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A DISSERTATION
'^ ON THE
THEOLOGY OF THE CHINESE,
WITH A VIEW TO THE ELUCIDATION OF THE MOST APPROPRIATE TERM FOR EXPRESSING THE DEITY,
IN THE CHINESE LANGUAGE.
BY W. H. MEDHURST, sen.
PRINTED AT THE MISSION PRESS,
SHANGHAE. 1847.
1 V? •
'^
PREFACE.
The following Dissertation, as the title imports, was written with the view of elucidating the views of the Chinese on the subject of theology, in order to ena- ble Christian writers, and translators of the Scriptures, to ascertain what would be the best term by which to express the name of God, in Chinese. To set the question in a true light, it was thought necessary to re- fer to the classical writings, and especially those of the Confucian school ; because these always have, and still do, exercise the greatest influence over the mind of China; and notwithstanding the additions of foreign religions, and (in the estimation of the Literati) here« tical notions, the classics must and will form the basis of thought and expression throughout China for ages to come. This method of conducting the argument has necessarily drawn attention to the identical opini- ons of Chinese philosophers ; and thus, independent of the discussion which called for the present essay, much is brought forward that will no doubt be interesting to the public in general, particularly to those who are en- quiring into the opinions and religious sentiments of so peculiar a people as the Chinese. Having been led to explain and discuss all the passages of their clagsics which bear on the subject of spiritual and invisible beings, as well as those which refer to Him whom we must denominate the Supreme God, the writer has been enabled to present to view the whole body of Chinese Theology, and those who wish to acquaint themselves
IV
with the standard and orthodox religion of China, will lind in these pages enouiih to gratify their curiosity and to assist them in forming a judgment. It will be seen that the Confucian age, though addicted to demonolatry, was tolerably, free from idolatry, or the worship of images ; while the classical writings then published contain various references to a Supreme Being, of whose attributes and perfections a tolerably complete scheme may be dratvn up, altogether extracted from the classics, which shows that the ancient Chinese were not entirely ignorant of natural theology. Of course their scheme will be found defective in every thing that is peculiar to revelation, and defective as it originally was, it has Ijeen stiK more corrupted by the admixture of super- stitions through the lapse of ages ; but ascribe it to what source we may, there we find the fundamental truths of natural religion, fully equal to what the Grecian or Roman sages indited, and sufficient to testify that God has not left himself without witness in this eastern world ; because " that which may be known of God js manifest in them ; for God hath shewed it unto them. For the invisible things of Him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and godhead ; so that they are without excuse. Because that when they knew God, they glorified Him not as God, neither were thankful ; but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened. Profess] ug them- selves to be wise, they became fools ; and changed the glory of the uncorrnptible God, into an image made like to corruptiljile man, and to birds, and four-footed beasts, and creeping things ; changing the truth of God into a lie, and worshipping and serving the crea- ture more than the Creator, who is blessed for ever. Amen.*'
A DISSERTATION
ON THE THEOLOGY OF THE CHINESE,
WITH A VIEW TO THE ELUCIDATION OF
THE MOST APPROPRIiTE TERMS FOR EXPRESSING
THE DEITY,
IN THE CHINESE LANGUAGE,
In translating the Sacred Scriptures, into the lan- guage of China, it is necessary for the translator to place himself in the position of a native of that coun- try, and to endeavour to ascertain how a Chinese would think and feel with regard to expressions in use aruong his countrymen. For, it is evident that the very best translation of a book into the langugage of any country would be one made by a native of that country, suppos- ing him to be well acquainted with the language from which he is translating, and the subject on which it treats ; the next best translation that could be made, would be one prepared by a foreigner, the most fami- liar with the terms and idioms of the language into which he is translating ; all other qualifications being suppos- ed to be equal, or nearly so. In a language like that of China, that possesses a varied aspect, ancient and mo- dern, concise and colloquial, it is necessary for a transla- tor to acquaint himself with the original uses of terms, as well as the changes which they have undergone ; to konw how they are used in philosophical writings, and in every-day conversation ; what they mean when used by one class of religionists, and what when em
B
ployed by another ; as well as all the phase>> which any given expression may be made to assume, according to the points of view in which it may be contemplated.
In the following pages, we shall endeavour to point out the meanings attached, by the Chinese; themselves, to the different expressions employed, by Christians and others, for the purpose of expres8ing the Deity ; and after discussing various other terms, capable of being applied to the same object, we shall, with the knowledge thus obtained, turn to the Sacred Scriptures, and endea- vour to ascertain how a Chinese would render the term, supposing him to be acquainted with the religion and animated with the spirit of the Bible.
In order to this, Ave shall commence with the writings of their standard philosophers, glance at t'le modifica- tions which the language has sustained through the ad- mixture of heterodox opinions, and endeavour to ascer- tain, what is the modern and current acceptation of terms, as the result of the above causes.
Our first discussion shall be regarding the real mean- ing of the term jfj^ Shin, which both the early Roman Catholic, and first Protestant, writers imagined most suitable for expressing the idea of Deity.
In order to know anything about j[($ shin, we must not fail to associate it with J^ kwei, with which it is very generally connected in the writings of Chinese philosophers, and to which it is the antithesis. The ^ 5J[^ kwei shin are commonly found in juxta-positiou in the Chinese classics, and must be understood as re- ferring to the theory of a dual system of the universe, entertained by the Chinese, in the same way as 5c ilfi t'hcen te, heaven and earth, |^ ^ yin \aiig. the male and female principle of nature, &,c. with which the ^ fif^ kwei shin will be found to be essentially connected.
In endeavouring to define the terms employed by Chi- nese authors, we must also bear in mind their theory that
/v ^ '^J'* ?C itfe ^'^^ ^^ ^ microcosm, or heaven and earth in miniature, The same things, therefore, which
they suppose belong to a man, they are in the habit of applying to heaven and earth, and expressions must be sought, in rendering such terms into English, as would be applicable to such a double use. In some instances we may succeed, but certainly not in all, and our want of success ia this particular will constitute the appa- rent obscurity of our definitions, to readers unacquainted with Chinese metaphysics. Another suggestion we would throw out here, viz. their thorough materialism, which binds them down to sensible objects, and pre- vents their conceptions from rising to any thing that is spiritual ; in using terms, therefore, which have a spi- ritual meaning, we must not suffer ourselves to be car- ried away with the idea, that the Chinese have any no- tion of the soul, as we Europeans understand the terms, meaning, an intelligent, immaterial and indestructible spirit ; indeed the term ^ ^^ soul, used by European writers in Chinese, is not of native origin, but a colloca- tion invented by western writers, for the purpose of ex- pressing an idea, which the Chinese had no single term, fitted to convey. Having premised these few observa- tions, we shall preceed to give the definition of the word 1^ Shin, as it is explained in the Imperial Dictionary. Kan g he, in his Dictionary, after giving the sound of jjl^ shin, does not, as is usual with him, go on to ex- press the sense, by adducing a synonimous term, but quotes a phrase from the ^ "^ shwo wan, in which the word ^ shin occurs. The phrase is this, ^ ff^ 3! lU ^ ^ ^ -H^ t'heen shin yin ch'huh wan wdh chay yay. In order, therefore, to understand fne term in question, vre must endeavour to ascertaii) what is the meaning of the whole sentence in which it is found, and the purpose for which it is there employed. The sentence treats of the leading out of all things, and says, that the 5c ^^ t'heen shin do this. Here the term ^ ^^ t'heen ^hin are contrasted with the {{jj ^j^ te k'he, also called the ^ ^pjl te shin, which we find, by referring to the charaettir f(]5 k'he, i^ Ji} |?J .J^J # -f^ are those which bring up all thing-. Both these again are as-
4
sociated with the \ ^ jia kwei, according to the Chinese system of cosmogony, which sets forth the three powers of nature as 5'C itfe A t'heen te jin, hea- ven, earth, and man ; and according to the ^ |^ Chow le, which says, that ^ Rl^it^HlKAS^ those which belong to heaven are called the jjij shin, those which. belong to earth are called the ^ k'he, and those which belong to men are called the ^ kwei. Now we are pretty well informed by Chinese authors, what the ^^ kwei are, as referred toman, and reasoning from what we do know to what we do not know, Ave may be able to form some idea of the jf{^ shin and fl^ k'he, as referred to heaven and earth. In the definition of J^ Kwei the Chinese employ another term, nearly si- milar in sound, as also in the explanation of |^ Shin ; thus, ]^ kwei, they say, is ^ kwei, to revert, as |^ shin, is f^ shin, to expand. The ^ kwei or i^ pTh in man, is the grosser part of his spiritual nature, w^iich shrinks, shrivels up, and reverts at death to its origi- nal elements, and sinks to eaith ; while the jfi^ shin or 5^ hwan, is the more subtile part of his spiritual nature, which expands, diffuses itself and wanders about in space. In using the term spiritual nature, however, tl\e reader must not suppose that the Chinese have any idea of spirit, such as we conceive, but what they mean by it is a more subtile kind of matter, finely attenuated and expanded, it is true, but still essentiiljy matter. Thus by the 5^ fl^ t'heen shin, they understand the more volatile and elastic properties of the material heavens, as by the ^ jjjff te k'he, they understand the more evaporatory parts of the material earth. In both in- stances a sort of corporeal spirit, or spiritual body, is intended. Ikaring these things in view% we shall be better prepared to proceed to the interpretation of the passage above quoted by Kang-he, for the purpose of explaining or elucidating the word J^ Shin ; wherein he says, that '5fc |^§| }i!^i^# -fe, heaven's ex- panders are those which lead out all things. That
we are not mistaken in this translation, is evident from what follows, in the same sentence, where the lexico- grapher goes on to say, ^ |P §j tfi^o expand, (taking the primitive of the character jfj^ Shin to indicate its general sense), means to lead forth ; for ^ ^ |^ ^ I^ M ^ J^ heaven's principal business is to send down its breath or energies in order to influence all things, ^ W '^l vj4 H ^ therefore it Js said, to lead forth ail things. In this definition of jj]^ shin, -which consti- tutes the first class of meanings to which the lexicogra- pher refers, we are not to suppose that the Shin are the powers that move and expand the heavens, but the pro- perties or energies em[>Ioyed by heaven in expanding all things. It is heaver, that sends down its ^ ener- gies to influence or lead f rth all things, and the Shin are the energies thus employed. Let not the European reader suppose that by ^ |||^ t'heen shin, in the above are quotation, the writer means angel, or by ^ 4^ t'heen choo, God, as these terms have sprung entirely from the inventions of Christians, and are not in such collocation and acceptance Chinese.
We now pass on to the second definition of if(^ shin, given in the Imperial Dictionary, as follows ; 5^ ^ fl^
^"jj^BA^WI^^M t'l^^en che shin tse boo jih, jin che shin tse hoo m.iih ; where we suppose the writer by the word f|^ shin to mean, "animal spirits," and would render the passage thus, " the animal spirits of the heavens dwell in the sun, as the animal spirits of the man rests in the eye ;" from which we under- stand the writer to mean, that, as by the vivacity or dul- ness of the eye we perceive the elasticity or depression of man's spirits, so, by the shining or withdrawing of the sun, we ascertain the expansion or contraction of the energies of uature. The third class of definitions given in Kang-he, to j]j^ shin, is that of jjj^ ^ shin ming inscrutably intelligent and clear. In elucida- ting which he quotes the ^ |^ Shoo-king, w^here ^ Yaou is said to be 75 1^ ^ )1^ s^g^ ^i^^ and inscru-
tably intelligent. The Commentator, on tins passage, says, that speaking of his greatness and capability of reforming mankind, he is called sagtdike ; and speak- ing of his sagelike qualities, and of his being above common apprehension, he is called inscrutably intelli- gent. The lexicographer then quotes another work, saying that ^ ^ 19f ^ S flf ^'i^^ ^ 77 sagelike means understanding every thmg, inscrutably mysteri- ous, and not to be calculated on. In vJiich sentence 1^ shin is only brought in as a quality of the sage, and does not mean a separate divine power. Under the same head, Kang-he quotes another passasre, from the ^ II Yih-king, to the effect that |^ ^ ^ )il ;^ li # whatever is inscrutable in the male and female princi- ple of nature is called If shin. By the inscrutable here mentioned, however, is not meaat that which is mysterious in the ways of Providence, or above human comprehension in the divine procedure, but such things as are not distinctly referable either to the male or fe- male principle of nature, but seem to be a mixture of both ; as the Commentator says, ^^ ^ ^ M ^ M W W\ ^ -S J^> W 1^ ^^^^" things are settled to one point they may be scrutinized, and that which may be scrutinized is not worthy of being denominated |)]4 in- scrutable. Futher he quotes another_^work, saying )[i$
that which is inscrutable is the utmost point of change, it may be said to be more mysterious than all sur- rounding objects, and cannot be judged of by visible appearances. By ^^-{jpeen hwa in the above sen- tence, is meant a departure from the usual order of things, that cannot be definitely ascribed to one or the other principle of nature ; this is said to be mysterious and scrutable, and not to be judged of by usual ap- pearances. Under this head, the compiler of the Dic- tionary gives another quotation from ^ ^ Mencius, stating that |g ffR ^ ^ ^fl ^ H ^<^^ sagelike and not to ])e comprehended by other, is called inscrutably
intelligeiit. la this connectiou the writer is describing; the different steps of attainment in virtue, such as ^ ^ood, f^ sincere, §^ excellent, -j^ great, ^ sagelike, and jji^ inscrutable ; the latter of which, however, is not to be considered a step in advance of the one preceding it, but only a nevyr feature of it. The Commentator on this passage says, that "sagelike and incom|;rehensible is the most mysterious quality of a sage, t]]?tt which people cannot fathom. It does not mean that above the sagelike individual, there is another class of men who may he called the inscrutably intelligent." In all this we do not see any thing supernatural or di- vine ; the inscrutable in nature, according to Chinese ideas is the mysterious departure from the usual order of things, but still that which nature produces, though out of its usual course ; and the inscrutable in human beings is the height of intelligence, but still that which man is capable of, unaided from above, and therefore not superhumam.
In the next definition of |fj^ Shin, given in the Dic- tionary, we meet with j^ i]\^ kwei shin, under which
the writer says, ^f^B^lMf^^^M ^^e more sul tile spiritual part of the male principle of nature ia called the J^ shin, and the grosser spiritual part of the female principle of nature is called the ^ kwei ; again, Jest we should suppose that any thing purely spiritual -was intended by the ^ hwan and j^ pth, he says, ^ Z.W^% tP W\ ^%% ^^^e expanding qualities of the energy of nature are called the ^ shin, and its contracting qualities the j^ kwei.
The compiler of the Dictionary goes on to give the meaning of f)ijl shin, as found in epitaphs and posthumous titles, saying, that in such acceptance that which the people can find no proper name for is called jfjl^ shin ; hence .^,^ !^ He-ning, of M\Q ^ Sung dynasty, and ^ J^ Wan-leih, of the gQ Ming dynasty, were both called ^^ ^ Shin tsung ; not, it w^ould appear, on ac- count of their good qualities, for they were bad rulers,
8
but because their decendauts, in giving them posthu- mous honours, did not know how rightly to denominate them, and therefore called them by the above title, jjf^ Shin is also used as a surname. And when the sound is altered from shin to shin, it is the proper name of a sea god^as in the sentence quoted in the Dictionary W ^ ©l] M Stiin Shoo foo yen "may Shin and Shoo aid you." 'VhQ remainder of the article in Kang-he on the word j||J shin has merely reference to the diffe- rent sounds which nre given to the character to make it rhyme in poetry.
From all this we do not perceive that the Lexicogra- pher gives the meaning of the Supreme Power to the word Shin ; before, however, proceeding to the absolute definition of the term, let us endeavour to as- certain what meaning is to be attached to it when found in the writings of Confucius. In the Xp ]^ Chung yung, Haypy medium, the compilation of which is as- cribed to one of the immediate disciples of Confucius, and in which the words of the sage are frequently quo- ted, we find a whole chapter on the su])ject of the J^ ^ kwei shin, as follows ;
In the first section, '' Confucius said, How full and complete are the energies of the ^li fEf ^^ei shin !^*
The commentator, Chin^ tsz^, tells us that the ^ 1$ kwel shin are the energetic operations of heaven and earth, and the traces of pro- duction and transformation, (or the exhibitions of nature's efforts ia bringing forth and changing the forms of things). The Commentator Chang-tsze says, that the J^ ^^ kwei shin are the energetic powers of the two principles oi nature ; upon which Choo-foo-tsze remarks : If you view them in the light of a double power, then the ^ kwei is the spiritual or vital part of the female principle, and the jflft shin, the spiritual or vital part of the male principle ; but if you coneider them as but one principle, then tiiat which advances and expands is the \^ shin, and that which returns and reverts is the ^ kwei ; in fact they constitute but one ^# thing. On the expression ^ ^, ener- gies, Choo remarks, that it is the same as to say, the result of the efforts of nature. The paraphrase on this section runs thus " Tsze-sze, (the compiler of the Chung yung, or Happy medium,) quotes here what
Confucius says of the Kwei Shin, to show that the M tabu or
9
principle of reason, combines the jJ^difFnge, and ^^ the concealed, and includes both the small and the j^reat (in nature) ; hence he Bays, That betwixt heaven and earth, that which CQ-ntracts and expands,
advances and recedes, is doubtless the jj^ breath or energy of the
male and female principle of nature, and the most ^g efficac'ous part of that principle is called the Kwei Shin. Now the energies of the Kwei Shin arc at the extreme limit of nothing, and yet consti- tute the highest degree of existence ; are superlatively unsub^itantial, and yet thoroughly most real ; for they carry to the utmost the per- fection of fulness and pervasion.
To the paraphrase are appended some critical remarks, as
follows : " The Kwei Shin are merely TO W >C ^ the expand- ing and contracting energies of the male and female ])rinciple of nature ; and they are called Kwei Shin, contracters and expanders, simply because of their subtile character, and pervading quality. Ching- tsze, in his remarks, has alluded mainly to the visibility of their dis- play, and Chang-tsze, principally to the spontaneity of their opera- tions ; but these energies, though divided into two, are really but one in action ; therefore Choo-foo-tsze considers them as conjoined, and con- stituting one ^J energy ; if we unite the explanations of these two commentators, (Ching and Chang) we phall have a correct idea of the
Kwei Shin. The text speaks of the f^ virtue or en ?r?y of the Kwei Shin, to show that they are not to be divided into two. The
word f^ virtue merely refers to the ^f^ energy of the Kwei Shin»
and their |@( sincerity is not here spoken of, to show that their energy is indeed their Rincerity, Their fulness and perfection may be seea in the following section, which treats of their embodying aH things without exception. Choo-foortsze h?s said, that there is not a single t^ing between heav»K and earth, in which there is not the Kwei Shin .
Cot all the accessions of ^f\i energy belong to the male principle, and constitute the Shin, while all the subsidings of this energy belong to the female principle, and form th^. Kwei. Thus the day during the forenoon is Shin, and the afternoon Kwei ; the moon in its wax- ings is the Shin, and in its wanings the Kwei ; the sun and moon, when contrasted with each other, constitute, the former the Shin, and the latter the Kwei ; trees just budding forth are the Shin, and wh^n withering and drooping the Kwei ; man. from yontli to manhood, is in the Shin, and when old age creeps on that is the Kwei ; in the breath, the expirations are the Shin, and the inspirations the Kwei ; we may
also say, that the ojii nervous fluid belongs to the Kwei, and the ^^ animal spirits tot he Shin. Human speech and action, being connected with the animal spirits, belong to the Shin, while the serum and blood, originating in the nervous fluid, may be referred to the Kwei ; indeed all displays of energy belong to the male principle of nature, and constitute the Shin ; but whenever these energies settle into quiescence, as they belong to the female principle of nature, they form
the Kwei. Knowledge is Shin, and memory \n Kwei. 5C >1E /2
10
^/l ffi " The energetic operations of heaven and earth" are the j^ fla 2S 32E ** exhibitions of production and change" observable in nature ; la ru "production" and '* change" refer to the action of j^eaven and earth; J^ " production" is the bringing of things from no- thing into being ; 'J-^l " change" is the altering of things from being
to non-existence.* ^J] f\^ ^'Energetic operations", refer to the coming of heat and the departure of cold ; the setting of the sun and the rising of the moon, the buddings of spring, the growings of summer, are all actions of this kind ; mnd and rain, frost and dew, the sun and moon, day and night, these are the exhibitions referred to.
The two ^^ energies, point to the ^ %\*^ energetic powers of the male and female principle of nature, meaning, that their advancings and recedings, expandings and contractings are spontaneous, without any disposition or arrangement. '* The exhibitions of production and change" refer to this expanding and contracting : *' the energetic pow- ers of the two principles," refer to their being able to expand and con- tract. Ching-tsz^ merely speaks of the exhibition of their expandings
and contractings : but Chang-tsze talks further of their g^ efficacious- ness or vitality. Efficaciousness or vitality is merely the spontaneity of this advancing and receding, expanding and contracting, as if i
were alive. The two ^^ energies, refer to the correspondency of the
male and female principles of natur^; the one ^ energy to the movement of those principles. For the two energies are really one. Speaking of them as one, then, the energy just issuing forth has its expandings and its contractings, and this incipient expansion is the Shin of the Shin ; or expansion of the expanding principle ; after it has expanded fully, it is called the Kwei of the Shin, or the co/itrac- tion of the expanding principle ; when the energi es begin to contract, there are still some expansions and contractions, bat when it is fully contractftd, this entire contraction is the Kwei of the Kwei, contrac- tion of the contracting principle. The subseq^ient coming forth of the contracting principle is the Shin of the Kwei, expansion of the
contracting principle. The ^^ -^ >Jn [^ <* invisible and inaudi-
* The words 5W "f-j^ tsaou hwa, here translated "production and change," are not to be rendered " creation and transformation ;" for the Chinese have no idea of creation, as we understand it; viz. the bringing of this world into existence. It is true, the writer above quoted explains production by the bringing of somethinsr out of no* thing ; but by thot the Chine.se mean, the birth of animals, the springing up of plants, the advancin^r of the tides, or the blowing of the winds, where to all appcarajice nothing was beftH'e. They do not mean by it, the original formation of all things, but the constant production of things observable every day. This they ascribeto the enersries of the Kwei Shin, under the direction and by the aid of a superior power. , , .
u
ble" of the Kwci and Shin, is their 'j^ '[^ natural constitution. Their 11^,^8; " beinsr inherent in all things," is the ^ ^ result of their operations. ^ ^T ^i Tsae-heu-tsae says, that the one phrase *' embodying all things without exception" exhausts the
subject : for since there really exists tf^ matter, then there really ex- ists this ^ energy of nature ; and since there is this energy, there
must be the J^ fitness of things; and that which fills all between heaven and earth is the expanding and contracting, the advancing
and r^-«d''ng of this one ^ ]5^ energetic mechanism of nature. This
is \Yhat the ^B principle of order rests in, which is essentially inhe- rent in all things, and the samo throughout all time ; verifying the expression, that the one male and one female principle of nature con- stitute the |g[ eternal reason, which must not for a moment be lost sight of.
In order to understand the preceding account of the KweiShiu,it will be necessary to advert to the Chi- nese theory of the existence of the universe. Accor- ding to the Confucian cosmogony, the ^ ^ Extreme Point produced the j^ ^ two figures, the diagram for
one of which is an extended line — , and for the
other a broken line ; they are also called f^ ^
yin yang, the male and female principle of nature ; as well as m ^ the two energies, and are synonimous wi^h ^ -^ heaven and earth, or the visible uni- verse. The ^ f^ two figures, produced the p^ f^ four forms, the diagrams for which are two extended lines ■■ -■ and two broken ones — --, with one ex- tended line over a broken one __^, and one bro- ken line over an extended one . These are se- verally denominated the ^s^ |^ great female, and jf^;; ^ the great male, with the ^Jj j^ small female, and ^ 1^ the small male principle of nature. The ^ f^ four forms are said to have produced the J\^ ^ eight diagrams, which are descii])ed by three sets of lines, having the divided and extended ones variously inter- spersed, so as to he all different. These /\ ^ eight diagrams are described as fg keen, which is J^ heaycn; j^ kwan, which is ^ earth ; ^ k'han, which is ')]^ water ; ^| le, which is jj^ fire ; ^ kan, which is ^\
12
dry land ; ^ t'huy, which is ']^ sea ; ^ chin, which is g thunder ; and || sun, which is J^ wind. These will be found to inckide the grandest objects of nature, but merely inanimate nature ; nothing living appears amon^ the list. It was found necessary, therefore, to have something g vital, or efficacious, and the Chinese cosmogonists thought of the %^ jjl^ Kw^ei Shin, which are said to be the vital or efficacious part of the male and female principle ; also the active powers of the Ii::^ two energies of nature ; as well as the energetic opera- tions of heaven and earth, and the traces of pioduction and change. Further the Kwei Shin are described as performing their operations by a certain expanding and contracting power, which comes and goes, and in re- ference to which they may be called the contracters and expanders of nature. Yet it would not appear that the Kwei Shin are the authors of being, or the sources of existence, but only the machinery which agitates or clianges the face of nature. Themselves forming a part of that nature, a species of matter, (of which the expressions expanding and contracting are indicative,) but a very subtile one, a sort of extremely attenuated vapour, or the most volatile part of the breath of nature, going forth and returning in the production and trans- formation of inferior things. Hence the Chinese have the phrase ^ #1 ;^ ^ jflf the Kwei Shins of nature's mechanism, which they own is the same with ^ ^ ^^ ^\W '^^ Kwei Shins which are the objects of sacrifice, and A ^/ ti^t^ the Kwei Shins inherent in eve-' ry human bemg. The idea of expanding and contract- ing, advancing and receding, which the Chinese have at- tached to the Kwei Shin, has led them to look for a Kwei Shin in every thin^. Thus they find it in the iiternate changes of day and night, in the waxing and waning of the moon, in the blooming and drooping 3f plants and flowers, and in the increasing or decreas- ng vigour of the bodily frame. Indeed many things hat the Chinese say of the Kwei Shin, would lead us <) imagine that they intended thereby a sort of a7iima ^ndl, or soul of the world. Though in using the word
13
'fioul, ^m spirit, ill these discussions, we must protest a- gainst ^.he terms being understood in the European €ense of them, as the Chinese have no idea of soul and spirit, as we understand the words, but intend thereby a sort of highly volatilized and attenuated matter, which after all its evaporations is still essentially connected with matter, and is certainly not to be explained of pure, intelligent, immaterial, and immortal spirit,
Confucius, in the second section, goes on to say, '' In endeavouring to observe (the Kwei Shin) we cannot see them ; in attempting to listen, we cannot hear them ; and yet they embody all things, without the possibility of any exemption."
Here the Commentator remarks, " the Kwei Shin, have no form nor sound, and yet the beginning and end of things are invariably- brought about by the uniting and dispersing of the male and female principles of nature , therefore they constitute the substance of all Ihines, and there ii nothing that can exist without them. The ex-
pression " embodying things" is similar to that which the ^ ^± Yih king uses about "thoroughly pervading things."
The paraphrase on this section is to the following effect ; " How shall \N^\mb\v the fulness of the -energies of the Kwei Shin ? but by considering that the Kwei Shin have no form, and that by the most in- tense observation we cannot ps^rccive them ; also that they have no eound, and that by the most anxious listening we cannot discern them ; yet formless and soundless as they are, they really embo- dy the very centre of form and sound. When things are first
produced, the ^^ breath, or animal spirit, daily advances and .-grows ; this is the advancing nnd expanding of the Shin. When things
-have arrived at their fulness and perfection, the ^ breath or animal spirit, daily reverts to its original, and wandering about scatters ; this is the reverting and returning of the Kwei. For the Kwei Sliin
■embody all things, and there is nothing withou£ them ; how full and
perfect, therefore, are the energies of the 5^ jf(^ Kwei Shin!"
In a critical commentary on this passage we have the follow- ing remarks : " This section speaks of the fulness of the energies of the Kwei Shin ; the three sentences are connected together, but the whole stress of the section is laid on " the embodying of all things, without any exception." Having premised the first two sentences, the writer proceeds from the abstruse to the evident, in order to shew the perfection and fulness of the Kwei Shin. Their invisibility and inaudibility is exhibited in their embodying of things. The three sentences, refer only to one consentaneous effort, and must not be viewed as two gradations. Their embodying of things means, that they enter into the substance of things ; but not ithat'the things first existed, and afterwards the Kwei Shin, but
14
that the Kwei Shins first existed, and afterwards the things ; and when it was found that the things existed, it appeared that none of thenn could he divested of the Kwei Shin. In fact, the Kwei Shins are in the midst of tilings, and as it were constitute the bones of things. The Kwei Shins are the hosts, and things the guests, (meaning perhaps that matter is superinduced upon them.) Betwixt
heaven and earth there is nothing so great as the ^J energy of na- ture ; that which enters into every fibre and atom is this male and female principle of nature, a-id that which incloses heaven and earth as in a net, is this same male and female principle of nature.
When the J^ principle of order existed, then the ^^ energy of
nature also existed ; and when this energy existed, then Jj^ forms also appeared. " The embodying of things" refers to the Kw-eiShin; the words " without exception," refer to the things embodied. The words beginning and end, used by the Commentator, are not to be ta- ken for life and death, but refer to the expirations and inspirations, the darkenings and brightenings, the changes and transformations of all things ; with the substitutions of day and night, life and death, and such like. The words Kwei and Shin are included in the words male and female principle of nature ; for the two energiea of nature are ori- ginally but one energy. The male and female principles uniting constitute the beginning of things, and these principles dispersing cause their end. Sometimes they disperse and again unite, thus after their termination they again commence, which constitutes the principle cf reproduction, going on spontaneously without intermis- sion ; we must not take the energies after tltey are contracted, and consider them in the light of newly expanding energies : an exemplification of this may be seen in breathing. The "invisible and inaudible," spoken of in this passage, constitute the abstruse povvers of nature ; the " embodying of all things without exception" constitutes their display ; thus this section includes both the abstruse and manifest ; the last section merely refers to their results."
In this Sfction the Kwei Shin are represented as a sort of an im a inundi^ or ethereal substance, diffused through the mass of the world, invisible and inaudible to human senses, and yet thoroughly per- vading and embodying all things. The Kwei Shin would appear to have existed previous to the things they embody, and yet one might be led to suppose that their existence is only discoverable from the existence of those things, so that were there no matter, there could to our apprehension be no Kwei Shin. Also from their being inherent in all things, without the exception of any, we might infer their inse- parability from matter, and their partial identity with it. Their con- stituting the bones of things is a remarkable expression, and intimates thnt they form the inward strength and internal constitution of things. Their being the hosts, while things are only the guests, would imply that the Kwei Shin provide the entertainment which things come to partake of. And yet as in China, the host gives way to the guest, and yields to him the place of honour, so the Kwei Shin would seem here to yield the precedence to things, during their presence and contact. Tliese figures, however, arc not to be strained to
15
the utmost, and only the main Hea for w^ich they were cmploj'ed is ' to be dwelt upon. After all, the Kwei Shin seem to be nothing io
corap^irisoii of the p^ energy of nature, still less when put in com- petition with the 5S fitness of things. Yet to this fitness of things they attribute no qualities, powers or personality, it is a mere princi- pk of (wder, according to which things spontaneously got into their present shape and form, and is not at all to be considered in the light of the author of nature, or the Ruler of the Universe. In the pas- sage under consideration the writer intimates that the energy of nature, the principle of order, and the forms of things existed consen- taneously, so that we might thence infer the eternity of matter, or^ at least that the Chinese knew nothing about the existence of anything prior to the forms of things. The beginning of things being produc- ed by the union of the male and female principle of nature, while their dispersing constitutes their end, does not refer so much to the origin and final termination of all things, as to the birth and death of men and animals, with the growth and decay of plants. The reproduc- tion spoken of does not refer to any life aftar death, and so to the im- mortality of the soul, but to the successive gt^nerationa of mankind, and the springing up of plants from former seeds.
Confucius, in the third section of this chapter, ob- serves, *'Whilst causing each man in the empire to be properly adjusted and purified within, and arrayed in suitable apparel without, in order to offer the accus- tomed sacrifices, (the Kwei Shin) are expandingly spread abroad, as if over the heads, and on each side (of the worshippers.) "
The commentator on this passage tells us, that to adjust means to put things even, and is the action by which we adjust that which was before uneven : pure, h« says, means clean ; and expandingly spreading abroad, conveys the idea of pervading and fillins; all things. He observes further, that (the Kwei Shin) being able to induce men to be reverential and respectful in presenting sacrifices, and thus plain- ly exhibiting and displaying themselves, is a proof of their embodying all things without exception. The Commentator then quotes a saying of Confucius, which he says conveys the same idea, to this efTect. that the energies of the Kwei Shin being displayed above, for the purpose of bringing to light theexhilirated or mournful feelings of the worship- pers, is an instance of the various things (\^hich are the objects of worship) possesing something ethereal, and of the manifestation of the Shin, (when sacrificed to.)
The paraphrast on this passage says, Should any ask how we can shew that the Kwei Shin embody all thingrs without exception ? We Would try to prove it by a circumstance of easy comprehension. At
the period of sacrificing, ^ jjjlp JcL^ the efficaciousness of the Kwei Shin is able to cause each man in the empire, whilst offering such sacrifices as are suitable to his station, to be adjusted and purified, in order to promote veneration within, and to be properly apparelled, in
16
order to shew re^spect without, and tlius come and offer his sacrifices^ at such time you may sec the subtile excellence of the Kwei Shin dis- played and manifested, expandini,'ly pervading- and filling all around, as if they were over the heads and on each side of the worshippfrs. In this we may see a proof of the Kwei Shin's being present wherever we may go, and embodying all things without exception.
The critical commentator on this passage says, the expression " em- bodyinsrall things" in the former section, is very broad and comprehen- sive'. All the productions and changes of heaven and earth, such as the flourishino- and decaying of the blood and spirits of human life, the blooming and withenns: of plants and trees, with the living and dying of all kinds of things, are invariably to be ascribed to the Kwei Shin. In the present section, the wTiter goes on from the idea of embodying all things, and pio'jceds to that of sacrificing; for he was afraid
lest people should take 5|H^ ^ /O ^ f ^^ ^^^ ^^^i ^^^^ ^^ the mechani; ;;i of nature, to be distinct from ^^ 5^ "jZ, J^ Wr the Kvvei Shin who enjoy sacrifices ; he therefore speaks of thieir extreme nearness and evident display, wishing men to understand that these two kinds of Kwei Shin are in fuct one. In the wor d
causing," used in the text, we see their ^^ efficaciousness. Th^.'* sacrificinsr" spoken of, not only alludes to the sacrifices offered to the manes of departed persons, but to all sacrifices, whether of- fered to heaven and earth, to the hills and rivers, or to the five^ points, according to that which it is suitable for each person to sacrifice to ;
only we must be sincere and respectful, in order to collect our JpJ
fl^ animal spirits, and then the animal spirits of the Kwei Shin will also be collected, expansively pervading, and completely filling the eurrounding space, as if the Shin were actually present. The expres- sion "over head, and on each side," merely conveys the idea of filling up the surrounding space, and not that of unsettledness, (or jndefiniteness as to any given point.) Ancestors and descendants
have one and the same ^ breath, or animal spirit ; and although our ancestors may be dead, yet as long as we are alive, the Shin, of our ancestors is certainly in existence. Therefore when we carry to the utmost our sincerity and respect, we may certainly influence them.
When we sacrifice to the ^ flip outside Shins, (that is to the Shins of others, not our ancestors,) and cause them to enjoy our offerings, it is also ascribed to the same principle. When the Shins are such as '^ur stations require us to sacrifice to, then our minds are nearly allied to them ; when our minds conceive this mutual affiance, then the Shius approach us. The " extensive pervading (of the Kwei Shin) as if present," is brought about by the ssincerity of men's own minds; but that which causes n^en (to be thus sincere) and brings about this " extensive pervading as if present'' is the action of the Kwei Shins themselves. Their causing men te be thus sincere, shews that they '* embody all things ;" and men's minds of themselves being thus affected, is a proof that no single thing can divest itself of the Kwei
Shin. Therefore ^:§*;^ ^ U the Kwti Shins of my own per-
17
-- , ^^nE^^W^'''^ Kwei Shins that are the object of sacri- fice, and the Kwei Shins that are the object of sacrifice are |p\^ ^ >2S
Bon, arc
^ ^-j]!^ the Kwei Shins of the mechanisra of nature. Choo-foo-tszA has said, That this one section bein;^ inserted in the middle of this chapter, conveys the sam^ idea with that of the " hawk flying and the fish leaping" in the account of the Happy Medium. (That is, every thint? its place, and according to its nature, so as to avoid iorce and constraint, and to effect spontaneous action.) Wlien the efRcaciousness of the Kwei Shin is bright and illumined, this is being *' brilliantly
displayed." When their ^ energies ascend upward and influ- ence men, this is the '* fragrant or exhilirated f(-eling ;" and when they cause men's animal spirits to be frigid and stiff, this is " the mournful feeling." At death, the contracti-ig principle prevails, but when spirit-j are influenced by sacrifices and induced to come, this is the expanding principle, hence it is said thai the Shins are manifested.
To understand the above section, it is necessary to advert to the ideas of the Chinese regarding sacrifices. They imagine that every man has his peculiar object of sacrifice. The empen.r only should sacrifice to the heavens and earth, the princes of the empire to the hills and rivers, officers of government to the lares of the land and grain, while private persons may sacrifice to the manes of their ancestors and deceased parents. When such etiquette is observed, the sacrifices are said to be suitable to the station of the individuals, and then only can the Kwei Shin be supposed to be present, with their expanding influence. Another requisite to such presence is, the proper feeling and pure intentions, together with the suitable apparel, of the worshippers. These conditions being granted, the K^A'ei Shin are then imagined to be present, filling the surrounding s.pace and overshadowing the sacrificers. There are, however, two gratuitous suppositions in all this scheme, which wantinij proof, and being destitute of evi- dence, tlie whole theory br^^aks d)wn. First, the ima- i^ination that the Kwei Shin cause the worshippers to act thus suitably in their devotions ; and secondly, that the Kwei Shin are actually present when such suitable sacrifices are offered. The Chinese^ seem so certain of these two, that they wait for no evidence of the facts, and even adduce these as proofs of^ the existence and of the pcrvadii'i^ infiiiencc of the Kwei^
D
18
Shin. We have not, however, to do now with the just- ness of their ideas, hut only with their nature. And it would appear, from the above remarks, that they ima- gine the Kwei Shin to have much to do in inducmg certain dispositions, and thus exert an influence over men's minds; while they testify their approbation of such dispositions by being present at the sacrifice, and thus are supposed to possess a power to reward the good and punish the evil ; in all this the Chinese seem to hold that the Kwei Shin are a sort of spiritual beings, and such spiritual beings as might claim the veneration of mankind ; and yet they hold that the Kwei Shin of sacrifices are identical with the Kwei Shin of the me. chanism of nature, which we have found to be a sort of ethereal substance embodying all things, and something similar to the anima muudi of western philosophers.
Confucius, in the fourth section of this chapter, quotes a passage from the ff ^ Book of Odes, which says : ** The approaches of the Shin cannot be ascertained, how th n can we tolerate negligence V The whole passage runs thus : "When I observe your associations with your virtuous friends, I perceive that your coun- tenance is placid and agreeable, (as if you were saying) how can I avoid falling into mistakes '? but let us look at your private abode, and see whether you can peradvan- ture avoid cause for blushing in your secret dwelling ; do not say that the things there enacted are not public, and that no one sees you ; for the approaches of the Shin are not to be conjectured ; how then can you suf- fer yourself to indulge indifference '?"
The Commentator on this pas^a'^e merely explains the terms. The paraphrase runs thus : '' The fact of the Kwei Shin embodying all things, not only happens at the time of sacr ficing, but in tlie daily occurrences of life it is the same ; for the Ode says, When the _ Shin come down, their movements are not to be conceived of; so that in our own private dwellings, were we ever so sincere and respectful, we miijht still fear having cause to blush (before the Shin) ; how then can we be careless and disrespectful ? Looking therefore at the words of this ode, we may kno\r more perfectly that the Kwei Shin embody all things without exception."
The critical commentary on th^. above passage says, that the coming above spoken of is an expanding effort ; hence the Nvriter
19
does not speak of the Kwei, or contracting, but only of the Shtn, or expanding principle. The Shins here spoken of, arc also the kind of Kwei Shins to wliom sacrifices are offered ; but the ode mereh' refers to the time of our dwelling in our private habitations, and does not refer to the season of sacrificing ; for althouirh the former section was sufficient to prove that the Kwei Shins embodied all things without ex- ception, yet fearing lest people should merely advert to the Kwei Shins at the period of sacrificing, and neglect them on common occa- sions, he refers to the Kwei Shin being every where present, even in our private dwellings ; thus the idea of their embodymg all things without exception, would be still more evident. This section refers mainly to the idea of the second section, regarding embodying all things ; and is not to be confined to the elucidation of the third section concerning sacrificing.
In this passage the Shin are spoken of without the Kwei, but lest we should imagine that they are to be veiwed as distinct from the Kwei, the Commentator tells us, that the Shin only are mentioned here, because of the act of their |^ coming", which is an effort of the ^^ expanding principle, and he further informs us that the Shin here spoken of are the Kwei Shin present at the time of sacrificing, only we must conceive of them sometimes' "as present on common occasions. An ap- parent inconsistency is observable in the Chinese theo- ry at this point ; for if the Kwei Shin f a ^ ^ Si embody all things without exception, and are ^ i$ ^ ^ present wherever we go, how can they be said to ;|^ approach, and to be so inscrutable in their ap- proaches as not to be ^/^ fathomed '? But here again we must recur to the Chmese notion of the Kwei Shin, expanding and contracting, approaching and receding, like the heaving of the breath, or the interchange of light and darkness. Is not tbis another proof that in the most spiritual exercises of the Kwei Sbin, where they are thought to ap{)roach and take cognizance of human actions, they are essentially connected with matter, and act as if they were the mere pantings of nature, and not pure spiritual essences '?
In the last section of this chapter Confucius says, " 1 bus it is that, in the manifestation of their abstruse- ness, (the Kwei Shins) whilst displaying their sincerity, are not to be concealed."
20'
Tl»e rommentator says, That gincerlty here means, tliat which is true and free trom all deception. The collectini^s and scatterings of the male and ftinale principle of nature (to produce life and death) are invariably sincere, (or in exact accordance with the strict rule of right,) therefore their manifet^tations are thus unconcealable.
The paraphrase on this section is as follows ; The invisible and inaudible property of the Kwei Shins may be called their abstruseness, whilst their embodying all things without exception is their manifesta- tion. But now can they be abstruse and at the same time manifest.^ In this way. In every single instance of the uniting of elements, to constitute living things, there is the principle of expansion present (or the Shin) ; and in every single instance of the separation of par- ticles to bring about their dissolution, there is the principle of contraction present (or the Kwei) ; both these are produced by the principle of truth and uncorruptedness decreed by Heaven. This is the wav in wiiich (the Kwei Shin) are thus abstruse and yet manifest, without any possibility of concealment. From this we may see how
full and perfect are fig the energies of the Kwei Shin.
The critical commentary on this passage runs thus, " the three first sections of this chapter all treat of the unconcealable manifestation of the abstruse principle ; in this section alone we have pointed out, its sincerity. fCT The abstruse is |^ the hidden, referring to what is above said about the invisible and the inaudible. |^ The manifest is -^ the widely-displayed, referring to what is above said of embody- ing all things ; these two, however, are not to be divided into separate times and circumstances ; it does not mean that the Kwei Shin pro- ceed from the abstruse to the manifest, but it conveys the idea of their possessing both at the same time, without any gradation being dis- tinguishable. |l/)( The sincerity spoken of in the text refers to the Jg prii>ciple of order, which rules in the midst of the ^ energy of na- ture. Hence Hoo-she has said, that the Kwei Shin are the uniting and scattering energies of t'le male and female principle of nature ;
whilst ^ sincerity is the 3^ principle of order according to which such uniting and scattering of the male and female principles of nature
are regulated. Between heaven and earth there certainly is this ^
principle of order, and so also there certaintly exist these ^^ energies; thus the contractings (of the Kwei) are real contractings, and the ex- pandings (of the Shin) are real expandings, but they all act according to this perfectly sincere and unadulterated principle of order, then of course they are brightly displaye'^, and cannot be concealed ; hence
it is said, that when there is |5)( sincerity, there will follow 7J^ the existence of form. In its being unconcealable, we see that the ab- struse is necessarily accompanied by that which is manifest ; thus the abstruse and manifest are inseparably united in one, and not merely tacked together, from which we may infer their unconcealable character. This section speaks of the virtue of the Kwei Shiu being so complete,
21
mainly on account of their |Hc sincerity. It doe« not mean, that in- dependent of the Kwei Shin there is a 6ef)arate beini^ called tl& Sincerity. In this work, t';e Happy Medium, this"" is the first time that the word sincerity appears ; from henceforth the word occupies a prominent place in the volume. But this Sin- cerity is the result of ^ wide-spread greatness ; speaking of it accor- ding to the J|| principle of order, the word sincerity occuring in sub- sequent chapters seems to per\ade all principles and possess them in itself Speaking of sincerity in connection with f;^ virtue, this' word forms the pivot and hiuire of the whole work, but the writer has managed to bring it up when speaking of the Kwei Shin, that he might pass on from the root of productions and transformations, to the sincerity of the human heart, in which we perceive that the writer's idea is perfect and complete. Formerly he was led, from the obser- vation of the hawk and the fishes to spej.k of ^ right principles' which was to exhibit those principles from ^7^ ^ the forms of things ; now he is led from the consideration ©f the Kwei Shin to speakof right principles, which is to illustrate those principles irom *2l^ the energies of things. The invisible and inaudible con, s^ute Jg the hidden, the embodying of all things constitutes the -^ expansive, therefore the K^ve] Shin are said to unite the expan- sive and the hidden. The embodying of all things constitutes the greatness of the Kwei Shin ; after havin? spoken of this the writer merely refers to the presence of the Kwei Shin at sacrifices and in private dwellings, which is but the littleness of the Kwei Shin • hence this section is said to include the sm.ll and great ; thus in the midst oftheexpar.s,veand hidden, he includes the small and the ?reat To quote two things and speak of them together, is called unilin^ • to take this and add it to that, is called including. '
In order to understand the above remarks of the sa^e we must consider, th.it by the abstruse therein mention- ed, lb meant the hidden quality of the Kwei Shin, con- srstmg in their being invisible and inaudible to human senses ; and by the manifest, is meant the displays of their energy in embodying all things, and causing them to expand or contract, to grow or decay, as well as in their embodying of all moving things, causing them to advance or recede, to change or revolve. The word sincerity in the text is not to be applied, as mi^ht at first appear, to the sincere feeling of the wor«hrppers but to the sincere action of the Kwei Shin, who are supposed to do every thing exactly according to the rule of right, and to be real and unpretending in their
22
operations. To the readers of the Happy Medium, the word ^^ sincere, and ^ ;^!j^ perfectly sincere will be found to have a peculiar meaning ; it conveys something of the idea of ^ perfect intelligence and virtue, such as that which the sages possess and exhibit. The commentator tells us, that the energies of the Kwei Shin being so complete, is mainly on accouut of their =)j^ sincerity ; which is an inherent quality of these beings, and not a separate existence. Here then we have a moral quality applied to the Kwei Sliin. Let us endeavour to combine this with the original idea at- tached by them to the Kwei Shin, and in so doing w^e shall find that they are the contracting and expanding energies of nature, embodying all things and yet invisi- ble ; influencing men to otfer sacrifices aright, and then being present at such offerings ; coming down also in an inscrntable manner to observe human actions ; and then manifesting their abstruseness, in a sincere and in- telligent manner, so as to baffle concealment. In all this, we see a gradual advancement from the material to the spiritual, from the operative to the presiding, from the confined to the pervading, from the gross to the intelli- gent, until they become objects of worship and reve- rence ; yet we must remember that according to their system, they are based in matter, and essentially con- nected with it ; that they are dual in their arrange- ment, and plural in their nature, and themselves sub- ject to a controlling powder, such as ^ 1i^ the decree of heaven, and ^ the fitness of thin^s. The utmost we can assign to them, therefore, is the anima mundi, or soul of the universe, divided into an indefinite number of demons, or spirits, to whom is assigned the agitating and reviving of material things.
In the 24th chapter of the Pf^ ^ Happy Medium, we have a casual reference to the ^^ Shin, which rnay tend to throw some light on the subject. The writer says, " The principles of the ^g ^ perfectly sincere enable them to foretell future events ; when a country is about to prv)sper, there will be propitious omens, and
23
when a nation is going to decay, there Avill he unfa- vourable prognostics. These may be seen in the straws and in the tortoise, (use I for divination,) and may he ascertained from the actions (of the prince.) When happiness or misery are at hand, whether <<ood, the e- vent may be foreknown, or evil, the event may ])e pre- dicted ; therefore the perfectly sincere are like the Shin.
Tlie Shin here, according? to the comrnentator, refer to the Kwei Shin, and tlie quality ascribed to the Sage in which he is said to re- sein'ile the Kwei Shin, is that of perfect sincerity, leading to the prognostication of future events. Tlie paraphrase on this passage, says, " That the Kwei Shin embody all things without exception, and can move the springs of happiness and misery ; while the per- fectly sincere possess in themselves clearness and intelligence, with the ability to examine the springs of happiness and misery: thus then, those who can display the a jstruse in the midst of the manifest are the Kwei Shin, and those who can know the abstruse in the midst of the manifest are the perfectly sincere. For that which pervades both the visible and invisible world is one course of action, and that which unites heaven and men, is one principle ; therefore the per- fectly sincere are like the Shin." The critical commentary on this passage, says, " The perfectly sincere man possesses in him- self clearness and intelligence, therefore his mind and his energies are like the Shin ; the way in which these foreknow future events, is, with respect to the Kwei Shin, that they display the si)rinirs of action by the priciples of truth, and with respect to the perfectly sincere, that they examine the springs of action by the feeling of sincerity ; hence these latter are said to resemhle the Shin. From the Hon- existing to tend towards the existing, is the action of the Shin ; from the existing to revert to the non-existing is the action of [he Kwei ; in the present case, there must be the auspicious prognostics, and the unfavourable omens, displayed in the straws and tortoises, and disco- verable in the act'ons of the [)rince, all which are the forebodings of the springs of action made by the sincere ; and thus from the non-ex- isting to trace out the existing is the Shin, or inscrutably intelligent property of the sincere. Therefore the sage considers the knowled!:e of the springs of action displayed by the perfectly sincere, to resem- ble the Shin. The commentator says, that the Shin here, refer to the Kwei Shin, by which he means that the word is to be takej^ as
referring to the beings called the Kwei Shin, and not to the jfll^ !(y ehin meaou, inscrutable intelligence of tl-e perfectly sincere."
In the above passage, the highest quality of the sage is said to be that of perfect sincerity, and having per- fect sincerity, or acting perfectly in accordance with the principle of right, and the fitness of things, he pos- sesses unbounded intelligence. By meaLS of this in-
24
telligence, be is aMe to prognosticate future events, and in this he resembles the 8hia. The way in which the sages predicted future events was by attending to prognostics; and the Kwei Shin discovered their know- ledge of tbe springs of the action by acting according to the princi[)les of truth, or by awarding happiness or misery to m in kind in an upright and proper manner. The Kwei Shin are said to act according to the fitness of things, in their expanding and contracting, advancing and rect^.ding ; an 1 by thus following out the principles of truth, th \v produce phenomena, which shew their ability to antic; pate future contingencies, in all this the Chinese irni^ine thit they can trace a resemblance between the s i;^es and the Kwei Shin, but if the intel- ligence of the s.tges resemble that of the Kwei Shin, the inteii^vnce of the Kwei Shin must resemble that of the sages ; and if the sages can foretell future events, not by any innate sagacity, but hy observing prognostics, and drawing inferences from the same, so also the Kwei Shin must be able to ascertain the con- tingencies of futurity only in some such manner. This pas.sage, therefore, does not ascribe divine intelli- gence to the Kwei bhin, but only such as the sages possess and employ.
In the 29th chapter of the Happy Medium, we have another reference to the Kwei Shin. The passage runs thus :
" 1. He who rules over the empire has three weighty matters to arrange, which done, perhaps he may reduce the number of errors, (committed under him.)"
On this the Commentator says, that *' the three weig-hty matters" are ceremonies, r!^<^uhitions, and literary examinations. When no Oiie but the Emperor interferes in manai^ing these, tiien the different states will be uniformly i^overu'^d, families will be saved from hetero- geneous customs, and individuals will have fewer errors."
2. '' Although those of high antiquity might have been good, yet they have left no sufficient records to prove it ; their goodness not having been substantiated has failed to induce credence ; and not having posses- sed pubhc confidejce, the people have not complied
25
with them. In like manner, alihough those of a more recent period may be g^ood, yet they are not honoured (by being invested with regal dignity) ; not being thuji honoured, they fnil to secure pul)lic confidence, and not having such confidence, they are not followed."
Here the coimientator remirws, that " those of high antiquity, re- fer to the monarchs who flourished before that time, such as those who iiistituted the ceremonies of the Hea and Shang dynasties, who, although good, had not left sufRcier.t records to enable men to substantiate their goodness. Those of a more recent period, refer to the sages, who occupied inferior stations, such as Confucius, who although he instituted excellent ceremonies, was not exalted to a station of dignity."
3. " Therefore the institutions of the superior man should originate with himself, and should be suffi- ciently substantiated among the people ; when com- pared with those of the three ancient kings, they should be found unerring ; when established before heaven and earth, they shouhl not appear inconsistent with right reason ; when confronted for examination before the Kwei Shin, there should be no doubt about them ; and to the distance of a hundred ages, waitiucr for another sage to arise, there should be no misgivings respecting them."
The commentator tells us, that " the superior man" here spoken of refers to him who rules over the empire ; and the institutions men- tioned, refer to the ceremonies, regulations, and literary examinations appointed by him. Originating with himself, means, that he himself should possess the requisite virtue to institute them. To substantiate them among the people, means, that they should be so proved as to induce belief and compliance. " Established," means set up, as it were set up here to be examined there. Heaven and earth is here
put for ^ the principle of right reason. The Kwei Shin here refer to the traces of formation and change, (or to those expanding and contracting powers of nature which bring about production and decay.) After the distance of a hundred ages, wailing for another satje to arise, anu yet io have no misgivings, is the same as to say, that if another sage should arise he would not alt.-r my woids.
The parap.ia^e on this passage, s.iys, that if those who possess virtue (like the sages), without hitting upon the ricrht time, and with- out obtaining the proper rank, an- still unable to reduce the number of peoples errors, how much less can those, who merely happen to light upon tlie opportun'ty, and get into stations of trust and dignity, without pos'iegsing the requisite virtue, eff-ct this ! Therefore the' «<uperior man who presides over the empire, in c«rryine out these three imporUut institutions, havingfirsl paid hoJiour lu virUious nature
26
and encouraged literary effoits, then being enabled to illustrate the nature of heaven earth and all things, while he complies with the laws of ceremony and music, business and affairs, inheriting every one of these in himself, may be said to possess the requisite virtue. Moreover when he hits on the proper season, and obtains the requisite dignity, and demonstrates this to the people of the empire, then he will be confided in, and then he will be followed ; in tl)is way perhaps he may substantiate the goodness of his acts. Still he does not dare to boast of himself, and will take that which he does and compare it with the acts of the three ancient kings, until he finds that amongst the things which he has followed or altered, diminished or increased, there is not the slightest departure from former practices. He also takes the things which he has instituted, and submits them to the scrutiny of heaven and earth, and finds that amongst the things which he has curtailed or completed, aided or assisted, there is nothing that contradicts the self-existent principle of right. Moreover, the Kwei Shin are w^ithout form, and are with difficulty understood ; he there- fore takes his own actiors, and brings them in contact with the ab- struse and mysterious ; in this way he confronts them for examina- tion with the Kwei Shin, whose contractings and expandings, changes and transformations, are nothing more than this principle of right ; thus the invisible world substantiates the visible, and the su- perior man -s free from doubt. Future sages have not yet arisen, and it is difficult to know what they will be : he therefore secures that his conduct be such that nothing can be added to it ; and then should he look for some future sage, his actions and usages would be nothing more than what this principle of right inculcates ; thus he takes the distant to substantiate the near, and is without misgivings. In this way it is that the three institutions of the superior man have some certain origin, and are substantiated by proper proofs.
In a more extended commentary on the subject, the writer says, The inscrutabilities of the Kwei Shin refer to the mutual depen- dence of their filling and emptying, their dispersing and growing, with the hiexhaustible character of their contracting and expanding, their advancing and receding.
4. "Confronting his actions for examination with the Kwei Shin, and having no hesitancy, shows that the superior man understands Heaven ; to be bold to wait for a hundred ages, until some future sage arise, with- out feeling any misgiving, shows that he understands men."
Tlie Commentator remarks on this, that to know heaven and to know men, means, that he knows the principles which regulate them.
The paraphrase runs thus : " The regulations of the superior man, are invariably consistent with reason, and not accidentally right. His being able to confront his actions with the hidden nature of the Kwei Shin, and to feel no hesitancy in so doing, is because he knows the principles which actuate Heaven. For the principles by which Heaven is actuated, are carried to the utmost in the case of the Kwei
27
Shin ; and the superior man, investigating thoroughly their jjf^ ex- pandings, and understanding their f^i transformations, fully knows the principles by which Heaven's ways are governed ; therefore his regulations are all in accordance with Heaven, so that he can confront them for examination without hesitation. Speaking only of the Kwei Shin, in this passage, we may know that heaven and earth are included. Future sages are removed to a great distance, and the superior man is enabled to wait for their judgement without mis-iving because he knows the principles by which men are actcared.° For the principles which guida men are carried to the utmost h, the case of the sages ; while the superior man, clearly understanding men and things, and examining the human relutions by the principles which uniformly actuate mankind, perfectly knows them all. Therefore his regulations are invariably in accordance with human feelings, so that he can wait for future sages without misgiving. When' the writer speaks of future sages, the three ancient kings are of course in- cluded. This is what is called the extreme of goodness displayed in the regulations of the superior man.
It is not necessary to proceed further with this chap- ter, as our object is merely to illustrate the Chinese ideas of the Kwei Shin : which are casually referred to in it^ The confronting of one's actions before the Kwei Shin for examination, intimates that the writer considered the Kwei Shin to be present, and to be ca- pable of approving or condemnmg- them ; in the same way as in the quotation from the Book of Odes made formerly, where the Shin are supposed to approach us in an inscrutable manner, so that we must act with cau- tion, in order to avoid being- filled with shame in their presence. The Kwei Shin, however, are mentioned se- parately from 5^ ^ heaven and earth, which latter is said to be J^ the self-existent principle of right, and therefore, in the Chinese estimation, far superior to ■the Kwei Shin, who are only the traces of production and renovation, or whose traces are seen in the forma- tions and changes which take place in nature. The Kwei Shin are said to be without f..rm, and hard to be understood, both abstruse and mysterious ; and yet their material expandings and contractings, changes and transformations, are represented as merely in conformity with ig the fitness of things, which they cannot go be- yond. In the fourth section the writer says, "Confront- mg his actions for examination before the Kwei Shin,
28
without hesitancy, ?>hovvs that tiie superior man under- stands Heaven ;" from which some might infer that the Kwej Shin are synonimous with Heaven ; but the com- mentator tells us, that the Kwei «Shin, in the above pas- sage, includes the 5^ ^ heaven and earth, mentioned immediately before ihem, in the third section ; as the *' future sages," also include the ^ 3E three ancient kings, mentioned in the same seetion ; so that the supe- rior man being without doubts and misgivings before them may be said to know heaven and men. The words heaven and earth, as well as the three ancient kings, are omitted in the passage under consideration for the sake of brevity, and therefore the word -^ Heav. ii is no more synonimous with the Kwei Shin, than the word /^ men mentioned in the antithetical sentence is synonimous with the sages. The expression that 5C >^ S t^^6 principles which actuate Heaven are carried to the utmost by the Kwei Shin, is similar to the phrase, K ^^M the principles by which men are actuated are carried to the utmost by the sages ; and from the latter we may understand the former ; which gives us the idea that as the sages carry out fully the principle of right in man, so the Kwei Shin carry out fully the principle of right in heaven and earth. From the whole we may understand that the Kwei Shin are subordinate to heaven and earth, as well as to the ^ rule of right, and the J^ fitness of things, which lat- ter are spoken of as. self-existing.
In thef^ |g Lun yu, Discourses and Conversations, 2d book, and oth page, we have the following passage :
1. " He sacriiiced (to his ancestors) as if they were present, he sacrificed to the Shins, as if the Shins were present."
The commentator on this passage tells us, that where the word sa- crifice alone is employed, it is to be understood of sacrificing to the Tuanes of ancestors ; and that the Shins above spoken of mean the outside Shins, (or those not related to the worshipper.) In sacrifi- cing to one's ancestors the most important feeling is filial p ety, and in sacrificing to the Shins, the most important thing is respect. The commentator suggests also, tliat in thia passage the disciples of Coa-
29
fudus intended to record the sincere feeling of the sage at the time of 8*criflcing.
In the paraphrase the writer reinnrks, The disciples of the sa^e here make a minute, Raying', The most important thin^ in sacrificinij is sincere feeling. When the saije sacrificed to his progenitors, then his filial feelings were pure and earnest : and aithouijhhis ancestors wore removed to a distance, he felt as if their sound and form were present on the seat appointed for tliem. When he sacrificed to the outside Shins, (or those not related to him,) his respectful feelings were bent towards one point, and although there was no connexion of form and sound, he felt as though these outside Shtns were over his head ; so intense was 1 is sincerity.
The critical commentary ou this passage states, that when ances- tors are mentioned, deceased parents are of course included. The outside Shins he says, are the Shlrjs that preside over hills and for- ests, rivers and vallies, which are able to get up clouds and brino- down ruin : these were sacrificed to when the sage was in office.
When the outside Shins are mentioned, tlien iJ jjJQ the presiding genii of the five parts of the house, sacrificed to on different occasions, are included. Filial piety conveys the idea of sympathy and love, respect that of veneration and awe. Separately considered the one is filial piety, and the other respect ; viewed in connexion, :t is but one feeling of sincerity, which reigning in filial piety, the filial piety is extremely sincere ; and reigning in respect, the respect is unques- tionably true. My own |'^' ]]jl^ animal spirits are the animal spirits of my progenitors ; when on ray part, I carry to the utmost my
sincerity and respect, then 5|^ the breath or energy of my ancestors is here present ; just the same as a root again sending forth shoots, or like a dry tree putting forth new roots on the side of the rotten stump, thus connecting the real breath or ener^ry down to the present time. Although the outside Shins are not one breath or energv \\ith myself, yet since it is suitable for me to sacrifice to them, then there exists the principle of inter-communication, and if I carry to the utmost my res- pect and sincerity, their 5j^ breath or energy will also be influenced and induced to come. But if the Shins are such as we ought not to
sacrifice to, then as this I^ principle does not exist, the 5j^ breath or energy cannot be present.
Confucius said, " When I do not attend at the sacri- fice, it is to me as if there were no sacrifice."
Here, the commentator says, the disciples record the words of Con- fucius, in order to illustrate the above sentence. At the proper time for sacrificing perhaps something might have happened, (sickness or such like,) to prevent his attendance, and he commissioned some one else to act for him ; on such occasions he could not carry out the feel- ing of sincerity as if present : and although the sacrifice was perform- ed, this feeling was defective, and he felt as if the sacrifice had not been performed. Fan-she says. That when the good man sacrifices, he guards against indulgence for seven days, and tasts for three ; in
30
this we may see that tlie sacrificer carries his sincere feelins to the
utmost ; thus when the sacrifice to heaven is offered, the ^ fll^ celestial Shins comedown ; and when the offerini^a to ancestors *are
presenter], the J^ "^ hnmin Kweis enjoy them ; but It all depends upon ourselves in order to prodnce this effect. It" we exercise suitable sincerity, tlien the proper Shins will be present, but without tlie due exercise of feeling- on our parts, the expected Shins will not be there ; can we therefore dispense with caution ? In the expression, " when I am not present at a sacriiice, it is to me as if there were no sacri- fice," we see, that sincerity was the real thing-, and the service a mere empty ceremony.
In this passage, the Shins referkcd to are merely the presiding genii of hills and rivers, who are supposed to control the wind and rain, to whom it was usual for a man to offer sacrifice when he held office. These are c.dled the outside Shins, because they have no connec- tion with a man's self, except an official one, and there- fore are not so much regarded as the manes of depart- ed ancestors. In the one case ^ filial piety, which consisted in sympathy and love, was the main feeling to be encouraged ; and in the other i^^ respect, which consisted in veneration and awe, was to be principally present in the mind of the worshipper ; but as filial pie- ty and love contemplated a nearer relation, and sympathy of the worshipper with the object of worship, than mere respect or awe, so we may see how it is that the Chinese esteemed the manes of ancestors much more than the genii of hills and rivers. Ihis is a- gain evident from the idea subsequently put forth, that our breath or animal spirits is part and parcel of that which our ancestors possessed, (in the same way as Levi was in the loins of Abraham when Melchisedec met him,) so that wdien we sacrifice with due respect to their manes, we induce them to come and be present, while we can feel a sympathy with them, as if we actually brought them down to the present time. In the case of the outside Shins, there is no oneness of breath or energy, and the same sympathy cannot be felt, yet because it is my duty, in virtue of my office, to sacrifice to them, if 1 manifest a due degree of sin- cerity on the occasion, there is a sort of connection es-
31
tablishecl, and they will also be induced to come. Thus the sage sacrificed to them as if present, though evidently with a different feeling from thai which he experienced when making otTerings to his ancestors.
Although the word i|l^ Shin only is fouid in the passage above quoted, yet the ^^ Kwei itv included, for the manes of ancestors to which the first member of the sentence refers are in fact the Kwei, while the out - side Shins, mentioned afterwards, are the Shin.
In the commentary on the second section, the writer says, '' that when the ^ sacrifices to heaven are offer- ed, the ^ fl^ celestial Shins descend, and when ^ the offerings to ancestors are presented, the A. % human Kweis enjoy them." In which passage we have the Kwei Shin again exhibited in connection with each other, onlv the Shin here spoken of are not so much the genii of hills and rivers, as the expanders of nature more immediately employed by heaven. Hence as heaven is not supposed to come down to earth, when the sacrifices to heaven are offered, the ce- lestial Shins descend ; so also when the manes of an- cestors are sacrificed to, their Kweis, or their previous- ly contracted energies, approach and enjoy the feast.
In the third book of ^ f^ Discourses and Conver- sations, on the 17th page, we have the following pas-
sage :
' Fan-che enquired about wisdom *? Confucius said, Attend mainly to the righteous acts due towards the people ; respect the Kw^ei Shins, and keep them at a distance; this may be considered wisdom, lie fur- ther asked regaiding benevolence^? To which the sage replied, Benevolence consists in paying chief attention to what is difficult, and afterwards regarding that which may be acquired thereby ; this may be consi- dered benevolence."
The commentator on this passa-je says, That the word " people," is to be understood of nun in i^^encnil. " Acqnire" means to obtain. To exert one's main strengtk in doinif that which i.s snitable in «ur ir.- tercourse with mankind, and not to be deluded by trying to find out ]he inscrutabilities of the Kwei Shin, is the business of the wise^
32
First to attend to %vliat i? diffi< ult in businesp, and afterwards to re- gard what is to lie o' taincd as the result of such efforts, this is the feel- ing of th.:* benevolent man. This announcement to Fan-che must have been on account of some known fault into which he had fallen. Ching-tsze says, that for people to put too much confidence in the Kwei Stilus is a delusion ; and yet if you do not believe them altoge- ther, you cannot respect them : but he who can respect them, and yet keep them at a distance, may be considered wise. He also says, To attend iirst to the most difficult thing, means to repress one's evil de- sires. To put that first which is most difficult, and yet not to spe- culate upon what you may get by so doing, is benevolence. Leu- Bhe says, You should attend to that which is most urgent, and not seek after liiat which is hard to be understood ; you should stre- nuously practise that which you know, and not dread difficulties in that which is hard to perform.
The paraphrase on the above passage says. That Fan-che enquired regarding wisdom, when Confucius said, Wisdom consists in the clear discernment of right principles ; if you can sincerely exert your -'rength in doing that which is right towards others, and str^^nu- Ouslv practise whatever the relations in which you stand, or the sta- tions which you fill, require you to perform ; while you respect the Kwei Shins, and keep them at a distance, neither flattering nor an- noying them by your solicitations for happiness ; if you can manage vour business in this intelligent manner, will you not be considered wise ? Fan-che further enquired regarding benevolence ? to which the sage replied. Benevolence consists in the pure maintenance of good feeling : if you only attend in the first instance to that which is diffi- cult in business ; vigorously giving precedence to whatever is most important in the cultivation of the mind, or has reference to the per- fection of your nature, while you wait for the results to follow of themselves, not setting your heart upon them as if you certainly ex- pected them, when you maintain right feeling in tliis pure and un- afftcted manner, will you not be considered benevolent ?
In the above passage, Confucius places the duties of cultivating the human relations and every day virtues in the first place, while he regards questions about the Kwei Shins as of inferior moment. He would have the latter imieed treated with respect, but no more at- tention paid to them than what custom would render necessary. In all this, we perceive the very inferior notions entertained by the Chinese of the Kwei Shin, and the comparatively small estimation in which they are held.
In the 4th Hook of Discourses and Conversations, and the lOth p.^ge, we have the following passage. Confucius was seriously indisposed, when Tsze-loo (one of his dmciples) asked if he should oiler up
33
pr5»yers for him. CoafuciiH s^i 1, Is th3re any such thin:|*?to uhich Tsze loo rep' 13 I, r^^re is: an old epi- taph s;ivs. W3 h ^Vr^ pr lye 1 to the ^^iji Shias above, ativl t.> th' ^^ iv''^s be^r.vl ':ifida> rjjoiiiijJ, 1 h.iv3 loa^ been 1 ih'.^ h xbit of praying-.
T le Co.ikneiitator on thiS pissi^re aays, To pray, m?ans, to pray to tlv Iv vtM S li I. Cout'iciiis, in euiiiiruiir, whether there was any sica thi'i^ "? ;ueaiit to ask, whether there was any reason for it. Ail ep tapii is made? forth.? purpose of lameutini^ the dead, and de- t.iilin'^ h;a actioiH : abn'e and below, m -an, heaven and earth. Tiio<H which helo li^ to heaveu are callel the Shin, and those which beloiu^r to earth are called tiie K he. To pray, means, to repent of er- rors a < i to pass :)ver to goodness, in order to solicit the prot-ction of t'lH S iii. If there were- no reason forsJch a pnctice, then there would oe no necessity for perfonninj^ it; Tsze-loo said there was : but we should think that the sai^^e ha i been i^uilty of no fault, and had no further i^o od.iess to which he could advance ; his former practices were certainly ii accordance with^jilfjjj^.ateilii^enlandinvisi de beings, thei-fdore he said, I hue \o\\g oe^n i i the haoit of prayin ;. More- over, iccordi i'j: to toe B )ok of Cere n onies custo.nary at t!ie demi^-i of learned men, it was usual, as soon as they were sick, to offer prayers to the i^eni that presided over tne tive pirts of the house: for ti^e atteadints were at that ti;ne in gr^'at extremcy, aad their feeling* wouid not let th^m rest, so they were in the hi'oit of pr lyin^ nithout inf)r nin,' the patient, therefore Coafucius did not directly oppose T-ze loo s wisii, but merely toid hmi that there was no necessity for praver.
