
continent of Europe.

On September 4th, 1847, Professor Junies B. Simonds was
consulted with reference to a destructive skin disease which had
broken out among the sheep of Mr. Statham, a farmer of Dat-
chett, near Windsor. He had bought fifty-six sheep of the

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 313

Spanisli breed in Smitbfield Market on the 2Gtli of July. After
a week the sheep were put on the same pasture as that on
which a flock of about 200 Downs were grazing. A few days
afterwards Mr. Statham saw one of the Spanish sheep standing
apart, and that its body was covered with eruption. On
the next day several more of the Merinos were found to be
similarly affected, and then the disorder spread continually,
and many of the sheep died. About a fortnight after the
two flocks were pastured together, the malady first appeared
among the Downs, which seemed to suffer more severely than
the Merinos, The flocks were then separated; but still
the disease continued to advance, and losses occurred daily.

It is not difficult to understand how the disease was intro-
duced, seeing that in some localities on the Continent, for
instance round about Paris, it is probably only very seldom
indeed that no traces of the disease can be found. Again, it is
said that in Hamburg market a separate place was assigned to
contaminated sheep and those which had come from places
where the disease was known to exist. Seeing that the affection
lies dormant, or rather in an incubative and not evident form,
in the system for many days, it is not surprising that infected
animals should have been brought into England and sold without
any suspicions being excited.

In order to avert the disastrous outbreak, wliich it was clearly
evident must occur, unless the most stringent measures were taken,
a letter was sent to the authorities of the Board of Trade stating
that a disease similar to small-pox of man had broken out in
sheep in this country, that it had destroyed many sheep in every
flock attacked, and moreover that it would spread far and wide
unless isolation of the diseased animals was enforced, the neces-
sity for this course being seen in the circumstance that infected
sheep were often exposed for sale in Smitbfield Market, and
finally that the malady had been introduced from Tonningen and
Hamburg.

It was determined that a more careful examination of all im-
ported sheep should be carried out by veterinary surgeons duly
appointed as inspectors, so that no animals that were actually
diseased should be landed. If quarantine were established, sheep
would require to be examined every day for a fortnight, and if
any were found to be diseased, all on board ought to be forthwith

314 THE DISEASES AND DI>OliDEUS OF THE OX.

slaughtered, and the pens, sheds, and so forth thoroughly
disinfected, before any fresh sheep could safely be allowed to
occupy them.

Professor Simonds suggested that veterinary surgeons should
be appointed as inspectors at every port where sheep are landed,
to examine the animals before they are removed from the ships.
If any should be found to be affected with variola, they should be
immediately slaughtered. Moreover, all the sound sheep which
had been thus exposed to the contagion during the passage
should be sent to the meat markets, the carcases of the diseased
being buried and their skins burnt, the loss being borne by the
importers. A market should also be set apart for the sale of
foreign sheep and cattle, and be holden weekly at each place of
importation. To these markets all those animals which had
passed the inspectors should be sent, and all the sheep which
should arrive in the intervals between market days, and those
which were unsold, should be specially located, so as to prevent
them from being mingled with English sheep. Purchasers
should be enjoined to have the sheep, bought by them, killed
without delay, or, at any rate, kept stringently isolated for a
period of three weeks, during which time they should be examined,
and if they were found to be diseased, the fact should be at once
notified to the authorities.

In regard to the breaking out of sheep-pox in England, we
have first to say that on October Ist, 1847, imformation was
sent by the Government to the Lord Mayor concerning the
measures which had been determined upon. On the next
market day — October 4, 1847 — twenty infected sheep were taken
into the possession of the police-officers of Smithfield. At first
the vigilance of the city magistrates and of their officers did not
entirely repress the slaughtering of infected sheep in the country
and the sending of their carcases to London ; but in the course
of a few weeks this practice, as well as the sending up of living
sheep afflicted with the disease, was almost entirely stopped.

Now, in reference to the characters of the malady itself, sheep-
pox, like human small-pox, is very infectious and contagious,
and both diseases are characterised by a particuhir kind of
acute in6ammation of the skin and mucous membranes of the
entire body, coupled with fever, and to be very simihir to each
other. So liable is sheep-pox to spread, that it is highly

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 315

dangerous even to drive a healthy flock on a road over which
diseased sheep have travelled a short time before, and there is
especially great risk of the malady being transmitted by means
of the wool. Young sheep are more likely to be attacked
than older animals, but when infected they do not suflFer so
markedly.

The symptoms of the malady first manifest themselves in
sheep about ten days after they have been subjected to the
poison, provided the weather be warm; but in cold weather
twice that period may elapse, and, moreover, the malady will
then be less destructive than it is when the outside air is warm
and humid. The next stage, that of papulation, occupies about
six days. The sheep become dull, and lose their appetite ; they
like to take water and to lick earth ; they cease to chew the cud,
have a staggering gait, slight fever, and a mucous discharge from
the nostrils, which becomes thicker and even bloody as the disease
advances. The respirations are quick and short, the mucous
membranes are inflamed, and the conjunctival lining of the eye-
lids is red or scarlet. The eye-lids themselves are swollen, tears
flow in profusion down the face, the ears are pendent or lopped,
the head is held low. The infected animals separate themselves
from the herd, and keep apart ; some stand looking dejected, while
others lie down in a remote corner of the field.

At first the bowels may be torpid, but afterwards diarrhoea may
come on. The pulse is quick, and may number as many as ninety-
five beats per minute, and be almost imperceptible. About three
and a half days after the onset, both in the case of the natural
disease and also when it has resulted from inoculation, there may
be a diffused redness of the integument a day or two before the
spots appear. This redness is very similar to the one which breaks
out in human beings suffering from small-pox. As this redness
subsides, small red or purple points appear, and gradually attain
to about the size of a lentil. These deeply embedded spots are
best seen in places where the covering is hairy rather than
woolly, on the inside of the arms and thighs, especially between
the inside of the shoulder and the breast, on trfe face and hips,
the under surface of the tail, and so forth. These spots or
papules are under ^-inch in diameter, they are flattened in the
centre, and surrounded by a red ring.

In the papular stage of the disease the wool may become

316 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

detached. Some of the papules meet so as to be confluent.
The eruption rapidly extends over the whole skin, either in a
discrete or in a confluent form. It is said that Down sheep
seem to be particularly liable to have these papules on the face,
in which case the malady is very fatal. These spots impart a
sensation of firmness when they are pressed upon ; and when
they are cut into, the section is not unlike that of a wart. If
we try to pass a needle into one of these papules, some difficulty
is experienced, and nothing more than about a drop of blood
escapes. They are vascular only at the surface. If some of
the wool covering the papules is forcibly detached, the exposed
papules become white and then red again. The^e papules may
unite, and thereby produce prominent growths on the skin^
sometliing like a bunch of grapes in appearance.

At the same time as that at which this eruption is manifesting
itself, the sheep refuses food, and refrains from noticing com-
panions or surrounding objects. The disturbance arises appa-
rently at the same time both in the mucous membranes and in
the skin, the mucous membranes or inner linings of both the
respiratory and the digestive systems being affected. The dis-
charge from the Schneiderian membrane of the nose may be
thick, and so closely adherent to the sides of the nostrils that
even suffocation may be brought about. The pulse is indis-
tinct, and even the heart's beat itself has a vague character ; the
ears and feet are cold, the wool comes off easily, showing the
skin underneath to be inflamed.

The next three-and-a-half days after the formation of the
papules are taken up by their ])ecoming vesicular, as is shown by
their becoming white and bladder-like. Sometimes the papules
meet and become confluent, whereby large accumulations are
formed, vesication is delayed, the fever continues, and a fatal
result probably ensues.

in the perfectly formed vesicles of the sheep the lymph is not
contained in meshes, as it is in the case of the vaccine vesicle of
the human subject ; and hence, while one puncture is sufficient
to evacuate the contents in the former, several are needed in the
latter. Some papules disappear without becoming vesicular^
and in some vesiculation is delayed.

The next three days are taken up with the stage of suppura-
ration. The vesicle of sheep-pox is flat, that of cow-pox arise*

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 317

from the papule in an acuminated form, while that of small-pox
is depressed in the centre. The contents of the vesicles are at
first rather transparent, then milky, then turbid, then straw-
coloured, the latter changes being due to the presence of pus-
•oorpuscles. Then the contents become dry, and thus ultimately
cast oflF, together with the scale.

The fever may now assume a typhoid aspect, the discharge
from the nostrils becomes fetid, the breathing more rapid and
perhaps painful and accompanied with moaning. The cuticle
covering the spots becomes brown, and in the case of some it
peels off. Pus is formed on the margin of some of the spots.
The wool is capable of being very easily separated from the skin,
ulcerations t)f the conjunctiva occur, the internal structures of
ithe eye become disorganized, the animal shrinks from being
touched, the pulse becomes still more rapid and imperceptible.
Putrid ulcers form, whereby the poor animal is made blind, or
lame, or may lose part of the lips. Large sores appear on the
side of the face, the under surface of the abdomen, the inside
of the thighs. The ulceration may extend through the corium,
and into the tissues under the skin. The ulcers sometimes pro-
duced in the parts where the papules have been confluent may
discharge a vitiated fluid for many weeks.

When the eruption has completely establislied itself, the
general symptoms become less severe, and if the attack is a
mild one, the animal will then probably recover by degrees.
There may, however, be a recurrence of fever in the suppurative
stage, which is a very dangerous one ; the patients lie chiefly on
their sides and moan in agony, heave at the flanks, have their
eye-lids, heads, and lips swollen, give forth a discharge of fetid
mucus from the nostrils and of frothy saliva from the dry and
hot mouth, the tenderness of the body being at the same time
so marked that a simple touch will bring on convulsions. The
pulse is quicker, the breath offensive, purulent material forms in
the tissue under the skin, the alvine discharges also are copious,
offensive, and uncontrollable ; and death quickly ensues, very
generally during the first week succeeding the "eruption. If the
animal should happen to recover, untoward results may happen
before long, especially in the case of in-lamb ewes. The
average direct loss is about 50 per cent.

In cases of recovery, the eight days succeeding the stage of

318 THE DISEASES AND DISORPEES OF THE OX.

suppuration are occupied by the process of desquamation, which
is delayed if suppuration has occurred. The crusts formed vary
in colour from brownish yellow to black, and are thicker when
thrown off from a pustule than from a vesicle. When the scabs
fall off, pits of different sizes are left. Even in mild cases a
month will generally elapse before health is restored.

If a flock is found to be attacked with this disease, the first
thing to do is to separate the sheep which are infected from the
healthy individuals. The former should be slaughtered at once
and their carcases buried with antiseptic precautions, while the
latter should be taken as far away as may be practicable. They
should be put on dry grass land, or they may be supplied with
turnips and mangold-wurzel in moderate amount, together with
a little good cut hay, a small quantity of oats, and a little salt,
unless rock-salt is placed in their troughs. A dose of opening
medicine may be given, consisting of about two ounces of sul-
phate of magnesium, half a drachm of powdered aloes, half a
drachm of ginger-root, and eight fluid ounces of tepid water.
In the general way only a gentle aperient should be given.

PosT-MoRTEM Changes in Cases of Sheep-Pox. — Exami-
nation after death showed that the skin was studded with papules,
most of which were close together in large patches, a section
showing that they extended beneath the skin, and looking like
a section of a wart. The cellular tissue beneath the skin was
infiltrated with blood, and purulent formations are often seen
beneath the confluent papillse ; the mucous membranes, especially
of the respiratory system, are chiefly affected, the conjunctival
and Schneiderian membranes and the mucous lining of the trachea
and bronchi were highly injected. The vessels of the lungs were
engorged, whereby death was caused.

The skin may be red in one part and bluish black in another,
and everywhere the wool is very easily separated. Serum may
be present in the cellular tissue of the face and extremities.
There may be signs of ulceration in the conjunctiva and cornea.

The pituitary membrane is often studded here and there with
yellowish spots or nodules, which no doubt are structures
similar to papules.

These are not confined to the nasal portion of the respiratory
system, but also extend into the larynx, trachea, and bronchi.
Occasionally small ulcers are seen on the epiglottis and other

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 319

pnrts of the larynx ; but they rarely extend as far as the
bronchi. The smaller air-tabes and cells are mostly full of
dark mucus, but they are less marked and engorged with blood
than other portions of the air passages. Generally, the lungs
are congested, and irregular liver-coloured spots are seen under
their pleural covering. As a rule, the intestines are free from
disease, except in cases of severe diarrhoea. The kidneys may-
be softened and have spots similar to those seen on the lungs
under their capsules. Simple congestion of the brain and spina)'
marrow, or of their coverings, may be observed.

Now, with regard to the operation of ovination, great care is
requisite both as to the selection of the fluid and as to the mode
of procedure. It is especially necessary that pure lymph should
be chosen, and that deep punctures should not be made. Under
Professor Simonds' management several scratches were made-
through the epidermis on the inner side of the fore-leg of a
healthy sheep. On these slight incisions some transparent
lymph which had dried was rubbed, and the limb was kept
extended until the exuded blood had dried. On the next day
the skin was inflamed and raised in the form of a fold, and on
the following day the cuticle was raised owing to an effusion of
fluid beneath it. On the next day pustules containing secretion
were formed, which at first were yellow, but darker on the succeed-
ing day, partly, perhaps, in consequence of a drying up of their
contents. Two days afterwards, many of the scabs came off, and
the exposed sores looked healthy. Five days after this, a slight
inflammatory blush alone remained as a trace of the inoculation,,
the effects being for the most part local, the general health not
suffering, notwithstanding that the corded state of the lymphatics
proved that a general effect on the system had been produced.

Captain J. S. Carr, writing to The Mark Latie Express,.
under date October 12, 1847, recommended that all who should
know that this frightful scourge is in their vicinity should have
their sheep and lambs inoculated with virus taken from animals
afflicted with the disease in a mild form. About seven years
before 1847, the same writer had heard of the sheep-pox appear-
ing in the neighbourhood of Lauenburg, and he consequently had
his own sheep and lambs at once inoculated in the ear. The
result was that he lost no more than 6 per cent, of lambs and 1
per cent, of sheep, and this same plan was equally successful

320 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

with many of his tenants. In another village on the same estate
where no preventive measures were taken, not a single sheep was
left. This observer maintained that immediate inoculation
would not only generally save nine-tenths of sheep which were
unaffected, but that it would also lighten the disorder in the case
of those individuals of the flock which already showed signs of
disease. The great objection to inoculation is that inoculated
ovine-pox is quite as contagious as the natural disease itself;
and, moreover, the deaths may be at the rate of 20 per cent.

Hence there is a great deal of danger in this operation, and it
is obvious that the care taken in regard to the selection of the
fluid and in the method of procedure cannot be too minute.
Especially is it necessary that pure lymph should be selected,
and deep punctures should on no account be made. Moreover,
the operation ought not to be performed on lambs that are less
ithan four and a half months old. The lymph should be taken
from those sheep which have had the disease in its mildest form,
and the operation should be performed at a time when the
weather is genial and temperate, as may be the case late in spring
or early in autumn.

The places usually selected are the under side of the flap of
the ear, or the under surface of the tail, close to the root. A
needle with a fine flat point, or a lancet dipped in the virus,
should be carefully inserted between the upper and the second
skin. Great care should be taken to avoid piercing so deeply as
to draw blood, since large punctures are sure to be followed by
extensive or deep and dangerous sloughing. In fact, the
scratches cannot be too superficial. There should not be more
than three punctures, and they should be about two inches apart,
BO as to prevent the probability of an extension of the inflam-
mation from one to another. It is well to have one on either
side of the abdomen and a third on the inner surface of the thigh.
The virus, after being introduced, remains dormant for a few
days. If the inoculation takes, a red speck appears around
the incision, and increases until it is as large as half-a-crown,
then depression of its centre occurs, together with constitutional
disturbance of the animal, and perhaps an eruption. If no signs
appear by the eighth day, the inoculation may be supposed to have
Ifiikd. The vesicles produced by ovination will yield lymph
about the eighteenth day. Some say that after the lymph has

I

I

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 321

been passed through twelve or tifteen sheep it loses its efficacy,
but that at about the tenth remove a fluid is obtained which
produces a mild and not dangerous malady. The lymph may
be collected and stored in capillary tubes, afterwards hermetically
sealed at the ends, or ivory points may be charged and allowed to
dry. In time the lymph apparently becomes inert. The early-
formed lymph taken from small vesicles is the most pure, tran-
sparent, and viscid. Ifj after restoration to health, the patients
be again subjected to re-inoculation, or to the contagion itself,
no ill affects arise, inoculation being as powerful a preventive as
the natural disease itself. The animals should be kept quiet and
carefully attended to in regard to diet, and they should be
guarded against the vicissitudes of the weather, cold and
draughts, and so forth, provided with well-ventilated quarters,
well housed during the night, fed with good hay and coarse
meal, some of which last should be mixed with their water. If
the weather is mild and fine, the inoculated sheep may be allowed
to graze on the pastures and be out, even at night ; but when it
is cold and damp, they should certainly be sheltered and supplied
with nourishing diet. Should they be left out of doors in very
severe weather, those sheep which have been most strongly
affected will suffer greatly from local disturbances, great fever,
and diarrhoea which will generally lead to death.

We have briefly described the process of ovination, as it was
known in 1848.

Vaccination has generally produced upon sheep only a local and
feeble action, very much less than that on the human body. It
does not seem to affect the general system of sheep. It is of no
use to try to prevent sheep-pox by vaccination. It is supposed
that vaccination cannot be substituted for ovination. It has
not been found possible to communicate human small-pox to the
sheep. The conveyance of human small-pox to the ox is said to
engender the true vaccine. Vaccine matter having failed in
Egypt, it was found that by inoculating the cow with small-pox
from the body, fine active vaccine virus is produced ; but it really
requires to be humanized before it can he depended upon.
Whether the product of the natural ovine vesicle can be substi-
tuted for the vaccine is very doubtful. Some hold that the
transmission of the ovine lymph to the ox tribe is the best means
of rendering it more suited for the inoculation of sheep, and it

21

822 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

has also been averred that ovination of the subject is equal to
vaccination as a prophylactic against sraall-pox. This, however,
is very doubtful indeed. It appears that ovine variola cannot be
transmitted by inoculation either to the cow or probably to
man. The inflammation which has come on in the punctures
of children has declined in a few days without being attended
with any specific effects. Many children have been ovinated
several times in succession, but without any successful result.
The same children have afterwards been vaccinated, and at the
usual time the vaccine disease has been developed and passed
regularly through its course ; while simultaneously the same
kind of ovine virus has been inoculated on sheep, and the small-
pox has been produced. Attempts to communicate variola ovina
by inoculation to horses, oxen, goats, deer, pigs, dogs, monkeys,
rabbits, and various birds are also said to have been unsuccessful.

Varicella has been said to occur in sheep ; but the disease so
spoken of has probably not as yet been sufficiently examined.

If sheep-pox should perchance break out again in England,
the best course would probably be to slaughter all animals that
were afflicted or had been in close contiguity with animals
which were known to be afflicted. With regard to the practice
of ovination, whereby the disease is imparted in a mild form to
sheep liable to be attacked, the subject is one which does not
really affect the sheep-farmer in England, and as it is an
extensive one, we refrain from entering upon the consideration
of it more fully.

DIPHTHERIA.
We wish to insert here the briefest possible allusion to a
question we have often and often had occasion to discuss in the
columns of The Yorkshire Weekly Post, and elsewhere, namely,
to the relationship subsisting between certain diseases of man-
kind on the one hand and those of animals on the other.
Every day this question is receiving more and more attention,
and the communicability of some diseases of lower animals to
man himself is established beyond all doubt. We find that The
Times (a journal which is always well up to the foremost scien-
tific work), in its issue of Thursday, August 4th, 1887, gives
an account of Dr. George Turner's recent report on diphtheria.
This observer has had experience of that disease considered

I

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 323

especially in its relations to lower animals partly obtained in the
course of inspections made for the Local Government Board in
1886. The report is of such great importance to the community
as to justify us in making the following abstract of it : —

Though much has been learned respecting conditions favour-
ing its spread and fostering its virulence, still little or nothing
is known of the beginnings of diphtheria. The earliest cases
which occur in an epidemic of diphtheria are frequently very
mild, and the first persons who die are almost invariably
children who are generally supposed to have suffered from
*' croup/' and indeed it may be that at the commencement of an
outbreak diphtheria may be mainly a local disease, causing death
rather by suffocation than by its general effects upon the
system. The disease is propagated by personal communication,
where circumstances are favourable, as by association of chil-
dren in school. Slight cases, and even convalescing patients,
may serve to cause very intense disease in other subjects. Thus,
when a school has been closed owing to the existence of diph-
theria among the scholars, the disease may recur again and again
after the re-opening of the school. Children who are convalescent
after an attack of diphtheria do not seem to do much harm in their
own families, but as soon as a few of them congregate in school
the disease is apt to reappear with great severity.

Over-crowding, badly-trapped drains, damp walls and floors,
all tend to enhance the severity of diphtheria, as also does
saturation of the soil under the dwelling with fecal matter or
with water contaminated with excrement. Cases seem to occur,
however, for which neither personal communication nor any of
the above conditions can be traced, and the question arises : —
*' Is there no other possible source of diphtheria? " The com-
munication of the diseases respectively known as anthrax and
glanders from certain lower animals to man has long ago been
established beyond any possibility of doubt. By the medium
of cows' milk, scarlatina, diphtheria, and enteric fever have been
transmitted to the human subject, and recently Dr. Klein has
proved that a disease of the cow, which causes the animal
little or no discomfort, can by the channel of the infected cow's
milk reproduce itself in man as scarlet fever, one of the best-
known and most fatal of infectious disorders. The cow disease
in question is of a trivial nature.

21 *

324 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

In the year 1882 a pigeon was brought to Dr. Turner, who
found the whole of the wind-pipe covered with a well-marked
consistent membrane, hanging loosely in the tube like a wind-
sail, just as one may see it in the body of a child who has died
of croup. A person inoculated pigeons in the fauces with this
membrane, and the result was that a similar disease occurred,
and extended up into the eye of the pigeon through its nostrils.

In 1883 an epidemic of diphtheria broke out in the village
of Braugliing. The first cases were connected with a farm,
whereat the fowls were dying of a disease apparently identical
with this disease of the pigeons. Diphtheria made its appear-
ance also on other farms, where it was also preceded by a
similar affection among the fowls.

Dr. Turner noticed the same association in other instances,
and during the summer of 1886, while he was making inquiries
for the TiOcal Government Board into an outbreak of epidemic
diphtheria at Farnham, he found that the fowls had been afifected
at the same time as human beings at Aldershot, at which place
a veterinary surgeon dissected some chickens, and noticed the
presence of a membrane in the trachea. It had occurred,
too, among turkeys and fowls at Ash, and also very prevalently
at Long Eaton, in Derbyshire; while at Tongham, and near it,
the disease had caused great havoc among chickens and
pheasants. At Tongham a game-keeper clearly described the
white crusts round the beaks, the patches in the throats, the
affections of the eyes and nostrils, and the absence of strangles
{Sclerosioma sijngamus). As a matter of fact only the very
young chickens usually succumb to the animal parasite, while
numbers of the older birds die from this other disease now in
question.

A man bought a chicken at a low price at an infected farm
at Tongham, the bird being thought likely to die of this
diphtheria-like disease. He took it home, and diphtheria itself
broke out in his house shortly afterwards. This was the first
case in that village. Dr. Turner mentions that he has also seen
chickens and pigeons which had been inoculated with diph-
theritic membrane from a child's throat, attacked as if with
natural fowl-diphtheria. Similar accounts are received from
abroad (vide Biilish Medical Jourval, October 6, 1884,
also Journal it Ilygietie, 1884, p. 411). The same observer

DISEASES OF TlfE OK AND SHEEP. 8'25

had also noticed a disease in swine apparently exactly similar
to human diphtheria, and had remarked that at Braughing
both the swine and horses suffered from sore throat imme-
diately after the epidemic among the human beings.

In January, 1886, having been called upon to investigate an
epidemic of diphtheria at Brent Pelham (Herts), he found that
in the cottage in which the first cases occurred a kitten had
previously suffered from a throat affection, attended by swelling
of the neck, foul discharge from the nostrils, and " running" at
the eyes. Two cats had died at the general shop in the village,
and the shop-keeper himself subsequently suffered. Similar
disease existed among the cats at Aldershot, in Hants, at Farn-
ham and Yateley, in Surrey, and at Petersfield, in Sussex. At
PetersfieJd it was clear that a cat had been infected by diph-
theritic children. Moreover the cats in a row of houses in
which the disease had been prevalent were noticed to be ailing.

Fig. 39. — ^Portion of a Diphtheritic Mkmbrank. Numerous Micrococci
are seen to be present.

Their throats were swollen, and there was discharge from the
eyes and nose.

xA.t Moultou (Suffolk) some children were ill of diphtheria
in a cottage at some distance from the village. They were
confined to the upper rooms of their cottage, and no food which
had been offered to the sick children was set before the others.
It was given to the cat. This animal subsequently suffered
very severely, but eventually recovered.

In the British Medical Journal of January 3, 1885, there is
an account of some experiments by Dr. C. J. Reiishaw, who
seems to have succeeded in inoculating cats with diphtheria by
means of diphtheria material of man.

At Moulton, the first case of diphtheria at a farmhouse
occurred shortly after a horse on the farm had died of strangles,
while the second was that of a stable attendant. Iq the neigh-
bouring village of Ouseden, a man who had recently recovered

826 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

from diphtheria was for a short time employed to groom a mare,
which animal in a few days was afiFected with " strangles," shown
by much swelling at the angle of the jaws, and a very foul
discharge from the nose. At Yateley, diphtheria in the human
subject was in two instances coincident with strangles among
the horses.

Dr. Ogle relates that he met with a case in which diphtheria
broke out in a shepherd's family shortly after a throat disease
had prevailed among the sheep.

There seems at least to be sufficient evidence to encourage
careful inquiry as to connection betwixt diphtheria in man and
certain affections in animals. It is said that in the Australian
bush diphtheria sometimes appears under circumstances which
almost preclude any conveyance of infection by human beings
or by prevailing winds. [We may here add that the same has
been said of the occurrence of typhoid fever in isolated localities
in South Africa and elsewhere.]

We proceed to speak now of diphtheria in the ox. In doing
so, we cannot but feel regret that what appears to be known at
present regarding this matter is very incomplete, and short of
imparting satisfaction. Once again we may reiterate that these
questions as to the connections between allied diseases in dif-
ferent classes of animals deserve the most careful and the most
thorough and painstaking investigation, as indeed they are now
receiving at the hands of able scientists. Years and years of
prolonged research will be necessary before we shall be able to
say that we are really beginning to comprehend the workings of
disease, and no one should lose an opportunity of arousing some
of that enthusiasm among workers in the field of science, which
must be acquired in order to carry tliem through the immense
amount of labour whicli is necessary in order to solve these
weighty and most momentous problems.

It was, we believe, in the year 1880, that ]\lr. W. Beach,
to whom great credit is therefore due, brought forward the
belief that the disease known by the name of diphtheria as affect-
ing human beings, also invades cattle. lie suggested, and seemed
to believe, that the disease which he considered to be diphtheria
in oxen originated from the disease of the human subject known
by that name. The symptoms seem to be somewhat as follows:
— Tlic pulse is quick, the tiiroat is sore and swollen, and

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 327

consequently difficulty in swallowing is apparent; the animal
has paroxysms of coughing ; there is a discharge of mucus
from the nostrils, and a flow of saliva from the mouth ; the
breathing is accelerated, during inspiration a crowing sound is
produced ; there may be spasms of the larynx, especially if the
animal is excited, and, finally, great debility supervenes. The
pulse becomes weaker and weaker as the disease progresses, and
the coughing assumes a more violent character. At about the
third day after the commencement of the malady, lymph-casts
of portions of the air-tubes, or, at any rate^ flakes of lymph, are
thrown up.

If death closes the scene, and an examination be made (great
care being taken to avoid inoculation), the air tubes and the
tonsils may be seen to be lined on their inner surface with a
greyish membrane, which, in case the animal has died at an
early stage of the disease, is firmly attached to the tissues below,
while if the case is one of some standing, this membrane is
observed to have been loosened owing to the process of effusion
or suppuration which has gone on beneath it. More than all
this, the alimentary canal, the eyes, the tissues under the skin,
the digits, the pasterns, and the hoofs, the membranes lining the
interior of the genito-urinary passages, may all respectively, or,
indeed, more or less collectively, be invaded with deposits of the
characteristic exudation. According to Dr. Fleming, even the
horns may be shed.

Various writers have described a disease which is no doubt
the same. For instance, in Tlie Veterinaricui of December,
1880, there is a translation of a paper written by M. Lenglen, of
Arras, who therein describes a disease in which the lining mem-
brane of the mouth sloughs away in patches of great size near
the molar teeth or on the tongue, there being also a tendency to
the formation of an abscess in the cheek or lips. The animal,
generally a young calf, but one which may be several months
old, suffers also from a fetid diarrhoea, which often brings on a
fatal issue.

Another observer, Dammann by name, finds that this disorder
is general as well as local, that it affects the air-passages as well
as the mouth, also the intestines, lungs, and the clefts between
the digits. The symptoms are fever, prostration, salivation,
swelling of the cheeks, stiffness, sore throat; and there are

328 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

tnicrobes in the form of bright granules and rods in the
deposits. The disease seems to be communicable to other calves
and to mankind. Numerous bacilli occupy the line of junction
between the diseased and the healthy tissues. These bacilli are
capable of propagating the disease. Pigs and other domesticated
animals are liable to be attacked. The best treatment is very
careful nursing coupled with liquid food, steaming of the air-
passages with an antiseptic inhalation such as can be made by
adding about a teaspoonfiil of oil of eucalyptus to about a gallon
of boiling water, a free supply of water with chlorate of potas-
sium added to it (about a drachm to each half-bucketful), and a
plentiful supply of air. Salicylic acid has been found valuable
as a curative agent. The dose is about one drachm. Sulphite
of sodium is of great, and perhaps of inestimable, value. Tt may
be administered in doses of one drachm, given rather frequently,
in accordance witli the requirements of the particular case. If
there is danger of suffocation, the veterinary surgeon must
perform tracheotomy.

In the management of this disease a nourishing administra-
tion of vegetable tonics, and of coffee according to some, are to
be recommended. The sloughs in the mouth sliould be removed,
and the places left bare should be acted upon with the tincture
or the solution of perchloride of iron (Mr. James), or with some
caustic, or perhaps with weak solution of perchloride of mercury
carefully applied.

SCARLET FEVIiR OR SCARLATINA.
If it is true that a rose with any other nauie would smell as
sweet, it is equally obvious that immense importance attaches
iiself to correct nomenclature. Hence, in assifjuing to anv

' DO

disease of the ox emphatically and categorically the title of
scarlet fever, one might, in the present state of knowledge upon
the subject, be considered to be u little bold. The kind render
who has followed us in our efforts to clear up some of the ditfi-
culties connected with tiie most important and interesting,
though difficult and intricate, science of pathology, will clearly
realise how considerable is the amount of cautious judgment
whicii is necessary before we apply to two diseases, occurring
respectively in two dilferent kinds uf animals, the same desig-
nation.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 329

If it is not always. an easy matter to diagnose a disease in any
individual man or animal, owing to notable differences whicli
very frequently present themselves, it is doubly difficult to decide
whether or not there is sufficient justification in any particular
case for applying to a malady exhibited in one kind of animal the
same name as tliat which is used to denominate a disease in
another kind of animal. Of course there are not a few cases in
which we use the same appellation without any hesitation. For
instance, both in the matter of its origin and in that of its
characteristics, rabies is a disease which varies but little in
different animals. There are many instances, however, in which it
is a matter of no small debate how far the resemblances which
do exist justify the use of the same name; for though the
similarities may be great, the diseases may nevertheless be
altogether and essentially different.

Though, then, we should in pathology, as in all other studies,
be on our guard against a tendency to remark dissimilarities
rather than resemblances, we must also avoid laying too much
stress on similarities found among things which are in reality
distinct. Such a mistake was made in the case of measles and
scarlet fever, and as a matter of fact down to about the middle
of the sixteenth century these two diseases as occurring in man-
kind were not considered to be different maladies. It was only
after closer inspection that their distinguishing characteristics
were remarked. Again, at the present time it is difficult to
decide how far swine fever is allied with typhoid fever of man,
though it is probable that the two are very intimately allied.
Further, if we turn to scarlet lever of man, and inquire it there
is any disease of the ox closely corresponding with it, we are
confronted with an arduous point of dispute.

In the attempts we shall make to throw light upon this most
important point — important because it so intimately affects the
human race — we shall in the first place make a lew observations
regarding this fever as it presents itself in man. We shall then
discuss briefly the characters of the bovine ^diseases known as
erythema mammillarum and as scarlatina respectively. In pass-
ing we may now remark that these are probably the same disease
as that which has recently been described by Power, Cameron,
and Klein, and at the same time that the former is possibly
simply a state occurring sometimes more and sometimes less

330 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

markedly as one of the symptoms of scarlatina itself. In other
words erythema mammillarum is possibly but a local mani-
festation of the general fever.

We shall then proceed to mention some points elicited in
the investigation of Power, Cameron, and Klein, and treat
shortly of the malady they have described as having occurred in
certain cows, and as having given rise, by vitiating the milk, to
scarlatina in the human subject. Accepting the conclusions
drawn by these observers, and in consideration of the fact of a
pronounced resemblance in the character of the changes which
take place in both diseases, we may consider that this Hendon
cow disease to which we refer is nothing else than bovine scar-
latina, the same malady which veterinarians had previously, but
by no means accurately, described.

Scarlet Fever in Man.

And now, in continuation of our subject, we propose to give
a general account of Scarlet Fever as it appears in man, after
which we shall give an abstract of the investigations recently
conducted at the instance of the Medical Officer of the Local
Government Board by Mr. Power in co-operation with Drs.
Klein and Cameron, mentioning and briefly discussing some of
the very important points elicited by the classical researches of
these able investigators.

Scarlet fever, then, may be spoken of as an infectious disease,
which is chiefly characterised by the appearance of a general
punctiform eruption, which generally manifests itself on the
second day, and by inflammation of the fauces, tonsils, and
kidneys.

Dr. Gee defines scarlet fever as an acute pyretic disease,
specific both in its cause and in its course, and producing in its
course an exanthem with characters quite peculiar.

In regard to its history, it appears that down to about the
middle of the sixteenth century this fever and the disease
known under the name of measles were not considered to be
distinct and differetit maladies. It was onlv after a closer
examination of them that their distinguishing characteristics
were observed.

The earliest record which we have of the existence of scarlet
fever is that which bears the date a.d. 1556, the year in which

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 331

Ph. Ingmssias published a description of a malady which had
been previously recognized by the common people, and named
by themRossalia. It is possible that examples of a severer type
of the same disease formed part of the notable epidemic of
malignant angina which raged sixty years later in the South of
Europe. In Germany, about this time, Sennertus noticed what
he supposed was the rossalia of the Italians, and what no doubt
was our scarlet fever. In 1676 appeared Sydenham's Febris
Scarlatina, and by the end of the same century the disease had
been described in all parts of civilized Europe (Noirot). Scarlet
fever is the same disease as that called " morbilli confluentes "
(Morton), and as the " febris rubra " of Heberden.

At the present day the fever is generally met with among
human beings throughout the world, but it has at least in
England its peculiar seasons of prevalence. The ravages of
this malady are promoted by poverty, by overcrowding, and by
other mal-hygienic conditions, and so infectious and widespread
is the virus of the disease among mankind that very many
children are affected with it during the first few years of life,
and are thereby in a great measure protected agaiust future
attacks. Hence arises the fact that scarlet fever seems to occur
more frequently in children than in adults. The disease, how-
ever, although it rarely occurs a second time, in like manner
with small-pox, may recur as many as three times or possibly
even more frequently ; but, as is to be expected, the disease
under such circumstances has by no means the same power for
mischief as it has in the case of a first attack. It frequently
happens, too, that persons attending on patients affected with
scarlatina suffer from sore throat, and there is evidence to show
that this sore throat may in reality be a sign of a very mild or
abortive attack.

It is most probable that scarlet fever has its origin iu tlie
presence and multiplication of a definite germ ; for very minute
micrococci have been found in the blood of scarlet fever patients,
also in the ulcerations and discharges of the throat, and in the
scales of skin which peel off in the later stage of the disease,
when the process called desquamation is going on. These scales,
then, may in all probability be looked upon as fertile sources
of communication. The micrococci are found in small groups,
and they have a diameter of about '0005 mm. To this point

332 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEKS OF THE OX.

we shall again recur. The virus of scarlet fever is of a power-
fully infectious nature, and it may be conveyed from an infected
person to others by the medium of the clothes, the furniture,
and so forth, and it is to be borne in mind that the infective
properties persist for a long time. Apparently the virus may be
carried great distances by the medium of the air — at any rate,
through the dimensions of a large ward, and also doubtless
even from the hospital to the neighbourhood which immediately
surrounds it. It clings to clothes with great tenacity, and may
thus lie latent for an indefinite period, and it is liable to infect
milk and otlier articles of food. The fever may be transmitted
by infection or by direct inoculation. Women at the time of
parturition are very liable to take the infection, possibly
receiving it, it has been suggested, directly from the fingers of
the accouclieur in some instances. The infectiousness of the fever
is greatest when the rash and the sore throat are developed, and it
certainly does not cease until desquamation has been completed.

The period of incubation in the case of scarlet fever is shorter
than that of most diseases of the same class. It usually varies
from six to eight days; but it is sometimes longer, and very
frequently Jess, and may be as little as twenty-four hours. It is
especially in tlie case of puerperal women, and probably also in
that of persons suffering from large wounds, that the latent period
seems to be of very short duration. The fever varies wonder-
fully in regard to the degree of its severity, in the symptoms;
and, when deatli occurs, in the cause which finally brings it
on, and the time at which the fatal result ensues. The onset of
the disease is sudden, the first noticeable signs being chills,
sore throat, comitiiifj, dryness of skin, drowsiness, headache in
the region of the forehead, giddiness, aching of the limbs,
coating of the tongue, thirst, loss of appetite, and sometimes
also diarrhoea. The pulse at first is very rapid.

There is reason to believe that the irritation of the throat is
in some measure a cause of the vomiting which occurs at an
early stage in cases of scarlet fever, and since vomiting also
occurs at the onset of diphtheria and small-pox, in which the
fauces are attacked, and also closely follows the onset of inflam-
mation of the fuices, it seems as if in all those cases the irrita-
tion is at least in part a cause of the vomiting. (Dr. D.
Astley Gresswell.)

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 333

The pulse may be about 120 in the case of an arlult, jibout
160 in tliatof a cluld,nnd the temperature maybe nearly 105° F.
during the first day. The patient may be delirious, or may even
exhibit a tendency to coma.

On the second day the rash may make its appearance on the
chest, fore-arms, lower part of the abdomen, and upper part of
the thighs, and at about the middle of the third day it reaches
its greatest intensity. At first it consists of very minute rosy
spots or papules which may possibly be due to the conical
elevation of the cutis around the points wherefrom the individual
hairs emerge. These spots afterwards enlarge and become
more red, and they may blend in some degree so as to impart
to the skin a uniform scarlet hue, althougli if the skin be
closely inspected the papular character of the rash can still be
observed. The spots situated on the chest and neck may not
unfrequently become vesicular. The rash is usually attended
with more or less infiltration and thickening of the cutis. It
may be the case, though very rarely, and either when the rash
is at its height, or at the beginning of its decline, that a serous
fluid is extensively poured out beneath the epidermis, especially
that of the trunk, so that the surface becomes covered with
small flat blebs which tend to become continuous. This con-
dition necessarily leads to a larger and coarser desquamation
than usually occjurs. If the skin be pressed, as, for example,
by drawing the edge of the nail firmly over it, the vivid
redness of the skin disappears for a second or two. The rash
varies greatly both in regard to its intensity and to its diffusion,
and it may be limited to the parts in which it first appears.
The rash is often especially marked on the neck, chest,
abdomen, and inner aspects of the thighs and arms. The feet
and hands may not uncommonly be stiff with it, and the
oedema which attends it.

The rashes of the specific fevers sometimes illustrate the
similar origin of the parts which they affect. For instance, the
rash of the fever we are now considering, namely, scarlet fever.
may occur in many parts of the body which hare been developed
from the epiblast. It may occur on any part of the skin,
and is only rarely distinctly marked on the face, although
there are frequently irregular patches of redness on it. How-
ever, the rash may be only seen on the face with some difficulty.

334 THE DISEASES .^JSTD DISORDERS OF THE OX.

owing to the two facts, firstly, that the skin of the face is
naturally full of blood, and, secondly, that the scarlatina rash
is much more uniform than most rashes are, and is consequently
not so easily observed. The rash occurs also on the scalp, on
the oral and faucial mucous membranes, probably also on the
nasal mucous membrane, as is shown by the constant thick
stream of discharge so frequently seen flowing from both nostrils
in infants and children, also on the conjunctiva, in the external
auditory meatus of the ear; probably also in the middle ear
and eustachian tube. These latter points lead us to the recol-
lection that the mucous membranes of the fauces, eustachian
tube, middle ear and external ear are originally derived from the
lining of one cleft, the tympano-eustachian, the representative
of the permanently open spiracle of the Selachii. Observations
of a similar nature are to be made in regard to the two
diseases, measles and small-pox.

While the rash is attaining its full development, the other
symptoms are all becoming intensified. The temperature rises,
and the pulse and respirations become more rapid. The tongue,
which at first was covered, with the exception of the tip and
edges, with a thickish whitey-brown fur, becomes more thicklv
coated. At a later time the coating falls off, and the tongue
becomes in about four and a half days from the outset of the
malady red, clean, and moist, with swollen papillae, and shows
that remarkable strawberry-like appearance which is so charac-
teristic of this disease. In severer cases the tongue quickly
becomes dry. The soreness of the throat increases, and a more
or less vivid or dusky redness and swelling of the pillars of the
fauces, soft palate, uvula, and tonsils, are apparent. The
tonsils generally enlarge, and here and there on their surface
specks of inspissated secretion may be seen. With the faucial
swelling and inflammation, there are generally associated pain
and diflBculty in swallowing, fulness and tenderness behind the
angles of the jaw, and some enlargement of the lymphatic glands
of this part. There is much weakness, the limbs mav be
tremulous, and the patient may become delirious and look dull
and stupid or restless, and be persistently so until death super-
venes. The vomiting generally subsides at quite an early
time; but in malignant cases it is severe, and may be almost
continuous. The bowels an- v.iriablc ia icgard to their action,

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 335

but are generally confined. In considering the symptoms of
scarlet-fever in man one should not forget to bear in mind that the
very mildest cases may almost be said to be without symptoms.

From the fourth to the sixth day of the disease the rash begins
to fade, and it disappears between the sixth and the tveelfth day
of the disease, or between the fifth and tenth day from the
appearance of the rash. From about the fourth to the sixth
day it frequently happens that the patient, if progressing un-
favourably, passes into a typhoid condition, or serious throat
complications may ensue. The tonsils may ulcerate from
almost the outset of the disease, or slough, or perhaps the
urine may become albuminous. It seems to be quite exceptional
for dropsy or uraemia to occur at this time. On the other hand,
if the case be going on favourably, all the symptoms at about
this time gradually subside. The temperature, with slight
daily remissions, ere long becomes normal, or even below the
normal standard. The pulse, too, rapidly sinks to its healthy
rate or slightly below it, the soreness of the throat subsides,
the tongue becomes clean and moist, the thirst abates, and the
desire for food is regained.

Desquamation commences when the rash is fading. It begins,
as a rule, on the neck and chest, whence it spreads to the rest
of the trunk and limbs. The desquamating epidermis may be
in the form of a fine powder, or it may be in flakes of very
variable size. That from the hands and feet may indeed be in
the form of a glove. The size of the flakes when they are shed
from parts whereon the epidermis is thick, is larger in proportion
to the thickness. Hence the flakes are small and delicate on
the chest and abdomen, but large on the limbs. Sometimes a
transverse fissure at the root of the nails shows that desquama-
tion is also indicated in the nails, or that the growth of the
nail has been interrupted. The period of desquamation varies
in duration from a few days to several weeks. It almost always
occupies at least two weeks, and generally from four to eight
weeks. It is to be remembered that it is chiefly during this
period that albuminuria with dropsy and uraemm may supervene.
It may also be observed that rheumatism is liable to come on
shortly after desquamation has commenced. Moreover, there is
good reason to believe that the particles of skin which are
thrown ofi" in desquamation are highly infectious.

336 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Acceleration of the pulse, especially in children, is a notable
feature of the disease. On the first day it probably rises to
between 100 and 120, and in cliildren still higher. It generally
continues to increase up to the time of full development of the
rash, sometimes attaining a rate of 160 or more, after which,
if the case go on favourably, it somewhat rapidly falls. Unusual
rapidity of pulse, together with marked weakness, is of grave
import.

Respiration is always at first more or less hurried, i.e. in all
but the mildest cases; but there is not necessarily any cough or
difficulty of breathing. If the case is a very bad one, the
respirations become very rapid and shallow, and the inspirations
are attended with dilatation of the nostrils, and a sniffing or
sucking sound. These conditions, unattended with distinct
pulmonary lesion, indicate very great danger. During the latter
part of the erupiive stage or subsequent periods of the disease,
inflammation may extend to the larynx and trachea, and produce
the usual symptoms of laryngitis ; or coryza, bronchitis, or
lobular or lobar pneumonia, with their several groups of
symptoms, may come on. Coryza may occur at a very early
stage.

Thirst and loss of appetite are always present in a greater or
less degree during the pyrexial state. Vomiting is a charac-
teristic feature of the invasion, and there are but few children
who do not suffer from it; but it does not persist as a rule. At
the beginning diarrhoea may occur, and afterwards the bowels
are generally, but by no means always constipated. The tongue
varies in character. In very mild cases it is only slightly furred,
and soon cleans, without ever displaying the strawberry-like
appearance. Sometimes it very early becomes thickly coated,
dry, and even black, sordes appearing at the same time on the
teeth and lips. More usually it is coated at the first, and on
the fourth or fifth day it becomes clean and unnaturally red
with prominent and swollen papillas, after which it may either
gradually acquire the normal characters or become dry and
mahogany-like. The soreness of the throat causes difficulty and
pain in swallowing, and a nasal quality of voice. Tlie soreness
involves all the parts at the back of the mouth, the fauces, and
the upper part of the pharynx; but it does not, as a rule,
include the larynx. The tonsils chiefly suffer, and, as has been

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 337

pointed out, they generally become enlarged and present on the
surface opaque patches which have been secreted by the glandular
follicles. In mild cases the soreness may be very slight and
speedily subside. Very often, however, sometimes at the begin-
ning, but more frequently in the second or third week, the
tonsils suppurate, ulcerate, or slough, or buboes and abscesses
form near them, or a false membraue appears on the surface
and extends to other neighbouring j^arts.

During the febrile stage of the disease, the urine is scanty and
high coloured, contains a diminished quantity of chlorine, and,
according to Dr. Gee, not necessarily any increase of urea.
Subsequently it. becomes more abundant and of lower specific
gravity. Albumen is often present in the urine, and its presence
is important. Many of the cases very severe in onset escape
albuminuria, while many of the mildest suflFer severely. Albumen
has been detected on the second or third day of the disease, but
more commonly in the course of the second or third week, during
the period of desquamation. The amount of it varies^ as also
does the time during which it persists. Not unfrequently the
urine is smoky, and when it is examined by the microscope,
hyaline and epithelial casts of the renal tubules are found, and
usually also blood-corpuscles, or casts containing altered blood.

During the height of the disease, the skin is generally dry and
feels hot, and in malignant cases " petechia " often appear. The
temperature of the body attains a marked elevation very early
in scarlet fever. It often reaches 104 deg. or 105 deg. when
the eruption is fully developed, and very occasionally it rises to
even 110 deg. or 112 deg. It is unlike small-pox in that the
temperature rises instead of falling when the rash appears, and
unlike measles in that it subsides slowly after the rash has
reached its acme, instead of undergoing a sudden fall.

The patient complains of soreness of throat, and has some
headache and giddiness, and general aching of the limbs ; but
the pains are not so severe as in many other febrile disorders.
In the beginning of the disease the patient is usually restless and
sleepless, and often a little delirious. When tTie eruption comes
out, and during the time of its persistence, the patient may still
be restless and excited, or dull and somewhat inclined to coma or
delirium. If the fever is of a very grave kind, violent delirium
may be one of the earliest symptoms. In children convulsions

22

338 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

may come on early in the disease ; but they are rarer than at
the beginning of measles or small-pox.

There is no disease which varies more than scarlet fever does.
On the one hand, it may be one of the very mildest ; or on the
other, one of the most terrible, of diseases. Sometimes patients
scarcely know that they have been ill, while at other times it
may happen that not one of a household in which the fever breaks
out lives through it. Indeed, the malady may be of so deadly a
nature that a patient stricken down v/ith it may die within the
first three days, or even, it is said, during the very first day of
attack, before the rash has appeared or the throat has become
at all markedly sore. Again, while some epidemics of scarlet
fever scatter death far and wide, others are of such a mild
character that scarcely a single death results. Frequently the
fever spreads rapidly through a village or town or over a large
extetit of country in so mild a form that hardly any fatal cases
occur, while at other times an epidemic may be characterised by
great malignancy, and a terrible mortality may ensue from its
ravages. Some mild cases may be spoken of as examples of
latent scarlet fever, and some would scarcely be recognised as
scarlet fever at all but for the facts that they occur while that
fever is prevalent, or that they impart scarlet fever, or that
desquamation, with or without albuminuria, supervenes. Further,
of cases of medium intensity, some may show severe sore throat
and but a mild eruption, while in others there may be but little
aflfection of the throat.

Another variety of scarlet fever is that in which the throat
affection may be serious from the first ; but more frequently it
undergoes aggravation either at the height of the fever or during
the subsidence of the rash, or even after its disappearance.
There mav, perhaps, be abscess of the tonsil, or marked ulcera-
tion, or gangrene, with csderaa of the surrounding tissues, and,
supervening thereon, the glands in the neck may inflame and
suppurate, and sinuses may form. If so, the patient may fall
into a typhoid condition and die, or may be carried off by oetlema
of tilt! glottis, perforation of an artery, or pyaemia. Scarlet fever
occurring at or just iifter parturition is said to be very fatal, and
is regarded by some as a grave form of " puerperal fever."
However, it does not appear to be especially dangerous during
pregnancy or to lead to abortion.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 8-39

In the course of scarlet fever, the conjunctivse not unfreqiiently
inflame, and occasionally in the second or third week of the
disease, the ophthalmia becomes intense and purulent, and slough-
ing of the cornese may result. Again, inflammation sometimes
extends along the eustachian tube to the tympanic cavity, pro-
ducing otitis, with possibly disease of the petrous bone, and,
meningitis, abscess of the brain, or pyaemia. Inflammation may
extend also to the nose and produce chronic catarrh of its
mucous surface. Inflammation of the pericardium or of the
pleuree (the latter often purulent) is not uncommon. During
the decline of the fever, or even during the period of convales-
cence, rheumatism may come on. To scarlatinal rheumatism,
which, it is said, differs in no respect from ordinary rheumatism,
affections of the heart, and chorea or embolism occasionally
succeed. The most important complication, however, is nephritis,
which frequently comes on in the second or third week. As a
rule, this condition passes off without any ill result. Not un-
frequently, however, uraemia comes on, attended with severe
headache and convulsions, frequently ending in death. If
judicious treatment be resorted to, the albuminuria and the
dropsy may subside ; but at times the urine remains permanently
albuminous, and the kidneys undergo slow disorganization.
Anasarca sometimes remains after the disappearance of the
albuminuria, and it is said that this condition occasionally arises
in those patients who have never had albumen in the urine.

Morbid Anatomy. — In malignant cases there may be col-
lapse and hypostatic congestion of the lungs, and haemorrhage
into and at the free surfaces of internal organs. The throat
generally presents distinct traces of inflammation and ulceration.
The solitary intestinal glands and Peyer's patches are somewhat
enlarged, and may be ulcerated. Ante-mortem clots are not
uncommon in the right ventricle.

Dr. Klein has shown that even at the earliest stage of the
disease there is a marked tendency to inflammatory hypersemia
and proliferation, not only in the skin, mouth, throat, and
kidneys, but throughout the alimentary canal, and in the sali-
vary glands, pancreas, liver, lymphatic glands, and spleen.
Generally in all these parts there are observed germination of
the endothelium of the small blood-vessels, hyaline thickening
of the intima, germination of tlie nuclei in the muscular coat

22 *

340 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

and accumulation of lymphoid cells in the surrounding tissues,
besides which in the epidermis swelling and proliferation of the
cells of the rete mucosum with serous effusion and migration of
leucocytes between them, and tendency to detachment of the
borny layer ; in the various epithelia (including those of the
renal tubules) changes resembling those in the skin ; and in
the interior of lymphatic glands, especially those of the neck,
disappearance of the lymphoid cells, and development in their
stead of many-nucleated giant-cells, which at last become
fibrous.

In regard to the treatment of patients suffering from scarla-
tina, a great deal of judgment is always requisite. The remedies
which have been employed are very numerous. As we have
said above, scarlet fever varies very considerably in its intensity.
On the one hand, if no complications occur, the malady may
terminate favourably within about a week or a little more from
its commencement. On the other hand, it must be borne in
mind (as Dr. Gee points out) that however favourable may be
the progress of a scarlatinal patient, confinement to bed should
be insisted upon for a period of three weeks from the outset of
the disease. Then the patient may be allowed to get up, but not
to leave the room for another week. Even after four weeks have
elapsed, the patient cannot be said to be free from all danger of
albuminuria. Especially, of course, if the disease is of a malig-
nant tvpe, and also if any unfavourable pre-existing condition
such as the puerperal state is present, must the greatest care be
exercised.

The patient should at once be isolated, placed in a suitable
room on the top floor of the house, which should be set apart
exclusively for the patient. The usual measures should be taken
iu regard to nursing, ventilation, disinfection, cleanliness, and
removal of surplus furniture. Carpets and porous materials
should be removed. The bedroom should be well ventilated, in
part by an open fire. The whole surface of the body should be
sponged with tepid water in which a little of the salt, perman-
ganate of potassium, has been dissolved, once or twice a day.
The skin may be subsequently greased with mutton suet. The
diet should consist of milk, beef-tea, eggs (one or two daily),
light puddings, and farinaceous diet. Drink should be freely
supplied. It should be remembered that purgation is to be

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 341

avoided. The salt, acetate of ammonium, or the nitrate or the
chlorate of potassium may be administered in suitable doses in
solution. In itself delirium is not necessarily a sign of very
grave danger; but when delirium is continued, and when it is
accompanied by severe vomiting and diarrhoea there is much need
for apprehension. If the patient is low, the pulse quick, soft, and
feeble, and if coryza be present, wine should be given, together
with full doses of carbonate of ammonium in milk every four
hours. Some recommend ammonia in large doses frequently
administered, some advise the administration of diluted hydro-
chloric acid, or the perchloride of iron. Ice is often given to
allay vomiting. In order to relieve the soreness of the throat,
ice or the inhalation of steam or warm milk, slowly swallowed,*
or astringent or antiseptic gargles may be used.

If the throat is much inflamed, the patient should be allowed
to dissolve lumps of ice in the mouth. Ice can be given to
patients above five or six years of age. Another plan of treat-
ment in case of inflamed throat is the inhalation of steam.
Puffy swelling of the neck may in some cases be removed by
external applications of spongiopiline wrung out from hot
water, or of hot linseed meal poultices frequently renewed. If
coryza is manifested, it should be treated as soon as possible.
An ounce of salt may be dissolved in a pint of warm water,
and this solution contained in a vessel, raised a little above
the head of the patient, is conveyed by means of a flexible
caoutchouc tube into one nostril, respiration being carried on
through the mouth, and all attempts at swallowing being for-
bidden. The fluid passes out freely by the other nostril. In
young children the nasal fossae may be syringed with a weak
solution of nitrate of silver (gr. v. to oz. i.) once a day when the
coryza is troublesome. If there is much constipation, the
bowels should be relieved by laxatives ; while, if there be
diarrhoea, opium or some astringents may be given. Some
authors advise that the body be kept well greased during con-
valescence, in order to prevent the dissemination of the flakes
of the cuticle; but others recommend that it should not be
used, on the grounds that it stops the pores of the sweat-glands
and so helps to cause nephritis. Warm baths may be employed

* It is, however, very difficult for a person suffering from sore throat to
swallow slowly.

342 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

daily. Tonics must be administered. For at least the first
three weeks the diet should consist in chief part of milk, and
after that time it is generally recommended that the diet should
he good, and include a fair amount of solid food. It is during
the period of desquamation that the dangers of rheumatism and
of dropsy are greatest. However, in ninety-nine cases out of
a hundred rheumatism is an extremely mild affection when
occurring in the course of scarlatina. In order to guard
against chilling and increased liability to nephritis, the patient
should be kept quite warm, and free from exposure to draughts,
and he should be confined to bed and clothed in flannel for at
least the first three weeks, and the excretory functions should be
carefully attended to until the period of desquamation has come
to an end.

In malignant cases and in those in which the muscular
debility is great, and there is a tendency to collapse or to the
appearance of typhoid symptoms, stimulants are imperatively
necessary. Ammonia and brandy are nearly always needed in
the malignant cases. Strong tea or coffee, brandy, ether, cam-
phor, are to be given internally. Quinine is useful in cases of
prolonged adynamia, and a very nutritious diet and a rather
liberal allowance of wine will often enable such patients to
recover. If there be nasal catarrh with discharge, it is advisable
to syringe the nostrils with warm water, or weak solution of
chlorate of potassium, nitrate of silver, or some antiseptic. If
the throat be ulcerated or gangrenous, solution of perchloride of
iron or of nitrate of silver, or hydrochloric acid or nitric acid
may be applied, the utmost care being used.

Warm fomentations or poultices should be employed exter-
nally, and if there be suppuration in the glands or connective
tissue behind and below the jaw, a puncture or incision may
be made, if an actual abscess has formed. In fact, as soon as
suppuration has occurred, some advise that an incision
should be made to let out the pus, the poultices being after-
wards removed. Sometimes openings and counter-openings
will be required. If haemorrhage should occur, the wound is to
be stopped with lint soaked in the solution of perchloride of
iron. If on the morning of the fifth or sixth day any ulcerous
appearance that the fauces may have previously presented does
not show signs of yielding, it is well to cauterise the morbid

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 343

surface. For the tonsils, undiluted hydrochloric acid is to be
used ; but for any other part of the soft palate solid nitrate of
silver. This latter caustic is to be applied to those excoriations
which may appear about this time. These potent escharotics
cannot be used again, until at least four or five days have
elapsed. The external swelling should be assiduously fomented,
and poultices may be continued.

All cases of otorrhoea are to be treated by syringing the
meatus gently with warm water three or four times a day.
Should a discharge either from the ear or from the nose become
chronic, quinine and sulphuric acid may be tried. If there is a
suppurative tendency, quinine will also be found useful ; also
substantial food will be required.

As a rule rheumatism, if it be present, rapidly subsides under
the influence of salicylate of sodium. Aperients, if necessary,
may be administered, and cotton-wool or poultices may be put
round the affected joints.

At the onset of renal dropsy, purgatives must be given ;
for instance, a good jalap powder in doses of not less than a
scruple to a child of six or eight years of age, repeated at
intervals of eight hours, until the bowels act freely.

The hot-air bath, preceded by a hot-water bath and a dose
of antimonial wine, may be used every night, so long as the
quantity of urine is much diminished. Vomiting may be in
some degree checked by ice swallowed in small lumps. When
there is much heematuria, gallic acid may be tried. Quinine
does good in some cases, and perchloride of iron is useful in
later stages. Counter-irritation to the loins will be useful, and
a milk diet is essential.

When extensive anasarca is present, and especially if the
dropsy tends to the lungs and pleural sacs, the danger is very
grave indeed. Laxatives and diuretics should be continued, so
long as the anasarca remains simple.

Complications must be treated in much the same manner
as if they occurred in the general way, but it should be remem-
bered that patients bear depletion less afid need stimulation
more. To these general lines of treatment we may add, as
another point of very great importance, that those who are
convalescing from attacks of scarlet fever may often be very
greatly benefited by a change of air. It is especially the won-

344 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

derful value of sea-air that we would most urgently insist upon.
Recently Dr. Albert Gresswell attended a little boy of eight
years of age who had a rather sharp attack of scarlet fever. He
progressed very favourably under his care, without any untoward
symptoms arising. So soon as he was quite strong enough to
be moved, and able to stand the change, he was, in accordance
with instructions, sent to the seaside, every precaution being
taken against any chance of catching cold, and so forth. The
beneficial results which followed were very gratifying, and it was
not long before he was quite restored to health and vigour.
This is one case out of very many, and Dr. Gresswell speaks
strongly in favour of residence at the seaside in the convalescent
stages of scarlet fever.

Having given a short general account of scarlet- fever,
we now proceed to consider the recently made discoveries in
relation to the etiology of scarlet fever, the far-reaching im-
portance of which cannot well be over-estimated. In the first
place, then, we may say that concurrent outbreaks of scarlet
fever were observed in the months of November and December
1885 in Marylebone, St. Pancras, Hampstead, St. Johu's Wood,
and Hendon, among persons who liad received their milk from
a dairy situated at Hendon. An investigation was accordingly
made by Mr. Power, with the result that the suspected dairy
was found to be in a good hygienic condition. Moreover, it
was elicited that no scarlet fever was prevalent, or had occurred
for a long time in the neighbourhood of the dairy. Further-
more, the fever had broken out soon after the introduction into
the dairy-farm of three newly purchased cows, and one of these
cows was found to have small vesicles aud ulcers on the udder
and teats. This affection did not interfere with the yield of
milk, and thougli it was not aticMuled wiili anv marked obvious
signs of illness, it nevertheless spread rapidlv among the cows
which occupied certain sheds whence the suspected milk was
derived. Moreover, sonie milk winch had been condemned and
was to have been thrown away was given to certain poor persons
living near, and the result was that a severe outbreak of scarlet
fever occurred among their children after a week had ehipsed,
and, we believe, especially among such persons as had derived
their milk IVom the shed wherein the aftected cows were kept.
Two of the afi'ected cows were then purchased and handed

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 345

over to Dr. Klein for purposes of research at the Brown
Institution.

Dr. Klein proved that micro-organisms existed in the fluid of
the vesicles, and that these micrococci could be readily cultivated
and grew abundantly in milk; that the disease imparted by the
inoculation of calves with the virus presents symptoms very like
those exhibited by the cow from which these micrococci were
taken, symptoms, moreover, very similar to those of human
scarlatina, and accompanied by similar pathological changes in
the kidneys and other internal organs. He, moreover, also found
that these micro-organisms were, in all essential respects, similar
to those which he obtained from the blood of human beings
affected with scarlatina.

With this short resume of the leading facts, we now proceed
to deal with this question more fully. It appears, then, that,
as well as Mr. W. H. Power and Dr. Klein, Dr. Cameron also
was concerned, though in a less degree, in the investigation of this
disease which occurred in milch-cows at Hendon, and gave rise
to scarlatina in persons using the milk supplied from that
dairy.

Now, this Hendon cow disease presents some points in
common with a malady of cows called erythema mammillarum,

Fig. 40. — Milk or Teat- Syphon.

This rnilk-sypbon i.s constructed for the purpose of abstracting milk from the
teats of a cow.

or sore teats. As in the case of the Hendon disease, so also
in that of this latter malady, cows which have recently calved
are those affected, and the ulcers on the teats and udder may
in both diseases assume a very sluggish character. The
disorder varies in intensity, sometimes affecting the gland
tissue itself. The calf should be removed and fed by hand,
and the milk should be drawn off daily by tTie aid of a milk-
syphon, and, of course, rejected.

The attendance of the veterinary surgeon should be sought,
and he may probably administer in the first instance one pound
of Epsom salts, at the same time prescribing or supplying a

346 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

suitable antiseptic application to be applied to the parts. An
ointment may be made of extract of belladonna, one part ;
boric acid, two parts ; carbolic acid, half-part ; benzoated lard,
thirteen parts.

A disease called scarlatina has also been described as appear-
ing in the ox ; but probably it is the general fever, of which
** sore teats" are local manifestations. It is spoken of as an
acute inflammation of the skin and mucous surfaces, and is
similar to purpura hsemorrhagica, the disease next to be dis-
cussed, though in this last-mentioned disorder the mucous
membranes of the nostrils and other parts are more markedly
swollen. Moreover, in scarlet fever these lining membranes are
covered with red points, whereby a scarlet hue is imparted,
while in cases of purpura, infiltrations of blood are seen. About
two days after the onset of the fever, there is an eruption of
minute spots on the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, and
fauces, and these spots form bright scarlet patches. The erup-
tion, which terminates at about the seventh day, is most easily
seen in those parts which are covered with thin skin, and have
but little hair; for instance, the nose, axilla, and udder. Where
there is much cellular tissue, the parts swell, and if the swollen
parts are pressed upon pitting is generally produced, but pain is
not caused. The bowels are constipated, and albumen is often
present in the urine.

It is in the filteonth annual report of the Local Government
Board that we find the official account of the very striking simul-
taneity found to exist betwixt the occurrence of scarlatina in
various districts of London and the milk supplied from a dairy
farm at Hcndon. At a certain time scarlatina had undergone a
sudden and notable increase in certain districts in London, and a
strikingly large proportion of the recorded cases had occurred
among persons who proved, on inquiry, to be customers of a milk
retailer dealing in this particular Hendon milk. It was found
that especial pains had been taken to render this farm at Heudon,
as the phrase goes, sauitarily perfect. Drainage, cleanliness, and
ventilation of the house, the farm-yard, the cow-sheds, and the
dairy, had all bicn thoroughly attended to. All needful appli-
ances for thorough cleansing of dairy utensils by hot water
or steam were at hand. Dr. Cameron had furthermore specially
attended to the health of those employed about the farm and

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 347

the children of the employes. The farmer had carried out every
suggestion made to him ; and, in short, he had taken every
precaution to secure his farm and his milk against any known
fault. He had a separate shed for any sick animal, and another
separate shed for newly arrived animals, wherein they could
be observed before being added to the large sheds.

After a most searching inquiry, it seemed probable that the
scarlatina had not arisen from any faults in the water or the
drainage, nor to careless handling of milk or milk-utensils by
persons who might thereby have conveyed to it the virus of
scarlatina, but that the cows themselves must have had something
to do with it ; and this conclusion did not seem to be put out of
court by the confident affirmation that for months past not one
of the cows had suffered any illness. Now, it transpired that on
November 15th three cows which had recently calved had arrived
from Derbyshire and been added to the dairy farm, and it was
known that the first occurrences of scarlatina had taken place
at about the end of that same month.

The exact date at which the milk of these cows had been used
could not be elicited. True, they were placed in the general
cow-sheds towards the close of the month ; but very probably
their milk, as was customary, had been used while they were
still quartered in " the quarantine shed." Possibly, then, we
may conclude that a week may have elapsed between the arrival
of the cows at the farm and the distribution of their milk to the
districts supplied, and thus, the period of incubation of scarlatina
being less than a week, the approximate coincidence in point of
time between the use of this milk from the three cows aforesaid
and the occurrence of scarlatina in the four milk districts was
most remarkable.

There were, however, far more exact concurrences between the
distribution of the milk and the occurrence of scarlatina, and
thus Mr. Power at length reached the point of excluding external
scarlatina, of associating the importation of particular cows into
the Hendon farm with the presence of scarlatina in London
districts, and of connecting the milk furnislTed by those cows
with the* peculiarities of the prevalence of scarlatina among con-
sumers of the Hendon farmer's milk. It was thought that the
cows added on November 15th had some kind of cow disease,
probably of an infective nature.

348 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OE THE OX.

At Christmastide case after case of scarlatina occurred near
the farm among the labouring class and the poor. The first
case had begun on December 20th. Now, on December 15th
sixty-three barn-gallons of milk, mainly derived from cows in the
large shed, had been returned to the farmer with an intimation
by the Marleybone Health Officer that he believed some of the
milk had been causing scarlatina in his district. This milk was
consigned to the pigs, and orders were given that all the milk
of the large shed should, with the exception of some to be used
for pig-feeding, be thrown into a pit in one of the farmer's fields.
However, as was perhaps not unnatural, poor neighbours begged
to be supplied with it. It was refused; but certain of the cow-
men gave some of it away gratuitously, thinking that otherwise
it would be wasted. About a week afterwards the terrible
Nemesis appeared in the shape of scarlatina. It invaded about
six families, a large proportion of those to whom the milk had
been supplied, and it attacked no family to which the milk had
not been supplied.

It was found that there were sores on the teats and udders of
the cows in the large shed. Two of the three cows which had
been received into the dairy on November 15th were found to
have scars on their teats and udders, whereby they were seen to
have had the malady, and other cows were noticed to be suffer-
ing, or to have the marks of having suffered. Dr. Klein
regarded the disease as a constitutional one, and capable of being
communicated from cow to cow. Finally, the whole milk of the
farm was given to the pigs or buried.

The malady is, according to Dr. Cameron, a specific contagious
and infectious disease occurring usually amongst " newly-calved "
cows, and capable of being communicated to healthy cows by
means of virus conveyed by the hands of a milker who has been
milking a diseased cow, and by the discharges from a diseased cow's
mouth, nose, and eyes. It has, perhaps, been communicated to
man by inoculation, and also by the medium of the milk. In the
cow there is general constitutional disturbance, a short fever, a
hacking cough, quick breathing, sore throat in severe cases,
discliargts from the nostrils and eyes, an eruption on the skin
around the eyes, and also on the hiiul-quurters, vesicles on the
teats and udders, alteration in the milk, and internal lesions.
The disease is continued for a period of about five weeks, or may

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 349

even last three months. Cows which have recently calved seem
to be especially liable. to the disease. Perhaps they have been in
bad condition before calving, or they may have slipped their
calves, or possibly portions of the membranes have been retained,
and the animals thus debilitated have been a ready prey to the
germs of the malady.

The bowels are rather loose, and the urine is scanty and high-
coloured. About six days after the beginning of the illness, one
or more teats become enlarged, swollen so as to be nearly double
their natural size, puffy, and not at all hard. Little bladder-like
spots next appear upon the red and greatly enlarged teats and
on the udder. There may be about three of these on one teat.
They are about the size of a pea, and contain a clear fluid. I'liey
break and leave raw sores or ulcers, which are red or pale, and
have raised edges. In about two days' time the little bladders
have become ulcers of about half an inch in diameter. Shortly
after being broken, a reddish-brown scab begins to form in the
centre of the sore and extends towards the margin. These scabs
may remain attached, perhaps twenty-five days, or even as long
as six weeks. A watery fluid exudes from under the scab, and
about six days after the ulcers have become covered with the
scabs, they gradually heal up, leaving a whitish, flat, indistinct
scar.

About six weeks after the cows had been first attacked, the
scabs varied in size from a shilling to that of a florin ; the skin
beneath was of a pearly-blue colour and slightly hardened, but
not depressed. After the vesicles had broken and the scabs had
formecl as described above, the swelling of the teats gradually
subsided. The margins of the ulcers were not raised, and there
was no perceptible redness of the skin around them. In some
animals an ulcer here and there was seen on the lower part of
the udder.

It may be observed that in the case of cow-pox a hard spot
first appears, and then becomes bladder-like, while pus develops
in it. In the centre of the little bladder-like elevation (vesicle)
there is formed a depression with raised pearly-looking edges,
with hardening round the margin, and with a distinct areola.
In the case, however, of this disease which we are considering,
the vesicle seems to appear at once without being preceded by a
hard spot., without the development of pus, without the centra]

350 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

depression, with no hardening at the margin, no areola, and
finally when the scabs have fallen off, there is no pitting of the
skin. There are, therefore, essential points of difference betwixt
cow-pox and this malady, which by the medium of the milk of
the cows suffering from it gives rise to scarlatina in men.

Portions of the skin, especially of the tail and back, were
denuded of hair, and the epidermis was rough and scaly. One
cow had several scabs in the skin of the back, redness of the
vagina, and on the teats and udder there were brownish crusts,
which, when removed, left a firm sore, which, when squeezed,
gave out a rather thick lymph. Two days after the greatest
development of these sores, when they were diminishing, the
animal was killed. When the chest was opened, numerous red
spots were seen in the upper posterior lobes of the lungs, under-
neath the pulmonary pleura. In the liver there were several
reddish patches, which reached from the surface to a depth of
about a quarter of an inch. In the placenta there were numerous
purple spots. In another cow there were, as in this one,
many of the peripheral lobules of the lungs congested and also
pleural adhesions. The outer part of the kidney was also con-
gested.

Dr. Klein has found the streptococci on which the disease
depends. He has, moreover, inoculated subcutaneously two
calves with sub-cultures of these streptococci, and the result was
that they had a disease closely resembling human scarlatina.
Now, as to the milk. If at an early stage of the disease it is set
aside for some hours, it becomes thick ; but it seems that in some
cases it is only the first few " draughts " of the teat which
bring this slimy milk, and it is not characteristic of the malady,
since "ropiness^^ of milk is to be noted in several disorders of
the cow. For instance, it has been noticed in the case of milk
which apparently gave rise to diplitheria in consumers. The pure
milk apparently does not contain the streptococci which produce
the disease ; but it is very liable to become contaminated by the
hand of the milker, and, if once introduced into the milk, they
would readily multiply in it.

For the presoit we may say that such milk is, in all proba-
bility, a most fertile source of the dissemination of scarlatina
in our midst, and the dangers hence resulting are the more
insidious on account of the fact that the cow disease, whence

PLATE II.

MICEOCOCCUS SCAELATIN^.

•••v ^> r.^

.... • ,«. •••.•

•• • •» •

••-... * ::*v '-Vil: "S ..

V****** •• *' / • • J •

••• • *•« „ • ••♦*

streptococcus Scarlatinae from the growth of the Scarlatina Micro-
coccus in the clear fluid collecting in a test-tube at the base of the
slanting surface of solid Agar- Agar mixture.

Magnif. power about 1100.

PLATE HI.

MICROCOCCUS SCAKLATINyE.

^?«<

'^

^n

Some of the superficial cavities of the Stratum Malpighii —
a. Round cells filling the cavities.
h. Diplococci and Streptococci.

Magnif. power about IIOO.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 351

^iioh liability springs, is of such a character that it has not hitherto
attracted much attention on the part of cow-keepers, not being a
very dangerous disorder in so far as their cows are concerned.

We see in the Times of May 28th, 1887, that Dr. Klein delivered
a lecture in London on the subject of the transmissibility of
scarlet fever from the cow to human beings, and in relation with
this disease he described the micrococcus scarlatinae. He also
spoke generally on the very important question of the com-
municahility of other diseases, such as diphtheria and typhoid
fever, to man, through the agency of contaminated milk.
There was also a leader in the Times, May 28th, on this most
important subject.

Hence, judging from the above considerations, we find that
there has been observed a very striking coincidence between
the occurrence of a certain disease in cows on the one hand, and
of scarlatina in human beings who have ingested the milk of
these cows on the other. Moreover, Dr. Russell, of Glasgow
{vide the Lancet of May 26th, 1888) has investigated an out-
break of scarlatina at Garnet Hill, and has adduced therefrom
evidence in support of the same view. He has proved that the
milk of a particular dairy was to be traced in connection with
a large number of cases of scarlatina, and also that the milk of
certain cows was in all probability the actual cause of the dis-
tribution of this disease. Moreover, he excluded the possibility
that the milk might perchance have been rendered infective by
the medium of human beings employed in milking or in the
distribution and supply of the milk. Some cows presented
appearances resembling those described as characterising the
Hendon cows, and water-colour drawings of the teats of the
Hendon cows were very similar in look to the teats of the
Glasgow cows. Furthermore, a calf fed on the milk of these
cows was almost immediately seized with a highly febrile illness
from the effects of which it nearly died, but finally recovered
after losing hair and copious casting of the skin. Lastly, Dr.
Carmichael cultivated micro-organisms obtained from these
animals. Further very striking, and indeed coirt;lusive evidence
in support of the connection betwixt scarlet-fever in human
beings and a similar disease occurring in cows is to be found
in the account of Dr. Klein's further researches, which we now
proceed to consider.

352 THE DISEASES AND DISCED BES OF THE OX.

In Appendix B, p. 367, of the Medical Report for 1886
contained in the Sixteenth Annual Report of the Local Govern-
ment Board, Dr. Klein records the results of experiments in
connection with the etiology of scarlatina.

He says that in his report of the previous year it was shown
that in the ulcers on the teats and udders of the aifected
Hendon cows a micrococcus was found to be present which,
when grown on nutritive gelatine, Agar-Agar mixture, blood
serum, broth, and milk, possessed certain definite distinguishing
characters. By means of cultivations of this micrococcus,
cutaneous and visceral disease was produced by subcutaneous
inoculation, and this disease in many of its characters resembled
that of the viscera in the Hendon cows, as well as that of the
viscera in cases of human scarlatina. Now the points which
presented themselves for determination were whether or not the
peculiar micrococcus observed in the Hendon cows occurs in
cases of human cases of scarlatina, and if so whether or not this
micrococcus, when derived from human scarlatina, is capable of
producing the same disease in calves as had been seen in calves
inoculated with the cultivations of the micrococcus taken from
the Hendon cows.

With the view of settling these questions, Dr. Klein examined
a number of acute cases of scarlatina at the Fulham Fever
Hospital.

The part from which the blood was taken, namely, the tip of
the finger or the skin of the arm covered w^ith the rash, was well
rubbed and washed with a strong solution of carbolic acid, and
then dried with a clean cloth. By means of a piece of tape,
venous congestion of the part was produced, and the skin was
well pricked with a clean needle. As the blood came out on
the withdrawal of the needle, it was at once received in a capillary
glass pipette freshly drawn out and having a pointed end.
The withdrawal of the needle, and the rising up of the blood
into the pipette were as nearly as possible simultaneous, so that
there was very little chance of any accidental introduction of air
germs into the blood received into the pipette. Then a test-
tube plugged with sterile cotton-wool, the surface of which was
well charred, and containing solidified sterile nutritive gelatine,
and presenting a slanting, large surface, was inverted, the plug
was half or two-thirds drawn out with the sterilised forceps, and

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 353

the pointed end of the capillary pipette was pushed through
the remainder of the plug until it came opposite and near the
surface of the gelatine. Then a drop of the blood — but not the
whole of the blood present in the pipette, lest germs possibly
present in the breath should also be blown on to the gelatine —
was blown on to the gelatine and spread out on its surface by
means of the pipette. Then this latter was withdrawn, the plug
pushed back to its former position, and the test-tube again placed
upright. In the same way other similar test-tubes were inocu-
lated with the same pipette.

In other cases only one test-tube was thus inoculated from
the capillary pipette, the other test-tubes being inoculated by
means of the platinum-wire, according to the method of Koch.
This is as follows : — The test-tube which has received the blood
on to the surface of its gelatine — '* the stock test-tube " — and
another test-tube which is to receive the blood are inverted, the
cotton-wool plugs are withdrawn with sterile forceps from both,
and with the end of a sterile platinum wire, previously heated
and allowed to cool, a droplet of blood is transferred from the
first tube into the second, and spread over the surface of the
gelatine in this latter, the cotton-wool plug is put into the gas
flame and held there for a few seconds, and then replaced into
the mouth of the test-tube. Then a second, third, fourth, &c.,
test-tube is inoculated from the stock test-tube in the same
manner.

In the case of a post-mortem of an acute case of scarlatina, the
pericardial cavity is opened with clean scissors. Immediately
afterwards the pointed end of a freshly drawn-out capillary glass
pipette is pushed through the wall of the right ventricle or right
auricle, and blood is drawn up into the pipette. The mode of
inoculation of test-tubes from this is the same as before. The
same method of taking the blood by means of the capillary
pipette from the cavity of the heart direct is used in the case of
animals which had died in consequence of the disease, or had
been killed while the disease was running its course. In all
these experiments six, eight, twelve, or evea^more, tubes con-
taining sterile nutritive gelatine with slanting large surface were
inoculated. It was remarked that when from a particular case
of scarlatina a positive result was obtained, there were always
only a very few of the culture-tubes in which any growth

28

354 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

occurred. When a bacterial growth did occur, it did not appear
until the third, fourth, or fifth day, in gelatine tubes kept in the
incubator at a temperature of 20° C, and there was only one,
or there might be two, or at the most three, minute colonies.
In fact, the blood of patients affected with scarlatina contains
onlv a few organisms. If we make a series of cover-glass
preparations after the Weigert-Koch method — using about as
much blood as would be contained in a culture-tube — and stain
with gentian-violet, methylen-blue, or other dyes, and examine
witli a high-power oil-immersion lens, it is only rarely that we
see in one or other such specimen a stained granule or a dumb-
bell of such a size that it may be looked upon as being presum-
ablv a micrococcus or a diplococcus of the species that we find
by cultivation does exist in the blood of patients affected with
scarlatina. The scarcity of these micrococci is a peculiar feature
of scarlatina as opposed to anthrax, septicaemia, &c., in which
the particular germs are found in considerably quantity.

A micrococcus similar to that obtained from the Hendon cows
was obtained from the blood of four human beings suffering
from scarlatina, and also after death from the blood taken from
the heart of a fifth patient who had died in consequence of the
affection. In the case of the living persons from whose blood
the micrococcus was obtained, the temperature was at its maximum
at or about the day on which the culture experiments were made.
In three of the four experiments on living scarlatina patients
from whose blood an organism identical with that found in the
Hendon cows was recovered, there developed in the culture-
tubes, besides the colonies of the special micrococcus, colonies
of other micrococci also ; and Dr. Klein states that if he had
not been familiar beforehand with the appearances of the par-
ticular organism obtained from the Hendon cows, he would have
had great difficulty in identifying it in these specimens of blood.
Moreover, the other micrococci of these three scarlatina cases
were much more easily discoverable than was the one which was
common to all five of the cases of scarlatina, and which were
known as occurring in the Hendon cow disease. In order to
prove the connection between a disease and a particular organism,
it is necessary to reproduce the same disease by inoculation of
suitable animals with specimens of that particular organism
proved to be free from admixture with any other organism.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. " 355

The sub-cultures of the special organism obtained from the
oases of human scarlatina are identical in all respects with those
obtained from the Hendon cows. In plate cultivation they
appear after three, five, or six days as minute greyish-white,
translucent circular colonies, not larger than the point of a pin.
They only enlarge slowly, and as a rule they take weeks and
months to reach a size larger than the head of a medium-sized
pin. They are then slightly thicker in the central than at the
marginal portion.

On the surface of solid alkaline nutritive gelatine, of solid
blood serum, of solid alkaline Agar-Agar mixtures, the growth
•is a greyish translucent film made up of isolated translucent
greyish circular dots.

After some weeks or months the film is still thin, translucent,
greyish. The marginal dots have become much larger and
flatter than those in the middle parts. The former are not
quite circular, but more or less irregular, and in old cultivations
they are fringed and serrate.

In alkaline broth or alkaline broth peptone the growth forms
•whitish or greyish-white flufiy or loose masses at the bottom of
the tube. In milk the organism grows fairly well, and turns the
■milk at first thick, then quite solid. Sometimes this occurs
.already after two or three days' incubation at 37*^ C, sometimes
a little later.

The observed characters of the micrococcus, which is present in
cases of human scarlatina and in the Hendon cow disease, point
to the fact that it is morphologically distinct from any other
known micrococcus, and that it has a definite mode of existence.
In sections of the tissues taken from a young girl, aged two and
a half years, who died of scarlet fever, micrococci were found
e.(j. in the cervical lymph glands, in lymph spaces, and in small
blood-vessels, in the inflamed glomeruli of the kidney, and in the
small blood-vessels of the enormously engorged lung. Exami-
nation of the lung-tissue in three instances revealed that many
lobules were enormously congested, the capillaries of the alveoli
being much distended by and filled with blocrd, while in many
alveoli blood was seen to be extravasated, the epithelial cells of
these and neighbouring alveoli being detached. Dr. Klein also
.examined some old sections through the skin of patients who
had sufi"ered from scarlatina. They were made and mounted in

23 *

366 IffHE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

1876, and when examined afresh after having been stained with
Loflfler's methvlen-blue they revealed the presence of numerous
micrococci, singly and as diplococci, and as short chains which
were found in the tissue of the skin papillae, and especially
between the deepest cells of the stratum malpighii, whence they
could be traced between the epithelial cells upwards towards the
superficial layers of this stratum.

Dr. Klein has also proved by experiments that the action on
mice of the micrococcus scarlatinse derived from a human source
is the same as that from the cow, and also that house-mice are
more susceptible to its action than tame mice are ; and he also
states, basing his remarks on other experiments, that there can,
then, be no doubt that both by inoculation and feeding with
cultures of the micrococcus scarlatinse, derived from the
human source, a definite general disease in calves, cutaneous and
viscera], is produced, and that this disease bears a great resem-
blance to that observed in the Hendon cows, and observed also in
calves inoculated with the micrococcus derived from those cows.
However, it is to be observed that there were no ulcers on the
soft skin of the belly in these calves ; while, on the other hand,
the condition of the pericardium was not examined in the Hendon
cows. From these experiments we thus learn that with the
cultures of the micrococcus scarlatinse of a certain patient, both
by inoculation and by feeding, the identical and typical disease,
cutaneous and visceral, was produced in calves, and, further,
that the pericardial exudation contained the micrococcus
scarlatinse more abundantly than the blood, for while inocula-
tions made from tlie blood of the heart did not produce any
growth in three tubes, each of the three tubes inoculated with
the pericardial exudation yielded colonies of the micrococcus
scarlatinse.

In all the animals which died or were killed in the course of
Dr. Klein's experiments, after they had been infected with the
micrococcus scarlatinse of one source or another, the condition
of the viscera was seen on microscopic examination to resemble
that found in the viscera of cases of fatal human scarlatina. Dr.
Klein has also found the scarlatina micrococcus in condensed
milk, and also that the cultures of this micrococcus had the same
effect as that derived from the Hendon cows and Ironi the cases
of human scarlatina, and that it was successfully recovered by

I'LAltL l\ .

MICEOCOCCUS SCAELATIN.E.

Section through kidney of a mouse experimentally infected with

Micrococcus Scarlatina, derived from a partic'Jlar brand of condensed

milk —

a An interlobular cortical artery.

b Extravasation and masses of round cells.

c Malpighian corpuscles ; congested and nuclei much increased

in number ((jlomerulo-nephritis).

d Disorganised convoluted tubules.

\I..rr.nf

iin\vt>r

100

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 357

cultivation from the heart's hlood of the animals dead as a result
of tiie inoculation or the feeding.

It was clear that the action of the cultures of this micro-
coccus of the condensed milk upon calves after feeding or
inoculation is identical with the action of the cultures of the
micrococcus derived from human scarlatina.

Finally, from observations in regard to a monkey which died
at Wimbledon during a scarlatina outbreak there, it was proved
that the cultures of the micrococcus derived from the Wimbledon
monkey, and which proved to be identical in morphological and
structural characters with the micrococcus scarlatinse, acted on
mice in precisely the same manner as those of the micrococcus
obtained from the Hendon cow and from the human source.
Also, like the latter, the cultivated organism acted more decidedly
on house-mice than on tame ones.

MALIGNANT CATARRHAL FEVER. PURPURA
H^MORRAGIOA. TETANUS.

The Rev. Dr. A. Jessop, in the March number of the
Nineteenth Ceniurij, 1887, writes : — " ' How often do you give it
meat ? ' said a blushing, mild-eyed, lank-haired young worthy
in my hearing the other day. 'Lawk! sir, that don't have no
meat,' answered the laughing mother, as she hugged her tiny
baby closer to her bosom. 'Never have meat? How dreadful ! '"

Scientific treatise without an anecdote or something to relieve
the weighty monotone of science — how terrible I Neverthless,
in the space at our command it is difficult to bear in mind always
that our pen must not be a heavy one if we are to do real
and lasting good. None knew this better than Sir Walter Scott,
who, at tlie close of his first chapter of Waverleij, points out that
the moral lessons which he would willingly consider as the most
important part of his plan, will certainly fall short of their aim
if he should be found unable to mix them with amusement — a
task not quite so easy in this critical generation as it was " sixty
years since." Indeed, there are but few writers who have not
realised hov/ stringently necessary it is to catch the public eye,
if they are in any way desirous of doing good work for the
people.

In this connection the words of the Rev. J. G. Wood, in the
same number of the same review, are so good as to bear reitera-

358 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

tion. " The object of language/' writes this well-known and
deservedly popular scientific author, " is to convey ideas, and I
have always held that words are valuable in proportion to their
power of conveying thought from one brain to another. A word,
therefore, which can be understood by ten thousand hearers
should always be used in preference to one which only three or
four individuals can be expected to conaprehend. A lecturer
should always bear in mind that his true object is to teach his
hearers, and not to impress them with awe of his vast attain-
ments. Nothing is easier than to employ the technical phrase-
ology of science. The real difficulty lies in conveying the same
information in language which every one can understand."

It is very true that it is very easy to employ the tech-
nical phraseology of science, and at the same time it is very
difiBcult to interpret great scientific facts and generalisations in
language which can be understanded of the people. Few authors,
except those who, like Professors Huxley and Tyndall and tlie
Rev. J. G. Wood, try to speak and write about science in the
ordinary language used by the Englishman of good general
education can know how arduous a matter it is to eff'ect this
object.

The fact is that the coining of new words, often quite unneces-
sary ones, is proceeding so quickly, that, if things go on as at
present, science will soon have a special language of her own^
■which will serve eff"ectually to mystify and perplex all but her
eager votaries. This would be a result greatly to be deplored,
and, we say it with all respect, will be in a large measure owing
to a certain pride on the part of not a few leading scientists,
no less than to the want of the literary habit, unfortunately
noticeable in the rank and file of the mightly legions of workers
now engaged in the clearing up of the many mysteries which
beset us on all sides.

To-day we have to deal with the three disorders above-uaiiu'd
in so far as they afflict bovine animals, and in so far as is possible
in the limited space at our command. It may be said that they
arc not of such primary importance as (o need a very minute
description at our hands, and we add that, although we hope to
be able to make this instalment of our subject an interesting no
less than a valunble one, we cannot but anticipate that it may
be found no easy task to do so. Hence we must crave the

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

359

indulgence of our kind readers while we promise to do our best
to show them the way over three rather awkward fences.

Malignant Catarrhal Fever of the Ox.
This malady which first demands attention expresses itself
by a greatly disturbed condition of the membrane which lines
certain cavities in the head and nasal chambers, which are known
as " sinuses.'" When aflflicted with malignant catarrhal fever,
the ox is seized with shivering fits, and has a dull look. The

Figure 41.

The above picture represents the appearance of an os suffering from the
early or first stage of Malignant Catarrh. The animal separates itself from its
companions in the pasture, looks dull, holds the head low, and the mucous
membranes are of a bluish-red tinge. The ox cannot bear the light, and the
eye is well seen in the illustration to be closed and swollen, and the tears to be
pouring down from it in profusion. The muzzle is hot. and the salivary
secretion and the d scharge from the nostrils may be copious, as is well shown
in the above drawing. The animal gives utterance to a cough indicative of
pain. The pulse is accelerated, as also are the respirations. The ox is thirsty,
but has no appetite.

membranes which line the nostrils, mouth, and so on, become
bluish-red, the eyes close, the eye-lids swell, and tears flow over
the cheeks. The animal is troubled with a frequent and painful
cough, and its pulse is enfeebled. At first the bowels are con-
stipated, but diarrhoea soon comes on.

The disease is rapid in its course, so much so that even a few
bours after its commencement a profuse discharge issues from
the nostrils, mouth, and eyes. The sinuses of the face and head
above referred to become full of purulent matter, and sometimes

360 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

also the horns drop off. There is indeed an intimate connection
between the bone of each horn and the corresponding frontal
sinus of that side of the head. The projection of bone, which
springs from the crest of the frontal bone, and forms the basis
or core of the horn, is hollow, and the cavity within it is con-
tinuous with the cavity known as the frontal sinus. The interior
of this bony core of the horn is provided with an extensive
supply of blood by means of blood-vessels which are connected
with those of the frontal bones ; consequently the inflammatory
process which is going on in the blood-vessels of the frontal
bones extends itself to those which are present within the core,
and from them to the surface of this bony basis of the horn.
Inflammation leads to suppuration, and thereby the detachment
of the horns is brought about.

The disease, which is of a very fatal character, causing death
in from three to seven days, is said to be non-contagious, and
to result from inflammation coming on as a consequence of
exposure to cold. The animals which are attacked by the
disease should at once be removed to warm sheds, wherein they
are to be tended with every care. The veterinary attendant
should be called in, and he will probably proceed to take
measures to open the bowels gently by the aid of enemas, or
such simple aperients as oil or treacle. In the early stages
either stimulants, such as the carbonate of ammonium, or the
acetate of ammonium, or spirit of nitrous ether, are required.
Moreover, it is well to cause the animal occasionally to inhale
the steam from boiling water, to which oil of eucalyptus or
carbolic acid has been added in small proportion. If the patient
survives seven days, it will probably gradually recover, and the
best remedial agents will consist in tonics, good food, and
studious attention to the animal's general wants during the
stage of convalescence.

Purpura H.emorrhagica.
This malady, wliicli is not so commonly met with in cattle as
in the horse, and is more liable to affect calves than older oxen,
is probably likewise not conlagious in its nature. It has been
considered to be; allied to antlirnx, wliicli disease it simulates in
many points, though, so far as is yet known, not in the most
important of all, viz. the presence of bacilli in the blood. So

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 361

far as we know, no bacilli have been as yet found in typical cases
of purpura. The malady we are speaking of is an eruptive fever
of an intermittent type, which seems to result from exposure or
inhalation of foul air, and it frequently attacks an animal which
is already debilitated by the ravages of another disease, such as
catarrhal fever. Purpura haemorrhagica, or purpura, as it is
more briefly named, is a specific blood disease in which the skin,
the mucous membranes, the connective tissue of the lungs and
kidneys, and the coats of the intestinal walls are mainly
affected.

The earliest symptoms may show themselves in the form of
pain in one or more limbs, together with slight swellings, which
soon become more prominent. There may be a few purple or
dark-red spots in the nostrils, and perhaps papules (or spots)
may make their appearance on the skin at the outset of the
disease. The blood is intimately affected in some at present
unknown manner. It seems to be thinner than usual, and there
is an escape of it, or of red serum, or of both, into the surround-
ing tissues, and especially on the mucous and serous membranes.
It is difficult to say how this leakage occurs ; but it must neces-
sarily be due to some deficiency in, or giving way of, the walls
of the blood-vessels, or to the gaining of new powers of per-
meating these tissues, by which it is normally enclosed, on the
part of the blood itself. The disease brings in its train pro-
nounced debility. The temperature may suddenly rise to as
much as 106° F., or even higher, and the changes of tempera-
ture are very great.

Hot and rather circumscribed swellings, which evidently cause
pain, appear in various parts of the body, and from them, and
also from the nostrils, a reddish fluid flows. Those swellings
which are situated on the mucous membranes of the respiratory
and alimentary tracts of course interfere with, and impede in
greater or less degree, the processes of breathing and swallowing.
The heart's beats are weak and fluttering in character, and the
pulse is small and dicrotous (double).

After the disease has pursued its course for about a week,
the animal may indeed gradually recover its strength ; but more
frequently the poor creature gradually sinks and dies. If the body
of an ox which has died from the ravages of this disease be
carefully examined, red spots may be seen on the serous and

362 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

mucous membranes, and the tissues generally will be found lo
be largely infiltrated with blood and serum.

With regard to treatment, the strictest cleanliness must be
enjoined, and the patient should be supplied with food which
is at once nutritious and easy of digestion. The veterinary
surgeon should have recourse to stimulants. Oil of turpentme
is indicated, owing to its special action on the kidneys and its
stimulating properties. Tincture of perchloride of iron is of
especial value, and suitable preparations of ergot are very useful
at times. Sulphuric acid in small doses well diluted with water
has also been recommended, but its use requires confirmation.
Continued care is requisite, for not only is the period of con-
valescence lengthened, but the disease is also liable to recur.

Tetanus, or Locked-Jaw.

Our readers will readily understand that the above-named
disease is one in regard to which, although a great deal has
been written, yet not very much is as yet really known. When
suffering from tetanus, an animal exhibits a general and con-
tinued spasm of the muscles of the body. Not only is this
characteristic state of contraction seen in the case of those
muscles which are immediately under the direction of the will,
and are therefore called voluntary, but also in those which are
termed involuntary, owing to the fact that they are not usually
brought into play by the will of the animal. Generally
speaking, horses are more liable to be afflicted with tetanus
than are either men or cattle, although the disease is not
very uncommon among human beings in the tropics, nor is it
very infrequent among calves and sheep.

Tetanus may come on either after an injury has been
sustained, in which case it is called traumatic, or from other
causes, such as the ingestion of bad food or exposure to cold,
wet, inclement weather. If it occurs in an animal which has
not sustained any wt)und, it is designated idiopathic. We may
here state that quite recently it has been staled that tetanus is
really caused by the presence of germs of a definite kind, and
that the symptoms are due to an alkaloid called tetaniue.
(Brieger). The disease is said to arise in lambs when the ewes
are feeding upon rich trefoil, and it may be noted that cattle
which are prone to receive injuries, such as working oxen, are

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 363

more liable to the malady than those which are subjected to
less risk in this respect.

An ox suffering from tetanus may exhibit slight dulness,
loss of appetite, cessation of chewing the cud, and difficulty in
moving. The attitude of the animal is characteristic, and
almost at a glance the disease can be detected, perhaps more
readily, however, in the case of a horse than in that of an ox,
since in the former animal one is more ready and less surprised
to see the signs of tetanus, directly they present themselves.
The hind-legs may probably be wide apart, the whole body and
neck and limbs are, as it seems, stiffened, the nose is protruded,
the head and tail are elevated, the respiration and pulse are
both quickened, and the nostrils are expanded.

In nearly all cases the mouth cannot be opened, and this
fact has given rise to the ordinary name by which the disorder
is known, viz. lock-jaw or locked-jaw. When the head of the
animal is raised, the haw rapidly passes over the eye-ball, which
is at the same time retracted into its orbital cavity. The bowels
are constipated, the muscles of the body twitch, swallowing is
a difficult process, and the abdomen is rigidly contracted. All
the muscles of the body seem to be more or less strongly
affected ; but different sets of muscles are liable to be especially
attacked, making, for instance, the back curve upwards or
downwards, as the case may be, or causing a bending of the
animal to one or other side of the body. The contortions of
the body are frequently of a very marked kind.

One very important point to be borne in mind is that any
causes which tend to cause excitement^ such, for instance, as
sudden noises, presence of people in the building, admission of
light, are to be carefully avoided, while comparative darkness,
or at any rate stringent exclusion of any piercing light, should
be strictly enjoined. If the attack is of a very severe kind, the
patient quickly sinks, despite all attempts to obviate a fatal
issue ; but if the animal, by dint of the greatest care and most
skilful attention, lives over the seventh day, recovery may ensue.
The patient may show signs of thirst, and'by the medium of
fluids may be induced to take in a fair amount of nutriment.
This, however, is one of the greatest difficulties in treating
cases of tetanus; for manifestly it is of the first importance,
when so much energy is being wastefully expended by reason

364 THE DISEASES AXD DISORDERS OF THE OX.

of the incessant contractions of the muscles, that the loss of
tissue should be made good by a plentiful supply of new
material.

In case the animal is to be treated, the bowels should in the
first instance be acted upon, and all irritating objects should be
removed. If there is a wound, it is advisable to dress it with
some palliative mixture, or with a poultice to which some bland
substance has been added. The patient should be secluded, and
only a moderate amount of light should be admitted, the
windows and other apertures being nearly always kept closed.

Recently tetanus has been said to depend upon the operation
of a specific germ, and no doubt this statement will be found
to be true. There can be no doubt that the continued breaking
out of the disease, whicb we have often observed to occur on
the same premises, lends the strongest a priuri probability to
this view, as does also the general analogy which exists between
tetanus and certain maladies which are known to depend upon
the presence of germs. Yet, as we have often pointed out, a
great deal of investigation is still required in these and allied
fields of research. Whatsoever may be the cause, it is at least
evident that the nervous system is intimately connected with
the manifestations which are exhibited. The phenomena of the
disease must be looked upon as resulting from abnormal working
of the structures concerned in the primary development of
force in the organism, i.e. of the nerves and nerve centres.

The continuous or almost constant state of tension in which
the muscles exist in this disease leads us to suppose thai the
products of muscular action — such substances as sarcolactic
acid, for example — are largely present in the various tissues and
in the blood ; and the great success which has followed our
treatment of tetanus in horses by means of alkaline salts,
coupled with other remedies, is no doubt explicable on this
hypothesis. Some years ago this method of treatment was
commented upon by Mr. J. B. Gresswell {vide the Veterinarian
of October 1882), and it has since that time been endorsed by
other veterinary surgeons. Of course there are also otlier most
valuable remedies, such as bromide of potassium, tobacco, and
perhaps hydrate of chloral. However, it may be said that there
is no more diflicult malady to treat in the whole range of animal
disorders than tetanus. This has given rise to the erroneous

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 365

popular notion that it is no use trying to save animals suffering
from lock-jaw, and that "a horse with lock-jaw is as good {or
rather as bad) as a dead one." On the contrary, the percentage
of deaths, provided that careful and judicious treatment is
carried out, should not be much higher than in other diseases.

As we have said above, the alkaline salts, the bromides, and
the preparations of the alkaloid, nicotine, have, when used
with the greatest possible care, proved highly successful in the
case of tetanus in the horse. In the ox, however, the disease
is not so common, and the various remedies have not been
thoroughly tried. The difficulties of treating tetanus are
enhanced by the fact that, when the jaw is greatly locked, the
only admissible methods of administering medicines are that by
subcutaneous injection, or that by means of a tube passed round
the back molar tooth.

It only remains to add that the flesh of oxen which have
suffered from any of the above three diseases ought not to be
used as food.

The very painful and frequently fatal disease known as tetanus,
or locked-jaw, is often manifested in sheep at first by the forcible
closing of the mouth, and it shows itself by constant spasm of
the voluntary muscles, especially those of the jaw, neck, and
spine. In sheep the disease is usually first shown by a peculiar
involuntary spasmodic movement of the head, or of one or all
the extremities, together with a grinding of the teeth and a
fixedness of the jaw. Then the sufferer becomes very stiff all
over, the neck is protruded, and the head kept forcibly bent
upwards. One leg may be drawn up and fixed in an un-
natural position ; moreover, violent convulsions of the head,
neck, and extremities may occasionally be observed, and after
the convulsions have subsided, a rigidity of the parts may be
seen. So suddenly fatal may tetanus be, that often even within
twelve hours from the time of being attacked the animal may
be dead.

The disease may occasionally break out in sheep which have
been shorn, and hence these animals should be kept without
food for a few hours before tlie process of shearing is carried
out, and after it they should be sheltered for about a week.
Otherwise tetanus, or inflammation of the lungs, or erysipelas
may supervene. Thousands of ewes, after lambing, and even

366 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

tens of thousands of lambs lately dropped, have repeatedly been
lost in severe winter weather owing to the \vant of oare, and in
some cases to the entire absence of shelter. The only wonder
is that so few, comparatively speaking, are lost. After excep-
tionally cold nights some of the ewes and more of the lambs are
often found dead in the morning. In some cases, where no
more effectual protection can be had, the providing a simple
shed or other shelter — even a clump of trees is better than
•nothing — to which the sheep could gain access during a storm,
would be sufficient for their wants. Again, in the case of sheep,
castration is attended with far more risk of tetanus than is that
operation in the case of horses.

By way of treatment, one or more doses of castor oil or of
Epsom salts may be administered. If it is practicable to do so,
the patient may be placed in a warm bath, and then thoroughly
dried, wrapped in blankets, and then kept very warm. Gruel,
to which gin has been added in suitable quantity, may be given.
Alkalies, tobacco, and bromide of potassium, administered care-
fully and in suitable doses, are the most efficacious of the
remedies which have been recommended for cases of tetanus in
other animals ; but they have not been extensively tried in the
case of the sheep.

RHEUMATISM, OR FELON : JOINT FELON, CHINE
FELON, COLD FELON.

In times past, when man had no knowledge of disease, and
■in his ignorance could find no light to guide him onward, he
believed, as does the untutored savage still, the most
weird and grotesque conceptions of the maladies incident to
man and the creatures over which he dominates. The belief in
wizards and witches, in accordance with which thousands of
innocent creatures, even men and women, have been cruelly
massacred outright, or tortured by slow degrees to agonising
deaths, is prevalent at the present time among most savage tribes,
and seems to have been evolved to account for the subtle agencies
which surpass man's power of comprelunision and explanation
on any other hypothesis. In our country, indeed, the belief in
witclies and wizards did not becomi' extinct until comparatively
recent times. It is not, therefore, to be wondered at that many
diseases to which creatures are subject have been put down to the

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 367

influence of witches and wizards, or to some evil spirit or
spirits entering or dotninating over the individual affected. As
knowledge spreads, and the mind begins to grasp the true
relationship of man with his environment, it is soon perceived
that 'out of the heart proceed evil thoughts and all \\\a.t doth
defile.' (Malt. xv. 18).*

Rheumatism in the ox, of which we have now to speak, is a
disease even yet better known by country-folk under the terras
felon, chine felon, cold felon, joint felon. The word felon is
derived from the root fall, connected with fell, " cruel," an
epithet applied to one who commits a cruel deed, or a felon,
and it is not improbable that in days gone by people thought
an ox affected with rheumatism was the victim of some living
agent desirous to harm their cattle from spite or revenge, or even
in just punishment for misdeeds. In the names of some diseases
of man we can trace direct relationship of the popular term with
that of the cruel agency to which man in his striving ignorance
assigned it.