Tie paranhrase on this passasje is to the following effect : Wneii Co.ifuci ts was very mu^h indisposed, and indeed dangerously ill, Tsze-looa-ik'd his mister, wnether he wished him to offer up prayers to ih.- hi^v \ S:i»n, in order to solicit their favour and happiness. Con fueius, wishinif iiun to en juire accurately into the reason of the cere* mony, asked, wIk ther according to the principles o. reason there wa' any m;ed of such a th;,ig ? ^Tsze-loo, without understanding hi* r.i^anin>, re[)lied that th re was; quoting in proof the words of an an* cient epaaph, which said, we have prayed to the 5^ i|j^ celestia|
Siiias aSiive, and to the jl^ jjjK terrestrial K'hes belo\y. Confucius S.U I, Slioiid there be any reusou for such a practice, it is only when the worshippers repent of their faults aud remove to the way of good- ness, in order to seek the protection of the Shin ; but in my every-day practice I have always treated the Ksvei Shin with respect, fearing lest I should inadvertently offend them ; thus I have been in the habit of praying to them for a long time, and not only now when I am sick. Take ths, and think over it.
In this, as well as ii^ the former quotation, we per- caive the irreligious spirit of the philosopher, not only kee|>ing him at the utmost distance Iroin invisible be-
F
34
irigs throuc^h life, but evea on the borders of the frn-re- preventing his seeing the necessity of prayer. With this irreligious disposition, common to most philoso- phers, however, we have not now to do, but our business is to ascertain what is the meaning of the pas- sage before us. It seems it was visual, when great men were seriously indisposed, for their attendants to pray to the Kwei Shin. One of the disciples of Con- fucius wanted to comply with this custom, but the sage himself could not see the necessity of it ; thinking that a good life was the best prayer, and that so long as a man did his duty in his station, the less he had to do with invisible beings the better. The disciple not understanding his master's idea, quoted an ancient epi- taph, showing that it was usual to pray to the 1^ Shins above, and to the (^ Ke's beiow. As this is the first passage of the Four Books in which we have met with the Sffi K'he, it will be well to consider what they mean. Kan^-he says, that the fjff K'he are the j^ Jfi^ terres- trial Shins, and observes that the J|Jt jjj|f terrestrial K'hes
^ & ^ 1^ # til 3^^ 'h^=^^ *^^* ^™^ "P ^^^ things, as the ^ j^ celestial Shins ^| |ii H 1^ W Ij^ lead out all things. Ihey are then the same, or nearly the same beings, only the one have especial reference to heaven, and the other to earth ; the one are said to be above, and the other below ; the one lead out, while the other bring up ail things. The ^]^ K'hes are there- fore a portion of the expanding powers of nature, main- ly spoken of with reference to earth ; and they, as well as the ifj!^ Shin, are distinct from the ^ Kwei, which ere the contracting powers of nature. They were ob- jects of devotion, because many of the Chinese thought they could by prayer obtain blessings from them, but Confucius discouraged such devotional acts as unneces- sary. In the commentary on this passage, we meet for the first time witn the expression fil^ g^ Shin ming, i^hich is not to be taken here for a mere attribute, as Kang-he explains it, but for spiritual intelligences, at ihyrnhh aod uiteiligent i>eings, with whom the conduct
36
of the sage was in perfect accordancr, so that having never offended them, it was not necessary for him to pray to them for their forgiveness. In the present day this phrase is used for idols so distinctively, that it would be injudicious to emph)y it for exprcisS- ing the Deity.
In the same book, and at the I7th page, we have the following :
Confucius said, In Yu I can find no flaw ; he was sparing in his common diet, hut extremely filial in his conduct towards the Kvvei Shin ; he wore vile clothing, but he was truly elegant in his apron and crown (used on sacrificial occasions) ; he dwelt in a mean abode, bat he exerted his strength upon the ditches and water- courses ; in Yu I can find no blemish.
The commentator says, that the word flaw, means a crack ; and the idea of the sage is, that in pointing to his cracks, he had no remark to make. Sparing means thin ; his being extremely filial in hi^ conduct towards the Kwei Shin, means that he offered plenteous and pure sacrifices. His clothing, referred to his every-day clothing. The apron was a covering for the knees, and was made of leather j the crown was a mitre he wore, and both were employed on Sacrificial occasions. The ditches and water-courses, were channels for water between the fields, for the purpose of fixing their boundaries, and for providing against drought and inundation. Whether he was liberal or sparing, in every case he did that which was suitable, therefore he had no flaw, that could be remarked upon. Hence the sage repeated his observation, in order to express his deeper admiration. Yaug- she says, He was sparing in what he bestowed upon himself, and when he exerted diligence it was in the business of the people ; when he displayed liberality, it v/hs in the ceremo^iies of the temple and court, thus he might be said to possess the empire, without seeming to possess it ; what blemish then could be found in him ?
The paraphrase runs thus : Confucius said. When I examine into the sovereigns of antiquity, such as Yu, of the Hea dynasty, I can- not point out any blemish, that I could rem^irk upon. For instance when he provided himself with meat and drink, he was frugal and sparing ; but in sacrificing to the Kwei Shins of the ancestorial temple, he was most abundant and pure in his selection of victims and meat- off*erings, to show his filial piety and induce them to accept hi« oS'er- ing. On common occasions he aimed at coarseness and vileness in his apparel, but with regard to the apron and mitre used on sacrificial occasions, he exerted his utmost efi'orts to provide things of the most e- legant kind without the slii^htest niirs^ardline!»s In the abode in which he dwelt, he put up with a small and low edifice, but with respect to the ditches and water- courses among the people, he carried to the ut- most th« labour of arranging aud uiatiagiiig, with the vie w A>f flxiitg the
m
pt*«ner boiimlarie?!, and guarding against droughts and inundations. When it was necessary to be economical, he was econoTiical ; and when liberality was called tor, he was liberal : in each department he did what was requisite. With such a sovereign as Yu, I can truly find no fault.
The Kwei Shins above mentionec], we are told by the critical commentator, refer to jjjg^ ^ the manes of de- parted parents and ancestors. So that we have do need to seek far for the meaning of the terms in the present intance, and the use of the word^ filial affection, in- stead of^^ respect, with reference to the Kwei Shin, is accounted for. It shews also what a wide acceptation the words are capable of, and how difficult it is to as- sign to them any definite meaning.
In the 6th Book of Discourses aiid Conversations, and the 3d page, we have another reference to the Kwei shin, as follows ;
*' K'he-lco or ( Tsze loo), enquired alout serving the Kwei Shins'? When Confucius said, i>ioc beinji abie to serve men, how can you expect to serve th{ K\rei. He again asked about death ; wneu the sage replied Kot being fully acquainted with Ufe, how can you ej pect to understand death
The Commentator says, thai K'he-loo asked about serving the Kwei Shtas, with the view of knowing the object with which sacrifices ar3 offered ; nDr^iJver de.ith is a thii; wiiicli uieu cannot avoid, and consequently we should not be ignorant of it ; both of these, therefore, are important questions. Yet unless a man were sufficiently sin- cere and respectful, to enable him to serve his fellow men, he cer- tainly would Hot be aWe to serve the Shins ; also unless a man traced things up to their original, anj knew that whereby he obtained life, he certainly would not be able to rev-;rt to the en 1 of things, and know the cause wherefore he should die. For the visiole and invisi- ble worlds, together with the bej^inniag and end of ma i, are oriirinally no two principles ; but learnius; his it irrid itions, and we must not be like those who jump over tiie form> at sch )ol ; therefore Confucius administered to him this caution. Cninsj-tsze says, As the day and the night, so is the principle of life and death ; if a man knew the principle of life, he would know the principle of d^ath ; and if a man could carry o it the pr riciph^ scrvinar of men, he coul I als.> carry out the principl of servint: the Kwei. Life and death, men and Kw i, are one a'.id yet t vd. an^ two and yet one. Some have said, wt; do not know but that Confucius's not informing Tfze-loo, was the most ef- fectualy way to inform him.
The paraphrase ig as follows: K*he-lo6. enquired re<,'^rdinsr the Kwei Shin, that as it was proper for mea to serve tUem, he «huuld
like to know the way in which we ought to do it. Confucii;- replied, Human beings and the Kwei are one and the sanne ; the way in which we are to serve the Kwei Sldn is precisely similar to that in which we ought to serve ovir fellow men. If amongst our parents and bre- thren, relations and snpeiiors, we cannot carry out the feeling of re- spect and sincerity, in ordtr to serve them, we shall be bhtmed by men in the visible, and not only by the K vei in the iiwi-^il^le world how then can we serve the Kvvci, so as to iudure them to appro.. ch and enjoy the sacrifices we offr. If you. Sir, -.vi-^h to s rve the Kv i Shin, you have only to seeK for ttie principir in the servi.^t^ of in<i\\, and that will be sufficient. He again ei^quired re-pect ng de:\th, which is what every man must come to. wisliing to kiKJW the renson for which mtp die. Confm ius s.iid, fjife and death fire ore and the same ; the principle on which men die, is tt»e same as that on which they live ; but if from the time of our birth, we cannot tell exactly how heaven bestowed on us form, or conferred on us our nature; if in these princijjies we ar/ deficient, then living we do not comply with the business for which we were sent here, nor dving can we expect to rest peacefully, how then can we anticip-,ite the close of life, and know how we are to die. If you. Sir, wish to know all ab'i^ut death, you have only to strive to know all about life, and that will be sufficient. In a critical commentary on this passage, we have the following remarks : Naa-heen observes on the words Kwei and Shin, that, when taken together, that which advances and is inscrutable in its approach, is the Shin ; while that which departs and does not return, is the Kwei ; speaking of them separately, whatsoever in heaven, earth, hills, rivers, wind, and thunder, can be connected by the aura or breath of nature, is always called the Shin ; while ancestors and deceased parents, who are sacrificed to in the ancestorial temple, are all called the Kwei ; using these words with reference to men and things, then, that which collects and lives, is the Shin, while that which scatters and dies, is the Kwei ; using the words with reference
to the human body, then the J^ finer parts of the animal soul, with
the breath, constitute the Shin, while the 6^ grosser parts of the animal soul, and the body, constitute the Kwei. Thus the words are the same as those used when spe ikint: of men. Moreover, if we v\ish to comprehend the subject in a clear point of view, we should say, that ii our sincerity and respect are not sufficient to serve men, then certainly we shall not be able to curry out our duty towards them, how much less can we serve the Shin ? But if in serving our prince or parents, we can c;»rry out the feelitisj of respect and sincnity to the utmost, and transfuse tli's feelinu: into the service of the Kwei Shin, then in sacrificiuir to our ancestors, we should do it as it they were present, and in sacriticina to the genii of hilU and rivers, we should
do it as if they were preset t. If the saying, that when the J'cv, brrat h or ener;iies collect, then a man lives, and when they disperse he dies, wou d fully illustrate the subject, then men would all understand it. Yet we ghould know that men have received a variety of priijci] lew from heav6.n, which are certainly completed, and by no means d«ii-
3^
went ; bat it i? neceBsary to earrj' out these principle-^ of life, every one without tiie least defect, d.ad then when we die, tt»e principle of life beinj^ exhausted, we m»y rest in death without shame. This is whut Ch'ini^-tsze calls, ooinplying with our proper business while yet preserved, and re-^ting pe^u-.efully when we die. Tiie philosopher when abroad served the no'ales, and at home served his parents and elder brethren, and in so doinir the service of the Kwei Stiin was in- cluded. Therelor,; he said, I have been in the habit of praying f )r a lor.^ season. At fifty years of age he kne\v the decrees of heaven, an(i of coarse the knowled^'-j of deith was therein included ; hence he said, Wtieu in tlje mornin-j- we heir of the right way, in the evening we may die ajid rest contented. From the visible he went on to the invisible, from the commencement of things he passed on to their ter- mination ; in this he shewed his attention to order. But without being able to serve men, the first wishing to know how to serve the Shin; and without knowing life, the first wishing to know death, is like jumping over the forms at school. Confucius answered a '' not can this,'" with a " how can that '?" and a " not know this," with a " how then know that.?" wishing Tsze-loo to foUow'the proper gradation* in acquiring information, and not to look out for some royal road to knowledge. For it is in every-day concerns, and on common occa- sions that the principle is universally apparent ; so that if you can carry out the principle of serving men and knowing life, then you will find that the principle of serving: the Kwei and knowing death is in- cluded therein : therefore it is said, that they are not two principles. Being one and yet two means, that althoush men and Kwei, life and death, constitute but one principle, yet they differ in belonging to the visible and invisible world, with the beginning and end of things ; their being two and yet one m^ans, that although they differ in be- longing to the upper and nether worlds, and in being one at the com- mencement and the other at the termination of existence, yet the principles which regulate them are by no means two.
In looking over the above extracts, one cannot help being strnck with the ease which the words Kwei and Shin are interchang-ed, and used the one for the other. Thus, \^hen the disciple asked regarding the service of the Kwei Shin, the philosoj.her answered by referring only to the service of the Kwoi ; while the commenta- tor again says. »f a man be not sincere in the service of men, how can he serve the Shin, shewing that they are nearly synonimous. Further on, under the re- marks of Chirg tsze, we find men made an.ttthetical to Kwei. The paraphrase also says, that human beijigs and the Kwei are the same, and the way in which we are to serve the Kwei Shin, is precisely similar to that in which we are to serve our fellow men ; showing that in the est.mation of the writer the words could v&ry
39
4o BOt compiain, or if be benefits ibe people, tbey do safely be used tbe one for tbe otber. On referring to tbe critical comment, we find tbat the Kwei Shin treated of in this passaar^^, are tbe same as tbe advancing and recedins^, expanding and contractiug principles of nature, whicb we bave all along seen tbem to be. By a certain elasticity in tbe energies of nature, heaven and eartb revolve and return, mountains rise and rivers flow, wiads blow and thunders roll, which the Chinese denominate tbe Shin ; wbiie tbe manes of progenitor;^, whicb are supposed to have reverted to their original elements, or returned to their mother earth, are tbe Kwei. In tbe life and production of plants and ani- mals tbe same elasticity is found ; and the accumula- tion of substance, with tbe life and growth of organic being i« the 8bin, while tbe decrease of .size and dimi- nution of vigour, till sucb bodies decompose, is tbe Kwei. In the human body likewise tbe same princi- ple is found, and tbe more volatile, expanding, and vigo- rous parts of the system, are called the Shin, wbile the grasser and corporeal portions are referred to the Kwei. In tbe 5lb book of Mencius, and on tbe 8tb page, Wan-cbang enquired of Mencius. saying, I beg to ask wbat is tbe meaning of introducing (a successor to the tbrone) to the notice of Heaven, and Heaven's re- ceiving him, displaying bim before tbe people, and tbe ])eople's receiving bim *? To this Mencius re[)]ied. Set- ting him to preside over tbe sacrifices, and tbe hundred Sbins enjoying tbem, is the same as Heaven's ac- cepting of bim ; directing him to superintend atTalrs, and affairs becoming w'ell- regulated, wbile tbe peo{)le rest contented witb bim, is the people's accepting of him ; thus Heaven gives it to him, and the people give it to bim; bence it is said, the emperor cannot take tbe empire and give it to any one.
The paraphrase on this passtis^e is as follows : Wun-chaiii^r said, To receive a person thus introduced and displayed, is a very niyste- rious affair, I hp'^ to ask what is really meant '»y introducintr a person to Heavtu, and Heaven s receiving him. or disphiyins: such one before the people, and ttie peoi)le's rece viiiir him ^ Mencius replied, Tliat which the Kwei Shin determine on is the same with what Heaven determines on ; Yaou's directing Shwn to pr-si ie ever the saciidccft,
40
and nil the Shins Recepting of his offering and enjoying it, what xu this hut jntrj'laciiigr him to Heaven, and Heaven's accepting of him ? Yaous employing Shun to mana^j^e the government, and the people's a)) beini^ reformed by inm, and resting contented with : im ; what is this but displaying him hyfore the people, a;id the people's receiving him ? Hf^aven's accepting: of him is the same as Heaven's arivingthe empire to him ; the peoi)ie's acceitttns^ of him, is the same as m ui's ^ivin^ it to him. It was heaven and man that coniointly g^ave it to him, but Yaou himself could not have i^iven the empire to him. Theref ire it is said, the emperor could not i^ive the empire to any one.
[n the above extract the only thing worthy of re- mark, is the apparent iilentity of the Shins with Hea- ven ; where the writer says, that the hundred Shins ei joying the sacrifice is the same as Heaven's accepting of the wor^ii pper , frv)m which some mig'ht infer that the Shi:i and HeHveii refer to one, and the same power. This h >wever, does not exactly follow. With Heaven rests <iCC'.)rding to the Chinese ideas, the disposal of events, as we are in the habit of ascribing these things to Providence ; but as the will of Providence with us, cannot be ascertained except by results, so the will of Heaven cm only be ascertained by events ; the Shin, who are su[)posed to enjoy sacrifices and to testify their ap[)r-)l)ation of the conduct of the sacrificers, could on- ly do so in accordance with the will of Heaven ; when therefore the Shins do testify their acceptance of per- sons or services by granting favourable winds, and sea- sonable showers, it is a testimony to men that Henven h IS Mppi'oved of thcnr offerings hence it is said, the Shin acce.Jtin^ of the otf -ri g aid enjoying it, what is this but Heive^i's ircepti ig of it. This d »t'S not how- ever prove the identity of th-^ >hi is with Heaven, no mort than the ^[)probution of officers, artes i!i^ the coi cidf^ ,ce of the sovereign, would prove their identity wi h that sover 'igu
h) die 7th i)ooK of \Ie;:cius, oth [>Hge, we have the folio wi r^ : •• Maug-tsze said, the peo[)ie of th (se who ra'(» by f)rce art* som nimes aT*c ed l)y temporary de- light ; while the [) ople of th.>se who rule by moral infiue ;Cv' f^n^l th *ir mind^ e ilara:ed and satisfied.
'• If s;ich a ru'er puts any one to death, the people ujt seem to consider it a high act of n»erit ; the sub- n
41
jects of a virtuous ruler daily improve, and are not a- ware how it is braught about.
"If the superior man does but pass through a region, it is renovated ; and wherever he ^ fixes his mind on a subject, 1^ he influences it in a mysterious manner. In his operations above and below, he moves in a man- ner similar to heaven and earth ; how can his im- provements be described as the mere mending of minor defects V .
The commentator on this passage says, The superior man is the general appellation of a sage. " If he does but pass through a place he reforms it," means that when in person the superior man passes through a region, the people of that region are without exception re- formed ; as when Shun ploughed at Leth-san, and the agriculturists all learned to yield the landmarks to each other ; and when he made pots on the banks of the Yellow river, and there was no complaint about the coarseness or porousness of the vessels. " If he fixes his mind on a subject, he influences it in a mysterious manner," means, that when the superior man fixes his mind and gives chief attention to a subject, he §A '^fif influences it in a mysterious manner, that is perfectly inscruta- ble; as it is said of Confucius, that when heset up the people, they were established, when he led them on, they were induced to follow, when he tranquillized them, they were induced to come to him, and when he moused them, they were rendered harmonious ; while no one could tell how he produced those eflects. It was the fullness of his virtuous attainments, which moved and acted simultaneously with the renova- tions of heaven and earth, and moulded the habits of a whole age. Far different from those who ruled merely by force, and only stopped «p and mended a few cracks and leaks in the happiness of mankind. This is the way in which the principles of those who ruled by moral influence became great, and this should induce the learner to exert his mind to tke utmost.
The paraphrase on this passage says, viewed in this light, how can one easily declare the fullness of the superior man's virtuous attain- ments. For whenever the superior man makes a temporary appli- cation of vigorous infliction, fostering care, or enlightened instruction, the people amongst whom he sojourns for a season are invariably re- novated, and he needs not remain a long time areiong them, before they become in a high degree well regulated. And whenever the superior man bends his attention towards carrying out his principles ot vigour, mildness, or moral culture, in every instance in which he fixes his mind, and gives chief attention to the subject, no sooner does he conceive the intention, than he is enabled to bring things into
their proper order, so ^ jf|^ extremely mysterious and inscrutable is the influence he exerts. Now heaven and earth in its renovations is mysterious, and in this way it completes the work of overshadow- kg and upholding all things. So also thooc who rule by moral in-
G
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fluence are ifj^mysterious in their renovations, and diffuse the benefits of moulding a whole age ; thus the fulness of their virtuous attain- ments move and act exactly in uniformity with hearen and earth. How then can their work be merely such as the little mending of cracks and leaks, which those who rule by force only effect, f
The critical commentary on this passage contains the following remarks : To renovate means, to renew and transform men : the time of passing through a place is very brief, and yet when it is said, that by merely passing through a place the superior man renovates man- kind, it intimates that they receive a little of his influence and aie im- mediately reformed ; it is not necessary for him to remain long in order to produce this, which shews the rapidity of the transformation. The word " fixing the mind " refers only to a slight degree of
attention, as if it were said, the heart desires to have it so. )||ip
Shin here means, |^ "jfy ^ l^J ^^(J mysterious and inscrutable ; the rapidity of the influence exerted by the sage is like the intimate connection between shadow and substance, noise and sound. Where- ever he fixes his thoughts he produces a mysterious effect, mean s that he merely wishes a certain result, and the result is instantly pro- duced ; as it is said of the good man, that he follows out his desires, and good order immediately follows: the sincere feeling is present here, and the movement is apparent there ; without knowing how it is bronght about, it comes to pass spontaneously, i
In the above passage, then, according to the com- mentators, the word Shin is to be translated mysteri- ous and inscrutable. Some persons, perhaps, would wish to render the term by th« word " divine," but it must be remembered that the signification of this word is " appertaining to the true God, or a false god ; partak- ing of the nature of God, or proceeding from him ; ex- cellent in the highest degree, and super-human ;" in none of which senses is f^ Shin here employed by the Chinese, but in that of being beyond comprehension, as referring to the extraordinary results of moral power in the case of the superior man.
There is another passage in the 7th Book of Men- cius, and the 27th page, which we have already glanced at, but it deserves a more attentive consideration.
Haou-sang Pih-hae enquired, saying, What sort of a man is Yuh-ching-tsze ? Mang-tsze said. An amiable man, and a man really possessed of excellence. The disciple enquired, Whcit is meant by being amiable and real "? To which the philosopher replied, The desir- able person can be considered amiable : one who pos-
4
o
sesses virtuous qualities in himself, can he called a really- good man : he viho possesses them in all their full- ness and repletion, may be termed excellent ; he who is replete with goodness, and displays it with splen- dour, may be called magnificent ; he who is thus mag- nificent and capable of renovating others, may be deno- minated sagelike ; whilst he who is sagelike and not to be comprehended by others, may termed mysterious.
On this latter sentence, the commentator Ching-tszc remarks, The sagelike and inscrutable may be denominated the most mysterious quality of the sage, which cannot be fathomed by common minds. It does not mean that above the rank of the sage there is another class of mysterious persons. Yin-she said, From the amiability which is desirable, up to the sagelike virtues, and the mysteriousness which cannot be penetrated, though higher and lower in degree, there is but one principle ; when you expand this principle, and arrive at the state of mysteriousness, then there is no name by which it can be de- signated.
The paraphrase on this passage runs thus : the man who is merely sagelike, and still capable of being comprehended, is not equal to the
)I(^ mysterious person. But the man who is sageiike and incompre- hensible, his infinite virtue being pure in that which is not visible, while intentions and imitations are all forgotten ; his immense attain- ments being diffused to an unlimited degree, while sound and colour are all lost sight of, this is to be without any fixed point or settled form, mysterious and not to be penetrated. This is what is called the mysterious person.
The critical commentary on the word Shin says, The sage is not
to be comprehended, therefore he is called fjl!^ mysterious ; it does not mean that he is like the Shins or expanders of nature.
Thus we have gone through all the passages in which Shin occurs in the text of the Four Books, and find that it means, in some instances, the expanding prin- ciple of nature, the energies of the male and female principle, or a sort of anima mundi ; and in certain in- stances, the genii of hills and rivers, who are supposed to have some influence over wind and rain ; we also find it used as an adjective, in which it means inscru- tably intelligent and mysterious. Some writers would perhaps in all these instances render the term by god, gods, godlike and divine, but the sense put upon the term by the commentatots is very different, and we have seen nothing in the Four Books, as yet, that would warrant us in adopting such phraseology in the trans-
44
lation of the term, because of its conveying ideas to an English reader which the Chinese did not conceive of when using it.
Let us now turn to a more fertile and authentic source of information, in order to discover the real sen- timents of the Chinese ; a source from which the Con- fucian philosophers derived their information, and a foundation on which their whole system was built, we mean the Five Classics.
In the first book of the Shoo-king, or Historical Classic, and 11th page, we have an account of Shun's doings, on ascending the throne, as follows ;
" He then offered the ^ corresponding sacrifice to , J^ &> the Supreme Ruler, he presented a |^ pure of- fering to the six honoured objects, he ^ looked to- wards and worshipped the hills and rivers, while he universally included the host of jjj^ Shins."
The commentator, in explaining the word ^§ " corresponding sa- crifice," says, that the Jp border sacrifice was that which was com- monly offered to Heaven, but when it was necessary to sacrifice and make an announcement to Heaven, out of the usual course, the cere- monies used were similar to those employed on occasiQn of the border
sacrifice, therefore such an offering was called ^^ the correspond- ing sacrifice : as in the Great Oath, on occasion of Wob-wang's at- tacking Shang-wang, the regulation enacted, that whenever the em-
peror wished to go abroad, the offering presented should be called ^^
"j JZ *jw ^^^ corresponding sacrifice to the Supreme Ruler. The
word rendered jfj3E a pure offering conveys the idea of purity of in- tention, in order to induce acceptance of the offering. With regard to the honoured ones, the commentator says, that those which were honoured by sacrifices were six ; viz. the four seasons, heat and cold, the sun, moon, and stars, with the spirit that presided over droughts and inundations. The hills and rivers, referred to above, mean the famous hills and great rivers of the country : such as, the five moun- tains and four principal streams of China. Shun turned towards these in sacrificing, therefore it is said, that he looked towards them. Universally, means all around ; the host of Shins, refer to the (^enii of) mounds and banks, with (the manes of) the ancient sages, &c. The whole passage means, that when Shun had attended to the fune- ral obsequies of Yaou, and observed the celestial phenomena, he sa- crificed to the Shin and the K'he, above and below, in order to inform them of his having taken on himself the reins of government.
The paraphrase on this passage says, that Shun having received
45
the government, became the lord of the hundred Shins of the invisible world, and could not allow himself tc neglect the business of sacri- fice and announcement. On this account he performed the ceremo- nies usual on such occasions. There was that High Imperial One, the Supreme Ruler, most honourable and without compare, to be sacrifi- ced to ; and although it was not the usual period for offering the ^ border sacrifice, or sacrifice to Heaven, yet the ceremonies were the
same, and therefore he presented a ^Q corresponding sacrifice. This was the ceremony used in venerating Heaven. With respect to* the six objects of honour, viz. the four seasons, heat and cold, the sun, moon, and stars, with drought and inundation, seeing that they ought to be sacrificed to, he manifested towards them a pure intention in order to induce acceptance, and did not let it drop into a mere empty ceremony ; thus he carried out the feeling of venerating Hea- ven, to reach to 5c W ^^^ celestial Shins. The famous hills and great rivers, are such as the five mountains and four principal streams ; the Shins presiding over them are distantly scattered in va* rious places, and Shun could not personally proceed to their localities- thus he looked towards the regions where they were, and sacrificed to them; his contemplating them, was just the same as his personally- visiting them ; thus he carried out the feeling of honouring Heaven
and applied it to the j|g H^ terrestrial K'hes. With respect to the (genii of) mounds and banks, with (the manes of) emperors and phi- losophers of successive gtnerations, who had merit among the people and were recorded in the sacrificial books, to every one of these he sa- crificed and announced on all sides, without neglecting any ; this was carrying out the feeling of venerating Heaven, and extending it to the J\ jg^ manes of men. Thus he sacrificed to more than one Shin and performed more than one kind of ceremooy, while the object he had in view, of informing them of his having assumed the reins of o-q- vernment, was one and the same. *
In the above extract, it is evident that the word Shin refers to the manes of departed emperors and phi- losophers, whose tombs were extant, and is confined to what the paraphrase calls J\^ )^ manes of deceased persons ; while the Supreme Ruler to whom the new sovereign first paid adoration is described as that Im- perial One, most honourable, and without compare.
On the 19th page of the same book, we have the in- structions of the emperor to Kwei, regarding music, the^ effect of which was said to be " to cause the jfil^ Shins and men to be harmonious ;'* the commentator on this passage says, that when music is in harmony, it may be played up in the court, or brought forward 'at the time of sacrifice, and in the ancestorial temple, and
46
both Shins and men would be harmonized.
The critical commentator, on this passage, says, that when such
music is played up, at the time of the ^JJ border sacrifice, or in
the §^ ancestorial temple, it then moves heaven and earth, and causes the manes of ancestors and departed parents to descend and approach, thus the Shins are in every case agreeable ; and when such music is played up in the court, then it distils through the host of princes, and renders cordial the various officers, and men are without exception
harmonious. Thus it appears, that the Shin here are the y^ j[i^ celestial expanders, who accept of the border sacriuee to Heaven, and the manes of departed ancestors, who enjoy the offerings presented in the ancestorial temple.
In the 23rd page of the same book, we have the pas- sage quoted by Kang-he, and already referred to ; where speaking of Yaou, he is said to be 73 ^ 75 M^ sagelike and inscrutably intelligent ; the commentator tells us, with reference to the words here employed, that the emperor, on account of his greatness of mind and capacity for reforming mankind, was called sage- like ; and on account of his sagelike qualities, which could not be comprehended, he was called ^^ inscru- tably intelligent ; which idea the paraphrase lays out thus ; on account of the unconstrainedness of his ac- tions, and because he reformed all those to whom he applied his mind, he was called ^ sagelike ; while on account of his mysterious influence that could not be traced, which enabled him to exhaust every thing which he examined into, he was called jfi^ inscrutably intelligent.
On the 29th page of the same book, we have the fol- lowing dialouge between the Emperor Shun and the Great Yu, on occasion of the former's proposing, that the latter should take charge of the government :
"Yu said. Repeatedly prognosticate among the merito- rious officers, and make use of those who possess fa- vourable omens. To which the emperor replied^ Oh Yu! the official prognosticators first make up theii: minds to an affair, and then commit it to the decision of the great tortoise ; now my mind is already made up ; on enquiry of my counsellors they are all agreed ; the Kwci Shins also comply ; while the divination by
47
straws and tortoise-shells, harmoniously coincides ; in divining we ought not to repeat the process, when we have obtained a favourable answer. Yu made obei- sance with his head to the ground, and steadily declin- ed the honour ; when the emperor said, Do not decline, you alone are suited to the station."
The Kwei Shin abeve referred to are the usual objects of worship, before whom prog-nostications were made, in order to ascertain what was to be done ; while the result of the prognostications being fa- vourable, was supposed to indicate the assent of the Kwei Shins to the scheme. The paraphrase says, " the lucky or unlucky omens of the Kwei Shin may be ascertained from the agreement or non-a- greement of the people with the measure. Now then that the peo- ple's minds are compliant and agreeable, it is evident that the Kwei Shin are favourable.
On the next page we meet with the title of j|^ 5^ the mysterious ancestor, which refers to the emperor Yaou.
On the 31st page of the same book, we have the following passage :
" For thirty days, the people of Meaou resisted the imperial commands. Yih at that time assisted with his advice the co-emperor Yu, saying, It is virtue alone that affects Heaven, and there is no distance to which its influence does not extend. Fullness calls for dimi- nution, while humility obtains additions ; this is the way of Heaven. When th^ emperor Shun lormerly dwelt at Leih-san, he went out into the fields, and dai- ly cried and lamented before the compassionate Hea- vens, regarding his want of success with his parents : he took their faults on his own person, and charged himself with their delinquencies ; being at the same time respectfully cautious in business. When he ap- peared before his father Koo-sow, he was thoroughly impressed with veneration and awe : until Koo-sow was also induced sincerely to comply with virtue. 1>iow he who is extremely harmonious and sincere, can influence the Shins, how much more these people of Meaou"? Yu made obeisance on hearing these excel- lent words, and said. Good ! he then withdrew his sol- diers in battle array ; while the emperor extensively diffused his accomplished virtue, causing the staves
^ ^ %^
50
tioaship those who are able to manifest due respect; the people have no single individual whom they per- petually regard, but they regard those who are benevo- lent. The Kweis and Shins have no person from whom they exclusively accept sacrifices, but they accept of those who are able to manifest sincerity. How diffi- cult then is it to occupy the imperial throne l"
The comoientator says, " the term? respect, benevolence, and sin- cerity are severally employed with reference to what is considered of most importance to each one separately. In this view of it. Heaven must be treated with respect ; Heaven is that to which belongs the
^gl Stness of things, therefore whether moving or at rest, speaking or being silent, we must not allow ourselves to indulge the least par- ticle of disrespect. So also the people must be treated with benevo- lence, for what should the people look up to, unless to their prince ; while the destitute, widows, orphans, and solitary persons ought all to be compassionated by the prince. In like manner, the Kwei Shins must be treated with sincerity ; for without sincerity there wilj
be no 3® thing (present at sacrifices) ; but when sincerity is mani- fested on our parts, the Shins on their part will make approaches to us.
The par?iphrase on this passage is as follows : E-yun having in- formed the king of the duty of regarding the latter end of things, still found his mind ill at ease. He therefore a second time announced to the king saying. Oh yes ! a sovereign is the Son of Heaven, and the
lord both of the J^ people and the jjll^ Shins. Heaven is elevated on high, is most honourable, and has no particular family to which it is attached, but the prince should manifest reverence in order to keep himself upright ; thus whether at motion or at rest, whether speaking or silent, he should always feel as if Heaven were present surveying his actions; then his mind would be in unison with Heaven, and Heaven would be present with him, and take him into relationship. With res- pect to the coraniDU people, they are either inclined to or averse from a pri nee : there is no particular person to whom they are attached, but they attach themselves to those who po<?sess bcn;n'olence : if you soothe and compassionate the wretched and distressed, when each one becomes a recipient of your bounty, they will all love to acknowledge and submit to you. The Kwei Siiins are neither seen or heard, how can lliey be supposed constantly to accept of sacrilices ? but they d'> accept of the sacrifices of those who are extremely sincere : when the animal spirits are consolidated and collected, then the thoughts will be invariably true, and the Shins will of themselves come and en- joy the sacrifice. Viewiui^ it in this light, when a prince occupies the c destial throne, he ought nut only to unite with the heart of Hea- ven above, but in the visible world, with respect to all the people, and in the invisible world, with res[)ect to the Kwei Shins, he should always have somethin'^ wherewith to steady his mind. But if he i«
51
destitute of respect, benevolence, and sincerity, then HeaTeii will re- ject him, the people will rebel against him, and the Shins will spue him out of their mouths. How difficult then is his position !
In the above passage the Kwei Shins referred to are the usual expanders and contracters of nature, who are supposed to accept of or reject sacrifices, according to the sincerity of the worshipper : the prince is there- fore exhorted to the practice of sincerty, in order to secure the acceptance of sacrifices, and the consequent outaining of winds and showers. And yet it is singu- lar, that while he is directed to look up to the Kwei Shins for acceptance, he should be called the lord of the jfjl^ Shins, as well as of the g people. This is cer- tainly an anomolous view of the matter. But we shall be able to account for it, if we consider, that according to Chinese notions, it is 5c 1% ^^^ decree of heaven that fixes the individual or family on the throne ; once fixed, the emperor, as the 5< ^ son of heaven, becomes the su- perintendent both of the Shins and the people, appoint- ing the one as much as the other to their respective offices, and looking to the Shins for doing their part in giving favourable seasons, as he does to the people to contribute their quota towards the public support ; thus it is that the emperor may be lord of the Shins, and yet look to them for their acceptance of sacrifices. Some are of opinion, however, that the words lord of the Shins, should be understood with reference to the act of sacrificing, in which the Shins are invited as guests to a feast, while the sacrificer, as the host, asks them to partake of the entertainment provided for them.
On the 19th page of the same book, we have follow- ing passage :
E-yun having given over the government to his sovereign, was about to announce his retirement, and therefore set forth an admonition regarding virtue, say- ing, "Alas ! Heaven is hard to be calculated on ; its de- cree is not constantly fixed in one family ; if a prince can be constant in his virtue, he can then preserve his hold of the throne ; but if his virtue is not con- stant, the nine provinces will be lost to him. The
48
and feathers to be brandished on both steps of his hall, and in seventy days the people of Meaou came to submit."
The j[|^ Shins above spoken of are the ifl^ §3 intelligent spirits and manes of departed ancestors. The word does not refer to Koo- sow, who was not dead at that time, and therefore could not be a Shin. The paraphrase has the following remarks ; '* what men are most deficient in is sincerity, if we could exercise sufficient truthful- ness to infiuence those around us, then to the utmost possible extent, even to the Kwei Shins in the invisible world, we should be able to afiect and induce them to come, how much more these people of
Meaou ? Thus the ^|[|5 Shins of this passage are the Kwei Shins, manes of ancestors and spirits of hills and rivers, who may be brought near by the sincere fettling of sacrificers.
In the 3d book of the Shoo-king, and at the 7th page, we read as follows : " The Sovereign of Hea has obliterated all traces of virtue, and commenced a system of cruelty, in order to oppress you people of the various states ; while you people of the various states being involved in these wicked inflictions, and unable to endure their bitterness and poison, have unitedly announced your innocence to the upper and nether jjjlp Shins and |^ K'hes. Now Heaven's plan is to bless the good and curse the bad, therefore has Heaven sent down calamity on the sovereign of Hea, in order to dis- play his iniquity "
The Shin and K'he, in the above passage, are the celestial Shins and terrestrial K'hes, who are appealed to by the people in seasons
of misfortune ; called also the ^ f|^ Kwei Shin, (by the Commen- tator,) to whom the people look up for deliverance out of calamity. The paraphrase says, that the people, feeling the extremity and bitter- ness of their misery, complained of their sad condition to the Shins in heaven above, and to the K'hes on earth below, expecting that high Heaven would (through their intercessions) deliver and save them.
The next sentence of the Shoo-king, is as follows : " Therefore I, the insignificant one, having received Heaven's decree to display its terribleness, do not dare to spare, (the sovereign of Hea) ; I have now ventured to use a sombre-coloured victim (in sacrifice), whilst I presumed to announce clearly to the high Heavens, and to the |l^ )^ Shin how, making known the offences of Hea. Moreover, 1 intreated the chief sage, (E-yin) to exert his strength with me, that I might, in
49
conjunction with you people, implore a prolong^ation of the celestial decree in our favour."
The Shin how, according to the commentator, means the ^ Jb empress Earth, which is associated in the Chinese mind, ^5^ with imperial Heaven, here called Jt 5c h^§h Heaven, in the management of human affairs. |^ Shin is therefore, in this connection, an adjective, qualifying )J5 how, and the phrase may be rendered the spiritual or intelligent empress (of earth.)
On the 10th page of the 3rd book, we have the fol- lowing passage :
"E yun said. Oh yes ! the first prince of the Hea dy- nasty encourao^ed the virtuous principles within hirn, and corsequently escaped celestial calamities, while the Kweis and Shins of the hills and rivers were universal- ly tranquil ; even to the birds and beasts, the fishes and tortoises, there was universal compliance (with the dictates of their nature) : but Kee, the later descen- dant of that ancient prince, does not conform to such an example ; so that Imperial Heaven has sent down calamities, and borrowed our T'hang's help, with whom now rests the decree of Heaven. Hea practiced the things for which he may be opposed, first at Ning- teaou ; our undertakings commenced at Po."
The paraphrase on this passage says, that in the time of Yu, the virtuous founder of the Hea dynasty, the Kwei Shins of the hills and rivers severally rested content with the usual course, enjoying their sacrifices, and thus were universally tranquil. From this we see, that the Kwei Shins intended were those that presided over hills and rivers, and exerted their influence in promoting disturbance or tran- quillity, according as the princes of the time were virtuous or otherwise.
On the 13th page of the same book, we have a refe- rence to the Jh TT If ^ 1^ upper and nether celestial Shins and terrestrial K'hes, which is similar in mean- ing to the quotation from the 7th page.
On the 17th page of the same book, we have the following :
" E-yun again announced to the king saying, Oh yes ! Heaven has no particular family, which it takes into near connection with itself, but it takes into near rela-
H
50
tioaship those who are able to minifest due respect; the people have no single individual whom they per- petually regard, but they regard those who are benevo- lent. The Kweis and Shins have no person from whom they exclusively accept sacrifices, but they accept of those who are able to manifest sincerity. How diffi- cult then is it to occupy the imperial throne I"
The comtnentator says, " the terms respect, beaevolence, and sin- cerity are severally employed with reference to what is considered of most importance to each one sei^arately. In this view of it, Heaven must be treated with respect ; Hoaven is that to which belongs the
^3! Stness of things, therefore whether moving or at rest, speaking or being silent, we must not allow ourselves to indulge the least par- ticle of disrespect. So also the people must be treated with benevo- lence, for what should the people look up to, unless to their prince ; while the destitute, widows, orphans, and solitary persons ought all to be compassionated by the prince. In like manner, the Kwei Shins must be treated with sincerity ; for without sincerity there wilj
be no 3^^ thing (present at sacrifices) ; but when sincerity is mani- fested on our parts, the Shins on their part will make approaches to us.
The par?iphrase on this passage is as follows : Eyun having in- formed the king of the duty of regarding the latter end of things, still found his mind ill at ease. He therefore a second time announced to the king saying. Oh yes ! a sovereign is the Son of Heaven, and the
lord both of the J3^ people and the jjjl^ Sliins. Heaven is elevated on high, is most honourable, and has no particular family to which it is attached, but the prince should manifest reverence in order to keep himself upright ; thus whether at motion or at rest, whether speakuig or silent, he should always feel as if Heaven were present surveying his actions; then his mind would be in unison with Heaven, and Heaven would be present with him, and take him into relationship. With res- pect to the common people, they are either inclined to or averse from a prince: there is no particular person to whom they are attached, but they attach themselves to those who pc^sess ben^^volence : if you soothe and compassionate the wretched and distressed, when each one becomes a recipient of your bounty, they will all love to acknowledge and submit to you. The Kwei Shins are neither seen or heard, how can t'liey be supposed constantly to accept of sacriflces ? but they do accept of the sacritices of those who are extremely sincere : when the animal spirits are consolidated and collected, then the thoughts will be invariably true, and the Sliins will of themselves come and en- joy the sacrifice. Viewing it in this light, when a prince occupies the c lestial throne, he ouyht nut only to unite with the heart of Hea- ven above, but in the visible world, with respect to all the people, and in the invisible world, with respect to the Kwei Shins, he should always have somethin'^ wherewith to steady hia mind. But if he i*
51
destitute of respect, benevolence, and sincerity, then HeaTen will re- ject him, the people will rebel against him, and the Shins will spue him out of their mouths. How difficult then is his position !
In the above passage the Kwei Shins referred to are the usual expanders and contracters of nature, who are supposed to accept of or reject sacrifices, according to the sincerity of the worshipper : the prince is there- fore exhorted to the practice of sincerity, in order to secure the acceptance of sacrifices, and the consequent obtaining of winds and showers. And yet it is singu- lar, that while he is directed to look up to the Kwei Shins for acceptance, he should be called the lord of the j[ll^ Shins, as well as of the ^ people. This is cer- tainly an anomolous view of the matter. But we shall be able to account for it, if we consider, that according to Chinese notions, it is ^C 1% ^^^ decree of heaven that fixes the individual or family on the throne ; once fixed, the emperor, as the ^C ^son of heaven, becomes the su- perintendent both of the Shins and the people, appoint- ing" the one as much as the other to their respective offices, and looking to the Shins for doing their part in giving favourable seasons, as he does to the people to contribute their quota towards the public support ; thus it is that the emperor may be lord of the Shins, and yet look to them for their acceptance of sacrifices. Some are of opinion, however, that the words lord of the Shins, should be understood with reference to the act of sacrificing, in which the Shins are invited as guests to a feast, while the sacrificer, as the host, asks them to partake of the entertainment provided for them.
On the 19th page of the same book, we have follow- ing passage :
E-yun having given over the government to his sovereign, was about to announce his retirement, and therefore set forth an admonition regarding virtue, say- ing, "Alas ! Heaven is hard to be calculated on ; its de- cree is not constantly fixed in one family ; if a prince can be constant in his virtue, he can then preserve his hold of the throne ; but if his virtue is not con- stant, the nine provinces will be lost to him. The
52
last sovereign of Hea could not be constant in his vir- tue, but was disrespectful to the |f|t^ Shins and oppres- sive to the people ; thus imperial Heaven would not protect him, but looked about, throug^h all quarters, for one who could open and lead out the celestial decree, thus carefully seeking- for one possessed of single- eyed virtue, that he might be appointed lord of the Shins ; then I, with T'hang, both possessing this sin- gle-eyed virtue, were able to gratify the mind of Heaven, and receive its bright decree, in order to obtain the hosts of the nine provinces ; thus we altered the mode of reckoning the year adopted by the Hea dynasty."
The comment -tor on this passage tells us, that lord of the Shins, means lord of all tha Shins ; which agrees with the passage above quoted, regarding the emperor being lord both of the Shins and the people. This imaginary precedence of the son of heaven to the hundred Shins is sometimes exercised even in the present day, when the emperor bestows on various Shins new titles, or degrades others from their previously appointed dignity, to induce them to grant still more favourable seasons, or to punish them for some neglect in this particular. (Though the word lord is capable of being rendered host, and it is possible that it refers only to the emperor's presiding as host at the sacrifices to which the Shins are invited to attend as guests.) It reems also that a ruler must be very careful in his conduct towards invisible beings, as a former sovereign is said to have been rejected by Heaven, on account of his contemptuous treatment of the Shins, as well as his oppressive conduct towards the people ; inasmuch as the customary rites being withheld from the Shins is as repugnant to the fitness of things, as the people would feel the being debarred from privileges is opposed to equity.
In the 3d book, and 28th page, we have the word jyjl^ Shin, qualifying )^ prince, where the speaker says, " I reflect upon our former )f||| |p intelligent prince, labouring in behalf of your ancestors : and I am thus greatly assisted in nourishing you, because I look upon you in the light of their descendants." In this passage, we are evidently to look upon Shin as an adjective, and in conformity with a former passage, wherein the qualification it refers to is a perfection of wisdom, not to be appreciated by the vulgar, must translate it inscrutably intelligent.
In the 3d book of the Shoo-king, and the 26th page, we have the following : " When by too frequent repe-
_ 53
tition contempt is brought upon sacrifices, this may- be considered disrespectful : and when ceremonies are over-burdensome, they result in confusion ; in such cases the service of th« Shins will be difficult."
On this passage the commentator says, Sacrifices abhor a too frequent recurrence ; if by such constant repetition they are underva- lued, this will result in a want of respect. Ceremonies should not be burthensome ; when they are annoyingly troublesome, they are likely to produce confusion ; neither of these comport with the way in which we should hold intercourse with the Kwei Shins. The customs of
the Shang dynasty, at that time led men to f^J ^ over-esteem the Kwei, and Kaou-tsung, (the reigning monarch addressed in the above sentence) could not perhaps extricate himself from the bondage of custom; thus in the ceremonies used in the service of the Shins, he was apt to fall into error. His progenitor had already guarded him against, either profuseness or familiarity in saciificing, and here Foo- yue, endeavours to point out his faults and correct them.
The paraphrase on this passage is as follows : With respect to the service of the Shins, this also is according to the course approved by Heaven. Sacrifices, however, have originally a fixed period, and if you do not observe their proper number and order, but err in a too common repetition, this may be called disrespectful. Ceremonies also have a settled number, but ii you seek to have them more com- plete and elegant than ordinary, then you will err in being over- bur- thensome, and thus convert them into a mingled confusion. When disrespect and confusion prevail, will it not be difficult to serve the Shins ? This is a caution addressed to Kaou-tsung, on account of his prevailing errors, and is also one of the ordinances of Heaven. In the service of the Shins, to respect and keep them at a distance, is the height of intelligence. Familiarity and confusion, however, shew the presence of selfish desires, and is not the way approved by Hea- ven : how can a man thus serve the Shins ? therefore the caution is administered. The principles of high Heaven, are perfect : if minis- ters invariably respected and complied with them, the people would in every case submit to good government.
In the above extracts, we perceive the usual inter- change of the words Kwei and Shin, as, though they were synonimous ; we cannot fail to observe, also, a recurrence of the irreligious spirit of the Chinese phi- losophers, which makes them so averse to a too fre- quent observance of sacrifices, or to an annoying re- petition of the ceremonies used on such occasions ; os- tensibly with a view of keeping up the dignity of the olservances, but really to draw off people's minds from an overweening attachment lo invisible beings. The whole teaches us in what a secondary rank the
54
Kwei Shins were held, and that keeping them at a dis- tance was considered the height of intelligence.
In the 3rd book of the Shoo-king, and the 44th page, we read as follows :
*' Now the people of the Yin dynasty rob and plun- der the pure and perfect sacridcial animals, which should be offered to the Shins and the K'hes ; these they are allowed to secrete and devour, without any calamitous visitation."
The commentator, referring to the animals offered to the Shins and K'hes, speaks of them as the things used in sacrifice to heaven and earth, because the Shins are those which belong to heaven, and the K'hes those which belong to earth; hence the Chinese are in the habit of considering the celestial Shins and the terrestrial K'hes, as the recipients of sacrifices presented to heaven and earth ; this does not, however, imply, that the Shins and the K'hes are synonimous with heaven and earth.
In the 4th book, and 4th page, we read, " Therefore I, the insignificant one. Fa, looking at the defalcation of you friendly states and high princes from Shang, am enabled to form an estimate of the mode of government adopted by that dynasty ; but I perceive that Show, (the tyrant of that race,) has no feeling of remorse, sitting at his ease, without serving the Supreme, or the Shins and K'hes, while he neglects the manes of his ancestors, and does not sacrifice to them: the sacrificial animals and meat-offerings, are all given over to villainous thieves ; while he says, I have got the people under me, and the decree of Hea- ven in my favour ; and there is no one to check him for his insolence."
The commentator on this passage says. That the tyrant Show had set aside the sacrifices due to the Supreme Ruler, the hundred Shins, and the manes of ancestors ; while the paraphrase lays it out thus, " Show was dissolute and careless, sitting on his heels, and dwell, ing at ease, while he considered the sacrifices that should be offered to Heaven and ancestors, as of no importance, not serving the Su- preme, nor the celestial Shins, and terrestrial K'hes, while he depriv- ed his ancestors of the accustomed sacrifices."
In the above passage, we see that the Supreme Ruler is mentioned distinctly and chiefly, while the celestial Shins and K'hes, with the manes of ancestoi^ are put last.
55
In the same book, and the I5th page, we have ano- ther reference to the Shins.
" Only may you Shins be enjibled to assist me in settling the millions of the people, and do not bring disgrace on your Shin-ships."
The paraphrase lays oat the above passage, thus : Only may you, the Shins of heaven and earth, the hills and rivers, perhaps be ena- bled, in the invisible world, to afford me some assistance, and grant that this one effort may succeed, in order to help and put to rights the millions of the people now immersed in calamity ; then the peo- ple's happiness would be the result of the Shin's bestowment. Bat should it not bo so, and these confusions be not repressed, then our disgrace would be to the disgrace of the Shins.
The Shins above mentioned, are those which belong to heaven and earth, the hills and rivers: the form of expression would intimate that there was some power above these, and that it was possible they might be un- able to grant the supplicator the needful assistance ; in which case he says, they would bring disgrace on them- selvess by allowing tyranny to prevail, and by not aid- ing the patriotic efforts of the enterprising Woo-wang.
In the same book, 32d page, we have a remarkable passage, where Chow-kung, apprehending lest Woo- wang, who was then sick, should die at too early an age, before he had consolid ated the empire, there- fore supplicates the manes of his departed ancestors, to take him Chow-kung, instead of his nephew Woo- wang, on the ground that he was more benevolent and dutiful, and could render the spirits of his progenitors more service in the invisible world, than could Woo- wang : the passage runs thus ;
" 1 am benevolent and obedient to my progenitors, and possess many abilities and talentfi, with which 1 could serve the Kvvei Shins ; but your grand-nephew (Woo-wang) is not like me, 1 an, in these numerous ac- complishments and abilities, fitted for the service of the Kwei Shins."
It is evident that the Kwei Shins here refer chiefly to the manes of his ancestors, who, the supplicator thinks, might be benefited by his service in the invisi- ble world ; and therefore, he recommends himself to their notice as an accomplisihed minister, that could aid
56
them considerably by his unremitting attentions. He says this, not in the spirit of boasting, but with the view of inducing the Kwei Shins to take him, or to ef- fect his removal from the present life, in the stead of his nephew AVoo-wang. This act is lauded by the Chinese as an act of intense benevolence and devoted- ness. " For a good man some would even dare to die." In the same book, and 42d page, we have the fol- lowing : ^
'' You alone tread in the footsteps, and cultivate the virtues of your great predecessor, for this you have long had a good name, being respectful and cautious, filial and reverential towards both Shins and men ; I admire your virtue, and should say. That you have been liberal, and not unmindful of your ancestors. The Sa|>reme Ruler, has constantly enjoyed your offer- ings, while the lower people, have been carefully sooth- ed ; I, therefore, appoint you to be an archduke, to superintend this eastern territory of Hea."
The Shins above spoken of, are those which are sa- crificed to, and consequently mean the celestial Shins and the terrestrial K'hes, with the gerii of the hills and rivers.
In the fifth book, and 42d page, we have a singular passage, as follows :
" But our kings of the Chow dynasty, have well succeeded in obtaining the hosts of the people, and are equal to the burden of sustaining virtue, so that they can preside at the sacrifices offered to the Shins and to Heaven ; while Heaven has taught our princes, and led them on to excellence, selecting them as the pro- per objects on whom to bestow the decree once esta- blished in favour of Yin, and to rule over you nume- rous states."
In the ^ ^§ 9 ^ Familiar Explanation of the Shoo-king, the phrase ^)|^:^fl^ ^ " presiding at the sacrifices offered to the Shiiis and to Heaven," is thus
p_araphrased ; Rf ^ Wl flf ^M Jl ^ W i* >t
3E^ can superintend (ine sacrifices offered to) the Shins
57
^and the Heavens, and be the host of (or offerer of sacri- fice to) the Supreme Ruler, and the hundred Shins. By this we see, that the word Shin here, is not to be taken as qualifying Heaven, but as referring to the hundred Shins, as distinguished from Heaven. The author of these pages, in his translation of the Shoo- king, mistook Shin for an adjective ; but since he has met with the Familiar Exposition above quoted, he has seen that Shin must be taken substantively, and have reference to the Shins that the Chinese are in the habit of sacrificing to. The putting of the Shins before Hea- ven, so contrary to the usual practice of the Chinese, has caused no little difficnlty in the explanation of the passage ; but the reason of that arrangement probably was, to distinguish the Shins from the heavens, with which they would have been confounded had the expressions been reversed : for 5^ fji^ t'heen shin, would have meant the Shins of Heaven alone, while ijj^ 5^ shin t'heen, must mean both the Shins and the Heavens. In the 6th book, 3d page, we have the followmg : " The chief baron regulated the ceremonies of the country, and managed (the sacrifices offered), both to the Shins and to the manes of men, thus harmonizing those above and those below."
The commentator here says, that he managed the business of the celestial SMns, the terrestrial K'hes, and the human Kweis,
The paraphrase explains the passage thus : " there was the chief baron, called also the oiicer presiding over spring, who had to ma- nage the ceremonies of t!ae country, such as the 5C|* keaou and [ffL shay sacrifices, in order reverently to present offerings to the Shins
of heaven and earth ; as also the flji' te and jff^ hea sacrifices, in ■order with filial piety to gratify the manes of ancestors : both these were certainly important ceremonies, and the chief baron attended to the adjustment of these, that the regard to external objects and in- ternal feelings might be well-regulated, and not thrown into disorder. But among the Shins, as well as among the manes of men, there were the high and honourable ones, who differed considerably from the low and mean ones, these were to be harmonized. Thus the arrange- ment of altars and terraces (used in sacrificing to the Shins), and the seniority and inferiority (observed among the different generations of ancestors), together with the sacrificial animals, and prese..ts of silks, prayers and ejaculations, would be all arraui^ed in proper order, and not allowed to fall into confusion. All which was tha work of the
I
58
chief baron. This passage sets forth the duties of the chief baron ; the management of the Shins and the manes of men, both refer to the
pH ^^ jjJQ superintendence of sacrifices offered to them respectiveiy.
From the above extract we perceive that the Shins were the celestial Shins and terrestrial K'hes, while the (manes of) men refer to ancestors.
On the 7th page of the same book, we read, " I have heard it said, that the extreme excellence of good government is so fragrant that it influences flj^ §3 intelligent and invisible beings ; that millet and rice, (used as meat offerings) are not particularly fra- grant, but that illustrious virtue is especially odorife- rous. Do you then make use of these instructions (of Chow-kung), be daily attentive, and do not dare to give way to ease and pleasure.*'
The paraphrase on this passage is as follows : When the §!> sacrifice to Heaven is offered, the 5C W celestial Shins descend ; and when the ]^ sacrifices in the ancestorial temple are presented,
the J\, j§^ human Kweis, or the manes of men, enjoy them ; which shows that such services are sufficient to influence invisible and in- telligent beings. When people see that they are influenced, tkey think that the rice and millet used on such occassions affect them • not knowing that rice and millet are merely the savoury food pre- pared for the use of the Shins, and do not possess any true fragrance. But when a man really possesses resplendent virtue, in his own per- son and heart, as the ground- work of excellent government, this spirit of harmony, ascending like fumes and pervading all-around, while the Shins truly enjoy it, is what may be called true fragrance.
From the above extracts we perceive, that the word jjj}^ |3^ intelligent and invisible beings, or spiritual in- telligences is used for both the Kwei and the Shins, and may be applied, as well to the 5c 10 Shias of Heaven, contemplated at a season of sacrifice, as to the manes of progenitors, worshipped in the ancestorial temple.
In the 5th section of the Book of Odes, 53d page, we read :
" Oh you our good friends ! do not suppose you will be continually at ease, but quietly fulfil the duties of your station, sending only honest men to our assistance, then the Shinn will listen to you, and grant you plenty of emolument."
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The paraphrase on the latter part of this passage is, ^' It' you thus cause every thought to be respectful and sincere, when confronting
yourelves for enquiry before )||^ ^ invisible and intelligent be- ings, you will have no cause for shame ; but the Shins will listen to you, and being gratified by the simplicity of your transparent conduct, will reward you with the advantages arising from the practice of goodness, and afford you emolument without parsimony."
Thus the above passage is similar to the one already quoted from the Happy Medium, where the writer speaks of confronting one's conduct for enquiry be- fore invisible and intelligent beings. There is, how- ever, an additional idea appended here, viz, that these invisible and intelligent beings are capable of approv- ing and rewarding the good conduct of men, which shews that the Chinese looked up to them for their approval and blessing ; but from comparison with this and other passages we may infer, that such blessing only respected inferior things, such as the increase of emolument, but was not supposed to interfere with the decree of Heaven. The next sentence of the Book of Odes is of similar import.
In the 5th section, and 55th page, we read,
" When formerly the ground was overgrown with brambles, (the ancients) said, let us clear away the thorns : why did they thus clear the ground ? but that we should plant it with grand and panicled millet ; now our grand millet is abundant, and our panicled millet plentiful, so that our granaries are full, and our stores overflowing, to enable us to make wine and eatables, to present as offerings (to the Shins), and pacify and soothe (the representatives of the dead), thus bringing down on ourselves great and abundant happiness.
"(In the sacrifice) now offered, the dresses and man- ners are duly regulated, the sheep and oxen pure and clean, while they proceed to offer the winter and autum- nal sacrifices ; also whether they flay the victims, or boil their flesh, whether they spread out the feast or present the offerings, they perform these services in the gate-way of the temple ; the sacrifices being thus fully prepared, the first ancestors will be magnified, and the T(^ ^ invisible surety will be satisfied ; thus the fihal
60
descendant will be blessed, and rewarded with great happiness, while the family will extend to myriads of ages without intermission."
The commentator here says, that the offerings were to be presented in the gate-way of the temple, because the filial descendant did not know the exact place where the Shins might be ; he therefore prayed and sought them in the gate-way of the temple, where guests are ge- nerally received. The )[(* ^^ invisible surety, was the title given to the individual representing the dead, and sitting in the seat of honour
at sacrifices ; this person was also called §fe ^3^ the spiritual surety : it was also the title given to the necromancer who brought down the Shins by his incantations.
"(The meaner attendants at this sacrifice) even those who manage the kitchen, are all respectful, providing the dishes proportionably large, filled with roasted flesh or broiled meat ; (so also the more noble atten- dants at this solemnity), such as the lady of the prince, is still and guarded, bringing the plates in great a- bundance ; the guests and visitors pledge one another and return the compliment, all the ceremonies are very exact, the smiles and conversation are according to strict etiquette, thus the JJF^ ^ invisible surety will approach and reward us with great happiness, and for myriads of ages renumerate our services.
"We have now fully performed the sacrifice, and have not erred in the use of ceremonies. The offerer of the public prayer has communicated the announce- ment, and coming before the filial descendant (who presides over the sacrifice) has said. Since the sacrifices have been so fragrant, and the Shins have enjoyed the liquors and viands presented, they will bestow upon you a hundred blessings ; making them come accor- ding to the season, and be abundant according to the rule ; since you have been exact and expeditious, regu- lar and guarded in your services, they will perpetually bestow on you the extreme of blessings, in thousands and myriads of instances.
" The ceremonies having been completed, and the bells and drums having announced the fact, the filial descendant having returned to his post (at the foot of the stairs), the offerer of the public prayer, having commu-
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nicated the announcement, and the Shit3s having been sufficiently intoxicated : the imperial representative of the dead having risen up, and the drums and bells having escorted him out, while the ^f^ ^ invisible surety having retired ; then all the attendants, together ■with the women, remove the viands without delay (for the use of the guests,) while the fathers and brethren (of the family) are invited to partake of a private enter- tainment."
The commentator says here, that the Kvvei Shins are invisible beings, and when the text speaks of their being intoxicated and of their returning, it is really intended to honour them, because the phraseology employed implies their actual presence.
" The musicians have all ertered to play up (in the inner apartment), in order to soothe (the nobles), while enjoying the subsequent benefit (of a feast) ; and now that the viands have all been sent in to them, they will have no cause for complaint, but rather of congratula- tion ; when having thus drunk to inebriety, and fed to the full, they will all, both small and great, bow down their heads, saying. The Shins having enjoyed the eating and drinking (at the sacrifice), will cause our prince to live long, and he having been very compliant with the usual customs, and very seasonable in the pre- sentation of his offerings, will hand this practice down to his sons and grandsons, who will not allow it to fail, but rather extend and enlarge it."
In all this chapter, the Shins refer to the manes of departed progenitors, who are sacrificed to in the ances- torial temple, and who in consequence of their enjoy- ing the sacrifices offered by their descendants to satie- ty, and even to inebriety, are supposed to send down blessings upon the worshippers, perpetuating their dy- nasty to endless ages, and causing them to retain their stations of power and dignity, that they may continue to be the lords of the Shins and men. After the sacri- fice, the worshippers retire to the inner apartments of the temple, to feast upon the viands, when they also fill themselves to the full with the liquor and viands, even to intoxication, and are as much gratified as the Shins were supposed to have been.
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On the 62nd page of the same book, we read, " The seed-pod is already formed, and the grain has passed through its early stage, it is already consolida- ted and fragrant, but in order to prevent the springing up of weeds and tares, and to ward off the blasting and mildew, smut and grub, lest they should injure our young corn, we must rely on the ^|^ invisible beings^ who are the ancestors of the field, who would then take these four pests and consume them in the flames."
The paraphrase calls the invisible beings above referred to " the Shins of the ancestors of the field, to whom the former monarchs sa- crificed ;" thus they are a sort of lares rustici, presiding over the land and grain in that particular region, who by their influence were sup- posed able to destroy the pernicious insects that might otherwise blight the hopes of the husbandman.
In the Book of Odes, 6th section, and 12th page, we have the following :
" He was obedient to his ^ ^ ducal ancestors,, and the Shins did not complain, neither were they grieved."
The commentator on this passage says, That the word " ducal an- cestors," refers to the former dukes, who were sacrificed to in the an- cestorial temple ; the whole means, that Wan-wang was submissive- ly compliant to his ducal ancestors, and the Kwei Shins accepted of and enjoyed his sacrifice, so that they were without complaint or vexation.
The paraphrase says, The former dukes of the house of Chow, for ages displayed excellent virtue ; should there be the least departure from such practice, there would unavoidably arise complaints and vexations ; but Wan-wang practised these hereditary virtues, and had been habitually accordant to the example of the former dukes,
while the |l^ Hfl spiritual intelligences had been influenced thereby,, and approached towards him. Luckily he was able to imitate their ancient virtues, and thus left no ground for disapprobation and grief. Thus he has hit upon the right way of connecting himself with the Shins, or manes of his ancestors.
In the above passage, it is evident that the wordi Shin must be taken to mean the manes of ancestors, who would be gratified, or otherwise, by thtj conduct of their descendants, and shew it by accepting or reject- ing their sacrifices.
In the 6th section of the Book of Odes, page 34, we read :
'' Your territory is great and glorious, and also very
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extensive, Oh triumphant prince ! even to the end of your life, you may become the lord (or entertainer) of the hundred Shins."
The hundred Shins, according to the commentator, mean the Kwei Shins of heaven and earth, hills and ri- vers ; and to become the lord of such Shins, means that the king might preside at the sacrifices offered to them, and be as it were their host or entertainer.
Next follows Sect. 7, p. 5, the sentence already quoted, by the author of the Happy Medium, which is of so much importance, that we will proceed to no- tice it more particularly.
" Looking at you, whilst associating with your vir- tuous friends, (1 perceive that) your countenance is pla- cid and agreeable, (as if you were saying) lest I should fall into some mistake ; but looking at you in your private dwelHng, (can I find that) you are peradven- ture free from self-reproach in your secret chamber ^ Do not say, that this is no public place, and that there is no one looking at you ; for the Shins in their ap- proaches are not to be scrutinized, how then can you suffer yourself to indulge in indifference *?
The commentator says, that this means, Looking upon you during your associations with good men, your countenance conveys the ex- pression of self-guardedness, as if you "vrere perpetually examining yourself, and saying, " How can I avoid falling into mistakes ?" For this is the universal feeling of common men, in attending mainly to externals. But when we look at you, dwelling in your own house, you ou ght still, it should seem, to aim at escaping self-reproach in your secret chamber : which would be much better. Do not say, this is not a public place, and no one sees me ; for you ought to know the mysteriousness of the Kwei Shins, that they embody all things without exception, and when they come to any given place, there is something that cannot be scrutinized in their approach ; when without any outward appearance they do thus draw near, it is to be apprehended, lest we should commit some fault, how then can we be indifferent and disrespectful ? which means that we must not only cultivate good conduct externally, but we must also be careful and tremblingly cautious in that which is neither to be seen nor heard.
The paraphrase runs thus : You should be careful about your con- versation, and the work of self-cultivation ought undoubtedly to ap- ply to that which is secret. I perceive that wlien you associate with your good friends, where your teachers come, and wlicrs exhortations reach you, your counlenuncc is harmonious and agreeable, and you
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certainly are enabled to avoid falling into mistakes ; while your feeU ing of self-guardedness is as if you were constantly examining your- self, and saying, *' How can I avoid errors ?" Thus attentive are you to the cultivation of personal virtues in public. But it is neces- sary also to observe you in your private dwelling; where, although you may not be heard nor seen, yet you ought to keep yourself by res- pect, and guard yourself by propriety, when perhaps you may avoid self-reproach in your secret chamber. Do not say, that the closet is not a public place, and no one sees or hears me, so that j'ou may in- dulge negligence. For you ought to know, that the Kwei Shins, who as it W'sre embody all things without exception, come into this secret place, and examine whatever you do. In these their approaches they are u©t to be scrutinized ; although they do not appear, yet they draw near ; and it is to be feared lest in an unguarded moment, we allow ourselves to be indifferent, and just at the period of their coming we fall into some mistake ; how then can we treat them with neg- lect and disrespect ? Thus we may see, that the work of self-cultiva- tion combines both the internal and external conduct, has respect to public and private matters, and pervades all our affairs, whether in motion or at rest, requiring one uninterrupted feeling of respectful caution.
The critical commentator on this passage, says, That if the coming of the Kwei Shins could be ascertained, then we might respect their approach, and despise their absence, so that there would be room for indifference ; but now, seeing that their coming cannot be scrutini- zed, then although every thought be respectful, and we be every mo- ment careful, yet it is to be feared that some mistake may arise, how then can we be neglectful ?
From the above extract, we perceive that the Shins spoken of in the te2{t, are called Kwei Shins in the commentary, and refer as well to the celestial and ter- restrial Shins, who are said to embody all thing's, as to the manes of ancestors, who come and enjoy the offer- ings of their descendants. Their approaches are said to be mysterious and inscrutable, so that we ought ever to be on our guard, lest coming suddenly they find us indulging indifference, and we be exposed to blame. From the Kwei Shins' occasional approaches, however^ we may argue that they are sometimes absent, and therefore, that they are not endowed with ubiquity, nor present at all times in every place. Their embodying of all things, then cannot refer to their being perpetual- ly present in every substance, but that they come and go, approach and recede, at intervals. Sometimes af- fecting substances to make them spring up and grow, and at other times, causing them to wither and decay.
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€-Kpanding here and contracting there, as may appear to be necessary ; only as we do not know where they may happen to be operating at the moment, it becomes us to bfc careful, lest we should inadvertently fall into an error, and be blamed accordingly.
In the same section, and on the 13th page, we read as follows :
" Although the famine is thus severe, we will exert our utmost energies, and dread deserting^ our post ; but w^hy are we afflicted with this scourg-e i how is it that we do not know the reason *? in praying for a good year, we have been sufficiently early, in sacrificing to the (genii of the) different quarters, and the (lares of the) land and grain, we have not been backward ; how is it that ^ ^ Jt # the high Ruler of the bright heavens, does not estimate our devotions '? respecting and venerating ^ jfj^ the intelligent and invisible be- ings, it would seem that we ought to escape his vexa- tion and rage."
The commentator says, That " praying for a good year," means that in the first month of spring, they prayed to the Supreme Ruler for erain, and in the first month of winter, they supplicated the honoured of heaven, (namely the sun, moon, and stars,) on behalf of the coming year. The passage means, why does not Heaven appreci- ate our feelings, and knowing that we reverence and serve the intel- ligent invisibfes, it ought not to harbour displeasure towards us.
The paraphrase on the latter part of this passage, says, If we had
not been careful in serving the jjjlf Shin??, then, might Heaven be justly displeased with us ; but as v^<i have been so respectful in our
i-eo-ard to ^H t\^ intelligent and invisible beings, it seems but proper that Heaven should restrain its wrath.