The term rheumatism denotes a peculiar kind of inflammation
afiecting the joints, muscles, or fibrous tissues. It is due to
some general morbid condition, and has an especial tendency to
migrate from one part of the body to another. Eheumaiism is
either of an acute or chronic variety, and in the ox this term is
also inclusive of some painful aff'ections of a neuralgic character ;
and, indeed, rheumatism and neuralgia are probably very inti-
mately connected. Rheumatism or felon in the ox generally comes
on after exposure to wet or cold, and the disease is especially
common in severe boisterous weather. Vicissitudes of weather,
indeed, are the chief exciting causes of rheumatic afi"ections.
Oold draughty sheds (in exposed situations) are too frequently
answerable for causing them in milch cows.

It must be pointed out that certain animals especially show a
marked predisposition to contracting rheumatic affections, and
this, too, is the case with man in the absence of any other cause.
This special predisposition is known as the " rheumatic
diathesis." It will be readily understood that-bad management
of cattle, causing derangements of the digestive and assimilative
functions, is a powerful predisposing factor in the causation of

* " But those things which proceed out of the mouth come forth from the
heart ; and they defile the man."

368 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

the malady. In damp, low-iying districts the disease is more
commonly met with than in more elevated spots, and in variable
climates it is especially prevalent.

Some observers have supposed that rheumatism is the result
of infection by some germ. In man there is no doubt that
rheumatism may manifest itself in a considerable number of
ways, as Dr. Cheadle has lately shown; for instance, as Peri-
carditis, Myocarditis, or Endocarditis, as Chorea, and as new
formations, the histological elements of which are those of the
graniilomata, i.e. small nuclear bodies in the meshes of a
delicate network formed by stellate cells. Whether these new
formations are to be found in animals or not has not yet been
determined, nor has the question been more than entertained as
to whether these nodules contain micro-organisms. It is quite
possible that minute and searching investigation may lead to
the discovery that such is the case.

Some of our readers, no doubt, are pretty well acquainted
with the usual symptoms of rheumatic aifections in the cow.
They are as a rule sufficiently manifest even to a casual observer.
The only thing which is sometimes apt to deceive one is the
apparent insignificance of the symptoms in some badly marked
cases compared with the gravity and length of time the inflam-
matory action may last before subsiding. In the acute variety
the suffering animal generally first manifests irritability and
uneasiness. The appetite is diminished or fails altogether, and
rumination, or chewing the cud, may be suspended. The skin is
harsh, and the mouth is dry and parched. Other symptoms of
the febrile disturbance are acceleration of the pulse, which may
reach as high as 80° to 100°; constipation, which is very general,
and rise of temperature. In an ordinary case the thermometer
reaches about 103° to 104° F., and when it exceeds this, the
attack is of a severe character. It not uncommonly reaches
105° F., and we have known it as high as 106° and 107°. The
water passed, which in heallhy herbivorous animals is alkaline,
becomes acid.

The first factor which generally leads one to diagnose the case
as one of rheumatism is the occurrence of painful swelling of
some joint or joints, more commonly the knee or hock, or the
two hocks, or two knees, or one hock and one knee affected
simultaneously. The animal manifests lameness in proportion

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

369

to the acuteness of the inflammation. Sometimes the inflam-
mation is confined to the tendons of the muscles which bend
the leg (flexor tendons), and very commonly it attacks the
coverings of the muscles of the thoracic walls. If the affected
tissues be pressed upon, the animal manifests considerable pain,
the muscles being very tender.

There is a special tendency of the rheumatic inflammation in
one joint to disappear somewhat suddenly and appear in another
joint. This tendency on the part of the inflammation to shift
thus, is spoken of as " metastasis.'''' The internal lining mem-

Fig. 42.

The above picture (after Armatage) well shows the appearance presented by
an ©x suffering from the malady known as rheumatism. The left hind-leg is
seen to be kept so situated that it may as far as possible remain perfectly at
rest, this near hind-leg being specially the seat of pain. The countenance of
the animal is downcast and expressive of resigned suffering, and the illustration
is altogether designed to depict that special kind of helplessness to move
without causing great pain, which is one of the most marked characteristics of
acute rheumatism.

brane of the heart {endocardium) and the external membrane or
sac {pericardium) in which it is enclosed, are sometimes attacked
by the rheumatic inflammation, and the valves thus become
involved in the disease. After the rheumatism is cured, the
valves of the heart often remain permanently diseased, and in
this manner most cases of heart aff"ection have their origin in
the ox. In some instances so severe is the inflammation of
the lining membrane inside the heart that the^animal succumbs
during the acute stage of the rheumatism.

When the valves of the heart are affected, or when anv struc-
ture of the heart becomes involved, the pulse assumes a diffe-
rent character. As a rule, in such cases it becomes quick and

24

370 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

irregular, and is often felt to be intermittent. The sounds of
the heart also are altered in character, giving rise to '' murmurs."

A case of acute rheumatism varies in duration from about one
to three weeks or more, excepting when it passes into the
chronic form, which may last for months. In the chronic form
there are as a rule no marked febrile manifestations, and, indeed,
fever may be in many cases entirely absent ; the heart is rather
rarely affected in this variety. Chronic rheumatism, as we have
seen, may be left as a sequel after subsidence of the acute
symptcms, and may be of a chronic nature from the outset. It
is more persistent than the acute variety, and there is far less
tendency for the inflammatory action to shift from place to place
than in acute rheumatism.

In the general way, chronic rheumatism, when chronic, so
to say, almost from the outset, is confined to two corresponding
joints, or at times to one limb at any rate. The joint itself
becomes much enlarged; it is stiff and painful, and, as the
inflammatory action spreads, it may become locked and
immovable, owing to the growth of bony excrescences. The
"cartilage^' (gristle) of the joint may become ulcerated, and
the ends of the bones entering into its formation may become
much enlarged owing to the growth of bony tissue around them.
The general disturbance of the animal may not be great, but loss
of appetite and loss of flesh are sometimes occasioned. Chronic
rheumatic enlargements are often met with affecting various
bones, such as the vertebrae of the back and neck, and
in these situations they may form large bony growths. The
bones of the pelvic or hip girdle are often affected, and indeed
the growths may occur almost anywhere. The muscular walls
of the heart sometimes show a deposit of calcareous matter.

In those cases in the ox, unfortunately not very rare, where
the tissues below and above the enlarged joint become much
swollen, pus or matter is sometimes formed, and the animal
wastes rapidly from the discharge of matter, and he thus
becomes valueless.

We have lastly to turn our attention to the consideration of
the treatment of the forms of rheumatism. It, is advisable to
commence the treatment of cases of this kind in the ox by the
administration of a moderately active purgative ; sixteen ounces
of Epsom, or Glauber's salts, with one ounce of powdered cara-

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 371

way seed, may be dissolved in n couple of pints of warm water,
and administered with an ordinary drinking-horn. We may here
mention that a horn, the base of which is cut off so as to make
a long ovoid opening, is the most suitable vessel for employ-
ment in drenching cattle. The animal's head should be raised
a trifle above the level by the garthman who stands on the left
side, while the administrator pours the medicine into the
pouch which he forms by drawing aside the cheek on the
opposite side.

If the head be elevated much above the horizontal, there is
risk of choking the animal, audit is therefore best to administer
medicine in the way directed, and to allow the animal time to
swallow each mouthful before giving a second. For this reason
we prefer the horn to the drinking-bottle, which holds a pint to
a pint and a half, seeing that with the horn it is possible to
give a few fluid ounces at a time, and rapidly, and to allow the
animal to take its own time in swallowing. Of course the bottle
may be used, if care be taken not to give the medicine too
rapidly. In fact, the bottle should be removed from the mouth
at frequent intervals of time.

The diet should be very carefully regulated.; at first it should
be light and nutritious, consisting of mashes, hay, grass, or
other green food ; in the later stages, when the febrile symptoms
have abated, plenty of good food is essential, the malady being
of a very debilitating nature. The animal should be well
bedded, as very frequently, especially in the case of cows, the
recumbent posture is generally maintained in the febrile stage.
The bedding should be frequently changed to keep the animal
as dry and clean as possible. Twice daily, a drench, consisting
of salicylate of sodium four drachms, bicarbonate of potassium
one ounce, may be given in a pint of water for four or five
days, or as long as the acute symptoms last. In more chronic
cases half an ounce of nitrate of potassium may be given instead
twice daily in water. In very acute cases, British pharmacopoeial
tincture of aconite in doses of twenty minims may be given with
salicylate of sodium and bicarbonate of potassium. Oil of tur-
pentine is a favourite popular remedy for the more chronic cases
of rheumatism ; but it is not of great value.

Regarding local treatment, the aifected joints, if very painful,
should be fomented with warm water, and liniment of turpen-

24 *

372 THE DISEASES AXD DISORDEES OF THE OX.

tine and belladonna assiduously applied. The joints should
then be wrapped up in flannel, after being dried. If the
joint gives extreme pain, it must be smartly blistered at the
outset with ointment of cantharides. When the heart is affected
seriously, the prognosis is very bad. When matter forms in the
joint, or near to it, it is best to have the animal slaughtered, as
treatment will be seldom beneficial, and the animal will lose
flesh rapidly.

In those instances where the sides are very painful, in which
cases we speak of the felon as pleurodynia, and there is no
further serious mischief, the animal must be kept warm, and
fed upon easily digestible diet. The sides should be rubbed
over with turpentine liniment, and, if there be any fever, the
salicylate of sodium and bicarbonate of potassium drench may
be given twice daily for three or four days.

It is always well to remember that rheumatic cases are apt
to prove lingering, and it is therefore necessary not to be
impatient, if recovery seems more tardy than might have been
hoped. A great number of cases of disease in oxen set down to
countless other maladies are in reality nothing more nor less than
rheumatism, either in the joints of the limbs, the joints of the
trunk, or in the coverings of the muscles. An animal recover-
ing from rheumatism requires tonics, if much debility is
exhibited. In such cases a drench may be given once or twice
daily. One ounce of gentian, one ounce of ginger, one ounce of
fenugreek, and one of aniseed, may be prescribed, and given
dissolved, or rather mixed, with a pint of ale.

ANEMIA: ITS CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES, NATURE,
AND TREATMENT.— FOOD-SUPPLY OF THE COW.

It was Goethe who wrote, " Every beginning is difficult; but,
difdcuit as the initial stages of any subject prove to be, they are
overcome with far less effort than the finishing touches." This
generalisation is very true, and it is especially applicable in the
case of the diseases and disorders of the ox. It is not the
general points regarding them which present much difficulty to
the careful observer; but it is the clearing up of the many
uncertainties which chiefly engages his attention, and puts the
resources of his knowledge to so keen and sharp a test.

The writer recollects, a very long time ago, when quite a small

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 373

boy, he was busily engaged in contemplating the many and
varied illustrations in an encyclopaedia of many volumes, and
he well remembers being told that when he grew up, he would be
able to obtain information on every subject imaginable in those
closely-printed picture books. Much has been done since that
day ; but look into whatsoever encyclopaedia or book one chooses,
one will not find a very great deal to enlighten him regarding
some of the most important features of the diseases and dis-
orders of the ox. He will find the plagues of cattle lengthily
described, and massive monographs of some of them will be at
his disposal ; but regarding many other diseases of the ox the
information obtainable will be of the scantiest imaginable.

It is indeed a pleasure to us to have now finished our review
of the germ diseases of the ox ; may we hope we have not
proved wearisome. Some of the points on which we have laid
stress have been tlie result of many years' practical labour on
our part and painstaking, many have been known for a length
of time, and many have been culled from the accounts of recent
researches made during the past few years by enthusiastic
workers engaged in investigating the diseases of the ox and of
other creatures. One is often told that he need not aim at
always investigating new facts, and listening to or reading of
new discoveries of the causation and cure of disease, for the
simple reason that such knowledge has frequently to be too soon
remodelled under the chastening scrutiny of still further and
deeper investigations. So it has ; but yet, though the begin-
nings are not perfect, and though the finishing touches may
make them assume new and possibly altogether different aspects,
have they not been the foundation-stones of the building, and,
even if not in every case permanent, did they not serve a
temporary function until replaced by firmer structures ?

The writer recollects how, when quite young, he first heard
the wonderful doctrine of Darwin expounded in simple language
by a learned graduate. After listening patiently for some time,
he inquired, " Yes ; but tell me, does Mr. Darwin himself
believe his own theory?" The question eVoked a laugh of
mingled scorn and pity, and the answer sharply, " He neither
believes nor disbelieves; he merely propounds it." But the
question was not so absurd as one might suppose ; for, as in
the case of the points we have brought forward with relation to the

374 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OE THE OX.

diseases and disorders of the ox, a writer must necessarily be
under a positive or a negative impression regarding every theory,
or generalization, or set of facts, he records. The question
arises : — Are, then, so many human diseases, such as tubercu-
losis, anthrax, scarlet fever, actinomycosis, and others, in reality
derivable and derived from the ox? Our previous arlicles
speak more or less definitely in the affirmative; and we believe,
as do many others, regarding some or all of them, that they are
in reality transmissible from the ox to man.

Our readers will, therefore, perceive that the germ diseases of
the ox are not only of importance /;/ themselves, but are also of
still more intense importance in the relation they bear to the
diseases of man. The veterinary surgeon has a great and im-
portant duty in this respect (and the physician, in his aspect of
the question, has even more responsibility than he) ; and no
matter whosoever underrates his function, this truth stands out
boldly, and still in bolder relief will assert itself in the interests
and welfare of mankind. The comparative pathologist, be he
physician, surgeon, scientist, or veterinarian, is on the verge of
great discoveries; some — many — have already been made; let
him press on; his beginning was difficult; his finishing touches
will be far more so ; but let him be of good cheer.

We have now to treat of the first of the disorders of the ox
which depend on errors of diet ; and we shall commence by
speaking to-day of anaemia. By this term anaemia we signify a
condition in svhich there is a deficiency in the number of the red
blood corpuscles and in the amount of other solid constituents
of the blood. Although but rarely met wuth in North Lincoln-
shire, ansemia is of too frequent occurrence in many parts of
England, and is a disease of which all cattle-owners should have
some knowledge. The diseased condition may be induced when-
ever the food is too scanty in amount or of inferior quality.

Some time ago Mr. J. B. Gresswell was called to a number of
cows in calf; they were manifesting symptoms of extreme debility
and prostratit)U. One of the number had already succumbed, and
two of the others lay prostrate on tlie ground, with hind limbs
paialysed. The local attendant had diagnosed the cases as
being of an infectious nature; but they were in reality purely
and simply cases of anaemia, due to the insufficient supply of
food, and this was of a very poor quality. Throughout the

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

375

winter, with the view of economising, the owner had fed his cows
on barley chaff and straw, and in consequence their blood had
become poorer and poorer in quality, until symptoms of extreme
prostration and paralysis had at length set in, and doubtless all
would have soon succumbed, had this feeding been continued.

Fig. 43. — Nervous Debilitv in Cows at the time of Parturition.

The cow delineated in the above picture is the subject of nervous debility,
occurring about the time of parturition. This is a malady due to the functional
disorder alone, and it is not as a rule followed bj^ death. Our artist has faith-
fully represented the characteristic appearances of this disease. The observer
will readily note, from the attitude of the cow, that she suffers from general
weakness and loss of nerve-power. She is represented as lying in a recumbent
posture in the field, but she has now no inclination for browsing on the grass
beside her, nor is she repi'esented as chewing the cud, a usual sign of undis-
turbed health in the case of ruminating animals. She has no delight to move
leisurely in the luxuriant pasture, nor does the sweet woodland scenery attract
her gaze ; but she must needs lie still, the vigorous activity of health having
left her — let us hope only for a short time, and that her health will be restored
after having taken her with care and gentleness to a dry shed or ox-stall, nicely
bedded down with clean new straw, keeping her warm, attending to every want,
and administering such remedies as may be found advisable.

Under a more generous regimen and the administration of tonics
and stimulants the animals made good recoveries.

This particular form of anaemia occurring in "in-calvers," when
symptoms of paralysis set in, is termed pre-pfffturient paralysis;
or paralysis occurring before parturition, and it is not at all
uncommon in under-fed cows. Other forms of ansemia, one very
rarely sees in Lincolnshire. Among sheep, especially breeding
ewes, anaemia is very frequently met with in some parts of

376 THE DISEASES AND DISOBDEES OF THE OX.

England, and it owes its origin, in these animals likewise, to an
insufficient or innutritions food-supply.

Anaemia may also be induced by any cause which acts as a
drain upon the circulating blood. Loss of blood by haemorrhage,
or by protracted or debilitating diseases, of necessity impairs the
quality of the blood, and induces anaemia. The secretion of too
large quantities of milk often also acts as a drain upon the
blood, in those instances when the food supply is not corre-
spondingly large ; thus anaemia is set up.

Regarding the feeding of dairy cows, four main points, says
Mr. Walker, in his Cow and Calf, must be kept in view ; and
so valuable are these hints that we take the liberty of quoting
them : — " The first point is to aid the increase of milk ; the
second, to improve the quality of the milk ; the third, to main-
tain the condition of the cow; the fourth, to produce manure of
good quality. Too often the careless dairyman only looks as
far as his milk-pail is concerned, and fails to notice that his cow
is wasting flesh day by day, until at last the milk falls off, and
the animal has to be dried much sooner than she need have been
under more judicious treatment. Sweet, well-harvested hay
obtained at the latter end of June or first week in July is of the
very best quality, providing it is not gathered in too quickly to
heat in the stack. Grass cut at this season contains the maximum
of sap. Most of the plants are in full bloom, and therefore the
crop is in its proper state for cutting. Grass is not the most
nutritious when the seed is ripe. Many of the seeds are dis-
lodged in haymaking, and the remainder of the vegetal is woody,
indigestible, and innutritions ; thus such fodder is particularly
unwholesome for the dairy cow. Clover hay, when well got, is
supposed to be a better milk-producer than meadow hay; but, as
Mr. John Walker points out, this would much depend upon the
sort of land the hay was cut from. Howbeit, it is sufficient for
us to observe that either meadow or clover hay is wholesome for
the dairy cow when well harvested, and must, when the grass
season is over, form the principal food. Bran stands high in
the list of good milk-producers. It increases the fiow of milk,
improves its quality, and holds up the condition of the cow,
while no unpleasant flavour is inii)arted to the butter; it is also
a cheap diet. Tins food should be given warm in masli shape,
and two gallons per day will be a good allowance with other food."

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 377

He also says that oats are very similar in favourable results to
wheaten bran, and may be given in quantities of from one to one
and a half gallons with other food per day. It is best to have
them crushed. Bean and pea meals tend rather to improve the
condition of the animal than to increase the milk supply ; and as
also they may give an unpleasant flavour to the milk, they
should be used sparingly with other mixtures. Linseed cake is
rich in milk and in flesh-producing qualities. Cotton-cake,
when of good quality, is said to be even better; but other writers
do not altogether endorse this opinion.

Regarding roots, Mr. Walker says they must be given with
caution. Swedes may be allowed in cases where the milk
is to be sold ; but when butter is made, the flavour is not
pleasant if this regimen be adopted. Swedes must be well
matured if required for dairy cows, and to accomplish this
they should be stored early. Mangel-wurzels are a somewhat
over-rated food; before Christmas they are unfit for cows;
during March, April, May, and June, they are the most nutri-
tious. Cabbages are good food for dairy cows, and even more
valuable are carrots, which are rich milk-producers, and most
wholesome. . . . We must now leave these interesting questions
and conclude our review of anaemia.

The blood, when examined with the heemocytometer, shows in
ansemic animals a great reduction in the number of red blood
corpuscles, and these contain less hsemoglobin, and are paler than
those of healthy blood ; the number of white corpuscles is
perhaps not altered, nor are the fibrin and salts of the serum
diminished in amount. The quantity of water in the blood in
proportion to the solid constituents is increased.

An ansemic ox shows gradual wasting of the tissues, and
becomes thin and wan. The pulse is weak, and the volume of
blood passing along the arteries is diminished, while the arteries
themselves are contracted. There is gradually progressing
weakness, and the animal becomes languid and dull ; the appe-
tite is variable, sometimes being very indifferent, sometimes
being increased ; but it is always capricious and generally much
impaired ; the breathing is irregular and hurried on the slightest
exertion. Much gas is apt to accumulate in the bowels, and
indigestion is very often an accompaniment of this impoverished
state of the blood. The bowels are generally irregular, being

378 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

most often constipated, though they may be too freely
opened ; diarrhoea, indeed, is not at all uncommon. Dizziness
and general depression make the animal look the picture of
helplessness and despair. Even cows despair.

Regarding the treatment of anaemia, we must say a few words.
In the first place the cause of the disorder should be ascertained.
The food supply should be judiciously regulated in accordance
with the requirements of the animal, and should be of an
easily digestible nutritious character. Linseed gruel and bran
mashes will at first be of great value. If there be any loss of
blood, this should receive attention and treatment. If there be
no ascertainable cause, tonics should be administered once or
twice daily. The most valuable are the salts of iron and vege-
table tonics such as nux vomica, or its alkaloid strychnine,
and bitters, such as gentian, calumba, and chiretta. The
general requirements of the animal must also receive attention;
the shed must be well ventilated and kept in a cleanly, whole-
some condition. If the place is damp and cold, plenty of
bedding should be used. An ordinary case of simple ansemia
is easily curable, when treated on these general lines. More
severe cases generally owe their cause to some internal disorder,
the nature of which must be carefully ascertained.

The treatment of pre-parturient paralysis requires pretty
nearly the same management, but the medicinal treatment
must be more vigorous. With strychnine and carbonate of
ammonium the best results are to be obtained, and but seldom
need a case succumb, if it be well attended to. There is no fear
of abortion being caused by the administration of these tonics;
on the contrary, unless these or other remedial measures be
taken, abortion will ensue in many instances. Abortion, indeed,
is commonly the result of under-feeding.

GENERAL DISORDERS DUE TO DIETETIC
ERRORS.
When one contemplates how fertile is bounteous Nature in
resource, and how adaptable men and animals are to the varied
conditions to which they are subjected, one might at first,
perhaps, wonder that they sometimes battle so unsuccessfully
against those many and varied disorders which owe their causation
to dietetic errors. Yet, indeed, these diseases, especially common

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

379

Fig. 44. — General View of tbe Digestive Appakatds of a Fowl.

The abdominal muscles have
been removed, as well as the
sternum, heart, trachea), the
greater portion of the neck, and
all the head except the lower jaw,
which has bec-n turned back to
show the tongue, the pharynx, and
the entrance to the larj'nx. The
left lobe of the liver, succentric
ventricle, gizzard, and intestinal
mass, have been pushed to the
right to exhibit the different por-
tions of the alimentary canal, and
to expose the ovary and oviduct.

1. Tongue. 2. Pharynx. 3.
First portion of the a'sophagus.
4. Crop. 5. Second portion of the
oesophagus. 6. Succentric ven-
tricle. 7. Gizzard. 8. Origin of
the duodenum. 9. First branch
of the duodenal flexure. 10.
Second branch of the duodenal
flexure. 11. Origin of the floating
portion of the small intestine. 12.
Small intestine. 12'. Terminal
portion of the small intestme.
flanked on each side by the two
caeca (regarded as analogous to the
colon of mammals). 13, 13. Free
extremities of the caeca. 14. In-
sertion of these two
culs-de-sac into the
intestinal tube. 15.
Rectum. 16. Cloaca.
17. Anus. 18. Me-
sentery. 19. Left
lobe of the liver.
20. Right lobe. 21.
Gall - bladder. 22.
Insertion of the pan-
creatic and biliary
ducts ; the two pan-
creatic ducts being
situated most ante-
riorly, the hepatic
being in the middle,
and the cvstic being
behind. " 23. Pan-
creas. 24. Dia-
phragmatic
aspect of the
lung. 25.
Ovary (in a
state of atro-
phy). 26. Ovi-
duct. (C7;«u-
veau. )

,^^

380 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

in man, rarely occur, excepting as the result of the roost flagrant
and wilful ignorance or carelessness. Mr. Spencer, speaking of
physiological development, gives examples of Nature's ample
provision for the requirements of animals, and shows how she
supplies deficiencies of one part by growths destined to perform
the same functions in another.

The gizzard of a bird [he writes] is an expanded portion of the alimentary
<janal, specially fitted to give the food that trituration which the toothless mouth
of the bird cannot give. Besides having a greatly developed muscular coat,
this grinding chamber is lined with a thick and hard cuticle, capable of bearing
the friction of the pebbles swallowed to serve as grindstones. This dififerentia-
tion of the mucous coat of the gizzard into a rigid and tubercled layer of
horny matter — a differentiation which in the analogous organs of certain
molluscs is carried to the extent of producing from this membrane bony plates
and even teeth — varies in birds of different kinds, according to their food. It is
moderate in birds that feed on flesh and lish, and extreme in granivorous birds
and others that live on hard substances. How does this immense modification
of the alimentary canal originate ?

Spencer tells us there is warrant for the belief that this
change of structure arises by direct adaptation, and he men-
tions in this connection that Hunter habituated a sea-gull to
feed upon grain, and found that the lining of the gizzard
became hardened, whilst the gizzard-muscles doubled in thick-
ness. Similarly a like change in the diet of a kite was followed
by like results.

In the ruminating animals there are several expansions of the
alimentary tract which the food enters before reaching the true
digestive stomach. These dilatations, which are likewise known
as stomachs, serve to store up large quantities of food hastily
swallowed, until the animal at leisure can regurgitate and then
thoroughly masticate it. Here again, then, we see how Nature
with her manifold resources provides means whereby animals
become essentially fitted for *' the conditions of life under which
they live," or for " their environment," as scientists shortly term
it. Knowledge partakes of infinity, and the more we gain, the
more clearly do we perceive the power and might of Nature to
harmonise the lives of her creatures, both animal and vegetal,
with the environment in which they are actually placed. But
Nature is not to be fooled, and disease is the reward of those
who transgress her laws, known or unknown. These remarks,
we may sav, in passing, iqiply witli tonfold force in the case of

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 381

man — man, with bis highly differentiated mental capacity ; man,
designed by his Creator to fulfil a distinct and definite mission
on earth, and to accomplish that fixed purpose with which he
was sent here to be dominant over the whole animal creation —
man, who has but too often little excuse for his wanton
recklessness.

We have not at present, however, to treat of the special dis-
eases of the digestive organs, but of five disorders of a general
kind, which are not rare in the ox, and owe their origin to
dietetic errors. Shortly, we shall speak in detail of the special
diseases of the digestive organs ; but our general remarks to-day
apply equally to all disorders due to mismanagement of the diet.
It is of the first importance to the farmer that he make him-
self thoroughly acquainted with the necessary scientific details
regarding the dieting of animals.

The first disordered condition, of which we have now to
speak, is plethora. By the term "plethora" we understand
a condition in which the blood is rich to excess — a state
of the body not uncommonly met with in animals fed beyond
the limits of healthy nutrition. It is not the actual bulk
of the food taken, but the quality, which is the factor likely ta
induce the plethoric condition in young, rapidly-growing animals.
The dangers of this condition are twofold ; firstly, an animal
over-fed and insufficiently exercised is especially liable to simple
acute inflammation, and not very rarely falls a victim to disease
depending upon this overloaded state of the blood ; secondly,
we have already shown that calves, when fed with too great an
amount of food, especially of a nitrogenous character, are very
prone to become the prey of the germs of black-leg.

It is said that this disease is especially likely to attack the
fattest and best of the herd, and this is due to the remarkable
receptivity of a plethoric animal to the growth of the germ.
When an over-led animal shows symptoms of disorder dependent
on plethora, the diet should be restricted in amount, and the
pasture changed for one less luxuriant. Moderate exercise
should be enjoined, and the bowels should be-operated upon by a
dose of Epsom or Glauber's salts, repeated if necessary. Where
the diet has been too nutritious and stimulating, it should be
changed for one less so, and it should be restricted in amount if
necessary. Never bleed a plethoric animal because he is plethoric ;

382 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

if be be suflFerintj from any acute inflammatory attack, of course
tbis may be necessary; but tbe practice of bleeding for tbe
pletboric condition pure and simple is to be condemned from
everv aspect ; moreover, it is very uneconomical, unless indeed
it be carried out to a very minute extent for tbe purpose of
fattening tbe animal. We now turn our consideration to
•diabetes.

By tbe term diabetes we understand a condition characterised
by excessive urination. It is generally associated with great
•weakness, extreme thirst, and rapid emaciation. In cases of
•diabetes mellitus, sugar is found to be present in the urine,
wbereas in diabetes insipidus, sugar is not present in the urine,
and this affection is sometimes designated polyuria. Diabetes
insipidus, a disease not by any means uncommon in the ox, is
generally caused by some dietetic mismanagement ; the food
supply as a rule has been defective or of inferior quality, or, in
other instances, from being very badly supplied with food, the
animal has suddenly been placed upon a more liberal allowance
of nutriment. In the latter instances the assimilative functions
become deranged, and diabetes results. It must be empha-
tically pointed out that this form of diabetes is not a disease
of the kidneys, as it is very frequently supposed to be.

Of all causes of diabetes mellitus the most common is indiges-
tion, and in such cases the malady is, as a rule, more especially
amenable to treatment. The disease may also owe its origin to
intrinsic or constitutional causes. The urine discharged by a
diabetic cow has a sour odour, and it is voided in excessive amount,
and tbe animal becomes very weak and languid, and rapidly loses
flesh. Tlie appetite is generally voracious, and the animal eats
almost anytliing within reach. The bowels are irregular, and
are frequently constipated and filled with wind (tympanites).
Some cases of diabetes progress rapidly Irom bad to worse, others
are of a more chronic character. The tongue, as a rule, is furred,
and the breath has an unpleasant odour. Even death may result,
if tbe loss of flesh and consequent exhaustion continue.

The first essential in the treatment of this malady is very
careful investigation of the food supply, and even though no
fault may be detected, it may be necessary to adopt a different
regimen. It is on change of diet that we have chiefly to rely in
our treatment of diabetes. In the first place, it will be necessary

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 383

to open the bowels by the administration of sixteen ounces of
Glauber's salts dissolved in three gills of warm water, and to see
that the bowels continue fairly active.

In many instances diabetes is due to indigestion, and in con-
sequence it is our practice to follow up this treatment by the
administration of drugs which will enhance the tone and activity
of the organs of digestion. With this end in view, one ounce to
one ounce and a half of bicarbonate of potassium or of sodium
may be given three times daily in the drinking-water, and a
draught containing half a fluid ounce of tincture of nux vomica,
one fluid ounce of spirit of ammonia, and half a fluid ounce of
spirit of chloroform may be given in half a pint of warm water
twice daily for four days, then once daily for several days.
If this treatment be found ineffectual, iodine is the only
remedy likely to prove of value. It is given in drachm doses,
with two drachms of iodide of potassium and three drachms
of tincture of nux vomica, once daily, in three gills of water. It
may be continued for a week or ten days in bad cases. We have
mot in this place to speak of indigestion and tympanites, excepting
in so far as they bear on diabetes ; but we shall treat of them in
detail later on. We may mention in passing, however, that
hyposulphite of sodium is the most valuable drug in cases of
:simple tympanites in the cow.

We have next to consider two diseases of the bones, due to
■faulty assimilation, dependent upon dietetic and mal-hygienic
causes. The first of these is rickets. By this term we under-
stand a condition in which the bones, owing to defective ossifi-
cation, are soft, and, being incapable of bearing the weight of
the animal, become twisted and contorted in certain ways.
Rickets is essentially a disease of young animals. The disease
is abundantly common in young badly fed children, especially
those living in the slums and back alleys of our large smoky
towns. Rickets depends upon defective assimilation of food,
and the bones and other structures become deprived of their
proper supply of nutriment. Nutritious diet of a good and
wholesome kind, exercise in the open air, ancU thorough ventila-
tion of the shed, are the necessary remedies. Tonics, such as
the salts of iron and phosphates, may also be required. The
adminifctration of phosphate of calcium, once daily, in the food,
is the best treatment for young calves, in which the disease is

384 THE DISEASES AXD DISORDEES OF THE OX.

due to inherited tendency. When, however, there is no here-
ditary taint, and the disease probably depends upon indigestion,
bitters and alkaline salts, as bicarbonate of potassium and
sodium, are frequently useful. Easily digestible nutritious food
is always necessary.

It is not often that an animal manifests rickets at birth ; the
diseased condition usually becomes manifest as the young
creature develops. We have not seen the disease in old oxen ;
but in them a similar disorder is said to occur sometimes, and to
be due in such instances to a deficiency of lime in the drinking-
water.

Very many lambs die from the effects of the disease called
rickets every year that comes, although, of course, the number of
those which fall victims depends upon the character of the
season, the nature of the locality, and the general management to
which they are subjected.

A lamb afflicted with this disease may, when about three weeks
old, walk with an uncertain gait, be perhaps slightly lame on its
hind-legs, and manifest some difficulty in rising from the
recumbent posture. After another week or two have elapsed,
the hind-legs may become quite unmanageable, and, as each day
comes, the animal experiences greater and greater difficulty in
rising, and if the lambs which are affected are suddenly startled
thev will, if they are not already lying upon the ground, fall
down helplessly. As we have said, the weakness increases,
and before long the animal has not the power of following its
mother, nor can it partake of her milk. In fact, it is reduced
to feeding upon any grass which may be within rench, and this
being verv limited in amount, it pines away and at length dies.
Indeed, it is often the best plan to slaughter the lambs when
they are in the early stages of the malady.

The disease is probably occasioned by a deficiency of food or
of earthy salts in the food, or by the milk of the mother being
defective, or taken in insufficient quantity. The bones of the
hind-limbs soften and bend, not being able to support the weight
of the animal. Moreover, the malady may break out after the
animals have been too much confined, or it may show itself as
a sequel to other illnesses. In all probability it is capable of
being transmitted hereditarily. Hence rams which have been
the sires of lambs suffering from rickets should not again be

I

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 385

employed, and ewes which have given birth to unhealthy lambs
should be culled.

It is of the highest importance that both the rams and ewes
should be in vigorous health, and also that the number of ewes
proportionally to the rams should not be too great. It is also
very advisable to put the flock in winter-time on sound land, at
yeaning time to provide good shelter, and to bestow extra care on,
and give an extra supply of food to, those ewes which have twins.
If rickets should manifest itself among the flock, all the sheep
composing it should be at once supplied with fresh food; and,
if it is practicable to do so, they should be put on a richer pas-
ture, or at any rate supplied with cake or sound corn. In fact, a
change of diet is a most important preventive and precautionary
measure.

It seems that the disease which broke out among the lambs
in the district of New York in the spring of the year 1862 was
somewhat allied in character to the one above described under the
name of rickets. In that case the lambs suffered heavily in
consequence of a malady, the particulars of which are to be
found in the Edinburgh Veterinary Review, vol. v. 1863, page
105. The lambs referred to were wanting in physical develop-
ment when born. Their bodies were small and lean, or had a
peculiar flaccid feel, as if the muscles had not attained their
normal consistence. The bones were smaller than is usual,
the back and neck were thin, the legs slender, the head was
small, the face very thin, and the wool and the hair were very
thin and short. The general appearance was like that of an
animal prematurely born. Some, indeed, were so feeble and weak
that they never could rise to suck ; some lived for a few
moments or hours, some from two to seven days. They were
dull, only made feeble efforts to feed themselves if their dams
were at all shy, and many would scarcely even follow their dams
about. Very few attained to ordinary size, even if their supply
of milk was plentiful.

In some cases congenital goitre accompanied the preceding
symptoms. A few lambs when born were found to have their
heads and necks so drawn down, and occasionally so greatly
twisted sideways by the action of the muscles, that they could
only suck with difficulty, and by assuming unusual postures.
Those which were most severely affected starved, i.e. unless

25

386 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

they received assistance from the shepherd until such time as
they had gained the power of making the unusual exertions
required of them. So suddenly did the disease manifest itself,
that even strong and healthy lambs a week or two old, all at
once, almost, lost the use of their legs in a greater or less
degree. Some hobbled about, as if they were lame in every
foot, scarcely being able to walk at all. Some of the suffering
animals recovered in a few weeks' time. Others, again, were
unable to stand, even when placed upon their feet ; yet they
looked healthy^ fed heartily when assisted to do so, and
recovered when the weather became warm. However, notwith-
standing the recoveries which took place, even as many as 90
per cent, of some flocks died from this disease.

Mr. Randall says that the flocks of sheep in New York were
much more than usually confined during much of the winter
from 1861-62. Very deep snows fell about the first day of
February, and the hard crusts left on the ground prevented
the sheep from straying from the immediate neighbourhood of
the stables as long as the spring. In fact many flocks scarcely
moved fifty yards from their stables during the last ten or
twelve weeks of their pregnancy. Their appetites were kept
keen bv the cold, and the large amount of food, coupled with
inactivitv and advancing pregnancy, made the sheep very quiet
and much disposed to remain in their stables. When they had
eaten, they lay down on their bedding until they rose to eat
again. In fact flocks, habituated to run in pastures in the
winter, and to dig down to the grass, were entirely cut off" from
their usual succulent food. It is a grave mistake to let in-lamb
ewes obtain green food by roving about the fields and turnip
patches for the first two or three months of their time, and then
to confine them rigorously to a small yard and dry food. In
severe winters, indeed, this course may often lead to wholesale
loss of even the grown animals.

Fragilitv of the bones, or bone-brittleness, or fragillas
osnium, is the other bone disease of which we have to speak.
This malady is rarely met with in oxen, excepting in those
districts where the soil is of a porous or sandy character,
and in some degree barren, such as it is in some parts of
Scotland, and on the west bank of the Eden in Westmore-
land. In such districts the wuter does not contain the salts

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 387

of lime in sufficient abundance, and phosphates and lime salts
are in small amount in both soil and water. The animals
rapidly lose flesh, and move about sluggishly and stiffly; the
appetite is bad, and the pulse becomes frequent in number and
weak. Soon the poor creatures have difficulty in standing ; the
joints swell, and so brittle do the bones become, that fractures
are very common in these cases. The milk as a rule becomes
thin and watery, and very deficient in solid constituents; though,
in those instances where the cows eat a good quantity of food,
it may maintain for some time a fair quality.

In the treatment of this disease, the first thing necessary
is to remove the animal to a different soil, and, if possible, to
obtain water which contains earthy salts in fair quantity. Good,
nutritious food is essential ; that containing phosphates is
especially valuable. The salts of iron are valuable as tonics ; the
sulphate or carbonate of iron is useful, but the citrate of iron
and ammonium is even better. The latter may be given in two-
drachm doses twice daily. Vegetable tonics and the phosphate
of calcium are also valuable additions ; especially the latter.
Our knowledge of this disease seems to indicate that soft water
is bad for cows, especially milch-cows.

The last disease of which we have to speak here is goitre, a
malady which attacks man and animals alike, in districts where
the water supply is obtained from the magnesian limestone.
It is common in Derbyshire, and is known generally as "Derby-
shire neck." It is also common in Switzerland and many other
countries, and, although more common in man and sheep, it is
sometimes met with in oxen. It consists of an enlargement of
the thyroid gland, and the tendency to overgrowth of this struc-
ture may be inherited. The treatment of goitre consists in
taking the animals from the district in which they have contracted
the disease, or by supplying rain-water, or water acted upon by
the addition of carbonate of sodium, which precipitates the
magnesium salt.

ANCIENT MEDICINES— SUPERSTITIONS— CHARLA-
TANRY—POISONS.

Those of our readers who have perused our work on The
Diseases and Disorders of the Horse (London : Bailliere,
Tindall & Cox), will remember that we commented upon some

25 *

388 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OE THE OX.

old and very weird methods of treatment of the diseases
of animals. In one month's number of Mr. James Knowles'
review, the 'Nineteenth Century, for 1887, an article, entitled
" Strange Medicines," is contributed by Miss C. F. Gordon
Gumming. Under this title the able writer brings forward
many very interesting facts indeed, while she compares the
methods of treatment of disease until quite recently generally
practised in Japan with those adopted by our ancestors in these
isles. Her remarks clearly prove that the early part of the
eighteenth century in our country shows very little, if any,
advancement in medical skill on the ignorance which prevailed
at the date of the Norman Conquest. While remarking that so
rapidly has the scientific study of medicine been taken up by
the Japanese medical practitioners, that the survival of a chemist
of the pure and unadulterated old school is quite remarkable,
she proceeds to describe the shop and stock-in-trade of one of
these remarkably interesting individuals, until recently the
representatives of the professors of the medical art in Japan.

In the latter country these ancient relics are fast disappearing,
while in the Celestial Empire such empirics still hold undis-
puted sway. The Japanese vendor whose acquaintance was
made by Miss Gumming was a purveyor of curoyakee, i.e.
" carbonised animals ; in other words, animals reduced to
charcoal and potted in small earthenware jars, to be sold as
medicine for the sick and suffering. Formerly all these animals
were kept alive in the back premises, and customers selected
the creature for themselves, and stood by it to see it baked and
burned on the spot, so that there could be no imposture or any
doubt as to the freshness of the charred medicine. Doubtless
some insensible foreign influence may account for the disap-
pearance of the menagerie of waiting victims and their crema-
tion ground. Now the zoological backyard has vanished, and
only the strange chemists' shops remain, like well-stored museums
wherein are ranged portions of the dried carcases of dogs and
deer, foxes and badgers, rats and mice, tigers and elephants.
The rarer the animal, and the farther it has travelled, the more
precious, apparently, are its virtues. From the roof hung
festoons of gigantic snake-skins, which certainly were foreign
importations from some land where pythons flourish," Miss
Gumming saw one very fine piece of skin which, though badly

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 389

dried and much shrunken, measured twenty-six inches across ;
but it was only a fragment ten feet in length, and was being
gradually consumed inch by inch to lend mystic virtue to com-
pounds of many strange ingredients. The perfect skin must
have measured very nearly fifty feet in length. There was also
another fragment twenty-two feet long and twelve inches wide ;
this also had evidently shrunk considerably in drying, and must,
when in life, have been a very fine specimen.

A medical work of reference. The Chitiese Repository, pub-
lished in Canton, a.d. 1832, states, according to the above-
named authoress, that the bones of the dragon are found on the
banks of rivers and in caves of the earth, places where the dragon
died. The bones of the back, and also brain, are especially
prized, being variegated with different streaks on a white ground.
The best are known by slipping the tongue over them. The
teeth are of little firmness. The horns are hard and strong ;
but, if these are taken from damp places or by women, they are
worthless. From his examination of these so-called relics of
the dragon, which prove to belong to many different animals,
which in successive ages have crept to the same cave to die, Mr.
Moseley points out how some imaginative person probably first
devised a fanciful picture of the monster, combining the body
of a vast lizard with the wings of a bat, the head of a stag, and
the teeth of a carnivorous creature. The whole assemblage of
heterogeneous factors has become the stereotyped idea of the
dragon in all lands.

Miss Gumming, further on in her contribution, tells us that
in the official pharmacopoeia of the College of Physicians of
London, a.d. 1678, the skull of a man who had died a violent
death and the horn of a unicorn appear as highly-approved
medicines. Again, in a.d. 1724, the same pharmacopoeia men-
tions unicorn's horn, human fat, and human skulls, dog's dung,
toads, vipers, and worms, among the really valuable medical
stores. The pharmacopoeia was revised in 1742, and various
ingredients were rejected; but centipedes, vipers, and lizards
were retained. x\mong the standard medicines quoted in the
medical books of Nuremberg of 200 years ago are portions of
the embalmed bodies of man's flesh brought from the neighbour
hood of Memphis, where there are many bodies that have been
buried for more than 1,000 years, called mu?nia, which have

390 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

been embalmed with costly salves and balsams, and smell
strongly of myrrh, aloes, and other fragrant things. The learned
doctors of France, Germany, and Italy, all made use of this
eccentric drug, and in the seventeenth century it was found that
for true mummies men substituted bodies which had died of
contagious diseases. These latter were so prepared with different
substances as to pass for the real article demanded. Well may
one exclaim " Truth is indeed far stranger than fiction ! "

It would, we should imagine, be generally conceded that
enlightenment among the general public regarding the diseases
of man, and their nature, and the remedies of true value in their
treatment, is now considerably more in the ascendency than in
the case of animals. We may, perhaps, admit that superstitions
are as rife regarding human diseases as regarding the diseases of
oxen, horses, and sheep ; but any real knowledge of the latter
among the general public is of the most elementary, and but too
often most erroneous description. We may give an example.
There is, according to the rural population, a disease of cattle
called the tail worm, also spoken of as the " wolf." It is
believed to be discoverable by a softness between some of the
joints of the tail. In these cases it is supposed to be necessary
to slit open the under surface of the tail, and to rub in a mixture
composed of salt, woodsoot, and garlic. Although there is no
such disease as tail worm, many well educated farmers and
others, strange though it may appear, also believe in the actual
existence of the tail worm, and in the necessity for these ill-
devised practices.

How many poor cows have their tails slit open in one day in
our rural districts it is impossible to say ; and even if they escape
this indignity, to what others they may not be subjected is a
matter of conjecture only. Might we not have expected that
scientific enlightenment would have done more, would have
opened men's minds to a greater extent than it seems as yet to
have done ? In one little straggling village alone, in North
Lincolnshire, there are three men who practise the ox-healing
art; and though no one is qualified, yet they vie with one another
in declamations of each other's incapacity. One wonders how
men could ever have been led to believe in carbonised python,
or in the mummified remains perhaps a thousand or more years
old, as specifics against human ills. But is this, we ask, more

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 391

Strange than the belief that certain much advertised medicaments
can cure all the ills human or animal flesh is heir to ? Indeed,
were we compelled to choose betv/een carbonised python and
some of these ill-compounded medicines stated to be able to cure
all diseases and disorders of whatever kind, we should prefer the
former. This, at any rate, might be harmless ; but can we
invariably say the same of the latter ?

Poisons.

In dealing with poisons in The Diseases and Disorders
of the Horse, we spoke of aconite and arsenic poisoning,
and mentioned that though arsenical poisoning in horses is
diminishing, poisoning by aconite is not at all uncommonly met
with, through the administration of overdoses, prescribed by
incompetent men. Poisoning of the ox is not so common as in
the horse, and, when it does occur in the former animal, it is
more often the result of accident than of real ignorance.
Ergotism, or poisoning by ergotised grasses, assumes, how-
ever, a greater importance as a cause of disease and death in
oxen than in horses in our country.

We will, firstly, speak of poisoning by meadow saffron, or
autumn crocus {Colchicum Autum?iale), a plant recognised at
once by its beautiful purple flowers and shining dark green
leaves. Several cases of poisoning by eating the stalks, leaves,
pods, and seeds of this plant have been described ; but the
writers have never met with an instance in the case of the
ox. The symptoms manifested generally are colic, diarrhoea,
great straining, dulness, cold extremities, and extreme prostra-
tion. The meadow saff'ron is in full bloom in June and July,
and is to be regarded as an active poison, very dangerous to
horses and cattle. It has been observed that when oxen have
partaken of it in some amount, they experience much discomfort,
and, thus learning by experience of its nature, often cease to
further partake of it.

Regarding the treatment of colchicum-poisoning, we need
scarcely say that the animals should be at once removed from
the pasture. If only small quantities have been taken, the
animals do not generally suffer after removal. If much has been
eaten, the diarrhoea is very severe, the pulse becomes weak and
irregular, and symptoms of great prostration supervene. When

392 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

the meadow saflFron has been eaten, but not largely, mucilage of
linseed, with two ounces of spirit of ammonia and four ounces of
brandy, may be given every four hours. If the case be not at
all severe, three gills of linseed or castor oil will suffice, followed
by the ammonia draught, which may be repeated if necessary.

If the animal be not seen until the plant has been eaten some
time, it will then be necessary to adopt a somewhat different line
of treatment calculated to allay the irritation set up and to
stimulate the nerve centres. Mucilage of linseed or thick gruel
should be given in large amount. Brandy is as useful a stimulant
as any, and it may be given in eight-ounce doses every four
hours. If there be much purging, two ounces of tincture of
opium may be given with the brandy, and may be repeated at the
same intervals. To the belly, cloths wrung out from hot water
should be constantly applied in the severe cases, or a smart
mustard blister may be employed instead. At the autopsy, the
stomachs and the intestines of animals which have died of
colchicum-poisoning reveal signs of acute inflammation. The
lining membrane is of a bright red hue, and, when touched,
easily peels off.

Aconite-poisoning in the ox is not very uncommon. It has
been seen by us in the case of a cow quite recently, being due,
as it always is, to an overdose of one of the preparations of
aconite (the tincture), prescribed, as usual, by ignorant medicine-
sellers as a fever medicine. This animal died, but what actual
share the overdose of aconite may have had in the cause of the
fatal issue we do not say. Aconite-poisoning is seldom fatal ;
but the symptoms shown are often very alarming. They consist
chiefly in sudden difficulty of breathing, gurgling in the throat,
trembling, and frothing at the mouth, convulsions, and imper-
ceptible pulse. Horses we have known actually fall to the
ground from absolute loss of power to stand ; but they seldom
actually die, and, when they do, one cannot always eliminate from
the case the original source of illness for which the draught was
given and repeated too quickly in succession. Two ounces of
spirit of ammonia with four ounces of brandy may be given in
gruel in these cases, and repented at intervals of two hours, once
or more if necessary.

We now propose to speak of poisoning by the foliage of
the yew {Ta.vus Baccata). Although it is believed by some

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 393

that the yew is only dangerous when in the dry state, it must be
very clearly and emphatically understood that it has not by any
means rarely proved productive of death in horses and oxen
whioh have browsed on the fresh green leaves and twigs. There
is, however, some uncertainty as to the poisonous action of the
yew, for instances are recorded where oxen and horses have
apparently eaten with impunity even rather large quantities of
the fresh foliage. Yet these exceptional cases are explicable on
the supposition either that not sufficient was taken, or that the
yew was of a variety diflferent from the ordinary English or Irish
kind. Poisoning by the yew has been known to cause a fatal
issue in horses and oxen in from two to three hours after
ingeslion of the foliage, and, indeed, so rapidly does death ensue
in severe cases that the symptoms manifested may not be noticed.
In most cases, indeed, the signs of yew-poisoning are not by any
means distinctive, for they resemble those caused by other
narcotic poisons ; and one cannot diagnose a case for certain,
unless fragments of the foliage of the tree itself are discoverable.

In the general way, an ox which has eaten of yew foliage is
found very much prostrated, cold, and shivering; the paunch is
often distended ; the pulse is weak and fluttering, and soon
becomes imperceptible. The poor animal becomes oblivious to
its surroundings, at length sinks prostrated, and death rapidly
ensues. After death, as a rule, there is an inflamed condition of
the lining membrane of the stomach and intestines, but the j^ost-
mortem signs of yew-poisoning are not characteristic, and are
uncertain, unless one finds fragments of the foliage in the
stomachs.

In cases of yew-poisoning, four fluid ounces of spirit of ammonia
with eight fluid ounces of brandy should be given in a quart of
mucilage of linseed ; this dose should be repeated in one hour,
and again, as deemed necessary, at intervals of two, three, or
four hours. In the intervals of giving the draught, mucilage
of linseed or oatmeal gruel must be given. A full dose of an
active purgative should be administered after the first draught ;
aloes, in solution, in dose of eight to ten drachms, followed by
a quart of linseed oil, is perhaps as good as any. Mustard
should be applied externally to the belly. In severe cases the
operation of rumenotomy has been recommended by Professor
Williams, in order to remove the foliage from the paunch.

394 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Of the next poison, black hellebore, we have little to say,
because, fortunately, cases in which this irritant has been employed
are becoming very much less frequently met with. Even yet,
however, in some parts incompetent persons at times use the black
hellebore as a counter-irritant dressing for setons in the dew-lap.
This practice is most strongly to be discountenanced. In a case
of extreme inflammation set up in this manner, the swelling must
be fomented, and a full dose of purgative medicine given.

Cases of poisoning by eating the solanum dulcamara, or
woody nightshade, a plant which flowers in the months of June
and July, and produces berries a few weeks later, are rather
uncommonly met with. The symptoms manifested are feeble

Fig. 45. — Solanum Dulcamara.

pulse becoming almost imperceptible, and wildness manifested
by a strange look of confusion and dismay, or by mad rushing
at random to and fro. The pupils become much dilated, and
the bowels very freely opened. Treatment of these cases consists
in the administration of stimulating draughts, as in the case of
poisoning by the yew; but, if much has been eaten, a fatalissue
generally ensues.

We append here a copy of a report by Mr. J. B. Gresswell.

Gentlemen, Way 31st, 1888.

I havo been over to Elsham this day and carefully investigated the oat-
break of diseaao among cattle on the farmstead occui)iod bj' Mr. George Fowler.
I found on inquiry that two had died, and that one had been slaughtered by
order of the owner. A fourth died while I was there. Two more were aflfectod.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHERP. 395

I also found that the cattle had been out at grass for some throe weeks or so,
and that the owner's father had for the past ten years lost a number of beasts
from time to time, all of which, as nearly as could be remembered, manifested
similar symptoms.

The owner informed me that his father had in the past employed several
veterinary surgeons, but that all remedies had proved unavailing.

The first beast I saw was a two-year-old heifer. It had been brought up from
grass on the 30th, and was noticed to be straining. I found the temperature
to be 102° F. The pulse numbered 12G per minute, and the beats were feeble,
irregular, and intermittent. There was much straining and tenesmus with
excessive fluid evacuations.

The nest beast, a three-year-old cow was evidently in the last stage of the dis-
order. The pulse was quite imperceptible. The temperature was 103-2°. She was
quite incapable of standing, and moaned and strained heavily. The conjunctival
mucous membranes were of a deep brick-red colour, and the pupils widely
dilated. Yesterday this cow was so wild and delirious that no one dared to go
near her.

The third case I saw was a calf aged ten months. The pulse was rapid
and feeble, the temperature 101-5°. The eye-lids were highly injected and the
pupils dilated. This animal had been ill for three days, and had strained so
violently as to eject about four inches of the rectum.

A fourth beast, a two-year-old heifer, had been killed. The symptoms, as near
as I could ascertain, were almost identically similar to those presented by all the
others. A careful post-mortem examination revealed the following lesions: —

In the abdomen there were about four pints of peritoneal efifusion of a light
yellowish tinge. The omentum and mesentery were much swollen, and contained
a quantity of light-coloured gelatinous effusion.

The mesenteric glands were slightly enlarged. The contents of the rumen and
reticulum had been thoroughly re-masticated. The contents of the omasum
were very dry and caked. The mucous lining of the abomasum and along the
length of the bowels was of a pinkish hue in patches. The lungs were very
slightly congested. Beyond this, the contents of the thorax were quite
healthy.

The membranes of the brain were congested. There was slight extravasation
of blood in the lateral ventricles of the brain.

When I had finished this post-mortem examination, we found that the second
cow was dead. The autopsy was in this instance much similar to the one above
named.

My diagnosis of these cases is poisoning by some vegetable which grows in
these paddocks : either Solanum dulcamara or Bryonica Dioica. An enormous
quantity of this latter grows in the paddocks.

There is a total absence of any symptoms of any infectious or contagious
disease.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your obedient servant,

James B. Gresswell.

We now pass on to the consideration of one of the most
important of all the poisons of the ox and sheep, and with this
we conclude our review of the vegetal toxic agents. Ergot, the
poison to which we allude, is caused by the growth of a fungoid
parasite which iufests most of the grasses and cereals. Its

396 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

disastrous effects on our cattle and sheep are said to be great, so
much so that one wonders that landowners and farmers have as
yet made themselves so little acquainted with the results of
scientific research into its nature, growth, prevention, and very
serious consequences. The cultivated grasses which most often
become diseased by the growth of this vegetable fungus are
timothy grass, tall fescue, floating sweet grass, fox tail, and rye
grass. The weed grasses most generally infested are soft brome
grass, couch grass, and wall barley grass. Among the cereals it
is especially common in rye and maize. The French word ergot
signifies a spur, and was given to these peculiar fungoid growths
from their assuming a shape not unlike a cock s spur.

Ergot of rye is the name used to designate the parasitic
growth infesting the secale cereale, or rye cereal. In those
countries where rye bread is much eaten, ergot of rye is often
present in large quantities in the flour, and very alarming
symptoms and death may result therefrom. In Russia and other
countries gangrene, or mortification of the limbs and other parts,
has in some seasons especially been very common. At the com-
mencement of last century it is recorded that no fewer than five
hundred patients at one time were being treated in the hospital
at Orleans, and these cases were entirely the result of ingestion
of ergot of rye in the bread. The disease set up was shown by
gradually extending mortification of the limbs. Amputation of
arms and legs did not in all cases stay its onward progress,
ending in death. Ergot of maize is said to be common in
Columbia, and to induce shedding of the hoofs in horses and
mules, and the laying of eggs without distinct shells by fowls
which have fed upon the grain so affected.

Our readers will understand that ergot itself botanically be-
longs to the fungi, and tlie rye or other grass on wliich it is
parasitic to the graminaceae or grasses. Ergot is the sclerotium
of the fungus, called claviceps purpurea in the case of the rye
grass, in wliich it is produced between the pales, growing in the
ovule, which remains unimpregnated and undeveloped, and thus
never becomes a grain of rye or wheat. An ergot grain of any
grass is found to be a purplish or bluish-black hard elongated
body, easily recognised when once carefully observed. It is
dense and compact, and has a peculiar unpleasant odour
and mawkish taste. Ergot of rye is genernlly arched, and

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 397

is about one-third of an inch to about an inch and a half
in lengtli.

It has been found that ergot is especially common in grasses
in damp situations, and is more abundant in wet seasons when
the rainfall is very higli ; hut even when very prevalent in our
pastures, it very commonly escapes detection, until its presence
is suspected from the animals feeding upon it manifesting signs
of serious disease. When affecting our pasture grasses, the ergot
is only about a half to a quarter of the size of the ergot of rye,
and may even be much less.

If the grasses be very carefully examined towards the end of
July, ergot will most likely be found, and it will increase in
abundance in the early part of August. As winter approaches,
or in late autumn, the ergot falls to the ground, and from it
there grow several tiny mushroom-like prolongations, each about
an inch long. In the expanded tops of the mushroom-like
growths large quantities of spores are developed. These very
tiny spores escape, when the grasses are in bloom in June next
season, and establish themselves in the grain case, and proceed
to develop in the unfertilised ovules, which would otherwise
form healthy seeds. The fungus is thus established in the grass,
and its growth proceeds apace. When nearly fully matured, the
ergot develops a little growth at the end of the spur. This little
growth, co/iidium, develops spores, and these escape and invade
the remaining healthy grains of the same grass and others in the
field or pasture, and thus fresh ergots are produced. These, it
will be understood, are secondary ergots.

Now, what is known to be the therapeutic action of ergot, for
it is employed as a medicine in human and veterinary practice ?
It is known to have a very powerful effect on the uterus, causing
its muscle to contract, and this is more especially marked if the
animal be pregnant, and still more so if parturition has com-
menced. It has also other important actions, but with this one
we are now especially concerned. It is said that when pregnant
cows or ewes have partaken of ergotised grasses, they have an
especial tendency to abort. When given in-.sufBcient quantity,
this toxic agent doubtless causes abortion in cattle and ewes.
There have been attempts made to prove that the serious
outbreaks of abortion among cows and ewes are due to ergot;
but while adm.itting that these factors may predispose animals to

398 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

be thus influenced, we must emphatically state that this poison
is not in all instances, at any rate, the actual cause of the out-
break and of its continuance.

In order to exterminate the fungus in pastures, our meadow
grass should be cut in full bloom, before the ergot has time to
reach maturity. The grass is only attacked at full bloom, and
if cut then, before the grass seeds ripen, the fungus, which
requires a month or so to mature itself, will be prevented from
developing further and producing spores. Some will agree with
Mr. John Walker's views on this question, and with him will
think that at the same time the water grasses which grow on the
banks of rivers and in the ditches, ponds, and along the hedges,
should be cut down.

Mr. Walker advises that in old pasture fields the grass be
grazed down pretty bare in the damp localities where we might
expect ergot would find a suitable habitat, and that old coarse
grasses in rich feeding pastures should be cut down in the early
part of July. Such coarse grasses are very often infested with
ergot, as they are not eaten down by the animals. By cutting
them in July, the ergot is prevented from arriving at maturity,
and the pasture itself is improved. A salt dressing is also
recommended on these parts of tlje pasture. It is recorded that
a Shropshire breeder of cattle lost £1,200 in three years from
the grasses in his pastures becoming ergotised. We do know
that other diseases are liable to be induced in animals by eating
ergotised grasses. The disease termed grass-staggers is some-
times produced in horses by feeding on rye grass at a particular
stage of its growth. This disease must not be confounded with
stomach staggers, a condition caused by acute indigestion.

We must now speak briefly of the mineral poisons of the ox,
in this connection mentioning especially arsenic and lead. The
ox is sometimes the victim of arsenical poisoning. In some
exceptional instances, when arsenical preparations are used for
dressing the skin for vermin, a quantity of the poison becomes
absorbed, and sets up mischief, manifested by the pulse becoming
feeble and rapid, and the breathing much accelerated. There is
violent action of the bowels, and blood-stained excreta are often
voided, if much arsenic has been absorbed. In other instauces
arsenic may be taken by the ox accidentally by the mouth.

In one instance, under our notice, on April lOtli, a few

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 399

years ago, three cows were turned out into a field, where they
were supplied with water from a wooden trough, which had been
used for dressing wheat with arsenic previous to sowing. The
trough had been washed out and filled with water for drinking.
One of the cows died on the 22nd, the second on the 23rd, the
third on the 24th — i.e. two, three, and four days respectively
after the ingestion of the poison.

When called on the 24th, we found one of the animals still
alive. The pulse was small, weak, and much accelerated, it
being 120 per minute. The cow was very restless, occasionally
sitting upon her haunches and stamping the ground, at times
with first one fore-foot and then the other. At times she rolled
over on her side, and moaned. The white of the eyes was much
injected ; the cow purged violently, and died at 10 p.m. on the
same day. The appearances after death from arsenical poisoning
as usual were very marked and characteristic. The rumen, or
paunch, was full of food, and in places it was inflamed, and
covered with a layer of lymph. The second stomach was
similarly afiected. The third stomach, or manyplies, was full ;
its folds were highly inflamed and of a deep red hue, approach-
ing to purple and black in some places. The small and large
intestines were inflamed, and the small intestines contained
much grey mucus. The fourth, or true stomach, was also
much inflamed.

In cases of arsenical poisoning, copious quantities of linseed
mucilage and gruel should be administered, and the antidote,
the hydrated peroxide of iron freshly prepared, should be given
in ounce doses at intervals of an hour for three or four times,
and then every three hours for a day or so. In the later stages,
spirit of ammonia and brandy are to be given as stimulants, to
counteract the severe debility. In the first instance, if the purging
and pain be very great, tincture of opium may be given in two-
ounce doses at intervals of two hours.

Poisoning by the preparations of lead is not uncommon ; but
we have never met with an instance in the ox.' It may occur
through the ingestion of painters' refuse carelessly thrown into
the pasture. In case a fair amount has been taken, the ox
becomes dull and sleepy, and the pulse very weak and perhaps
imperceptible, and there is obstinate constipation. After a time
the pulse becomes more rapid and more full, while the animal

400 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OE THE OX.

loses consciousness partially or wholly. In some instances mania
sets in, and then death soon puts an end to the suflferings.

In these cases a powerful purgative must be given at once:
ten ounces of Epsom salts, ten ounces of Glauber's salts, four
drachms of diluted sulphuric acid, with twenty minims of croton
oil, may be administered in a sufficiency of gruel. This draught
may be repeated in half the amount after the lapse of eight or
ten hours. After the first draught is given, mucilage of linseed
or gruel should be given in large quantities every hour, and at
each alternate administration four drachms of diluted sulphuric
acid may be added. Where lead-works are carried on, oxen in
the district not uncommonly become the victims of chronic lead
poisoning.

With regard to the question of poisoning in relation to sheep,
it may be said that the principal seat of inflammation when a sheep
is destroyed by reason of acrid poisons, whether the poison be
gathered in the field, or wilfully administered, or accidentally
swallowed, is the fourth stomach, or abomasus. Lambs which
have been taken from their mothers at too early a period may die
as a result of feeding upon deleterious plants, such, for example,
as the yew, and some of the species of the ranunculus, which, if
eaten, cause great suffering. Of the metallic poisons, those
which are most frequently fatal are arsenic and that deadly salt
of mercury, the perchloride, generally known under the name of
corrosive sublimate. It is well to remember in this connection
that death may occur in lambs as a result merely of coagulation
of milk in the true stomach. This subject we shall refer to
again more thoroughly under the heading of diarrhoea.

SECTION IL— DISEASES OF THE CIBCULATOBY
SYSTEM.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM AND SOME DISEASES

CONNECTED THEREWITH.
The question " What, after all, is life ? " is one which will now
and again recur to the reflective mind. Nevertheless, think of
tliis momentous question and search into it as much and as
deeply as we may, it is well-nigh impossible to find anything

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 401

even approaching to a satisfactory rationale in regard to all
those immense and weighty problems connected with our presence
here in this comparatively small portion of the boundless universe,
and in regard to the conscious existence of each one of us from
day to day, and year to year, and its, at first sight, seemingly
abrupt cessation or transformation into something higher when
death closes the scenes of our troubles and our trials, of our
hopes and of our joys. Nor, as a matter of fact, can Science,
the potent enchantress of modern as compared with older
civilisations, help us very much, except indeed most vaguely,
incompletely, and indirectly.

That the heart has been for a long time recognised as one of the
essential and central factors of life, needs but little pointing out,
as the idea has been embodied in the poetical and fanciful use
of the word in all ages and in all nations. " He is a heartless
monster," " He has lost his heart/' " She is his very heart and
soul," are terms of expression which imply that the conception
of the heart as one of the chief vital elements is one which is
universally believed. This has always been the case in greater
or less degree among all peoples. As in the majority of all such
conceptions, so in this also there is a great deal of truth ; for we
find, after the fullest inquiry, that the circulation of the blood
into all the various parts of the body, though itself dependent
upon intricate impulses of nerve-force which are very difficult to
unravel, and are indeed as yet incapable of a complete explana-
tion, is an entirely indispensable necessity for the maintenance
of life.

From the Yorkshire Weekly Post of January 15th, 1887, we
extract the following : —

Shocking Affair. — A shunter on the Great Western Railway, at Landore,
was on Monday cut to pieces between an engine and truck. The sight of his
mangled body so shocked the station-master, Mr. Thomas, that he fell
dead.

Unfortunately this is no uncommon instance wherein we find
that the heart is a most susceptible organ.

Very frequently, indeed, we are appalled bey^ond all measure
and bounds to hear of great disasters which have removed large
numbers of human beings in the midst of their busy every-day
life, and we are thus most forcibly reminded of the dreadfully
uncertain nature of the conditions of our vitality. It may be a

26

402 thl: diseases and disorders op the ox.

shipwreck, or an earthquake, or a fire, or a battle, or an explosion
in a mine, or a combination of some of these. Of such calamities,
perhaps the panic and deadly struggles at the places of exit
which led to the loss of so many lives at the terrible fire which
so recently occurred at the Opera Comique, in Paris, is most
fresh in men's minds.

Now, how did the unfortunate victims of that horrible and
tragic occurrence meet with their piteous fate ? We read that
some of those who died succumbed to poisoning by monoxide of
carbon, the gas which is generated when charcoal or other com-
bustible substance containing carbon is burnt in an atmosphere
containing a supply of oxygen insufficient to make it possible
that the higher oxide of carbon should be produced in full
quantity. Probably the majority were suffocated owing to the
want of oxvgen, and the presence of a great deal of smoke
together with carbonic acid gas and other gases. Finally, a few
seemed to have died owing to actual failure of the heart's action,
due to shock, and intense terror, and fear of the pain of inevitable
death. Probably all escaped the horrible pain of actually being
burnt alive, though many were reduced to ashes in the sweeping
conflagration which ensued.

Mark : some were so panic-stricken with the vivid reality of a
sure, unavoidable, and imminent loss of that life which we all of
us cling to, despite all the miseries of living, so maddened with
mental a^ony that in the unimaginable horror of their sudden
and startling situation their hearts did literally stand still and
motionless ; and thus these doomed human beings were plunged,
by probably a painless path, from the very height of merry
enjoyment, all sparkling with beauty and fashion, and full of the
thousand and one thoughts of nineteenth-century enlightenment,
into tlie chasm of the future world ; shall we say transported to a
height of happiness and bliss, or a depth of maddening and ever-
enduring despair ? or shall we say, into the sweet sleep of
eternal oblivion ?

Truly it is a shocking picture, this which is presented to our
minds, a vision to make us all think most deeply; and though
we can account in some measure for the means whereby so much
life ceased to flow on in its even course, though we can in some
infinitesimal degree realise what that terror must have been like
which was felt by those human beings all decked out in the com-

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 403

pleteness of the gaiety and fashion of a city, itself the centre of
fashionable life, who can say where their conscious existences —
where their souls have gone ! VVho, in thinking of Life and
Death, can realise either the one or the other? W^ho can picture
the unfathomable mysteries presented by this world and its
inhabitants ? We look around, and on every side and in every
distant corner the same huge mysterious uncertainty presents
itself, and unless one has the immense power which attaches
itself to a faith in the good destiny of mankind, all life looks
like a hideous mockery, and the Universe presents the appear-
ance of a gigantic panorama of fraud and phantasms, a fitful
and most perplexing image of desperate folly, dreadful strife, and
cruel misery, and unmeaning, empty, and fleeting joy.

A man, apparently in the heyday of youth and spirits, rides
out on a bicycle soon after a heavy meal, and probably a pipe or
two of tobacco. He ascends a rather steep hill, is seen to fall,
and is picked up, a lifeless corpse. His heart has stopped, owing
to a degree of exertion which it was not powerful enough to with-
stand. Again, a man is found dead in a railway carriage. What
is the cause of death ? He had run swiftly to catch the train.
His heart was weak, and it could not bear the strain put upon
it. Such cases as these are indeed quite common — cases, we
mean, in which people have died from stoppage of the heart's
action. Indeed, when the heart is weakened with disease, a
degree of exertion, which iu the general way would not seriously
damage the constitution, will kill ; whereas, if such strains are
avoided, the man or animal, as the case may be, might live for
years and years.

Much time and labour are necessary in order to enable one to
become conversant with diseases connected with the heart and
blood-vessels in every class of animals, and it is of importance
that investigation should be conducted in regard to this subject,
not only in the case of animals suffering from disease, but also
in that of those which are in a state of health. Indeed, the
physician does, as a matter of fact, expend an immense amount
of care and time in the acquisition of the n^ecessary skill and
judgment, and every day that comes probably he will have a
great number of patients who suflPer from temporary or permanent
derangement of these most important organs of the body.

Manifestly it is very different in the case of the lower animals ;

26 *

404 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

and there are but very few men who are thoroughly competent
to diagnose the diseases of the heart and so on, even in the case
of the horse, where such knowledge is frequently of very great
value. Such information is of much less importance in the case
of the diseases of the heart in oxen. Nor is it a matter of great
practical utility that veterinary surgeons should make themselves
acquainted with the diseases and derangements of the circulatory
system in cattle. As a rule it would not be found advisable
that an ox should be taken in hand for a long course of treatment,
in order to cure any of the more dangerous affections of the heart.

These are not so numerous in oxen, sheep, and pigs as they
are in the horse, which latter animal, noted and used as it is for
activity and speed, needs more strength in its circulatory organs,
and is also more liable to suffer from any derangement in this
part. The chief disorders attributable to the circulatory system
in cattle are: — "Aneemic palpitation," "rupture of the heart,"
"cyanosis," "carditis,'' "pericarditis," " the presence of foreign
bodies in the heart," "endocarditis," "hypertrophy,'' and
"embolism." "Anaemic palpitation" may occur when the
blood is in an attenuated and watery condition. The sounds
and murmurs, especially aortic, produced when the blood is in
this slate are softer and more regular than those which arise
from disease of the heart, and they may often be made to cease
by a judicious use of tonics.

" Rupture of the heart " is by no means frequent, but it has
been noticed in oxen which have undergone severe exertion in
ploughing. Mr. George Armatage, who is a well-known writer
on cattle diseases, mentions a case in which old-standing disease
of the lungs had limited the circulation, and, in consequence of
sudden exertion when the ox was drawing a heavy load of turnips
up-hill, rupture of the right auricle and pericardium took place,
causing, of course, almost instantaneous death.

"Cyanosis," or "Blue Disease," occurs in consequence of
imperfect closure of what is called the " foramen ovale " of the
foetus, whereby the venous blood from the right side of the heart
mingles with the arterial blood of the left side, giving rise to
venous pulse and anaemic palpitation, to a blue tinge in the skin
and mucous membranes, and to an emaciated and cold state of
the body. Moderate exertion may bring on death, and the
progress of the animal being hopeless as n rule, the condition is

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 405

only seen in very young animals, since they generally either die
or are killed.

The heart is sometimes found outside the body in calves and
lambs, which in most such instances die shortly after birtli. This
position of the heart outside the chest in front, at the bottom of
the neck, or even beneath the abdomen, is spoken of as " ectopia
cordis."

" Carditis," or inflammation of the heart, may be an accom-
paniment of either endocarditis or pericarditis. The muscular
substance of the heart itself is sometimes inflamed near a deposit
or seat of injury. Of course this disease is of the very
gravest kind, and most generally leads to a fatal issue.

"Pericarditis," or inflammation of what is called the "peri-
cardium/' or " heart-bag," may occur independently, or in con-
nection with rheumatism, or with contagious pleuro-pneumonia.
Very careful treatment is required to combat this disease, what-
ever its origin may have been, and death may occur within about
two days.

The presence of foreign bodies in the heart is not so uncommon
as might be supposed. Both oxen and sheep frequently swallow
pins, needles, nails, and such like things, and, as might be
expected, these are liable to perforate the walls of the alimen-
tary canal, and pierce through the tissues to the heart, as a
result of the movements of digestion, respiration, and circula-
tion. Pigs, too, sometimes swallow such things in their food.
Death generally results, owing to pericarditis being set up, or
possibly to some other more violent cause. Occasionally an
animal lives for some time with these injuries.

The late Mr. D. Gresswell was years ago asked by Dr. Banks
to see an ox. It was clear that some cause was seriously
impeding the heart's action, probably a needle, or something
like a needle. After a careful examination of the animal, he
diagnosed the presence of a bodkin, needle, or some such
foreign body in the chest, and that the heart at each systole was
striking against the blunt point of the needle. He advised that
the animal should be slaughtered, and the' needle was then
found lying in a stained fistulous track, which extended from
the rumen through the pericardium to the heart. The heart
itself was found to be riddled with holes in the place where the
needle impinged upon it, as it moved to and fro.

406 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

"Endocarditis" is the name given to inflammation of the
lining membrane of the cavities of the heart. It occurs
principally as a complication of rheumatic disease, and
requires very careful treatment. If allowed to go on unchecked,
large growths may be formed in the cavities, and sudden death
may occur. The best plan is, in most cases of endocarditis, to
make the animal ready for slaughter, and to consign it into the
butcher's hands at a suitable opportunity.

" Hypertrophy," or excessive growth of the muscle of the
heart, is not common in cattle, though it is rather frequent
among horses, and especially in racers.

" Embolism " is a name given to the lodging of a foreign
body, e.g. a clot of fibrin in any of the vessels. The foreign
body thus lodged is called an " Embolus." The iliac arteries
are most generally the seat of embolism.

We have now briefly mentioned the more important disorders
of the circulatory system, and we may say, in conclusion, that it
is a most difiicult matter to detect the nature of some of
them. Indeed, it requires very special skill, even in the
case of the human being, to diagnose the exact character of the
disturbance, and the meaning of the various murmurs and other
physical signs by which the presence of disease is manifested.
In the case of oxen, not only is it of far less importance to be
able to ascertain what is wrong with the circulatory system, but
it is also very much more difficult. The information at hand is
of the scantiest, and it is not at all easy to acquire an exact
acquaintance with the varied and complex conditions which may
occur. It is only lately that such instruments as the stetho-
scope and the sphygmograph have been applied in veterinary
practice.

Moreover, the tendency of research will take the direction of
subjects which are of far greater importance to the comtnunity.
At the present time the whole scientific world is, as it were,
convulsed with the wonderful revelations which have recently
been made by the discovery of tlie intimate connections existing
between micro-organisms and disease ; and it is well that this is
the case, for it would be impossible to over-rate the almost
infinite importance of the modern aciiiovemcnt of science which
is known as the germ theory.

From what we have said above, it will be clear that oxen are

DlSBAStlS OF THE OX AND iSHEEP. 407

liable to many iifflictions of the heart in all respects similar to
tliose which attack mankind.

SECTION III.— DISEASES OF THE BESPIBATOBY
SYSTEM.

The derangements which may affect the respiratory system of
any class of animals are of numerous kinds, and manifestly of
very great importance. Many of them are essentially amenable
to judicious management, but they require to be attended to as
well and as thoroughly as possible. If taken in hand at once,
many of these disorders we are considering can be checked,
and the patients thereby enabled to overcome the serious
difiBcuIties from which they are temporarily suffering, and
then stait afresh once more with a new lease of life. On
the other hand, if not stopped, the disease will soon lead on
to deatl). In dealing with any one system of organs, one must
bear in mind that all the different functions of the animal body
are very intimately connected. As an instance of this, we may
mention that the three processes of digestion, circulation, and
respiration are necessarily bound up together, and are at the
same time all dependent in the highest degree on the working of
the nervous system. After a full meal, no animal should be put
to any severe exertion, until digestion has made headway. This
rule is very applicable in the case of the ox, since in that animal
the digestion of the food is a long operation. It is also equally
important in ourselves ; and not only should we remember that
physical activity will retard the process of digestion, but we
should also note that mental exertion is a most serious hindrance
to that important operation of the digestive organs.

During this process there is a large flow of blood to those
organs; and, moreover, the movements of the diaphragm are
impeded, whereby respiration is rendered difficult. This, how-
ever, does facilitate the regurgitation which takes place during
the chewing of the cud. Leaving this subject of the connection
of the different functions, it is to be noted that in the case of the
full-grown ox the number of respirations per minute is about
16|, whereas in the young animal it is about 19. The respira-
tory movements are frequent, but not deep. The diseases of the

408 THE DI8EASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

respiratory as also those of the circulatory organs are not so gene-
ral among ox-en as among horses. Again, the lungs of an ox are
praotioally smaller than those of a horse. This is what might
be expected ; for the latter animal displays a great deal more
of activity and exertion. The horse is very often pushed to
extremes, is sometimes kept in hot and close stables, and sub-
jected to sudden changes of temperature and draughts. Oxen,
especially those used for working, are also sometimes badly
treated ; but they are not as a rule overworked, nor are they
pampered. Cattle, especially when fat, are occasionally liable
to be overdriven. Dairy cows and beasts which are being fat-
tened are far too frequentlv subjected to a foul atmosphere,
which is sure to bring disease sooner or later.

The name " auscultation " is given to the process of listening,
by means of the ear applied to the surface of an animal,
to the sounds made in the functions of breathing, and those of
the heart, and so on. It is more valuable as an aid to diognosis
in the case of the lungs and air passages than in that of the cir-
culatory organs in oxen. If the animal is ordinarily elean and
free from lice, the ear may be applied directly to the walls of the
chest, and thus the sounds which are made by the movements of
breathing are heard without any intermediate appliances. In
case of need, a handkerchief or towel may be placed on the
surface of the part to be examined. The stethoscope is an
instrument specially designed to aid the hearing of sounds
produced within the body. The one most generally employed
consists of a long tube provided with a conical extremity,
formed so as to collect and concentrate the sounds, and with
a flattened ear-piece. The ordinary sounds which are heard in
the case of a healthy animal are interfered with, if there are
tumours or other obstructions in the nasal chambers, or if the
mucous membrane of those chambers is diseased. If the
mucous membrane of the larynx is thickened, roaring and
whistling may be produced. There is, too, a peculiar kind of
lowing which is a sign indicative of pain, and this may interfere
with auscultation. The vesicular sound observed during health
may be variously altered, enfeebled, absent, or replaced bv some
other sound. If it be wanting, and if over the corresponding
part there be dulness on percussion, it is probable that the lung
is solidified or replaced by fluid. If there be gurgling, bubbling,

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

409

hissing, or crepitant sounds, it is probable that inflammatory or
dropsical fluid is in the bronchial tubes or the pulmonary
vesicles. If there be rubbing sounds, there is probably inflam-
mation in, without exudation between, the opposite pleuree, and,
mutatis mutandis, the same rules liold in regard to the opposite
layers of the pericardium. In cases of pleurisy and pleuro-
pneumonia^ if the intercostal spaces are pressed, flinching and
other signs of pain are manifested.

CATAERH.
Catarrh, or cold, or flux from the nostrils, is by many
persons often looked upon as merely acnjd ; but it should, never-

FlGUEE 46.

Method of steaming the Nostrils in a case of simple Catarrh.

theless, be very carefully looked after. It is due to congestion
or to inflammation of the Schneiderian membrane, i.e. the
lining membrane of the nose, that of the nasal sinuses, and of
the pharynx and larynx being also in a certain measure involved.
The disorder is most frequent in spring, when east winds prevail,
and when animals are often exposed to extremes of wet and cold,
after having been kept under shelter. It may arise from damp-
ness or draughts, and is especially liable to attack oxen
which are debilitated by reason of previous disease. It is usually
ushered in by rigors, by passage of mucus from the nostrils,

410

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Stiffness of gait, dulness, and slight fever. According to some
writers, it may assume an epizootic form. The Schneiderian
membrane is red and swollen, at first dry, but soon gives a
watery discharge which becomes of a thick mucous character,
and afterwards muco-purulent. The patient coughs and sneezes,
and a profuse mucous discharge from the eyes may set in. Place
the animal in a well-ventilated shed, and steam the nostrils by

- =- i-

FlGtJRE 47.

Another method of application of steam to the nostrils in a case of simple
Catarrh. (After Armainge.)

means of an antiseptic inhalation. A medium dose of Epsom
salts, together with a diffusible stimulant, may be administered,
and the animal should be carefully attended to.

EPISTAXIS.
Ejiista.ris, or bleeding from the nostrils, sometimes occurs
as a symptom of serious blood disorders iu which ulceration or
rupture of blood-vessels of the Schneiderian membrane has taken
place. In the case of working oxen this bleeding of the nose
may come on from exposure to the heat of the sun, which has
brought on congestion and rupture of the blood-vessels. Again,
it may be brought on by an injury. Cold-water and styptic
applications or plugging of the nostrils may be necessary. The
bleeding may come on from polypus in the nasal chamber, which
may be removed by means of a ligature, or by the iielp of
that valuable instrument called the ecraseur. Moreover,

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP.

411

leeches have been known to gain access to the nasal chamber,
when the horse is engaged in drinking stagnant water. These
creatures bring on a great deal of bleeding. They may be
removed by the process of sneezing, or by the injection of a
solution of salt.

LARYNGITIS.

Laryngitis, or sore throat, or inflammation of the larynx,
may come on after, or accompany, catarrh or bronchitis, or
be a primary aflfection. The pulse is hard, the throat is swollen,
and the muzzle protruded. If the throat be pressed, great pain

Figure 48.
The above picture represe.ts the appearance presented by a beast suffering
from Laryngitis, or sore throat. (After Armnfiir/e.)

is caused, and a dry, liard cough may be produced in that way,
or, indeed, occur occasionally as a result of the disease itself.
From the mouth there is a profuse discharge of saliva, and
pain and difficulty are experienced when the animal swallows.
The animal breathes with difficulty and loses strength rapidly, and
in fatal cases death results from spasm of the larynx, extension of
inflammation, or other causes. The veterinary'surgeon in atten-
dance will decide if tracheotomy should be performed, and if so
will proceed to carry it out. The throat should be fomented,
and the animal should be made to inhale steam to which some
antiseptic has been added. Nutrient or other medicated enemas

412 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

may be administered, but it is well to avoid giving drenches.
When the malady is subsiding, a stimulating application, such
as the liniment of cantharides, may be applied to the throat.
Tumours of the larynx, though not frequent in the ox, are very
serious impediments to the function of breathing. Moreover,
there may be tumours of adjacent parts, or other complications
which interfere with respiration.

BRONCHITIS.

Bronchitis, or inflammation of the lining membrane of the
bronchial tuhes and trachea. This disease is rather frequent in
the ox, being generally brought on by exposure, or such mecha-
nical causes as the entry of solid or liquid particles into the air
passages or the presence of parasites in the lungs. In oxen
afflicted with bronchitis the pulse is hard at first, the respira-
tions are greatly increased in number, the cough is frequent
and distressing. Those mucous membranes which can be seen
present a purple hue, owing to a want of oxidation, and there
is much debility. There is a profuse discharge from the nostrils,
which is at first watery, and at a later date becomes of a thick
consistence. Death may come on from sufi'ocation, owing to
blocking of the air-passages or possibly to extension of the
inflammation to the pleura.

In cases of bronchitis it is very important to keep up the
strength of the animal, to attend carefully to every want, and
to allow a free supply of pure air. Steaming should be resorted
to, and the steam should be impregnated with some suitable
antiseptic. Stimulating applications should be applied to the
sides of the chest and to the trachea. If the bowels are con-
stipated, they should be freely opened, and the action of the
heart should be maintained, if it be thought necessary to do so,
by means of the administration of stimulants, and enemas may
be given. At a later time it is advisable to administer diffusible
stimulants, together with vegetable tonics, and to allow a liberal
diet.

Chronic bronchitis frequently occurs in oxen, and there is in
these cases a persistent hacking cough, general weakness, a
tendency to slight febrile attacks, emaciation, and inability to
undergo exertion. This disorder may be associated with asthma,
emphysema, and consolidation of portions of the lung. la

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 413

many cases, though tonics, quiet, and easily-digestihle food will
do a great deal of good, slaughter is the best course.

Parasitical bronchitis, or Hoose, or Husk, frequently occurs
in calves under a year old, and causes among them a consider-
able mortality. It is owing to a worm known as the Strongylus
micrurus, which is found also in the alimentary canal and in the
heart and blood-vessels. In wet seasons this affection breaks
out, especially on low, badly-drained lands which are liable to be
flooded. It occurs particularly among calves which have been
kept out late in the autumn, and as a result of feeding on land
on which animals suffering from the disease have been previously
grazing. The cough is very forcible, and has a special hacking
character ; and it causes the expulsion of stringy mucus, in
which parasites or their ova may be seen with a low power of
the microscope, or very likely with the unaided eye. The
animals become emaciated, and there may be diarrhoea. The
worms are present in the bronchial tubes and air-passages, and
hence they seriously impede the process of respiration. Animals
which are severely affected should be placed in comfortable
quarters, and the bedding materials on which the discharges
fall should at frequent intervals be destroyed. Those which
are but slightly affected should be taken away and placed on
high and dry pastures. The water supply should be pure, and
rock salt should be supplied.

With regard to direct treatment, we cannot say much here.
Fumigation with the gas given off from burning sulphur and
iodine has been strongly recommended ; but, as Mr. John Henry
Steel appositely poiuts out, the parasites can sometimes with-
stand a more severe dose of such agents than the calves can,
and hence great caution is needed in the employment of them.

Acute fulmonary co7ig est ion occasionally occurs in the ox as
a result of over-driving and over-work. It is manifested by
extreme difficulty in breathing, by profuse culd sweats, cold-
ness of the extremities, very rapid and almost imperceptible
pulse, rapid respirations, and sometimes a mucous discharge con-
taining a little blood flows from the nostrils. -The patient lies
down, coughs frequently, and has a wild look.

HcBmoptijsis, or bkeding from the lungs, may be due to
several causes. The flow of blood may be profuse, and the
blood varies in colour. It may be mixed with mucus, and it

414

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

flows through the nose and mouth. It may he a result of acute
pulmonary congestion, of laceration of the lung-tissue, or of
certain specific disorders such as give rise to ulceration of the
lungs or cause congestion. For example, heemoptysis may be
due to tuberculosis.

PNEUMONIA AND PLEURISY.

Pneumonia, or inflammatioti of the lungs, is not a common
disease in oxen; but it is much more frequently met with co-
existing with pleurisy, or inflammation of the lining membrane
of the chest and lungs. Our readers will recollect that we have
already spoken at full length of the infectious disease termed
pleuro-pneumonia, a malady which is one of the most deadly
of the bovine scourges ; we now have, however, to discuss only

Fig. 49. — Last Stage of Spoeadic Pneumonia.

the simple and non-infectious inflammations of the breathing
organs, for the most part we may say dependent upon cold,
damp, or chill, for their immediate causation.

Cases of simple inflammation of the lungs are, as might be
expected, more commonly seen in working oxen than in feeding
beasts. The onset of the disease, which is not difficult of detec-
tion, is, as a rule, sudden, and not uncommonly characterised
by shivering fits. We have already stated that an ox in health
breathes about twelve to eighteen times a minute, and the pulse
numbers from forty to fifty per minute. It is a little odd
that those who have most to do with oxen seldom or never
acquire the knowledge where to take the pulse, although one
often finds that horse-owners are well acquainted with the way

DISEASES or THE OX AND 8HKEP. -415

in which it may be felt in the animals under their charge. It will
be remembered that the pulse in the horse beats thirty-six times
to the minute, and his respirations are nine to twelve during the
same time. The horse breathes less rapidly tlian the ox, but
the lungs of the horse are relatively more capacious ; the pulse
is likewise less rapid in the horse than in the ox. It has indeed
been shown that the pulse and respirations bear a definite relation
to each other in health, whereas in disease the relationship may
become much altered. The temperature in the horse is on the
average 100°* 5 ; whereas in the ox it is higher, varying from
101°*5 to 102°*5, in health. The highest temperature we have
ever seen in the horse was 109°; and this was in a case of
acute tuberculosis (consumption), so very rarely seen in this
animal. In man, although the pulse (seventy-two on the
average) and the number of respirations (eighteen on the average)
are more rapid than in the ox and horse, yet the temperature
is lower (98°*4) in the human race.

In order to take the pulse of an ox, one should pass the arm
round the animal's head, and lay the fingers on the lower portion
of the lower jaw, at about its middle point, and then, if one feels
carefully, the little artery will be found, and its beating will be
distinctly felt. The pulse may be taken on the same spot in
one's self, though in this situation it is not so distinct as at the
wrist. It is best to approach the near side of the cow, and to
place the right arm over the neck, while the left hand holds one
of the horns.

In inflammation of the lungs, the number of respirations are
increased, and may reach as high as 40 to 70 per minute; while
the pulse, which is full and bounding, may reach 70 to 100
beats.

The temperature is raised several degrees, and febrile symp-
toms become very marked. The skin is dry, parched, and hot,
and thirst is marked. As a rule the poor animal sinks to the
ground, in this respect differing from the horse, which, as a rule,
in all pulmonary affections remains standing. In milch-cows
the secretion of milk is stopped at the outset of-the disease. If
one listens with the ear applied to the side of the chest, one
will find that the usual breathing murmur, heard so distinctly
in health, has vanished, and is replaced by harsh, loud breathing,
somewhat resembling that heard when the ear is applied over

416 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OP THE OX.

the trachea of a healthy animal. Cough is generally present,
though in some instances it is not marked. The animal looks
anxious, and the head and neck are protruded, the bowels are
constipated, while the water passed is scanty and liigh-coloured.

As the disease progresses, the pulse becomes feeble and more
rapid, the breathing still more accelerated. The cough, not
often frequent, becomes of a weak character, and blood-stained
expectoration may be thrown up. In many instances the dis-
ease takes a favourable course, and the animal becomes con-
valescent in about a fortnight from the onset of the attack. In
others, death occurs from consolidation or from mortification of
the lungs, from the fifth to the tenth or fourteenth day. It is
customary to bleed in cases of acute inflammation of the lungs,
though aconite, in the form of tincture, often acts as efiBcaciously
as the more direct method of controlling the inflammatory action.
Of course it would not be admissible to administer aconite, if it
were intended to slaughter the animal for food in case of an
impending fatal issue.

In the first place, in this afi'ection the animal should be placed
in a well-ventilated airy box or shed, and under no circumstances
should he remain in a close, stuflFy stall, seeing that a due supply
of fresh, cool air is of paramount importance in enabling the
animal to cope with the increasing difficulty in breathing.
Around the chest, cloths wrung out from hot water should be
kept constantly applied, and should be renewed every hour, so
long as the acute symptoms last. Afterwards, the sides of the
chest may be blistered by the application on one side of mustard
and on the other, if it be also affected, of ointment of cantha-
rides, or a strong ammonia and turpentine liniment. In the
first instance a fair dose of Epsom salts should be administered
in a pint of warm water, and every four hours there should be
given a drench of solution of carbonate of ammonium, of solu-
tion of acetate of ammonium, and camphor. Digitalis is also
sometimes useful. Where bleeding is not practised, and in
very plethoric cases where it is carried into execution, the
phurmacopoeial tincture of aconite in forty-five-minim doses is
most useful. When the lungs are extensively inflamed, it is
customary to slaughter, except in the case of valuable breeding
animals, or where the ox is too poor to be of much value a&
food.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

417

By pleurisy we understand an inflammation of the serous lining
of the chest walls and of the serous lining of the lungs
themselves. This lining membrane is termed the pleura.
Pleurisy seldom occurs alone in the ox, for it is nearly
always accompanied by inflammation of the lungs in greater or
less degree.

Inflammation of the lining of the chest is in most cases due
to cold and damp, but it may result from injury, and not

s^^f^te

Fig. 50. — Acute Pleurisy.
This picture represents an ox suffering from acute pleurisy.

uncommonly it, with pulmonary collapse, is a complication of
cases of acute rheumatism, as may also be the case in man.
(See remarks on Felon.)

The disease sets in with the manifestation of febrile symptoms,
the pulse is felt to be small in calibre but firm in character,
and in number it reaches sixty to seventy per minute. The
breathing in animals suffering from pleurisy is characteristic.
The chest walls move but little, the inspirations are shallow
and short, while the expirations are accomplished with greater
ease, and are more prolonged.

The whole chest is kept, as it were, fixed, and the walls of the
belly are observed to move more in breathings- in this way the
animal compensates for the shallow motions of the chest walls.
The sides of the chest are very tender to the touch, and the
animal manifests great pain, if he be pressed upon between the
ribs. If the ear be applied to the affected side, or sides, for

27

418 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

both may be simultaneously inflamed, the usual respiratory
murmur may be heard, and in addition a loud sound, as of leather
creaking and rubbing. This sound is due to the roughened
lining of the chest walls rubbing against the roughened lining
of the lungs themselves, and in healthy animals it is not heard,
for the moist, smooth, glistening membranes then glide noise-
lessly on one another, as air is taken in and given out from the
lungs. Anxiety and dejection are depicted on the countenance,
and the eyes are half shut. In cases of pleurisy, there is generally a
short, painful, hacking cough, which is restrained by the animal
as much as possible. The appetite is diminished or lost, and
rumination is not performed. The animal generally lies down
upon the sternum, so as to fix the chest-walls as much as
possible, and so reduce to a minimum the thoracic respirations.
When the animal isvStanding, the head droops, and the ears hang
downwards. When the pleurisy is a complication of rheumatism,
the pain in the chest is commonly more severe, and the tenderness
even more acute, owing to coincident pericarditis.

In many cases of pleurisy the inflammation gradually subsides,
and the animal makes a recovery, though not rapidly. In other
cases the inflamed serous membranes pour out a quantity of
fluid which accumulates between the chest walls and the lungs.
This presence of water in the chest, which is termed pleuritic
eflFusion, is of great importance. As it comes on, the acute
symptoms of pleurisy abate, and the friction sounds cease then
to be heard, tliough, when tlie fluid is afterwards absorbed, they
may again become distinct. Respiration, when there is pleural
effusion, becomes less painful, and it is deeper than in the early
stage of pleurisy. Indeed, when effusion occurs, the animal
even manifests signs of improvement for a time ; but ere long
dropsy sets in, the legs, chest, and belly become swollen owing
to accumulation of fluid in the layers beneath the skin, the
breathing becomes laboured, the pulse, wiry and rapid at the
onset of the disease, becomes soft and frequent, and, as the
effusion increases, it becomes irregular, feeble, and even imper-
ceptible. The breathing becomes still more embarrassed now,
the inspiration is prolonged and it is jerky and irregular, and the
expiration act is performed with difficulty. If one listens to
the sides of the chest, one cannot liear the respiratory murmur
over tlie lower portions of the chest, owing to the presence of

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

419

fluid. If the disease proceeds, the animal becomes worse, and
greatly debilitated. The surface of the body becomes cold, and
the pulse-beat imperceptible, until at length the animal sinks
And dies.

In many cases under our notice as much as six to seven

Fig. 51.

The above illustration shows the method of drawing the skin into folds
previous to making the primary incision for paracentesis thoracis, in a case of
hydrothoras.

Pig. 52. — The Trochar and its Outer Case, the Canula.

This instrument is used both in cases of tympanitis and in those of hydro-
thorax and pleuritic effusion.

Fig. 53.

In the above picture the fluid is seen to be flowing from the chest by means
of a canula. The vessel is used for collecting the fluid and pouring it into a
pail or bucket.

I

gallons of fluid have been eff'used into the chest in the course of
a few days.

After giving a laxative, we usually recommend drenches of
acetate of ammonium, camphor, and nitric ether every four

27 *

420 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

hours, -with the addition of aconite in acute cases in vigorous
animals. We do not recommend bleeding in cases of pleurisy.
In the acute stages hot cloths should be applied, as in inflam-
mation of the lungs ; and as the acute symptoms subside,
mustard poultices or blisters of cantharides ointment should be
assiduously made use of.

Should effusion of fluid appear imminent, it is very essential
to administer stimulating medicines, with digitalis in the form
of powder or tincture. We especially recommend a combination
of carbonate of ammonium, iodide of potassium, and digitalis in
doses of about one drachm. In all cases of pleurisy, after the
acute stage is over, stimulants are indicated, and the carbonate
of ammonium is one of the most valuable. When the animal
shows signs of improvement, and the effusion is being absorbed,
tonic treatment is indicated. The tincture of the perchloride of
iron, with nux vomica, is very useful indeed. Generous diet is
required after the acute stage of pleurisy.

If the effusion of fluid be abundant, it is necessary to tap the
chest. This operation is termed " paracentesis thoracis." It
is performed by passing a large-sized Southey's trochar and
canula through the wall of the chest at its lower portion,
between the eighth and ninth ribs. The trochar is then with-
drawn, while over the external orifice of the canula is passed one
end of a piece of india-rubber tubing, the other end of which
dips to the bottom of a vessel placed to remove the fluid as it
flows out from tlie chest.

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IX

SHEEP.
We cannot give very much attention to the disorders of the
respiratory mechanism in sheep, nor, indeed, to those of the
circulatory system of this animal, for the simple reasons that
both these kinds of derangements in the sheep are neither very
well known nor of very great importance. In horses these two
groups are of exceptional interest and moment; but, as for
sheep, they are most liable to derangements of the digestive
organs. The number of respirations per minute in the case of
the sheep is very variable, and, indeed, may be as few as thirty
or as many as two hundred, in accordance with diflferent con-
ditions— as, for instance, of work or of rest, of climate or

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 421

weather — and we should always remember that much greater
importance is to be attached to the character of the respiratory
movements than to the actual number of them.

The first disease of the respiratory system which we have to
consider is that to which the name of strangles has been given.
However, it is but very rarely that the disease resembling
strangles of the horse and strangullion of cattle does affect
sheep, making its appearance more particularly among hoggets.
When a sheep is afflicted with this malady, a swelling may
be seen under and between the jaws. At first it is hard, but
it gradually enlarges, and becomes soft, owing to the formation
of matter inside it. The swelling is hot and tender, and the
sheep loses appetite, and coughs, and rapidly becomes weak. As
soon as the tumour points, it should be lanced. If the wound
which results gives out an offensive smell, it should be washed
out with a solution of chloride of lime or some other effectual
antiseptic such as the lotion of carbolic acid : and at the same time
about three ounces of Epsom salts mixed with a small quantity,
say half-a-teaspoonful or so, of ginger may be' given. Small
doses of about a teaspoonful of ginger and the same quantity of
gentian may be administered daily for a few days.

Catarrh.
Sheep suffering from catarrh give forth a discharge from the
nostrils. The white parts of the eye are red, there may be a
profuse discharge of tears, and the animals cough, and lose
their appetites. In some cases it may be found advisable to
abstract a little blood, to give an opening drench (for instance,
about three ounces of Epsom salts), and to transfer the sheep
to some dry and sheltered place.

Laryngitis and Tracheitis.
When the upper part of the air-tube called the larynx and
trachea is inflamed, a sheep thus afflicted may often be seen to
stretch forward its head, as if with the object of breathing with
greater freedom, and may then give utterance to -a ringing cough
causing great pain. If the symptoms are of an urgent descrip-
tion, it may be found advisable in the first instance to abstract
blood, and to administer aperients. The animal should be
removed to a suitable sheltered spot.

422 THE DISEASES AIS'D DISORDEES OF THE OX.

Bronchitis, Verminous Bronchitis, and Pneumonia.

The term " catarrh " being applied to a slight cold due to
inflammation of the topmost part of the respiratory apparatus,
and the term " laryngitis " being applied to inflammation of the
larynx, the term bronchitis similarly implies that the mucous
membrane of the bronchi or air-tubes is inflamed. It is at times
very diflQcult to absolutely demarcate off" the three disorders
known as catarrh, laryngitis, and bronchitis, respectively, and the
same animal may perhaps sufi"er first from catarrh, then from
laryngitis, and finally from bronchitis. Now, the cough of a sheep
suffering from this latter complaint has a wheezing character
quite diff'erent from the metallic and ringing sounds so charac-
teristic of laryngitis.

Again, vermitwiis hroncliitis is due to the presence of worms
in the air-tubes.

The Strotigylus f/ticrurus, which is the cause of this disorder,,
verminous bronchitis, has a round and winged head, and its
mouth is also round and provided with three papillse. This
Nematode worm is filiform, i.e. thread-like, and the tail of the
male Strongylus micrurus of the calf is smaller than is that of
the male of the same parasite found in the sheep. The ovary-
is situated a little behind the centre. The mode of reproduction
is ovoviviparous, i.e. the young are born alive, although they are
enclosed in an envelope. The males are l^ in. long, the females
rather less than 2 in. This worm is found infesting the
bronchial tubes of the ox, the horse, occasionally those of the
ass, and it is most commonly met with in the bronchial tubes in
the case of calves and sheep, in which animals it gives rise to
parasitic bronchitis or husk. One female may give rise to the
production of 100,000 eggs.

When grazing, calves and sheep get the larvae on their noses,
and from this situation they pass to the trachea and bronchial
tubes. It is possible that the common eartliworm has something
to do with the origin of husk. Cattle and sheep suffering from
this complaint breathe in a laboured manner, have paroxysms
of coughing, and foam at the niouili. They refuse both food
and drink, and heave at the flanks. Their tongues are black
and hard, and they suff'er from constipation rather than from

DISEASES Of THE OX AND SHEEP. 423

diarrhoea. Lambs, however, are also troubled with scouriug at
the same time.

Two other varieties of strongyliis, viz. the Btrongijhis Jilaria
and the Stroiiffi/ltis riifescens are also at times found present in
the lungs of sheep. The first of these, the Strongi/lus filaria,
has its liead provided with papillae, the mouth circular, and the
skin covered with warty papillae. The Htrongijlns riifescens has
its head unarmed. The mouth is furnished with lips, and the
oesophagus is short. The eggs are but few in number. The
males are about five or six inches long, the females about six or
seven inches. These strongyles are generally found together
with numbers of the Strongylus Jilaria. Only a few of them
have ever been found in one sheep, and they are seen to be
coiled up in the substance of the lung. In order to prevent
husk, salt should be strewed all over the pastures, in order that
the larvae may be killed.

As a curative medicine, the following mixture may be made : — ■
Pulv. Scillae, 5 gr. ; Pulv. Ipecac, 1 dr. ; Kesinae Ammoniaci,
1\ dr. This powder may be administered twice daily, or the
following mixture may be tried : — Tincturae Benzoini, 2 fluid
dr. ; Balsam of Peru, | fluid dr. Mix the two with mucilage.
Turpentine has also been recommended.

We may here state that two authorities, Mr. Youatt and Mr.
Mayer, recommended by way of treatment of this malady the
daily administration of two ounces of salt at one part of the
day, and that of about seven fluid ounces of lime-water at some
other time during the same day.

Acute inflammation of the lungs may be brought on in sheep
by the influence of cold and wet, as a result of chills after hard
driving, of careless or injudicious washing of sheep before
shearing, of shearing during tempestuous or inclement weather,
and other causes of a like nature. At the outset, the patient
exhibits febrile symptoms, has a quick and hard pulse (which
may become oppressed and intermittent), manifests a dislike for
food, ceases to chew the cud, is unwilling to move, heaves
slightly in the flanks, frequently gives utterance to a cough
(which is very distressing, and which, as the disease progresses,
becomes still more quick and painful), breathes irregularly,
completely loses all appetite, discharges an offensive and fetid
matter from the nostrils, grinds the teeth, is exceedingly thirsty,

424 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OE THE OX.

darts as if by a natural instinct at food offered to it but retains
it in the mouth unmasticated, as if it were unaware even of its
presence therein, or rather perhaps as if the necessary energy
required for eating were not forthcoming. At length the pulse
becomes well-nigh imperceptible, the cough weaker and more
painful, the flanks are convulsively agitated, the animal staggers
if it attempts to walk onwards, the eyes become clouded, the
look of the animal's face is expressive of great distress, the
cough ceases, unconsciousness comes on, and at length death
closes the scene.

If an examination be then made, the lungs are seen to be
black and engorged with blood, of much larger size than would
be the case in a healthy animal, and more or less actually
decomposed. Very frequently, also, all the viscera may be
seen to be in greater or less degree congested, and the liver also
is enlarged and softened. If the sheep are seen in the very
earliest stage, they should be bled and purged ; but such
measures would be most detrimental after exhaustion has super-
vened. In this casBj spirit of nitrous ether and brandy in
suitable doses are indicated.

Tuberculosis.

So little is generally heard of this disease as afflicting sheep
that our readers may be at first sight disposed to ask — " Why,
who ever heard of a sheep suffering from consumption ? " Yet,
all the same, this animal is very liable to be contaminated with
the germs of tuberculosis ; and the only reason why the disease,
in so far as sheep are concerned, does not attract greater
attention than it does, is because these animals are usually
consigned to the shambles at such an early age that the disease
has not had time to establish itself in a marked degree. A brief
consideration of this disease will complete our short review of
the disorders of the respiratory mechanism in sheep.