The Shins above referred to, are the ^ ^ honoured ones of heaven, (sun, moon, and stars) with the genii of tie four quartered of the compass, and the lares of th^ laijd and grain, respect towards whom would secure the approbation of Heaven, ami neglect in such acts of devotion, cause the Supreme Ruler of the bright Hea- vens to be displeased. From this it by no means fol- lows, that the Shins are identical with Heaven, or its Euler, but that the Supreme Power merely takes cog- nizance of any disrespect manifested towards them,
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and punishes it as a departure from the principle of or- der, and the fitness of things.
In the I4th page of the same book, we read, "Among the high hills are the mountains, which are great even to heaven ; when these mountains sent down their Shins, they produced Foo and Shin ; now these two persons Shin and Foo, constitute the trunk of the Chow dynasty, overshadowing the four surrounding States, and being celebrated throughout all quarters."
The commentator says, That mountains are the most honoured among hills, such as the east, west, north, and south mountains of China. Foo was a maiquis, who superintended punishments, and Shin a lord of the same surname. The sense of the passage is, that lord Shin, the brother-in-law of Seuen-wang, was appointed to an office in the Seay country, when Yun-keih-fob made this ode to ac- company him, saying;-, That the mountains are great and lofty, and
have sent down jjl^ ^§ the efficaciousness of their Shins, with the energy of their harmonious feelings, in order to produce the marquis Foo, and the lord Shin, who may truly be said to be the main sup- porters of the Chow dynasty, overshadowing all and proclaiming their virtues over the whole empire. For the ancestors of the lord Shin of of the present day, and the descendants of the Shin-nung of former times, were the presidents of the four provinces under Yaou and Shun ; these talking the general superintendence of the chiefs over the mountains in the four quarters, and appointing the sacrifices which were oflfered to the Shins of the said mountain, could carry out the duties of their office, so that the Shins enjoyed their sacrifices. Thus the present ode looks back to the ancestors from whom the lord Shin sprang, to shew how the mountains send down their Sliins, and produced the celebrated individual referred to.
In the above passage, it is evident that the Shins re- ferred to, are the Shins presiding over hills and rivers. j he expression jfjlj? ^ shin ling, occurring in the corn- men tciry, must he U'ptuslated as we have done it above, because the parci|)hriise says, " that when the mountains are high, their jjf^ Shins are ^ e:iicaclous ;*' shewing that the phrase must mean the efficaciousness of the Shins of those mountains.
In the 26th page of the same book, we have the following :
" Why does Heaven afflict ? why do the Shins not en- rich *? it is because you house those great enemies, and only dislike my advice ; you do not regard these calamitous visitations, while your dignified manners
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do not correspond, and proper men to assist you are said to be going away ; thus your country is destroyed and reduced to misery."
The commentator says, that the above passage means : *' Why does Heaven chastise our prince, and why do the Shins not enrich him ? it is because the prince believes and employs women : there- fore he will certainly induce the great calamity of foreign invasion. Now the sovereign houses these, and does not shun them with horror, on the contrary he utterly dislikes our faithful exhortations and does not pay respect to them : how is this ? Now when Heaven sends down infelicitous thmgs, it is to be hoped that the sovereign will become alarmed, and cultivate personal virtues ; but in the present case, the prince meets with calamity and does not regard it, while he is not careful about maintaininc? a dignified manner ; at the same time there are no good men to assist him ; under such circumstances it is to be expected that the country would be ruined.
The paraphrase on this passage says. Our sovereign is the Son of Heaven, and Heaven ought therefore to regard him : but how is it that Heaven now chastises our prince, and sends down this distressing calamity ? Our emperor also is the lord (or ent-rtainer) of the Shins and the Shins ought to enrich him ; how is it therefore that they do not enrich the sovereign, but reduce him to this dreadful poverty? It is all because the emperor believes and employs these women, &c.
Here it is evident that the Shins referred to are those to whom it is customary to offer sacrifice, be- cause the emperor is said to be their lord, or entertainer, that is the president at the sacrifices offered to them ; they are here spoken of as being capable of granting or withholding liches, because in their expandings or contracting??, they promote or retard the interests of men. They are nothing more, however, than the ce- lestial expanders, and the teirestrial extracters, with the genii of the hills and rivers, and the manes of an- cestors, so often referred to.
In the 8th section of the Book of Odes, aud the 5th page, we have the following :
" At the proper seasons, (our emperor) has visited (the princes of) the various states, so that the bright hea- vens might well perhaps look upon him as a son. Hav- ing honoured and arranged the Chow dynasty, Heaven has directed the ruler of it to inspire the princes with awe (by his visits) ; now every one of them is moved and awe-struck ; (while by his sacrifices) he has induced the hundred Shins to approach and be soothed ; even
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to (the genii of) the rivers and high hills, (they are all- affected) : thus we may truly consider our prince a& the sovereign of the empire."
The paraphrase on this passage is as follows ; *' this is an ode sung at the period of imperial visitation, and at that of sacrifice and announcement. It means that our sovereign of Chow, having risen at the time when the decree in favour of the former dynasty of Shang was abrogated, just when people's minds wers looking for something correct, and considering that the princes of the empire, without some one to lead them on, would become careless, and the hundred Shins, without some one to superintend them, would be scattered, com- menced these imperial visitations, in order to give audience to the princes of the empire, and do sacrifice to the hundred Shius. On this account he set about the business in obedience to the will of Heaven ; not knowing whether Heaven, in the midst of its deep still- ness would bestow on him some gracious consideration, and view him in the light of a son, that he might be the lord both of the Shins and of men, and the promoter of true doctrine. If not, then we can- not look to Heaven for help. But although Heaven cannot be cer- tainly calculated on, yet if we look to the business that is performed, we may have some evidence of Chow's being the true sovereign. For Heaven has honoured our sovereign of Chow by placing him over the ministers and people, and has given him his rank by arranging him in the succession of the Hea and Shang dynasties ; thus it causes our monarch to give audience and inspire awe among the princes of the empire. Moreover, when we see the regulations and commands he issues, at which all the princes tremble ; and the sacrifices which he offers, to which all the Shins soothingly approach ; als© when we see the posts assigned, the prayers ofTered up, with the sacrificial ani- mals, and offerings of silk presented (to the genii), and that the lares of the deep rivers and high mountains are invariably influenced and in- duced to come ; then we perceive that our sovereign is the lord both of the Shins and men. Now when both the Shins and men receive their appointments to various posts in this way, we may be sure that the Son of the bright Heavens is none other than this our sovereign. Is it not therefore evident that the prince of Chow is the monarch of the empire.
The critical commentator says, that it was necessary for the hun- dred Shins to be enlarged : speaking of the rivers and hills it is evident that they selected the greatest among the hundred Shins ; these rivers not overflowing, and those motintains not being dis- ruptured, it is evident that they were influenced.
From the paraphrase we may understand that the hundred Shins of the text, are none other the celestial expanders and terrestrial e^itracters, because of the fear expressed lest they should be scattered, and dis- persed into empty air, by not having some one to super- intend and to fix them to their post. The word ^ su-
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perintend, iisetl herewith reference to the Shins, cannot mean to superintend the sacrifices offered to them, but to excercise authority over the Shins themselves, be- cause the paraphrast speaks of the posts assigned them, and of their receiving their appointments from the em- peror. He is therefore, in the estimation of the Chi- nese, lord both of the Shins and men, and can at his will appoint or degrade the various genii, according as they aid or obstruct him in the management of the empire. The genii of the hills and rivers are said to be the great ones among the Shins, from which we may infer that the little ones preside only over mounds and ditches with more contracted spheres of operation.
In the 1^ §£ Book of Ceremonies, section 1st, page 4, we read,
" Prayers and addresses, sacrifices and offerings, are to be presented to the Kwei Shins, but if these are not according to propriety, they will neither manifest our sincerity nor gravity."
The paraphrase says, that the Kwei Shins arc the perfection of be- nevolence and righteousness ; when a man is sincere, he then pos- sesses the reality of benevolence within, and when a man is grave he exhibhs ths appearance of righteousness without, both these consti- tute the actings of propriety.
Here the Kwei Shins mean those which are sacrificed to : they are said to possess the attributes of r)enevo- lence and righteousness, to which the sincerity and gra- vity of the worshippers must correspond.
In the 35th page of the same book, we have the following :
'' Ihe tortoise is for divining, and the straws for prog- nostications ; tlivinations and prognusiiccitions w^ere used by the wise kings of former times, to cause the people to be certain in the selection of times and seasons, to induce a respectful reference to the Shins, and trem- bling caution in the enactment of law^s ; they weie also intended to enable the people to determine their hesitations, and to settle their doubts : therefore it used to be said, when in doubt divine, and you will not err ; in selecting days for the performance of business, you will also be able to carry out your plans."
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The commentator says, that this respectful reference to the Shins was made, because, although human deliberations were far from being insufficient, yet still prayers were offered to the Kwei Shins, because t'le worshippers knfew that there was something for them to honour, and tliey could not dare to be positive.
Here it appears that the Shins refer to the Kwei Shins, to whom prayers were to be oirered, not because human deliberations were insufficient without them, "but to ensure the greater certainty in the management of affairs. In the 48th page of the same book, we read, " (When the emperor), on paying his visits of inspec- tion to the princes of the empire, approaches the Kwei Shins, the form of address is, such and such a distin- guished person, noAV in possession of the empire (makes this application.)
The commentator says, that on these occasions the emperor gene- rally despatches jf|)t J^ a praying offi cer to present the sacrifices which should be ottered to the Kwei Shin : and because he himself did not attend, the form of prayer only contained his designation, saying, that such and such an illustrious person presented the offering.
The paraphrase says, that in sacrificing to the hundred Shins out- side the imperial domain, because of their inferiority, the emperor's designation merely was employed, (and not his name.)
Thus it appears, that the Kwei Shins here referred to, were merely those which presided over hills and rivers, beyond the precincts of the imperial domain, and therefore were considered inferior to those which •were supposed to superintend the mountains and streams within that domain.
In the 2nd section, 51st pa^e, we have the following :
" The repetition of the prayer, shewed the intensity of affection (cherished by descendants) and that they had the heart to pray and supplicate. Their looking for (their deceased parents) to return from the invisi- ble world, shewed that they understood the principles of praying to the Kwei Shins. The turning of the face towards the north, was the usual practice, in praying for anything from invisible beings."
The commentator on this passage says^ That the Kwei Shins dwell in the dark unseen world, and the north is the quarter indicative of darkness, therefore on praying to the Kwei Shins of the invisible world, it was usual to turn towards the north.
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The paraphrase on the above passage says, A filial child, in serving his parents, shews that he possesses the feeling of love : and when
parents are deceased, their still expecting them to -^ ^£ return to life, shows that they carry out to the utmost this feeling of love. The invisible world is the habitation of the Kwei Shins ; they expect- ed their ^ji^ ^ spiritual essence to return from the unseen world, therefore it is said, that they looked for their returning from the invi- sible regions.
Here the Kwei Shins intended are the inhabitants of the uiiseen worid, from whence the filial child wished his deceased parent to return. It would seem from this, that the Chinese had a slight notion of the resur- rection from the dead, lut w^e strongly suspect that the wish was merely an expression of the overweening filial affection of the descendants of the deceased, and did not in the minds of the Chinese amount to a positive expectation of such a revivification.
On the next page, we have the following :
" In pouring out the libation (at funerals) a white vessel was employed, because the living worshipper had the feeling of grief and abhorrence of ornament ; but in the ceremony of sacrificing, the host or presiding person felt it necessary for him to carry out his feelings to the utmost, (and therefore used ornament) ; not thai he could be sure that the Shins would come and enjoy the sacrifice, but to shew that the presiding person had the feeling? of veneration and respect."
From the paraphrase it would appear, that the li])a- tion was offered immediately after the decease of a pro- genitor, when the mourner's feelings were yet warm, so that he abhorred all ornament; but the sacrifice was presented some time after, when, although it formed a part of the funeral obsequies, yet being a sacrifice, the offerer thought it his duty to exhibit a preponderance of respect, and therefore had no objection to the use of ornament.
Thus we see, that the Shins in the above passage, re- fer to the manes of ancestors.
On the 53rd pai^^e, of the same section, we read, as follows :
" With an official cap, and a flaxen head-band, to at-
tend at funerals, is the way to show respectful feeling in holding inti rcourse with the Shins."
On this passage, the commentator says, When a person is in mourning, his cap and dress should all wear the customary habit of sorrow ; but at the luneral. when our parents are deposited in the ground, we should then hold intercourse with the Shins of the hills and rivers, according to the principles of propriety and respect. Thus we should wear a cap of white silk, similar to the cap of office, and use a head-band of fine flax, at the period of the funeral, not dar- ing to hold intercourse wdth the Shins in a mourntul habit, in order to shew our respect.
The paraphrase says, that holding intercourse with the Shins, means, when our parents are not yet interred, we pour out libations, and do not sacrffice, because we treat them as if they were men ; but on the day of the funeral, we offer the composing sacrifice, and act towards them as if they were Shins. One says, that under the Shiiis of the hills and rivers, there are subordinates, and the libation is poured out at the roadside, because the host is already returned to liis long home. Whenever did a filial child u«e an official cap and a flaxen head-band, in order to sacrifice to the Shins of the hills and rivers ?
From the above we perceive, that although the Shins in the text are by the commentator referred to the hills and rivers, they must still be applied to the manes of ancestors, which are only called by the above title, because the bodies of progenitors were deposited in the tombs, which were a sort of hillock, surrounded by dikes to drain off the water. The Shins here, there- fore, have the same reference as those in the preceding quotation.
On the 57th page of the same book, we read as fol- lows :
"They called (the articles used at the funerals of pa- rents,) 13^ fl resplendent articles, because they consi- dered (their parents) in tne light of fj^Bj^ invisible and resplendent beings. The mud carriage and the man of straw (for accompanying funerals,) have been employ* ed from all antiquity, and constitute the resplendent ar- ticles alluded to. Confucius said. The inventor of the mud carriage and the man of straw was good, but the inventor of the wooden image (to be used for like pur- poses) was destitute of benevolence ; because it was by no means a matter of doubt that they would lead to the use of men (for a similar object.)
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The cammentator saj-s. That these men of straw were a little like men, and were intended to act as attendants to the manes of the de- parted to the shades below ; the images, liowever, were made of wood, and supplied witli springs, so that they greatly resembled men, and Confucius denounced this practice, because he was afnud lest they should go on until they made use of living men to accompany the dead.
From the above extract it appears, that the f{$ Q^ invisible resplendent beings alluded to, were such as might be the recipients of sacrifice, to whom deceased parents were assimilated. This is the first time we meet with any, mention of images in the Chinese clas- sics, and here we find that they were only used to re- present attendants to accompany the dead at funerals ; from hence it has been inferred, that the ancient clasi- cal Chinese did not practice image worship.
In the 3d section, 41st page, of the |g |g Book of Bites, reference is made to the sacrifices ofi'ered on the different months of the year ; thus,
'' In the first month of spring, when the sun and moon are in conjunction in ^ ^ Pisces, and when the star culminating at even is ^ Orion, and that at dawn is ^ Scorpio ; the time being ^ S those two days of the cycle that are supposed to refer to wood ; the '^ Te, or presiding Ruler, (on the occasion) is ^ W^ T'hae-haou, and the ^ Shin, or lares (sacrificed to,) is "Q ^ Kow-mang."
The commentator tells us, that T"hae-haou was X^ ^g Fuh-he, (the first sovereign, according to the Chinese fabulous history, who is supposed to preside over the element of wood) ; and that Kow-mung,
is the eon of ^"^ l^-p Shaou-haou, called ^ Chung, the minister of
the element of wood ; these were =^ the sages , and %\f the Shins who carried on the rule of Heaven, in establisliing the extreme point of excellence, during their' lives they possessed merit among the peo- ple, therefore succeeding m.onnrchs sacrificed to them in the spring ; the presiding Rulers, and the Shins of the four seasons, afterwards mentioned, are all to be explained in the same way.
This is the first time we have met with the ^ pre- siding Rulers, in connection with t]ii» Shins, and there- fore it will be necessary to speak of them more particu- larly. The Chinese mention 5 ~*^ ^'^^'^ Rulers, who
K
74
are j)^ ^ Fiih-hc, presiding over the element of wood ; 3k ^ ^^en-te, or jjj^ ^ Shin-nung, presiding over fire ; ^ ^ Hwang-te, presiding over earth ; ^]j ^ Shao^- haou, presiding over metal; and ^ i|[ Chuen-heuh, presiding over water ; these were the fiist emperors, iv the fahulous history of ( hina, who were afterwards ele- vated to the rank of Shins. Confucius said, that Hea- ven appointed the 3[ It" ^^^e elements, metal, wood, w^ater, fire, and earth, to be distributed over the sea- soiiS, renovating and nourishing, in order to complete the myriad of things ; the Shins of which were called the 3E ^ five Eulersr From this it would appear, that the ^ Rulers were a sort of Shins, though classed before them in sacrifice, and operating like them under the authority of Heaven, to establish the extreme point of excellence, and to complete the myriad of things.
On the 46th and 49th pages of the same book, are similar passages to the above. On the 53rd, 56th, and ^9th pages, the ^* Enler is said iohe ^J^ Yen-te, or Jilljl ^ Shin-nung, presiding over fire, and the Shin fi^ gi Chuh-yung.
On the 62d page, the ^ Euler is said to be ^ ^ Hw^ang-te, who presided over the element of earth, and the Shin j^i How-t'hoo, or empress Earth ; upon which the para[>hrast remarks, that this was the name of an office, viz. the president of the board of works, filled by one fij ^ Kow^ lun;:, who was al>le to level the nine regions, hence after his death he was consider- • ed the Shiii of empress Earth ; for aniong the [iresid- ng spirits of the five elements, only the lares of earth were dignified with the title ot empress.
On the 63th, 64ih, and 69th pages, the ^ Pailor is said to be 4j fi^ Shaou-haou, who presided over the element of metal, and the Shin ]^ )\^ JCih sliow.
On the 73d, 77th, and 6 0th pages, the ^ Ruler is said to be j|3 3j3 ^^^^^"-^^^^^^^ » who presided over the element of water, and the Shin ^ '% Heuen ming.
/ 'J
In the 4th Section of the Book of Rites, and the 46th pa^e, after Confucius had dwelt on the excellence of suitable ceremonies in bringing about right rule, his disciple
'^ Ye-i-yen retorted, sayin'^. According to thi=?, then, ceremonies are of the most urgent necessity '? To Avhich Confucius replied. By the proper use of ceremo- nies, the former kings carried out the principle of con- necting the rule of Heaven, and managing the concerns of the people ; therefore those sovereigns that erred in the use of ceremonies soon perished, while those who succeeded in maintaining proper rites perpetuated their rule. The ode says, ' We see that the little mice have bodies, but men are without ceremonies ; when men are without ceremonies, how soon they hasten to ruin!' Therefore rites and ceremonies must regard Heaven as the origin, mast i)e observed in imitation of the inequalities of the earth's surface, and must be ar- ranged according to the coatractings or expandings of the Kwei Shins, thus they wll be carried out in tlae business of funerals and sacrifices, in archery, horseman- ship, the celebration of manhood, the contraction of nuptials, the giving audience to the princes, and the presenting of credentials to the sovereign ; in the arrangement of all these the sages have directed cer- tain ceremonies to be used, and the whole empire with the various states may thus be correctly regulated.
The Cotiiineiitator says, that in t'.io use of iit.es, regarding Heaven
as tlie origin, refers to the economy of the ^ J^ celestial princi- ple of ordtr ; the imitation of the inequalities of the earth's surface, refers to the elevation or depression of the various hills and marshes, which CiUed for high-r or lower ceremonies being observed in sa- crilicins to their presiding genii ; their being arranged according to the contractings or expandings of the Kwei Shins, refers to the five kinds of ceremonies used in serving invisible beiim:s, the greatest of which is sacrifice ; archeiy, horsemanship, &cc. are tne eight circum- stances in human life v^here ceremonies are needed.
The critical commentator says, that the being arranged according to the Kwei Shhis, refers to the contractings or exp.mdings, approach- ini^s or recedings, dis[)layiiigs and expandings, with the maj'^stic sternness and regular order, of the Kwei Shin. H<^aven, he adds, is fur distant, therefore the sage s[)eaks of its being viewed as the ori- g-in ; earth is near, tlieref)re he tallis of our imitating it ; the wise
7(5
km^fi, liaving taken their pattern from lieavea and earth, together with the Kwei Shins, in arrang^ing their ceremonies and instructing the people, proceeded to sacrifice to heaven and earth, to present of- ferings in the ancestorial temple, and towards the principal hills and rivers ; on the one hand, to reward the merit of those for whom sacri- fices were instituted, and on the other, to instruct the people in the duty of venerating their superiors.
It appears from the whole of the above quotations, that the Kwei Shins in the text refer to those elastic powers of nature, which produce changes and transtor- mations, and to which the Chinese are in the habit of offering sacrifices.
On the 47th page, Confucius goes on to observe : " In the eariy instirution of ceremonies, men first offered meat and drink, which consisted of roasted corn and broiled meat (for a sacrifice), while they scooped water out of the puddles with the hollow of Iheir hand (for a libation) and struck an earthen drum with a cockery-w are stick ; (whilst using these simple rites) Still they seeraed able to carry out their feelings of respect towards the Kwei Shins."
The Kwei Shins here spoken of are invisible beings in general, who accept of sacrifices according to the virtue of the worshippers, and not according to the fragancy of the offerings.
The next sentence says,
^' When people die, the survivors go up to the house- top (whither the ^^ ^ spirit mounts aloft,) and call out saying, Oh you 1 such a one, come back (to the 'Dody you have left). (But if that prove unavailing,) they offer the unboiled rice and raw flesh (of high an- tiquity), or the boiled dumplings (of latter ages) (to the manes of the departed) : thus they look toiNards hea- ven (whither the spirit is gone), and store up in the earth (the corpse of the deceased). 'J hey do this le- cause they suppose the body and the grosser parts of the animal soul descend (to earth), while the ^fj ^ intelligent spirit mounts aloft. Thus also they dis- pose the dead, v/ith their heads towards the north, while the living face the south ; all these ceremonies are according to the original institution."
The critical commentator, in his account of Uiis matter, says, that the body must have some place to rest on, and the grosser part of the
/ /
jiniinal spirits must have some place of slieltei, for both of these are heavy and muddy, and belong to the female priniple of nature ; there- fore they descend and remain bslow. But yi^W knowledge is all-per- vading-, and the '^^ spirit is in no case divested of knowledge ; both these are light and pure, and belong to the male principle of na- ture, therefore they ascend and mount aloft.
This is the most distinct reference to the ^H f^ in- telligent soul, which we have in the Chinese classics ; which they say is ^ ^)j itll ^ ^ capable of being" moved, and is always existing ; and yet in speaking of it, the Chinese cannot divest themselves of their notions of materialism, but must talk of its lightness and purity, which enables it to float upwards, as lighter bodies as- cend, while the grosser ones sink down. The prac- tice of going to the house-top and calling out to the spirits of the departed to comeback, is continued to the present day, as the writer has frequently witnessed in the neighbourhood of his own dwelling at Shanghae.
Confucius goes on to say, " In former times, the an- cient kings had no houses to live in ; but in the winter they dwelt in caves , and in the summer in nests ; they were also ignorant of the use of lire, and ate the fruit of shrubs and trees, with the flesh of birds and beasts, drinking the blood, and eating the feathers along with it ; they were also unacquainted with hemp and flax, but clothed theme! ves in feathers and skins.
'• Subsequently the sages arose, and then men under- stood the advantages of fire ; after which they began to mould metals, and make earthenware ; they also made terraces, and cause-ways, houses and buildings, doors and windows ; they likewise cooked dumplings and steaks, with boiled and roasted meats ; they proceeded to make wine and vinegar, and w^orked up the flax and liemp into cloths and fabrics, in order to nourish the living, and accompany the dead, as well as to serve the Kwei Shins, and the Supreme Ruler ; in all this, the operations now practised are in imitation of the exam- ple of antiquity."
In the above sentence, the Kwei Shins spoken of re- fer to invisible beings in general, but more particularly
to tin. in^.nes of ances^:ors, and thQ spirits presiding over hills and rivars. 0;ie peculiarity is observable ia the above quotatioa, viz. thU of putting the Kwei Shins before the Supreme Ruler, which was probably done in order to distinguish the one from the other, and to prevent the reader from imagining that the Kwei Shins belonged to the Shang te, which mistake might have occurred, had the words been differently arranged.
" Then tliey had black wine (or water) in the centre of their houses ; they had also must and fermenting liquor, near the doorway ; they had red wine in the outer hall, and clear wine in an inferior place ; they then arranged their sacrificial victims, and prepared their tripods and trenches, they put in order their harps and guitars, and musical stones, together w^th their bells' and drums. They then recited their supplica- tions and pronounced theism blessings, in order to bring down the J:: %^ Shins of the upper world, together with tiie manes of their first ancestors, to correct the position of prince and ministers, to render intense the leeling between parents and children, to harmonise el- der and younger br?.thren, to arrange the upper and lower classes, and bring husbands and wives to their ' ])roper poiitions ; this was the way in which they con- nected and perpetuated the blessings of Heaven."
The Shins of the upper world, mentioned in the text, are the jZ jTIt celestial Shins spoken of elsewhere.
In the same book, on the 53rd page, we read, '' Oa this account cei'^mouies constitute the p^reat handle held by the sovereign ; these are the means whereby to distinguish Avhat is doubtful, and to illus- tratewhatis abstruse ; they are the means also of enter- taining the Kwei Shins, of examining into regulations, and of determining the nature of benevolence and righteousness ; in short, the means whereby to ma- nage governmen^t and give ease to the sovereign."
The paraphrase here says, That the Kwei Shins inhabit the invisi- ble world, and are wjtli difliculty discovered, but by the use of the pl-oper cer&m^aits we hold inlercourscw'th thoni. The entertaiuinc;
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above mentioned, rclers to the enterta'ninyf of the Kwei Shins, as we would guests. Tiiey are llicretbie tlie manes and spirits all along- referred 1o.
On the 54tli page, of the same book, we read, " Hence it is that the sages co-operate with hea- ven and earth, and stand together with the Kwei Shins, in order to regulate the governnaent ; they no- tice the places where each severally rests, and thus form the arrangement of rites and ceremonies ; they muse on that in which each one delights, and settle the government of the people."
The commentator says, That this parafrraph speaks of the sages co-operating with and aiding the ways of heaven and earth, as well as fixing and conjoining with the business of the Kwei Shins : all with reference to the affairs of government. Hence they mark the places where heaven and earth, as well as the Kwei Shins severally rest, and finding that heaven is on high, and earth beneath, wdiile all things are scatt-ered about, the sages take their pattern from these, and ar- range the order of ceremonies. They also muse on those things in which heaven and earth, together w th the Kwei Shins take delight, and finding that these all move about without cessation, while they unite and bring about various transformations, the sages take their pattern from them, and appoint the government of the people.
In the above extract, the Kwei Shins refer to invisi- ble beings in general, or the contracting and expanding energies of nature, which bring about the various changes and transformations observable around us. On the 59th page of the same book, we read, " Thus it is, that when the sages arose, they insisted on tnking heaven and earth for the ^j^K root of all things, they also looked on the male and female prin- ciple of nature, ps tlie HlfiJ c'ommiencement of the series ; they considered the four seasons as the j^ handle of government, the sun and tixed stars as llie ^S record of labours, the moon as the 'li± measure of work, the Kwei Shins as the |^g associates to which government w^as to be complied, the live elements as the ^ ground-work of things, ceremony and righteousness as the ^^ instruments em\)loyed, human feelings as the |33 field to be cultivated, and the four chief living crea- tures as the ^ domestic animals to be reared. Consi- dering heaven and earth as the main root, business aiA
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things could be set in motion ; taking the male and fe- male principle of nature to be the commencement, then good and evil matters could be ascertained ; looking up- on the four seasons as the handle, the people might be exhorted to set to work ; viewing the sun and the fixed stars as the record, then agricultural atfairs could be arranged ; taking the moon as the measure, then all kinds of vi^ork could be as regular as planting ; assum- ing the Kwei Shins to be associates (to which govern- ments should h^ conformed,) then undertakings could be long maintained ; taking the five elements to be the ground-work, then matters could be repeatedly attended to ; taking ceremonies and righteousness to be the im- plements, then undertakings could be completed ; tak- ing human feelings to be the field, then men could be- come settled; considering the four principle living creatures to be domestic animals, then food and drink would have some place from whence they proceeded."
The commentator, witli regard to the Kwei Shins, says, The word " associates," in the text, refers to associates complying with one another ; the ceremonies observed at the sacrifices to the celestial and terrestrial Shins, the manes of ancestors, and the genii of hills and rivers, with the lares of the five parts of private dwellings, all correspond with the business of government, like the imitation of the inequalities of the earth's surface spoken in a former paragraph : when governments are thus conducted, then all matters may be car- ried on for a long time without failing.
It is not necessary to proceed further with this curi- ous, and somewhat intricate paragraph ; aU we want to ascertain is, what is meant by the Kwei Shins being associates. |^ The character employed originally n^.eans disciples or followers, but it is explained by the commentator to mean p(>rsons who associate or comply one with another ; and is applied to the Kwei Shins, because the sacriuc.^s offered to them are in accordance with the business of government, or rather the econo- my supposed to exist among invisible beings is similar to that which obtains in human governments, and when the alTairs of government are conducted with that idea in view, all undertakings may be perpetuated. On the 61 st })age of the same book we read, '^ ihe ancient kings were apprehensive lest ceremo-
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nles should not extend their influence to those helow, hence they sacrificed to f^ the Ruling Power, at the border of the country, in order to point out the fixed- ness of the throne of Heaven ; they sacrificed to the ^jf lares rustici within the country, in order to shew itie arrangement of terrestrial advantages ; they per- formed services in the ancestorial temple, in order to shew where benevolence originated ; they honoured the hills and rivers, in order to treat the Kwei Shias as guests ; and served the genii presiding over the various parts of the house, in order to set forth that business was the main thing."
The commentator says, Tliat the emperor carried out the ceremo- nies employed for honouring heaven, and then the people kn(i',v how to use such ceremonies as exalt the sovereign ; hence it is said, that such services shew the fixedness of the throne of heaven. Ad- ditions to the supply ot food and wealth all come out of the earth, tht-refore the emperor per^^onally sacrificed to emi)ress earth, in order to display tlie advantu^^e-' derived therefrom, and teach the people how to manifest smtitude to the source of hlessinors. Servins*- one's parents is the essence of benevolence ; and the sovereisfn served the representative of the dead with filial respect, in order to diffuse the principles of benevolence and rii^hteousness among thofse beneath him. To treat as guests the Kwei Shins, and sacrifice to the hills and rivers, to set forth the importance ot business, and sacriiice to tht; lares domeslici, these services were all perfcrmed with the view of diffusing the doctrines of rites and ceremonies,.
In the above passage we have Jj^ the Ruling Power used for the Supreme, and honoured with the highest kind of sacrifice, while the Kwei Shins referred to are merely the g-enii of hills and rivers, avIio are treated ad guests by their votaries. The next sentence goes ou to say,
** Hence it is, that when ceremonies are employed in offering- the border sacrifice (to the Ruling Power), then the hundred Shins receive their appointments ; when ceremonies are used in sacrificing to the lares rus- tici^ then the different sources of wealth may be car- ried out to the utmost ; when ceremonies are observed in the ancestorial temple, then filial and kind feelings are rendered subservient; and when ceremonies are em- ployed towards the lares domcstici. tlicii tin' reguidlions ii>f the family are adjusted."
L
m
The commentator says, tliut tbis connects the idea of the former paratrraph, which sp aks of sacritices heingoffeied to the Ruling: Power, attlie border of the country, &c. The hundred Slilns receiving their appointments, means that they have to retaliate winds and rain, and suit the seasons of cold and heat, and to attend to these duties without committing any fault, or exposing themselves to reprehension.
Thus it appears, that according" to ('hinese ideas, the Shins receive their appointments from the Ruling Power, and have to attend to the business of meteoro- gical arrangements, in doing which, if they do not ma- nage properly, they will be considered faulty, and ex- posed to blame. On this account it was, that the peo- ple of the Loo country exposed their idols to the scorch- ing rays of the sun, during a drought, that they might experience some inconvenience on aecount of their mismanagement; a practice which is continued to the present day.
Then follows a remarkable passage :
" Thus it is that ceremonies must date their origin from the >^ — Supreme One ; he dividing, consti- tuted heaven and earth ; revolving, he produced liqht and darkness ; changing, he brought about the four seasons ; and arranging, he appoitited the Kwei Shins. Those things which they (the sages) have handed down (on this subject) are called their commands, and they have laid main stress on (deriving their pattern from) Heaven.
The commentator says. That which is infinitely great is called /^ Supreme ; and that which is undivided is called One ; th"s is the
principle of the J\ ^ Great Extreme, which including thrse, con- sists of one. Di\ diiig he constituted heaven and earth, and then appeared the q-radalions of high and low, noble and mean ; revolving he produced light an.l darkness, and then resulted the circum>5tances of felic'ty and infelicity, rewards and punishments; changiuiir he brouifht about the four seasons, and thence arose the diff-rence of leniftli and -shortness in years and moons ; arranging he appointed the K^vei S litis, and thence proceeded the duties of acUnowledgiug the sour-ie of our bU'ssings. and of reverting to our original. The sages, in urrani^mir rites and ceremonies, always laid their foundation in this sen Mne tjt thngs, in order to send down their commands, and in 80 doing considered it of importance to take their pattern
from Heaven. The word ^ kwan here is synonimous with JE dioo, to consider of main importance. The critical commentnry on this passage says, That the ru>i sicnience
of the abore paragraph contains a general intimation, the next four sentences all refer to the Supreme One, while the last sentence pointa to the one word Heaven, intendinsr to include heaven and earth, light and darkness, the four seasons, and the Kwei Shins in that one term. When the sagFS regulatfd ceremonies, their ap[)ointments were also
called 1% comra;\nds, 1 ecanse they were thus settlfd on:;e for all, not to he changed afterwards ; as when Hea\eii decrees to hestow on e;ich one of us our portion. When a thins? is separati d to several stations, the one ahove and the other below, it is said to be divided. When motion and rest are alternately produced, it is called revolving". When thinirs disperse and concrete irregularly, they are said to be changed ; and when thintrs contrast and expand in divers manners, they are said to be arranged. The two 'Hheys^'^ in the text, refer to the sages.
'J he critical commentary goes on to say, when we speak of the comTnencemeiit of visible things, we deno- minate it th(^ ;jtC ^ ^^''st heg-nning ; ad when we speak of the commt^;. cement of niiml)ers, we denominate it ^ — the Supreme One. This Supreme .One is the feouixe of all the other four: (viz. heaven and earth, light and darkness, the four seasons, and the Kwei Shins). Before the three powers of nature (heaven earih and men) were divided, and before the myriad of things were produced, there existed this One alone : and the origin of all rites and ceremonies is really to be dated from this One. When t^ie Supreme One di- vided, that which was above constituted heaven, and that which was beneath earth, and thus high and low were settled. When he revolved, stillness constituted the daikness and motion the light, thus the exhilirated and distressful feelings were distinguished. Chang- iiig, he brought about the four sc-asons, then appeared the' woiiderfulness of their interchantiing and mov- iu^- on ; and arranging, he appointed the Kwei Shins, when the work of their producing and perfecting were displayed. 'Ihus wonderful was the Supreme One. The baiies exhausted that which was inscrutdble, and understood transformations, meditating and compre- hending all «n their own minds ; and from this appoint- ed rites and ceremonies and handing them down to the people, their words were called commands. In requir- ing thejte c^remonieti to be honourable or mean, ex-
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i*]ted or iiifeiior. they took the altitude and depressioir of heaven and earth as their pattern ; in fixing these ceremonies to refer tohicky or unlucky events, rewards or puiiiphments, they took their pattern from the exhi- lirarion or distress produced by light and darkness ; in settling the services to be performed an occasion of the years or moons being long or short, they took their pattern from the chaniJ:es of the four seasons ; and in appointing those rites which acknowledged the sources of our blessings, or reverted to our original, they took their pattern from the arrangements of the Kwei Shins ; in all this, tiiere was not one ceremony that did not date its origin from the spontaneousness of the Su- preme One, hence it is said, that the sages took their pattern from Heaven.
We have beon thus particular in giving all the com- ments and ex[)lanations that could be brought to bear on the above extract, l)eciuse we think it one of great importance. The object the writer had iu view was to shew, that all tHe ceremonies appointed bv the sages had reference to the Su[Teme One, and took his ot)e- rations for their pattern. Thus as the Supreme One constituted heaven above and earth Leneath, so rites and observances were to be of a liigher or a lower or- der, according to the object \rorshi|T])ed ; and as the darkness and light, which revolved by his appointment, sometimes ])roduced exhilirated, and at other times mouruful feelings, so the ceremonies appointed by the sages, had respect to lucky or unlucky events, and to the rewards or punishment experienced. Further, as the four seasons changed at his bidding, so the ceremonies appointed by the s iges had reference to the early or late arrival of the revolving feasts ; and as the Kwei Shins were parcelled out and ap[)ointed to various nffi- ces at his command, so the sages appointed the cere- monies of acknowledginij the blessings caused by the operations of the celestial and terrestrial Shins, and the servicch intended for recalling to mind our original ancestors. But what we wish particularly to notice here is, the striking reference to the Supreme One,
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made in the above quotation, marking at once the uni- ty and supremacy of the Deity. We have rendered the word 'j\^ Supreme, because the commentator says, that that ^vhich is "|^ •:^ infinitely great, is called -js^ Supreme : Avhile that which is undivided, is called — • one ; thus the jk^ — ' must mean the Supreme One, or the intinitely ^reat and undivided One. Bearing in mind also, that this p.ragrapii follows another, in which ^ the Rulit g Power is honoured with the hiiihest adoration, and that this Ruling Power is the same with the Being here called the Supreme One, there can be no doubt that the reference in the whole passage, is to the Almighty One who lules over nil thii gs. '1 he critical commentary makes this still more plain, by saying that this Supreme One is the source of all others, and that he existed before the powers of nature were d-vided, and before the myriad of things were produced, the one only being. The operations ascribed to him of divi- ding heaven ?nd earth, of revolving ligtit and darkness, of changing the four seasons, and ofappointuig the va- rious Kwei fehins to their several offices, are all indica- tive of that Omi.ipotent Power, which must be ascri- bed to him alone. Uow the Chinese came by these ideas, or how they have abowed them to become ob- scured by the admixture of erroneous notions, we do not now Stop to enquire ; the one may be sulhciently ac- counted for by referring their early notions to the tradi- tionary knowledge derived from the sons of Noah ; and the other to ihe corrupt affectior.s of the human heart, which led them in the lapse of ages to wander away from the truth, as we know other nations of antiquity have done. The reference in the commentary to the ;^ ;g Great extreme, which ^^^ — including three consists of only one, seems to bear some allusion to the mysterious doctrine of the Trinity, which may have been derived by tradition from the patriarchal age. And no doubt the expressions employed may be very piolilably applied by Christian writers to that glo- rious and wonderful topic. But ab we are unwilling to
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ascribe to tlie Chinese more than what they give them- selves credit for, we would rather suppose that by this phrase "including three, and yet consisting of one," they mean to allude to their own ideas of cosmogony, which considers ~ ^f* the pofvers of nature to be three, namely ^ jrjfe />V heaven, earth, and man ; but that in the beginning, these three may be traced up to ;^ — ' the Supreme One. Upon the whole, we have no little reason to rejoice that the Divine Being has not left himself without witness in this dark land, while we lament over the obscurity with wh ch human philo- sophy has contrived to darkeri the glimmerings of truth here and there presenting themselves. With regard to the Kwei Shins, alluded to in the above extract, we can- not help seeing, that they occupy a very inferior place in the theory of ou. author. The text speaks of them as arranged, by which is meant their being parcelled out into higher and lower, near and distant ; while the commentary talks of the rites, which are performed be- ft»re them, beini; enacted with a view to acknowledge the sources of our blessings, and to revert to our original. All this has reference to the Chinese ideas of the Kvvei Shins, so often set forth in these pages, as consisting of celestial bhins and terrestrial K'hes, (who by caus- ing thiigs to tirow, are the sources of hlessings,) or as representing the manes of our more immediate ances- tors, who as bringing ns into the world, may be consi- dered our original ; to these may be added ihe outside genii, presiding over hi'ls and rivers, who are honour- ed by those in office. But in all of these cases, both the Kwei and the bhins are re[»iesented as being ap- pointed by the Supreme Povver, and used by him in bringing out the various effects supposed to result from their agency. The paraphrase speaks of the works of production and completion as resulting from the ar- rangement of the Kwei Shins, from which we are to un- derstand that the Kwei Shins are employed by nature in producing and transforming things, which work is brought about by the contractings and expandings as- cribed to the:3e invisible beings.
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On the 63d page of the same book, ceremonies arc spoken of as the great matters employed in nourishing the living and accompanying the dead, as well as in serving the Kvvei Shins ; by which is meant that rites are serviceable in the visible world, to testify our re- ^^ard to the living-, and in the invisible world, to mani- fest our re-fpect towards the dcid, as well as to those spiritual heinous to whom it is customary to offer sacri- fice. The same idea is presented on the 66th page.
In the 5th section of the Book of Rites, and the first page, we are told that '' when the good man makes a proper use of ceremonies, those without will be harmo- nized, and those within will be contented, thus men will universally experience his lenevolence, and the Kwei Shins will enjov his virtue." In which sentence the Kwei Shins refer to invisible beings in general, who are supposed to enjuy the sacrifices which are ofifer- ed to them.
On the next page, we read that " rites and ceremo- nies should be suited to the celestial seasons, appointed according to terrestrial advantages, compliant with the Kwei Shins, agreeable to human feelings, and ac- cording to the principles of all things ; then the celes- tial seasons will be productive, terrestrial arrangements will be suitable, human officers will be capal)le, and the peculiarities of things will be profitable. Thus it is that when heaven does not produce, and earth does not nourish, the good man considers the rites ofif-red not to be accordin,:* to propriety, and that therfore the Kwei Shins will not ei:joy them. In worshipping hilU CO present fishes or tortoises, or in honouring niHrshes to offer stags or pigs, the good man would consider as indicating an ignorance of propriety".
The Kwei Shins above, are those which are the objects of Bacrifice, but the sacrifices oifered must be agreeable to their rank and position, according to the proper stason of the year, and tiie nature of the soil, or they wiU not be accepted and enjoyed.
On the 5th page of the same section, we read, '^ that in sacrificing to the Kwei Shins, a single mat should be employed."
The commentator says, that the Kwei Shins aie different from
88
men, and therefore it is not necessary to use double maU, or to m«kt them soft and warm. It is on the same principle, perhaps, that the modern Chinese, in worshipping their idols, fill up the basins and dishes with paper, and merely sprinkle a little fruit and vegetables on the top, because it is not necessary to glut them with too much sub- stantial food.
On the 29th page of the same section, we read, " When the villagers were exorcising demons, Con- fucius put on his court-dress, and stood at the stairs (of the ancestorial temple), that he might retain the Shins in the inner apartments (of the buildinir.")
The commentator, says, that this was done lest the Shins should be alarmed, but that seeing him th\is attire I they might rely on him, and teel contented to remain. Aceordins- to the usual rites, a great officer was to p\it on a court dress in orier to sacrifice, therefore he wore a court dress to pacify the - hius (and make them think that he was come to sacrifice )
It is evident that the Shins above s.)ok^n of are those worshipped in the ancestorial temple, ai>d therefore the manes of ancestors.
On the 3 I St pnge, we read that " The offerings to the jjji; lares riistici were present- ed, with the view of honouring the earth as a f^ Shin.
Here the word Shin is employed as a verb, as if it were said to Shin the earth, or to honour the earth with the services generally paid to the Shins.
On the 37th page, we read that " the offerings in the sacrificial vessels are the productions of the water and land ; for such purposes tb.e offerers do not dare to use common and tisteless things, while they consider it of importance to have a variety of viands, in order to car- ry out th^'- idea of holding intercourse w^ith j[|i|] 3)^ in- visil)le and intelligent beings." ■
The commentator tells us, that the invisible beings here referred to, are such as are worshipped in the ancestorial temple, and conse- quently the manes of royal predecessors, who were to he thus treated with a variety of tastes. In the same, and i tlie following oaragraph, the same words occur, with the same meaning attached t© them.
On the 4 1st page of the same section, treating on the subject of niariiage, we read :
*' A black crown, with fasting and watching, is the way to serve the Kvvei Shins, as well as the male and female principle of nature. The same is the case also (with regard to marriages which are contracted) with the view of obtaining some one to perpetuate the ^^ ^
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the lares rustici, and principally respect obtaining suc"- cessors for our ancestors ; can they therefore be con- ducted without reverence '?
The commentator says, that the Kwei are the spiritual or vital parts of the female principle, and the Shins the spiritual or vital parts of male principle of nature. Hence the association of these terms to- gether. The ceremonies of marriage, he adds, are conducted with the view of gettinsr posterity, to preside at the sacrifices to the lares of tlie family, ai,d of carrying on the services of the ancestorial temple ; with reference to sacrifices to ancestors, therefore, reverence cannot be dispensed with in their performance.
The paraphrase says, that the Kwei Shin, and the male and female principle of nature, here refer to the lares of the family, and the manes of ancestors.
On the 46th page of the same section we read ;
" Whether you offer in sacrifice the whole or the divided carcase of the victim, and whether you present the flesh parboiled or thoroughly done, how can you conceive that the Shins enjoy the offering ^ it is only presented with the view of carrying out the respectful feelings of the worshipper to the utmost. He lifts up the cup or vase, to inform or tranquiUize the p* per- son representing the corpse of the dead. Among" the ancients, when no particular business called for his at- tention, this representative of the corpse stood ; but when there was anything to do, (such as eatiug or drinking) he sat down. This reprtsentative of the corpse was looked upon as the if(^ f^ image of the Shin, while ^ the offerer of prayer was ^ -^ the medium ot com- munication (between the Shins and the worshippers.}"
The commentator says, that when the representative of the corpse first approached the table, and when the cup or vase was lifted uj>, the off'erer of prayer directed the superintendent of the sacrifice to make obeisance to the representative, in order to tranquillize him, and get him to sit down. This representative was considered as the image of the person sacrificed to, hence he was called the image ot the Shin ; while the offerer of prayer first took the worshipper's ex- pressions and announced them to the Shin, and afterwards took the utterance oi the Shin (or of this person supposed to be the image of the same) and blessed the worshipper : hence he was called the medium of communication.
The representative of the corpse, mentioned in the above extract, was generally the de.^^cendfint of the per- son sacrificed to, who was sup['0scd to possess a por-
90
tion of the ^ energies of his progenitor, and, wearing the clothes of the deceased, was placed in the chair ap- pointed for him^ and sacrificed to as if he were the forefather himself. This representative partook of the viands offered, heard the prayers addressed, and di- rected such answers to be delivered as he thought pro- per, which were supposed to come from the deceased ancestor. Hence he was called f^ ^ the image of the Ship. Other images it does not appear that the Chinese at that time made use of, except the j^ straw or wooden followers to the grave, which were interred or burned at the tomb, to serve as attendants to the dead in the other world. It must be evident, however, from all this, that the word Shin, in the above extract, refers only to the manes of ancestors.
In the 7th section of the Hook of Rites, treating on music, we have various references to the subject under discussion.
On the lOth page, the writer speaks of ceremony and music, that " when the one is played up on the in- struments made of gold and gems, or vibrates in beau- tiful sounds, and the other is used in the ancestori- al temple, or before the tares rustici, and employed in the service of the genii of the hills and rivers, or of the (Kwei Shin,) they are all what the people in com- mon may understand and appreciate.*'
In the above extract the Kwei Shih, being mention- ed separately from the ancestorial temple or the altars of the lares, as well as distinguished from the genii of hills and rivers, must mean the expanders and con- tracters of nature who are the ol^ijects of sacrifice.
On the l2th page of the same section, we read, that,
" Music is intended for the promotion of harmony, thus it leads forth the Shins, and follows the pattern of heaven; ceremonies are meant for distinguishing that which is suitable, thus they settle the Kwei, and follow the example of earth : therefore the sages in- vented music to correspond with heaven, while thty appointed ceremonies to associate with earth : cerenio-
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nies and music being thus clear and perfect, heaven and earth performed their various offices."
The commentator says, that to promote harmony is to give weight to that in which energies assimilate ; to distinguish the suitable, is to separate that in which things are dissimilar. To lead forth the Shins,
ifi to follow out the expandings of their 3^ energies ; to settle the Kwei, is to collect the contractions of the said energies. Expansion is the male principle of nature, and complies with heaven ; contraction the female, and follows eanh. F'rom this it would appear, that the excellence of the ceremonies and music established by the sages con- sists in their invention and regulation ; when these are clear and per- fect, they may be ascertained and known. The performing of offices mentioned in the text, means, that heaven produces things, and earth completes them, each one according to its peculiar office.
The paraphrase says, that the Shins belong to the male prinei- ple of nattire, and heaven is that in which the male principle accu- mulates; music alsofeomes from the male principle of nature (or ori- ginates with the visible world) therefore it leads forth the Shins, and complies with heaven. The Kweis belong to the female principle of nature, and the earth Is that in which the female principle concen- trates ; ceremonies also* are invented on account of the female prin- ciple of nature, (or are appointed for the sake of invisible beings) therefore they settle the Kweis, and accord with earth. To lead, means to draw out and ascend, to settle, means to bend down and complete ; heaven ^nd earth have their apontahcQUs ceremonies and music, while the sages co-operate with the suitabilities of heaven and earth ; thus thfeiy itivehlled nausictty cotresporid with heaven, and appointed cere- monies to. associate with -earth; from hence ceremonies and music were clear and perfect, and heslven and earth severally suited their stations.
By the Kwei Shins, in the above extract, are evident- ly intended the exf)a'ndin^ and contracting energies of nature, or the invisible beings who are supposed to su- perintend those elastic quahties of the universe. Mu- sic is supposed to have a rousing effect, in calling forth atid stirring the energi^ of the Shin, while ceremonies h^ve a sedative tendency, in pacifying and settling the disturbance of the Kwei. The sages bring these two to perfection, and thus co-operate with heaven and earth. On the 14th page of the same section, we read, " When we carry out ceremonies and music to the utmost, they extend their influence to the very height of heaven, they recoil in their eifect down to the earth,' they move the male and fem-i^e principles of nature, and pervade the Kwei Shins."
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The commentator says, that music proceeds from spontaneous har- mony, and ceremonies come from the natural arrangement of things.
The paraphrase says, when ceremonies and music induce heaven Uj send down its fattening dews, this is carrying their influence up to heaven ; when they cause earth to bubble up its sweet springs, this is recoiling in their effects towards the earth ; when they bring about that the days and months, years and seasons, are regular, so that the various kinds of grain come to perfection, this is their moving the male and female principle of nature ; and when they are used in sacri- ficing to the Kwei Shins, while the hundred Shins approach, this is their pervading of the Kwei Shins.
The Kwei Shins here alluded to are those contracting and expanding energies of nature which are the objects of sacrifice.
On the 22d page of the same book, after speaking oi the excellent effects of music, the writer says, "When feeUng is deep, the elegant expression of it will be clear ; as when the energies of nature are full, and their transformations jjjtf mysterious, so harmony will be collected within, and ornament displayed with- out. Thus it is that music cannot admit of hypocrisy."
The commentator says, that Jf^ Shin, in the above passage, means mysterious and unfathomable.
On the 25th page, the writer speaks of music, as " carrying out the virtues of |^ g^ invisible and in- telligible beings, and of its bringing down or eleva- ting the superior or inferior Shins." By which are meant the celestial Shins, and terrestrial K'hes, who are supposed to be influenced by ceremonies and music, at the time of sacrifice.
On the 36th page we read,
" The good man has said, that ceremonies and mu- sic must not for a moment be separated from one's-self. Carrying out music, in order to regulate the mind, then the arranging and rectifying of the feeling of kindness and consideration abundantly springs up ; when the arranging and rectifying of kind and considerate feeling springs up, then delight ensues ; from delight springs tranquillity, tranquillity grows up into lengthened con- tinuance, lengthened continuance brings about ^ the natural order of things, and nature produces that
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which is JK^ mysterious. When the feeling is natural, then without speaking it induces belief, and when mys- terious, then without wtath the mind is roused. This is the effect of carrying out music, for the purpose of regulating the mind,"
Here the commentator says, that Shin means mysterious and un- fathomable.
In the 8th section, and 29th page of the Book of Rites, we read,
'' Vhey buried the small ox at the T'hae-chaou al- tar, in order to sacrifice to the four seasons ; they went to meet and escort (the changes of the weather) at the hollowed out and raised altars, in order to sacri- fice to cold and heat ; in the royal palace, they sa- crificed to the sun ; on clear nights, they sacrificed to the moon ; on dark evenings, they sacrificed to the stars ; and with invocations, they Sicrificed to droughts and inundations ; while at the four hollowed out and elevated altars they sacrificed to the four quarters. Those which presided over hills, forests, rivers, vallies, mounds, and hillocks, that could produce clouds, wind, and rain, with diverse strange appearances, w^ere all called Shins. The ruler of the empire sacrificed to the hundred Shins ; the princes of the empire, also, as long as they possessed their various states, sacrificed to them, but when they lost their states, they did not sa- crifice to them."
From the above, it is evident, that the Shins referred to were the genii of the hills and rivers, who were sup- posed to have influence over the wind and rain.
On the 39th page of the same section, the writer, having described the preparation of all things necessa- ry for the sacrifice to ancestors, says, " that then fol- lows the announcement of the feelings of those engag- ed, who display extreme anxiety in their intercourse with fj^^ invisible and intelligent beings, hoping that they may perhaps accept of the offering : that they may indeed accept of them, is the fervent w ish of the' filial child."
From the nature of the sacrifice here presented, and from the men-
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tion of the worshipper under the title of a filml child, it 18 evident that thie invisible and intelligent beings here menfipned, refer to the manes of ancestors.
On the 44th page of the same section, we read, " The ceremonies used throughout the whole empire, are those which carry out our feeliags of gratitude to- wards the cause of our existence, and of reverence to the Kwei Shins ; those which respect the promotion of harmony and wealth, those also which have reference to the establishment of righteousness and concession. The carrying out of gratitude towards the cause of our existence, is in order to shew our abundant regard for our origin : the carrying out of reverence towards the Kwei Shins, is in order to testify our honour for those above ; the promotion of useful articles, is in order to establish the arrangements of the people ; the esta- blishment of righteousness, is in order to prevent superi- ors and inferiors from opposition and rebellion ; the in- ducement of concession, is in order to do away with wrangling. Let these live be united, in order to con- stitute the ceremonies for regulating the empire, and although strange and perverse people should spring up, the instances of failure ^n the regulation of the empire
Will be rare.*-;' ;^n';X';';; v
The paraphr^s6 ^a^^, ihki ttieteiqmtihg of heaveft and the hononr- itig of ancestors, ig the carrying out of gtatitude toAvards the causes of Qur existence ; the being pure within, and properly apparelled with- out, is the way to testify onr reverence towards the Kwei Shins."
I'he next sentence is much to the purpose, as it re- gards the present question. '' Tsae-gno said, I have heard of the names of the Kwei Shins, but 1 do not know what they mean ? To which Confucius replied. The ^ k'he, or finer part of the human spirit, is the fulness of the Shin, and the 6^ pih, or grosser part of the human corstitution^ is the fulness of the Kwei ; to unite the Kwei with the Shin, is the excellence of the true doctrine."
The commentary on this passage, is nearly similar to that on the celebrated chapter regarding the Kwei Shin, in the Happy Medium, which has already been considered. To this may be added the re- marks of Fang-she, who says, that the *g^ more elevated part of the
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animal soul, and the ifr^ finer parts of the human spirit, return to
heaven ; while the j^ bodily form, and p^ the i^^rosscr parts of the human (jonstitution, revert to earth ; therefore it is necessary to unite the Kwei with the Shin, in order to constitute the excellence of the true doctrine.
The paraphrase says, that which enables men to move and act, is
the ^ spiritual part of their nature ; the form and substance of the
human body constitute the o^ grosser parts of man. At death,
the ^ more intelligent part of the ^ spirit becomes the Shin,
while the ^ more subtile part of the h}^ gross substance becomes
the Kwei ; thus it is, that the ^ finer spirit is the fulness of tha
Shin, and the ^ grosser constitution the fulness of the Kwei While
people are alive, however, the ^ finer spirit and the W^ grosser constitution are united : at death the finer spirit of the man ascends, while the grosser part of human nature descends, and thus, they are separated. The sage, however, joins the Kwei with the Shin, as before, in order to establish his doctrine j thus his instructions do not fall into emptiness and nonentity, but his ideas and intentions are shewn to be deep and distant. The words finer spirit and grosser form are used with respect to men as living ; while the terms Kwei and Shin are employed with especial reference to them when dead. This is taking the fin^r spirit and grosser substance of men ^iheu a^ live,, to illustrate the Kwei Shins, which are sacrificed to after death. The critical commentary says. The Shins are formed of the male or light principle of nature, the Kweis of the female or dark princi- ple. When the sage speaks of the finer spirit, then we. m.ay know
that the grosser substance constitutes the jf^ outward form ; ajid when he speaks of the grosser part of nature, then we may know that the finer
part constitutes the "^^ more elevated animal soul. This elevated part of the animal soul is also the Shin ; but this only refers to the fii.er spirit, because the spirit is the foundation of the finer jiart of the ani- mal soul ; but this 7^ soul is not the fulness of the ^^ finer spirit. The outward form is also the Kwei, but this only refers to the grosser part of human nature, because the outward form is the foundation of the grosser part of the animnl soul, but this outward lorm is not the fulness of the Kwei. The sage lays stress on the fu Lies s (of the one or the other,) and therefore only speaks cf the finer spirit and of the grosser part of the human constitution. The finer spirit ascends only, and the grosser part of human nature descends only : hut the sage can search out and unite these two, in order to instruct the world; therefore it is said that such instructions constitute the summit of right doctrine.
From the above it is evident, that Confucius consider- ed both the Kwei and the Shin to originate with human beings ; and, as far as human Kweis and Shius are con-
06
cerned, not to have any existence until after men are dead ; then the more ^ross parts of the animal soul constitute the Kwei, w^aich descends to earth, contracts, shrivels up, and finally reverts to nothing; while the finer parts of the human spirit constitute the Shin, which ascends towards heaven, expands, wanders a- bout, and is capable of being influenced by the sacii- fices of descendants (who possess the same )^ spirit or energy,) and comes down to enjoy sacritices and confer blessings. An inconsistency, however, is ap- parent in this scheme, viz. the uniting of the finer and grosser parts of the human constitution, which at death are said to be separated, »nto the Kwei Shin, which is the object of worship ; but the Chinese, instead of per- ceiving this inconsistency, admire it as the excellence of the true doctrine.
" All living men must die, and at death return to earth, this is what is called the Kwei ; the bones, and flesh decay under ground, and thus covered up be- come common earth ; while the 5|^ finer part of their spiritual nature is diffused and expanded aloft, and becoming brightly illumined ascends like a fragrant vapour, or produces a mournful feeling, these are the substile essences of animals, and the displays ofthe Shin.
Among the commentators, Choo-foo-tsze says, that when the Kwei Shins as it were display a flash of light, this is their heing brightly
illumined; that when their j^ finer spirit mounts upwards, this is their ascendincr like a fragrant vapour ; and that when they cause men's animal spirits to be agitated with fear, this is their producing a painful and mournful feeling. The same commentator also says, their being illumined signifies their briizht shining ; their ascending like a va- pour meanstheir being collected together in a cloud ; their produc- ing a mournful feeling reftn\s to the teeling of awe which they inspire. He further observes, tliat this illumination is a sort of brightness , or halo of glory ; the fragrant ascending as of a vapour refers to their
^ finer spVit affecting men's senses ; and the mournful feeling pro- duced by them conveys the lame idea with that expression in tWe books of Han, about the mysterious prince approaching and his in- fluence being awe-inspiring. He remarks again, that the fragrant ascending as of vapour spoken of, is the Kwei Shin, with our animal sp rits, mutually influencing e?ch otiier.
The paraphrase says, that the ^"^ energies of human nature must
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eoriie time become exhausted, an(i death i« that which men cannat
avoid ; at death the m^ grosser part of the man descends and return^ to earth, and therefore is called the Kvvei ; that part which reverts to earth is the bones and trie flesli, which decay in secret, and become
<^ommon earth ; but the j^ finer parts of the spiritual nature diffuse and expand throughout the world, and become either a light that appears occassionally, or a fragrant vapour that sotnetiines affects men's senses, or else it is som?;thing that ca\ises men's spirits to be
fq ^g subtile essences of
things, and thus it is, that the act-ons of the Shin cannot be concealed.
The critical commentary says, that when men's form and sub-
staricfe are unJt^d with their ^^ wore spiritual essence, theri they live; at death, the outward form and the more spiritual essence sepai-ate,
the 1^ iEhibtil6 and 5^ refined part of their spiritual essence expands
and diffuses, and mounting aloft becomes flip ^§ an invisible
and spiritual, TQ W ^ bright and intelligent bein^. The spiritu- al essence of the various kinds of things (or diiteretit animals) whether fragrant or o'ffensivS monnts aloft, and sends fcrrth its fumes like a va- pour. When men smell this, their feelinafs afe monrnful and dis- tressed. In this respect msn have somethm? in common with the differelit animals ; but men exceed in feeling and knowledge, while their spiritual essence diffusing and expanding aloft, becomes very bright and illumined ; this is the display of the SHins of men, and hence it that the writer merely speaks of the Shin.
In the above extract, the sage speaks more particular- ly of the finer and grosser part of the human constitu- tion at death. The one sinks to earth and mi ves with otlier mould, while the other ascending and expanding h sometimes perceptible to human senses, in fl.ishes of light, or fragrant vapours, or its presence is perceiv^- ed by a certain mournful feeling of which Siirvivors are conscious. These are no doubt the ignis fat u us of swampy land, near which cemeteries are frequently located ; or the effluvia, whether pleasant or otherwise, arising from the tombs ; or some pecidiar state of the atmosphere, which produces the depression spoken of. We can easily trace these to natural causes, but the superstitious minds of the Chinese lead them to infer from such appearances or impressions, that the Kwei Shin are near, and therefore the fit objects of worship. The writer knows a temple built in a lonely spot, simply in consequence of a few passers by having ob-
N
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served the phosphorescent appearance of some decay- ing fish, that had been thrown out near the spot at night, from which people inferred the presence of the Shins, and erected the temple accordingly. The Chi- nese imagine also that there is a sort of subtile essence belonging to the various kinds of animals, though this is inferior to the Shins of men, in possessing less feel- ing and knowledge.
The sage goes on to say,
*' Observing the subtile essences ofthings, (*he sages) in their regulations honoured them to the utmost, and clearly appointed them to be the Kwei Shins, that they might be patterns for the black-haired people ; thus all classes would fear them, and the myriads of the people submit to them."
The coramentatoT says, that observing the subtile and spiritual es- sences ofthings, that could not be concealed, the sages in their ar- rangements assigned them a most honourable title, and publicly desig- nated them the Kwei Shins, that they might be the patterns to tha empire ; thus the people knew what they should venerate, and did not dare to be disrespectful ; they knew also what they should submit to, and did not presume to disobey.
The paraphaase says, that this passage speaks of the Kwei Shins as united, and constitutes the substance of the sage's instruction. They publicly designated the Kwei Shins, causing people to know their efBcaciousness, and that they might be relied on, thus becoming pat- terns for the people. The critical commentator says, that the Kwej
Shins are the ^ finer and the 6^ grossser parts of the spiritual nature of men and animals ; but if they were merely called by these names, the appellation would not be sufficiently honourable ; there- fore the sages, observing the subtile essences of men and animals after death, designated them in their regulations by the most honourable title, and appointed them to be Kwei Shins, thus uniting the two kinds of invisible b'^ings. The force of the expression rests very much oil this idea of union.
From the above we learn, that Confucius carried out his idea of the finer and grosser parts of man's spiritu- al nature, which became separated at death, and uniting them again conceived the notion of the Kw^ei Shins, or invisible beings, who were the objects of sacrifice and of dread to the people. Hence the worship which is paid to the manes of ancestors, and the custom of depend- ing on departed progenitors. This is, however, very far from considering them the original authors of existence, '
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or the supreme disposers of aflfairs, and only represents them as a sort of secondary beings, derived from de- ceased men and animals, and exhibiting themselves Of cassionally as meteors or vapours near the graves of the departed.
In the 58th page of the 8th section, we meet with the expression, " above being obedient to the Kwei Shins, and abroad submissive to princes and superiors," spoken with reference to a filial descendant presenting sacrifices to the manes of his ancestors : so that the meaning in this passag-e cannot be a matter of doubt.
In the 62d page of the same section, the J^ repre- sentative of the deceased at a sacrifice is said " to eat the leavings of the Kwei Shins," because after the ani- mals had been slain, their blood and raw flesh was presented to the Kwei Shins, while the dressed food was presented on sacrificial vessels to the representa- tive of the deceased, who ate it, and was thus said to €at the leavings of the Kwei Shins. In this passage the simple mention of the representative of the decased, who was generally some lineal descendant, shows that the Kwei Shins spoken of refer to the manes of ancestors.
On the 64th page we read, " That sacrifices have ten objects, which are apparent in the way in which men serve the Kwei Shins, in the righteousness exhi- bited between princes and ministers, in the relations observed between parents and children, in the classi- fication to be maintained amongst noble and mean," and so on to the number of ten.
In the following sentence, the first of these objects is thus explained ;
'^ Spread the mat, and set one and the same ta- ble for the Shins to rest on : let the crier and the chaplain perform their part of the service in the inner apartment, after which they are to go out into the gateway of the temple. This is the way in which to hold intercourse with |^1 3^, invisible beings."
The commentator says, that when people are alive they possess •different bodies, therefore iu the relations of husband and wife a dis-
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tinction of duties is to be observed ; but at death their M* 5^ Bujb* tile essences are not divided, therefore only one table is set tot them to lean on. The crier and chaplain are to announce the business in hand to the representative of the dead in the inner apartment, and afterwards to go out to the gateway, and on the next day arrange the sacrifice, on one side of the gateway of the anceat&rial temple ; because it was not quite certain \yhether the Shina were here or there ; therefore it is said, this is the way to hold intercourse \yith invisible beings.
From this reference to the representative of the dead, and the ancestorial temple, it is evident that the Kwei Shins, or invisible beings, referred to in both passages, are none other than the manes of ancestors.
In the 9th section of the l^ook of Rites, relating to the private intercourse of Confucius, and on the 9th page, one of his disciples "asked respecting ceremo- nies, whether they were not calculated to restrain the bad and perfect the good *? to which the sage replied, that they were. Again he asked, in what way *? when Confucius said, The services performed at the ^|J sacri- fice to heaven, and at the |j^ sacrifice to earth, are those by which men shew their benevolence towards the Kwti Shins, (or the invisible beings belonging to heaven and earth,)"
On t>ie 10th page, the writer speaks of " the Kwei Shins obtaining their proper enjoyment;" which the commentator explains by saying, '' that the celestial Shins all coming down, the terrestrial K'hes all com- ing out, and the human Kweis all drawing near, may obtain the proper ceremonies," and enjoy the viands provided for them in sacrifice. Thus the Kwei Shins in this passage, are the celestial and terrestrial Shins, or expanders of nature, together with the manes of de- ceased persons, usually sacrificed to by the Chinese.
On the next page, the writer speaks of the Kwei Shins missing their accustomed enjoyment, where the idea is the same, only reversed.
On the 19th page of the same book, the writer speak- ing of the sage says, that,
" Clearnesss and 1 rightness are possessed in his own person, and that his mind and will are like the
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Shins;" which the commentator explains to mean capa- ble of prescience, like the genii of wind and weather ; so that the word Shin is to be taken in the sense of in- scrutably intelligent, combined with some prognosti- eating quality ; as is the case with the weather, which when ahont to become rainy, always gives some inti- mation of it, by the gathering of clouds over the hills. On the 44th pa^e of the same section, we read, *' Confucius said, The principles of the Hea dynasty, consisted in hoi.ouring (the virtuous nature) decreed (by heaven), also in s<3rving the Kweis, and respecting the Shins, while they kept them at a distance. The rulers of that dynasty drew the people near them, to render them fdithful ; hence they began by affording liberal emoluments, and afterwards endeavoured to in- fluence by terror ; they first rewarded, and then pun- ished, so that they were regarded with affection, but not with awe : and the faults of the people consisted in folly and stupidity, pride and wildness, bluntness and a want of polish. The rulers of Yin, on the contrary, honoured the Shins, and led the people on to serve them, while they regarded the Kweis more then cere- monies, putting punishments in the first place and re- wards afterwards ; the result was a feeling of respect, but not of affection towards, the rulers, while the peo- ple erred in bein,,^ dissolute and unquiet, emulative and regardless ot shame. The rulers of Chow, un- like these, hcmoured ceremonies and laid much stress on liberality, they served the Kweis and respected the Shins, while they kept them at a distance ; they also drew the people near them, to render them faithful ; the rewards and punishments administered, were ac- cording to the arrangements ot ranks ; the effect was that the rulers of that dynasty were more loved than feared, and the people erred in being gain-seeking and cunning, polished but shameless, injurious and obscured in mind."
The commentator says, that the people of Yin, endeavouring to cor- rect the faults of their predecessors, leaned to the side of respect ani <Ji'ead, while they attended to the business of serving the Slilns ; thus
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they lei the people on to regard the Kweis, which were beyond cora- prehension, and to disregard ceremonies, which were easy to be under- stood : hence the dissoluteness and unquietness manifested by the people, were the results of a veneration and regard for the Kwei Shins. By the Kwei Shins here are meant, according to the pa- raphrase, those mysterious beings belonging to the invisible world, who are capable of arousing men and transforming things, and must be understood of thoee expanders and contracters of nature so often referred to.
On the next page, we read,
*' Confucius said, The principles of the Hea dynasty did not allow them to make too free with words, while they did not expect perfection, nor require too much from the people ; thus the people were not backward in an affectionate regard to their superiors. The rulers of the Yin dynasty did not make too free with ceremo- nies, while they required a strict obedience from the people. The rulers of Chow compelled people to sub- mit to them, and did not make too free with the Shins, while rewards and punishments were carried to the ut- most."
The commentator says, that the one party did not make too free with words, because they honoured the decree (of Heaven) ; the other party did not make too free with ceremonies, because they put cere- monies in the back ground ; whilst the third {)arty did not make too free with the Shins, because they respected the Shins but kept them at a distance.
This passage is but a carrying out of the former sentence, and the meaning attached to the Shins is the same.
On the 52nd page, we read as follows : " Confucius spoke of the three dynasties of ancient times, that their enlightened monarchs all served the iji^ ^^ invisible and enlightened beings of heaven and earth in every case making use of prognostications and divinations, and not daring with private views and common feelings to serve the Supreme Ruler ; neither interfering with the proper days, nor offending against the prognostications and divinations ; while the prog- nostications and divinations did not entrench on one another."
According to the paraplirase, this intimates that the emperor should to be respectful in the service of heaven and earth, and ought not to
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presume to perform it with common feelings. Those which belong
to heaven, are called jfllf Shins, and those which belong to earth,
are called S^ intelligent beings. Divinations and prognostications were used with the view of selecting the proper victim ; and it was considered necessary to employ such modes of ascertaining what was to be done, because people did not dare with their private and com- mon things to serve the Supreme Ruler. Therefore the days and months were fixed according to the two solstices, at which periods no oth;r business was suffered to interfere with those services. The sa- crificial victims also were not taken in opposition to the decisions of the prognostications and divinations ; and whether the one or the other mode was employed, they were not allowed to interfere with each other.
The writer goes on to say, - *' Great affairs have certain days appointed for them, while small affairs have no fixed Jays, but divinations in such cases were employed ; for outside mat'iers hard days were chosen, and for internal matters soft days selected; Confucius said, the perfect victim d, being prepared, with the ceremonies and music, as well as the adjustings and purify ings, while nothing is done to offend against the divinations and prognostications, then no injury will accrue to the Kwei Shins, nor la- mentations be found among the people."
The commentator on this passage says, that great affairs, refer to the sacrificing to great Shins, and small affairs, to the offerings made to little Sliuis. The services performed towards hUls and rivers, are the outside matters, while those enacted in the ancestorial temple, are the internal affairs. All things being in proper order, the minds of the Shins and men would be rendered agreeable. Not to sustain injury, means that the Kwei Shins would approach ; not to complain, means that the people would enjoy happiness. The Kwei Shins are capable of happiness and misery, therefore of the K^vei Sliins it is sai 1, no injury will accrue. The people are capable of enjoyment and sorrow, therefore, of the people it is said, they will not complain.
In the above passages, we have one peculiarity not met with before, viz. the divisio:i of the ^^ invisible and the ^ intelligent beings, one class being assigned to heaven, and the other to earth. We cannot, howe- ver, from this draw any inference to indicate that the Kwei Shins are diiTerent from anything, which we have before seen them to be. It does not ap[)ear from the Chinese author, what were intended by great, and what by littie Shius, but it is supposed tbut the former
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refer to the genii presiding over the larger mountain* and rivers, while the latter nnight intimate merely those that were supposed to rule over hillocks and stream- lets. The services of both the great and little Shins, however, seem to have belonged to outside matters, while the sacrifices in the ancestorial temples were ranked among internal affairs. The injury apprehen- ded, as likely to accrue to the Kwei Shins, must refer to their being deprived of their accustomed sacrifices, or, from those sacrifices not being oifered according to propriety, their being prevented from enj oying them. In either case, it does not give us a very exalted opi- nion of the Kwei Shins, as being so dependent for their happiness and misery upon the sacrifices and services of men.
On the 64th page, another reference to the Shins oc- curs, but as it is a quotation from the Shoo-kmg, alrea- dy considered, it is not worth while i^oing over it again.
We pass on now to the Yih-king, or Book of Dia- grams, and under the ^ Keen Diagram, 1 0th page^ we read as follovvs:
" The Great man (or the sage in power) associates in his virtue vrith heaven and earth, assimilates in his brightness to the sun and moon, accords in his regular- ity with the four seasons, and corresponds in his happy or calamitous visitations with che Kwei Shins. When he precedes 5C beaven,. or nature (in the discovery of new inventions), nature does not revolt against his views ; and when he follows 5c heaven, or nature, he still complies with the seasons appointed by heaven ; seeing then that ^ heaven, or nature, does not oppose him, how much less can men, and ho(v much less can the Kwei Shins "i
The con)mentator says, that the phrase " the great man" in fche ahove paragraph, is intended to explain ttie expression used under a preceding diagram, which speaks of the great man appearing foi^ the advantage of mankind. When a person possesses the requisite virtue, and fills the proper station, he can he considered in this light. Men, together with heaven and earth, as well as the Kwei Shins, hav« ori- ginally no two principles, but common men become obscured by the spirit "of selfishness, thus being fettered by their fleshly bodies, they
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«:iannot get a thorough perception of things : the great man, on the con- trary, having no selfish views, and embodying riglit principles, cannot be said to be either this or that, first or last ? '' Getting the start of na- ture, and meeting with no opposition," means that when he has an inclination to do anything, his meditations coincide with the rule of right ; *' following natare, and obeying its dicintes," means that knowing right principles t > be Ihas, he obediently complies with them. The paraphrase says. He that may be called a great man, and ap- pears for the advantage of the em;>ire, is one who nt^t onij popscs'^es high rank, but also virtue. Now with respect to virtue, there can be no greater virtue than ttiat of heaven and earth, which sustains all, and overspreads all without distinction ; thus also the great man is extensively kind in sustaijiing things, and exaltedly bright in over- soreading things, so that he unites in virtue (with heaven and earth.) Going on from this, we perceive that betwixt heaven and earth, the sun and moon, in conformity with the rule of right, steadil}' display their brightness ; thus the great man, also, in knowledge extends to every place, and enlightens men on all sides without limitation, so that he unites in splendour (with the sun and moon.) Further, we Bee that the four seasons, according to the rule of right, alternately re- volve ; thus the great man, in the exercise of virtue, propriety, good government, and necessary inflictions, whether they should precede or follow, be more rapid or more slow, in evory instance acts according to a certain order, thus he unites in regularity (with the four seasons.) Further we see, that the Kwei Shins, according to the rule of right, steadily prevail, while they bless the good and curse the bad : so also the great man, by rewards urges men on to goodness, and 1 y punish- ment restrains their vicious propensities, by the exhibition of favour he illumines the virtuous, and by the display of terribleness, he curbs the villainous, thus he unites (with the Kwei Shins) in bringing ■down happiness or misery on people. So true it is, that he combines in the exhibition of virtue with heaven and earth. Therefore when he precedes heaven or nature, in opening out the minds of men, and in establishing those things which from of old until that time had ne- ver been known, then seeing that heaven or nature originally possess- ed the principles referred to,, it could of course make no opposition to iJbe great man. So also when he follows out the dictates of heaven or Bature, in establishing goViernment, and in complyinsr with those things which human beings by their original constitution and the •celestial decree possess in common, then as heaven or nature possess- es in itself these fixed principles^ the great man could do no more than just obey the dictates of nature and act accordingly. In this way, when he precedes nature, then this natural feeling, proceeding •from himself, does not oppose ; and when he follows out the dictates of nature, then this natural feeling, being ilj;it which he himself com- plies with, likewise offers no opposition. If heaven or nature does not oppose, ho\v much less can men ? on the contrary the distant will look towards him with hope, and the near be free from dissatis- faction. How much less also can the Kwei Shins oppose ? The imperial will (or the will of the great man) being pr-^v:3URly fixed, the Kwei Shins have nothing U) do but to comply ; what ruvtht^'i-
C)
106
doubt can there be, that advantages result from the appearance of the great man.
A n extract from the writings of Choo-foo-tsze on this subject says. This paragraph is designed to explain the virtues of the great man. The preceptor, in this passage, means, that the virtue of the sage is substantially built on the rule of right, and is utterly divested of selfishness : as heaven overspreads all things without any private partialities, and earth sustains ail things without respect of persons, so also the sun and moon display no private enlightenings, nor are the four seasons arranged with any private views, while the happiness and misery induced by the Kwei Shins is entirely separated from all selfish considerations. Now all this is in conformity with the rule of right. The great man being divested of selfishness, possesses in himself this rule of right, and svherever he confronts his conduct, whe- ther he compares it with heaven and earth, or the sun and moon, or the four seasons, or the Kwei Shins, there is an invariable unison and
agreement. When speaking of jf^ heaven in the phrase " heaven and earth," the writer refers to its form and substance ; but when speaking of heaven or nature, in the phrase ** preceding heaven, and following heaven or nature," the writer refers to the rule of right. The phrases preceding or following heaven or nature, merely refer to one thing ; as Yaou's yielding and Shun's receiving the empire (only respected one affiur ;) or as T'hang's setting aside and Woo's suppressing the tyrants (only referred to one business.) In esta- blishing ceremonies and composing music, as well as in forming nets and snares, boats and carriages, and whatever was first invented and made, although they were things that had not previously been seen in the world, yet they were constructed according to principles originally esisting in nature ; but because the sages instituted things that had not been before in existence, they were said to have preced- ed nature ; and because the sages took their ideas from principles that were originally in existence, they were said to have followed na- ture. So that after all, the forms and appearance of things, together with the sagss, in all their length and breadth, were in perfect unison ■with the rule of right. The four sentences above quoted, which refer to the sages' uniting in virtue with heaven and earth, all imply that the rule of right is not to be separated between this and that ; while the phrases, preceding nature and following nature, imply that the rule of right is not to be distinguished into prior and later. Some have douhtiTidy asked, whether the preceding and the following of nature should be taken in this loose point of view, merely considering that the preceding of nature refers to non- contradiction, and the fol- lowing of nature to nature's not revolting against the arrangement, &c. to which we may reply, that these are expressions implying the perfect unison of the sage's principle with the form and manner of things.
We have been thus fall in giving the commentary and paraphrase on the above extract, in order to pre- «»ent our readers with a pretty correct idea of Avhat the
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Chinese think of their sages, and what of the Kwei Shins. By the Kwei Shins, in the first part of the extracts, who brin^ down happy or calamitous visitations on men, are meant those contracters and expanders of nature, who acting in accordance with the rule of right, steadily prevail over every opposition, and thus bring down blessings on the good and curses on the bad. That, however, not in pursuance of their own dictates, but in obedience to the will of Heaven ; and not by awarding final and irreversible happiness or mi- sery on mankind, but by so arranging the winds and rains, with other meteorological phenomena, as to pro- duce advantage or disadvantage to their votaries. In the latter part of the sentence, the Kwei Shins, as well as human beings, are represented as not being able to act in opposition to the sages : for since these latter com- ply with the rule of light, act in accordance with the dictates of nature, and therefore meet with no opposi- tion from Heaven, how can the former think of present- ing any obstruction to the accomplishment of their wishes ? In fine, the paraph rast cuts the matter very short by saying, The imperial will, or the dicta of the sages, having been previously determined on, the Kwei Shins have nothing to do, but to comply.
Under the ^ K'heen diagram, 44th page, we read, " The way of heaven is to diminish the full, and to add to the humble ; the way of earth is to overturn the full, and to replenish the humble ; the Kwei Shins bring calamities on the full, and happiness on the hum- ble ; the way of man is to hate the full, and to love the humble ; when the humble are in high stations, then they display brightness, w^hen they are in low stations, they cannot be passed over ; this is the final result of the good man's conduct."
The commentator says, that to overturn, means to ovorthrow and destroy ; to replenish, means to collect things and make them revert to a place. When a man can exercise humility, then while dwelling in an honourable station, his virtue will be the more splendidly dis- played, and while occupying a meaner post, other men will be una- ble to pass over him. This is the way in which the good man attains the result of his conduct.
lOR
i'he paiapLraae says, The good man in reaching hia final result^ constantly refers to heaven and earth, with the Kwei Shins, in order to compare them with human feelings, and discover their conformity. We observe that the way of heaven is, by the coming and going of the sun and moon, the contracting and expanding of cold and heat, to diminish the full and to add to the humble. We also observe, that the way of earth is, by the disrupture of mounds and hillocks, and their consequent subverting and si.^king, also by the confluence of streams into vallies, and their subsequent increase and filling up, to overturn the full and replenish the humble. We further perceive, with regard tQ the Kwei Shins, that the proud and full are visited with calamity, and the humble and retiring receive happiness. We again see that, according to the way of man, the full and overflowing are with one consent abhorred, while the respectfal and humble are unitedly loved. If men could but esercise humility, wherever they went, they would pro>|"^r ; should tliey occupy high stations, their virtues v,-ouM be looked up to by the lower people, and thus they would be splendidly displayed ; but if they could occupy these sta- tions in an humble spirit, they would still more be looked up to by others, and would not this be yet more glorious ? Should they occu- py meaner stations, where men might easily despise them, they might thus be passed over ; but if they could occupy these stations in an humble spirit, then men would not conceive the idea of despising them, in which way then could they be passed over ? Now humility in its commencement, does not depend upon the station which a man fills ; should he dwell in an honourable post, he is still glorious, but when he occupies a meaner station, he cannot be passed over ; while in its termination, humility does not deprive him of any influence de- rived from his station ; thus it is, that the good man attains the result of his conduct.
The Kwei Shins mentioned in the above extract, are those same contracters and expanders of nature, who, by certain dispositions of meteorological arrangements, cause men tj experience happiness or miseiy, and, in conformity with the usual proceedings of the powers of nature, bring calamity on the full, while they confer happiness on the humble.
Under the ^ Fung Diagram, and on the 5 1st page, we read,
'* When the son arrives at the meridian, there is im- mediately an inclination (to decline) ; when the moon arrives at the full, it instantly goes on to the wane ; thus heaven and earth become full and empty, seasons also diminish and grow, how much more is this the case with regard to men, and the Kwei Shins ?"
The commentator says, that this sentence is intended to illustrate the phrase connected with the diagram, and that the idea it convey*
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is, be'vare of exceeding the due medium.
The paraphrase says, The former sentence stated, that we should hit the centre like the sun coming to the meridian, meaning that we should constantly maintain the due medium, and not pass over to ex- cessive fulness ; while, observing that fulness is immediately succeed- ed by decay, we see still more the duty of keeping at the medium, and avoidini? running into excess. Now, when the sun comes to the meridian, it enjoys its fulness ; but when it arrives at that point, it invariably begins to decline. The moon also at the full, is in the height of her glory, but then she invariably begins to wane. Al- though these luminaries are great, yet when heaven and earth display, expand, illumine, and brighten thtir fulness, this is the time when they grow ; so also when nature receives, collects, reverts, and stores up their emptiness, this is the time when they must diminish. Times of fulness and diminution, even heaven and earth cannot es- cape ; how much more when human affairs are moulded and bound round in the midst of heaven and earth, and when the Kwei Shins move and revolve within nature's bounds, can they disobey this law, and expect to be always full ? This is the reason why kings should be tremblingly alive to the duty of preserving the due medium, and not pass over into excessive fulness.
Choo-foo-tsze, in his general work says, There are many ej^pressions connected with the Fun^ diagram, but they are all to be referred to the idea of the sun beginning to decline after having reached the meridian. This extreme of fulness, we ou-ht very carefully to maintain, as in the meridian of the day, and then it would be welL He also observed, From this point to pass over to danger and ruin, is only a step, therefore we should be humble and self reproving, in order to preserve what we have obtc^ined. We have been told, that the Kw^ei Shins are the changes and transforuia- tions of heaven and earth ; in the movements and ope- rations of nature, the Kwei Shins embody every thing without exception. The sun and the moon, declining and waning, after having arrived at the meridian and the full, as well as nature's advancing and decaying, replenishing and exhausting, are all effects produced by the Kwei Shins. Having referred to this, it is ne- cessary that we more distinctly explain it, by observ- ing, that the four seasons, heat and cold, rain and dew, wind and thunder, together with the flowing of rivers, the rising of hills, the flourishing of plants, and the de- cay of vegetables, are all substantially brought about by the Kwei Shins.
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From the above we perceive, that the Kwei Shins above spoken of are the usual expanders and contrac- tors of nature ; moving and revolving within t\e com- pass of heaven and earth, and producing various chang- es and transformations, movements and operations ; such as, the rising and setting of the sun, the waxing and waning of the moon, meteorological phenomena, and veg"-etable energies, which are all ascribed to the Kwei Shins ; and yet they are not able to divest them- selves ol the liabihty to change, nor to claim exemption from the operation of that law whi^h binds all nature under its influence. They are, therefore, a part of that nature, which, by their expandings and contract- ings, they put in motion, and can be no more than a sort oi anirna mundi^ numerously diversified and dis- persed throughout heaven and earth, under the direc- tion and control of some higher power.
In the section of the Book of Diagrams, called ^ ^ connected expressions, on the 5th page, we read as follows :
" Looking up he makes use of (the scheme of the dia- grams) to observe the phenomena of heaven ; looking down, he makes use of the same, to inspect the eontour of the earth ; therefore (the sage) knows the causes that operate in the visible and invisible world. He traces out things to their origin, and reverts to their conclusion, thus he knows the theory of lite and death ; he sees that the conjunction of the jj^ vital fluids, and 0^ animal breath constitutes living things, but that the wandering of the §§ finer part of the animal soul brings about a change : thus, he knows the circum- stances and conditions of the Kwei Shins."
The commentator says, This paragraph exhausts the theory of right principles. To make use of, means that the sage makes use of the scheme of the diagrams for the above purposes. The scheme of the diagrams is nothing more than a detail of the male and female principles of nature. The visible and invisible worlds, life and death, together with the Kwei Shins, are all produced by the changes of the male and female principles of nature, and are all in accordance with the rule of right inherent in heaven and earth. The phenomena of the heaven, refer to night and day, with the rising and setting (of thes
Til
heavenly bodies ;) the contour of the earth, refers to the eleTation or depression of north and soutl). To trace out, means to go back to that which has gone before ; to revert, means to examine things in their subsequent results. The female principle of nature is synoni- mous with the vital fluids, and the male principle with the animal breath, when these combine and form living things, this is the expansion of the Shin ; but when the finer part of the animal soul begins to ramble, and the grosser part to descend, then these disperse and a change takes place, which is the reverting of the Kwei.
The paraphrase says, That the scheme of the diagrams supplies what
seems deficient in the 5^ principles of heaven and earth, and when these principles are dispersed and variously difi*used over heaven,
earth, and the myriad of things, this is what is called >^ the principle of order. The sage makes use of the scheme of the diagrams, in order to exhaust this principle of order. Looking up, he ©bserves the phe- nomena of the heavens, and looking down, he examines the contour of the earth, and thus knows that day, with the rising of heavenly bo- dies, the southern quarter, with that which is more elevated in nature, belong to the visible world, and constitute the changes of the male principle of nature : while night, with what is low, the north quarter, with what is deep, belong to the invisible world, and constitute the transformations of the female principle of nature ; while he takes the scheme of the diagrams in order to know the way in which the visible and invisible worlds subsist as they do. He traces out the origin of things up to the place where the first commencement began, and he looks round to the end, as far as the point where all things terminate and die ; thus at the commencement, he finds that the congelation
of the ^ iik transforming breath of nature, is the ^ change from nothing into being of the male principle ; and afterwards, that the
exhaustion of the transforming breath of nature is the fy change existence to non-existence of the female principle of nature ; thus the theory of life and death is ascertained by means of the scheme of the diagrams. Then again he observes, that the |^ ^ secret ani- mal fluids belonging to living things are connected with the |^ ^^ open vital breath of the same, thus uhiling and consolidating Uiey constitute the outward forms of things, this then is the convening into being of the mule principle of nature ; afterwards, when the ^va
finer part of ^ human spirit quits the fij^ coarser part of the jf^ animal fluids, suddenly it rambles forth, and this constitutes the la.-it change of living things, this then is the converting into nonentity of the female principle of nature ; in this way the circumstances and condition of the Kwei Shins are known by the scheme of the diagrams ; and so this work is the scheme that comes up to the level of the sages and exhausts the principles of nature.
The Kwei Shins spoken of in the above extract are evidently the expanding and contracting principles of human life. When the animal fluids, (mcluding the
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blood aD(l semen,) which are said to be synonimous with the female principle of nature unite with the liv- ing breath, which is said to be synonimous with the mnle principle of nature, this constitutes a human be- ing, and this is the exparision of the Shin ; but when the finer part of the animal constitution quits the coarser, and bei^ins to ram!)le, while the coarser part descends to earth, this brings about the change, which we call death, and this is the reverting of the Kvvei. Thus then the Kw^ei Shin are brought about by the disso- lution of the human frame, and consist of the expand- ing and ascending Shin, which rambles about in space, and of the contracted and shrivelled Kwei, which re- verts to earth and nonentity.
The writer in the book of diagrams on the next page says,
"(The sage) moulds and encircles the transformations of heaven and earth, and thus there is no error ; he bends and completes the myriads of things, and thus there is nothing neglected ; he understands the princi- ples of day and night, and knows them thoroughly ; therefore his f\^ mysteriousness is without any fixed place (i. e. extends to unlimited space), and his ^ transformations are without any settled form, (that is pervade every form and substance.")
The commentator says, that this paragraph sets forth the business of the sage, in carrying to the utmost the decrees (of Heaven.) To mould, is like having a mould (for the founding of metals) ; to encir- cle is to enclose in a square, as a city is surrounded by its environs. The transformations of heaven and earth are endless, and the sage forms a mould and circle for nature, that it may not supass the due medium ; this is what is called cutting out and completing. To un- derstand ie the same as to combine in one's ideas. Night and day re- fer also to the visible and invisible worlds, life and death, together with the Kwei Shins. When (the sage) is able to do this, then may be seen the wonderfulness of his extreme mysteriousness, which has no defitiite place for its limits, and the changes of his transiorming power, which has no settled form within which to confine it.
The paraphrase eays, Wlien the rule of riuht pervades all produc- tions and transformations, this is called the decree of Heaven. The
sage employs ^ the system of changes to carry out to the utmost the celestial decree. The tranfe;fQr:«ations of heaven and earth were originally confused and chaotic^ without any distinction, so that error
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wa« unavoidable. But the sage by means of ^ the system of changes moulded and encircled the whole, regulating the calculations and rendering evident the seasons, in order to limit and adjust the pe- riods (for husbandry ) The philosopher also brought countries into order, and wastes under cultivation, in order to divide and portion off the land ; thus he moulded and encircled every thing, so as to avoid error. So also when the myriad of things were produced, they were scattered about without any proper arrangement, and in various instances were unable to perfect themselves ; but the sage employed ^the system of commutations to bend and complete them,cheri8h'ng and nourishing, or stopping and limiting them, in order to suit the growth of men and things ; he also aided and assisted, or promoted and advanced them, in order to revive the original nature of men and animals ; thus he bent and completed them, without neglecting a single individual. Further, the course of day and night, alternately revolved without exactitude, so that it was difficult thoroughly to
comprehend it ; but the sage, by means of >§r the doctrine of permu- tations, attained to a thorough perception of the pr ncipJe ; thus me- ditating on and combining the causes that produced its contractings ard expandings, he fully understood the springs of its coming and going ; and the principle of day and night, including whatever is apparent in heaven, earth, and the myriads of things, became invari- ably known. All these three constitute the decrees of Heaven, the substance of them being minute and mysterious, not to be comprehen- ded, and the use of them being furthermore changeful and varied without end, they were originally unbounded by any place or form. The sage, however, moulded aiid encircled, bent and completed, and thoroughly comprehended the principle ; thus while it luxuriated in the recesses of the sage's mind, it seemed to have no settled place, and yet there was no place in which it was not settled, so that its position was not to be comprehended ; is not this an instance of unbroken continuance, like the extremely mysterious character of the celestial decrees ? So also while it passed through the permutations of the sage's mind, it seemed to have no certain action, and yet there was no substance on which it was inactive, so that its form and substance were not to be scrutinized ; is not this an instance of unceasing opera- tion, like the infinite changes of the celestial decree ? Thus the ^ scheme of the diagrams, being the book in which the sage carries to the utmost the decrees of heaven, displays more and more the greatness of this scheme of permutations ?
In the above extract we see tliat the word Shin must be taken adjectively, and is to he rendered mysteri- ous and inscrutable. The whole refers to the sage, and not to invisible beings ; and speaks of the wonder- ful action of the pefect man, aiding heaven and earth in their transformations, and the myriad of things in their completions. The idea (which is perfectly Chi-
0
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nese) is, that heaven and earth in their chaotic wildnesfi were likely to produce confusion, had not the sage stepped in, and by his mouldings and circumscribings, calculatings and economizings, regulatings and civili- zings, brought the world into some kind of order, and thus assisted nature in its operations. So also with re- gard to the various animal and vegetable productions, which were scattered about without any order, and were never likely to come to any perfection, it required the sage's interference to train and nurture, encourage and foster, cultivate and arrange, suiting different pro- ducts to Iheir proper soil, and various engenderings to their fit seasons, or else the world would soon have been an overgrown wilderness, filled with a disproportionate collection of monstrous beings ; but the gage by his instructions and regulations sets all to rights, and the world wags on without disturbance. Thus likewise with regard to the varying length of the days and nights, and the endless diversities of the seasons, there would have been no possibility of adjusting human la- bour to the proper periods, so as to have rendered them most productive, had not the sage again come to the assistance of nature, and pointed out what was to be done, in order to I enefit by the constant changes of the atmosphere. Now in effecting all this, the wis- dom of the sage was so universally present, that it ap- peared mysterious beyond conception ; and his interfe- rence was felt on so many subjects, that his calcula- tions seemed incapable of being grasped by common minds ; hence the use of the phrase at the latter end of the paragraph above quoted.
After this follows a chapter, the whole of which we insert here, on account of its important bearings on the subject in dispute.
" One male principle or one female principle of na- ture, may be called 3^ the right course of things."
The commentator says, that the male and female principles of nature, alternately changing, constitute the ^^ breath or energy of nature ; the 5£ rule according to which these revolve may be de- nonjinated the ^ right course of things.
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The paraphraie says, That this section speaks of the right course of thing's bein^ nothing more than the male and female principle of nature, while it particularizes its real coiiditicn, in order to admire
its mystericusness. If one should ask, how shall we denominate J§ th« right course of things ? we would say, that between heaven and
earth, there is nothing more than these two ^ enertries of the male and female principle of nature. When the 7C ^ Great Extreme moved, it produced the male principle ; when it had moved to the ut- termost, it rested, and in resting produced the female principle. Af- ter it had rested to the utmost extent, it again moved, and thus went on in alternate motion and rest without cessation. All this is pro- duced by the motion and rest of the Great Extreme, and this consti- tutes the right course of things.
The writer goes on to siy, " The connectioa of these two constitutes goodness, and the perfection of thera constitutes the virtuous nature (decreed by Heaven.)"
Here the commentator remarks. The right course of things is already prepared in the female principle of nature, and is acted out in the male principle. The word connection, refers to the display of the right course of things ; and the term goodness respects the work ^ of transforming and nourishing, which is the business of the male prin- ciple of nature. The word perfection, refers to its being already pre- pared ; and the virtuous nature respects that which men and things re- ceive from Heaven. It means, that when things are produced they possess a perfect nature, and each one having this fully prepared in it- self, this constitutes the right course of things, which is the business of the female principle of nature.
The paraphrase says, Speaking of things from the time of their production and transformation, their flowing and pervading, or the ir being given and bestowed, we should say, that after matter had rested to the utmost extent, it then began to move, floating and pervading, displaying and nourishing ; this is what is meant by connecting (or carrying on the operations of the male and female principle of nature,) and is the work of transforming and nourishing ; at such time, the energies of nature were first beginning to move, and the principle of order had not yet been brought to play upoi things, althougli the principle itself existed in the celestial arrangements ; this the» con- stituted the goodness spoken of in the text. After matter had moved to the utmost extent, then it began to rest, congealing and collecting, and consolidating into form, this is what is meant by completing, (or perfecting the operations of the male and female principle of nature,) and is that which men and things have received ; at that time, the ener- gies of nature being already consolidated, and the principle of order being thereupon fully prepared, each one obtains this principle and springs up into life, this then constitutes the virtuous nature spoken of in the text. The connecting of these and the attainment of goodness, is the work of the male principle ; the completing of them and the constituting of virtuous nature, is the work of the female principle ; thus one male and one female principle alternate with each other with-
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out intfTHtiflsion, land tlie right course of things is inherent therein. • The writer in the text, further remarks : ; " 1 he benevolent man seeing this, calls it benevo- leLce ; the wise man observing^ it, denominates it wis- dom : the common people, in their daily practices, are ignorant of both ; therefore the principles of the good man are seldom discerned."
The commentator says, that benevolence belongs to the male princi- ple, and wisdom to the female principle of nature ; each one obtains but one corner of the right course of things, thus according to their Various predilections, they account that which they possess to be the whole substance of virtue. Those who are employed in tfeeir daily avocations, do not know either of these, and therefore, it is invariably the case that few of those who eat and drink, can discern the proper taste ; these again are a stage lower than the former. But after all, there are none of them without the right course of things.
The paraphrase says, Speaking of the partial character of men's na- tural endowments, we should say, that the one obtaining the excite- ment of the male principle of nature, is more inclined to benevolence, and thus adhering to his views of benevolence, imagines that the whole essence of virtue consists in benevolence ; not knowing that there is such a thing as uisdom requiring his attention. Another re- ceiving the sedateness of the female principle of nature, is more versed in wis dom, and thus seizing fast hold of the idea of wisdom, fancies that the whole substance of goodness is to be found therein, without adverting to the requirements of benevolence. While those who re- ceive a mixture of the male and female principle, and constitute the mass of the peeple, although they are daily busied about wisdom and benevolence, yet do not comprehend nor enquire into either ; and thus it is, that the united principles of wisdom and benevolence, which the good man possesses, are seldom perceived. The activity of bene- volence constitutes the male principle, and the sedateness of wisdom constitutes the female principle, while in the daily practices of common people, both principles are present ; and in this the right course of things consists.
Further on the writer remarks :
" (Nature) displays its benevolence, and stores up its benefits, thus encouraging the production of all things, without dispalying anxiety like the sages ; how ex- treme are its perfect virtues and its ample stores 1"
The commentator says, To display, means to come forth from with- in ; benevolence, refers to the work of production and transformation, and is the display of virtue. To store up, means to bring in from without ; benefits refer to the mysteriousuess of nature's springs and bonds, and constitute the source of wealth. Ching-t&ze says. Heaven and earth, without the exertion of thought, bring about their trans- formations ; the sages employ much thought, but do not interfere with the operations of nature.
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- The paraphrase saya, Speaking of the outgoings and incomings of the transformations and secret springs of nature, we should say, that nature, in causing things to spring and grow, certainly practices beHevolence ; for just then, at the commencement of things, the goodness of its productive energies comes forth from within, and is manifested in a benevolent manner. So also heaven and earth, in causing things to grow and flourish, is the source of advantage ; for when the fruits of the earth attain their completion, the be- neficial things which nature has produced are brought in from abroad, and stored up for future use. Thus nature displays its bene- volence, in order to promote the budding of the myriad of things, and then stores up its benefits, in order to encourage the bringing in of natural productions ; but whether in its issuings forth or in its re- turnings, it acts spontaneously, and does not in the least resemble th e anxieties of the sages, who employ their thoughts and exhaust their minds in the constitution of the empire. Now the display of benevo- lence is the manifestation of virtue, and is exhibited towards the myriads of things, thus its virtue is perfect ; so also the storing up of benefits is the source of wealth, and since every thing is thus trea- sured up, its stores must be ample. Besides every one of these acts, coming from unpremeditated goodness, constitutes the extreme of be- nevolence, without the possibility of its being traced ; and wonderful utility, without our being able to point out its commencement; is it not then surpassingly excellent ?
The writer goes on to say,
" The riches possessed by nature may be called am- ple stores ; its perpetual renovations may be called its perfect virtue."
The commentator Chang-tsze says, In its rich possessions nature is vast and unlimited ; in its daily renovations, it is protracted and inexhaustible.
The paraphrase says. Nature's stores are completed without, but how shall we denominate the depositing of its benefits within ? Thus, although its stores are externally exhibited, yet they are pro- duced from within, and are perpetually deposited there for use ; when nature conceives the idea of producing things, these are all nourished and fostered within, and from this germ are displayed and disclosed, in an unlimited and boundless degree ; this is the reason why na- ture's stores are so ample ; (and this is the way to speak of the depo- siting of benefits within.) Again, nature's virtues accumulate within, but how shall we describe the display of its benevolence without ? In this way, although its virtues are internally conceived, yet they superabound without, and are constantly exhibited in the displays of benevolence ; when nature puts in motion the springs that produce the varieties of things, these are all displayed and disclosed without, and from this they are impelled onwards, and transformed, until their productions and growings become inexhaustible ; thus it is that nature's virtues are thus perfect, (and this ia the way to describe the displays of its benevolence.) The perfect virtue of displaying benevo- lence belongs to the male principle of nature : and the ample stores ■deposited for use belong to the female principle. After having been
H8
displayed, they are again deposited, and after being for some time de» posited, they are again displayed ; thus there is one male and one fe- male principle of nature alternately revolving without intermission^ and the right order of things is found to consist in this.
Our author goes on to say,
" The producings and reproducings of nature may be denominated ^ change."
The commentator says, The female principle of nature produces the male, and the male the female ; their changes are endless, and in this the fitness of things, and the scheme of the diagrams are both alike.
The paraphrase says, If we view this subject in the light of the mutual changes of the male and female principles of nature, we shall find that, there was one female principle, and again one male, thus the female produced the male. So also there was one male principle of nature, and again one female, thus the male produced the female. The connecting of these two, as constituting goodness, resulting- in the perfecting of them, as constituting virtuous nature, as well as the display of benevolence followed by the storing up of benefits, all she\r that the male principle produced the female. The perfecting of them to form virtuous nature, being again followed by the connecting of them to constitute goodness, as well as the storing up of benefits, be- ing again succeeded by the display of benevolence (in the new spring- ing forth of things), she vs that the female principle may again pro- duce the male. Thug then one male and one female principle alter- nately revolving without cessation, shews that the right order of things is inherent in the whole.
In the next paragraph we read,
" That which produces the shapeless mass of things, may be called ^ the superior principle, and that which ^ presents to view )^ the exact form of things, may be called J^ the inferior principle of nature."
The commentator says, That the word >EX heaou, means to pre- sent or bring to notice, and that the word J^ fa, refers to the ex- act and visible part of production and transformation.
The paraphrase runs thus ; If we would speak of the order of
things in their springing into being, we should say, that when the ^ breath of nature first congeals, it iust then produces something like an unshapen fojtus, which constitutes the shapeless mass or the incipient origin of tilings ; this bein;^ light and pure, but not yet possessing any determinate form, belongrs to the male, and may* be called the superior principle of nature ; but when the determinate shape haa been assumed, it manifestly presents itself to view, and constitute* the exact form of things, possessing body, colour, shape and manner, this being heavy and gross, and cognizable to human senses, belongs to the female, and may be called the inferior principle of nature j thus one male and one female principle alternately changing without intermission, the right course of things is therein to be found.
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The author goes on to say,
" When we carry out numbers to the uttermost, in order to ascertain coming events, this may be called prognostication ; but when we thoroughly understand the changes likely to take place, this may be called settled business.
The commentator says, that prognostications here refer to the divin- ing by straws. Matters before they are fixed beloi;^ t) the male princi- ple of nature. Matters here mean things to be done. After proi^iios- tications have been determined, the settled business beloiigs to the female principle of nature. To exhaust numbers and penetrate in- to futurity, is the way to ascertain the changes ot events.
The paraphrase says, we may see the same principle in the use of the science of numbers to prognosticate. Wh»n we are just coming into contact with any matter, we enquire by means of the divining straws, and the aid of numbers, examining to the utmost the calcu- lations of seven, eight, nine, and six, seeking to ascertain the lucky or unlucky character of coming events ; this prognosticating of mat- ters beforehand may be called divining. But after the prognostica- tions have been fixed, and there is a certain method for hastening or avoiding expected results, we thsn abide by the same, and the changes incident to affairs are by this means ascertained ; this acting out our plans, after the divinations have been practised, is called settled business. Prognostications therefore being employed when matters are not yet fixed, constitutes the male principle ; and the transaction of business coming on when the divinations have been completed, constitutes the female principle of nature. Thus the male and female principles alternating with each other, the right course of things is found therein. This passage goes on from the production and transformation of things, aud speaks of the system of calculations and changes.
In the last sentence of this chapter, we read, " The inscrutable character of the male and female principle of nature may be denominated J|[^ the mys- terious."
The commentator, Chang-tsze, says, There are two principles pre- sent, hence the mysteriousness of it.
The paraphrase is as follows ; Viewing the whole in connection, we see that the two originating causes, the male and female principles of nature, mutually and alternately push and agitate one another, without cessation ; and since in the right course of things thtre are two principles existing, it is imposible to ascertain in which it is fix- ed. Now when a thing is fixed, it may be ascertained, and that which
may be ascertained is not fit to be called Jfl'j^ inscrutable : further with regard to the mvsteriousness of this right course of things, if we should say, that it is confined to the male principle, we perceive that that which constitiites the female principle is really the substance of thia light course oi ihmgi, and the right course of things has
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never yet been absent from the female principle of niture. So also should we suppose that it is confined to the female principle, we must acknowledge, that that which constitutes the male principle is in reality the acting out of this right course of thing's, thus the right course of things has never yet been exempt from the malejprin-
ciple of nature ; how f|^ inscrutable is it ? Is it not like the original mysteriousness of the Great Extreme ? When men can thoroughly
comprehend ^ the science of numbers, they can then exhaust ifil? the mysteriousness here spoken of. The right course of things consisting of one male and one female principle of nature, is assuredly nothing else than the male and female principle, and yet it does not depend upon the male and female principle of nature.
The Chinese account of the above chapter, which we have been thus minute in detailing, is that " every para- graph refers to the right course of thing's as constituting the one male and one female principle of nature, and
every paragraph speaks of ^^R'lr^fl^ ^^® inscru- table mysteriousness of the male and female principle of nature. The commentators, in explaining how it is thus, refer to the right course of things ; not attempting to point to the way in which the right course of things exists, but to the Aray in which the right course of things constitutes the male and female principle of na- ture. The male and female principle here refer to mo- tion and rest ; the right course of things combines the idea of motion and rest. Speaking of the essence of the right course of thing's, it is called the Great Ex- treme. Speaking of the acting and moving of the Great Extreme, it is called the right course of things. Speaking of the mysteriousness of the right course of things, it is called jjil^ the inscrutable. The main object of this chapter, is to make men employ the scheme of the diagrams in order to understand the right course of things."
In the whole of the above chapter, the Chinese sys- tem of cosmogony is set forth, regarding which we may say that, however curious, and in some parts inexplica- ble, this much is certain, that the Shins have nothing to do with it ; for the word Shin is here only employed as an adjective, meaning inscrutable and mysterious, and has nothing whatever to do with invisible beings or their operations. To derive the name or the attri-
lii
butes of the Dtitt from a chapter like ?he above, k a pure figment of the imagination ; and to explain .the ^vord Shin, in the above connection, of anything relating to God, is entirely beside the mark.
J 11 a suLsequent chapter, the author observes : " Of heaven may be predicated one, of earth two, of heaven three, oi earth four, of heaven five, of earth gix, of heaven seven, of earth eight, of heaven nine, of earth ten."
Tlie commentator says, that this treats of the Kumbers belongiAg t6 heatert and earth ; the male principle claiming the odd, and th« female principle the eveu numbers ; all of which may be found on the
^if H riv«rmap. In that delineation, one ftrtd s\tL tvete placed at the bottom, two and seven at the to]i, three and eii^ht on the left, fouf 6nd nine on the right, while five and Uu Occuj-fted the ceritre. Speak- ing of the numbers according to tlieir arrangement, th6n the five u\
the centre constituted the vl^^ parent of enumeration, and the ten ttext in order the offspring of enumeratioTi. The one, two, three, and four, outftidfe these, Were the stations of the four forms ; and the six, «even, eight, and nine, outside of all, were the enumerators of the lour forms. The two venerated ones, (such as the j^veat male and £»mal« principle of nature,) had their stations on the north-west cor- ner of the map, and tlie two inferior ones (such as the little male and female prineiple of nature,) had their stations on the south-east cor- ner of th© delineation ; with respect to their numbers, eat^h one was ar- ranged according to it* class, and alternately disposed one outside of |he other.
Th6 parAt)hra6e says, When men make ug* of tl>e ^ scheme of the diagrams, they simply pull out the straws and s^ek for th-e divinatiorii. This practice 6 f culling the straws origtni!ited m the numbers of the grt at system of enumeration ; these again originated in the nurii- bers of the riVer map, while the numbers of the river map are the tame a« those which belong to heaven and earth. Formerly, in the time of Fuh-he, a dragon horse came up out of the river, bearing a delineation ; upon its back were circles, formed by the curling of the hairs, numbering from one to ten. People deserving these, considei'ed them merely as the numbers of the river map, not adverting to the circumstance of their being al«o the numbers of heaven and earth ; nor to the question of which of these numbers may be ascribed to hei- Ten, and which to earth ; viewing them as ive now find them, we shonW gay, tuat heaven, belonging entirely to the male principle ofnatiit*. claims the odd numbers ; tlms the one, thr^e, five, seven, and niii^, of the river map, ali being odd ones, are nseribed to the celestial enu- meration. So al«o earth, belonging entirely to rhe female prineit>!e of natare, claims the *?ven numbers, thus the t'.vo, four, six, eight, and ten of the river map>, all being even.""relone to the. terrestrial eni^- meratron. Tht sub6t«tnce of beaten JtAd '•nrfh Hihjg put In • tJp'pt^i'l ~
p
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tJftn to each other, without change, the nurnSers from on« to t^n, are distinct in their application and yet nnconfounded ; thus it is that the river map contained the entire enumeration of heaven and eaith.
The author goes on to say,
*' The celestial numbers are five, and the terrestrial also five ; their five positions mutually suit each other, and are severally united ; thus the celestial numJjers amount to twenty-five, and the terrestrial ones to thirty, while both the celestial and terrestrial united make fifty-five ; these are the means whereby changes and transformations are effected, and the Kwei Shins are put in motion."
The coramentatf»r says, The five celestial numbers, viz. one, three, five, seven, and nine, are all odd ones ; while the five terrestrial num- bers, viz. two, four, six, eight, and ten, are all even ones. Their being mutually suited to each other means, that one is coupled with two, three with fjur, five with six, seven with eight, and nine with ten ; thus one even and one odd number are coupled together, and mutually suit each other. Their being united means, that one is put with six, two with seven, three with eight, four with nine, and live with ten, each pair of numbers bein? united two and two. Twenty-five are the five odd numbers added together. Thirty is formed from the five even numbers added together. The changes and transformations, mean that one chansjing produced water, and that six transforming completed it ; that two transforming prc- duced fire, and that seven changing completed it ; that three chane- ing produced wood, and that eight transforming completed it. That four transforming produced metal, and that nine changing completed it ; that five changing produced earth, and that ten transforming competed it. The Kwei Shins refer to the contractions and expan- sions, the approachings and recedijjgs of the productive and complet- ing powers of the even and odd numbers.
The paraphrase says. That these numbers constitute the whole work of producing and transforming things, and that not one of them is un- suitable ; one, three, five, seven, and nine are all odd numbtrs, and belong to heaven; thus the celestial enumerations are five; two, four, six, eiyht, and ten, are all even numbers, and belong to earth, thus the terrestrial etuime rations are als) five. These five numbers on the river map, each obtain a settled position; thus one is cou- pled with two, three with four, five with six, seven with eiirht, aiid nine with ten; the odd are put first and the even afterwards, while the order ii not disturbed, and each one obtains its proper place, as if divided in regular gradation, like elder and younger brethren who are not opposed to each other. While these numbers suit tach other, they are naturally united, as one with six, two with seven, three with eight, four with nin^, and five with ten ; one odd and one even num- ber *^e.;v^- c ,>up.ed together as l-ixdex and follower, and both mutuolly united, as if they had gome aSectiou f^jr each otUer^ and were thus
•12^
coupled together like man and wife, who ouglit not to be put aiund^. If we add up the celestial enumerations, we shall find that one and nine make ten, three and seven also ten, and putting in the fire we have twei.ty-fivp. So also if ue add the terrestrial enumerations, we shall fitid that two and eiurht make ten, four and six also ten, and puttintr in the ten, we have thirty. Uniting the celestial and terrestri- al enumerations we have fifty five, and the mutually suited with the mutuallv united numbers are thus exhausted ; that by which changes and transformations are completed can surely be none other than this, and that by which the Kwei Shins are moved can s»u-ely be none other than this ; for one, three, and five are u^*ed to produce water, wood, and earth, while six, eitfht, and ten complete them ; the chauires commence with heaven, and the transformations are completed by earth; two and four produce fire and metal, while seven and nine complete them ; in this the transfer ma' ions* commence with earth, and the chang- es are* finished by heaven. There is nothing that may not be ascribed tc tuese num'ier^, in order to their completion. Moreover, one, two, three, four and five, are the producing enumerations ; these are the ori- ginating causes of the changes and transformations, and may be con- sidered the advancing and expanding of the Slitns, (or expanding prin- ciple of nature.) So also six, seven, eight, nire, and ten, are the Completing enumerations ; these are the completings of the work of chanife and transformation, and may be considered as the receding and contracting of the Kwei, (or contracting principle of nature). But the commencing and producing, belong to the advancing: and ex- panding principle, which, after having produced anything, recedes and contracts; after having completed anything, although it has receded and contracted, yet when it was just completing the work, then its ad- vancings and expand ings were certainly set in motion by these num- bers. Thus wond'^rful are the numbers of the river map, and thus mysterious its operations !
The writer goes on to say,
" 'Ihe numbers of the great extension (in the centre of the river map,) are five and ten, (or when multiplied into each other fifty); of these numbers only forty nine are made use of iu divining, (one being deducted, to represent the Great Extreme) ; divide this one into halves, in order to represent the two forms (or the male and female principle of nature) ; to these tack on one (as is it were by putting a straw between thai fourth and middle finger of the left hand,) to represent the three powers, (or heaven, earth, and man) ; then take alternattdy four fingers of the right and left hand, to represent the four seasons ; after w^hich bring to- gether the remaining fingers (after the manner of di- vining by straws,) to represent the intercalary moons •
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in the eomse of five year$, there are two intercalary nVoQns, therefore repeat the operation of bringing to- gether the remaining fingers, and change them as before.
*' The aggregate number of th@ superior principle pf nature, is tvpo hundred and sixteen, (found by taking the three $ingle numbers multiplied into themselves, which make nine, and multiplying that by the number of the 29 ^ ^^^^ forms, representing the great and little THsle and female principle of nature, thus obtainmg 36, and then multiplying this 36 by 6, the number of strokes,* whether divided or open, in the scheme of diagrams, thus making 2\Q;) and the aggregate number of the inferior iprinciple of nature, is one hundred and forty four, (found by taking three double numbers, which makes six, and multiplying that 6 by the four forms above mentioned, thus making 24, and then multiplying this 24 by 6, the number above alluded to, will produce 144); the two aggregate numbers of the superior and inferior princi* pies of nature, added together, make 360, the number of days (generally reckoned) for a year.
"The aggregate number of the two sections of the scheme of the diagrams, is eleven thousand five hundred and twenty, (found by multiplying 192, the number of closed strokes in the book of diagrams, by 36 as above, and obtaining 6,912; also ])y multiplying the same 192, the number of open strokes in the book of dia- grams, by 24 as above, and obtaining 4608, these add, ed together will make 1 1,520,) which may be consider- ed as representing the numbers of the myriad of things.
" Therefore by means of these four operations, the doctrine of change is completed ; and by 18 (triple) changes the scheme of (64) diagrams is perfected."
The commentator says, that the four operations allude to the d'u \iding of the unit into two, the tacking on of one to two, in order to make three, the alternately taking four finders from each hand to con, atitute four, and the collecting of the odd fingers to make up deficien- cjea, as mentioned in a former section. The change here refers to
one alternation of a close and open stroke, Tiiree such alternation*
^^
constitute the ^ six lines of the diagi'ams, a^id «gbteen such alter, jiations form six times six-lined diagrams.
, Further on the writer says,
; ** The eight diagrams constitute a smalJ completion,
(after which the great completion of 64 diagrams
follows.)
" If you lead out and expand these diagrams, making each come in contact with its fellow, and thus enlarge them, then the mighty operations of the whole world niav he hrought to a conclusion."
The comraentutor says, this means that havinjr completed the six- lined diagrams, and observed whether the lines ch n^e alternately or not, in order to know whetiier they indicate motion or rest, ther> one diagrira may be chauLred and recJjanged. until it becomes sixty-four changes, in order to tix the lucky or unlucky character of events, and thttse sixty-four changed sixty-four times, will amount to 4096 cliang- es.
'* (These diagrams) bring to the kr owledge of men the right course of things (which is otherwise hidden,) and filfl bring into contact with invisible beings human actions (which would otherwise be only known to men) ; in this way (the diagrams) may be useful in the intercourse of men, and be of some service to invi- sible beings, (ir. conveying their views to mankind.)
The commentator sayp, that tlie right course of things (otherwise secret) is manitested by the expressions attached to the diagrams ; ai d outward action (otherwise only ref rring to ! uman beings,) is brought into contact with the invisible world, by means of the science of num- bers ; intercourse her-^ refers to answering and rt plying ; and aiding invisible beings, means that the diagrams assist them in their work of transformation.
The parapha*ie says, the divining straws and the diagrams, are cal- culated to carry out to a conclusion the mighty operations of the whole world ; but how are they used ? Tht principles of lucky and unlucky omens which are found in the diagrams, constitute the right course of things ; and when these are placed after the 18 alternate changes, and amongst the supirfluities of leading and expanding, and bringing into contact one with another of the diagrams, then the prin- ciples of lucky and unlucky omens are luminously disj)layed by the ex- pressions attached to the diagrams and the six-fold lines, and then the right course of thi^ijgs is manifested by the said expressions. ThosQ things which should be approached or avoided among the people, constitute the line of human conduct ; when these are placed after th« eighteen alternate changes, and among the superfluities of the leading out and expandin?, and bringing into contact one with another of the diiigranis, then the people are all encouraged to attend to the rule of what should be approached or avoided, without weariness ; thus vir- tuous conduct is by means of the doctrine of numbers brought into
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contact with invliible beingt. The strawB and the diagrams bein? thus useful in manifesting the right course of things to men, and ia bringing the virtuous conduct of men into contact with invisible be- ings^ it follows, that when men harbour any doubts which they cannot decide then in the visible world, the diagrams are useful in the inter- course of men, and in elucidating men's doubts ; so also with regard to intelligent beings in the invisible world, who have no means where- by to make known their views to men, these diagrams are of use in tha unseen world, in assisting invisible beings, and in expressing those things which invisible beings cannot utter. Thus the diagrams unite the Sffcret and the displayed, and there is no separation between them. Haug-she, treating of this passage, says, The right course of things adopted by Heaven, although it is secret, can be manifested by the diagrams,* in order to make it knovvn to men ; and the affairs of men, although they belong mainly to the visible world, can be carried out, until they are made to accord with Heaven ; thus in the visible world, the diaj^raros can correspond to the suitabilities of men and things, and in the invisible world, can aid in bringing to light the commands of th« Kwei Shins
Another couimei/ator says, The right course of things is the same as the fitness of things, and mcludes all these secret principles which the expressions of the B)ok of diagrams are calculated to make ma- i.ifest and display. The course of conduct, refers to what is evident in human business and affairs. These two are quoted to exhibit the secret and the evident in contrast, intimating that the most abstruse thing in nature is the fitness of things, and yet the expressions attach- ed to the diagrams are able to display it ; which may be called the bringintj to litfht of the invisible. So also that which is most mani- fest in nature^ is the outward conduct of men, and yet the enumera- tions of the Book of diagrams are intended to jjlf i2S ^"'^g ^^ ^"^^ contact with invisible beiuirs. which may be called the carrying down into the unseen world of that which is evident.
We have been thus particular in detailing^ all the sections of the chapter introducing the paragraph now under debate, and in giving all that commentators and paraphvasts have written on it, in order to be sure that the ideas which we form of the expressions used in the text are not erroneous. From the whole of what has been adduced on this passage, then it will be evident, that the first |l^ Shin, used in the paragraph now under discussion, nmst be considered in the light of a verb, and is in many re.spects the opposite of the verb in the first member of the sentence. That word i«? |§ been, and means to render evident, or to bring into contact with human beings in the visible world ;
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Off course thcD J^ Shin here must mean to render dark, or to bring into contact with invisible beings in the unseen world ; which will appear sufficiently plain to any one who attentively considers the whole passage. The second jjjt^ Shin in the sentence is a substantive, and refers to invisible beings in general, who h;ive no means of making known their wishes to mankind, but through the medium of divination and the diagrams. These Shins are also called Kwei Shins by one of tlie commentators on the passage.
** Confucius said, He who knows the doctrine of changes and transformation?}, may perhaps know what the bhins enact."
The commentator says, The doctrine of changes and transforma- tions refers to the reckonings and arrang'emf^nts detailed in the pre- ceeding paires ; all which are not such as could he hrousrht about by human ag-ency, ti)erefore Confucius uttered this exclamation regard- ing- them ; and the disciples inserted tlie phrase, Confuciiis said, in order to distinguish this sentence from the preceding ones.
The paraphrase says. Viewing thesp; things in coiinection, we »ee that the enumerations of the Great Extension of heaven and earth, and the arrangements about separating the straws in seekinsJ- for the divinations, all accord with the principles of changes and transfor- mations. Bat though numbers originate with heaven and earth, yet heaven and earth have no means whereby to exhibit their wisdom ; ai'd though they are regulated by the sages, yet the sages have no means whereby to display their abilities in this respect; thus the prin- ciples of change and transformation are all brought about by the I||^ Siiins. The science of numbers is nothing more than the alternate movements of one energetic mechanism ; and the arrangements of the diagrams, are simply the accumulation and division of one sinirle and one double number ; but they all spring from the spontaneous eff its of the principle of order and the force of circun)st:mces, and are w.th- out thought and without effort ; they appear as f they cause I thiiitrs to be so and so. and yet they do not really cause thing-* to be so and so ; and although they mii:ht wish things rot to be tliu», they cannot help tiieir being thus. To know what the Shins enact, is it not that whereby the science of tmmhers and the arrangements of the dia- grams are constituted wonderful. From this point, using the straws in order to seek for divinations, you may know that the arrangements of the diagrams are spread out in the liver map, and then you may know that the science of numbers originates with heavfu and earth, and of course know that such numbers and arrangements, both
come out from )[j^ the Shing, and are not such as human agency could accomplish.
The critical commentatsr here observes, that the word fjft Sijln
hjftte reftrs to the system of ch^nzen and trar«eformiition»,' and is io b* taken in a different hense from tLe word Shin, twice repeated in a^ former sentence, and rendered invisible heins^R. ' :
From the above remark, therefore, we should infer,' that according to the Chinese a number of contracting and expanding energies exi^t in nature, which work out the changes and tianiformations previously originating wath heaven and earth ; that these are es[)ecially active in divination, and in pointing out the secret and the fu- ture to those W'ho use the straws and calculate the numbers ; thus, constituting a sort of. Shins, or ex pan- de;s, presiding over prognostic^. The science of num- bers, and the arran^enfients of the diagrams, producing certain results strike the Chinese as somewhat wonder- ful, appearing as if they caused things to fall out in a eertain m i ner, and yet not in reality causing tliera ; and seeming as if they C3iild not help fie fdliing out of events, in such and such a way, if they would ; so that the Chinese have been led to im igine certain Shi iS as presiding over and bringing about these num- bers and diagrams, and that they are not brought about by human agency.
In the 8th chapter of the Sequel to the Book of Dia- grams, we read as follows : - .
" Tfie scheme of the diagrams according to the prin* ciples of the sages possesses four things ; when peo[>le employ it to guide them in speaking, they pay particu- lar attention to the expressions attached to the dia- grams ; when they use it to guide them in action, they observe the changes of the figures ; when they euiploy it for the purpose of constructing their implements, they regard the figures of the diagrams ; and when they use it for divining, they pay particular atteutiom to the prognostications." ' •'
The commentator says, that tliei=e four embrace the sysfem df changes and transformations, and are produced by the intervention 6f the ShluB, (or invisible beings i)residing over divinations.)
'' i herefore the good man, when he has anything to do for himself, or transact for others; enquires (by meansof the diagrams) and makes use of them to guide him in his words or actions ; on such occabions. (the
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oracle) receives his statemeat, (and conveys to him an answer) like the echo immediately following the sound ; and thus, no matter whether things are distant or near, dark or deep, he immediately knows (the charact'jr oi) future events ; now if (the scheme of the diagrams) were not the most jj^ minute and abstruse thing in all the world, how could it be employed for such purposes I
" He then (arranges the straws) into threes and fives, in order to form (one) change ; after which he shuffles them together and disposes of their numbers, by which he ascertains the (triple) change ; then he constructs the arrangement of the celestial and terrestrial forms, and carries out the numbers to the utmost, whereupon he can determine the figures of all things under hea- ven ; now if (the scheme of the diagrams) were not the most ^ capable of change of any thing in the whole world, how could it be employed for such a purpose '^
"The scheme of the diagrams is without thought, and without action, silent and motionless ; and yet, when it is put in operation, it enables the good man (to per- ceive all matters under heaven) ; now if it were not the most fl^ inscrutable of all things in the world, how could it be equal to this '?"
The commentator says, these four properties of the diagrams, above spoken of, are those by which the substance of the diagrams is esta- blished, and the use of them carried out into practice. The scheme of diagrams, here refers to the divining straws and the calculations ; its being without thought and without action, means, that it has no mind. Its silence constitutes the essence of its oper^.tion, and its operation shews the use of its silence ; the mysteriousness of men's minds in their motion and rest, is also to be referred to this.
The paraphrase says, Whence come the extreme minuteness of the expressions and prognostications, and the exceeding variableness ot the forms and changes of the diagrams? certainly it must be their
|[\pp mysteriousness, which establishes their substance and is display- ed in their use. It may be that the expressions and prognostications, the forms and changes connected with this science, are divided into the calling of the straws and the working of the calculations, but certain it is that after all they constitute but one scheme of the di- agrams. Whatever possesses min;l, can exercise thought, but the scheme of the diagrams possesses no mind, how then can it think ? so also, whatever possesses mind can act, but the scheme in question possesses no mind, how then can it act ? Before the stiaws are cul- ed, or the calculatious worked ; before the eXiue«Sioiis or prognos-
Q
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tications are exhibited, or the forms and changes displayed, thi« scheme of the diagrams is silent and motionless, and this is the way, in which its substance is established ; afterwards, when the straws are culled, and the cfilculations worked, wh^n the statements are drawn up, and the forms fettled, when the lucky may be known, and the unlucky determined, when the system is put in operation, and affords us some perception of thngs, this is the way in which the use of the scheme is carried out. Thus we may see, that in the midst of stillness there is motion, and things do not settle down into absolute stillness ; also in the midst of motion there is stillness, and things are not perpetually moving; therefore the science of numbers can be without thought, and yet always occasioning thought ; can be with- out action, and yet perpetually producing action ; because it comes from the epontaneousness of the right course and the fitness of things, and carries to the utmost that which is most mysterious under heaven. If it were not so, how could the scheme in question be silent and yet able to operate, be operating and then understood, be understood and that in such an instantaneous manner.
Another commentator says, that this paragraph is intended to con- nect the former two sections, and express admiration of them ; say- ing, that the doctrine of changes is not only ^ 7^ extremely minute, and 3£ ^5 capable of variation, but also the ^^ i[i^ most myste- rious thing under heaven. Adding, that the word j]PP Shin, here, is
employed &^ ^ ffil ^ W *o intimate that it is the most
mysterious thing in nature.
The writer goes on to say,
" The scheme of the diagrams is that hy which the sages exhaust the abstruse, and examine the recondite.
" It is only because (this scheme) is abstruse, that it can aid in discovering the views of all under hea- ven ; and only because it is recondite, that it can aid in perfecting every undertaking under heaven ; and it is only because it is jfjl^ mysterious (in these two respects), that without speed it rapidly (discovers men's views) and without travelling, it arrives at (the completion of affairs.)"
The commentator sa^^s, The discovery of men's views, and the ac-
comp^iphiricnt of business, are brought about by the )\\^ mysterious wisdom (contained in toe sclipme of the diagrams )
The paraphrase on this passage s^;ys, The sages in exhausting the abstruse and examining the recondite, do every thing in a spontaneous manner, thus in their discovery of the recondite and
abstruse, there is something ]\\^ mysterious. Therefore when the expressions and prognostications of the diagrams are made clear, ifhe views of all men under heaven are discovered, and it is as if they
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did not know by what means they were discovered : so «l$o when tX\e forms and changes of the diagrams are exhibited, the business of all men throughout the empire is completed, and it is as if they did not know by what means it was completed ; thus without hurry this scheme rapidly discovers men's vi^ws, and without travelling it arrives at the completion of affairs ; and it is not a vain pretence to say, that when this scheme is put in operatioia, it enables the good man to perceive all matters under heaven.
The chapter concludes by repeating the saying of Confucius, that " this is the meaning of the ^^cheme of the diagrams' possessing four things, according to the princi[4es of the sages."
In the next chapter, we read as follows :
" Confucius said, What is the use of the scheme of the diagrams ? The scheme of the diagrams opens put the knowledge of things and completes undertakings, while it includes every principle under heaven ; this is all that it is used for. Hence the sages employ this scheme to discover the intentions of all under heaven, to fix the business of all under heaven, and to settle the doubts of all under heaven.
^' Therefore the virtue of the divining straws is com- plete and ^ inscrutable, while that ot the diagrams is exact and wise ; so also the quality of the sextuple lines is varying, and capable of presenting (an an- nouncement to men ;) the sages take these three, and herewith clear their minds ; retiring they itore up these in secret, and (when occasion calls for it) they sympathize with the people, in pointing out lucky and unlucky omens ; they are f]^ mysterious in the way in which they know coming events, and wise in the practice of storing up past affairs ; and who is there that could attain to these things ^ but the intelligent and wise among the ancient worthies, who were |jl^ so inscrutable and awe-inspiring, that without the ne- cessity of inflicting punishments, (they could produce such effects.)"
The commentator says, That complete and inscrutable, refers to the unbounded changes and transformations, (of the divining straws) ; so also exact and wise, reters to the fixed principle of things^ (settled by the diagrams) ; he further says, that varying and capably of announcing, refer to the changes of the diagrams, which announce loatterg to mankind. The sages embody, and fully possess the ex-
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ceH&nce of these three, without a single grain of embarrasment. When there is nothing to disturb thena, their minds are silent and reserved, so that no one can pry into their feelings ; and when any- thing occurs, then in the use of their fl^ %\ inscrutable wisdom, whatever they seek to affect responds to their influence ; this is what is called, knowing lucky and unlucky omens, without the use of prog- nostication. Their being fj^ jK inscrutable and awe-inspiring without the necessity of inflicting punishments, means, that they possess the principles (of the diagrams) and have no need to resort to the use of the (divining) implements.
In the alove sentence, the first two instances in "which Shin is used are explained by the paraphrast to mean ifit^ '^f}} ^ 'j^ mysterious and inscrutable ; while the third instance, is similar to an expression in the Historical Classic, already considered, which con- veys the same idea.
The writer goes on to say,
" Therefore (the sages) clearly understanding the way of Heaven, and examining into the affairs of the people, have got up these jfjj^ ^ inscrutable things, in order to anticipate (lucky and unlucky events) for the use of the people ; thus the sages make use of these with pureness and reverence, in order to jfj^ Hfl render their virtue more inscrutable and intelligent."
The commentator says, That the inscrutable things refer to the straws and tortoise used in divining. Tiiat which is clear and un- adulterated, is denominated pureness ; while the feeling of awe- struck veneration, is called reverence. The sages clearly understand- ing the course pursued by Heaven, knew that these inscrutable things could be set up ; examining into the affairs of the people, they knew that the use of these things was indispensible, in order to anticipate the course of events, therefore, they invented divinations and prognos- tication*!, for the instruction of mankind ; while in the use of these they were pure and reverent, that they might properly examine the
auguries, and render their minds iffip §^ 1^ ^IJ intelligent and
inscrutable, like the y^^ jfj^ invisible beings, who could foreknow future events.
The fit^ ^ inscrutable things, mentioned in the a- bove quotation, refer, as we find, to the straws and tor- toise used in divination, because those articles, as the Chinese supposed, discovered to them in an inscruta- ble way future events; the es pres.sion ][ii|] ^ Shin ming, used in the latter part of the verse must be ta-
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ken as a verb, and made to signify " render more in- scrutable" the virtue of the sages, already unfathoma- ble, that they like the ^ j|l^ coiitractin^ and expard- ing powers of nature, (who in giving certain directions to the prognostications discovered future events,) might also be able to pry into futurity.
The writer goes on to say,
" Iherefore the action of shutting of the door, may il- lustrate the i^ inferior principle of nature, and the open- ing of the door ^ the superior principle ; the one opening and one shutting, is similar to a single revolu- tion of nature ; the going backwards and" forwards, without end, resembles the thorough perpetuation of this action ; when anything is i)rought out to view, it is a sort of shapeless mass, and when it assumes a definite form, it may be denominated a perfect utensil ; to arrange these and bring them into use, is called the method (of divination) ; and to promote their use in going out and coming in, while the people all employ them (without knowing how or why,) is called |^ mys- terious and inscrutable."
The commentator says, That the shutting and opening, refer to the springs of motion and rest in nature : the writer first alludes to the inferior principle of nature, because things proceed from still- ness to motion. The changing and pervading of the superior and inferior principles of nature, refer to the work of transforming and nourishing things. The coming forth to view of a shapeless mass, which afterwards assumes a definite form, and constitutes a perfect titensil, refers to the order in which tilings are produced ; the me- thod of divination spoken of, refers to that which the sages do in the
cultivation of virtue ; and the jjj^ mysterious operation alluded to, refers to the people daily employing ' these things in a spontaneous and inscrutable manner.
The paraphrase is as follows : The sasjes getting up the inscruta- ble things (for divination,) in order to anticipate future events for the use of the people, is also like (the operations of nature) from which these inscrutable things proceed, and from whence flow these benefits for the use of the people. The ^ one breath, or energy, of na- ture flowing and travelling abroad, is sometimes still and gathered up, like a door when it is closed ; this belongs to the female princi- pie, and is called the inferior power of nature. Again it moves occa- sionally, and discloses itself, like the opening of a door ; this belongs to the male principle, and is called the superior power of nature. By means of one opening and one shutting, the seasons and
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arrangements of a whole year are mutually interchanged, and this is called a revolution of nature. When this opening and shutting, backwards and forwards, goes on without intermission, and ten thou- sand ages revolve without end, this is called the thorough pervading of nature. These all constitute the work of production and renova- tion, by means of which the myriad of things are brought forth and nourished. Moreover, when things were first produced, at the very
commencement of all, the ^ breath or energy of nature, was in the first instance coagulated, and the incipient springs of existence, be- came apparent, which might be denominated the first shapeless mass of visible matter, somewhat resembling what it was to be. Afterwards when matter was thus produced, and the grosser element completed, until it assumed a regular form, this might be called the heavy sub- stantial and determinate utensil ; while the inscrutable things (avail- able for the purposes of divination) sprang up in the midst of all these. The sages then took the mysterious straws, and arranged them in number fifty, using only forty-nine of these ; they then tripled and quintupled the odd one, to form the commencement of enumeration, and shuffled these together to carry out numbers to the utmost ; they also employed the four operations, to complete the eighteen changes, and used the whole in d vining by straws. The sages also took the mysterious tortoise, and managed that, dividing its marks into five prognostics, and collecting them into four seasons, observing the large or small marks of the ink-brush, and verifying the recondite or manifest cracks of the shell, following these out unto the number of seventy. two, they used thom in divining by the tortoise ; thus they established these as the settled rules, and called them the methods of divination. Having arranged this, they caused the people of the em- pire to employ this method, in going forth, that they might obtain ad- vantages, and in coming in, that they might enjoy plenty, whilst the people universally imitated each other, in making use of this method ; thus weighing and distinguishing, they urged each other forward, in an unwearied and indefatigable manner, without knowing
how they were brought to act thus ; this may be called %V^ mysteri- ous. Thus it was that the sages could use the mysterious things, in order to construct the scheme of the diagrams, while they opened out the knowledge of things, and completed undertakings.
Thus the word Shin in the text is, by the explana- tion of the paraphrast determined to mean something inscrutable, as referring to the incomprehensible man- ner in which the people are led to make use of the scheme of the diagrams appointed by the sages.
The writer goes on to say,
" Thus the scheme of the diagrams possesses in it- self the extreme point of unity, which produced the two delineations, these originated the four rude forms, and from th^se latter sprang the eight diagrams."
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The commentator says, That the scheme of the diagrams, is founded in the changes of the male and female principles of nature, and that the extreme point of unity is the essence of that principle. Origi- nally we must suppose one stroke, this divided constitutes two, the open and the close ; the four rude forms are made hy using a dou- ble series of close and divided strokes, and the eight diagrams by employing a triple row of such strokes.
" The eight diagrams being used to settle the lucky and unlucky omens, from these omens would spring the great business of life.
" Thus it is that, in looking^ for imitations and resem- blances, there is nothing so great as heaven and earth ; in noticing changes and pervadings, there is nothing equal to the four seasons ; among suspended forms that afford light, there is nothing to be compared with the sun and moon ; among honoured and exalted ones, there are none to be put in competition with the rich and noble (emperor ;) in providing things and bringing them forward for use, as well as in perfecting utensils for the benefit of the whole world, there are none so great as the sages ; further, for fathoming the abstruse, for searching into the minute, for hooking up the deep, and for extending to the distant, in order to fix the luc- ky and unlucky omens throughout the empire, and ren- tier every man under heaven indefatigable and diligent, there is nothing to come up with the mode of divining by straws and tortoises.
" Thus it is, that Heaven produced these jfjl^ ^ in- scrutable things, and the sages took their pattern from them ; heaven and earth produced changes and trans- formations, and the sages imitated them ; Heaven sent down the forms of the prognostication, in order to dis- cern favourable and unfavourable omens, and the sages complied with those forms. At that time, the Yellow ri- ver produced the map, and the river Lo brought out Ihe delineation, and the sages took their patterns from these.
" The scheme of the diagrams possessed the four rude forms, in order to point out (the mode of prognostica- sion) ; certain expressions were attached to this scheme, in order to announce omens ; and these were
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fixed as lucky ot inilucky. in order to settle (what was to be done.)"
The commentator says, That the four forms refer to the senior and junior series of the mah; and female principles of nature, (represented by four series of double lines, alt/srnately wliole and divided, placed one over the other )
Thus in the whole of this chapter, the word Shia does not refer to the Divine Being at all, and is only used in the sense of mysterious and inscrutable, and employed with reference to the divining straws and tor- toises, which pointed out future events in such a wonder- ful manner, that they were called mysterious and inex- plicable things. The phrase Kwei Shin once occurs, as refening to invisible beings, or the contracting and expanding powers of iiature, which by their pantings and heavings point out the prognostics of future events, to those using the diagrams.
In the next chapter we read,
" Confucius said. Writing cannot carry out all that may be spoken, speaking cannot carry out all that may be thought ; but if so, are we to consider that the ideas of the sages are not capable of being perceived "? T o this Confucius replied, The sages set up the forms of prognostications, in order to carry out to the utmost their ideas ; they appointed the diagrams, in order to discriminate fully between what was true to nature and what was false to nature ; they appended certain expres- sion to these, in order to exhaust what might be said on the subject ; they then changed and carried them through, in order to shew fully the advantages that might accrue ; and they encouraged and stimulated the people (to take advantage of the favourable and avoid the contrary), in order to represent perfectly how j[(|]3 wonderfully (the people would adopt this scheme, without seming to know why.)"
The commentator says, That which may be conveyed by means of language is shallow, but that which mayibe pointed out by the forms of prognostication is deep. When we observe the single and double strokes (of the primitive diagrams,) we sae that they include an in- exhaustible series of chancres in themselves. The changing and carrying through, the encouraging and animating, spoken of in the text, all refer to the business of life (that may be enquired into by means of the diagrams.)
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The p&raphl-Jise, in elticidating the word Shtn, says, that the sages 'took the pervadings and cVahges of the forms of prognostication, to J8itge and encourage the people, to avail themselves of what was fa- vouf^ble in the prognostics, and to avoid what was unfavourable ; and these did so, without knowing what it was that caused them ; thus the saysteriousnees of the dia^araa was fully exhibited.
Thus it is evident that the word Shin, in this con- nectibn, must be tendered by some term connected with inscrutability.