As our readers know, tuberculosis is scientifically classed
under the heading of germ diseases, since it is due to the
presence of the tubercle-bacilli in the blood, tissues, and organs;
but we need u(jt enter into the discussion of the life-history of
these particular vegetal germs in this connection. The
symptoms are somewhat as follows : — A sheep, although feeding
well, may be observed to cough, and, generally speaking, there is

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 425

little or no difficulty in getting the animal into fair condition for
slaughter. After death, the meat looks well; but if the lungs
are examined they are found to be mottled upon the surface,
and if we cut into them, we may find many concretions of minute
size which in reality are tubercles. The fact is, however,
that in the general way, in regard to sheep, tuberculosis is not a
disease of very much moment ; for, these animals being sent to
market sometimes when only eighteen months old, and seldom
at a later age than that of thirty months, the malady has not
time to work very great mischief in them. If, however, sheep
afflicted with this disease were kept alive, so that the disease
could mature itself, they would suffer grievously. The afflicted
ram or ewe at three or four years of age continues to cough,
has pallid lips, loses flesh, and suffers from diarrhoea, which
returns again and again, until at last it wears the animal out.
This disease is especially prevalent among sheep which are kept
on low and moist pastures.

If the disease is recognised, it is best to fatten the sheep, and
send it straightway to the butcher. If this course is not
taken, the affected sheep should be placed on a dry and
wholesome pasture, and salt should be put within its reach.
Foreign sheep imported into England from a torrid climate
seldom live two years, but die of tubercular affection of the lungs.

We do not propose to devote any more attention to the
diseases of the respiratory system in sheep. It only seems
necessary to add that the chief concern of the practical farmer
in this connection is to take due care of his sheep. If this
applies at all times, how much more so is it of the greatest
importance in inclement weather, and during the season of
lambing! It is very gratifying indeed to observe that the
custom of extemporising little sheds by means of straw-stuffed
hurdles or sheep-trays is much more general than it used to be,
and there is no doubt that a little of this kind of help is of
the greatest value to the ewes at this important period of their
lives. We should like to see still more advance in this direction,
and though we do not say that * the good siTepherd should in
these days actually give his life for his sheep,' we do maintain
that many of the kindly shepherds of England do help that
patient creature very much indeed, and that the tender care
and solicitude for their charges which they oftentimes display —

426 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEKS OF THE OX.

it may be on a (lold winter's night, when the snowstorm rages-
around' them — reflect the greatest honour on that hardy and
honest class of men.

SECTION ir.— PARASITISM.

THE WAEBLE-FLY AND ITS LARVA ; THE GAD-FLY
OF THE OX.

The subject which we have chosen for this section is one of
great importance, even so far as its bearing upon the ox is con-
cerned, and manifestly much more is it of primary moment when
considered generally and in regard to its far-reaching issues
among the various races of mankind. The phenomena of
parasitism most intimately affect all ideas as to the evolu-
tion of, and the various connections existing between, the
innumerable living animals and plants which we find around us
in this wondrously constituted world of ours.

Many writers, for convenience' sake, draw a great distinction
between those parasites which live on the external surfaces of
other animals and those which live within their bodies. We
do not think that this classification of animal parasites into the
ectozoa and the entozoa is of any real value, just as we do not
hold that a similar division of vegetable parasites into those
which adhere to the surface of other animals or plants, and
those which live within animals, would be anything but a most
misleading and artificial arrangement.

In our remarks we shall not have time to do more than just
touch upon the outlines of our subject, and hence we shall say
but very little about the classification of parasites.

Viewed from a broad aspect, parasitism furnishes an example
of those numerous kinds of antagonism with which tiie whole
world of life is so painfully replete throughout its numerous
and complicated ramifications. It is one of those groups of
strange and closely-allied facts with which observers of natural
history are very familiar. In common with all other living
creatures, man himself is liable to the insidious and often fatal
attacks of creatures quite insignificant, except in so far as their
powers for mischief are concerned ; and in this way, even when

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 427

death does not result, his vitality may be sapped and under-
mined to its very foundations. It is one of the deplorable
but yet most true conditions of the existence of any living
being, no matter how highly developed, that there is always a
grave risk that life may be immensely impaired, and even made
to cease, as a result of the inroads of parasitic organisms. From
its commencement to its close, life is composed of a series of
struggles ; and the foes with which any given man, woman,
child, or any animal of whatsoever kind or degree, is liable to
be confronted, are by far more numerous and by far more
formidable than any of us can adequately conceive.

In the progress of those subtle processes of equilibration and
evolution, whereby the advancement of the race is made
possible, the chances cannot but tell greatly against indivi-
duals, and it is only by realising this that those of us who are
fairly healthy and well-off" are enabled to see how thankful we
ought to be for our preservation, not only from the more or less
accidental disasters which may at any moment sweep us away
from the face of the earth, but also from the hostile activities of
the many animal and vegetable parasites by which we might
at any time be grievously afflicted. There is something at once
startling and mournful in the thought that men and women of
the brightest intellect, and those possessing the strongest and
healthiest frames, may be swept into the sea of eternity by the
attacks of creatures utterly insignificant; that the most brilliant
career may be blasted by the virus of some deadly fever which
may lay low and destroy men, women, and children, rich and
poor, good and bad, without discrimination.

There are, fortunately, two saving clauses to this picture ; for,
in the first place, our power to repel such invasions is daily
increasing, and, secondly, it may be maintained that possibly
there is a future life before us, in which, if we shall be able to
look back upon this one, we shall probably do so with no regret
that the change has been made from a lower to a higher
kind of existence. Nevertheless, it remains indisputable that,
optimistic as we may rightly be in regard to the future welfare
and good destiny of mankind at large, we cannot but realise the
appositeness of Tennyson's query : —

Are God and Xature thon at strife,
That Nature lends such evil dreams 'i

428 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

and sometimes it may indeed seem difficult to comprehend the
force of the idea of —

one far-off divine event,

To which the whole creation moves ;

the goal of which the same great modern poet so beautifully
sings. Yet we may be sure there is such a star in the dis-
tance, if we could only see it ; and each one of us may rejoice to
think that, even if things are going in the wrong direction in
many cases, still on the whole all things, ay, and even evil
things, are working in the right way, and, in accordance with
the inscrutable wisdom of some wonderful Power, are " making
for righteousness."

If men had not this belief, the strange facts elicited in the
study of parasitism would certainly shake to their very basis
some current conceptions regarding the unlimited power of the
divine will and purpose. Notwithstanding all these things,
however, the doctrines of pure optimism cannot be overturned,
if men will only think deeply enough. At any rate, we may
feel quite justified in propounding and reiterating them, although
we do not forget that often and often enough matters seem to be
taking the wrong route, and that there are many denizens of
great cities, and other human beings, who are literally starving
for what some of the rich are throwing away and wasteful! y
squandering. Proof upon proof can be supplied that, though the
interest and the progress of the community at large may not be
altogether and entirely the same as those of the individual units,
still the two sets of interests are inseparably connected, and
mutually dependent.

If we survey the whole kingdom of life from a broad stand-
point, we shall find that any given living thing may be regarded
both as being liable to be preyed upon and as also in its turn
liable to prey upon others. On the one hand, therefore, care
must be taken to acquire sufficient means of sustenance, while,
on the other, each individual must beware lest he furnish food
for enemies. Now, one of the great principles of biology is tliat
a relation is very generally to be discerned between any animal or
group of animals, on the one hand, and the environment, on the
other. A resemblance, more or less exact, is often exhibited
betwixt the peculiar stones, rocks, mosses, lichens, algje, leaves,

«

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 429

flowers, or stems, with which any given group of animals is most
intimately associated, and the group itself. Frequently, too, it
happens that a remarkable power of adaptive change is to be
noted ; as, for example, in the case of the chameleon, which
varies in colour according to its position in regard to external
objects and places. The protective resemblances, so generally
found among the class Insecta, are frequently of an extremely
marked type, and it becomes a matter of great difficulty to discern
the creatures, situated as they are in the natural state among the
objects to which they are so strangely assimilated in form,
colour, and general appearance. It is recorded of Mr. Wallace
that he was in the habit of placing in a box some butterflies,
appended, as they might perhaps be found naturally, to the
stalk of a shrub, and, together with those thus arranged,
another fully exposed to view. To his inquiry, "How many
butterflies are there in that box?" the invariable reply of the
observer was that the case contained only one single specimen.
Then, after exposing one or two of those which appeared to be
leaves, he continued: ** How many are there now?" The
reply was : " Oh ! I see that all the leaves are butterflies, and
hence it is only necessary to count the leaves in order to answer
your question." But the naturalist had his friends once more at
fault, for some were leaves and some were butterflies, although to
tlie eyes of an unpractised observer all seemed identically similar
leaves. Not only, however, do animals simulate inanimate
objects and parts of plants in point of form and colour, but
other animals also are so exactly represented that onlv an
experienced naturalist can detect the superficial character of the
resemblance. In intimate structure the greatest possible dif-
ferences are to be observed. In some cases, insects simulate
the very animals which prey upon them, while, in other cases,
the wolf in sheep's clothing stands confessed when the would-be
devourer is seen to resemble closely the objects of his greed.
For instance, some spiders are very like their prey in size, form,
and colouring, and one is known which actually imitates the
actions of the poor fly, even in such a minute particular as that
rapid moving of the falces which is so well known and so
characteristic. Much stranger similarities, however, remain to
be noted. When the sexes of the animals which are mimicked
diff"er, the sexes of the mimickers sometimes also diff'erin a corre-

430 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

sponding manner. The reproduction in the mimickers of the
most minute lines, of the particular kind of flight, of the mode of
resting, are also to be perceived, while the fact that even varieties
are copied, shows us to what extent this protective acquisition
has been carried. It is matter of common observation that pro-
tective coverings are largely developed in numerous animals
such, for instance, as tortoises, crabs and lobsters, the Hippo-
oampidse, or sea-horses, the amphisile, while the curculionidae
among beetles, exemplify the possession of a highly perfected
defensive armour. The term " mimicry " was introduced to
express superficial likenesses among animals which differ greatly
in regard to intimate structure from those imitated, and the
subject has been elucidated by the able researches of Wallace,
Bates, Trimen, and others. Protective mimicry is only explic-
able on the theory of evolution, and the phenomena which are
to be classed under this head afford some of the best arguments
which can be adduced in favour of this induction. Of all
biological subjects, one of the most interesting is the study of
those extraordinary disguises which the exigencies of existence
seem to have forced upon some animals. The investigation of
«uch peculiarities is of still greater value, since we now look
upon life not as one vast drama in which each animal and plant
plays a subsidiary, purely temporary, and comparatively fixed
part, but rather as a vast moving panorama, so to say, of which
the concluding scenes, connected with the first as they are by
laws of causation, are made ever the more perfect. Finally,
■what practical lesson can be derived from the study of protective
expedients, as shown in the members of the animal kingdom ?
Paying due regard to the fact that such resources are most
especially apparent in the lower forms of life, may we not justly
infer that although protectionist measures may from time to
time facilitate the maintenance and well-being of any given
individual or group of individuals, still they do not, and pro-
bably never can, afford more than a transient succour, and
that they are only apparently and temporarily helpful in the case
of an aggregate which would otherwise be weak and retrogressive,
if not effete.

In studying the strange phenomena of parasitism, one cannot
but be struck by the extraordinary fact tiiat the highest animals
are oftentimes destroyed by the lowest, being completely at their

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 431

mercy. This may be consistent with the advancement of the
community, for it may be necessary that the higher animals shall
gain or keep the power of repelling such attacks ; but it cannot
be considered as anything but detrimental to the units attacked,
when regarded as distinct individuals, and not as members of the
ever-advancing aggregate. Indeed, this implication of the great
law of evolution must probably be always more or less true ; but
as regards mankind the interests of the individual and those of
the aggregations will become gradually more and more blended,
in proportion as the strong, the powerful, and the wealthy realise
the raison d'etre of their advantages, and the best uses to which
their strength and power and riches can be put. No matter
what men's social distinctions may be, no matter how great their
fame, they are all made up of flesh and blood, and nerves and
ibones, and all are subject to the attacks of parasites of divers
kinds and degrees of power to destroy.

One instance of parasitism in relation to cattle which attracts
marked attention, is the disease to which we have already briefly
referred. It is popularly known as Husk or Hoose, and more
scientifically as Parasitic or Verminous Bronchitis. This malady
is, as we have said, somewhat difficult to cure. It often attacks
sheep, and, as the latter name implies, it is due to the presence
of the worm, called Strongylus micrurus, often in considerable
numbers within the air tubes.

Another example will readily recur to farmers' minds. Espe-
cially in hot and sultry days, stock-owners will be glad to hear a
little more about the two insects known as the warble-fly and the
gad-fly of the ox, notwithstanding that Miss Ormerod, in The
YorksJdre Weekly Post of May 14th, 1887, gave a lengthy and
valuable description of these pests, and that Mr. John Walker's
good little pamphlet on the subject is well known.

There are other parasites which also demand some attention,
and we may mention the liver-fluke, which not only attacks
sheep, but also oxen, and indeed many other animals. Tape-
worms, in their connection with oxen, must also be briefly con-
sidered. The parasites of the skin of oxen do not need much
notice, and they will be mentioned under our article on the
skin.

The Wauble-fly of the Ox.

In the month of July the warble-fly is still busy among die

432

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

herds. We propose to deal with this creature and the gad-fly
first, and then we shall proceed to consider other parasites.

The picture below is taken, with apologies to Miss Ormerod,
from her article above referred to. The bot-fly or warble-fly of
the ox {Hypodertna bovis) is about half-an-inch in length, and
the general appearance is not unlike that of the bumble-bee.
The annual pecuniary loss occasioned by this insect and by the
gad-fly of the ox is very great. One of these insects on a hot
summer's day is capable of upsetting a whole herd, and it is just
possible that they may be the means of transruitting blood dis-
eases, as well as of bringing about other well-known damage.
About the year 1825, these creatures appeared in large numbers

Fig. .54. — The Warhle-fly of the Ox. and its Lakva.

in France, causing considerable mischief, fever, and death. They
are very generally present in cattle imported from America and
other warm countries, and hence any preventive measures should
certainly include the destruction of the larvse in oxen brought
from abroad, so far as might be found practicable.

It is in the latter days of May, in June, July, and also in the
beginning of August, that the female warble-fly of the ox is
busily engaged in laying its eggs on the backs of horned cattle.
The oxen are terrified, and, in order to escape their tormentors,
will dash madly into the iliickest fences. If the ploughman be
engaged in ploughing with oxen when the warble-fly and gad-fly
are on the war-trail, he will lose all control over his team ;
and hence on hot and sullry days the ploughing iiiis to be de-
ferred until the cool of the evening, when these insects are not
on tiie wing. Having deposited its k}^q or eggs, the warble-fly
returns to the hedgerows or woods, in order to procure a supply

DISEASES 01^ THE OX AND SHEEP. 433

of vegetable food. The creature dies when the cold nights of
autumn come on. The gad-fly sucks the blood, while the warble-
fly's object is merely to lay its egg or eggs in the suitable
hatching-place which is aff'orded by the backs of oxen. Towards
Christmas-time, little enlargements appear on the backs about
the chine, on the loin, or top parts of the ribs. These continue
to increase in size until tbe spring, and they become half as
large, or even quite as large, as a small walnut. About this
time the irritation set up is of such a nature that the ox is fain
to lick certain parts with some vigour, and this may be taken as
a sign that the egg has been hatched. A slight aperture is
formed in the skin by means of which the grub can receive air.
Towards the end of January, and much more markedly towards
the end of February, this opening may be found.

The breathing apparatus in this fly and other bot-flies is
situated at the tip of the tail, and this tip, which is of a blackish
colour, can be seen through the opening spoken of. This opening
or air-hole through the ox's skin seems to be enlarged by
the pressure occasioned by the growth of the larva. The
mouth is placed below, and is engaged in feeding upon the
ulcerated matter produced by the perpetual suction which the
larva keeps up. Towards the beginning of May, the grub has
nearly completed its larval state, and at about this time the air-
hole is about a quarter of an inch in diameter. In May the full-
grown warble, about an inch in length, issues from its hole about
mid-day. It presses itself out of the hole, tail first, and falls to
the earth, where it finds some shelter, and changes into a chry-
salis. It is at first grey, but gradually becomes darker, as this
transformation is going on. The outer covering or shell of the
chrysalis is very strong, and dark brown or black in colour.
About four weeks after the larva has fallen to the ground — that
is, at about the middle of June — the fly formed within the shell
of the chrysalis frees itself. The female flies become impreg-
nated, and shortly afterwards they select a sultry day on which
to deposit their eggs in tbe skin of the back of an ox. Each
female fly deposits one or more eggs.

In order to protect cattle from the attacks of this pest,
McDougalFs Carbolic Dressing, as sold in tins, may be dissolved
in soft water, in the proportion of two pounds to six gallons of
water. This would be sufficient for about seventy-five beasts.

28

434 THE DISEASES KND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

The application should be made about once a week at suitable
times, bv the aid of a large soft brush, along the spine to the
root of the tail, and about a foot downwards on each side of
the spine. The strong odour keeps all flies off, and it possibly
destroys any eggs which may be there already.

Mr. John Walker recommends this measure, and that whale
oil and train oil, and in fact every kind of oil, should be
avoided, since the ox is rendered miserable by the smell of
these substances, on account of its fine sense of smell, and
moreover refrains from licking itself, if they be present.

A mixture of four ounces of flowers of sulpliur, of one gill of
spirit of tar, and one quart of train-oil, well-mixed, and similarly
applied once a week along each side of the spine, has also been
advised, as also has a mixture of spirit of tar, linseed oil,
sulphur, and carbolic acid. Sheep salve, or suipliur mixed with
an equal part of lard or tar, and Stockholm or green tar, and
also washes of strong brine have all been found useful. Five
applications should be made in June, and five in July. Sultry
days should be selected for the purpose, and on these days the
animals should be driven to a shed and dressed, and then kept
under shelter until the cool of the evening has set in.

Dairy-cows could be treated in this wav with but little trouble,
and those beasts which are to be killed before spring are not in
such great need of protection, since the grub, being very young
at the time when the animals are slauglitered, will not live to
produce further mischief.

If the grub has been developed, it can be destroyed by
plugging up the hole through which it obtains air, and this can
be effectually done with mercurial ointment, or witii sulphur
ointment, or with the ointment of carbolic acid of The
Veterinari/ Pharmacopoeia written by ourselves (which is just
the same ointment as that of The British Pharmacopoeia). If
every hole is filled up in this way, tl)e grubs will die partly from
the effects of the ointment, and partly as a result of the lack of
power to breathe.

Further, during the month of April, the veterinary surgeon
should e.\ amine all the oxen, and cut the tumours, and remove
the grubs, and in this same month all foreign beasts imported
should be in like manner inspected. If such precautions as
these were carried out for three years, and all imported oxen

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEKP. 435

always carefully examined for bots every April, no doubt the
pest might be exterminated and kept out of this country. So
says Mr. Walker, and he is quite right in this, as in most of
his advice to agriculturists. This observer remarks that he has
seen the mischievous magpie, the sly jackdaw, and the harm-
less starling, in the spring-time, picking out the grub from the
backs of cows.

The losses which result from the attacks of the insect are of
divers kinds. Among beasts which are fattening, the creature
appears at a time when flesh should be rapidly laid on, and it
causes terror and disturbance. For days together the oxen may
be well-nigh maddened, the pain produced when their thick skins
are being pierced by the fly being, no doubt, very severe, and of
a very irritating character. Even the strongest oxen seem to
know that they have little or no chance of coping with their
insignificant foe, whose approach is indicated by the dreaded
whir. Hence, in their wild attempts to escape, beasts not
infrequently meet with grave accidents. Breeding cows may
abort in consequence of the excitement undergone, and it is
indeed a painful sight to see the oxen with heads and tails
uplifted, nostrils expanded, scouring the fields in a frantic state.
It should be remembered, too, that animals which have brought
forth their young prematurely once, are very liable to abort
again and again, and also to transmit the same tendency or habit
to their companions. This is a well-known fact.

When the egg of the warble has been deposited, and the
larva has been hatched, and is growing, a considerable amount
of irritation is set up, and the beast, in consequence thereof,
fattens more slowly. In the case of a milch-cow, the milk, after a
day of such excitement, is scanty and of poor quality, and it will
not keep long. Again, the damage to the hides on account of the
holes present in them is a source of serious loss. Even this
is not all, for the beef arouud each warbled spot is found to
be replaced by a yellowish jelly, which is caused by the beast
licking or rubbing itself with the purpose of getting rid of the
grub, as well as by the disturbance set up more directly by the
grub itself. These parts are cut off by the butcher, but there
is necessarily an appreciable loss, and the best parts of the
beast certainly do not look any the better for having been thus
treated.

28 *

436

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Indeed, adding together every source of damage, we may
roughly estimate that the annual loss to the people of Great
Britain as a result of this mischievous pest is as much as about
four and a half million pounds sterling; and, in saying this, we
would also impress upon our readers that it is the healthiest
oxen, with soft, mellow, and highly nutritious skins which are
most likely to be subjected to the ravages of this pernicious fly.

We have mentioned the gad-Jly of the ox, which is an insect
of a character very different from the warble-fly. The gad-fly
drives its jaw-lancets into the skin of cattle, and then sucks

Fig. 55. — Thk Gad-fi.y of the Ox.

their blood. It causes severe pain. The mixtures recommended
above will serve equally well to protect oxen from the attacks
of this fly. They should, however, be rubbed more generally
over the beast, and lower down, so as to include the brisket.

It is desirable that oxen should have the power of sheltering
themselves in sheds; and shnllow pools also are serviceable, since
it is said that the bot-fly will not pursue its victim over water.

In concluding our remarks, we sliould point out, in regard
to the bot-fly, that those fanners who take in hand to destroy
the pest will individually profit by so doing, since the maggots,
if allowed to mature, become flies, and the herds in the same
fields are attacked year al'ier year.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

437

SCABIES IN SHEEP.
The afiBiction known as scabies is one of very wide and far-
reaching importance. The value of the sheep consists in great
part of the fleece, and, as all sheep-farmers know, the disorder
generally known as sheep-scab works an immense amount of
havoc not only with the fleece, but also with the animal itself.
It appears that there are three distinct forms of scabies.

Fig. 56. — The Dermatodectes ovis.

namely, the Psoroptic, the Sarcoptio, and the Symbiotic
varieties. Of these the first is by far the most common, and
it seems to be the only kind which has been recognised in this
country. Hence we shall deal with the psoroptic variety
only.

In the first place, it may be said that it is occasioned by
the ravages brought about by the little creature known as the

438 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

Psoroptes ovis, which multiplies at a very rapid rate, and gives
rise to all the mischief by burrowing in the skin. We append
here a picture (after Gerlach) of the creature called by Gerlach
the Dermatodectes ovis, a very similar, if not the same,
creature.

Sheep-scab is not uncommonly met with. It is very well known
to, and very justly dreaded by, all who have to do with sheep.
The Psoroptes ovis, though it closely resembles that of the horse
and that of the ox, is not capable of infesting these animals or
the goat. Moreover, when it gains access to the skin of a man,
it only produces a minute red spot, which does not even develop
into a papule. The rate of multiplication of the creatures is
very rapid. A single impregnated female Psoroptes will, in the
space of thirty-one days, give rise to the formation of a patch of
scabies nearly two inches in circumference. Some countries are
never free from sheep-scab, and from them the disease mav
always be communicated to other places. Sheep fairs are
largely instrumental in the propagation of the disease, as also
are railway-trucks and cattle-boats, if they are not thoroughly
disinfected.

Sheep-scab is very similar to, and, in fact, representative of,
the malady known as mange in the horse, ox, dog, and other
animals, and the disease commonly designated the itch among
mankind — a malady fortunately rather rare. In the case of the
sheep, scabies is of exceptional importance, owing to the fact
that the animal is provided with a thick coating of wool. The
little creatures which cause the disease are so well sheltered by
the bulky fleece that it is a matter of difficulty to poison them,
much more so, of course, than it is to effect the same object in
the case of animals which have but little natural covering on the
skin. Moreover, we must bear in mind that the skin of the
sheep is endowed with the very important special property of
producing the wool, and consequently that any cause which
markedly interferes with the functions of the skin must neces-
sarily be liable not only to give great distress to the animal, but
also to throw the working of the system at large sadly out of
gear. Again, the sheep, afiBicted beyond all measure by the
itching, rubs and tears its skin with great violence, thus pro-
ducing much mischief.

If the malady has once succeeded in establishing itself in any

DISEASES OV THE OX AND SHEEP. 439

individual member of a flock of sheep, it will, unless curative
and preventive measures be at once taken, propagate itself with
the greatest rapidity Irom sheep to sheep. The ease with which
this complaint, and others liable to afflict the sheep, are trans-
mitted arises in some degree from the fact that, partly from their
own habits and inclinations, partly owing to the convenience of
sheep-farmers, these animals are usually kept in close contiguity
with one another. Hence sheep-scab, when once it has been
introduced into a district, usually spreads with marvellous
celerity.

Moreover, sheep are moved about a great deal in accordance
with the exigencies of the food-supply. A farmer may, for
instance, possess a large quantity of turnips which he does not
require for his own sheep, and hence he sells them to be eaten
on the premises in separate instalments. Sheep-farmers send
their sheep from a distance, and hence, perhaps, while one flock
may bring the disease, others may become tainted, even if
separated by turnip-trays or other partitions. The infected
sheep will rub off their wool on the trays, and other sheep
coming into contact with the detached wool from the other side
may easily become affected. Obviously, if a hurdle should fall
down, still more direct contact of healthy with infected sheep
may ensue. When the sheep have finished their turnips, they
are taken back to the farms from whence they came ; and the
result is that sheep-scab, soon after their arrival, breaks out and
spreads far and wide from this new centre. Sheep infected with
the scab, being moved about the country, thus carry the tiny
creatures burrowing in their skins to fresh centres, from which
the disease again radiates.

Farmers cannot be too careful in regard to this complaint, and
it is not too much to say that sheep-scab is one of the most
important of all the disorders of the sheep. Consequently it is
of the most pressing necessity that the disease should be
stamped out, and in order to effect this object, prompt treatment
alone can be efficacious. In fact, so great is the need that
sheep-scab should be kept down in the country that the
repressive measures are enforced by the authority of Her
Majesty's Government. When sheep-scab is known to have
broken out in any given district, the fact must be at once
notified to the Local Authority, and stringent measures will

440 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

then be taken with a view to staying the further progress ol the
malady. The fact is that the sheep is one of the most valuable
animals which a farmer keeps, and that an outbreak of this
disease in a flock of sheep would in many cases entail a money-
loss almost disastrous in amount. If not relieved, the afflicted
animals will probably die, or, if they live, may become well-nigh
valueless.

When a farmer is attempting to put a stop to the disease, he
may often find it a very arduous matter to cure the worst cases
completely, and since these may, so long as they are allowed to
live, give the disorder even to sheep which have already
been cured, it is the wisest course to have them summarily
slaughtered and their carcases buried. In some instances the
Local Authority should be advised to order that sheep which are
very badly aflflicted be made away with. It is often very
difficult to decide if the malady has actually ceased to exist
among the many members of a large flock. The disorder is
more troublesome in winter than in summer. In the warm
weather the sheep can be shorn, and if the fields be dry and the
pasturage good, the spreading of the complaint can be, by the
exercise of due care and precautions, quickly arrested.

If scabbed sl^^^op have been kept under shelter, the quarters
should be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected, and all posts and
the like which have been used should be, if possible, tarred or
painted, for it has been recorded that healthy animals on one
occasion took the infection by being placed in an uncleansed
stable in which scabbed sheep had been kept eight months
previously. This seems almost doubtful, but Gerlach maintains
that at least four weeks should be allowed to elapse before
buildings, pastures, or roads, which have been much frequented
by scabbed sheep may safely be opened out to healthy Hocks.

Now, in regard to the symptoms tnanilested bv sheep suffering
fr<im scabies in its early stages, it may be said that the maladv is
rather difficult to detect at first. One sign, which, however, is
not a very early one, is that sheep which are afflicted with the
disorder will, when they are scratched or rubbed with the hand
along the back or elsewhere, be pleasurably excited to such an
extent that they will express their delight by stretching out and
shaking their heads and necks, also by a peculiar kind of
convulsive champing with the under lip ("knapping," as the

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 441

shepherds call it), and even trying to bite playfully those who
give them this satisfaction. It is, however, said that sheep
will also do the same thing when they are afflicted with red
lice.

If the wool be parted so that the skin can be seen, prominent
spots or papules may be in the first instance observed. These
spots are of about the size of a lentil, and are pale or reddish
yellow. Little vesicles are developed on them, and then a small
crust or scab is formed. The little creature itself may be found
at a little distance among the fibres of the wool. If a little of
the scurf taken from a sheep suffering from the complaint be
placed on a plate of glass, and be closely inspected by the aid of
a pocket lens, the scurf may possibly be seen to move. If then a
powerful microscope is brought to bear upon the object, the
identity of the minute but very harmful creature can be
established beyond doubt.

Owing to the intense itching caused, sheep afflicted with
scabies evince a characteristic restlessness. They are constantly
rubbing themselves against posts or hurdles, gates, rails, or,
indeed, any object suitable and situated conveniently for the
purpose. They also endeavour to bite or scratch the affected
parts, as, for instance, with the hind foot. Consequently one
of the first signs of the malady is the presence of a dirty mark
in the region of the shoulder and neck, produced by the soiled
liind-foot being used for the purpose of scratching those parts.
As a rule, the back of the animal extending from the neck to the
tail is usually affected, as also are the sides of the body and the
-shoulders, those parts, in fact, where the parasite can most
effectually shelter itself in safety.

When the malady has made much headway, so great is the
irritation produced that the sheep may become well-uigh desperate,
and, in their vehement and frantic efforts to rid themselves of
their insignificant but insidious foe, they will tear off great tutts
of wool with great violence, thus leaving bare white patches,
and so producing a very ragged and wretched or " trailed "
appearance. Here the wool may be matted together, while there
it may be absent, and in other parts it may be loose and easily
reraitvable. Moreover, the skin becomes fretted and thickened
by the rubbing, an ichorous fluid is exuded, the vesicles meet
and become pustular, firm, and thick; whitish crusts or scabs

442 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

are formed, while beneath and on the borders of these crusts the
parasites thrive and multiply.

If these crusts are detached, the wool, if it still remains, is
readily also removed, while the underlying skin is thickened,
and wrinkled, and fissured, and for a long time inflamed and
scaly. The continuance of both the irritation and the rubbing
makes matters worse and worse, the wool comes off almost
entirely, and even deep sores and obstinate ulcers result.
At length the animals may succumb, worn out by exhaustion,
the weakly ones dying even within a few months after the
infection.

It is said that in Germany the loss is seldom less than 10 per
cent, of the sheep attacked, and also that the annual loss in
France is as much as 5,000,000f., 1,000,000 sheep being afi'ected
and depreciated in value to the extent of 5f. each on an average.
In this estimate the damage by the animals becoming emaciated
and losing their wool is included.

The Measures to be Taken in Order to Prevent the
Spread of Scabies in Sheep, and to Cure that Disease.
— It is at once a strikingly peculiar and most suggestive fact
that all kinds of animals are liable to be infested with parasites,
and this is true not only concerning the external surface of their
bodies, but also of their interior. That animals are attacked by
fleas, by lice, and other irritating creatures is a fact more gene-
rally known than that in the interior of their bodies they are not
Jree from the insidious inroad of divers foes. In the digestive
canal tapeworms and other worms may be found.

We have previously alluded to the flukes, which, by their
presence in the livers of sheep, give rise to sheep-rot. We shall
soon speak of the worms, which by their presence in the air-
tubes bring on verminous bronchitis, and also of that cystic
stage of the tapeworm, which, by its growth in the brain,
produces sturdy or turnsick ; and we may also mention in this
connection the Filaria saiujxiinis hominh which has been found
living in the blood of human beings, and also the trichinae,
which find their way into the muscles of men and women.
Indeed, the general subject of parasitism is one of the most
intense interest, and the facts we learn from studying it are of
immense importance. To this statement the sheep is by no
means to be regarded as an exception. In connection with

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 443

this same topic, we now come to the consideration of the
measures which should be taken witli a view to kill the little
creature known as the Psoroptes ovis, which produces such
grave mischief, and to arrest its multiplication and extension
to other sheep.

In the first place, witli regard to the repression of sheep-
scab, the measures to be taken cannot be too stringent or too
carefully carried out. Immediately that the disorder shows
itself among a flock of sheep, all the animals composing that flock
should at once be carefully inspected, and those sheep which
manifest the slightest signs of infection should be without any
delay taken away to a field or other quarters at a distance.

It is advisable that all the sheep composing the flock should
be dressed with a suitable application. Now, for this purpose
farmers generally use mercurial ointments of different strengths,
but usually very much too strong and in too great quantity.
We cannot unduly emphasise the fact that sheep are very liable
to be actually poisoned by this process. The ordinary ointment
of mercury is made by rubbing together 16 parts of mercury, 16
parts of prepared lard, and 1 part of prepared suet, until the
metallic globules of the mercury can no longer be seen. It is
important to bear in mind that this ointment is too strong, and
that before being used for sheep — if farmers will use mercury at
all — it should be well mixed with about four or five times its
weight of lard. In mild cases of scabies, 3 lb. to the score of
full-grown sheep and 2^ lb. for younger animals (about two-
thirds of an ounce for a lamb) is often used by shepherds.

In order to apply this ointment, or any other unguent, the
wool should be parted along the back of the sheep, beginning
from near the head and carrying the line of parting as far as the
tail, and then the ointment should be neatly placed upon the
skin with the finger. Then, at a distance of four inches from
this line, another is made, and so on at intervals of four inches
for the whole body. It is necessary to bear in mind that the
mercury thus placed upon the skin is absorbed, into the body,
and produces the effects of this drug, and consequently that, after
being thus dressed, the sheep should be kept under shelter for
some nights following, since they are likely to catch severe culds,
when under the influence of this dangerous substance. After
the night-shelter is dispensed with, as being supposed to be no

444 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

longer necessary, the sheep should be placed so that they can go
and lie down on straw, under shelter, of their own accord. These
sheltering places should be provided in the fields wherein the
sheep are pastured. Another great point is that sheep should
never be " salved " in cold or wet weather.

The way in which sheep are sometimes treated is really a very
great mistake, and we cannot wonder at the disastrous losses
which occur at times. When sheep are undergoing treatment, they
should be supplied with good and strengthening food, and they
ought to be inspected once a week until the disorder is entirely
suppressed. There is greater need of complete cure in the case of
this disorder than of some other maladies, for if only one impreg-
nated female Psoroptes ovis is alive on any one member of a
flock, the malady may spread and spread until all the sheep are
attacked, and even those which have been thoroughly cured,
may become as bad as thev ever were, or even far worse.

When we consider that these creatures can only just be seen
with the naked eye, we cannot wonder at the difiBculty of getting
rid of all of them, nor perhaps even at the reckless way in which
some persons place the mercurial ointment on the sheep, so that,
even at the risk of killing large numbers of them, the disorder
may be put a stop to. The fact is, however, that little good,
but, on the contrary, a great deal of harm, is done by applying
large quantities of mercury, even if it be decided to risk the
poisoning of some sheep, and the debilitation of many, in order
to cure the malady. Tn any case the killing of all the parasites
IS a question of time, and small quantities of mercury neatly and
carefully applied will be niucli more eflBcacious than large quan-
tities carelessly used.

If any sheep should die, as may well be expected if they are
put under the influence of mercury in wet or cold weather, or,
indeed, in warm weatlier if the ointment be too freely used, the
rest of the sheep should be waslied in order to remove the oint-
ment. If the weather be warm, the cure may be greatly facilitated
by shearing the sheep, for when the fleece has been removed, the
aj)plication which we shall mention lower down can be more
effectually applied. However, we must remember that the pre-
sence of an oily or fatty substance on the skin is in itself a
source of danger, for the skin, when thus clogged up, cannot at
all well perform its due functions in the right way. The grease

DISEASES Oh' THE OX AND SHEEP. 445

stops up the pores of the skin, and so works a great deal of
mischief. It is really best to wash the ointment off, after it
has been on a day or two, and then to apply it again. The
risk of arresting the functions of the skin, which is a serious
one, may also be in some degree obviated by using lotions in
preference to ointments.

In regard to mercurial ointment, we may say that it ought not
to be used at all for sheep, and it is our opinion that before very
long it will be altogether discarded. Undoubtedly it seems to
possess the power of poisoning the little creatures which cause
the scab; but, unfortunately, as we have said above, in this case
it is true that " what is sauce for the goose is likewise sauce for
the gander," and it is an undoubted fact that sheep are often
poisoned by the use of the ointment, and very frequently or even
generally mercurialised (salivated) by it, and thereby deteriorated
in value. The sheep may be seen to slaver profusely, their teeth
become loose or even come out, and it is no uncommon thing to
find that four or five sheep have died, and that many are greatly
debilitated. In not a few instances the fatal result may ensue
at about the tenth day after the application.

Ruminants as a class, and of these especially sheep, are readily
poisoned by mercury, or by salts of mercury. In fact, it is very
necessary that sheep-farmers should realise the dangers occa-
sioned by *' salving." Besides the ointment of mercury, there
are other curative agents containing poisonous substances which
should be altogether avoided, or, at all events, very carefully
used ; for example, those concocted of auy of the salts of mer-
cury or of the preparations of arsenic. As a matter of fact these
should not be used, since they are very deleterious, and must be
condemned. Dressings which are not poisonous should alone
be used, and they ought not to be applied too thickly.

We would wish to draw attention to a preparation composed
of stavesacre and sulphur, made by mixing together in equal
proportions the ointment of sulphur and that of stavesacre. For
the mode of preparation, which is very simple, of these two
unguents the reader is referred to the Veterinari/ Tiiarmacopoeiay
by Gresswell, published by Messrs. Bailliere, Tindall and Cox,
of 20, King William Street, Strand (pp. 379 and 380).

A preparation has been recommended composed of 2 parts
of oil of tar, 40 parts of castor oil or lard, and as much sulphur

446 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

as practicable, the ingredients being well mixed together. A
very good preparation may be made of 1 part of creosote, 10
parts of spirit, and 30 parts of water. This has been proved to
kill the parasites, when they are brought into contact with it, in
about If minutes. Another very useful but somewhat dangerous
application may be made by boiling 1 part of tobacco in about
25 parts of water ; and one more may be mentioned, viz. a
solution of sulphuret of potassium in about Tf parts of water.

A sheep-dip has been recommended of the composition of 3 lb.
of arsenic, 3 lb. of carbonate of sodium (or of soda-ash, or of
pearl-ash), 3 lb. of soft soap, and 3 lb. of sulphur. These ingre-
dients may be dissolved in a quantity of boiling water, and the
resulting solution may be added to about 100 gallons of water.

It is very highly important that sheep afflicted with scab
should be effectually cured, and in order to achieve this object
several dressings are often necessary at intervals of about a week
or so. It is impossible completely to express the utter folly of
bleeding sheep afflicted with scabies, and it may be said that
internal treatment is of little or no use. Fields in which the
contaminated sheep have been kept should not be used for sheep
for at least two months, and all rubbing places should be as far
as possible disinfected with carbolic acid solution, or painted, or
tarred. All wooden enclosures at markets should be replaced by
iron pens. Wood readily splinters, and portions of infected
wool, or the little creatures themselves, are easily preserved by
the woodwork from one market day to another. Moreover, after
each market or fair has come to a close, the pens and so on
should be well washed out with solution of carbolic acid in a
large quantity of water. Trucks and steamers used for con-
veyance of cattle and sheep should also be kept thoroughly
disinfected and clean.

Farmers cannot be too careful in regard to sheep -scab.
Directly the disease manifests itself in any member of a flock of
sheep, prompt measures should at once be taken to stamp it out.
The disorder exists in England at the present time; there is
danger of its spreading, and it is, therefore, of urgent moment
that sheep-farmers should be well on their guard, and that the
malady should be arrested without the least delay. Sheep which
have been afflicted should at once be slaughtered, and their car-
cases should be buried, fleece and all. it is dangerous to use

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 447

the wool taken from a sheep afflicted with the scab, on account
of the possibility of ti'ansmitting the malady to other sheep,

CERTAIN EXTERNAL PARASITES OF THE SHEEP
OTHER THAN THAT WHICH CAUSES SCABIES,
TOGETHER WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE PARA-
SITIC DISEASE OF THE BREATHING ORGANS
OF LAMBS, OR VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS.

We spoke above of the creatures which produce scabies, and
now we pass on to the consideration of the other parasites
which infest the skin of the sheep. Of these the best known
are those which, under the name of sheep-fags, are very familiar
to farmers. Before, however, we describe these creatures, we
have in the first place to point out that in the fleeces of sheep
maggots are occasionally liable to be deposited by the large
blow-fly {Sarcophaga cunaria) in hot and sultry weather.

The attacks of the fly, the maggots of which infest the sheep,
are owing to the large quantity of organic material which is
present in the sheep's fleece. The blow-fly, seeking for suitable
quarters wherein to lay her eggs, is attracted by this, and the
consequence is that, unless they are killed without delay, these
disgusting creatures thrive and distress the sheep, sometimes
almost beyond endurance. Moreover, especially in the case of
horned sheep, wounds may be inflicted on one another, and in
these wounds the blow-fly may find just the places required for
the growth of her offspring. Wherever the noisome creatures
gain their footing, they may burrow into the skin and devour
the flesh of the sheep to such an extent, that even death may
ensue.

It has been recommended that a mixture of oil and sulphur,
sufficiently thick for convenient use, should be applied to
wounds liable to be infested with maggots, by the help of a
brush, the preparation being carried about in a suitable tin.
Probably some antiseptic ointment, such as that of carbolic
acid or that of salicylic acid, is preferable for this purpose. The
flock should be clipped rather early, if the sheep are troubled
with these creatures, and after being shorn they should be
dipped. If the heads are aff"ected, the preparation used should
be applied once a week, or at least once a fortnight during the fly-

448 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

season. A small amount of spirits of tar may be added to the
oil and sulphur.

We now pass on to the louse of the sheep, the creature
which is depicted in the figure which next meets the reader's
eye.

The head of this creature is nearly orbicular, and the third
joint of the antennae is the longest and clavate. The scientific
name of the creature is Trichodectes sphmrocephalus. The
ticks, keds, or fags found on the skins of horses, cattle,
sheep, and dogs are parasitic species of the genus Ixodes,
and belong to the class of Arachnida, of which spiders are also
members.

The next creature we have to consider is the Melophayus

Fig. 57. — The Trichodectf.s sph.erocephalus.

otimis, which attacks the sheep. It has no wings, and is dark
red in colour, except that the belly is white. It is often called
the sheep louse. According to Ray, it will live in a fleece for
twelve months after removal from a sheep's body. These ticks
are especially numerous on ewes in the spring, and when the
ewes are shorn, the lambs are tormented by the ticks passing
on to them from the ewes. Hence it is advisable to dip ewes
before shearing them, in order that these parasites may thereby
be killed.

We now come to the consideration of verminous bronchitis
of lambs, a malady more generally known under the name of
liusk or boose, and one the outbreaks ol whicli are sometimes
enormous in extent. Indeed, the disease is especially one of

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 449

importance on account of the large number of lambs which it
attacks. It is particularly prevalent in 'the latter part of
summer and the early part of autumn in low-lying damp
localities, although it is by no means confined to them, being,
for instance, very common on the Wolds of North Lincolnshire.
The length of the male Strongijlus Jilaria, the worm which
causes the malady, is about If inch, while that of the female is
somewhat in excess of this. In older sheep the worms are
generally found encased in the tissue of the lungs, whereas
in lambs they are generally present in the air-tubes.

The lungs of sheep which have been infested with these
parasites contain large numbers of little rounded masses, some
hollow and containing fluid, others containing semi-fluid matter,
while others again are very hard and calcareous. The diflFerent
characters of these little nodules, which vary in size from that
of a mustard seed to that of a lentil seed, represent different
stages in their growth. Each nodule contains tiny worms
lying coiled up within. These little masses do not of necessity
cause very much mischief, though they may bring on great
weakness and death.

If the carcase of a lamb which has died of verminous bron-
chitis be examined, the wind-pipe and the air-tubes will be found
to be more or less choked up with worms. Mr. Crisp believes
that the worms pass in the first instance into the stomach, and
then, by the regurgitation of the food which precedes the chewing
of the cud, make their way into the breathing organs. Another
view is that the eggs of the parasite are taken into the stomach
together with the food. From the stomach the young parasites
gain access into the circulation, and thus make their way into
the lungs.

Those who hold that the lambs take in the eggs of worms
discharged by the older sheep readily explain the fact that a
whole flock may become infected by the ova and parasites
expelled by even apparently healthy animals ; for, as we have
above pointed out, sheep do not by any means invariably mani-
fest symptoms of the presence of these uninvited guests. The
view entertained by the late Professor Cobbold is probably
correct, namely, that the parasite passes one stage of its
existence in the body of the earthworm or of some mollusc,
which discharges the immature parasites upon the grass. While

20

450 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

the young lambs are grazing, the immature worms attach them-
selves to their noses, and are conveyed up the nostrils and to
the breathing organs.

The worms usually infest the breathing organs of lambs, and
the inflammation and irritation thereby set up cause incessant
coughing, and the discharge of frothy mucus from the wind-
pipe. The breathing becomes quickened, and great debility and
loss of flesh ensue. Older animals may exhibit no signs of the
presence of the worms, but weakness and great loss of flesh are
necessarily brought about in many cases. In some instances
the worms are found in the intestinal organs, as well as in the
lungs, and sometimes indeed the intestinal tract alone harbours
them.

When the intestines are invaded by strongyles, there is usually
much straining and frequent passage of excrement, which is not
uncommonly mixed with blood. In the case of older animals,
pain in the abdomen, thirst, and weakness are often exhibited.
In these instances, when the intestines are invaded as well as
the lungs, the irritation set up by the parasites is often so great
as to bring on death very quickly. It is by no means an
unusual thing for a farmer to lose twenty lambs out of a flock
of about 350.

With regard to treatment, it is to be pointed out that when
the bronchial tubes are choked up with worms drugs are but
seldom of much avail, and even in milder cases most careful
management is to be considered of the first importance. Some
have recommended the inhalation of gases, such as chlorine and
dioxide of sulphur ; but there is great danger of the animals
dying, unless extreme care is exercised in carrying this out.
Again, some have advised the administration of turpentine in
conjunction with linseed oil ; but it is well to remember that
many deaths have been caused by choking during tiie adminis-
tration of this remedy. Of course choking must always be
very carefully guarded against in the administration of any
fluid whatever to lambs, but in the case of turpentine there is
especial danger.

When giving medicine to lambs, it is particularly advisable
that the head should not be held above the horizontal line.
Moreover, turpentine often does more harm than good to small
lambs, though in the case of calves sufl'ering from verminous

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 451

bronchitis the matter is different. When the worms infest the
intestines of lambs, turpentine may be given, provided that due
precautions be taken against choking; but there are far more
effectual remedies. Plenty of cake may be allowed to the
affected animals, and a small quantity of salt may be added to
the food. In case a flock is infested, medicine should be given
to each member of it, and two minutes should be occupied in
the administration of each drench.

With regard to preventing attacks by the strongyli, it is to
be enjoined that lambs should be placed on fresh dry pastures,
and that they should not be fed upon a second crop of clover,
when the first crop has been fed upon by sheep. The pastures
from which the lambs are removed should be well dressed with
salt, in order to destroy the immature worm.

Before we pass on to the consideration of other parasites, let
us now pause for a moment or two to take a rapid and sweep-
ing, but yet thoughtful, glance upon the dense and wondrous
world of living organisms, of which man himself exhibits the
highest form of development. In looking at this immense
living aggregate, we cannot fail to note many general points
regarding both union and antagonism which demand our most
serious attention. Of all the great truths concerning the huge
mass of living creatures, viewed in its complex entirety, per-
haps the most important is the observation that all animals and
plants are at once very intimately connected one with another,
and at the same time extremely diverse, and essentially opposed
in their habits and pursuits. The most striking generalisation
in relation to life, as in reference to the universe at large and
to every portion of it, is that there is manifested a very marked
degree of combination betwixt the most dissimilar units, whether
living or lifeless. This leading feature is shown in many different
ways, as well as in the marvellous set of facts which we are now
■considering.

The strange phenomena which come under the heading, Para-
sitism, afford examples of a peculiarly insidious nature of the
struggling which is always going on throughout the living
world, also instances of startling combinations between the
most dissimilar animals.

The dangers belonging to the attacks of parasites partly con-
sist in the fact that they are so well hidden that they can only

29 *

452 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OE THE OX.

be directly guarded against by a considerable amount of know-
ledge. It is a not uncommon belief tbat healthy people and
animals are less liable to the attacks of these unwelcome in-
vaders than those who are in a weakened or debilitated state ;
but as a matter of fact the direct opposite of this is more
probably true. At any rate parasites are quite as likely to
attack healthy individuals as unhealthy ones. A young lady
with the bloom of health upon her cheeks is quite as liable to
catch the germ of a tapeworm, from caressing with too much
fervour a favourite dog, as would be the hard-working gardener
or groom, should he engage in the same pastime. The ox
which is fattening rapidly in the rich pastures, and has a
superabundance of health and vigour, is even more likely to be
singled out for the attacks of the warble-fly than is a less
healthy comrade. The best members of a herd of cattle may
be the first to be attacked by, and the first to die as a result of,,
cattle-plague, just as also the well-nourished of the human
family have been at times the most seriously aflFected by typhus
fever.

As everyone knows, animals live directly or indirectly on
the members of the vegetable kingdom, and hence they are
dependent upon plants, inasmuch as they cannot do what plants
can do, viz. derive their nutriment from the inorganic constituents
of the air and soil. This primary necessity, that animals
should be helped by the vital activities of plants, is the best
and most important instance of the intimate connection which
subsists between the two great kingdoms (as they are called) of
living organisms. This particular dependence may certainly be
looked upon as one of mutual advantage ; but, notwithstanding
the benefits accruing from this, and very many other like
instances of division of labour among living beings, it must
not be overlooked that the kind of inter-dependency which is
shown in parasitism is very generally a source of serious danger
and disturbance, and even death, to the higher animal at whose
expense the uninvited guest takes up quarters, and furnishes
itself with board and residence, free of cost.

There are numerous kinds and degrees of parasitism. Some
instances of plants which live parasitically on other plants, and
also on animals, will readily present themselves to the mind.
The dodder attaches itself to plants such as the flax or clover.

DISEASES OP THE OX. AND SHEEP. 453

Ergot is, as we recently pointed out, parasitic upon various
grasses. The mistletoe is an evergreen plant, formerly held in
great veneration by the ancient Druids, and growing upon apple
and oak trees. The Sarcina ventriculi, a vegetable organism
which takes up its abode within the human stomach, affords an
instance of a vegetable being parasitic in the interior of an
animal. Moreover, there are different vegetals which grow upon
the skin, forming, for example, ringworm, while in the human
mouth we are confronted with the Leptothrix huccalis, which
has been said to be connected with the decay of teeth. Besides
ringworm, there are also other skin diseases, both in man and
animals, which are due to parasites. The Acarus scahiei pro-
duces itch in man, and other varieties of this arachnid afflict the
dog, the sheep, the ox, and other animals.

This term " parasitism " has not, we believe, been extended to
the many cases in which minute vegetable germs, or rather
organisms, find their way into the blood and lymph-vessels, and
the various tissues of different animals, by their vital activities
bringing on disease and death ; yet they are certainly very
similar to those in which life is carried on by very lowly developed
living things at the expense of the highest animals.

There is also to be mentioned another group of examples.
Every species of animal is subject to the inroads of organ-
isms belonging to the great class Vermes, and a peculiar point
is that as a rule the worms which infest one animal are distinct
from those which invade other animals; though in certain cases
the same worm invades several, and even in some instances
many, different kinds of creatures. Another and still more
noteworthy feature is that many worms go through different
phases of development, and that these phases are passed through
in different animals. Indeed, the strangest of facts have been
elicited by the students of Helminthology, facts which at first
seem nothing less than startling. The life-history of these
creatures is, in short, one of the most interesting of all topics
of study. "Whether dealing with the external or internal
forms," writes the illustrious helminthologist, the late Dr. T.
Spencer Cobbold, " the study of parasites of man and animals
is practically one of boundless extent; and there is probably no
department of knowledge, possessing an equal value in relation
to the welfare of man and beast, that is so thoroughly misunder-

454 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

Stood by those who are directly concerned in the appreciation
of its revelations." The tendency to change the place of abode
is one which is especially curious in its manifestations, and it
may be said that the study of parasitic worms opens up to our
view the very strangest facts of which the human mind can take
cognizance. Man himself, in spite of his unique position as
the highest of the creatures of this world, is liable to be the
host of a great variety of parasites, and there are certain species
for whose propagation the existence of human beings is
apparently an indispensable condition.

This is by no means a pleasing reflection, though it is to be
remembered that we can by cleanliness and care in large measure
obviate the dangers we incur. It has been very truly said that
the amount of suffering which results from the presence of para-
sites within the interior of human beings bears a strict relation
to the degree of barbarism shown in the choice of food and
drink, and in the manner of eating and drinking.

The best known, and from many points of view most important,
of the animal parasites which live within the bodies of other
animals are known as " worms," and include round-worms, tape-
worms, flukes, and many others. Those parasites which are
known as " hots " represent the larval stages of various species
of gad-fly, and belong to the Q^stridae, a rather numerous family
of the class Insecta, " Bots " infest the stomachs of horses,
and there is one called the Gastropliilus rhinocerontis, which is
found in the stomachs of rhinoceroses both in India and
Africa.

With regard to the entozoa generally, we may point out that
they may belong to any one of the following six groups, viz. ;
Trematoda or flukes, Cestoda or tape-worms, Nematoda or round
worms, Acanthocephala or thorn-headed worms, Arachnida,
and, finally, Insecta.

We now proceed to consider some different groups of para-
sites. The Trematoda, or flukes, comprise six distinct families.
They have their bodies provided with little holes or perforations
called suckers, and the word fluke itself is of Saxon origin, and
signifies anything flat. However, though some flukes, including
the common liver-fluke, are flat, the members of many species of
the order may be oval or even as round as a marble, or bi-couvex
or even filiform, while some may be so elongated as to resemble

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 455

the round worms, or nematodes, e.g. the bilharzia, which occurs
chiefly in Egypt, where it causes a highly dangerous disease.

Of the trematode worms, which are found infesting rumi-
nants, the most important is the Fasciola hepatica the well-
known liver-fluke of those animals. Allied to it is the Fasciola
Jacksonii of the elephant, and also the fluke found in the girafle,
These three kinds of flukes are said to be the only ones in
which the intestinal canal is branched.

THE FLUKE DISEASE IN SHEEP.

Of all the disorders which now and again make their appear-
ance among large numbers of sheep, perhaps the best known and
most serious is that which is generally called sheep-rot, that
justly dreaded scourge, which arises from the presence of flukes
in the liver.

After long-continued wet weather, and more especially follow-
ing upon a succession of wet seasons, the disease is particularly
violent. We cannot here write exhaustively on this subject,
since it is far more important as affecting sheep than any other
class of animals; but, in view of the great value of knowledge
regarding it, we propose to mention a few points. The mixing
of salt with the food of sheep and cattle which are liable to the
attacks of flukes has been strongly recommended as a preventive
and curative agent ; but the scattering of salt or lime upon the
herbage is perhaps a still more potent preventive.

It is not long since Professor A. P. Thomas elucidated the
subject by clearing up some doubtful points, and discovered that
the intermediary stages of the fluke are passed in the snail known
as the Linmceus truncatulus. It is possible that other snails may
also serve the same purpose ; but for the most part this particular
snail is the creature in which the ova which are scattered about
the land in the droppings of sheep or other animals infested with
the flukes, such, for example, as hares and rabbits, must develop,
before they can invade any other animal. In this connection it
is of no small moment that we should bear in mind that man
himself may be afflicted with liver-fluke, and that in such cases
the cysts containing the young flukes may pi'obably be taken in
together with watercress, or in other ways. Hence watercress
should always be steeped in salt and water, and thoroughly
cleansed, before it is eaten.

456

THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

The flukes are met with in the liver, and the sheep suffering
from this complaint present a pale and anaemic appearance as a
consequence of a deficiency of blood and general debility. The
sheep should be kept on dry food, and plenty of rock salt should
be at hand in small iron troughs, so that they can lick it.
Indeed, we may administer one and a half ounces of common

Fig. 57.* Fig. 58.

Fig. 57 (after Thomas) represents a specimen which has arrived at one-third
of its full growth. In front the oral sucker is seen, and behind it the ventral
sucker. The shape of the fluke is here seen, the animal bcin^ magnified so as
to be about seven-and-a-half times its real size.

Fig. 58 (after Thomas) is magnified two diameters. It represents the diges-
tive system. Y is the oral sucker, Y' the ventral sucker. In. the branched
intestine.

salt, well mixed with three-quarters of a pint of water, for three
or four mornings when the afflicted animals arc fasting. The
efficacy of this treatment was in one case exemplified by the fact
that a sheep killed one week after this dose had been given was
found to have 120 flukes, most of which were dead, in its liver.
Again, it has been observed that sheep kept on salt-marshes are

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 457

never troubled with flukes. This may be due to the limnseus
possibly not thriving in places where salt abounds in the soil.

Now the liver-fluke, known scientifically as the Fasciola
hepatica, is a member of the large class Vermes, of the sub-
class Sterelmintha, and it belongs to the order of Trematoda or
flukes.

Now, the " Trematoda," or " flukes," as already said, are a
group of worms embracing several diff'erent families, and they
are possessed of either one or more suckers. The term " fluke "
itself is of Saxon origin, and indicates flatness. Although,
however, the ordinary liver-fluke is flat, the members composing
many species of the order are round, bi-convex, or even filiform.
The ordinary liver-fluke {Fasciola hepatica) is not usually more
than an inch in length.

The digestive system is seen to consist of a short oesophagus
from which the double and tree-like stomach branches into
every part of the body, the ramifications terminating in blind
extremities. The contents consist principally of bile which
has been absorbed from the gall-ducts of the host.

This worm usually passes the adult stage of its existence in
the liver, bile-ducts, or gall-bladder of a sheep, or of almost any
ruminant, or of some one of certain other animals, of which we
may mention the goat, argali, every variety of the common ox
and zebu, zebra, two-humped camel, horse, ass, antelope, gazelle,
red-deer, roe-deer, and the fallow deer, pig, hare, rabbit, squirrel,
goose, pigeon, pheasant, poultry, great kangaroo, beaver, and
man himself, in all of which it has been found, while a much
larger but closely allied species, known as the Fasciola giganlea,
infests the girafl'e.

All these animals may suffer from the disease known as ** rot,"
which is produced by the presence of flukes in the liver. The
various phases of existence through which the worm passes are
numerous and complicated.

It seems a startling statement to make, but it is nevertheless
true, that a single fluke may produce half a million eggs, while
each egg may give rise to 200 cercarise ; aud thus one fluke
might, if every circumstance was favourable, yield 100 million
flukes! Now, one sheep may be infested with a thousand flukes,
and hence one sheep may give rise to one hundred thousand
million flukes ! In the season from 1830 to 1831 the estimated

458 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS 01' THE OX.

number of deaths from sheep-rot was about one and a half
million^ worth perhaps as much as ^£4,000,000 sterling. Indeed,
the average annual loss from sheep-rot has been said to be about
one million. The number of sheep which were lost in the season
1879 to 1880 and in the succeeding season has been estimated in
each case at about three millions. After long-continued wet
weather, and more especially after a succession of wet seasons
the disease is most markedly prevalent.

The liver-fluke is flat, of a pale brownish-yellow colour with
a slight rose or pinkish tint ; and when adult it is upwards of
about one inch or even one and a half inch in length, and about
half-an-iuch from side to side in its widest part. When, how-
ever, the young creature first gains access to the liver, it is
only about one-eightieth of an inch in length.

In sheep aflBicted with the disease, the eggs occur in large
numbers in the bile-ducts and gall-bladder, imparting a dark
colour and a sandy appearance to the bile. It has been esti-
mated that each adult fluke may produce as many as half a
million eggs. Mixed with the bile they pass together with that
fluid into the intestines, wherefrom they are at length expelled
and distributed upon the ground together with the droppings.
Provided that they meet with a suitable degree of warmth and
moisture, these eggs will live, and inside each of those which meet
with favourable conditions an embryo becomes developed, strug-
gles out of the egg-covering, and swims about in any water
which may be at hand, until it may perchance come into contact
with the particular snail known scientifically as the Limtneus
truncatuluH, within which creature its further development must
be proceeded with, if it is to go on at all. Hosvever, it is quite
possible that certain other snails are, as we said above, also
capable of acting this same part of intermediary bearer. The
embryo is provided with a structure known as a head-papilla,
which can be drawn in during the act of swimming, and can also
be utilised as an effective boring-tool when the little creature
happens to come in contact with its host. The embryo lives
about eight hours in water, and then bores its way, possibly
through the muscular foot, into the little snail known as the
LimiKBUH (riinratulus .

The embryo bores its way into the snail, and, having entered
into it, undergoes certain ci)anges, becoming, in the first place, a

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

469

sporocyst, which in its turn gives rise to about ten redise. These
rediae move about within the snail, and thereby cause so much
disturbance that but very few snails live for many weeks after
they have become infested. The next occurrence is that germs
called cercarise, tadpole-like little animals possessed of a flat oval
body and a long slender tail, are formed within. Each cercaria
is possessed of two suckers corresponding to those of the adult
fluke. These cercarise escape through a special opening, and
then wriggle out of the snail, and swim about in the water, until

V

Fig. 59. — The Shell of Limn.t:us Teuncatllus
A magnified, B a little larger than the natural size.

they come into contact with some plant or other solid substance.
Then each comes to rest, attaching itself perhaps to a blade of
grass or other similar substance, drawing up its body into the
form of a round ball, exuding a gummy, substance containing
many granules, and throwing off" its tail. The gummy substance
hardens to form a snowy-white envelope or cyst, which is attached
to the grass or other object near at hand. Unless it is then
swallowed by a sheep or some other animal which is capable of
becoming a host for the adult fluke, or even by a human being.

460 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

within a few weeks after its formation, the young fluke contained
in the cyst will perish.

It is as well to mention here that infection with flukes may
indeed occur at almost any age, but does not usually do so in
animals less than three months old. When young lambs become
aflected, the eggs are probably taken in by their nibbling and
playing with the grass.

Should the grass or other material to which the egg is attached
be taken into the alimentary canal of some suitable animal, in
about seven weeks' time the contents of the cyst will become
developed into the full-grown liver-fluke. The little flukes, pro-
tected by their cysts attached to the grass, enter into the
stomach, and, passing to the first portion of the small intestines
called the duodenum, find their way into the liver, probably
through the medium of the bile-ducts. Thus the encysted pupa
at length finds it way into the liver, at first into the larger bile-
ducts and gall-bladder, and after about seven weeks it arrives at
full sexual maturity. Hence, if the pupa gains entrance into
the body of a sheep during warm wet days in June or July, as
is generally the case, no eggs appear in the droppings until
August or September. The adult fluke may live in the body of
a sheep one year, and possibly much longer. A sheep affected
with liver-rot at first fattens quickly, the entrance of the young
flukes into the biliary ducts acting as a local irritant and
rendering the liver unusually active, so that a greater quantity
of fat is produced and deposited in the tissues. However, on
no account should sheep be put on pastures which are liable to
give rise to sheep-rot. After a few weeks have elapsed, an
infected sheep begins to shrink, the flukes having in that time
grown so much as to impede the function of the liver. This
organ secretes ineffective bile, and loses its power. The food
which, in the process of digestion, flows from the stomach
along the small intestine, is imperfectly acted upon by the
imperfect bile, and the blood sufiiers in consequence. If the
hips of a sheep infested with flukes are pressed, the sheep
winces, and a peculiar crackling sound is occasioned. Again,
if an eyelid of a sheep afflicted with shoep-rot be turned
well back, and the blood-vessels of the white part and those
of the haw be pale or yellowish in colour, then rot may
be suspected. The skin of the sheep changes in hue from

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 461

vermilion to pale red. The wool is easily separable, and the
skin becomes dry and dappled with yellow or black spots. The
eyes lack lustre, the animal eats irregularly, grows gradually
more and more thirsty, is irregular in regard to the action of the
bowels, and may occasionally suffer from diarrhoea. The pen-
dulous belly, the "razor back,^' the "hollow back," and a
tottering gait, mark the later stages of the disease. The respira-
tions are short and quick, and sometimes accompanied by a
slight cough. The approach of death is heralded by dropsical
swellings in different parts, as for instance under the chin. The
pulse becomes quick and wavering, the animal lies down,
refuses food, and dies from exhaustion brought on by general
ansemia.

In sheep-rot, then, three stages are to be distinguished. In-
the early stage the affected animal is sluggish and averse to-
movement, when walking it walks slowly and with a measured
tread, is thirsty and exhibits a voracious appetite, whereby flesh.
is gained and the sheep fattens. All these signs may con-
tinue for three or four weeks, and at the end of this period the
skin becomes paler, and the mucous membranes also lose their
natural colour. In the second or advanced stage the appetite
fails, the gait is feeble, and the animals are unsteady and
awkward in their movements. Moreover, pressure applied to
the back causes pain. The skin and mucous membranes are
blanched, and indeed present a deadly blanched hue. The con-
junctival membrane becomes yellow, and the wool is capable of
being easily torn off by the fingers. The third or final stage is
characterised by a swelling under the jaw (whence the appella-
tion " bottle-jaw "), by the belly being protuberant, the spinal
column arched (whence the appellation "razor-backed"), by
extreme emaciation, by diarrhoea, by the wool falling off, and at
length by complete prostration, sinking, and death.

If the carcase be examined after death, it will be found that
the liver is knotty and hard, and has a grating feel, which is due
to the presence of calcareous particles and flukes' eggs. Here
and there light yellow patches may be seen. The bile is thick,
ropy, glutinous, and dark in colour, and it contains eggs.
There may be present usually about sixty flukes, but even as.
many as 1,000 may be found. A sharp winter is injurious to-
the formation of slugs, and therefore to that of cercariee and

462 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

flukes. Moisture being an essential for the development of the
fluke, it is best to keep sheep on dry and well-drained ground,
and low-lying farms especially should be thoroughly drained.
Sheep which are folded are perhaps less frequently attacked than
those at pasture, turnips not being so likely to harbour cercarise.
Sheep should be kept from stagnant ponds. Salines and
especially common salt are highly beneficial by way of treat-
ment. On no account whatsoever should the flesh of sheep in
the final stage of sheep -rot be eaten.

Sheep-rot generally breaks out in districts where the soil and
sub-soil are of a clayey nature, and where consequently there is
little or no natural drainage. On the contrary, the disease is
rare or absent in sandy, gravelly, or calcareous districts. The
character of the soil seems to be of the fir^^t importance ; for,
according to Thomas, all fields upon the Oxford clay have been
dangerous, whether exposed to floods or not, whereas floods on
low porous grounds, or on gravel, appear to be innocuous in
regard to sheep-rot, unless the water has remained stagnant for
a long time.

After a very wet summer, rot is prevalent, water being neces-
sary (together with a certain degree of warmth) for the growth
of the larval fluke. If, however, floods occur, land which is
badly drained and liable in ordinary seasons to develop rot in
the sheep placed upon it, may become a veritable swamp, and
consequently free from rot, since the cercariae cannot become
encysted where there is much water. On the other hand,
land which is under ordinary circumstances well drained, and
has been free from rot for years, may be a prolific source of the
disease in very wet seasons. Ruminants are especially subject
to rot, since the encysted cercarise can remain in them without
being destroyed for a long time in the first, second, and third,
stomachs, whose secretions are not digestive. Further, sheep
are especially liable to it, because they can graze so closely,
closer in fact than any other quadruped except the kangaroo.
The cysts become attached to stalks of grass near the damp
roots, and hog-faced sheep which cannot crop close to the
ground do not swallow the cysts, and hence do not become
rotten. Again, lambs at Michaelmas graze more closely than
ewes do, and are consequently more subject to rot than full-
grown ewes and wethers. Salt kills the liver-fluke in every

i

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 463

stage of its varied existence, and also the Limno'us truncatulus
which serves as intermediary host. The rot is unknown in salt-
marshes, and where sheep feed on sea-weeds. Lime also kills
the cercarise, land well dressed with caustic lime or salt not
being capable of producing sheep-rot. The months in which the
eggs are first swallowed are May, June, and July, though the
results may only be observed as late as September and October.
The snail is buried in mud in the winter, the eggs being hatched
perhaps in April, if the weather is warm, or more probably in
May, June, or July.

If sheep graze for only a brief time on certain land, they may
swallow the cysts with the herbage, and afterwards contract the
rot. Great cold kills the fluke in its different stages, and it is
said that one single night of frost may put a stop to the danger
for the year.

When sheep are supposed to be infected, if the disease is in
the first stage, they should be removed to a good dry pasture,
and should be supplied with a dry, liberal, and nourishing diet.
Good hay, beans, peas and a moderate allowance of oil-cake and
turnips may be allowed, and it is well to change the food now
and again. It is also advisable to give a quarter of an ounce of
salt well mixed with half a pint of oats every day to sheep kept
on a permanent pasture. Sheep so treated have been preserved,
while others subjected to the same conditions in other respects,
but not so treated, perished. The Bedouin Arabs allow infected
sheep to feed upon the salt-wort, and Australians use the salt-
bush for the same purpose. Good food strengthens the sheep,
while salt kills the fluke, and also aids digestion.

Breeding ewes, however, must not have much salt. A useful
formula is the following, which, we believe, is that of Professor
Simonds : —

'inel

y-ground oilcake (linseed) ...

... 1 bushel.

,,

,, Pea meal ...

... 1 bushel.

>)

Salt

... 4 lbs.

,,

,, Aniseeds

... 4 lbs.

J)

,, Sulphate of iron ...

... 1 lb.

The salt, aniseeds, and sulphate of iron are to be first well
mixed together, and then well mixed with the mixture of cake
and pea-meal. Half a pint of the finally resulting mixture may
be given to each animal daily, in addition to an ordinary allow-

464 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

ance of corn or cake and hay chaff. This treatment may be
continued for three or four weeks, but should be now and again
discontinued, especially if the animals suffer from diarrhoea.

If a sheep is becoming thin as a result of the disease, the best
course is to send the animal to the butcher. If, however, fluke-
disease occurs in a pedigree sheep, comfortable and warm
quarters, plenty of dry food mashed with salt, and as little
water as possible should be enjoined. One drachm of sulphate
of iron together with half an ounce of salt well mixed with bran,
oats and bruised cake may be given each day for a certain time,
varying with the condition of the sheep. The adult flukes in
about fifteen months die and pass away. When cured, the
sheep will not do very well during summer grazing for perhaps
a season or two.

It should be borne in mind that a sheep with " razor back,"
and ''pendulous belly" cannot possibly be cured. S&lt, then,
is not only useless, but injurious.

With regard to preventive measures^ drainage is the most
important. As *' a wet furrow, a springy spot, or the neigh-
bourhood of a stagnant pool afi'ords suitable hatching ground,"
these should be drained dry, so far as may be found prac-
ticable. Hedges and ditches should be kept in good order.
Dressings of lime and salt on the land are most serviceable,
since they will destroy the parasite itself, in all stages of its
varied existence, and also the snail. Professor Thompson
recommends a dressing of about 6^ cwt. of roughly ground rock
salt per acre in the month of March, April, or May. The time
chosen for the dressing should be, if possible, when the water
has subsided from flooded land. Sometimes it may be more
practicable to strew layers of lime or salt along the margins of
ditches or streams. Great care should be taken that the drop-
pings of rotten sheep should never gain access to moist lands.
The droppings should, if practicable, be buried with antiseptic
precautions.

Livers in which the flukes have taken up their abode should
be destroyed after being removed from the body, or at any rate
they should be very well boiled, if it is intended to give them to
dogs, before doing so.

The Limnceus j)eregcr may also act as a host for the embryo
fluke, and it is at least very possible that other snails also may

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 465

likewise serve that same purpose. The liver-fluke occurs botli
in the United States of America and in Australia, notwith-
standing that the Limn(Sus truncatuliLn has not been found,
and is probably not present, in either of those countries. Hence
we cannot but think it probable that other snails, and possibly
also slugs, may act as intermediary hosts.

It will clearly be seen, then, that one sheep cannot directly
take the disease from another sheep, and it seems also that one
snail cannot be directly infected by another snail. We must
also bear in mind that hares and rabbits, as well as cattle and
sheep, distribute the eggs of flukes far and wide, and that they
also may be conveyed by manure, by the feet of men and dogs,
and by running brooks. The snails also, after they have been
infected, are doubtless also largely distributed by rivulets, rivers,
or floods.

Sheep aflflicted with this disorder ought not to be kept on
damp ground, because the eggs need moisture in order to main-
tain their vitality, and hence have not the same chance of living
if they fall on dry soil. For this same reason all damp pas-
tures ought to be thoroughly drained, so that there may be no
collections of stagnant water in which the eggs can retain their
life.

It is of especial importance that all land should be well-
drained, and that the practice of fattening sheep on pastures
liable to cause sheep rot should be at once discarded. It seems
that Lord Penrhyn, in 1881, had not had a case of sheep-rot
for fifteen years, and this he attributed to the keeping his sheep
off wet land, his dykes well dug out, his land thoroughly
drained, to the providing of good hay for the winter, to salting
the hay when ricked, and to having rock-salt within the reach
of the sheep. Moreover, salt or lime should be scattered on the
herbage in pastures on which it is suspected that the disease
may break out. If the land be thus dressed with lime or salt,
the snails will be in some measure destroyed. These useful
substances should therefore be especially scattered about along
the courses of brooks, and by the sides of p-onds and ditches,
and on or near any marshy places. More particularly should
flooded lands be dressed, since a flood after subsidence may
leave snails scattered broadcast.

The mixing of salt with the food of sheep and cattle which

30

466 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEKS OF THE OX.

are liable to the attacks of flukes has been strongly recommended
as a preventive and curative agent. Salt should be given
together with dry food, but great care must be taken in the case
of breeding ewes that they do not get too much. The experi-
ment was tried by a Mr. Heath of giving to some slieep which
were feeding upon permanent pastures one quarter of an ounce
of common salt, well mixed with half-a-pint of oats every day.
Those which were thus fed had no flukes, while those which
were not treated in this way were afflicted with the worms.

So far as may be possible, the eggs of the liver-fluke should
be destroyed, while the manure obtained from any animal which
is affected should never be put on wet ground. As a general
rule, all sheep which are infected should be sent to the butcher
at once; but if they are very valuable and very slightly diseased,
they may be isolated and put under treatment, and placed upon
high and dry pastures. All heavy or wet ground ought to be
thoroughly drained. Indeed, the paramount necessity of good
drainage cannot be too strongly insisted upon, since imperfect
drainage, coupled with general inattention to sanitary measures,
is the source of many different diseases, both of men and
animals.

Dressings of lime or salt should be spread over the ground
at the proper seasons, for the purpose of destroying the
embryoes, the cysts of the fluke, and also the snail. Sheep
should not be allowed to graze closely, the fluke germs being
usually situated near the ground. When sheep are allowed to
graze on dangerous ground, they should have a daily allow-
ance of salt mixed with a little dry food. — (A. P. Thomas.)

OTHER PAEASITES FOUND IN RUMINANTS.

Another Trematode worm, Distuma lanceolalnm (or lancet-
shaped fluke) by name, not only infests the liver-ducts of
cattle and sheep, but also those of the deer tribe. This fluke
is soft and transparent, and its length is about one-third to
three-eighths of an inch, while its breadth varies from about
one-twelfth to one-sixth of an inch. The parasite is, in fact,
so small that it works very little mischief, although it is often
found together with the Fasciola hcpatica in the liver ducts.

Three instances of the presence of this parasite in human
beings have been recorded, one being that of a young 'girl

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 467

who swallowed water taken from a stagnant pond whicli con-
tained the larvte.

Next comes the Amphistoma conivum, a Trematode still more
commonly met with. It is provided with a large sucker at
its posterior part. It is half an inch long and a quarter of an
inch broad. Its eggs are 1*150 inch in diameter. This para-
site infests the paunch or first stomach of oxen and sheep, and it
is also found in goats and antelopes. The Amphistoma crumeni-
ferum is found in the paunch of Indian cattle. The intestinal
canal of this parasite has its orifice just underneath the mouth.
The A, explanatiim is found in the liver-ducts of the zebra.
The A, tuberculatum is so called because it possesses numerous
tubercles on the surface of the body. It is found in the large
intestine of the ox in India. The Bilharzia hovis and the
B. ovis are very much like the one found in human beings, but
are a little longer than it. The eggs differ in that they are
spindle-shaped.

The Pentasioma tcsnioides found in the mesenteric glands of
the sheep is born of the eggs of a parasite of the dog which
are gathered up by the sheep in their food. Should a dog or
wolf devour the entrails of animals in whose glands the parasites
exist, the erabryoes may adhere to the lips and nose, and then find
their way into the nasal cavities. They pass up the nose rapidly,
and fix themselves by means of their hooks. In less than two
months their generative organs are developed. They remain for
a year in the nose of the dog before attaining full development.

The next group of parasitic worms which demands attention
is that which goes by the name of the Cestoda, or tapeworms,
though under this designation the worms known as " measles " *
and other bladder-worms, or hydatids, are included, as well as
adult tapeworms. The Greek word kestos means a baud or
girdle, and this order has acquired this name of Cestoda from the
fact that most species in the adult condition resemble a tape or
band, from which similarity also arose the name tapeworm. In
these worms there is neither mouth, stomach, nor anything
resembling an alimentary canal, and the creature therefore de-
rives its nutriment by a process of what is called osmosis, or
imbibition. A tapeworm's head is very small indeed. It con-

* These so-called " measles " have nothing whatever to do with the infectiouB
fever called " measles."

30

*

468 THE DISEASES AIJD DISORDERS OF THE OX.

stitutes the first segment, and after it come the generative
segments, which are called " proglottides," which are produced
by a process of budding from the head. The youngest segments
are narrow and soft, and compose the " neck/' or part nearest
to the " head," and those which are farthest away from it
are the most mature. In fact, as we pass from the head,
the segments gradually become broader and longer, and more
distinct from one another. The hindmost segments are the
largest, possess the power of separating themselves, and that of
leading for a short time an independent life. They escape from
the body, the ripe eggs with their hard shells retaining their
vitality, and their readiness to undergo a series of changes which
culminate in the adult tapeworm. If all the rest of the worm
be removed, the head alone being left, the whole creature will
again be gradually reproduced.

Hence it is very difficult to remove a tapeworm when it has
once taken up its position in the interior of a man or animal.
Those who have the grievous misfortune to be afiQicted with a
tapeworm well know the immense inconvenience occasioned by
the entozoon, and the tenacity of its existence, and the physician
knows only too well how difficult it is to cause the expulsion of
the little head. This is, in the case of some tapeworms, of about
the size of a pin's head, and when it is magnified, its sides are
seen to be provided with four " suckers," by means of which it
fastens itself to the wall of some part of the alimentary canal.
In addition to these sucking discs, some tapeworms are possessed
of circles of hooks placed in front of the suckers. These
hooks have sharp projecting points, which serve as anchors for
the tapeworm.

The tapeworms of the ox may be as much as 50 ft. or even
100 ft. long ; but that of the cat is very much shorter. The
head of some tapeworms is provided with hooks, while that of
others is devoid of hooks, t\i/. the head of the tapeworm of the
sheep, aud also that of the ox, have no hooks. There are six
different kinds of tapeworms met with in animals. To one of these
divisions the name Tetrarhyncliidee is given. Examples are found
in the sun-fish. They are provided with numerous spines on the
head, and by means of these they tunnel about in the body
of their host. Sometimes the liver of the sun-fish is simply
nothing more than a bag full of these worms.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 469

A tapeworm may be said to be a cestode form of a cokmV of
zooids arranged in single file, the topmost zooid being the so-
called head or nurse. The worm may take three months to arrive
at its full size, and at about that age the Tcenia mediocanellata
consists of as many as 1,200 zooids joined together. When this
number is attained, the last zooid falls oflF, then the next, and so
on, about eight of them being expelled with the feces each day
that comes. A person infested by one of these tapeworms passes
1,200 zooids four times in each year. Now, each zooid contains
35,000 eggs, and hence 168 million eggs are distributed in one
year. We need not, then, be very much surprised to hear that
in one case a single pound of psoas muscle taken from a beast
in India was found to contain 300 larval forms, and conse-
quently we shall observe that beef as well as pork should always
be most thoroughly cooked.

We now proceed to consider those Cestodes which have been
found in young ruminants. There are not many tapeworms
which are known to infest ruminants. Cattle are liable to har-
bour the Tmiia expansa, and also the Taenia denticulata, the
former of which is more or less prevalent in sheep, antelopes, and
deer. Large numbers of lambs perish as a result of the presence
ot' tapeworms {Tcenta expansa), and the loss in Australia from
this cause is especially great.

The latter occurs also in the ox, gazelle, chamois, and other
animals. It seems that this tapeworm frequently attacks sheep
wliich are kept on overstocked land, and for this reason, as well
as for many others, it is advisable that only a sufficient number
of these animals should be kept together. The head of this
tapeworm, the Teenia expansa, is unarmed and provided with four
suckers. The animal is made up of the enormous number of
7,000 segments which are broader than they are long. Each
segment is provided with two reproductive papillae on either side,
and each is a double hermaphrodite. These tapeworms, in the
case of the ox, have been known to measure as much as 100 ft.
in length, but they are usually about 40 or 50 ft. long. In
lambs tliey vary in length from 1 to about T'or 8 ft. in length.
They infest the intestinal canal.

As yet the source and life-history of these tapeworms do not
appear to have been determined, but possibly the larvse may
exist in the ox-louse or in some other insect, for it may be taken

470 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

as a general rule that the larvae of those tapeworms which have
thin-walled eggs are usually developed in insects, while those
■which have thick-shelled eggs usually pass their larval stages in
flesh, the reason being that the somewhat weak secretions of
insects are only capable of dissolving a thin covering, while, on
the other hand, the stronger secretions of the higher animals can
cope with a stronger covering.

No epizooty or fatal results due to this parasite have been
heard of as affecting cattle. Among lambs, on the other hand,
this tapeworm sometimes brings about a great many deaths.
The lambs lose their appetite, and waste — suffer from diarrhoea,
and die. After death the tapeworms are found, sometimes in
rather large numbers, especially in the large intestine. In regard
to treatment, equal parts may be taken of tincture of asafoetida, of
oil of turpentine, and of linseed oil. The dose of the mixture
for lambs is about half a fluid ounce. Instead of the tincture of
asafoetida, oil of filix-mas may be substituted. The dose of the
solid filix-mas for a lamb is about one or two drachms. An aperient
dose should be given of about one ounce of Epsom salts before
the filix-mas. Turpentine given in doses of one drachm in thick
linseed tea, linseed oil, or gruel may be useful.

Next in order we come to the consideration of the Tcsnia
deniiculata. This tapeworm varies in length from 8 to 10
inches, and in breadth from | to 1 inch. The head is square, and
is not provided either with hooks or with proboscis. The struc-
ture is like that of the Tania expatisa, but the edges are more
distinctly serrated, and thus we can easily distinguish between
the two kinds.

The Tcenia alia is found in the sheep of Italy. The egg-
capsules of this tapeworm are square-shaped and very thick and
strong. These tapeworms may attain the length of three yards.
The TcBnia rcHterna is very short.

However, ruminants suffer far more severely from bladder-
worms, such ns the Echinococcus veterinorum, the Cysticercus
tevvicollis, and the Ccannrun ccrehraiis, which infest all varieties
of cattle, sheep, and goats, tlie deer tribe, antelopes, the giraffe,
and camels. Cattle are also very liable to harbour measles
(Ci/s/icerci/s bovis), and sheep are troubled with the armed
CyalicercUN oris.

The bladder-worms ol ruminants, also included under the head

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 471

of Cestoda, are as follows : — The Cysticercus bovis is a mono-
cephalous bladder - worm found in the muscles, aponeurotic
tissues, and some of the viscera of the ox. The head is square,
and it is provided with four large suckers, and an additional
depression in the centre. This cysticercus diflPers from that of
the pig, the pork measle, in that the head is not armed, and
that the suckers are larger. The length is about j in. to ^ in.,
and in exceptional cases 1 in. A half-pound of psoas muscle in
one case was found to contain 150 cysticerci. The Cysticercus
bovis is the larval form of the Taenia mediocanellata of man.
These measles undergo calcareous degeneration very quickly, and
are destroyed in about six months. The Cysticercus ovis, or
mutton-raeasle, has been found in mutton on five occasions, and
the rather small tapeworm of man, which may be derived from
eating mutton, is called the Tcenia lenella. The Cysticercus
celluloses, or pork measle, gives rise to the T(B7iia solium
of man.

The Cysticercus tenuicollis, or slender-necked hydatid, varies
in size, and may be as large as a cricket-ball. The head is pro-
vided with four suckers. This hydatid is the larval form of the
Tcenia marginata of the dog, and it infests especially sheep,
cattle, deer, and swine. The Cysticercus fistularis of the hog is
a long bladder-worm, and supposed to be merely a variety of this
Cysticercus tenuicollis of the sheep. The Echinococcus veteri-
norum is the larval form of the Taenia echinococcus of the dog.
It may infest the vital organs of sheep, swine, cattle, horses, and
even man. When present in the brain of sheep, it does not cause
symptoms as severe as those of sturdy, and probably the reason of
this is that the heads of the echinococcus do not protrude from the
cvst, whereas those of the Ccenurus cerebralis do protrude. The
two hydatids are alike in the fact that the eggs of each come
from a particular kind of tapeworm, which infests the intestines
of the dog, the Tcenia coenurus, and the Tcenia echinococcus
respectively. Larval cestodes have apparently not been found in
the elephant.

Gid or sturdy in sheep is due to the preseu'ce of a cyst called
the Coenurus cerebralis in the brain. It is a very instructive
sight to see this cyst, and our readers may observe it for them-
selves in many museums. This disease is commonly met with
in all parts of the United Kingdom among sheep. In some

472 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

districts there may be an annual loss due to this cause of about
7^ per cent, among yearling sheep. In fact, the malady is rarely
met "with in sheep above two years old, and it usually affects
lambs which are under one year of age, and only rarely occurs
in sheep over eighteen months old. It is said to be more fre-
quently met with in the case of some breeds, such as the Cheviots,
than in that of others, and particularly in the autumn and winter
it afflicts animals which are already enfeebled. In some districts,
however, it apparently breaks out most especially in the summer
time, provided that the sheep are kept upon unenclosed pastures,
where the flocks are constantly under the guardianship of shep-
herds aided by dogs, or on farms where sheep are fed to a great
extent on turnips, being confined within short limits, and having
one or more dogs among them.

The Coenurus cerehralis, the larval Ibrm of the Tcenia
ccEtmriiH of the dog, is the hydatid which gives rise to the
disorder known as gid in the sheep. It has also been found in
the goat and in the ox. Only one instance of it being found in
the horse has been recorded. This hydatid varies in size from that
of a pea to much larger than a pigeon's egg, and it is like a bladder
provided with spots, which in reality are retractile heads, each
of which is furnished with hooks and suckers. A single bladder
may have from three to five hundred heads. The vesicle is full
of a pale fluid, and its walls consists of three layers. As it
increases in size, it presses more and more on the walls of the
skull, and in consequence of this the cranial bones become so
tiiin and soft that they can easily beibund and pierced, especially
as they may probably yield in some degree to the force exerted
from within by the gradually enlarging cyst.

Formerly, sturdy was thought to be due to a fly perforating
the skulls of sheep and laying its egg or eggs in the brain. It
IS now, however, well known that this disease is occasioned by
the eggs of the tapeworm infesting a dog being taken up by the
sheep from the ground, and by their getting into the blood and
finding a favourable place of development in the brain of a lamb
or sheep. 'J'he eggs are disinbulod on the ground by dogs
afflicted with the tapeworm called the TcRnia ccenitrus. Dogs
which have eaten the hydatids taken from the brains of sheep
afliicled with sturdy soon develop large numbers of iiuniee, and
on giviug the joints which were deposited by dogs thus treated

1

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 473

to lambs, the latter suffered from gid. In one experiment
it was found that even a fourth part of one hydatid of a
sheep led to the development of one hundred and ninety-one
tapeworms in a dog. These tapeworms grow so as to he one
line or two in length in less than a fortnight ; by the third week
they become an inch long, by the fourth week about four inches
long, and finally, at the close of the third month, they may he
about two and a quarter feet long. These tapeworms remain in
tlie small intestines of the dog; but when they are about to
be expelled in part, they extend, of course, into the large
intestine.

One of the chief points about them is that they are liberated
in separate portions called segments or proglottides, each one ol'
which is charged with many hundred eggs. Hence it will be
readily seen that the risk of some of the eggs being swallowed
by sheep is very greatly intensified by the fact that a dog may
distribute these joints in many different parts of a field. By
way of experiment, proglottides of this tapeworm were given to
thirty-nine sheep and two calves, with the result that twenty-
two became affected with sturdy. Naturally, we should not
suppose that all would take the disease, since in some cases the
eggs would perhaps pass harmlessly along the course of the
digestive canal without any deleterious effect whatsoever.
Moreover, the joints or segments must be mature, in order to
produce any effect.

In the cases we are speaking of, the symptoms were manifested
from about a week to about four months after the proglottides
had been swallowed. The number of coenuri found in the brain
varied from four to about two hundred, and they were as a rule
distributed throughout the brain. It is noteworthy, too, that
the cysts are frequently found in the muscular tissue, and
especially in that of the oesophagus, intestines, diaphragm,
and heart. As is very evident, the symptoms displayed by sheep
afflicted with the malady entirely depend upon the number and
position of the hydatids in the brain.

It is manifest that the effects on the nervous system of the
animal must be dependent on the number, size, and position of
the cysts. In the early stages the disease may be only very
slightly observable. The afflicted sheep has a dull appearance,
turns round and round, and often falls down, will not graze,

474 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Stands apart from the rest of the flock, and often near water,
loses flesh, becomes emaciated, staggers in its walk, shows signs
of partial paralysis, for example by its awkward gait, the back
is stiif. the pupils of the eyes are dilated, the conjunctiva has a
bluish tinge, and the eyeball itself is prominent. The sheep
may become quite blind, entirely lose its appetite, be altogether
unable to follow the flock, run up against trees, walls, or other
obstacles, and frequently turn round, usually in one direction,
and frequently towards the side opposite to that of the hemi-
sphere which is aSiected, for example to the right, if the hydatid
is situated on the left side, and vice versa. Moreover, if the
cyst lies between the two cerebral hemispheres, in the middle
line, so as in fact to correspond with a line passing through the
centre of the forehead, the animal will move more or less
persistently forwards in a straight direction, and run against a
wall or fence, or perhaps fall into a pond or ditch or river, as
the case may be, and be totally devoid of the power of extri-
cating itself from its perilous position.

Again, in case the cyst is located in the cerebellum, the sheep
will lose control over the voluntary muscles and the limbs, which
will probably be lifted up in a peculiar, jerking kind of way,
and then put down again in an uncertain manner and without
precision and accuracy. In fact the animal may be observed to
advance with its head raised, and with a hesitating movement
of all its legs, and a special inability to lift up its fore-limbs.
Consequently the poor creature, in its bewilderment and dismay,
will probably try to advance by a succession of leaps ; but this
device only leads to it falling down in helpless incapacity, and
then to vain struggles and efforts to rise up again, and rollings
on its side. Moreover, in some cases, cysts may be present on
both sides of the brain, and if this is the case, the sheep thus
afflicted may turn now to the right side, now to the left. Of
course, in proportion to the growtii of the hydatid, the number
of heads augments, the malady becomes more severe, the attacks
of giddiness and the running round and round in circles
become more extremely marked and more frequent, the rapidity
of the movements increases, and at length tlH> animal becomes-
completely paralysed, and can no longer even stand.

As for the cyst itself, it is in reality a bladder which is pro-
vided with a variable number of exsertile heads, and, according

DISEASES Oi*' THE OX AND SHEEP. 475

to Dr. Davaine, the brain may be excited by the heads, which
protrude from the bladder, and penetrate the adjoining substance
of the brain to a depth of about two lines. Thus it is as if one
or two hundred pin-points were plunged into the brain. As is to
be expected, the animal becomes weak, and, unless it is by some
means relieved, at length it dies. It is said that a natural cure
has in certain cases been brought about by means of the sheep
striking its head against a sharp stone, and thus cutting open
the head, whereby the cyst can escape through the aperture which
is formed.

With regard to diagnosis, it may be remarked that sturdy
may occasionally be mistaken for disorder of the brain resulting
from impaction of the third stomach. This disorder, however,
is, as probably our readers know, of an acute character, and
marked by constipation, delirium, convulsions, and early death,
unless, indeed, relief is obtained by means of the eflFectual
administration of a brisk purgative. Again, sturdy might
possibly also be confused with the presence of the maggots of
the sheep-bot, which lodge themselves in the frontal sinuses,
produce much irritation, swelling of the pituitary membrane,
and discharge from the nose. If these maggots are very suc-
cessful in their aggressions, the sheep becomes dull and pros-
trate, and may die in convulsions.

In most cases the best plan is straightway to send sheep
which are afflicted with gid to the butcher. If, however, we
should decide to treat the animal, bags of ice may be applied
constantly to that part of the head where the cyst is situated.
Moreover, a portion of the wall of the skull above the cyst
may be removed, the correct spot being found by feeling for a
soft part. The bladder can then be seen, and the fluid con-
tained in it may be allowed to escape. Some shepherds find
the soft part, then pierce through the skull with a borer, then
place the sheep on its back, holding the animal so that it
cannot struggle while the fluid is pouring out, or while it is
drawn off through a cannula by means of a syringe. If it is
possible to do so, they also take hold of the membrane, and
withdraw it carefully.

When the wall of the cyst is examined, 200 or more little
elevations like pin-heads may be seen projecting from its inner
surface. Each of these really represents the head of a possible

476 THE DISEASKS AND DISOBDEES OF THE OX.

future tapeworm, and provided that it be swallowed by a dog, it
is capable of being converted into a tapeworm in that animal's
intestinal canal. If the above operation has been performed,
the wound should be covered with a pitch plaster and a leathern
hood, and the sheep ought to be kept in a dark, quiet, and
secluded little shed, and fed for the space of a week on soft and
laxative food.

In view of the possibility of any sheeps' heads containing
hydatids, they should not be given to dogs as food unless they
have been first subjected to the process of being thoroughly
boiled ; and, moreover, sheep should never be allowed to graze
or feed on land whereon the segments of tapeworms will most
probably be lying, if a dog or dogs harbouring a tapeworm or
tapeworms has access thereto.

The name Thorter 111 has been given to another kind of
nervous disorder, which is due to the presence of an hydatid
in the cervical portion of the spinal cord, whereby more or
less marked paralysis of one or both sides of the body may be
occasioned.

The Nemotuda, or Order of Thread- worms and Round-
worms, comprise not only lumbricoid, or round, worms, properly
so called, but also thread-worms." The term derives its origin from
the Greek word nema, which means a thread. Of the nematodes
or round worms, some are very small, some parasitic, and some
free. Those which are free are very minute, and they are found
in moss and in water. Some are semi-parasitic, as for instance
those wliich live in the slime on the backs of slugs. There are
ten groups of nematodes. Of these we may mention the
ascaridae, a large family comprising divers forms which infest
most of our domesticated animals. The males are provided
with two equal spicules projecting from the tail. The ascaris
lumbricoides is said to have been found in cattle. The length
of the males varies from about 4 to (5 inches, wliilst that of the
females varies from about -4 to 14 inches. The cucullanidfiB are
provided with large cup-shaped muscular mouths, and infest
fishes. The strongylida; infest several of our domesticated
animals — e.g. horse, pig, and sheep. Tlie stroiif/yles come
under this group. The term strutii/ulos means round or
cylindrical. To this order belongs, therefore, the worm known
as the Stroiif/ylus micrurus, of which we have spoken as being

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 477

the cause of Husk or Hoose in cattle, and the Strongylus
Jilaria, which attacks sheep and especially lambs. There can
be little doubt that the young of the strongyles, which occasion
verminous bronchitis of calves and lambs, undergo their pri-
mary changes of development either within soft mud alone, or
within the bodies of earthworms or small slugs or insects, and
other minute creatures among the herbage, or possibly within
the bodies of larval insects or other animals inhabiting ponds,
ditches, and streams. Some of these strongyles live within the
bodies of animals, some in the slime of animals, some infest
plants, while some are entirely free. Some of those which live
in the interior of animals lead a free life in their larval state,
passing a certain grade of development in mud and water, while
some pass through certain larval changes of growth within the
bodies of insects and other creatures. Several other strongyles
infest the sheep, the ox, the goat, and stag. The strongyles,
of ruminants include the HtrotKjylus micriirus, the S. Jilaria, and
the S. rufescens. The 8. hypostofius infests especially the
intestines of the sheep. The larvae of this strongyle, which
are rod-shaped, live in mud. The 8. ceniuus is nearly one
inch in length. This worm may infest the intestines of the
sheep in large numbers. The <S'. JilicuUis, or slender-necked
strongyle, is met with in the small intestines of sheep, and
especially in those of the lamb. The 8. conlortus, or twisted
strongyle, may be present in the abomasum or fourth stomach
of the sheep and lamb, and in the goat, usually together with
the S. Jilaria.

The S. racliatus resembles the S. cernuus. This worm infests
the gall-ducts and the first portion of the small intestine (called
the duodenum) of young cattle, and it gives rise to a fatal
epizooty among young oxen. The S. itrflalus infests the large
intestines (the colon) of the ox. The <S'. venlriculosus, or
swollen strongyle, infests the small intestines of the ox. The
male S. gigas is twelve inches long, while the females may be
upwards of three feet in length. The <S', venulusus, or veined
strongyle, is rarely met with. It has been feund in the small
intestines of a goat. The females are three-quarters of an inch
in length, the males half an inch long. The triciiinidse are
very minute, the mature male being one-eighteenth of an inch
in length, and the mature female one-eighth of un inch long.

478 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

The trichina spiralis has been reared in the goat and calf.
This worm has heen found in man, pig, ox, rabbit, rat, and
other animals. The oxyuridsB, or thread-worms, may be men-
tioned, and as an example of them the Oxyuris vermicularis of
children and the Oxyuris curvula of the horse. The female
oxyuris has a sharp-pointed tail; but the tail of the male is
blunt and curved upwards. The trichocephalidae may also be
mentioned as members of the group Nematoda. The head and
neck of these worms are thread-like, and the body, being flat,
presents somewhat the appearance of the handle of a whip.
These so-called whip-worms are sometimes fatal to lambs.
Both the male and the female Trichocephalus affinis, or whip-
worm of ruminants, are two inches long. It infests the large
and small intestines, and especially the coecum of the sheep
and goat, and rarely of the ox, and gives rise to irritation.
Turpentine is said to be very useful in regard to cure.

We may also mention that the Trichocephalus rt^ww probably
infests all ruminating animals. Moreover, the eyes of cattle
are occasionally infested with the Filaria lachrymalis and the
Filaria papillosa, which last is the common eye-worm of the
horse. Indeed, the Filaria papillosa, or eye-worm, has been
found in the horse, ox, and ass. Only two cases of its occur-
rence in the ox have been recorded. It is found in the globe
of the eye, usually in a cyst within the cornea, also in the peri-
toneal and thoracic cavities, in the diaphragm and abdominal
muscles, and in the arachnoid membrane of the brain.

Leaving now the worms for the purpose of turning to the
external parasites, we have the mange-mite of the ox, which is
called the Chorioptes spathiferus. Ruminants are annoyed by
many insects, including flies, fleas and lice. The Hypoderma
bovis, whose larvae form warbles on the back, has been already
described, while the larva? of the Cepheiiomyia bovis reside at
the root of the tongue and neighbouring parts.

The tsetse-fly {Glossiiia morsitans) has been immortalised by
Livingstone. It is one of the worst of the free parasites which
attack ruminants. The Rliaf/io columhaschensis is a fly which
proves fearfully destructive to cattle in Hungary and Servia. As
regards the lice, Hicmatopinus viluli of the calf, H. eurystertius
of cattle, and also the Trichodectts scalaris of the ox, should be
mentioned.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 479

We now proceed to deal with the (Estrus ovis, or sheep-bot.
In the first place we may say that it is in the hot and sultry
days of July and August that the bot-fly of the sheep pursues
its timid and well-nigh defenceless victim. During the heat of
the summer's day, and especially when the atmosphere threatens
a thunderstorm, the insect is particularly busy in its attempts to
deposit its eggs in the nostrils of the sheep. After the time of
its activity is over, the fly may easily be caught and examined.
It is a member of the tribe of two-winged insects, and it is a
little larger than the ordinary house-fly, and of an ashy grey
colour.

The sight of a flock of sheep being attacked by this fly is a
very instructive one. The sheep themselves seem to be quite
cognisant of the danger which threatens them. They may hold
their heads between their fore-legs quite close to the ground, so
that the fly may not be able to approach their nostrils, or per-
haps a sheep may be observed lying in a deep rut or hollow
with its nose in part protected. Moreover, it appears that the
presence of dust affords some safeguard against the pest, and
hence we find as a matter of fact that the tormented animals will
instinctively resort to a dusty road in order to escape, or, again,
they may rush to form a more or less compact assemblage with
their noses pushed closely together so as to foil, at least so far
as the greater number of the sheep are concerned, the persistent
and insidious efforts of their insignificant foe. It seems pro-
bable that great pain is occasioned by the entry of the fly, and
the laying of the eggs.

As we have said above, it is usually in July or the early part
of August that the fly deposits its eggs, which are soon after-
wards hatched. The maggots which are set free crawl up the
nasal cavity by the help of the hooks with which their mouths
are provided. When once they have gained a position of com-
parative security, they then fix themselves tightly to the mem-
branes, feed upon the pus which is poured out as a consequence
of the irritation produced by their presence, or even upon the
nasal membrane itself. Occasionally they mayactually penetrate
to the brain, and even death may result from the effects of their
inroads. In the general way, they remain in the higher parts of
the nasal cavity until the spring-time, when they are full-grown.
Then they fall to the ground, and become pupas. During the

480 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

summer, the pupa-case opens and the fly is set free, and then
proceeds, just as its progenitor did, to lay its eggs in the
nostrils of its victim, after which it perishes in due course in the
autumn.

With regard to treatment, it is advisable to place the sheep
which are afflicted in a warm building, with the view of tempting
the grub to make its escape from the nasal sinuses. Snuff",
solution of common salt, infusion of tobacco, diluted vinegar,
or weak solution of turpentine, may then be introduced into th^
nose, in order that the maggots may be i-emoved by the sneezing
which is caused by reason of the irritation set up by their pre-
sence. In order to remove those maggots which remain in the
sinuses, the best plan is to trephine the bones of the face
between the front of the eye and the middle line of the face, or,
if the sheep be possessed of horns, in front of the root of one.
The sinus should then be well syringed out with tepid water,
containing a small proportion of cnrbolic acid, until the noisome
parasites are quite washed out. Some have recommended thnt
the faces of the sheep of a flock sliuuld be smeared over with a
mild antiseptic ointment, such as that of carbolic acid, every few
days in July; and also that the ground should be ploughed, in
order that the creatures may be buried while yet in the pupa
state. The former of these two suggestions is practicable,
but the latter would obviously be quite impossible in many
cases, and would be quite useless, unless it were carried out on
a very large scale.

I

SECTION V.
DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY SYSTEM.

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH AND TONGUE— ACUTE
TYMPANITES, HOVEN.

We now proceed to deal seriatim with the diseases of tlie
digestive organs, and with the prevention of them.

It is our purpose to commence our review of the diseases on
the alimentary organs of the ox, with a consideration of the
common derangements met with in the moutli and tongue, and

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 481

we shall, in the first instance, draw the attention of our readers
to the malady known as thrush and also as aphtha.

By the term " thrush," or "aphtha," we understand a condition
characterised hy the appearance in the mouth of a number of
small vesicles or tiny bladders containing a clear fluid. The
usual seats of these elevations are the inner surfaces of the
cheeks and the surface of the tongue. The mouth is very sore,
and the animal has difficulty in masticating hard food, and
swallows not without pain. The vesicles soon burst, leaving
little ulcerated patches in various places. The tongue is often
swollen, and saliva is discharged from the mouth, which is hot
and inflamed.

As a rule thrush is not a serious disease, being speedily over ;
yet in some instances the vesicles are more widespread, invading
the gullet and even the stomach and intestines. In such
instances there is much prostration, and death may ensue. As
in the human species, young animals, especially sucking calves,
are often attacked. Our readers will understand that thrush
bears no relationship with foot-and-mouth disease, which is
termed aphtha-epizootica. We have already discussed the
nature and cause of the latter plague, and we may here mention
that thrush, though commonly depending upon digestive dis-
turbance as its chief cause, has in some instances been shown
to be caused by the growth of a fungus termed the Oidium
Albicans, which spreads in whitish patches on the cheeks,
tongue, and lips. Thrush in a mild form is especially common
in young cattle and lambs during the teething time. In
ordinary cases of thrush, a gentle aperient should be given, and
a gargle of chlorate of potassium (fifteen grains to each ounce
of water) should be used for the mouth twice or three times
daily ; or, if preferred, a gargle of alum (fifteen grains to each
ounce of water) may be substituted. The diet should be laxative,
and no hard food should be allowed. In very severe cases,
carbonate of ammonium and other stimulant remedies are
necessary, in order to combat the severe prostration.

Concerning the diseases of the tongue of the ox we shall not
have much to say, for we have, under the heading of Actinomy-
cosis, already discussed in detail this by far the most important
and most serious of all diseases of this organ, and so we shall
proceed at once to the consideration of lioven. Of paralysis of

31

482 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

the tongue in the ox, we need not speak, as, whether due to
injury or to disease of the brain, it necessitates slaughter.