The last paragraph of this chapter is as follows : *' To notice the transformations (of the diagrams) and decide upon them, depends upon (regarding) the changes ( which they may be made to assume ;) to draw inferences and act upon thehi, depends on the car- rying through (of the divining scheme) ; 1^ tfjl BH J^ to rendei* them insci'utable and intelligent, depends u- pdn th^ man who employs them ; to perfect them by meditation, and without speaking to induce belief, de- pends upon the virtue he displays."
The coinmentator says, That to mark the changes and carry through the scheme of the diagrams and the sextuple lines, depends upon the man who uses them ; while the way in which such a man may be ena- bled to render them inscrutable and intelligent, depends on his virtue.
The paraphrase says, That when the diagrams and sextuple lines ar6 prepared, and the straws and calculations set to work, to mark their transformations and determine their omens, is called the regard- ing of the changes, which changes previously existing in the scheme of the diagrams, are capable of being noticed and determined. Now those who make use of the scheme of the diagrams, when they first •begin to select the straws, observe the spontaneotis changes of the •eamej and determine their character, in order to fix whether they re- ier to the senior or junior male and female principles of nature, or to the forms indicating motion and rest ; thus it is that the whole depends on the changes which the sages mark and determine. So also to in- fer and act upon these, is called a carrying through of the scheme ; which power cf being carried through previously existed in the scheme of the diagranis, and is therefore capable of being inferred and acted oiit. Those again who make use of the scheme of the diagrams, af- ter having divided the straws, observe what is indicated by those changes, and then infer and act them out in- the business and affairs of life ; thus it is, that the whole depends upon the carrying througli of the scheme, which the sages infer and act out. It is as if they did not depend on the labour of marking and dcteriiiiiiiiig the changes,
nor of inferring and acting them out, while f|$ fjlii 0^ in an in- -scrutable manner they illustrate the principles of marking the -changes and carrying them through, which shews thai tho, whole de- pends upon the individuals who work the .icheme. Thcv ''ollcU th^
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springs of action, and deeply meditating thereon, the ideas are con- glomerated and completed in their minds in a spontaneous manner, so that without relying on expressions and explanations, these natu- rally coincide with their views ; this is truly what may be called effect- ing a thing W ffjl rH JC in an inscrutable and intelligent man- ner. This could not be accomplished by any one, who did not ori- ginally possess the virtue necessary for the same. For virtue is that to which the right course of things always tends ; when virtue is abundant in the mind, then the principle that harmonizes with mark- ing the changes and deciding upon the same, is carried out in the use of that which is advantageous to one's own person, and can be well extended to others ; thus the sage's virtue comprises the fulness of the scheme of the diagrams, and they are both united in one with- out interruption ; this is the way in which the sages, when they con- gult the straws for the purposes of divination, are able to bring out their
prognostications f)^ |J|| pJI >^ in an inscrutable and intelligent manner. For indeed the scheme of the diagrams could neither have been invented, nor can it be properly used unless by the sages.
In the above paraphrase, the words jjil^ jflj . 83 /SS are thrice adduced, and in each case the idea g^ven to them by the commentator is that of mysterious and in- scrutable, and acting in a spontaneous and incompre- hensible manner.
The 2d chapter of the last part of the appended re- marks to the Book of Diagrams, begins as follows ;
" In ancient times Paou-he (Fuh-he) ruled over the empire ; looking up he contemplated the forms exhi- bited in the heavens, and looking down he observed the patterns to be found on earth ; he also noticed the marks made by birds and beasts, together with the suitabilities of the land ; as to near things, he took the pattern from his own person, and as to the distant, he selected for iuiitation things in general ; thus he in- vented the eight diagrams, in order to carry through the virtue of jjjf^ Bj^ mysterious and intelligent beings, and to classify the circumstances of the myriad of things."
The commentator says, That looking up and down, towards the dis- tant and near, shows that he took his pattern from more than one thing ; but his only object was to verify the growth and decay of the male and female principles of nature. The virtue of invisible and intelligent beings, refers to the linnness or yitlding, the moving or resting which they display. The circumstances of the myriad of things, refers to the forms representing thunder, wind, hills, and rnarsiics.
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The paraphrase, on the latter part of this passage, says, That the essence of the male and female prhiciple of nature being recondite, constitutes the virtues of invisible and intelligent beings, from which we may infer, that the words invisible and intelligent are employed \vith reference to the abstruse and mysterious qualities of the male and female principle, which the sages looked to as their pattern, in the drawing up of the scheme of the diagrams.
Ill the 5th chapter of the same book, the 3rd para- graph, we read as follows :
" The geometrical worm contracts its body, that it may spread itself out again ; dragons and snakes bur- row in the ground (during winter,) that they may pre- serve their Jives ; thus (men study) minutely the hid- den meaning of things, until they penetrate into the )|^ mysteriousness of their subject, in order to bring their researches out into external use ; thus also they are compliant (with right principles) in making use of their studies, and ensuring tranquillity for themselves, in order to honour internal virtue."
The commentator thinks, that the minute searching into the hidden meaning of things, until we penetrate into their arcana, is the very essence of contracting ; yet such study is the foundation «f public uti- lity ; so also carrying things out into use, while we secure our owa personal tranquillity, is the very essence of expansion, and yet it is the means of promoting private virtue : thus internal and external objects arc mutually attained and advanced together.
The paraphrase here explains the word SMn, by mysterious and inscrutable.
The writer proceeds to say :
" Going on from this (lower attainment in learning) the student advances, until he attains a point which is perhaps beyond common apprehension ; thus he ex- hausts the flifl mysteriousness, and understands the trans- formations (of nature), and reaches the fulness of vir- tue, (or becomes a perfect sage.)"
The paraphrase, in illustrating the word Shin, says, that the stu- dent carries out to the rery utmost that which is jj^ mysterious in heaven and earth, and inscrutable in the conjunction of the male and female principles of nature. Thus we see, that the word in question still bears the same meaning as in the preceding paragraph. In the 10th paragraph of the same section,
" Confucius says, He who knows the hidden springs of nature is ijl^ inscrutably wise."
The paraphrase on tins passage says, The re is nothing under hea-
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ven which does not possess its hidden springs-, and when a man etm know these, he is one who has attained to inscruta,ble \yi9dpna and, in- telligence.
The 4th section of the same book, commences thus : "In former times the sages invented the diagrams^ (and by their virtue) aided jjj)^ ^ invisible and intel- ligent beings in bringing forth the divining straws."
The commentator says, that the aiding of invisible and intelligent beings, is the same as assisting them in the work of transforming and nourishing things. The record of the straws and tortoises used in di- vination^ says, That wh^n the empire was tranquil, and good govern- ment prevailed, then the ^t?ilks of the divining straws were a fathorn, long, and grew together in bunches of a hundred stems. From which, the Chinese infer, that the virtue of the sages caused these straws to grow, and thus ^ided invisible beings in bringing forth these strawsi for the purposes of divination.
Thus we-have gon^ through the whole of those pas- sages which we have been enabled to discover in the Book of the Diagrams, referring to the Kweis and the Shins, in none of which csn we discover the least traces of unity or supremacy, as connected with the invisible beings, so called, and have seen that, in the majority of instances, the word Shin is only to be rendered mysterious and inscrutable. Let us now turn to the ^ ^ Chun tsew, or Confucius' record of his own times, as enlarged upon by ]£ jfeBHTsp-kew- ming, aiid contained in the ^ ^ Tso-chuen.
In the 3rd year of |^ Yin, the duke of ^ Lob, there arose a misunderstanding between the king of Chow, and the count of Ching, which the parties attempted to settle by a treaty, and the interchange of hostages, when a good man offered his advice on the subject, as follows : " When good faith does not spring from the hearts of men, it is of no use to exchange hostages. Let cordiality and concession be the order of the day, while you treat people with proper politeness, and with- out the exchange of hostages, there would be no separating the parties. If cordiality and good faith are maintained, then the straws that float on streams and pools, the vegeta- bles that abound in marshy f^rounds, the commonest baskets and pans among utensils, and water drawn from puddles and brooks, may all be presented in oiTerings to the Kwei Shins, or brought forward on the tables of kings and dukes, how much more when good men contract alliances between states, and follow them out with propriety, (the smallest assurances will be binding); where then will be the use of hostages V
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The commentator, on this passoigc, tells us, that the Kwci Shlna ia the text, refer to the celestial Shins, and the human Kweis, or the ex;panders of heaven employed in bringing about the changes of nature, and the contracted energies of human beings, which are sacrificed to by their descendants.
In the 11th year of Yin, the Lob, Tse^ and Clung states, combined to attack the Hei^ country, and after having gained possession of the capital, the ruler of Tse, conferred the sovereignty of the conquered state on Lob, who yielded the possession of the acquired territory to the people of Ching. The count of Ching then sent officers to take possession of the eastern part of Heii, These, on entering, said, " Heaven lias brought calamity on the Heii country, and the Kwei 3Wns (in charge of it) not being able to carry out their views upon thQ sovereign of the Heii state, hav® borrowed the help of our prince (to punish him.)
The commentator here says, that Heaven having sent down calamities on the Heii country, the Kwei Shins were very angry with its sovereign, and not being able to carry out their views, and bring him to punishment, borrowed the help of Ching to chastise Heu, for its offences.
There is here a manifest diiJereoce observable between Heaven and the Kwel Shins , the displeasure conceived against the refractory state having commenced with the for- mer, while the latter seem, to be the oificers or agents with whom, rests the execution of the decree of Heaven ; but beincr unable themselves to carry out their views, they borrowed the help of Ching.
In the 6th year of ^ Hwan, the duke of Loo, Woo, the king of T&ob, was about to attack the Suy country, when lis- tening to the advice of one of his ministers^ he kept his vete- ran soldiers out of sight,, whilst visited by an ambassador of the Suy country, and shewed only a weak military array, in order to delude his enemy, and induce him to ventm-e into the contest. The ambassador, receiving the impression of Tsoo's weakness, conveyed it to his sovereign, who was a- bout to eater upon the attack ; when one of his advisers, nam- ed K'ke4eang, stopped him, saying/' Heaven is just now bestowing prosperity on the Tsob country, and this shew of weakness, is only to deceive us. Let not your Highness hasten to this attack. I have heard it said, that smalf states can only venture to oppose great ones, when the small pos- sess the right way, and the great are licentious in Llieir pro- ceedings. Now the right way consists, in being faithful to the people, and sincere towards the Shins. When the rulers thiuiv of benefiting the people,, this is. fidelity ; and when the chaplains and recorders of prayer (at sacrifices) are correct in
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their expressions, this is sincerity. At this present time, our people are famisiied, while our prince gratifies his utmost de- sires ; the chaplains and recorders of prayers are proud and self-exalted, during the time of sacrifice ; in such case, I do not think that the attempt can be made."
The commentator calls the Shins, here spoken of, Kwei Shins, and they probably refer to the manes of ancestors, and the lares rustici, who were supposed to protect the state.
The duke replied, "My sacrificial animals are fat and plump, while my offerings of grain are fully prepared, how can I be considered as insincere 1 To which his adviser re- plied, •' The people are t!ie lords of the Shins, (which ac- cordina; to the commentator means, that the feelings of the Kwei Shins, towards any particular sovereign, are regulated by the feelings of the people :) hence it was, that the royal sages first sought to perfect the people, and afterwards exert- ed their efforts in the service of the Shins. (Those are cal- led by the commentator Kwei Shins, and from the circum- stance of the nine degrees of consanguinity being afterwards mentioned, we should infer, that the manes of ancestors were j)rincipally intended.) Thus the people being harmonious, and the Shins disposed to send down blessings, every under- taking would be successful. But now the people have every one their own private views, and the Kwei Shins are without a lord, (or one to fix their inclinations, in order to afford him protection); therefore, although your Highness may be lavish in your offerings, what blessing can you expect V^
In the 10th year of ^ Chwang, the duke of Lob, the ar- mies of Tse attacked the Lob country : the sovereign of the latter state was about to engage them, when one Tsae-kwei solicited an interview. His neighbours said. There aie beef-eaters enough to counsel the prince, why must you inter- fere 1 Kwei said. Those beef-eaters are a mean set of fel- lows, and have no ability to plan distant schemes. Where- upon he went to court, and asked the sovereign what he meant to depend on in this contest 1 The duke replied, Food and clothing, with such like gratifications, 1 do not dare to engross to myself, but am in the habit of sharing them with others. The adviser replied. These are small fa- vours, which cannot be shewn to all ; the people will not therefore follow you. The duke then said, I do not dare to exceed the usual number of sacrificial animals, with other offerings, while my chaplains announce the true bill of fare (to the Shins.) To which the counsellor replied, This is but a small instance of sincerity, while great acts of truth are neglected ; the Shtns will not bless such services. The duke rejoined, In litigations, both small and great, although
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I cannot examine the cases to the utmost, I judge them ac- cording to my feelingg. The counsellor replied,''This is an instance of fidelity, yon can just try one engagement.
The Shins here are called by the commentator Kwei Shins, and must refer principally to the manes of ancestors, and the lares rusHci, but it is evident that the counsellor con- sidered exactitude in serving them as not equal to acts of truth displayed towards the people.
In the 32nd year, a Shin is said to have descended at Sin, (which means, according to the commentator, that the sound of some Shtns came in contact with men's senses;) when Hwuy, the king of Chow, asked Nuy-sze-kwo, saying, What is the cause of this ? To which he replied, When a country is about to flourish, iy|$ ^ intelligent Shins descend, to con- template its virtue ; and when it is about to perish, the Shins also come down, to observe its wickedness. Thus it is, that we sometimes obtain such displays at the rise, as well as at the fall of dynasties. In the time of Shun, and during the Hea, Shang, and Chow dynasties, such things have been known to occur. The king then said, What shall we then do? To which the adviser replied. Sacrifice to them with such things as are appropriate, and on the days when they approach, also take the sacrifices suited for such days. The king approved of this advice, and Hwuy-sze-kwo departed ; on hearing, however, that the people of the Ho country, had presented solicitations (to the Shins) for the purposes of ob- taining some better fortune, he returned and said, The Ho country will be destroyed; because it practices oppression, and listens to these Shins.
The commentator says, that the people are the lords of the Shins, but the ruler of the Ho country oppressed the peo- ple, and listened to the commands of the Shins, hence it was evident that his state would be ruined. Because the wishes of the people fix the monarch on the throne, and give a turn to the dispositions of the Shins, in inducing their protection ; the people must therefore first be pleased, and the good will of the Shins will follow. Ho has reversed this, hence his doom was certain.
Th^ Shin is said, to have remained at Sin for six months, when the ruler of Ho, directed the chaplain Ying, the master of the ceremonies Keu, and the recorder Yin, to ofTer sacri- fice; whereupon this Shin conferred upon him fields and land. The recorder Yin said, Ho will certainly perish. I have heard it said, that when a state is about to prosper, the ruler listens to the people (in making the government accord with their wishes ;) and when it is near to ruin, he listens to the
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Shins (in soliciting blossinga from theiii.) For ihe ShUi3^ are intelligent, clear, correct, and upright, uniformly attend- ing to all these virtues ; but th6y conform to the qualities of men in the retributions they effects The Ho country possesses may bad qualities, what gift of latid can it obtain t
Upon this, the commentator remarks, that the Shins givetb men according to their deserts, sending down blessirigs upoii the good, and calamities on the bad ; the Shins do not fol- low their own private -views, in bringing down blessings or curses ; but in this respect, comply with men's good or bad) qualities. Seeing then that the Ho country was thus vici*- ous, the giving of land could only be to promote its ruin.
This is the first instance, in the Chinese classics, that we have met with, of the Shins coming into contact with men^ except in the fragrant or nauseous vapours supposed to pro- ceed from them at the time of sacrifice. In tha present case, the Shins are said to have emitted a sound perceptible to human sens.s ; perhaps some whistling wind, or, from its continuance, some emission of gas from an orifice in the ground, for it does not appear to have been any distinct ut- terance. The disposition, on the part of one of the rulers of China, to solicit favour from this supposed Shin, was repro-^, bated by thf. wise man of the age, as a currying of favouf>, \vitii: invisible beings, when he ought to have acted uprightly! before the people, and secured their good graces, whereupon the good graces of the Shins would follow. From all this it is evident, that the appearance alluded to was supposed by the Chinese to have been that of some invisible being, who was capable of conferring blessin^^s or inducing calamities, though always in accordance with the conduct of men, and subject to the will of Heaven.
In the 5th year of j^ He, the duke of Loo, the tulcl' of "^ Tsin, wished to borrow a road through the J^ Yu country, in order to attack the Ho country, when one of Yu's coun- sellors dissuaded his prince from granting the Request, on the ground that as soon as Ho was destroyed Yu would follow. The ruler of Yu then said, But the sacrifices which I off^r are abundant and pure, the Shins will surely grant me tranquillity. To which his ccunsellor replied, I have heard it said, that the Kwei Shins are not really attached to any particular individual, but only accord with those who possess virtue ; hence the books of Chow have said, Imperial Heaven has no favourites, but merely aids the virtuous. The classic also says. Sacrificial grain is riot odoriferous, but re- splendent virtue is fragrant. It furtlior says, that although people do not change the thing offered in sacrifice, virtue
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Wiakos &,11 the difTerei\Ge. Tiias it is, that if you do not pos- sess V-irtue, th^ people will not be agrecabls to your rule, and then the Shins will not accept your sacrifice. That which the Shins depend on, is virtue. If the Tsin country should at- tack the Yii state, while you offer up your resplendent vir- tue as a fragrant odour, the Shins will not reject you? This advice was, however, disregarded, and the counsellor took his departure.
The commeatator says. That ths people are the lords of the Shins, (or those who determine Uie Sliins, as to whom they should protect.) Tlierefore the first duty of a sovereign is to {.lease the people, and when the people are satisfied with his rule, the Shins will accept his Sacrifice. The dependence and reliance of the Kwei Shnis will be in accordance with the anidunt of virtue in the individual. Should the Tsin country seek to overthrow and seize upon the YA state, whilie the sovereign of the latter takes his resplendent virtue, and 6^(Sring it Up as la fragrant odour, serves the Shins above, and the K'hes below, then the Kwei Shins of the hills and rivers of the Yu country will not be likely to reject ind abhor the sacrifice. Which ehews^ thftt it is not necessary to depend on the sacrifices offered by the ruler of Yu, but to practice virtue.
From the above it is evident, that the Shins alluded to are the genii of the hills and rivers.
In the 10th year of the same duke, the marquis of ^ TSi'n altered the burial place of the prince Kung (or the murdered Shin-sang :) in tlie following autiunn, Hoo-t'huh went to a lower part of the country, where he dreamed, that the prince met with him, and bade him to drive his chariot ; while so doing the prince informed him, saying, The chief of Tsfn, has acted contrary to propriety ; I will therefore ask of *^ the (Supreme) Ruler to give the ^ Tsin coun- try over to the sovereign of ^ Tsi'n, who will offer the ac- customed sacrifices to me. The charioteer replied, I have heard it said, that the Shins do not enjoy sacrifices that are not of- fered by persons of the same clan ; and that the people will not do sacrifice to any but their own relatives ; should you adopt this plan, your sacrifices will perhaps be cut off. I beg you to consider it. The prince assenting said, I will again ask an interview in seven days, at this city, on the western bordor, at a conjurer's house, where you may see me. The charioteer agreed to this proposal, and the vision was withdrawn. At the time appointed he went, when the prince informed him, that »f^ the Supreme had given his assent to the punishment of the offender, (the ruler of Tsin) who was to be defeated at Han.
The above represents the case of the ghost of a murdered prince being dissatisfied, and speaking of applying to the Supreme for ven* geance : on iiiakiug his intentions known to one of his former ad-
s
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vi«»er8, he is told that Shins in general do not enjoy sacrifices that are not offered by people of the same clan, and that people do not like to sacrifice to any but the manes of their own family ; if therefore he adopted the plan proposed of getting the government passed over to another family, he would stand a chance of losing the accustomed sacrifices; which in the eyes of the Chinese would be an irreparable loss. The discontented ghost then considered of it ; and got the murderer punished, while the country remained under the govern- ment of the same family. What we have to observe here, however, is that the ghosts of departed persons are called Shins, while the
sovereign of all is called ^ the (Supreme) Ruler.
In the 26th year of the same duke, the earl of K'hwei re- fused to offer the accustomed sacrifices to Chi1h-yung, and Ytih-heung, (the ancestors of the Tsob country, to which the state of K'hwei was attached.) The people of Tsob, there- fore, blamed hiQi ; when he answered, My predecessor Hung.. che (the heir to the throne of Tsob) became sick, when the Kwei Shins would not excuse him, so that he might succeed to the throne, and lie retreated to K'hwei, (of which he be- came the ruler.) In this way I have missed the inheritance of the Tsob kingdom, why then should I sacrifice ?
The Kwei Shins here refer to the manes of ancestors, who are the protectors of royal famihes, and promote the one, or set aside the o* ther descendant, as they please.
In the 28th year of the same duke, one Tsze-yiih, of the Tsob country, is said to have prepared for himself a cap and tassels adorned with gems, which he had not worn ; be- fore going to battle the Shin (or genius) of the Yellow river addressed him, saying, Give them to me, and I will give you some mixed water plants from the Mang-choo marsh. Tsze- yuh refused, when his son and his cousin sent one Yung- hwang to remonstrate. Not giving heed to these, his re- prover said, Some have dared to die for the benefit of their country, and you begrudge to give a few gems, that are onlv lice so much dung, for the purpose of promoting the success of the army.
Here the Shin, or genius of the Yellow river, was supposed to be able to give success to military operations, if his wishes were grati- fied.
In the same year, a covenant is said to have b^en made, in which are the following expressions: "Should any one
transgress this oath, may the jjjlp B^ intelligent and invisible beings, as well as the manes of our former sovereigns, correct and punish the offender."
The commentator says, that the invisible beings refer to the Shins who presided over the making of oaths, who are here coupled with the manes of ancestors.
In the 3[st year of the same duke, Chiiig, the duke of Wei,
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dreamt that K'hang-shuh came to him, saying, That Seang, (the grandson of K'he, second sovereign of the old Hea dy- nasty) complained of their having deprived him of the accus- tomed sacrifices ; whereupon the duke ordered that sacrifice should be done to Seang. Ming-wob-tsze objected to this, say- ing, the Kwei Shins enjoy no sacrifices, but such as are of- fered by persons of their own clan ; what are Ke and Tsung (the lineal descendants of Hea) doing, (that they do not con- tinue the offerings) ? Seang's not having enjoyed any sacri- fices for this long time, is not the fault of our Wei country. We must not interfere with the sacrifices that we have been directed to offer by Ching-wang and Chow-kung (of our own dynasty.)
Here it is evident, that the Kwei Shins refer to the manes of de- parted persons, who are said not to enjoy any sacrifices, but such as
are offered by their own descendants, who are of the same ^ breath, or energy with themselves. Should these neglect their duty,
it would, according to Confucius, be ^ merely fulsome flattery for others to do it for them.
In the 15th year of ^ Wan, the duke of Lob, there oc- curred an eclipse of the sun, when the chief caused the drums to be beaten, and an animal to be sacrificed to ^ the lares rustici, which was contrary to propriety. On the occurrence of an eclipse, the emperor should not have the music struck up, nor beat the drums at the place of sacrifice to the lares, (lest it should look like a reproof to the beings of the invisible world) ; but the princes of the empire were to offer presents to tlie lares, (as being more honourable than themselves,) and beat the drums in their own courts ; (the first was done) in order to manifest the service of the Shins, and (second) to admonish the people, that they were to serve the prince ; thus shewing a gradation of veneration, which was according to the doctrine of the ancients.
Here we find that the Shins are synonymous with the lares.
In the 2nd year of ^ Seuen, the duke of Loh, the ruler of the Tsob country, asked an ambassador of the king of Chow, (the nominal sovereigrn of the empire,) what was the size and weight of the tripods, (which constituted the impe- rial regalia)? To .vhich the ambassador replied, It depends on the virtue of the reigning monarch, and not on the weight of the tripods (that they are not removed.) Formerly, when the Hea dynasty was possessed of virtue, people from distant regions came describing the thing^s which their countries produced ; metal as tribute was brought by the nine rulers of provinces, when tripods were cast with these things deli- neated on them ; thus all kinds of things were prepared, that
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the people might know what were j^ (regular) §hins, an(} what ^ unclean (spirits) ; and thus when they entered the rivers and marshes, the hills and forests, they woqld not be startled by meeting with unusual tbipgs ; while mountaja elves, monstrous sprites, with water demons of various kinds, would not come in contact with them ; in this way, the use of the tripods was to unite the higher and lower classes, ia order to carry out the excellent protection of Heaven.
In the te-xt, the word Shin is used with reference to the qorrect a)\d regular Shins, such as the expanders of nature, or tbq majje^-oi' ancestors; but in the commentary, where the expressions, u^ed for
elves and sprites are explained, they are said to be 1-L| ^\vf VKumtm
fairies, and >J^ W? water demons, with beasts' bodies and uncouth appearances ; so that the word Shtn is, in the sam-e connection, used in a good and bad sense.
In the fitrst year of }^ Ohing, the duke of Lob, one Shuh- fuh is reported to have said, " those who break their solemn oaths and deceive a great nation, will certainly be ruiixed : to break solemn oaths, is infelicitous ; to deceive a great qat.ion, is unrighteous ; thus both Shins and men, wi^t reXuse thoxv aid, and how can you expect the victory ?''
Here the Shins are those invisible beings, which are appealed to on the taking of an oath, and who, if the oath were broken, would resent it, by withdrawing their protection.
In the 13th year of the same duke, the chief of tlie )j^ Ching state, on receiving the sacrificial flesh at the altar of the ^ lares rustici, manifested disrespect; when the duke of Lew observed, 1 have heard it said, that all men at their birth bave received from heaven and earth the due medium ; this is called the decree (of Heaven, conferring a virtuous nature.) Therefore in all their actions, they ha\^ this for a pattern, in order to perform what is proper and right in regard to ceremonies ; thus settling the virtuous nature decreed by Heaven. Capable persons nourish this, in order to obtain happiness ; incapable persons destroy it, and get to themselves misery. Thus it is, that those m exal- ted stations should be attentive to ceremonies, and those in the lower ranks of society, should be strenuous (in the service of their superiors.) Attention to ceremonies is nowhere so much displayed, as in carrying out respect to the utmost; and strenuous exertion is nowhere so much seen, as in earnest devotedness ; respect consists in nourishing the Shins (or placing the sacrificial flesh before them in a proper man- ner) ; and strenuous exertion consists in fulfilling the duties of one's station. The great business of a state consists ir|
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eontlucUng sacrifices and war : in sacrifices, the offerings of flesh should be held up ; in the time of war, to receive the sa- crificial flesh, is a great inatter with the Shins : but this chief of Chi ng is indolent, and has neglected his duty; it is most likely, therefore, that he will be ovei thrown.
Here it is evident, that the word Shin, refers to the ^J^ lares rus. iici, who were supposed to be the guardians of a country, and who if properly sacrificed to would grant success in war.
Ill the 16th year of the same duke, one Sihuh-she delivered his sentiments on war, to the following effect : Kindness rigour, sacrifice, rectitude, propriety, and fidelity, are the ma- terials of war ; kindness is necessary to shew favour, rigour to correct the vicious, saciifice to serve the Shins, rectitude to promote the interests of the people, propriety to take ad- vantage of leisure seasons, and fidelity to maintain posses- sion of things ; thus will the Shins send down blessino;s^, and injury will never be sustained ; the people becoming wealthy and great, will be harmonious and unanimous in obedience; they will invariably exert their utmost strength in following the commands of their superiors, and brave death, in order to supply every deficiency • this is the way to ensure success in warfare.
The Shins above alluded to, are the same as those spoken of in the preceding paragraph, who are supposed to grant success in, war.
In the 7th year of ^ Seang, the duke of Lob, a referenca is made, to the Shins, which, being a quotation from the Book of Odes, it is not necessary here to repeat.
In the 10th year of the same duke, the ruler of Sung gave a feast to the chiefs of Tsin and Lob, in which he made usie of ceremonies and viaiids which were peculiar to the empe- ror, when the former of the two guests became ill through fright ; one of his advisers wished to offer up prayers on his behalf, when another objected, saying, '' I originally objected to the ceremonies, and the ruh^r of Siing would employ them ; if the Kwei Shins have anything to say in the matter, let them mflict their vengeance on Sung." After this, the chief of Tsin recovered.
Here the Kwei Shins allude to those invisible beings, who are siip- posed to take unobrage at infringements of due order in the use of ceremonies.
In the 11th year of the same duke, an oath w^tis entered in- to between various states, to the following effect : " Let all those who jom this confederacy avoid monopolizing corn in years of scarcity, and stopping up the advantages of the peo- ple ; let us neither protect villains, nor harbour scoundrels ; but let us help one another in calamity and affliction, and pi- iy those who are in trouble and confusion, sympathizing
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with each other in our attachments and aversions, while wo maintain the royal house of Chow. Should any of us break this engagement, let those who watch over the careful keep- ing of oaths, the genii of famous hills and rivers, the host of Skins, and the multitude of those sacrificed to, the manes of the former kings and dukes, with tlie ancestors of the seven clans and the twelve states, let all these intelligent Shins exterminate the offenders."
Here it is evident, that the word Shin, refers to the invisible guar- dians of oaths, the genii of hills and rivers, the manes of ancestors, and former rulers, who are all included under the title of intelligent Shins.
lu the 14th year of the same duke, the'chief of Tsob asked one of his advisers whether the Wei people had not gone to too great a length, in banishing their priuce I To which the counsellor replied, Perhaps'the prince had gone to too gieat a lenofth already ; a good prince will reward the good, and punish the licentious ; he will nourish the people as thougli they were his children, overspreading them like heaven, and supporting them like earth ; and then the people will honour their prince, loving him as their father and mother, looking up to him as the sun and moon, venerating him as (they
would) 1^ ^ invisible and intelligent beings, and dreading him as they do the peals of thunder ; how then could they think of banishing him ? The prince is the lord of the Shins, and the hope of the people. But when a monarch distress- es the people, and neglects the sacrifices due to the Shfns,
his subjects will lose all hope, and the ]^ ^ lares i^ustici, will have no one to preside at their sacrifices, how then can they use him, and what else caii they do but reject him ?
Here the commertator says. That the prince presents the sacrifices, and therefore is the lord of the Shins ; he diffuses abroad his kindness, and hence is the hope of the people. From this we may learn, that the Shins here, mean those lares and manes which the chiefs of each state sacrificed to, in order to gain their protection.
In the 1 8th year of the same duke. tf)e chief of Tse, invad- ed the north part of the Tsin country, when a general of the latter state, named Heen-tsze, marched to the attack of the Tse country. Before setting out, he dreamt that he had a lawsuit with one duke liC, whom he had formerly killed, in which he was non-suited, while the duke struck at him with his halberd, and his head fell on the ground before him ; kneeling down, he thought he put it on again, and ran away, when he met with a certain conjurer. The next day, he fell in with this conjurer in the road, and compared notes with hira, (for the conjurer had had a similar dream,) when the ne- c.s-omancer said, You will certainly die, and if you go on any
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expedition to the east (or towards the Ts3 country,) it wil7 then be carried out. Hoen-tsze assented to this, and when the ruler of Tsin went to the attack of Tse, and he was a- bout to cross the Yellow river, he took a pair of gems tied with a red tape, and praying, said, " The chief of Tse, rely- ing on his fastnesses, and depending on his mnltitudes, has abandoned pacific intentions and broken the usual peace while he has insulted /j]^ ^ the lords of the Shins, (that is the people.) Therefore your minister, the prince of the Tsin country, has assembled his lords to attack him, while I his servant, am ranked among his followers. If we obtain the victory, it will not tend to the disgrace of the Shins, and I his servant will not presume a^ain to cross this river ; thus I leave it with your Shinships to consider of it." So saying, he sank the gems in the stream, and crossed over.
The phrase " lords of the Shins," is usually applied to rulers but here to the people ; because, if there were no people, there could be no prince, and thus the Shins could have no one to preside at their sacrifices ; the Shins being: mentioned in connection with oaths, shews that the reference is to those invisible beings who preside over the keeping of oaths.
In the 27th year of the same duke, Tsze-muh enquired of Chaou-mung, what he thought of the virtue ofFan-wob-tsze? to which he replied, that his family affairs being well-re- gulated, his arrangements could be spoken of throughout the Tsin country, without the need of concealing anything ; and when his criers and chaplains offered the accustomed incense his virtue was sufficient to gain him credit with the Kwel Shins, and he had no cause to be ashamad. Tsze-miih re- tired and informed the king, when the king said, How exalt- ed is he? being able to gratify both the Shins and men, he can illustriously aid these five princes, in order to become the superintendent of the confederacy.
From the association of the Kweis, we may infer that the Shins here r<^fer to the manes of progenitors, and the laves rustici, who were supposed to preside over the state.
In the first year of ^ Chaou, the duke of Loo, the ruler of Tsin fell sick, when the chief of the Tsi'n country sent Kung-sun-keaou. on an embassy of peace, and to enquire after the prince'i health. Shuh-heang asked the ambassador, saying. On our chiefs bec(,ming ill, the prognosticators said, that Shih-shln and Tae-t'hae were the causes of the calami- ty ; but the recorder does not know who they are ; I beg therefore to enquire wliat Shins these are ? The ambassa^ dor replied, that Kaou-sin, or the E nperor Kfih, (the pre- decessor of Yaou) had two sons, th3 eldest called Yu-ptb, -and the youngest Sh;h-shin j these lived in a wood, and were
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always quarrelling and fighting ; on which account Yaoa disapproved of them ; he therefore removed the first to Shang- kew, to preside over the morning star, and the second to Ta. hea, tb preside over Orion. Thus we perceive that Shuh^ Shin is the jjjl^ Shin of Orion ; and from other circumstances we know that Thae-t'hae was the fi^ Shin of the rive^ Fun ; but neither of these have any thing to do with your prince's person. The Shins of the hills and rivers induce inundations, droughts, pestilences, and epidemics, and must then be sacrificed to ; so the Shins of the sun, moon, and stars produce snow, hoar-frost, wind, and rain, at unfavoura- ble seasons, and must then be propitiated ; but the sickness of your ruler springs from his conduct, his diet, or his plea- sures, with which the Shins of the hills and rivers, or of the stars and planets, have nothing to do. He then proceeded to point out, that by the improper distribution of his time, and by I he keeping of concubines of the same surname, he had brought this sickness on himself, which two things if he would remedy, he would recover. To which Shiih-heang replied, This is certainly the case.
Here it is evident, that the Shins spoken of are the presiding genii of hills and rivers, and of the heavenly bodies*, tb whom the ambassa- dor did not ascribe the prhice's sickness, so much as to his ovn conduct. [•
In the 7th year of the same duke, the king of Tsob, wishing to induce the chief of the Tiob country to visit Tsob, said, that "the Kwei Shins of his predecessors Were really dependiag ori him, how much more he himself j" where we see that the words Kwei Shin must refer to the manes of departed ancestors.
In the same year, Tsze-san, of the Chmg country, was sent on a peaceful embassage to the Tsin country ; when the chief of Tsin being sick, Han-seun-tsze went to meet the stranger, and privately addressed him, saying, Our ruler has been unwull for three months, and though we have visited every shrine to supplicate blessings, the disease is increased rather than diminished. I have lately dreamed that a yellow bear came in at the door of the sleeping apartment ; is not thi^ some malicious demon ? To whi:h the ambassador replied, Since your prince has such an intelligent minister tO prac- tice a magnanimous gov^ernment, what malignity have you to apprehend ? Formerly Yaou banished Kwan to the Yu hill, where his Shin was turned into a yellow bear, and en- tered into the abyss of Yu ; hence he was honoured with the^K imperial sacrifice by theHea dynasty (because Kwan was tlic father of the founder of tiiat dynasty;) and indeed
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all the three dynasties sacrificed to him. How is it possi- ble that the Tsin codiUry, thougfh the head ofthe confedera- cy, has not yet sacrificed to this Shm ? Han-tsze then offer- ed the border sacrifice of H ia, and the chief of Tsi'n obtained some intermission of his disease.
Here the word Shin is employed to desi^jnate the inanes of a de- parted person, who thouv'-h himself in disgrace, was tlie fatlier of a race of kinijs, and tlierefore sacrificed to.
About the sam^ tini3. the people of the Chin^ country be- came alarmed at the appearance of Pih-yevv (whom they had put to death,) sayin;,r. Pih-y^w is come"; at which word the people ran away in all directions. A certain person then dreamt that Pih-yew came to him, clad in armour, saying, " Next year I will kill S/e-tae, (a man who liad aided in the death of Pih-yew) ; and the followin.; year 1 will kill Kuno-- sun-tan (a fellow conspirator.) At the time a ppointed, Sze- tae died; at which the people were alarmed ; c3 nd the follow- ing year Kung-sun-fan died, which frightened them still more ; whereupon Tsze-san set up Kung-sun-sec (the son ofthe latter,) and Se'ang-che (the son of the former,) «o be great officers, in order to soothe the ghosts, and the bad in- fluence ceased. One asked the reason ; upon which he said When the Kweis have some place (such as an ancestorial temple) to retire to, they do not becouie n)ali<rnant : thus I have promoted their two descendants, (that they mii{ht be entitled to sacrifice to them in the ancestorial temple.) and so the ghosts have a place to revert to. When Tsze-sau went to the Tsin country, one asked him, saying, Is it true that Pih-yew could turn himself into a ghost ? Tsze-san said, Yes : when people are born, and first transformed, ihcir spiri- ^ual nature, is called the |^5| grosser part of the soul : 'after ^hey have been born some lime, the grosser part of their spiritual nature begins to move and expand, atid then it is called the :g| finer soul. When thev obtain much authority and subtility, then both the finer and grosser s.)uls become more vigorous ; and possessing subtility and clearness, they
go on until ifi.y arrive at ]{^ 8)] the state of invisibility and intelligence.
The coranientator says, Wiien a man merely possesses siibtilitv, the Shin, or invisible part of his nature is not yet displayed ; and when he merely possesses clearness, the jjjl^ spiritual part of his na- ture is not yet blen^led ; but when the subtilily is accumulated, he goes on towards the state of |l^ invisibility; and when the clearness is accumulated, he goes on to &^ intelh'gence.
[n the above passage the discourse is evidently about the ghosts of departed persons, and to prove that :Juch ghost.,
T
exist, the Chinese reasoneraroes on froip the consideration of the grosser and finer part of the human soul, to point out the passing on of the spiritual powers of man into the state of jn^ 03 invisibility and intelliGrence. Shewing that, in his estimation, the state of invisibility and intelligence was nothinjj^ more than the refinement and perfection of the spiri- tual powers of man.
In the same year, the eldest son of Seang. the duke of Wei, was lame in his feet, and the prime minister of the state had a dream, directing him to set up the younger son ; on con- sulting the diaiirams, they v ere also favourable to the young- er son ; when the prime minisier still doubted of the propri- ety of setting aside the elder-born, he was told by one of the counsellors, " the elder prince is not perfect in his parts, and being lame in his feet is comj^elled to sit. Now the ruler of a state must preside over the /are^ and pejiatps, nnisi at- tend to the sacrifices, must manage the business of the peo- ple, must serve the Kwei Shins, and be present at the imperi- al audiences ; hovv can he do all this in a sitting posture ?"
The Kwei Shins are here used for the manes of ancestors, and the genii of hills and rivers, to which the ruler of a state had to sacrifice.
In the 13th year of th'^ same duke, the *<ing of the I'sob Country had no son by his principal wife, but five by concu- bines ; he therefore performed a variety of services towards the host of those to whom he looked up for protection (viz. the presiding genii of the stars and planets, iiills and rivers,) and prayed to them, saying, I beg of you Shins to select one out of these five, to be the lord of the H ^ lares and pe- tiates ; and then presenting a gem before these objects of his trust, he said. Let the one who worships upon this gem be the one whom the Shins have appointed ; and who will dare to oppose their wishes ? Having then buried the gem in the hall of theancestorial temple, he caused his five sons to fast, and come in to worship according to seniority. The first stepped ov^er it ; the second passed his elbow near it ; the third and fourth were very far oiT; and the fifth, who was an infant in arms, was brouirht in to worship, and pressed the tassel (>f the gem. This last was therefore considered the one chosen.
Here the objects of trust are said to be the genii of the stars and pUnets, hills and rivers, who are expressly called Shins. In the «ame paragraph, there are various other references to the Shins, con- veying the same idea.
About the same time, a counsellor of the Tsob country made the following statement, " According to the regulations of tlie intelligent kings, the princes of the empire should annually CfOtnt to court, in order to record their business ; at intervals
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of three years they should Afctetid, to discourse on propt iaty ; they should, a4; every second triennial visit, form an assena- blagre, in order to display the dignity of the empire ; they should at every second assemblage, enter in a sworn com. pact, in Older to manifest a good understanding ; thus the re- cord of business would operate on the friendly feeling be^ tween the parties ; the discoursing on propriety would hav^ its effect on the arrangement of classes ; the displays of dig- nity would be exhibited before the multitude ; and the mani^ festation of iiood understanding would be displayed before the Sliins, (in whose presence the oaths were taken.)
The Shins mentioned here are those in whose presence oaths were taken, and who took cognizance of the same.
In the 20th year of the same duke, the ruler of the Tse country hnd a coudi, which was attended with fever ; a year haviuiT elapsed without any improvement, many envoys from the different princes of the empire came to enquire regarding his health ; when two of his advisers suggested to the chie^ saying, We have served the Kwei Shins liberally, and hav^ been excessive in pur attentions to the manes of the former dukes, and yet the sickness of your Highness constitutes a ground of anxiety to the different princes ; it must then be tlie fault of the chaplain a«id recorder (who conduct the sa- crifices) ; the princes not being aware of this, ascribe it to our want of respect. Why does not your Highness put these otfirers to death, as a sufficient answer to the envoys^ The chief made tliis suggestion known to Yen-tsze : who replied by relating to him the case of an officer of the Tsini country, that had been attentive to the regulation of his fa- mily, and whose chaplain and recorder had been sincere in the statements they had made at the time of sacrifice, so that (here was no occassion to make any particular su|)plication to the Kwei Shins. The chief asked, what that had to do. with the case in hand ? To which Yen-tsze replied, In the case of a viituous prince, both at home and abroad there will be no neglect^ above and below there wid be no complaints, public undertakings will be exempt from untowardness, and the services performed by the chaplain and recorder will be sincere, so as to call up no feeling of shame ; thus the Kwei Shins will enjoy the sacrifices, the country will become prosperous, and the officers in question will partake of it» prosperity. When they pray for vernal blessings or leng- thened years, being employed by a sincere prince, their words will be faithful and sincere before the Kwei Shins. But when they hapjjen to meet with a licentious prince, internal and external affairs will be deflected and perverse, superiors aod inferiors will be loud i*i their complaints, public engage-
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HfieiUs will turn out contraiy to men's wisdes ; these and a variety of other improprieties taking place, while no regard is paid to remonstrances, tlie prince not fearing the Kwel Shins, and the Shins getting- enraged and the people vexed, when the chaplain and recorder under such circumstances present their petitions sincerely, they must say, that it is the prince's fault. Thus the Kwei Shins will not accept the offering, but will send dow^n calamity on the country, in which the officers above-named will participate.
The wise man, by thus turning the attention from the officiating chaplain to the }aMnce himself, saved the former, and reformed the latter. On reviewing the whole relation we must conclude, that the Kwei Shins referred to are those usually served by the chiefs of the different states, who were supposed to be able to bring down or avert the calamities of chiefs and people.
In the works of Yen-tsze, we have the following account of the affair :
" The duke was afflicted with eruptions and fever, for a whole year without cessation ; w^hen he summoned Hwuy- keen and Seang-kew-keu, with Yen-tsze, and asked them, saying, My sickness is very severe ; and I have sent the re- corder Koo, with the chaplain T'ho, to perambulate the hills and rivers, and to visit the ancestorial temples, at which were offered sacrificial animals and presents in abundance ; indeed, the number was constantly more than what my pre- decessor Duke Hwan had offered ; in fact, for every one that Duke Hwan offered, I have presented two ; and yet my sick- ness continues thus excessive. I intend therefore to kill
these two officers, in order to gratify J^ ^ the Supreme Ruler; will this be right? Hwuy-k'heen and Seang kew- keu said, It would. Yen-tsze, how^cver, did not reply. When the duke said, What do you think of it ? Yen-tsze asked, Does your Highness think the prayers offered by the chaplain to be of any avail ? Having replied in the affirmative ; the ques- tion was again put, If the prayers be available, then tlie curs- es must be prejudicial. Your Highness removes to a distance faithful ministers, and stops up the avenues of reproof, so as ro prevent the (expression of an adverse opinion. I have heard it said, that your near servants are dumb, and your distant ministers silent, so that every mouth is soldered. From east to west of our country, there are many of the people who com- plain, and revile, and curse your Highness before the Supreme Ruler. Now when a whole country curses you, and only two men bless you, although they should bless ever so w^ell, ihey could not prevail. Moreover, if the chaplain were to speak the truth, he would blame your Highness severely ; but fhould he screen and hide your faults, be would be attempts
Ji
ing to deceive the' Siijuerne Ruler If the Supreme Ruler be )f[$ an iiitelligeiu beuia;, then he cannot be deceived ; but if he be not an intelligent bein^, it would be of no use to pray- to him. Let your Highness examitje into this master."
In the 26th year of ihe sanu duke, the state of L.oo got in- to difficulties, when one said '^ I do not know wh^therthis is because Heaven ha^ rejected Lob, or because the prince of Lob has offended against the Kwei Shins, tiiat this has been brought about.
In the above passage, the speaker suggests two csiuses of Loo's dis- tresses, the one the supposed withdrawal of the decree of Heaven in its favour, and the other the imadnary offVnce taken by the Kwek Shins, at some want of respect towards them, in the accustomed sa- crifices ; but it is evident, that the Chinese look upon the latter as a far inferior evil to the former.
In the 29th year of the game duke, a dragon is said to have appeared at the capital of Tsin, w hen Wei-heen-tsze en- quired of an envoy of the Tsi'n country, saying, I have heard, that the dragon is the most subtle of all animals, (see Genesis, iii. 1.) bscause it can never be taken alive ; is it so ? "Lo which the other replied, It is not that the dragon is more cunning, but people are not sufficiently acquainted with its habits. The ancients bred dragons, hence the govern- ment appointed two officers, called the dragon-feeder, and the dragon-driver. Heen-tsze said, I have also heard of these offices, but never knew what they meant. What do they really refer to ? His informant replied, Formerly, the prince of Seaou had a descendant, named Chung-foo, who was very fond of dra'Tons, and could tell what they relished, in or- der to feed theni ; on this account, many dragons resorted to him, and lie trained them, in order to do service to the empe- ror Shiin. Sluin^ th(irefcre, gave him this title of the dragon- feeder ; and the office was continued in his family. After- wards K'hung-kea, of the Hea dynasty, was obedient to /^ the Ruler, (called in the commentary 5^ »^ the Ruler of heaven.) whrn f^ the Ruhr gave bin) a stud of two pairs of dragons, both male and female. K'hu'Ug-kea did not know what to give them to eat. At that time, there was a man named Lew-luy, who had learned the art of feeding dra- gons from the family of Chung-foo, and offered liimself to the service of K'hung-kea ; the latter was pleased, and c-ave him the title of dragon-driver. Heen-ts:re said, Bui how is it that we have none of them now ? To which tlie other replied, It is because the breed has become extinet ; when animals have proj^er officers appointed to look after them, these make it their business to find out such things
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fis are suitable for them. When the proper officers attend to their duty, then the animals appear, but when the offi- CCS are abolished, such animals hide themselves, and bein^ checked in their propagation, at length become extinct. Thus it was, that the officers who presided over the five ele- ments, weret appointed durinir life to high offices, and at death were sacrificed to, as "W* j|(* honourable Shins ; so al- so the lares and pe>nates were honoured and served.
Then follows a long description of the Shins, who presided orer the five elements, which we have already met with in our extracts from the Book of Rites, and therefore it will be unnecessary to refer to it again. We see, however, from the above, that the Shins presiding over the five elements were formerly oiBcer!', who had to attend to those matters, and whose manes after death were sacrificed to. We 'lave made the above lengthejied quotation, in order to shew what the Chinese fabled about their draarons. Though perhaps it is not altogether fable ; by the dead dragons, discovered in mounds and hills, are exidently intended the fossil rema,ms o( the iehthf/osaurif and plesfosauri^ which have excited no small attention in these later <lays in England. Discovering the remains of the Saurian tribe, it i^ not to be wondered at, that the Chinese should imiijine thern to hav^, once lived during the Adamic period, and so invented a few stories res- pecting them. In the above extract, there is an expression worthy of
note, namely the word Tff Ruler, as applied to the Supreme, which
in the commentary is called 5C •(? the Ruler of Heaven, not an in- appropriate term for God.
In the first year of ^ Tfn?, the duke of I,oo, we hear one Chung-ke saying, « Although you should forget this, do you think that the Kwei Shtns of the hills and rivers would for- get it?" From which it is evident, that the Kwei Shins here apply to the genii of hills and rivers.
In the 14th year of ^ Gae, the duke of Lob, one said, " To have disobedient servants is hateful to the Shins, how much more to men !"
^ We now pass over to the 6th Classic, called ^ |^ Chow le, or the Ceremonies established by Chow : in the first sec- tion, and third page, speaking of the eight laws for the regu- lation of cities, the writer enumerates '^ sacrifices for the ma- nagement of tile Shi'ns," which the commentator explains by saying, If the regular sacrifices are not promoted, irregular ones cannot be presented, her»ce the necessity of regulating sacrifices, that they may not get into confusion ; it does not mean that the Shins themselves are regulated.
On the 10th page, we read, of " sacrificing to the great Shins and K'hes," which the commentator says, refers 40 the celestial Shins and terreslrial K hes.
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The 14th pa^e, treats of the duty of reg^vtlatinsr ceremoniesr, which were attended to with a view of '' harmonizing the va- rious states, and uniting the ditferent classes of people, as well as for the purpose of serving the Kwei Shins/' The Kwei Shins here refer to those genii of the hills and rivers, and (he manes of ancestors, to which it was the duty of officers to oifer sacrifices.
In the 2nd section, 4th page, we have an account of the ar- rangements to be made in seasons of scarcity ; viz. "collecting the people together, diffusing advantages among them, redu- cing the taxes, remitting punishments, relaxing the requisi- tions for public service, taking off prohibitions, aholishiu'jr in- quisitorial inspections, reducing the number of ceremonies, both on festive and mournful occasions, stopping music, in- creasing the facilities for marriage, searching out for any Kwei Shins, the services to whom may have been neglected, and severely prohibiting theft." This direction to revive neglected altars, probably refers to the renewed service paid to the lares rustici. who had charge of the land and grain, and were sup^wjsed able to promote the interests of the peo- ple in the time of dearth.
On the 20th page, the chiefs of each clan are directed to "search out for the neglected Kwei Shins throughout the country, and sacrifice to them." The commentator says, that these are the genii presiding over blight and mildew, who are sacrificed to in the 12th month.
On the 25th page, we read of various kinds of drums w^hich were used in religious ceremonies ; among the rest are enumerated " the tlumder-drum. which was intended to ani- mate to the sacrifices of the (celestial) Shins ; of the spititual drum, which was to rouse men to do service to the (terrestri- al) Klies; and the road drum, which was to urge men to make offerings to the (human) Kweis."
On the 1st page of the 3rd sec»ion. we read that "the of- fice of the groat baron, was to attend to the ceremoni. s used towards the celestial Shins^ terrestrial K'hes, and the human Kweis, beloniring to the state, that th. y might assist the king in establishing and protecting the country."
Here the commentator says, that those which belong to heaven ars called Shins, because they are the most mysterious of all things, and invisible ; those which belong to men are called Kwei?, because they revert (to their original) ; and those which belong to earth, are called K'hes, because they point out things, such as the five mounlainB, and the lour rivers, which are evidently exhibited to men, as the patterns of thinjrs.
Further we read that, the chief baron made iw=e of the felicitnn«j ce- j<2naunieg, m order to serve tl-j* national Kwei^, Sh!ns, and K"he»,
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tvhile he employed a pure offering to sacrifice 103^ jZ a1 ^l the Supreme Ruler of Heaven." Tiie writer goes on to enumerate the different objects worshipped by the cliief of the stale, 8u<^h as the sun, moon, and stars, wind and rain, with (which are called the ■ celestial Shins j) the lares rusfici, with the mountains and rivers, atid those whicii presided over the productions of the soil, (who are called the terrestrial X'he>? ;) also the former kings and royal ancestors, (who are called th ; liuman Kweis.)
Oa th^. 8th pa^e, it is said, that the "productions of tho various reirioiis were used in serving 1I13 Kwei Shins, and in harmonizing the myriads of the people." The Kwei Shins are here said to b; th^i celestial and terrestrial Shins, with the manes ofancsiors.
On the 9ih pa^e, we read of '• sacrificing to the great Shins, and s -rving tho great Kweis. and olf:5ring to tlie great K'his," all which app diatives are applied by the cominenta- tor to the '.jrcat ordin inces, according to which those ceremo- nies are j) rformed.
On the KHh page, the office of the minor baron, is said to be, " to arrange th^ positions of the Shins who were sup- posed to establish the state, and to place the lares I'ustid on the right, and the manes of the ancestorial temple on the left." Thus showing that the Siiitjs refer to the lares and manes as above.
O 1 the 15th pig3, we read again of the great Shhis, which
are said by the commentator 10 apply to the ^ lares rustici with the genii of the principal hills and rivers.
On the 30th page, mn-^ic is said to be employed " to induce the Kweis, Shins, and K'hes to come :" meaning of course the eel siial and terrestrial Shins, with the liuman Kweis. In t!ie same paragraph, certain notes and tunes are directed to be played up iti sacrificin?: to the celestial Shins, certain others in serving the terrestrial K'hes, which are defined to be the genii of hills and rivers; and certain other sounds, to do honour to the manes of ancestors, or the human Kweis. For an explanation of all which see the above quotation from the pr<^ceding page.
On tlie next page we read, that '' There are six variations in music; after tlie first change, the feathered tribes, (such as bird-?,) and the Khes of the waters are induced to com ^>; after the second change, the short-liaired animals, (such as tigers,) find the K hiS of the hills and forests are affected ; at the thud change, the s :aly tribes, (such as dragons,) with the K'h;s of the m )unds and tuinuU com) forth ; 01 the fourth chinge, the shiggy-haired anim ils, (^swzh a-! foxes.) with the K'his of the grotto -.s and pits appear: at th3 fifth chan .^e, the testaceous aniinaU^ (such as tortoises.) and ths K'hes of
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-^ailh are affected ; and at the sixth change, the substances that had form, (such as the sun, moon, and stars,) and tlie celestial Shins are brought near." From the above we learn what ihe Chinese intend by the terrestrial K'hes and the ce- lestial Shhis, each class of A'hom are supposed to be wrouo-ht upon by the sound of music.
In the next sentence we are told that after the playing of cer- tain cords and symphonies, the celestial Shins descend and ac- cent of offerings, because their ^ energies are thereby affected and they are led to expand : at the striking of other notes and harmonies, the terrestrial K'hes come forth, and regard the services paid them, because their essences are thereby influenced and they are capable of being summoned ; at the performance of other kinds of music, the human Kweis ap- proach, and receive the gifts offeired to them, because by this means they are moved and then hold intercourse with mankind."
On the 52d page we read, that '' the great cliaplain attend- ed to the expressions employed in the six kinds of supplica- iions, in order to serve the Kwe-s, the Shins, and the K'hes, •to beg for felicitous omens and to solicit perpetual correctness." On the 53d page, the same officer is directed to attend to the six designations, such as those of the Shins, Kweis, K'hes. &c.
On the 66th page, we read, that '"those whose office res., pects the Shins, attend to the laws of the three lights of hea- ven, that they may delineate the positions of the Kw^eis, Shins, and K'hes, and distinguish famous things."
The three lights of heaven, according to the commentator, are the sun, moon, and stars ; those conversant with the vShins, he adds, describe the laws and positions of heavenly bodies, that they may de- termine in what constellations the celestial Shins, and terrestrial K'hes, and the human Kweis reside.
In the 5th section, and 17th page, we read, that •' the offi- cers who had charge of contracts, looked after the greater and lesser covenants, that wxre contracted in the various states, among all the people ; they first attended to the covenants which regarded the Shins, and then those which respected the people, and so on to those which referred to land, and jaiblic works, (fee.
The commentator tells us, that the covenants respecting the Shins, were those which bound the rulers of diiferent states to do sacrifice to the genii of the hills and rivers, together with the lares rustici of the regions over which they presided.
In the 27th page, the public drunmier was charged with expelling the water insects, (or mischievous elves); for exor- cising which he used a drum made uf carthcn-warc. with a
u
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fire-stone stick, as if he wished to kill the |^ demon ; and when he found this ineffectual to diive the elf away, he also took a beam of elm, with a cross piece of ivory, and sunk these in the water, so that the fj^ demon died, and the pool (where the water was) became a tumulus.
Here the word Shin is evidently used for a noxious demon, who was to be exorcised by the means first described, or if unwilling to depart, might be drowned and destroyed in the way afterwards re- lated. ^
The next sentence says, that '* the purifying officer was to attend to the shooting of infelicitous birds, and animals of ill omen, who could be heard but not seen ; for this purpose, he was to take a bow and arrow with which they were accustomed to save the sun or moon at the time of an eclipse, and fire at these monsters in the night season ;
but if there was any )[t^ mischievous demon inhabiting it, he was to shoot at it with a half-moou bow and a crooked arrow.
The commentator says, that the Shins here mean mischievous elves, that might inhabit the animals of ill omen above referred to.
In discussing the meaning of || j|^ Kwei Shin, we shall be greatly aided by the analyzation of a treatise on the sub- ject by 7^y^ ^ Choo-foo-tsze, the learned commentator on the Four Books, and the elucidator of the five Classics, who, by fixing the sense of the standard writings of the Chinese, has created as it were the mind of China, and established a system from which all subsequent writers have borrowed, and according to which all modern essayists must be conformed, or they cannot succeed at the literary examinations, throngh which alone distinction and power can be attained. The opi- nions of ^ 5C "? Choo-foo-tsze, therefore, constitute the or- thodoxy of China, and all who differ from him are considered heterodox, insomuch that some modern writers, who have dared to dissent from his views, have not only failed in obtain- ing office, but have also been prevented, through fear of per- secution, from publishing their lucubrations.
Keeping these things in view, we shall proceed to the analyzation of the work in question.
The essay to which we novsr refer is to be found in the 61st section of the writings of that philosopher, and is entitled a general dissertation on the subject of the ^ Kweis and jj^ Shins, which words we shall leave untranslated for the present, in order that their meaning may appear the more evident from the views entertained by the writer of the work itself. He begins by saying,
" That the theory of the J|[ Kweis and |$ Shins, is only of secondary importance, and that, as it is difficult to reason about invisible beings, so it is not necessary to bestow much
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thought upon th«m, but confine our efforts to matters of daily use and main importance. The saying of Confucius, that ' as long as we are deficient in the obedience due to men, it is useless to think of serving the Kweis/ and that ' while we do not know life sufficiently, we must not expect to understand death,' fully exhausts the subject. He means, that if we bend our thoughts towards those present things which first demand our attention, the theory of the ^ jjj^ Kwei Shins will of itself become apparent ; but if we neglect those things which require our chief consideration, and only speculate upon unimportant matters, we shall be unable to understand any-
The above is just in accordance with the skeptical notions of the Chinese, that what is seen and refers to the business of the present life, is of primary importance, and what is unseen and belongs only to the spirtudl world is merely matter of idle curiosity, and calculated to dis- tract the attention of the student from more essential realities.
The second paragraph is but a reiteration of this sentiment.
In the third paragraph, the philosopher supposes a person en- quiring about the existence of the J^ jf(^ Kwei Shine, and says,
" Mow can such a question be hastily settled in the aflfirma- tive ? and should we do so, would you be able all at once to be- lieve it ? It is necessary gradually to understand the various principles of things, and then this doubt will of itself be solved. When ^J^ Fan,che enquired of Confucius, what was the first dictate of wisdom, the sage replied, ' Attend to the affairs of the people, respect the ^ |^ Kwei Shins, and keep them at a disto,nce ; this may be called the first dictate of wis- dom. ' If men would but try to unravel that which they ought to understand, and laying aside that which they can- not comprehend, wait until by daily use and constant prac- tice they could obtain a perfect acquaintance with things, then
this theory of the ^ ^ Kwei Shins, would be of itself intelli- gible ; thus to act and wait, is the highest dictate of wisdom."
Here the writer does not settle the question regarding the nature of these Kwei Shins, nor commit himself as to the fact of their exis- tence ; he merely wishes the student to put off the enquiry, until things in his view more important are attended to and arranged.
In the next paragraph, he goei on to say,
" That all important matters under heaven have some great root or origin from which they spring, and smaller matters al- so have their importance ; which if we can rightly perceive, we shall have no further trouble in the world. For initance, the matter of the Kwei Shins has been very clearly discoursed about by the sages, you have only to make yourself master of
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the Book of Rites, and you will perceive how the matter stands. The two Mr. Chings did not deny the exist ence ot the Kwei Shins, they merely disclaimed the common notion* entertained regarding them, while the ancient sages appo int- ed sacrifices, because they saw that the principle of reason in- herent in heaven and cartli required such observances."
Having thus slightly alluded to the matter of the existence of these Kwei Shins, in which he neither distinctly affirms nor denies the sarae^ but postpones the question, until the student has made greater advances in science, while he would discard all such ghost stories as are in the mouths of the vulgar ; he goes on to describe the Kwei Shins, according to the Chinese views of the material system of the universe, of which they form a part.
'' ifl^ Shin, means to expand, and j^ Kwei, to contract ; thus whea wind, rain, thunder, and lightning, first issue forth^
they constitute the |^ Shin ; but when the wind lulls, the rain passes away, the thunder stops, and the lightning ceases, they^ are called Kwei. "
From this we may be led to infer, that the Kwei Shins are, in the views of Confucian philosophers, nothing more than the expanding and contracting powers of nature ; the agitation of the elements con-, Btitutes the Shin, and the cessation of such movements the Kwei.
He goes on to say, that,
" The Kwei Shins are nothing more than the dimi- nishing and increasing of the male and female principles of nature, the settling of the injurious and the transformation of the nourishing properties of matter, wind and rain, obscurity and splendour, and such like. In man. the ^^ nervous fluid constitutes the |J^ grosser part of the animal soul, which is the essence of the ^ Kwei ; while the ^ breath or energy, con- stitutes theJ^finer part of the animal soul, which is the essence of the jji^ Shin. When the ^nervous fluid and the ^ breath
are Ijoth collected in one individual, this constitutes a ^ thin^j or human being, for what being is there that does not possess
this ^ili$ Kwei and Shin ? When the f^ finer part of the ani- mal soul begins to ramble, a change takes place (namely death) ; and when this T^ finer part of the animal soul is gone to wander, the BJl, grosser part of course descends.
" The Kwei Shins are nothing more than the ^ breath or energies of nature ; that which contracts and expands, advances and recedes, is just this breath, In the midst of heaven and earth there certainly exists this breath of nature ; thebieath of men with the breath of nature is inconstant communication, without interruption, only men do not perceive it. When meirs
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iTjinds are in the least agitated, the movement commimicates itself to their breath or energies, and thus sympathizes with this contracting and expanding, advancing and receding principle of nature. Just as in divining, you have tho idea in your mind, (of what you intend to do) and the prognostication declares what you have previously conceived, thus you move here, and there is a necessary correspondence there.
" If any ask whether the Kwei Shins are just this breath or enero^y of nature ? I should say. they are something like the jfl^ S invisible efficacy or spirituality, that is inherent in this breath of nature."
To the enquiry whether the Kwei Shins have tlieir several limits, the author replies, " that day constitutes the Shui, and nig^ht the Kwei, life the Shin, and death the Kwei; is no ^ this a sort of limitation ?"
With reference to the statement just made, that the day constitutes the Shin, and the niglu the Kwei, one asks, whe- ther it is not on this account that the Kweis go out at nightj ? To which the writer replies " Sometimes such things do take place, but not invariably. The nis^ht beloncrs to the female principle of nature ; moreover, infelicitous birds (such as ow Is) also belong to the female principle, and are heard to scream at night,"
In the above question the word Kwei is takpn in the sense of ghosts, which according to popular belief come out at night : but the answer of the philosopher would seem to imply, that such ideas merely flow from the fact of the Kwei and of night both belonging to the female principle of nature ; while he would ascribe tie noise supposed to pro- ceed from ghostly visitants to the screaming of owls.
He goes on to observe, '^ wind and rain, thunder and dew with the revolutions of the sun and moon, day and night, are all the traces of the Kwei Shins, (or the evidences of their pas- sing by. ) But these are the honest and straightforward Kwe\ Shins of open day ; with respect to the whistling about the rafters, or the striking against one's chest (which some ascribe to the Kwei Shins.) these are knavish, depraved, and obscure phenomena, which sometimes exist and sometimes do not ; which come and go, collect and scatter, according to circumstances. There are also a set of beings, that peoj)le tal!c about praying to and getting answers from, supplicating and obtaining blessings, which may also be called Kwei Shins, and ascribed to the same principle. In fact, all things in the world possess this principle, but differ as to being either fine or coarse, small or great ; wc should also say, that the propriety of calling them Kwei Shins, from the uses to which they are applied (by nature), may be seen from this. "
Here also a distinction is made between the Kwei Shins, who mny
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be considered the contracters and expanders of nature, and ghosts and spirits, which according to popular belief are heard whistling in the wind, or felt knocking against one's chest ; the former being called honest and the latter depraved beings : because to the one constant re- ference is made in classical writings, while of the other the classics do not even recognize the existence.
Our author further remarks that, The Kwei Shms are to be explained upon the principle of life and death ; and certainly are not to be viewed in the light that the Buddhists or the common people contemplate them. Still there are some appear- ances connected with them, which cannot be sufficiently ex- plained according to the principles of reason, and to which it is not necessary for us to advert.
This refers to what has beea before said, that " life constitutes the Shin, and death the Kwei, " according to the expanding and contracting principle, which our philosopher considers the true theory of the Kwei Shins, in opposition to the superstitious notions of the Buddhists ; while the strange phenomena, said to be connected with the subject, he does not care to explain.
With reference to the jfllj? '^ ^ the strange matters con- nected with the Shins, our author says, " It is well to have the
mind equably arranged ; if you get it unhinged, ^ *^ strange and elfish appearances are the immediate result."
The next sentence contains various references to such strange ap- pearances as had been detailed to the writer, which not having seen, he does not exactly believe, and yet thinks there might be some foun- dation for them.
Further on, with reference to a certain family, who were said to have seen a Kwei, the writer says, " People who believe in Kwei Shins all say, that there are such things in nature ; those who do not believe them, make up their minds that they do not exist ; and yet there are some who profess to have seen them; but these after all may have been some rainbow or other phe- nomenon of nature."
We may remark here, that the subject of discourse is evidently ghostly appearance?, and yet the writer uses the words Kwei Shins, as synonymous with Kwei alone, in the above acceptation.
Our philosopher goes on to say, " When winds get up, or rain falls, or the thunder rolls, and lightnings flash, when flowers bud, and blossom, what are we to ascribe all this to but the Shins ? Ifwe not do, it is because we do not examine for our- selves. Should people account wi)at we have above said about the Kwei Shins to be strange, it would appear that there is a principle in the world of this kind, which we cannot deny ; only it is not according to the usual and regular process of production and transformation. Such (elves) obtain some unusual energy belonging to the male and female principle of
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nature, but we have no occasion to be frightened at them. Therefore the sage did not speak about such strange and uncouth things ; from which it is clear, that he admitted the existence of such things, but only did not wish to converse about them. To deny them altogether would be incorrect. " To the question whether, what constitutes the Kwei Shins
in heaven and earth, is the same as the §§ superior and Sfl inferior parts of the animal soul in man 1 the author says, ^' At death we speak of the suparior and inferior parts ol the animal *oul, but during life these are called the i^ nervous fluids and
the ^ breath. That which heaven and earth possesses, in common with man^ is called the Kwei Shins. "
The writer goes on after this, much in the same strain as in the commentary on the Happy Medium, when speaking of the Kwei Shins, which it is not necessary here to repeat.
One asked Choo-foo-tsze, about a saying of Ching-tsze, in- timating that the " heaven was high and the earth low, and thus the superior and inferior principles of nature became set- tled : after this they became agitated by the thunder, and mois- tened by the storm ;" to which the philosopher replied, " The productions and transformations of heaven and earth, are brought about by the Kwei Shins ; thus it was that the ancients sacrificed to the director of the wind, and the manager of the ram." Again he was asked, " when the wind and thunder are agitated, is this the operation of the Shins, and when they are still and cease, is this to be ascribed to the Kwei ? " To
which Choo replied, " Just so : the fi^ grosser part of the •pirit belongs to the Kwei, and the Jjg* finer aura to the Shin ; like as in the rubbing of wood, smoke comes out, that is the
Shin; and the moisture and dampness, that is the (iy^ grosser spirit. The speech and action of mankind are the effect of
^ breath or energy, and belong to the Shin, the nervous fluid
and blood constitute the fij^ grosser spirit, and belong to the Kwei. All burstings out and operations belong to the male principle of nature, and constitute the Shin ; so all subsidin^s of the energiei belong to the female principle of nature, and constitute the 6^ grosser spirit : knowledge is the Shin, and memory the grosser spirit ; when people are just born there is
an excess of the ^ finei, and a defect of the Bj^ coarser prin- ciple ; after wardi the coarser principle gradually enlarges ( as men increase in bulk), but in old age this coarser principle diminishes ; thus it is, that the ear becomes deaf, the eyes dim, the natural force abates, and memory (ails. I now feel that the superior principle of my nature exceeds, and the in-
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fei'ior principle is ddiicieiU, so that on account of the multiplici-^ ty of business I cannot rcwiember every thingf : thus also little children have no memory, because their coarser principle is insufficient ; they love to play, likewise, and are unsettled, for the same reason. "
In the above passage we have the pj^ coarser spirit substituted for the Kwei, and contrasted with the Shin, from which we may infer that
the Shin is the )^ finer part of the spirit. We see, in the preceding ]iaragraph, also a parallel run between the spirit of nature and that of man ; each being supposed to possess a finer and coarser part, and each bein^ capable of activity and subsidence, of motion and rest, of vigour and decay ; further, as both the finer and grosser spirit of man are es- sentially connected with matter, the one being the essence of the breath, and the other of the nervous fluids, so in nature, the bursting forth of smoke or fire is the finer and the settling down of dampness or moisture, is the coarser spirit : thus connecting them both essentially with matter.
One asked the philosopher what he thought of the assertion that Yen-tsze (ths favourite disciple of Confucius) thoui^h dead, was not in a state of non-existence, which statement a:- cordingto Choo's system, would seem to be incorrect ; but see- ing that the sages had appointed sacrifices for the service of the Kwei Shins, it was to be inferred that they not only allow- ed tiie principle, but that there really was such a thing, (as existence after death.) To this the philosopher replied, "If a man could but get a clear discernment of the rule of right, he would certainly know this truth. The orthodox doctrine says, If we consider the dead to be in a state of non-existence, why have the ancients talked in this manner; and if we consider them to be in aitate of existence, I suspect that in the ques- tion you have put to me, you have set the matter in a very proper light. "
lu the above paragraph, the Kwei Shins evidently refer to the manes of deceased presons, and the offerings pesented ta them after the d ath of the parties is taken as an implication- of the existence of man after death.