Acute Tympanites.

Acute tympanites, generally known as " hove," '' hoove," or
" hoven," and also as "blown,'' "dew-blown," "fog-sickness,"
and also under some other appellations, is a very important
disease in cattle and also in sheep. Indeed, this disorder is
liable to present itself among sheep in a severer form, though
perhaps not quite so frequently as in oxen. The disturbance
resulting from the accumulation of food in the rumen and of gases
disengaged from it may be so great that even asphyxia may be
brought about in consequence of the pressure of the stomach
on the lungs by the medium of the diaphragm.

It is especially important for three reasons. Firstly, it is very
common — far commoner, indeed, than it should be, and thus,
from the frequency with which it is met with, it demands careful
consideration. Secondly, it is in most instances a preventable
malady, and, were the conditions to which it is to be attributed
more generally known, it would soon become more rarely
encountered. Thirdly, and lastly, although frequently fatal, it
is generally an essentially curable disease, and one which
should not be neglected. It should be studied, because it is
to the interest of the stock-owner to study it carefully and
thoroughly.

The condition termed tympanites or hoven, depends upon dis-
tension of the first stomach, or paunch, or rumen, by gases.
The term tympanites {tympanian, a drum) was given to this
disordered condition, from the very low-pitched note which is
emitted, when the left flank of animals whose rumen is thus
distended with gas is percussed. We may as well state, in the
first instance, that such accumulation of gas in the paunch is
the result of impaired digestion in this stomach, and that,
although generally seen as an independent affection, it is, never-
theless, very common in other disorders of the system. This
latter fact, indeed, is only what one would niiturally expect
would be tlie case, seeing that in many disorders rumination is
suspended, and fermentation of the food thus results.

Tlie causes which one finds most commonly productive of
hoven are sudden changes iu the diet, feeding upon green crops

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 483

containing too much water, or on grass or clover upon which
rain or dew has been deposited (Arniatage).

When sheep or oxen are placed upon very luxuriant spring
grass, the complaint is very apt to break out. Sheep, when
removed from a thin pasture to a richer one, as, for instance, of
clovers, acrid plants, and so forth, or those which are being fed
upon frosted roots or root-tops, or a superabundance of mangolds
at an early date in the season, are especially liable to attacks of
this malady. In order to lessen the suddenness of a change
from a small allowance of food to an abundant supply, as, for
instance, when hungry animals are taken to rich food, at first
they should only be allowed a run of an hour or two at a time,
until they are accustomed to their new aliment. Especially is
danger to be feared from rich grass which is wet with dew or
rain. Even good sound food may bring on an attack of hoven,
in case animals which have fasted for a long time are supplied
with a large amount of it. Moreover, it is important to remem-
ber that if an animal has once been attacked with this disorder,
it will easily fall down again with it, provided that a slight cause
should be in operation. Again, animals which are kept upon dry
food frequently become very thirsty, drink eagerly of cold spring
water, and so go down with hoven. It is necessary to exercise
very great care in regard to the regulation of the food and the
water supplied to hungry animals.

It has been noticed that this disease is common when the
glands which secrete the saliva are diseased, and that when
-cattle, poorly kept on water or hard food, are first put upon grass
or clover, they are especially liable to become hoven or blown.
The disease is common also in cases where the third stomach, or
many fold, is obstructed, and when there is any affection of the
■second stomach or reticulum.

Hoven is easily recognised by the swelling on the left side.
This makes its appearance while the animal is partaking of its
food or soon afterwards. The symptoms are rapid, as a rule, in
their appearance. The first stomach which, as -we all know, is
called the rumen or paunch, becomes greatly distended with gas,
and consequently extreme pain is experienced. The whole body
is enlarged, especially on the left side, which, when tapped, gives
forth a hollow sound, and also rebounds when pressed upon.
The rumen presses on the diaphragm, and consequently the

31 *

484

THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

breathing becomes arduous, the blood circulates with difficulty
through the blood-vessels going to and from the stomach, and
its course is diverted from the stomach to the brain. A kind of
stupor, as shown by an unwillingness to move and so on, rapidly
supervenes, and the suffering animal abstains from both eating
and drinking. The breathing becomes distressed as the gas
accumulates in the rumen, causing it to press upon the lungs ;
and then it becomes still more distressed and laboured, and at
length the animal pants and moans in great pain. The nostrils
are dilated so that as much air as possible may be inhaled;
saliva dribbles from the mouth, and though there are eructations
of gas, there is no eructation of food, rumination being sus-

FiG. 60.

This illustration depicts a beast suffering fi-om hoven. The rumen is so
enormously distended that the ox looks as if its left side would almost burst
open.

pended. As the accumulation of gas increases, the animal pants
and moans, and standing in one position, with arched back and
wild, bloodshot, staring eyes, it is a picture of misery, which is
truly characteristic. The protrusion of the eyeballs, and wild
staring look of the poor creature, are caused by the accumulation
of gas to such an extent that the passage of air into the lungs is
obstructed.

As suffocation is impending, the animal staggers to and fro
helplessly, and, insensibility at length supervening, he falls pros-
trate to the ground. In tliis condition he may vomit, and thus
relieve himself in some degree. In some instances, so continuous
and violent are the retchings, that the rumen is ruptured and death
ensues. Unless curative methods are employed in cases of acute
tympanites, death results in this manner, or from suffocation, or

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 486

from absorption of the accumulated gases into the blood. The
gases which are found in the rumen are those known as car-
buretted and sulphuretted hydrogen, and carbon dioxide and
monoxide, and when passed through a cannula, they will burn.

In regard to the treatment of acute tympanites, active
measures, we must point out, should at once be taken. If the
animal is ready for the butcher, immediate disposal of it for food
should at once be advised. The disorder may be treated by the
help of the probang, the cannula for the rumen, or by means of
the administration of certain drugs, preferably those of an anti-
septic nature. Except in very urgent cases, of which we shall
shortly speak, and for which the best treatment consists in punc-
turing the distended rumen with the trocar, diffusible stimulants
administered promptly are efficacious in dispelling the accumu-
lated gases. The remedies of the stimulant class which are
highly valued are solution of ammonia and carbonate of ammo-
nium in solution. Of the antiseptic remedies, the sulphite and
hyposulphite of sodium are most valuable. A draught which
answers as well as any is made of one fluid ounce of solution of
ammonia and two fluid ounces of tincture of cardamoms, and
this may be given in a quart of warm ale, and may be repeated
in an hour and a half if necessary. If the aromatic spirit of
ammonia be given, four ounces may be similarly administered in
warm ale. After abatement of the acute symptoms, a full dose of
Epsom salts with ginger and caraway seeds should be given in
three gills of warm water, eight drachms of aloes in solution in
eight ounces of water being added. For some days after recovery,
the animal must be kept on a very restricted diet. The hypo-
sulphite of sodium, in doses of half an ounce, given in a pint of
warm water, is a very good draught in cases of tympanites, its value
depending upon the power it has of arresting further fermenta-
tion and consequent formation of gases generated in the decom-
position of the elements of food in the rumen. In very severe
cases it is best for the veterinarian to pass the trocar and the
cannula.

The spot chosen for this operation is half-way between the
last rib and the haunch-bone or ilium, and about four inches
below the lumbar processes. The most prominent part of the
swelling is generally a sufficient guide for the operator in punc-
turing the rumen in such cases. For the ox, the trocar is

486

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

generally made about eight inches long. For the sheep, the
instrument used is necessarily much smaller. Before the opera-
tion is performed on the ox, the animal must be secured by the
horns, and the operator should stand on the left side in front of
the hind leg. The operator quickly plunges the instrument into
the paunch, then he withdraws the stilette, and leaves the cannula

Fig. 61.

The above illustration depicts a cow, on -which the exact spot in the flank
whereat the rumen should be punctured in cases of tympanites is shown.

in position, to allow of the continuous escape of the gases. The
cannula is tied in this position, and kept there until the gas has
ceased to be produced.

If the sufferers are in-lamb ewes, or sheep out of condition,
about half-a-pint of linseed oil may be administered. If, in the
course of two hours or so, no relief is thereby obtained, it may

Fig 02.
The above illustration re))resents a trocar encased in its cannula.

be as well to give half-an-ounce of aromatic spirits of ammonia
in a pint of warm water; or, if the ammonia is not at hand, about
six fluid ounces of brandy or whisky slightly diluted with warm
water may be administered. If the animal be very severely
affected, the rumen may be punctured by means of the trocar,
and when this is withdrawn, the cannula may be tied in the
wound made, and left in for even a day or more — in fact, as

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 487

long as any signs of the ailment are exhibited. The instrument
may be plunged into the left side with judgment, and the correct
point for the operation is situated at an equal distance from the
hip bone, the last rib, and the lateral processes of the spinal
column.

The shepherd should be provided with a small trocar and
two cannulse. The cannula may be plunged into the hole made
in the flank, and then retained in its position by means of a
string passed round the animal, or held there by the hand until
the gas has been set free. After the operation is over, the rumen
soon heals up again. In former times sheep afflicted with this
disorder were treated very barbarously and cruelly.

CHKONIC TYMPANITES OR HOVEN, OBSTRUCTION
OF THE GULLET AND CHOKING.

We have just spoken of acute tympanites, its causes and
symptoms, and of the fearful distress it occasions oxen. Before
leaving this subject, we must speak of the chronic form of this
malady so commonly met with. The causes of the chronic
form of tympanites or hoven are pretty much the same as those
of the acute variety. But, no matter what food be given, chronic
hoven is apt to recur at frequent intervals, owing no doubt in
great measure to the dilated condition of the walls of the
paunch, which are unable to contract on the food ingested. The
treatment of such cases as these is, as a rule, not attended with
much difficulty.

After a moderate purgative has been given, vegetable tonics
administered twice daily are most likely to be serviceable. Two
ounces of powdered gentian, one ounce of ginger, and one ounce
of fenugreek may be given in three gills of warm water or ale
twice daily, and this treatment may be continued for several days,
as may be indicated. When the appetite is bad, two drachms of
powdered carbonate of ammonium may be added to each drench.
Powdered nux vomica in doses of half a drachm is also a very
useful addition in these cases, where the digestion is very
sluggish.

Hyposulphite of sodium and sulpho-carbolate of sodium owe
their value in cases of acute and chronic hoven to the powers
they possess in inhibiting the fermentative process in the foods

488 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

taken. There are also other important points to be borne in
mind in these chronic cases. The food should be somewhat
restricted in amount. It should be light, and should be given
at regular intervals. Exercise is beneficial in these cases. Much
also will depend upon the general management of the animal.

Before passing on to the consideration of the other diseases of
the paunch, we propose to treat of obstruction of the gullet and
choking in beasts, and of the treatment necessary in such cases.
The impaction in the gullet of portions of food, such as pieces
of turnip, mangold wurzel, potato, carrot, or of such foreign
bodies as pieces of wood or other hard material, is unfortunately
a common occurrence. A knowledge, therefore, of this subject
should be gained by all those who have to deal with the
management of stock. Even the uninitiated have not very often
any difficulty in recognising a case of choking.

When the passage of the gullet is obstructed by the lodgment
of a foreign body, the offending matter may be situated in the first
portion of the gullet. In these cases the choking is spoken of as
pharyngeal. In other instances the body may be impacted lower
down in the neck, when the choking is spoken of as cervical.
Lastly, the body may be lodged in that portion of the gullet
which is situated in the chest cavity, and in these cases the
choking is spoken of as intra-lhoracic (within the chest). We
may first say a few words of the general signs of choking, and
then we propose to speak of each variety separately.

Choking, it must be pointed out, is not always occasioned by
the lodgment of portions of food as they descend towards the
stomach, but may also be caused by the impaction of food during
its regurgitation towards the mouth during rumination. A
choking animal becomes uneasy, and has difficulty in breathing,
and coughs frequently. The saliva, in viscid, ropy strings,
dribbles from the mouth, the jaws move continually, and the
head is held out in a peculiar, stiffened manner. The animal
attempts to regurgitate the impacted matter, and moans at fre-
quent intervals. The appetite is lost, rumination is suspended,
and if the poor creature drinks anything, the fluid is returned
through the nostrils. One of the worst symptoms, and indeed
the only symptom of any real danger in cases of choking, is the
accumuliition of gases in the rumen, which organ becomes
swollen up inid distended in an inordinate degree. This symp-

I

DISEASES OF THE OX AN'D SHEEP.

489

torn is the one of all others which renders early and immediate
treatment of such importance in these cases.

There is another fact regarding choking which we may men-
lion hefore speaking of each variety in detail. The obstructions
are especially prone to recur in animals which have once suffered,
and this we must attribute to the straining of the walls of the
gullet at the spot where the previous obstruction occurred.

In the first variety, the pharyngeal, the offending body is
lodged at the point where the gullet opens into the pharynx, at

Fig. 6:5.

In order to depict more clearly in the above illustration tlie manner in which
the operation of passing the probang is performed, some very necessary details
which would be absolutely essential in actual practice have been omitted. For
instance, it would be indispensably requisite that two powerful men should
stand on each side, and take a firm hold of each horn, in order that the
beast which was being dealt with should not be able to work any mischief
with those appendages, and other very effective measures of precaiition in this
respect would also have to he carried out.

the back portion of the mouth. In these instances the head is
poked forward and lield low down, with the nose protruded and
the neck stiffly stretched. Cough in these cases is violent,
spasmodic, and frequent. The saliva flows copiously from the
mouth, and the animal's paunch is distended with gas. The
breathing is very difficult indeed. The eyes "Sre protruded and
blood-shot, the pupillary openings are dilated, and the animal
altogether is a picture of misery and distress. The offending
body can be felt at the back of the windpipe, and it protrudes
generally towards the left side of the animal.

490 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

In the second variety of choking, where the body is impacted
in the neck, it may be seen and felt. In these cases the symp-
toms are not so urgent as in those described. In some of these
instances of cervical choking, moreover, the animal is able to
drink a little, and thus the fact of the lodgment of a foreign body,
sometimes not being suspected, is overlooked.

In the third, or intra-thoracic, variety, the body is obstructed
in the gallet, as this passes from the neck into the rumen or
paunch. The signs of this variety are more obscure, for of
necessity one cannot see or feel the offending body. In some
instances the obstruction may continue for several hours, or even
a day or two, without producing urgent symptoms. Tympanites
may then set in, and when this happens, the animal becomes
suddenly much distressed, the breathing very difficult, and even
death may ensue. In this kind of choking the animal may take
fluid, and this distends the gullet, and is then, as it were, vomited
through the mouth. There is no coughing in these cases, and
there is little discharge from the mouth. Tympanites, indeed,
may be the only symptom to be observed. When we have reason
to suspect choking in an animal, the hand should be passed
down the gullet, in order, if possible, to detect the foreign body,
which, if found, should then be gently manipulated downwards,
so as to pass it along the gullet.

It is best in these cases to give a small quantity of linseed oil
to lubricate the foreign body, and thus facilitate its manipulation.
If the body be near the upper portion of the gullet, it may be
pressed upwards. If very near the mouth, it is not uncommonly
quite possible to reach it with the hand, and thus relieve the
animal without any more difficulty. If we are unable to mani-
pulate the foreign body, the probang must be introduced without
further delay. The probang is a hollow tube, sometimes made of
a spiral coil of wire covered over with leather, tipped with a broad,
cup-shaped metallic or wooden end. The length should be not
less than six or seven feet. For sheep the probang is not
more than three feet long.

In order to pass the probang, the animal must be secured, and
a gag held or strapped in the animal's mouth. The probang is
well oiled, and passed backwards steadily. When the operator
feels the obstruction, by moderate and steady pressure he must
endeavour to force it downwards into the rumen. As soon as

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 491

the offending matter is dislodged, the animal is relieved, the dis-
tressing symptoms vanish, gas escapes from the rumen, and the
animal soon commences to feed. In passing the probang, great
care should always be exercised, as accidents are not by any
means rare. When the instrument will not dislodge the foreign
body, pressure should be discontinued for a minute or so, and
then should be again exerted firmly and steadily.

Should the attempt even then be unsuccessful, it is best to
withdraw the probang, and, after a short interval, to attempt it
again ; and even a third and fourth time. Even when great care
is taken, the gullet may be ruptured ; and the services of a
qualified veterinarian are therefore necessary in cases of choking.
In an instance which came before our notice some time ago, the
owner, who used an instrument of a very dangerous character,
perforated the gullet, and the probang found its way into the
tissues of the lungs. After much suffering, the poor cow died
in great agony. Even whip-stocks have been employed in these
cases, and cart ropes ; but the use of these instruments is very
strongly to be condemned. When the gullet is ruptured, an
event generally recognised by the swelling of the neck, slaughter
of the animal immediately is the only course to be adopted. In
those instances where great difficulty is encountered in passing
the probang, and gases are accumulating rapidly in the rumen,
the trocar should be passed in order to obviate danger of a
fatal issue, until relief can be obtained by means of the
probang.

After the probang has been passed with success, the animal
should be fed upon soft food for several days, and on no account
must any roots be given until the gullet walls have had time to
recover their normal tone. In those instances where the foreign
body is impacted in the neck, and nothing will remove it, the
operation of opening the gullet has been performed as a last
resource. In this operation, termed " cesophagotomy " an inci-
sion is made through the skin, and the foreign substance is cut
down upon, and removed. The edges of the lining membrane of
the divided gullet are then securely sewn together with catgut
or silk sutures, and the animal is fed upon gruel and mashes for
some days after the incision. The operation itself is not diffi-
cult, but there is great difficulty in the healing of the wound
owing to the continual passage of food down the gullet. In

492 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

cases even apparently successful the walls of the gullet may be
coutracted in the healing, and thus the animal will be likely to
choke, when he commences feeding on solid food, and this may
happen very often.

Sometimes stricture of the gullet is occasioned by frequent
choking and partial laceration of the walls, and in these cases
choking becomes very common. In such instances the animal
must be fed on a carefully regulated diet, and should be fattened
and killed as early as possible.

QHsophagotomy is indicated in those instances when the
gullet walls are partially lacerated. In these cases a pouch or
sac having been formed the foreign body passes into it, and
choking is therefore very common.

PLENALVIA OR ENGORGEMENT AND INFLAMMA-
TION OF THE RUMEN.

Engorgement or impaction of the rumen, as also that of the
omasum, are especially of great importance. This name is given
to a condition of distention of the rumen, or first stomach, in
consequence of the presence of too much solid material in that
organ. This arises from the taking in of too much food or from
rapid eating, especially of succulent food.

If placed very freely before a beast, grain-food, chaif, pota-
toes, or in short anything particularly inviting may be eaten in
excessive amount, and the consequence is that the muscular coat
of the rumen, not being sufficiently powerful to contract on the
contents of that organ, movement of the solid mass and diges-
tion altogether cease.

More particularly is it the case that animals which have pre-
viously been feeding upon dry food and are suddenly put upon
luxuriant pasturage are very liable to suffer from this derange-
ment. Sheep which have been taken from poor to rich pasture
frequently overfill the paunch, and this is especially the case
when they are kept on turnips for a considerable time. The
oppression of the animal is greater than it is in the case of
tympanites, in which there is a distension of the paunch with
gas, as we have already said, and the belly is not usually so
greatly distended, nor do the flanks yield to pressure. As in
the case of animals which are aillicted with hoven, symptoms
of distress are very evident; but if the rumen be pressed upon

DISEASES (^P THE OX AND SHEEP. 493

from the outside, it is u matter of little or no difficulty for the
observer to distinguish betwixt the soft mass which is present
in animals afflicted with plenalvia and the gaseous distension
which exists in the case of animals suffering from hoven.

Symptoms. — As in cases of tympany, so also in cases of
engorgement of the rumen, there is a swelling to be observed
on the left side in the place under which the paunch is situated.
The animal is dull and suffers pain, does not chew the cud, has
no appetite, is constipated (the feces being hard and glazed),
and has a small and quick pulse. The onset of these symptoms
is more gradual than it is in cases of tympany, the disengage-
ment of gases being a more rapid process than is the filling of
the paunch with solid food owing to a voracious appetite.
Moreover, the swelling in tympany is not unlike that of an
inflated bladder; while, when engorged, the rumen has a soft,
doughy feel, and it is not resonant on percussion ; but, on the
contrary, the swelling pits when it is pressed upon, and the
impression made upon the yielding substance remains for some
time after the hand has been removed.

Should the animal assume the recumbent posture, it lies down
with its right side nearest the ground, evidently to avoid pres-
sure on the distended and painful paunch. As a rule, at a later
stage, hoven (or tympanites) supervenes, and then the animal
breathes with difficulty, moaning in expiration, grinds the
teeth, and remains standing with arched back and muzzle pro-
truded. Inflammation of the lining membrane of the rumen
not infrequently comes on, when the engorgement has remained
for some length of time, or it may set in after the operation of
rumenotoray has been performed. The animal breathes quickly,
is very tender to pressure on the side, shows signs of thirst, and
has a dry muzzle.

The symptoms in sheep are as follows : — The sheep is excited,
delirious, and drowsy, and so insidious in its course is the dis-
ease, that even a few hours before death the animals may appear
to be healthy. However, the usual signs are marked enough.
The sheep shows general fever, difficult "Breathing, dilated
nostrils, quick and full pulse, inflammation of the conjunctival
and nasal membranes, dry muzzle, depressed and cold ears, heat
at the base of the horn in the case of horned sheep, frequent and
painful cough, a swaying of the body forwards and backwards.

494 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

loss of appetite, cessation of rumination, diminution or cessation
of the secretion of milk, costiveness, and occasionally a trembling
of the muscles. Then the animal stretches out the neck, pro-
trudes the eye, gives out a discbarge of frothy or slimy fluid
from the mouth, and of blood-tinged mucus from the nose.
The pulse is quicker and small, the ears are colder, the roots
of the horns cold, the breathing laboured, and the general con-
dition wasting. There may be at times temporary delirium, aud
this may be accompanied by attempts to do mischief.

Mr, John Hawes, of Taunton, recorded, in The Veterinarian
for the vear 1840, the following interesting facts. A flock,
consisting of more than 200 sheep, strayed into a field wherein
was a quantity of wheat which had not been taken away, owing
to the unfavourable weather. On this wheat the sheep fed
very fully, before being discovered by the shepherd, who, of
course, on noticing them, immediately caused them to return to
the pasture on which they had previously been grazing. How-
ever, the removal turned out to have been eff'ected not suffi-
ciently early, for on the very next day four of the sheep were
found dead, several others also being very ill. This was not the
worst, for on the morning of the next day twenty-eight sheep
had already died, and nearly as many more were apparently
tottering on the verge of death, while at the close of the fifth
day after their escapade no less than fifty-eight sheep were lifeless
carcases. The remaining members of the flock recovered ; but
many of the in-lamb ewes subsequently threw their lambs,
doubtless in some measure as a consequence of what had
occurred. In each carcase examined after death the rumen was
found to be full of wheat, barley, and straw. ^Moreover, the
abomasum and the bowels were highly inflamed, while the spleen
was broken up to such an extent that it presented the appearance
of a mass of coagulated blood. The liver, lungs, and other
organs appeared to be healthy.

As a curative measure, Epsom salts and castor oil in suitable
doses may immediately be administered to all those animals
which evince symptoms of this disorder, and some may be bled,
and half a pint of linseed oil given to them. It is a good plan
to administer to animals suffering from plenalviiia large quantitv
of warm water by means of the stomach-pump, and purgatives
should also be tried. A dose of aperient medicine, as said above-

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 496

— for example, about three ounces of Epsom salts dissolved in a
sufficient quantity of water or gruel — may be given. In cases of
extreme urgency, either immediate slaughter on the one hand is
to be recommended, or, on the other hand, the operation of
rumenotomy is to be performed, since this measure is the only
one which can be of any real service to the suffering animal.
The incision is to be made into the paunch on the left flank, and
then the contents of this receptacle for food can be mechanically
removed. After the cutting has been suitably carried out, the
edges of the incision into the rumen should be brought together,
and also into apposition with the flank, and then a few stitches
should be passed through both the rumen and the skin, so as to
keep the opening into the rumen in contact with the aperture
into the side of the animal's body.

If there be any sign of decomposition of the matter contained
in the rumen, the whole of it should be removed, and thrown
away ; but if no putrefaction is suspected, only about two-thirds
of the contents need be taken out. After this has been done, it
will be well to sponge the part with warm water and then dry
it, and then place upon it apiece of tow, covered with some mild
and efficacious ointment, and keep it fixed in position by means
of a bandage passed round the animal's body. In about three
weeks' time the wound will be found to have healed ; but for
many a week the sheep will not thrive very well.

Engorgement of the rumen in oxen is a disorder which it is
not easy to cure. It is wise to prescribe some such draught as
the following: —

Epsom salts — 16 ounces.

Solution of aloes — 4 to 8 fluid ounces.

Powdered ginger — IJ ounces.

Aromatic spirit of ammonia — 1^ fluid ounces.

The above ingredients are to be mixed with a rather large amount
of warm gruel, and the draught is to be given slowly and care-
fully by the aid of a suitable horn. This may be followed up
with about half a pint of linseed oil for the purpose of lubricating
the passages, and if there be no relief after twelve hours, the first
draught may be repeated ; or, better still, two pints of castor oil
given. Should there be any marked tympanites in addition to the
engorgement, the puncturing of the rumen is advisable.
External manipulation over the region of the rumen may be

49G

THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

useful, and hence the animal's left side should be well rubbed
with the hand. A little exercise should be given. Some may
recommend that warm water should be injected into the stomach
by means of the stomach-pump.

In some cases the operation of rumenotomij , or paunclnng,
as it is sometimes termed, must be performed. With this pur-
pose in view, the animal is first placed with the right side in
contiguity with a wall, just at the end thereof, and the tail must
be firmly held round the corner towards the right side. The
nose is held firmly with pincers, and firm pressure must be applied
to the left shoulder and hip, so as to prevent the animal moving
too much to the left. The skin and outer laver of muscle is then

Fig. (J4.

This illustration shows an opening into the rumen for the purpose of a
mechanical removal of its contents.

to be cut through, beginning from about the same spot as that
spoken of as the site for puncture of the rumen, viz. about a
hand's breadth from the projection of the hip and a hand's
breadth from the last rib. The incision is to be carried directly
downwards for about six inches. Then the inner layer and the
peritoneum are to be divided, the rumen being thereby exposed.
An incision big enough to allow of the entrance of the hand
must be made in the rumen, near the top of the incision. The
exposed edges of that organ must then be lield, and retained
in firm grasp by suitable hooks, or better still, the rumen must
be secured to the outer skin by means of metallic sutures.
A thin linen clotli, or a large silk handkerchief, or a good-sized
towel is to be carefully introduced into the pauncli in a grooved
manner so ns to act the part of a bridge, over wiiich a large

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHKEP. 497

portion of the contents may be taken from the rumen by the
hand. The operator is thus enabled to remove the accumulated
material, but he should not empty the or^an completely. It is
in very many cases necessary to cast the animal, in order to
perform rumenotomy.

Before closing up the wound, it is well to ascertain the state of
the reticulum and omasum. This operation should not be
delayed until an animal is well nigh exhausted, and therefore
unable to withstand its weakening effects. The artificially-made
aperture in the rumen must then be closed with carbolised catgut
sutures, and the edges of the wound must be inverted. The
muscular wound, and likewise the external one, should then be
closed up with metallic sutures. It is wise, if practicable, to
apply the carbolic acid, or corrosive sublimate, spray, when
operating. The wound generally heals quickly; but it is best
to fatten the animal for the butcher as soon as possible, since
the rumen frequently grows to the side. Soon after the operation,
a dose of cathartic medicine may be given, and for a few days
following, stimulating aromatics may be administered. Until
the rumen has quite regained its former tone, soft food alone
should be allowed. That which originally caused the disorder
should be avoided. The return to the ordinary diet should be
very gradual, since the malady may easily be brought on again.

If, either after this operation or in the natural course of the
engorgement, inflammation should supervene, medicine must be
given with the view of checking the fever, and the very greatest
care must be exercised. In these cases purgatives cannot be
given, with the exception of a little oil. Enemas, however, may
be resorted to, as also bleeding, if it should be found necessary.
The abdomen should be well fomented externally.

RUPTURE OF THE RUMEN.
This accident sometimes occurs as a result of tympany,
whether it be primary or attendant upon engorgement, or it may
be the consequence of a wound or wounds, or due to an injury
received by the rumen when engorged, or to the presence of
irritant substances acting either chemically or mechanically.
Escape of the food contained may occur, and bring on the very
generally fatal disease called peritonitis, or indeed almost imme-
diate death.

82

498 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE RUMEN, THE RETI-
CULUM, AND THE ABOMASUM.

The presence of certain substances in the two first stomachs
of ruminants is not very uncommon. These bodies bring on
indigestion, produce a tendency to chew the cud irregularly, and
also an increase of that pariicular depravity of appetite in
accordance with which the peculiar substances were originally
swallowed. Needles have been known to pass from the rumen or
reticulum to the heart, wliere they necessarily produce great
mischief and disturbance of the normal cardiac functions. In
cases where articles of this nature have been taken in by a beast,
there mav be vomition, tympany more or less permanent, and
general anaemia. Parasites, and calculi, especially those which
consist essentiallv of concretions of hair, are sometimes present
in the rumen. The Amphistoma conicum is a parasite which is
similar in appearance to the papillse in the deep saccules of the
paunch. Tape-worms also have been found in the rumen, and
the Cysticercus tenuicullis is sometimes attached to its outer
surface.

'* Hair-balls " result from a habit which cattle have of licking
themselves or one another, whereby a great deal of hair may be
swallowed. The hair is mingled with particles of food, bound
together into a mass by means of the mucus which is present in
the rumen, and impregnated more or less markedly with salts of
lime. Tiiese become round, owing to the movements of the
stomach, or they may be polygonal with rounded edges, if there
be many present. The balls are light, though of rather large
size. Their weight is from a few ounces to as much as seven
pounds. As a rule, Uiey are formed around a small piece of
metal or a stone which has been swallowed. When of rather
small size, they may be passed up into the mouth and rejected;
but animals have been choked by larger balls being stopped, as
they are passed up the gullet. Hair-balls may be found in verv
young animals. They may also be present in tlie abomasum, or
fourth stomacn.

Again, what are known as bezo;irs, or calculi, may at times be
present in the abomasum ot slieep. Now, in past times it was
believed that these bezoars were produced by magic, and not a

I

I

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 499

few persons were actually sent to the galleys because it was
thought that they were at the root of this kind of mischief.
Moreover, even in the last century, it was supposed that the
stones were swallowed by the sheep, which animals, it was pre-
sumed, were very fond of them. Indeed, in France, in the year
1790, two labouring men were accused of having strewed calculi,
which might have been obtained from a butcher, near some
sheep. In consequence of the suspicions entertained against
these two unfortunate labourers, they were actually condemned
to pay a fine of 1,500 livres, and in addition to be sent to the
galleys for a period of six years. This injustice, however, was
not to be perpetrated, for the professors of the veterinary school
at Alfort came forward and boldly stated that the sheep certainly
would not of their own free will swallow these concretions, and,
moreover, that even if they were forced upon the sheep, they
could not possibly find their way into the abomasum, but, on the
contrary, would naturally pass into the rumen, where they could
not occasion the mischief complained of as having been brought
about. Hence, fortunately, the unjust sentence was revoked,
and the prisoners were set at liberty.

Not only, however, was it formerly the case that these bezoars
were thought to be destructive to sheep, but they were also
believed to possess wonderful virtues in regard to the cure of
various ills to which human flesh is heir. For instance, they
were thought to possess all the powers of disenchantment against
the poison of the viper and that of the scorpion, against vertigo,
epilepsy, dysentery, inflammation of the lungs, malignant fever,
the plague, the leprosy, and many other maladies. It was put
down to the astonishing power of the bezoar that King Edward
IV. was strengthened and preserved from the effects of an
empoisoned wound, and the same magical influence was supposed
to be the real reason why the Emperor Charles V. was enabled
to free himself from the dreadful thoughts which haunted and
disturbed his mind.

These bezoars, it should be remembered, are by no means
peculiar to the sheep. Occasionally they may be found in every
species of deer and antelope, also in the elephant, the rhinoceros,
the porcupine, and some other animals. In former times those
which had been taken from some species of Indian antelopes
were highly prized, and some from the elephant and porcupine

32 *

600 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

were actually sold for the seemingly extravagant sum of £800
each. So far as is known, these hezoars are not supposed to
be harmful when present in the abomasum.

Now, the next question which arises is — How are they pro-
duced ? The fact is that the lamb, before being weaned, may,
■while engaged in the act of sucking, in the course of time
swallow a rather large quantity of wool. In like manner, the
adult sheep also may, in licking itself, collect a great many fibres
in its mouth and swallow them, and these at length gain access
to the abomasum, A hard piece of food, or any hard substance
such as even a grain of corn, may easily also be near, and the
wool may become entwined around it as a nucleus more and more
completely. In accordance with the movements of the food con-
tained in the stomach, the mass revolves, and it gradually
assumes the form of a ball, more or less compressed on two
sides, and varying in size from that of a small nut to that of a
large almond. There may be only one of these balls, or as
many as sixteen of them may be present. It is in the months of
September and October that they are most usually found, this
being the time of moulting in the sheep, and also the time when,
the skin being irritable, the sheep are most apt to lick and gnaw
themselves, and consequently swallow the greatest quantity of
wool. If these balls are exposed to a very great degree of heat,
they will burn, and they are also capable of being dissolved in
boiling water. They are never discharged by the intestines.

ENGORGEMENT OF THE OMASUM, OR THIRD
STOMACH. OMASITIS.

This disorder occuis as the result of the devouring of indi-
gestible material, such as old fog-grass (which has not been eaten
oflf in the autumn, but has been allowed to remain in a pasture
until spring), straw, or dry and harsh and badly-gotten hay, and
any coarse herbage or heath. Very bad hay can only be
rendered slighily available by being mixed with a large quantity
of cut turnips, mangold-wurzel, or grains.

Impaction of the third stomach in sheep, if severe, leads to
inflammation of that stomach or ornasitis. This disorder is also
known under the name of fardel-bound, and also as grass-
staggers, and it breaks out periodically both in the Isle of Man
and in Ireland, doubtless in consequence of errors in diet. As

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

501

a rule, the malady occurs in sheep when, having heen previously
fed on soft and succulent food, they are transferred to that which
is harder and drier; or, on the contrarj, though this is not so
frequently the case, when there has been a converse change in
the dietary — for example, if they have been removed from a dry
and bare pasture to soft and succulent grass. Indeed, so great
is the risk resulting from sudden changes in the food-supply,
that it has been observed that sheep invariably do best on farms

Fig. 65. — Impaction of the Omasitm.

The7above illustration depicts the appearance presented by an ox suffering
from impaction of the omasum. The head is seen to be held low, and the ears
hang down pendulouslj' ; the breathing is diificult owing to pressure on the
diaphragm, the tip of the tongue protrudes out of the mouth, the eyes are
staring and bloodshot, the animal grunts and moans, and grinds the teeth.
Pains are felt in the abdomen, and the nose is often carried to the flanks, most
frequently to the right flank. The hind legs are often moved, the tail is lashed
from side to side, the rumen is frequently tympanitic, the eyesight is impaired,
and the eyes may be touched with the finger without pain being manifested or
the lids being closed. The animal staggers, rolls on its side, and lies there with
rigid limbs, is convulsed, and dies. If the beast be in the field, it runs about
wildly, and may perhaps be found with its back downwards in a ditch in a
helpless condition. If it be removed from the ditch, the animal may be found
dead, or else suffering from irreparable damage to the spine in consequence of
its violent convulsive struggles. (Aiter Armafaije.)

whereon the soil differs but little, for it is the rapid changes
T7hich are especially dangerous.

When troubled with this disorder, the patient frequently voids
small quantities of hard, glazed feces, and afterwards is severely
constipated. The animal stands persistently, it has a hard
and frequent pulse, and suflFers acute abdomiffal pain, which is
manifested by an occasional grunt or groan. As in the case of
stomach-staggers in the horse, the brain often becomes affected,
muscular tremors over the surface of the body are to be seen,
the eyes become insensible to light and assume a staring

502 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS Of THE OX.

condition. The poor animal, if moved, staggers, and may become
quite paralysed, or, on the other hand, may rush about wildly,
with protruded and greatly swollen tongue. Tympany also often
comes on, and the urine frequently contains blood. There may
be marked febrile symptoms.

After either a sheep or an ox has died in consequence of the
disturbance known as omasitis, the omasum or manyplies, if
examined, may be found to contain hard and dry material.
However, we must not forget that, even in the general way, the
contents of this stomach are in a certain measure dry, and,
indeed, we ought to make ourselves quite conversant with the
condition of this stomach in animals which have died when
healthy, before we can presume to draw any conclusions regard-
ing its state in any given case. If an examination be made after
death has occurred, as a result of this disorder, the omasum may
be seen to be as hard and as round as a ball, and, moreover, to
be distended with hardened masses of dry and brittle food fixed
between the folds or leaves which, indeed, have pressed upon
the food so firmly, that they cannot be removed from it without
the epithelium coming off and adhering to the food. Patches
where congestion appears are found in the omasum, and some-
times congestion may also be observed in the rumen, and very
often also in the brain and spinal cord.

Treatment. — With reference to curative measures, in the case
of the sheeji, the first point to be borne in mind is that purga-
tives, and especially aperient oils, are to be recommended. For
example, about three or four ounces of Epsom salts or of
Glaubers salts may in the first instance be given, while at every
fourth hour about one additional ounce of the same may be
administered. The medicine should always be dissolved in a
sufficient quantity of warm water, or gruel, or linseed tea, and
should be administered with extreme caution. No solid food
should be allowed ; but gruel should always be at hand, so that
the animal can help itself, when inclined to do so. Moreover,
warm water should be frequently given, either by the horn or
by means of the stomach-pump.

Again, the raaniplies may be distended with soft and putrid
vegetable matter, if, for ir)stance, the shei'p has been removed
from dry and bare pasturage to plentiful and succulent herbage.
When this kind of material accumulates therein, the stomach

DISEASES Of THE OX AND SHEEP. 503

becomes distended and paralysed, while the contents rapidly
decompose, and the result of all this is that dysentery of a fatal
description supervenes. Our readers will see that this particular
kind of mischief is not the same as that above spoken of. One
ounce of Epsom salts may be suitably given in the case of an
adult sheep suffering from this complaint twice on the first day of
the disease, and doses of two drachms each may be administered
every six hours, until the fetid smell of the discharge has
ceased, and the feces have become more normal in character.

Now, in regard to the treatment of omasitis in oxen, it may be
said that bleeding has been recommended, especially in the case
of those animals in which the nervous system is greatly involved.
Strong doses of cathartic medicine such as gamboge, solution of
aloes, or even the drastic purgative, croton oil, in a dose of about
forty drops, have been used. A new remedy for cases of very
obstinate impaction has lately been used, and found highly
successful.

The sulphate of physostigmine suitably dissolved has been
injected intravenously in doses of from one-half to one grain,
and hypodermically in doses of one-half to one and a half grain.
This, however, would only be resorted to as a last resource,
and by a skilful scientist. In ordinary cases, however, Epsom
salts in a dose of sixteen ounces or more is useful, since,
although it acts almost solely upon the bowels, it, by so doing,
clears the way for aloes, which acts upon the stomachs. Oil is
useful as an adjunct. If there be any inflammation, external
stimulation should be resorted to in the region of the abdomen.
Enemas should be regularly given, and the animal should be
most carefully attended to. Nitrated water for drinking may be
supplied in rather considerable amount.

INFLAMMATION OF THE ABOMASUM OR TRUE
STOMACH.

In this disorder, which is of very rare occurrence indeed, there
is acute fever, severe abdominal pain, and a curious stretching
out of the fore-limbs, with the brisket almost to the ground
(Youatt) . After death, the interior of the organ is seen to be very
red, and in it flaky mucus and sometimes blood are observable.
The duodenum also is generally almost equally involved. Hair-
balls are often seen in this mucus. Rupture of this organ

604 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEBS OP THE OX.

sometimes occurs, being due either to external injury or to
extensive ulceration.

INDIGESTION.

In the first place, we may remark that nearly all the diseases
connected witli the digestive system, and especially those we
are now about to discuss, viz. indigestion and colic, are as a
rule the consequences of errors in diet. In regard to food-
supply, one point at least may here be mentioned, and that is
that oxen, so far as is possible, should always be supplied with
food which requires re-mastication, that is, with hay, grass, or
straw, in addition to any more highly nutritious foods used.

As we previously pointed out, ruminants are more liable to
suffer from disorders of the stomach than from disturbance of
the functions of the other portions of the alimentary canal, the
reason being that the stomach is a very complex and important
organ in these animals. Horses, on the contrary, are more
frequently troubled with derangements of the actions of the
intestines. It should, however, be borne in mind that a sudden
or extreme change in the food supply, or any other great error
in the dietary, will usually bring on derangements of the work-
ing of the stomach, or of the intestines, or of both, in almost
any animal whatsoever. Again, the ruminating animals eat
and swallow the coarsest food very rapidly, and they are pro-
vided with a large receptacle wherein the hastily-devoured food
is reduced to smaller particles by a slow churning movement,
preparatory to its being chewed over again. Hence the stomach
in these animals more actively participates in the process of
digestion than in the horse, and is, therefore, as we have said,
the more liable to disturbances of various kinds.

In cases of indigestion in the ox, whether there be or be not
any marked engorgement associated therewith, special treatment
is requisite. Pepsin may be given to calves suffering from
indigestion, when the disorder is due to imperfect secretion
of the gastric glands, and it may be remembered that a little
common salt given in the food in many cases promotes
digestion.

Simph' indigestion, or dropping the cud, may prevail among
a whole Hock of sheep and a great number of cattle, even
extending to the animals on adjoining farms. It seems to be

DISEASES or THE OX AND SHEEP.

505

due to the animals feeding upon unwholesome herbage or acrid
or diseased vegetables, such as decayed turnips. The bowels
act irregularly, the coat ** stares," and, while chewing the cud,
the animal repeatedly drops portions here and there. In the
space of about two hours a large pailful of thick green fluid
may be thus discarded. The animal loses flesh, the secretion
of milk is damaged and then stopped, the appetite is impaired
and capricious, and finally altogether lost. Unless strict reme-
dial measures are taken, anaemia and dysentery come on. In
the case of nheep, the wool may be shed, and if the flock as a
whole is affected, the droppings may be found all over the field.

Fig. 66. — Dropping the Cud. Simple Indigestion or Dyspepsia.

In the above illustration our artist has depicted the typical appearance
presented by an ox suffering from dyspepsia. The animal is "dropping the
cud," and is seen to exhibit the look of a creature suffering from dyspepsia,
lying on the ground, depressed and downcast, and altogether affording a marked
contrast to the lively and sprightly look of oxen in vigorous health.

The leaves of raangold-^yurzel, rushes, and the common wood-
sorrel (Oxalis acetozd) are said to bring on this disorder.

Each ox should receive a draught containing Epsom salts
(14 oz.), gentian {\\ oz.), bicarbonate of potassium (1 oz.), the
ingredients being mixed together, and given in a pint of warm
linseed gruel. For about six days, six drachms of bicarbonate
of potassium should be mixed morning and evening with the
food of each animal, or, if preferred, the powdered salt may be
mixed with 1^ oz. of gentian, and given as a draught in gruel
or linseed tea. The cattle should, if possible, be taken to a
high, dry, and large pasture. At any rate, the food should be
entirely changed. Sound roots, good hay, with oil-cake, corn,
or bran, may be allowed. It is often well to supply little or no

506 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

green food for a time, in the case of animals which have been
taken up from grass in order to cure them.

There is a very severe kind of indigestion which is known
under the name of " gastro-enteritis " of calves. In the adult
ox, as our readers know, the rumen is very large ; but it must
be remembered that it is only after the young animal has been
weaned that this first stomach gains its large increase of size.
In calves the abomasum is the largest of the four compartments,
and it is the receptacle in which the milk accumulates and then
coagulates, and then undergoes the process of being digested.
Manifestly the milk should be taken in suitable and not too
great quantity; and, moreover, it should be of good quality.
Sometimes, however, calves, especially those which are fed from
the pail, take in too much milk — more than can be digested.
The result is that the stomach becomes laden with a hard mass
of solid curd, whereby death may ensue in consequence of the
engorgement. Inflammation sets in, extends to the intestines,
causing an acrid discharge in them, the consequence of which is
expressed by the name " white scour." They may, however, on
the other hand, be obstinately constipated.

It is well to administer alkalies in rather large doses, since,
by their action, the mass of curd may be broken up, and the acid
and acrid secretion referred to may be checked. If profuse
diarrhoea comes on, stimulant tonics and cordials are useful in
addition to more active medicines. It is advisable to diminish
the milk allowed per day by one half, substituting linseed gruel
in its place. This, then, is one form of indigestion in calves, and
one which may be very serious. It leads us to the consideration
of another form.

In calves which have been partially weaned, the abomasum
may be the seat of accumulation of food-material in excess, when
the first and third stomachs have not gained the power of
suitably preparing the food for the true stomach. This
engorgement may bring on obstinate constipation, and it is wise
to administer oil in these cases, no matter whether the bowela
be loose or confined.

Chronic Indigestion. — Though the distinction between acute
and chronic indigestion cannot ftiil to be in large measure an
arbitrary on(!, still, as in so many other similar cases, it is a kind
of classification which furnishes a serviceable and convenient

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

507

division. A more or less disordered process of digestion is apt to
occur in all kinds of animals for long periods of time. The dis-
turbance of this function may arise in consequence of irregular
feeding, inferior or bad food, want of exercise and confinement,
insufficient or improper ventilation, and other sanitary short-
comings and faults, or from exposure. It may be due to the
presence of foreign bodies or parasites, or to any cause which
may obstruct the functions of the skin or damage the system
generally, and thereby weaken all the vital processes.

Again, it may be due to a disordered or disturbed condition of

^>*^.)^%s

Villi

Fig. 67. — Chronic Indigestion.

An ox which suffers from a chronic form of indigestion, may, like the cow
in the above picture, present signs of a depraved appetite. At the outset of the
disease, indeed, the symptoms may merely consist of an irregular and slightly
diminished appetite, which, however, may soon afterwards assume an extra-
ordinary character. The animal may lick the walls, stones, wood-work, and
even show a tendency to take into the mouth dirty straw, sand, stones, dung,
and all kinds of filth. The coat is staring, the skin is dry, the flanks are
hollow, unless they be inflated by reason of the presence of gases in the rumen,
there may he much loss of flesh, and altogether the ox may present a most
miserable appearance, which is very adequately represented in the above
illustration.

the nervous system, such as is connected with the state of
pregnancy ; or, once more, it may be due to cancerous or other
disease of the stomach, or to stricture of the pyloric orifice (that
which connects the stomach with the intestines) ; or it may be
brought on by the habit of drinking large draughts of cold
water, or from the fact that the herbage is too scarce or indi-
gestible and innutritious ; or from cold and inclement weather,
coupled with an insufficiency of shelter.

Chronic indigestion may show itself in various ways. At
first there is usually an irregularity and slight diminution of the
appetite. This afterwards not uncommonly takes on what is

508 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

called a depraved character, the animal licking walls, stones,
wood-work, and even taking up dirty straw, stones, dung, and
all kinds of filth into the mouth. The result of this depressed
state is that the coat ^' stares," the hair standing erect, and the
skin feeling harsh and dry ; the faeces are small, hard, dry, and
glazed with mucus ; the flanks may be hollow, or swollen up
from time to time, as a consequence of more or less strongly
marked tympany; the temperature is generally lower than the
normal standard ; chewing of the cud is both irregular and
imperfect ; there is flatulence and torpidity of the bowels ; loss of
flesh may be marked and rapid, and the patient looks wretched
and downcast, and presents what has been described asatucked-
up appearance. Other maladies may attack the debilitated
animal. For instance, rheumatism may set in, or the bones may
become weak and friable, or tuberculosis may make its appear-
ance, or diarrhoea may come on, or tympanites, or impaction of
the rumen, or colic, or other complications may ensue.

The malady should receive immediate attention. The causes
should be removed. For instance, if the disease be due to the
presence of a foreign body in the rumen or reticulum, and even
according to some authorities in most cases of chronic indi-
gestion in the ox, it is advisable that the veterinary surgeon
should perform the operation of rumenotomy described in our
last article. This is often to be recommended in the case of
chronic indigestion of older oxen, since it seems that the mere
removal of the long-retained food is often sufficient to restore
the healthy condition.

Again, in young calves indigestion associated with convulsions
is sometimes occasioned by the presence of " hair-balls." After
a time, these may become gradually broken up by the movements
of the stomach, and the symptoms will then slowly disappear.
If the calf be in great distress from this cause, the pressing
symptoms may often be relieved by stimulants, such as the
carbonate of ammonium ; but if the indigestion remains for a
long period, rumenotomy should be perlormed.

There sliould be a complete change of diet, and of general
surrounding conditions. Animals, if on low, marshy, lands,
should betaken to sheltered straw-yards. If bad or deficiently
nutritious food is being used, this should be replaced by small
and repeated and gradually increased supplies of good and highly

DISEASES or THE OX AND SHEEP. 509

nutritious aliment. At first the food should be laxative in
nature, being made so, for instance, by having bran or cree'd
linseed mixed with it, or by allowing moderate quantities of roots,
green food, and so on. Strict cleanliness in regard to the
surrounding conditions, and in other points, must be enjoined.
The water-supply must be pure. The skin may be sponged with
tepid water and then well rubbed.

It is well to cause the patients to take a certain small amount
of regular and gentle exercise. In the first instance it is well in
most cases to administer a brisk dose of cathartic medicine, such
as 14 to 16 ounces of sulphate of magnesium. Then stimulants
and tonics may be given. A draught made of bicarbonate of
sodium (2 ounces), of sulphur (J ounce), of ginger (jounce), of
gentian (1 ounce), mixed with a pint of warm water, and given
twice daily, may sometimes be benefical. It is best to call in
the aid of skilled advice, because indigestion may proceed from
such a multiplicity of causes that the specialist alone can pro-
perly diagnose and suitably advise in accordance with the
conditions of the case.

SIMPLE COLIC, FLATULENT COLIC, CONSTIPATION,
DIARRHCEA, AND SCOURING IN CALVES.

Simple Colic.

The disorder known as colic, under which appellative any
abdominal pain not coupled with inflammation may be referred
to, is very well known by all those who have to do with horses.
In the case of cattle and sheep, the affection is fortunately of
infrequent occurrence. For instance, a veterinary surgeon may
be in practice for many years, and only be called to several well-
marked cases of colic in the ox. In writing, we are reminded of
two, one of which recovered, the other being of a very serious
type indeed. As a matter of fact, if any beast seems to be going
the wrong way, it is a very general, and perhaps in many cases
wise, custom to nip matters in the bud, and so avoid the possi-
bility of the loss occasioned by a fatal issue.

As our readers are aware, pains in the bowels are not unusually
symptoms of various diseases which are by no means limited to the
digestive canal. This observation, in fact, applies to all the dis-
eases about to be considered in this article ; in short, in many

510 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

cases they are the symptoms of a general disturbance of the
system. When, therefore, we have to deal with cases of " colic,"
we should first investigate carefully the state of the animal with
the view of removing the essential and primary causes of the
malady from which our patient is suffering. For instance, the
pains may be the consequence of herniee of various kinds, or of
impactions of the bowels, or of certain disorders of the liver,
stomach, or urinary apparatus; but if such derangements are
not present, it may be inferred that the symptoms point to a spasm
or spasms of the bowels, to which the designation of " simple
colic " has been given.

Notwithstanding its infrequency, this disorder may occasion-
ally be brought on in oxen and sheep by any serious errors in
regard to dieting. Moreover, in cases of severe indigestion,
whereby the food eaten has only been very imperfectly prepared,
and in this crude state is passed along from the stomach to the
intestinal canal, the affection is often brought on by reason of
the irritant action of these substances upon the walls of the ali-
mentary tract. Among horses, the drinking of icy cold water
after any great exertion, or soon after coming in from a hard
day's work, is a not uncommon source of colic, and it is said
that in the case of oxen also the same factor may be considered
a fruitful cause of this painful complaint. Other irritant sub-
stances as well as undigested material are capable of giving rise
to colic, and, finally, it is probable that the distressing symptoms
referred to may result from simple engorgement of the intestines
or stomach.

In this disorder there are paroxysms or fits of pain, which, so
long as it lasts, is of a very severe kind indeed; so much so
(especially among horses) that one feels the necessity of attending
to the suffering animals with the most extreme care, if by any
possibility any alleviation of the distress and agony can be gained.
If this applies to horses and oxen, how much more does it apply
to the human race. To see a man or a horse, or other creature,
writhing and tossing to and fro in tiie excruciating agonies of
colic, is to see a sight which cannot be forgotten. This torture
— for torture, indeed, it may be called — is, so far as we know,
produced by spasmodic and severe contractions of the muscular
coat of the intestines in certain portions of its length. The fact
seems to be, at least in some cases, that the irritant material

)

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 511

must be expelled at all hazards, and the sensitive canal is hence
excited into violent expulsive action, which is probably the more
forcible, the more need there is for gigantic efforts. The animal
now and again moans and grinds its teeth in its agony, strikes
the belly with the hind feet, turns the face towards the seat of
pain, rises up suddenly, and again lies down, or throws itself
to the ground.

As might be expected, the more restless the animal be, the
greater will be its movements. A horse, suffering from a slight
attack, will paw the ground, frequently turn the head to the seat
of pain, and, if the pains become excessive, will kick and shiver,
and throw itself with vehemence upon the ground, now with all
four feet kicking in the air, now lying recumbent on one side,
and now on the other. Frequently, if not taken well in hand,
horses will seriously damage themselves ; and if the violence of
the suffering be not assuaged before long, the animal will almost
certainly die. This also applies in a less degree to oxen, and
in fact to all kinds of animals, and it has been well explained by
Dr. D. A. Gresswell in his pamphlet on So?ne Pathological
Bearings of Darwinistn, on the theory that pain, being associated
as it is with the struggle for existence as manifested in fighting,
even when dependent upon disease, is to some extent similarly
associated in the animal's mind.

In the case of colic, the animal is embarrassed in that it does
not know the source of pain ; but, nevertheless, the mechanism
of its actions is so complex that, when it is suffering this severe
agony, the energy which would have been useful to repulse the
attack of an enemy is almost involuntarily expended, and in
the same or a very similar way. Not only is this the case,
but also we find the whole complicated machinery of work, as
opposed to that of rest, is almost entirely brought into play.
There is loss of appetite and cessation of chewing the cud ;
the animal sweats, frequently passes water in very small quan-
tities, and, albeit that there is generally constipation, occa-
sionally discharges a little fecal material. Tympanites, also, is
very often brought on. Moreover, when the animal is actually
in pain, the pulse is full, bounding, and quickened, while, in the
intervals of freedom from suffering, it is very fairly normal. To
speak briefly, there is in oases of colic a severe exaltation of the
mechanism of work.

612 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

In regard to treatment, if the patient be a full-grown ox, the
best plan is to give an efficient dose of cathartic mediciue (such
as sixteen ounces of Epsom salts), and enemas may be also
tried. If the patient be a very plethoric animal, blood may be
abstracted by the veterinary surgeon. In addition., a useful
draught may be made of aromatic spirit of ammonia (two fluid
ounces), and of tincture of opium (two fluid ounces). If no
relief is obtained, this drench may be repeated within about an
hour and a half. Again, we may give at intervals of four hours
a draught composed of oil of turpentine (half a fluid ounce),
of tincture of opium (one and a half fluid ounces), of spirit of
nitrous ether (two fluid ounces).

The small intestines are sometimes aff'ected in sheep. For
instance, at times there may be some reason to suspect colic in
lambs, especially in those which are immaturely forced on for
the winter house-lamb market by being crammed with the milk
of two ewes, and occasionally with cow's milk, as well as that of
their mothers. When afilicted with colic, the animal exhibits
signs of uneasiness, moans, rises up and lies down again, and
strikes the belly with the hind foot. The grass lamb, taken
from its dam, may at first be apt to feed upon acrid and half-
poisonous herbage as well as on that which is wholesome, and it
also is subject to colic. It may be advisable to administer a
drench, made up of an ounce of Epsom salts, together with two
drachms of ginger and twenty minims of the essence of pepper-
mint. If the pain is not relieved, a second drench, composed
of two ounces of Epsom salts may be given, and warm gruel
may also be administered.

Flatulent Colic.
Flatulent colic among oxen is likewise of infrequent occur-
rence. The symptoms, though not so severe, are, on the other
hand, more continuous, being due to the disengagement of
gases, as is seen by gaseous eructations, and so on. Some-
times there may be a distension of the right side of the
belly. As in so many other cases, it is best to give in the first
instance a full dose of physic, and then to cause the animal to
walk a little up and down, and in the intervals of repose to rub
the animal's right side. Enemas should be administered, and
manual exploration of the rectum is advisable. A draught of

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 513

solution of ammonia (one fluid ounce), of spirit of chloroform
(one fluid ounce), mixed with a sufficiency of water may be given
at intervals of four hours.

Constipation.

Constipation is a term given to a more or less complete cessa-
tion of the discharge of feces, or to the passage of small hard
fecal masses coated with much mucus, or even with blood. There
is generally a redness ot the lining membrane of the bowels, and
also of the eyes and nose. In like manner with colic, constipa-
tion also is very generally merely a symptom of disease. As a
rule, the disorder is due to the presence of some impediment, as
may be occasioned by strictures or engorgements of the stomach
or intestines, or by tumours situated either within the bowels or
in such a manner as to press upon them from the outside, by
volvulus, intussusception, intestinal calculi, or concretions of
various kinds.

With the view of counteracting constipation, which may, if
unrelieved, lead on to gangrene and death, or to a fatal issue
from other causes, the patient should be fed only on soft food,
and a laxative should now and again be given. In many cases
the malady is of such a mild nature that if enemas are adminis-
tered, and the food be limited to bran, linseed, herbage, and
roots, it will be gradually put right. In many cases it is wise
to give a full dose of cathartic medicine when an ox is taken
ill, and for this purpose, as we have pointed out previously, the
sulphate of magnesium (generally known as Epsom salts) is
most useful and least injurious.

If the medicine seems at first to be acting too violently, it will
very frequently cease spontaneously after a time. On the other
hand, it is truly astonishing how much cathartic medicine a beast
will in some cases take. This may sometimes be due to fatty
deposits around the rectum, or possibly to a hindrance to the
passage from the rumen into the intestines. In several cases of
obstruction of the bowels the veterinary surgeon will probably
use the sulphate of eserine treatment previously- referred to.

Now, we may also state that both before and after the time of
being weaned, a lamb may suffer from constipation of the bowels
as a result, for instance, of a bare and dry pasture, or from other
causes. As wc said before, in our account of diarrhoea, lambs

S3

514 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

may be constipated when the milk of the mother is of peculiar
quality, or when it is taken in too great quantity, and coagulates
in the fourth stomach. A lamb, previously in good condition,
may all at once, perhaps, become dull and unwilling to move ; it
pants, and is costive. If relief be not obtained, the lamb may die,
and after death as much as 3 lb. or 41b. of curd may, perhaps,
be taken from the abomasum. By way of treatment, plenty of
warm water with three or four ounces of Epsom salts dissolved
in it may be administered, either by means of a long-necked
bottle, or with a Read's patent pump. After the bowels have
been properly relieved, both the lamb and the mother may be
taken to a pasture diflferent from that on which they have been
feeding. Again, constipation may be met with occasionally
in full-grown sheep, as a result of the dryness of the pasture or
of unsuitable or acrid herbage, or of a too plentiful supply of
hay and corn.

DiARRHCEA.

We now come in due course to the consideration of the very
opposite condition to that last described. DiarrhcBa is a some-
what difiScult disorder to treat of, inasmuch as it may be due to
so many different causes. As we have said above, and as our
readers probably know well, colic and constipation are in not a
few cases best considered in relation to the general disorders of
which they, and especially the former, are merely symptoms.
This is still more true, perhaps, of the affection which we are
now to discuss.

Every owner of stock knows full well that diarrhoea is a very
serious disorder. As well in the case of calves as in that of
lambs, this derangement, which may, of course, arise from many
different causes, is a source of considerable loss, both in the way
of actually fatal issues, and also by reason of the emaciation and
wasting which it occasions. Now, as our readers probably know
quite well, diarrhoea is very frequently met with in animals rather
as a symptom of disease than as a specific disease in itself,
although it may be the chief, or perhaps even the sole noticeable
derangement. It is necessary in all cases to determine the
cause of it. Sometimes diarrhoea is due to inflammation, for
the most part confined to the internal lining membrane of the
small intestines, and as a rule not accompanied by much straining,

I

i

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 515

nor by any marked febrile signs. Of course, if symptoms of
fever are manifested, it will be necessary to searcb closely into
the case, and from minute observation we shall probably find
that we have a more complicated disorder to deal with than
simple diarrhoea. For instance, the name of dysentery is given,
when the large intestines are inflamed and febrile symptoms are
manifested, and when there is also a discharge of mucus.
Diarrhoea may, however, be due to some irritation caused by
maldigestion, or to some noxious substance taken into the
stomach.

The more or less violent expulsion of rather fluid fecal mate-
rial, sometimes of a very fetid odour, is met with as a symptom
manifested with greater or less constancy in the case of very
many different diseases. Of these we may just recall to mind :
— Purpura hsemorrhagica, malignant catarrh, epizootic pleuro-
pneumonia, cattle-plague, anthrax, and many others. No doubt
this diarrhoea is conservative, inasmuch as some of the virus is
in this way eliminated from the system.

In the case of tuberculosis, diarrhoea comes on when the
mucous membrane of the intestines or the mesenteric glands are
aff"ected, and the disorder may be due to other abnormal condi-
tions of the intestinal walls, the lining membrane of which, after
death from severe diarrhoea, may frequently be seen to be con-
gested. An animal suffering from this disorder may be also
afflicted with severe pain. As for the appetite, it is either
diminished or depraved, while the chewing of the cud is irregular
and imperfect, and the urine scanty in amount. Moreover, the
animal may stand apart from the rest of the herd with an anxious
expression depicted on its face, the feet drawn close together,
and the back being arched.

The symptoms of diarrhoea are well known. Together with
the copious discharge of more or less fluid excrementitious
material, there is a disengagement of flatus, much straining, and
the ears, horns, and feet, are cold. If the disease is due to the
increased activity of the liver, whereby a large qu-antity of bile
is discharged into the small intestine, the feces are dark brown
in colour, watery, and profuse ; if to milk of bad quality or an
ingestion of too large a quantity, as sometimes happens in the
case of calves, the discharges are light-coloured; if to blood
diseases, they are often black and fetid, if to disorder of the

83 *

616 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

pancreas, they are generally light coloured. After death,
the tissues generally present an anaemic appearance, but the
lining membrane of the stomach and intestines is congested, and
may possibly show more important changes. On the other
hand, there may be merely the signs of an increased blood
supply to the intestinal mucous membrane, which may not
amount to congestion, and seldom can be called inflammatory.

In the case of calves and lambs which have suffered from
diarrhoea while they are suckling, masses of coagulated milk are -
found, which, being undigested, are a source of irritation, so
that, secretion from the intestines being aroused, and also mus-
cular action, they are expelled with some degree of energy. In
these cases the functions of the abomasum, the true digestive
stomach, are generally suspended, the secretions being out of
gear, and the tissues pale and wasted. A fatal issue may super-
vene owing to arrest of assimilation and the weakness which
results from the excessive nature of the discharges.

In regard to the causation of this disorder, there is a great
deal to be said. As might be expected, any irritation of the
alimentary canal may bring on diarrhoea. Coarse food, acrid
plants, the rank herbage of marshy lands, sloppy grass, excess
of bran or linseed, the administration of purgatives, the change
from dry to green food, or other sudden changes in the dietary, or
in some cases, perhaps, mere excess of food, exposure to very cold
and inclement weather, whereby the excretory function of the
skin is arrested, so that the fluid, which under ordinary circum-
stances would escape through that channel, finds its way into the
intestines, extra work being also thrown upon these and other
internal organs — all these and other factors are to be borne in
mind.

If there has been long-continued error in the dieting, or indi-
gestion for a considerable period, chronic diarrhoea is often the
result. The disorder may arise from an excessive or a greatly
diminished flow of bile, and, according to some, it may be due to
disturbance of the functions of the spleen or pancreas. Again,
the irritation set up by the presence of parasites in one or other
portion of the digestive canal may give rise to diarrhoea. This
is especially true of the strongyles found in the intestines of
calves and lambs.

The complaint we are now considering, viz. diarrhoea, may

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 517

be occasioned in sheep as a result of cold, in consequence of
something being wrong with the milk of the mother, or owing
to the first eating of the grass by the lamb when it is being
weaned. Indeed, it i« most natural that the bowels should be
liable to disturbance at the time when such a radical change in
the food is being undergone as that which then takes place, the
grass then suddenly being perhaps the only food of the lamb.
Moreover, it has been found, if lambs are exposed to great cold,
or if the milk of the ewes is not good, or, indeed, very frequently
if lambs, after being weaned, are incautiously placed on luxu-
riant keeping, that diarrhoea of a violent nature may be mani-
fested, and lead on to death in less than twenty-four hours' time.
As we have said above, diarrhoea is very frequently connected
with some deterioration in the quality of the milk of the ewes.
Also, it may be mentioned that, even when the lambs first begin
to crop the grass by their mother's side, they are liable to suffer
from occasional disturbance of their bowels, and naturally, as we
pointed out above, this danger becomes especially great at
weaning time.

Again, it may happen that, no sooner is the milk of the mother
received into the true stomach of the lamb, than it is suddenly
transformed into a firm curd, on the one hand, and into the fluid
called whey, on the other, in consequence of the action of the
gastric juice upon it. Further, if either the milk of the mother
or the stomach of the lamb be unhealthy, this conversion may
occur far more suddenly and decisively — indeed, to such an
extent that the curd may be retained and accumulate in a marked
degree, while the whey, on the contrary, rapidly passes through
the bowela, thereby imparting the appearance of a kind of
diarrhoea, which is often spoken of as ** white scouring."

In these cases it may sometimes be found that the fourth
stomach is quite full of curd, all its normal functions being
entirely suspended. Although, then, the animal seems to be
suffering from diarrhoea, the exact reverse of this is in reality
the true state of the case, the sheep being, on the contrary, very
much constipated. Moreover, this particular derangement is
apt to come on when the lamb first commences to graze, at which
time the functions of the stomach are naturally somewhat
deranged. Under these circumstances the lamb is evidently
distressed, heaves at the flanks, is unwilling to move, is greatly

618 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OE THE OX.

swollen in the belly, and is either greatly constipated or, as we
have above said, discharges whey. Occasionally, after death has
taken place in such cases as these, the stomach has been found
to contain as much as three or four pounds of this coagulum.
It has been recommended that ammonia diluted with a large
quantity of water, together with Epsom salts and ginger, should
be administered to animals suffering in this way.

Perhaps the most usual cause of diarrhoea is the ingestion of
young and succulent grasses, or perhaps a sudden change from
a hot atmosphere to a cold one. As soon as the disease begins,
the animals should, so far as it may be practicable to do so, be
instantly removed from the pastures whereon they are grazing
to older or drier keeping or food. Usually the eyes will be found
to look heavy and the wool unnatural, while the step is sluggish
and devoid of the elasticity of health. If so, a drench made up
of half an ounce of Epsom salts, together with half a drachm of
ginger, should be given, or, as a substitute for this, one fluid
ounce of castor oil mixed with half a pint of gruel may be admi-
nistered ; and if great straining or much pain, or both, be
exhibited, twenty drops of tincture of opium may also be given
mixed with gruel. The lambs should be very carefully sheltered
in a suitable place, well housed and nursed, and kept warm, and
fed on dry food. If the diarrhoea still continues, and the bowels
have been cleared as a consequence of the aperient drench, it
will then be best to administer astringent medicines. If the
disorder continues after twenty-four hours have elapsed, and if
it is accompanied by the manifestation of pain and the discharge
of much mucus, and by a loss of appetite, there will be some
room for apprehension as to the result.

Mr. Youatt recommends that a mixture be made containing
one ounce of prepared chalk, half an ounce of powdered catechu,
two drachms of powdered ginger, half a drachm of powdered
opium, and half a pint of peppermint water. The dose of this
is from one to two tablespoonfuls at morning and at night. If
the diarrhoea should prove to be of an obstinate character, the
lamb ought to be removed from the mother, and it may possibly
be found expedient to feed the little animal with cow's milk which
has been boiled. The above preparation may be given until it,
together with proper care and good nursing, has effected a com-
plete cure. In the case of lambs, the complaint of which we are

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 619

speaking is generally due to improper or deficient food, or to
lack of good shelter.

The malady is, of course, not confined to lambs, but also
breaks out at times in full-grown sheep, when it is somewhat
frequently attended with a fatal result, most particularly if it
should perchance lead on to dysentery. It is very usually
met with in tlie early spring time, when the new grass is
quickly coming on. As in the case of lambs, so also in that of
sheep, if diarrhoea continues for longer than a day, these latter
should be at once removed to a pasture where the herbage is
drier and less profuse, protected both from cold and wet, and
supplied with hay. By way of medicine, a few doses of the
mixture above spoken of for lambs may be given, or a prepara-
tion may be prescribed containing alkalies, together with
aromatics and astringents. Alkalies in correct quantity may be
very useful indeed, inasmuch as they will serve to neutralise the
acidity of the contents of the intestinal canal, and so remove at
once the prime cause of the irritation and of the diarrhoea. On
the other hand — strange as it may at first sight seem — well
diluted sulphuric acid in suitable doses may in certain cases be
of great value.

As a preventive measure, if it should be found, or even
only suspected, that there is something wrong with the land, the
best plan seems to be to have it thoroughly ploughed over and
drained, and then used permanently as arable land, if it is thought
advisable so to do, or else well dressed with lime and again laid
down to grass.

About ten to fifteen grains of salicylic acid suitably dissolved
may sometimes be useful in the treatment of diarrhoea, and per-
haps in that of dysentery in sheep. We may also give three
more formulae which have been recommended : —

1. Four tablespoonfuls of common salt, one teaspoonful of
tui'pentine ; mix with a sufficiency of water and administer to
the sheep, and repeat half the above amounts if necessary.

2. One teaspoonful of laudanum, one tablespoonful of rum or
gin ; mix well and administer, and repeat the dose if necessary,
but with half the amount of laudanum.

3. One drachm and a half of alum dissolved in half a pint of
warm water.

In regard to treatment, the first point to be considered, and if

520 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

possible decided, is the cause to which the disorder is due, and
especially if the diarrhoea is the result of local irritation, or if it
be due to some general blood disease. If the latter, then the
disease itself should be attacked. It may at first sight seem
strange that now and again the best treatment for simple,
uncomplicated diarrhoea may be found in the administration of
mild laxatives, and especially those of a bland and oleaginous
and gentle nature. Sometimes we may find it advisable to try
a few soothing enemas. Manifestly, the purpose of these
measures is the removal of any irritating materials which may be
present. Great care, however, must be exercised in using any
aperients whatsoever. The patient must be very carefully
attended to. Mineral tonics and mild astringents are very
useful, and tincture of opium is very greatly to be recommended,
if there be much pain.

If the liver is sluggish in its action, it is well to give one
drachm of calomel mixed with one drachm of powdered opium
to adult oxen. The calomel increases the action of the liver,
and the opium arrests the diarrhoea itself, and also keeps in
check any undue purgative action of the calomel. The following
formula may be useful, in case there is no torpidity of the liver
to be observed : — Powdered opium (two drachms), catechu (two
drachms), galls (two drachms), prepared chalk (one ounce).
The mixture may be given in a pint of warm water twice daily.
If there are scrofulous tumours, compounds of iodine and copper
salts may be tried. Of the compounds of copper the ammonio-
sulphate and the iodide are perhaps the best for this purpose.

The food-supply should be most carefully examined with the
view of detecting faults of any kind whatsoever. The water
may be bad, the cake used may contain mustard, the herbage
may be rank, or it may be laxative from other causes (as is said
to be the case in the scouring lands of Somersetshire and else-
where). The aliment should be supplied in smaller quantity, if
it has been full. Moreover, the food should be changed, very
little water being allowed, and the diet should certainly not be
laxative in nature. Gruel made with starch or wiieaton flour
may be substituted for the water with benefit, on account of the
astringent properties possessed. Strict cleanliness, warmth, and
ventilation are all most necessary. Exercise sliould be entirely
discontinued.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 521

Scouring in Young Calves. — We have above briefly
discussed a disorder in calves which arises from indigestion, and
may bring on diarrhoea. When calves are being weaned, too,
they are very liable to diarrhoea, and, being weak, are not always
able to control and overcome it. Moreover, when a calf is
■subjected to exposure, extremes of temperature, moisture, want
of cleanliness, and so on, especially during the first few days of
life, this scouring, and, indeed, many other disorders, are liable
to come on. The first milk of the mother, which is called the
-colostrum, is so constituted as to be capable of removing all the
matter which has already accumulated in the digestive canal ;
but many persons dispose of this milk. In such cases it may be
necessary to administer two ounces of linseed or of castor oil,
and then one ounce daily for a few days. Again, the milk of
the cow may be deteriorated so that its effect upon the calf may
be more or less injurious, and may bring on scouring. Sour
milk, or that which has remained too long in the udder, should
be scrupulously rejected, and calves should be fed regularly, and
most carefully seen after.

When there are many confined together, calves have a habit of
licking one another. Hair-balls are formed in this manner, and
hence indigestion and diarrhoea ensue. Foul air, dirty or wet
bedding, cold and damp states of the weather, and all mal-
hygienic conditions should be especially guarded against in the
<;ase of all young animals. Manifestly the cause or causes
should be removed, and the food-supply must be carefully
attended to. If it is practicable, a calf suflFering from diarrhoea
should be put to another cow. If it is being reared by hand,
great care must be taken that the calf does not feed too quickly,
or take in air at the same time.

It is advisable to give in severe cases one or two fluid drachms
of tincture of opium in addition to two fluid ounces of linseed
oil. As we said above, alkaline solutions may be useful
for softening the hardened masses in the stomach. A good
draught for diarrhoea in calves, if it is due to indigestion,
may be made of pepsine (twenty grains), of diluted hydrochloric
acid (thirty minims), and of sulphate of cinchonine (seven and
a half grains), together with a sufficiency of water. This may
be given tvnce or thrice daily in mucilage of starch. If indi-
gestion is not suspected, the following may be tried : — Diluted

522 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

sulphuric acid (thirty minims), tincture of catechu (two drachms),
spirit of chloroform (thirty minims), given in mucilage of starch
or in water three or four times daily. Should the liver be much
afiFected, as may be shown by a yellowness of the membranes, it
will be wise to prescribe two or three grains of Hyd. cum Greta
(mercury with chalk), suspended in solution of starch or in
mucilage of gum arable.

Astringent enemas are valuable, and should contain a little
opium as may be necessary. If the belly is swollen and tense,
mustard or strong solution of ammonia should be applied to the
side, and sulphite of sodium may be tried in doses of about
half-a-drachm. In some cases of scouring in calves Mr. J. B.
Gresswell has found the salicylate of iron a useful preparation.
However, the salicylate of bismuth is probably of still greater
eflBcacy.

It is well to add that it is often a diflBcult matter to
account for scouring in calves, and the farmer will do well
to seek advice, since otherwise he may lose very many. Those
which are only affected mildly soon get better, since a
dose of carefully-prepared astringent medicine will cure them.
For obstinate attacks innumerable remedies have been tried,
and what will suit one attack may not be efiPectual in others.
Brandy, starch, boiled milk, may often be found useful
adjuncts. In all cases the most careful nursing is indispensable,
and the great loss which would otherwise occur can be almost
entirely obviated, if the veterinary surgeon's treatment is backed
up by unremitting attention. The difference in regard to treat-
ment can be illustrated by the fact that in some cases it may
seem advisable to administer alkaline solution, and sometimes
diluted acids. If the presence of clotted milk in the stomach,
almost resembliug a piece of cheese, is suspected, the best plan
no doubt is to aid tlie animal to digest it by the help of some
such prescription as the first above-mentioned ; but great
discretion is requisite, and no hard and fast rules can be
enunciated.

DYSENTERY.

Diarrhoea, when continued for a long time, is very liable to
end in what is called dysentery, a disorder which we shall now
briefly consider. This name is given to the disease which

DISEASES OB' THE OX AND SHEEP.

623

manifests itself by inflammation of the lining membrane of the
large intestines. It may be accompanied by ulceration.
Dysentery may follow neglected diarrhoea or such as is extreme
or protracted, or it may result from the taking of unwholesome
food, or from exposure to cold, or from placing animals in wet
or badly-drained meadows, as a culmination in some cases of
scrofula, as a complication of certain other diseases, or in con-
sequence of the ingestion of some kinds of poison. The disease

Fig. 69.— An Ox in a

rather late stage of a severe attack of
Acute Dysentery.

In the above illustration, a beast suffering from acute Dysentery, and
evidently so enfeebled that it can stand upright only with much difficulty, is
depicted. As not unfrequently occurs in the case of animals afflicted with this
disease, this particular ox is represented as being very thirsty, and in the act of
drinking as eagerly as its weakened and debilitated condition will allow — an
indulgence for which the poor creature must probably ere long fall to the earth
and pay its last debt to Mother Nature. In the picture the back is seen to be'
arched, the tail is held away and at a distance from the body, the ears are
drooping, the eyes half-closed, the flanks and the belly are very thin and
display what is sometimes designated a " tucked-up " appearance, tlie hair
stands upright on the skin, the outlines of some of the ribs may be observed,
and altogether the general look might be taken as a true presentment of disease
and emaciation and pain to which all animals, and human beings also, are
unfortunately liable to be subjected.

may be acute or of a more chronic character. If it is acute,
there is fever together with slight abdominal pain, and the
animal stands with arched back, constantly straining, and
passing a small quantity of watery material tinged with blood.
There may be vesicles in the nostrils. The signs of abdominal
pain may increase in intensity, bring -en rapid emaciation,
sinking, and death.

Now, if the malady should take on a milder and consequently
more chronic character, the animal becomes extremely debili-
tated, hide bound, and probably cedematous, the coat is dry and

524

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS Oi^' THE OX.

Staring, the mucous membranes are pallid, the ears pendulous,
the eyes dull and glassy and sunken, the rectum protrudes, and
from it flows a slight amount of bloody discharge ; the back is
arched, there is pain on pressure of the loins, and the animal
staggers in the gait ; the feces are tinged with blood, and very
offensive.

In the case of sheep, dysentery is a dangerous malady, even
from the outset of its course; whereas diarrhcBa, on the contrary,
only seldom seems to be very fatal to sheep, unless, indeed, it
is assuming, or about to assume, the characters of the former

Fig. 70.

The above picture represents an ox sufifering from Chronic Dysentery. Th«
animal in this state may hve for a rather long time, although its extreme
emaciation renders it a miserable object. Every bone almost may be seen
through the skin, the animal can only move with great difficulty, the eyes
are sunken, and the space between the jaws may be filled by a swelling, the
result of dropsy. The hair stands erect, the ears droop, and the beast
presents an appearance of extreme dejection and misery.

disease. Dysentery breaks out most especially among older
sheep, particularly in hot and sultry weather, or when they are
present in too great number on scanty pasturage. The early
stages of the disease are accompanied by febrile signs, and
wasting and debility rapidly supervene. The complaint is
characterised by the belly being drawn up, and the appetite lost.
The animal wastes and dies rapidly, unless, indeed, the malady
be checked by the aid of good medicine and warmth. The
chief syiDptom manifested is a frequent discharge of shiny or
green matter, wliicli at a la,ter stage may be mixed witli blood.
Tiiis discharge is thin and adhesive in nature, in consequence
of the fact that a great deal of mucus mingles with it, making it
cling to the wool of the tail and the thighs ; sometimes, indeed,
the tail may be, so to say, glued down.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 525

If the disease should proceed in its course unchecked, the
muscles of the loins and other parts will waste ; and, indeed,
the suffering animal will soon present somewhat the appearance
of a living skeleton. In some cases the animal will eat with a
certain degree of heartiness ; but far more frequently the appetite
will altogether fail. If the wool is pulled, it comes oflf, so
slightly is it bound to the skin. Shortly before death, what has
been called the black scour comes on, the discharge being mixed
with dark gangrenous material resulting from the decomposition
of the intestinal walls. Death may occur in the course of even
a few hours, or the animal may linger on in suffering for as long
as six weeks, and then fall a victim.

The treatment of oxen suffering from dysentery may not be
very satisfactory, and after death the stomach as well as the
intestines may be seen to be involved. The lining membrane
may be reddened, and there may be a gelatinous effusion into
its substance. The small intestines also are reddened, and the-
large intestines show spots of extravasation, are bluish in colour,,
and more or less deeply ulcerated.

Mr. Armatage, a well-known writer, suggests treatment by
means of subcutaneous injection. Powerful astringents should-
be tried, and also astringent enemas. Carbolic acid, chlorinated
lime, and hyposulphite of sodium have all been recommended in
suitable doses. The animal should be carefully attended to,,
and supplied with dry and nutritious food which has been
selected with judgment. The administration of calomel
combined with opium has been attended with good results.

In regard to the treatment of sheep afflicted with dysentery,
the first point is that the sheep should at once be removed from
the situation and from the food which probably excited the com-
plaint and still keeps it up. The food should consist of mashes
and gruel, together with a small allowance of good hay at night.
The patient may be placed in a tub of hot water, to which a very
little antiseptic has been added, such, for instance, as a small
quantity of salicylic acid, and allowed to remain therein for
about fifteen minutes. When the tail is' fastened down, warm
water and carbolic acid soap should be plentifully used, and
perhaps some of the wool must be cut away. If there be anv
sores, some powdered chalk should be sprinkled over them, or
they may be dressed witli some antiseptic ointment such, for

526 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

instance, as that of carbolic acid or that of salicylic acid, or
■with lard, with which a few drops of spirit of tar have been well
mixed. Then the sheep should be thoroughly dried, and kept
warm by wrapping, and placed in a comfortable and clean shed.
One fluid ounce of castor oil, together with about thirty drops
of laudanum, mixed with a little gruel, may then be administered,
smaller doses may be given at intervals, and also a great deal of
gruel nicely prepared, with diflFerent ingredients or diflferent pro-
portions of ingredients, so as to tempt the appetite by means of
variety.

If it should be necessary, the dose of castor oil may be
repeated, or it may be more advisable to have recourse to the
astriugeat medicine spoken of under the heading of Diarrhoea,
though it is best to add to it a great quantity of ginger and
some gentian, and small doses of the mixture may be given
every day for three or four days. When a sheep is on the way
to recovery from this complaint, and the appetite is being
regained, the diet may be gradually changed by the addition
of a little mixed food, such as hay and vegetables. It will also
be well to allow the convalescent sheep to graze on a wide
pasture, but only for a few hours each day.

ENTERITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE INTES-
TINES—PERITONITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF
THE PERITONEUM — ASCITES, VOLVULUS,
INTUSSUSCEPTION, RUPTURE.
The rather formidable array of diseases which heads this
division of our subject is in reality uot of very much moment
so far as oxen or their owners are concerned. In fact, in
dealing with the diseases and disorders of oxen, one cannot fail
to be struck with the idea that while some are of momentous
and intense interest and importance, others, on the contrary,
seem to be scarcely worth very serious attention, except by
specialists. This is a great thing to say, and it is a point which
will bear the most emphatic reiteration, viz. that the attention
of men should be drawn more and more closely to tiiose
questions wliich we have laid stress upon in preceding pages,
questions, that is, regarding the communicability of certain
diseases of animals to the human race. However, we must not
linger on the way, but proceed straight to the point.

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 527

Enteritis or Inflammation of the Lining Membrane of
THE Intestines.

This disease is. fortunately, very unfrequent indeed among
oxen, and when it does occur, it is most generally working oxen
or cattle which have been subjected to unusual conditions that
are afflicted. Enteritis may manifest itself in adults of plethoric
habit, coming on after exposure to inclement weather, or as a
consequence of drinking cold water when perspiring. The
disorder may also arise from the administration of a large
amount of a drastic purgative, especially such a one as sulphate
of magnesium or sulphate of sodium, each of which mainly
acts upon the lower bowel, or from the ingestion of any irritant
substances. It may be due to volvulus, intussusception, or
engorgement. The comparatively harmless disturbance of the
bowels called colic may, if it is not checked, lead on to the
serious disease, enteritis.

Symptoms. — In cases of inflammation of the intestines,
pressure on the abdomen or on the loins produces pain. Fre-
quently there may be a discharge of a small amount of dry
feces, the constipation being due to the fact that the muscular
coat of the intestines is not able to contract and so move on
the contents towards the seat of expulsion. Towards the end,
there may, perhaps, be a little stream of very offensive liquid
excrement which has forced its way through the hard mass of
feces by which the rectum is distended. Acute febrile symptoms
supervene; the patient stands obstinately in one place with its
muzzle protruded ; the hind limbs become weak, respiration is
quickened, tremors occasionally come on, the animal is exces-
sively thirsty but has no appetite, moans, grinds the teeth, looks
round at the right flank, which seems to the poor creature
to be the seat of pain or injury ; the rectum is hot; and, finally,
enteritis may be distinguished from colic, inasmuch as the pain
is continuous instead of being intermittent, as in the case of that
generally more harmless disease. While saying this, we should
also caution the reader not to think colic an "unimportant dis-
order. So far from this being the case, it might be held that, if
all cases of colic were properly taken in hand, there would be
far less enteritis, this latter disease often succeeding the former,
if unnoticed or neglected.

528 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

The disease very often ends fatally, and with rapidity.
Towards the close, the animal's extremities become very cold J
the pulse, which before was quick and small and wiry, is now
almost imperceptible, the temperature falls rapidly, the animal
becomes unconscious, and, with many moanings, falls down to
the ground and dies.

After death, if the belly be opened, the intestines both small
and large may be seen to be distended with gas, and the peri'
toneum (the membrane which connects the bowels and keeps
them in their places) is inflamed, or perhaps even gangrenous.
The walls of the intestines are thickened, and they also may be
reddened by congestion or present a greenish hue, characteristic
of gangrene. Between the muscular fibres there is a gelatinous-
effusion, and inside the bowels blood and mucus may be
observed.

With regard to the treatment of animals suffering from enteritis,
it must be prompt. If the patient is full-blooded, blood must
be taken away at once, and, if necessary, in six hours' time the
bleeding should be repeated. As much as a gallon of blood
has been abstracted in some cases. The belly should be
stimulated by means of hot rugs wrung out from hot water,
renewed at intervals, and by liniments. Great benefit may
accrue from doses of thin warm gruel containing a little linseed
oil. Opium is a most useful drug for allaying the pain ; bub
aconite in suitable doses is perhaps better, if the constipation is-
severe. Cathartics, if given, produce great mischief in this
complaint. Most careful nursing is necessary. The impacted
feces may be removed from out the rectum manually or other-
wise, and anodyne and mucilaginous enemas may be very
advantageous. The animal may be allowed to assuage its thirst
from a supply of nitrated water placed conveniently by its side.

Sometimes one may be told that an ox has expelled a " snake."
In reality the so-called snake is a fibrinous cast of a portion of
the intestinal cunal, flaky on the surface. This may occur in a
kind of enteritis not so severe and acute as that above described,
and called croupous enteritis. After the " snake " has been
discharged, recovery generally takes place.

In the first instance this disease, as manifested in sheep, is
very similar to colic. After the initial symptoms are over, the
animal stamps and scratches the ground with its feet, tries to^

DISEASES OF THE OX AxND SHEEP. 529

Strike its belly with the hind legs, bends its knees, as if n pre-
liminary to the jjrucess of lying down, but apparently dreads the
pain involved in so doing, looks round at the sides, falls down
suddenly, rolls on its hack, and then suddenly starts and
scrambles up again. The extremities, horns, and muzzle are
cold, the pulse is quick and small, the bowels are obstinately
constipated, and the disease is so debilitating that the afflicted
animal becomes greatly emaciated. The animal is quite regard-
less of all surrounding things, the pupil is widely dilated, and
delirium may supervene.

Should tlie animal die, and the intestines be examined after
death, intense inflammation of the peritoneal coat of both large
and small intestines maybe seen. This inflammation may some-
times extend from the caecum to the abomasum, sometimes
also to the otlier three stomachs, and the liver may also be
affected. The disease is occasioned by too much food or by
stimulating food, by the administration of purgatives, and
especially by the combined influence of cold and wet. Some-
times, by way of treatment, bleeding may be found useful, and
Epsom salts may be administered and followed up with sulphur.
The food may consist of mashes, or gruel. If the constipation
is followed by diarrhoea, then, and not otherwise, may tonics be
administered.

Acute Dropsy or Redwater in Sheep.
It is very difficult indeed to say what is the cause, or rather
what are the causes — for no doubt there are several — which
determine the onset of this suddenly fatal disease. Some prac-
titioners think that it is brought on by a deficiency of iron in
the system ; and, whether this be true or not, it certainly does
appear to be an indisputable fact that the administration of iron
in suitable doses and in a proper manner does work an immense
amount of good. The name ** redwater," though very commonly
used, is not really a very suitable one, inasmuch as it is liable
to lead to confusion, being also applied to a disorder of sheep in
which those animals discharge red-coloured^-urine. Redwater
is very commonly met with among lambs soon after they are
weaned, especially if they are allowed to lie about on a moist
and chilly soil. If the malady is detected early enough, it will
generally be found best to send the animal to the butcher.

34

530 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

The disease is very well known to those who have to do with
sheep, and the losses are in some parts occasionailv great, as,
for instance, in certain parts of Lincolnshire. It is in the
autnmn or the beginning of winter, when the sheep are on the
turnip fields or are feeding on other very succulent food, that
redwater usually breaks out. Althougli on the preceding night all
the sheep of a flock were apparently well, the shepherd may
nevertheless find, when the morning dawns, one or more lying
down, almost in their usual posture, with their legs bent under
their bodies, and their heads inclined forward, but dead. Fre-
quently it may happen that a change of pasture, and especially
a change from a dry to a cold and wet one, and particularly if
there is much hoar frost, may bring on this disease ; for, when
such is the case, the belly comes into contact with the cold and
damp ground, whereby chilling and inflammation of the peri-
toneal coat of the intestines is produced, and a great deal of
fluid accumulates and becomes red and bloody as a result of the
rupture of the small vessels of the peritoneum.

If after death an examination be made, the belly is found to
contain a variable amount of a sanguineous fluid, while the
peritoneum — especially the mesenteric and omental portions of
it — is seen to be much inflamed. This disease, then, in which
inflammation of the peritoneum is the marked characteristic, is
what we mean by redwater, and it must be most carefully dis-
tinguished from other diseases bearing the same appellation.
Certain disorders of both sheep and cattle, of which the leading
symptom is either the excretion of blood-coloured urine or the
presence of a sanguineous fluid in the abdominal cavity, distinct
from the disease above described, also sometimes go by the same
name. For example, the name redwater has been bestowed
upon a condition in which jaundice manifests itself, the urine
also at the same time being of a port-wine colour, and the
animal showing anaemia in a marked degree, having a pulse of
one hundred and forty per minute, while the heart-sounds are
loud and the respirations quick. Wlien suffering in tiiis way,
an iiniinal dies as a result of exh;iusiion, and after death the
tissues of the body may be seen to he |)ale and vellow, the blood
being scanty and tlie liver softened. Nutritious food should be
supplied, and both mineral and vegcialile ionics iiiuy be adminis-
tered. Halts of iron seem to be especially advantageous, the

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 531

sulphate of iron being very valuable in doses of about fifteen
grains. In Ireland, redwater is said to prevail widely.

Moreover, Mr. Gowing has recorded that the disease broke
out on a farm in Middlesex in sheep kept on good and rich
grass land. This occurred in the year 1849, and during that same
year there were, and since then there have been, many outbreaks.
Occasionally the mortality is very great. On visiting the sheep
early one morning in April, two lambs were seen to be unwell,
to stagger in their gait, to separate themselves from the others,
to be dull, and to hang their heads low. Their mouths were
closed so firmly that the jaws could scarcely be opened, and a
frothy saliva covered their lips. A small quantity of castor oil
mixed with some warm milk was given to each lamb, and, as
they appeared to be a little better a few hours afterwards, they
were again put with the ewes. The bowels having been
opened, the lambs gradually recovered ; but they remained very
weak for several days.

In the beginning of May, an ewe exhibited symptoms similar
to those which the lambs had previously shown ; she was also
considerably hoven, and also breathed with great difficulty. A
full dose of castor oil was at once administered. In the early
afternoon the oil was repeated, and later in the afternoon a
saline aperient was given, but the ewe died while taking it.
When the body was opened, the paunch burst from the pressure
of the great mass of food contained in it. A few days after-
wards a lamb, apparently well at noon, was found dead about
4 P.M., and on the third day afterwards another also was found
dead. Two days after this a third lamb was taken ill. To this
a dose of castor oil was given, and it was bled in the eye-and-
ear-veins. The blood was very dark, and flowed slowly. The
Iambus breathing was laboured, and at "intervals ceased for
several seconds. It died on the following morning. Examina-
tion after death showed that the liver was larger than is natural
and darker than usual, the lungs slightly congested, and in each
pleural sac there was a small quantity of limpid fluid. The
pericardial sac likewise contained about two ounces of fibrin and
serum. The fibrin was in a state of semi-coagulation. The
external surface of the heart, especially on the left side, was
studded with dark spots.

The sheep were then turned on to a common where the

34 *

532 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

herbage was scanty and where they could roam at freedom. On
the next moruinsf, however, another ewe was found dead. When
the body was examined after death, the belly was found to con-
tain a large quantity of sero-sanguineous fluid, and all the
viscera were congested, some being nearly black. The venae
portse and the contiguous portion of the posterior vena cava in
the belly were distended with coagulated blood. The spleen
was greatly enlarged. The biliary ducts and the gall bladder
were full of bile, and the liver, as in the lamb, was large and
dark coloured, owing to its vessels and ducts being full. The
luDgs were greatly congested, and the heart was very large.
Both the right auricle and the right ventricle contained a great
amount of coagulated blood, which indeed was also present in
the large vessels going into and issuing from them, most
especially the anterior and posterior venae cavae and the coronary
veins. The right auricle, when freed from its contents, also
showed ecchymosed spots in its muscular structure, beneath the
lining membrane. Tiie left side of the heart contained only a
little black blood.

With regard to treatment it may be said that sulphate of iron
seems to be in certain cases one of the best remedies. By way
of prevention, a constant supply of salt, either given with chaff
or in the form of rock-salt placed in troughs has been recom-
mended. Another writer advised one ounce of salt, a quarter of a
pint of water, and half a tablespoonful of turpentine. This might
be well mixed in quantity for the number, and should be freely
shaken before being used.

The late Professor Robertson recorded that the shepherd may
at times remark that " this or that lamb cannot live, it is pocking
at the navel." The belly is pendulous, as a result of the pre-
sence of a turbid fluid in tlie peritoneal cavity. Shreds of fibrin
float in this fluid. The umbilical cord is greatly enlarged, it is
soft, flabby, and has its vessels filled with dark blood. Instead
of the development of the ligamentous cord extending to the
liver, a chain of cysts is developed extending from the umbilicus
to the liver, and these cysts contain pus mi.xed with tubercular
matter. The liver, too. shows pustular and tubercular growths,
as also do the omentum and mescntric glands, owing to which
the belly comes to contain a purulent serous fluid, and to
become pendulous. It is really often the best course to have

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 533

sheep thus afflicted slaughtered without any delay. In the study
of some of these aflfections it is very possible that sufficient
attention has hitherto not been given to the condition of the
kidneys.

Navel-ill in Lambs.
There is a rather peculiar disease in which the navel is often
involved called Navel-ill, often characterised by external swell-
ings, and occasionally met with in lambs. Strange as it may
seem, this disease has been most prevalent when the season

'^^.

«>

Fig. 71.— Navel-ill.

The above picture represents a Iamb afflicted with the disease known as
navel-ill. The most characteristic point about the little animal is that it^ navel
is seen to be much swollen and enlarged. The tongue protrudes, and the little
creature shows a certain look of helplessness and bewilderment, and almost
looks, so to say, as if it were bleating: "Whatever is the matter with me? I
do wish someone would cure me."

has been remarkable for the good condition of the ewes, for the
large number of the lambs, and for a plentiful supply of good
food. Even as many as twenty out of a flock may die of this
disease within the first fortnight, or even the first week of the
lambing season, and we do not find, as we might expect to do,
that the deaths diminish in number in proportion as the weather
becomes mild and the grass improves in quality. It is difficult
to say what are the actual causes of the disease, but it seems
that flocks which have been kept in confined quarters during
the winter are frequently affected.

When afilicted with this disease, the lambs suddenly stagger,
and look debilitated and drooping. The bowels may either be
constipated, or the opposite condition may be manifested. The

534 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

navel is swollen and flabby, and the eyes have a yellowish hue.
The patient is not capable of standing ; but, if lifted up to its
dam, it will suck. The result of the malady is that the lamb
will dwindle away and die — unless, indeed, effectual remedial
measures are applied — perhaps even in a few hours' time, or
perhaps after a week or so. After death, if an examination be
made, dark blood will be found present in the viscera, the
umbilical veins will be swollen, the liver engorged and studded
with abscesses, and the tissues of the body frequently yellow.

By way of preventive measures, the flock should at once be-
supplied with a diminished quantity of food, and either aperients
or neutral salts, especially those of an antiseptic nature, such as^
the sulphite or the salicylate of sodium, may be tried in suitable
doses, and these remedies should be given to the ewes as well
as to the lambs. The most important point is that only a
moderate supply of food should be given to the ewe, it being
very requisite that the condition of the animal should be
maintained without there being any excess of fat internally, or
any undue richness of the blood. Indeed, this question of
over-indulgence in food is one of great moment, and, in fact, is-
as important in the case of animals for their welfare, as it is in
that of man himself, for his.

It is nothing like sufiiciently realised that a great many of the
evils to which living beings are liable are due to errors in dieting,
and there are many men and women, as well as lower animals,,
who bring themselves to an early and premature grave by that
single excess. We need not say, for it is now being preached,
so to say, from the house-tops, how necessary it is that men
should avoid indulgence in alcoholic drinks ; but in passing we
may just remark that these two evils of over-drinking and over-
eating account for a very great deal of the suff'erings with which
human beings are afflicted. Very closely coupled with this
important consideration is the advisability that a due amount of
exercise should always be taken by all kinds of living beings.
There is little or no danger that animals running wild in the
natural state will not have sulUcient physical activity. In the
state of domestication, however, and far more markedly in that
of human civilisation, there is room for the greatest fear in this
respect. A highly-educated man usually lives purely on the
financial results of mental work. In fact, instead of actual

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 535

movements of his body, in consequence of his own exertions
through space, it is the complex molecules of his brain which,
in virtue of their rapid and strong vibratory oscillations, produce
large and actually visible motions of a more simple kind in other
human beings.

Many persons in these days who know how to use the
resources of civilisation without any great means produce
results, when quietly sitting in their rooms, the maguitiide of
which even they themselves are far from realising. However,
every action is coupled with a re- action, and it is a mournful
and sad truth that, as Goethe has expressed it, action kills
thought and thought activity. Leaders of men produce gigantic
results, both by spoken and by written words ; but they often-
times do it at great cost. It cannot be too vehemently
emphasised that all the organs of the healthy body may be.
kept in a state of activity by means of appropriate and well-
regulated exercise.

We have, however, been digressing from our subject, and must
therefore now conclude with the practical remark that it is
advisable that ewes, even after they have been drafted out in the
order in which they will lamb, should be made to move about
gently now and again, in order that they may not altogether
lapse into inactivity. We may add to this the far more
important observation that those men who are engaged in
mental pursuits should on no account ever allow themselves
to desist entirely from health-giving out-of-door exercise. The
warm weather is, as we write, coming on, and all of us who feel
ourselves getting into bad habits of this order should now and
again shake off the chains which bind us to the office or the
stool, and spend an hour or two in the country lanes and woods»
among the primroses and the violets and the refreshing buds
and breezes of this genial and sweet season of the year, and
watch the merry gambols of the lambs, now rapidly advancing
towards maturity, and the sober demeanour of their patient
mothers, as they slowly chew the cud, while we indulge in the
musings engendered of sweet fancy.

Peritonitis.
Peritonitis is the name given to a most serious disorder, viz.,
inflammation of the membrane which lines the cavity of tlie

536

THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

abdomen, and invests more or less completely the whole of the
intestines and stomach, the liver, spleen, kidneys, and other
organs contained in the abdominal cavity. Though rather
frequently met with in the horse, it is fortunately very rare in
the ox, sheep, and pig. The disease generally comes on after
wounds of various kinds; such, for instance, as that produced
by the passage of sharp foreign bodies from out the stomach to
the neighbouring structures, or that occasioned by the operation
of rumenotomy or other similar operations in which the
inflammation is produced as a result of the accidental contact
of foreign material with it. The animal sufl"ers pain, is dull

I

Fn;. 72 — Peritonitis.
In the above illustration a cow afflicted with Peritonitis is depicted.

Th

animal is seen to be looking round to the flank, as if to see whence proceeds the
cause of the pain endured ; yet the inquiry seems to be without satisfactory
result, and the poor creature appears dismayed and puzzled, and resigned to its
sufferings.

and anxious, looks round occasionally at its flank, moans,
grinds the teeth, paws the ground with the fore-feet, shivers
repeatedly, especially in the region of the hind-legs and flanks.
The bowels become constipated, the pulse is hard, and the
extremities are cold, and become colder as the disease advances,
the chewing of the cud is suspended, the appetite is lost, the
bowels are acutely constipated ; but this stage may be followed
by a profuse, watery, and ])erhaps even bloody diarrhcea, the
belly is swollen, tense, and tender, especially near the injured
part, the urine is scanty in atuount and high-coloured, the pulse
is hard, frequent, and wiry, the breathing is quick, laboured,
and thoracic, the diaphragm (the wall which separates the cavity
of tlie chest from that of the al)donien) being fixed as much as
possible, on account of the pain wiiich the least movement of it
causes by reason of its action upon the inflamed peritoneum.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 537

The pulse becomes softer, weaker, smaller, and more rapid, the
•breathing slower and less painful, the watery portions of the
blood accumulate within the cavity of the abdomen, there is less
pain, but the animal is really worse. The belly is fuller, the
mucous membranes are pale, the eye is sunken, and the animal
crouches with all four feet drawn close together. Finally, the
pulse becomes imperceptible, the temperature falls suddenly
from about 104|° F. to about 96° F., the animal falls down, and
death ensues within about four and a half days from the first
appearance of signs of the disease.

If an examination is made after death, as the walls of the abdo-
men are opened, a milky or sanguineous straw-coloured fluid
■flows from the belly. The peritoneum, especially near the seat
of injury (if there has been one), is red, opaque, and hidden by
deposits of lymph which bind together the different abdominal
organs.

In regard to treatment it should be the same as that for
enteritis. Cathartics must never be given. Opium is most
useful both as alleviating the pain and as checking the peristaltic
action of the intestines which brings on the pain. The abdomen
should be blistered. Enemas should be given every four hours
until the bowels are well opened, and if the animal becomes very
weak, nutrient enemas should also be given. Bleeding should
not be resorted to.

Ascites or Dropsy of the Abdomen.
This term has been applied to the state of an animal in which
:fluid is present in the abdominal cavity in consequence of
peritonitis. It is, however, more correct to apply it only to
cases in which such fluid is present quite independently of
inflammation of the peritoneum. This disease is the con-
sequence of general debility or of mechanical impediment to
the return of venous blood to the heart, occasioned perhaps
by diseases of that organ or by disease of the liver, and
also by the pressure of a tumour upon the vena portee. The
disease is not frequent in the adult, but often occurs in the
foetus, probably as a result of debility of the parent. The best
plan in some cases is to cut by the aid of the concealed knife
through the abdominal walls of the foetus, and so let the fluid
escape.

538 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

In the case of this disease appearing in the adult, the belly is
distended, and if one hand be placed against the abdominal wall,
while the opposite side of the abdomen is percussed, a wave of
fluid may be detected. Dropsical swellings appear on the belly
and under the chest. The respiration is thoracic in character,
and the animal becomes gradually more and more aneemic.

The treatment must be adapted to the removal of the primary
cause of the complaint. The strength must be sustained with
stimulant tonics. Many remedies have been tried, but with'
very doubtful success. Spirit of nitrous ether lowers arterial
tension, and, by relaxing the renal vessels, it aots as a diuretic,
and it also has a diaphoretic action on the skin. The dose is
about two fluid ounces. Water should only be allowed in
small quantities. Salts of iron given alternately with vegetable
tonics or digitalis, which is useful as a sedative and for its
action on the kidneys, may be tried by the veterinarian. Pro-
bably he may in some cases think well to tap the belly, using
a small trocar-and-canula, and making the puncture midway
between the umbilicus and the iliac bone, the instrument being
inserted gently. The reason why the fluid is not absorbed'
naturally is that the stomata of the peritoneum are plugged with
lymph.

We now proceed to deal shortly with various disorders of an
allied nature.

Imperforate anus occurs most frequently in calves. Some-
times the anal opening is closed up with skin. Sometimes the
anus itself is perfectly formed, but at a little distance from the
external orifice there is a membranous partition. Sometimes
the large intestine may terminate in a cul-de-sdc. In its efforts
to discharge the rectal contents, the young animal strains
violently. If either of the first two conditions is present, the best
plan is to divide the membrane by means of two crucial incisions.
If, however, the intestine ends blindly, an attempt may be made
to reach the blind end and open it, and then to sew the edges
of the opened end to the edges of the cutaneous incision.

Mechanical distention of the rectum with hard pellets of
meconium is sometiuies so serious a matter as to necessitate the
removal of them either by means of the oiled forefinger or in
any other suitable manner.