The writer c;oes on to say,
" Viewing their external opera! ions, we call them Kwei^ Shins, or contracters and expanders ; but with reference to iheii mysterious action, we merely denominate them Shins, or in- scrutable ones. The Kwei Shins are such as the contracting* and expandings, the advancings and recedings, the disper- sings and growings, of the male and female principle of nature^ the'evident traces of which are visible : in their mysterious operations they are called Shins, because they are suddenly so and so, and there is no searchii^g into them : they suddenly advance, and as unexpectedly recede ; now they are here, and again they are there. "
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In the J^bove passage the antithesis is between the apparent and hi4- den action of the Kwei Shins ; in the former case, they have both terms applied to them, as indicative of their contracting and expand- ing ; and in the latter case only one, on account of their mysterious- nes8 ; in both cases, however, it is crident that the words refer to those expanders and contracters of nature, by means of which the various phenomena apparent in heaven and earth are brought^ about.
One said, " The male principle of nature operates chiefly in expanding, and the female principle in contracting; thus th-e Kwel Shins are the efficacious or vital part of the male and fe- male principle of nature; this merely refers to the contractings and expandings, the advancings and recedings of the one ^ enero^y of nature. Now betwixt heaven and earthy the male and female principle of nature, uniting and scattering, pervade every particle of matter ; thus it is that we see them so much mixed up together. " To this the philosopher replied, " Just so ; but let us now speak of their great limits : the Chow-le says, 'those which belong to heaven are called Shins, those which belong to earth K'hes and to men Kweis:' but all three have their Shina ; and yet those which belong to heaven only are called Shins, because they continually flow and move about without cessation, therefore the word Shin is solely applied to them: but men also have their Shins, only while these are still at- tached to the body are they called Shins, after their dispersion they are called Kweis. The Kweis are those which are dis- persed and are still, and have no longer any form: hence it is said, that they go and do not return. " The disciple then refer- red to the celebrated passage in the Happy Medium, and asked, how it was that the Shins were therein principally referred to, and the Kweis not so specifically mentioned 1 To which Choo replied, " The Kweis are those which are scattered and still, and have no longer any form, therefore it was not so necessary to refer to them ; but when the Shins are mani- fest, this is the Shin or expanding of the Kwei ; just as in the case of ancestors, when the ^ energies are dispersed, they become Kweis. Descendants, however, by the ©xercise of purity and sincerity, cause them to approach, and then they are widely extended, as if they were over our heads, or on our right hand and left. Is not this the expanding of the already contracted Kwei?
The above tends to throw some light on the celebrated passage in the Happy Medium, shewing us that the presence of the Shins at the season of worship, which is so expansively pervading, as over th« heads and on each side of the worshippers, refers to the manes of an- cestors, who are induced by the pure and ><i,icere services of their descendants to approach and enjoy the sacrifice.
Another enquirer observed, that whenever the sages spcc^k
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of the Kwei Shins, they invariably refer to the contracting and expanding of the J^ principle of order : so also when they speak of the Kwei Sliins' rewarding the good and pun- ishing the bad, &c. they still refer to this principle of order. For men with the Kwei Shins, as well as heaven and earth, are all under the guidance of this same principle of order, which principle is invariably good ; so that if people could but comply with this principle of order, they would be lucky, but acting contrary to it, they are unfortunate. Thus it is also with regard to happiness and misery. Who would say then that heaven and earih, with the Kwei Shins, are every moment to be coming down among men ? Thus the Histo- rical Classic talks about ' Providence blessing the good and cursing the bad.' The Book of Diagrams als^o speaks of the 'Kwei Shins damaging the full, and prospering the humble ;' both of which passages convey the same idea. Moreover, Tsae-gnb asked Confucius about the Kwei Shins, when the saofe replied, ' The finer spirit constitutes the fulness of the Shin, and the coarser that of the Kwei.' He further ob- served, ' All living men must die, and at death return to the ground ; when they are called Kwcis. Their bones and flesh rot under ground, and are concealed amongst common earth, whi le their finer spirits being displayed and expanded aloft, become luminous, or fragrant, or depressing; these consti- tute the essences of all living things, and are the manifesta- tions of the Shins.' ISow since the coarser part of the hu- man constitution reverts to earth, wc will not here enquire further about it ; but when the s^ge speaks of the finer spirit, and of the essence, and of the luminous appearances, it would seem as if some part of the man still existed. If it were no- thing more than a principle of order, how could it be called a finer spirit, and said to be luminously displayed ? But when we look at the^ook of Rij^hts, we find the writer saying, 'Sacrifices are offered in order to exalt the finer and grosser parts of the human spirit, which mav be said to have united itself to nothing/ which the commentator says, is non-exis- tence. Another passage also talks of 'mounting aloft to pervade nonentity.' Do not all these expressions seem to be at variance with the observation made to Tsae-gnb ?" To these remarks Choo-foo-tsze replied^ "According to your rea- soning, then, there are no such things as Kwei Shins. It is true, indeed, that the Kwei Shins are spoken of with refer- ence to the principle of order, but you must not say. that there is no ^ breath or energy (of the departed) remain- ing. It was on this account that the former kings oflfered sa- crificeSj whether burnt-oflferings. or drink-offerings, because
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of the ^ fumes proceeding from them ; that they might af- fect the manes of the departed by something allied to them- selves. What you say about happiness and misery, good and evil fortune, is all right?"
In the above paragraph, the disciple is stumbled at an apparent contradiction between two parts of the Chinese classics, in one of which it is inferred that something remains of human beings after their death, and in the other they are supposed to pass over into a state of non-existence ; from which he would argue, that the Kwei Shins are merely a certain principle of order, which sets matters to right in the universe, and nothing more. But his teacher checks him by a reference to the sacrifices offered to the manes of the depart- ed, which is of itself sufficient to shew that something must exist of the departed after death, while the retributions awarded by the prin- ciple of order, are still to be considered as matters of belief. From all that has been advanced in this passage, however, it is evident that the Kwei Shins here refer to the manes of departed persons.
One LeU'keu asked, whether ceremonies and music were not confined to the visible, as the Kwei Shins were to the in- visible world ? To which Choo replied, Yes ; only you should understand these expressions aright ; how ceremonies and music may be ascribed to the visible, and how the Kwei Shins to the invisible world : you nmst know then, that mu- sic belongs to the Shins, and ceremonies to the Kweis; in this way these expressions may be applied to the Kwei Shins. Then pointing to a piece of sugar-cane, he said, The sweet- ness and fragrance of this substance may be called the Shin, and the Juice and water of it the Kwei.
Tang-ke« asked regarding the two phrases, purporting that " the Kwei Shins were the traces (or exhibition) of (na- ture's) productions and transformations," and that they were " the veritable powers of the two energies of nature ;" whe- ther these were not too strongly expressed ? To which Choo replied, " The traces of nature's productions and trans- formations, refer to the sun, moon, and stars, with the wind, rain, and such like. The veritable powers of the two ener- gies of nature refer to the principle of their contracting and expanding, advancing and receding."
The Chinese asciibe the changes which we see taking place around
us to J^ J^ nature, and conceive that the Kwei Shins are the agents employed in bringing such things about, by their perpetual contracting and expanding, advancing and receding ; thus the sun rises and sets, the moon waxes and wanes, the winds blow, and the rain descends, by the elastic stretchings and shrivellings of the Kwei Shins ; the effects produced are visible, hence the motion of the heavenly bodies, and the various meteorological phenomena, are said to be the traces or ex- hibitions of nature's productions and transformations, brought about bv the K-wel Shins. .
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An objector states, that there is such a thing in the world as the Kwci Shtns' coming in contact with men, and since they are frequently seen, the fact must not be entirely dis- believed : how is it then that our school teaches that there is no such thing as necromancer's getting invisible beings to descend, and that although those who are fond of talking about theKwei Shins may really have seen them, their state- ments are not sufficient to be depended on ; either on account of some mental infirmity or some disordered vision. At the same time the books of other schools say, that we must not
discredit the existence of i[||J '^ elves and fairies, lest they suddenly appear and run against us. How is this question to be settled? The philosopher replied, With respect to the existence of elves and fairies, unless among those who are in themselves fully enlightened, there are few who are not misled. The true scholar ought to fortify his mind by cor- rect principles, and thoroughly search into what really does or does not exist, according to the rule of right, and then after a time he will be able to perceive how the matter stands. In the study of books and in the discussion of principles, when a man comes to such points as these, although he may find great discrepancies, he should just lay aside the question for a time, and wait for some future opportunity, when it will not be too late to attend to it.
In the above passage, the whole discourse is about sprites and elves, which many persons say that they have seen, but which sup- posed appearances, the philosopher would ascribe to a disordered imagination or some ocular deception ; while, however, the Confucian does not give in to the popular belief about ghosts and hobgoblins, he has no doubt about the existence of the contracters and expanders of nature, as well as the manes of departed persons, to which sacrifices are ordered to be offered.
In the next sentence, Choo approves of the observation, that the advancings of nature are the Shin, and the revert- ings the Kwei ; but he says, " the thunder and wind, hills and marshes, have all their Shms, and in the present day the images in the temples are also called Shins, all which refer to the energies of nature in their first expandings. In this place, liowever, it is necessary to take a mixed and general view of the question, that in the midst of all expandings, there is a contraction, and in the midst of all contractions, there is an expanding, and then we shall perceive how the matter stands. The contractions perceivable in the midst of expansion, refer to men, having a 6^ grosser animal spirit ; and the expansions in the midst of contraction, refer to the Kwels, being sometimes §^ efficacious, (in answering to the
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wishes of their worshippers.)
H«re we have the first reference to the " images in the temples," which do not appear to have been used in the time of Confucius, and which Choo-foo'tsze says, are popularly called Shins, though he does not seem to sanction this application of the expression ; and goes off to refer the whole to his usual theory of contraction and expansion.
One observed, The manner in which the Shins expand may- be ascertained ; but with regard to the revertmgs of the Kwei, when they are " as it were abundantly present, as if over the heads, and on each side of the worshippers," is this de* pending upon the actions of men to be considered the man- ner of their revertinga ? To this the philosopher replied, That the Kwei Shins are all the same, and cannot be view- ed thus separately? The enquirer again said, That which advances is called the Shin, like the rain and dew, wind and thunder, or like the movements or growing's of mea and things, whose manner of operation may be known ; but that which reverts is called the Kwei, which have no form nor manner that may be enquired into, it is on this account that the enquiry was made. To this Choo-foo-tsze answered, When men's ancestors come to enjoy (the sacrifices offered,) this is the expansion of their Shins. On this subject, Hwang-keu has some admirable suggestions, which are also very minute and particular ; therefore I always tell you to remember well the sayings of former worthies ; if you do but remember these, you will certainly get a thorough perception of such subjects. The philosopher then quoted a saying of Hwang-keu, to the effect, that a man should employ exten- sive acquirements and deep study, examining thoroughly in- to all that is siiggested regarding heaven and earth, and then he will attain to the ri^ht knowledge of things.
Hwang-keii said, " There is a sort of oneness about the Shins ; just like a man's body, which though consisting of four members, is yet but one thing ; therefore, wherever you touch it, there is an immediate perception, which does not wait for any act of the mind, to communicate the informar tion, before the whole frame is made aware of it. This is what is meant by acting upon one, and there is an immedi- ate perception ; without travelling it arrives, without hurry it hastens on. When a thing issues forth from the mind, it
extends itself to the ^ energies. Heaven and earth is jusl one substance with my own body. Hence it is said, that the Kwei Shins are merely my own energies ; when I in luy own mind conceive an idea, then motion commences ; this energy diffusing itself abroad, will certainly have its influ- ence all around."
The writer in the above passage, has probably some reference to
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the one principle of order, which pervades all nature, and affects my own person, at the same time that it influences heaven and earth ; viewing the contracting and expanding power in man as reserablirrg that in nature, the writer is led to say, that there is a sort of oneness about the Shins.
One asked regarding a saying of Shang-tsae, that " when the male and female principle conjoin, then is produced the Shin ; so also when the outward form and the finer spirit separate, then results (he Kwei ; he who knows this is wise, and he who arranges his business according to this is bene- volent:" whether the two first sentences did not refer to the expanding of things, which constitutes the Shin, and the re- verting of things, which constitutes the Kwei ? To which the philosopher replied, It is just so. Again the question wa» asked, Does not the arranging of our business according to this, and attaining to benevolence, mean, that when we serve the Kwei Shins, we must carry to the utmost our sincerity and respect, in order to influence and cause them to approach; in this way practising benevolence ? To which Choo replied, Yes.
Shrdi-k'he asked regarding another saying of Shang-tsae, that " if we say they exist, then they exist, and if we say they do not exist, then they do not exist ;" which resembles a fur- ther observation of his, that " if we possess the requisite sinceri- ty, then the proper Shins will be present, but if we do not pos- sess the dt'sired sincerity, then the expected Shins will not be there." How is it then that you, Su*, on a former evening observed, that there was something not very firmly establish- ed in Shang-tsae's remarks ? To this Choo-foo-tsze replied, *^ The phrase about our sincerity, involving the presence of the Shins, refers to the results which ought in course to fol- low our sincere feeling ; but the assertion, that the existence or non-existence of the Shins, would depend upon our decla- ration, is rather unguarded : he ought to have said, that when the Shins should be there, and we acknowledge their presence, then they are present; and when they ought not to be there, and are really not there, we may make our observations accordingly."
Shang-tsae said, regarding the Kwei Shins, '' if we want them to be present, then they are present, and if we want them to be absent, then they are absent :" the first of these observations refers to the worship of the celestial and terres- trial Shins, with the manes of ancestors, and the latter to the serving of the manes of those who are not our ancestors ; in the latter case, your ^{^ energies may be ever so undividedly
and exactly directed towards them, but their ^ energies be- ing scattered, (how can they be present?)
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In the preceding remarki, the expression Kwei Shin ref«ri mainly to the manes of ancestors.
One asked, regarding the doctrine of the Kwei Shins, "I
have frequently been told, that whe\j the ^ energies approach, that is the Shin, and when they recede, that is the Kwei. Those connected with heaven and earth, are called Shins and K'hes, which are the approachiugs of cnersfy ; while those be- lonixing to men are called Kweis, which are the recedings of The "said energies. This doctrine is the same with what Chani,--fsz3 says, ' that things, when they are first produced, have their energies daily advancing and growing ; while the same things, when they have come to perfection, have their energies daily reverting and scattering ; also that that which advances is called the Shin, because it expands: and that which reverts is called the Kwei, because it reverts.' Lately, 1 have seen also that you, Sir, in commenting on the Happy Medium, have quoted these pasiages. But does Chang-tsze by ' things' mean all things, or only the Kwei Shins ? If he merely means the Kwei Shins, then his observation is simi- lar to the remark of the Book of Diagrams, that ' the grosser fluids and finer energies constitute things :' but if he refers to the myriad of things, then the first four sentences quoted from Chang-tsze respect generally the principle by which all things collect and scatter, commence and terminate ; while the next four sentences speak directly to the matter of the Kwei Shins. Moreover, H wan g-keii has said, ' the coarser fluids and finer breath constituting living things, means, that the energies collect and produce man ; while the soul ram- blin<^ and a change ensuing, refers to the energies dispersing and resulting in the Kwei Shins ;' what do yon think of this sentiment 7 pray favour me with your remarks." Choo-foo-lsze replied. '^That which the Book of Diagrams talks about things, and what Chang-tsze says about things, both refer to the myriad of things ; but the way in which these thincrs are constituted is by the collecting and dispersing of the male and female principle of nature. Thus it is, that the virtues of the Kwei Shins are so full, that not one thing is divested of them. The observation about the energies dispersing and constituting the Kwei Shins is incorrect."
One enquirer qnoted the obs rvations of various philoso- phers, as follows : '^ Ching-tsze has said, ' that the Kwei Shins are the instruments mysteriously (or invisibly) employed by heaven and earth :' Lew-she has also said,' when tnmgs are produced, there is not one of them divested of ^ the finer spirit, now this finer spirit is the fulness of the Shin ; so there is not one di^ ested of the ffi| coarser spirit : now this
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coarser spirit is the fulnesi of fhe Kwei ; thus man is ihe; conjunction of the Kwei Shins.' The explanations of the Happy Medium say, ' that ahhough the virtues of the Kwel Shins are not visible nor a yiible, by human eyes nor ears, yet the collecting and scattering, the commencing and termina- ting of the myriad of things, is nothing more than the con- tracting and expanding, the advancing and receding of these two energies of nature ; thus the virtues of the Kwei Shins enter into the substance of things, and no single thing can he divested of them.' Further, Seay-sha has said, ' The Kwei Shins are the instruments mysteriously employed by heaven and earth, which flow abroad and fill up, and the effects of which appear wherever we cast our eyes: if we wish them to exist they exist, or if we desire them not to exist, then «hey do not exist ?"* To these quotations Choo-foo-tsze replied, " In looking minutely into these two principles, we see that men a'ld things, with the Kwei Shins, are severally indivi- dual substances, something like the Kwei Shins that are represented by images in the temples. What Leu-she says about man's being the conjunction of the Kwei Shins, is very fine ; and the thought is well worthy of being carried out."
In the above paragraph, which is rather confusedly drawn up, we have the Kwei Shins represented as the invisible instruments of na- ture, employed in collecting and scattering, in commencing and termi- ua,ting the myriad of things ; man is also said to be a conjunction of the Kwei Shins, which sentiment the philosopher much admires. The allusion to the visible representation of the Kwei Shins in the temples, shews that images were common in the days of Choo-foo- tsze.
The next sentence, refers to the reasons why the sages did not more frequently &peak of life and death, with the Kwei Shins, viz. the difl^culty of making people understand these principles, and the danger of such discussions begetting delu- sions ; and not, as some suppose, a wish to conceal anything from their followers.
A letter is then quoted to the following effect; " The visi- ble and invisible worlds, life and death, as well as day and night, are originally no two principles ; but the relations of the visible to the invisible, and of life to death, are the same a^ those of day to night. The appearance of the Kwe) Shins as displayed in the invisible world, we must Aot deny : thus also there is something in what the Buddhist say, about the me-
* The commentator explains this by saying, " The Kwei Shins
are a sort of 5|^ energy ; the movement of men's minds, is also a a sort of energy ; thus if we take one energy to affect another, we can make them exist or not as we please ;" perhaps the writer means in idea.
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tempsycbosis and connection with the divinity, which can- not be altogether set aside ; but we should say, that a man of superior wisdom ought not to dwell on such matters. To say that such things have no existence whatever, would be wrong." To this the philosopher replied, That although the visible and invisible worlds, life and death, day and night are certainly no two principles, yet we must be clear about their great origin, and examine into the source from whence they come, (perhaps he means the T'hae-keth ;) and then w« shall know that they are really no two principles. If not, then our assertion that they are not two, will perhaps be no other than a covering over or dragging together of the matter, and after all we ehall make them out to be two. The Kwei Shins are said to be the outward exhibitions of nature's pro- ductions and transformations, they are also said to be the veritable powers of the two energies of nature, and thus are displayed not only in the invisible world (but also in the vi- sible.) Should we say, that their manifestations are confin- ed to the unseen, it would perhaps turn out that we do not know what sort of things the Kwei Shins are, and then we should be immersed in the Buddhist doctrines of the metem- psychosis, and supposed connection witb the Divinity. Af- ter all, if we do not thoroughly examine the six classici, drawn up by the sages, and hastily attempt to take what we have gathered from outside books, and come to a conceited conclusion about the whole, we shall after much talk find ourselves very far from the truth. With regard to what the letter says, about the impropriety of our denying these prin- ciples, while the man of superior wisdom ought not to dwell on such matters, this is still more injurious to right reason ; for we do not know whether these things should be account- ed as existing or non-existing ; if we say that we must not de- ny their existence, this is to consider them as existing ; if they exist, then throughout heaven and earth, every thing is full of them, without any empty space ; and should the man of superior wisdom alone not sanction the idea, we do not know where he would rest his person, or establish his fate. If they do not exist, then all those statements about the im- propriety of denying their existence, are the erroneous views of the multitude, and not true judgments. This would be very far removed from the fee lin-^ of t!ie sages; and to say, that the sages have no two minds ou the subject, 1 do not be- lieve.
In the next sentence we have a discussion as to whether men and living things, with death and the Kwei Shins, are to be viewed as one principle or iwo, which the writer, de- cides by sa5^ing, That in the former case, we must consider th«
w
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visible and invisible worlds as united, and in the latter as di- vided. From which we infer, that the writer understand* by the Kwei Shins mainly the manes of departed persons.
One asked, how the Kwei Shins become sometimes invisi- ble and sometimes apparent 1 Shang-tsae had said, 'that in- cessant motion constituted the Shin, and a settling down into a sediment the Kwei ;^ but although the Kweis were con- tracted, after a length of time they must disperse, and thus it would appear as if there was no such thing as a settling down into a sediment ? To which the philosopher replied, The manifestation of the Shins and the invisibility of the Kweis, Shang-tsae would ascribe to settling down into a sediment, which is in the main the right view of the case, but 1 should recommend attention to the answer which Con- fucius gave to K'he-loo, (see page 33 )
The author goes on to say, that the two words Kwei and Shin may be explained, either of the dispersings and growings of the one ^ energy of nature, or of the two energies of the male and female principle of nature. These theories, though different, the principle is one and the same. When men have the Shin, they are said to be tending to life, and when they have not the Shin, they are said to be tending to death. These two passages, however, only refer to a state of sickness, and must be connected with what has gone before, in order to be understood.
He concludes the chapter by saying, that the sages have found a difficulty in speaking of the Kwei Shins : it would not do to say, that they only constitute one thing ; neither would it do to say, that they do not constitute one thing. If people cannot get a clear idea of the subject, the best way would be to lay it aside without discussion.
The next chapter treats of the Kwei Shins to be found in man, as follows :
One asked regarding the principle of order in life and death, and in the Kwei Sh ns ? To which the philosopher replied, The'^ ^ w«y of heaven, or Providence, coming into operation, sends forth and nourishes the myriad of
things: first there is the ^ principle of order, and then th^
^ energy of nature. Although these exist simultaneously, we must account the principle of order as the chief ; people obtaining this, are born into the world. The purer part of
the ^ breath or energy of nature constitutes the ^ breath or energy of the man, while the more turbid part constitutes his bodily substance. Knowledge and motion, are the pro- duction of the male principle of nature ; form and substance
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of the female. The breath or energy of the man is called the S^ finer part of the animal soul, and the body is denominated the fi^ coarser. One says, that the finer part of the animal soul is the Shin of the male principle, and the coarser the Shin of the female principle of nature. The reason why these are called Shins, is because they preside over the fornl and the breath of men. When men are born, the newous fluids and vital breath accumulate. Men have only a cer- tain amount of vital breath, and a time must come when it is exhausted. At the period of such exhaustion, the finer part of the animal soul and the vital breath revert to heaven, while the outward form and the coarser part of the animal soul revert to earth, and death ensues. When men are about to die, the warmer part of the vital breath ascends, which is called the mounting up of the finer portion of the animal soul ; while the lower extremities become cold, which is cal- led the descending of the grosser part of the animal soul. Thus as surely as there is life, there must come death, and as certainly as there is a beginning, there must come an end. Now that which collects and scatters, is the ^ breath or e- nergy ; but with regard to the ^ principle of order, that is merely anchored upon the breath or energy. At first, previous to congealing and combining, these two constituted but one thing: but in the human constitution, that which agrees with suitability, viz. the principle of order, cannot be said to be either collected or scattered. But when men die, although at the end they dissipate and revert to nothing, yet they are not all at once dispersed ; thus it is that in sacrificing (to the manes of the departed) there is such a thing as affecting and inducing them to come. When first ancestors, however, are removed to a distant period, it is not knowa whether their breath or energy is in existence or not ; but those who offer the accustomed sacrifices, being the descendants of the said progenitors, possess after all but one breath or energy, with that which animated their ancestors, so that there is a possibi- lity of influencing and causing them to pervade down to the latest generation. But after the breath has once dispersed, it never collects again. The Buddhists talk about people after death becoming Kweis, and these Kweis again becoming men, (in the transmigration of souls) ; thus betwixt heavea and earth, they would have a certain number of men coming and going, backwaids and forwards, without being produced and transformed, and born one of another in the usual way, which is contrary to reason. With respect to Pth-yew's be- cotning a mischievous demon, E-chuen considers this to be a
different thing entirely : for when a man's ^ vital energies
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are not come to the time when they should be exhausted, and be IS violently put to death, he may become a mischievous eprite ; and therefore Tsze-san recommended that the descen- dants of such should be appointed to office, that being thus entitled to offer sacrifice in the ancestorial temple, the discon- tented ghost might have some place to revert to. and thus leave off being mischievous ; from which he may be said to have un- derstood the form and manner of the Kwei Shins. One ask- ed, whether, as E-chuen calls the Kwei Shins the traces or exhibitions of nature's production and transformation, these mischievous elves might also be considered the traces of such production and transformation ? To which the philoso- pher replied, All the same. If we speak of the correct princi- ple, it is just like a tree suddenly sprouting forth flowers and leaves ; these are the traces of production and transformation : or as in empty air suddenly there appear thunder and light- ing, wind and rain, which are to be ascribed to the same prin- ciple. Only because people witness these things constantly, they do not account them strange ; but when they suddenly hear the whistling of the wind, and observe the ignis fatuus, they consider it strange; not knowing that thete are also traces of nature's production and transformation, only not in the regular order, and therefore they are accounted strange. Just as the Book of Family Instructions says, ' The sprites of hills are called fairies in human shape ; those of the waters are denominated elves of a dragon form; and those of the earthj monsters of the satyr kind ; all which are produced by
heterogeneous and mischievous ^ energies, and must not be considered as contrary to reason.' We cannot say, that such things do not exist. For instance, cold in winter, and heat in summer, are according to the correct order of things, but sometimes we have cold in summer, and heat in winter ; the existence of such things cannot be denied ; only because they are not according to the usual order of things, we ac- count them strange. On this account, Confucius would nol speak of strange things ; and the student, also, need not trou- ble himself about them.
Yung-che said. When men pray to heaven and earth, with the Kwei Shins, they take their own existence and affect the existence of invisible beings , but when descendants sacri- fice to their first ancestors, they employ their own existence to affect the non-existence of their progenitors. To this ober-
vation the philosopher replied, The ^ energies of the Shins and the K'has are constantly contracting and expanding, without intermission ; while the energies of men and Kweiii disperse and scatter^ without leavincr anything behind them ;
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only their dispersings and scatteiings differ, in being some- times rapid and sometimes protracted. When men do not own the justice of their death, then though dead, their ener- gies do not disperse, but they become monsters and sprites : as when men are put to death violently, or when priests of Buddha and Taou (who nourish their energies, and get them to conglomerate) die, they frequently do not scatter. Such as the sages and philosophers, however, who die contentedly, whQ ever heard of their not scattering, or of their becoming i^ '^ sprites and elves ? Hwang-te for instance, with Yaou and Shun, no one ever heard of their becoming spiritu- al monsters after their death. One speaks of a certain per- son, whose energies after his death became conglomerated, and filled the whole house with a fragrant odour, which did not disperse for several days ; this was occasioned by the fulness of his energies, which produced this eflfect.
One asked, Whether the Kwei Shins were not constituted of the nervous fluids and vital breath, with the finer and coarser parts of the animal soul ? To which the philosopher replied, Just so : and you may take our own bodies for an insrance ; we are able to laugh and talk, and have a certain amount of knowledge and intelligence ; and we may ask, How does this come about ? So also in the empty air, sud- denly winds arise and rains descend, and again, the thunders roll and lightnings flash ; and we may ask. How are these things effected ? To which we may reply, That they may all be ascribed to the male and female principle of nature, mu- tually affecting each other, or to the Kwei Shins, which bring about these effects. We see, that our bodies are mere fleshl/ tenements, whilst within and without there is nothing but
the ^ vital energy of the male and female principle of heaven and earth.
In explaining the connection of the finer and coarser ani- mal soul, with the Kwei and Shin, the philosopher remark- ed: With regard to (us) men, the one half biilongs to the Shin, and the other to the Kwei ; only previous to death, the Shin predominates, while after death, the Kwei prevails ; which is the length and breadth of the matter. Speaking of their contractings and expandings, with their advancin^e and recedines, we may say, that that which approac.hes is the Shin, and that which dej)arts the Kwei : and with refer- ence to the human body, we may observe, that the ^ vital breath is the Shin, and the ^ nervous fluid the Kwei ; only their contractings and expandings, their advancings and re- cedings are all gradual.
Further on. an enquirer suggests, that since the Kwei
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Shin, with the finer and coarser parts of the animal soul, all belong to one and the same body, and are nothing more than the two energies of the male and female principle of nature ; how is it that after having called them Kwei Shins, you a- gain designate them the finer and coarser parts of the animal soul? The idea has been thrown out, that the term Kwei Shin refers to their contracting and expanding, advancing and receding ; while the phrase finer and coarser parts of the
animal soul, refers to the ^ spirituality of the individual, and to his possessing knowledge and perception ; or perhaps the contracting and expanding; being considered insufficient fully to describe the Kwei Shin, therefore the schoolmen have united the two expressions, and considered them as but
one ^ vital breath, contractmg and expanding, and so forth.
Viewing them separately, then, the Shin is the^ spiritual or vital part of the male principle of nature, and the Kwei that of the female ; and because tliey can be spoken of either uni- tedly or separately, therefore they are called the Kwei Shin ; because, also, some think that they can be spoken of separate- ly and not unitedly, therefore they are called the finer and coarser parts of the animal soul. Or shall we take the idea of Nan-heen, who says, that the finer part of the animal soul belonging to the male principle of nature is the Shin, and the coarser part belonging to the female is the Kwei, and then say that the Kwei Shin, with the finer and coarser parts of the animal soul, cannot be distinctly spoken of. I should say after all, that although the whole may be referred to one vital breath, contracting and expanding, coming and going, yet the contracting part of it is tbe female principle, and the expanding part oi it tlie male principle ; the reced- ing again is the female, and the advancing is the male prin- ciple of nature ; and thus what is called the vital part of the male and female principle of nature, is nothing more than the contracting and expanding, advancing and receding, just spoken of. To all those suggestions, the philosopher repli,
ed, The Kwei Shins refer to the one ^ breath of nature, which exists between heaven and earth ; the finer and coar- ser parts of the animal soul, r33pect principally human beinga ; when the breath or energy of nature expands, (in the birth of man) then the nervou'^ fluids and the coarser parts of the animal soul, are indeed fully prepared, but the Shin at that time prevails ; until the breath of nature contracts again (towards the death of man,) when although the finer parts of the animal soul and the vital breath are still pre- served, yet the Kwei then predominates. When the breath or energy is exhausted then the coarser parts of the animal
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«oul descend, and become purely converted into the Kwei. Thus it is, that when men die they are called Kweia. With regard to the assertion of Nan-heen, I do not recollect the connection in which it stands, and only remember these two phrases; still we cannot help speaking of the Kwei Shins, with the finer and coarser parts of the animal soul, as dis- tinct things.
This and much m<»re to the same purpose, goes on to the end of the chapter, which it is not necessary here to detail. We therefore proceed to set forth a little of what he says re- garding sacrificing to the Shins of ancestors.
Chow asked, Why are those which belong to heaven cal- led Shins, those which belong to earth termed K'hes, and those which belong to men denominated Kweis ? To this th« philosopher replied, This is to distinguish those who possess the pure and clear part of the breath of nature as the Shina, such as the sun, moon, and stars, which are incomprehensi ble in their changes and transformations. The word |^ K'he is
the same with ^J^she, to display, and is applied to invisible beings, because of their exhibiting traces that may be seen, such as hills, rivers, grass, trees. <fcc. which are diflferent from the heavenly bodies (in being more distinct and tans^ible) ; with respect to men, then after death they become Kweis. Again the enquirer asked. Seeing that men have departed and become Kweis, why are progenitors said to be influen- ced and to come ? To this the philosopher replied, This speaks of their being influenced by sacrifices ;and when their coming and approaching is alluded to, there is a slight idea of the Shin, or expanding principle contained in it : the wor- shippers taking their animal spirits to influence the animal spirits of the departed. Sacrifices and offerings are altoge- ther presented with this view. So also when the emperor sacrifices to heaven and earth, the princes of the empire to the hills and rivers, and the great ofiicers to the genii of the five parts of the house, it is all done because the animal spirits of each sacrificer are suited to the objects sacrificed to^ and in such case can influence them and cause them to approach. Should, however, the princes of the empire sacrifice to heaven and earth, and the great officers Baciifice to the genii of the hills and rivers ; there would be no propriety in it, and the same results would not follow.
Chin-haou asked, Whether a man's ancestors were not on«
and the same ^^ breath or energy, with the energies that subsist between heaven and eanh, only collecting or scatter- ing, according as descendants attended to or neglected the ac- customed sacrifices ! To thi« the philotopher replied, This
18 the same idea with what Shan^-tsae said about the Kwei Shins being present or absent according as we wished ; thus making their presence depend on men. The Kwei Shins, however, are things originally existing, and the manes of progenitors are of one ^ breath or energy with them, but there must be something to bring them to a focus. For in- stance, wherever the bodies of descendants are, there the manes of ancestors are also present, one blood flowing through their veins; thus it is, that the Shins do dot enjoy sacrifices that are not offered by persons of their own clan j and that the people must not present sacrifices to any, but the manes of their own family. But in those instances in which the same breath or enero^y does not pervade the par- ties ; as when the emperor sacrifices to heaven and earth, the princes of the empire to the hills and rivers, and the great of- ficers to (he genii of the five parts of the house ; although these objects are not the ancestors of the worshippers, yet the enijjeror is the lord of the empire, the princes are the lords of ihe hills and rivers, and the great ofiiicers are the lords of the five parts of the house ; and when these are the lords of those, then they are of the same breath or energy, which generally pervades their bodies ; thus there is a con- nection.
One asked whether the finer and grosser parts of the ani- mal soul scattered immediatelv after death, or not? To which the philosopher replied. They certainly scatter. The enquirer again asked, How then is it that when descendants sacrifice to them, they are influenced and induced to come ? To which the master replied. After all descendants are of the same breath or energy with their ancestors ; and al- though the energies of progenitors are scattered, their roots are still in existence, so that when posterity carry out their sincerity and respect to the utmost, then they can call and induce the energies of their forefathers to collect and be pre- sent. Just like the waves of the sea ; succeeding waves are not the same as those which preceded, and yet they are all one sheet of water ; in this way, the ensrgies of descendants are the same with those of their ancestors. It may be that the energies of progenitors are already scattered, but their roots are still in existence, and their root being in existence, it is possible fo le.id and collect their energies also. This matter is of difficult explanation, but men must try to under- stand it for themselves. One asked about an expression in the Book of Odes, referrin,' to " the three princes being in heaven," which the master ha I already explained as mean- ing, that although they were dead, their animal spirits had ascended up and were united. in heaven ? To which the phi-
IS5
losopher replied, Still tliey may be considered as h^re present (when sacrificed to.) One of the disciples observed, I sus- pect that the ]^ principle of order belonging to them had al- ready ascended and becam3 united in heaven. To which the master replied, Since the principle of order is in existence, the energy must be in existence likewise. One asked, Whe- ther the sages had received a purer and clearer energy from heaven, and thus it was, that when they died, their energies ascended and became united in heaven ? To which the an- swer was made, This is also the case ; but this affair is altogether very deep and mysterious, and people must try and get an idea of it for themselves. Of the various princi- ples existing in the world, some are very easy of perception, and some are changeable and out of the usual course, so that they cannot be fathomed ; if we bear these observations in mind, we shall be able to see these principles in a fresh and lively point of view. So also, when it is said in the clas- sic, " the finer and grosser animal soul of Wan-wang ascend- ed and descended, and was in the presence of '^ the (Su- preme) Ruler ;" if we should say now, that Wan-wang is Actually in the presence of j^ ^ the Supreme Ruler, we might infer that the Supreme Ruler really does exist, but he js not to be confounded with the imagies that are to be met with in the world.
One suggested, that the Kwel Shins were probably of two kinds : the generative and productive stiniuli of the two energies that exist between heaven and eartii, are doubtless Kwei Shins ; when these are influenced by tho sacrifices of- fered, then really existing m3n influence really existing Shins. But men at their death become Kwcis, and when these are influenced by sacrifices, then really existing men influence non-existing Kweis. To which tlie philosopher replied. Just so : hence we talk of the celestial Shins, and the hu- man Kwejs. The Shins are the expanding parts of tlie breath of nature, and are constantly existing ; the Kweis are the contracting parts of the same breath, and are already dispersed : but when the worshippers, by means of their possessing the same animal spirits, go and collect them, then they may be rendered united and present. The enquirer again said, When not influenced by sacrifices are thes'^ Kweis constantly present or not ? To which the philoso- pher replied, Should they be present, without being influenced by sacrifices, they would only be hungry Kweis.
One asked, wh^n descendants carry out to the utmost their sincerity and res |>ecr, in sacrificiuLf to the animal spirits of their ancestord, do th^y unite tl>e finer and coaiici puts ol
X
their anim&l soul, or only influence the finer parts of the it minimal soul, with their breath or energies to approach '? To Which the master replied, The fat burned in sacrifices is in- iended to requite the breath of nature, and the libations pour». ed out are designed to induce the Kweis to come, tliua the two are united ; hence it is laid, that to unite the Kwei with ihe Shins constitutes tlie excellence of the right doctrine. The enquirer again asked, Are they always thus united, or only when sacrificed to ? To this the philosopher replied^ When- ever the energies of descendants are in existence, then the energies of progenitors are also in existence, but without siacrifices, they eould not be eolleeted together.
The above quotations from Choo-foo-tsze will speak for themselves, and will be eonsidered flufficient to illustrate the ideas which the Chi- nese literati entertain of the Kw€i Shins.
On a review of the whole of what has been adduced from the Confucian school in the preceding pages, we find that amongst 800 references to the word Shlu and its cognates, the following classification may be made.
1 . Shin, used for the expanders of naturfe, (in which the cor- respondingrword Kwei, contracter, is in the majority of in- stances connected with it, either expressed or implied,) occurs 61 times. In all of the above instances, there is a reference to the elastic powers of nature, which are supposied to ex- pand and contract, advance or recede, and thus keep up thi6 perpetual motion, as Well as the constant reproduction of men and things. The idea attached in these cases to the word Shin, connects it very closely with materialism.
2. Shin, used for the celestial Shins, (in which the eorres- ponding term terrestrial K'hes is mostly connected with it, either expressed or implied,) occurs 45 times. The iiieaning generally attached by the Chinese to the celestial Shins, is that of the expanders of heaven, as that to the terrestrial K'e« is that of the extractors of earth. In three instances the celestial Shins refer to the genii presiding over the heavenly bodies ; and sometimes, bat rarely, they are supposed from their elevated position, to rtMieive the homage and sacrifices paid to Heaven, while the Saprem3 Power is thought to re- sent any slight or neglect with which they may be treated.
3. The word Shin, is once used for the terrestrial K'he.
4. We find also the word Shin four times used for upper Shins, in which it is contrasted with the lower Shins, and both refer then to the celestial Shins, and terrestrial K'hes spoken of above.
5. The word Shin is applied also to the genii of hills '^nd rivers 36 times, besides which we have a distinction sev^n or eight times drawn between great Shins, or the genii of great
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wountains, and little Sht"Sf, or those which preside over sjiialler mounda and hilloclcsi.
6. Shin is once applied to the genii presiding over the fivQ parts of every private dwelling.
7. Avery qowimon use of the word ShUi i© with refererice to iriviaible being;s; in genejal, without determining whether th^ spirits presiding over Ui^e heavenly bodies, the genii of the hills and rivers^ or the marges of ancestors be intended ; ir^ suoh sense it occurs 80 times ; in one half of these, however, it is connected in the context with the word Kwei.
8. The term '• hiindred ^hinsj" occurs 14 times, and refers to the host of Shins, whether celestial or terrestrial, superior or inferior, who may he considered proper objects of worship^ or who may be supposejd to have any influence in protecting their votaries.
9. We have the emperor called the lord of the Shfns 9 times, and the same title is applied to the people five times. In the former cases it means, either that he presides over the sacrifi- ces offered to the Shins ; or that he, being the son of Heaven, has a sort of authority over the various genii presiding over hills and rivers, land and grain, wind and rain, appointing thein to their offices, and dismissing them from their posts, in case of any supposed neglect. Jn the latter instances, the expression alludes to the wishes and inclinations of the peo- ple fixing certain individuals on the throne, and of course in- fluencing the Shins in their choice, as to what persons they
..should protect and defend.
10. The word Shin is twice applied to the presiding spirits of the four seasons.
11. We have eleven instances of the application of the word Shin to the la?-es rustid, or the genii presiding over land and grain, who are supposed to have a certain influence in pro- tecting the rei-niug family of each state ; and are therefore to be fought for and maintained, as the Romans were accus- tomed to hght pro ari9 ft foQis-
12. Theappliralionoftheword Shin to the manes of ances- tors, occurs 2f times ; which is more properly expressed by the word Kwei, because the manes of the departed are sup- posed to be contracted and shrivelled up after their decease ; yet because by the sacrifices offered to them they are drawn forth and expanded, the term Shin is not unfrequently appli- ed to them. Eight instances occur of the word Shin being applied to the manes of sages or departed worthies, who arc worshipped by their disciples. In one case, the word honour- rable is prefixed to Shin, when it is applied to the manes of deceased officers.
13. In 33 instances, we find the word Shin applied to the
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finer part of the human soul, which expands and ascends at death and which may be collected and brought to a focus by the services of successors, as the Kwei is made to expand by a similar means.
14. In one instance, the word Shin must be rendered ghost; in four instances, it is synonymous with fairies and elves, and in four more must be translated mischievous demons ; but these are meanings attached to it in later ages, since the su- perstitious fears of the multitude, aided by the Buddhists, had conjured up a host of imaginary beings.
15. In two instances, we find the word Shin coupled with "resemblance," and used with reference to the representative of the dead, on occasions of sacrificing to ancestors ; and the word Shin, is four times coupled with " surety" to convey the same idea. In one instance, in the work of a later writer, we find the word Shin applied to the images in temples.
16. We have also a whole class of passages, in which Shin must be taken adjectively ; in 29 of which it conveys the idea of inscrutable, in 25 that of mysterious, in 7 tliat of in- scrutably intelligent, in 2 that of spiritual, in two that of wonderfully spontaneous, and in two more that of invisibly efficacious. In all these cases, we cannot help perceiv- ing that the Chinese attach higher ideas to the word Shin, then when they employ it to mean the expanders of nature, celestial agents, or terrestrial genii ; sometimes giving it in this connection a turn something like spiritual or supernatu- ral, and farther removed from anything material, than in any instances yet cited ; yet the commentators in these connec- tions are uniform in attaching the idea of inscrutability to the word.
17. In one instance, a later writer talks about a certain one- ness as connected with the Shins, because the word is used in connection with the energy of nature, wiiich is sometimes represented as single, and in this case has some similarity to the term anima mundi, used by western writers.
18. On one occasion, a later writer puts the hypothesis, that if the Supreme Ruler be a Shin, he would be able to de- tect hypocritical performances , in which case the meaning to
be attached to the word, is probably that of ^ spirituality or efficaciousness. Among the comments on the Book of Odes, which will afterwards be referred to, the Supreme Ru- ler is called the Shin of Heaven, or the collection of all the spiritual essences of nature into one ; in which case we must render the word Shin by " invisible and intelligent being."
19. The word Shtn is sometimes used as a verb, and means
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^n one instance, to honour as a Shm, and in another, to bring into contact with invisible beings.
20. The word ShUi is used by the writers of epitaphs in the sense of unnameable, when any ruler has been so good or so bad, as that no term can be found sufficient to describe him.
21. It is also used as a surname, and, with a variation of tone, as a part of the name of a spirit of the deep.
The above are all the instances in »vhich Shin has been met with as used alone. In connection with other terms, we meet with the following :
22. Shin-ming occurs fifteen times, as referring to invisible and intelligent beings.
23. Shln-mlng is applied nine times to the manes of ancestors.
24. Shin-mlng is five limes used as an adjective, meaning inscrutable and intelligent.
25. Shin-ming is used twice as a verb, implying to render inscrutable. In all which cases the compound term is simi- lar to the simple word Shin as already referred to in articles 7, 12, and 16.
The word Shin is, however, most frequently found in con- nection with Kwei, which it is made to follow ; this arrange- ment seems to have rather an allusion to the dual sys- tem of the universe, invented by the Chinese, than to any supposed inferiorit) of the Shin to the Kwei. Thus the Kwei, b *jng supposed to belong to the female principle of na- ture, which is characterized by stillness, is put before the Shin, which belongs to the male principle of nature, and ii descriptive of activity ; in the same manner as the |^ yin is put before the [^ yang, the S^ pin before the ^ mow,
and the ||^ tsze before the ^ heung, in each of which cases the feminine precedes the masculine gender. We may here remark, also, that in the Confucian classics, the Kwei is never spoken of disparagingly, but always with as much honour as is put upon the Shm ; and it is only later writers that have applied the word Kwei to ghosts and demons, which we find to be the case in some of them with the word ■Shin. Having premised these observations, we shall give the instances in which Kwei and Shin occur together in the preceding pa^jes.
26. Kwei Shin occur as the expanders and contracters of nature 76 times in the quotations already made, and in each case, the meaning attached to the words is the same as that applied to art. 1, of the present arrangement.
27. The words Kwei Shin aj)ply to invisible beings in ge- neral 145 times in the preceding pages. By a reference lo
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the places where the words occur, we shall find thai the Chinese do not by any means attach a definite meaning to the Kwei Shins, but consider them as embracing most of the ideas which we have seen may be applied to the Shins ; thus they take the Kwei Shins to mean collectively, both the expanders and contracters of nature ; the invisible beings who are the objects of worship, and are supposed to protector injure, to reward or punish mankind ; together with the manes of departed persons, and the genii of hills and rivers, all in one ; we hare endeavoured to separate them in this ar- rangement, where the contest warrants it; but generally the ideas to be attached to the term are rather of the mixed kind. This class is similar to No. 7.
28. The words Kwei Shin are in 13 instances, applied to the genii of hills and rivers, who are supposed to control winds and rain, and are consequently applied to both by mariners and husbandmen in their distress. This use of the words is similar to No. 5 in the present arrangement.
29. The words Kwei Shin are applied 52 times to the— manes of ancestors, as in No. 12.
30. The same term is attached 18 times to the spiritual constitution of man, principally after death ;aa well as to the various parts of the human body, whilst men are alive, as in No. 13.
31. The words Kwei Shin are used 7 times with reference to those genii that are supposed to preside over prognostica- tions.
32. Kwei Shin is applied once to the genius presiding- over blight and mildew.
• 33. The Kwei Shins are twice considered as but of secon- dary importance, and in seven instances are dhected to be kept at a distance. • .
,34. The word Kwei Shin is seven times applied to ghosts and elves. .
35. The word Kwei Shin is twice used with reference to images in the temples, but those instances occur only in sub- sequent writers.
In no instance, however, among the writers of the school
, of Confucius, do we find the word Shin applied to the Su- preme God, and never so used by tiiem as to make it necessa- ry for us to translate it by God^ in giving the sense of the classics, ae(;ordin^ to the commentator5». The main idea is that of the expanders and contracters of nature, who, under the authority and direction of a higher power, attend to the bringini: forth and nourishing of men and things, the rising and setting of heavenly bodies, the blowing of winds, the fall- ing of rains^. the rolling of thunder, and the flashing of light-
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iiing ; -trhile they ate supposed to be influenced by sacrifices, nnd° lo afford protection to nations and individuals, but al- ways subject to the will of a superior, and never are they re- presented as acting independently and supremely, uacontroU lably and ultimately. They are not, therefore, according to the showing of the Chinese, gods, but subordinate spirjts, agents, genii, and manes." . . . ; .^. ^
In the ^ ^ ^ Taou tih king, ascribed to Laou^tsze, the founder of the St^ctof Ta6u, we have a few references to the Shins, as follows :
In the 5th chapter we read,
" To cultiTate inanity, up to the point of jfl^ pure spiritu- ality, until a man attains immortality, is called the perfection of productiveness."
The commeutator Bays, when inanity is cultivated so as to reach vacuity, there is still something of form remaining ; but when inani- ty is cultivated up to the point of pure spirituality, then there is yaouity without form. Vacuity without form, has no life in it, how then can it be capable ofdeath ? la speaking of cultivating inanity so as to attain spirituality, reference is made to the virtue of the in- dividual. In speaking of the perfection of productiveness, reference is made to "his work and merit. The productive power brings forth the myriad of things ; and it is called perfect productiveness, because though ^e seethe things produced, we do not see how they are produced.
Another commentator says, Inanity means emptiness, when perfgct
emptiness of thought is attained, the f ^ feeling of pure spirituality is maintained within. Hence the expression empty spirituality. Emp- tiness is the place of the centre of the mind : and that Which main- tains it is the spirituality. Immortality refers to the -original energy always suff\?lving and never dying. The word productiveness, or mo- ther, sets forth the tenderness and pliability of the original energies ; to which is added the word perfect, in order to .express admiration of it. Perfect productiveness , is the mother of the myriad -of things. The
being whom Ohwang-tsz^ denominates the J^ — ^, Perfect One, may here perhaps be called the spiritual Precious One, who is the Lord of the later heavens.
The next sentence run thus :
" The door, *or opening out, of perfect productiveness^ may be called the root of heaven and earth."
Upon which the commentator remarks. The door, or opening out, of perfect productiveness, means that the myriad of things springs from hence, and that heaven and earth are produced from this also.
Another commentator says, The door is the medium of egress ; and the root is that from which any thing springs. Emptiness and noJ;hi;:gness, with the spontaiieousness of action, is that from which heaven and earth were produced ; hence it is called the root of heaven and e^arth. The root of heaven and earth, is the beginning of heaven
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and earth. That which Chwang-tsze talks about eternal nonentifr^ may perhaps here be denominated the prime beginning, or the ances- tor of the former heavens.
The above two senteiices have cost the translator much trou - ble in decyphering, and many Chinese students at first sight would perhaps disagree with the view above given of them : but we must remember that the Taou sect uses words in an entirely different acceptation from the other religionists ; and the patient enquirer, by consulting the Imperial Dictionary under the different words, will see that the above is almost the only construction that can be put upon the terms used here. The idea seems to be, that when the ascetic can so attenu- ate his body, and empty his mind, that he becomes extreme- ly yacuous, and approaches to pure spirituality, he may then be considered as capable of producing the myriad of things ; because nature itself sprinsfs from this extreme vacuity, and emptiness is the root of ail things. Let not the reader be startled at the idea of the ascetic being considered the pro- ducer ol nature, for it is a very common thing with the Chi- nese to elevate their sages to an equality with, and in some instances to a superiority over, heaven and earth. With regard to the word Shin in this sentence we need only re- mark, that it means nothing more than the state of pure spiri- tuality, which is the result of the emptiness to which the ascetic may attain, by a due subjection of his animal to his spiritual powers.
" When a man can bring into subjection the sensitive and rational soul, and hold fast the oneness (of his spiritual na- ture,) he may perhaps be able to maintain an inseparable uni- on between them,"
On this the commentator remarks, That in which the h|6 sensitive
soul differs from the i^L rational is, that the former is J^ matter,
and the latter JJ^ spirit. The Book of Diagrams says, ** That the ani- mal fluids and vital breath unite to constitute living things, but when the finer part of the animal soul begins to wander, then a change ensues ; from this we may know the form and manner of the Kwei
Shins.'* The sensitive soul consists of 70f matter, therefore it is
mixed and disposed to settle ; the rgitional soul is jfl^ spirit, therefore it is single and capable of change. Speaking of the sensitive soul,
reference is made to its settling down. For ^2[ the rule of right is everywhere present ; in man it constitutes his perfect nature, and the
most mysterious part of his nature is its j[l^ spirituality; speaking of its pure and unadulterated character, it is called single ; speaking* of its being collected and not scattered, it is called solid, but the point
t»9 ^F.^icJ? both thcbe revert is the ^ jryle of right ; while each is spo/-
19S
ken of according to the qujilities which it really possesses. The sa^ieg";
have their virtuous nature fixed, and their Ijl^ spirituality congealed,, and therefore are not moved by external things ; thus although they temporarily lodge in their sensitive poul, yet their sensitive soiil in- variably complies with whatever the ^h spirit desires, thus the spirit
brings into subjection the sensitive soul. Men in general allow exter-,
nal things to bring th^ir virtuous nature into bondage, while tlieir |[j^ spirits are beclouded, and badly regulated ; thus their spirits are subservient to their sensitive souls ; their ears and eyes are enslaved by sound and colour, their noses aud mouths are subject to the influence of taste and smeli, so that their spirits follow that which the sensf- tive soul desires, arid the sensitive soul brings their spirits into subjection. O a this account, men are taught to hold fast their spiri- tual nature, and to bring into subjection their sensitive soul, causing them both to be inseparably united, which is the most important thing that the sages attend to in the cultivation of personal virtue. "VVith regard to the perfect men of former times, they struck deep their foots, and strengthened their stems, while they attained to prolonged existence avid matured experience, and in so doing the principle of right which they possessed sprang up.
Another commentator gives the following meaning to the passage just cited ; "(The spirit) is superadded to the fortitied residence of the sensitive soul, and while these embrace aud hold fast the principle
of unity, they may perhaps be able to avoid ^epai*ation." ^)J Tsa^ (rendered by the preceding commentator brin// into suftjecl/07i) is explained by this one to mean superadd. Tl>e animal soul is a camp, like the encampment of an army : the rational soul is the garrison, like a garrison of soldiers. A camp is intended for the re- sidence of troops. Thus the ]\\^ spirit is added to the sensitive soul, and the sensitive soul embraces the spirit ; these two being inti- mately connected without separation, may, like the ?iin and moon-, attain to perpetual preservation throutrh endless aees. In this way the men who rise above the world also are able to preserve their pu-t- ward forms entire.
The writer goes on to say,
" When men bestow undivided atteijtion on (the subjection of) their ^J boisterous enerj^ies, so as to render them ^^ supple and yi*ilding, they may perhaps be able to imitate little children." -^u
The commentator say.o, When the JljfP spirit i«: badly rognlateci^ th6n the energies bec(^nie confused. Thosr' who possess more vigor- ous energies are fond of contention, while those who possess weaker energies, are dis^^osed to cherish fear, without either of them being
aware of it. When the l||^P spirit is well reirulatpd. however, the energies do not act disorderly, while joy anil r^uijf r are both displaj'ddi, according to their various reqtiireme^its ; thi*; is what is called bestow, in^ .undivided attention upon (the i^ubjection of) oae'a. ,enf rgies.
1$
\9i
jj^ Spirituality is the extreme point of emptinesi ; the ^ encrgiei are placed at the ccmmenceuienl of solidity. The essence of eoipti-
iiess is ^J flexibility, the essence of solidity is (j^I] hardness. To keep unadulterated one's virtuous nature, and to reduce to nothing one's boisterous energies, is called the estreme of flexibility. Children do not know the difftrence between love and hatred, thus their vir- tuous nature is preserved entire ; their virtuous nature being pre- served entire, their energies are insignificant ; while their energies are insignificant, their bodies are also supple ; thus to bend one's sole attention to (the subjection of) our boisterous energies, until they become supple and yielding, like those of little children, constitutes the height of human attainment.
Another commentator says. To bestow one's whole attention on the (subjection) of our internal energies, and smoke and soak the flesh and bones, until we render them extremely soft and brittle, like those of an infant in its mother's womb, this is the way in which men who rise r.bove the world are able to preserve their energies.
It is evident that, in the above extract*, the writer uses t^.^ wcrd
^ Shin in the sense of human spirit, as distinct from the 6^ sensi- tive, and ^ rational soul. The attentive readr^r will perceive that we have rendered these two latter terns somewhat difi'^rently from what we translated them in giving extracts from the classical wri- tings of the sect of the learned ; but we have so done, because we conceive, that the adherents of Taou hold different views on the sub- ject from the followers of Confucius. It will be seen also, that we have given a different terra for Shin, as occurring in this book, from what wai attached to it in those, because the Taouists do not annex the same idea to the word Shin as the Confucians do, but under- stand it of something more allied to pure spirit.
In the 2nd section, and 25th chapter of the Taou-tih-king, we have the following observations :
" When a man wislies to grasp hold of the empire, and work it, I have seen instances of utter failure."
The commentator says, Tliat when a sage obtains potJsession of the empire, he does aot grasp it ; all things revert to him, and he has no resource but simply to receive them. So when a sage governs the empire, he does not work it ; he simply follows the spontaneousne.«*s of things, and removes injuries out of the way. Should a man wish to grasp and work it up, he would not succeed.
Another commentator says, To grasp hold of the empire means, to gratify the people of the empire, and make them revert to one's-self, To work it, means to labour at it. In order to obtam possession' of the empire, a man's virtue must be perfect, and men would of them- selves revert to him ; but if a man attempts to work the thing, he makes use of force and cunning to subdue the empire, how then can he succeed in getting tltc empire to revert to him.
The next sentence is follows :
'' The empire it: an implement und^r U}« guidance 4'*^ jfi!^
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invisible beings, and it cannot be worked. The man who atiempts to work it, spoils it ; and he who teeks to retain it, by over caution, loset it."
One commentator says, No business should be laboured at : (even in small communities) where only a hundred people are collected to- gether, if you do not comply with what they spontaiieously prefer, but wronifly attempt to work yourself into the management of affairs, ^rrere wilf certainly be mutterin^s, how much more with respect to the empire ? In little matters, and in small gatherings, it may still be proper to employ vigor in getting hold of, aud cunning in grasping,
but the great affairs of the empire, are under the management of JJ^ invisible beings ; so that if a man does not wait for the people to re- vert to him spontaiieously, they will rebel ; and if he does not allow things in a great measure to manage themselves, there will be con- fusion.
Another commentator says. The empire is an immense implement,
under the management of )fl^ invisible beings, and must not be sought possession of by the employment of force or cunning. Spoil- ing, means to fail of accomplishing ; the man who seeks to obtain (the empire) by force or cunning, wishes to accomplish the affair, and the affair on the contrary not being accomplished, means that he cannot get the empire to revert aud submit to him : hence it is said, that the man who works it, spoil it. Whs^n a man has not yet got hold of the empire, and wishes to obtain it, he certainly must not work the matter, in order to get it ; so also, having obtained the empire, when a man wishes to keep it, he also should avoid exerting his mind in order to retain it.
There is nothing, either in the text or commentary of the above passage, to determine what invisible beings are meant by the Shins, who have the great aflairs of the empire under their management. The expression fj!J3 f| shin klie is, however, brought into use as a phrase to d^ note the regalia q( the empire. See a subsequent part of this essay treating
of tlie f^» (Supreme) Ruler.
In the 3rd section of the same work, we read, '^ Those which originally obtained (the principle of) uni- ty are the following; !i.:av3ri, which obtained it, in order to become pure ; eartli, which obtained il, in order to become still ; ifi$ spirituality, which obtained it^ in order to become 1^ efficacious ; empty s[)ace, which obtained it, in order to become full ; the myriad of things, which obtained it, in order to spring forth into being ; and virtuous rulers, who obtained it, in ord^r to become the main stem of the em- pire. But that which carries out these to the utmost, is this (one principle of) unity,"
The commentator says, The principle of unity here reftrr€d to ia
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Ta<Su, or the fitness of things. The wAy in which things ar« conv; :Stituted existence's, is by this Taou ; the people of the wcrld only look at things as they are, and forget the principle of fitness by which they are constituted ; they merely know that heaven is pure, and that earth is still, and that spirituality is efficacious, and that space be- comes replete, and that all things are reproduced, and that virtuous rulers are the main stem of the empire ; but they do not know that the reason of their obtaining all these, is because the fitness of things is maintained among them.
Arjother commentator says, The principle of unity, refers to the attainment of mounting up into vacuity, (and becoming nothing.) It conveys the same idea with the words of a former section, when speaking of embracing the principle of unity ; or with another, which gpeaks of carrying out the principle of unity, or with a subsequent
chapter, which speaks of q^ the fitness of things producing the principle of unity, all which refer to the same thing. Chwang-tsz^
calls it the /S^ ""^ Great One, and sometimes merely speaks of it as the One. This is produced by the spontaneous effort of the Taou, or fitness of things. This unity carried out into use is empty and tot full : it is subsequent (to the fitness of things) and not prior, it is soft and not hard, it is flexible and not boisterous. Former chapters have frequently spoken of it, and this chapter exhibits all its luxuri- ance. Obtaining it, means to obtain this principle of unity ; *' in or- der to" means that the qualities alluded to are thus attained. The four things mentioned, viz. heaven, earth, spirituality, and emptiness, -have different names, but are really the same. That which turns a- bout and revolves, while it is pure and clsar, is called heaven ; that which congeals and collects, while it is peaceful and still, is called earth ; spirituality, is the mysleriousness of the two principles of na- ture, which exist between heaven and earth ; >yhich Chang-tsze refers to, when he says, that the two principles are there present, (without our being able to ascertain which is which) hence its inscrutability ; in use this spirituality corresponds to those things which affect it, >Vithout being limited by space, hence its efficaciousness. Emptiness, is the empty space between heaven and earth ; which Chang-tsze calls pure vacuity, which is none other than the energy of nature ; ..this energy fills up all space without exception, hence it is said to be full. The main stem refers to the principal stem of a tree ; to be the main stem of the empire, is the same as to call one the most im- portant among the people. It means that heaven's pureness, and ■ earth's stillness, spirituality's eflScaciousness, and space's replenish- ing, together with the perpetual reproduction of the myriad of thinae without end, and the establishment of kings and rulers over the whole empire, to be chief among the people, — that the way in which all this is effected, is from obtaining this one principle of unity.
. We have rendered f|^ Shin in the above passage, by the word spirituality, because it is put in connection with empty
.^pace, and according to the ideas of the Taouists, the process Is from mere inanity to pure spirituality, in order to the at-
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taimTient af excellence.
The u&xi sentence is as follows :
" Were not heaven to obtain this principle of imity, in or- der to become pure, it might be rent asunder ; were not earth to obtain it, in order to becom*. still, it might be agitated ; were not spirituality to obtain it, in order to become efficaci- ous, it might be exhausted ; were not space to obtain it, in order to become replete, it mi^^ht cease to exist; were not the myriad of things to obtain it, in order to be perpetually reproduced, they might soon be exterminated ; and were vir- tuous rulers not to obtain it in order to become the main stem of the empire, their nobility and exalted rank might soon become contracted."
The commentntor says, That were heaven not to obtain this prin- ciple of unity, it would not suddenly rend asunder ; and were earth not to obtain it, it might not be directly agitated ; spirituality, with- out it, might not forthwith beoonne exhausted ; space, without it, might not instantly cease to exist ; the myriad of things, without it, might not be soon exterminated ; and virtuous rulers, without it, might not be hastily contracted ; but yet the utter extinction of this piinci-* pie of unity, would certainly result in the effects detailed.
Another commentator says, Not to obtain it, in order to do so and so, means, that without this virtue, the results mentiontid would fol- low. To r^nd asunder, means to separate and divide ; to be agitated, means to be moved ; to be exhausted, refers to a want of power to ■correspond and become efficacious, when influenced by any : to cease to exist, implies an inability to become replete and full ; to be exter- jninated, means to become extinct without being reproduced ; to be •contracted, means to be overthrown and lose the empire.
Here it is evident, that the word Shin, must be rendered as in the preceding sentencfe.
In the 4th section of the same book, we read.
" When the good man superintends the empire according
to Taou, or the principle of right, the ^ Kweis, (or ener- gies of nature) will not jjj^ become Shins (or isprites and de- mons) ; it is not that the Kweis will . not hecome Shins (sprites,) so much -as that the Shins (sprites) will not iniure men ;, it is not that the Shins (sprites) will not injure m^n., so much as that the wise man in power will pot injure thein." ■ • The commentator says. That the sages without effort cause every /man peacefully to eoraply with the spontaneous dictates of -natuife.; when there is no need of seeking anything abroad, and no occasioftti^ harbour dread at home, then external things will nok b^ a.hle tp.make any encroachment, and the Kweis (or energies of nature) would n(^t 'be able to act as Shins, (sprites or demons.) Thi? is not so hiufc^i that the Kweis (or energies of nature) would not be abfel-Jbo . aat 4s Shins (sprites,) as that 'were th^y to act as Shins (sprites,) they Would ndt injure men ; and not so much that the Shins (sprites)
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would not injure men. as that the wise man in power woulJ not in- jure men, and tlierefore, the Kwfis (eneri^ies of nature) can effect no- thing atrahist them.
Another commentator says. The Kweis here refer to the invisihle e-iergies of nature, and the Shins to sprites or demons. The ener- gies of men are one and the same with the energies of nature. Wiien a ruler possessing tlie right way, can superintend the empire accord- ing to the rule of right, he is unconcerned and still, and does not trouble and annoy the p-^ople ; in consequence of this, the spirit of the people is harmonious and replete, while heaven and earth are mutually affected and respond, and thus the energies of nature are not perverse and refractory ; thus the Kweis cannot become sprites, nor get up mischiefs. The energies of nature not be- coming sprites, does not so much mean that they will not become sprites, as that although they become sprites, they will not become mischievous sprites to injure people. The reason why they will not injure men, is not so much that they are naturally indisposed to in- jure men, as because the wise man in power can cause the spirit of the people to be harmonious, and thus not injure the energies of na- ture ; the energies of nature will also become harmonious, and will not inflict injuries on men. The Kweis and the Shins both refer to the energies of nature ; the names ur« two, but the things are one 5ind the «ame.
It is evident, that in the above passage, the Shins must be under- stood in the light of mischievous demons, who though disposed to in- jure men, are not capable of doing it, so long as the wise man in power regulates things properly, and prevents them from becoming mischievous.
The above are the only instances in which the Taou-tih- king refers to the subject of the Kwei Shins. In another classic ascribed to this sect, we have more frequent referen- ces to the case in hand, some of which we shall here detail.
The work is entitled ^ JQ yjy Ȥ the wonderful classic of the three Rulers, viz. those presiding over heaven, earth, and sea. The beginning of the work is taken up with a number of
iir Jh. spii'itual charms, or prayers, for cleansing the heart, mouth, body, &c. in which we have the word Shui occurring as connected with the various parts of the human body, such
as the P |l^ Shin of the mofith, ^ ^\^ the Shin of tha tongue, ^ |l^ the Shin of the teeth, \i^ jjjl^ the Shin of the throat, (fcc. where it is evident, that the word Shin must be taken as referring to the spirits presiding over the said mem- bers. We have also the expressions ^£^ jjj^ the spirit of the heart, and ^ j|i^ the spirit of the thoughts, or the mind ; and we have a reference to ^ ijj^ the nourishing of the spi-
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rit, or the cultivation of the mind. We read also of the jft^ ^ king of the Shins, as we do of the ^ 3E chief of the de- vils. The expressions applied to the Deity, however, are such as ^ Jl Infinite Supreme, ^ ^ the Honoured of Heaven, J^ ^ the First Beginning, j^ J^ the Great Orij^in- al» iC ^ ^^'^ In finitely- per feet One, with H^ the Ruler, whicli is put in many places for God. But we will give some extracts. The first is entitled a spiritual prayer re- garding the Golden Light.
*' O Thou perfectly-honoured One of heaven and earth, the root and origin of a myriad energies, the great manager of
boundless kulpas, do thou enlighten my Jli$ 5^ spiritual perceptions. Within and without the three worlds, the
^ Logos or divine Taou, is alone honourable, embodying in himself a golden light, may he overspread and illumine my person ; he whom we cannot see with the eye, nor hear with the ear, who embraces and incloses heaven and earth, may he nourish and support the multitude of living beings." The writer then " adds, that he who receives and uses the above prayer will have in himself light and glory, while the three worlds wait around him ; the ^ ^ five rulers will Btand before him, the ^ iji^ ten thousands Shhis pay their court to him, while the thunders and lightnings will minister unto him ; the devils and monsters will quail in his presence, and the elves and sprites vanish from his sight ; holding in his own hands the thunderbolts, the @ |^ spirit of thunder will hide bis name before him ; his internal wisdom will be tho- roughly intelligent, and his five energies mount aloft ; when the golden light is thus suddenly exhibited, it will cover over and protect the truly good man."
In ihxi above passage, Shin seems to be u?ed in three dif- ferent senses; in the first instance, ^' spiritual perception," doubtless means the intelligent man's own mind ; in the second, the myriad of Sljtns are said to pay their court to him who uses this charm ; and in the third instance, the g^ jfl^Shln presiding over thunder, is said to hide his diminish- ed head in the presence of the devotee. Thus they are far inferior to the person who uses this charm, who has obtained the golden light fronj the Great Taou.
In a sentence further on, wc have the souls of the dead clas- sed with the Kwei Shins: in another the Shins are associa- ted with images, which the wici^cd are said to despise ; and -on ^not-hei ppge.we inotit with !be word CT ^S *°^* ^^^
20d
l^ljjl^ animal spirits, tciffelher with jjl^ jjlj the genii who are^ supposed to inhabit the hills and forests ; all referring to nii.< nor and inferior objects and beings.
Towards the close of the book we meet with the following sentence :
« The honoured of Heaven spake to all the people under heaven, with those who navigated the rivers aiid streams, lakes and seas, and were afraid of the boisterous winds and roaring waves, that if they would but recite this clas- sic, and revert to the rulers of heaven, earth, and sea, then tlie multitude of the holy ones in the watery palaces would cau-?e the winds to be gentle and the waves still, their voya- ges to be secure, their vessels stout, and their cordage strong, while all their wishes would be gratified; at the same time all the Sh'ns would protect, and the thousand fllfl genii confer happiness."
We now {urn to the books of Buddha, among which the ^
l^lll?. K^'^ ^^"o ^''^^ stands prominent, but in this, though we fiad frequent mention made of the Buddhas, and the Poo-. , sats, we do not meet with one word about the Shins.
In th€ Jj5c ^ IB ChiUi? tanu ke, which appears to be a^ Buddhistic classic, we meet with the following aentence : ;
" The religion (of Buddha) havinor reached the )}l^ j\\ ^pi- riiHial regioUj its report spread towards the land of China."
The commentator says, that the spiritual region refers to ^^J JSJ Chin' tan or the part of India where BacWhism took its rise. Further on we read, ^'(Buddha) having formed his law, published it in the
World, and his descending^ spirit was manifested as he burst from his mother's side; his eyebrows were arched, like the bow of "Jc^ hiaven's ruler, and his eyes were round, like the leaf of the green lotus; the genii and the teachers shed tears at seeing him, and the ^^.JRi^ celestial Shins strove who should be foremost to greet hhn on his arrival."
The celestial Shins spoken of in this passage, are evidently the at- tendant spirits, who \%aited on Buddha, when he was born into the world.
In another section of the same book, we read,
"Upon this, the terrestrial Shins of the prison hcuse jum*- ped for joy, and borj testimony to him, while the ^ ^ celestial youths of empty space made a somersault and re- ported the matter."
The commentator intimates that the terrestrial Shins, andthe celes^ tidl youth ar^ antithitiga.l, a nd refer to the genu of heaven an^
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•e^rth, who were frantic for joy ^hea they listened to the laws of Buddha.
In the '^"^^ ^ Fa pabii peabu muIi, which appears to be a record of the various Buddhistic classics, and of their iranslations into Chinese, vol. 1st, section 1st, we have a reference to the jfjl^ )ff abode of the Shins, which appears to be contrasted with the A. 5^^ heaven of human beings ; from which w^ infer, that the former refers to the residence of the genii, and the latter to the place of happiness appoint- ed for man. In section 3rd, we have (he expression )j|^ ^ spiritual perception, which occurs so frequently in the books of Taou, and refers doubtless to the intelligence of the human mind, when brought under the influence of religion. In section 1 1th, we meet with the phrase j^ W Zf fuh shin leih, which appears to mean the spiritual energies of Bud- dha, supposed to be obtained by his votaries, so as enable them to perform charitable actions aright. This phrase occurs again in section 21st. In the 16th section, we are told, that " Buddha, having perfected virtue in himself, re- turned to the city of Kea-pe-lo, in order to convert his royal father ; at that time the people of the country cam^i out to meet Buddha, while the eight classes of celestial dragons surround- ed, and paid obeisance to him ; Buddha then displayed his f^ tM. spiritual perception, and explained his laws, &c. In the 22nd section, we read of the ^ p\i ^ great spiritual change, which the commentator says refers to Buddha's ex- plaining ilia laws, and enforcing his instructions, aided by his t^ S spiritual perception ; thus he was enabled to convert the emperor of the Shang dynasty, and cause him to receiv(3 his religion. On the 32nd page, we have an account of a fear- less Poo-sat, who never rose on hearing a salutation, and never made enquiries nor paid compliments ; when the king- enquired the reasons of this singular conduct, he said, " The sacred king who guides the revolutions of the empire, doc^ not go to meet an inferior king ; the ^ ^ god Shih-kea does not go to meet the rest of the honoured of heaven ; the ^ 3^ Tlt|3 Shin of the great d3ep does not pay compliment to the Shins of rivers and ponds ; the glorious Shin of the sun and moon, does not bow to a glow-worm." In which sentence we peri^eive a marked distinction between the word »^ ruler, or as it must be rendered god, as applied to Sakya muna, or Buddha, and the title Shin, which in this connec- tion can only m-.an the spirits or genii presiding over the objects referred to.
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In the 2d vol. and the 142d section, we have Buddha commanding the celestial dragons, and the great and mighty Kwei Shins, to protect the country and its inhabitants : and a little further on we read of all the dragons and Shuis, with the Kwei Shins who are the watchmen of the night, beings severally placed at their allotted posts, to ward ofl' danger and defend th«» good ; in which we see that they hold something of the rank of angels with us. On another page, we read Of
great jfllp ^ spiritual changes or transformations, referring
to the wonders wrought by Buddha, also to the JJj^ jj spiritual enegies of all the Buddhas.
In the the 3rd vol. we read that when Buddha proclaims his laws, the 5^ ^celestial kings, and the j^ fji^ terres- trial Shins defend them, while the celestial Shins and houris recite their prayers and present their supplications ; evidently representing the Shins as doing homage to the laws of Bud- dha and intreating his favour.
In the 6th vol. we are told, that all the Shini and celes- tial persons assemble to pay their respects to Buddha : and towards the close of the volume the votaries of Buddha are
promised that their |^ jjj^ animal spirits shall be reproduced in heaven above, and their ^^ |[^ souls ascend to heaven and enjoy boundless felicity.
In the 7th voj. those vvho cut down trees are threatened with death by the ^jflA Shins or genii of the trees.
In the 9th vol. we have a reference to the )]!$ J^ mysterious wonders wrought by the Buddhist priests, whichThey are said to have performed at different intervals, and which it is thought they could still effect, were they sufficiently devoted to Bud- dha ; on which account, they are sometimes called jjjl^ ^ mys- terious priests.
In the same volume, we are told, that when men recite the true names of the 108 Poo-sats of the Buddhist religion, then felicities will be accom[)lished, and long life attained, all th^i celestial dragons and Kwei Shins will treat them with rever^ ence, and all the evils arising from wild biasts, manacles, and misfortunes will be spontaneously disper:3ed. Further on we read, that when the school of the priests and celestial kings discourse on Buddha, all the Kwei Shins who are unbelievers in his doctrines, and who are disposed to disturb the j)riests and nuns of the woods and wilderness, will on the repetition of these words be prevented from injuring them. Again we find, that the same doctrines are calcutated to drive away and expel all wicked devils, and wicked Kwei Shins, and to ba- nish to a distance all calamities and pestilences.
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On a review of the instances in which the word Shin occurs in the Classical Books of Taou and Buddha, we find that it is used in the following acceptations :
1. In the sense of spiritual beings, having control over the destines of the empire, three times.
2. In the sense of spiritual beings of a subordinate char- acter, who wait on Buddha, and pay adoration to him, four times.
3. In the sense of genii, five times.
4. In the sense of sprites and demons, fifteen times.
5. In the sense of spirits presiding over the sun and moon, once ; do. over the ocean, once ; do. over thunder, once; do. over trees, once ; do. over various parts of the body, and mind, six times.
6. In the senae of celestial Shins, as coupled with houris, once; in the sense of terrestrial Shins, once.
7. Shins as coupled with Kweis, six times ; sometimes referring to the watchmen of the night ; sometimes coupled with dragons ; sometimes called wicked, and unbelievers in Buddha.
8. Shin is used as referring to thespirit of man, ten times,* once as referring to the souls of the dead ; twice to the ani- mal spirits.
9. In the sense of pure spirituality, as the result of extreme emptiness or vacuity, eleven times. This is the favourite idea of the Taouists, and what they aim at by the subjection of their boisterous energies, in order to attain to nothingness, which is perfection.
10. In the sense of spiritual, eleren times, sometimes con- nected with perceptions, and sometimes with wonders and priests, in the sense of mysterious,
Thus in the all the classics of the three sects, we do not meet once with the word Shin, as positively and necessarily meaning God, much less the Supreme Being ; and in a vast majority of instances meaning spirit, genii, or soma subordi- nate being. In later ages, it may have been connected with idols, and by the ignorant multitude may be thought to mean something divine, but it is by no means a word that Christian writers could use with reference to the Divine Be- ing, nor as the generic term for God. The expression ^ j[|!^ worshipping the Shins, always means paying adoration to an inferior order of spiritual beings, and should never be us- ed by Protestant, as it now never is by Catholic, writers for worshipping God. The frequent employment by classical writers of the word Shin in the sense of spirit, would sanc- tion its adoption by us, with the addition of holy, for the Spi-
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rit of God, but not as equivalent to the word Gud in genera!. We have not meet in the Buddhistic classics with the phrase W ^ ^^^ Buddha, (it may occur in common conversation, but we have not seen it in their classics) ; while we have fre- quently met with the expression '^^ God Sakya muna ;
from which we infer that ^ Te, rather than |^ Shin, is by them considered the generic name for God.
We have thus gone through the classical books of the three religions of China, in order to ascertain the real meaning of the word Shin ; it is time now to examine what idea the same
authorities give us of the term J^ 'J^ Supreme Ruler.
In the first volume of the Four Books, called ^ ^ Ta- heo, on the 11th pag^e, we have the following quotation :
''• The Ode says, Until the (sovereign of the) Yin dynasty had lost (his influence over) the multitude, he could be con- sidered as corresponding to the Supreme Ruler ; (our Chow dynasty) should now take warning from Yin, because the sublime decree (of Heaven, in favour of one dynasty) is not easily preserved : which means, that when a sovereign ob- tains (an influence over) the multitude, he can keep his coun- try, but when he loses the multitude, he loses his country."
The commentator says, Tnat corresponding with the Supreme Ru- ler means, that the sovereign of Yin was chief over the whole empire, and therefore answered to the Supreme Ruler, (who is chief over all the universe.)
The paraphrase is as follows : Before the ruler of the Yin dynasty had lost the multitude, he was the chief over all the empire, and could correspond (on earth) to the Supreme Ruler (in heaven ;) but when Yin lost the multitude, the decree of Heaven, formerly made in his favour, departed from him ; for the decree appointing any one to be emperor rests with Heaven, and the inclination ot Heaven follows that of the people ; when a monarch, therefore, obtains the hearts of the people, the Supreme Ruler favours him, and he gets the throue ; but when he loses the hearts of the people, the Supreme Ruler is angry with him, and he loses the throne.
In the above passage, the monarch who reigns over the whole empire is said to correspond to the Supreme Ruler, who reigns over the whole world ; the main idea to be attach- ed to the Supreme Ruler, in this connection, therefore, is that of universal dominion ; while the paraphrast assigns to him the disposal of human events, and particularly the thrones of princes.
In the Fp ^ Chung-yung, or Happy Medium, 14th page, we read,
" The ceremonies of the $p celestial and ^ terrestrial sacrifices are those by which men serve the Supreme Ruler ;
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tlie ceremonies of the ancestorial temple are those by which men sacrifice to their progenitors ; when a men understands the ceremonies of the celestial and terrestrial sacrifices, and the righteousness of the ancestorial and autumnal offeiings, the government of the country will perhaps be as easy to him as looking at one's hand."
The commentator says, The celestial sacrifice was offered to hea- ven, and the terrestrial one to earth ; the sovereign of earth is not men- tioned in this connection, for the sake of brevity. The ancestorial offering was the great sacrifice presented by the emperor in the ances- torial temple, when he looked back and sacrificed to the ancestor from whom the first emperor of his dynasty sprang, and associated him with 8ucb first emperor. With regard to the autumnal sacrifice, we may observe, that sacrifices were offered at all the four seasons, though oidy one of them is here quoted.
The oaraphrase says. Speaking with reference to the celestial and terrestrial sacrifices, we may observe, that on the winter solstice, men sacrificed to heaven at the round hillock, and on the summer solstice, they sacrificed to earth at the square pool, which was the way in which they did service to the Supreme Ruler ; whilst they took the sincerity and respect wherewith they honoured heaven and compli- mented earth, in order to acknowledge the favour of nature's produc- tion and completion. The ceremonies of the ancestorial temple were performed either onci^ in five years, or four times a year, and were in- tended for the servic 3 of progenitors ; whilst they took the feeling of honouring and reverencing ancestors, in order to carry out their sin- cerity in looking back to their distant forefathers. Such ceremonies and such righteousness, can only be carried out by benevolent and fi- lial persons ; when our perceptions are sufficieatly'^clear to under- stand the duty of sacrificing to *f^ the (Supreme) Ruler, we can iperform the duties of nourishing the myriads of the people : and when we are sufficiently intelligent in the matter of filial piety, as to be ,able to sacrifice to our parents, we shall be able also, by suck filial piety, to govern the whole empire.
In order to understand the above extract, we must consider that the Chinese have had various ways of designating the Supreme power ; sometimes they spoke only of Heaven, when they intended something similar to what Europeans mean by Heaven ; sometimes they used the term heaven and earth, when they intended by the phrase something approaching to our word Nature ; and sometimes they employed the term Su- preme Ruler, when they meant something like our word Su- preme Being. These are occasionally interchangeable, anU by a metonymy of the effect for the cause, Nature and Hea- ven are used by them, as well as among us, for the Ruler and Disposer of all things. Having adopted this kind of phraseology, it was natural that they should sometimes attach 4he ruling^ power, in their ideas, to the overshadowing Hea- vens, and sometimes contemplate it under the dual form^ as
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the Rukr of Heaven and the Sovereign of Earth ; but when unity and personality are intended to be conveyed, they use the term Supreme Ruler. Thus in offering their sacrifices, they occasionally present them under the form of celestial and ter- restrial offerings, and sometimes minister them at the sum- mer and winter solstices alternately, but it 13 evident from the general tenor of their writings, that they look upon the Power above as one, whom they honour under the title of the
r^ (Supreme) Ruler, or God.
In the first section of ^ ^ Mang-tsze, and on the 19th page, we read as follows :
" The Historical Classic sayg, when Heaven sent down ihe inferior people, it appointed princes and teachers over them ; saying, Let them assist the Supreme Ruler, and be fa- voured above all others in every place ; thus, whether people do or do not offend, here are we (rulers) present, and under the whole heaven how dare any give indulgence to their refractory wills ? When but one man (the tyrant Chow) acted disorderly throughout the empire, Wob-wang felt a- shamed of him. This was Wob-wang's bravery, and thus it was that Wob-wang, by one act of bravery, tranquillized the people of the empire."
The commentator says, That the present quotation differs in som e respects from the original classic, but he thinks it better to explain the words as they stand here.
The meaning of the writer will be more apparent from the paraphrase: When Heaven sent down the inferior people, they ■could not manage themselves, therefore rulers wfre appoint- ed for their controul ; and they could not instruct themselves, therefore teachers were set up for their guidance. The inten- tion of this arrangement was, that the rulers and teachers should act in the stead of Heaven to curry out right principles, and aid in those things in which the Supreme Ruler could not personally interfere. They were therefore gifted with very honourable stations, and favoured above all the surround- ing population. Now seeing that we (rulers) have re- ceived the decree of Heaven, and become the rulers and teachers of the people, then all those throughout the empire who offend, we have authority to slay ; and all those who are innocent, we are commissioned to tranquillize; how dare any then indulge their evil })ropensities and oppress the people ?
In the above passage the term Supreme Ruler is used synonymous- ly with the word Heaven, as the source of all rale, authority, and power, something in accordance with the observation of Daniel, " that the Heavens do rule." The phrase, aiding the Supreme, and doing -that which he could not attain to, is a strong expression, to intimate 4h4 those who rule by his appointment are his ministers, to cjirry out
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}iis views in the government of the world, and to do that in which he could not personally interfere.
In the 4th section, page tlie 7th, we read,
"The Ode says, 'The descendants of the Shang dynasty are not to be counted by myriads, but the Supreme Ruler has decreed tliat they should be in subjection to the Chow dynas- ty ; now they are subject to Chow, because the celestial decree is not constant in one family ; and the adherents of the Yin (or Shang) dynasty, although great and prosperous, are yet obliged to aid in pouring out the libations in the an- cestorial temple of the capital of Chow.' Confucius, (on reaiing the above quotation) used to say, ' The benevolent man is not to be resisted by multitudes.' Thus it is that when a prince loves benevolence, he will find no enemy throughout the world."
In Ihe above passage the Supreme Ruler is spoken of as he who decrees the empire to one or another, according to his will, and con- veys to us the idea of his perfect sovereignty.
On the 27th page of the same section,
" Mang-tsze said. Were the beautiful Se^tsze to be carry- ing about an unpleasant smell, every body would stop their noses on passing her. But if ever such an ugly person were to practise fasting and bathing, he could then do sacrifice to the Supreme Ruler."
In this passage the Supreme Ruler is evidently viewed as the high- est power to whom sacrifice could be offered, and who would not re- ject the services of the most ill-favoured, if entered upon with due preparation.
The above are all the passages in the Four Books, which appear to contain any reference to the Supreme Ruler, we will now turn to the Five Classics.
In the Shoo king, or Historical Classic, Book 1st, sect. 2d, page 11, the word Shang-te occurs, but this passage having been already explained whilst treating of the Sliin, it is not ne- cessary to refer to it again. We beg leave, however, to call particular attention to the expression, " that august one, the Suj)reme Ruler, most honourable and without compare," as exhibiting to us th'^ elevated conceptions, which the Chinese ancients have formed regarding the Supreme Ruler.
In the 5th section of the same book, page 37, we read,
" Yu said. That is true, your Majesty ; but tliose wiio are in high stations should be extremely careful ! To which the emperor Shun replied, That is a very just remark. Yu re- sumed, Let your mind rest (in that point of goodness) in which you ought to settle; reflect on the springs of action, and think of the way in which they will subside. Allow your ministers to be straight-forward (in tlieir remarks ;) and tiien, whenever you make any movenront, there will be a gene-
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th\ correspondence (to your wishes,) as if (the people were^ anticipating your commands ; (act thus, in order) luminous- ly to receive (the decree of) the Supreme Ruler, and theit should Heaven issue any new decree, it would be of an ex- cellent kind (in your favour.)"
In the above passage the idea attached to thg Supreme Ruler is^ that of being the supreme disposer of human affairs, " by whom kings' reign, and princes decree justice :" it is also put synonymously with Heaven, on the assumed principle that " the Heavens do rule."
The 1st section of the 3d book thus begins :
" The future king (Ching-t'hang) said, Come hither, all ye people, and listen every one of you to my words ; it is not that I, the insignificant one, would venture to bring on my- self the reproach of acting disorderly, (by attacking my law- ful sovereign), but the fact is, that the ruler of the Hea dy- rmsty has perpetrated many crimes, and Heaven has com- manded me to exterminate him.
'^ JNow all you people are saying, that (I) your prince do i\ot compassionate you multitudes, (causing you) to aban- don your harvests, that you may go to cut off and correct tha mler of Hea ; I have heard all these your remarks ; but the ruler of Ht^'a has been guilty of crimes, and I, dreading the Supreme Ruler, do not dare to refuse to correct (the delin- quent.)"
In the above passage, Ching-t'hang, viewing the oppressions of the Hea dynasty, assumes that the decree of Heaven had already been is- sued to exterminate its ruler, and that he had been commissioned to carry out the decree ; therefore, notwithstanding the complaints of his followers, he professed to have such a prevailing dread of the Su- preme Ruler on his mind, as not to dare to refuse the celestial com- mission. The idea attached to the expression Supreme Ruler in this connection, therefore, is that of the "most High ruling among the kingdoms of men, and giving them to whomsoever he will ; doing ac- cording to his will in the army of heaven, and among the inhabitants iif the earth, so that none can stay his hand, or say unto Him, what doest thou."
In the 3d section of the same book, page 6th, we read,
" The kin? (Ching-t'hang) returned from the conquest of He?-, and arrived at the city of P6, where he issued a general announcement to the myriad of states. The king said, Oh you myriad of states, and midtitudes of people, carefully lis- ten to the announcements which I, a single individual, now make to you. The aug-ust Supreme Ruler (originally) con- ferred the just medium of virtue on the lower people ; that which ir)duce@ men to follow this out, is their invariably per- fect nature ; while those who are able to make people peace- fully comply with the right way, are human rulers."
The parnphrase on this pa,ssage says, The majestic Supreme Ruler^
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tU ^ P% ^ i»i tiJMisforming and producing the myriad oflhitigf^ confeired tliis great j riiiciple of tlie just medium and'pert'ect correct ness on the lower j^ople, everywhere causing them to hit the due centre, without the U;ast atom of depravity or dcflectiveness ; the low- er people, having received this just medium, had only to comply with the spontaneous workings of what they had received from Heaven, and then they would all possess an uivariably perfect nature ; as pa- rents and children naturally cherish towards each other the feeling of love, while rulers and subjects as naturally conceive the idea of res- pect ; so also husbands and wives, brothers and sisters, friends and companions, of their own accord, exi.ibit the virtues of propriety, wis- dom, and truth ; all which, both sane and simple, in all ages of the world, have uniformly displayed. But though Heaven has "conferred the due medium on ail alike, yet men have received it in a different manner, and it depends upon human rulers so to transform and accom- modate their various natural constitutions, that they may each one comply with the right way.
Ill the above passage, the production and tranisforraation of th« myriad of things, and particularly the conferring of that virtuous na- ture, which the Chinese suppose all men originally possessed , are all as2ribed to the Great Supreme, who *'made man upright, though he hath since sought out many inventions." On the next page, we have the followiii? : " Ching-t'hang, addressing the people, said, if vou display any virtues, I do not dare to hide them ; and when fault attaches to my person, I do not presinne to excijse myself; the inspection of these things rests with the mind of the Su- preme Ruler."
The paraphrase is ai follows : If you people possess the good quality of maintaining the laws and preserving the excellent decree, I do not presume to hide or conceal it ; and If I fall into the error of fiot being able to harmonize and tranquillize the people, I do not dare to excuse myself; the rewarding of goodness, and the blaming of faults rests, in every case, with the review and inspection of the mind of the Supreme Ruler, and cannot be privately decided on by me : therefore you, both princes and ministers, must not neglect se- verally to fulfil your various duties.'
In the above passage, we have a reference to the mind of the Su- preme, who contemplates and judges of the actions of men, rewardint- or punifchin^r them as they deserve, without regard to their private views and feelings ; for ** his eyes are upon all tlie ways of the sons of men, to give every one accorJi*ng to his ways, and according to the fruit of his doings."
The closing paratrraph of the same lection is as follows : " Oh you heir of the throne, he respectfully cautious iu re- gard to your person, and reflect on these things ; the sacred counsels (\-ou liave heard) are of great extent, and these ex- cellent words are exceedingly hright ! Moreover, (tlie decree of) the Supreme Ruler, is not invariahlv fixed in favour o one (individual); if you do good, he will send down a hun-
A a
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dred blessings, and if you do evil, be will pour down a huu-^ dred curses."
The paraphrase sayi, The Supreme Ruler, in conferring or vvith- holding his favour from individual princes, is originally not fixed to one person ; if therefore you can conetantly reflect on the counsels you have heard, and not disobey them, this would be to do good, when Heaven would send down a hundred blessings; but if you cannot per- petually think on the counsels afforded you, but disobey them, this Would be to do evil, and Heaven would send down upon you a hun- dred calamities.
Here, not only have we an exhibition of the Supreme Ruler's dis- posing of the fate of sovereigns, but also rewarding and punishing ac- cording to the works of men ; and though such retributions spoken of in the text with reference to the Supreme, are in the paraphrase ascribed to Heaven, yet it is evident that by the word Heaven, in the paraphrase, is meant none other than the Ruler of heaven, who re- wards and punishes men according as their works may be.
In the 7th section of the same book, we read,
" The former monarch (Ching-t'hang) constantly exerted himself in order respectfully to cultivate his virtue, so that he could be compared with the Supreme Ruler ; now your Ma- jesty, having inherited the honourable line of succession, should contemplate this example."
The paraphrase says, that the king morning and evening encoura- ged himself in cautious trepidation, in order to cultivate his virtue ^ therefore he could become the rulsr of the empire, and in this respec| be compared with tlie Supreme Ruler of the universe.
The likening of an earthly ruler to the Lord of all, wears the appearance of excessive flattery, but the comparison is betAveen the supremacy of the ruler of the empire, and the sii- premacy of the Sovereign of the universe, intimating the uni- versal rule of each over all beneath his sway.
In the 11 ill section of the same book, we read,
'' It is thus that llic Supreme Ruler is about to renew the virtues of our first ancestor, and extend right rule to this our state ; whilst I, witlj a few of my earnest atid respectful serv- ants, carefully susiain the lives of you people, and perpetuate your residence in this new city."'
The work ascribed to the Supreme Ruler, in the above passage, is that of promoting the prosperity of empires.
In the 1st section of the 4th book, occurrs a passage, which has been before commented on, in treating of the word SI) in ; so that it is not necessary to refer to it further, than to re- mark, that tlje commentator observes a certain distinction and order between the various objects of worship, which the ty- rant Chow had neglected, saying, that ''he had set aside the service due lo the Supreme Ruler, with the hundred Shtns, and the manefc of ancestors," evidently inferring the
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superiority of the former and the inferiority of the latter.
The following sentence of the Historical Classic has also been pre- viously considered, in quoting the passages from the Four Books treating of the Supreme Ruler. The attentive reader will, as Choo- foo-tsz^ has remarked, observe some difference in the wording of the original and the quotation, but nothing that bears on the question before us.
Towards the close of the same section we have the follow- ing remarks of Wob-wang :
'' I, the insignificant one, night and day, am respectfully cautious ; having received the decree to rule from my father Wan-wlnff, I ofifered the celestial sacrifice to the Supreme Ruler, and the terrestrial sacrifice in honour of the lares rustici ; and now, with you multitudes, I will carry out tlie inflictions of heaven."
The paraphrase says, I, the insignificant one, early and late ma- nifested respect and caution, in order to attack the Shang dynasty, which undertaking is merely the carrying out of the unaccomplished work of my predecessor ; I, therefore, went first to receive the decree in the temple of my father Wan-wang ; but it was Heaven that gav^ the decree to my father, therefore I further performed the celestial sa- crifice to the Supreme Ruler, to seek hi« blessi»g : and the ter- restrial sacrifice, in honour of the lares rustici, in order to gire in- formation of my intention to attack Shang.
^ In the above passage the Supreme Ruler is acknowledged as the disposer of event*, and therefore sacrificed to at the commencement of a great undertaking, in order to obtain his blessing; the para- phrast ascribes the acts of the Supreme to Heaven, which we need not account ^tr^nge, when he who fpake as never man spake proposed the question, whether the baptism of John were of Heaven or of men. In the 3rd section of the 4th book, Chmg-t'hang, after enu- merating the villainies of the tyrant, sayi, " that the Su, preme Ruler would not accord with his doings, and determined on sending down this calannity'* for his chastisement. In this passage the character ascribe to the Supreme is that of the disapprobation of vice, and the determination to punish it. In the 5th section of the same book, Wob-wang makes a declaration of the tyrant's wickedness, and says, that " hav- ing obtained some benevolent persons (to assist him), he pre- sumed lespectfully to receive (the decree of) the Supreme Ruler, in order to suppress rebellious counsels." In which the character given to the Supreme Ruler is that of aiding the patriotic in rescuing an oppreised country from a tyrant's rule.
In the 9th section of the same book, Ching-wang, the son of Woo. Wang, on proceeding to suppress an insurrection in one part of his dominions, said, "■ Moreover, I, who am but a little child, do not dare to set aside the command of the Su- preme Ruler." Upon thw the commentator remarks, that
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the kill!? ha(3 consulted the prognostications regarding the" projected nndertakinor^ and finding them favourable, he conr- »idered that it was tiie will of the Supreme Ruler, that he should go on this expedition; and how dare he, asks the commentator, contravene the commands of the Highest Po- tentate ? The paraphrast lays it out thus, ** Divination is that whereby we connect ourselves with the intelligence of Heaven. Now my prognostications are all favourable, and thus the expedition against the rebels is really what the Su- preme Ruler has commanded me to sat about ; I, who am but a little child, respectfully perform his high behests, without indulging in indifference, how can I dare lightly to set aside and disobey his orders ?" From the above we perceive, that when the Chinese thought they discovered the will of the Su- preme, by the only method that recommended itself to their unenlightened judgment, they did not dare to disobey, but considered it a sufficient warrant to set about hazardous ex- peditions, even though others should disapprove of them.
In the 9th section of the same book, page 40, we read,
*' The king said, Oh, do you enlarge your views, all you chiefs of states, together with you officers employed ; (remem- ber that) the glorious kingdom (founded by Wob-wang) was indebted to clever men ; and it was only owing to those ten persons (capable of quelling disorders), who could trace out and understand the decrees of the Supreme Ruler, (thus perceiving that the tyrant was rejected and our own mo- narch approved of), until Hearen aided their sincerity (in en- abling them to subjugate the Yin dynasty.)"
In the above passage, the rise or fall of dynasties is said to de- pend upon the decree of the Supreme Ruler, and the chief part of wisdom is to be able a«certain in ^Yhose favour that decree is passed, and to act accordingly.
In the ICth section of the same book, we read,
Ching-wang, admiring the count of Wei, said, " You alone can tread in, and cultivate the virtuous ways (of your ances- tor ;) and for a long time, you have had a good reputation for respectful carefulness, and filial piety ; venerating and ho- nouring both invisible and human beings ; I therefore admire your virtue, and esteem it to be solid, whilst you are not un- mindful (of your predecessors.) Thus the Supreme Ruler will frequently enjoy your sacrifices, while the lower people will become reverently harmonious through you ; therefore I appoint you to the dignity of an arch-duke, to govern this eastern territory of Hea."
Here the reference is to the gratification with which the Supreme Ruler will accept the offuriugs of those who are virtuous and good.
In the 11th section of the same book, we read. Woo-
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Wang, after recounting the virtues of hi? father Wan-wang", which induced the psople to confide in and honour him as their protector, says, the fragrance of such perfect virtue ''was
perceived by the Jq^ Suprenne Ruler, when ^ the (Su- preme) Ruler approved, and Heaven fully authorized Wan- wang to make war on and destroy the Yin dynasty."
Herea^ain the idea brought forward is, that the Supreme Ruler perceives and approves the virtues of good men. as if smelling a sweet savour, and commissions those whom he ap- proves to assume and exercise authority : thus sang Isaiah in vision, "the way of the just is upright ; thou most just dost approve the path of the upright." We have here also to remark that the word 'j^ Ruler is used synonymously with
I *rtf Supreme Ruler.
in the 1st section of the 5th Book, we have the announce- ment of Chaou-kung to Chln?-wang, the son of Wob-wang, saying, " Yes, indeed, Imperial Heaven's Supreme Ruler has changed the decree once passed in favour of his chief son, the sovereign of this great country of Yin, and your Majesty has received it, accompanied by interminable blessings and incal- culable anxieties j how then can you dispense with respectful cauCion V*
Here the reference is to the sovereignty cf the Supreme, disposing at will of the thrones of monarchs, and on reading it we cannot help being reminded of the words of Daniel, " The most high ruleth in the kingdom of men, and giveth it to whomsoever he will."
A little further on, the same adviser says. " Let the king iiow come, and carry out the authority of the Supreme Ruler, while he subdues himself in this central land." Intimating that the authority of kings was derived from above, and that in the proper exercise of it monarchs were but carrying out the authority of the Supreme ; for "the kingdom is the Lord's, ^nd he is the Governor among the nations."
In the 3rd section of the same book, Chow-kung, whilst de- fending the conduct of the Chow dynasty, in superseding the former line of monarchs, observed,
"I have heard it said, That the Supreme Ruler leads people -on by gentle methods, but the ruler of Hea would not yield to a mild influence ; and when »J^ the (Supreme) Ruler sent down his inflictions, to make known his will to this tyrant of Hea, he was not able to profit by the ^ Divine dispensation-s, but became excessively dissolute and voluptuous, feigning boasted assumptions ; vvh«n Heaven at length refused to re- gard or listen to him, and abrogating the original decree in his favour, inflicted condign punishment upon him."
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In the above passage we have the Supivme Ruler represented m dealing first by gentler methods with a retitetory prince, and finding him unable to profit by such mild corrections, determining at length to set him aside entirely, and raise up another in his stead. What more striking exhibition could we have of the kind . dealincs of divme Pro- vidence, and of the paternal character of the Divine Government, We wish to call attention here also to the repeated use of the word*^ Ruler for God, and for the Divine dispensations.
Further on we read, " Thus has the Supreme Rule^- with- held his protection, and sent down this extensive ruin." Is there evil in the city, the prophet asks^ and the Lord hath not
done it ? ^, ,
In the 5th section of the same book, we have Chow-kung addressing his brother, saying, *' Oh prince ! you have been accustomed to observe, that it mainly depends on ourselves, (to preserve the decree in our family ) ; I also do not presume to rest too confidently on the decree of the Supreme R,uler (in my favour,) and thus fail perpetually to anticipate the ter- rible inflictions of Heavens, or imagine that our people will not at some time or other murmur and rebel."
The idea conveyed by the above passage is^ th^t the celestial de- cree appointing certain princes to rule is in accordance with the dis- position of the people : if the feelino:s of the people accord with the government of any particular individual, the decree of Heaven may bfe maintained in his favour ; therefore it becomes sovereigns to be trem- blingly anxious, and not presume that the decree of Heaven is irrever- sibly fixed in their families, and thus improperly rely on the appoint- ment of the Supreme Ruler, as though that would never be reversed, and made in favour of one more worthy. It is evident from all this, that the Chinese considered that the Supreme Kuler changes times and seasons, removing kings and setting up kings according to his
A little further on, the same royal councellor alludes to various intelligent men who flourished during former reigns, such as E-yin, himself a sage, who aided his sovereign Ch!ng. t'hang, another sage, and thus by their united efforts in go- verning and transforming the people, <' could influence im- perial Heaven" in their favour : also E-chTh and Chin-hoo, themselves philosophers, who aided T'hae-woo, himself a wise king, and thus by their virtuous and energetic govern- ment" could influence the Supreme Ruler," to protect them. Whereupon the commentator remarks, that "When a reference is made to the protecting influence which overshadows man- kind, ^hen the word Heaven is used, and when the reference is to the Lord of all, then thp word 'i^ Ruler is employed. Thtis the Historical Classic sometimes speaks of Heaven and sometimes of the Ruler, severally according to the idea in- tended to be conveyed, and does not intimate any difference
^15
of weight and importance betweeen the (wo expressions ; in this chapter the two phrases are conlrasted with each other chiefly with reference to tlie distinction between sages and philosophers, and the different gradations of the style." An- other commentator accounts for the use of separate terms in this connection, by the diHerent features of g^overnment ex- hibited by the various persons referred to. The rule of the former being overshadowing and all-pervading, like the out- stretched canopy of heaven ; while the movements of the lat- ter were in unison with celestial reason, and therefore more approaching to the idea of rule and management." We do not attempt here to decide which of their views is right, but only call attention to the discussion , with the view of shew- ing, that the Chinese themselves, apprehending that mistakes might arise from the practice of using these terms interchange- ably, thought it necessary to explain the leading features of each, and give the idea of overshadowing protection to the one, and of universal control to the other. Averring, at the same time, that the two terms were intended to refer to one and the same Power, which protects and presides over all things.
A few sentences below, the duke continues, " Oh Shth ! formerly the Supreme Ruler cut off (the Yin dynasty,) and renewedly stimulated the virtue of Wob-wang, concentrating the important decree upon his person." In this passage the idea of the Divine control over the kings of the earth is the same as before commented on.
Th« same councillor, in speaking of Wan-wang, said, "It was also in consequence of the pure and protecting (decree in his favour) that (his ministers were enabled) to maintain a firm hold on virtue, and were led on to an acquaintance with Hea- ven's terribleness ; thus they illustrated Wan-wang's (princi- ples), drawing forth (his virtues,) that they might be observa- ble (above) and exert an overshadc wing influence (below) ; thus (the fragrance of his good ijovtrnment) was perceived by the Supreme Ruler : and then he received (he decree formerly passed in favour of the dynasty Yin."
In the above extract we have the Supreme Ruler again exhibited, as smelling the sweet savour of a virtuous prince, and appointing hina in consequence to universal rule.
In the 8th section of the same book, Chow-kung is refer- ring to the ancients who '• sought after clever men, that they might pay honour to the Supreme? Ruler, " and obtain his favour and protection .
In a succeeding sentence, Chow-kung refers (o the former emperor Ching-t'hang, '• who was advanced to promote in an eminent degree, the glorious will of the Siiprenie Ruler,"
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'which the paraphrast calls '• causing the resplendent will of the Supreme Ruhr to be gloriously manifested throughout the empire ;" showing the people in an evident manner that he was chosen by the Supreme to fulfil his will in ruling over the empire. Expressions which are inapplicable to any but Him, who doeth according to his will in the armies of heaven and amongst the inhabitants of the earth. Further on, Chow-kung observes :
" Then we come to Wan-wangand Woo-wang, who were able to understand the feelings of the three kinds of superior officers, and clearly to perceive the talents of the three grades of cldV'.tr lUQn, so as to employ them in respectfully serving the Supreme Ruler, and m appointing elders and superiors over the people."
According to the above, the use of wisdom in the above monarchs \\as to discern and appreciate such talents in their officers, as would enable them to select proper persons respectfully to serve the Su- yreme Ruler ; from which we may gather the high estimation in \vhich they held him whom they supposed to be ruler over all.
In the 4th section of the 6th Book, K'hang-wang is alludinsf to the former sovereigns Wan and Woo, who tranquillized and enriched the empire; and having warlike and upright ministers under them " could receive the correct decree from the Su- preme Ruler, while high Heaven accorded with their prihci- pies, and conferred upon them i.niversal rule."
In the 8th section of the same book, " Miih-wang wishing his criminal judge to frame a code of laws for the empire, first detailed the mistaken legislation of former tirncs, wher> oppressions spread terror, and when multitudes being put to death, the people announced their innocence to J^ the Su- preme. The Supreme Ruler, then surveyed the people of Meaou, and found that they did not possess the fragrance of virtue, but that their punishments emitted an oflfensive o- dour. " Here we may remark upon the application of the first word used in the title Supreme Ruler to the Lord of all, calling him the Supreme, as the last word is also sometimes used alone with the same reference, designating him the Ru" ler of the universe ; shewing that the words, both separately and together, are capable of being applied to the Deity. The attr,ntive reader will also observe, that personal acts and at- tributes are applied to him, such as the listening to com- plaints, and tlie lookmg down to survey the conduct of men* Further on he speaks blamingly of the same people of Meaou, who neijlected to examme criminal rases, or to ap- point proper judges, thus erroneously applying punishments and oppressing the innocent. This, he says, '^ the Supreme Ruler would not excuse^ but attached blame to the Meaouite^, and cut them oftV
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In the 9lli Hectiou of l1i« 8a.nv^ book, Pin^-wang speaks of the illustrious Wan and Woo, on whom ' the Supreme Ruler concentrated his decree, appointing them to rul« over the empire." Shewing that the writer attributed all the authori- ty and greatness obtained by those monarchs to the Divine decree in their favour.
The above are all the passages that have occurred to «« from the Shoo-king, as referring to Shang-te, and concur in giving us a most ex-alted idea of the greatness and authority of Him, whom the Chincsa designated as the Supreme Ruler.
We turn now to the Book of Odes ; in the /J^ ^ Seaou-
yay Canto of which, and in the J^ J^ Chi'ng-yue section, we have the following sentence;
^' Ijooking into the midst of the forest, we see people bind- ing their faggots and torches (which is apparent (» every ob- server ;) but now when the people are in jeopardy, we look to Heaven, and find it dark and indistinct, (as though it made Ho difference between good and bad) ; but when (the retribu- tions of Providence) have once been settled, every one with- out exception will be obliged to submit; (in these righteous retributions) we see the doings of the Great Supreme Ruler, and who will say, that he does this, (that ia, punishes the wicked) out of hatred and ill will ?''
jEIere Ching-tsze remarks, That speaking of the visible ca- nopy over our heads, we call it heaven ; but speaking of the
Lord and Governor there, we call him ^ Ruler. In this passage the retributions of Providence are evidently ascribed to the Supreme Ruler, who sends down inflictions on the wicked, not out of hatred and ill-will, but because justice re- quires it.
In the same Canto, and in the ^ ^ Keo-kung section, we read as follows :
" Behold yon meadow, with its overhanging willows ; who does not sometimes wish to rest beneath their shade ? (so do the princes of the empire wish to repose beneath the simdow of the court,) but this JP i^ autocrat of our's is so awe-in- spiring, that no one dares to approach him ; should a few of us endeavour, (by going to court.) to consolidate his em[)ire, he would then go to the extremest lengths (in his demands on our services.)" ^ ^
Here the title of _l. ^ff Supreme Ruler, is used (according to the commentator) to designate the autocrat of China, but evidently with reference to his exercising universal sway over the empire.
The first section of the next Canto, called the "j^ ^ Ta- yay, has so much in it referable lo the subject before us. iluU
B b '
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ive may be excusod for transcribing the principle part of it. Chow-kung addressing Ching-wan^ said, " Behold Wan- wa ng in the reahiis above, how brightly does he shine in heaven ! Altliough the state of Chow (over which he presi- ded on earth) was an ancient kingdom, yet the decree (ap- pointing it chief over the empire) was new in his days. Is not this first ruler of the Chow dynasty then brilliantly dis- played ? and is not the decree of ^ the (Supreme) Ruler in his case rightly timed.'' Behold, again, Wan-wang is there,
ascending and dsscending in the presence of the l^jf (Su- preme) Ruler !"
The commeiilator says. That although Waa-wang was at that time
dead, his j||^ spirit was in the realms above, shining brightly in hea- ven, which shews thit his virtue wai brilliantly displayed ; also that the dynasty of Chow was in the zenith of its glory, and thnt the de- cree of the Ruler of all was then in its favour. For if the spirit of Wan-wang was in heaven, ascending and descending, and per- petually waiting in the immediate presence of the Supreme Ruler, his descendants would certainly participate in the iiifluence of his vir- tue, and maintain their rule over the empire.
In this passage we have to remark on the use of jff ruler, in tht
sense of _J2 ^w^ Supreme Ruler ; and further, would call attention to the fact of the Supreme Ruler presiding in the realms above, and the spirits of the blessed (according to Chinese ideas) perpetually ascending and descending in His presence. What nearer approach could we have to the Christian idea of God.
In the next sentence, but two, the poet says,
" How deep and diitant is (the virtue of) Wan-wang ! how perpetually does he illustrate the respect which he maintain- ed ! how great is the celestial decree in his favour ! Here are these descendants of the Shang dytiasty, whose numbers are not to be limited by millions ; but the Supreme Ruler having passed his decree (in favour of Chow,) these are all bound in ob«idience to Chow."
Here the usual reference is made Ut the Supreme Ruler, disposing of the fates of empin'S.
Further on the same poet observes,
*' Will you not reflect on youi ancestor, when he cultivated his virtue, how he constantly sj)oke of agreeing with the rule of right, and considercQ that abundant happiness was to be sought for from himself Formerly, before the Yin dynasty had lost the multitud;;s, its sovereign (in his universal dominion) could be compared to the Supreme Ruler ; you should there- fore take warning by Yin, for the great decree is not easily preserved in one family."
Here iha commentator tells us, that the Supreme Ruler is the
2]§
55 ;^ ^ ^ Lord of Heaven, the very word that the Ro- manibls have used for God,
In the next section, called ^ ^ Ta-miii2, the poet says, <' Then nrose this Wan-wanbj, who wa-^ carefil and cau- tious, intelliirently serving the Supreme Ruler, and thus caus- ing much happiness to come upon him; his virtue also be- ins^ incorrupt, he received charge of the kingdom."
Furtlier on, the poet is encouraging Wob-wang to the attack of Yin, saying,
" The multitudes of the Yin dynasty, are congregated like the leaves of the forest, and spread out in the shepherd's plain ; but your hodts being banded together in their under- takings, the Supreme Ruler will be with you, and raise your mind al30ve hesitation."
Here we have the Supreme Ruler brought in as the God of battles, sustaining the patriotic defenders of their country's liberty by his presence, raising them above doubt, and giving them the victory they look for.
In the same Canto, in the section entitled ^^ Hwang e^ the words ^ Ruler, and J^ '^ Supreme Ruler, are used in- terchangeal3ly and frequently occur ; we shall therefore trans- late the larger part of it. It begins with a reference to the times of T'hae-wan r, T'hae-pth,'aAd Wang-k'he, the ances- tors of Wan-wang, when they commenced their military ope- rations, and laid the foundation of the future greatness of their family.
" How majestic is the Supreme Ruler ! looking down on thii lower world, how gloriously does he shine ! Casting his glance around on all quarters, he seeks the peaceful set- tlement of the people. Seeing that the two former dynasties (ofHeaand S hang) had failed in their practice of govern- ment, he then, throughout the four quarteis of the empire, sought and considered (that he mi^^ht find a proper person to settle the people.) ; whereupon he, the Supreme Kuler, brought forward this family, increasing their wise regulations, and enlaroing their borders, while he regarded this, their western land, and gave them the city of P6."
The paraphrase on the above passage is as follows : That majes- tic One, the Supreme Ruler, althoui?h lofty and exalted, and dwelling on high, yet condescends to regard this lower world, and gloriously displays his bright designs. His purpose, in surveyiug the four quar- ters of khe world, is none other than to seek the peaceful settlement of the people, so that not one individual may be deprived of that which should promote his life and growth. But though the settlement of the people be High Heaven's main design, yet the most important thing in settling the people is, the selection of a proper prince. Now these two dynasties of Hea and Shang, have not followed out
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the. c;Q\\x,f^c that would lead to the Bettlement of the ^rople, anH'haiin|' erred in the maltiir of jjovernment, they could not carry out th^ celes- tial design, and contiinie to be the lords of the living ; the Supreme Huler thu« looked abroad among the surrounding states, enquiring and calculating, in order to ascertain who was the sovereign best cal- culated for tranquillizing the people, and be the one whom He would wish to promote ; whereupon he enlarged the borders and improved the regulations (of the Chow dynasty,) that they might have some foundation on which to rest the fortunes of their family.
In the above passage, we have especial reference to the exalted ma, jesty of the Supreme, and are yet told that he takes especial cog- nizance of the affairs of men, and selects such sovereigns as mny be most likely to fulfil his bright designs, in order to promote the tranquillity of the people. What more distinct reference could w^ have to the attributes of the Deity, and how could we mistake in de- signaling the Being thus alluded to God ?
The Chow family, having obtained a footing in the wes- tern territory, found it necessary to clear away the wil- derness, they therefore
" Pulled up and cleared the dead and dry sticks, they rounded off and arranged the bushes and rows of trees, they opened out and removed the willows and hollies, while they clipped and pruned the different kinds of mulberry j thus the ^(Supreme) Ruler having conducted thither that intelligent and virtuous prince (T'hae-wang), the barbarians removed, and took their departure, while Heaven granted the pricce an amiable partner, and conferred upon him a firm decree, (con- stituting his family paramount lords of the empire.)"
To T'hae-wang succeeded Wang.k'he, in whose days
*' The 'Sf (vSupreme) Ruler observed the hill, (where they were settled,) and perceiving that the briars and thorns were pulled up, and the firs and larches formed into rows, (knew tliat the people had resorted thi^^her in great numbers) ; the f^ (Supreme) Ruler, therefore, havincr formed a country for them, also raised up a virtuous sovereign (who could preside over it) ; for from the time of T'hae-pih and Wang-k he, (he- liad passed his decree in their favour.) Now this Wang-k'he was naturally of a fraternal disposition, and displayed great kindness towards his elder brother, (who notwithstanding yielded the throne to him.) (Wang-k'he) then advanced the prosperity (of Chow,) and manifested his glory ; receiving the (Heaven-conferred) emolument, without letting it slip j after which (the influence of his family) was extended over all quarters of the empire.
" With regard to this Wang.k'he, the ^ (Supreme) Ruler regulated his mind, and silently diffused his excellent fame, thus his virtuous nature became enlightened, and being en-
2-il
lightened, he was diigcrimiaative ; he was also fit for becom- ing an indefatigable instructor and a righteous sovereign, that he might rule over this great country ; he was also able to render the people harmonious and kind ; until the time of Wan-wang his qualities left no unpleasant recollections ; but having received the blessing of the ^ (Supreme) Ruler, he was enabled to communicate it to his descendant.
" The ^ (Supreme) Ruler then (as it were) addressed Wan-wang, saying, ' Do not be thus (with selfish motives) picking and choosing, do not be thus (with covetous desires) craving and asking ; (if you were not drowned in these evil passions) you would greatly attain to the presages (of know- ledge), and advance towards the shore (of perfect virtue.)' At that time, the men of Meih were disrespectful, and daring to attack the great country, had invaded the Yu^n state, as far as the city of Kung, when Wan-wang displayed one burst of anger, and drawing up the armies of Chow, he stopped the progress of the invading force, thus consolidating Chow's prosperity, and answering the expectations of the em pire.
"The 'i^ (Supreme) Ruler then addressed Wan-wang, saying, ' I have well considered your intelligent virtue, that it does not consist in multiplying boisterous sounds and flam- ing colours, nor in setting forth extravagance and variety, (possessing knowkdg-e and understanding^,) and yet appearing as if ignorant and unconscious, you follow out the laws of the *^ (Supreme) Ruler (in order to attain perfection.) There- fore I, the (Supreme) Ruler, direct you^ Wan-wang, to inves- tigate the state of your adversary's country, in conjunction with your allied brethren, and taking your scaling ladders and your moving towers, go to the attack of the earl of Tsung, in his city of Yung."
In the whole of the above sentences, we have the most evident indi- cations of the special and universal government of the Supreme ; it was He who selected the abode of the favoured family, He \i» ho raised up for them a virtuous sovereign, (Wani^.k'he,) He who regu* lated his miud, and diffused abroad his fame, while He blessed him in the bestowmert of a virtuous descendant (Wan-wan") ; to this des- cendant, the Supreme Ruler is represented as addressing his com- mands, directing him to avoid the vices of selfishness and covetous- ness, and approving of the unostentatious virtue which he displaved, ^vhilst he followed out the laws of the Supreme. In all this what evident traces do we find, not only of the supremacy of God, but of liis direct interference in the affairs of mankind, bestowing blessings on the virtuous, who act according to his will, and chastising the dis- •obed'ent. Surely every thing, but what is peculiar to the Christian BereJatioB, in the character and attributes of the Deity, is exhibited
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in this account of the Supreme Ruler, given in the ancient cUsaics oi the Chinese.
In the ode called ^ ^ Sang-mln, we have a strange re- ference to the miraculous* conception of How-ts^iih, the firit ancestor of the Chow d^^tmsty, which th-i [)oet adduces to ac- count for How-tseih's being associated with Heaven, in hav- in;j divine honours paid to him. The ode is as follows :
" The first bringing forth of our fij.'nily, originated wiih the lady Keang-yuen. How were our people tlien born I (It was in this way.) (Ttis lady in question) was enabled to present sacrifices and offerings, settin-^ forth her childless con- dition, ^nd asking for a son,) when she (suddenly) trod on
the great toe of a foot-print made by a *Tjr Divine person, and felt aOected and moved. She then selected the placa where she had been thus distinguished for her residence, and as soon as she quickened, she reverently retired to a separate abode ; in due time she brought forth and nourished a son, which was none other than How-tseih, (the first aticestor of the Chow family.)"
The parap'irast tells us, that after having offered her sacrifice, and prrtVeJ fur a sou, the Supreme Ruler, observing her stillness and sin- cerity, caused her to see the foot-print ot some gigantic individual, and she treading in the im;)ress of the great toe, felt an unusual commo- tion within her, as th ou^^h she had Isecome pregnant ; at the due peri- od, she brought forth a son, and called him How-tseth.
" When the months of pregnancy were completed, she brought forth her first-born son, as easily as a lamb (is born into the world) ; there was no bursting nor tearing, no trou- ble nor sorrow, in order to shew the miraculous nature (of the conception :) does not this shew that the Supreme Ruler was pacified, and accepted of her sacrifice, granting her thus ca?il3^ to bring forth a son ?"
In the above description, the Roman Catholics fancy much resemblanre to the miraculous conception of the Virgin Mary, and frequently adduce it in illustration of that extraordinary event. The last paragraph speaks of (he Chow family ho- nouring^ their ancestor How-tseih, by associating him with Heaven in sacrifice, and says,
'' When we fill tlie trencliers, even the trenchers and bowls, (with the sacrificial viands,) no sooner does the fra- grance ascend upwards, than the Supreme Ruler smells a sweet savour. How fragrant and truly opportime is thia offering ! For from the time when How-tseih first presented his sacrifice, we have since had no crimes to repent of, even to the present day."
In the paraphrase on the above paragraph. Speaking of the fra- grance of the sacrifice ascending, the writer says, that " _L "W -^
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!|i" the Spirit of the Stipreme Ruler approvingly coma's down to o«. ji)y it." As this ia the first im stance In which we have met with the expression we draw altentio?i to it.
In the Odecallv'd !§ Pan, we have some complaints re- garding Le-wang, who by his tyrannical conduct brought miseries on th3 people, and induced the Supreme Ruler to reverse his usual course, and send down calamities on man- ki»id. The ode begins thus :
" The Supreme Ruler has reversed (his usual course of proceeding,) and caust^d the lower people to be exceedingly ])ained ; while you (instead of endeavouring to remedy the evil^ give utterance to expressions which are not in accord- ance with reason, and lay plans which. are also not calculated for perpetuity; you are saying, that siuce there are now no sages in existence, you can do as you like, without maintain- ing good princij)les. Furthermore, you are insincere in your professions, and not merely short-sight«d in your plans ; we therefore make use of this great reproof, (that you may do something to regain the lost favom' of I he Supreme.)"
In the above passage, calamities as well as blessings are suppcsed to come from above, and in times of troable, reformation is insisted on, that the evil decreed may not come upon the people.
In the Ode called ^ T'hang, we have another reference to the calamitous changes brought about by the tyrannical con- duct of Le-wang in the setting forth of which the writer in- dulges in a tone of angry complaint, which is considered re- prehensible, even by the Chinese themselves. The poet thus exclaims,
" The vast and extensive Supreme Ruler is the governor of the nations ; but how is it that this oppressive autocrat has decreed to b stow on us such a corrupt nature 7 when Heav^en produced the multitudes of people (it certainly de- creed on them a virtuous nature) ; but the celestial decree is not to be depended on : at the first, indeed, (human nature) was invariably (good), but since that time few have been able to carry it out to a (good) termination."
In the above pa^sacre the writer commences by an improper com- plaint of the- Divine B<"ing for giving such passions to men, as shonld lead them astray ; something like the ungodly murmurs against the Di- vine arrangements, which we not unh-e(pient!y meet with in the we"?- tern world : but he suddenly checks himself by raying, that Heaven certainly d- creed a virtuous nature for mankind, and the present obhquity of hnman conduct arises from men not having carried ant their virtuous nat'u-e to perfection: how strongly does this remi'.'d us of the words of Holy Writ, God made mm uoright, but he hath sought out many inventions.
In the 7ih verse of the same Ode. the poets alludes lO
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Wan-wang'e remonstrances, regarding the misrule oftheYid dynasty, ),briii7ini down calamiues on the people.
" Wan-waiig saiJ, Oh you ruler of ths Yia dynasty ! it ia not that the S i[.reme RuLer has brought these calamitous times upon up. h'li it is because you have not made use of the former things ; for although there may be no longer any of the old experienced ministers surviving, there are still the ancient regulations in existence ; how is it then that you have not attended to them, and thus occasioned the subver- sion of tbe great decree (in your favour.) "
Here the writer endeavours to clear the character of the Supreme Raler from the charge of having wantonly brought the calamities ia question upon the people, and ascribes it to human governors, who had forsaken the counsel of the old men, and the wholesome laws al- ready in existence, to follow their own pernicious ways.
In the Ode called ^ ^ Yun ha n. the minister of Jing- shih admires the reformation of Seun-wang, who seeing the desolations occasioned by his father Le-wang's tyranny, and by his own misrule, as well as observing the threatened judgments of Heaven, remodelled his government, and a- dopted a virtuous course. The poet says,
" How lofty is yon milky way, shining and revolving in the heavens ! The king (knowing the nightly appearance of the milky way to be indicative of clear weather, and so threatening continued drought), said, Alas ! what have these poor people done, that Heaven should send down such confu- sion, and cause famines and desolations again to visit us. There is not a Shin that we have not sacrificed to, we have not been sparing of our sacrificial animals, and have brought forward the whole of our gems (to present them upon the altars.) How is it then that (our prayers) are not heard ?'* The poet proceeds,
" Seeing that the drought is thus excessive, and the op- * pressive heat increasing, we have not ceased to offer sacri- fices, from the sacrifice to Heaven, to that presented to ances- tors ; to the invisible beings above and below we have poured out libations and interred the victims ; there is not a Shin that we have not honoured, and yet our first ancestor How* tseih cannot assist us, while the Supreme Ruler will not come down to our relief ; how is it that this wasting and desolation, coming down upon the country, has occurred in our reign V*
The difference here put between the first ancestor and the Supreme Ruler is worthy of remark ; of the former it is hinted, that he could not if he would, and of the latter that he would not, though he could^ relieve them. Giving their ancestor credit for good wishes but ascribing all the power to the Supreme ; who for wise reasong did .nottee fit to help them. The writer goes on tosay,
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'•This drought having become very great, it, cannot be avoided, so that we tremble and are alarmed, as when the thunders rattle over our Iieads,; the poor remnant of the Chow people, will soon have not half a man left ; the Supreme Ru- ler of the glorious Heavens, has not even exempted me (the sovereign), how then can ( avoid the expression of alarm, lest my ancestois (by the extinction of their family,). should be utterly exterminated (and have no one to offer sacrifices to them.)
" This drought becoming increasingly severe, the hills and rivers arc divested of vegetation and moisture (literally clean- ed out); the demon of drought acts out his oppressions, so that we are scorched and burnt, and our minds being dis- tressed with this summer heat, feci as though they were dried up ; I have appealed to (the manes of) the former dukes taul correct ministers, but tliey pay no attention to mc ; why does not the Supreme Ruler of the glorious Heavens grant me a method of escape !"
Here again, the diatinfition between tho manes of ancestors and the Supreme Ruler, as to the ability to interfere in their behalf, is ap- parent. The demon of drought is by the commentator called a Shin.
'' The drought being more and more severe, (1 would cer- tainly go away and escape from its effects) but I put a con- straint upon myself, and do not dare to leave my post ; yet how is it that I am afflicted with this drought ? 1 am unable to divine the cause ; in praying for a prosperous year, I have been sufficiently early ; in sacrificing to the lar«s of the four quarters of the land, I have not been negligent ; but the Su- preme Ruler of the glorious Heavens does not estimate my
devotedness ; having been thus respectful Q^ W t^' intelli- gent and invisible beings, I ought not to have been exposed to wrath and displeasure."
In the ^ ^ Chow-sdiig Canto, we have the ^ ^ Ohih-king Ode, which was composed to be simg when sacri- fices were offered to Wob-wang, Chlng-wang, and K'hang- wang ; it commences thus :
" How vigorous in maintaining self-control was Wob- wang, while none were able to control him, on account of his energy ; (he was succeeded by) Ching and K'hang, who were also celebrated, and thus the Supreme Ruler made them sovereigns."
Here the Supreme Ruler is representtd at constituting them sove- reigns of the empire, on account of their virtue.
In the next Ode, called ^ ^ Sze wan, we have "^ Te
used for the (Supreme) Kuler ; s[»eaking of How-lselli, the
Cc
first ancestor of the Cbow dynasty, who laus^lit the people husbandry, the writer saya,
^* The ac« omplished Flow-i^cih, could be associated with Heaven, (in the honors paid to him ;) for thc^ivinf^ofcorn to us multitudes of people was do'.^^tless owin^ to his extreiiie virtue ; it wns he that left us the (^\i.owi3d;ife of) wheat and barl-^y, which the ^ (Supreme) Rult^r has appointed for uni- versal nourishment ; thus (the people have had leisure to at- iead to the culiivafion of their minds, and) there is was no longer any difference between this border and that limi*, bit ike five eoiwtaat virtues are sfit fprtli throughout the euipire of China."
The next Ode is on the subject of husbandry li'cewiae,
" Oh you, ministers presiding over the public works, be res- pf^clful in your duties : the kii^r jias ba^itowed up >n you perfect regulations ; do you come hither to consult and consi- der them.
"Oh you, assistant agricultural officers, just now \n the 3rd month of sprin.; what iiave you to atit^nd to ? y )u have t^see how they ^ei on with their new ti Ida : oh how beau- tiful does the wheat and barley app3ar ! w'lich we receive as tiie bright gift (of the Supreme) ; m vv the o:i^hl and glo- rious Supreme Rul;r give us a plentiful harv^^siw ; 'eli all your labourers to prepare theii noes ani weeding instru;n».nts, and to look after their reap-hooks, (to be tfc^dy) for ouuiug down (the crop.)
Here the husbandman is directed to look ta the Supreme Kuler for a plentiful harvt;-t, which is considered the bright gift of that glo- rious being. ^ ^j, .^ ,qg ^-^
In the C^ato called ^ ^^ LoH-S'TUg, and fh«. ■ ^. H P^- kun^ Ode, the poet is adm-'-i'iJ A -k^.nT hr r.^pni'-'nT anl beauti:y*r;.^ the tempb o' ^•^'^- 's-* h. ^nvm^,, ^' ri,>^v d-.-o -iir* the recesses of the temple ! how still and retired ! Iiow lir n the foundations, and how compact the roof ! (The mother of our race) was (hat glorious Keang-yucn, whose virtues were incorruptible, so that the Supreme Ruler regarded her with favour, and caused her, without sorrow or pain, wh^u her time of (jjregnancy was fulfilled, to bring forth How-tseih ; by means of him a hundred blessings have been vouch^aiec}, for he taught us to distinguish the various kinds of milled, and to plant the eiirly and latter sorts of grain, on which (Re- count he was promoted to the sovereignty of our state, and carried out the merits of the great Yu."
In, the above passage we are forciblv reinijidei of exprcttiouf oc^ur- JiPginLuke I. 29, 30. and cannot hpip r«?cognizin^, in the Supremt Ruler of the Chia^^ae cUa^jic, Him Hy .vhose favour tiil blessings f^c- cia<^ to men
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In the f^ ^ Nan-Si]»tr Cwnto^ and th« ^ ^ HeueKb.
neabu Odo, the p-^ople of Shang allude to their progenitor See, and his miraculous coriception, in the following strain :
" Heaven commanded the dark-coloured swallow' to corn*'. down afid produce Shan^. after which those who dwelt ar, Yin were crowded and numerous. At the begiiiruaa {<n our dynasty) the 'fj^ (Supreme) Ruler ordered the martial T'haniJ (tlie founder of the Shang dynasty) to re-^ulate the bordirs throughout all the four quarters of the land.**^
rhf! commentator here «»ay», that tlie lady Keeu-teth, w?8' df?lefing « sacrifice to li.averf, Mrith tlw view of obtaining' a son, vihen a swaU lo;v let fall ati es-s?, whi^h Ke«rt-ti^b 8\Tailowinff, brought forth 8e5 ; his son afterwards became the ancestor of the Shang dynasty.
In the next Ode. railed ^ ^ Chang^fa, the po^ refers back to the ancestors of the Sliaug dynasty, saying.
" The ^(Supreme) Ruler's d^-cree was not opposed until GhUi'i-t'hanj^ appeared; ChiUif-t'hang's birth was very oppor- ti'U'^^, and hi« sa- r d feel in ' of resp'ct daily mou»Ued f'li her and hi ii r ) unrA it r-^ached to henven, and continued Ion? :
towards the Si^pfreme R«'l'r he was respftctful, ar^J the ^ (Snpr^m.i)Ilalor directed II jm tobeconrKja pattefn to the nine provinces."
Her« rererence for the Supreme Rul^c 1* c^iinsidered the height ef virtue, which le4 to the appoiutraent of the person manifesting it to b« a patlarn ttt c^e emy-kft. The word Ruler is b^re as elsewlitere aae4 inlcTch/uigdahly wuh '^uprerae Rpler.
Passing over from the Bool; of Odes, we come to that of
Rites, w ih'j third volume of which, in the 35 $ll Wang- che s.^ t. aud on ihe^ 9th pa^e, we have the following sentence : " When an einperar is about to s;o out (w inspect the vari- ous states) he o^r..^ ^ a corresponding i;acrifice to the Su- prem-', Rul-.r, h<' also preksenii a ^Q^ suitable sacrifice to the
fj* /ar6.9 ru^Hci. and a ceremony^ entitled \g|;^ drawing near, to his a^ic.istors. Wh^yi a priA»ce of thi enipnv:; goes out (to pay court to tht} 3m->:iror) h* otfers a suitable saeriifice to the lares rustici, and draws near in worship to his ances^tors,"
It is well known that tho Ciiiiiese. hvve a notion that the supreme or' ^arth only is worthy to offer sacrifice to the Supreme in h'^iven, while interiors among m«n are peimitted to worsliip those who are consider* ed inferiors atnon^ invisiole being*. This notion, however erroneous, shews wh^t estimate they entertain of him whom they consider the Supreme Ruler.
In the same voliim ?, f\ ^ YuS-Iing^ sect, and 43d page, Wie have an account of the imn>"ial oloughihg.
'^On that month (the first of spr»iig) th« emperor appropriated
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the first day for praying for grain to the Supreme Rult^r ; Ite then setileti a lucky morning, when the emperor in person; carried out the coulter and plough-share, arranging them be- tween the three persons riding in the chariot, and amongst the armed charioteers ; he then led forth the three dukes and the nine nobles, with the chiefs of the states and their great officers, who went in person to plough the imperial field ; the emperor gave the plough three pushes, the three duke^ five, the nobles and the chief of the states nine, (after which the people completed the work.) They then returned and held up the goblet in the great recess of the ancestorial temple, when the three dukes, the nine nobles, the chiefs of the states and their great officers, all in obedience to the imperial com- mand, were rewarded with a feast of wine."
This ceremony of ploughing on the first month of spring is still continued, and is observed, not only by the emperor at Peking, but by the officers of each district throughout the whole empire.
In the same section, page 60, ^he writer describes what was to be done on the last month of summer, saying,
*' On that month, it was commanded to the four superin- tendants to gather together the proper amount of provender from the hundred districts, for the purpose of feeding the sa- crificial animals ; requiring the paople, without a sinr^le ex- ception, to exert their utmost strength in order to serve the Supreme Ruler of the August Heavens, together with (the genii of) the famous hills and great rivers, as well as the Shins from all quarters, while they at the same time offered the accustomed sacrifices to the spirits residing in the ances- torial temple, and at the altar* of the lares rustici, for the purpose of praying for blessings on the people."
Further on, page 67, we have the duties to be performed at mid-autumn.
"In this month, it was commanded, to the butcliers and chaplains, to go about and inspect the sacrificial animals, and see that they were perfect and whole; to take account of the provender and other food ; to notice whether the animals were fat or lean ; to sxamine their colours, and arrange them accord- ing to kinds ; to ascertain by weight whether their bodies were large or small, and by measurement whether their horns were long or short, and get them all of the middling kind ; these five things being found to be fully prepared and suita- ble, the Supreme Ruler would accept of them, (how much more, adds the commentator, the host of Shins. ")
In Vol. IV. in the section called jf[§ J^ La-yiin, and on the 48th page, after describing the primeval condition of the Chinese, as originally ignorant of the use of fire, living upon the uncooked fruits of the earth, and devouring the raw flesh
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of brutes, with blood and hair, whilst they clothed themselves with skins and feathers ; the writer goes on to say,
" Afterwards the sages arose, and then they understood the advantages of fire, moulding metal and forming earthen- ware ; they also made terraces and sheds, rooms and houses doors and windows ; they had moreover chops and steaks with boiled and roast meats, added to which were wine and vinegar ; they proceeded to manufacture hemp and silk, in or- der to make cloth and silk stuffs, that thus they might sup- port the living and inter the dead, as well as serve the Kwei Shins, and the Supreme Ruler ; for the accomplishment of all of which matters men are indebted to the inventors of these things."
The disposal of the Kwei Shins first, and the mention of the Su- preme Ruler afterwards, in this instance, is probably for the sake of euphony, or to complete the climax ; for it should be observed that the writer is paisinif from the living to the dead, and then on to the Kwei SMns, until he reaches the highest object of reverence, the Supreme Ryler.
In the 5th volume of the Book of Rites, page 15, we read, " Thus it was that the people of the Loo country, when they were about to do service to the Supreme Ruler, always performed a ceremony first in the princes' hall of learning ; so the Tsin people when they were about to sacrifice to the Yellow River, first presented an offering to the rivulet Hoo-to ; and in like manner the men of Tae, when they had to do homage to the great mountain, first paid their compliments to the Pei grove. For the same reasons, they kept the vic- tim (intended to bo sacrificed to the Supreme Ruler) three months in the stall ; they also put themselves under restric- tion for seven days, and shut themselves up in seclusion for three days, all in order to shew the extreme of careful res- pect."
The commentator says, that this connects the idea of the former sentence, which speaks of two princes, when they visit each other, shewing some gradation in the ceremonies they employ ; hence the writer goes on to say, that in sacrificing some gradual approaches must be observed, from the mean to the honourable. In the 17th page of the same volume, we read, " Therefore the former kings of ancient times^ esteemed the virtuous, honoured the correct, and employed the capa- ble ; they elevated clever men, and placed them in posis of usefulness ; they also assembled the multitudes and laid them under an oath. Thus it w^as that, regarding (the exalt- ed position of) heaven, they served Heaven (with the highest ceremonies) ; and observing (fhe lower place assigned to) earth, they paid deference to earth accordingly ; alio con- templating the famous hills, they brought up the just actions
23(3
(of lb« princ<»s ot the differerti parts) io the aftettlion ot Hea- ven : and noticins? the felicitous sites (af their capitals), they sacrificed to the '^ (Supreme) Ruler at the border of the country. VVhan they broiv^h^. up just actioris to the notice of Heaven, the phcenixr*; an^i felicitous birds descended, while the drngjon^ and l«jrto'ses approached. When they sa- crificed to the "^ (Supreme) Ruler at the bord-^r of the coun- try, the winds and rains were moderate, while the heat and cold were seasonable. On thi^ account th-* wise (soverci^n^) siood facing the south, and the empire was well-regulated." On the 2Ut pasje, of t!i^* same section, we read, " To sacrifice to the 'i^ (Supreme) Ruler a^ the border nf the country is, the extreme of resj>ect: the services pf*rformed in the nncestorial temple, proceed from the extreme of b-^ne- voleiice ; fmioral C'-remonies indicate the extreme of fidelity ; the preparation of the shroud and bier, arises from the ex- treme of ben.jv deuce ; the use of presents in ent.*.rtainin» strangrers sh \v?5 the extr^^me of riuht^ou»n -ss : therefore wiin the uood nuai wishjt? t » ait.:nd to !.he difi-'^ of benevo- lence and rij^hteou^jues.^, h.; takes his fou.'idation from the use of c^remouieij."
In the 5th volume of the Book of Rites, paije 23. y»e redd, " In offeriui the C'destial sacrifice a small r victim was em- ployed while in sacrificing to the lares rustici a full-growil ox was used ; so also when the emperor went or) a visit of in- apection to t.l^ princ«'S, the princes prcpar.-d a youngs oa!f for his food ; while ot) the occasion of the p\nices paying court to the emperor, the eniperor </ave them a full-irrown ox as a pre- sent ; the reason of the former being prepared, was to shew the importance of sincerity Therefore the emp;^ror would not eat of an animal slauThtered in the siate of preg^nancy ;
such animals also were not used in sacrificing to the.^ (Su- preme) Rult:!r/'
Tlic comiut^atator says. When the essence of a thing is brought forward, tlie sajaiitr it is tt»e better, therefore in the two instancea above referpd to, the ^r^atcst honour was put on the smaller animal^*, and less on the lai !<er vietims. A calf has not the feelin^^ of arender very stronjiT, hei.ce it is said, that such a tender victim was employed, to shrw the importance of sincerity. The word Ruler, here refers to the Supreme Fiuler, respecting whom Choo-fqo-tsze says, That if «^
concentrate all the |j!5J \ij^ inscrutabilities and invisibilities of heaven, into one focus, and speak of such a being, we call hicu the Supreme Ruler,
In Vol . V. in the section entitled $15 i^ ^ Keaou-tib^ sang, page 34, directions are given as to whiit wa^* to be d€>ne
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when the celestial sat-rifice was offered ; tm tiiis occasion How-tseih (who, as we have seen, was the ancestor of the Chow dynasty, and ^supposed to be miraculously brousj'ht forrh. was asaociated with H^av^'n in the sjicrifiice oflfred to th«:; Suprem-. Ruler, for this piirpos« two oxen were pre- pared, oni3 for each ; respecting which the writer i^ays.