Piles or hsemorrhoids are tumours situated in the tenniiial

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 539'

portion of the rectum, or near the anus, and caused by a varicoee
condition, generally, of the rectal veins. They give rise to pain
during the act of defecation, and protrusion of the anus, and
the feces are tinged with blood. They seem to be occasioned
by habitual constipation, or by disorder of the liver. Some-
times they may be removed by ligature or otherwise. The food
should be soft, and laxatives may occasionally be administered.

The displacement known as prolapsus ani differs from hernia,
in so far as the protrusion occurs through the natural opening
afforded by the anus, and consists in chief part of mucous
membrane. It results from violent straining occasioned by
intestinal obstruction, by labour pains, or by obstruction to
the outflow of urine. After the rectum has been protruded, it
will probably become strangulated, take on a bright red hue,
and subsequently become very much enlarged owing to effusion^
and then cold and of a purple colour.

The cause of straining should be obviated, and the bowel
should be well washed with cold water, and, if possible, carefully
returned by pressure. If the portion protruded has become
purple, amputation of it may be resorted to, the edges of the
two cut portions being united together by sutures. After he has
operated, the veterinary surgeon will probably prescribe some
suitable sedative, such as opium. Soft food only should be
allowed until recovery has taken place.

Volvulus or twist of the bowel sometimes comes on as the
result of violent struggles during the intense pain of colic. The
abdomen may be opened by a skilful surgeon, and the intestine
operated upon. The seat of incision is about opposite to that
for rumenotomy, and on the right side ; but the operation i&
only to be resorted to as a last resource, and even nine owners-
out of ten would prefer slaughtering.

Intussusception, or invagination, is the name given to a
folding of one portion of intestine — generally near the ceecum
in the case of the ox — within the canal of another portion. It
is rare in the ox, and comes on from colic. Operations have
been performed with success in these cases.

RUPTUKE.

By the term hernia, or rupture, we understand the protrusion
of some of the contents of the abdomen or belly out of their

540 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OP THE OX.

proper containing cavity. The varieties of rupture are acute or
sudden, and chronic or congenital. Chronic rupture is con-
genita], the young animal being thus affected at its birth.

The form of rupture to which we first draw attention is
called umbilical. In this condition the bowel has protruded
through the navel, forming a tumour of varying size at this spot,
and one often meets with it in newly-born calves. Eupture of
this kind is easily cured. The young animal is cast on its back,
the prolapsed bowel is pressed back into the abdomen, the loose
skin is then brought together, and round it is drawn tightly a
piece of stout cord. The skin, thus deprived by the ligature of
any blood supply, sloughs off, while the raw sore soon heals and
a permanent cure is made.

The second form of rupture, to which we call attention, is
termed ventral hernia, by which term we mean the protrusion
of the intestine through the abdominal walls at other parts than
at the navel. This form of rupture, as might be expected, is
unfortunately not very uncommon, resulting as it generally does
from injuries, such as blows, &c., on the belly.

Many of these cases are unfortunately beyond our power to
cure, excepting where the tumour formed is not very large, and
is not situated in the most dependent part of the abdomen. In
the cow it is not advisable to attempt any means of curing
ventral hernia, or " broken body " as the affection is commonly
called; for it is far preferable to have her fed up and slaughtered.
As a rule, an animal with ventral hernia shows no sign of
uneasiness, excepting shortly after the infliction of the injury
which has severed the muscles of the body.

If the tumour be not very large, in which case only treatment is
of any use, and it be desirable to operate, the animal is prepared
several days beforehand by being fed upon a most restricted
diet and the administration of a dose of phvsic. On the day
previous to the operation, no food is allowed. After the animal
is cast, and chloroform duly administered, the skin over the
rupture is divided from one end to the other. The edges of the
divided muscles are then brought into view ; these are brought
together and secured by means of stitches of stout silk, and then
the edges of the skin are similarly brought together and stitched.
A portion of tenax, or tow saturated with carbolic acid lotion
(one part of carbolic acid to thirty of water) is placed over the

DISEASES OK THE OX AND SHEEP. 541

wound. Over the whole, a broaci baud or surcingle may be
buckled tightly, and held in position thus for some time.

Of scrotal hernia, we need not say much, as, being only possible
in the uncastrated animal, it is not very often met with. By
scrotal hernia we understand the protrusion of the intestine into
the scrotum — i.e. the capsule containing the testicles. The
danger in these cases is of the intestine becoming strangulated,
i.e. so constricted at the outlet through which it escapes out of
the abdomen, as to prevent the circulation going on in it.
Mortification thus ensues, if relief be not given. Jn ordinary
cases the best treatment is castration, performed by the covered
operation. In cases of strangulated hernia the danger is neces-
sarily immensely increased, and treatment must be prompt, or
death will ensue.

It is not always an easy matter to detect strangulation of the
intestine in this part ; but the symptoms in the main resemble
those of inflammation of the intestines. In these cases the
animal should be cast, the capsule of the testicles should be
opened. Through the opening the finger is passed, and along
the under surface of the finger a concealed bistoury is guided
and the stricture is divided, so as to allow the return of the
intestine into the abdomen.

We next proceed to consider the affections of the liver of the
ox, their nature and tretitment.

THE LIVER AND ITS AILMENTS.

We now have to deal with a subject which demands some
special attention. There is no manner of doubt that it may
be truly said, more especially, as might be expected, in regard
to mankind, but also, though certainly in a less degree, in
reference to the lower animals, that the diseases and derange-
ments of that important abdominal structure known as the liver
are of exceptional interest. True, it could not for a moment be
maintained that this organ and its ailments are of anything
like the same significance in their relationship to the lower
ranks of animal lile, as they indubitably Tire when con-
sidered in their bearings upon the well-being of man himself.
No one, however, could exaggerate the advantages to be derived
from a complete knowledge of liver diseases in the human sub-
ject. The maintenance of healthy life is one of the first essentials

542 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

on which we should ever keep a clear eye, and in these days the
functions of the liver are especially liable to be impaired, so
prone are we to indulge at once both in high living and in
sedentary pursuits.

There are, in the case of the life of each one of us, many grave
misfortunes to be apprehended, which can neither be foreseen
nor guarded against, and hence it becomes all the more necessary
that all those removable dangers which are liable to beset us
•should be avoided with the very greatest care. Some persons,
lit is to be feared, are apt to look upon life, with all its pleasures
and its pains, too much from the standpoint of chance and luck
— in short, to develop a fatalistic bent of mind. "What is the
use," one thinks, '* of bothering seriously about such minor dis-
turbances in my bodily frame as a bilious attack, a fit of
indigestion, or a simple cold, when at every touch and turn the
terrible uncertainty of human life is most forcibly and horribly
exemplified again, and again, and again ! " The fact remains,
however, that the philosophy expressed in the phrase, " What
must be, will be," is erroneous and misleading, and though at first
sight it may seem specious, it does not commend itself to the
deepest and clearest thinkers. Indeed, the conduct based upon
such ideas is most ill-suited to the exigencies of life. The rest
of the world presses on, on and on, eager to eliminate all that is
wrong and imperfect, and if we do not do likewise, we shall
inevitably suffer, in so far as we fail in our duties to ourselves
and to the world, and must be left in the lurch. Not only, then,
is a knowledge of the disorders of the liver and, indeed, of all
the organs of oxen directly useful in so far as it bears upon the
weliare of stock, and therefore adds to the wealth of stock-
owners, but it is also valuable, inasmuch as such information
<;anuot fail to throw light upon the allied diseases which afflict
human beings.

It is matter of general knowledge that the liver is one of those
organs among ourselves which very frequently suffer disturbance
and derangement in regard to their functions. The well-worn
joke of /'«//674 upon this subject would not bear repetition except
lor ilie intrinsic value and truth of the fact which it emphasises.
" After all," gasps the melancholy-minded man, 'Ms life worth
living ? " " Well,'' replies his friend, " you see it all depends
upon the liver."

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 543

An inactive liver, whether in man or in animals, leads tu all
kinds of complications, of which by no means the least serious
are those conditions of nervous depression, those habits of
looking with gloomy eyes upon the black side of things, those
mental self-torturings which cannot but make life burdensome,
and altogether devoid of gaiety and happiness. Certain it is
that many persons give way to feelings of despondency quite
unnecessarily, often, too, when the wheel of Dame Fortune is
just about to spin round to point favourably and bring prosperity
to all who deserve it. Nothing is so damaging to the constitu-
tion, nothing so sure to bring failure in its train, nothing so
likely to render confusion trebly confounded, the darkness fifty
times more black, than is a miserable state of mind, the
inevitable result of a clogged-up liver, especially if it be coupled
with scant means.

Such a state is one of the many evils, or rather one of the
many horrors, which men have to guard against. Hence we
take this opportunity of repeating to those about to lose heart,
to those who are sinking under burdens and well-nigh giving
way, and a fortiori to those who have any idea whatsoever of
committing either moral or physical suicide — " Don't — don't —
don't I " Per contra, if it is at all possible to do so, pack up
your portmanteau at once, and get away as quick as you can to
the sea-side, or some invigorating place, even if it is only for a
week, or even for the day. It is simply astonishing what benefit
a plentiful supply of ozone will bring, and how it will enable a
man to throw off a load of trouble. If you have occasion to
suspect that the liver's wheels require a little oiling, never mind
what people may think, but go on the sands, jump on a donkey's
back, take measures to make the animal gallop if you can —
that will make your liver work — and come back like a giant
refreshed with an alcoholic stimulant.

There are many causes which may bring on torpidity of the
liver in man. In the production of this disorder, a prolonged
residence in tropical climes, sedentary habits and pursuits, and
want of exercise, however arising, excessive or undue indul-
;gence in alcoholic liquors, are all well-known factors. We are
not now, of course, speaking of acute inflammation of the liver
— to that we shall come in due course — but to that insidious
affection of it which is of slow and gradual growth. The

54*4 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

yellowness of the skin and of the eyes, or a certain character-
istic muddiiiess of complexion on the part of those who suffer
from " the liver/' too often tells a tale of misery and wretched-
ness.

It seems that a tropical climate brings about disturbance of
the functions of the liver in large measure by a certain enervating
effect which it produces, as well as indirectly by reason of the
disinclination to exertion, or even to such an amount of exercise
as is necessary for health. Many persons cannot withstand the
great heat, and many have their constitutions permanently
damaged by a protracted stay in such countries as India.
The fact is that we English are accustomed to a temperate
clime, and though we as a nation have perhaps more power
than some other nations of adapting ourselves to altered condi-
tions of environment, still many of us are liable to suffer greatly
by too sudden or too extreme or too prolonged changes in our
habitat. It is scarcely necessary to add that when habits of
intemperance in regard to food or drink, or both, are coupled
with a want of exercise and the great depression caused by a
very hot climate, the results are most disastrous. It is also
w^ell known that major liver diseases in tropical climates are due
to a pvaemic or septicsemic process resulting from dysentery.

Similar causes lead to similar results in the case of lower
animals; but, before we go on to discuss the diseases of the
liver in oxen, we will say a few words about that structure itself.
The liver, the organ which secretes the fluid known as the bile,
is large in tlie ox. It is situated in the belly, on the right side,
between the third stomach and the diaphragm. Those who
wish to understand clearly the anatomy of the organ should
repair to a slaughter-house, and gain the opportunity of seeing
the structures in situ. They should read up the subject first in
some good book, and then go and look at the structure itself.

By so doing, if they are good observers, they will readily
understand and rapidly learn more than pages and pages of
mere description could teach them. The liver is divided into
two main divisions, of which the right is larger than the left.
Till! liver of tlie ox, like that of man, the dog, and so on, but
unlike that of the horse, is provided with a gall-bladder, a bag-
like receptacle in wliich the bile is stored up, lu order that it may
be used at the needful times. It is closolv attached to the liver^

I
I

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 546

and by the medium of its neck or short duct it communicates
with the biliary duct itself. JNIoreover, in the ox this short
canal, known as the biliary duct, does not join with the duct
leading from the pancreas as it does, for instance, in ourselves ;
but, on the contrary, it opens separately into the first portion of
the intestines called the duodenum at a spot about two feet
distant from the pylorus (the orifice of the stomach which leads
to the small intestine). The gall-bladder of the ox is capable of
containing several fluid ounces, and its duct (called the cystic
duct) increases in size somewhat after its commencement. The
bile stored up in the gall-bladder is liable to become inspissated,
and to form biliary calculi, which consist of the bile salts, of
pigment and cholesterin, are of about the average size of a
walnut, and have so low a specific gravity as to float, if placed
on the surface of bile. There may be a great number of them.
During their passage through the central portion of the cystic
duct and the terminal part of the bile duct, they cause excru-
ciating agony, owing to the spasmodic contraction of the
muscular fibres of the walls of the ducts. These pains may be
inferred to be distinct from the pains of colic by the occurrence
of some biliary calculi in the feces. A case of rupture of the
gall-bladder has been recorded by Mollereau.

The blood which comes from the organs contained in the
abdomen is collected together into one estuary, so to speak, by
being conducted into a large vein, called the vena porta, by
means of which it is passed through the liver. Certain materials
are abstracted by this organ, which, if allowed to accumulate
in the blood, would cause disease. The bile may, therefore, be
considered to be at once an excretion and a secretion, inasmuch
as not only would the materials which compose it be productive
of harm, if they still remained in the blood, but in addition to
this the fluid aids the digestion of the fatty matter of the food.
The bile is capable of dissolving fatty matters, and indeed an
illustration of this is readily supplied by the well-known fact
that ox-gall is capable of dissolving and removing spots of
grease.

The most important disorder of the liver is-Drdinarily known
under the name of jaundice or the yellows, and also as hepatitis,
or inflammation of the liver.

Now both oxen and sheep are more frequently subjected to

85

546 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

disorders of this organ than is the horse. Indeed, it is not an
uncommon occurrence for sheep to be afflicted with inflammation
of the liver, and also for that disease to be attended with a fatal
issue in the case of those animals. When they are thus afflicted,
the sheep hang their heads down, look dispirited^ partly refuse
food, heave at the flanks, manifest unwillingness to move, and
are constipated. They may display febrile symptoms, yellowness
of the skin and of the eye, tenderness when pressed upon the
right side, and lameness of the right fore-leg. This disease
usually arises from excess of food, which leads to engorgement
of the liver, which organ after death is found to be friable and
broken down in texture. The remedial measures which may be
taken consist in bleeding, in the administration of Epsom salts,
and in the supplying of a spare diet.

In dogs the disease is usually very severe, and by no means
readily amenable to treatment. In horses, too, great care and very
good management are essential to success, though the disease is
not very frequent among them. When it does occur in horses, the
probability is that there is a general disturbance in the secretory
functions, or a stoppage in the bile-ducts. The reader will
remember that horses have no gall-1^1 adder. Jaundice may be
brought on by excessive feeding, or a want of exercise, especially
in hot weather, or it may result from a sudden change of tem-
perature, or an abrupt alteration of the food-supply, or from
exposure.

Any cause which interferes with the secretion of bile, such, for
instance, as the blocking up of the biliary duct owing to the
presence of gall-stones or of thick and inspissated bile, to
mechanical pressure on the duct or contraction of it, may bring
on jaundice. The bile, being thus confined, is re-absorbed into
the blood, which imparts a yellow tinge to all the tissues. The
disease is very easily recognised. The skin and the mucous
membranes present a yellowish or brownish hue ; but we must
not forget that a yellowness of the skin may also result from
certain kinds of food, and, indeed, may show itself more or less
normally in some of the best breeds of oxen. In influmiuation
of the liver the abdomen may be seen to be swollen, and if
pressure is applied, great pain is thereby occasioned, th« animal
flinching, moaning, and grinding the tectli. The secretion of
bile being greatly interfered with, the bowels are constipated.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 547

and the feces are dry, hard, scanty, and buttoned, of a chocolate,
clayey, or even white colour, and generally coated with mucus.
The milk, if the patient be a milk-giving cow, is yellow and pro-
duced in small quantity, and the cream is thick and ropy. The
animal may occasionally be troubled with pains like those of
colic. The skin has a harsh and staring appearance, and is
coated with a brownish matter. The urine is scanty in amount,
frequently passed, and of a very yellow or deep-brown colour.
In fact the kidneys and the skin furnish the channels by which
the bile is conveyed out of the system. The number of respira-
tions is increased slightly, and the pulse is soft, weak, and
generally fi'equent, if there be inflammation, but otherwise slow.
The animal is very dull, depressed, listless, devoid of energy,
thirsty, and has a dry muzzle.

If the disease becomes chronic, and the liver enlarged, there
is a great dejection and loss of condition, and a marked dis-
inclination for exertion. It is then very difficult to cure. The
animal may gradually succumb or be carried off by an acute
attack of diarrhoea. After death the liver may be found
atrophied, or much enlarged and softened (though softening of
the liver is not very frequent), or containing abscesses. The
peritoneal covering may show deposits of lymph. In regard to
treatment, it is well to stimulate, or in some cases to blister, the
region of skin corresponding to the seat of the diseased organ.
For this purpose mustard and turpentine or the tincture of
croton may be used.

A simple saline cathartic will be found beneficial, or a drench
made of about twelve ounces of solution of aloes, six ounces of
sulphate of magnesium, and one drachm of mercury with chalk,
given in ale gruel, and repeated in twenty-four hours' time, if
purgation does not take place. One drachm of mercury with
chalk may be given daily for a day or two. If any soreness of
the mouth is thereby caused, or much discharge of saliva, this
must be desisted from at once. The bowels should be kept open.
The food should be nutritious, but supplied in small amount,
and consist of carrots, turnips, mashes, oilcake, and so on. A
little diluted nitro-hydrochloric acid (see the Veterinary Phar-
macopceia) may be added to the water supplied, but only just
sufficient to impart an agreeable acid taste. Careful nursing is
requisite. Enemas may sometimes be advantageous.

35 *

548 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Id case the liver should be merely congested, there -will be
signs of dulness manifested after a meal, slight disorder of the
breathing, a painful swelling on the right side, perhaps consti-
pation, and yellowness of the mucous membranes. A gentle
aperient, a change of diet, and a little exercise in the fresh air, if
the animal is able to bear it, may be beneficial.

Haemorrhage from the liver due to rupture may result from
congestion or other changes in the organ. There is internal
abdominal haemorrhage, coupled with rapid sinking and some-
times with abdominal pain. If the capsule of the organ does
not give way, the blood accumulates beneath it, and recovery
may take place, if the animal be kept very quiet and strengthened
with careful feeding and management. If the capsule bursts,
there is no chance of recovery.

Considerable absorption of liver substance may take place as
the result of parasitic invasion, or as a consequence of abnormal
growths in it. Extensive changes may go on, especially such as
are of a tubercular character, without much appreciable sign
during life.

The livers of ruminants, and especially those of sheep, are
liable to be infested with the peculiar trematode worms known
as Jiukes. Sheep-rot is a well-known disease produced by these
creatures. We have referred to this topic previously, and we
must of necessity mention it in this place, although we have but
little more to say of it than that it exists among oxen as well as
among sheep. Indeed, our readers may remember that in our
remarks on Parasitism we pointed out that flukes may even take
up their abode in the livers of human beings. If the liver is
markedly invaded by the Fasciola hepatica, there is manifestly a
great loss of the secreting cells, the walls of the large and small
bile-ducts being thickened.

SECTION VL— DISEASES OF THE NEBVOUS SYSTEM.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE DISORDERS

CONNECTED THEREWITH.
The above subject, which now in due course presents itself for
consideration at our hands, furnishes at once one of the most

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 549

interesting and at the same time one of the most important topics
of all those innumerable ones which demand discussion through-
out the whole range of human inquiry. Those who can realise
at all adequately the truth that the highest aspect from which
life, both human and animal, can be regarded is to be gained by
the study of the functions of the brain and of the nervous system
as a whole, will readily grant that any knowledge acquired in
regard to its working is of the very highest significance. Those
investigators who wish to probe the inmost recesses of our com-
plex existence must have recourse to the brain, the spinal cord,
and the nerves both in health and in disease. It is true that a
great deal is known, yet no less true that what is already known
is simply nothing compared with that which still has to be
patiently toiled after and deeply digged for.

Judging by the immense progress which has been made in the
last half-century, the men of to-day, starting from the vantage-
ground of the information at their disposal, may reasonably
expect to make very many, and very great and marvellous
discoveries. That human beings, with their limited intellectual
powers, will ever be able to learn the real rationale of our
existence upon this earth is probably impossible ; but that
we are capable of gaining an almost unlimited amount of know-
ledge, and therefore of power, over the various forces of nature
and our own bodily functions is most certain, and most reassur-
ing. Almost every day that passes brings some new facility
into the sphere of human activities, brings some unlooked-for
benefit, even though it be but a small one, to mankind. Often
the advantage has an ugly look at first. It may even appear to
be a curse rather than a blessing ; but yet it is but a part of that
grand and wondrous scheme which, though we cannot under-
stand, is nevertheless steering straight to the point, the far-off
goal in view.

Who could, a hundred years ago, have formed the least idea
of the things which even children know and see and use to-day ?
Who can guess the startling possibilities of the future ? We
must not forget that we live in the age of progress, that we
who are living now have been fortunately born at a particularly
brilliant epoch, that we possess opportunities which our ancestors
scarcely dreamt of, that we have many things in our favour
helping us to advance farther and farther, both on old and

550 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

new lines, that we are endowed with powers of dealing with
disease and of prolonging life which, if they could have conceived
of them by way of guesswork, our ancestors, judging from their
point of view, would perhaps have only slightly modified their
ideas as to the possibility of finding out an *' elixir of life " by
which men could be made immortal upon the earth, and the philo-
sopher's stone whereby all baser metals might be convertible into
gold. Every now and then one is apt to forget the possibilities
of this time and age, every now and then we require a mental
stimulant to refresh us in our searchings after the truth. Every-
day laborious work is all the better for a little of the spirit of
aspiration, and it is a joyful thing for those who can infuse it
into their toil to cultivate the power as well as the will to do so.
In his second Dissertation to Riolan, Harvey, as mentioned
by Lewes, says : —

Some weak and inexperienced persons vainly seek by dialectics and far-fetched
arguments either to upset or establish things that are only to be founded on
anatomical demonstration and believed ou the evidence of the senses. He who
truly desires to be informed of the question in hand must be held bound either
to look for himself, or to take on trust the conclusions to which they who have
looked have come.

Unfortunately, in the present state of science, the ideas which
physiologists have as yet arrived at regarding the working of the
nervous system are very unsatisfactory and incomplete. We
have no space to say more here on this subject than that it
is probable that some great discoverer, some earnest, patient,
plodding, life-worker, as great or even greater than Harvey, is
now needed to apply all the delicate methods of modern science
to the elucidation of the wonderful part which the nervous
system plays in all higher forms of life. At present it is
quite impossible to clear up the methods by which the chemical
and physical actions going on in nerve-cells and nerve
fibres produce the complex and most peculiarly involved
phenomena presented by all living beings which have reached
any marked degree of development, and especially by human
beings.

It may perhaps seem strange, but it is true, that physiologists
know very little concerning the inner working of the brain and
nervous system generally. Indeed, groat advances must be

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 551

made before we can hope to comprehend these matters.
Although the functions of the brain and nerve centres are pro-
bably the most interesting of all the subjects at present com-
manding the attention of scientific men, although it is of the
greatest possible moment that we should understand them, still
it cannot be said that much real progress has been made in the
course of investigation.

Much has been, and is still being, done by way of investi-
gation in reference to these matters, and in various directions
much useful knowledge has been obtained. For instance, so
nicely and so accurately are the centres which govern various
movements now recognised, that the seat of lesion in the brain
and cord cau frequently be diagnosed with precision, and actual
cures can be obtained by operations through the walls of the
skull, and even through those of the spinal column. Such dis-
coveries as these are truly wonderful, and they seem to pave
the way towards even more important work still. There can
be no doubt whatever that in the not far distant future still
greater discoveries will be made, and further marvellous results
attained by those who work on and on, patiently and surely, and
with careful earnestness. Every branch of this wide subject
should be most carefully worked at, and in this relation it
is to be borne in mind that research among the normal and
abnormal phenomena of the nervous system in lower animals is
of the highest moment, in that the information thereby gained
helps us to understand the mechanism in man himself.

True it is that in themselves the diseases of the nervous system
of oxen are not of great import, even so far as the owner of
stock is concerned. If we could not see a very much higher
purpose to be saved than that which appeals to the pocket in
this case, we should have very little reason indeed for insisting
upon the value of the most careful study in this direction. In
many cases of nervous disturbance in these animals, it is by far
the best policy at once to order our patient to be summarily
slaughtered. This is the simplest and the wisest plan, and it is
certainly in nine cases out of ten the most economical. There
are, however, exceptional instances where treatment may be
called for. Yet, notwithstanding these cases, the derangements
of the ox's nervous system are of such small importance that,
were it not for the light which a study of them cannot but shed

552 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OE THE OX.

upon the allied disorders of higher animals, it would scarcely
seem worth while to treat of them at all.

It is incumbent upon us to remember that the nervous system
of man is so complex a mechanism that even the smallest help
in unravelling any of its mysteries is to be always eagerly sought
after. The disorders of the nervous system to which we our-
selves are liable are certainly among the most important of all
the afflictions which beset mankind. Indeed, we have very good
reasons for believing that, as our knowledge of pathology
advances, we shall find that the nervous system plays a very
potent part in regard to many diseases of which at present we
can hardly lay claim to any understanding of the causation and
progress. In lower animals the normal structure and the healthy
functions of the nervous system are more simple, more readily
intelligible, less complicated, less numerous, and less varied in
their nature than is the case among ourselves. Hence, as might
be expected, the diseases aflFecting this system are also more
simple, and consequently more easily understood. Thus it
happens that a knowledge of them does most certainly clear up
some points of difficulty in regard to the disturbances of the
equilibrium effected by the nerves and nerve-centres of higher
animals.

We must not forget that human beings are endowed with the
most highly developed nervous systems, and that the stress which
is put upon the mental organization of man in these days is often
enough, and still more frequently nearly enough, to upset the
normal balance. Hence result many and various forms of mad-
ness and insanity, and misery and troubles and horrors of all
kinds and degrees. There are many persons who are being
daily and even hourly subjected to an immense strain, and there
are many who show the results of this strain in one way or
another, many who suffer severe mental pressure owiug to the
great amount of brain-work which they have set themselves to
do. The fact is, that it seems to be one of the conditions of
progress that there should be just a little more strain put upon
the average members of a community than they can easily bear
up against. By this means those persons who are provided
with powers above the average are always getting a little
higher, and still a little higher, until the maximum point is
reached at which the strain is just sufficient to be, so to speak,

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEI<:P. 553

more than they can readily withstand. This gives a chance for
those still better endowed, and so on and on, until we come to
the very highest mental endowments.

Now all these disturbances of the nervous system to which
we have alluded should be most carefully guarded against in
every possibly way, and thus it happens that the diseases and
disorders of the nervous system of lower animals attain a far
higher significance than could possibly otherwise he attached to
them.

It cannot be said that the nervous ailments of oxen are
thoroughly understood. Those diseases which seem to be more
intimately connected with the brain are those we now propose
to discuss. We accordingly proceed to consider briefly : —
Stomach-staggers, delirium, inflammation of the brain, epilepsy,
and apoplexy. With regard to the presence of abscesses in the
brain, all that need be said is that they are occasionally met
with.

STOMACH-STAGGERS.

The disorder known among cattle-owners as "stomach-
staggers " affords an extreme instance of the fact that the
brain depends for its well-being on the healthy working of
the stomach. When this organ is very full, the ox may become
comatose, so much so, perhaps, as even to exhibit a tendency to
fall down, especially if the head be elevated. The respirations
are slow and deep, the pulse is slow and full, and the pupils of
the eyes are dilated. In short, the symptoms may simulate
those produced by narcotic poisons. The best treatment is to
give at once a full cathartic dose, and also suitable stimulants.
The disorder is not of much importance, it is not at all often
met with, nor is it so extreme as is the malady of the same kind
and name among horses.

DELIRIUM.
Delirium is not to be looked upon as a disease in itself, but
as a symptom of different kinds of cerebral "Sisturbance. It is
met with in cases of inflammation of the brain, in certain blood-
diseases, in acute indigestion, in impaction of the omasum, and
as the result of some forms of poisoning, e.g. by lead. A
delirious ox has, like other animals similarly afflicted, a peculiar
wild look in the eyes, is excitable, or perhaps even quite frantic

554 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

and furious, struggles violently against restraint of any kind,
champs, and gives out a frothy saliva from the mouth. It is
highly dangerous to go near such an animal, and in many
cases the best plan is to summarily shoot the suflferer before
serious damage be done.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN.

Inflammation of the hraiti, or phrenitis,\'& not very commonly
met with among cattle. The fact that acute indigestion, impac-
tion of the omasum, or lead-poisoning, frequently give rise to
delirium, which is always liable to be put down as a sign of
phrenitis, makes this disease appear more general than it really
is. However, our readers will recollect that in cases of actual
inflammation of the brain there will be a manifestation of acute
febrile symptoms. Either the membranes of the brain or the
cerebral substance itself may be first attacked with inflammation.
In the former case there is always good reason to fear the
extension of this process towards the material of the brain.

When the coverings of the brain are inflamed, spasms, pain,
and delirium are shown, the animal is violent, champs the teeth,
scrapes, stamps, paws the ground, charges at objects which may
be near, displays irregular movements, and more or less extreme
convulsions. Sometimes these symptoms make their appearance
at the first onset of the attack, and the loss of nerve power, the
dull and stupid look, the more or less marked paralysis, the loss
of sensation, resulting from the extension of inflammation to the
brain itself come on later.

The disease is more particularly prevalent in hot countries and
in hot seasons, especially if there has been a sudden change from
cold to heat. The malady makes its appearance, especially among
working oxen, and those which are plethoric. The disease,
fortunately, is not so often met with as it used to be, owing
doubtless to the facts that there is less over-driving, and that
more cnrc is taken of animals generally. A blow, producing
concussion of the brain and perhaps fracture of the skull, or the
eating of the refuse of alcohol distilleries, and perhaps even of
ergotised grasses, or the growth of tumours in the brain, may all
apparently bring on this disease.

Symptoms. — At first there is acute congestion, and this is
followed by severe inflammation. The animnl appears sleepy or

I

DISEASES or THE OX AND SHEEP. 655

foolish, and its pulse and respirations are few in number. Soon,
febrile symptoms manifest themselves, the temperature being
heightened, and the head and horns hot. The conjunctiva of
the eyes is reddened with blood, the eyes themselves have a
wild look, and if the brain itself is aflFected, they become more
or less blindj and roll from side to side. The suffering animal
may press the head against some object near, or may constantly
try to rest the haunches on anything that is at hand. Violent
paroxysms of delirium, in which the animal bellows and charges
madly about, making it very unsafe for anyone to approach,
alternate with periods of stupor. The poor creature trembles,
undergoes more or less extreme convulsions, falls frequently, and
at last paralysis, coma, and death close the scene. After death,
if an examination be made, the membranes and the brain-
substance are seen to be highly congested, the " puncta vascu-
losa" being unusually distinct. Sometimes the brain is softened,
and there may be a large quantity of fluid in the arachnoid and
sub-arachnoid spaces.

Treatment. — If a considerable amount of blood be abstracted
at an early stage in the disease, there is no doubt that the con-
gestion may be sometimes relieved. The application of cold
water, too, to the head is sometimes beneficial, and a cathartic
should be administered. For this purpose croton oil may be
used, if the veterinarian shall think it advisable to do so, and it
has also been recommended that sedative agents, such as hydro-
cyanic acid, should be administered subcutaneous! y. Although,
however, in some cases the owner and the veterinary surgeon
may both concur in thinking treatment advisable, there is no
doubt that in most instances it will be thought best to order the
animal to be shot, since it is often impossible to provide suitable
nursing and treatment without endangering human life, and, even
if the animal should be temporarily cured, there is a great liability
of the disease re-appearing.

EPILEPSY, MEGRIMS, OR STAGGERS.

This affection, which is most prevalent among young and
debilitated animals, may sometimes result from anaemia or certain
other forms of blood disease. Cattle suffer from gastric vertigo
not unlike epilepsy, or they may have epileptoid convulsions, it
is said, as a result of long sea-voyages or rheumatism. Our

556 THE DISEASES AND DISOKDERS OE THE OX.

readers are familiar, probably, with the appearances presented
by a person in an epileptic fit, and with the fact that in some of
these cases a spiculum of bone has after death in some cases
been found penetrating the brain. There may be other causes
than this, such as abnormal growths at work, or the white matter
of the brain may be hardened, while the grey portion is marbled
or rosy, the membranes being adherent to the surfaces. As a
fit comes on, the patient becomes dull, then suddenly loses brain
power, falling and remaining recumbent in an unconscious con-
dition for some time. In the case of a human being, the average
duration of an epileptic fit may be a little more than four
minutes, perhaps ; but it may be very severe — so severe, indeed,
that death may be expected to end the dreadful convulsions.
These may last half an hour or more. On the other baud, a fit
may last about half a minute only. In any case, however, it
IS some little time before complete consciousness is regained,
and it is, moreover, a gradual awakening to his full powers, and
by no means a sudden one, which the sufi'erer experiences. For
instance, a man may act with apparent sensibility soon after a
fit, and some little time after he may have forgotten all that he
did. Again, the patient would not remember what he did
immediately before the fit began, until, perhaps, some hours
afterwards.

These epileptic fits are very dangerous, inasmuch as, unless
the sufi'erer takes the greatest care of himself or herself, great
dangers may be encountered, such as, for instance, at a railway
station or by the side of a precipitous chasm, or elsewhere. A
patient may be suddenly seized by a fit while in a dangerous
position, as, for instance, near the bank of a river or on the
platform of a railway-station, just as the train is coming in.
Fortunately, medicine, and especially the bromides of potassium,
sodium, and ammonium, and other therapeutic agents, possess
very great powers in controlling the epileptic seizures. Small
doses of bromides can be taken for long periods of time with
safety. Some patients seldom or never have a fit without a
distinct warning of, perhaps, as mucli as from a quarter to half
a minute, so that there is time to get away from serious danger.
Often an epileptic, if possessed of a very determined mind, will
icll those who are with him of the approach of a fit, though there
is generally a great objection to do so. Sometimes they will

I

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 557

even stop the fit, as it is coming on, by an energetic and vigorous
pinching of the legs or arms, or other part of the bodv.
Napoleon I, is said to have suffered from epilepsy.

The feeling which precedes a fit is peculiar, and said by
patients to be indescribable. It is not in itself unpleasant. It
may sometimes be so slight as to be scarcely noticeable, and at
others overpowering in its strength. The feeling is not at all
painful. It seems to become stronger as the patient grows
older, in some cases. There is no power of bringing on a fit by
an efi'ort of the will. Any kind of indigestion seems to bring on
a fit. New bread, beef, bacon, or pork are to be avoided. Any
cause which depresses the system is to be guarded against. The
food should always be thoroughly well masticated, since a very
small portion of solid, if swallowed, may bring on a fit. Over-
eating and constipation are very hurtful in these cases. A friend
informs us that he had fits from the age of seven to ten, none at
all, so far as he knows, from ten to thirteen, but that he has had
them at longer or shorter intervals ever since. Notwithstanding
the immunity, however, during the time stated, he appears
always to have had at times a slight sensation similar to the
feeling above referred to.

During the seizure a patient lies senseless, with outstretched
limbs, shivering, and more or less violently convulsed, as the case
may be, while the muscles of respiration, and those of the eyes
and jaws, also show convulsive movements. If the fit is severe,
the veins of the neck may swell, and the patient may look as if
on the verge of asphyxiation, gasping and foaming at the mouth.
The face becomes purple, and the sufferer may present aU the
appearance of passing through the death-agony.

Personally, we do not recollect ever having seen an ox in an
epileptic fit, but they are said to suffer similarly. An ox thus
seized bellows, froths at the mouth, passes feces and urine in-
voluntarily. Usually the convulsive movements soon cease, the
animal rises, and soon appears healthy again. Many owners and
veterinarians would advise slaughter in the case of an ox thus
afflicted.

APOPLEXY.

Apoplexy is due to the blood-vessels of the brain being
over-distended with blood and bursting, and to the pressure
of the extravasated blood upon the walls, or to fracture of

558 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

the cranium, or to the bursting of an abscess. In the general
way the disorder springs from plethora, and from over-driving
and excitement in hot weather, when animals are in a plethoric
condition.

The symptoms vary in accordance with the seat of the
extravasated blood. As a rule they are sudden and marked.
The animal first looks dull, reels, then falls suddenly, is com-
pletely unconscious, and unable to move or feel. The blood-
vessels of the head and neck are seen to be very full. Indeed,
the heart and the lungs are the only organs which exhibit signs
of life. The pulse is small and thready, the breathing is slow,
loud, and laboured, the surface of the body is covered with a
cold sweat. The mouth is open, respiration being almost
entirely carried on through it, and a frothy saliva is seen inside.
The eyes are widely opened, they roll and stare, and the pupils
are dilated; but though the pictures of external objects are
formed upon the retina, the animal is, doubtless, not conscious
of seeing them. Convulsive movements may show themselves,
but, as a rule, the muscles are soft and flaccid. The animal
becomes quiescent, and death may rapidly close the scene, owing
to the transmission of the pressure to the medulla oblongata,
and interference with the functions of this important nervous
structure, which are so absolutely essential to life. In some
cases, however, consciousness may return, and paroxysms of
violent convulsions may alternate with short periods of quiescence,
until coma and death ultimately ensue.

In regard to treatment, if the patient be seen in the first stage
of dulness, free bleeding may be useful. A fairly strong cathartic
dose should also be given. Other remedial measures may be
tried, such as the application of a very strong liniment to the
loins and spine ; but in nine cases out of ten of real apoplexy in
the ox the disease cannot be cured, and, indeed, is liable to
recur. Hence slaughter is to be recommended.

HYDROCEPHALUS, OR WATER ON THE BRAIN.

This disorder is due to the accumulation of serous fluid
either between or below the membranes which cover the brain.
It occurs generally in the foetus, causing great increase in the
size of the head, and, therefore, severe difficulty in the act of
parturition. The enormous head, when situated in the generative

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 659

passage, should be tapped with a trocar and long canula, or by
means of a knife. If this be done, the cranium collapses, and
the calf will then be expelled, dead. The disorder may also
appear after birth, the cranial bones being thin and widespread.
Many stellate little bones called Wormian bones are placed
between them, so as to close up the large cavity so far as
possible. The brain, of course, suffers greatly in these cases.
Instances have been met with iu which the base of the skull is
the only part of it which is ossified.

The same parasites as appear in the brain of sheep, viz. the
Coenuri cerehrales, may occasionally be present in the brain of
the ox. They are the immature forms of the Tce7iia coenurus
which infests the dog. They affect various parts of the brain,
the cerebral hemispheres being most frequently) attacked. The
Qgg of this tapeworm being swallowed, the embryo escapes, bores
its way through the tissues, enters a blood-vessel, and finally,
being carried in the course of the circulation to the brain, takes
up its abode there, and increases in size by absorbing the
substances around. When it is large, marked symptoms of
brain-disease are exhibited. The animal may lean the head to
one side, or may move round and round in the same direction
as that on which the parasite is situated, or the pressure of any
other kind is applied. The disorder is popularly known as
" turnsick," is most often seen in young animals, and is more
prevalent in some seasons than in others. Trephining may be
tried.

Having thus discussed briefly certain diseases of the nervous
system intimately connected with the brain itself, we now proceed
to consider shortly those maladies which seem to be the result
of disturbance of the functions of the spinal cord. Yet, while
we are now writing down this statement, we cannot but feel
how impossible it is to clearly mark off disorders of the brain
from those of other parts of the nervous mechanism. Indeed,
so impressed are we with the diflBculties of classifying nervous
diseases at all well that, before we pass on to the discussion of
the proper subjects for to-day, we take this 'opportunity of
pausing to see what Dr. Gowers teaches in regard to classifi-
cation of nervous disorders in mankind.

"If we attempt," writes this well-known author, "to classify

560 THE DISEASES A^"D DISORDERS OF THE OX.

the diseases according to either seat or nature, we are met at
once by diflficulties which prevent any complete arrangement."
Many diseases affect more than one part of the nervous system,
while the precise seat of some others is not known. A rough
division is often made into two broad classes of " organic" and
** functional " disease. In " organic diseases " there is a visible
lesion. The " functional diseases " include (1) those which
consist only in a disturbance of function, and (2) transient
diseases which are not known to depend on organic changes.
Nevertheless, there is also a large class of diseases in which no
constant lesion has been discovered, but which are not transient.
The use of the microscope in pathology wonderfully extended
the range of organic disease, and quite recently a still further
extension of our powers of observing organic change resulted
from the use of staining agents. It is, of course, the degree of
alteration compared with the degree of our aided powers of
vision which determines the question of visibility. Molecular
changes in nutrition probably cause some diseases classed as
functional. Hence '^ nutritional diseases " may be distinguished
from those "functional diseases," properly so called, which
consist merely in a derangement of function. Yet we must
remember that, if prolonged, functional disturbance will lead to
nutritional change. We may, then, distinguish four classes of
nervous diseases.

1. — Organic disease, such as tumour, hemorrhage, softening.

The morbid process always begins outside the nerve-
elements.
2. — Structural disease, such as most forms of sclerosis. The

morbid process may begin either in the nerve-elements

or outside them.
3. — Nutritional disease, such as general paralysis of the insane,

paralysis agitans, chorea. The nerve-elements are

probably always primarily affected.
4. — Functional disease, such as reflex convulsions, and many

forms of hysteria. Nerve-elements primarily affected.

This classification is not very useful, however, for descriptive
purposes.

Myelitis, or softening of the spinal cord, is not of frequent
occurrence in the case of this structure of the ox. Tetanus is a

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 561

disease in which the spinal cord is largely implicated. This
serious malady we liave already described, and all that we need
say here in regard to it is that after death from tetanus the
spinal cord and its membranes may be seen to be congested, and
that there may be softening of the cord and accumulation of
fluid between the membranes.

Paralysis is a nervous disorder which may be due to many
difierent causes. An animal is said to be paralysed when it
suffers from a loss of voluntary motor power in certain muscles.
This want of motor power is generally accompanied by a loss of
sensory power also. The connection between the two wants
may be due to the contiguity of the sensory and motorial tracts
in the case of the spinal cord and most of the nerves. Some-
times the whole of one side of the body may be afiFected, and
in these cases the disorder is known under the name of hemi-
plegia. It appears to be most commonly the case that both
hind limbs are aflected in the ox, and when in this state the
animal is said to be suffering from paraplegia. The disease may
result from pressure on, or from disease of, some part of the
nervous system, the brain, the spinal cord, or the nerves. The
pressure may be due to a fracture, the paralysis coming on soon
after a fall or some other injury. Though the loss of power
may in certain cases come on suddenly, it does not usually do
so, but may generally first be noticed in a staggering of the gait.

Paraplegia most frequently attacks animals advanced in age,
and especially those that are taken or kept on low and damp
pastures in severe weather. Cows which are pregnant may
suffer from paraplegia, and recover after parturition. This may
be caused by pressure on the posterior aorta, or on the iliac
arteries which supply the hind limbs with blood. After death,
tumours have in some cases of paralysis been found so situated
as to press upon the nerves of the affected part. Again, the
disorder may be occasioned by the ingestion of poisons, as in
the case of the affection known as lead-palsy.

Treatment. — The animal should be made to lie comfortably,
and be frequently turned, so as to avoid the production of sores.
If the disease is very severe, or if we have any reason to sup-
pose that there is a serious fracture, such as of the spine, or
that the disease is occasioned by tumours, it is best to counsel
slaughter. In regard to medicines, it may be said that iodide

36

562 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

of iron may be useful, and that the external application of the
ointment of biniodide of mercury may also be of advantage.
The food should be of a nutritious and laxative nature. It may
be necessary to draw away the urine frequently with a catheter.
The affected parts should be well rubbed with the hand and
kept warm, if required, by the aid of clothing.

ic „.. -=«..=. ''^' ^^:

'/

tVl

)^;m^^^^; ^^«'\r^ ijj

-4 iT"*

Fig. 73 — Xervous Debility ix Cows at the time of Partiritiox.

The cow, as delineated in the above picture, is the subject of nervous debility,
■occurring about the time of parturition. This is a malady due to the functional
•disorder alone, and it is not as a rule followed by death. Our artist has faith-
fully represented the characteristic appearances of this disease. The observer
will readily note, from the attitude of the cow. that she suffers from general
weakness and loss of nerve-power. She is represented as lying in a recumbent
posture in the field, but she has now no inclination for browsing on the grass
"beside her. nor is she represented as chewing the cud — a usual sign of undis-
turbed health in ihe case of ruminating animals. She has no delight to move
leisurely in the luxuriant pasture, nor does the sweet woodland scenery attract
her gaze : but she must needs lie down powerless, the vigorous activity of health
having left her — let us hope onlj' for a short time, and that her health will be
restored after men have taken her with care and gentleness to a dry shed or
•ox-stall, nicely bedded down with clean new straw, and then keeping her warm.
attending to everj' want, and administering such remedies as may bo found
advisable.

The next disease to which we come is that known by the
name of Adunamia nervosa geucralix (Armatage). This is a
kind of nervous debility which affects cows during the later
period of pregnancy. The sufferer is unable to rise, is cold on
the surface of the body, has a weak pulse, and the bowels are
usually constipated. Possibly tiie malady may be engendered
by pressure on the posterior aorta, thongii it may be difficult to

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 563

see why obstruction to the circulation in the hiud limbs should
cause nervous arlvnamia of the whole system. The affection
often persists after parturition has taken place ; but this may be
explained on the idea that the disordered state of the blood-
supply must take some time to be set quite riglit again. The
disease may be owing to the foetus requiring a great deal of
nutritive material from the mother.

Treatment. — The bowels must be kept open by means of
the administration of enemas, the surface of the body must
be kept warm, and the strength of the patient must be sus-
tained, so far as is possible. It is also rather beneficial that
stimulating applications should be rubbed along the back.

A disease to which the name of Cerehro-spinal Meningitis
has been given mav come on in the cow several days after
calving, the patient being free from coma, and not assuming the
recumbent posture at all. The bowels may be but slightly
deranged, or the sufferer may be troubled with a fetid diarrhoea.
The secretion of milk, the excretion of urine, voluntary mus-
cular power, and sensation are not interfered with. The patient
may die of apoplexy about four and a half days after the com-
mencement of the malady, or may gradually recover. If the
nerve-structures are examined after death, effusion and extrava-
sation of serum and blood are found on the meninges and spinal
cord.

Strinyhalt is a disease well known among horsemen as affect-
ing horses. A similar condition has been described as attacking
oxen, and in one instance it is recorded that a number of animals
were afflicted with this disorder apparently as a result o^ giving
them burnt ale with their food.

Milk fever ^ or parturient apoplexij, is a disease which may
occur in the cow generally within three days after calving, though
it is said to come on before parturition, and even several weeks
after that event. The fever most frequently manifests itself
after an easv delivery, in warm weather, in plethoric animals,
in good milkers, and in old animals seldom before the third
calf, and most generally after the fifth. In those cows which
have once suffered from this serious disorder it is very likely to
come on again.

A short time after delivery has taken place, the cow shows a
restlessness, raises first one hind-foot and then the other,

36 *

564 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

breathes a little more quickly, does not like movement, and, if
caused to move, staggers in her gait, loses appetite, ceases ta
chew the cud and to give milk, and has a staring look in the
eyes. The hind-limbs give way about twenty hours after the
onset of the disease, the animal falls to the ground, and
remains in the recumbent posture. The eyes are now blood-
shot, and they protrude, and are insensible to the touch. There
is, in fact, a loss of sensation all over the body, and, moreover,
a loss of power of voluntary motion. The pulse is full, soft,
and slow, but as the disease progresses it becomes faster and
smaller, and finally imperceptible. The breathing, too, is slow,
and after a time stertorous. The mucous membranes are
purple in colour, and the head and horns are hot.

The animal may probably be delirious, and dash its head
about with excessive violence, or it may lapse into a state of
coma, and lie with the head flexed round on the shoulder. The
muscles of the eyelids twitch convulsively, the udder retains
its soft condition, or may perhaps become hard and small. The
animal cannot swallow, the bowels do not act, the urine remains
in the bladder. The animal becomes blown-up with wind,
and becoming more and more comatose, at length dies. In
some cases, especially if the animal is well treated, recovery
may be hoped for. There is, however, danger of a relapse, and
in order to obviate this risk, the patient should be most care-
fully attended to, and occasionally turned so that it does not lie
for a long time upon the same side.

After death the veins may be seen to be distended with black
blood, there are petechiae on various serous membranes, the brain
and spinal cord show congestion and extravasation of blood. It
is difficult to say what is the cause of the disease. It may be
due to encephalic anaemia. On tlie other hand the coma,
delirium, nnd convulsions, are probably due to the congestion of
the brain and spinal cord. The removal of the otfspring from
the mutlier seems to bring on milk-fever, and hence it looks as
if the presence in the blood of matters which ought to have
been expelled from it by the medium of the milk lias a great
deal to do witli the disease.

In regard to treatment, it may first be said that it is well to
allow a cow to take a little geutle exercise during the few days
before delivery is expected to take place, to avoid picthorn, and

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 565

perhaps to give a gentle cathartic draught. If called to a cow
suffering from the early stages of the disease, the veterinarian
will probably abstract blood, and he will probably administer a
full cathartic dose, at whatever stage he finds his patient. A
combination of sulphate of magnesium and solution of aloes
forms a useful cathartic mixture. The most assiduous care is
requisite throughout the course of the malady. The suffering-
animal should be supported by bundles of straw, kept warm
by being covered with rugs, the udder should be regularly
milked, and the body should be well rubbed. Ice-bags or cold
water may be suitably applied to the forehead, and diffusible
stimulants should be somewhat freely administered. A strong
stimulating liniment should be rubbed along the spine. Enemas
may be frequently given, and the urine should be drawn off
by the aid of a catheter from time to time.

Medicines should be given by means of the stomach-pump,
whereby the tympany will also be relieved. Gruel diet, or at
any rate easily digestible laxative food, should be supplied.
After recovery the animal may still suffer from paraplegia, and
if this is not amenable to the action of tonics, and the applica-
cation of absorbent agents and blisters over the spine, the
animal should be slaughtered and used for food, if the flesh is
suitable for this purpose.

Our readers will understand that milk- fever is to be dis-
tinguished from ordinary fever occurring after parturition, and
called parturient fever ; also from septic peritonitis, adynamia,
and simple metritis. Puerperal mania may now and again
occur a few days after parturition, being probably due to
exposure, dyspepsia, and to removal of the calf from the cow.
The animal is very excitable, champs with the jaws, gnaws at
objects which may be near, and especially its own fore-legs. The
careful administration of opiates is to be recommended in these
cases.

SECTION VII.— THE URINARY SYSTEM AND THE
DISORDERS CONNECTED THEREWITH.

The various derangements to which the kidneys of animals are
liable are by no means the least important of the innumerable
maladies which may afflict them. Especially is it the case that,
in so far as our subject bears upon the preservation of the health

566 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

of human beings, it is indeed one of the most intense interest
and greatest import. Very safely may we say that there are
many persons ostensibly enjoying good, or at least fair, health,
who would do very wisely to turn their attention to these too
often neglected and ill-used portions of their bodily frames. We
should always bear in mind that the kidneys are organs by whose
activity some of those useless and noxious, or rather poisonous,
products resulting from the wear and tear of the numerous vital
processes involved in bodily and mental work are separated from
the blood, and rendered capable of being readily eliminated from
the system through the channels afforded by the ureters, the
urinary bladder, and the urethra. In short, the kidneys are
endowed with a most important function in the animal
economy.

The conditions of this nineteenth-century civilisation, leading,
as they do, more and more markedly, to the concentration of
immense aggregations of people in the towns and cities of
the worldj to a large extent — inevitably, as it seems — also
bring about an abstention Irom the active side of life on the
part of those persons whose sphere is the counting-house or the
printer's work-room, the banker's, the merchant's, or the lawyer's
office, the pulpit, the school-room, the doctor's consulting-room,,
the statesman's sanctum, and, perhaps still more than any of
these, the writer's or the editor's arm-chair. It is manifest that,
as a nation advances, the social division of labour becomes more
and more minute, and it is sufficiently clear that it must be much
more extreme in the future even than it is now. The tendency
of the tide of progress is towards the channels of specialism.
Great danger is to be feared on this account, and one of the
gravest risks of all is that many of those who live by brain work
and sedentary work of any kind will become more and more
rigidly compelled to ignore the great law of nature that man
should live literally by tJie sweat of his brow, and not by that of
his brain.

Certainly, those who live by tilling the soil or by other forms
of physical toil, provided that they are fairly strong, pursue a
more liealthy mode of life. In them the kidneys, the liver, and
the other organs of the body liuvi! more stimulus to perform their
due and proper functions suitably. So far, then, from being
worse off than many of their so-callcil betters, the honiv-liunded

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 567

SODS of labour must in many cases be supposed to have the best
of it, unless, indeed, the mental workers with whom we are now
contrasting them, take care to preserve their health by wise
attention to the necessity of regular exercise and the laws of
hygiene. If they do this, i.e. if they preserve the healthy mind
without detriment to the healthy body, then there can be no
doubt that those who work with their brains live the best and
highest lives. Yet there is nothing more difficult than to com-
bine judiciously the two orders of work. Those who toil in the
mental spheres — and whether it be of high or low degree matters
but little, provided it be sedentary in character — those who are
confined to the stool and the desk, are very apt to lose in large
measure both the desire and the capacity for taking any pro-
minent part in the more active habits of lite. Herein lies
great danger.

If there is any truth which requires more reiteration than
other truths in these days, it is that on no account should the
active side of life be lost sight of. Indeed, it will almost inva-
riably be found upon inquiry that those men and women who
excel even in mental pursuits do not forget the absolute necessity
of exercise for those who would preserve a good state of health
both of body and mind. There are many reasons why physical
work is essential to the preservation of health. One of these is
that the skin is thereby called into activity as an excreting
organ; and that if the skin does not act well, then a great deal
more work is thrown upon the kidneys than they can properly
perform.

Among oxen, as well as among ourselves, the class of urinary
diseases is one of importance. Some may, perhaps, know that
in its first condition in the undeveloped human foetus each
kidney is composed of separate lobules. At a later stage,
these lobules are united together to form the smooth-surfaced
kidney of the adult. Now, when we look upon the exterior
of the kidney of an ox and of certain other animals the
organ is seen to retain this lobulated condition — transitory in
the human being — throughout life. The kidneys of the ox, in
like manner with the urinary bladder, are large. The urine is
light yellow in colour, and, like that of other herbivorous animals,
it has an alkaline reaction, which may be easily shown by the fact
that reddened litmus paper, when dipped in this fluid, is turned

568 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

blue. The urine of man, on the other hand, like that of car-
nivorous animals, is normally acid in reaction, being, however,
sometimes neutral or almost neutral. The specific gravity of
the urine of the ox is about 1036. As compared with that of
the horse, the urine of the ox contains more water, more hippii-
rate of potassium, and chloride of sodium, and much less urea.
There is scarcely any carbonate of calcium in it.

The simplest disorder of the urinary apparatus in oxen goes
by the name of incontinence of urine. The constant dripping
may be due to relaxation of the urethral canal at its commence-
ment, to irritability of the bladder, or perhaps to an acrid state
of the urine, as occurs in the disease known as haeraaturia.
Some veterinarians might inject demulcents into the bladder.
Sedative applications may be placed on the hypogastrium.
Usually the disorder is not treated, being of scarcely sufficient
importance.

DIABETES INSIPIDUS, OR DIABETES SIMPLEX, OR
POLYURIA, OR HYDRURIA.

This derangement, which under certain conditions is very
common among horses, is, on the contrary, so rare in the ox
that we do not recollect ever having been called to a case of it.
It is manifested by profuse urination, and, as might be expected,
it may be brought on by excessive drinking of Huids. It may,
too, be occasioned by the presence of some diuretic substance in
the blood. It may also probably be caused by a disordered
condition of the vaso-motor centres, due perhaps to defective
assimilation, whereby a dilatation of the renal vessels is pro-
duced. The urine, being discharged in great quantity, has a low
specific gravity, and a pale colour. The animal loses appetite,
is very thirsty, and may be feverish. The bowels arc usually
more or less constipated, the mucous membranes pale, and the
sufferer may become very feeble and bloodless.

Diabetes may occur also as a crisis in fevers. The urine may
then have a higlier specific gravity owing to its containing u
large excess of urea; but, when thus occurring as a crisis, it is
not accompanied by unfavourable symptoms. On the contrary,
it rapidly subsides, and is of favourable omen.

The food-supply should be changed, and the patient should be
allowed good nutritious diet, and a fair quantity of water. A

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 569

laxative dose is to be recomm ended. The tincture of iodine may
be prescribed in suitable doses, or iodide of potassium may be
given in the drinking water. Vegetable tonics may also be
beneficial, especially in the later stages.

SUPPEESSION OF URINE.

The urine may be completely suppressed, though only very
rarely, owing to acute inflammation of the kidneys. It is
frequently partly suppressed in acute febrile diseases.

In oxen suffering from certain febrile states there may be a
deficient secretion of urine, and what is passed will then probably
be of high specific gravity. It is also sometimes the case that
this condition may be seen in draught oxen in dry countries, or
among cattle kept on dry pastures in hot, dry weather. According
to Mr. Parkes, a working ox, fed on dry food, should be supplied
with about seven gallons of water daily, and it is clear that in
parched-up fields, where the sources of water supply are often
dried up, oxen may often suffer from an insufficiency of fluid.

ALBUxMINURIA.

Albuminuria is a symptom of a large number of different
abnormal conditions. Although some persons say that albu-
minuria may occur independently of structural change, as a rule
it is due to congestion or inflammation of some part of the
urinary tract. When it is due to an affection of the kidney,
it is usually the result of cold, injuries, errors of diet, and,
speaking generally, its pathology consists in congestion or in
inflammation.

Albuminuria may also be temporarily induced by cold, or
injuries acting upon the spinal cord, by errors of diet, such as,
for instance, those errors of diet which produce at one time
ansemia and at others plethora, such as sudden changes from
poor to very rich food, or from very rich to very poor aliment.

SymptOiMS. — Albuminuria is itself but a symptom of a great
many different aftectious, and hence the symptoms which are
associated with it vary considerably accordiilg to the disease.
Albumen is proved to be present by the usual chemical tests,
and the microscope reveals spherical, epithelial cells and granular
matter.

Treatment, — The patient should be put into a comfortable

570 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Stall, protected from cold, and supplied with good and easily-
digestible food. The application of mustard to the loins is
beneficial in some cases. It is generally advisable to administer
a cathartic drench, and to repeat it, if necessary, in two days'
time, and in certain cases to give enemas. Cupping over the
loins has been adopted with success, when there is acute inflam-
mation of the kidneys. An infusion of digitalis may be tried
in suitable doses, but only according to the prescription of a
scientist, or by his directions.

HiEMOGLOBINURIA IN CATTLE.
The following is taken from the Lancet, of Dec. 8th, 1888 : —

Professor Babes has found that cattle in the low marshy ground on the
banks of the Lower Danube are exceedingly subject to albuminuria, which is-
often confounded with rinderpest. It has fortunately been much less common
during the last few years, owing to the stringent police sanitary regulations
which have been enforced. Still, from 30,000 to 50,000 head of cattle are even
now annually destroyed by it, the bulls being by far the most numerous victims,
heifers and cows appearing to have less disposition to contract the disease. A
special coccus has been found which refracts light powerfully. It has a
diameter of about half a millimetre, and presents very much the characters
of the gonococci. It can be cultivated in agar-agar at the temperature of the
body ; but Professor Babes has not yet succeeded in infecting animals by its
means.

CONGESTION OF THE KIDNEYS.

This results from interference with the heart's action or the
pulmonary circulation. It derives importance as signifying
these conditions, and hence it is necessary to give attention to it.

NEPHRITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS.

Nephritis, or inflammation of the kidneys, is fortunately only
rarely met with among cattle. The disease, moreover, only
seems to afflict working oxen. In the case of the horse, the
disease, when it breaks out, is usually found to result from the
excessive administration of diuretic agents of an irritating kind,
given unwisely with the view of improving the condition of the
animal. Nephritis may arise in any animal as a consequence
of injury, and of an extension of inflammation from other
structures near.

Symi'TOMS. — If both kidneys be aifected, the urine may be
almost entirely suppressed, although it is only rarely completely
suppressed. Febrile signs are exhibited, the appetite is lost,

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 571

the skin has a staring character, and there may he acute pain
manifested, if the loins be pressed. If the suppression of urine
he continued, ursemia may set in, and the animal may become
comatose and convulsed, and death may ensue. The urine has
a very high specific gravity, and contains albumen and blood-
cells and casts of the renal tubules.

However, nephritis may be limited to one kidney, and, if so,
it is generally due to the presence of a calculus or of calculi in
the pelvis of the kidney. If this be the case, the urine is thick
and small in amount, quickly becomes ammoniacal, and contains
much albumen, large quantities of pus, with perhaps blood.
Moreover, small amounts of urine are passed at frequent intervals
and with evident pain, and the animal strains and keeps on trying
to urinate, although on catheterisation the bladder is found to
be empty. The patient shows signs of pain, stands with arched
back, or, if made to move, progresses stiffly and with a
straddling gait. If the loins be pressed, acute pain is mani-
fested. Uraemia sets in, together with urinous sweats, and
after death one kidney, or both, may be found to be dis-
organized, reddened, and enlarged — i.e. in a state of suppurative
inflammation.

ACUTE INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS IN
LAMBS.

All good work in reference to the diseases of the sheep is
most welcome, and hence we now take the liberty of abstracting
the following account of acute nephritis in lambs from a paper
by Mr. W. Roger Williams, F.R.C.S., read before the Patho-
logical Society of London on April 6th, 1886. It seems that
the farmers around Dunchurch, near Rugby, having had serious
losses among the lambs in the spring, asked Dr. Unwin, of that
place, about this disease, and he wrote to ask Mr. Williams to
investigate the malady. The latter gentleman received the bodies
of two lambs, one of which had died of the disease, the other
having been killed whilst suffering from it when nearly three
weeks old.

When the first body was opened, the bladder was found to be
moderately distended with turbid whitish urine, which, after
standing, deposited a great deal of albuminous sediment. This
was collected and examined, and found to contain albumen.

572 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

The urine itself was acid in reaction. No casts, no crystals, no
pus, and no blood, could be detected by the aid of the microscope;
but the kidneys, when removed and examined, presented well-
marked signs of disease. The capsules separated very readily,
leaving exposed a yellowish surface mottled with congested
stellate veins. The cortex, when cut into, was seen to be
swollen, pale yellow in colour, and exceedingly soft. Moreover,
the pyramids were firm and of a deep red colour.

Microscopical examination of the kidneys revealed the fact
that the disease was acute tubal nephritis. All the uriniferous
tubules of the cortex were greatly distended and choked up by
the swollen and degenerated epithelium cells. In the case of
the greater number of the sections, the outlines of the cells
themselves could not be distinctly seen, though the nuclei could
often be made out. The cells were in such an advanced stage
of granular degeneration that for the most part they did not
stain with logwood, although the Malpighian vessels and
adjacent structures did take this stain. Indeed, the Malpighian
vascular tufts were very prominent, while their linings of epithe-
lial cells were in an advanced stage of granular degeneration,
and, like the cells of the uriniferous tubules, they were not
stained by the logwood, and could scarcely be distinguished. All
the tubules of the cortex of both kidneys were affected, but
the interstitial tissues were quite normal in appearance, and the
epithelium of the tubules of the pyramids was but slightly
affected.

The kidneys of the other lamb presented quite similar, but
not such decided changes. The skeleton, the brain, the spinal
cord (which was microscopically examined), and likewise the
navel, were all free from signs of disease.

The following were the symptoms as gleaned partly from Dr.
Unwin, and partly from Mr. Goodacre, a farmer, who lost scores
of lambs. As soon as born, the lambs looked weak, and the
disease itself generally appeared soon after birth, or some lambs
were even born almost lifeless and died soon afterwards. DiflB-
culty in walking is one of the first symptoms, the lambs reel
about, and subsequently entirely lose the power of walking, and
even that of standing, and the weakness increases very rapidly,
and at length the animals fall down and remain lying on one side.
The loss of power is seen in all the limbs cquallv. The lambs

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 673

suck with great avidity when the teat or bottle is brought to
them, and in this way they may be kept alive for two or three
weeks; but if they are not supplied with milk from a bottle or
otherwise, they soon die, and when afflicted with this disease
they always die in the long run, generally as a direct conse-
quence of the disease, but sometimes also as a result of falling
into some ditch, pit, or pond.

Dr. Unwin, who had a lamb suffering in this way under
observation in his paddock for nearly a fortnight, observed that
the little animal was capable of eating and drinking when food
was brought to it as freely as a healthy lamb, that it was quite
conscious, and had no cough or difficulty in breathing, and that
its excretions looked normal. Yet it could not stand, but would
struggle and kick violently as it lay on its side. There was
apparently no loss of sensation, for the prick of a pin applied to
each of its extremities could be felt. If placed on its feet, the
little creature immediately dropped on its side, and tremors and
choreic movements would come on and continue for some time.
Grazing, while the animal lay in this recumbent position, was
out of the question.

The malady may, it is said, sometimes terminate in the joints
becoming enlarged owing to the accumulation of pus "in them,
and pus may also appear along the course of the spine.
This, however, may be really pyaemia occurring in connection
with suppuration of the remains of the umbilical cord. The
disease has been known to break out on some farms for many
years, being more prevalent in some years than in others. It
was rather general in and near Dunchurch, and it seemed to
aflFect chiefly the lambs of ewes which had recently been imported
from Scotland. In the spring of the year 1884 some farmers
lost two or three Iambs, whilst others lost dozens.

It seems that the disease for the most part occurs in the off-
spring of ewes of the black-faced horned Scotch and Cheviot
breeds recently brought from Scotland, by home-bred rams,
although at times an ewe of the country may also bring forth
lambs affected with the disease. One home-bred ram was allowed
to run with 50 or 60 ewes, but the lambs were weakly, and
frightful losses occurred from sheep-rot. In order to obviate
this liability, the above-mentioned foreign ewes were imported^
and about the same number of ewes were run with each ram as

574 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

before. Mr. Goodacre, however, tried the effect of running one
ram with only ten ewes, and the result was that many of the ewes
■had two lambs, and in all cases the lambs appeared to be un-
usually strong. Ewes are brought from Scotland, and about
•three weeks afterwards those which are healthy are put with a
ram.

It cannot be said that there is any difference in regard to the
liability to this disease between the two kinds of ewes, viz. those
Avhich are imported and those which are home-bred ; but great
oare should be taken to ensure that those from Scotland, coming
as they do from a hilly country, where in a half-wild state they
subsist on meagre diet, should be quite strong and healthy before
they are used for the purpose of breeding. The district in which
the disease broke out was a gently undulating grazing country,
with plenty of large trees, high hedge-rows, and coarse rank grass.
The soil was cold, heavy, wet, and clayey, and at the time of
lambing the east winds were very cold and severe.

Mr. Williams considers the disease to be due to the following
two causes : — In the first place, there can be no doubt that the
ewes must be injured by sudden exposure to rigorous conditions
without previously having been gradually acclimatised, and, in
consequence, they may give birth to lambs either suffering or on
ihe point of suffering from disease. Darwin has shown the
great susceptibility of the reproductive system, and especially of
that of female animals, to changed and abnormal conditions in
the environment. Even monstrosities may be artifically produced
in the offspring by exposing parents to certain extraordinary
conditions of life without any obvious abnormalities being pro-
duced in the parents themselves. Possibly there may be only
disturbed action of the kidneys in the mothers, but doubtless
this may be transmitted to the lambs in the exaggerated form of
actual and acute disease.

In the second place Mr. Williams thinks — and no doubt he is
dght in so thinking — that one of the causes of the disease is the
fact of one ram being put with so many ewes. It appears to be
the fact that more than a single spermatozoon is, in the case of
the higher plants and animals, requisite to properly fertilise the
ovum. Newport has shown that when only a small number of
■spermatozoa are applied to the ova of batrachians they are only
^partially impregnated, and the embryo is never developed.

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 575

Again, Naudin's experiments on mirabilis are especially
interesting, for when he fertilised a flower with three grains of
pollen he succeeded in obtaining perfect seed ; but when he used
only two grains, and finally a single grain, in a series of
seventeen experiments, he only succeeded in getting two seeds
formed, and the plants produced from these seeds never reached
the ordinary dimensions^ and their flowers were remarkably small.
Our readers will, then, observe that it is unwise to bring ewes
from the hills of Scotland, or from any other far-distant place,
just before the time of mating. Every breeding animal should be
acclimatised before being impregnated ; and, moreover, it is a very
grievous mistake to run too many ewes with one ram under any
circumstances, and especially in the case of abrupt crosses, as,
for instance, betwixt Scotch and English breeds.

VRJEMIA.

Uraemia is a most serious disease, occasioned by the more or
less complete cessation of the excretion of the waste products
of the body which the kidneys ought to separate from the blood.
It supervenes in cases of inflammation of tlie kidneys, espe-
cially when both those organs are involved. Wlien these excre-
tory organs are out of working order, the function ordinarily
performed by them is in a large measure thrown upon the skin,
bowels, and liver ; but these structures cannot do the necessary
work, and indeed the renal mischief is frequently due to their
functions being checked, and the result is the condition known
as ursemia, in which the blood contains an excess of waste pro-
ducts. The blood always, even in healthy animals, contains
some urea.

H.-EMATURIA, OR BLOOD IN THE URINE.

This disorder may be due to injuries, such as may be pro-
duced by straining, falling into ditches, or by oxen leaping on
one another; also to acute congestion or ulceration of the kid-
neys or urinary passages, administration of too much of a
diuretic drug or drugs, the eating of acrid plants, some forms
of general blood disease, the presence of calculi, or, according
to Mr. John Brett, M.R.C.V.S., as a sequel to tuberculosis of
the kidney.* This writer records that he was called to a case

* Vide The Veterinarian for October 1887.

576 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

of so-called " red water," which had been some weeks pre-
viously under apparently successful treatment ; but during the
last few days before he was summoned to attend the cow she
had become rapidly worse. The animal had been fed on large
quantities of rank, coarse, innutritions grass grown on poor sandy
land, irrigated with the refuse liquor from bone and glue works.
The cow was found to be in the recumbent posture, occasionally
taking a mouthful of grass, and then turning her head round
to the left side and groaning. The pulse was feeble, the respira-
tions were accelerated, and the temperature was 102° F.

Two days afterwards the cow had lost flesh, the pulse was
scarcely perceptible, the temperature had fallen to 101^ F., and
the pain was not so acute as before. The urine was dark red
in colour, had a fetid odour, and its specific gravity at 60° F.
was 1,015. The reaction was alkaline, there were no blood
clotSj but many blood cells and tube casts. Now the average
weight of an ox's kidney is said to be about 1^ lb., but the right
kidney in this case weighed as much as 5 lb. 12 oz. (avoir-
dupois). It was soft, flabby, and high-coloured, several of the
lobules being almost black. The capsules of the lobules were
thickened, and in certain places corrugated and detached.
Tuberculous nodules, indicating different stages of the disease^
were found in every lobule. In several lobules the whole of the
inner part or medulla was gone.

vSymptoms. — There is in this disorder a frequent discharge of
small quantities of urine, containing, as a rule, coagulated blood.
Pressure on the loins may bring on pain, the animal stands with
the back arched, moves with a staggering gait, and may manifest
febrile symptoms.

Treatment. — If the disease is the result of an injury,
attempts must be made to heal it. Cold enemas and the
application of cold water to the loins may be recommended.
Demulcent drinks and small doses of oil are beneficial, the diet
should be laxative, and such ha3mostatic agents as diluted sul-
phuric acid and the acetate of lead may bo administered in
suitable doses.

RETENTION OF URINE.
Retention of urine may be owing to obstruction on the one
hand, or to a want of expulsive power on the other. For

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 577

example a loss of strength in the bladder itself may be due to
nervous lesions, as in apoplectic cases. As a rule when the
retention is due to. nervous disorder, there is incontinence of
urine, the overfull bladder dribbling out its contents. Again,
the retention may be due to spasm of the neck of the bladder,
which may or may not be coupled with inflammation. Reten-
tion may also be, and usually is, due to a blocking up of the
urethra by calculi or other obstructions, or to the presence of
hardened feces in the rectum. The bladder may even burst,
without the manifestation of much suffering on the part of the
animal. As a rule, however, the ox is very irritable when
suflTeriug from retention of urine, lashes the tail, lifts up the
hind limbs and places them on the ground again, perhaps rises
and lies down again frequently, tries to pass water, and looks
anxiously round at the flank. The only measure which can be
of any advantage is to pass the catheter.

The name of dysuria is given to the painful expulsion of
urine, and that of strangury to the painful passage of that fluid
drop by drop as occurs in spasm or inflammation of the neck of
the bladder.

A pervious condition of the urachus in calves may lead to a
constant dribbling of urine through the umbilicus. A ligature
around the umbilicus or sutures may be tried. The condition
may disappear. It is most frequent in animals that have been
born prematurely.

PARASITES AND CONCRETIONS.

Parasites have been found in the kidneys of the ox, but not so
often as in those of the horse.

Stones or calculi may sometimes be present in the kidney.
There may be several of them. They are irregular, dense, and
laminated, and they vary a great deal in size, and in the effects
which they produce. They may cause chronic suppurative
nephritis. The best course in these cases is usually to be found
in fattening the animal and then slaughtering. If, however, it
is preferred to treat the patient, stimulants may be tried, unless
there is much pain requiring to be assuaged by opiates. The
medicine indicated will vary with the particular circumstances
of each special case. Sometimes a small stone may pass from
the kidney into the duct leading from that organ to the bladder,

37

578 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

and known as the ureter. The calculus may become lodged
therein, and such passage may cause severe pain. The suffering
animal strains, stamps the feet, lashes the tail, looks round at
the side as if in wonder whence comes the torture. Relief may
be obtained by the judicious administration of opiates.

Agaiuj stones may be formed in the bladder. This is more
frequently an affection of male animals. It is often due to the
presence of a large quantity of certain salts in the food or water
— for instance, to a considerable amount of phosphates in oilcake
or turnips. In all cases of calculus the dietary should be looked
to, and a plentiful supply of water allowed. The patient moves
in a straddling manner, and is stiff in the region of the loins.
With regard to the flow of urine in these cases, it may often be
free at first, and then suddenly stop short, apparently because the
stone falls into the neck of the bladder, thus obstructing the
channel. Should the stone pass out of the bladder, and become
fixed in the urethra, then obstinate retention of urine is the
result, and so great may be the pressure of the fluid from above
that actual rupture of the urethra may occur. It is not
infrequent in cases of stone in the bladder to find blood in the
urine.

Of the three operations which might be resorted to, viz.
artificial dilatation of the urethra by little inflated bladders or
otherwise, crushing of the stone by means of instruments made
for that purpose, or cutting for the stone, not one seems to be
usually very advisable in the case of the ox ; but advice should
be sought. In the case of female animals, perhaps, more success
may be hoped for. Should the calculus be present in the urethra,
as is not very uncommon in the ox, a longitudinal' or oblique
incision may be made along that canal over the stone, that is in
case it can be found, and provided that its position renders
this step advisable. The patient must not be cast, as the violence
of the fall may bring on rupture.

Finally, prseputial calculus may be removed by cutting away
the hairs at th(; pra3putial orifice.

Now, the first subject in this connection in regard to aliet'i) ^^
that of urethral calculi. These are frequently found to be
present in sheep kept in certain districts, as, for instance, on the
Cotswold Hills. The calculi are doubtless for the most part formed
in the urinary bladder, and then pass along the urethral canal.

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 579

Sheep afflicted with the presence of these stones in the urethra are
dull and restless, pant and grunt, abstain from taking their food,
attempt to urinate^ and rise up and lie down alternately. These
symptoms, and especially the abdominal pain, increase in point
of severity, marked febrile signs manifest themselves, and, unless
relief is obtained, the suffering animals at length die. In some
■cases, however, recovery may take place spontaneously, owing to
the escape of the calculus through the urethral canal at a place
above the vermiform process. If this occurs in rams, they are
thereby rendered useless for breeding purposes. If, as is usually
the case, this does not happen, it is advisable for the surgeon to
■cut with care down on to the calculus, and then to remove it.

Occasionally sheep may discharge the material which in the
•general way composes calculi, and in these cases the deposit
may be detected in the urine, and the bladder is irritated by
the presence of the calculus-forming sediment. Owing to this
deposition of phosphates, strangury may occur in rams and
wethers. The cause is no doubt the consumption of food which
is rich in phosphates. Moreover, preputial calculi may be
present on the wool around the prepuce of sheep. In these cases
the triple phosphates, being deposited from the urine, block up
the urethra, and escape of the obstructing material is prevented
by the presence of the vermiform appendage. Indeed, rupture
of the bladder may often occur, and after death has resulted,
general congestion is observed, and an odour like that of urine
pervades the body.

The only effectual method of doing any real good is either to
cut off the vermiform appendage in order to allow of the escape
of the deposit, or to cut into the urethral canal itself above the
place where the obstruction exists. In very mild cases aperients
and mineral acids may be highly beneficial.

CYSTITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.

Cystitis, or inflammation of the bladder, is very rare in the ox.
It may, however, arise from the use of cantharides, or may
result from injuries. The whole bladder, or the neck only,
may be implicated. There is retention of^ urine, which, when
evacuated, is found to contain albumen. Anxious looking
at the flank with general anxious expression indicate pain,
and acute febrile symptoms come on. The urine should be

37 *

580 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

drawn off with a catheter, and then warm sedative solutions,
such as infusion of poppies, may be injected into the bladder.
Some regard the introducing of a catheter and of injections as
likely to make the inflammation worse. Discretion must be
used, and the treatment necessary will vary according as the
inflammation is acute or chronic, and as the animal be a male
or a female. Warm or hot water should be applied to the
abdomen. The main thing is to give abundance of simple
watery gruel, and nothing else whatever.

Inversion of the bladder in the cow may take place in conse-
quence of excessive parturient pains. The patient should be
slaughtered in most cases. The organ may, however, be returned
after the straining pains have ceased.

Turning now from the consideration of the ox to that of
human beings, by way of conclusion, we may say that the diseases
of the urinary mechanism in mankind may often be guarded
against by care. Our readers will perhaps know that it is not
only because active exercise calls forth the functions of the
various secretory and excretory organs — amongst which last the
kidneys are to be reckoned as perhaps the most important —
that it is to be regarded as one of the essential conditions
of health in a normally constituted and healthy human being or
animal, but also because in the case of mankind it certainly is
a fact — and one, too, that is not very generally \inderstood —
that worry, anxiety, and excessive mental toil do bring on various
derangements of the urinary apparatus. It will, then, be very
clear to those who think about this matter that any causes which
interfere with the due discharge of the excretory functions
cannot but be productive of serious damage, and should, there-
fore, be avoided with the uttermost care.

It is a very great mistake to look upon the kidneys in the light
of simple filtering mechanisms. True, they remove water from
the system ; but the substances contained in the fluid, and
especially that which is called urea, are of the very greatest
significance. It should be remembered also that the excessive
mental work which some men indulge in cannot but produce in
due course the most disastrous effects. That pernicious practice
called cramminf/, which so many boys and girls, and young men
and maidens — aye, and older people too — indulge in, or arc sub-
jected to, is most ruinous to the constitution. From every point

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 581

of view it is a very wrong thing indeed to overtax the mental
powers. Far more dangerous is it to do this tlian to perform an
unduly hard day's physical work. It is high time that all who
have the power to do so should speak out, and even shout from
the housetops, against the terrific evils, the monstrous inqui-
sitions, the shatterings of the constitutions of boys and girls,
which have resulted, and do result, from one of the most abomi-
nable and detestable of all modern excrescences. Need we say
we allude to the examination craze.

How long will it be before parents begin to find out that the
best work in the world, and even good work, has very, very
seldom been evoked in response to the artificial and irritating
stimulus supplied by examinations ? In the case of the learned
professions they may be necessary evils, but, when carried to the
pitch now in vogue, they are responsible for the most disastrous
ruin of many careers which might otherwise have been bright,
and happy, and useful.

Cases of overwork are generally most clearly shown by damages
to the nervous system and to the kidneys. Undue mental toil,
especially if undergone immediately or soon after meals, will
bring on indigestion, and incapacity for a continuance of work.
If the urine is examined, it will often in these cases be found to
be neutral and to contain suspended phosphates. There are, of
course, otlier disorders of the kidneys in mankind, which from
the frequency of their occurrence are only too well known. Of
these we may here just mention that sometimes albumen and
sometimes sugar escapes through the kidneys. The former of
these diseases is known as albuminuria, which is synonymous, at
least in very many cases, with Bright's disease, and the latter as
glycosuria or diabetes mellitus. In fact, so usual is it that ill-
health is associated with some disturbance in regard to the
excretion of urine, that one of the first things which a careful
physician will usually do will be to test the condition of this fluid.
A healthy state of the kidneys, and the correct working of this
excretory apparatus, are among the first essentials of healthy life,
and the urinary mechanism is, moreover, one of those vital
systems which on examination are often found to be out of gear
both in man and animals.

582 THE DISEASES AND DISOfiDEKS OF THE OX.

SECTION VIII.— THE SKIN AND THE DISOEDEBS
CONNECTED THEREWITH.

Alike in animals and in man, the possession of a beautiful
and healthy skin is an enviable one. Not only does it impart
an attractive appearance, but it also to a large extent implies a
good state on the part of the whole bodily frame. This, how-
ever, must not be considered as an infallible sign, for many who
are very great sufferers from internal disease may yet look
thoroughly well in regard to the skin. Hence, although ccBteris
paribus a fine skin is a most desirable gift or acquisition, still
the mere possession of it is not a certain and sure proof of health.
On the other hand, an unthrifty look must always be considered
as a mark of bad condition, of ill-health.

Furthermore, among mankind^ perhaps, there are few persons
who, rather than show a tell-tale complexion or an unsightly
eruption on the hands or face, would not prefer to be aflBicted
with some minor ailment which would not be observed. The fact
is, that the majority of people have a great horror of skin diseases,
and they very often set them down as being far worse than they
really are. No doubt some of this aversion springs from a kind
of idea or belief that skin affections are, as a rule, parasitic in
origin. Of course, this is by no means always the case, and it
may be added that in the hands of a doctor who knows his work
those diseases of the skin which are parasitic in (character are for
that very reason to be less feared than many others which but
too often point to a general disturbance, or even the gravest
possible diseases of the system at large.

Strange as it may seem, men, and even women, often allow
skin ailments to proceed without seeking good and wise treat-
ment at the hands of a clever doctor. Now, if this is the case
among human beings — and that it is so cannot admit of serious
doubt when one observes the large number of curable skin
diseases in one's fellow-men — how little surprise need we feel
when we find that many owners of oxen are by uo means
solicitous as to the cure of ringworm or other afflictions of the
skin among beasts. No doubt, however, more care will be
taken concerning tbese and allied points, so soon as farming
begins to look up again, for which state of things we in England
are all hopefully waiting.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 583

There is some little difficulty in treating nicely and
scientifically of the diseases of the skin. Although a great deal
is known about the skin diseases of oxen — albeit much more
remains still to be learned — yet there is not so very much which
is of real practical utility, so far at least as science has already
advanced in this direction. They are, in short, more interesting
from the scientific than from the business-like point of view.
Our readers will, of course, understand that this is very far from
being the case in regard to the disorders which attack the human
skin, the treatment of which has advanced to a high degree of
precision. Yet the skin diseases of all animals present numerous
points of relationship, and hence throw light upon those which
afflict human beings.

One of the obstacles to a judicious consideration of our
subject springs from the well known fact that the skin in all
classes of animals suffers as the result of various general or blood-
diseases, and consequently some kinds of eruption on the skin
may, in whatsoever animal they appear, be signs of the severest
of diseases. For instance, we find the skin of the ox attacked
in cow-pox, epizootic aphtha, purpura hgemorrhagica, scarlet
fever, rinderpest, and so on. In our remarks we shall for the
chief part confine ourselves to diseases of the skin, qua diseases
of the skin, and not in reference to their effects on, or their
connection with, the system at large.

The ox's skin is tough and covered with hair, and it differs
with regard to the closeness of its connection with the
underlying tissues, being very loose in some parts, as, for
instance, where it forms the dewlap. In a healthy animal it
is soft and pliable, and the coat is glossy and smooth ; but in an
unhealthy one it is very liable to become dry and also tightly
bound down to the tissues subjacent to it. The ox is then
spoken of as being " hide-bound,^' In these cases the sebaceous
secretion whereby the glossy appearance is imparted in a healthy
ox is imperfectly produced. Sometimes a mild cathartic dose
may be very beneficial, but the primary caiise should always be
looked to.

Hide-bound is generally accompanied by a ** staring coat,"
which is occasioned by the hairs standing more or less upright,
the minute muscles which move them being contracted. This
" staring coat," as it is very suggestively termed, is, however.

584 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

but too frequently characteristic of the beginning of a febrile
disorder.

The skin may be roughly divided into three parts. Of these
the most external is the cuticle^ that hard portion which is so
familar as that which is raised by the action of a blister. In
this layer there are small pores through which the hairs pass.
Next comes the rete mucosum, wherein the colouring-matter is
deposited. Most internally placed comes the cutis or true skin,
which contains nerves, blood-vessels, sebaceous and sudoriferous
glands, and bundles of connective tissue. The sebaceous glands
secrete an oily fluid, whereby that glossy look which is seen in
animals whicli are laying on flesh and doing well is imparted.
The sudoriferous or sweat-glands pour out the perspiration.

Now we proceed to deal with the disorders to which the skin
is subject — first, those which are not parasitic, and then those
which depend upon the presence of parasitic organisms, whether
animal or vegetal. Speaking generally of them all, we may
say that one very great point in regard to treatment is that the
strictest cleanliness should be enjoined.

ERYTHEMA.

Simple erythema consists in a bright redness diffused gene-
rally over the surface of the skin, and more or less regularly
exhibited. When pressure is applied, this redness disappears,
but it is soon renewed after the pressure is removed.
This affection is only rarely seen for many days as a simple
erythema except in parts affected by parasites. On the contrary,
in the general way erythema becomes complicated by the
formation of vesicles or even of pustules. An erythematous
skin may, in short, develop vesicles which may become confluent
and may exude a gelatinous sticky fluid whereby the hair on the
surface of the skin may be matted together. The vesicles may
become pustular, and the skin may ulcerate, and slough off in
parts. In some cases erythema remains simple, the cuticle is
shed, and the skin again becomes healthy. In the case of
patients which have died when suftering from simple erythema,
the redness can be seen to be confined to the outer layer of the
skin, as is shown if a transverse section be made, while the
deeper portion is not as a rule much affected.

Now, simple erythema may become chronic, especially upon

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 585

the teats of sheep ftnd cows, in which case the skin usually soon
begins to crack, and from the thick edges of the cracks a thin
gelatinous fluid may be exuded. This fluid may, it seems,
infect the lips of lambs and calves. In the cow an erythema of
the udder in some cases is, it seems, due to a constitutional
specific infection, the vesicles which are formed containing
matter which Mr. Power found to cause scarlet fever in man,
and which Dr. Klein has fully investigated [vide " Scarlet
Fever," pages 328-357).

When this condition affects the udder in a severe form, mere
handling of the teat may produce very great pain, and in these
cases the milk should be drawn away by means of a teat-syphon,
and on no account should the milk be used for dairy purposes.
The calf should be removed, and, if the mouth be affected, it
should be dressed with a suitable preparation. The udder should
be dressed with the ointment of Eucalyptus or that of salicylic
acid. In some cases it may be well to apply a layer of

i(

Fig. 74. — Milk-Tobe.

medicated cotton-wool to the surface of the udder, and to
support this organ by means of a broad bandage tied round
the back. A cathartic drench should also be administered, and
other suitable measures should be carried out by the veterinary
surgeon.

As we have just said, chronic erythema may manifest itself
on the udders of ewes and on the lips of lambs, and it is
generally met with in the spring, at which season the animals
are plethoric. Chronic erythema may develop into an aphthous
or ulcerous eruption on the lips and udders respectively, the
disorder being transmitted from the one to the other. In these
cases it may be found advisable to draw ofF-the milk by means
of teat-tubes or otherwise, and if the lambs are permitted to
suck, the teats should at least be protected by means of a gutta-
percha shield ; for, if no such measure be taken, the teats may,
by reason of the rough usage to which they are subjected, be
very deeply eroded. When this is the case, the best plan is to

586 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

put the ewes on a scanty pasture apart from the lambs, and to
apply to the affected parts both at night and in the morning a
mild antiseptic ointment, such as that of boric acid or that of
salicylic acid, previously washing away with warm water the dirt
which may have collected.

Again, sheep may be afflicted with an eruption of ulcers on
the lips and on the legs, and so great may be the disturbance
thereby engendered that the animals may actually die ; but, if so,
we shall generally find on examination that there has been a
more probable cause of death, namely, disease of the lungs. In
other words the fatal issue was probably brought about by the
lung mischief. Now, it is of great importance to note that in
Canada the aphthae have been found in connection with (and
probably in causal connection with) a microscopic living animal,
an amoeba, one of the simplest and lowest of all animals. This
same microscopic animal was also found to be present in the
water wherein the sheep often stood. Dr. Dallinger's investi-
gations would seem to indicate that the amoebae are intermediate
conditions of a great number of monad forms of life. The
elucidation of the life-history in such cases requires a vast
amount of patient and able research. An ointment such as that
of boric acid or that of salicylic acid may be applied to the
affected parts, and the sheep should be well sheltered, and good
food in fair amount should be supplied to them.

ERYSIPELAS.
This disorder manifests itself by a diffuse inflammation of the
whole thickness of the corium, sometimes also involving the
subcutaneous connective tissue. Pain and febrile symptoms are
exhibited. Erysipelas may be brought on by injuries, by strong
external applications, by burns, scalds, &c. The skin is very
red, and this redness does not disappear when pressure is
applied. The tissue underneath the skin is also inflamed, and
the inflammation may disappear, or on the other hand it may
go on to ulceration, mortification, or gangrene. It is well to
give a cathartic drench, and to apply suitable soothing prepara-
tions to the inflamed parts. Simple lard may do good if
nothing better is at liand. Some veterinarians have recom-
mended thiit the affected part should be demarcated from the
rest of the skin by applying a strong solution of uitraie

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP.

587

of silver along its outer margin. We have no faith in this
method.

Erysipelas in sheep likewise is a disorder which consists in a
diffuse inflammation of the skin and areolar tissue coupled with
febrile symptoms. Simple erysipelas may occur in all animals ;
but it seems to be more especially liable to break out in sheep
and dogs. A sheep in a plethoric condition may suddenly have
its secretions arrested, or may receive an injury or injuries, as
for instance during the process of being sheared, or may have
cracked heels, and as a consequence of any of these causes it
may suffer from erysipelas. A stimulant such as the sesqui-
carbonate of ammonium and an aperient such as about three
ounces of Epsom salts may be administered to a sheep, and an
antiseptic ointment may be applied locally.

ECZEMA.

If an animal is suffering from this complaint a number of

vesicles appear, in certain parts, on the skin, and the hair is

denuded. There is a great deal of itching, and the rubbing,

which is the consequence, renders the parts raw and red.

Fig. 7o. — Chronic Eczema. Psoriasis or Rat-fails.

Luxuriant growths of vesicles succeed each- other. If the
disease becomes chronic, the skin thickens and cracks. The
fissures may even become long sluggish ulcers. The growths
called *' rat-tails " may be produced, especially on one, two,
three, or all four legs. So great may be the damage, that the
hoofs may even slough. The patient should be kept in com-

588 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

fortable quarters, be well attended to, and at first treated with
laxative medicine. The parts may be dressed with suitable
preparations, containing lead and morphia. Regularly supplied
good food and strict cleanliness should be enjoined.

We are inclined to entertain the belief that many cases
included under the name Eczema take the distribution of nerves,
and are of the same nature as is Herpes in man.

HERPES CIRCINATUS.

In this disorder vesicles similar to those of eczema arrange
tliemselves in a gradually widening circle. Several rings of
vesicles may be formed. The vesicles burst, and the fluid dis-
charged dries and forms brown scabs or scales in about eight
and a half days, and the redness of the skin beneath gradually
dies away. The disease is not so common among oxen as it is
among horses,

IMPETIGO LABIALIS.

Eruptions may occur on or near the lips of young animals,
e.g. calves, lambs, young goats, and pigs. Round pustules may
frequently be seen on the lower lips of lambs. These may be
thickly studded, and become confluent. They may burst, and
the pus then forms a thick incrustation or scab, and after a few
days the scab may drop off, thereby exposing the cerium greatly
inflamed. Calves especially suffer from impetigo on the upper lip
extending to the mucous membranes of the mouth and nostrils.
The malady may possibly be due to the richness of the milk which
the young animal receives from the mother, or may be owing
to the acrid and irritating nature of the green food, e.g. to some
of the acrid plants which may grow in pastures. For instance,
lambs which are folded on long grass very wet with dew or rain
suffer from excoriations and pustules in the region of the
mouth, and, under such circumstances, may also display febrile
symptoms. In such instances it is advisable to change the diet
at once.

Impetigo may also aifect the face and lips of older animals
out at grass. An eruption of pustules may appear, and beneath
them there is n severe inflammation. It is advisable to cliange
the pasture, and a suitable ointment should be applied to the
parts. A drench of cathartic medicine may be useful.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 589

URTICARIA OR "NETTLE-RASH."
This skin affection coraes on suddenly and disappears sud-
denly. It shows itself by a number of elevations of the skin
about two and a half inches in diameter on the average. The
itching produced is great, the temperature of the part affected
is slightly increased ; but there is little or no tenderness or
fever. Cattle that have been badly kept in winter and have
quickly become plethoric are most liable to be attacked with
nettle-rash in the hot summer-time following. The hair is shed
after a few days, producing many bald patches, and the eruption
may disappear after about twelve days. A fairly strong saline
cathartic should be given, and a lotion containing glycerine,
carbonate of sodium and laudanum may be useful for applying
to the affected parts several times daily. Sulphur and bicar-
bonate of potassium may be given in the food. Cleanliness and
comfort are essential.

PRURIGO.
Prurigo is the disease sometimes known as " Spring-lice." It
is often met with among cattle, especially during the early parts
of the year. In cases of this malady the coat stares, the papillae
of the dermis are inflamed, pimples appear on the body and legs,
crusts are formed, and then thrown off together with the hair.
The treatment is the same as that for urticaria.

ECTHYMA.
Ecthyma is rare among cattle. A number of large prominent
and isolated well-defined pustules appear. They burst, andjpro-

FiG. 70. — Ecthyma.

duce a dark-coloured scab, which, on being detached, leaves a
brown stain. The pustules may often be seen on those parts of

590 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

cattle which are covered by thin skin and few hairs, as upon the
udder. The disease is liable to be mistaken for small-pox. The
treatment should be similar to that for urticaria.

This disorder of the integument in sheep, Ecthyma, has been
given to a pustular eruption which often breaks out in sheep in
the summer-time. The pustules are small and pointed, and they
ultimately dry up without leaving any scar. The eruption is
coupled with very little general disturbance of the system, and it
is not of much importance except on account of the fact that the
pustules may possibly be mistaken for those characteristic of the
very serious disease — sheep-pox. The term acne has also been
applied to this affection in animals.

FURUNCULUS, OR BOIL.

A boil is a small circumscribed swelling of the skin and sub-
cutaneous tissue, acutely inflamed, and having a central portion
which becomes gangrenous and requires to be removed. This
removal may, however, be safely left to nature to effect, or it
may be well to apply poultices or fomentations with a view to
hasten the process and relieve the pain.

CARBUNCLE.
Carbuncle differs from the preceding, mainly by reason of the
large amount of tissue which dies. The dead parts should be
removed by the knife, and antiseptic dressings should be used.
Stimulant tonics may be given internally.

PEMPHIGUS.
This word means a bubble. The skin gives out bladders in
all parts of the body, varying in size up to a fowl's egg, and
containing serum, or in severe cases pus and blood. A portion
of skin which is perfectly free from these bladders may be covered
with them in a few hours. They may disappear as rapidly as
they are formed, they burst or possibly dry up without bursting,
and their walls in drying form a thin brown scab, on the removal
of which the skin below may be seen to be red. The disorder
may become chronic, and last for months. Gentle purgatives and
afterwards alkalies are to be recommended. The bladders should
be opened, and astringent powders such as starch, or the oxide
of zinc ointment should be applied.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 591

PITYRIASIS.
Pityriasis is the name given to a scurfy condition of the
skin most frequently seen in young animals. A mild sedative
ointment and a change of diet are to be recommended.

NiEVUS.
Nsevus is the name given to a slight swelling or tumour
composed of blood-vessels. There is also generally some hyper-
trophy of the superficial layer of the dermis.

WARTS OR ANGLE BERRIES.
Warts or angle berries vary in size from that of a pin's head
to that of a large apple. They should be carefully removed by
means of the knife or the ecraseur, and the bleeding, if necessary,

Fig. 77. — IIcbasexjr.

may be stopped by the application of the hot iron. They may
also be removed by ligature,

ALOPECIA.
Alopecia, or falling off of the hair, may sometimes be cured by
mild repeated stimulation, such as by tincture of cantharides.

(EDEMA.
(Edema, or anasarca, or dropsy of the subcutaneous tissue of
the lower parts of the body, is not very rare in cattle. Careful
nursing, rubbing with the hand, and the administration of small
doses of digitalis may do a great deal of good.

EMPHYSEMA.
Emphysema is the name given to a condition of the skin
caused by the escape of gases resulting from decomposition into
the subcutaneous areolar tissue, as may be seen in some cases of

592 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

black-quarter. A stimulant may be administered, the surface
may be rubbed, and in certain cases the veterinary surgeon may
think it well to make incisions through the skin. It is generally
associated with marked debility in animals, and is best treated
by careful feeding.

Before we conclude our consideration of the skin by a discus-
sion of those which depend upon parasitic organisms, both
animal and vegetal, we wish to insist upon a very noteworthy
fact, and one which very many persons lose sight of, namely,
that the three intimately connected sciences of therapeutics,
medicine, and surgery, have in quite recent times made immense
advances towards perfection, and are still moving onward day by
day. So certainly and so much is this the case, alike iu human
and in veterinary practice, that it seems nothing less than
strange and well-nigh incredible that there are still some people
who are not slow to say they do not believe in medicine, and that
those who practise the avocation of healer, whether of men or of
animals, are sometimes not doing much real good.

Now, this is very far indeed from being true, and such state-
ments could never be made by those who can realise and
appreciate the far-reaching improvements which have been, and
are being, made. The fact is, that these sciences, so far from
lagging behind the other pursuits of mankind, are holding
their own in the very foremost ranks of progress ; and,
indeed, the ends to be gained, the results to be achieved, are of
the first importance to human health and human happiness.

Just to give one instance, selected almost at random out of
many, we may point to a single quite modern therapeutic appli-
ance which is of the utmost value to mankind — we refer to the
new local ana3sthetic, hydrochlorate of cocaine. We need only
remind our readers that by the local use of this drug certain opera-
tions are rendered painless, without the person or animal being
rendered comatose, a condition of the administration of chloro-
form, ether, and nitrous oxide. For operations on the eyes of
man, no less than of horses and dogs and other lower animals,
this salt is of very great value indeed. Similarly, for the removal
of small tumours and other abnormal growths, the use of this
new local anaesthetic is of wonderful practical utility, and cannot
fail soon to come into very general use.

This, however, is only one discovery ; and we might write

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 593

columns and columns on new drugs and appliances of yet more
paramount importance. There are others of still higher signi-
ficance than is hydrochlorate of cocaine, and it may be said,
without the least shade of a fear of contradiction, that, if the
science of medicine continues to progress in the course of the
next fifty years as it has undoubtedly progressed in a wondrous
degree during the last half century, our successors will indeed
have good reasons to congratulate themselves upon the immense
powers they will be able to wield over the insidious yet
manageable onsets of disease, and the premature threatenings
of the clutches of the ghastly monster, death.

Assuredly, we have no hesitation in affirming that the same
sciences, in so far as they bear upon the disorders of lower
animals, have in like manner made rapid and sure ascents up the
steep and arduous hill of discovery ; and it may be also very
appositely advanced that there are some cases in which these
latter acquisitions have helped on the knowlege possessed by
those whose avocation is that high and ennobling one, the cure of
human disease and the alleviation of human suflFering. As years
roll on, veterinary science must and will occupy one of the
highest positions, and those who are engaged in it will be fully
and adequately recognised as workers in the great cause of science
at large.

MANGE.*

The disorder known under the appellation of mange is con-
tagious, and due to the presence of a minute acarus in numbers
on the skin, and to the ravages produced by their burrowing
their way from the Hurface into the cuticle.

According to Gerlach there are two forms, viz. the Dermato-
decles bovis and the Si/mbiotes bovis, of which the latter is rare
and the former frequent. Our readers will understand that the
mange-spider of the ox is different from that of the horse, from
that which causes sheep-scab, and also from the Acarus scabiei
of man. In short, each animal is liable to be infested with
its own peculiar acarus living parasitically upon the skin, and this
acarus cannot become parasitic upon the skin of another animal,
though it will maintain vitality for a time. The Dermatodectes
of the ox is very frequently first found upon the withers and the

* Scabies is mentioned under " Parasitism," see pages 437 to 447.

38

594

THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OP THE OX.

root of the tail, and from these parts it extends over the body.
The hair of a mangy ox will come oflF here and there, and if the
dry scales which are present be removed, small raw pimples
discharging a yellowish serous fluid may be seen.

In order to be absolutely certain that the disease from which
an ox is suffering is really mange, a little scurf may be removed.

Fig. 78. — Dermatodectes Bovis (Gcrlach).

and should then be very carefully examined under the micro-
scope, in which case the acari may be observed. The acari can
sometimes even be seen by the aid of strong sunlight with the
naked eye as minute white points movinfr about rapidly. In
chronic cases the skin becomes thick aiui thrown into folds,
especially in those parts, such as the neck, breast, and thighs,
where it hangs loosely. The disease is more common among
debilitated, and especially among badly ki']it, animals, than among
those which are well looked after and in good condition. It is to

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 595

•"be well remembered that one ox afflicted with this complaint
will spread the disorder throughout the members of a herd, and
hence any ox observed to rub itself on account of being mangy
should at once be removed from the rest, and set apart to be
cured. All clothing and other things which have been in con-
tact with a mangy ox should be either destroyed or well purified
by submitting them to the influence of moist heat.

Treatment. — The skin should first be well washed with soft
soap and warm water. Some of the preparations used for the
cure of this disease are very poisonous, and apt to work far more
damage than the disease itself. Tar, or infusions of stavesacre
or of tobacco, are safe remedial agents. A change of the appli-
cation is sometimes advisable. Sulphur ointment (made of one
part of sublimed sulphur mixed with four parts of benzoated lard)
if thoroughly applied every other day or even twice a week for a
sufficiently long time over the skin, but, of course, especially on
and near the parts aflected, will be found to be an efficacious,
reliable, and pefectly safe remedy.

Mr. J. E. Dobson, M.R.C.V.S., in his valuable little book on
The Ox, recommended a preparation made up of equal parts of
oil of tar, oil of turpentine, and linseed oil, well mixed, and well
ruhbed into the skin by means of a brush every day. Before
each dressing, the skin should be well washed with carbolic acid
soap and warm water. Many owners of stock find it imprac-
ticable to have animals dressed with sufficient frequency and due
care ; but mange is a disorder which cannot be cured except by
frequent applications, continued for some length of time. A
good preparation may be made of sulphur (1 oz.). oil of
stavesacre (1 fluid drachm), and of lard (2 oz.).

" PHTHIRIASIS, OR LOUSINESS."
Lice are liable to affect oxen. There are several different
kinds. If the skin be washed with infusion of tobacco, the lice
may gradually be poisoned. Before each dressing, the skin
should be well washed. Care must be taken that these pests do
not get on to the skin of men, or anim^ils which may be
near. Another useful preparation may be made by boiling
stavesacre seeds with soft soap and water, or by taking five
ounces of stavesacre seeds and boiling in a gallon of water,
•until only about two quarts remain.

38 *

696 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OE THE OX.

WARBLES.

We have already treated of Warbles rather exhaustively under
the heading "Parasitism.'^ {Vide pp. 431 to 436).

EINGWORM.
This very contagious disease shows itself by a number of
round scabby patches about the size of half-a-crown. If they
are peeled off, a raw surface is exposed, whence a yellowish fluid
exudes, by the drying of which the scabs are formed. The rings
may unite to form large patches. They are generally seen about
the head, especially around the eyes (producing a grotesque kind
of spectacled appearance), behind the ears, on the shoulders,.
neck, back, and thighs, and, indeed, all over the body. The
disease produces a very unsightly appearance, and owners who
value the look of their herds should therefore employ measures to
rid their oxen of the complaint. There are two kinds of ring-
worm, viz. Tinea favosa and Tinea tonsurans.

Tinea Favosa.
Tinea favosa is the name given to that kind of ringworm
which is caused by the fungus AcJiorion Schonleinii, the origin
of which is due to spores which have penetrated hair-follicles.
The spores gain entrance into the hairs as well as into the
cuticle. It is said not to originate in oxen, but to be rather easily
transmitted to them from otiier animals. The crusts should be
removed, and the underlying parts should be dressed with one
fluid part of diluted sulphurous acid, mixed with about three
fluid parts of glycerine.

Tinea Tonsurans.
Tinea tonsurans is the name of that kind of ringworm which
is produced by the more simple fungus Trichophyton tonsurans,
which does not project as cups on the surface, as in the case of
Tinea favosa, but is manifested by the presence of a fine powder
on the skin. It is capable of being transmitted not only from
one ox to other oxen, but also to other animals and to human
beings. Hence great care must be taken. Circular patches,,
devoid of hair, are seen in various parts, and the skin is seen to
be scurfy, especially in the centre of the patches. The same

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 597

treatment is to be recommended; the pharmacopoeial ointment
of iodine is very valuable.

Tincture of iodine may be painted on with a stiff hair-brush.
Hyposulphite of sodium has also been found to be eflBcacious.

SECTION IX.— VITAL MOVEMENT AND THE DIS-
ORDERS OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION.

We have not very much to say under this heading in relation
to the sheep and the ox, partly because what might fitly be
introduced under it is otherwise classified, and need not be
repeated here, as for example an account of Foot-and-Mouth
Disease, and also a consideration of some surgical disorders.

Before we commence our subject proper, it seems not out of
place to say here a few words respecting the very important
subject of the causation of vital movement, which we accord-
ingly proceed to do forthwith.

THE CAUSATION OF VITAL MOVEMENT.
Dr. W. Kiihne, Professor of Physiology in the University of
Heidelberg, has for thirty years been engaged in investigations
concerning the terminations of nerves in muscles, and the ulti-
mate structure of muscles in many classes of animals. Move-
ment is an attribute of all living matter, of protoplasm, whether
animal or vegetable; and every living cell is spontaneously
active. The movement may go on in opposition to gravity, and
may overcome frictional resistance, and it results from chemical
processes taking place within the protoplasm itself, which pro-
cesses may be to some extent determined by outside forces.
Protoplasm reacts to stimuli just like muscle does, and electrical
stimulation especially first strengthens the movements, and then
brings the mass into a form having the least surface, i.e. a
sphere, as a result of prolonged maximal contraction. We must
look upon all movement as either originating automatically, i.e.
as a consequence of internal changes, or by external stimulation.
Even oxygen seems to be not actually necessary for movement
in some kinds of protoplasm. At any rate that gas can be dis-
pensed with for long periods. Delicate gradations can be traced
.betwixt the most homogeneous and formless protoplasm, through

598 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

cilia and flagella and the primitive muscles of infusoria to the-
highest forms, showing that fully-developed muscle is actually
poorer than elementary protoplasm, in the point that muscle
is wanting in automatism and elementary nervous properties.
The muscle-cell is not complete without the nerve-cell connected
with it by the continuous nerve-fibre, which may be several feet
long. Hence we have two separate cells united only for one
purpose, one being the nerve which excites, and the other the
muscle which obeys. It has been proved that nerve-branches
are not always present. Professor Kiihne has shown that small
pieces of fresh frog's muscle in which no nerve can be detected
by osmium-gold staining, whereby the finest nerve-fibres, if
present, can be displayed, neverthless twitched at each stimulus
not below a certain stimulus, and he has also proved the fallacy
of the statement that everything which excites the nerve makes
the muscle twitch, and vice versa. Furthermore, the same dis-
tinguished scientist has shown that motor nerves can conduct
centripetally, i.e. in a direction opposite to that in which im-
pulses generally travel along them ; also that the absence of
nerves from a portion of muscle can be absolutely proved by a
physiological test, and that it is not possible to excite the
motor nerve of a muscle-fibre by any stimulus to the nerve-ends-
within the muscle-fibre. Moreover, the excitement or contrac-
tion of a muscle does not travel back into its nerves. The great
majority of muscle-fibres are entirely free from nerves, the nerve-
endings being confined to very small tracts termed fields of
innervation. Hence muscle-fibres possess the power of propa-
gating their own excitation, the velocity of conduction being
from one-third to one-tenth of what it is for nerves. Thus the
nerve only introduces a stimulus to the muscle, which propa-
gates it by its own independent irritability in every movement
and throughout life. All the diff"erent kinds of stimuli, except
those which are gaseous, which are capable of acting on muscle
are capable of being resolved into the setting up of electrical
currents. Hence all irritability can be reduced to reactions to
electrical processes, and hence vital electricity is of immeasurable
importance. Nerve-endings in muscles show the hooked forms
of their branches turned as a rule towards each other, and also
the direct contact of the nerve-end with either the transversely
striped contents of the fibres or with the protoplasmic snrcoglia

DISEASES or THE OX AND SHEEP. 599

which traverses and penetrates it. The muscle-wave commences
in the field of innervation, and has indeed been actually fixed by
sudden hardening of muscles. Du Bois-Reymond has been
able with the galvanometer to render the excitation of nerves,
not attached to muscles or ganglion-cells, evident as the nega-
tive variation of the natural nerve-current, to cause movement
of a magnetic needle instead of a muscle, or to put the move-
ment of the needle in the place of sensation. The currents of
action of muscle were a long time ago proved to excite nerves,
and there are similar effects from nerve to nerve. Kiihne
has succeeded in practically uniting two muscles, the nerves
of which had been poisoned by curare, so that they acted as
one. Stimulation and contraction were propagated from one
end to the other. Any electrical insulation stopped the
current, and hence the first muscle must previously have excited
the second electrically. It seems, then, that muscle is ordinarily
excited by actual electric currents, and not merely by forces
resembling electric currents.

RHEUMATISM IN SHEEP.

We include, perhaps not altogether correctly, rheumatism
in this group of disorders of the organs of locomotion. Rheu-
matism usually breaks out in sheep in consequence of careless
and cruel exposure of these animals to wet and cold weather.
As might be expected, the disease is markedly prevalent in
low-lying, marshy districts, and, in fact, in all exposed situations;
and it is most generally met with in inclement and tempestuous
weather. In the general way it attacks old sheep or very young
ones. Occasionally rheumatism may manifest itself in an acute
form, when it is attended with severe febrile symptoms. More
usually the malady is chronic in character, and the walk may
be noticed to be stiff and cautious. If this is the case, the
disorder is not often completely eradicated.

We have previously considered somewhat in detail the disease
known as foot-rot. Now, in addition to this affection of the
organs of locomotion, there are two others "connected with the
same mechanism of locomotion which require a brief description
at our hands. These are arthritis or joint-ill, and rickets. We
also propose to discuss briefly a lamb-disease which broke out in
America in the spring of 1862. Possibly it was nephritis.

600 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

AKTHEITIS.
Arthritis is often met with both in this country and on the
Continent. It is indicated by a stiffness of movement, a ten-
dency to lie down constantly, swellings coupled with heat and
pain in the knee, hock, and stifle, joints. Febrile symptoms
are manifested, the animal loses appetite, becomes emaciated,
suflFers from diarrhoea, and may die within a few days. The
application of cold, followed by the use of tincture of iodine,
are beneficial, and iu some cases aperients may be given. Some
persons recommend tonics together with plenty of nourishing
gruel and other laxative diet. Should the disease be rheumatic
in nature, it may be well to apply counter-irritants locally and to
administer alkalies and salicylates internally.

Lambs from two to five weeks of age are very liable to swell
at the joints. Most frequently the knee is affected, the fetlock
is sometimes involved, while occasionally the hock is the seat
of disease. The joints are very much swollen, stiff, hot, and
painful. The animal is frequently stiff all over before the actual
swellings are seen, and it may crawl about on its knees, or even
be unable to rise from the recumbent posture. As a rule the
animal does not struggle much, but wastes away, and in most
cases either dies or else becomes incurably lame and worthless.
The malady is engendered by damp and cold, and the best
remedial measure is the application of warmth. The lambs should
be sheltered, their little limbs should be well stimulated by means
of a suitable embrocation, and also kept quite warm ; their bowels
should be kept open by suitable aperients, administered in very
small doses, and cordial medicine should be given in hot gruel.

If the animals are very severely affected, and especially if the
knee is attacked, the joint may swell and fill with tiuid, which
may become purulent. There is a general enlargement of the
limb, and eventually a stiffened joint. At or soon after their
birth, calves as well as lambs are very apt to suffer from this
kind of disease of the joints, which has the character of rheu-
matism. This affection must not be mistaken for scrofulous
joints. [n scrofulous lambs it frequently happens that the
joints are diseased at birth, or very soon after birth. If it is
decided to treat the case, salicylate of sodium or acetate of
ammonium in suitable doses may be tried. Moreover, starch

DISEASJ^S OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 601

bandages may be wrapped around the swollen joints. Should
the swellings become chronic in nature, preparations of iodine
or ointment of cantharides may be applied.

In this connection we may again point out how highly impor-
tant it is that sound breeding stock should always be selected.
Indeed, it is most necessary that the greatest possible care
should always be used in reference to the selection of animals
for breeding purposes. On no account should breeders employ
for that object sheep which have a thin neck, narrow chest and
loins, pot-belly, tender eyes, very small bones, and fine wool
distributed over the head, belly, and legs. It is also very
essential that sheep should be provided with good food, and that
they should take a sufficient amount of exercise.

FOUL IN THE FOOT.

Having completed our sketch of the skin diseases liable to
break out among oxen, we come now in due course to a con-
sideration of the disorder known as foul in the foot, the only
affection of the foot which needs discussion at our hands. The
degree to which this complaint advances varies a great deal. It
is not so very uncommon to find that a highly fetid discharge
issues from the cleft of the hoof, wherein a raw unhealthy surface
or sinuses may be observed. Portions of the hoof may come off,
and leave an exposed bleeding surface, which may suppurate and
even ulcerate. Fungoid granulations may arise, and these may
extend to the back part of the foot, and to the heel. The fetlock
may swell, and the animal may suffer intense pain, so much so,
in fact, as scarcely to be able to bear to put the feet to the
ground. The general health also suffers greatly, the animal
losing appetite, and, if a milch-cow, giving less milk.

Causes. — The horn, if growing irregularly, may split, or it
may cause rupture of tissues internal to itself. If cracks or
iissures exist, dirt may collect and bring on inflammatory action.
Again, a stone or other foreign body may get lodged into the
cleft of the hoof. If so, it should be removed, and the part
should be well cleansed and anointed with sCTme simple soothing
unguent. Otherwise, the irritation set up, being continued for some
little time, may give rise to the formation of pus, and if this pus
is closed up so that it canuot escape, as may easily be the case,
it becomes very offensive, and causes extension of inflammation

602 THK DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

into the adjoining parts. The most usual source of this afiBiction
of the foot is wet, whereby the hoof is first softened, and then
irritated and inflamed by protracted exposure to the three potent
influences for mischief — dirt, wet, and cold. Again, in some
cases the disease may spring from a rupture or other affection of
the ligament which connects tlie two divisions of the hoof.
Inflammation of the secreting glands and coronet may succeed
upon injuries to this ligament. Pus may be produced, and
burrow down among the bony tissue of the foot within the hoof.

Treatment. — Great care and the strictest cleanliness are
indispensable. The patient should be kept up in a clean, well-
built shed, the floor of which should be quite level, only so far
sloping as to allow of drainage away from the animal, and nicely
bedded down with good dry straw. The space between the
claws should be examined and well cleaned. If the upper edges
of the hoof or other portions of it are diseased, or broken and
loose, so as to favour the collection and imprisonment of pus,
they should be removed by means of a suitable sharp paring
knife. When the diseased parts have been carefully cut off, the
feet should be placed in linseed poultices, with which a suitable
mild antiseptic may be mixed. If it is preferred to do so, the
hoof may be nicely wrapped round with antiseptic tow or lint,,
and secured in position by means of a bandage passed between
the claws and tied round the leg above the foot. A good and
simple ointment for foul in the foot may be made of one part of
boric acid mixed with seven parts of lard.

We pause here to reiterate the necessity of thoroughly draining
the land. If this measure were always well carried out, farmers
would save a great deal of money in many different ways. For
instance, the disease of which we are now treating would be much
rarer than it is. Sometimes sheep or oxen may be unavoidably
kept on damp ground. When this is the case, Mr. George
Armatage, M.Ii.C.V.iS., recommends the use of the following
ointment once or twice a week : — Melt 1 lb. of Burgundy pitch,
with 1 lb. of mutton suet, over a slow fire, and then add 1 lb. of
Barbadoes tar, and mix thoroughly.

LAMINITIS.

Laminitis is not often met with among cattle, nor is it of very
great importance when it does occur in nn ox. Tlie dispnse may

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 603

be treated with a catliartic drench, rest, cold-water appHcations,
and with suitable internally-administered remedies.

SECTION X.—THE EYE AND THE EAR AND THEIR
DISORDERS.

THE EYE AND THE EAR.

Of the various channels wherewith we human beings, in com-
mon with animals, are enabled to communicate, and, so to speak,
to converse with the great throbbing heart of Nature, the chief
are these two organs, the eye and the ear, which, limited as they
undoubtedly are, are yet wondrously perfected and marvellously
fashioned for the purposes they so well subserve.

Speaking of mankind, we may say that this is especially true,
for in healthy human beings the most complex parts of these
important mechanisms of sight and hearing, i.e. the arrange-
ments in the central receptive structure, the brain, are of amazing
exactitude. Sometimes even we seem to hear and see the inmost
heart of the great Mother Nature herself, to realise in all their
weird intensity, in all their sublime and thrilling splendour, the
beautiful mysteries spread before our gaze.

There are times in the lives of most of us when we stay awhile
in our career towards that inevitable end which will soon come to
all of us, and stand, and listen in solitary silence to the solemn
sounds of the music of the universe. At such times as these the
Eternal Spirit seems verily to speak to us, and with us, to answer
our searching inquiries ; then, indeed, we seem to see her inmost
heart, we hear her wild shouts of rejoicing, her subdued and calm
sorrow, we feel her melancholy, her unfaltering resignation, and
thus we, too, are led to meet all things that shall be and must
be, rejoiced beyond measure to think and know that sooner or
later all must be well for those who never cease striving to do
wisely and well.

We hear the quiet sighs and silvery whispers, and heavy waiis
and dull, leaden croaks of sadness and misery and despair, and
now a joyous chorus of exultation, as the huge star-bespangled
■wheel of the universe turns slowly but surely round and round
and round. A message, a mission seems to be sent to each

604 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

listener from out the far-off distance, an irresistible word of
command that we should, each and all of us, so far as in us lies,
help each other upwards, onwards, and distribute the good
things we possess to this man and to that man, and to all men
that on earth do dwell.

Then, indeed, do we see with clearer vision the world with all
its manifold wonders standing out in boldest relief. The count-
less objects of irresistible beauty which meet our gaze seem to
tell us of some central secret and deep reality underlying all that
first strikes upon our view, something far deeper, and clearer,
and higher, and truer than we can fully grasp. It is only now
and again that we can see and hear and think these things; for
men's states of mind vary greatly, and just as their lowest powers
of perception differ from their highest, so do their lowest differ
from those of animals.

The powers of vision and of hearing which animals possess
are probably very dissimilar and wide apart from those of man-
kind. They lack many of the mental elements. We remember
being struck with a remark of the late Mr. Thriug's, in his
admirable little work on The Theory and Practice of Teaching.
He points out that a specially educated eye is requisite for the
seeing of certain objects. For instance, a book-worm, out for his
first day's shooting, may probably experience some difficulty in
seeing exactly the objects of his search at long distances, the
birds of the air as they are flying away from or towards him,
and possibly he will fail to observe a hare or a rabbit which his.
companion, the sportsman, on the contrary, sees so well as to
be easily able to take an unerriug aim.

This is undoubtedly very true, and it is equally indisputable
that an educated and trained ear is necessary, in order that cer-
tain sounds and combinations of sounds can be heard and
properly appreciated ; but there is another still more important
point to be caretully noted. Probably it is not so much the
actual seeing and hearing, i.e. the actual reception of sights by
the eye, or ol" sounds by the ear, as the correct mental analysis
and arrangement and representation by the brain of the things
heard or seen, that are most difficult of attainment. In short, it
may be urged that there are two distinct aspects both of seeing
and of hearing, and even that the two processes are in some
measure antagonistic.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 605

A dog, perhaps, hears, sees, scents, more keenly tluin a man
does ; but the mental processes going on in the canine brain ia
connection with the sights, sounds, and smells are of a very
direct, definite, and simple kind, and are very different indeed'
from the mental conceptions of a human being subjected to the
same or similar influences. Hence^ in animals, and among
savages, the kind of perception of sights and sounds and smells
which most directly conduces to direct self-preservation is that
which is most strongly possessed, and it is also this kind which
civilised human beings and domesticated animals have already
in many cases lost in great measure, and which they will probably
lose still more markedly, in proportion as the need for the '
exercise of those particular faculties is removed.

On the other hand, the savages and the lower orders of man-
kind are certainly more keen, in so far as their faculties of
hearing and seeing subserve direct self-preservation than more^
civilised and more highly cultivated human beings are. This is,,
in fact, a necessary order of things; for if the savage's brain
were occupied in unravelling the ins and outs of complex har-
monies and melodies, he would be liable to be tardy in getting
out of harm's way, and would probably soon be removed from
this world for ever.

Now civilised men and women have usually plenty of leisure
for acute analysis and introspection, and consequently they have
clearer mental views of what they see and hear, albeit this may
sometimes be at the expense of a less acutely sharpened readi-
ness in seeing and hearing. What they do see and hear, they
have an accurate and full perception of; but, at the same time,
they may be slow in regard to hearing and to seeing.

Of all the organs of sense, perhaps the most complex and
most marvellous is that by means of which we see what exists
and goes on around us. Probably none know so well the
transcendent pleasure of seeing as those who, having once
possessed good eyesight, are afterwards debarred by some illness
or some accident from the delights of vision. Not only is it an
almost indispensable necessity that we human beings should see
the things near and about us; but — and this is a point of great
importance — it is one of the greatest and purest pleasures of
which the human mind is capable to revel in the sight of the
beautiful prospects open to our view.

606 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Who has not felt at times that this is so ? What man or
woman has ever seen the picturesque sights of the world and
has not felt joy at beholding them? These beauties, too, are
not far to seek. Any of us can enjoy them with but little
effort. The sky is always above us, and it is full of glorious
combinations of colouring. The sea is never far away from us
in England, and what a beautiful sight — ever fresh, ever mag-
nificent, ever solemn and sublime — does it present ! Happy
are those who can derive their joy in living in some measure
from the natural wonders of the world, wonders of sight and
of song ; for the earth is full of grand harmonies, if we could but
hear them ! Does it not, then, seem a most important avocation
— that of the specialist in ophthalmic science ? The man or
the woman who has been made to see again — how thankful and
grateful ought he or she to be to the benefactor who has indeed
acted as a friend in need !

There are very many disorders of the eye thoroughly well
known, and all or nearly all can be remedied, while many of
them can be actually cured. The local use of cocaine has
simplified some operations, and the removal of a cataract is in
these days much more easily and effectually performed than was
formerly possible. In the case of human beings, the eye has
received — as it deserved to receive — the most patient and pro-
longed investigation, and ophthalmic science may be said to be
now well-nigh near perfection, though doubtless there are
new discoveries to be made and points yet remaining to be
cleared up.

We cannot suppose that the eyes of the lower animals can
ever attract the same degree of attention. Except by way of
comparison with the disorders of the human eye, the disorders
of the eyes of lower animals can only be looked upon as of
secondary importance. Yet we find in actual practice that one
meets with more ailments of the eyes of lower animals requiring
treatment than we might expect would be the case. The
disorders of the eyes of horses, indeed, are of very great
importance, and even those of the sheep now merit some little
attention at our hands.

Now, the organs of sight in higher animals are specially
protected, being each embedded in fat and enclosed in a specially
constructed bony cavity called the orbit, which is most wonder-

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 607

fully well suited for guarding the eye from all ordinary chances
of injury. Attached to the sclerotic, by which name the outer
covering of the eye is denominated (that transparent circular
portion in front, called the cornea, being excepted), are various
muscles which, by their contraction, move the eye, and turn it
in various directions, and even draw it backwards. The capsule
or outer covering of the eyeball is composed of the above-
mentioned transparent and circular cornea in front, and this
is continuous with the dense white coat called the sclerotic
behind.

Situated internally to this external membrane, comes the
choroid coat, to which is attached the circular muscle called
the iris in front. This structure, the iris, is not quite con-
tinuous ; it is, so to say, perforated, and the perforation is
called the pupil. The iris imparts the colour to the eve. It
may be said to act the part of a curtain, since, by means of con-
tracting and dilating, it regulates the amount of light which
enters the eye.

In the eye itself are certain refracting media, transparent
solids and liquids (called the humours) of the eye, and these
transmit and refract the light. The aqueous humour may be
seen to gush out if the cornea be cut. Again, the crystalline
lens is formed like a magnifying glass to collect into a focus the
rays of light which fall from divers sources upon the eye. The
vitreous humour is jelly-like and highly transparent, and occu-
pies the posterior chamber of the eye.

The retina is a complex layer of nerve tissue situated at the
back of the eye, and most internally. It is in reality an expan-
sion of the optic nerve, and it receives the images of external
objects, and transmits them to the brain.

In front, the eyeball is covered with a continuation of the lining
of the eyelids called the conjunctiva. As for the eyelids them-
selves, they protect the eye from an excess of light, from dust, and
dirt. Moreover, the ox is, in common with several other of our
domesticated animals, possessed of a structure called the haw,
a cartilaginous membrane known scientifically^ as the memhrana
nictitans. This structure is capable of being voluntarily passed
over the eyeball, whereby any foreign body which may have
become lodged there by accident can be cleared away. The
surface of the eyeball is moistened by the tears secreted by the

608 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

lachrymal gland, from which they are conveyed to the eye by the
medium of the lachrymal duct.

In reference to inflammation of the eye, we must remember
that the cornea, or sclerotic, or the choroid, or the iris, or the
retina, or, indeed, almost any part, may be inflamed. We shall
treat of the common forms, conjunctivitis, corneitis, iritis, and
retinitis.

Ophthalmia or conjunctivitis is a very frequent and sometimes
a very severe disease in sheep. Many members of a flock
become quite blind ; but though they may be quite unable to
see, still very few of them will stray away and lose their com-
panions. Usually they follow the rest of the flock by means
of their power of scent, and a touching example of the friend-
ship and kindliness of disposition of sheep for one another is
afforded by the fact that " a friend generally attaches itself to
the sufferer, waiting on it with the most tender assiduity, and
by its bleating calling it back from danger and from going
astray." (Hogg on Sheep, p. 118.) To those who believe in
the doctrine of metempsychosis, the brotherly affection and
solicitude which subsist among certain lower animals, and of
which this illustration may be taken as an example, must in
some degree alleviate the feelings of horror and apprehension
which otherwise, we might imagine, they could not but feel at
the idea of their individualities being at some future time possibly
merged into, or, rather, identified with, that of any lower
animal — it may be that of a sheep or a goat perhaps — though,
it is to be hoped, not that of a sloth or a pig.

This disease is frequently traumatic in origin, at other times
apparently not so. In either case there may be, and generally
is, corneitis in addition.

In cases of conjunctivitis, the conjunctiva lining the eyelids
is deep red in colour, and has a heightened temperature. The
cornea may also be inflamed at the same time, especially when
the inflammation arises from the presence of hay-seeds, or
wheat-husks, or other like substances under the eyelids, or from
injuries of any kind. In man the cornea is not usually affected
when the conjunctiva is, though it may be sometimes. At the
same time, the pulse-rate may he accelerated, the mouth hot,
the nppctite and the chewing of the cud impaired. The animal

DISKASES OF THR OX AND SHEEP. 609

is listless, avoids the light, stands apart from its fellows in the
field ; the closed eyelids twitch and sometimes swell, and give out
a profuse discharge of tears, which become thick and viscid.

The eye itself may be exposed by placing the forefinger of the
left band firmly upon the eyebrow and pulling the skin upwards,
and with it the upper eyelid, while with the right thumb the
lower eyelid is drawn downwards. The separation of the eyelids
gives rise to a fresh outpouring of tears. It will generally be
found that the cornea, being exposed in this manner, is seen to
be opaque, and of a bluish-grey colour. Should a wheat-husk
or other object be observed, it may be carefully removed with
the corner of a handkerchief. Sometimes a rather sharp-pointed
instrument may be useful in the hands of a veterinary surgeon
for the removal of the foreign body. A suitable lotion will be
requisite.

The conjunctiva, a membrane covering the eye and lining the
eyelids, is liable to be affected with a frequently recurring inflam-
mation of a destructive kind, and as a result of this inflammation
the eyesight may be rapidly destroyed. The lids may adhere to
the eyeball, and their movements maybe impeded. This kind of
blindness may come on in sheep suffering from sheep-scab, and in
countries wherein blindness of this character occurs frequently,
the shepherds are wont to keep in their pockets a piece of hard
wood, well polished, and shaped like a very small paper-knife.
This instrument is introduced under the lid, when it is thought
necessary so to do, perhaps at the outer angle of the eye, and by
this means the adhesion is forcibly broken down. Then the eye
is washed with a decoction of mallows or poppyheads, or perhaps
a little oil is put in.

This disease, ophthalmia, which we are now considering,
frequently assumes an epizootic character among sheep, and
sometimes also in cattle. This form of the malady is very
generally known as " the blind." As a set-off against this
liability to " the blind," it is to be borne in mind that sheep,
and, indeed, oxen and swine also, only rarely suffer from
cataract, a disorder which, in the case of the horse, is one of
the most commonly met with of all the derangements of the
eye. This disease, " the blind," most especially affects the
young sheep of flocks kept in exposed situations. Unless the
malady be arrested at an early stage, the afflicted animals sink

39

610 THK DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

rapidly, and there is great risk of a fatal issue. Danger also
arises from the fact that sheep, when affected with the com-
plaint, being unable to see, may fall into ponds, rivers, or
ditches, from which they have not the power of extricating them-
selves. The malady apparently results from exposure, whereby
inflammation of the conjunctiva and the cornea is occasioned,
and it is to be remarked that " the blind " more frequently
occurs at the latter end of the year and after a wet season, when
the grass is rich, than at other times. Possibly it may be due
to a micro-organism.

With regard to the symptoms of the disorder, it may be
observed that the animal suflfering from it shows a great deal of
weeping from one or both eyes, and that the eye or eyes cannot
bear strong light. After about forty-eight hours have elapsed,
the inflammation itself will be seen to be of a less marked
character, and the eyes to be covered with a greyish film which
completely shuts out rays of light. In fact, so devoid of the
capability of seeing are the sheep, that if once they become
separated from the rest of the flock, they cannot find their com-
rades again, except by the power of hearing. This total
blindness continues for several days, until at length, if the case
terminates favourably, the film which interrupts the eyesight
gradually clears away, and the visual organ once more regains
its normal powers.

With reference to the treatment to be adopted in the case of
sheep suffering from " the blind, ^' the first point is that the
affected sheep should be taken as soon as possible to a dark
shed or other sheltered place from which the light is excluded,
and where the air is kept quite pure by means of good ventilation
without draughts. Good nutritious food sliould be supplied,
and a lump of rock-salt should be suitably placed in the
trough from which the animals take their food. It has been
recommended that a little tar should be placed around the outer
margin of the eye. and that this application should be renewed
after four days have elapsed. A little ointment of salicylic acid
may be employed instead of tar. Again, others have recom-
mended that a little common salt, after having been made
perfectly dry by means of being heated, should be placed in a quill
and then blown into the eye — i.e. on to the inflamed surfaces.

Ihe most effectual treatment consists in the application of a

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 611

mixture of castor oil and corrosive sublimate in proportions
dictated by the stage aad severity of the affection.

When the disease is cured, and the sheep have regained their
power of vision, they should be allowed to go back to the
pasture ; but great care should be taken not to let them get near
healthy sheep, for the disease is highly infectious in nature,
albeit that in the first instance it is apparently brought on by
exposure. Moreover, sheep-farmers will, in most cases, do well
to give sheep an extra allowance of food when winter is beginning
to set in, and during the course of that season, since in cold
weather more food is necessary in order to keep up the heat
of the body, and if an additional quantity of food is suitably
allowed with this view, there will probably be less predis-
position on the part of sheep to catching cold, going down with
" the blind," or with other diseases.

CORNEITIS.
Traumatic ophthalmia is often secondary to corneitis.

IRITIS.
When the iris is inflamed, there may be little or no inflanima-
tion of the cornea, nor, indeed, is there necessarily any affection
whatever of the cornea, though there is frequently congestion
of sclerotic vessels all round the margin of the cornea. The
iris itself may be of a reddish yellow hue, or may present a
muddy appearance. The iris cannot contract and dilate properly,
as it does in the natural state of health. This incapacity is
partly owing to paralysis of its muscle, and partly to the
exudation from it binding it down by adhesions to the lens,
and it is owing to irregularities of these adhesions that the
margin of the pupillary opening may sometimes be seen to be
corrugated. Inflammation of the iris may extend to the adjacent
structures, and it may result in blindness.

GLAUCOMA.
There is a peculiar affection of the eye in sheep which is pro-
bably glaucoma, which leads to the organ becoming quite hard
and blind. Very little good can be done, unless the disease be
detected in the very earliest stages, in which case sclerotomy
should be practised.

39 *

612 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

KETINITIS OR SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA.

Retinitis or specific ophthalmia is a disorder of a much more
serious nature, and it may return again and again, and bring on
blindness. If the disorder manifests itself in an obstinate form,
the best course is to fatten the animal, when the disorder has
been alleviated or cured, with the purpose of ultimate consign-
ment to the shambles. As we have said above, the retina is a
layer of nerve-tissue which lines the interior of the eyeball.
Inflammation of it may ensue as a complication of the simpler
form of the inflammation of the eye.

An animal afflicted with retinitis seeks quiet and solitude,
avoids the light, and closes the eyelids. In the early stages of
the disease also, the pupil is contracted, the inflamed and sensi-
tive retina not being able to bear the light. There is a profuse
discharge of tears, and the animal suff'ers considerably in regard
to its general state.

If the eyelids are separated, great pain seems to be produced,
tears flow forth, the haw covers the eyeball, and it, too, is then
seen to be inflamed. If the eye can be well seen, a red tinge
of the fundus may be noticed.

GUTTA SERENA.
Another disease of the eye of a severe kind, and rather fre-
quently met with in the sheep, is called gutta serena. This
malady seems to be in reality due to a loss of power of the optic
nerve and retina. It may, moreover, accompany either gid or
apoplexy. The derangement seems to arise from the optic nerve
being pressed upon, and in consequence of this pressure the retina
is paralysed. Our readers will understand that this disease is
more serious in nature than any lack of transparency of the eye
itself can be. If there is any undue opacity of the visual organ,
of course the rays of liglit from the exterior cannot pass through
the various media so as to impinge upon the retina ; but very
often in such cases there may be a chance of restoring the normal
transparency. Moreover, in even marked cloudiness of the media
the animal can distinguish between different degrees of light, and
it is capable of being fattened. On the other hand, if there is
any disease of the retina itself, or of the other nervous structure*
concerned in vision, there is verv little chance of cure.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 613

Now in gutta serena, an afifection which is also known as
amaurosis, and in popular phraseology as glass-eye, there is a loss
of nerve power, the retina not being capable of receiving, and
the optic nerve not able to transmit, the impression of the image
of an object to the brain. Nevertheless, the eye looks as clear
and bright as in health. The malady consists in a loss of power
on the part of the retina and the optic nerve ; but the cause of
the impairment of nerve-power is not well known.

A human being afflicted with this disorder is conscious of an
increasing diminution of his power of vision, and an experienced
and skilful oculist may be able to discover even the early
changes of the retina which correspond with the beginning of
the complaint. Animals also may, by the abnormal characters
of their movements, show that they are losing their eyesight.
For instance, in the case of a horse, shying, although in
many instances it may merely indicate alarm, may be a sign
of some defect of vision, and possibly in some cases at least of
this particular disorder which we are considering. Again, in a
very few instances, if a horse or other animal makes suddenly a
movement as if startled, or markedly points its ears and moves
its head towards a person approaching or an advancing object,
the suspicion that something is wrong with the eyesight may be
entertained.

A horse suffering from Gutta Serena will appear more than
usually shy when being handled about the head. If brought to
the light, he turns his head towards it ; he also lifts his feet
higher than is usual, and will run up against a wall if directed
to it. The pupil is much dilated, round, and motionless,
and the eyes are widely open, glassy, and staring. Even when
the full glare of the sun, or a very strong artificial light,
falls upon the eye, the pupil does not contract as in the case of
a healthy horse, but remains oval (with long axis of the oval
the transverse) and large.

By the aid of the ophthalmoscope, an experienced observer may
be able to see the optic disc, and to note any-changes which may
have taken place in its appearance, more particularly in regard
to colour, and to the size of the vessels which branch on its
surface. If the eye of a horse is healthy, the disc when thus
seen appears to be light orange in colour, and the blood-vessels
are seen most distinctly on the margin of the disc. Gutta

614 THE DISEASES AND DISOKDEES OF THE OX.

Serena, then, is a malady of the nervous mechanism of vision,^
and it may result from injury or disease of the brain, or as a
consequence of some derangement of the nervous system.

In conclusion, it is to be borne in mind that the disorder is
probably capable of being hereditarily transmitted, and therefore
that no animal which is suffering from true amaurosis ought to
be used as sire or dam. The only remaining point in regard
to the eye of the sheep is that, being greatly exposed, it is very
liable to suffer from injuries or otherwise. In two or three cases
the eye has been removed owing to its being enlarged in
consequence of some new formation, and when dropsical it has
been punctured.

TUMOURS, RINGWORM, AND CONCLUSION.

Tumours, sometimes of such large size as to push the eyeball
out of its situation, may occasionally be seen. They have been
removed, and after the removal have occasionally recurred^
The best course is not infrequently to be found in fattening the
animal for the butcher.

Ringworm in the region of the eyes and ears is very common.
For particulars of this complaint the reader is referred to
previous pages.

How infinitely important is the well-being of these two organs,
the eye and the ear, to the happiness and prosperity of human
beings, can perhaps be fully realised only by those who are so
unfortunate as to be deprived of the use of one or other or both
of these means of communication betwixt living animals on the
one hand and the wonderful earth on the other in which they
sojourn for a season, being then resolved into the lifeless
elements which represent the end of all kinds of living things,
so far as this world is concerned.

The eye and the ear are alike the most important and the most
wonderful of the mechanisms whereby impressions of surrounding
objects are conveyed to the brains of living animals. If we
possessed useless auditory organs or defective ones, we should
be unconscious, or but imperfectly conscious, of the many
pleasing, weird, and thrilling sounds, which abound throughout
nature ; we should be unable, or only inadequately able, to hear
and converse with our fellow-men; we should be shut out from one
of the greatest enjoyments, the hearing of sweet tones of silvery

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SBEEP. 615

music, the grand harmonies of the great composers, deaf to the
fascinating eloquence of the spirit-stirring orator, heedless of the
ringing rhythms of the songs of poets, cut off from the brilliant
melodies of musicians and of songsters.

The loss of our hearing powers would be a calamity indeed,
and it is no less true that our eyes serve an equally useful pur-
pose, and minister to delights equally impressive and equally
necessary to the precision of our conceptions of Nature as a
whole. Except by the aid of healthy eyes, our brains would
necessarily form but very sorry pictures of the objects which
abound on all sides around us. To human beings, then, the
preservation of eyes and ears is one of the most necessary
duties.

In regard to lower animals we cannot speak so strongly,
nor can it be held to be a matter of first-rate importance that we
should always take care to keep the eyes and ears of our domesti-
cated animals in a perfectly healthy state. In the case of oxen
we may not even elicit the fact that such a one or such a one
is, as a juryman said he was at the close of a trial, as deaf as a
post. Often there is no opportunity to find out ; and even if
the owner of an ox did know that his animal was hard of
hearing, he is in most cases not at all likely to have curative
measures employed. On the disorders of the ears of oxen it
■will, therefore, not be worth while to dilate.

Again, if an ox be very blind, and there is but little chance of
cure without a great deal of trouble, it will often be found
desirable to prepare the animal for the butcher straightway.
In the case of disorders of the eye in horses, however, the wisest
and best course will always be found in obtaining skilful treat-
ment since the value of the optic organ to a horse is very great
indeed.

We have very little indeed to say regarding the disorders to
which the ears of sheep are liable to be subjected. In fact, they
are not of great importance. Occasionally it may happen that
a ferocious dog may work a greal deal of damage with the ears
of sheep. Inflammation of the lining membrane of the ear may
also now and again occur, and this disorder, when present, may
be recognised by the animal carrying its head nearer the ground
than usual, and also generally a little to one side, and by a
slight occasional shake of the head. In such cases the earst

616 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

should be well washed out with warm water. Futhermore, in
the summer-time the ears of the sheep sometimes get into a
dreadful state if they are not attended to with great care, and
sometimes it may even happen that maggots may be bred
therein. Needless to relate, having once taken up their abode
in this organ, they work terrible havoc, to the great agony and
suflFering of their victim. Compassionate shepherds should
always take care that the ears of their sheep be kept as clean as
possible in the hot weather.

SECTION XL— WOUNDS, FRACTURES, SPRAINS,
TUMOURS.

WOUNDS.

It will now be our endeavour to give to our readers some
useful and practical hints regarding a very important and
interesting subject. We propose to consider, as briefly as may
be consistent with the intricacy of our topic, the more ordinary
kinds of wounds and injuries which are apt to be met with from
time to time among oxen, and to mention some points in refe-
rence to the treatment which should be pursued.

At times some difficulty may be experienced in deciding all at
once what is the best course to be taken, and it may be
said that a considerable amount of common-sense judgment is
requisite in order to manage as well as possible the many
different kinds of injuries with which one is liable to be
confronted in cattle practice. Some one has remarked that
common sense is falsely so called, because the kind of sense we
understand by that term is the rarest of all kinds of sense. It
has also been held that great ability merely consists in the
possession ot what goes by the name of common sense in an
uncommon degree.

However this may be, it is at any rate unfortunately true that
wounds in animals are not always well managed in accordance
with easily intelligible principles. Of course difficulties are
often met with. For instance, to the owner the question whether
treatment or slaughter is most advisable will continually pre-

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 617

sent itself, and the veterinary attendant may undeniably now and
again find room for some doubt as to his decision. Should
there be, for instance, any serious loss of blood as the result of
injuries to arteries or to veins ; or, again, should there be any great
damage sustained by other important structures or organs, the
first question which will present itself for unerring determination
will be : — " Is there, or is there not, such a chance of recovery
A3 to make it worth our while, and worth the small outlay which
will be involved on the part of the owner by reason of the employ-
ment of remedial measures and the almost boundless resources
of science coupled with skill — is it worth while to treat the
given case or cases ? " Occasionally the responsibility may be
great.

A short time ago we were, for instance, called to a case in which
several oxen were badly wounded, owing to having injured and
torn themselves on barbed wire fencing. Happily, a complete
cure confirmed our decision in favour of treatment. In fact in
most instances the answer will be, and should be, a very
emphatic affirmative to the question above cited; but of course
there are cases in which we must unhesitatingly say : — " No ; it
is far better for you to secure what money can be obtained
than to incur the expense, even though it be but a trivial
expense, which would be necessitated by careful doctoring and
treatment, and then, after all, to run the risk of an unfavourable
ending."

In all doubtful cases the best course, therefore, is to send for
the veterinarian without the least delay, and let him decide such
questions. We may be very sure that the degree of a veterinary
surgeon's success, at least in country districts, will in no small
measure depend upon the degree of accuracy with which he
does settle such issues as these.

We mentioned barbed fencing above ; and it is well to bear in
mind that, however useful this kind of fencing may be, it is still
a very fruitful source of severe lacerated wounds. Oxen, like
horses, are very prone to intensify the amount of injury they
receive in these and similar ways by their frantic and misdirected
efforts to get free. Hence, owners of stock should bear this
risk in mind before deciding on the kind of fencing they use.

Innumerable kinds and degrees of injuries are, of course, met
with in practice. The skin and the structures (muscles and so

618 THE DISEASES AND DJSOEDERS OF THE OX.

on) in close relation with it, may be more or less deeply wounded^,
bones may be broken, internal structures and organs may be
damaged, ligaments and tendons may be sprained, and finally
the various joints may be actually dislocated or injured in other
ways. For instance, if a wound has penetrated deeply into the
three most important parts, viz. the cavities of the skull, of the
abdomen, or of the chest, the most serious complications, and ini
many cases even death, may be anticipated.

Now, it is well to make some sort of classification of wounds,
for arrangement facilitates description, even though it be at
times something arbitrary. Wounds, then, may be spoken of
as incised, as when made with a sharp, clean-cutting instru-
ment ; lacerated, or torn, as may result from efforts to escape
from fencing or other obstacles when entangled in them ; and
contused, or bruised, as may result from heavy blows or falls.
Moreover, wounds may be produced by fire-arms, and they may be
poisoned, for instance, by infection or contagion, or by a snake
or a mad dog.

Incised wounds are simple clean-cut sections through the skin>
and muscles, or other underlying structures. They may be
brought about by sharp instruments of different kinds. Incised
wounds, though seldom met with in cattle-practice, are dan-
gerous when they do occur, since they are generally associated,
with profuse bleeding, the clean-cut vessels not being so likely
to close as the roughened ends of arteries and veins that have
been torn asunder.

Wounds are said to be lacerated when the surfaces of the
wound are in-egularly torn, as may result from violent blows, or
contact with hooks or sharply-barbed wire, or from kicks, bites,.
or attacks with the horns of other cattle. Sometimes these
lacerated wounds are very severe in character, but fortunately
they do not as a rule bleed very much.

Now, as to the treatment of incised and lacerated wounds, it
is first to be remarked that wounds, when small, may unite
directly (first intention) ; but in the case of larger and more
serious injuries sometimes suppuration of an extensive nature
may supervene. When the bleeding is severe, measures must at
once be taken to arrest it. Sometimes even the application of
cold water may be sufficient for this purpose; but it is very
often necessary to tie the vessels. Styptic applications, and

DISEASES OF THE OX AN'D SHEEP.

619

especially perchloride of iron, or even the hot iron, may
sometimes be necessary.

If dirt or foreign matters have gained access to the wounded
surfaces, these latter must be carefully cleaned by means of
fomentations, the bulkier substances being removed by the aid
of the fingers and forceps. If, however, a wound is clean, it is
far better and wiser to abstain from washing it, since by so doing
one may remove a coating of coagulated blood which has formed,
and so give rise to a fresh outpouring of blood.

Union of wounded surfaces may be effected by means of
sutures. The twisted suture may be made by passing a pin
through the lips of the wound at rather close intervals, and then
twisting round the pin soft twine in the form of the figure 8.

Fig. 79. — Twisted Suture.

The interrupted suture is formed by passing separate pieces of
thread, or silk, or wire through the lips of the wound. In case
a thread or a double and waxed piece of silk is used, the suture
is tied, while if wire is employed it is twisted. The stitch should
be repeated at intervals of about an inch, and it should be passed

Fig. 80. — Interrupted Suture^

through the skin by a crooked needle, deep and firm hold
being taken.

The uninterrupted suture is produced by passing the thread or
silk continuously from one side to the opposite until the severed

620

THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

surfaces are brought into close contiguity from end to end. This
method is not, as a rule, a good or safe method, and should only
be employed when a small and unimportant wound must be
hurriedly closed.

When sewn together, wounds may be dressed with suitable
antiseptic lotions. Perfect rest may be requisite, particularly
when the wounds are situated in movable and important parts,
and in some cases it may be necessary to place the animal in
slings, in order to prevent the recumbent posture being assumed.

In the case of large wounds, and especially when they are
lacerated, the many tailed bandage may often be serviceable. It

Fig. 81. — Uxixtebrupted Sutdre.

consists of two stout pieces of canvas or other suitable strong
material, each piece being glued on to the skin, from which the
hair has been clipped off, at one extremity, and been slit up
into tails at the other. When the glued end is firmly fixed, the
tails of the two sides are tied together, and thus the edges of
the wound may with care be brought into close apposition.

Quiet and liglit food must be enjoined in all cases of wounds,
and suitable applications of an antiseptic character, such as the
well-known and most valuable preparation called black-oil may
sometimes be required in order to avert gangrene. Black-oil, as
properly made, probably owes most of its wonderful utility to
the disengagement of a little free dioxide of sulphur. It is
exceedingly valuable in veterinary practice as an external appli-
cation in certain cases, for instance, in sloughing and unhealthy-
looking wounds, and also as an adjunct to that most valuable
precaution against black-leg ami otiier disorders, known as

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 621

setoning. Both the ointment and the lotion of boric acid, and
also those of carbolic acid and other antiseptic agents, are useful
for the cure of wounds. On the other hand, we cannot too
strongly caution the farmer against the use of certain ill-advised
preparations which not only leave undone that which they are
supposed to do, but actually do most effectually that which they
ought on no account to do.

In the early stages of wounds the treatment must not be active
in character, but mild and soothing. Mild sedatives, such as the
acetate of ammonium, also may be given or prescribed by the
veterinary surgeon ; but in later stages it may often be wiser to
employ stimulants, such as spirits of ammonia, or in cases where
the wounds present an unhealthy appearance, rather large doses
of brandy may be given with advantage. Quinine is also a
valuable drug. Fomentations with warm water at a temperature
of about 110 deg. or 117 deg. Fah., as shown by a thermometer,,
or roughly guessed at by the hand, may sometimes be useful.

Signs of general fever should receive prompt attention. The
food-supply should be light and well regulated. Good sound
roots, grass or clover, linseed and various kinds of grain may be
supplied in small quantities. The free discharge of pus should,
where it is practicable, be provided for by means of incisions or
by suitable dressings. A depending orifice should always be
made.

Punctured wounds are often met with among oxen as a conse-
quence of their goring one another with their horns, and they
are, of course, necessarily liable to be highly dangerous. They
may also be produced by nails, by the prongs of a fork, and so
on. Great skill and judgment are required, and a fatal issue,,
arising as a consequence of injury to internal organs, may too
often ensue. The wound or wounds should be explored with
great care, and all foreign material should be removed. If a
muscular part has been penetrated, warm fomentations may be
applied around the wound. A pledget of tow nicely formed and
well soaked with the valuable preparation known and above referred
to as black-oil, should be passed to the bottom of the wound,^
and renewed daily. It is very essential indeed that the orifice or
opening of the wound* should be kept open, and prevented from
healing up before the inner portion has healed, and sometimes it
may be necessary to enlarge it with a bistoury or small knife.

622 THE DISEASES AND DISOflDERS OP THE OX.

If the puncture has penetrated to the underlying bone, the
best plan is to clean the wound thoroughly with a syringe and
then to take a whalebone probe, wrap it round with tow soaked
in a strong solution of perchloride of mercury in water, and
then work the probe about in the wound, until every part has
been well acted upon by that strong caustic. This salt may
he obtained in fine powder, and when mixed with flour may be
applied to the wound. It acts not only as a strong antiseptic,
but also by uniting chemically with the albumen contained in
the joint-oil. This salt is a deadly poison even in infinitesimal
doses, and must, therefore, be always employed with extreme
prudence and care.

The bone may sometimes decay and become loose, and the
disjointed fragments should then be removed by the help of a
forceps. Some recommend the use of the milder caustic, nitrate
of silver; but the salt above mentioned is more efficacious.
Eeaders must, however, remember that it is a deadly poison.
The veterinary surgeon will, perhaps, sometimes use the actual
•cautery itself, the hot iron being applied to the wound at once,
wherefrom such an amount of inflammation may ensue as will
lead to its closing up. Should it be the foot which is punctured,
poultices may be employed with advantage, and if pus is present,
it must be got rid of. If pieces of bone are set free, they should
be immediately removed, and an antiseptic lotion should be
injected.

Wounds are spoken of as contused or bruised when the
tissues around the wound have been much bruised, as when the
wound has resulted from kicks, blows, heavy falls on the ground,
or into ditches. Sloughing not unfrequently follows, and there
may be internal heemorrhage of a dangerous character. In
cases of severe bruises, warm fomentations and cooling lotions
may be highly serviceable.

We now have to say a very few words respecting the subject of
wounds in sheep. In point of fact, wounds are to be treated on
much the same lines in the case of all kinds of animals. Of
necessity it cannot be a very important thing that a sheep which
is badly wounded should be kept alive. In the general way,
slaughter is to be recommended. Nevertheless, in certain eases
it may be found advisable to treat wounds in sheep, and the
great thing is to remember that bleeding must if possible be

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 623

Stanched, that cleanliness is an indispensable factor in the cure
and finally that a mild antiseptic ointment, such as that of
salicylic acid (so often heretofore referred to) or that of carbolic
acid is of great value.

DISORDEES OF THE SKELETAL MECHANISM, TO-
GETHER WITH A CONCLUDING ACCOUNT OF
INJURIES IN GENERAL.

We now proceed to deal with some few disorders to which the
bones of oxen are liable, and we shall touch this topic somewhat
lightly^ since there is no occasion for us to lay great stress upon
this portion of bovine medicine and surgery, as it will frequently
be found advisable in cases where there is any serious bone-
mischief in oxen to fatten the animals for the butcher straight-
way. Nevertheless, there are many simple fractures liable to be
met with in practice which readily admit of wise and careful
treatment, which in most instances will result in pecuniary gains.

Again, outgrowth of bone may occur in different positions, as
for instance near the orbit, whence they may be easily removed
by means of a suitable saw. Even when these bony growths
cannot be cut off, they may very often work little or no harm.
Further, if the metacarpal or the metatarsal bone be badlv
fractured, or if foul in the foot be very extreme, amputation of
the bone itself may now and again be called for. Once more,
■some skilful veterinary practitioners are highly successful in
reducing some dislocations. The late Mr. D. Gresswell, for
instance, was an adept in this branch of practical bovine surgery,
and had some really wonderful cases of this kind.

Now, inflammation of bones may come on either as a result
of injury, or from such specific influences as that which goes by
the name of the scrofulous diathesis. Inflammation of osseous
or bony tissue causes much pain, and so great may be the dis-
turbance and the unhealthy action that portions of the bone may
gradually decay and die. Consequently, when at the bottom of
a wound a bone is decaying, it is a matter of great importance
to remove the disorganized portions. When bones are broken
and shattered in consequence of serious injurj% they may perhaps
gradually die, and it is therefore necessary to remove the dead
parts in such cases. When bones are inflamed, poultices should
be applied, and the parts should be freely fomented and thoroughly

624 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

rested. In addition, a dose of cathartic medicine should be
administered.

Now, in reference to fractures, so far as sheep are concerned,
only a very few observations need be made. If a bone is broken
in a sheep, the callus by means of which the separate fragments
are united will be formed quickly. Indeed, it is nothing less
than astonishing to observe the rapidity and the efficacy of the
cures so often performed by unaided Nature in the case of all
animals alike. In many cases, however, help on the part of
the surgeon is absolutely necessary, if the damage is to be
repaired. For instance, if we have to deal with a simple case of
broken leg, the two parts should be brought into contact and
kept in contiguity by means of a few splints, properly and
carefully applied. After the lapse of a few days new bone will
have been formed, and the fracture repaired. Sometimes, indeed,
a false joint may be formed. If so, the incompletely united
parts should be rubbed one against another, and the splints
should be re-applied. In most cases, if this be done, fresh bone
will be formed, and the union thereby rendered perfect.

As a rule, however, a sheep is not of sufficient value to make
it worth while to be at much trouble in such cases, and conse-
quently it will often be found advisable to send a sheep which
has met with any. serious mishap forthwith to the butcher.
On the other hand, if any accident of the nature above referred
to should befall any specially valuable sheep, fractures and the
like injuries can in the general way easily be managed by
the exercise of care and judgment, as in the case of other
animals.

Instead of the bone-tissue itself being inflamed, we may be
confronted with a condition in which the membrane which, so
to say, clothes a bone may be inflamed, either as a result of
injury, or as a consequence of the disease known as rheumatism.
The membrane spoken of as the periosteum becomes thickened,
and lymph may be deposited beneath it and subsequentlv become
converted into bone. The name exostosis is given to a growth
of bone from bone, and such growths often arise from
inflammation of this membrane.

Again, the ox sometimes develops dense outgrowths of bone
inside the skull. They grow out from the petrous portion of
the bone known as the temporal bone, and extend right into the

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 626

cavity of the skull, the brain being absorbed as they proceed
inwards. Sometimes these bony growths reach a great size and
weigh a considerable amount. Moreover, they become moulded
against the walls of the skull, and present grooves marked out
on their surface for blood-vessels. Hence they are sometimes
looked upon as ossified brains ; but they are merely ingrowths
of bone into the cavity of the skull. The strangest fact in con-
nection with them is that as a rule they do not seem to interfere
greatly with the animal's welfare, and they may be found to be
present in oxen which, while living, did not appear to be very
unhealthy.

Bony growths, also, as indeed we mentioned above, may occur
around the margin of the orbit, and so interfere with the eye.
They should be removed by the aid of a suitable saw, when it is
possible ; but when they grow from the ribs into the chest-cavity
it is not advisable to operate. The bony growths we have been
describing are called exostoses, because they arise from bone.
The term " osteophyte " is applied to a spongy and vascular
exostosis of periosteal growth. At first it is but feebly attached
to the bone ; but at a later stage it may become dense and firmly
fixed to the bone.

We have previously described the disorder known as fragility
of the bones; but in talking of bones we may mention this
subject again, and also that of rickets. Now, fragility of
the bones is the name given to a condition of them in which
they are liable to break easily. This state of bones results from
a diminution in the amount of animal constituents of the bone
tissue, or frona an excess of the earthy material, which last in
either case preponderates so much as to render the bones brittle.
The disease is in fact due to atrophy of the bone, the animal
constituents being, relatively to the inorganic constituents, very
largely increased. The disorder is sometimes known under the
appellation of cripple, and it affects oxen, and especially milch-
cows, in certain localities.

It may either be occasioned by a deficiency of phosphates in
the food, or by the fact that they are secrfjted in too great
quantity by the medium of the milk, or to some other cause of
debility. Further, the lack of phosphates in the food may spring
from a want of these salts in the soil, and this in its turn may
result from that grave evil, over-stocking the land, from which

40

626 THE DISEASES AND DISOEPEES OF THE OX.

ill-advised course damage and loss must necessarily accrue to
the farmer and to the landowner. When suffering from this
malady, the ox staggers, cannot rise from a recumbent posture,
or can do so only with the utmost difiBculty ; the bones swell,
especially near and at the joints, and the animal becomes
paralysed. A mild laxative, a full and nourishing diet, mineral
tonics, and phosphate of calcium may be tried.

If an animal that has died when afflicted with this disorder
he examined after death, ligaments may be seen torn away from
their places of attachment, while the bones are seen to be enlarged,
friable, broken, and with bony outgrowths upon them.

Rickets is a disease in which the nutrition of the body
generally is perverted, one result of the disordered condition
being ii'regularity of ossification, with resulting softness of the
bones. This disorder often occurs in calves of about a few weeks
old, and it is shown by enlargement of joints and a bending
of the limbs, especially below the knee and the hock, as the case
may be. As a rule the malady is accompanied by indigestion
and diarrhoea, and it may be due to an imperfect supply of
milk. The patient must be nursed carefully, and must be
supplied with nutritious and easily digestible food, cod-liver oil,
lime-water and tonics, and other medicines given in milk.
Those portions of limbs which are bent may be supported
artificially and partly straightened by splints.

FRACTURES.

When a bone is merely snapped asunder so as to be simply
broken into two or more pieces, the fracture is spoken of as
simple; when the bone is shattered and separate fragments are
produced, the fracture is said to be comminuted ; when the
skin also is torn and the bone projects through the orifice
produced and makes its appearance externally, the fracture is
called compound. In fact, when all the structures super-
ficial to the bone, skin included, are rent, the fracture is spoken
of as being compound. When the bone is broken into two
pieces, the fracture is called single.

A fracture of a leg-hone gives rise to a sudden and intense
lameness, and usually to a loss of power to move that part of the
limb which is below the injury, while near the fracture itself the
limb mav swell and become hot. If we take hold of the limb

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 627

both above and below the seat of a fracture, and gently twist
the two parts in opposite directions, a grating sound may be
heard, and a grating will be felt.

In regard to the management of fractures occurring in beasts,
it may first be said that it is by no means always wise to treat
them. The chief difficulty arises from the fact that in the
case of lower animals generally, and especially in that of oxen,
it is a matter of considerable difficulty to keep the animal in
one position. That useful contrivance known as slinging, so
valuable in the case of horses, is not easily applicable to oxen,
whose complex digestive apparatus is so liable to be compressed
by slinging, and therefore greatly interfered with in regard to
its activity.

Young oxen which are accustomed to fighting are very likely
to break their horns. The bleeding hence arising may be pro-
fuse, and must be stopped by pressure or by the actual cautery.
The orifice into the frontal sinuses should be covered with a
tarred cloth, bound not closely but firmly. Mr. John Henry
Steel, F.E.C.V.S., an eminent authority, states that experience
among Indian cattle shows that spiral fracture of the humerus
and fracture of the neck of the femur are frequent in India.
Fractures in young animals unite more readily than in the
adult.

Suppose we have to deal with a limb broken below the knee
or hock. We shall require two gutta-percha splints, about
two-and-a-half inches wide, and long enough to reach from the
knee or hock, as the case may be, to the coronets. These
splints must first be softened by being placed in warm water.
Then the two ends of the bone should be brought into exact
contact, the splints should be moulded to the limb with the
hand, and then a bandage should be carefully and rather tightly
rolled round and round the splints so as to keep them fixed in
their position. Should they, after all, become displaced, they
must be readjusted.

Starch bandages also are very useful, starch being nearly
always ready to hand during an emergeacy. The starch
should be mixed with a sufficiency of warm water so as to be
thick, and the bandage, which must be about half-a-foot broad
and about four yards in length, should then be well soaked in
it. As the bandage is being applied, an assistant should be at

40 *

628 THE DISEASES AND DISOBDEES OF THE OX.

hand to add a rather thick layer of starch at each turn. If the
larger bones, such as those of the thigh, pelvis, or fore-arm,
be broken, then the best course is, in most instances, to consign
the animal to the slaughter-house.

SPKAINS.

Sprains usually occur in connection with the fetlock-joint,
and the back sinew of the leg may also be the seat of lameness
due to sprain. The sheath of this tendon may have some of its
fibres ruptured, or some of the smaller ligaments binding some
of the bones of the fetlock together may be more or less injured.
The animal is lame, the parts are hot and swollen, and
pressure on them causes the animal to shrink. Sprains may
be treated with fomentation and cooling lotions, and when the
inflammation is subdued a stimulant application may then be
used; but it should be very carefully borne in mind that it is a
very great mistake to apply stimulating embrocations to parts
which are actually inflamed. Cooling lotions, e.g. of lead and
spirit and water (1 fluid ounce of Liq. Plumbi Acet., 1 fluid
ounce of methylated spirit, 6 fluid ounces of water), may be very
useful.

It often happens that oxen are lame in the stifle. If there be
no inflammation, the compound liniment of ammonia should be
well rubbed over the joint once or twice a day. Setons inserted
over the joint and dressed with black oil daily are also to be
recommended. They should be inserted every fortnight, and the
parts should be kept quite clean.

Our readers will see that many different kinds and degrees of
injuries are met with in all animals, and that in regai-d to oxen
most especially it is often the case that the alternatives of
slaughter on the one hand or of treatment on the other present
themselves for consideration. In the horse this point is far less
seldom raised, since the value of a living horse is great, while
that of a dead one is trivial.

Now, speaking of injuries generally, we see that there may be
dislocations, or other derangements of joints, more or less serious
fractures, and also more or less severe wounds. Wounds, too,
may be of divers kinds, and the dangers arising from them may
also be of different natures. There may be great, or even exces-
sive, loss of blood, owing to the opening of important arteries

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 629

or veins. Of course, if this is not speedily checked, a fatal issue
is certain to occiir, and hence in such cases the blood-vessels
should, if possible, be carefully tied, both above and below the
seat of injury.

Again, damage may be done to other important structures or
organs — the bowels for instance, or the lungs, or the brain, or
possibly the heart, or some important muscles or sets of muscles.
So great indeed may be the disturbance produced that death
may result from the derangements brought about. Even in the
case of less serious wounds, unfavourable complications may
arise. The wound, instead of progressing favourably, may take
an unhealthy turn. For instance, sometimes the external jugular
vein, after blood has been removed from it in the usual wav,
may become inflamed. If so, the best course is to take out the
pin, to foment the inflamed place, and then to apply an active
blister along the whole course of the vein.

The great value of antiseptic measures and also the importance
of good methods of closing up the wounds are to be noted ; for
it is to be remembered that the parts afiected by a wound, if
left exposed to the air, are liable to go on badly. On the
other hand, however, in the case of punctured wounds we must
be on our guard lest they heal up superficially too soon, and
leave a festering sore inside which would necessarily be very
dangerous.

If our readers will kindly give these points their careful atten-
tion they will clearly see that a great deal of judgment is requisite
in regard to the treatment of the many different kinds of injuries
and wounds among cattle, and we may also add that special
knowledge is necessary in reference to the internal treatment used
to facilitate recovery ; and, finally, that it is nothing less than
astonishing to observe the wonderful cures that may be made
by those who really endeavour to combine the resources of
science with trained skill and careful attention to detail.

TUMOURS.
The abnormal growths in oxen and in Irorses bear a much
closer resemblance to, and throw a much brighter light upon,
those of human kind than is as yet indeed even dimly realised.
It would, however, in this place be untimely to dilate upon this
most fertile, this most intensely interesting of subjects, deeply

630 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

and wonderfully important as it is. Those of our readers, how-
ever, who can form any conception of the incalculable suflFering
caused by those all-too-common tumours — the cancers — in man
will in some way grasp the importance of the relationship be-
tween the tumours of the domesticated animals and those of
human beings ; and, indeed, the same is true in regard to the
importance of the relationship of the other diseases of man and
animals.

This science, that is this science of the relationship of the
diseases, goes by the name of Comparative Pathology ; and it is
indeed a great science, for most certainly the intense importance
of our lives has a much wider and a far deeper basis, a more far-
reaching significance than may at first sight be generally seen.
Yet, though we cling to life with all the power of our most
determined will, we are very apt indeed to cling to it in wrong
and unwise ways, and there is no one — however great he be —
who does not at times do well to re-consider from an entirely
new standpoint his position as a living unit in this world of
animate existence. There is indeed no one who does not at
times do well to study the laws of hygiene, and the necessity for
preserving a healthy mind in a healthy body, and the great
purpose and object for which he was born into this world.

In these pages we have indicated the relationship of the
diseases termed tuberculosis, scarlet fever, a7ithrax, actino-
mycosis, and many others of oxen, with the same diseases in
man. And similarly there is a relationship between the tumours
of man and animals. Yet in these pages we must restrict our
remarks to the subject under immediate consideration, and leave
its side issues for those especially interested.

Varieties of Tumours.

The ordinary epidermal growths from the skin, the angle-
berries, are very commonly met with in oxen, and they are very
similar to those of horses. They occur, as a rule, in small
numbers, and usually grow on the inside of the thigh and on
the legs, just as in horses. The removal of these growths pre-
sents no difficulty, as a rule, but in most instances surgical
treatment is not called for.

A second kind of epidermal growth like warts varies in size
from a pea to a man's fist. It may occur in almost any part of

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 631

the body, on the face and head, teats, nose, or other parts.
Sometimes these growths are firmly adherent by a large base ;
at other times they are very easily removable, having in such
instances only a small base. In some instances they may be
pulled off by the hand only, and sometimes they require for their
removal the clam and actual cautery. In these latter cases the
clam is fixed round the tumour at its base, and then the tumour is
burnt off. Any bland or soothing ointment, or black oil, is useful
as an after-dressing. Sometimes, being very diffuse, they are
very difficult to remove, and it is necessary to take off the skin
with them ; but they never penetrate into the tissues beneath the
skin. Some, we may point out, are loose and hang pendulously,
while others are spread out diffusely and grow into the skin.
Mr. J. Brodie Gresswell often operates on several beasts in a
herd, and takes off hundreds and hundreds of these tumours
in the course of each year. In colour the section resembles
that of a raw potato, and sometimes in appearance the tumour
may be compared to an onion. In other instances the growth
appears like a cauliflower excrescence.

A third kind of tumour is made up of a highly vascular
material, and is generally found in well-bred beasts. These
tumours are about the same colour as the membrane from which
they grow, and the superficial surface is reddish and has the
appearance as if about to bleed. They may be about the size of
a couple of walnuts, and may be compared in general colour to
a small rose, being also diffuse and spread out at the surface.
These tumours are removable with the claiu and actual cautery.
They appear in the rectum and elsewhere.

A fourth kind of tumour, a kind of so-called papillomatous
growth, appears on the penis of bulls. These are filiform
growths and are not very easily removable, but with a little skill
and care the removal of them presents no difficulty. In a case
where a cancer occurred in this part in a bull, slaughter of the
animal was decided upon as being preferable to treatment in this
instance.

Of cancerous tumours, which are the fifth variety, we shall
not have more to say.

Fatty tumours are the sixth kind. They are commonly seen
in the neighbourhood of the shoulder, and often weigh two to
three stones. These growths should be taken off with the knife

632 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

in the earlier stages; but if they have gradually grown to a large
size, it is often best to slaughter the animal.

The seventh variety of tumours in oxen, of which we shall
speak here, are termed wens. A true wen is a dense fibrous
tumour with a small core of cheesy or calcareous material.
Indeed a wen may be compared with a purse, with sides of fatty
and fibrous tissue, and a small cavity. Wens vary greatly in
size ; they may be as large as two fists, and they generally
appear either under the tongue or at the angle of the jaw or near
the throat. In some instances in the earlier stages a strong
blister of biniodide of mercury will remove them altogether ; but,
when full grown, they can only be taken off with the knife.
They may possibly be tuberculous in origin and nature. True
wens are to be distinguished from cartilaginous thickenings or
tumours of the larynx or throat, which may be rather diffuse
and flattened, and are firmly adherent to the larynx. Our
readers will perceive that tumours are much more commonly
met with in oxen than in horses; and the importance of this fact
is one not to be overlooked, bearing as it does on the relationship
of the tumours of man and beast.

The eighth and last kind of tumours in oxen are termed
osteo-sarcomata. They are not uncommon on the lower jaw,
beginning as hard bony swellings and gradually enlarging.
As they grow, the skin sloughs from over them, and the
growth then presents a raw surface, from which a horribly
fetid discharge oozes. If the animal is allowed to live, these
tumours grow to an enormous size, and, strange to say,
their presence does not seem to affect very materially the
general health, until they involve the alveolar cavities of the
teeth and the tongue. The animal, unless killed, then wastes
and dies.

In cases of osteo-sarcomata, the best plan is to have the animal
slaughtered, as these tumours always involve bone. In shape
these growths are usually oval, and they are about four to eight
or ten inches in length as a rule. They spread into the bone of
the jaw, and in weight they vary from two to eight pounds. On
the surface they are greatly cut up and nicked. Of such tumours
the writers have seen twelve or fourteen. These tumours, we
must mention, are to be distinguished from the exostoses men-
tioned in our last. Our readers are no doubt aware that a beast

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 633

may have a long bony growth on the jaw or elsewhere merely as
the result of an injury or so forth.

A short time ago a small tumour, an epulis, weighing about
one and a half ounces, was excised by Mr. J. Brodie Gress-
well from a beast's gum on the inside of the mouth. The
tumour was situated at about the position of the first molar
tooth on the lower jaw. A little tincture of myrrh was used as
an after-dressing. The beast made a complete recovery, though
it suffered much during the removal. The animal was a feeding
bullock, and the tumour had caused continual slavering and
interfered with the feeding.

We may here add that the use of the ecraseur, of which an
illustration is shown below, may be advisable for the removal of
certain tumours.

We do not intend to continue our description further, as we
have already in a previous article discussed the causes, nature,
symptoms, and treatment of the tumours so commonly found

Fig. 82. — An Eceaseue.

imbedded in the tongues of beasts. These tumours are caused
by the growth of a fungus termed the actinomyces, or ray
fungus, and the disease itself is termed actinomycosis.

Before concluding, we should point out that the chief import-
ance of a study of comparative pathology lies in the fact that in
deep and careful observation of disease lies the secret of the
prevention and treatment of morbid conditions. The organic
world exhibits alternating periods of action and rest in obedience
to an external rhythm, and there is evidence to prove — abundant
evidence to prove — that hygiene and therapeutics must be directed
with attention to these rhythms. There is evidence enough
already furnished to show that the principles of Charles Darwin
and Herbert Spencer explain in degree some, and possibly

634 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

should explain most, abnormal as well as normal manifestations
of life. These principles should lie at the foundation of
rational biology, morphological and physiological, whether
regular or irregular, normal or abnormal.

SECTION XII.— THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM AND
THE DISORDERS CONNECTED THEREWITH.

THE REPRODUCTION OF THE SPECIES (a).

During the gradual origin of the universe and its contents
from the chaotic confusion of bygone aeons a differentiation has
arisen betwixt living and non-living things. Of all the many
distinctions we are in the habit of drawing, when we pause to
look around us and to take a sweeping survey of the innumerable
objects contained in the world in which we live and move and
have our being, by far the deepest and the most important is
that which subsists betwixt animate and inanimate things. Yet
though these two widely separated groups, into which everything
which exists upon this earth can be arranged, are characterised
by the most essential and deep-lying differences, nevertheless
when we try to formulate and make clear to ourselves and to
the minds of others the broad line of demarcation which appa-
rently separates the lowest of living things from inanimate
material, we are obliged to humble ourselves to the extent of
saying that we cannot do it, and that this broad line gets nar-
rower and still more narrow, the more deeply we peer into the
previously hidden aggregates of organisms opened to our gaze
by the modern microscopic methods.

Moreover, it is far from being an easy task to frame an exact
or even a good and fairly workable definition of what is really
implied by the term life, and there are very many who would
hesitate to accept the idea that the life of a human being is in
all essential respects to be compared with the life of an animal.
Despite all the reiterated teachings of the materialistic school of
science and of thought, there probably never was a time in the
history of the world when so many of the foremost men of the
day hold with no unsteady faith the belief that we human beings

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEKP. 636

are not merely made of clay which is animated for a short time,
and then crumbles into the dust wherefrom it arose, but that
we, howsoever humble and insignificant, have yet a great future
before us, a far higher form of existence than this present com-
paratively speaking trivial one. This unswerving acceptation of
the widest of all truths is by no means weakened by the fact
that, as indeed has been suggested by no less an authority than
Mr. Herbert Spencer, even the very best ultimate definitions of
life which can be put into words apply to the wondrous pheno-
mena presented by the solar system as a whole, and we might
add to those of nearly all complex aggregates such as the earth
itself, perhaps only a little less accurately than they do to living
beings.

However, notwithstanding that this is true, it remains incon-
testable that the classification into living things on the one side
and inanimate objects on the other is at once the most significant
and the most indispensable of all the distinctions which men, as
a matter of fact, do draw. Yet we have been led to the idea that
the lowest living things rather support the view that in ages long
gone by even living matter itself may possibly have originated
by insensible steps from inanimate material, and that by degrees
this life may have become more and more complex until, accord-
ing to an ordained law of advancement, even human beings were
at length evolved. Yet it is clear that this is by no means an
entirely satisfactory conclusion, and to those who think most
deeply on the great question of life and its meaning, it cannot
but be manifest that there must be some explanation of our
presence here in this world which has not yet been grasped. At
times, and frequently when we are quite alone, the conviction
will force itself irresistibly upon our minds that, though we can
in a large measure explain the actual steps and processes
■whereby we human beings are daily and hourly brought into this
sphere, still there remains a much larger and more far-reaching
truth than any as yet arrived at by the mind of man.

Of all the magnificent sights which may be seen around us,
the view of a storm-tossed sea is perhaps tjae most impressive.
In absolute solitude to walk along the sea-shore, and listen to
the solemn voice of the mighty ocean, to hear the majestic
tones of the loud and triumphant psean, as the crashing waves
roll and thunder with infuriated yet moderated harmony, and

636 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

toss and tear onwards towards us on the sand-covered beach, is
indeed a thrilling experience. The grand tones ring through the
ears like deafening peals of resounding bells, the myriad stars
supply the heavens with minute specks of twinkling light,
insignificant enough when compared with that shed upon the
glistening sea and sand and sand-hills with silvery effulgence
by the calm and majestic luminary, queen of the splendid night,
sovereign of the sky and of the broad expanse of the tempestuous
ocean, as far as where the eye can discern the darkened limit of
the horizon. Heavy black clouds, too, speed hurriedly across
the sky, now and again hanging overhead, and blocking out the
soft and silvery light falling down from the moon. In the
glimmering distance rocky crags, symbols of destruction, stand
out in the background, ready to devour the unmanageable ships,
threatening to drive back the trusting mariners to sudden death.
Truly the sight is well suited to the powerful chorus sung by the
broken surface of the sea, lashed as it is into the fury of mad-
ness by the uproarious and frantic turbulence of the groaning
winds.

And we who see and hear in silence and in wonder are merely
mechanisms manifesting vitality and evolved by chance I
Human beings, here to day ; alas ! to-morrow in the grave ;
transient and ephemeral links in the chain leading upwards to a
hollow mockery of perfection on this earth, which is, and always
has been, and always will be, coming, and yet is always afar off
in the dark distance. No ! the powers of the most ordinary
intelligence should, we think, be keen enough to probe more
deeply beneath the surface of the world around us, and to let us
know assuredly that there are things far higher than we can ever
realise, so long as we remain on this, the hither side of the
great gulf which yawns as yet betwixt us and eternity.

If we admit this, and recognise how surely our bodies must
ere long be turned into the lifeless clay, from which men first did
spring, even as ashes are committed to ashes and dust unto dust,
how much less would all our little troubles seem, and how little
should we forget that the links which bind even the strongest of
us here are, after all, only weak and slender threads. If, then,
this insolvable problem of life at times thus presents itself to our
minds in all its weird intensity, we shall be the more ready
carefully to consider the conditions which underlie the beginnings

DISEASES OF THE OX AjS^D SHEEP. 637

and the preservation of life. We shall ever be on the alert to
find and to trace them, and then to strive with all the powers of
our minds to comply with their reiterated and most definite
injunctions.

Now, the aspects from which life can be regarded are many and
various; but one of the most instructive questions which are to
be decided is that to the consideration of which, after this intro-
duction or digression, we now come. It is, " How do the
diff'erent living things upon this earth reproduce themselves?"
That all living beings do, almost without exception, in the
ordinary state of healthful activity, reproduce their kind, is one
of the main points whereby they are characterised. By means
of this function each race is continued on in its existence from
generation to generation, until, in the lapse of ages, it is either
gradually developed and transformed into a successively more
and more highly endowed race, or, on the contrary, is perchance
rendered less and less able to exist under the new, and changed,
and ever changing, conditions, to which it is subjected.

It has been shown that some kinds of organisms may be, so
to say, stamped out by reason of the inexorable course of that
incessant and interminable struggle for existence, whereby, as
we cannot but hope, the highest possible perfection will in the
far distant future be reached. In this connection it is to be
borne in mind that the same far-oS" result can, in so far as
animals are concerned, be in no small degree anticipated by the
judicious selection and management of the best and healthiest
stock on the part of the agriculturist, who may thus, by the
long-continued exercise of great care and judgment, gradually
but yet most surely improve his breeds of domesticated animals
to a truly wonderful extent, as indeed has been repeatedly and
most abundantly proved.

If it is true, as we have alleged it is, that great difficulty may
be experienced in clearly damarcating in words the lowest
members of the animate kingdom from the more complex of the
aggregates occurring in the inanimate world, it is also most
noteworthy that difficulties of a like nature present themselves
in regard to marking off the many divisions made betwixt
different groups of living things themselves. Searching down
among the simplest living organisms by the aid of the strongest
magnifying powers of the microscope, we find that no constant

638 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

line of demarcation can be drawn betwixt animals on the one
band and plants on tbe other. In short, the lowest living things
cannot be said to belong either to the one great kingdom or to
the other ; but, as we gradually ascend the scale of life, we can
discern the successive steps by which the line of division becomes
more and more distinctly clear.

Now, this statement holds with regard to all the processes of
life, to the means whereby oflFspring are produced, no less than in
reference to other functions and other features. In the more
lowly developed organisms the process of reproduction is a very
simple one indeed, consisting as it does merely in the splitting
of the parent into two distinct portions, or in the budding off
of a small offshoot which gradually grows and grows into the
form, shape, and size of the parent. On the other hand, it is
remarkable how different is the process of reproduction in higher
animals from that which obtains in higher plants.

In the most lowly developed organisms, as we have just said,
the process of reproduction is, comparatively speaking, very
simple. It may be well, however, to observe here that we have
in all probability much yet to learn of the life history of the
lowest forms of organisms. It was until recently supposed that
reproduction among them was confined to the mere splitting of
the parent into two distinct portions, or to the budding off of a
small offshoot which gradually acquired the characters of the
parent. That this is not the whole matter, is clear as regards
the three saprophytic parasites whose life-histories have been
so admirably elaborated by the Rev. Dr. Dallinger. These
monads, after giving birth to many generations by the simple
process of fission, enter upon an amoeba-stage in which sexual
congress is necessary for further multiplication. And we may
well hesitate before we subscribe to the belief that sexual
congress is not an essential from time to time in the life history
of others of the lowly forms of life in which as yet only multi-
plication by fission has been observed. Still it is remarkable to
note the increasing complexity of the process of reproduction
as we ascend the scale of living things.

Under the ordinary circumstances and conditions of life, each
living being gives rise to the production of another being, which
gradually becomes more and more like itself; and if we note by
the aid of the microscope how, even in the case of the minutest

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 639

creatures, like generally gives origin to like, whether it be plant
or whether it be animal, we see in miniature and on a very small
scale an exemplification of a wide and far-reaching truth. In
accordance with this law of reproduction, the great and won-
drously complex world of living organisms, of which huge
pyramid, so to speak, we human beings form as it were the
highest point or apex, continues to maintain its rhythmically
interrupted existence from era to era of the world^s history,
from seon to seon.

We have said that the lowest living things reproduce their
kind for many successive generations by simply splitting up into
two or more portions, each of which assumes an independent
existence forthwith, and that this is true in regard to both
animals and plants of very low type. As we gradually advance,
so to say, up the ladder made up by the innumerable forms of
life, we see that instead of actual division or fission, the process
of budding or gemmation above mentioned becomes more and
more distinctly marked, while coincidently a differentiation
betwixt the two sexes occurs. Then, as we ascend the scale of
existence, and especially that of animal life, we find the pro-
cesses of fission and gemmation become less and less frequent,
and the two sexes gradually becoming more and more diffe-
rentiated from each other, neither of them multiplying by
fission or by gemmation, and one sex definitely supplying the
ovum or egg, the other definitely furnishing the sperm cells
whereby the egg is fertilised.

Ascending still higher the tree of animal life, we are succes-
sively confronted with new and more complex factors, until in
the highest animals, the mammals, the functions of reproduction
of their kind is one of most serious and grave moment, and
apparently often of such great importance as to override nearly
all other considerations. In the female a special cavity is
formed, and set apart for the developing foetus. Herein the
foBtus is contained, and it is supplied with nourishment from the
mother, until sufficient strength has been gained to enable it to
fight its own way in the world by the aid' of the help still
supplied by its parents. It is then expelled from the mother's
womb, but by no means is it yet left entirely to its own unaided
resources. On the contrary, the new-born creature, thus
unwittingly introduced into this marvellous world of ours, is

640 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

tended and cherished with fondest maternal care; and being a
member of the class mammalia, it is fed with an important and
highly nutritious fluid, milk secreted by a special organ, known
as the breast or mammary gland.

Thus the young animal is in the general way dependent for
some considerable period upon its mother for care, for nourish-
ment, and for warmth. Moreover, so wisely are the laws of
nature made, so beneficently are necessary connections of this
kind rendered agreeable ones, that the supply of what is
requisite for the safety of the offspring it is one of the highest
pleasures to the maternal parent to afford. There are to
this rule, as to others, exceptions ; but its almost universal
truth among mankind and animals alike is indisputable. In
the case of human beings this dependence of the young upon
the parents is carried on until a much later period of life, and to
a much greater and wider extent. When we, men and women,
think of what our parents have done for us, we cannot but find
it our highest pleasure always to cherish them in their old age,
or their memory, if they have left us, in humble thankfulness, full
well knowing that, but for them and their long-continued
fostering care, we would not even have preserved our lives, far
less done any good work in the world.

Having now briefly sketched some of the general aspects of
reproduction, we will now give the periods of gestation, and at
the same time, also, the average number of respirations, of
pulse-beats, and the normal temperature in different domesticated
animals : —

Period of Gestation. Respirations. Pulse. Temperature.

Mare 340 days. Horse 9 36 99° F.

Cow 280 „ Ox 15 to 50 55 101° F.

Sheep and goat 150 ,, Sheep 30 to 200 75 102i° F.

Pig 120 ,, Pig 15 to 25 103^° F.

Dog 63 „ Dog 100i° F.

Cat ... ... 55 ,,

Rabbit ... 30 ,,

The periods of gestation vary with individuals and with
breeds, with the sex of the offspring, the age, strength, and
condition of the mother.

We now proceed to consider some of those rather too
numerous adverse conditions which are liable to be met with

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 641

when the cow is about to expel the foetus from the womb,
and in doing so we shall learn that it oftentimes happens that
just a little assistance of the right kind is sufficient to aid the
efforts made to perform this act, the most important, arduous,
and dangerous of all nature's operations. It is, indeed, to be ex-
pected that great and grave difficulties should attend upon the act
of parturition ; but great as they are, they can fortunately often
be easily obviated. In very many cases where obstacles to the
act of expulsion are met with, the assistance of a good practi-
tioner will bring about a saving of the life of both the parent
and the offspring. Yet it is to be borne in mind that, though
simple when thoroughly understood, still there is not one of the
processes of life which is so apt to puzzle and confuse the
inexperienced so much as this one with which we are about
to deal.

The subject we are now in due course dealing with is one
which, at first sight, is apt to appear exceedingly intricate.
Indeed, the topic seems to present such difficulties as almost
to deter many people from really trying to comprehend it.
Nevertheless, it is one of great importance, and if we succeed
therefore, in clearing away some few of the cobwebs which
cluster around it, we shall be quite satisfied with the result of
our efforts.

Still, we cannot but feel a little afraid that we may not succeed
so well as we should like to do in our attempt to set forth the
phenomena of reproduction in the case of the cow, so that our
readers may readily and easily understand what we say. We
shall, however, proceed to do our best in order to clear away
some of the obstacles which present themselves, and we hope
that our indulgent readers will excuse any shortcomings we
may display, resting satisfied if they are enabled to gather up
some valuable hints here and there, although they may not
follow us in every observation we make.

Indeed, the act of parturition is in reality, when clearly
grasped, a very simple and a very interesting one; but it is too
often looked at from a vague and confused point of view which
leads to all kinds of most absurd and even fatal mistakes in
practice. This statement applies not only to cattle, but also to
nearly all living beings which require and receive help in that
most important of all nature's operations.

41

€42

THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

Some of the following remarks, and also the pictures, are
taken by permission from " A Lecture on the Anatomy and Phy-
siology of the Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals,
with the Principles of Practice applicable to Cases of Difficult
and Preternatural Labour, more especially in the Cow and
Ewe," by James Beart Simonds, late Principal and Lecturer on
Cattle Pathology of the Royal Veterinary College.

The cavity of the pelvis is enclosed by the bones constituting
the hips and buttocks {vide figure appended below), and it is to
be borne in mind that the size of this cavity is materially con-
nected both with the rapidity and with the safety of the act of
parturition.

I,

Fig. 83.

The above figure •well shows the pelvic cavity of a cow, and the bones which
bound it, their relative connection with each other, and the way in which they
form the opening through which the fcBtus passes in delivery.

a. The pelvic cavity. 6. The sacrum, a continuation of the spine, c, c.
The projections, called the hips, d, d. The bony proniinences of the buttocks.

Many an animal has been lost owing to its pelvis being too
narrow to allow of an easy and safe delivery. Hence the
practical breeder should always bear in mind that, when the
hips are narrow, the buttocks compressed together, and the
spine drooping, the size of the pelvic cavity must be small,
and parturition thereby rendered more dangerous.

In the first place we must say a few words in reference to the
organs and structures concerned in the process of generation in
the cow. These, as in the case of most higher animals, consist
of the vagina, the uterus and Fallopian tubes, and the ovaries,
together with their several appendages. The vagina is a tube or
canal leading from the exterior to the uterus. It is a mem-

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 643

branous tube {i in the figure appended below) extending from
the labia pudendi to the mouth of the womb (b), and it is
situated at the lower part of the pelvis, below the rectum. On
its lower surface is the orifice (h) of the urinary bladder (^).
Shortly before the act of parturition, the walls of the vagina
become flaccid, and bedewed internally with a copious mucous
secretion, whereby the delivery of the foetus is rendered more
easy. During the act of coition the intromittent organ of the
male is placed within the vagina, and comes into contact with
the mouth of the womb, whereby the seminal fluid is trans-
mitted into that cavity. The uterus of an unimpregnated
animal is small, and especially of diminutive size in the case of
a virgin animal, i.e. as compared with a cow wliich has given
birth to several calves. Moreover, the unimpregnated uterus is,
for the most part, lodged within the cavity of the pelvis ; but
when impregnated it extends in some degree into the abdomen.
On each side the uterus is prolonged into a branch called a
horn, which, in its turn, is continuous with a tube called the
Fallopian tube, near the fimbriated extremity of which is
the important organ known as the ovary. From each ovary
the ova are passed along the Fallopian tubes into the uterus.

The uterus or womb, a, is kept in its situation chiefly by
means of the broad ligaments X,f; at its anterior part its coats
are continuous with the vagina, and posteriorly it is divided
into two horns, c, c, to the extremities of which the Fallopian
tubes d, d, are attached, and the ovaries, e, e, are connected with
these Fallopian tubes.

During the period of gestation, the os uteri, or mouth of the
womb, remains closed ; but at the time of parturition it is widely
dilated, and thus allows a free and open passage from the vagina
10 the interior of the uterus. The coats of the uterus are three
in number, and united to each other by connective tissue. The
external or serous coat is smooth and continuous with the lining
membrane of the abdomen. This coat gives support to the
uterus, and being reflected on each side forms the two broad
ligaments. The middle or muscular coat varies considerably in
strength and thickness, according as the uterus is or is not im-
pregnated, being in the latter case thin and weak, and in the
former becoming greatly increased during gestation.

As the reader will readily understand, the expulsion of the

41 *

644

THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

foetus from the uterus partly depends on the suitable contraction
of this muscular coat. The internal or mucous coat presents a
velvety appearance, and it secretes the menstrual fluid. The
principal function which it subserves is the forming of a bond of
connection between the mother and her young ones, whereby
their vitality is preserved and their development brought about.
A section of the wall ol the uterus, when examined with a
microscope, may be seen to be composed of three distinct coats

Fig. 84.
a. The uterus, h. The os uteri, or mouth of the uterus, c, c. The horns,
one of which is laid open, d, d. The Fallopian tubes, with their fimbriated
extremities, e, e. The ovaries. /, f. The broad ligaments, g. The urinary-
bladder, h. The opening of the bladder, i. The vagina cut open to show the
passage leading to the bladder and os uteri.

or layers, viz. beginning from the outermost aspect, first a
peritoneal coat, which is smooth and continuous with the lining
of the abdominal cavity; secondly, a middle muscular coat,
which furnishes the great contractile power, by means of which
at the right time the calf is to be expelled from the womb in the
ordinary course of nature ; and lastly, the internal or mucous
coat, whereto is attached the covering of the foetus, so well known
under the name of the aftcr-birtli, whereby the vascular con-
nection betwixt the cow and the calf is mnintained.

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 645

The fertilised ovum, having escaped from the ovary, is seized
or entangled by the fimbriated extremity of the Fallopian tube,
and subsequently passed along the tube into the uterus. If it
be not caught by the fimbria, the ovum falls into the cavity of
the abdomen, where it may perhaps become an extra-uterine
foetus, as occasionally occurs both in human beings and in
animals. During the passage of the ovum into the uterus, it is
covered by a membrane called the chorion, by means of which
the developing foetus becomes attached to the inner surface of
the womb, and obtains from the parent the materials necessary
lor the maintenance of life and development. In the case of the
cow and the ewe and certain other animals, the outer surface of
the chorion is thickly studded with shaggy projections called
cotyledons. These are attached to corresponding concavities
in the membrane lining the wall of the uterus internally,
the tunica decidua uteri, which contains the enlarged and elon-
gated branches of the uterine arteries of the mother. It is by
the medium of them that the minute branches of the blood-
vessels of the mother and those of the foetus come into contiguity,
although they do not enter into direct communication with one
another. Hence, the two sets of blood-vessels lying in contact,
the blood of the foetus is purified by means of the more highly
oxygenated blood of the mother. The cotyledons may then
be looked upon as subserving in some degree the functions
of respiratory organs, and to some extent also as organs of
assimilation.

The chorion consists of the false amnion fused with the
allantoid membrane. In addition to the chorion there is
also another membrane enveloping and immediately surrounding
the foetus. This is called the true amnion or water-bag, which
contains the fluid in which the foetus floats. By means of this
fluid, the liquor amnii, the foetus is protected from injuries,
which might otherwise destroy its life. This fluid also, con-
tained in its investing membrane, is also protruded into the
mouth of the womb at the commencement of the act of parturi-
tion, thus acting as a hydrostatic dilator. The rupture of this
bag, or rather the consequent escape of the fluid contained
within it, is one of the earliest signs heralding the act of parturi-
tion. The space intervening between the chorion and the
amnion acts as a receptacle for the urine of the foetus. The

646 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

allantoid membrane is directly coDnected with the bladder of
the foetus by means of a tube called the urachus.
This tube, together with the blood-vessels connecting the fcBtus
with the chorion and its cotyledons, forms the umbilical-cord or
navel-string, which is generally broken during the act of
delivery. These blood-vessels are the arteries which convey
the impure blood out of the body of the foetus to the cotyledons,
and the veins which return it, after it has been reoxy-
genated in the manner previously alluded to.

Due provision is made for an equal distribution of this pure
blood through the body of the foetus, so that every part of the
frame may be built up at the same time.

The act of cleansing in the case of the cow generally takes
place some hours after the calf is born. If the placental mem-
branes, instead of being separated, are retained, they set up a
great deal of irritation. They may putrefy, and death may in
consequence ensue. Cows, suffering from a depraved appetite,
have been known to devour their cleansings, and impaction of
the rumen may result therefrom.

Now, the term oestrum is employed to designate that condition
of the female which shows her fitness and desire for the male.
It is associated with puberty, and passes off on the approach of
old age. In some of our improved breeds of cattle, especially
when well kept and attended to, oestrum comes on very early
in life, and in such instances the animal often conceives when
she is but little more than a year old. These early conceptions,
however, too frequently prove injurious, both by interfering
with the development of the frame of the female, and also by
deteriorating the quality of the offspring.

Some animals, such as the dog and pig, which in a state of
nature produce only one litter a year, will, when domesticated,
bring forth several.

The immediate cause of oestrum is the existence of fully
matured ova in the ovaries, and impregnation can only be
effected when the ova are in this condition.

The time occupied in the development of the ova differs in
different animals, and hence we observe a variation in their
return to the male. Impregnation is produced by the fecundating
fluid of the male acting on the matured ovum of the female,
which action probably takes place in the ovarium. There is

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 647

some dispute as to the means by which the seminal fluid finds
its way through the body and horns of the uterus, and from
thence through the Fallopian tube to the ovary. Probably the
spermatozoa, with which the seminal fluid abounds, move along
by themselves. Hence the Fallopian tubes must be pervious,
since if their lumen be closed, as has been proved by passing a
ligature around them, the animal is thereby rendered incapable
of being fertilized. The ordinary operation of spaying, i.e. the
simple removal of the ovaries, destroys both the desire and the
power of conception : whereas if an ovary be left, all other parts
being cut away, the animal returns to the male, notwithstanding
that she is sterile.

With regard to the signs by which we know that impregna-
tion has taken place, it may be said that the cessation of oestrum
is regarded as an indication in the case of the cow, that animal
not returning to the male at the usual period, or refusing con-
nection. As the calf gradually grows inside the womb, the
capacity of the uterus increases, and becomes visible externally,
especially on the cow's right side, where, indeed, at about five
and a half months after impregnation, the calf may be felt. A
general quietude may be noticeable together with a tendency to
accumulate flesh, and in some animals, as for instance the mare,
a sluggishness during work may be manifested. The labia
pudendi are swollen and flaccid and red, and the redness extends
into the vagina, from which a larger quantity of mucus than is
usual is discharged. Shortly afterwards the abdomen increases
in size, the loins droop, and the muscles of the croup become
less markedly prominent. In fact the abdomen gradually
becomes larger and larger, and hangs down, so to speak, and at
its lower portion exhibits a round appearance^ with a falling-in
immediately beneath the bones of the loins. If one gently
but firmly thrusts against the animal's flank, a hard lump,
which in reality is the foetus, may be felt. At a later stage the
movements of the calf in the uterus may be seen, and the
mouth of the uterus may on examinatie-n be found to be
closed.

As the period of labour approaches, the mammary gland
enlarges, the secretion of colostrum takes place within its
follicles, and the teats become hot and full.

When delivery is about to be efl'ected, the animal becomes

648 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

restless, often lies down, strains, rises again, changes her
position, looks to her flanks, and carries the tail higher than is
usual.

During the earliest periods of gestation it is very difficult to
decide if an animal is pregnant. In cases when the hand can
be passed up the rectum, the presence of the foetus can be
detected in the form of a small, roundish, and slightly mov-
able body situated below and without the intestine. If the
hand be quietly kept in this situation, and pressed upon the
enlargement, voluntary movements in the living embrvo will
now and again be recognised. Some persons prefer to introduce
the hand into the vagina, and carry it towards the os uteri so as
to ascertain its condition, for the mouth of the womb is closely
shut during gestation, and at this time it contains a layer of
thick albuminous matter. However, such manipulations are
liable to lead to abortion, and hence should not be resorted to.
Percussion over the uterus is also of great assistance in regard
to diagnosis, and some persons speak of auscultation most
favourably, maintaining that the sound of the foetal heart can
often be detected.

The percussion should be carried out on the right side, the
rumen being situated in the left division of the abdomen. If
the period of gestation be advanced, foetal movements can be
seen while we stand by the side of an animal. In the case of
the mare, the custom is not unfrequently practised of giving
cold water to drink for the purpose of making the foetal move-
ments stronger and quicker. However, tiiis is a very repre-
hensible practice, since spasms and even death may be induced
by it.

As a rule the mare carries her young for nearly forty-eight
weeks, the cow forty, the ewe twenty-two, the bitch nine, and
the sow sixteen. According to Earl Spencer, the probable
period of gestation of a cow should be considered to be 284 or
285 days.

Dr. Carpenter remarks that "the average length of time
which elapses between conception and parturition in the human
female appears to be 280 days or 40 weeks. We must attribute
the prolongation of the period to some peculiarity in the embryo,
derived from its male parent."

Earl Spencer observes that " from the cows whose period

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DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 649

of gestation did not exceed 286 days, the number of cow-calves
produced was 233, and the number of bull-calves 234; while
from those whose period exceeded 286 days, the number of cow-
calves was only 90, while the number of bull-calves was 152.''
Hence it seems to be the case that when the time of gestation of
a cow is longer than usual, the produce is generally a male
call.

Labour, although perfectly natural, may occupy some time,
or be rapidly effected. In the mare delivery is as a rule quick,
the birth of a foal rarely occupying more than a few minutes.
In the cow half an hour may be regarded as about the average
time after labour-pains have shown themselves, while in the ewe
it not unfrequently happens that several hours may be spent in
labour.

We have now to consider briefly the ordinary mode of
delivery. As the time draws near, a discharge of thick mucus
may bo observed, the mammary gland becomes swollen, hot, and
full of colostrum (the first milk), the ligaments of the pelvis
give way, the cow becoming "down in her bones." The cow
separates herself from the herd, if in the field, and shows
signs of uneasiness. When delivery is at hand, the animal
•evinces great restlessness, lies down and rises again quickly, and
the labour-pains come on and gradually increase in intensity,
until after a time the act of bringing forth takes place. This
will be generally about 280 days or perhaps a few more after
impregnation. The cow may assume the recumbent posture.

The symptoms denoting the approach of labour are in fact
restlessness, frequent change of position, lying down, quick
rising, straining, and so forth.

These ail indicate an excited state of the system accompanied
with pains of a bearing down and intermittent character.

The aninion is first protruded and then ruptured, a watery
fluid being consequently set free. Then the f'ore-leet of the
calf appear, and soon afterwards the head also shows itself, as it
rests upon the legs near the knees, and finally and slowly the
whole animal. {Hee Fig. 85.) The act of delivery may be said
to occupy in the general way about an hour.

In giving aid, it is important to remember that advantage
should be taken of each labour-pain, gentle force being applied
by pulling the fore-legs, and, if necessary, the head also. In

650 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

urgent cases it may even be found advisable to fasten cords care-
fully round both the legs and the neck of the calf. When, how-
ever, the presentation is the natural one, as above described, and
the labour-pains are not severe, no measures of this kind should
be taken, since the pains may come on and go off again for
some hours, and again they may return, yet again to dis-
appear. If, in such a case as this the mouth of the womb
is known to be only slightly dilated, the animal should be left
alone in perfect quiet for a few hours. Especially should
young animals with their first calves be treated in this
manner.

Proprietors should not be in too great a hurry with their
animals at the time of parturition, although these may express
mud) uneasiness by continued straining. Symptoms of
approaching parturition have in certain cases disappeared, and
not returned for two or three days.

A careful examination may be made, and, should the mouth of
the womb be found only partially dilated, we may safely leave
the animal to nature's own efforts. In extreme cases of this kind
one fluid ounce of tincture of opium may be administered to a
cow, and followed up with an ordinary aperient.

The act of parturition is in part effected by the contraction of
the muscular coat of the womb, and partly by that of the
abdominal muscles. The mouth of the womb being freely
dilated, the simultaneous and repeated contractions of the uterus
and abdominal muscles propel the foetus, covered by its mem-
branes, first towards and then into the vagina. This advance
is assisted by its position, and also by the pushing forwards of
the liquor amnii. This fluid, contained within its proper mem-
brane, is usually called " the water-bladder." As soon as it
bursts, the propulsive action of the uterus is brougiit to bear
immediately on the body of the foetus, by which means the latter
is expelled.

The membranes are cast off by means of a more gradual actiou
of the uterus, by which the cotyledons are in the first place
detached from their connections, and then the membranes are
ejected by an augmentation of the propulsive power.

After this, the womb contracts with some force upon itself,
and thus efiectually compresses the mouths of the uterine vessels^
and stays the escape of blood.

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 651

If delivery be difficult owing to the foetus being too large for
the womb, then assistance ought to be given during the con-
tinuance of each alternate pain.

Occasionally the veterinarian niay be called to a simple
case in which the act is merely a little delayed. If so, a
mild stimulant may be useful, or in extreme cases a little of
the fluid extract of ergot of rye may be prescribed. The
greatest precaution is, however, necessary in regard to the
use of this drug. It should never be administered, unless
one is quite certain that there is no real impediment or
obstacle, and also that the os uteri is relaxed. In order to
determine the position of the foetus in the uterus, the hand
may be introduced. The primary aims to be sought in all
cases of diflBcult parturition are the strengthening of the cow
and the restoring of the calf to the natural position.

Sometimes it may be the case that a calf i/i utero may be
afflicted with dropsy of the abdomen, and so, on account of its
greatly increased size, present a very grave obstacle to delivery
taking place. In this case, the life of the foetal calf must be
sacrificed at once, and exit should be given to the fluid contained
in the abdomen of the foetus by thrusting a trocar of sufficient
length right through the chest of the faetus, and into the
abdominal cavity. The stilet should be withdrawn, and then
the pressure brought to bear on the foetus, partly by the labour-
pains of the mother, will forcibly drive the fluid through the
sheath of the instrument, thus reducing the size of the enlarged
abdomen and facilitating delivery. The very greatest care is
requisite in performing this operation. Perhaps in certain cases
it may be possible to pass the trocar directly into the abdomen
of the foetus.

Professor Simonds was led to the subsequent employment of
this instrument owing to the difficulty once experienced in the
case of a mare in labour, where the obstruction to the progress of
the delivery was due to the accumulation of a large quantity
of urine within the bladder of the foetus.

The instrument is depicted in Fig. 86.

Among other causes of lingering labour as a result of congenital
disease, and where the presentation is natural, we must mention
an accumulation of fluid within the cranial cavity (water on the
brain). In such cases the body of the foetus is unusually small.

662 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

SO that we have but little to apprehend if we can succeed in
reducing the size of the head. [Vide Fig. 87.)

Having satisfied ourselves, by an examination, of the real con-
dition of the parts, let the fore-legs be returned into the body of
the uterus in order to make^more room.

Then place a book attached to the end of a cord within the
orbit, draw firmly at this with the left hand, so as to fix the
head against the brim of the pelvis below, and the sacrum above.
By means of the right hand introduce with very great care an
instrument called a perforator, thrust its point through the bones
of the head, and split thera asunder by compressing the handles
of tlie instrument. The bones of the head must be effectively
crushed, great care being exercised in this process. We should
here say that in all cases when certain parts of the foetus are
to be put back into the uterus, they should first be secured by
ropes, so that, when it is necessary, they can be drawn out at will.
When the cranial bones have been crushed, an exit will thereby
be given to the fluid in the cranial cavity, and the foetus will
therefore be capable of passing through the pelvis. Of course
the legs of the foetus must be brought one alter the other into
the vagina, when moderate traction will in all probability suffice
to withdraw the foetus, the force being applied in this, as in every
other case, only during the maternal efforts.

Among the varieties of natural delivery we must speak of
twin-labour. As a rule, one foetus is presented with the head
and fore-legs advancing, and the other in the reverse position.

Now sometimes first one calf and then after some little time
another one, and then again after some little time even a third
may appear. In the case of twins, the fore-leg of one calf and
the hind-leg of another may be presented, or there may be two
fore-legs and one hind-leg. It is necessary that the calf whose
fore-legs appear, or the one which is first presented, should be
adjusted correctly, and then that the other should be for the
time being returned into the uterus. In all cases, if there has
been some difficulty in parturition, one should, alter the birth
of a calf, explore the uterus by means of tlie hand, with the
view of ascertaining if another be present or not.

As we have pointed out above, there is great danger to be
apprehended if the foetal membranes be retained. Should this
be the case, it will be best to remove them, using great care,

DISEASES OP THE OX AND SHEEP. 663

since otherwise they may decompose, and so give rise to septic
disease of the general system, as will be manifested by febrile
symptoms of a severe character. Retention may be due, either
to a want of the necessary expulsive efforts, or to entangle-
ment. Sometimes it may be found useful to roll the parts of
the cleansing which protrude round two thatch-sticks, and so
gradually rolling them round and round, draw what remains
away by degrees. Sometimes it may be well to introduce the
hand, and carefully separate the cotyledons from their points of
attachment. This method, however, should only be resorted to
as a last resource, and it is well to remember that, if they are at
all forcibly separated, serious bleeding may come on.

Again, after-pains may supervene as a result of the retention
of fcetal membranes, or as a consequence of injury to the womb,
or of some cause of irritation in the intestines. After delivery
has taken place, the womb slowly contracts, though it cannot do
this effectually so long as the membranes remain. This con-
traction causes an arrest of the flow of blood. If the after-pains
are severe, it may be found advisable to administer a dose of
antispasmodic medicine.

Further, there may be a more or less profuse discharge of
blood from the womb. The blood may be clotted, and the
animal will show restlessness and weakness. In these cases
cold water may be continuously applied to the loins, or cold
or warm injections into the uterus may arrest the flow. It is
necessary in such cases to use a double-tubed injector, and to
fill both tubes of the injector with the fluid to be injected
before passing it into the womb. It is well to add some anti-
septic to the fluid. The ordinary hasmostatic agents such as
perchloride of iron may be tried by the veterinarian, and in
some cases he may find it wise to administer a suitable stimu-
lant internally. Moreover, after delivery has been effected,
the cut or ruptured end of the cord may bleed. This will
probablv soon cease, but, in any case, ligatures should be
applied to the two ends. It is a peculiar fact that cows will,
before and after parturition, devour all kinds of extraordinary
things, and, after delivery, even the foetal membranes.

Numerous different kinds of abnormal presentations may be met
with, and we now proceed to mention some of the chief of these.

(a.) Instead of both fore-feet and the head, one fore-foot only.

654 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

together with the head, may appear. If so, a cord should
without delay he fastened securely round the lower jaw, and
another round the foot presented, so as to make sure of these
two structures. Next, the hand, holding the slipping noose of a
rope, should be gently introduced into the uterus, and the other
flexed fore-limb should be found. From the point of that leg
which is first touched, the hand should be carried down towards
the fetlock, and when this is reached, the noose should be
slipped on the fetlock. While the cord is being pulled with the
object of straightening the flexed limb, matters may be facili-
tated by pushing the fcetus backwards into the womb.

{b.) The fore-feet may be presented, while the head is
doubled more or less completely backwards, lying close to
the side of the young animal, so that the side of the ueck is
presented. {See Fig. 88.)

In the figure below the calf is represented as having its two
fore-legs passed through the mouth of the uterus into the vaginal
passage, wliile the head is turned back and lies in contact with
the side of the young animal. This presentation is of common
occurrence.

This position of the foetus arises from the head being turned
a little aside. The difficulty of adjusting the foetus, and effecting
delivery will be proportionate to the distance the head is placed
backwards. In some cases it will be within our grasp, while in
others we can only succeed after repeated efforts have been
made to reach the ear or the orbit.

We must secure the fore-legs by passing round each, just below
the fetlocks, a cord having a running noose. The legs are then
to be returned into the body of the uterus. The head should
then be sought for, and, if possible, a rope should be fastened
round the lower jaw, or, if this cannot be effected, a hook
should be fixed cautiously, firmly, and securely, so that it can-
not possibly slip, into the orbit of the foetus. The hook is,
of course, fastened to a rope, or fixed by means of a hinge to
one end of a steel rod provided with a cross handle at the
other end. Then the chest of the foetus must be pressed back,
so as to cause the foetus to sink deeply down into the wouib,
after which pressure is to be made upon the curved side of the
neck or chest, which pressure must ri'sist the propulsive efforts
of the mother, when it will be I'ound that the neck will be thus

I

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 655

Straightened, and the head consequently brought nearer to the
pelvic opening.

Now bring the fore-legs forward again, and at the same time
pull the cords firmly, so as to bring the head in position, and
then delivery may be effected. In extreme cases of this kind ot
presentation the foetus is often found to be dead, and if so there
is reason for using instruments in order to aid our efforts. A
hook attached by means of a hinge-joint to a steel rod, and
having at the other end a cross-handle removable at pleasure, is
a very useful instrument. The operator, taking the hook in his
hand, and carrying it towards the orbit, directs his assistant to
advance it or draw it backwards, as he may find necessary in
order to aid his efforts to place it within the orbit. After havin^
adjusted the head, the legs are to be brought up by means of the
cords, and delivery is then to be effected in the usual manner.

Sometimes, however, it may be found quite impossible to
secure the head. If this is found to be the case, the best plan
is for the surgeon to proceed carefully to cut up the calf,
removing first the fore-legs. This is effected by concealing a
small knife in the palm of the hand, and making with it a deep
incision from the fetlock of the foetus to the shoulder. The skin
may then be separated from the leg by passing the finger between
the skin and muscles. By the application of some degree of
force, the whole of the leg can be pulled away. The other fore-
leg should then be treated in the same way, and ropes should
then be attached to the loose skin. Then there will be more
room for securing the head.

Sometimes, however, it may be found necessary, by means of
a strong, short scalpel, to disarticulate the skull at the first or
the second cervical vertebra, and then to detach the head, and
so complete the delivery. If only one fore-leg projects, the best
course is to secure the other foot, and then proceed as above,
so far as may be found possible.

(c.) The next form of presentation which Professor Simonds
describes is that shown in the figure which is represented in
Fig. 89. It will in this illustration be seen that the head of the
foetus is alone protruded, the neck of the animal being in the
vaginal passage, the rest of the body occupying the uterus, and
the two fore-legs being situated down in the body of the
uterus.

656 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

If the case be very extreme, as is shown in the figure, it will
be quite useless to attempt to return the head and draw away
the foetus, as all such efforts could only be futile in such an
instance.

On the contrary, the foetus must at once be sacrificed, in
order that the life of the mother may be saved. An incision
should be made through the skin from the poll to the muzzle,
and another from the gullet to the end of the lower lip.
Dissect the skin on either side from off the head so as to unite
the upper and lower cuts, and then detach the skull from the
trunk at the occipital joint. Then attach a cord to the incised
skin, and put back the neck into the womb. Feel for, and place
in their proper position, the fore-legs, then bring up the neck
and deliver. If it should be found impossible to put back the
head into the uterus, the best plan will be to detach the head
from the neck, leaving sufficient loose skin attached to the neck
as will make it possible to fix a rope to it. However, it may
perhaps be found advisable to fix a hook firmly into one of
the vertebrae of the neck, or iu the interval between two
vertebrae.

Should the head be presented, but not actually so far as to
project, the first thing to be done is to secure the lower jaw
of the foetus, by passing a cord with a slip noose round it, and
then the head should be pressed back into the uterus. In the
next 'place, the fore-legs are to be carefully sought for, and,
when found, elevated, and separately secured by means of cords
as above described, and then they are to be drawn upwards
with firm but rightly-applied force. Then the head is to be
brought forward by drawing at the cord on the jaw, and, force
being applied to both head and legs, delivery is to be effected.
It is necessary to bear in mind that, by attempting to deliver
by means of the head alone, a great deal of damage may be
done, while no benefit could possibly ever result from taking
tliis course.

(d.) Tlie position which we are now about to describe is that
depicted in Fig. 90. In this illustration the right fore-foot of
the foal is seen to be protruded through the mouth of the uterus.
The left foot is directed downwards in the body of the uterus.
The liead, too, is situated in the body of the womb, and it is
curved with the nose directed downwards, so as to be brought

2 -i

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 657

near to the front of the neck. The forehead is pressed against
the brim of the pelvis, and the tip of the forehead and part of
the upper surface of the neck, together with the right fore-foot,
are the only parts which can be readily felt by the operator.
The occipital bone of the skull is presented, and hence this
position of the foetus is called the occipital and foot presentation.
Unless the labour pains should be very powerful, this position
of the foetus does not entail great difficulties.

In the first place, a cord should be fastened round the fore-
foot which is protruded. Then the hand should be passed into
the womb, and, if it is possible to do so, a cord should be
fastened round the lower jaw. If this cannot be done, a hook
with a cord attached to it should be fixed into the orbit of the
eye. The hand is then again to be introduced into the womb,
and, following the direction of the protruding limb, carried
towards the chest of the foetus. Pressure should then be exerted
on the chest, so as to push the foetus backwards as far as possible
into the uterus. As soon as this is done, the hand is to be
shifted to the upper part of the neck behind the occiput, when
moderate pressure being applied here will straighten the head
and neck, so that they assume their natural position. The
assistant must then gently pull the head by drawing the cord
attached to it moderately tight, so as to prevent the head being
again bent downwards. Another cord must now be carried in,,
and fastened securely to the other fore-leg, as is represented by
the dotted line shown in the figure. The legs and the head are
then to be pulled with moderate force, and the foetus will be
withdrawn.

In this connection we may point out that it is always prefer-
able that a cord should be fastened round a part, as, for example,
round the jaw, than that hooks should be employed. The cord
cannot do any damage, while the hooks, if they should become
loose, or slip and become imbedded in the walls of the uterus,
may cause much laceration of the tissues, and even death might
result from such an untoward accident. Hence the very greatest
care is necessary in the employment of hooks. ^

{e.) The next position of the foetus which v/e now proceed to
describe is that depicted in Fig. 91. In it the foetal calf is
represented lying on its back in the womb. Its legs, instead of
being directed downwards, are directed up towards the spinal

42

658 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

column of the cow. The back of the foetus is in contact with
the lower wall of the uterus. The top portion of the skull and
the nape of the neck are presented. In these cases labour is
of long duration, and various measures are resorted to by prac-
titioners in order to adjust the foetus before employing traction
to remove it. The foetus must be turned, but to efiect this
turning in the case of the cow is a much more difficult operation
than it is in the ewe. The head should first be secured by
fastening a rope round the lower jaw, so that at will it may be
brought forward. Then similar cords should be secured round
each fore-leg, the cord attached to the leg represented in the
foreground being on the outer side of the other limb marked a
in the sketch. That is, the rope fixed to one of the fetlocks
should pass to the outside of the opposite fore-limb, so that the
two fetlocks can be drawn to the same side of the head. Then,
while the operator presses his hand strongly against the withers
in a rotatory manner from below, the assistant should be directed
to pull with special force the rope which passes to the opposite
side, and also tightly at the other rope as well. If skilfully and
properly performed, these measures should cause the legs and
then the head to be brought into the vagina, and the foetus to
turn. It may then be withdrawn with safety.

However, this turning is by no means easily eflfected. If
forward pressure applied from below, together with very
energetic pulling at the same time employed, does not succeed,
the calf must be cut up, the limbs being first detached, attempts
being then made to deliver by pulling the head, and the position
of the foetus being adjusted from time to lime.

(/.) If the foetus lies on its back and the hind-legs are
presented, it is advisable either to extract by pulling the hind-
legs, or else to detach these legs as high up as possible, to
adjust the position of the fore-legs, and to deliver by means of
the application of a moderate amount of traction. This position
is readilv intelligible, and therefore is not depicted by means of
an illustration.

(y.) The foetus may lie on its back, and the hind-feet be
inclined forwards instead of protruding. If this be the case,
the calf must be pressed downwards and forwards, and then the
hocks must be flexed, and the hind logs brought carefully into
the vagina. Another plan is to amputate the two hind-legs al

0! ■£.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 659

the hip. Sometimes this latter method may be necessary. This
position is likewise easily intelligible, and is therefore not
illustrated by a picture.

(/«.) The presentation now to be described is illustrated by
the two figures numbered 92 and 93 respectively, the first of
these pictures showing the position itself, and the second
depicting the successful accomplishment of what the veterinary
surgeon should strive to bring about.

In Fig. 92 the foetus is seen to be lying with its head directed
towards the chest of the cow, having its hinder parts, namely
the breech and the tail, alone presented and pressed against the
brim of the pelvis, and the hind-legs doubled up under the
body. It is clear that the hind-legs must be brought into the
vaginal passage, and in order to effect this adjustment an instru-
ment invented by Professor Simonds should be used. By means
of this instrument a cord is passed round each thigh, then the
body of tiie foetus is pushed forwards by the aid of the crutch,
and the loop is passed down to the fetlocks. Then, the pressure
being still applied, the feet are drawn by means of flexure of
the hocks and other joints into the vaginal passage, and removal
is then effected. This method may be described somewhat as
follows : —

The instrument sketched in Fig. 92 consists of a curved
piece of steel having an aperture at one end, to which a small
cord is attached. At the other a female screw is placed, and
this admits of its junction to a whalebone staff, and between the
two another opening exists, into which a stronger cord is
inserted. Taking the staff with the two cords in his hand, the
operator is to pass the instrument between the thighs of the
calf, and push it in front of the stifle-joint, and then with a
turn of the wrist to direct the small cord outwards. An assistant
holding the instrument, the hand of the accoucheur is now to
be introduced and directed to the front part of the stifle-joint,
when the cord can be readily grasped and brought out. Thus
the limb will be embraced between the two cords. The whale-
bone staff" is then to be detached, and the smaller cord to be
run througli a noose at the free end of the larger one, when, by
drawing the smaller cord, the curved part of the instrument will
travel round the limb, bringing with it tlie larger cord, and thus
a looped ligature will be placed upon the leg above the hock.

42 *

660 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

The like proceeding is to be adopted with the other leg. The
operator must next push the body of the foetus forwards by
either placing his hand against the breech, or using for the
purpose an instrument similar to an ordinary crutch. By these
efforts he will succeed in flexing the hock-joints, and be able to
pass the loops downwards to the fetlocks. Having accom-
plished this, a careful manipulation will allow of his bringing
up the feet towards the os uteri, and at last to turn the legs so
as to place them in position of Fig. 93, after which ordinary
traction during each throe will enable him to eflect delivery
with safety, both to the mother and the young. It may, how-
ever, often be the case that efforts to get hold of the fetlocks
will prove futile. If so, it will be necessary to perform the
operation of embryotomy, and one point to be always borne in
mind is that a limb should never be removed before having
dissected back the skin, so that the various instruments may be
attached to it. The position of the animal is of great import-
ance, and the animal should remain standing. During pro-
tracted labour, stimulants should be administered. Good ale,
together with some alcoholic spirit, is very useful. After
delivery a dose of from one to two fluid ounces of tincture of
opium may be very valuable, in the case of a mare or cow, or
half a fluid ounce to a sheep.

Now that we have done something to describe the chief kinds
of abnormal presentation liable to be met with in cattle practice,
we may as well say that the exercise of great care and judgment,
coupled with common sense, would suffice to save verv inanv of
the hundreds of animals which are annually lost, owing to the
want of the right kind of assistance. Tiiere is no doubt thjit
very many animals are yearly sacriliced as a result of the lack of
skilful help.

The most important disease connected with the act of parturi-
tion is one which we have already considered under tlie lieadinsr
of " Disorders of the Nervous System." Milk-fever or parturient
apoplexy, or puerperal apoplexy, seems to be almost characteristic
of the bovine race, and ic probably arises from congestion of tiie
brain. This serious disease generally occurs in the cow soon
after calving, namely, from about four hours up to about three
days alter that occurrence has taken place ; although it has been

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 661

•said that it may even occur before parturition, or sometimes
■even as long as several weeks after it. The fever most Irequently
manifests itself after an easy delivery, in warm weather, in
plethoric animals, in good milkers, and in old animals seldom
before the third calf, and most generally after the fifth. In those
X50WS which have once suffered from this serious disorder it is
very likely to come on again.

A short lime after delivery has taken place, a cow afflicted
with parturient apoplexy grinds the teeth, raises first one hind-
foot and then the other, breathes a little more quickly, dislikes
movement, and, if caused to move, progresses onward with a
sttiggering gait, loses appetite, ceases to chew the cud and to
give milk, has a staring look in the eyes, and becomes coma-
tose. The hind-limbs usually lose their power and give way
about twenty hours after the first onset of the disease, and the
animal then falls to the ground, and remains in the recumbent
posture, not being able to rise up at all, or, at any rate, only
with the greatest possible difficulty. The eyes are now blood-
shot, they protrude, and are insensible to the touch ; the pupils
are dilated, and they will not contract if light is allowed to fall
upon them. There is a loss of sensation all over the body, the
prick of a pin on the hind-limbs, for instance, not being felt,
and moreover there is a loss of power of voluntary motion. The
pulse is full, soft, and slow ; but as the disease progresses it
becomes faster and smaller, and finally imperceptible. The
breathing, too, is at first quick and afterwards becomes difficult,
slow, and after a time assumes a stertorous character. The
mucous membranes are purple in colour, and the head and
horns are hot. As the disease progresses in its fatal course, the
brain becomes more and more profoundly affected. The head
may be either pressed to the side or thrown quite back, with the
horns resting on the ground. The animal may probably be
delirious, and dash its head about with excessive violence, or it
may on the contrary lapse into a state of complete coma, and
lie with the head turned round on the shoulder. The muscles
of the evelids twitch convulsively, the udder retains its soft con-
dition, or it may perhaps become small and hard. The animal
cannot swallow, the urine is not evacuated, but remains in the
bladder, and the bowels do not act. Indeed, obstinate constipa-
tion of an increasing character is manifested from the commence-

662 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

ment of the malady. The animal becomes blown up with wind,
more and more comatose, and at length death closes the scene.
In some cases, especially if the animal be well managed and
treated, recovery may be hoped for. There is, however, danger
of a relapse, and with the view of obviating this risk so far as
may be possible, the patient should be most carefully attended
to, and also occasionallv turned, in order that it may not lie for
too long upon the same side. After death the veins may be
seen to be distended with black blood, and there are petechiae
on various serous membranes. The brain and spinal cord show
congestion and extravasation of blood. The viscera are healthy,
but the vessels of the brain are full of blood, that organ being
intensely congested. In some cases to such an extent has this
been carried that the walls have given way. In these cases a
clot of blood may be found pressing on the brain, and on account
of this pressure the fatal result may have been brought about.
There may also be an effusion of serous fluid either between the
membranes of the brain, or within the ventricles.

It is difficult to say what is the cause of the disease. It i&
thought by some to be due to encephalic anaemia. On the
other hand, the coma, delirium, and convulsions, are probably
due to congestion of the brain and spinal cord. The removal of
the offspring from the mother seems to bring on milk-fever,
and hence it looks as if the presence in the blood of matters
which ought to have been expelled from it by the medium of
the milk has a great deal to do with the disease.

In regard to treatment, it may first be said that it is well to
allow a cow to take a little gentle exercise during the tew days
before delivery is expected to take place, to avoid plethora, and
perhaps to give a gentle cathartic draught. If called to a cow
suflering from the early stages of the disease, the veterinarian
will probably extract blood at this early stage, or not at all. In
the case of a plethoric animal which has not fallen, bleeding
may do good. In the first stages we may bleed, administer
aperients and sedatives, and apply counter-irritation to the spine.
Stimulants are very useful, and, as an example of these, we may
mention sesquicarbonate of ammonium. Some persons advise
persistent affusion of the spine with cold water, and will probably
administer a full cathartic dose, at whatever stage they find the
patient. A combination of sulphate of magnesium and solution

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SUKEP. 603

of aloes forms a useful cathartic mixture. The most assiduous
care is requisite throughout the course of the malady. The
suffering animal should be supported by bundles of straw, kept
warm by being covered with clothes, the udder should be regularly
stripped, and the body should be well rubbed. Ice-bags or cold
water may be suitably applied to the forehead, and diffusible
stimulants should be somewhat freely administered. A strong
stimulating liniment should be rubbed along the spine. Enemas
may be frequently given, and, moreover, the urine should be
frequently drawn off by the aid of a catheter.

Medicines should be given by means of the stomach-pump,
whereby the tympany will also be relieved. Gruel diet, or at
any rate easily digestible laxative food, should be supplied. After
recovery, the animal may still suffer from paraplegia, and if this
is not amenable to the action of tonics, and the application of
absorbent agents and blisters over the spine, the animal should
be slaughtered and used for food, if the flesh is suitable for this
purpose.

(1.) A dose of aperient medicine. Either (a) two pints of
castor oil together with 20 drops of croton oil, or {b) 16 ounces
of sulphate of magnesium together with half an ounce of powdered
ginger and eight drachms of powdered aloes, to be given in a pint
or more of warm water.

(2.) A stimulating draught (a) made up of four drachms of
carbonate of ammonium together with one ounce of powdered
ergot. This may be given in six fluid ounces of brandy or
whisky every four hours. Or {b) a draught of one fluid ounce of
aromatic spirit of ammonia together with three fluid ounces of
spirit of nitric ether, to be repeated every half hour.

(3.) A liniment should be well rubbed along the spine now
and again. It should be made of equal fluid parts of liniment
of ammonia and of liniment of camphor.

(4.) The wet pack should be applied to the cow. It acts as
an efficient sudorific, and the temperature may often be very
greatly reduced by a careful and thorough application of it.

If the coma increases, whisky or brandy "should be given in
doses of about fifteen fluid ounces or a pint given at intervals of
two hours; but if after the fourth dose no amelioration takes
place, the case may be considered hopeless. Should the bowels
be freely opened, and the animal gradually become more con-

664; THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

scious, we may have some hope. After the turn, we may have
recourse to mild tonics, good nursing, and generous but soft
diet.

Our readers will understand that milk fever is to be dis-
tinguished from ordinary fever occurring after parturition, and
called parturient fever ; also from septic peritonitis, adynamia,
and simple metritis. Puerperal mania may now and again occur
a few days after parturition, being probably due to exposure,
dyspepsia, and to removal of the calf from the cow. The animal
is very excitable, champs with tlie jaws, gnaws at objects which
may be near, and especially its own fore-legs. The careful
administration of opiates is to be recommended in these cases.

MAMMITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER, OR

GARGET.
This disease is one which it is frequently difficult to treat, and
it may supervene either shortly alter calving or some time after.
Moreover, the inflammation may either affect the whole udder or
one or two only of the four quarters. In its ordinary form,
garget consists in inflammation of a portion of the gland,
together with heat, swelling, redness and pain. There may also
be some febrile symptoms. If it is properly treated, the disease
subsides, leaving no traces. The malady may also occur in a
severe form, and the inflammation may go on to exudation or
suppuration and the formation of abscesses. Even a large
portion of the gland may become indurated, and suffer a per-
manent loss of secreting power. The malady may be brought
about by blows, scratches, or other injuries, or it may
apparently arise from the animal being unduly plethoric at the
time of calving. Heifers are more especially liable to this com-
plaint in a severe form, and hot summers are said to be an
exciting cause. The udder becomes hot and hard, and much
larger than is ordinarily the case. It is, moreover, red on the
surface, and very tender and painful to the touch, and pain is
occasioned if the animal moves. Frequently it may happen
that lameness of one hind-leg may be one of the earliest
symptoms of the disease, particularly if the inflammation has
commenced in the body of the gland, and not in tlie teat. The
pulse is quick and hard, the respirations are accelerated ; in
severe cases the chewing of the cud will be suspended, and the

fe .2

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 665

animal will refuse her food. If the cow is milked, a thin
yellowish fluid is obtained, and in it small flocculi are con-
tained. Later on, the milk becomes thick and very fetid, while
the swollen udder enlarges, and becomes white liere and there,
abscesses being formed. These break and discharge, leaving
deep and ragged ulcers which often burrow by means of sinuses
into the deeper portions of the gland. Gangrene may next
supervene, and large diseased parts of the gland may become
separated, or require to be removed by the aid of the knife. At
this stage, or before it, a fatal issue may occur.

Trciitment should consist in the abstraction of blood and the
■administration of a cathartic dose. The ndder should be
fomented with warm water, and be kept free of milk, both by
letting the calf suck and by regular drawing with the hand.
Mr. Dobson recommended the following powder: —

Powered digitalis leaves ^ drachm, powdered tartarised
antimony 2 drachms, powdered nitre J ounce. To be given
once a day.

In the Bovine Formulary we recommend a draught made of
one ounce of bicarbonate of potassium, and forty minims of
tincture of aconite given in a sutficient quantity of water every
four hours for a day, and then three times daily, so long as the
temperature remains high.

Linseed poultices containing about four drachms of extract of
belladonna may be applied. In cases of chronic induration, a
h^tion made up of one drachm of bicarbonate of potassium and
one ounce of water may be injected, while at a later stage acetic
liniment may be used. Also in chronic cases one ounce of
bicarbonate of potassium, together with two drachms of iodide
of potassium, may be given twice daily in a sufficiency of water.
If an abscess form, it should be opened with a lancet, and the
matter thereby set free. The wound may be dressed with the
ointujent of turpentine.

If mortification should ensue, powerful stimulants should be
given, such as brandy, and the diseased parts of the udder must
be cut away.

Sometimes the disease becomes chronic, the udder becoming
hard. The compound iodine ointment will m these cases be
found useful, and compounds of iodine may also be administered
internally.

666 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDERS OF THE OX.

Injuries and Obstructions in the Teats. — There raay
be tumours in the teats of the size of a pea whicli may be felt
by compressing the teat between the finger and thumb. There
may, too, be lacteal calculi or milk-stones. A silver probe
should be passed up the teat. A probe or knitting needle may
also be frequently passed, in case there should be a stricture of
the teat. Warts also are occasionally found at the end of a
teat. They may be removed by means of a ligature of fine silk
being tied firmly round, every day a new ligature being applied.
This causes the warts to slough off. Sore or chapped teats are
best treated by the application of the ointment of turpentine.

ABORTION.

When delivery takes place prematurely, abortion is said to
have occurred. Dr. Fleming considers as cases of abortion
all those instances in which expulsion is achieved thirty-five
days before the normal period of about nine and a half months.
It is apt to occur rather frequently in the case of the cow,
and raay happen at almost any period of pregnancy, the most
usual time, however, being between the fourth and the seventh
month. According to Earl Spencer^ no calf can be born alive
before the 220th nor after the 313th day, and it is impossible
to rear calves born before the 242nd day. The general average
is a period of about 270 davs.

Abortion in cows, or premature expulsion of the foetus, may be
due to innumerable different causes; for instance, to all kinds of
unsanitary conditions, to mechanical injuries, over-driving, innu-
tritious and badly-prepared food, perhaps to certain kinds of
fodder — e.ij. to ergotised grain, to the administration of catliar-
tics, as a consequence of exposure to cold, or of debility, or of
tubercular affection of different organs, also in cases of hernia,
or as a result of sympathy with other cows which have aborted
near at hand. Occasionally it may seem to be epizootic in
character, entire herds and even the cattle of whole districts
being affected.

There may be an incompatibility betwixt the foetus and the dam
either on the side of the dam or on that of the offspring. For
example, there may be malformations, and, occasionally, inju-
ries resulting from accidents. Those might, perhaps, amount to

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 667

about five in a thousand. Amongst the chief and, perhaps, most
preventable of the remaining causes are tlie imperfections in the
character of the blood supplied to the offspring during its foetal
life, and those alterations of the nervous system of the mother
which alter the calibre of the vessels supplied to the foetus to
such an extent as to cause an insufficient or intermittent blood-
supply. No doubt the alterations in the blood-supply are due to
some imperfection of diet, including both food and water. Again,
virulent germs may be introduced from without, or diseased pro-
ducts may be elaborated within.

Abortion may also be brought about by a too sudden ingestion
of rich food, by sudden alterations in the food-supply, by any
cause which interferes with the assimilation of food, by a sudden
change from rich to poor keep, or, on the contrary, from poor to
rich food — as, for instance in spring-time, when the vegetation
is luxuriant, or by the use of food which is too highly nitro-
genised, whether artificial or natural. Again, in dry weather,
the sources of water-supply may be dried up, or the water may be
contaminated with sewage material, coming either from badly-
managed drainage or more especially by the presence of decom-
posing carcases, blood, or other animal matter. A prominent
cause of abortion is the ingestion of herbage grown under
circumstances of excessive moisture in low-lying, damp, marshy,
grounds, which thereby, perhaps, have a tendency to become
ergotised. At any rate, some persons suppose that the growth
of ergot near the seeds of grasses and cereals may be promoted
by undue moisture and heat. Hence care should be taken during
those seasons that the herbage is free from ergot, before it is
supplied to animals. If there is much ergot in a pasture, all the
cows in-calf should be taken oflF. It ought to be well known on
every farm, as a rule, that the more naturally any animal is kept
during its period of pregnancy, the less are the chances of it
aborting. Moreover, at times, abortion may, so to say, assume an
epizootic form. This may possibly be brought about in some
cases by unhealthy seasons, or it may, perhaps, be due to faulty
management of the food-supply throughout a large number of
animals. Instances, however, have been known when abortion
has assumed a contagious character. This may, in our opinion,
be explained on the theory that a specific fever of a mild
character may be transmitted from dam to dam. This may be

668 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

so mild in its exierual symptoms as to escape ordinary observa-
tion, but at the same time of such a nature as to render the blood
of the dam affected thereby antagonistic to the life of the off-
spring. One very marked cause of abortion in high-bred
animals is the existence of tuberculosis, although this disease
may not be so marked as to kill the animal affected by it.
Careful management should be carried out, and advice should be
sought from the veterinary surgeon. We may also mention
close in-and-in breeding and the employment for too long a
period of one bull in a herd. Where the season is the cause,
preventive measures should be taken accordingly. If the season
is dry, plenty of succulent food and bran-mashes may be allowed.
If the season is too wet, then dry artificial food may be given.
Supposing one animal has aborted, it should at once be most
strictly isolated, and the foetal membranes should be very care-
fully removed.

If abortion occurs at an early stage, it may be a matter of but
small consequence, the symptoms being very similar to those of
ordinary parturition. At a later date the act may be accom-
panied by some fever, a yellowish-red discharge, while the
secretif)n of milk may be greatly impaired. It is, of course, very
highly important that abortion should be put a st(jp to, so far as
may be possible. Should the disorder break out from year to
year, the food and water should be carefully examined, and the
herbage may be searched for any poisonous plants. Any irregu-
larity in the food-supply should be most careluUy guarded
against, and those cows which have aborted or are about to do
80 should be most scrupulously isolated. A gentle laxative,
together with perfect quiet and careful attention to the animal's
wants should be enjoined.

Sometimes stimulant tonics may be required, if the fcetal
membranes are not passed, they should be removed as soon as
possible. After a cow has once aborted, it is very liable to do so
again, and hence it is often better to fatten the cow for sale.
The byres, the clothes of the men in charge, and so on, should
all be thoroughly disiutected. Any cause which seriously alters
the state of a pregnant animal may bring about abortion. If
the fcEtus dies while in the uterus, it is best that aboriiou should
take place, }>ince otherwise the cow may go down with general
blood-poisoning.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 669

RETENTION OF THE PLACENTA OR AFTER-
BIRTH.

This is very commonly attendant upon abortion, but it may
also very often happen even after an otherwise normal delivery.
Retention mav be due to weakness on the part of the cow, while, on
the other hand, an unduly energetic contraction of the uterus may
also be a cause, the placental membrane becoming entangled in
one of the horns of tlie uterus. Retention itself is not a matter
of very great consequence, except in so far as the membranes
are very liable to decompose ; if so, the cow will suffer from
blood-poisoning. In the general way, in ordinary cases of
retention, a dose of catliartic medicine coupled with an aromatic
will suffice, such, for instance, as a drench made up of fourteen
ounces of Epsom salts, one ounce of powdered ginger, and one
ounce of carraway seeds, to be given in about a pint of warm
ale. If the placenta has been retained some time, as a conse-
quence either of entanglement or of want of the necessary efforts
at expulsion owing to weakness, it should he removed. Usually
a slight recurrence of pains brings about expulsion. Traction
may be applied by the medium of the protruding portion of the
cord, the efforts made coinciding with the labour-pains, or, as
we said previously, the projecting parts may be rolled round
two pieces of stick. If these methods do not suffice, the
hand should be introduced into the uterus, and the placenta
should be carefully separated, any rough measures being strictly
avoided. Each cotyledon should be separated from its place of
attachment. If the membranes begin to decompose, there is a
fetid discharge, and typhoid symptoms may be manifested.
After the placenta has been removed, the uterus may be well
washed out with chlorinated lime. Laxative medicines may be
given internally, and the cow may be well supplied with good
gruel. Occasionally severe fever may come on, tlie appetite be
lost, the pulse become weak, quick, and well-nigh indistinct at
the jaw, and a fetid discharge comes out- of the vagina. At
first there may be constipation, and, at a later stage, diarrhoea.
Thick gruel, together with ale, should be given at short intervals,
and, if necessary, also strong stimulants, such as brandy, spirits
of nitre, and so on.

(570 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

In cases of inversion of the urino-genital organs, the vete-
rinarian should be sent for without delay.

INVERSION OF THE BLADDER
is not a very frequent occurrence in the cow, and is usually of a
fatal character. The inverted bladder has the appearance of a
tumour. On each side of it will be seen the termination of the
ureters or canals which convey the urine from the kidneys to
the bladder. From them the urine will be seen continually
escaping. If the animal be seen at an early stage of this
disorder, the bladder may be returned without much diffi-
culty ; but if it is impossible to return it, the aoimal should be
slaughtered.

INVERSION OF THE VAGINA.

Inversion of the vagina generally occurs in debilitated animals
and before parturition. The parts should be bathed with cold
water ; the inverted portion should then be carefully returned,
and the truss applied and kept on the cow for the remaining
time before parturition. A plentiful supply of food may be
given.

INVERSION OF THE UTERUS.
Inversion of the uterus is very commonly met with in the
cow. It is well to apply a truss to the cow immediately.
It is necessary first to cleanse the organ well by removing
all particles of dung, straw, &c., and then to carefully detach
the after-birth. Then the uterus should be lifted into a clean
cloth, and supported by a man on eacli side. Next, gentle and
increasing pressure should be applied to the neck of the
uterus, and then the fist should be applied to the fundus or
lower part. If it is impossible to return the uterus when the
cow remains standing, the operation may be greatly facilitated
by turning the cow upon lier back, and elevating the hind parts
by means of pulleys. This position prevents any expulsive
efforts on the part of the cow. A dose of opium may be given
bv the veterinarian after the organ lias been returned, and a
truss may at once be applied. The cow should be placed in
such a position that her heels may be raised higher than her

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 671

bead. This may be done by placing a much larger quantity of
straw under her hind-feet than under her fore-feet.

Sometimes it may be necessary to ligature the neck of the
uterus and cut off the remainder of the organ. The late Mr. D.
Oresswell recorded cases of successful amputation of the uterus
in the Veterinary Record for the year 1847.

DROPSY OF THE UTERUS.

Accumulations of fluid in the uterus of the cow are by no
means uncommon. The cow looks as if she were in calf, and
the disease may frequently be entirely overlooked. If an ex-
amination per vaginam be made, the womb will be found to be
distended with fluid, from which, of course, fluctuation may be
detected. The closed mouth of the uterus may be dilated with
the finger.

THE SEASON OF INCREASE IN THE FLOCKS.

We read in The Times of January 9th, 1888, that in the
Hampshire Downs lambing had become fairly general, and that
on the farm of the College of Agriculture, at Downton, the first
lamb was dropped on Christmas Day, while on January the 5th
fifty ewes had yielded seventy-two lambs without any untoward
results, and it was anticipated that by the 9th the first hundred
lambs would have appeared, and would be enlivening the pen by
their frolicsome gambols and tiny voices. This is fairly typical
of the commencement of lambing on the hills and vales of
Hampshire. Thus the season in the South of England opens
well.

In these days of severe agricultural depression, preventable
losses are of such great importance that farmers cannot be too
careful, and they will feel the greater stimulus to adopt necessary
precautions, when they re6ect that the more earnestly they strive
to carry out in practice the valuable hints which scientists are
now enabled to give them in all the branches of the art of
•agriculture, the greater will be their gain. ^ The outlook is
favourable, good times, we believe, are at hand, and soon
agriculturists will hold up their heads again as before, and, so
far from being permanently damaged by recent adversity, will
carry on with renewed energy the necessary and noble work on

672 THE DISKASES AND DISORDERS OP TFTE OX.

which they are engaged, and on which the maintenance of the-
position and prestige of Great Britain so closely depends.

Sorae time ago one of the farmers in this district told us that
last season he, finding that some turnips of his were unfor-
tunately beginning to show signs of decay, removed his in-lamb
ewes from ofif this particular field, and put thfem on another crop
which was free from all signs of putrefaction. The result was^
that, although he of necessity lost money by this exchange, he
really gained very greatly, for all his ewes did well, and he had
no losses during the season. He had learnt by experience the
wisdom of this course. There are, in short, very many little
causes of a similarly removable kind in regard to which the
very greatest care should be taken. It is often exceedingly-
puzzling to hear that Mr. X. nearly always or very often expe-
riences very heavy losses indeed, while Mr. Y.^ whose farm
adjoins Mr. X.'s, seldom or never meets with serious reverses of
this kind. No doubt there may be accidental causes, such as
bad water, ergotised grasses, faulty drainage, or so forth, all of
which may have something to do with Mr. X.^s " bad luck";
but after a full inquiry it will very generally be found that there
is some removable source of mischief to be discovered by careful
scrutiny.

With regard to the evil efiects of ergotised grasses, it is very
difficult to form an absolutely decisive opinion; but our belief is
that an excess of them is very mischievous indeed. Again,
fields which are often run over by the hounds are not very
suitable for in-lamb ewes. All these matters should be guarded
against, for even if there be a slight expenditure at the outset,
large gains may result in the long-run, if due precautions are
taken.

At all times decaying vegetable matter is most unwholesome,
and the bad efl'ects which may arise from feeding sheep upon
rotting turnips will naturally be most severe when the animals
so kept are young or weak, or are ewes about to be engaged in
the most serious and risky of all vital operations. Again, it is
unwise to feed any animals upon one kind of food monotonously
for long periods of time. This remark applies especially to the
mistaken practice of keeping sheep on turnips too long. Change
of food — for instance, from grass or seeds to turnips, or vice
t'er*d--and, we may add, change of surrnundiugs, are of far

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 673

more importance for all animals and also for human beings than
is generally recognised. Sheep should have a fair amount of
variation in regard to diet. It is not very unusual to see a
flock of sheep in badly-drained fields that are but little belter
than sludgy mires owing to heavy showers. Paddling about,
and feeding upon decaying vegetable matter, the sheep catch
severe colds, even if they do not fall a prey to even worse
disorders.

The faulty drainage of our fields in England is one of the
most fruitful sources of disease in animals. It has been estab-
lished beyond the possibility of doubt that this is so, and that
some of the most virulent maladies may be brought about as
a result of the decaying vegetable matter which generally lies
stagnant upon such land. It is especially important to bear
this fact in mind at all times, and particularly at the lambing
season. Hence, when exceptional showers have produced tem-
porary difficulties, the sheep should be removed to high and dry
pastures. If kept on well-drained fields, sheep will do better ;
and it is, of course, especially necessary that in-lamb ewes should
be provided with dry quarters.

If it were possible to estimate the wealth thrown away by
reason of preventable losses among sheep even in the course of
one year, many people would be very considerably astonished. We
speak designedly of avoidable losses, for many sheep could be
saved by the application of scientific principles and resources.
During the last season many ewes were lost; but suppose we
take the case of a farmer who had sixty ewes die, without adopt-
ing stringent measures of prevention. For the sake of argument
we will roughly set down each animal's value at <£2 10s., and
we find that the total loss of this one gentleman would amount
to £150. Now, how much of this comparatively large loss can
be regarded as avoidable by the help of scientific methods ? We
may say that at least two-thirds of these ewes might have been
saved, and hence the destruction of property valued at about
£100 might have been prevented.

We can affirm definitely that the loss throughout the country
— owing, it must be remembered, to a want-of knowledge or of
appreciation of the very simplest scientific results — must have
been something excessive, something almost disastrous. It
should also be borne in mind that the methods which science

43

674 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

would dictate in such cases are not difficult to learn nor to carry
out. On the contrary, they are most easy and simple.

A case of septicaeraia (blood-poisoning) breaks out among a
number of lambing ewes. The shepherd, not knowing the danger,
carries this dread disease from ewe to ewe by the medium of the
contact of his hands or clothes. If, however, the ewe which was
first attacked had been summarily isolated, and the shepherd had
taken the greatest care to be thoroughly cleanly in regard to his
clothes, and to wash his hands well in some good disinfecting
preparation after tending any ewe which shows the slightest
signs of disease, such as solution of permanganate of potassium,
or a solution of carbolic acid of the proper strength (about 1 in
50), or even with such a readily procurable thing as carbolic acid
soap, the danger would have been lessened, and the cases of
disease far less numerous. If possible, this should be done after
each case of any difficulty, and if any ewe shows signs of going
wrong after lambing, that ewe should be kept from all possibility
of contact with others. The shepherd cannot be too careful to
maintain the most thorough cleanliness.

Many fatal cases are due to the fact that the ewes fall victims
one after another to the above-mentioned dread malady known
as " parturient septicaemia," which we may speak of in more
popular phraseology as " blood-poisoning occurring in the stage
which succeeds the delivery of the oflPspring." Now, how does
this blood-poisoning arise ? This question cannot be decided
beyond all doubt; but it is probable that feeding beyond the
requirements of healthy nutrition may be regarded as a predis-
posing cause. This at least is one view. It is a matter for no
wonder that among a large flock of lambing ewes a case or two
of this disease may occur. Farmers should therefore be pre-
pared to find it breaking out occasionally, and they should be
careful to instruct their shepherds how to act so as to prevent the
spreading of the disease, which, if not properly checked, may
communicate itself from ewe to ewe, as it were, with the rapidity
of wildfire. The mother must possess the capability of making
a due re-adjustment of vital processes, and also a most impor-
tant re-arrangement of internal organs, and in any case these vital
changes leave an animal for the time being weak, and for some
time afterwards somewhat debilitated, and, consequently, liable
to the attacks of disease.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 676

Septicaemia, or blood-poisoning, is due to the existence in the
blood of germs which are called the micrococci of septicaemia. As
yet but little is known respecting these small vegetable growths,
and as to the diflFerent kinds of them which occur in difiFerent kinds
of animals; but that they grow and multiply in the blood, and
<5hoke up the blood-vessels, so that the nutrient fluid contained
in them cannot perform its normal functions, has been clearly
established.

In the process of giving birth to young, the surfaces are
generally more or less lacerated, and in the weak state of the
animal at the time, the process of healing and repair is not as
rapid as it would be in an animal under ordinary circumstances.
The germs, therefore, are quick to propagate themselves in the
suitable nidus presented by the wounded and bleeding surfaces,
which are naturally more or less exposed to the air after the
expulsion of the young. Once having gained an entry into
the blood, they have no great difficulty in growing and
multiplying, and hence they soon swarm in the blood-vessels of
the body, and from them are propagated to all parts. The
impoverished cells of the blood and tissues cannot battle with
them, as perhaps the active healthy cells of a normal animal
might be able to do.

No doubt the disease is largely communicated either by the
medium of the air, or by that of contact with infected ewes, or by
the unsuspecting shepherd. He, all unconscious of what he is
doing, conveys the disease from ewe to ewe, and, while tending
the animals, supplies the dread cause of death by his hands and
clothes. Doubtless this is a not unusual method of propagation.
The diseased animal itself may also spread the contagion, and,
therefore, in all cases those ewes which are attacked should be at
once isolated, and removed to some distance from the rest of the
flock. It is possible, too, that the germs may, when ouce they
have entered into the system of the ewe, take on more virulent
properties and more active powers — that the germs, in other
words, may become more accustomed to living in the blood-
vessels, and also be more readily conveyed by the medium of the
air. If this is so, it is evidently the first step which tells, and
hence the greater care should be taken to stamp out the disease,
before it has had time to extend itself.

This " parturient septicaemia " is so fatal in its character that,

43 ^

67(3 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

when once setup, it cannot be cured except by the most approved
methods of treatment. It may be said that, with skilful manage-
ment, treatment may be efficacious in about 50 percent of cases;
but it must be borne in mind that almost every day adds to the
knowledge at the command of the specialist, and that possibly
more favourable results might be hoped for. Unfortunately the
veterinary surgeon seldom has a chance to display his skill. We
cannot here say much of the treatment required except that llie
removal of all decomposing matter from the womb, and the
local use of solution of permanganate of potassium, together
with the internal administration of salicylate of sodium, suitable
germicidal agents, and stimulants are indicated.

Another point of primary importance is that ill-compounded
" lambiug-oils " should on no account be used. Great mischief
results from so doing, and we have no hesitation in saying
that the disease may arise from this most needless cause.
"Lambing-oils" consist sometimes of ingredients which by no
possibility could be productive of good, while they often work
a vast amount of harm. To be eflfective, they should be at once
bland and mild, and at the same time antiseptic. It is pro-
bable that some of those which are used are not only not
antiseptic, but are at the same time of a highly irritating and
caustic nature. Hence, while they do not do the things they
ought to do, they do effectually that which on no account they
ought to do. Such preparations are therefore both worthless
and mischievous. Even those which are in some degree anti-
septic may be, owing to the inferior quality of the drugs they
contain, or to the faulty mode of mixing, or to the wrong pro-
portions in which they are compounded, harmful and dangerous.

In conclusion, then, we may point out that the cases we have
drawn attention to furnish one instance out of many which might
be adduced of the immense loss resulting to the farmer primarily,
and to the country secondarily, by a want of knowledge and
appreciation of well-known scientific principles. In these dnys
especially, it is of paramount importance that no such avoidable
diminution of wealth should be allowed to go on, unchecked
by ft few words of warning given in season. If all farmers would
see that their shepherds exercise the necessary precautions, they
would gain pounds and pounds by staying the progress of the
fatal disease referred to.

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 677

It should be remembered that at breeding time an animal's
constitution seems to be particularly susceptible to attacks of
septicsemia or blood-poisoning, and this is true of all varieties of
creatures. It is probable that the germ may be conveyed
through the medium of the air ; but there is no doubt that,
whatsoever be the cause of its first appearance at any given
time, it spreads with ease when once it has manifested itself in a
flock.

We have said, then, that the food should not be unduly
nutrient in character or amount, nor, on the other hand, should
it be lacking in nourishing power, nor supplied in too small a
quantity. There is manifestly always great danger in using
decaying vegetable matter as food, and, though it certainly must
seem very hard to have to lose an apparently valuable crop of
turnips, as may occasionally happen, if our advice is carried
out, or of rejecting a large number of them if they are being
chopped up before use, it is at least better to submit to this
loss than to have a large number of fatalities among the sheep.

Again, it is most important that all animals should have changes
from time to time in their food supply. Men get very tired of
the same food if it is repeated from day to day, and this is also
true of animals. It is clear that any given source of nutriment
must necessarily contain a maximum of particular ingredients
and a scarcity or minimum of others ; and a change of food-
supply, provided always that it be of a suitable kind, very
frequently seems to do a great deal of good.

If a case ot illness breaks out among lambing ewes, the
sufferers, or those which present the appearance of being
attacked, should be at once isolated, and removed from all pos-
sibility of contact with the rest.

The shepherd and all who have to do with the sheep should
always be most scrupulously cleanly, and should, when possible,
wash his hands after attending to each case, in a solution of
carbolic acid (1 in 50) or in a freshly-made solution of perman-
ganate of potassium (about three grains or ajitile more to every
ounce of water). He should, moreover, avoid noxious and
strong preparations, which may work great damage, and would
really do far betier to use simple lard or vaseline, or some such
mild and most valuable preparation as a weak ointment of boric
acid. Any veterinary surgeon will be ready to supply mixtures

678

THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OF THE OX.

of the right kind, such as possess each of the two most necessary
properties of being at once mild and antiseptic. The greatest
care should be taken to obviate all risks of contagion from ewe
to ewe.

We must, however, now return from our digression, and pro-
ceed to consider briefly the disorders connected with the
generative system in sheep. Before we pass on, we here append
the following table of numbers, which may be taken as fair
averages : —

Animal.

Horse or Mare
Ox or Cow
Sheep and Goat
Pig- - - -

Dog - - -
Cat - - - -
Rabbit - - -

Period of
Gestation.

Respirations
per Minute.

350 davs.
270 dave.
149i days.
115| days.

624 days.

57 days.

29 davs.

9
15 to 50
30 to 200
15 to 25

Pulse beats
per minute.

Temperatui'e.

36
54

75

99° F.
101° F.
102i° F.
1031° F.
100i° F.

The only column connected with our present subject is that of
the periods of gestation, and our readers will understand that the
time occupied is liable to vary a great deal in different indi-
viduals, and also according to the breed, the sex of the offspring,
and the age, strength, and condition of the mother. With regard
to the question of premature delivery, we may say that it may be
brought on by unwholesome food, such, for example, as fog
grass or other kinds of coarse herbage, by corn, mouldy or over-
ripened hay, frosted roots, too many early mangold-wurzels, or
too great an abundance of roots of any kind, coupled with a
deficiency of dry food, or, in short, by any food whatsoever
which may be difiBcult of digestion. Of course, there are many
other causes whereby premature delivery may be brought about.
Of these we may mention bad water, fright, over-exertion,
exposure, and so forth.

The influence of ergotised grass, in spite of all that has been
written about it, cannot be said to be definitely cleared up.
Speaking generally, we may suppose that some persons probably
over-estimate, whilst others underrate, the influence exerted by

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 679

this substance. Moreover, there are some who think that ergot
is not so greatly fraught with danger in the case of" the ewe, as it
seems to tliem to be in regard to the cow. An important point
in this connection is that, as a matter of fact, ergot is only
present on the grasses between the beginning of the month ot
August and the progress of the month of December, and during
this period the greater number of the ewes have only been for a
short time impregnated. Now it is known that ergot apparently
has much greater power of bringing on abortion in proportion
as the time is advanced towards delivery. Again, in the general
way, ergot is only found in matured grass, and consequently for
the most part sheep do not consume it, since they more
especially feed upon the fresh and young herbage.

Another factor in the causation of abortion may be referred
to. During long frosts, when there is no snow upon the
ground, the ewes, being near their time, necessarily live in
great measure on dry food, and at such times they drink freely.
Unfortunately, it is much too frequently the case that the only
source of water is a foul pond frozen over, but with a small hole
broken through the ice for the purpose of allowing the sheep to
drink. IVIore than this, the water itself is often most unwhole-
some in consequence of the collection of the excrement of
animals in it, and perhaps also as a result of the pond having
been used for the reception of the bodies of animals which have
died on the farm. We need scarcely dilate upon the utter and
extreme folly of such actions as this ; and, indeed, no words can
adequately express the reckless madness of thus poisoning the
water supply.

Furthermore, the sheep, as we all know, is a very timid
animal, and its nervous system is exceedingly liable to be upset
by terror and fright. Hence it is of great importance that dogs
should only be used with the utmost care. Indeed, except in
such cases as the Downs of England or on the hills o£ Scotland,
where they may be almost indispensable, it is really better not
to use dogs at all in connection with in-lanab ewes. It is also
to be remembered that foxhounds may work a great deal of
damage, and that a pack of harriers is even still more dangerous
in this respect. Consequently, if a farmer has any reasons to
suppose that foxhounds or harriers may be expected, he should
always take the precautionary measure of removing all of his

680 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.'

in-lamb ewes to secluded quarters, quite free from all possi-
bility of close contiguity.

Once more, all over-exertion, as for example long journeys or
rapid travelling, ought to be very stringently avoided in the
case of in-lamb ewes. Indeed, for this reason it is better to
purchase in-lamb ewes at home than at the market, for in this
latter case it is very probable that some degree of over-exertion
or abuse may have been undergone. The casting of ewes with
the view of examining their condition ought to be put a stop to.
Again, in driving ewes near their time of delivery, if the slightest
signs of weakness are shown, they should be rested for as long
a time as may be suitable or practicable.

Yet another factor in the causation of abortion is exposure.
If a flock is pastured in a very exposed situation in winter time,
when severe frosts, snowstorms, and tempestuous winds or rains
are prevalent, miscarriages may be expected to occur. More-
over, in-lamb ewes ought not to be folded on roots; in the first
place, because of the exposure thereby necessitated ; secondly,
because an abundance of roots is not suitable just before lambing ;
and last, but not least, because, when thus confined within a
narrow space, sheep cannot take a sufficient amount of exercise.
We need scarcely point out — for the advisability of such a course
is very well known — how important it is that ewes which have
aborted should at once be isolated apart from the rest of the
flock, with the view of preventing all risk of infection. Further,
it will be advisable to be very careful with in-lamb ewes at about
the middle of the period of gestation, this being the time at
which there is the greatest danger.

For some of the above hints on the subject of abortion we
are indebted to Mr. John Walker's little book on The Hheep
and Lamh.

After-pains in ewes may frequently be of a severe kind, and
also attended with a fatal issue. This disorder is for the most
part apparently due to the fact that the ewes afilicted with it
have been fed too highly. To over-feed ewes at this critical
period, is indeed a fatal error. No doubt in large measure the
pain may be due to inflammation coming on in consequence of
injuries received during delivery, or to the debilitatisd state of
the body. A farmer, who had been allowing his flock an
unlimited quantity of turnips on his best grass-laud, having lost

DISEASES OF THE OX AND SHEEP. 681

eight of his finest ewes which had lambed and were lying dead
in his folding yard, sought advice from Mr. Friend, who put a
stop to the further ravages of the disease by having the rest of
the flock removed to a bare pasture and administering oil and
other medicines.

In many sheep-farming districts, especially in the South of
England, great losses result from these so-called heaving
pains. The chief symptom is straining of a violent kind.
This complaint generally comes on in very plethoric ewes,
just as parturient apoplexy does in plethoric cows, occurring
especially in animals which are allowed rich artificial foods near
the time of lambing, and frequently when the ewes have been
kept pretty much on turnips. Again, it appears that salt,
although it is good for animals in a low condition, is rather
dangerous for very healthy or plethoric cattle or sheep. Sheep,
when kept on turnips, do not take sufficient exercise, and a
want of exercise, coupled with too much food, are causes very
favourable to the development of parturient fever. It is
frequently the case that ewes sufiering from heaving pains are
remarkable for having brought forth a great number of fine
lambs, twins being numerous, and there being consequently a
great supply of milk to the udder. On the Continent, sheep,
which have not the same tendency to thrive rapidly and are not
forced, are very seldom indeed afflicted with this disease.

It is usually at about the second or third day after yeaning
that the affected ewes appear full and restless, have a staring
look, pant, and strain. They discharge but little urine or feces.
Moreover, the urine is very highly coloured and readily becomes
ammoniacal. Febrile symptoms and violent heaving come on,
and the animal soon becomes exhausted and dies. After death
the uterus may be seen to be inflamed, ecchymosed, and possibly
even gangrenous. The best natural preventives are exercise and
low diet, and by way of medicine aperients and neutral salts may
be tried. Clysters also may be given, and opiates injected
into the womb, and an antiphlogistic course cf treatment may
be carried out.

The next disease we have to consider is that known under the
name of Garget. When the lambs are sucking, ewes may dis-
play symptoms of pain and restlessness, and so great may be
the distress occasioned, that they may perhaps not even allow

682 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

the lambs to snck at all. This inflararaation of the udder is
perhaps even more common in the ewe than in the cow. Pro-
bably the disorder may be in part brought on by the hardness
or dryness of the soil, or by its being wet and dirty, and partly
also by the vigorous bumps imparted by the head of the lamb.
This malady, garget, may be particularly frequent and destruc-
tive in warm and damp seasons, when there is a great abun-
dance of grass. In some cases the udder swells rapidly,
develops hardened knobs, becomes greatly inflamed, and, unless
the progress of the disease is arrested within twenty-four hours,
the udder may mortify and the sheep die.

If an examination be made, one or both teats or the whole
of the udder may be found to be red and enlarged and tender,
and there may be several tumours on it. The best plan is to
clear away the wool, and foment with warm water. A dose of
Epsom salts, say about three or four ounces, should be given.
A suitable ointment should also be rubbed on the udder, and
the dose of salts may be repeated. If the udder enlarges con-
tinuously, and the heat and tenderness go on increasing, and the
tumours become larger and more numerous, and some begin to
soften, a deep incision should be made into that portion of the
udder where the swellings are ripest, the matter pressed out,,
and the part well fomented with warm water. The ulcers or
open tumours may be well batlied twice or thrice a day with
a weak solution of chloride of lime or with some other
disinfectant liquid, such as lotion of boric acid or of carbolic
acid.

It is generally advisable to separate the lamb from the ewe,
and sometimes it may be possible to put them together again in
a few days' time. The above disease, it should be borne in mind,
is liable to come on again, in a ewe which has once suffered,
from it, and hence it is advisable that at some convenient time
after recovery has taken place the ewe should be fattened witlv
a view to slaughter.

683

CHAPTER VII.

THE BOVINE FORMULARY.

The following index of diseases and prescriptions appropriate
for them is written for oxen, and oxen only However, in
several cases different doses of the same remedies wonld be
applicable in the case of sheep. As a rule, the differences in the
actions of medicine on the two classes of animals, sheep and
oxen respectively, is rather a question of relative quantity than
of any other material point. Especially is this true, as is well
known, in regard to medicines which act upon the circulatory,
respiratory, and urinary systems. For example, the three drugs,
aconite, digitalis, and nitre, bring about very similar effects in
men, horses, dogs, and cattle.

As we have before pointed out, the special characteristics of
the action of medicines in the case of cattle are mainly due to
the peculiar construction of their digestive canal, and to their
general phlegmatic constitution. In ruminants the stomach is
divided into four cavities, is extensively lined with cuticular
mucous membrane, and its first three compartments are less
vascular and have a more mechanical function than has the
corresponding part of the alimentary canal-of men, dogs, or
horses. Moreover, the rumen, and the manyplies always contain
food, and frequently a large quantity of it. Consequently cattle
require rather large doses of nearly all medicines, and especially
of aperient medicines and of stimulants and tonics, in order to
produce a due effect. Again, the kidneys and skin of cattle are

684 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

less easily noted on than the corresponding organs in horses.
Now it is very important to remember that sheep are affected
very much like cattle by most medicines. They generally take
about one-fourth or one-fifth of the doses which are necessary
for cattle. These animals may be backed into a corner, and the
bead should beheld firmly between the knees, while the medicine
is carefully administered. Great care is necessary in giving
drenches to sheep, and also, of course, to oxen and any other
animals. We may here repeat that all the prescriptions which
follow are made up as for adult oxen, except in those cases in
which the contrary is stated. If it is desired to find prescrip-
tions for sheep, the body of the book must be searched ; or if
the reader possesses the requisite special knowledge and skill, he
may <:,'ather hints from thi^ following formulae. An adult sheep
will usually take about one-fifth of the dose necessary for an ox.
For lambs the dose is very much less. The younger the animal,
the more easily is it affected by medicine, and hence the dose
required must be smaller in proportion. According to Bourgelat,
a one-year-old colt requires one-third the quantity of any
medicine necessary for an adult horse, a two-year-old one-half,
a three-year-old two-thirds. In the case of cattle, and
especially in that of sheep, the dose ought to be relatively less
than this.

One more remark we have to make before proceeding syste-
matically, and that is that it must be understood than when
more than one prescription is given under the same disease the
different draughts are to be considered alternative. The reader
will, after perusal, decide which mode of treatment he thinks
best in any given case, or perhaps he may like to vary his
treatment in accordance with the hints he may gather from a
consideration of the various i'ormulse. When the contrary is
the case, and two or more different draughts or therapeutic
measures are requisite, the fact is stated. With regard to the
letters V.P. whenever they are used, the reader will understand
that The Veterinary Pharmacopoeia, by Messrs. Gresswell, is
referred to. For instance, tincture of aconite in that work is the
same as that of the Britisli PhannacopcEia, and is a very different
tincture from that known as Fleming's tincture, which is, we
believe, about five limes as strong, and therefore requires to be
used with the greatest possible care. In order to be on the safe

THE BOVINK FOKMULARV. 685

side in the case of dangerous drugs, it is always best to use the
mildest preparations. We need not caution the skilled reader
on such a point, but we may just say for the benefit of those
who are not conversant with the technical names of preparations,
that no one ought to prescribe without the aid of a Pharmacopoeia
by his side for reference, A British Pharmacopoeia, or our
Veterinary one will be found very useful. Even mistakes have
arisen owing to persons making the error of thinking that spirit
of chloroform is the same preparation as is chloroform itself,
and other misapprehensions may assail the unpractised man,
when he first begins to prescribe. Errors such as these could
not possibly arise, if due care were taken. There is no science
which requires greater judgment, care, and accuracy than that
of prescribing for the numerous maladies to which animals are
liable, except, indeed, that of human medicine, in which any
mistake is fatal to the practitioner, and quite inexcusable and
culpable. We may add that this Index is in some measure
amplified by notes supplied by Mr. J. B. Gresswell, F.R.C.V.S.,
whose eminent position as a practising veterinary surgeon is
well known and recognised.

ACTINOMYCOSIS,
(a.) Local treatment.
(i.) Mixture —

Iodine, one part.

Carbolic acid, four fluid parts.

Glycerine, four fluid parts.

After the affected part of the tongue has been carefully incised, this mixture
may be applied by means of a brush to the sides of the indurated tumour*
which are present in the substance of the touijue. In the place of this mixture,
simple tincture of iodine may be used, or it may be diluted, if it be thought
necessary so to do, by adding to it an equal portion of spirit (methylated or
otherwise). The tincture thus diluted is very useful for applying to the diseased
parts of the tongue when that organ is sore and eroded.

(ii.) Gargle —

Acid solution of nitrate of mercury, eight minims.
Water, one ounce.

This gargle may be used for washing over the diseased tongue as an appli-
cation, after the tumours have been cut into.

(6.) Internal treatment.

Draughts or powders known as Tonics may be beneficially administered when
there is loss of appetite or emaciation, and they may be given once daily, or less
frequently according to directions, and as may be deemed advisable.

686 THE DISEASES AND DISOKDERS OF THE OX.

ADYNAMIA NERVOSA GENERALIS, oe PRE-PARTURIENT ADYNAMIA.

Draught —

Solution of hydrochlorate of strychnine, two fluid drachms.
Tincture of perchloride of iron, half a fluid ounce.
Water to make eight fluid ounces in all.
This draught may be given twice daily ; but it is very important to remember
that in cases of pre-parturient adynamia it is advisable to commence treatment
by the administration of a dose of laxative medicine. The formulas mentioned
under Cathartics (mild) are all useful ones.

AFTER-PAINS.

Draught —

Tincture of opium, one fluid ounce.
Spirit of chloroform, one fluid ounce.
Water to make one pint in all.
This draught may be given twice daily for a day or two, as may be judged
necessary.

AGALACTIA, oe NON-SECRETION OF MILK.
Draught —

Powdered aniseeds, two ounces.

Powdered gentian, two ounces.
This draught may be mixed in a pint of warm water or beer, and administered
twice or thrice daily. When the secretion of milk is stopped in the case of a
cow presumably healthy in other respects, the diet should be of a nutritious
kind, and supplied in full amount. It is, however, to be borne in mind that a
■cessation of the secretion of milk is very frequently merely one of the symptoms
of some disease, and therefore in all cases great judgment is requisite, and the
general disturbance must be most carefully looked to. Moreover, if the mam-
mary gland is much wasted, treatment is not likely to be of any material value.

ALBUMINURIA.
Draught —

Sulphate of sodium, sixteen ounces.
Powdered caraway seeds, half an ounce.
This draught ought to be given as soon as possible, mixed with a pint of warm
water or gruel, and it should be followed up with the administration of tonics,
which may be given twice or thrice daily. Vegetable tonics are the most suitable.

AMAUROSIS.

When amaurosis is the result of loss of blood, any of the draughts mentioned
below imder the heading of Anasmia may be given with advantaga.

ANEMIA.

(i.) Draught —

Powdered gentian, one and a half ounces.

Powdered ginger, half an ounce.

Granulated sulphate of iron, two drachms.

Powdered nux vomica, forty grains.

Powdered capsicum, half a drachm.
This draught may bo given twice daily in a pint of warm water, gruel, or ale,
and it will prove to be an eflScient ha>matinic and general tonic. If the bowels
should be constipated, a laxative should be given.

THE BOVINE FORMULARY. 687

(ii.) Draught —

Powdered gentian, one ounce.
Powdered ginger, half an ounce.
Carbonate of ammonium, half an ounce.
Carbonate of iron, two drachms.
This draught may be given twice daily in a pint of warm water, gruel, or ale.
(iii.) Draught.

Solution of hydrochlorate of strychnine, two fluid drachms.
Tincture of capsicum, four fluid drachms.
Tincture of perchloride of iron, one fluid ounce.
This draught is a very eiEcient one, and it should be given once daily in a pint
of warm water or gruel.

ANESTHETICS.
(«) G'ineral.

Inhalation of chloroform.
From three to six fluid ounces (or even more) are usually required to occasion
total ana3sthesia in cattle. However, it is to be remembered that complete insensi-
bility is not often necessary in the case of oxen, and indeed, partly owing to the
difficulty with which these animals are brought under the influence of chloro-
form, and also partly on account of the rarity of important operations in cattle
practice, it is not often necessary that anaesthesia should be brought about.
(Jj) Local,
Application of hydrochlorate of cocaine.
(i._) In the case of an operation on the eye.

Hydrochlorate of cocaine, two to four parts.
Water, one hundred fluid parts.
This solution is suitable for producing local anaesthesia before operating on
the eye.

(ii.) In the case of an operation on any part other than the eye.'
Hydrochlorate of cocaine, four to twenty parts.
Water, one hundred fluid parts.
A solution of this strength is required for producing local anaesthesia in parts
other than the eye.

ANTHRAX.

(i.) Draught (antiseptic and antipyretic) —

Sulphite of sodium, three drachms.

Salicj'^late of sodium, three drachms.

Tincture of aconite (B. P.), forty minims.

Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given every four hours,
(ii.) Draught (antiseptic) —

Liquefied carbolic acid, thirty minims.

Gentian, two ounces.

Aniseed, two ounces.
This draught may be given every four hours mixed in a pint of water.

ANTISEPTICS.

(a) Internal. —

(i.) Draught —

Sulphate of sodium, three drachms.
Salicylate of sodium, three drachms.
Water, a suflicient quantity.

688 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

(ii.J Draught —

Carbolic acid, one fluid drachm.
Glycerine, half a fluid ounce.
Mucilage of acacia, ten fluid ounces.
(6) Local.
(i. ) Lotion —

Carbolic acid, one fluid part.
Water, twenty to thirty fluid parts,
(ii.) Lotion —

Boric acid, one part.
Hot water, twenty fluid parts,
(iii.) Lotion —

(1) Perchloride of mercury, one part.
Water, eight hundred fluid parts.

This weaker lotion is a useful antiseptic application for wounds.

(2) Perchloride of mercury, one part.
Water, five hundred fluid parts.

This stronger lotion is a useful antiseptic application for foul sores and ulcers,
and for protuberant granulations from which a discharge flows. It is likewise
destructive of pediculi and of the scab acarus, and not only kills the parasite
itself, but also prevents the hatching of the eggs. When it is used in cases of
ringworm, it destroys the vegetable fungus, and arrests the spreading of the
growth. Great care is requisite, since this salt of mercury is exceedingly
poisonous.

(iv.) Ointment —

Boric acid, one part.
Vaseline, three parts.
Lard, three parts.
This is a very useful and most valuable antiseptic ointment,
(v.) Ointment —

Iodoform, twenty grains.
Oil of eucalyptus, twenty minims.
Carbolic acid, twenty minims.
Lard or vaseline, one ounce and a half.
This is a very efficient antiseptic ointment for foul sores, discharging ulcers,
or unhealthy surfaces.
(vi.) Ointment —

Carbolic acid, one part.
Lard or vaseline, thirty parts.

ANTIPYRETICS.

(i.) Draught —

Salicylate of sodium, four drachms.

Tincture of aconite (B. P.), thirtj' minims.

Spirit of nitrous ether, one fluid ounce.

Water, one half to one pint.
This draught may be repeated at intervals of four hours, if necessary,
(ii.) Draught —

Salicylic acid, three drachms.

Tinture of aconite (B. P.), forty minims.

Spirit of nitrous ether, one fluid ounce.

Water, one half pint to one pint.
This draught may be repeated at intervals of four liours. when necessary

THE BOVINE FORMULARY. 689

ANTISPASMODICS,
(i.) Draught —

Oil of turpentine, one fluid ounce.
Tincture of opium, one fluid ounce.
Spirit of choloroform, half a fluid ounce.
Water to make a pint in all.
This draught may be administered without the water last mentioned in half
a pint or a pint of thin gruel, and it may be repeated at intervals of three or
four hours, if it is thought necessary.

(ii.) Draught —

Ether, two fluid ounces.

Spirit of chloroform, one fluid ounce.

Tincture of pimento, two fluid ounces.

Water, sufficient to make a pint in all.
This draught may be given without the water in a pint of thin gruel, and it
may be repeated at intervals of three or four hours, if it is thought necessary.
N.B. — It is not customary to give ether to cattle in those cases in which there
is any great danger of a fatal result, and when the meat may be liable to be
used for human food.

APERIENTS.

(i.) Sulphate of magnesium, twelve to sixteen ounces.
Powdered ginger, half an ounce.
This mixture may be given in a pint of warm water.

(ii.) Sulphate of sodium, sixteen ounces.

Powdered caraway seeds, half an ounce.
These two substances may be mixed together, and given in a pint of warm
water ; but this prescription is not as a rule quite so certain in its effects as is
the preceding one.

(iii.) Castor oil, two pints.

APHTHA.

(a.) Internal treaVnent.
(i.) Draught —

Chlorate of potassium, four drachms.
Water, eight fluid ounces.
This draught may be given three or four times daily. It is well to commence
the treatment in cases of aphtha with the administration of a good dose of
aperient medicine.

(ii.) Draught —

Tincture of perchloride of iron, one fluid ounce.
Diluted hydrochloric acid, two fluid ounces.
Glycerine, half a fluid ounce.
Water, to make ten fluid ounces in all.
This draught may be given thrice daily.

(6.) Local treatment.
Gargles —

(i.) Boric acid, one part.

Glycerine, five fluid parts.
Water, eleven fluid parts.
This gargle may be used several times daily.

44

690 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

(ii. ) Acid solution of nitrate of mercui-y, four minims.
Water, one fluid ounce.
This gargle likewise may be used several times daily.

(ill.) Permanganate of potassium, three to four grains.
Water, one fluid ounce.
This gargle also may be used twice or thrice daily.

APHTHA EPIZOOTICA.
(a ) Internal treatment.
(i.) Draught —

Salicylate of sodium, three drachms.
Spirit of nitrous ether, one fluid ounce.
W'ater, to make eight fluid ounces.
This draught may be given twice daily.

(ii.) Draught —

Sulphite of sodium, three drachms.
Water, to make eight fluid ounces in all.
This medicine may be given twice or thrice daily.

(iii.) Powder —

Sulphite of sodium, three drachms.
Aniseeds, one ounce.
Fenugreek, one ounce.
This powder may be administered in the food twice or thrice daily, when
draughts are not given.

(6.) Local treatment.
Gargles —

Those which are above-mentioned under the heading of Aphtha may be
used.

Ointment for the feet and teats. Either the ointment of boric acid, or that of
carbolic acid, or that of iodoform, eucalyptus, or carbolic acid, will prove very
useful. For the formulae of these ointments either see Antiseptics or else refer
to Gresswell's Veterinary Pharmacopoeia . Either ointment may be applied once
or twice daily. Ointment of boric acid, and that of salicylic acid, are most
valuable preparations, and in many cases act almost like a magic charm.

APOPLEXY, PARTURIENT (PARTURIENT APOPLEXY),
(i.) Draught —

Carbonate of ammonium, four drachms.
Powdered ergot, one ounce.
This draught may be given, together with six fluid ounces of whisky or brandy,
in a pint of warm water every four hours. Treatment should be commenced by
the administration of an aperient {see Aperients).

(ii.) Hypodermic Injection —

Injectio ergotini hypodermica (B. P.), fifty to sixty minims.
The hypodermic injection of ergotin, of which the above doses are equivalent
to twenty-five and fifty grains of orgotin respectively, may bo employed when
ergot is not administered with the stimulating draught above prescribed. It is
to be borne in mind that the hypodermic injection of ergotin constitutes the most
rapid and effectual method, whereby ergot can be introduced into the system.
However, it is not always convenient to give it in this form.

THE BOVINE FOUMULARY. 691

(iii.) Liniment —

Liniment of ammonia, one fluid part.
Compound liniment of camphor, one fluid part.
This liniment maj' be rubbed on the spine, as often as may be deemed neces-
sary or advisable. There is no doubt that the application of liniment to the
back has a beneficial effect in cases of parturient apoplexy. It is better not to
use liniment of belladonna, since it is liable to dry up the milk,
(iv.) Wet Pack—
The wet pack carefully applied to the cow acts as an efficient sudorific, and
by the use of it the temperature may frequently be much reduced. This item
of the treatment is one which should on no account be omitted except for some
important reason, inasmuch as it does greatly enhance the value of the other
remedial measures which are employed.

APOPLEXY, SPLENIC (SPLENIC APOPLEXY). 5ee Anthrax.

ARSENICAL POISONING, when acute, may be treated as follows:—
Draught —

Hydrated sesquioxide of iron, four to sis drachms.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be repeated at intervals of three or four hours, until four
or five doses have been taken in all. The hydrated sesquioxide of iron must be
used freshly prepared.

ARTHRITIS, SCROFULOUS,
(i.) Draught —

Phosphate of calcium, four drachms.
This remedy may be given in a pint of water twice or thrice daily.

(ii.) Liniment —

Oil of turpentine, eight fluid ounces.
Strong solution of ammonia, three fluid ounces.
Soft soap, four ounces.
Digest, and then shake at intervals, and add water to make two quarts of
liniment.

This liniment may be applied to the affected joints once or twice daily.

ASTRINGENTS,
(i.) Lotion —

Sulphate of copper, five drachms and twenty grains.
Water, eight fluid ounces.
This lotion may be employed as an application for ulcers and discharging
sores.

(ii.) Ointment —

Oxide of zinc, one drachm.
Lard, one ounce.
This ointment may be used for the same purposes as the above lotion.

BITES AND STINGS (of bees, wasps, scorpions, &c.).- ^
(i.) Lotion —

Carbolic acid, one fluid part.
Glycerine, one fluid part.
This lotion may be used as it is, or diluted with water. It may be very
beneficial in causing subsidence of the swelling and irritation set up. Of

u *

692 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OE THE OX.

course great care will be necessary not to let the strong lotion come into contact
•with the flesh of the person using it. The liquefied carbolic acid of the V. P.
may be used in its undiluted foi-m as an application, or ammonia, or iodoform,
may be employed. If the animal -which has bitten the other be really rabid,
other necessary precautions, such as strict isolation and slaughter, so soon
as it may be possible, of both animals, ought to be carried out.

BLACK LEG, OR BLACK QUARTER,
(i.) Draught —

Sulphite of sodium, one drachm.
Salicylate of sodium, one drachm.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given every six hours.

(ii.) Preventive treatment —
Now, although some doubt may exist as to how the operation of setoning
the dew-lap can be productive of benefit, no doubt can be entertained as to the
fact of advantage being actually brought about by the setoning. As a matter
of fact, setoning is frequently carried out, and it is certain that the operation is
one of very great value. It may possibly be the case that the germs of the
disease gain entrance into the system through the medium of the air, so that
setoning is in reality tantamount to a mild inoculation. It is to be added
that the setons ought to be dressed with the preparation known as black-oil,
so valuable when properly made.

BLADDER, INFLAMMATION OF.
Draught —

Bicarbonate of potassium, one ounce.
Tincture of opium, one fluid ounce.
Tincture of aconite (B. P.), foi-ty minims.
Water, a sufficiency.
This draught may be given thrice daily.

BLAIN. See Glossanthkax.

BLEEDING, OR HiEMORRHAGE.
(i.) Draught —

Tincture of perchloride of iron, one fluid ounce.
Diluted hydrochloric acid, four fluid drachms.
Glycerine, two fluid ounces.
Water, a sufficient quantity.

(ii.) Draught —

Powdered ergot, one ounce.
Powdered galls, two ounces.
The above two powders should be well mixed, and then added to a pint of
warm water, and administered. The draught may be repeated at intervals, as
may bo deemed necessary.

(iii.) Hypodermic injection.

Injoctio ergotini hypodermica (V. P., page 209, one fluid drachm).

(iv.) Local application —

Solution or tincture of perchloride of iron.

THE BOVINE EORMULARY. 693

BLEEDING (POST-PARTUM).
(a.) Internal treatment..
(i.) Draught —

Powdered ergot, one to two ounces.
This powder may be given in a pint of warm water, and it may be repeated
at intervals of one to two hours.

(ii.) Hypodermic injection —

Injectio ergotini hypodermica (V. P., p. 209), sixty minims.
This injection may be injected at intervals of one to two hours.
(6.) Local treatment.

As an injection into the uterus.

Tincture of perchloride of iron, one fluid part.
Water, four to nine fluid parts.

BLISTERS.

(i.) Blistering liniment —

Powdered cantharides, one ounce.
Olive oil, eight fluid ounces.
Digest over a hot bath.

(ii.) Absorbent blistering liniment —

Iodine, one ounce and a quarter.
Iodide of potassium, half an ounce.
Camphor, two drachms.
Methylated spirit, half a pint.
Apply this liniment to the part which it is required to blister, by the aid of a
brush.

(iii.) Mustard liniment —

Mustard, four ounces.
Oil of turpentine, five fluid ounces.
Digest these two together for ten days, and then add a sufficient quantity of
linseed oil.

(iv.) Blistering ointments —

(1.) Bromide of mercury, one pound.

Olive oil, one pint.
Mix well, and add seven pounds of melted lard.
(2.) Lard, four pounds.

Resin, foui- pounds.

Powdered cantharides, one pound.
(3.) Powdered cantharides, one part.

Venice turpentine, one part.

Resin, one part.

Palm oil or lard, four parts.

BLOODY FLUX, OR DYSENTERY.

Draught — ■-'

Ipecacuanha, half an ounce.
Powdered opium, two drachms.
Chalk, two ounces.
Galls, two ounces.
This draught may be given in a pint of warm water thrice daily.

694 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

BLOWN. See Ttmpakites.

BOWELS, INFLAMMATION OF.
Draught —

Tincture of opium, two fluid ounces.
Tincture of aconite (V. P.), forty minims.
This draught may he repeated at intervals of three or four hours.

BRAIN, INFLAMMATION OF.
(i.) Draught —

Hydrate of chloral, three drachms.
Bromide of potassium, three di'achms.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be administered thrice daily. It is advisable to commence
treatment with the administration of a powerful cathartic.

(ii.) Blister.

Ointment of cantharides, sfe Counter-irritants.
This ointment may be applied to the poll.

BRONCHITIS, ACUTE.

(a.) In early stage. A cathartic should be given.
Draught —

Extract of belladonna, two drachms.

Solution of acetate of ammonium, four fluid ounces.

Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given thrice daily.

ib.) In later stage,
(i.) Draught —

Carbonate of ammonium, three drachms.

Solution of hydrochlorate of strychnine, two fluid drachms.

Spirit of nitrous ether, one fluid ounce.

Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given twice daily,

(ii.) Counter-irritants, see Counter-irritants.
Blisters may be applied locally at the outset of the disease.

BRONCHITIS, CHRONIC.
Draught —

Carbonate of ammonium, three drachms.
Liquor strychninaj hydrochloratis, two fluid drachms.
Spirit of chloroform, half a fluid ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be administered twice daily.

BRONCHITIS, VERMINOUS; OR HUSK, OR HOOSE.

In this complaint the draughts mentioned under the heading of Anasmia may
be administered. It is essential that animals suffering from this disorder should
be removed to fresh pastures, and that their food-supply should bo nutritious in
quality and plentiful in amount. With regard to preventive measures, it is very
necessary that contaminated pastures should bo avoided, especially about July,
August, and September, in which months the disease is acquired, and it is also
advisable that the affected animals should bo isolated from those which ard
healthy. Moreover, rock-salt should bo provided.

THE BOVINE FORMULARY.

695

^e may here mention one method of treatment in the case of sheep, as well
as oxen, afflicted with Verminous Bronchitis, it being understood that the rest
of the curative measures mentioned below are, as usual, those applicable to oxen.
It is, however, necessary that very great care should be exercised in the process,
lest the sheep should inhale too much of the dioxide of sulphur which is set
free. A small room or shed is to be filled with the fumes of burning sulphur
by placing sulphur in a suitable vessel properly protected from being overturned,
and setting fire to the sulphur. It will not be long before the room is full of the
gas, and then the affected sheep may be made to pass through this room, one
after the other. Thus, for the few moments occupied in passing through the
room, the sheep will breathe the gas, which will thus come into contact with the
worms. We scarcely need say how important it is that the sheep should not be
allowed to remain in longer than a few moments, for fear lest they should be
choked. It will be well to try how this method answers with about half-a-dozen
animals before extending it to all the flock or herd. Moreover, it may probably
be thought well to carry out this treatment again after an interval of a few days
or so.

(i.) Draught —

Oil of turpentine, one fluid ounce.

Linseed oil, nine fluid ounces.
This draught may be administered once or twice daily,
(ii.) Intra-tracheal Injection —

Oil of turpentine, two fluid drachms.

Carbolic acid, twenty minims.

Tincture of opium, one fluid drachm.
Half a drachm of chloroform, instead of the tincture of opium, has been recom-
mended (Penhale).

Fig. 94. — Intka-tracheal Strixge.

(iii.) Fumigations —
Fumigations may possibly be of some little value in the treatment of
Verminous Bronchitis. Those which have been tried are (1) the fumes of
burning sulphur, (2) chlorine gas, (3) carbolic acid in the form of vapour.

BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA,
(a.) In early stage.

Draught — '...,

Extract of belladonna, two drachms.
Carbonate of ammonium, three drachms.
Solution of acetate of ammonium, four fluid ounces.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given thrice daily.

696 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

(6.) In later stage.
(i.) Draught —

Carbonate of ammonium, three drachms.

Solution of hydrochlorate of strychnine, two fluid drachms

Spirit of nitrous ether, one fluid ounce.

Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be administered twice daily.

(ii.) Counter-irritants or blisters may be applied at the outset of the disease,
as in the case of acute bronchitis.

BURNS.

Local application —

Solution of lime, one fluid part.
Olive oil, one fluid part.

BURSAL EJfLARGEMEXTS.
Ointment —

Biniodide of mercury, one pound.
Olive oil, one pint.
Mix well, and add seven pounds of melted lard.

CACHEXIA. OSTEO-MALACIA.
Draught —

Phosphate of lime, four drachms.
Sulphate of iron, two drachms.
Gentian or calumba, to make three ounces in all.
This medicine may be administered in a pint of water twice daily.

CARBUNCLE.

Draught —

Powdered nux vomica, forty grains.
Carbonate of ammonium, two drachms.
Carbonate of iron, two drachms.
Gentian, one ounce.
This mixture may be mixed with a pint of water, and given twice daily.
Local application, see Antiseptics.

CATARRH.

Draught —

Solution of acetate of ammonium, four fluid ounces.
Bicarbonate of potassium, one ounce.
Spirit of chloroform, half a fluid ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given twice or thrice daily.

CATARRH, MALIGNANT,
(i.) Draught —

Tincture of perchloridc of iron, one fluid ounce.
Salicino, one drachm.
Simple syrup, four fluid ounces.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be giren thrice daily

THE BOVINE FOEMULART. 697

(ii.) Gargles —

(i.) Acid solution of nitrate of mercury, six minims.
Water, one fluid ounce,
(ii.) Permanganate of potassium, three to four grains.
Water, one fluid ounce.

CATHARTICS,
(a.) Mild.

(i.) Sulphate of magnesium, twelve to sixteen ounces.
Powdered ginger, half an ounce.
These drags may be mixed in a pint of warm water, and then administered.

(ii.) Sulphate of sodium, sixteen ounces.

Powdered caraway-seeds, half an ounce.
These drugs may be mixed with a pint of warm water, and then ad-
ministered ; but this prescription is, as a rule, not so certain in its effects as is
the preceding one.

(iii.) Castor oil, two pints.
(6.) Sti'ong.

(i.) Sulphate of magnesium, sixteen ounces.
Powdered aloes, eight drachms.
Powdered ginger, half an ounce.
The above ingredients should be mixed, and given in a pint or more of warm
•water.

(ii.) Castor oil, two pints.

Croton oil, half a fluid drachm.

(iii.) Gamboge, half an ounce.
Aloes, half an ounce.
Ginger, half an ounce.
Powdered croton bean, one drachm.
These substances may be well mixed, and given in a pint of warm water,
(c.) Very strong.

Intravenous injection of sulphate of eserine.
The salt known as sulphate of eserine in a dose of one grain to one grain and
a half dissolved in water may be injected intravenously in cases of very
protracted constipation. It is, however, necessary to use this method of treat-
ment with the very greatest care, and only in cases which would otherwise
prove unmanageable. One great disadvantage of this treatment is that if the
animal should die after it has been carried out, the flesh is not fit for human
food.

CATTLE-PLAGUE.

Treatment of cattle-plague is not carried out, the affected animals being
slaughtered, with due antiseptic precautions, in accordance with the wise pro-
visions of the Act of Parliament relating thereto. Should this dreadful scourge
again make its appearance in England, it would be requisite to stamp it out at
once with a firm hand.

CHARBOX. See Anthrax.

Unfortunately anthrax makes its appearance far too frequently among oxen.
It is a malady which also should be stamped out at once by slaughter of all
affected animals, and subsequent burial of the carcases with antiseptic pre-
cautions.

698 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

CHINE-FELOX, OR LUMBAGO. See Felon, Chine-, ok Lumbago.

CLEANSING IMEDICIXE.

Draught —

Sulphate of magnesium, sixteen ounces.

Powdered ergot, one oxmce.

Carbonate of ammonium, four drachms.

This draught may be administered in two pints of warm water, and if it is
deemed necessary to do so, repeated on the following day.

COLCHICUM-POISOXIXG.

Draught —

Solution of ammonia, two fluid ounces.
Brandy or whisky, four fluid ounces.

This draught may be administered^ every four hours for three or four times
in succession, in a pint of gruel or mucilage of linseed.

COLIC, FLATULENT,
(i.) Draught.

Solution of ammonia, one fluid ounce.
Spirit of chloroform, one fluid ounce.
Water, a sufBcient quantity.

This draught may be administered at intervals of four hours. Treatment
should be commenced with a full dose of aperient medicine.

(ii.) Draught —

Hyposulphite of sodium, four drachms.
Water, a suflBcient quantity.
This draught may be administered at intervals of four hours. Sixteen ounces
of sulphate of magnesium may be given with the first dose of this drench.

COLIC, SIMPLE.
Draught —

Oil of turpentine, half a fluid ounce.
Tincture of opium, one fluid ounce and a half.
Spirit of nitrous ether, two fluid ounces.
This draught may be given at intervals of three or four hours.

COLLAPSE.

Whisky, six fluid ounces.
Solution of ammonia, one fluid ounce.
This draught should be mixed with a pint of gruel or of water, and then
administered.

CONDITION POWDER.

Fenugreek, seven parts.
Aniseeds, three parts.
Cummin-seeds, three parts.
Ginger, one part.
Carbonate of iron, one part.
Milk of sulphur, one part.
The dose of this mixture is about two to four ounces.

THE BOVJNK FORMULARY. 699

CONGESTION OF THE LIVER,
(i.) Draught — .

Sulphate of sodium, sixteen ounces.
Aloes, four drachms.

This draught should be mixed with a pint of warm water and given, and it
should be followed by the administration, twice daily, of the following: —

(ii.) Draught —

Chloride of ammonium, four drachms.
Spirit of nitrous ether, two fluid ounces.

This draught should be mixed in a pint of thin gruel and given twice daily.

CONJUNCTIVITIS.

(i.) Lotion — Application to parts around the eye.
Boric acid, three grains.
Tincture of opium, ten minims.
Water, one fluid ounce.

(ii.) Lotion — Application to the eyeball.
Sulphate of atropine, two grains.
Water, one fluid ounce.

CONSTIPATION. See Cathartics.

COOLING LOTIONS,
(i.) Draught —

Solution of sub-acetate of lead, one fluid part.
Tincture of arnica, one fluid part.
Water, eight fluid parts.

(ii.) Draught —

Chloride of ammonium, two ounces
Nitrate of potassium, two ounces.
Water, sixteen fluid ounces.

CORNEA, INFLAMMATION OF.
Lotion —

Sulphate of atropine, two to four grains.
Water, one fluid oimce.
A few drops of this lotion should be placed in the corner of the eye.

CORNEA, OPACITY OF.
Nitrate of silver.

COUGH.

Draught —

Powdered digitalis, one drachm. "

Liquor ammonii acetatis, four fluid ounces
Spirit of nitrous ether, two fluid ounces,
Extract of belladonna, two drachms.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given twice daily.

700 THE DISEASES AND DISOEDEES OP THE OX.

COUNTER-IRRITANTS,
(i.) White liniment —

Oil of turpentine, eight fluid ounces.
Strong solution of ammonia, three fluid ounces.
Soft soap, four ounces.
Shake these well together, and then add, shaking at intervals, water to make
two quarts of liniment.

(ii.) White liniment —

Proof spirit, two pints.

Strong solution of ammonia, half a pint.

Soft soap, four ounces.

Camphor, one ounce.

(iii.) Acetic white liniment —
Eggs, four.

Acetic acid, four fluid ounces.
Solution of acetate of lead, four fluid ounces.
Oil of rosemary, half a fluid ounce.
Oil of turpentine, eight fluid ounces.
Water, to make two quarts in all.

(iv.) Absorbent liniment —

Acetic white liniment, eight fluid ounces.
Solution of iodide of potassium, two fluid ounces.

(v.) Compound camphor liniment —
Camphor, flve parts.

Oil of lavender, one quarter of a fluid part.
Strong solution of ammonia, ten fluid parts.
Methylated spirit, thirty fluid parts.
Dissolve the oil and the camphor in the spirit, and then add the ammonia
gradually.

(vi.) Mercurial liniment (for enlai'ged glands) —
Ointment of mercury, two ounces.
Camphor, one drachm.
Oil of tar, four fluid ounces.
Linseed oil, four fluid ounces.

(vii.) Blistering liniment —

Powdered cantharides, one ounce.
Olive oil, eight fluid ounces.
Digest these two over a hot bath.

(viii.) Absorbent blistering liniment —

Iodine, one ounce and a quarter.

Iodide of potassium, half an ounce.

Camphor, two drachms.

Methylated spirit, half a pint.
Paint the part required to bo blistered with this liniment by means of a
brush.

(ix.) Mustard liniment —

Mustard, four ounces.
Oil of turpentine, five fluid ounces.
Digest for a period of ten davs, and then add a sufliciont quantity of linseed
oil.

THE BOVINE FORMULARY. 701

(x.) (1.) Blistering ointment —

Biniodide of mercury, one pound.
Olive oil, one pint.

Mix well, and add seven pounds of melted lard.

(2.) Blistering ointment —
Lard, four pounds.
Resin, four pounds.
Powdered cantharides, one pound.

(3.) Blistering ointment —

Powdered cantharides, one part.
Venice turpentine, one pai-t.
Resin, one part.
Pahn oil or lard, four parts.

DIABETES INSIPIDUS.

Draughts.
The same draughts should be given as those which are prescribed for ansemia.
However, it is to be remembered that diabetes insipidus is not commonly met
with in the bovine species. In cases of diabetes insipidus the diet should be
nutritious and liberal in amount, and in the first instance laxatives should be
administered.

DIAPHORETICS,
(i.) Draught —

Solution of acetate of ammonium, four fluid ounces.

Camphor, two drachms.

Spirit of nitrous ether, one fluid ounce.

This draught should be given in a piut of warm gruel.

(ii.) Wet pack.
This is very eflBcient as a diaphoretic in the case of cattle, and it is especially
recommended as an item of treatment in cases of parturient apoplexy.

DIARRHCEA.

(a.) In adults.
(i.) Draught —

Powdered opium, two drachms.
Catechu, two drachms.
Galls, two drachms.
Prepared chalk, one ounce.

This draught may be given in a pint of warm water twice daily.

(ii.) Draught —

Catechu, two drachms.
Camphor, two drachms. .-^

Powdered bael fruit, two ounces.
Powdered opium, two drachms.
Mucilage of starch, one pint.

This draught may be given twice daily.

702 THE DISEASES AND DISOBDERS OF THE OX.

(6.) In calves.

(i.) Draught —

Pepsine, twenty grains.
Diluted hydrochloric acid, thirty minims.
Sulphate of cinchonine, seven and a half grains.
Water, a sufficient amount.

This draught may be given twice or thrice daily in a sufficient quantity of
■water or mucilage of starch.

(ii.) Draught —

Diluted sulphuric acid, thirty minims.
Tincture of catechu, two fluid drachms.
Spirit of chloroform, thirty minims.
Water, a sufficient quantity.

This draught may be given three or four times daily in water or mucilage of
starch. Perhaps the most valuable of all remedies for cases of diarrhoea in
calves is saUcylate of bismuth in two drachm doses. In the Veterinari/ Journal
of November 1886 we also recommend salicylate of iron in cases of diarrhoea
among calves.

DISINFECTANTS.

The disinfectants most usually employed for purifying cattle-sheds, houses, and
all other places which require to be disinfected, are carbolic acid, chloride of
lime, chlorine gas, and last, but far from least, sulphurous anhydride. This
last-mentioned gas has a perfectly marvellous effect. Undoubtedly, if we take
everything into consideration, sulphur dioxide is the handiest and best disinfec-
tant known. It is so easy to manufacture and to use, and if the most ordinary
precautions are taken, no bad result can possibly accrue. In short, we can,
from very long-continued personal experience, most emphatically and positively
assert that the fumes given off from burning sulphur constitute one of the very
best disinfecting agents kno-\\Ti. There are different ways of employing this
gas. Perhaps one of the best methods is that described on page 49 of the
Veterinari/ Pharmacopoeia (Gresswell's) ; but a very simple way is that of
leaving a tray containing burning coals in the room which it is required to
disinfect, and sprinkling the sulphur upon the coals. The assistant or person
who carries this out should take care not to inhale too much of the vapour. It
is, moreover, to be borne in mind that sulphur dioxide gas is almost as valuable
as a disinfecting agent in human diseases as it is in regard to those of lower
animals.

Under the heading of Verminous Bronchitis, we mentioned a way of treating
that complaint by allowing the animals affected with it to pass through a room
containing the fiimes of burning sulphur. It is to be also borae in mind that
the inhalation of the fimies of burning sulphur is a very efficient preventive and
curative agent in the case of many infectious maladies of animals and man, and
of these we may here mention swine fever of pigs, anthrax of cattle and sheep,
and possibly small-pox of man. We must repeat, however, that great care is
requisite in carrj'ing out this measure.

DOWNFALL OF THE UDDER. ISce Garget.

THE BOVINE EOEMULABT. 703

DROPSY, OR ASCITES.
Draught —

Nitrate of potassium, two drachms.
Bicarbonate of potassium, four drachms.
Oil of juniper, one fluid drachm.
Spirit of nitrous ether, one fluid ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.

Animals afiiicted with dropsy can only be cured with great difficulty. Those
drenches which are recommended under an»mia are frequently very efficacious.

DYSENTERY.

Draught —

Ipecacuanha, half an ounce.
Powdered opium, two drachms.
Chalk, two ounces.
Galls, two ounces.

These substances may be well mixed together, and, with a pint of warm water
or gruel, given thrice daily, imtil a cure is effected.

DYSURIA.

Draught —

Nitrate of potassium, one ounce.
Bicarbonate of potassium, one ounce
Water, a sufficient quantity.

This draught may be administered twice daily.

ECBOLICS.

(i.) Powdered ergot, one ounce in water,
(ii.) Tincture of ergot, one fluid ounce,
(iii.) Liquid extract of ergot, one fluid ounce.

ECZEMA CONTAGIOSA, OR E. EPIZOOTICA. See Aphtha Epizootica.

EMPHYSEilA.

As a rule, oxen suffering from emphysema are killed. If, however, the
animals are to be treated, the same remedies may be given as those which are
mentioned under the heading of Anaemia.

EPISTAXIS.

(i.) Draught —

Tincture of perchloride of iron, one and a half fluid ounces.

Tincture of ergot, one fluid ounce.

Water, a sufficient quantity. —

(ii.) Draught —

Sulphate of iron, two drachms.
Powdered ergot, one ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.

704 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

ERYSIPELAS.

(i.) Draught —

Tincture of perchloride of iron, one and a half fluid ounce.

Spirit of chloroforni, half a fluid ounce.

Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given at intervals of four hours,
(ii.) Draught —

Tincture of aconite (V. P.), forty minims.

Chlorate of potassium, three drachms.

"Water, a suflScient quantity.
This draught may be given at intervals of sis hours.

ERYTHEMA CHRONICA.

Draught —

Liquor arsenicalis, three flviid drachms.
Bicarbonate of potassium, one ounce.
Water, a pint.
This draught may be given twice daily after food. The treatment of chronic
erythema should be commenced by the administration of a laxative.

ERYTHEMA MAMMILLARUM. (See Scarlet Fevek, p. 329, &c.)

When this affection breaks out, it is necessary to remove the calf, and to apply
boric acid lotion locally. In the first instance, a laxative draught should be
administered. The following ointment will be found to be highly efficient,
especially in cases when the pain and the inflammation are considerable.

Ointment —

Extract of belladonna, one' part.

Boric acid, two parts.

Carbolic acid, half a fluid part.

Benzoated lard, thirteen parts.
Some persons might prefer the ordinary ointment of boric acid, as it is,
perhaps, equally effectual and made very simply, viz., as follows : — Melt four
parts of soft paraffin and two parts of hard paraffin together, and add one part
of boric acid in fine powder, distributing it over the surface of the liquid by
passing it through a sieve. Then stir the mixture constantly until it is cold.

EYE.

(a.) Contractor- of Pupil of.
Lotion —

Sulphate or salicylate of eserine, one to two grains.
Water, one fluid ounce.

(i.) Dilator of Pupil of.
Lotion —

Sulphate of atropine, two to four grains.
Water, one fluid ounce.

FALLING OF THE WOMB.
Draught —

Tincture of opium, two fluid ounces.
Spirit of chloroform, one fluid ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given once or twice. The womb should be dressed with
antiseptic lotion, and replaced before the medicine is given.

THE BOVINE FORMULARY. 705

FELON, CHINE-, OR LUMBAGO,
(i.) Draught —

Carbonate of ammonium, two drachms
Bicarl)onate of potassium, one ounce.
Gentian, one ounce.
Ginger, one ounce.
These substances may be mixed up with a pint of warm water, and adminis-
tered twice daily.

(ii.) Liniment —

Liniment of belladonna, one fluid part.
Compound liniment of ammonia, one fluid part.

FEVER, PARTURIENT. See Parturient Septicemia.

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE. See Aphtha Epizootica.

FOUL IN THE FOOT.

All the diseased horny tissues should be most carefully cleansed and removed,,
especially those parts which are under-run with matter, or near which there
has been a formation of matter. They should also be poulticed with linseed.
Furthermore, it is advisable to administer a cathartic, and also to dress the
foot with one of the following preparations : —

(i.) Ointment-
Carbolic acid, four fluid drachms.
Lard, four ounces.

(ii.) Ointment —

Boric acid, one part.
Lard, seven parts.

(iii.) Powder —

Sulphate of copper, finely powdered, one part.
Alum, finely powdered, one part.

(iv.) Local application —

Nitrate of copper, one part.
Stockholm tar, six parts.

FOUNDER.

This disease is not very commonly met with among oxen, and it is in the
general way best treated by means of the administration of a cathartic. Cool-
ing applications may be employed locally. If there be any sign of fever, the
following draught may be given three times daily : —

Tincture of aconite (V. P.), forty minims.

Spirit of nitrous ether, one fluid ounce

Water, sufficient to make six fluid ounces in all.

GANGRENOUS STOMATITIS,
(i.) Draught —

Chlorate of potassium, two drachms.
Water, six fluid ounces.
This draught may be given four times each day.

45

706 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

(ii.) Gargle —

Tincture of iodine, two fluid draciims.
Water, eight fluid ounces.

This gargle may be employed as often as may be found necessary. The ulcers
should be touched with nitrate of silver, or they should be painted over with
a mixture of one fluid part of acid solution of nitrate of mercury, and twenty-
four fluid parts of water. All the sanitary conditions whereto the animals are
subjected should be very carefully attended to.

GARGET.

(a.) In acute star/e.
(i.) Draught —

Bicarbonate of potassium, one ounce.

Tincture of aconite (Gresswell's V. P.), forty minims.

Water, a sufiicient quantity.

This draught may be administered every four hours for a day, and then three
times daily, so long as the temperature remains high.

fii-) Draught —

Nitrate of potassium, one ounce.

Tincture of aconite (Gresswell's Y. P.), forty minims.

This draught may be given every four hours for a day, and then three times
daily, so long as the temperature remains high. In the case of animals affected
with this disease, the milk should be removed at regular intervals. Linseed
poultices containing two or four drachms of extract of belladonna may be
applied.

(b. ) In (■/ironic induration.
(i.) Inject with a lotion made of—

Bicarbonate of potassium, one drachm.
Water, one ounce.

(ii.) In later stage apply acetic liniment. (See Col'Ntek-Irritants. )

(iii.) Draught —

Bicarbonate of potassium, one ounce.
Iodide of potassium, two drachms.
Water, a sufficient quantity.

This draught maj' be given twice daily.

GLOSSANTHRAX.

(i.) Draught —

Salicylate of sodium, two drachms.
Sulphite of sodium, two draclims.
Water, a sufficient quantity.

This draught may bo given four times daily. Troatniciit is very seldoui of
any avail, and indeed is only very unfrequently carried out.

(ii.) Gargle —

Acid solution of nitrate of mercury, one Ihiid drachm.
Water, six fluid ounces.

THE BOVINE FORMULARY. 707

GLOSSITIS.

(i.) Draught —

Solution of ?v«etate of ammonium four fluid ounces.
Spirit of nitrous ether, one fluid ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given four times daily. Treatment should be commenced
by the administration of sixteen ounces of sulphate of magnesium, or of sul-
phate of sodium. The animal should be allowed as much gruel as will be taken:
and if the power of swallowing is not possessed, nutritive enemata should be
given. In the later stages and during recovery the following draught may be
administered.

(ii.) Draught —

Gentian, one ounce and a half.
Ginger, half an ounce.
Sulphate of iron, two drachms,
This draught may be given in a pint of warm water twice daily.

GONORRHCEA.

(i.) Draught —

Balsam of copaiva, four ounces.
Castor oil, four fluid ounces.
This draught may be given twice or thrice daily,
(ii.) Draught —

Oleum santali, half a fluid ounce.
Oleum lini, six fluid ounces.
This draught may be given twice daily. Treatment should be commenced
by the administration of a cathartic. (See Cathartics, Mild.)
(iii.) Injection —

Sulpho-carbolate of zinc, five grains.
Water, one fluid ounce.

HEMATURIA.

Inasmuch as this affection depends on several different causes, being in fact a
symptom of various diseases, the treatment of it must of course vary in corre-
spondence with the particular conditions which present themselves in any given
case. It is advisable that a laxative should be administered, and as an example
we may mention sixteen fluid ounces of castor oil, or sixteen ounces of
sulphate of sodium, and so forth. Cold applications to the loins may also
prove serviceable.

Draughts —

(i.) Tincture of perchloride of iron, one fluid ounce.
Spirit of chloroform, half a fluid ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be administered twice daily,
(ii.) Acetate of lead, one drachm.
Galls, two ounces.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given twice daily. "

(iii.) Extract of taraxacum, four ounces.
Carbonate of iron, three drachms.
These substances may be mixed up with a pint of water, and given twice
daily.

45 *

708 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OP THE OX.

HEMORRHAGE. See Bleeding.

H.a:MORRHOIDS OR PILES,
(i.) Draught —

Extract of taraxacum, four fluid ounces.
Chloride of ammonium, one ounce.
Gentian, one ounce.
This draught may be given once daily in a pint of warm water. Treatment
should be commenced by the administration of sixteen ounces of sulphate of
sodium, and this cathartic drench may be repeated, when it may be necessary.
However, we must remember that in certain cases it may be necessary to use
surgical means of cure.

(ii.) Local applications —

(a.) Tincture of hamamelis.
(6.) Alum, one drachm.

Water, two fluid ounces.

HEEL, ULCERATION OF.
Ointment —

Sulphate of copper, one drachm.
Lard, one ounce.
This ointment may be applied twice daily. Sometimes the granulations are
removed by cauterization.

HEMIPLEGIA AND PARAPLEGIA,
(a.) Acute.

When an ox is paralysed as a result of a tumour or a fracture, the animal
should be killed, as there is but little possibility of recovery taking place. If,
on the other hand, the paralysis be due to the presence of inflammatory growths,
the spine may be blistered by means of ointment of red iodide of mercury, and
tonics may be administered internally.
(h.) Chronic.

Draught —

Liquor strychnina; hydrochloratis, four fluid drachms.
Spirit of chloroform, four fluid drachms.
Water, a suflicient quantity.
This draught may be given twice daily.

HEPATITIS AND CONGESTION OF THE LIVER.
(i.) Laxative draught —

Sulphate of sodium, sixteen ounces.
Caraway seeds, one ounce.
Thi.s draught may be given in a pint of warm water, and, if it should be deemed
necessary to do so, it may be repeated on the following day. Otherwise one
drachm of calomel may be administered instead of the sulphate of sodium, and
followed up for several days by half-drachm doses of the same salt. The diet
should be small in amount and of a laxative nature,
(ii.) Draught —

Tincture of aconite (Gress well's V. P.) forty minims.
Chloride of ammonium, six draclims.
Spirit of nitrous ether, one fluid ounce.
Water, a suflicient quantity.
This draught may be given thrice dailj-, so long as any febrile symptoms are
displayed. Afterwards tlio aconite may be omitted.

THE BOVINE FORMULARY. 709

HIDE-BOUND.

Draughts and Powders —
The same as those ■which are mentioned under Anaemia, or as tonics, may be
administered. In commencing treatment it is best to give a laxative.

HOVEN. See Tympanites.

HYDROCELE.

(i.) Draught —

Solution of hydrate of potassium, half a fluid ounce.
Iodide of potassium, two drachms.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given in the drinking water twice daily.

(ii.) Local application.

Tincture of iodine.

HYDROTHORAX. See Pleukist (later stage).

IMPACTION OF THE RUMEN.
Draught —

Sulphate of magnesium, sixteen ounces.

Aloes, eight drachms.

Ginger, half an ounce.

Powdered croton bean, one drachm.
This draught may be given in a pint of warm water. If the bowels do not
act, we may administer two pints of castor oil on the following day. If it is
absolutely necessary to take that course, the intravenous injection of sulphate
of eserine may be tried. (See Cathartics, very strong.)

IMPACTION OF THE BOWELS.
Draught —

Sulphate of sodium, sixteen ounces.
Solution of aloes, eight fluid ounces.
Spirit of nitrous ether, one fluid ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be repeated in twelve hours' time, if it is found necessary
to repeat it. (See also Cathartics.)

INCONTINENCE OF URINE,
(i.) Draught —

Bicarbonate of sodium, one ounce.
Powdered nux vomica, one drachm.
Ginger, half an ounce.
Gentian, one ounce.
This draught may be given in a pint of warm water twice daily,
(ii.) Draught —

Liquor strychninae hydrochloratis, two fluid drachms.
Bicarbonate of sodium, one oiince.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given twice daily.

710 THE DISEASES AND DISORDEES OF THE OX.

INDIGESTION. {See pages 504 to 509.)

Of course our readers ■will readily understand that indigestion is really a
general name given to a great variety of different complaints. For instance, it
may on the one hand he due to an excess of acidity in the stomach, and so forth,
or it may be owing to a diminution of acidity on the other hand. In the former
case draught number (i.) ■will be best, and in the latter case draught
number (ii.). Ho'wever, in certain cases, alkalies •will bo necessary, in order to
increase the secretion of acid,
(i.) Draught —

Bicarbonate of sodium, two ounces.
Nux vomica, one drachm.
Ginger, half an ounce.
Gentian, one ounce.
This draught may be given in a pint of ■warm •water t^wice daily. Treatment
should, however, be commenced by the administration of a cathartic. (See
Cathartics a or ft),
(ii.) Draught —

Diluted hydrochloric acid, four fluid drachms.
Liquor strychninae hj'drochloratis, two fluid drachms.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given t^wice daily.

INERTIA OF THE UTERUS (DELAYED PARTURITION).
Draught —

Powdered ergot, one ounce.
Carbonate of ammonium, four drachms.
Gentian, one ounce.
Ginger, half an ounce.
This may be given in a pint of warm water.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER, BOWELS, BRONCHI, BRAIN,
CONJUNCTIVA, CORNEA, KIDNEYS, LIVER, LUNGS, UDDER,
(a.) Bladder.

Draught —

Bicarbonate of potassium, one ounce.
Tincture of opium, one fluid ounce.
Tincture of aconite (V. P.). forty minims.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given thrice daily.
(J). ) Bowel a.

Draught —

Tincture of opium, two fluid ounces.
Tincture of aconite (V. P.), forty minims.
This draught may be repeated at intervals of three or four hours,
(c.) Bronchi, see Bronchitis.
(rf.) Brain.
(i.) Draught —

Hydrate of chloral, three drachma.
Bromide of potassium, three drachms.
Water, a sufficient quantit}'.
This draught may be administered tlirioc daily. It is advisable to commenoe
treatment with a strong cathartic. {See Cathartics, strong.)

THE BOVINE FORMULARY. 711

(ii.) Blister. Ointment of cantharides may be applied to the poll.
Powdered cantharides, one part.
Venice turpentine, one part.
Resin, one part.
Palm oil or lard, four parts.

(«.) Conjunctiva.

(i.) Lotion (to parts around the Eye) —
Boric acid, three grains.
Tincture of opium, ten minims.
Water, one fluid ounce,
(ii.) Lotion (to the Eyeball) —

Sulphate of atropine, two grains.
Water, one fluid ounce.

(yi) Cornea.

Lotion (to the Eyeball) —

Sulphate of atropine, two to four grains.
Water, one fluid ounce.
A few drops of this lotion may be placed in the corner of the eye.
{g.) Kidneys.

Draught —

Tincture of aconite (V. P.), forty minims.
Solution of acetate of ammonium, four fluid ounces.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given thrice daily. Warm enemas may be serviceable,
and a cathartic (see Cathartics, strong) should be given at the outset. A sheep-
skin or some other warm covering placed on the loins has a good effect.
Bleeding is sometimes necessary.

(A.) Liver, see Hepatitis.
(i.) Lungs.
(i. ) Draught —

Tincture of aconite (V. P.), forty minims.

Solution of acetate of ammonium, four fluid ounces.

Spirit of nitrous ether, half a fluid ounce.

Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given every six hours.

(ii.) Counter-irritants, see Counter-irritants.
(J.) Udder, see Garget.

JAUNDICE.

The treatment of jaundice of necessity varies in accordance with the par-
ticular case and its causes. The diet should be carefully regulated. The food
should be restricted in amount, and of a laxative nature, and capable of being
easily digested. In the first instance it is best to begin treatment by the admi-
nistration of a cathartic (.see Cathartics, strong). Perhaps the best cathartic
may be composed of —

Sulphate of magnesium, sixteen ounces.

Powdered aloes, eight drachms.

Powdered ginger, half an ounce.
This may be well mixed with a pint or more of warm water or gruel, and
then administered.

7J2 THK DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

(i.) Draught —

Chloride of ammonium., four drachms.
Bicarbonate of potassium, one ounce.
Ginger, foiu' drachms.
This draught may be given in a pint of -warm water twice daily.
(ii.) Draught —

Diluted nitro-hydrochloric acid, four fluid drachms.
Spirit of chloroform, half one fluid ounce.
Tincture of euonymin, one fluid ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.

This draught may be given twice daily in cases of torpidity of the liver.

KIDNEYS, INFLAMMATION OF.

Draught —

Tincture of aconite (V. P.), forty minims.
Solution of acetate of ammonium, four Huid ounces.
Water, a sufficient quantity.

This draught may be given thrice daily. Warm enemas may be beneficial, and
a cathartic (see Cathaktics, steong) should be given at the outset of the treat-
ment. A sheepskin or other warm covering placed over the loins has a good
effect. In certain cases bleeding may be necessary.

LABURNUM POISONING.

Draught (see Cathartics, steokg). Perhaps the best may be com-
posed of —

Sulphate of magnesiiiin, sixteen ounces.
Powdered aloes, eight drachms.
Powdered ginger, half an ounce.

This draught may be given well mixed with a pint or more of warm water or
gruel.

LARYNGITIS.

(i.) Draught —

Tincture of belladonna, six fluid drachms.
Solution of acetate of ammonium, four fluid ounces.
Water, a sufficient quantity.

This draught may be given thrice daily. Inhalation of steam vapour and
the application of counter-irritants to the throat are both necessary. Nutrient
enemata should sometimes be given if the animal cannot take a sufficient (juan-
tity of food Vjy the mouth.

(ii.) Liniments —
Liniment of cantharides, or liniment of mustard, or that of ammonia, should
be applied to the region of the throat. For formula' .see CoL'NTEU-ikritants.

'iii.) Gargle —

Tincture of iodine, one lluid part.
Water, twenty fluid parts.

THE BOVINE FORMULARY. 713

LEUCORRHCEA.

(i.) Draughts —

Those given under the heading of Anemia may be useful. The first of the
three mentioned is perhaps the best. It is as follows : —

Powdered gentian, one and a half ounce.

Powdered ginger, half an ounce.

Granulated sulphate of iron, two drachms.

Powdered nux vomica, forty grains.

Powdered capsicum, half a drachm.
This draught may be mixed with a pint of warm water, gruel, or ale, and
administered twice daily. This combination of remedies will be found to be an
efficient hsematinic and general tonic. Should the bowels be costive, a laxative
should be given. (See Cathartics, mild.)

(ii.) Injections —

(1.) iSulpho-carbolate of zinc, two grains.

Water, one fluid ounce.
(2.) Permanganate of potassium, two grains.

Water, one fluid ounce.
(3.) Alum, half a drachm.

Decoction of oak bark, one fluid ounce.

(iii.) Caustic application —
Nitrate of silver may be applied to the ulcerated patches, if there are any
present.

LICE.

(i.) Ointment —

White precipitate of mercury, one part.
Lard, twelve parts.

(ii.) Lotions —

(1.) Stavesacre seeds, half an ounce.
Soft soap, two ounces.
The bruised stavesacre seeds should be boiled together with the soft soap in a
pint and a half of warm water, until about one pint remains.

(2.) Creosote, three fluid drachms.

Methylated spirit, two fluid ounces.

Water, sufficient to make half a pint in all.
(3.) Tobacco, four drachms.

Hot water, one pint.
(4.) Liquor carbonis detergens, two fluid ounces.

Water, sufficient to make one pint in all.

LIVER, INFLAMMATION OF. .See Hepatitis. ,^

LOCKED- J AW.

Draught —

Bromide of potassium, four drachms.
Anise fruit, four drachms.
This draught may be given in warm water or gruel thrice daily.

714 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

LUNGS, INFLAMMATION OF.
(i.) Draught —

Tincture of aconite (V. P.), forty minims.
Solution of acetate of ammonium, four fluid ounces.
Spirit of nitrous ether, half a fluid ounce.
Water, a sufiBcient quantity.
This draught may be administered every six hours.

(ii.) Counter-irritants. See Cotinter-irkitants.
In cases of inflammation of the lungs a great deal depends upon the general
management. All draughts should be scrupulously avoided, and still the shed
should be thoroughly well ventilated. This may, perhaps, best be effected by
means of Tobin's tubes. One very good item of treatment may be found in
the careful application of hot rugs to the chest.

MALIGNANT CATARRH.

Draught —

Salicylic acid, three drachms.

Tincture of cinchona, two fluid ounces.

Whisky, four fluid ounces.
This draught, which is a most valuable one, may be mixed with a pint of
warm gruel and administered at intervals of from four to six hours. However,
in spite of treatment, this disease generally proves fatal. The ulcerations may
be touched with a preparation made of one part of carbolic acid, in ten parts of
either water or oil, and the animal should be made to inhale steam. The diet
should be nutritious and of a laxative nature ; and if the animal should recover,
the administration of tonic medicines will prove necessary.

MAMMITIS. See Garget.

MANGE.

Ointments —

(L) Sulphur, one ounce.
Lard, one ounce.
This ointment, simple as it is, may be said to be well-nigh invaluable in the
treatment of mange in almost all kinds of animals.
(2.) Oil of stavesacre, one fluid drachm.
Lard, one ounce.
This also is a most useful application ; perhaps, however, not quite so
valuable as the preceding.

(3.) Ointment of sulphur, prepared as above, half an ounce.

Ointment of stavesacre, prepared as above, half a fluid ounce.
White precipitate of mercury, twenty grains.
This, of course, is the strongest preparation of the three.

N.B. — In regard to the treatment and euro of mange, we may make one
remark, which applies widely to the management of all cases of disease, whether
in animals or in man, although it applies to mango more markedly than to any
other malady. It is that a groat deal depends on the way in which medicinal
preparations are used, and also, of course, on the general management of the
affected animals. For example, it is very highly necessary, if wo wish to really
eradicate mango, that the apjjlication should be efliciontly used, and used, too,
for a sufTiciont h^ngth of time. As a matter of fact, a great amount of careless-

THE BOVINE FORMULARY. 715

ness is often displayed by human patients. It is no uncommon thing to see how-
very neglectful men and women are of their own ailments. We certainly, then,
can find no cause for wonder that the maladies of lower animals do not receive
a sufiBcient amount of attention. Nevertheless, a great deal of care is necessary,
if they are to be cured.

METRO-PERITONITIS, OR PUERPERAL PERITONITIS,
(i.) Draught.

Powdered opium, two drachms.
Salicylic acid, two drachms.
Whisky, six fluid ounces.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given at intervals of six hours. The treatment of thi»
disease should be commenced with the administration of a mild cathartic.

(ii.) Draught.

Salicylate of sodium, four drachms.
Tincture of opium, one and a half fluid ounce.
Solution of acetate of ammonium, four fluid ounces.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be administered at intervals, of four hours.

(iii.) Injection.

Carbolic acid, half a fluid drachm.
Water, ten fluid ounces.

MILK FEVER. See Apoplexy, Parturient.

MUIR ILL. See Hematuria.

NEIPHRITIS. «See Kidneys, Inflammation of.

OESTRUS BOVIS. See pages 432 to 436.

It is only necessary to use a small quantity of the ointment of mercury in
order to destroy the parasite. A portion of the size of a pea is amply suf-
ficient.

OPHTHALMIA, SIMPLE.
Lotions —

(1.) Sulphate of atropine, two grains.
Water, one fluid ounce.
To be applied to the eyeball.

(2.) Boric acid, three grains.
Water, one fluid ounce.
To be applied to parts around the eye.

OPHTHALMIA, PERIODIC.

Oxen affected with this disease are as a rule killed. If, however, it should
be thought best to try remedial measures, a seton or a blister may be applied
behind the ear in the case of those oxen which are treated,
(i.) Draught.

Bicarbonate of potassium, one ounce.
Powdered cinchona, one ounce.
Gentian, one ounce.
This draught may be mixed with a pint of warm water and given twice
daily

716 THE DISEASES AKD DISORUEES OF THE OX.

(ii.) Lotion —

Sulphate of atropine, two to four grains.
Water, one fluid ounce.

PALPITATION.

(i.)^ Draught-
Tincture of aconite (V. P.), forty minims.
Spirit of chloroform, half a fluid ounce.
Bicarbonate of sodium, one ounce.
Water, a sufBeient quantity.
This draught may be given twice daily.

(ii.) Draught —

Sulphate of iron, two drachms.
Digitalis, thirty grains.
Gentian, one ounce.
This draught may be mixed with a pint of warm water, and given twice
daily.

PARTLTIIENT SEPTICEMIA, PARTURIENT FEVER.

This disease must not be confounded with Parturient Apoplexy,
(i.) Draughts —

(1.) Salicylate of sodium, two drachms.
Brandy, four fluid oimces.
This draught may be given in gruel at intervals of foiu' hours, or the follow-
ing prescription may be given instead of it.

(2.) Sulphate of quinine, one drachm and a half.
Diluted sulphuric acid, four fluid drachms.

Water, a sufficient quantity. •

This draught may be repeated every three or four hours.
(ii.) Injection —

Carbolic acid, two fluid drachms.
Water, ten fluid ounces.

PARTURIENT APOPLEXY. See Apoplexy, Parturient.

PEDICULI. See Lice.
(i.) Ointment —

White precipitate of mercurj', one part.
Lard, twelve parts,
(ii.) Lotion —

Creosote, three fluid drachms.
Methylated spirit, two fluid ounces.
Water, sufficient to make half a pint in all,

PERICARDITIS.

A- Idiopathic.

(a) In early stage.
(i.) Draught —

Tincture of Aconite (V. P.) forty minims.
Spirit of chloroform, six fluid drachms.
Solution of acetate of ammonium, four fluid ounces.
Water, a sufiicient quantity.
This draught may be given everj- six hours for two or three times.

THE BOVINE FORMULARY. 717

(ii.) Local application —
The side of the animal may be blistered with ointment of cantharides (lard
four pounds, resin four pounds, powdered cantharides one pound). Another
Tery good measure is. to apply the hot wet pack.

(6) In later stages.
Draught —

Carbonate of ammonium, three drachms.
Carbonate of iron, three drachms.
This draught may be given in water twice daily. After an animal has
recovered from pericarditis, it is advisable that it should be fattened and killed.

B. Tkaumatic.

Traumatic pericarditis is generally fatal.

PERITONITIS.

Draught —

Tincture of opium, two fluid ounces.
Tincture of aconite (V. P.), forty minims.
Spirit of chloroform, half a fluid ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given every six hours.

PERITONITIS, PUERPERAL. See Metro-Peritonitis.

PHTHISIS PULMONALIS.
Draught —

Cod-liver oil, ten fluid ounces.
This draught may be given twice daily for several days, and then once
daily.

PLACENTAL MEMBRANES, RETENTION OF THE.

Draught —

Sulphate of magnesium, sixteen ounces.
Powdered ergot, one ounce.
Carbonate of ammonium, four drachms.
This draught may be given in two pints of warm water, and, if necessary,
repeated on the following day.

PILES. See Hemorrhoids.

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA CONTAGIOSA.

This disease is not treated. Preventive inoculation of such animals as have
been in contiguity with affected animals has been strongly recommended by
some. There is no doubt that immediate slaughter of all animals suffering
from this dread disease is necessary. In this connection two questions arise.
In the first place, is the flesh of such oxen fit for human food ? The answer is a
certain and simple negative. It should on no account be consumed. The
second question is, Should such animals as have been in contiguity also be
slaughtered ? The answer to this query is that really they ought to be
slaughtered, in order that the disease may be stamped out as soon as possible;
but manifestly the pocket is intimately concerned in some of these cases, and
hence the decision cannot but be a very diSicult one. We believe, however,
that the Government has already passed, or, is about to pass, a measure
directing that compensation may be allowed in certain instances when it is found

718 THE DISEASES AND HISORDEES OF THE OX.

necessary to order slaughter of healthy animals -which have been exposed to
infection. In case one should be travelling in a foreign country, as for example,
in Africa, with a span of oxen, we give two formula for this complaint, either of
•which may be very useful : —

(i.) Carbolic acid, pure, half a fluid drachm.
Cod liver oil, ten fluid ounces.
This draught maj' be given thrice daily, in a pint and a half of warm water,
(ii.) Salicine, four drachms.

Sulphite of sodium, four to six drachms.
Ginger, half an ounce.
Gentian, one ounce and a half.
This draught may be given, mixed in a pint of ale, twice daily.

PSORIASIS.

(i.) Draught —

Liquor arsenicalis, two fluid drachms.
Bicarbonate of sodium, one ounce.
Water, a pint.
This draught may be given twice daily. A laxative, such as about 14 ounces
•of sulphate of magnesium, together with half an ounce of powdered ginger, may
be given, in a pint of warm water, at the outset of the treatment,
(ii.) Ointment of tar —
Tar, 2| parts.
Yellow wax, 1 part.
Melt the wax at a low heat, add the tar, and stir the mixture well as it is
cooling.

PUERPERAL APOPLEXY. See. Apoplexy, Partubient.

PUERPERAL PERITONITIS. See Meteo-peritositis.

PUPIL OF EYE.

Contractor of,
Lotion —

Sulnhate or salicylate of eserine, one to two grains.
Water, one fluid ounce.
Dilator of,
Lotion —

Sulphate of atropine, two to four grains.
Water, one fluid ounce.

PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA,
(i.) Draught^ —

Quinetum, one drachm.

Tincture of perchloride of iron, one fluid ounce.
Oil of turpentine, naif a fluid ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given twice daily,
(ii.) Draught —

Powdered gentian, one ounce.
Powdered ginger, half an ounce.
Carbonate of ammonium, half an ounce.
Carbonate of iron, two drachms.
This draught may bo given twice dailj' in a pint of warm water, gruel, or ale

THE BOVINE FORMULAltY. 719

PYiEMIA.

Draught —

Powdered cinchona bark, one ounce.
Salicylate of sodium, half an ounce.
These substances may be well mixed with half a pint of warm water and
given three times on the first day, and then twice each day. Treatment should
be commenced by the administration of a laxative, and tonics will be required
during recovery.

PYREXIA. A^ee Antipyretics.

RACHITIS OR RICKETS (in calves),
(i.) Powder —

Phosphate of lime, one and a half to three drachms.
This powder may be given in the food or in milk once regularly every day, or
the following may be given : —
(ii.) Draught —

Cod-liver oil, four fluid ounces.
Lime water, two fluid ounces.
This draught may be given once daily. The diet should be of a nutritious
nature.

RETENTION OF PLACENTAL MEMBRANES.
Draught —

Sulphate of magnesium, sixteen ounces.
Powdered ergot, one ounce.
Carbonate of ammonium, four drachms.
This draught may be mixed with two pints of warm water, and given once
and then again on the next day, if it should be deemed necessary.

RHEUMATISM,
(a.) Acute.

(i.) Draught —

Tincture of aconite (V. P.), thirty minims.
Salicylate of sodium, four drachms.
Bicarbonate of potassium, one ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given at intervals of six hours.

(ii.) Draught —

Tincture of colchicum, half a duid ounce.
Tincture of aconite (V. P.), thirty minims.
Bicarbonate of potassium, one ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given at intervals of six hours.

(iii.) Local applications —

(1.) Liniment of belladonna (see V. P., page 222).
(2.) Counter-irritants, see Codntek-irkitants.

BINGWORM, ORDINARY (TINEA TONSURANS).
Ointments — -^

(1.) Ointment of iodine.
(2.) Ointment of acid nitrate of mercury.
(3.) Oleate of copper, one part.
Lard, five parts.

720 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

Lotions —

(1.) Sulphurous acid, one fluid drachm.

Glycerine, three fluid drachms.
(2.) Perchloride of mercury, one part.

Water, five hundred parts.
(3.) Acetum cantharidum.

RINGWORM. FAYUS HONEYCOMB (ACHORION SCHONLEIXII).

The same treatment as that for the ordinary ringworm given above.

SCARLATINA.

Draught —

Solution of acetate of ammonium, four fluid ounces.
Spirit of nitrous ether, one fluid ounce.
Bicarbonate of potassium, half an ounce.
Water sufficient to make eight fluid ounces.
This draught may be given thrice daily.

SCOUR OR SKIT. See Diarrhoja.

SCROFULA.

Draught —

Phosphate of lime, two drachms.
Sulphate of iron, one drachm.
Gentian, one and a half ounces.
This draught may be given in warm water twice daily.

SORE TEATS.

Ointment of boric acid.
Melt four parts of soft paraffin and two parts of hard paraffin together, and
add one part of boric acid in fine powder, distributing it over the surface of the
liquid by passing it through a sieve. Then keep on stirring the mixture until
it is cold. This ointment is wonderfully efficacious.

SPLENIC APOPLEXY, OR SPLENIC FEVER. See Anthrax.
Draught —

Sulphite of sodium, three drachms.
Salicylate of sodium, three drachms.
Water, half to one pint.
This draught may be given every four hours.

SPRAINS.

In the early stages a cooling lotion is useful, and for a suitable formula the
following may be taken : —

Solution of subacetate of lead, one fluid ounce.
Methylated spirit, two fluid ounces.

Water sufficient to make sixteen fluid ounces : or see Cooling
Lotions.
In the later stages it is advisable to apply a stimulating embrocation or some
suitable counter-irritant.

STINGS.

Lotion —

Carbolic acid, one fluid part.
Glycerine, one fluid part.

THE BOVINE I'OkMULARY. 721

STOMATITIS. See Gangrenous Stomatitis.
STRANGURY. See H^smaturia.

TABES MESENTERIGA.

Draughts —

(1.) Sulphate of iron, two drachma.
Creasote, one fluid drachm.
Gentian, one ounce.
Ginger, one ounce.
This draught may be mixed with a pint of warm gruel and administered
twice daily.

(2.) Cod-liver oil, ten fluid ounces.
Oil of eucalyptus, ten minims.
This draught may be given twice daily.

TETANUS, OR LOGK-JAW.
Draught —

Bromide of potassium, four drachms.
Anise fruit, four drachms.
This draught may be mixed with warm water or gruel, and given thrice daily.

THRUSH IX THE MOUTH. See Aphtha.

TONGUE, ACTINOMYCOSIS OF. See Actinomtcosis.
Tonics, see Anemia.
Draught — Powdered gentian, one ounce.

Powdered ginger, half an ounce.
Carbonate of ammonium, half an ounce.
Carbonate of iron, two drachms.
This draught may be given twice daily in a pint of warm water, gruel, or
ale.

TYMPANITES, OR HOVEN.

Treatment of this malady should begin with the administration of a cathartic,
(i.) Draught —

Hyposulphite of sodium, half an ounce.
Water, a sufiBcient c^uantity.
This draught may be given at intervals of from two to four hours for several
times.

(ii.) Draught —

Ether, two fluid ounces.
Carbonate of ammonium, half an ounce.
Spirit of chloroform, one fluid ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given at intervals of four hours,
(iii.) Draught —

Sulphocarbolate of sodium, half an ounce.
Bromide of potassium, two drachms. ' .^
Chlorodyne, six fluid drachms.
Water, a sufiicient quantity.
This draught may be given at intervals of from four to six hours.

UDDER. INFLAMMATION OF. See Garget.

4G

722 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF TBE OX.

UKTICARIA.

Draught —

Bicarbonate of potassium, half an ounce.
Bicarbonate of sodium, half an ounce.
Nitrate of potassium, half an ounce.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given twice daily.

VACCINIA.

Draught —

Solution of acetate of ammonium, four fluid ounces.
Tincture of aconite (V. P.), forty minims.
Water, a sufficient quantity.
This draught may be given three times daily. A laxative should be adminis-
tered in the first instance, and the milk should be drawn off by a syphon.

WARBLE. 5eeCEsTKUs Bovis.

WHITES. See Leccorkhcea.

YEW-TREE POISONING.

In the first place a cathartic should be given, and this should be
followed up with the following draught : —

Carbonate of ammonium, three drachms.
Whisky, four fluid ounces.
Gruel, sufficient to make half a pint in all.
This draught may be repeated at intervals of four or five hours.

723

CHAPTER VIII.

CONCLUSION.

Even as all things sooner or later must come to an end — for
even " kings and queens and princes must, like all men else, soon
come to dust^' — so at length we have, after some labour, arrived
at, the close of our task. When we concluded our series of
articles on " The Diseases and Disorders of the Ox " in the
Yorkshire Weekly Post we wrote as follows : —

"At the instant when our kind and indulgent readers shall be
glancing their eyes upon these words, this eventful year of grace,
1887, in which so much has happened that will bring forth its
abundance of fruit in the future, this year, in which Her Majesty's
Jubilee has been celebrated with so much splendour and rejoicing,
will be rapidly ebbing away further and further, while its last
few remaining sands fall down and sink for ever into the bottom-
less gulf of the past.

" And now ; as we conclude our review of * The Diseases and
Disorders of the Ox,' it is with a twofold feeling that we do
so ; for while on the one hand we cannot but feel glad — we say
it in all modesty — to think that we have done and completed
some arduous work which can never be altogether lost, on the
other we do realise that the subject is one even as yet in its
infancy, and one in regard to which our successors in the future
will doubtless devote much earnest attention to the no small
benefit of mankind in many most important ways, the chief of
which is the light which bovine pathology will throw upon the
diseases of human beings. We have done our best in the past
year to give the latest and the most reliable information in regard

46 *

724 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

to the diseases of the ox, and we hope in the first half of 1888 to
achieve at least an equal degree of success in reference to those
of the sheep, an animal whose health and wants should be
specially looked to by the sheep-owner.

"We have received at various times kind words from our readers,
and we may say that we do feel very pleased and grateful to
think that we have been able to carry through a lengthy series
on a difficult subject to the satisfaction of many. To those who
may wish to continue their acquaintance with our work in book-
form, we take this opportunity of stating that we have entered
into an arrangement with Messrs. William H. Allen & Co.,
13, Waterloo Place, Pall Mall, S.W., to write a treatise on the
Ox, and that the articles whicli have appeared from our pen in
this year's Yorkshire Weekly Post will, after a thorough ampli-
fication and revision, be included in this copiously illustrated
manual. We hope to have this completed as early as possible
in the ensuing year, and ready perhaps for the spring publishing
season.*

"Emboldened by the kindness and attention with which our
articles have been received, we have engaged to contribute for
the first half of the year, 1888, which begins to-morrow, a clear
and succinct account of ' The Diseases and Disorders of the
Sheep,' which we hope will be no less popular among farmers
and the community generally than our two previous series.
We shall to-day take the liberty, in some sense by way of con-
clusion, of turning aside to a matter of great national impor-
tance, concerning which we propose to say a few words.

" Tn the Times of Tuesday, December 13, 1887, a paragraph
appears under the title of ^A Gloomy Agricultural Outlook in
the North,' wherefrom we gather that in tiie vast grazing district
constituted by Cumberland and Westmoreland there are upwards
of 50,000 acres untenanted, and that affairs are becoming more
critical every day. In the hill districts, where the land drains
rapidly, the crops have been exceedingly light. In the fell
dales some farmers are already buying hay, and the mnjoritv
hardly see their way tlirough the winter. Moreover, the great
northern hiring fairs have just been held, and very many able-
bodied men and women have failed to find places.

* Some portions of our work occupied us so long that tbis expectation turned
out to lie quite out of the question.

CONCLUSION. 72$

" Unfortunately we may add to this bad news that other parts
are also likely to suffer some amount of distress, and there are
people who say that this winter may not improbably be the
worst which England has ever seen. All this points to a state
of things which may be spoken of as nothing less than disastrous,
and any hint which may help matters cannot be thrown away.
Now the fact is that in these days there are far too many of us
who are apt to be forgetful of the advantages of many kinds,
but especially in the way of health and strength, to be derived
from rural pursuits. The tendency of modern civilisation leads
to our congregating more and more closely into the larger
towns, and no doubt there are great facilities connected with an
urban residence.

" Still there is the other side of the shield to be looked at, as
the old fable of the town mouse and the country mouse so forcibly
reminds us; and there is not the least doubt that it is time that
we should pay more heed to the fact that active exercise in the
open country is a great desideratum. There are too few persons
who fully realise the very great benefits accruing from out-of-door
pursuits. It is true that hunting, shooting, fishing, and so forth,
have each and all their eager votaries ; but the point we would
lay stress on is that one of the greatest boons connected with the
avocation of farming is one that is often lost sight of — we mean
the essential healthiness of agricultural pursuits and opera-
tions. This aspect of the question is one which, if thoroughly
appreciated, might lead to the taking up of all the farms
which are now to be let in the country, quite eagerly and without
delay.

" There is no doubt that there are many people well able to put
their energies into farming who, even if they did not become
very affluent by so doing, might at least secure a fair return for
time and money expended, and, what is far more than this, might
increase in a most material way not only their happiness, but
also their strength, their health, and the duration of their lives. In
this connection it is to be borne in mind that it is always darkest
ere the dawn, and that things may unhesitatingly be now looked
upon as being at their worst. As matters now stand, there is
no disputing that the country districts, depending, as they do,
rather largely on their own unaided resources, are in a bad way.
Further, although it is a long lane which has no turning, we

726 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

must not expect that when we pass round the corner, as we are
doing even now, that things will all at once become very, very
bright.

" Looking at the question purely from the monetary point of
view, we cannot but see that the actual productions of the soil
probably must, in the very nature of things, fetch a less price,
just in proportion to the progress of universal civilisation
throughout the world at large, and the ever-increasing facilities
for communication and transit. In so far as these benefits lead
to a lack of cultivation of the land in England, they are, we all
hope, to be looked upon as transitory. The re-action must come
soon, and in emphasising the good accruing to the bodily frame
of man from the active and regular habits necessarily character-
istic of agricultural pursuits, we are striving to show what
splendid chances now offer themselves to those possessing the
necessary means and qualifications.

" It is a grievous error made by very many people, that they do
not do enough actual physical work in the open air. Men and
women are becoming too much like hot-house plants, which can-
not bear to be taken out into the fresh air. There are far too
many of us who are utterly ignorant of the beautiful sights which
are never very far distant from us, even when we are ' cribbed,
cabined, and confined ' in some boxed-up corner of a huge city.
The railways well-nigh annihilate space, and places which but a
little time ago were inaccessible, except to the rich, are now open
to almost all. The greatest pleasures in life are to be gained by
active employment of some kind or other among the wondrous
beauties of the rural scenes existing all around us, replete with
the harmonious symphonies of nature.

"There can be no doubt that the close confinement so generally
associated with our modern pursuits in these days is, in point of
fact, to be looked upon as nothing less than a disastrous national
calamity. The spirit of indoorism, and that of another gigantic
evil, exaininationisin, if we mav be allowed to use the two
expressions, are grievous and crying errors, which should be
remedied at almost any cost. It is high time that the re-acdon
should set in against examinations, and the pernicious practices
of overwork and cramming thereby engendered. There are far
too many examinations now-a-days, and they are working an
incalculable amount of harm, a degree of mischief which can

CONCLUSION. 727

never be fully realised, because it is of tbe nature of those evils
which cannot be in any adequate manner estimated.

"There is no greater, and, unfortunately, no more general mis-
take than that ))abit which many, of even the strongest of us —
it is often necessary in the case of the weak and debilitated —
have, namely, that of shutting ourselves up in our warm and
comfortable houses, and scarcely ever stepping foot outside. No
words can adequately express how dreadfully wrong it is for
healthy people thus to immure themselves, as so many do, in what
may almost be spoken of as veritable prisons, however luxurious
may be the mansions so persistently occupied. The great secret
of health, or one of the great secrets of that most desirable and
•enjoyable state — at least for healthy people — is to go out and
see the world itself as it really is, and not as men have made it,
and breathe the pure air of heaven, and listen to the songs of the
birds, it may be, or perhaps to the richly-modulated music of
the sea.

" It is a very mistaken idea, that the Government of a country
should exercise direct control in spheres which ought to lie quite
outside Governmental influence. We refer more especially to
the management of railways and other enterprises of a commercial
character.

"Mr. James Bryce. M.P.,in the Contemporary Review for June,
1884, defines a University as * a body of men engaged in teach-
ing the highest knowledge.' On the primary necessity of its
teaching services, as opposed to its examining and degree-
conferring powers, he justly lays the most marked emphasis.
The highest aim of a University should be by direct teaching to
impart that stimulating impulse which disposes us to apply such
knowledge of facts, principles, and methods as we possess to the
best possible account. All branches of knowledge ought to be
recognised, and all comers ought to be admitted to any of the
courses of instruction carried on. Examinations are to be
regarded rather as necessary evils rather than as indispensable
and all-important adjuncts of the work of a University; and
when examinations become the chief controlling influences, dic-
tating peremptorily exactly what portions of a subject shall be
taught, they are liable to become excessively mischievous and
most misleading. First-rate teaching can go on, and often has
gone on, in the absence of formal examinations. Not only, then,

728 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

should it be our aim to traiu doctors, surgenus, teachers, lawyers,
eugineers, clergymen, statesmen, and men of business; but, above
all, we should never forget the primary importance of producing
the philosophic habit of mind, and the possession of all those
great principles which co-ordinate the various branches of know-
ledge. The indispensable necessity of this will be sufficiently
obvious when we reflect that even a single man, endowed with a
correct and accurate understanding, may affect the entire course
of thought, and at the same time modily the whole current of
events for a generation or more.

"'The ideal University will be that whose own comprehensive-
ness is best reflected in the catholicity of its students' views, its
elevation in their enthusiasm, its freedom in the variety of their
conditions and pursuits.

" 'In these days of wealth, luxury, ease, and pleasure, the truer
happiness offered by the study of Nature and the Muses should
be made accessible to those who cannot ur do not wish to enter
for protracted courses of study. Nor is it the less requisite to
endeavour, by rendering the more abstruse subjects popularly
interesting, to enable the masses to rise from poverty, unen-
lightenment, distress, and misery. The principle applies alike
to the uncultured rich and to the uncivilised poor. For the
ensuring a healthy public opinion, and, consequently, the best
form of government, there is required more education for the
rich and also for the needy. The spirit of philosophv thus
invoked Hud obtained would do much to guard us against the
application of crude and violent legislative remedies against evils
ingrained in human nature and society by the mere force of cir-
cumstances. In so far as Universities foster such a spirit, and
effect the establishment of a liigh standard of culture among us,
all must perceive how great is their value to a nation, and how
earnestly we should desire their progress to a still wider and
more potent influence.'

*' Whatever ideas we may entertain as to the knowledge which
maybe gained in the dim and distant future by mankind ; however,
we may in our own minds answer the question whether the
human beings which will be evolved in coming ages will or will
not be able to cope successfully with the wonderful mysteries
involved by the fact of man's existence in this world; at any rate
there is one point respecting the possibilities open to us which

CONCLUSION. 729

admits of no doubt in the minds of those who, while looking
at the present and towards the future by. the help of the light
of past history, cannot but see clearly that a great advance
has been and is being made in our powers over the external
world.

" Not for a moment need we hesitate to admit that those who
will live after us will know very much more than we now can
even dream of; and just in the same proportion as human know-
ledge extends its boundaries, so also will human power widen its
sphere of action. The age in which we are living has been most
abundantly fertile in discoveries, and as yet even those men who
are most intimately familiar with these discoveries are unable
to appreciate the full value and significance of them, nor can
they realise the great rewards open to future and perhaps still
more patient and persevering workers, for whom these modern
and new inventions will serve as keys and clues.

" Of all the adages current among us there is none more true
than the trite one which assures us that ' Nothing succeeds like
success ' ; there is none which is so true of human progress
in so many different ways. The young and earnest investi-
gator of these days stands upon a vantage ground of immeasur-
able value. He is so incalculably ahead of his predecessors
that he may be said in great measure to start where they left off.
Of course, it is only partially true that any beginner can com-
mence where those who went before him have finished; for in
some measure at least all human beings must submit them-
selves to the same severe training in order to reach any degree of
excellence. Yet the path of progress has been cleared of many
most formidable obstacles, and it has been marked out, so to say,
in advance, so that pioneers need not lose themselves in impene-
trable jungles of sophistry which lead far away from the truth,
fog the intellectual powers, and obscure the shrewdness and
clear perspicacity of even the deepest thinkers and searchers. A
great deal of what may be termed the initial rough work has
been done; the results of this are fairly easily attainable, may,
in fact, be gathered up by stretching out the hands, can be
grasped and utilised with but very small efforts, as compared with
those originally put forth to obtain them by those toilers who
first secured them for the benefit of struggling humanity.

" This more or less direct means of benefit is, however, by no

730 THt; DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

means the only way in which modern workers are helped in their
work. The greater the degree to which social division of lahour
has advanced, the greater is the help which each individual
receives from all. The reverse view is frequently held, for it is
often thought that in these days of keen competition and rivalry
it is harder to do good work than in more easy-going times and
less advanced communities. Only a little reflection, however, is
needed to prove that this view is a very erroneous and narrow
one. The pinch of competition, the stress of threatened poverty
and destitution, is by no means without its good side. There is
no doubt that the actual necessity of continued application will,
other things being equal, evoke the very best and the most
patient and enduring work. True, there are some men and
women who do excellent work without the strain of pressure ; but
these people are exceptions, and perhaps even they would do still
more perfectly, and would put forth still greater efforts, if the
future did not seem to them quite so assured as it does. Indeed,
the threatenings of uncertainty in regard to their future cannot
but act as powerful stimulants to all men, though of course they
affect different people in different ways and to varying extents.

** It is very questionable, indeed, if the doubtful advantages of
wealth and worldly grandeur are in reality much better than the
beauteous mirages of some sandy desert, of delusions which are
as transient and as fleeting as the splendid colouring of a rain-
bow, or the bright iridescence of a dewdrop glistening on the
petals of a lily in the fresh morning air. Many of the so-called
pleasures of the fashionable world are as empty as a soap-bubble
when compared with the happiness of any human being, no
matter how insignificant, who has learned to know truth, is
conscious of no wrong-doing to his fellow-men, but rather of
continued efforts in their behalf and for their good. Such
delight as springs from such attempts as these is indeed price-
less, and far exceeds in value and in sustained strength the cost-
liest treasures of all the cities of the world. The channels into
which human energies can be directed are innumerable, and
any person who selects any given sphere of work may in these
days receive help almost boundless in amount, compared with
what was formerly available.

" The motive power, so to say, of a civilisation as high as
that existing around us is incalculably immense, and in order

CONCLUSION. 731

to reap the powerful impetus of this almost spontaneous im-
pulse only one thing is necessary — the doing of excellent work,
the finding out or the application of some great henefit to the
human race at large. So far from it being true that there is less
chance now than formerly for those who are down to rise up,
the very reverse of this is the case ; for in these days there is
always what may almost be called a ravenous demand for all
that really partakes of the very highest and best. This applies
not to this or to that activity only, but to every manner of work-
manship known among mankind.

'* It is to be remembered that there is very much going on
around him which escapes the notice of the most observant, most
regular, most careful, and most painstaking man, much that, up
to the present, has escaped the searching gaze of all men. It is
this which we in these days have to look for, and see how we are
helped in our scrutiny ; note the multitudinous ways, many of
which every now and again we quite forget or ignore, in which
we may help ourselves and aid our efforts. Do we feel ill, weak,
incapable of work ? Do we need a change ? Look at the
wonderful appliances which our fellow-men eagerly thrust before
us I Splendid hotels ploughing calmly over the boundless and
beautiful ocean, carefully managed hydropathic establishments
in England, Scotland, Germany, and elsewhere, picturesque sea-
side resorts, all these things and numberless others are ready for
us, nay, eagerly await our advent. Innumerable are the appli-
ances of science to keep the breath of healthy life in our bodies.
In short, such and so numerous are the chances of advancement
open to us that we may well conclude that each man is now-a-days
even more markedly than in past times the architect of his own
fortune or misfortune.

" The suitable and right training of the young, of those who
are destined to play parts more or less prominent in the business
of a community, the fostering of a spirit of true culture and
intelligence, the formation of that philosophic habit of mind
invariably resulting from a liberal and sound education and from
a course of wide reading, coupled with tlie habit of accurate
observation — these are not the least among the primary duties
of mankind. In fact, the subject of education is one which
yields to no other in importance. It may be said, indeed, that
to train our children correctly comes second in point of urgency

732 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX,

only to the necessity of providing them with the requisites of
healthy life.

"Whether we hold that the Government of a country should
employ direct means to secure the right bringing up and care of
the minds as well as the bodies of the young, and, if so, what
the nature and extent of that direct method should be, or
whether, on the other hand, we are disposed to believe that the
governing powers should not directly interpose and interfere, all
must agree that one great aim of every nation should be to
foster to the utmost the spirit of culture and research.

" This being so, those who are practically engaged in the work
of education feel that they are right in asking for, and even, we
will add, justified in demanding, the interest and influence of all.

" The great differences of opinion on this subject of training,
and the widely divergent views of those who have had years and
years of practical experience in teaching, constitute sufficient
evidence tliat men have at least been convinced that there are
still presented for solution mnjor and minor problems of the
greatest difficulty. Indeed, it needs but little exemplification
to show thnt much advance must still be made in our methods
of tuition, and especially is there need for light in the choice of
subjects and parts of subjects to be taught, in order that there
may be the least possible expenditure of time and labour and
friction in bringing about a knowledge of the most essential
principles, and the chief facts whicli support such principles, on
the part of the pupils. It has been insisted that it should not
be our object to lessen the difficulties encountered in the process
of learning. Only a little consideration, however, is needed to
show how erroneous this view is. It is doubtless true that facts
whicli have been easily learned place the learner on a vantage
ground, the importance of which he is apt to under-rate. Yet
we must remember that this argument would apply to every one
born at this epoch, inasmuch as we are all " heirs of past ages.'"
It would obviously be impossible for us to realise, even in a dim
degree, the labour that has been done for us by our pro-
genitors. Further, they, too, had advantnges bequeathed to
them in like manner, and, unless they had possessed them, recent
discoveries could not have been made. To those who are
sanguine and optimistic in their views — and it is one of the best
signs of the times that meu are holding up their heads with firm

CONCLUSION. 733

and determined will ut this time of temporary yet most severe
depression, despite the reiterated doctrines of pessimism — it will
ever be manifest that, however great have been the deeds done
in the past, their magnitude and importance are as nothing
when compared with the discoveries which await us. Realising
this, they will never stint any and every aid which they can
supply to those who are about to carry forward the same great
work in wliich tliey are themselves so nobly engaged, and they
will also try to atone for the slight loss which may here and
there perchance result from what may appear to be a too easy
learning of principles and facts whicli they, the teachers, had
necessarily greater difficulty in acquiring, by instilling even
more of that enthusiasm and love of the work and of the truth
than they themselves were always able to keep up. It must be
clear that, when those difficulties whicli are avoidable have been
cleared from the path of the travellers, they will journey onwards
with a lighter heart and a freer step, and a greater power of
removing those obstacles which still stand so firmly, and so
mockingly embarrass man's best and most enduring efforts.^
For the workers of this and the next generation there are manv
thorny thickets to be battled with and cut down with the sharp
and keen axe of the human intellect, aided in every possible
way that striving men can devise. If this applies to the cultured
worker, how much more does it affect our conceptions regarding
tlie teaching of the young !

"That there is very much room for improvement in current
methods and ideas relating to the great subject of education of
all classes and degrees of students, men seem to be universally
agreed. Above all things it is a most serious question if we are
right in these days in giving such decided preference to the
study of language, the organized embodiment of the symbols of
our thoughts, or whether we should not rather, in the first place,
impart instruction respecting those realities which underlie
words, the mere counters and representatives of things and of
thoughts. Surely, on reflection, it would rather be decided that,
inasmuch as words are, at best, but very imperfect modes of
expressing the things symbolised by them, the study of Nature
herself should be our primary and chief object. We ought, so
far as is possible, to have recourse to the study of natural
phenomena and natural objects themselves, to Nature's true

734' THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

coins, unadulterated and undefiled. With this point in view,
we ought to consider it a duty of paramount importance to
reiterate and ensure, so far as our power will extend, that
physical science, the most important and yet most neglected of
all studies, should be efficiently and intelligently and practically
taught in every educational institution, both to female and male
students. We would lay stress on the word taught as opposed
to the principle of examination, since there can be but little
doubt that examinations, when carried to excess, so far from
encouraging original research, probably do more than any other
necessarv evil to retard and deaden and prevent real and living
interest on the part of the students of this generation.

"Mr. Ruskin"^ says 'that the maximum of life can only be
reached by the maximum of virtue ' ; and in order to attain the
maximum of virtue it is clear that education is essential, not
only for the training of the mind into nobler channels, but for
the dissipation of the crude superstitions and empirical doctrines
of bygone ages — doctrines which narrow the range of thought
and stifle true scientific inquiry.

"In saving, then, that there is only a minority of people who
realise the facilities existing around them, we are not referring
so much to the immense benefits conferred upon each and all
who live in this century of advancement. No doubt that fact in
itself is a very great source of help, but we are now desirous of
laying stress on the more primary pleasures of the active life
of bodilv exercise, and on the practically illimitable resources of
nature which, so far from appreciating as we ought, many of us
in these days are becoming more and more forgetful of. The
difficulties in life, despite our very excellent means of transport,
arise larf^ely from our immobility. The average human being
finds himself or herself in a certain place, aud, strange to say,
verv often experiences great aversion to a change of residence.
A crreat deal of misery springs from the fact that the right man
or woman frequently cannot find the right place.

" For instance, in our colonies there is room for all those who
cannot succeed in England ; but two obstacles to setting matters
right are, first, the actual steps necessary to secure the transit
across the seas; and, secondly, getting suitable employment

* Ad valorem.

CONCLUSION. 735

when landed afresh in the new country far away from friends and
help. There is, in fact, an exceptional amount of anxiety
and wretchedness threatening us just now. It is really a dreadful
state of tilings when there are strong men and women, all eager
and ready for work, who cannot find employment, and the worst
of it is seen by considering, if this is so in the country, how
much more pitiful will be the distress existing in the
back streets of our large towns in this coming winter. The
actual necessaries of life are so very cheap in agricultural dis-
tricts that the facts we have alluded to are, from some points of
view, worse; but, on the whole, of course much better than at
first sight they may seem to be.

" All those who help the seething masses of humanity to extri-
cate themselves from the depths of degradation, in which so
many are sinking and daily being swallowed up, are doing a
great and a noble work. All those who are trying to do this are
scattering seed which will bring forth fruit after many days.
This good can only be achieved by appealing to the higher
sentiments and feelings, which, fortunately, are probably never
quite extinguished, even in the most hardened criminals and evil-
doers. We must try to elevate them with the spirit of aspiration,
and with feelings of enthusiasm for higher and better things,
and we must not think that much enduring good can ever be
brought about by our having recourse to the harsh and hard lines
of action too often laid down. In short, pity and mercy and
help will affect far more than severe measures of punishment and
unfeeling and unpitying recrimination.

" And now all that remains for us is to wish everybody, and
especially our readers, each and all — as we most cordially do —
the happiest of happy new years, a new lease of healthy and
joyous life and prosperity, and all the good and pleasant things
that this world and this stage of earthly existence can bring, and
the surety of higher blessings in that unknown sphere which
lies beyond the grave."

We have above reproduced more or less exactly the words we
used on the occasion referred to, and now all that remains for
us to add is that since then Time has rolled on his unceasingly-
revolving wheel, and we have therefore been enabled to forge
just a few more links of the chain of pathology and to incorpo-
rate them in this book. We are very conscious of its short-

736 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

comings ; but still we cannot but think that we have advanced a
little way up the steep and arduous hill of science. So intensely
important is the subject we have dealt with, that even if we have
achieved but a little, it is still something which can never be lost ;
and may God grant that good to the struggling striving human
race may come of even our humble work — good not only to this
man or to that man, or to that afflicted woman or child only, but
to all — to each and all ; for who cannot see that the benefit of
all is productive of advantage to each individual? One thing,
happily, can safely be affirmed, and that is, that agriculture is in
a better way now than formerly — nay, more, who can doubt that
its seeming backward flow was merely apparent, and not real,
merely a temporary phase. The recent agricultural depression
has probably been due chiefly to bad seasons. With better
seasons we shall doubtless have a great revival. Who cannot
see that oftentimes many of the worst evils are ultimatelv pro-
ductive of good ? For those struggling ones who fall in the
meantime during the distressful and dark days — be well assured
He receiveth them into His eternal rest, where they are blessed
for ever, and suffer no more ?

/Oi

APPENDIX

FURTHER REMARKS ON THE COMMUNICATION OF
SCARLET FEVER FROM MILK TO HUMAN BEINGS.

In the Times of April 22ud appears a leading article, of which
we here append an abstract : —

The report of the Medical Ofifieer of the Local Government Board for the year
1887 contains the results of further investigations concerning the nature of the
disease in cows to which outbreaks of human scarlet fever have been attributed.
Until two or three years ago. it was thought that the power of milk to spread
the disease was due to its having been contaminated from human sources,
especially by the agency of persons who were themselves suffering or convale-
scent from scarlet fever, and who. nevertheless, were engaged in the work of
distribution.

However, in the case of a milk epidemic which occurred at Hendon, in 1885
to 1886, and in which the hypothesis that the carriers might be sources of infec-
tion could be definitely set aside, the cows which yielded the incriminated milk
were found to be the subjects of an eruptive disease of a contagious character.
The introduction of this disease could be clearly traced to certain now arrivals,
and the milk of the diseased animals was that which had been consumed by the
human victims of the epidemic.

Accordingly, it was ordered that the milk yielded by these animals should be
thrown away ; but it appears that the men employed in the dairy thought this
proceeding wasteful, disobeyed their orders, and gave the milk to some poor
families. The result was that the children of these families were affected with
scarlet fever in an aggravated form.

This kind of evidence having been thoroughly sifted by Mr. Power, the
further investigation of the subject was committed to Dr. Klein, who obtained
certain micrococci from the milk and tissues of the diseased animals, and culti-
vated them on suitable media, and conducted inoculation experiments upon
animals with the cultures and sub-cultures thus obtained.

In August 1887, the Medical Officer of the Local Government Board was able
to sum up the results of the investigation, by saying that the disease, whether
in man or cow, was characterised by closely similar anatomical features ; that
from the diseased tissues and organs, of man and cow alike, the same micrococcus
could be separated, and artificial sub-cultures be made. from it ; and that these
sub-cultures, no matter whether from man or cow, possessed the property, when
inoculated into calves, of producing in them every manifestation of the Hendon
disease, except sore teats and udders ; this exception being probably due to the
fact that the milk-apparatus in calves is still undeveloped. The practical

47

738 THE DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE OX.

lessons to be learned from these conclusions are that the eruptive diseases of
cows should be studied -with the greatest care, and that all milk should always
be boiled before being consumed by human beings.

In the report just issued, Dr. Klein shows that the sub-cultures from human
scarlatina, inoculated into cows which have recently calved, can produce in
those cows, along with other manifestations of the Hendon disease, the
characteristic ulcers on the teats — ulcers seemingly identical with those
observed at the Hendon farm. Moreover, the sub-cultures, established either
from the human or the cow disease, have the same property of producing in
various rodents a disease similar in its pathological manifestations to the Hendon
disease of cows and to scarlatina in human beings. Calves fed on sub-cultures
established from human scarlatina obtain the Hendon disease ; and children fed
on milk from cows suffering from the Hendon disease became affected with
scarlatina. It is, therefore, clear that the Hendon disease is a form, occui'ring
in the cow, of that which we call scarlatina when it occurs in human beings.

In the course of the inquiry, some difficulty was occasioned by the appearance,
at a farm in Wiltshire, of an eruptive malady in cows which was at first supposed
to be identical with that which had been observed at Hendon, but with which
no scarlet fever was associated ; and also by an outbreak of sore-throat at
Edinburgh, among the consumers of the milk furnished by a particular dairy.
The cows in this dairy had an eruptive disease of the teats and udders ; but the
sore-throat which followed the use of their milk could not be recognised as
either scarlatinal or diphtheritic ; and, on one of the cows being sent to Dr.
Klein, the disease, although inoculable into calves, and presenting affinities with
the Hendon disease, was yet found to be clearly distinguishable from the latter
bv certain differences with regard to the progress of each, by the condition of
certain organs after death, and by the inoculability of one or the other into
rodents : differences, in short, which led Dr. Klein to the conclusion that this
Edinbui-gh cow-disease is not the same as cow-scarlatina. With regard to the
Wiltshire outbreak, the same observer finds that this also, although attended by
a somewhat similar eruption, differs from the Hendon disease in almost every
other character, and appears to bear no kind of relation to scarlatina.

The identification of many dift'erent maladies accompanied with eruptions in
cows may be most hopefully attempted by a study of the fonns of bacterial
life which are associated with each different disease.

These bacteria are of the kind called " streptococci," so-named on account
of their tendency to unite together in chains ; and Dr. Buchanan points out that
there is as little difference, to the less educated judgment, between one and
another chain-fonning micrococcus as, to the eye of the ordinary dweller in
towns, exists between the swift, the swallow, and the martin. Dr. Klein formu-
lates seven sets of characters, serving to distinguish between one and another
organism of the group. Hence the application of seven tests is required before
an assertion of the identity of any two streptococci can, even provisionally, be
made. In a special report on the various streptococci. Dr. Klein refers to nine
varieties, which do not include all the members of the class which he believes to
possess distinguishing characteristics of their own : and he .shows that some at
least of these differ widely, not only in the characters which he points out, but
also in the effects which they produce when introduced into the animal body by
inoculation or by swallowing. The minute care which has been bestowed upon
these researches is .almost beyond praise, and should convey an instructive
lesson with regard to the extreme difficulty of conducting them.

7Hn

INDEX.

AbD'IMEN, dropsy of the. .j;17 ; rupture ,

of the, 539. 540.
Abdominal dropsy in the fcetus. 651.
Abdominal lymphatic glands, tubercle

of, 2U. 1

Aberdeenshire cattle, 100. ]

Abnormal functional manifestations of ■

evolution, 149-65.
Abnormal presentations, 653-660.
Abnormal structural manifestations of

evolution, 141-49.
Abomasitis, 508-501.
Abomasum, 65-7 : bezoars or calculi
in the. 498-500 ; description of the.
65-7 ; function of the, 65-7 ; illustra-
tions showing the, Fig. 7, p. 61, and
Fig. 9, p. 64 ; impaction of the, 514 ;
inflammation of the, 503-4 ; internal
structure of the. 65-6 : rupture of
the, 503-4.
Abortion often results from under-
feeding, 378 ; precautions to pre-
vent the recurrence of, 668 : the
symptoms of, 668 ; the usual causes
of, 666-68, the treatment of, 668.
Acarus scabiei, 593.
Acerotherium, 16.
Achlya, 274.
Aconite poisoning, 392.
Actinomyces, or ray-fungus, 633.
Actinomycosis, history of, morbid
anatomy of 268-79 ; pictures repre-
senting, 272, 275 : .symptoms and
progress of, 275-277 : treatment of,
277-279, 685.
Acute drop.sy, or red water, in sheep,

529-33.
Acute inflammation of the kidneys in

lambs, 571-75.
Acute inflammation of the lungs, 423-
24.

Acute pulmonary congestion. 413.
Acute tympanites, pimcturing the

rumen in cases of, 485-87.
Acute tympanites, treatment of, 485.
Adolphi, Dr. , 288.
Advance in civilisation and knowledge

has been made, 728-29.
Advance of science, 592-93.
Adynamia nervosa generalis, 562 ;

treatment of. 563, 686.
.^sculapius, 284.

After-pains, 653 ; treatment of, 686.
Agalactia or non-secretion of milk.

treatment of, 686.
Age of advance and discovery, this is

an, 729.
Agricultural depression, 671.
Albatross, 148.
Albertus magnus, 287.
Albumen in the urine, in the case of
patients afflicted with scarlet fever,
337.
Albuminuria, 569, 570 ; treatment of,

686 ; in scarlet fever, 339.
Alderney cattle, 114, 115 ; tuber-
culosis affecting, 217.
Aldershot, 324.
Alimentary system, diseases of the,

480-529.
AUantois, 13.
Alopecia, 591, 724.
Amaurosis, treatment of. 686.
Amnion, or water-bag, 645.
Amphistoma coniciim, 467, 498.
Anatomy of the ox. 31-81.
Anamia, 372-78 ; treatment of, 378,

686, 687.
Ana'sthetics, 687.
Ancient medicTnes, superstitions, an<i

charlatanry, 387-91.
Angleberrios. (530.
Anglesey 'attic, 94, 95.
Angus cattle, 100 ; polled cattle, 104.

47 *

740

INDEX.

Anoplotherium, 16.

Antelopes, 16, 17.

Anthrax, 7. 134, 234-53, 687; attacks
the most thriving animals, 239 ;
definition of, 238 ; in the ox. 240 :
in the sheep, 242 ; is met with in
marshy places. 235 ; pictures repre-
seminff, 241, 245. 246, 247. 250;
treatment of, 687.

Antipyretics, 688.

Antiseptic measures, great value of,
in capes of wounds, 629.

Antiseptics. 687, 688.

Antispasmodics, 689.

Aperients, 689.

Aphtha, 586.

Aphtha epizootica, 188-197 : treat-
ment of. 690.

Aphtha, or thrush, 481, 689.

Apis, the god, represented by a bull.
24.

Apoplexy. 557, 558 : symptoms of,
558 ; treatment of, 558.

Apoplexy, parturient, treatment of,
690. 691 : splenic, treatment of (see
Anthrax, treatment of), 687.

Appendix, further remarks on scarlet
fever, abstracted from the Times of
April 22, 1889,737, 738.

Arab dailv life in the Indian deserts.
122.

Archangelski, 265.

Aristotle. 285.

Armatage, Mr. George, 602.

Arsenic-poisoning, 391, 398, 399;
treatment of, 399, 691.

Arteries, 75-78.

Arthritis. 600, 601; scrofulous,
treatment of, 691.

Arthropod, 142.

Artiodactyla and perissodactyla, 15.

Artiodactyla compared with perisso-
dactyla, 16.

Artiodactyla include four sections, 15.

Ascites, or dropsy of the abdomen.
537, 538 ; treatment of, 538.

Asclepiada', 284.

Associated functions and correlated
structures, 149.

Associates of rest. 153.

Astragalus, 37.

Astringents. 691.

Atlas, 32.

Australian plants, 155.

Axis. 33.

Avrshire cattle. 98-100.

B.

Bacon, 1. 210.

Bacteria, immense importance of

exact knowledge of, 8.
Bad water is verv injurious. 679.

Baker, Sir S.. his work on Abyssinia,

122.
Bakewell. 107-9.
Bang, 231,

Banks, the late Dr., 405.
Barbed fencing. 617.
Beach, Mr., 326.
Beale, Dr. Lionel S.. on cattle plague,

3 ; on pus-cells, 142.
Beast suffering from hoven, 484.
Belladonna and jaborandi compared,

146.
Belvoir, 289.

Bevan, Captain Gus, 737.
Bezoars, or calculi, 498 -500.
Bilharzia bovis, 467.
Bisons, 18.

Bites and stings, treatment of, 691.
Black hellebore, poisoning by, 394.
Black leg, or black quarter. 253-58.
Black leg, post-mortem appearances

of. 257 ; symptoms of, 255, 256 ;

treatment of, 258, 692.
Bladder, inversion of the, 670; treat-
ment of inflammation of the, 692.
Blain, see Glossanthrax.
Bland Sutton. 232.
Bleeding or hsemorrhage. treatment of,

692.
Bleeding, post-partum, treatment of,

693.
Blisters, 693.
Blood-corpuscles, 74.
Blood, discharge of, from womb, 653.
Blood-poisoning, 674-77.
Bloody flux, or dysentery, treatment

of. 693.
Blown, see Tympanites. 482-487, 721.
Bollinger, 231 ; on actinomycosis, 268.
Bone, composition of, 31.
Bony growths into the cavity of th«

skull, 625.
Bouley, the late M. H., 291.
Bourgelat, 684.
Bovid.ip, 17.
"Bovine Formulary. The," 683-722 ;

prefatory remarks to, 683-685.
Bovine pathology is more important in

regard to its relationship with human

pathology than is equine pathology, 3.
Bovine scarlet fever, 134.
Bowels, treatment of inllammation of

the, 694.
Brain, treatment of inllammation of

the. 694.
Braughing, 324.
Braxy. 23(;.
Braxy mutton, 251.
Braxy, old mode of treating, 252. 253.
Breeding and feeding of cattle is be-
coming more gcnerjil, 12.
Breeding of sheep. 125. 126.
Breeds of o.\cn, 82-118.
Brent Pelham, 325.

INDEX.

741

Brett, Mr. John, M.R.C.V.S., 575.

British Medical Jounuil, in reference
to diphtheria. '624, 325.

British pharmacopccia, \isefulness of
the, and of the veterinary pharma-
copoeia of Messrs. Gresswell, 685.

Bronchitis, 412, 413 ; acute, treat-
ment of. 094 ; chronic, treatment of,
694.

Bronchitis and verminous bronchitis
in sheep, 422-23.

Bronchitis, parasitic, 413.

Bronchitis, verminous, or husk or
hoose, treatment of, 694, 695.

Broncho-pneumonia, treatment of,
695, 696.

Brown, Professor, C.B., F.R.C.V.S.,
&c., 136.

Bryce, Mr. James, M.P. , remarks on
" An Ideal University," by, 727, 72.S.

Buchanan, Dr., 7.

Buenos Ayres is very suitable for
persons afflicted with tuberculosis,
226.

Buifalo, 26.

Buffalo-dance, 162.

Buffalo inhabits Palestine, 25.

Buffalo of His Grace the Duke of
Northumberland, 116, 117.

Buffaloes, 18.

Bunt, 269.

Burchell's travels into the interior of
Africa, 27.

Burns, treatment of, 696.

Bursal enlargements, treatment of,
696.

c.

C.«;8AR mentions oxen, 29.

Cachexia : osteo-malacia, treatment of,

696.
Calcaneum, 37.
Calculi, 577-579.

Calf in utero afflicted with dropsy, 651.
Calf-worship learnt in Egypt, 24.
Camels, llama, and elephant are not

domesticated in Europe, 14.
Camels, tragulida^, and moschidae are

not provided with horns, 16.
Cameron, Dr., 136; on scarlet fever,

345.
Cancerous tumours, 631.
Canton, 389.
Cape, The, and also South America,

are suitable for patients suffering

from tuberculosis, 226.
Carbonised python as a medicine, 391.
Carbimcle, 590; treatment of, 696.
Carditis, 405.
Care of, and attention to, the wants of

th^ sheep, 425.
Carmichael, Dr., 351.

Caroline, Prmcess of Wales, 303.

Carpenter, Dr., 648.

Carpus, 38.

Carr, Captain, 312.

Cash, Dr., has found that a restrain-
ing influence is exerted by ozone on
human and bovine tubercle-bacilli,
209 ; his results in regard to ozone
and oxygen, 225.

Catarrh,' 409, 410; causes of, 409;
treatment of, 696 ; malignant. 696 ;
illustrations representing two modes
of steaming the nostrils in a case of,
409, 410 ; in sheep, 421 : symptoms
of, 410.

Cathartics, 697.

Oatlin, Mr., 161.

Cattle associate to form large herds in
the plains of South America, 20.

Cattle of Anglesey, 94-5 ; of Britain
are, as a whole, of greater value than
are the horses of Britain, as a whole,
12 ; of England, short history of the,
82-3 ; of North Wales, 94.

Cattle-plague, as it affects the sheep
and the goat, 266-7 ; 259-266 ; be-
nignant, 263-4; Gerlach on, 260;
in the sheep and goat, symptoms of,
266-7 ; 697 ; may be benignant or
malignant, 263 ; malignant, 264-66 ;
symptoms of, 264-265.

Cattle rapidly become fat, 51.

Cavicornia, 16.

Ceely and Badcock, 308.

CelLs, 140.

Celsus, 285.

Celtic nations, tradition of, that the
cow was one of the earliest produc-
tions, 24.

Cephenomj'ia bovis, 478.

Centenary of The 'Times, 5.

Cerebro-spinal meningitis, 563.

Cervical vertebraj, 32-3.

Cestoda, 467-476.

Chamois, 16.

Chances of success in the world are as
great in these days as in former
times, 731.

Change, importance of, 731 ; in the
food, necessity of, 677.

Charbon, 234-59. 697.

Chauveau, 230-31.

Cheadle, Dr., 368.

Cheeks of ruminants, 54.

Chevron bones are not present in
ruminants, 35.

Chewing the^ud, 53.

Chine-felon, or lumbago, treatment
of ; see Felon, chine, 705.

Chinese repository, the, 389.

Chlorine, 194.

Chlorophyll not present in fungi, 273

Choking, or obstruction of the gullet,
488-92.

742

INDEX.

Chorion, the, 645.

Chorioptes spatliiferus, 478.

Chronic erythema. 585.

Chronic indigestion, picture of ox
Suffering from, 507.

Chronic tympanites, 487-8 ; treat-
ment of, 487-8.

Circulatory system, the, 74-9.

Civilisation, the motive power of our,
is immense, 730.

Cleanliness is most necessary for shep-
herds, 077.

Cleansing, 646.

Cleansing medicine, 698.

Coates. Mr. George. HI.

Coats, 233.

Cobhold's work, value of, 5.

Cochrane's 7Vare/.v in Columbia. 28.

Ccenurus cerebralis, 470. 471. 472,
559.

Cohn found that the Ij-mph of vac-
cinia and that of variola contains
numerous micrococci, 304.

Colchicum autumnale, or meadow
safi'ron, 391 ; poisoning by. and the
treatment of poisoning by it, 391-2,
698.

Colic, flatulent, 512 ; treatment of, 698

Colic in sheep. 512 : simple, treat-
ment of, 698.

Collapse, treatment of, 698.

College of Physicians of London, 389.

Colostmm. 649.

Columella, 286,

Comparative pathology, 630-33,

Conclusion, 723-36.

Condition-powder, 698.

Congestion of the kidneys, 570.

Congestion of the liver, treatment of.
699.

Conjunctivitis, 608-11 ; treatment of,
699.

Connections between diseases of animals
and those of human beings, 301.

Constipation, 513-14; treatment of,
see Cathartics.

Contagious diseases of animals occur-
ring in England at the close of the
year 1887, 5-9.

Cooling lotions. 628, 699.

Cornea, ti'eatmont of inlhimniatioii of
the, 699 ; treatment of ojjacitj- of
the, 699.

Cornwall, cattle of, 89.

Coryza, in cases of scarlet fever, 336.

Cotyledons, (i45.

Cough, treatn]cnt of, 699.

Counter-irritants, 700-1.

Cow, tlie, as a source of ])rofil, 20.

Cow-pox, 303-7 ; duration of, 308 :
may bo small-pox communicated to
the cow, 309.

Craven cattle, 107: horns of tlie, 107.

Craven or Lancashire beasts, 105.

Crema, 287.

Cripple, 625.

Crookshank, 137.

Cruveilhier, 144.

Cuboid, the, 37.

Cumberland disease, 238.

Gumming, Miss C. F. Gordon, 388.

Cuneiform, the, 37.

Curoyakee. 388.

Cyanosis, or blue disease, is due to an

imperfect closure of the foramen

ovale, 404.
Cysticercus bovis and cysticercus ovis,

470-1 ; cellulosse, 471 : fistularis,

471 ; tenuicollis, 470-1, 498.
Cystitis, or inflammation of the bladder,

579-81.

D.

Dallingek, Rev. Dr., 638.
Damman's description of diphtheria,

327, 328.
Darwin, Charles, 130, 155, 633.
Deadly nature of some diseases, 7.
Death, 129.

Decaying vegetable matter, 672, 677.
Degradation into which some human

beings are sunk, and the importance

of helping them, 735.
Delirium, 553, 554.
Denbighshire cattle, 95.
Denham's travels into Central Africa,

27.
Dense aggregations of human beings,

133.
Depraved appetite, 507. 508.
Depression, agiicultural, in great part

due to bad seasons ; but good times

are doubtless coming, 736.
Derby, 137.

Derbyshire neck, or goitre, 387.
Dermatodectes bovis, 593 ; ovis, 438.
Desquamation, 335,
Diabetes, 382, 383; treatment of. 383 ;

insipidus, oQS. 569 ; treatment of,

:?oi.

Diaphoretics, 701.

Diarrhoea, 152, 514-22 ; causes of, 516-
18 ; symptoms of, 515, 516 : treat
ment of, 518-20. 701-2.

Digestive organs are complex in rumi-
nants and other herbivorous animals,
49, 50.

Diodon, 148.

Diphtheria, 322-28 ; in the ox, 326-
2S ; symptoms of, 326, 327.

Diploblastica, 145.

l)isa]i))oarance of the Longhorns, 109,

no.

Disinfectants. 702.

Disorders due to dietetic errors, 378-

87.

INDEX,

743

Distoma lanceolatum, 466.

Division of labour, social, 729.

Dogs, danger of allowing them to eat

from platters used by hiunan beings,

5.
Dogs, 679.

Dorsal vertelir;e, 83, 34.
Downfall of the udder, treatment of

(*-pe Garget), 706.
Downton College of Agriculture, 071.
Dr. Albert Gresswell, I 29, 344.
Dr. D. Astley Gresswell, 145, 151, 152,

154, 159, i60, 165.
Dr. Klein, 323, 330, 345, &c.
Dr. Klein's examination of acute cases

of scarlet fever at Fulham Fever

Hospital. 352-55.
Dr. Southey, 151.
Drainage, faultj^, 673.
Draining the land, importance of, 20;'. ;

necessity of, whereon anthrax breaks

out, 251.
Dropping the cud, picture of ox, 505.
Dropsy of the uterus, 671.
Dropsy or ascites, ti'eatment of, 703.
Du Bois-Reymond, 599.
Dumfries cattle, polled, 104.
Dunchurch near Rugby, 571.
Dysentery, 522-26 ; treatment of, 525,

526, 703 ; chronic, 523, 524 ; in sheep,

524 ; picture of ox suffering from,

524 ; picture of ox suft'ering from late

stage of acute attack of, 523.
Dysuria, treatment of, 703.

E.

Ear and Eve, anatomy of, 80, 81.

East Indian cattle, 115.

Ecbolics, 703.

Echinococcus veterinorum, 470, 471.

Ecraseur, 591, 633.

Eczema, 587, 588.

Eczema contagiosa or epizoiitica, .we
Aphtha Epizoritica, 188-197.

Ecthyma, 589, 590.

Education, 731-34.

Egypt, 117.

Egyptians, 24.

Embolism, 406.

Embryology. 74.

Emphysema,59l,592; treatment of, 703.

Enchoudromata, 143.

Endocarditis, 401) ; of chronic Bright's
disease, KiO.

Enke's descrijjtion of tongue of
slaughtered cow which had acti-
nomycosis for six months. 276.

Enteritis, 527; post-mortem appear-
ances of, 529 ; symptoms of. 527 :
treatment of, 528.

Epilepsy, megrims, or staggers. 555-
57.

Epileptic fits, 55(>-57.

Epiataxis, or bleeding from the no.s-
trils. 410, 411; treatment of, 703.

Epulis, 633.

Ecjuus and asinus, 15.

Erect posture. 147, 148.

Ergot, 395-98 ; in reference to sheep,
678 ; therapeutic influence of, 397.

Ergotised grasses, 672, 678-79.

Errors in diet, 534.

Eruption in sheep affected with variola
ovina, 315-17.

Erysipelas. 586. 587 ; treatment of,
704.

Erythema, 584-86 ; chronica, ti'eatment
of, 704 ; mamillarum, 345 ; treat-
ment of, 704.

Ethmoid bone, 42.

Etioloj^y of scarlet fever, recent re-
search in regard to, 344-57.

Eustachian tube, 146.

Evolution, 129, 132.

Examinations, 726, 727, 734.

Excessive feeding must be guarded
against, 127.

Exophthalmic goitre, 151.

Exostosis, 624, 625.

Exposure, 680.

Eye, treatment of, 603-615; contractor
of pupil of, 704 ; dilator of pupil
of, 704.

Eye and ear, 603, (!14-i)16.

Eveball, the, 607.

F.

Facilities, many people do not ap-
preciate their, 734.

Falling of the womb, treatment of,
704.

Fallopian tube and ovary, 647.

Farewell wish, 735.

Farnham, 325.

Fasciola gigantea, 457 ; hepatica, 457,
548.

Fattening of cattle for the meat-
market. 11, 12.

Fatty tumours, 631.

Fear, 165.

Febris rubra, 331.

Felon, chine-, or lumbago, treatment
of, 705.

Felon, mea'ffing of the term, 367.

Female organs, 73, 74.

Femur, the, 36, 37.

Fever, parturient, .sec Parturient sej)-
ticiomia, 674-676.

Fil iria lachrymalis, 478 ; papillosa ,
or eye-worm. 478.

Fission, 142.

744

INDEX.

Fitness of flesh for human food. 4, 5.
Fitz-svilliam. the Hon. G., 289.
Flatulent colic, 512, 513.

Fleming. Dr.. dedication-page: 665.
289.

Flintshire cattle, 95.

Flocks, season of increase in the, 671-
682.

Flowery Land, the, 289.

Fluke-disease in sheep, 455-66.

Flukes, pictures representing. 456.

Foetal membranes, cows will devour
the, 653.

Food for oxen, 376, 377.

Food-supply, change in the, is of im-
portance, 677.

Foot-and-mouth disease, 188-99 ;
treatment of (see Aphtha Epizoo-
tica) 194-97; spurious, 197-99.

Foot-rot in sheep, 199-206; conta-
gious, 200-6 ; treatment of. 204-6 ;
simple, 199, 200.

Fore-arm, the, 37, 38.

Foreign bodies in the rumen, reticu-
lum, and abomasum, 498-500.

Foreign breeds of cattle, 114-18.

Formulary, the bovine, 683-722.

Foul in the foot, 601 ; causes of, 601 :
treatment of, 602, 705.

Founder, treatment of, 705.

Fowl, digestive apparatus of, 379

Fractures, 624, 626-28.

Fragility of bones, or fragihtas ossium.
386-87, 625 ; treatment of. 387.

Frame and build of the ox, 19.

Fright, 165. 678. 679.

Frontal bone, 39-41.

Frontal sinuses, inflammation of the. 41.

Frosts, 679.

Frozen mutton, 12.

Furunculus, or boil. 590.

G.

Gad-fly of the ox, 436.

Gait of the ox, 19.

Gall-bladder of the ox, 545.

Galloway cattle, 98, 101-4.

Gamgee, John, 260-1 : on cattle plague,

Gangrenous .stomatitis, treatment of,

705.
Garget, 664-65, 681, 682 ; treatment

of, CGo, 706 ; in ewes, 681, 682.
Gastro-enteritis of calves, 506.
Gee, Dr., 330; on scarlet fever, 337.
Gemmation. 142.
General diseases, l(;8-400.
Generative system, the. 72-4.
Genesis, Book of, 21.
Gerlach, liis experiments in regard to

tuberculosis. 231 ; on cattle-plague,

260.

Gei-ms, 133-4.
Germ theory. 140.

Gestation, period of, iu the cow is about
270 days, 20.

Giant-cells containing tubercle-bacilli,
221.

Girafl'e has a long tapering neck, 56.

Gizzard of a bird. 380.

Glasgow, causation of an outbreak of
scarlet fever at, 351.

Glass-eye, 613.

Glaucoma, 611.

Glossanthrax, treatment of, 706.

Glossina morsistans, 478.

Glossitis, treatment of, 707.

Goad, 22.

Gobaus, Professor, 38.

Goitre, 385, 387.

Golden calf, worship of the, by the
Israelites, 24.

Gonorrhoea, treatment of, 707.

Goodacre. Mr., 572.

Goodhai-t, Dr. ,' 231.

Governmental influence, 727. 731.

Goyder, Dr., 281.

Gowers, Dr., 559.

Gowing, Mr., 531.

Grain-growing not at the present time
a very profitable occupation, as com-
pared with the fattening of cattle,
11.

Graucher, Dr., 298.

Grave, blessings in the unknown sphere
beyond the, 735.

Greece. 123.

Gresswell, Dr.. 283: Dr. Albert, 129;
Dr. D. -\stley, 141, 151. 152. 511 ;
Mr. J. B., 197, 217, 241, 277, 631,
633. (i85 : attended a herd of forty
oxen affected with anthrax, 241 ; on
anaemia occiu-ring in cows before
parturition, 374 : his report on cases
of poisoning of oxen, 394, 395.

Gresswell, the late Mr. D., 197, 405,
623 ; observations in regard to
anthrax by, 241-2.

Grief of oxen for a dead comrade, 28.

Guinea-pigs inoculated with tubercu-
losis, 229.

Gutta serena. 612-14.

Guyot, 264.

H.

H.K.MAT<)i'iMr8 eury.sternus, 478.
Hii'matopinus vituli, 47S.
ILi'maturia. or blood in the urine, 576,

57<) : svmjjtoms, 576 ; treatment of,

707.
Ha>mogIobinuria in cattle. 570.
ILi'moptysis. 413.

INDEX.

745

HaDinorrliagc (»'ec Bleeding').

HiBinorrhoids, or piles, 538, 539.

Hair, 81.

Hair-balls, 498, 508.

Hair-bearing cysts in the brain and
ovaries, 147. A/so see Dr. Bristowe's
" Theory and Practice of Medicine,"
p. 17, 18.

Hamburg, 313.

Hamersley, Colonel, 237.

Hampshire Downs, (571.

Hampstead, 137.

Happiness of those who have learned
truth, 730.

Happy New Year, the authors wish
everybody and especially their rea-
ders. 735.

Hare, Mr.. 233.

Harrison Cripps, Mr., 144.

Harvey's dissertation to Riolan, quoted
by Lewes, 550.

Havoc produced bv a rabid dog, 300,
301.

Head of the ox compared with that of
the horse, 39.

Healing art, the, 224.

Health, importance of maintaining, 731.

Heart, foreign bodies in the, 405 ;
hypertrophy of the, 406 ; inflamma-
tion of the, 405; rujjture of the,
404 ; sometimes found outside the
body in calves and lambs, 405.

Heath, A. Raymond, Esq., M.P., Mem-
ber for the Parliamentary Division
of Louth, Lincolnshire.

Heath, Mr., 406.

Heavenly bodies. 131.

Heaving pains, 681.

Heel, treatment of ulceration of the,
708.

Hemiplegia and paraplegia, treatment
of, 708

Hendon, 137 ; cow-disease, 344-357.

Hepatitis, or inflammation of the liver,
545 ; treatment of the, 708.

Herefordshire cattle, 89-92.

Herodotus, 738.

Herpes circinatus, 588.

Heyden, 288.

Hide-bound, 583 ; treatment of, 709.

Hind-limb, the, 36, 37.

History of science, brief glance at, 1(!5.

Holz-zunge, 268 ; hoof, 81.

Hopkin, Mr, Tedbar, F.R.C.V.S., 233,
234.

Horn-cores, 39.

Horns, 81 ; of sheep, 124 ; possessed
by wild sheep, but not usually by
domesticated sheep, 17; material of,
17.

Horse-pox can give rise to cow-pox, 307.

Hottentots make their oxen faithful
servants and companions, and em-
ploy them in fighting, 117-8.

House-mice are more susceptible to the

action of the micrococcus scarlatinio

than tame mice are, 356.
Hoven, 51, 52 ; general account and

ti-eatment of (sm Tympanites), 482-

8.
Hubermaas, Dr. O., 231.
Hue-au-Gal, 288.
Humanitarians should help scientists,

for the ultimate object aimed at by

both classes is identically one and

the same, 7.
Humerus, 37.
Hurtrel d'Arboval, 312.
Huxley, Professor, 273.
Hydrocele, treatment of, 709.
Hydrocephalus, or water on the brain,

558, 559.
Hydrothoras, sea Pleurisy(Iater stage),

419.
Hyoid bone, 45.
Hypoderma bovis, 478

I.

Illustrations of natural histoi-y, 28.

Impaction of food in the omasum, 51.

Impaction of the bowels, treatment of.
709.

Impaction of the rumen, treatment
of, 709.

Imperforate anus, 538.

Impetigo labialis, 588.

Importance of exercise, 566-7.

Impregnation, 646, 647.

Incontinence of urine, 568 ; treatment
of, 709.

Incubation of scarlet fever, 332 ; of
small pox, 305.

India, as a corn-growing country, 11.

Indian cattle, 117.

Indian legends state that the ox was
the first animal created, 24.

Indian ox, or zebu, 84.

Indigestion, 504, 509 ; chronic, 506,
508 ; treatment of, 505, 710.

Inertia of the uterus (delayed partu-
rition), treatment of, 710.

Infectious diseases, nature of, 6 ; pre-
vention of, 6.

Infl^ammation of the abomasum or
true stomach, 503; of the bones,
623 ; of "tile bladder, bowels, bronchi,
brain, conjunctiva, cornea, kidneys,
liver, lungs, and udder, treatment
of, 710-11; of the brain, 554-5;
symptoms of, 554-5 ; treatment of,
555 ; of the frontal sinuses, 41 ;
of the kidneys, causes of acute;
574 ; of the periosteum, 624.

746

INDEX.

Injection syringe. 250.

Injuries and obstructions in the teats,

606.
Inoculation practised bv the Chinese.

302.
Inoculations cf animals with the saliva

of a rabid dog may cause death in

three ditferent way.s, 294.
Internal anatomy of the ox, 49-81.
Interrupted suture, 619.
Intestinal canal, anatomy of the, 67-68.
Intra-tracheal syringe, 695.
Introduction of short-horns into Ire-
land. 106.
Introduction to the book, 1-10.
Intussusception or invagination, 539.
Inversion of the bladder, 670 : of the

uterus, 670-1 ; of the vagina. 670.
Irish cattle, 104-6; and the longhorns,

104-10 : two distinct breeds of, 104.
Irish cows valued for dairv. 106.
Iritis, 611.
Irritation. 163-4.

Jacob, 122.

Jacobson's canal, 54.

Jaundice, causes of, 546 ; in dogs.
546 ; or " the yellows," 545 : symp-
toms of. 546-7 ; treatment of, 547,
711.

Jealousy of cows, 21).

Jenner's discovery, 302, 303, 305, 310.

Jenner was led to his discovery by
noting that milkers of vaccinous
cows generally escaped small-pox,
308.

Jeroboam, who made " Israel to sin," 25.

Jews, wisdom of some of the customs
of the, 5.

Johne, 231 ; on actinomycosis. 271.

John Walker, 434.

Joseph ]Meister. 297

Joubert, 312.

K.

Kafirs and white inhabitants of South
Africa employ oxen as beasts of
burden, 117.

Kafir tribes of South Africa live to
a largo extent on curdled milk,
called '' amasi," 124.

Kerrj' cow, the, 104-5.

Kidneys, intlammation of the. treat-
ment of, 712.

Klebs, 231.

Klein, Dr., 7, 134, 137. 139, 140. 193,
207, 208, 209, 210, 215. 229, 232.
233, 234, 245, 246, 249, 250, 304.

323, 345, 348, 350. 351, 352. 354,
355, 356. 585, 737, 738.

Klein, Dr. , and Mr. Lingard examined
the red marrow at the end of the
tibia and femur of several guinea
pigs which had been inoculated with
human and bovine tuberculosis, 229.

Klein's work in regard to corrosive
sublimate, 249.

Koch. 211, 231, 232, 234, 245, 251.

Kremanslvv, 142.

Kiihne, Professor, 597.

Kvloe. or West Highland breed. 98,
'll6.

Labia pudexui, 647.

Labour. 649 ; approach of, 649.

Laburnum-poisoning, treatment of, 712.

Lachrymal bone, 44.

Lady arrayed for conquest seated on
an ox, 28.

Lady JIary Wortley Montague first in-
troduced inoculation into England,.
302, 310.

"Lambing-oils," 676.

Laminitis, 602.

Lancet, the, 230, 290, 570.

Laryngitis, 411-12 : treatment of 712 ;
and tracheitis in sheep, 421 ; illustra-
tion of beast suffering from, 411;
symptoms of, 411 : treatment of 411-
12.

Larynx, the, 70.

Last race, the, 163.

Laws, Mr., in regard to the destruc-
tive influence of a temperature of
45° C. on the bacilli of anthrax, 227.

Lead-poisoning, 399; in oxen, treat-
ment of, 400.

Leben. 124.

Leicester sheep. 126.

Lenglen, M.. 327.

Leucorrhcva, treatment of, 713.

Lice, applications to destroy, 713.

Ligaments, 45, 46; and muscles, 45-9.

Limna'us truncatulus, 455, 4(i5 ; pere-
ger, 464.

Lincolnshire, shorthorns bred in. Ill,
112.

Lingard. Mr., 209, 210. 216, 229.

Lips of the ox, 53.

Liquor amnii, (545.

Liver, absorption of the substance of
the, as aresultof the presence of para-
sites, 548; congestion of the. 548 ;
llukes in the, 548 ; hemorrhage from
the, 548; inllammation of the, or
hepatitis, 545; treatment of. 708;
diseases occasioned by being in a
tropical cliniato, 544 ; of the ox,
68 ; of the dog eaten raw in ancient
timea as a preventive of evil conse-

INDEX.

747

quences of a bite, 2S6; the ailments
of the, 541-48.

Living and inanimate things, 634-37.

Local Government Board, 7.

Localised anthrax in sheep, symptoms
of, 258, 25y ; locked jaw. treatment
of, 713.

'• London Gazette " gave table of conta-
gious diseases existing in England,
'J.

Loughorns of England possibly arose
from Irish cattle which stoj^ped at
ditt'erent places in the course of their
journey across Great Britain, 105 ;
of England 107-10 : gradually dis-
appeared. 109, 110.

Loodianah disease, the. 238.

'• Lord, the, is my shepherd ; I shall
not want. He maketh me to lie
down in green pastures ; He leadeth
me beside the still waters," 119.

Losses among sheep are often avoid-
able, 128, (j72, 673, 676, 677 ; among
oxen from the attacks of the warble-
iiy, 435.

Lumbar vertebne, 34.

Lungs, 70 ; treatment of intiammation
of the, 714.

Lymphatics, 69.

Lvtta, 286.

M.

McFadyean, 232.

Malar bone, 44.

Male organs, 72, 73.

Malignant catarrhal fever, 359, 3G0 ;
picture of ox suffering from, 359.

Malignant catarrh, treatment of, 714.

Malignant cattle plague, 264-66 :
symptoms of, 265.

Malignant pustule, 237.

Malleolar bone, 37.

Mammals are divided into three groups,
the Monodelphia, the Didelphia, and
the Ornithodelphia, 13.

Mammitis, 664-66 ; symptoms of, 664,
665 ; treatment of, 665 ; see also
Garget.

Mandans, the, 161.

Mange, 593-95 ; treatment of. 595, 714.

Manis, 148.

Maimers, Lord John, waited on by
representatives of the leading
agricultural societies, who urged
the necessity of compulsory slaugh-
ter of all animals afflicted with
pleuro-pneumonia and anthrax, and
of animals which have been in
proximity with them, 6, 8.

Marson's statistics relative to the bene-
ficial results of vaccination, 310.

Meadow-saffron, 391.
Measles, 467.

Measles in sheep, 267, 268.
Measures necessary in cases of sheep-
pox, 318, 322.
Memphis; 24, 25, 389.
Menstruation, 155.

ISIercury, dangers of applying it, 445.
^letastasis, 369.

Jletro-peritonitis, treatment of, 715.
Mexico, bovine tuberculosis is common

in, 207.
Micrococci of cattle plague, 4, 261,
262 ; of foot-and-mouth disease, 193 ;
of scarlet fever, 331 ; of scarlet
fever in condensed milk. 35(i.
^Micrococcus of variola, 304.
Micro-organisms in cases of scarlet

fever. 345.
Middle-horned cattle, 84-100, 104.
Middle-horns were probably the origi-
nal British breed, 82.
Milch-cow, characters of, 113; poetry
detailing the points of a good, 114.
Milk-fever or parturient apoplexy,
5(33-05, 660-64 ; causation of, 662 ;
symptoms of, 660-62 ; treatment of,
662-64; and also see Apoplexy,
parturient.
Milk of the ewe. 123. 585.
Milk-tube, 345, 585.
Miltz-brand fieber, 238.
Minute vegetable forms, 133.
Mixed diet best for human beings and

animals. 50, 51.
Moab, the King of, paid tribute to the
King of Israel in sheep which were
not shorn. 124.
]Modena, 312.
]Mode of investigation of any outbreak

of infectious disease, 6.
Moderator band, 74.
Mollereau recorded case of rupture of

gall-bladder, 545.
Monkey afflicted with scarlatina, 357.
Monodelphia includes ten orders,

14.
Morbilli conliuentes, 331.
Moses, 24, 122.

Jloses flung down and broke the sacred
tables on which the commandments
had been inscribed, 25.
Moulds or hyphomycetes, 269.
Moulton. 325.
Mount Sinai. 24.
Mouth and tongue, diseases of the,

480-82."
Muir-ill, see lla'maturia. 575.
Murrain. 237.
Muscles, 46-49.
.Musk-ox, 17.
Muzzle, 53.
Myelitis, 560.
Mvsterv Lodge, 162.

748

l.NDEX.

N.

N^vrs, 591.

Napoleon's army, 198.

Nagore cattle, 115. IIG.

Nasal bones. 4-4.

Natural history and general account
of the ox. 11-30.

Nature, 603.

Navel-ill in lambs, 242, 533, 534 ;
picture of lamb suffering from, 533 ;
prevention of, 534.

Nematoda, or order of thread-vrorms
and round vronns, 470-78.

Nephritis, or inflammation of the kid-
neys, 570, 571 ; treatment of, 715.

Nervous debility in cows at the time
of parturition, 502.

Nervous diseases, four kinds of, 560.

Nervous system, 79, 80 ; diseases of
the, 548-65.

New formations, 143, 145.

New York, disease in lambs in the dis-
trict of, 385.

Newton, 210.

Newt, the, can replace an eye, 142.

Nile Tributaries oj Abynsinia, inci-
dent recorded by Sir !?. Baker in
the pages of. 289,

Nineteenth Century, The, 388.

Nomenclature of diseases in different
animals, ;-529.

Norfolk and Suffolk cattle, 104.

North Devon oxen, characters of the,
84-88.

Nostrils of the ox, 09.

'• Nothing succeeds like success,"
729.

Nottingham, a man died of rabies at.
280.

Nuffield, rabies in sheep at, 288.

NTimber of horses, cattle, sheep, and
swine in the British Isles in June
1884, 12.

Nuremberg, 389.

o.

Occipital Bone. 42.

Ocean, 129.

ffidema, 591.

Oesophagus, 55, 57.

ffistrum, 640.

ffistrus bovis, 432-36, 715.

ffistrus ovis, 479, 480.

Ogle. Dr.. 326.

Omasitis. 500-503.

Omasum. 03-05.

Omasum, engorgement of the, 500-
508 ; picture of an ox suffering from
engorgement of the, 501 : symptoms

of impaction of the 501, 502 ; treat-
ment of impaction of the, 502, 503.
"Opera Comique " in Paris, fire at

the. 402: mode of death by fire at

the. 402.
Ophthalmia. OO.s-11.
Ophthalmia, treatment of simple, 715;

treatment of periodic, 715.
Optimism. 270.
Organs concerned in the process of

digestion, 49-09.
Origin of disease and the germ theory,

129-07.
Osteophyte, 025.
Osteo-sarcomata, 632.
Os uteri. 643.
Otorrhcua occurring in cases of scarlet

fever, .343.
Ouseden. 325.
Over-exertion, 680.
Overwork. 581.
Ovination, 319-21.
Ovine variola cannot be transmitted to

man. 322.
Ovum. 045.
Ox, Biblical account of the, 21-26;

migrations of from Western Asia

towards the West, 20; musk-, 17;

of Lancashire contrasted with that

of Devonshire, 27 ; the place of the,

anaong animals, 13. 17.
Oxalis acetoza. 505.
Oxen trained for lighting (backe-

levers), 117; used for riding, 27,

28, lis.
Oxyuris vermicularis. 478.
Ozone, 224. 225.

P.

Pad which takes the place of the

upper incisors in the ox. 54.
Pain in relation to disease. 156-63.
Palate hone. 44.
Palestine. 123 : bulls of, 24 ; cattle of,

21, 23.
Palpitation, treatment of, 716.
Pancreas. 69.
Papillomata, 142.
Papillomatous tumours, 631.
Paracentesis thoracis, 419.
Paralysis. 501.
Paraplegia, 561.
Parasites and concretions in connection

■with the urinary system. 577-79.
Parasites of the sheep other than that

which causes scabies, 447, 448.
Parasitism, general remarks in regard

to. 420-31. 451-55.
Parictnl bone. 42.
Paris, congress at, 230.
Parotid gland, 54, 57.

IN 1 1 EX.

749

Parturient apoplexy, or milk fever,
563-65, (J(;0-64 : cause jiiui post-
mortem appearances of, 062 ; symp-
toms of. 564, 660. 661 ; treatment
of, 564. 662-64, 088, 68;>.
Paiturient fever. ()64.
Parturient septicaemia. 127, 674-76;

treatment of, 710.
Parturition, act of, 650 ; delayed, 651 ;
symptoms of, may disappear, and
again return after two or three days,
650.
Paschal lamb, the pi-ecursor of the
Lamb of God, which taketh away
the sins of the world, 125.
Pasteur, 7. 166. 234, 248, 249, 2S3.

284, 294.
Pasteur's work on rabies, 294-301.
Pastoral countries. Great Britain and

Ireland as, 11.
Patella, the, 37.

Pathological Society of London, 571.
Pediculi, applications for destroying,

716.
Pelvic cavity, 642.
Pelvis, the, 36.
Pembrokeshire cattle. 93. 94.
Pemphigus, 590.
Pendulous belly. 464.
Pennicillium glaucum, 269.
Pem-hyn, Lord, 465.
Pentastoma t;enioides, 467.
Perforator used for opening the cranial
cavity of a foetus afflicted with
water on the brain, 652.
Pericarditis, 405; treatment of, 716,

717.
Period of gestation, 649, 678.
Perissoflactyla include the horse and
ass. the tapir, and the rhinoceros.
15.
Peritonitis, 535-37; picture of cow
affected with. 536 ; post-mortein
appearances and treatment of, 537 :
puerperal, see Metro-peritonitis.
715 ; treatment of, 717.
PetechiiB in cases of scarlet fever.

337.
Pharynx, 55.

Pheasants, the people of the, 161.
Phenomena of work, the,_ 151.
Phthiriasis or lousiness, 595.
Phthisis pulmonalis, treatment of,

717.
Picardy, outbreak of small-pox m, m

the vear 1746, 312.
Pig, ail omnivorous animal, 14 ; digits
of, 15; nose of, 15; stomach of,

15.

Piles or hasmorrhoids. 538, .see
Haemorrhoids.

Pinch of competition, and the stress of
threatened destitution are not with-
out advantage, 730.

Pincers. 27S. .
Pityriasis, 591.
Placenta, or after-birth, retention of

the, 669.
Placental membranes, retention of the,

treatment of, 717.
Placontalia, or monodelphia, 13.
Plenalvia, or engorgement and in
flammation of the rumen. 492-97 ;
symptoms of, 493 ; treatment of,
494, 495.
Plethora, 381 ; treatment of, 381.
Pleurisy, 417-20: picture of an ox
suffering from acute, 417 : pictures
representing mode of performing
paracentesis thoracis, 419; treat-
of, 419, 420.
Pleuritic ridge, see fig 50, 417.
Pleuro - pneumonia, 168-88; broke
out in Dorsetshire in the week pre-
cecUng Christmas, 1887, the loss
resulting being about £3,000 ; spo-
radic 168, 169 ; contagiosa, treat-
ment of, 717 : epizotitica, 169-88 :
death from, 175 ; causes of, 170, 171 :
course of, 171 ; fisrt stage of, 171-
73 ; general and historical account
of. 169. 170 ; general characters of
the symptoms of, 171 : mode of
inoculation for, 183-88 ; necessity of
slaughter of animals afflicted wi^h,
4 ; post mortem appearances of, 176-
80 ; preventive treatment of, 180-88 ;
second stage. 173-75.
Pliny, 286.
Plumbe, 303.
Plutarch, 284.

Pneumonia and pleurisy, 414-20.
Pneumonia, picture of ox suffering
from last stages of sporadic, 414 :
treatment of, 416.
Pohl-pincus, 304.

Poisoned water-supply is most inju-
rious, and may be productive of
abortion, 679.
Poisoning by black hellebore, 394; by
solanum dulcamara, 395 ; in relation
to sheep, 400; of oxen by lead,
treatment of, 400.
Poisons, 391-400.
Polled or hornless cattle, 100-104.
Ponfick, 233.

Post-mortem changes in cases of sheep-
pox, 318, 319
Power, Mr., 134, 137, 585.
Premature delivery, 679.
Pre-maxillary bone, 44.
Preputial calculi, 579.
Presentations, natural, xee tig. 85

649-5 r
Presentations —

(1) Head with only one fore foot, 653,.
654;

(2) Fore feet presented, and head

750

INDEX.

doubled back, so as to lie close to
the side of the young animal, 654,
655, and see fig. 88 ;

(3) Head alone. 655, 656, and see fig.
89;

(4) One fore leg only presented, the
other being directed downwards in
the body of the uterus, the tip of
the forehead and the top of the neck
being pressed against the pelvic
bones, 656, 657, and see fig. 90 ;■

{5) Calf lying with back downwards
in the womb, the top portion of the
skull and nape of the neck being
presented, in which case it is neces-
sary to turn, 657, 658, and see
fig. 91 ;

(6) FcEtus lying on back, and hind
legs presenting, 658 ;

(7) Fcetus lying on back, and hind feet
inclined forwards, 658, 659 ;

(8) Head of calf directed towards the
chest of the cow, the breech and
tail alone being presented, and the
hind legs doubled up under the
body, 659 ;

Skilful help is necessary in cases of
difficult parturition, 660.

Preventable losses among ewes and
lambs, 660, 672, 673.

Pride of cows stalking forth in pro-
cession in the Swiss Canton of Ap-
pensell, 29.

Princesses Amelia and Caroline,
303.

Probang, passing the, 489-91.

Processes undergone by animals may
be divided into those of work and
those of rest, 149-51.

Progress in medicine, 549.

Progress, the path of, has been cleared
of many obstacles, 729.

Prolapsus ani. 539.

Prong-buck, the, 16.

Prurigo, 589.

Psoriasis or rat-tails. 587 ; treatment
of, 718.

Psoroptes ovis, 438.

Ptervgoid bones, 45.

Pubis, the, 36.

Puerperal mania, 565, 6()4.

Pulse, acceleration of, in the tropics,
152.

Punch, joke from, 542.

Punctured wounds, ()21.

Puncturing the rumen, 485-87.

Pupil of eve, contractor of, 718 ;
dilator of," 7 18.

Pupils, dilatation of the, in cases of
epilepsy, 160.

Purpura bicmorrhagica, 360-62;
symptoms of, 361 ; after-death ap-
pearances of animals which have

been suffering from. 361, 362
treatment of, 362, 718.

Pyaemia, treatment of. 719.

Pyrexia, treatment of, set- Antipy-
retics, 688.

Q.

Queen, Her Most Gracious Majesty,
the, jubilee of, 723.

E.

Rabelais, 312.

Rabies, as a term, compared with
hydrophobia, 279 ; furious and
dumb, 294; history of, 2«4-90 ; in
ruminants, M. Pion on, 290 ; in
sheep, 291-94; in sheep. ]Mr. Harris
on. 291 ; in the ox, 290, 291 : man
died in consequence of, at the Brad-
ford Infirmary, 281 ; recommenda-
tions of the Select Committee of the
House of Lords on, 282.

Rabies or hydrophobia, 7. 9, 184, 279-
391.

Rachitis, or rickets, treatment of, 719.

Ramuiaziiii. 312.

Randall, Mr., 204, 386.

Ranz des vaches, 29.

Rash of scarlet fever and other spe-
cific fevers, 333.

Rashes of the specific fevers illustrate
the .similar origin of the parts which
they attect, 146.

•■ Razor-back,"' 464.

Rectum, mechanical distention of the,
538.

Redwater in sheep, 529-33 ; post-
mortem appearances of, 530 ; treat-
ment of, 532.

Regeneration, 141.

Relation of human diseases to those of
animals, 132.

Renal dropsy in cases of scarlet fever.
343.

Renewal of prosperity and good seasons
coming, 10. ,

Re-ishaw, Dr., 325.

Reproduction, organs of, 642-6 ; of
the species, general aspects of.
()34-40.

Reproductive system, and the disorders
connected therewith, 634-(>8.

Roproductory, tracing of the, process
from lower to higher living beings.
(538-40.

Rcsj)iration in scarlet fever. 33(i.

Respirator}^ system, 69, 70 ; diseases
of the. including catarrh, epistaxis.
laryngitis, bronchitis, pneumonia,
and })leurisy. 407-26; diseases of

INDEX.

751

the, in sheep, 420-2() ; auscultation
iis a method of diagnosis of the
diseases of animals, 408.

Rest and worlv ought to be alternated
with each other, 153.

Retention of icetal membranes, G52-3 ;
of the placenta or after-birth, G(j'J-70;
treatment of, 71!); of urine, 576,
577.

Reticulum, Gl, G2, G3.

Retinitis, or specific ophthalmia, 612.

Reynal. 244.

Rbagio columbaschensis, 478.

Rheumatic diathesis, 367.

Rheumatism, chronic, 370; duration
of acute, 370 ; picture of ox suffer-
ing from, 369 ; swelling of some
joint or joints in cases of, 368; tem-
perature of oxen suffering from, 368 ;
treatment of, 370-2, 719 ; in cases of
scarlet fever, 339 ; in sheep, 599.

Rheumatism or felon, 366-72.

Ribs, the, 35.

Rickets, 383-6, 626 ; symptoms of,
384.

Right-handed character of man, 148.

Ringworm. 596, 614; ordinary (tinea
tonsurans), treatment of, 719 ; favus
honeycomb (Achorion Schonleinii),
treatment of, 720.

Robertson, the late Professor, 234, 532.

Rolleston, the late Dr., held that the
free plaj' of the movements of the
fore extremities resulting from the
erect posture had removed the ne-
cessity of the continued develop-
ment of the panniculus earnosus,
148.

Roman States, 117.

Rose-coloured tumours, 631.

Rossalia. 331.

Roulin, M., says that aspergillus niger
develops a substance which checks
its own growth, 300.

Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society
of London, 145.

Rumen, 58-61.

Rumenotomy or paunching, 496, 497 ;

illustration representing, 496.
Ruminants, characters of, 16 ; dental

formula of, 14.
Rumination, 51, 53.
Rupture, 539-41 ; of the rumen, 497.
Russell, Dr., 351.

Sacrum, the, 34, 35.
Salmon-disease, 274.
Saprolegnia, 273, 274.
Saul, 24.

Scabies in sheep, 437-47.
Scaphoid, 37.
Scapula, 37.

Scarlatina, treatment of, 720.
Scarlet fever, 328-57 ; or scarlatina,
treatment of, 720 ; in man. .■!30-44 ;
tempei-ature in, 337 ; variability of,
338 ; morbid anatomy of, 339 ;
poultices applied externally in cases
of, 342; tonics given in cases of,
342 ; treatment of patients suffering
from, 340-4 ; treatment of persons
suffering from malignant, 342.
Schizomycetes, l."$9, 269.
Schlundbeulen, 2()8.
Scotch cattle, 9G-1U0.
Scour, or skit, see Diarrha'a, 701, 702.
Scouring in young calves, 521, 522;

treatment of, 521, 522, 702.
Scrofula, treatment of, 720.
Scrofulous arthritis, treatment of,

691.
Sea, 129.

Sea-air, value of, in cases of convales-
cence from scarlet fever, 344.
Sea-voyages, benefits accruing from,

226.
Season of increase in the flocks, 671-

82.
Seasons, good, are doubtless coming,
and may we know how to use the
great revival in the best way, 736 ;
rhythm of, affects vital processes,
155.
Seaton, 304.
Selachian fin, 145.
Selachii, 144, 146.

Sennacherib's army exterminated in
one single night, possibly as a result
of anthrax, 237.
Sennertus, 331.
Septicaemia, or blood-poisoning, 674,

675.
Setons, 628.
Sextus Placitus, 287.
Sheep and Lamb, The, by John Walker,

680.
Sheep are moved about the country in
accordance with the exigencies of
the food supply, 439 ; cared for by
shepherds as human beings are by
the Almighty, 119.
Sheep-diseases, imjjortance of accurate

information about, 119.
Sheep, gadfly of the, 121 ; general
account of the, 119-28; scriptural
account of the, 122, 127 ; so well
cared for by the patriarchs of the
Old Testament history and their
descendaqts, who watched their
flocks by night in Palestine, 119.
Sheep-rot, three stages in, 4(51.
Sheep-scab, prevention and treatment
of, 442-46 ; symptoms of, 440-42.

752

INDEX.

Shepherds of this daj'. 119.
Shepherds tend their sheep with a

degree of kindness which is almost

beyond praise, 127.
Shetland, 100.
Shorthorn cows, milk and butter of,

114.
Shorthorn Herd Book of Mr. George

Coates, 111.
Shorthorns, 110-114.
Shoulder and forearm, 37.
Sight and hearing, 605.
Simonds, Professor James B., 312,

314, 642, 651.
Simple colic. 509-12 ; treatment of,

512.
Simple erythema, 584.
Sir Joseph Banks, 303.
Sir Samuel Baker, 289.
Size of oxen, 83.
Skeletal mechanism, disorders of the,

623-26.
Skeleton of the ox, the, 31-45.
Skin, importance of a beautiful. 582.
Skin, the, and its disorders, 582-97.
Skin, the, is affected in various

diseases, 583.
Skull, the, of the sheep, compared

with that of the deer, 39.
Slaughter as opposed to treatment, 2.
Smacking of the lips, 190.
Small-pox hospital. 303.
Small-pox of sheep, 121, 311-22.
Small-pox, symptoms of, 306.
Smithiield market, 313.
Smith, Mr. T.. 144.
Smut, 269.

Snake, a so-called, 528.
Soreness of the throat in cases of scarlet

fever, 336.
Sore teats. 345 ; treatment of, 720.
South Africa, 326.
South African oxen readily obey the

words of the driver, 118.
South America is suitable for patients

suffering from tuberculosis, 226.
South American oxen, 118.
South Devons, 88, 89.
Southey, Dr.,283.
Spencer, Earl, ()48, 666.
Spencer, Herbert, 130, 633, 635 ; on

adaptation. 3^0.
S])hcnoid bone, the, 42, 43.
Spinster, 124.

Spiracles of the selachii, 334.
Spleen, 69.

Splenic apoplexy (or anthrax), treat-
ment of, 687. 720.
Splenic fever, 240.

Sprains, 628, 629; treatment of, 720.
St. Bartholomew's Hospital. 144, 284.
St. John's Wood. 137.
St. Pancras. 137.
Stainborough. near Barnsley. 288.

Stamping-out policy in relation to
cattle-plague." 260, 266.

Starch bandages, 627.

Statham, Mr., 312.

Steel, Mr. John Henry, says that spiral
fracture of the humerus is frequent
in India, 627.

Stein, 231.

Sternum, the, 35.

Stings, treatment of, 720.

Stomach of moschus, 57.

Stomach of the camel, 67.

Stomach of the ox. pictures represent-
ing the, 58, 59, 61, 62, 64.

Stomach-staggers, 553.

Stomachs of ruminants. 57.

Stomatitis, treatment of (^see Gangren-
ous stomatitis), 705, 706.

Stones, or calculi, 577.

Strangury {see Hsematuria), 707.

Streptococci of scarlet fever, 136.

Stress of hard times, 730.

Strieker, 142.

Stringhalt, 563.

Strongyles, 476, 477.

Strongylus filaria and S. rufescens, 423.

Strongylus micrurus, 422.

Sturdy, or gid, in sheep, 472-76.

Sublingual gland, 55.

Submaxillary gland, 54.

Success, nothing succeeds like, 729.

Suffolk cow, the, 101.

Suffolk dun, 101.

Superior maxilla, 43.

Supply of good meat, 3.

Suppression of diseases, 8.

Suppression of urine, 569.

Sutton, Mr. Bland, 207, 232.

Swine-fever, 9.

Swiss canton of Appensell, 28, 29.

Symbiotes bovis, 593.

Symptomatic anthrax, blood of guinea-
pig dead from, 254.

Symptoms of rheumatic affections in
"the ox, 368-70.

Symptoms of small-pox in sheep, 315-
'318.

T.

Tabes MESENTKKicA, treatment of, 721.

Table showing inoculations for rabies,
299.

Table showing the period of gestation,
number of respirations, of pulse-
beats, degree of temperature, Ac,
in different animals, 640, 678.

Taenia allia in the slieej) of Italy, 470.

Ta'nia cosnurus. 471, 472, 559.

Ta)nia denticulata, 469.

Tamia echinoeoccus, 471.

Taenia expansa. 469.

TaMiia marginata. 471.

Ta'nia mediocanellata. 469.

UnivCTMfy or British Columbia Library

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FORM No. 310

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