" Wh^n the ox dedicated to the service of th • *^ f Supreme) Ruler is iounil tobian infelicitous one, use should be made of the one appointed for sacritioingj to How-t^eih ; for the (Supreme) Ruler's ox m\ist bekepr up in the stall for three months: the ox desis^ned for sacrificing to How-tseth re- quires only to be perfect in its parts : this is the way in which to distinguish between the Sh n of Heaven and the Kwci of man. All things com^ ori^^iaally from Heaven, and mefi spring ori^i.ially from thiir first ancestor: this is the reason why How-tseTh, (ih3 first ancestor of the Chow dynasty), was associated with the Suprem*. Ruler in sacri- fice. The celestial sacr!fic3 is im:>jrtant, bicmse it refers with 'gratitude to the ori'^in of all thinijs, and turns tha atten- tion back on the ancestor from whom we first spran;y."
lu the above sentence, the difference made between the ox dedica- ted to the Supreme Ruler, and that to How-tMCin, is said to be. to mark the di>stincti«iri b -tween the Shin of Heaven and the Kwei of man, Th? liwei of a m:»a, roust refer to the ghost of How~tReih, tkiid by coHsequeiice the S )in of Heaven to the Spirii af the Suprem« Ruler. As this is the tirst instance in the text of the classics, in which we have met with tie Supreme Ruler heimr called the Shin or spirit of Heaven, we. will enter a little m >re htiiy into it. In the tirst section which we ^ave from the Book of O ie», the cojuraentator
s^ys, that the Supreme Ruler is ^ ^ 11$ the Shvn of Heaven, or the spiritual part of hearei ; and in lUe cotnfrj^i'tary on the tirst sent»::nce of th* cu.»'^'tt'r rfiv: -i :d«-r r ^ti-siderHti >". the wr.ter sass*
Tm ^h'^ Suprenae Ruler is Heaven ; w^re we to coll.^c t-- savisshihti^s ?iiiU intellii^^uces of Heaveii to^etu^r. and pndeavour tv) ex!)r«ss the idea in one word, we shouM n^^^ th.^. term S inrfme Ruler " From which we infer that th<^ writer would consider the SupnMne Ruler as the concentration of all the spiritual essences of Heaven, or all the vitality and efficaciousness of nuture (in idei) hrouurht tp % focus, and constituting one J^uprem-. Buns< ; combining: the a.iprem \- cy and majesty of heaven, with the activity and animav.on of theenwr gies of naturfe. We do not know that the Chinese lanjfuage is capai>le of expressing more fully the idea entertained by the native^j of God than the above passage represents ; it has its defects, and ils mistakes, iJiit how could we expect a heathen unenlightened mind to approach tisater to the truth. Ought we not instead of seeking to digcoyer its fl« vs, r»!Joice ifiHt so much oorreetness i» eootnined in the ««nHmenl,
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and endeavour to make what use of it we can, in order to give the Chinese a more consistent and scriptural idea of the Divine Being.
In vol. VI. in the section called ^ {^ Ta-fo6, page 59, we have an account of the doings of Wob-w4ng, after the conquest of the Shang dynasty, and the death of the tyrant Chow.
'^ At the shepherd's plain occurred the ^reat affair of Wob- wang. Having completed the business (above spoken of.) he retirrd and presented a burnt-offering to the Supreme Ruler, he likewise prayed to the lares rustici, and poured out a drink-offering at the shepherd'* lodge. Thni leading on the princes of the empire who held the sacrificial vessels, and hastening to the service, he looked back (to his ancestor!) and honoured as kings T'hae-wan;j, who was also called Tan- fob, Wang-k'he, likewise nam^^d Leih, and Wan-wang, whoso private designation was Chhang, that he might not bring, those of lower rank into competition with the higher."
Tiij hurnt-offering appears to have been offered solely to Heaven and its Ruler.
In vol. IX. in the sect, called ^ ^ Peabu-ke, pa^e 41, we read,
" Confucius, when speaking of the good man being perfect- ly exact in his conduct, intimates that both noble and mean should take their part in the business of the world. Thus the emperor g^oes in person to plough that he might provide the contents of the sacrificial vessels, with the black millet and fragrant wine used in worship, in order to serve the Su- preme Ruler ; and as a consequence of that, the princes of the empire are diligent in helping and aiding the emperor."
Here the Supreme Ruler is set forth as the chief object of worship, vrhom it is the business of the emperor to do his utmost in serving, in order to induce the princes to do their duty towards him.
Further on, page 52, we read,
" Confucius, has made the observation, that formerly, du- ring the time of the tliree dynasties, all intelligent kin^s (whenever they) served the invisible beings of heaven and earth, invariably made use of divinations, that they might not follow out their own private views and predilections in serving the Supreme Ruler.
These divinations were for the sake of finding out the proper days for such services, and in order to ascertain whether the animals chos- en were felicitous or not.
We now pass on to the Book of Diagrams, and in the Yu (concord) Diagram, page 46, we thus read,
"The form of the diagram suggests the idea, that when the thunder bursts forth, and the earth is moved, there is cor-
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responding concord. Tims the ancient kings invented mii^ sic, in order to proniofe virtue, and tliey especially performed it before the Supreme Ruler, whilst they associated with him in worship their ancestors and deceased parents."
The commentator on this passage says, that when the earth is moved at the bursting forth of thunder, this is the essence cf harmo- ny ; the early king? invented music, to resemble it in sound, and alto took from it the idea of concord.
The paraphrase says, Thunder, at its commencement, seems to have its sound concealed in t!ie earth ; and when it bursts forth, and makes the earth rattle %vith its sound, it seem^^o arouse the harmoni- ont feeling of heaven and earth, and display the vitality of the myriad of things, which is the very essence of harmony and the exhibition of concord. The former kings borrowed the idea of the rolling thunder, to suggest the notion of harmony, and thus formed instrumenti of music ; they composed odes and songs, which were played upon the harp and guitar, and to the sound of bells and drums* thus giving expression to their compositions ; they also invented dances and gambols, which were exhibited by the brandishing of staves and axes, with the waving of feathers and cow's tails, thus giving figure to their performances ; in this way they admired and honoured the ex- cellence of mental virtue, and the elevation of useful acquirements ; while music was intended for the admiration of virtue. The court a»d government invariably made use of music, but the highest use to which music was applied was, at the winter solstice, in sacrificing to the Supreme Ruler, at the round hillock, when the first ancestor was associated in the worship ; also at the third month of autumn in presenting offerings to the (Supreme) Ruler, in the illustrious hall, when deceased parents were included in the honours paid. Thus when music was invented in order to honour virtue, then human beings were harmonized ; and when they played up music, in order to sacrifice to invisible beings, then ^hey were gratitied. So great is the merit ot the ancient kings, in embodying the spirit of concord.
In the above passage, the highest use to which mucic is said to be applied was, in sacrificing to the Supreme Ruler. It is true thev associated ancestors in th. honours paid, but that was because the'y considered the Supreme as the origin of all things, while they looked upon their ancestors as the origin of their particular family.
In the jg Yih, or Benefit Diagram, page 24, we have a refe- rence to the use of this diagram " by kings, in the worship of the (Supreme) Ruler, which is said to be fortunate." Thi whole passage refers to the condescension of rulers to their siibjects ; but. as the paraphrast says, " the Supreme Ruler is above kmiis, and all kings are subject to him."
In the )^:^ Ting, or Caldron DiaTram, page 40, we read
*• The determinate meaninr of this diagram has reference to the form of a caldron : which, having fuel placed under if may he used for cooking food ; the sages boiled liesh in it' m order to sacrifice to the (SupucmO R^'lcr. but tho great
Dd
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boiling was employed for the support of the wise and good men (about the court.)"
The commentator says, that the form of the article is here employed, for the purpose of explaining the meaning of the diau:ram, and the chief uses to which the caldron was applied are referred to. In sacri- ficing to the (Supreme) Ruler, sincerity is the principal thing, and therefore a single calf was offered ; but in the support ot good men, the ceremony of the stalled ox, to provide breakfast and supper, must be carried out to the utmost perfection ; therefore the provision for them is called a great boiling.
The paraphrast endeavours to draw a resemblance between the form of the caldron, in its three legs, round belly, two ears, and cross bar, to the numbers of the calculations employed in the diagrams. Besides which, wood being added to the fire, the food within Is cooked, and the use of the caldron is carried out. The caldron ii employed in boiling meat for sacrifices and entertainments ; when the sages sacrificed to the Supreme Ruler, in order thankfully to ac- knowledge his favours, they used a single victim, and were obliged to employ the caldron in boiling the flesh, after which they could make known their sincerity ; also in nourishing good men, in order to testify a sense of their virtues, theyprepared a feast ; on such oc- casions they were necessitated to make use of the caldron, to prepare the food, and then only could they shew their respect ; great sacrifi- ces and great entertainments thus depending on the caldron, how im- portant was its application !
In the above passage the motive and manner of sacrificing to the Supreme Ruler are hinted at, viz. gratitude for favours, and sincerity of feeling, shewing that they regarded him as the author of their blessings, and the searcher of their hearts.
In the Fourth section of the Book of Diagrams^ 5th chap- ter, we thus read :
" The ^ (Supreme) Ruler (causes things to) issue forth under the ^j Chin diagram (representing thunder, and cor- responding to the commencement of spring;) he equally ad- justs them under the ^ Seuen diagram (representing wind, and corresponding to mid'gpringf) ^ he (causes them to be)
mutui^lly exhibited under the ^^ Le dia^am (representing fire, and corresponding to the begiiming of summer ;) he ren- ders them serviceable (to mankind) under the ;t^ Kwan dia- gram (representing earth, and corresponding to mid-summer :) he (makes them to draw forth) pleasing words under the ^ T'huy diagram, (representing sea, and corresponding to the beginning of autumn) ; (he makes them to) contend under
<-he ^ Keen diagram (representing heaven, and correspon- ding to mid-autumn) ; he renders them soothing and grati- fying under the ^ K'han diagram (representing water, and
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corresponding to the commencement of winter ) ; while he makes them complete the account under the ^ Kan dia^ gram (representing hills, and corresponding to mid-winter.) The commentator says, that the word i^ Ruler means, j^ ]^
rh* ^p the Lord and Governor of heaven. Shaou-tsze adds the re- mark, That the position cf the diagrams, here referred to, are those fixed by Wan-wang, and are ascribed to the study of the later ages ot antiquity.
The paraphrase says, The scheme of the diagrams invented by Wan- wang, and belonging to the school of later antiquity, connects the re- volutions of a whole year. When Heaven produces and completes the myriad of things, at the same time ruling and governing them,
he title given to that Being is the *{lf (Supreme) Ruler, whose goings forth and returnings are in some sort aUuded to, in this arrangement of the diagrams, published by the school of later antiquity. Thii scheme commences with the Chin diagram, (representing early spring), when the (Supreme) Ruler issues forth, and causes the ener- gies of nature's mechanism to bud and move ; then follows the
^8 Seuen diagram, (corresponding to mid-spring), and when the ener gles of nature's mechanism come to this point, they are fully developed} and well-adjusted ; thus the equable adjustment (of nature) takes place under the Seuen diagram. Next follows the Le diagram, representing early summer, and when the energies of nature's mecha- nism arrive at this point, they are brightly glorious and eminently displayed, thus the works of nature are mutually visible at the period of the Le diagram. Next follows the Kwan diagram, corresponding to mid-summer, at which time the energies of nature's mechanism put forth their utmost strength and fullest capabilities, in extending the means of nourishment ; thus the rendering of nature's energies serviceable, takes place at the period of the Kwan diagram. Next comes the T'huy diagram, corresponding to the commencement of autumn, at which time the energies of nature's mechanism are fully complete, and becomes productive of joy and delight ; thus the draw- ing forth of pleasing expressions takes place at the psr'fod of the T'huy diagram. After this we have the Keen diagram, correspond- ing to mid-autumn : at this time the energies of nature's mechanism become severe and rigid, while the male and female principles of nature fight and strive together ; thus the contendings of nature take place at the period of the Keen diagram. Then comes the K'han diagram, corresponding to early winter, at which time the energies of nature's mechanism rest and subside, and produce comfort and gra- tification ; thus soothings and gratify ings take place under the K'han diagram. Lastly comes the Kan diagram, corresponding to mid- winter, at which time the series terminates, and also begins afresh, conveying at the same time the idea of perfection and commence- ment; thus the completion of the annual series takes place at the period of the Kan diagram. In this way nature's operations proceed from the first bursting forth to the equable adjustment, even to the
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mutual exliihition, in which we see the (Supreme) Ruler snimatin-g the issuings forth of nature's springs. After that nature has been serviceable to man, then the issuings forth turn round and look to- wards the retractings ; thus from the affording of pleasure and the exhibition of contention, until the promoting of gratification, we see the rSupremej Ruler encouraging the revertings of nature's springs, and completing the series : when from the enterings in, nature again goes on to the issuings forth. Th!s series commencing at the Chin diagram, ends at the Kan diagram, and completes the circuit of the year ; while the mysteries of revolution are exhibited in the midst of the whole.
The next paragraph contaias a broader elucidation of the same idea.
'• The myriad of things come forth under the Chin dia- gram, which is disposed (in the scheme of Wan-wang) at the ea«tern quarter ; they are equably adjusted under the Seuen diagram, which is placed in the south-sast ; the words equa- bly adjusting convey the idea of the purity and exactness of the myriad of things. The idea conveyed by the La dia- gram is that of brightness, when the myriad of things are all mutually exhibited, and this is the diagram assigned to the south quarter ; hence the idea of the wise kings of antiquity sitting with their faces towards the south to listen to (the complaints of their subjects throughout) the empire, and thus looking towards the bright quarter in administering their rule, is taken from this. The Kwan diagram represents earth, which affords nourishment for the myriad of things ; hence it is said, that the (Supreme) Ruler renders things serviceable to man under the Kwan diagram. Mid-autumn is the period when the myriad of things are delighted ; hence it is said, that (the Supreme Riiler) brings forth expressions of glad- ness, under the T'huy diagram. Contendings take place under the Keen diagram, which is the diagram assigned to the north-west quarter ; it means that at the period alluded to the male and female principles contend together. The K'an diagram represents water, and is assigned to the north quar- ter. This soothing diagram is that to which the myriad of things reverts ; hence it is said, he soothes living things un- der the K'han diagram. The Kan diagram is assigned to the north-east quarter, ivhere all things complete their termi- nation ; this is also »he point at which they fully commence ; hence it is said, that he completes the account under the Kan diagram."
The commentator says, That the first paragraph of this chapter epeaks of the (Supreme) Ruler, while this talks of the myriad of things issuing forth or reverting, according to the will of the Supreme.
The paraphrase says, The *|^ ^ jfl^ wonderful influence of the Supreme Ruler, pervades every thing without being limited by
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•pace, while the transformation and production of things has a certain order, therefore we may illustrate the outgoings and incomings of the
'^ (Supreme) Ruler by the issuings forth and revertingg of things. The budding and springing of the myriad of things is their issuing forth, and takes place under the Chin diagram , the position assign- ed to which is in the east, and the time accorded to it is the spring, when the male principle of nature springt and moves, and things come forth. When we see things thus issuing forth, we re- cognize the goings forth of the ^flT (Supreme) Ruler. After things have come forth, they become gradually adjusted, which takes place under the Seuen diagram ; the position assigned to which is the south-east, and the period accorded to it that which borders on spring and summer ; at which time we may say, that the myriad of things are fresh and new, and perfectly adjusted. Seeing things thus equa- bly adjusted, we recognize the adjustings of the ^fff (Supreme) Ruler. The prevailing quality of the Le diagram is brightness, when the shape and colour of every thing is brilliantly displayed. The position assigned to this diagram is the southern quarter, and the period of its prevalence is mid-summer ; just the time when things are developed and clearly displayed. When we observe things thus mutually ex- hibited, we recognize the 1p (Supreme) Ruler, in their display. Carrying out this idea, the wise kings of antiquity faced the south, when giving audience to the people of the empire, that they might carry out their government in the face of open day ; for they took the idea from the position and prevailing quality of the Le diagram. The Kwan diagram represents earth, and earth is just the soil, (from •which things grow) ; the position assigHed this diagram is the south- ■west, and the time that which borders on summer and autumn, when the energies of earth are most flourishing, and all living things depend upon the fatness of the soil for their nourishment and growth. The Kwan diagram (or earth) puts forth its utmost strength for the bene- fit of living things ; that which is not sparing in the nourishment it provides, is this same Kwan diagram (or earth.) And its being thus
€nabled to nourish living things, is entirely owing to the one 'fff (Supreme) Ruler, who superintends the whole ; hence it is said, that he causes nature to be serviceable under the K\> an diagram. The position assigned to the T'huy diagram is the west, and the period appropriated to it is the autumnal equinox ; the prevailing quality of this diagram is delight, for when all the productions of the soil are well-housed, there is satisfactiou and delight. Thus that which causes things to be delighted, is the T'huy diagram (or harvest,) and its being thus enabled to delight living things, is entirely owing to the one ^ (Supreme) Ruler, who governs the whole ; hence it is eaid, that he causes expressions of delight to be put forth under the T'huy diagram. The position assigned to the Keen diagram is the north-west, and the period appropriated to it is the bordering of the autumnal upon the winter quarter, when the female principle of na- ture is more full, and the male is beginning to decline ; at this time the
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leaves begin to fade and fall ; thus the contending of the principles of
nature, is a contending caused by the 'tp (Supreme) Ruler. The K'han diagram, when viewed in relation to the five elenients, is repre- sentative of water, the position assigned to it is the north quarter, the period appropriated to it is raid-winter. Now when living things obtain water, they increase and grow, hence th^s is the diagram re- presentative of soothing and gratification, rest and preservation, in the day when the myriad of things revert to th«ir root and give up their
lives ; but still it is the ^f Supreme Ruler that causes them thus to revert ; hence he is said to soothe and gratify under the K'han dia- gram. The positon of the Kan diagram is the north-east, and the time appropriated to it that which borders between winter and spring. At this period, the living energies of the preceding year having been gathered up, thit is the way in which tliey complete their termina- tion ; the living energies of the next year are again put forth, which is the way in which they accomplish their commencement. Thus when we see living things completing their termination, we recognize
the ^3? (Supreme) Ruler managing their completion ; and when living things accomplish their commencement, we recognize the same
'j^ (Supreme) Ruler opening out their coinmencement ; hence it is said, that he completes the account under the Kan diasrram.
Then follows a chapter referrins: to the f^ mysterious operations of nature, which, as it will be better elucidated by considering it in its proper connection, we bring in here. In order to understand it, we must bear in mind that there were two schools which constructed schem'^s of the diagrams, one under Fuh-he, and the other und^r Wnn-wang, the former called yQ ^ the school of the earlier ancients, and the latter
f^ 5^ ^'^* school of the later ancients." These schools differ principally in the position which they assign to the dia- grams ; the one assuming, what the Chinese call, ^ yg the
divided management, and the other ^ ^ the blended ope- ration. The position assigued by Fuh-he to the eight dia- grams, is as follows : ^g Keen, or heaven, in the south, and J^ Kwan, or earth, in the north ; ^^ Le, or fire, in the east, and i^ K'han, or water, in the west ; '^ Chin, or thunder, in the north-east, and ^ Seuen, or wind, in the south-west ; ^ Kan, or hills^ in the north-west, and ^ T'huy, or seas, in the south-east. Wan-wang's arrangement, however, was different ; he assigned the Chin, or thunder diagram, to the cast ; the Seuen, or wind diagram, to the south-east ; the LS, or fire diagram, to ihe south ; the Kwan, or earth diagram, to the south-west ; the T'huy, or sea diagram, to the west ; the Keen, or heaven diagram, to the north-west ; the K'han,
239
oi" water dictgram. to the north; and the Kaii, or hill diagraro, to the north-east. We must also notice a division of the dia- grams, which is referred to by the Chinese writers, viz. that into parents and children, the diagrams for heaven and earth being considered the parents, or major, and the other six, the children, or minor diagrams. Bearing these various arrange- fhents in mind, we shall be better able to understand the fol- lowing account of the chapter under consideration, given by the Chinese coamientator.
The scheme of tlie diagrams invented by the later ancients speaks of the divided management of tlie six minor diagrams, while that ascribed to the earlier ancients refers to the mutu- al blending of the same; the formation and transformation of the myriad of things is fully treated of in this scheme of the later ancients. The whole chapter speaks generally of the substance of their antithetical arrangement, and after- wards of their uses when flowing out into action. The male and female principles of nature can, when they blend toge- ther and co-operate with one another, produce and complete the myriad of things. On enquiring into the doctrine of Chang-tsze, regarding the one ff(^ inscrutable operation, and the two transforming powers, we shall find, that the six mi- nor diagrams of the earlier ancients are respectively counter- parts of each other, hence he speaks of two transforming powers, which is the setting up of the substance of the dia- grams. But the transformations referred to by the later an- 4cients, which complete the formation of things, are the trans- iormations of the two principles of nature • which is the car- ying out of thete into their uses. It is then the inscrutable union of these two transforming powers into one, which is here called the jjj^ mysterious operation of nature.
Having thus placed the reader in a position to understand what the Chinese think of the chapter now to be treated of, we will proceed to s».t before him the cliapter itself.
"The fjljj inscrutable (operation of nature) may be de- nominated ihe most mysterious of all things : in a^ritating the myriad of things (here is nothing more rapid than thunder; in twnlmg the myriad of things there is nothing more effective than wind ; in diying up the myriad of things, there is no- thing more parching than fire ; in satisfying the myriad of things, there is nothing more gratifying than (he deep; in moistening the myriad of (hings, there is nothiuir more humid than water; in bringing to a conclusion and again commenc- ing the myriad of things, there is nothing niore perfect than the Kan diagram, (representing hill?. n\^'d corresponding to the wmter season.) Thus the water and lite overtakinn- and
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blending with each other, the thunder and vrind not opposing one another, while the hills and seas are pervaded with the same breath, then can (nature) perform her transformations, and complete and perfect the myriad of things."
The comraeatalor says, That this sentence leaves out the major diagrams Co( heaven and earth, ^ and merely speaks of the minor dia- grams (of thunder and wind, fire and wat«r, seas and hills,) in order
to exhibit what is performed by the jj^ inscrutable (operations of na- ture) ; yet the arrangement observed is in accordance with the dispo- sition of the diagrams in the preceding sentence, while at the close the writer explains their meaning.
The paraphrasa says, The mysterious use of the six minor diagrams of the later ancients, it nothing different fromjhe substantial antithesis of the same as arranged by the earher ancients. The myriad of things changing and transforming, each corresponding to its peculiar season without failure, leaving nothing incomplete, and constituting itself
thus, \without knowing how it came to be thus, may be called the ][i^ inscrutable [operation of nature.] This mysterloui [operation] seems no where present, and yet there is no place where it is not pre- sent ; it does not appear to act, and yet there is nothing that it does not act upon, hence it may be called the most wonderful of all things. To arouse the living principle of the myriad of things, there ii nothing so rapid as thunder ; the inscrutable (operation of nature) does not agitate things, and yet that by which the thunder agitates things is this inscrutable (operation ) To twirl about and scatter the concre- tions and knotti'igs of the myriad of things, there is nothing so effec- tual as wind ; the inscrutable operation of nature does not twirl about things, and yet that by which the wind twirls about things, is just this inscrutable operation. To dry up the myriad of things, and harden and consolidate them, there is nothing so parching as fire (or the sun) ; the inscrutable operation of nature does not dry up things, and yet that by which the fire dries up things, is just this inscrutable (operation.) To satisfy the myriad of things and fill them to the full, there is nothing so humid as water"; the inscrutable operation of na- ture does not satisfy things, and yet that by which the deep satisfies things, is just this inscrutable (operation.) To complete and recom- mence the myriad of thin-^s, to collect the existing and make it revert to the non existiiitr; agiiin within th« non-existing to contain the germ of the existing:, there is nothing so perfectly adapted lor effecting all this as the Kan diagram ; the inscrutable operation of nature does not conclude and recommence the myriad of things, and yet that by which the Kan diagram concludes and recommences the myriad of things, is just this inscrutable operation. But according to the mysteriout blendins^ of the six minor diagrams, as arranged by the eailier ancients^ the Khan and Le diagrams, or fire and water being placed in antithef- is to each other, the proper parching and moistening are fully prepar- ed ; also the Chin and Seuen diagrams, or thunder and wind, being- made to correspojid with eac^h other, the proper degree of agitating- and twirling is pro\ ided ; farther the Kan and the T'huy diagraniS
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'6y seas and hills being placed opposite to each other, the just propoi- tion of satisfying and completing is attained ; thus the placing of them in antithesis, jn order to establish their Eubstanc«, is just the causing of them to flow and move, in order to enlarge their use ; after which [nature] is able to cause the male principle to cl^ange, and, the female principle to transform, to move and twirl, and scorch, and thus complete the commencement of things; to satisfy and moisten, to begin and finish, and thus complete the termination of things. Thu» the scheme of the later ancients is not after ail different from the moulding and circumscribing alluded to by the earlier ancients.
It is evident, from the above, that the word Shin is to be used in the sense of the inscrutable operation of nature, and is to be under- stood ag meaning mysterious and unsearchable. There is nothing of the antithesis between 'that which is divine and that which is creat- ed,' nor do we read of 'that which is divine not being distant from the crfeature, and yet not contained in the creature ;' as supposed by soiHe, who have quoted this passage with the notes upon it.
Leaving the Book of Diagrams, we pass on to the JSE IS Tsb-chuen, or Tso's Illustration of Confucius' History of his Own Times.
in the 25th year of Seang, tiie duke of Loo, we have an account of the murder of the ruler of the Tse coimtry, by oneofhis subjects, who, having set up a descendant of the deceased monarch on the throne, and constituted himself prime minister, caused the people to enter into a great oath, to defend and support the new government. There was a phi- losopher named Yen-(sze at court, who disapproved of these proceedings, but yet did not think it worthwhile oponly to oppose the murderer ; he therefore took the oath with limita- tions, as follows : " Those who do not agree and side witli the prime minister and his party (and here interrupting iiini- self, with a sigh, he looked up to heaven and said, If I also am not faithful to my prince and devoted to my country) — let them consider the Supreme Ruler." After which he smeared his lips with the blood of the victim.
We merely adduce the above, as the ordy instance we have met with in the Tsb-chuen, besides what has been already quoted, to shew that the Chinese looked Ui the Supreme Ruler to testify to their oaths, and revenge them if broken.
We now pass on to the )^ J^ Chow-le, or Ceremonies appointed by Chow, in the ^rst section, and 33rd page of which we read :
"The lodge-keeper attended to the arrangements of the roy- al lodge, in order to fit it up when occasion called for it. Thus when the king went to offer the great sacrifice to the Supreme Ruler, he spread the carp.-.t and tabic, and set up the large screen. Facing the sun the king sacrificed to the
five ^ RuUrs (who were supposed to preside over the five
Ee
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elements, and the five positions, viz. the four cardinal poinlsi, with the centre ;) he set up the great lodije, and the small lodges, arrfinging a double awning, and a double table ; when the king met the princes of the empire, the same preparations were made ; on the inspection ground, he had to spread a canopy, and arrange a double awning, with a double table : and so on all occasions of sacrifice, he had to spread the sa- crificial tent, and at archery matches, to fit up a double lodge."
In the 2d volume, page 1st, we have an account of the du- ties of the Great Baron, viz.
" To employ felicitous ceremonies to serve the Kwei Shins, and K'hes, supposed to preside over the country :" he had also " to employ a pure sacrifice, in order to sacrifice to the Supreme Ruler of the Glorious Heavens." Here the com- mentator tcllB us, that speaking of the form and substance (stretched over our heads) we called it heaven ; but speaking of the liord and Governor of the same, we call him t^ God.
At the end of this chapter we have some remarks by the commen- tator which must not be omitted. " The Chow-le sometimes speaks of Heaven, and sometimes of the Ruler, and then of the Supreme Ru- ler, and then again of the Five Rulers ; and lastly ofth« Supreme Ruler of the Glorious Heavens. Thus the Great Baron was directed 'to sacrifice to the Supreme Ruler of the Glorious Heavens, with a pure sacrifice ;' and was separately required 'with an azure gem to do obei*^ance to Heaven.' So the keeper of the tignets was directed ' to use a quadruple sceptre, with a single base, to do homage to Hea- ven,' and was besides ordered to ' do sacrifice to the Supreme Ruler.* Thus then the Supreme Ruler is not identical with Heaven, neither is Heaven synonymous with the Supreme Ruler ef the Glorious Hea- vens. Again, ' the keeper of the lodges had to offer a great sacrifice to the Supreme Ruler, spreading the mat and table, and setting up the great ■creen :' .^hile he had ' to face the sun and do obeisance to tlie five Ruleri, setting up the great lodge and the small lodges.' So also ' the keeper of the wardrobe had to [prepare the felicitous robe for the eroperyrj while he worshipped the Supreme Ruler of the Glo- rious Heavens, wearing a wide fur-dress and a crown ;' in sacrificing to the five Rulers, tlie same ceremonies were to be emjiloyed : thus it is evident, that the five Rulers were not identical with the Supren>e Rulei , and the Supreme Ruler of the Glorious Heavens was different from the five Rulers. But is then the Supreme Ruler indeed diffe- rent from these ? The true state of the case seems to be this : Hea- ven is the general appellation given to the original energy of nature ; and the word Ruler is employed when that energy is displayed. If we speak merely of form and substance, then we use the word Heaven, but if we speak of the Lord and Governor of all, then we use the word
*^ God ; bat when we want to speak of the splendour and purity, the elevation and txpsui/sion ot his energies, we call l»im the Supreme
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Ruler of the Glorioui Heavens. When, however, we refer to the five elements of water, fire, wood, metal, and earth, which are assigiied by philoiophers to the five cardinal points (or the four points of the compass *ad the centre), over which they are supposed alternately to preside, we then use the phrage five Rulers : but when we wish to unite the idea of the glorious heaveng, combining it with the notion of the five Rulers, and collect all together into one object of worship, whose throne \% on high, Jind cannot otherwise find any single apella- tion for that Being, we then in one word designate him the Supreme Ruler. But we understaud that the Glorious Ruler controls the five elements, and revolves the trunsformations of nature, while the five Rulers aid the Glorious Ruler in nourishing men and things, as children do a parent, from whom they cannot be separated. So that when K'hang-chung thought that ' the Supreme Ruler was tynony- mous with the Five Ruleri, and not equal to Heavtn,' also when Wang'-Buh considered ' the Supreme Ruler to be identical with Hea- ven, and not equal to the Five Rulers,* they \»erc both mistaken."
We consider the above remarks as very conclusive, and go to ihew that by the Supreme Ruler, who wa« the chief object of worship, and whose throne was on high, controlling the elements, and revolving the transformations of nature, the Chinese meant none other than the Su- preme God. And we take the opportunity of remarking here, that though we have, with reference to the usual acceptation of the term,
generally rendered the word r\T Te, Ruler, yet there can be little doubt, but that in this connection, and in all the instances which we have adduced above, the word should be rendered God ; in fact T^, as we shall be obliged to confeis in the sequel, is the generic name for God, and Shang te, by parity of reason, must mean the Supreme God. On the 16tli page of the lame volume, we read, '' When the armiei march, or kings go out to hunt, they should make uie of a sacrificial animal at the altar of the lares and in the ancestorial temple, while they assign the places for the different objects of worship. They should also use a sacrifice correspondin;^ (to the celestial one) and ap- proach in worship towards the Supreme Ruler. They should likewise throw up altars of earth to the great Shim (viz. the lares and the genii of the great mountains), while they sacri- fice to the hills and rivers, where the army has to pass, in the ■ame'way."
On the 21st page of* the same volume, we read, " The k:ee[)er of the signets should then use a quadruple sceptre with one base, to do homage to Heaven, and to sacrifice to the Supreme Ruler ; -also a double sceptre with a single base, in order to pay homage to earth."
On the 54th page of the same section, we read furthei:, '*0n all occasions of great sacrifices (to the celestial Shins), of religioui services (in the ancestoral temple,) and of ho- mage done (to the terrestrial K'hes), the vTorshipi:)er should hold the clear fire and water (indicative of the sun and moon),
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-while he presents his prayers. When kings go out to war,, sacrifices should be offered at the altar of the lares, and ser- vices performed in the ancestorial temple ; an altar to the lares should also be set up in the midst of the camp, while a sacri- fice corresponding (to the celestial one) should be presented to the Supreme Ruler."
The Taoii-tih-king has only one passage, in which the
word 1^ (Supreme) Ruler is found, but it is of such impor- tance, that we shall give the whole chapter in which it is con- tained, in order to assist our readers to a right understanding of it. The subject of the chapter is ^ Taoii, for which we are at a loss to discover any single term sufficient to express the meaning. We have been accustomed to render it the right way, the fitness of things, the principle of right, <fcc. but we are not certain whether it does not approach very nearly to the Logos of the Greeks, and the Reason of the moderns. In the beginning of the book, the writer says, " The Taou (or road) that can be Taou-ed (travelled) is not the constant Taou : the name that can be named is not the everlasting name." Upon which the commentator says, The Taou has originally no name ; it is called Taou, and no more ; if you say that it is like a road that may be travelled, then this is not the constant and unchangeable way. The next sentence is, "That which cannot be named is the beginning of heaven and earth ; that which can be named is the parent of the my- riad of things." Upon which the commentator says, That the nameless one is the Taou, from whence heaven and earth spring ; while the one that can be named is the energy of nature, from which all things are produced. These sen- tences will give us some slight idea of what the Taou-ists mean by Taou ; we will now proceed to set forth the chapter first referred to,
" Taou is emptiness, and in applying it to use, men may perhaps be able to avoid extreme fulness ; it is a ^reat deep, and apparently the master of the myriad of things."
The commentator says, Taou is emptineis, approaching even ta iion-existenc« ; and yet if you take and apply it to the multitude of ex- istences, it wonld without doubt pervade even the grandeur of heaven and earth, and the vastness of hills and rivers. Being immaterial, it seema as if it might avoid the extreme of fulness. A great deep conveys the idea of depth and subtility. The writer knew that Taou was the superior of all things, and yet not daring to speak di- rectly to the point, he said, it is apparently the superior of all things.
Another commentator says, Emptiness refers to the emptiness of a vessel. The word " perhaps" is a dubious expression, intimating that the writer did not dare to be certain about the matter. The sub- stance of Taou is emptiness ; when men make use of it, therefore,
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they should study inanity, and avoid fulneiJi, because fulness is the opposits of Taou. A great deep is that which cannot be fathomed. A master is the same as a superior to many subordinates. A superi- or is the leader or head of a class. Taou is the head of the myriad of things: hence the expression of the text. The word "apparently" also conveys the idea of indecision.
'^ We must break off the poiat, and unravel the intricacy • w« must blend the brightness, and assimilate the dustiness •' ihen we shall have the Taou clear, and it would appear as if it might be preserved."
The commentator says, No man is destitute of Taou, but only sagei can carry it out to perfection. They break off the point, lest it should pass over to nothing ; they unravel the intricacy, lest it should be dragged into connection witli other things : not ha'ving a tendency to pass over to nothing, nor to be dragged into connection with other things, then external evils would be avoided, and the in- ward light would spring up. It is necessary still to go on and blend it, Ust it should be altogether distinct from other things, and then the inward light would be pure. Dust is the most mixed of all things, but even dust should invariably assimilate with all other things for fear lest it should be rejected from the number of things ; after this it may be perfect, and its clearness may be constantly preserved. But although it is preserved, yet no one knows it, hence it is saif'., it would appear as if it might be preserved.
Another commentator says. To break, means, (o break off. A point, means, an iron point at the end of a ipear. Intricacy, means, knots and ravelings. Knots are untied with a horn, for which purpose the tip is used. Every point will after a time become blunt, and therefore it is better that we ourselves rub off the tip ; in order to un- ravel knots, we do not want it very sharp-pointed ; and then after all there would never come a time when it would appear to be blunted. To blend, is the same as to level, and conveys the idea of screening or covering the brightness ; it means, to bring it to the same level, so that there should be no difference. When a mirror receives a little dust, it is not bright: all brightness will after a time become dim : therefore it is better ourselves to obscure the brightness, that it may be assimilated to the dustiness of yonder (mirror), and lest it should be extravagantly bright ; then also after all there would come no time when it would appear dark. Now all sharp-pointed things will some time become blunt, and all bright things will some time become ob- scure, as the full will some time become overflowing. But the Taou abhors extremes, therefore the sharp-pointed is rubbed, that it may not be over-sharp, and the bright is blended, that it may uot be over- dazzling. The sharpness and thz brightnesss, these two " Thes'' be. long to one-self ; the inU-icaciei, and the dust, thest' two '* Thes'' be- long to other things. Former explanations combijled these two sen- tences into one, and assigned one explanation to them, which was wrong. The four sentences mean, that in the use of Taou, ex- tremes must be avoided. Clearness conveys the idea of being settled and fitill. The essence of Taou is vacuity, and that constitutes the stcret Qfits preserration. It appears as if it were preserved ; and really
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there is not one thing preserved therein ; this one sentence shews that the essence of Taou is vacuity.
The next sentence is,
'' I do not know whose son it (viz. Taou) is ; it is prior to the (Supreme) Ruler of the visible (heavens.)
The commentator says, Although the Taou may be constantly preserved, after all we do not know what name to give it, and yet we cannot say that it does not exist ; hence the writer exclaims : Is not this [Taou] prior to the Supreme Ruler ? The Supreme Ruler is the beginning [of all things] ; and yet (for Taou^ to be prior to the rSupreme^ Ruler, would perhaps indicate that there was nothing that could take the precedence of it.
The other commentator says, '' I do not know whose son it is ?"' is the question. " It is prior to the Supreme Ruler of the visible heavens," is the answer. A son is one born of father and mother. The Supreme Ruler of the visible, means Heaven. The "visible" means the heavens that we see. The Supreme *' Ruler," means the Lord and Governor of heaven. The wliole sentence means, " af- ter all whose son is this Taou ? Heaven is prior to tiie myriad of things, and yet Taou ii prior to heaven, shewing that heaven pro- ceeds from Taou, and that nothing could exist prior to Taou."
Without stop[)i ng to decide on the exact meaning to be as- signed to the word Taou, whether reason, the fitness of things, or J.he Divine Logos ; and without entering into the question of assigning to Taou a priority to Heaven or its Lord, we cannot help seeing that the word Ruler is here used for the Lord and Governor of Heaven, and that the Taouists understand that word, in the sense of the Supreme Being. ._^jj^ ^« »j^
In the ^zL W /!y ^ ^^^ kwan meaou king, a classic of the Taou sect, the S ^ Three Powers, ruling over heaven,
earth, and sea, are called S '^ ^ '^ ^ ^ S the Tri- ple Ruler, the Great God, ancl the merciful and gracious Lord. The title of the first is, ^' The upper chief, with his nine-fold energies, the Ruler of Heaven, who confers happi- ness, the gloriously spiritual y\^^ Great God, of essential brightness, and frovernor of the purple ^mlace." The title of the second is, - The middle chief, wiih his seven-fold energies, the Ruler of earth, who forgives sins, the profoundly spiri- tual jZ ^ Great God of pure vacuity, and governor of' the green dragon palace." Tlie title of the third is, " The lower chief, with his fivc-iold energies, the Ruler of the seas, who
saves from calamity, the gold-like spiritual y^ \^ Great God of profound darkness, the governor of the dark valley.'* In the above titles, we cannot fail to remark on the use to
which the word f^ Te is applied, and sec no way of trans- lating itj but by rendering it God.
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III an ode wliicli occurs in the same classic, we have the
title 5^ Jtfe "^K ^ '^ ^'^^ ^od who is the ruler of heaven, earthy and sea.
In an appendix to the same classic, the votary is told, that ''if he will recite this work, every word and letter of which is true, and capa- ble of piocuring the fotgiveness of sins and the conferring of happi- ness, then all the Jtl ^ Supreme Rulers of the various heavens, together with the sages of the ten regions, on hearing the recitation, Mill be greatly delighted."
We quote tliis merely to shew, that the word Supreme Ruler is ca- pable of assuming the plural form, which some have affected to doubt ; and to shew that according to the system of the Taouists, each one of the thirty-three heavens has its Supreme Ruler, who is supreme in his own celestial dominion.
In the ifll^fA^ Im Shin seen t'hung keen, a mythologi- cal history of China, whicli appears to be a work got up by the sect of Taoii, we meet with the following expreisiong :
" The Supreme Ruler of the glorious Heavens, is the Lord and Governor of the three powers of nature, managing the very franie and axle of the universe."
" Chnen-heuh said, You may sacrifice to the Supreme Ruler, and pay court to the host of princes."
" Chuen-heiih, being apprehensive lest there should be any mistake about the years and months in future, invented the astronomical calculations, and thus at the four quarters of the moon, previous to the time of full and change, people were able to go forth and welcome the coming period ;" a- gain, '' at the solstices he erected an altar in the southern border, to sacrifice to the Supreme Ruler." Again " he made six water-pots, in the centre of which he did homage to the Supreme Ruler." Further on we have an account of what has already been met with in the Book of Odes, '' the empress Keang-yuen, with the emperor, presented a pure offering to the Supreme Ruler, (upon which the commentator remarks, that there was no object pointed at on this occasion, but it was merely intended to refer to the Lord and Governor of high heaven.) When the sacrifice was ended, she went out into the fields, where she saw a giant footstep, and eagerly trod in it, whereupon she felt a movenient in her body as though she had conceived, and after the usual period brought forth a eon. Keang-yuen thought it was infelicitous, and improper- ly placed the infant in a narrow road leading to the river, when the oxen and sheep all avoided treading on it; on the contrary, the animals cherished it, and removed it into the wood ; after this some people going into the forest to cut timber, observed a she-wolf giving it suck ; when they all shouted out and drove the wolf away. K^ang-yuen then
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sent some one to look at the child, and finding that it was still alive, she placed it on the ice, in the midst of a river, when the birds collected about it, some sheltering it with their fea^ thers, and some bearing it on their wings. Keang-yuen then thought that there was something miraculous in the boy, and look it home to nourish it."
'* Shiin directed Yii to regulate the waters, and save the lives of the people, which work Yu did not dare to decline, and was just about to commence the undertaking, when some one announced that a priest of Taou had come to pay him a visit ; on being admitted, the priest said, 1 have heard that you wish to level the country and drain ofT the waters, that you may save and deliver the people ; the Supreme Ruler has engaged me to come and assist you ; I have a signet, which, as long as yousarry it about with you, will, enable you to pass over dangers without injury, also a needle, which will discover the depth of the water ; likewiie a rliarm, which will enable you to tranquillize the water. Yu was delighted and accepted of the gift."
Then follows a remarkable passage, in Vol III. Chap. 5. page 6.
" The Great ^ Shiin, observing that the seven powers, (viz. the sun, moon, and five planets) were all equally ar- ranged, knew that a celestial decree ordering this must exist somewhere ; therefore when he took charge of the affairs of the emperor Yaou, he arranged all tlie matters relative to the government, and sacrificed to heaven and earth at the round hill ;and after presenting offerings, announced (to Heaven,) the fact of his having taken charge of the government. On this occasion, looking up, he thought to himself, in this azure expanse of heaven, where the original energies of na- ture are thus bright and expansive, how is it possible that there can be no ^ ^ Ruler to govern all? he therefore thought upon an exalted title for this power, and called him ^5^ Jl 'i^ ''^-^e high Ruler of the glorious heavens," and ^ ^ ;fC ?!? " ^J^® g^^^^ ^^^ who is the Lord of hea- ven," as being titles most adapted for J^ 5^ high Heaven j from which we may see that Shiiu's virtue united with hea- ven, and that he respectfully attended to the origin of thing« without being misled."
In the Buddhistic Classics, w^e cannot at present turn to any passages in which the words Shang te arc used, but in the )^ aS f £ Ching taou ke, a work belonging to that school, we hav'e the word 'j^ Te, frequently prefixed to ^
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Sbih, and used in the sense of r.he God Sli'li-kea-nuin-a, who is spoken of rej)eatedly as the ^C 3E ' -^^^'^ ^^ Heaven . we have also in thf^ same book the expression 5^ 'J^j' u:^e<J for the God of heaven. We pass on now to more modern works, and taking up th«
^ ^ >C ^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^"'^"' tseih, oi documents drawn up by and for the emperors of the present dynasty . st-ot '43, paj^e It}, we find a reference to T havwanj, and hJ^ ^urcessoi!« of the Chow dynasty, who are said to be all - ni»<l«^r ihv. ifisipectiou of the Supreme Ruler, while tliey were placed ovrfi the inf«*rior people." On the next page, the writer r.fers to the orit^in of the present Tartar family, sayi no that the ^ "^ divine lady, the ^ ^ celestial virgin, swallowed a red bead, and brought forth a holy son, (the ancestor of the present iin[)eri- al family,) to whom the "^ (Supreme) Ruler gave the sur- Dame of ^ i^ Ghioro. (See a fuller account of (his mat- ter in Morrison's View of China, for philosophical f»urposes.) On the 19th page, speaking of the good government of one of the ancestors of the pregrnt family, the. writer says, that " bright sparklings of glory ascend^^d up to hi:^h f^eaven, and the Supreme Ruler adopted him as his ^on, until, after a suc- cession of years, Shun-che, (complyitig with the wishes of the people, who had reverted to th^ gvSat pure, dynasty, and obeying the will of Heaven, who had rejected Ming ) ascended the throne. He ascertained that the f|^ f§ regalia of the em- pire belonged to hhn, and that the d3cr(v of the 'jff fvSu- preme) Ruler, no longer favourinjr the former dvna'^ty, had regarded with complacency the Tartar rd<;(;.''
In the ^^1^ Yuchashe, Odes cornporip.d by tlipim- perial family, section 1st, 17th page, Yung-ching 'describes the offering up of the celestial sacrifice at the southern bor- der, at the period of the win er solstice, when he enuruerates the glories of his house, from hi.** first ancestors to the period of hisown reign, thus expressing himself: '^ L-tthe burnt sa- crifice ascend, let the pile burn brightly, spread out tlic sa- crificial vessels, let them be pure and cleaii, whilst that I. the insignificant one, respectfully present my azure sceptre- and wait for the bright and intellige ff 'r^ [[[^ spirit of the (Supreme) Ruler, to approach and regard the ofT^-ring.'"
Infection VIII. page 19, of th- sa^rv^ won?, we niem witfj the following: "How distant appears the canopy of heaven, when the sacrifice is offered at the southern border : the Worshippers stand in front with veneration :nid n we. while the Supreme Ruler vouchsafes his presence. ■ The aaoieiu
Ff
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ceremonies nre our paUern, on iliis auspiciou;* iriori). whilst we strike np the musical stones, and the i^oideii bells, and present the rich soups and generous wines : on each side arc arranged the eiiJ:ht bands of sombre-clad attend-iiUs, arid the brandishers of feathers with their variegated hues: having thus invited the Supreme Ruler to partake of the sacrifice, we al- so do honour to his attendant Shins; look do\Tn therefore on our purity of motive, and bestow on us a fruitful year."
lu another collection of Imperial Odes, section Yll. page 19, we read, " At the celestial sacrifice, presented at the southern border, the otTerings are arranged, when the vases and vessels, though in conformity with ancient models, are all made new ; at the period of the winter soUtice, and the »e- cond day of the moon, the six pipes are all in harmony, while the season is again verging towards spring : having induced him gloriously to approach, we presume to say, that we have gratified by our sacrifices the Su[)reme Ruler."
In section 52, page 27, we have an Ode entitled the Palace of Glorious Protection, which says, " Again we come to the region whence our kings arose, let us then talk of looking up to the palace of glorious protection ; be respectful w^hile you call upon the spirits at the golden gateway, be reverential as you gradually ascend the pearly steps, then reflect on the timewlieji our fortunes were first founded, and looking up with veneration to the glorious c«nopy of heaven, remember that your holding the sceptre depends on the protection of •^ the (Supreme) Ruler, and the establishment of your fa- mily on the throne is the result of his mysterious operation."
In all of the above instances, the teims Kulei and Supreme Ruler, are all elevated to the top ofthe page ; and it is evident, from the tenor of the \vliol<;, tlia* the Chinese of modern days intend by thef e cxpres- eions the Lord and Governor of all things.
Wo will now turn to the most modern book issued in Chi- na, where the publication of a new work is a rarity, and in the loth Section of Commissioner Lin's Geography, wc meet with a discussion relative to the religion of western nations, which is both curious and useful to our present object, in e- lucidatiiig the ideas which the Chinese attach to the w^ords Supreme Ruler and Heaven's Lord ; we shall therefore draw largely upon it.
A person called YifH^-seen-sang, of the Hcih district, in Hwuy-chow, lias undertaken to write a refutation of the er- rors ofthe European religion, in which he refers to a work published by LVtsob-pTh, saying,'' That Heaven's Lord, the Supreme Ruler, opened out heaven and earth, and produced the first human pair, male and female, who dwelt ill the country of Judea, whih- the surrounding countries were
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aU nniiihabited. At that period men served one Lord, and honoured one religion, so that heretical and contending modes of faith had no existence. Afterwards men increased in nnmbers, and spread abroad on the facp. of tlu; earth, until the eastern and western worlds were inhabited. " Now the itudent of history, says our objector, on examining the ac- counts of those early times, and comparing dates, will find, that the poriod reft^rred to accords with the age of Fuh-he, or thereabouts, when, accordinoj to the above account, China first became inhabited. But this he says, would be to take China and derive it from Judea, or to Judaize it alto- gether. The writer above quoted s?oes on to say. that " in the times of Yaou and Shun, and during the three dynasties of Hea, Shang, and Chow, princes and ministers issued their orders from the court, while sages and wise men handed down instructions to posterity ; every now and then alluding
to Heaven, whom they called ^ the (Supreme) Ruler, in or- der to warn and overawe one another. Thus the Histori- cal Classic talks of ' luminously receiving the decree of the Supreme Ruler ;' the Book of Odes, exclaims, ' Behold Wan- wang in the realms above, how gloriously do3s he shine in heaven ! behold him ascending and descendinqr in the pre- sence of the Supreme Ruler.' The Lun-yii also says, 'He who offends against Heaven, can have no one to entreat for him.' The Happy Medium declares, that ' the celestial and terrestrial sacrifices are those by which men serve the Su- preme Ruler;' while Menclns talks of 'rejoicing in Heaven, fearing Heaven, and serving Heaven ;' are not all these slen- der exhibitions of the relis^ion of Heaven ?" (the title given by the Romanists to the Christian religion.) To which our objector replies. According to this, then, that which you call Heaven's religion was prior to the religion of China. Alae ! to what Icu'iths do m3n of litile minds go, who have no fear of shame! not thinkiiig that the empire at present existing lias been brou;^ht to its present pitch by the three emperors and five rnlers of antiquity. But Mr. T:'ob-pih would make out that the sage princes and wise ministers of successive generations are the descendants of Ju3 heretical teachers ; and that the Six Classics and Four Books are but the slender ex- hibitions of his ^o-called celestial religion. In what way then would he disiiniruish the princes and ministers of our present Great Pure Dynasty from the dcicendants of his here- tical religionists ?"
After varions discussions, the writer go°g on to detail the views of Europeans regarding religion, as follows :— •' Heav^en could not constitute itself heaven, no more than the myriad of things could form themselves as they now exist : th^re must
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have been one to create all these things, aad afterward* tUty rnu'd be called iulo existence. Heaven's Lord is the origin of all existences : his being it causeless, while he is the cause of all being. He is far exalted above form or sound, and does not enter into the lanks of the visible and audible. It was He who out of nothing created all things : without requir- ing the aid of materials t>r instruments, or the lapse of time. He first made innumerable angels and disembodied spi- rits ; after which be formed man. But before he made man, he made heaven and earth, and the various kinds of things, to overspread and uphold, and support and nourish human beitigs : thus he first formed heaven and earth, and birds and beasts, and fishes and reptiles, and plants and trcas, after which he made man^ one male and one female, named Adam and Eve, to be the parents of all living. Thus heaven had a begin- ning, but heaven's Lord had no beginning : that which had ft beginning is produced from that which had no beginning ; on whiph account, the former of all things is called Heaven's Lord." After this the writer asks, ^' But who was Jesus ?' To which he furnishes the answer : Heaven's Lord. Again he asks, ' But Heaven's Lord must be employed in ruling and governing heaven and earth and the myriad of things, how came he to be born into the world ?" To which the answer is given, That Heaven's Lord pitied the race of Adam, who had fallen into sin, and entailed misery on successive generations, and therefore himself ber-.nme incarnate to save mankind. Again the question is asked, '^ When was Jesus born into the world ?" to which the answer is supplied, In the second year of Gae-te, of the Han dynasty. Whereupon the Chinese ob- iectov bursts out in the following strain. " Alas ! to what an extent do lies and fabrication j)roceed ? Now we know that heaven is concreted and arranged by the two energies of na- ture, and is not created by any one. But supposing that hea- ven had a Lord, then all included in its ovefspreadings and supportings. throughout the myriad of states, and within the four seas, would invariably be under the government of Hea- ven's Lord, and there would be no such thing as his confining himself to the government of one little Judea. If he only ruled over the one country of Judea, how could he be called Heaven's Lord ? Since he is entitled Heaven's Lord, then heaven above and earth beneath, and the myriad of states within the four seas, amongst the multitude of things, all would depend upon the regulaiions of Heaven's Lord. Now when Heaven's Lord came down into the world for 33 years, who managed the affairs of the univerte for him 1 and if hea- ven and earth had for the time no one to ruler and govern the univerie, then heaven would not have revolved, nor earth havg
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nourished life, nor human beings been able to maintain their existence, nor would plants have grown, while the myriad of tilings would have been almost extenninated. When Heaven's Lord did come down into the world, he oui,'ht to have trana- formed those whom he casually met with, and have brought to the state of mysterious intelligence all with whom he con- stantly resided : h(»- ought to have been an example of benevo* lence, and discoursed on forbearance, until he had brought (he whole world to a state of glorious splendour : but he seems to have been ignorant of such great schemes, and to have pre- ferred the displays of little favours, such as the healing of people's sicknesses, and the raising of their dead to life, the walking on the water, and conjurations about eating; while he made it his business to save men from hell and get them to heaven. How then could he accomplish the happiness of a whole world, by abolishing vice and drawing over to virtue, in order to bring men back to the original state in which they were formed ? These people say, that Buddha is gone down into hell, never to come out again ; but who has seen this 1 Moreover Jesus himself, when on earth, was nailed to the cross, which was a being exposed to the tree of knives, and the sea of misery, iu his own person ; how could he be the Lord and Governor of heaven, earth, and all things, when h • could not be the Lord over his own person and save his own life ? If he were the Supreme Ruler who created the world, how could people have cut and hacked him as they chose ? These people rob and plunder the Bitddhists of their super- abundant froth and spiune about heaven s hail and earth's pri- son, (heaven and hell) and yet tliey go and revile Buddha. Even the doctors of rhe Taou sect never plundered Buddha, and yet railed on him, to such an extent as this. Moreover they draw expressions from the sect of the learned, and yet they abuse the learned. Thus they are continually quoting what the Six Classics say about the Supreme Ruler, and in- sist upon his being the Lord of heaven, saying. The azure heavens are the servants of the Supreme Ruler. The hea- vens above lie partly to the east and partly to the west, be- insf without head and body, without arms and legs, thus they are not worthy to be honoured. Moreover the earth beneath, is what all our feet tread upon, and the place to which all de- filements flow down, how can that be worthy of regard ? To which we should say, continues the Chinese writer, that not to honour heaven and earth, and only to honour the Supreme Ruler, is reasonable, but to adore Jesus as the Supreme Ru- ler is unreasonable. For supposing Jesus to have been tru- ly and perfectly a sage of celestial virtue, he would certainly with one word have become an example for future agcs^ and
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witli one acUias-e difFused his fiivonrs over all within the four seas. In the samo manner as Fuh-be and Wan-wan^, iUusfratrd the forms of the diagrams ; or as Yaoii and Shun carried out to the utmost good govf^rnment : or as the Great Yii drained off the waters ; or as Chow-kung settled ceremo- nies and music ; or as Confucius illustrated reason and vir- tue : all which were meritorious deeds that will live for my- riad* of ages. Now did Jesus perform any one of all these 1 If he considered it such an act of merit to heal people's dis- ease!, and to raise men from the dead, these were only mat- ters such a« the great physician Hwa-to, or such as priests and conjurers could perform, and not the business of a great sage; still less the business of the lord and ruler of heaven, earth, and all things. If he looked upon this as a merit, how is it that he did not exempt people altoi^ether from sick- ness and death, which would have been a much greater act of merit. Even supposing that the spirit of the Suprems Ru- ler extensively pervaded each individual, and healed every sick person, and raised every dead person met with, still those who met with Jesus would be but few, and those who did not meet with him would be innumerable, where then would be the merit of savin.^ the world ?"
• Cotninissioncr Lin adds a note of his own, at the end pf this article, to th'T effect that, as far as he had read the Gospel, Jesus calls himself the Son of the Supreme R'der, \Yhile he calU the Supreme Ruler his Father ; but he says that he has not met with one place in which Jesus is directly called God.
A mati of the name of ^^ Jj^ Wei'-yuen, of the district of ^ [5^ Shaou-yang, in th-. prefecture of ^ ^ Pabu-k'hing, in the province of *]jj]j j^ IIo>nrin, the compiler of the whole work, in conjunction with Commissioner Lin, then gives us a long dissertation on the Christian Religion, in which he enumerates the books of the New Testament, and then details generally (he lineage of Jesus with the period of his birth ; after which he says, that his moth-^r Mary mira- •ulously conceived, when she was informed by a vision, that her offspring would be the Son of the Supreme Ruler, who was coming down into the world, to effect a reformation of mankind on behalf of Heaven. When this child was grown up, the writer says, he perfornr^d various miracles, which he briefly describes, aft^r which, he says, that he was cru- cified, and died, but rose again on the third day, and ae- cended to Hoaven, where he sat down at the right hand of the Supreme Ruler. The object of his incarnation and suf- ferings, the writei fells us, was to redeem mankind from sin, and bring them to 'happin.;ss and heaven. He then quotes part
'1)0
of the first chapter of.Iolm. .'\nd irives a ?«iun:nary of whal, Fse has gathered as tiie subsiance of liie (^laistiaii Reliiion, comi- mencing with the statement, i hat all the nations of Europe acknowledge and honour only one Supreme Ruhr, besides wliom they do not oifer prayers to any. " Now the Supreme Iluler existed previously to lieaven and earth, nnd ihere is no possibdity of ascertaining fr(,ui wfiencc he came, but it ap- pears that he is omnis-ient, onmipotent, and omnipresent, in- finitely just, supremely great, all-wise, and all-true, on whom every man should rely ; for among w^inds and thunder^ clouds «nd rain, sun and moon, stars and planetf, planti and trees, flowers and trrat^B, birds and beasts, fishes atid insects, with whatever heaven over-shadows and earth sustains, there is not one single thing that has not been created by the Supreme Ruler ; hence he is called the Father of Heaven, the Saviour of the world, and the Holy Spirit, while in reality he is only one Supreme Ruler. Antoug the truths most important for men to know^ ore, First, every man born into the world, has received all he possesses from Heaven ; having therefore re- ceived every j^ift from Heaven, then our bodies and minds are all sprung from the Supreme R.uler, and the Su[)reme Ruler is our universal Parent. Should not children, then, love and honour their parents'! Secondly, Every man is possessed of a soul that will never die ; the souls of those who believe in the Supreme Ruler and practice virtue, will after death en- joy everlasting happiness ; while those who olTend against the Supreme Ruler, and do wickedness, will suffer eternal misery. Thirdly, The Sui)reme Rider has neither form nor sound, nnd lest people should be ignorant of him, he has given u* a book, which began to be indited about the close of the Hea dynasty, and was completed in 2000 years. It is partly written in Hebrew^, the language of Asia, and partly in Greek, the lang^ia^re of Europe."
Then follow copious extracts from a work publi-^htd by the Protestant Missionaries on Theology ; succeeded by a brief ex- position of the Ten Cominnndmenti ; and a tolerably correct view of the gospel plan of salvation, without any cuudemna- tory remarks, or attempted refutaiions.
In the next chapter, the writer gives a list of the different works published by the Roman Catholics, on their first en- trance into China ; in comiiienting upon which he says, that these religionists were well aware, that it would not do to attack the views enteriainid by tlie learned, and therefort3 borrowed from the Six Classics the j)hrase Supreme Ruler, which they applied to the Lord of Heaven ; while they con- tented themselves with attacking the Buddiusts.
, Extract from the ]|y1^ ^ ^]r ^^ Cl>ih-fang-wae-ke, a work
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i
f>f European origin, quoted by Commissioner liio, in his Geography.
** In heaven and earth the most honourable and most dig- nified, the true Lord and great Father of men and things, is only one, namely 5^^ ^ Jt.^ Heaven's Lord the Supreme Ruler, besidis whom tliere ^s no otlier. He is all-wis3, al- mighty, and infinitely goad ; throughout vast and unlimited space, the hosts of jjjl^ ^l^ ^ spirits, men and things, were all created by Heaven's Lord, and all depend upon his pro- tection and support. It is He that presides over the enlarg- ing or limitiuff of the happiness and misery of mm, therefore we ougitt to reverence and love none other than this Heaven's Lord. Bcsids him, whether they be IJi^ spirits or \ men, should they instruci people sincerely to serve Heaven's Lord, they would be good men, and happy spirits ; but should they induce people to seek for happiness and avoid misery, in any other way, they then usurp the prerogative of heaven, and rob hi n of his authority, thus constituting themselves with- out doubt wicked spirits and bad men ; to believe and wor- ship such, would be none othervvise than evil.
We have made the preceding extracts, not so much with the view of shewing what the Ciiinese think of Christianity, as oi" eliciting the notions entertained by the present genera- tion of the Supreme Ruler, and what they think of our prac- tice in adopting the term It will b^seen, by a review of what has been adduced, that th^; mjJern Chinese, like the ancient, entertain the high-.st veneration for Him whom they iiiui designate the Supreme Ruler; that they consider him to b^> the Supreme Disposer of all events, and by no means think of confounding him with any idols, or of associating him in their id-as with the various fabulous deities who have had the epithet Suprem j Ruler added to their names. The Taouists, we know have invented various prefixes to the name in question, and have erected temples to the honour of ^E '^ _h. '^ ''he perfectly pure Supreme Ruler, ^ ^ _t, *^ the Supreme Ruler of the Golden Gateway, ^ ]^ f" *^the Supreme Ruler of the Pearly S tar; 3E ^ jl ^ the Supre ne Ruler and Porf-tct Monarch, ^ ^ J^ '^ the Supreme Ruler of the Sombre Heavens • but it is evident, thsit all these additions to the litle, are substractions from th« dig- nity of the individual intended, inasmuch as they limit or circumscribe the rule of him, who, when spoken of simply and alone, is above all rule, authority, and power. In fact with the exception of onj instance, in which the title Su- premo Ruler, is applied to tiie autocrat of the celestial empire.
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we have not met with au case, throughout the classical wri- ings, iri which the title Supreme Ruler, without any additions, is not applied lb the Supreme Ruler of;heaven and earth, who possesses all pow3r, is entitled to the highest homage and veneration, is tfie origin of heaven, earth, and all things, and decides ou th^ fates of princea and people ac- cording to his will. ^
We will nov^'tiirri'toth^ rnip3rial Dictionary, in order to ascertain the meaning of the terui J^ '^ Shuig te, \yhich we have, hiiheno rendered the Supreme tiuler. Under the word r- Shang, Kan g- he gives the first meaning as above, upon^ to honour y to esteem highly, and quotes a passage, from the Book of Diagrams, to the effect, that those objects w'hich are seen in heaven, as the heavenly bodies, (fee. are near to the wjojwer regions. Under the second class of mean- ings, he sayS, 'Jth'at'" Shang means ^ Keun, a sovereign ; and is the appellation of the jS^ _il '^^ost high, and ^ '^ most honourable ;" thus intimating that the word Shan^ is capable of being applied to one most highly elevated, whether on earth or in heaven ; the expression sovereign referring to the former, and the phrase most high, to the latter. The ipse dixit of one Tsae-yung is then quoted, which says, that " the Upper One, is he who possesses a station of honour and dignity,' and the term is used merely with reference to his su- premacy, without presuming to mention his esteemed appella- tion." In the third place, Kang-he gives the meaning to Shang, as first in order, with reference to days, as f*, ^ the first day; quoting a phrase from the Shoo-kin;', ]£ fj _£ 3- the first day of the first month ; which K'hung-she ex- plains as meaning, the first day of the moon ; while Yc-she says, that it refers to the days of the first decade, as the first )i$ mow day, the first ^ sin day, and the first "J" ting day, ^c. (There being three of such classes of days in'^each month, these refer to the first that occur.) Fourthly, Shang is said to be used as a surname. Fifthly, Read in the uppe° tone, it means to ascend, to mount, to go from a lower place to a higher one. Sixthly, in the sam-i tone, it means to send up, or send in, as documents are sent in to the emperor. Seventhly, it is said to be synonymous with (pj Shang, to emulate, to prefer. In poetry, it frequently changes' its sound, but retains its meaning. Shang also means high. From the above we perceive, that Shang, when applied to a ruler, means the most high and most honourable; froui which we are warranted in translating it Supreme, when ap-
^ g
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plied to Heaven's Potei)tate. In fact, Sliang^ aa an adjective, generally conveys the idea of priority and excellence', above all others ; for instance, J^ ^ Shang kob, means the high- est antiquity ; J;;^ ^ Shang pih, the very whitest ; . Jl ^ Shang habu, the very best ; J^. i Shang sze, a superior scholar ; J^^ ^^ Shang been, and jl ^g* Shang kwan, the highest officers in a district or city; J;^ Jj^ Shang tseang, and _L^ Shang keun, the highest generals in the army ; j^ ^ Shang p'hin^the best sort ; _£ ^ Shang tang, the high- est class ; jt TC Shang yuen, and J^ :^ Shang piin, the the highest origin ; J^ "/jfj Shang lew, the highest part of a river ; JQ j^ Shang che, the best kind of good government ; Jt yV Shang jin, the best kind of men ; J^ ^ Shang haou, a superior; sort of anything; thus also _t.5^ ^hang t'heen, means the highest hearens, and _J^ ^ Shang te, the Supreme Ruler. See page 216, where j[^ Shang alone is used for Su- preme. In connection with this subject, see also John xix. ii. We now refer to the word ^ Te, as given by th« Imperial Dictionary, where K'hang-he, in explanation of ^he term in question, adduces another word similar in sound, and also in sense, to represent iti meaning ; this word is 1^ Te, which signifies to judge, to examine, to inspect, to discrimi- nate, to separate between right and wrong. The primary acceptation of the word tfjf Te, therefore, is a judg e, and the lexicographer tells us, that it is a designation given to one who rules over the empire. He says also that it means ^ keun, a sovereign ; and quotes a work called [^ ^ i§, Pih-hoo- t'hung, which says, " When any one's virtue corresponds to that of Heaven, he is called r^ te, a Potentate." A passage is then adduced from the Shoo-king, which agrees in sense with the opening sentence of that work ; "In former times ?jf ^ the emperor Yaou was intelligent and accomplished, while his glory covered the whole empire ;" to which an explanation is attached, implying that the w^ord ^ Te, or ruler, is one of the names applied to Heaven ; adding that, the reason wliy the word Te is applied to human rulers, is be- cause they are the judges of mankind. Meaning that, like Heaven, they are dignified, and etiuct their purpose without the necessity of mental efToit; while they ara entirely diveste'd of selfishness, and extend their just rule to the utmost dis-
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tance, examining and discrininating every matter accurately,
hence they are called ^ judges or rulers. The 3£ '^ fiv^e rulers of antiquity, in this respect, were one in principle, and were able to judc^^ and discriminate matters, hence they took this title. Another work is quoted, called " Leii-she's Illustra- tions of the Spring and Autumn Record," which says, '' that
♦^ Te, a ruler, is one with whom the whole empire agrees,
while ^E Wang, a king, is one to whom the whole empire ap- plies (for redress.) K wan-she distinguishes these two appeN lations thus : '^ He who discriminates the right way is a judge or ruler ; while the man who understands virtue may be deno- minated a king or sovereign." A quotation is then adduced from history, stating that Han-kaou-tsob (B. C. 202), " ascended the throne of the ^ *^ hwang te, emperor, at the south side of the riv.^r Sz3. " Lfpon which Tsae^-yCini^ remarks, " that in the earliest antiquity, emperors were entitled
^ hwang, great ones ; but subsequently they were styled 'fff te, rulers." Having gone through this first class of jneanings, we find that the prevailing idea attached to the word To, is that of judge and ruler, while the commentators tell us, that the term was originally applied to Heaven, as the Ruler and Judge of mankind, but was accommodated to human ru- lers, when they at all resembled the Divine Potentate, in the majesty and disinterestedness with which they carried out their rule. We conceive, therefore, that we are warranted in rendering it in our language by the word God, the univer- sal Ruler and Judge of all. In the second class of mean- ings, K'hang-he gives the sense of *^ Te, when employed by the writers of epitaphs ; in which case he says, those whose virtue resembled that of heaven and earth were called Te, gods. In the third class of meanings^ the lexicographer gives us the phrase _[^ i^ Shang-te, v/hich he says is sy- nonymous with Heaven. In this he mearjs of course the ru- ling power of heaven, and not the visible lieavens. The Chi- nese have been accustomed (like most other nations) to speak of the Supreme under this emblem ; but finding that it was difficult to attribute qualities and acts, mind and will, to Hea- ven, they adopted the expression p ^Supreme Ruler ^ which we must take to mean the personification of the ruling pow- er and supreme authority residing in heaven, and disposing of the affairs of men. The most just and natural rendering of the term Shang-te, is therefore the Supreme God. Under this head, the lexicographer quotes two passages from the classics, which having already been considered, there is no ne- cessity to refer to (hem again. Among the fourth class of
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meanings, uiuler the word ^te, K'hang-he gives 3L 'IT? woo le, the five gods, which he says, are the names of invisible be- ings ; or^as some would render it, of gods. He then quotes ^^16 W\ is Ceremonies of Chow, which speak of sacri|icing to the 3J i0 five gods at the four borders of the land! These five gods^ the commentator tells us, are the following ;
the 1^ *i^ azure god, whose name is ^ J^ |f P Ling-wei- i^^g I ^ ^ the red god, whose name is "^ j^ 2^ Tseth- p'heaou-no6 ; the ^ ^ yellow god, whose nam3 is ^ i^ KJH Shay-keu-new ; the ^ *^ white god. whose name is p} JS © pth-chaou-keu ; and the ^ ^ black god, whose name is ^ yfe ^E Helh-kwang-ke. A quotation then fol- lows from the ^ g^ Family Sayings of Confucius, where
K'he-kang-tsze asked the name of the 3E ^ five gods ? iq which Confucius replied, '' In heaven there are five elements, such as metal, wood, water, fire, and earth, which are distribu- ted over the various seasons, to promote transformation and nourishment, in order to complete the myriad of things ; the
j[j^ invisible beings presiding over which are called 3l. ^ the five gods." (See page 73.) From the abpye \ve perQciy^j^, that the word *^ Te is capable of being applied to subordinate deities, or invisible beings who have charge over the five ele- ments, represent the five colours, and are sacrificed to at the five seasons ; hence we infer that the word in question not on- ly signifies the Supreme God, particularly when the epithet Shang (Supreme) is prefixed, but that it is a generic namefctr God ; and is applicable to both high and low deities, accord- ing to the epithet annexed, or the connection in which it is found. That it is also applied to human rulers, is no arejument against its employment to designate celestial deities, because the lexicographer tells us, that the word originally applied to the ruler of heaven, and was only accommodated to designate the potentates of earth, when they were supposed to resem- ble the Supreme Ruler. In the same way the word Theos and Deufi^ in Greek and Latin, were sometimes applied to hu- man rulers, though in their primary signification those terms were intended to convey a higher sense. Thus Strabo talks of Ho Theos Kaisar, the God Cajsar.* Under the fifth class
* In the view above given of the meaning of T^, we see how ex- actly it corresponds with the word Elohiniy occurriug in the Hebrew Scriptures, as referring occasionally to kings and judges, to g-ods and deities in general, as well as to the one Supreme Potentate, who rules over all.
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of meariyi^g^, Kang-he says, that '"^ ti; is the naiiie of a sta^ ; quoting in proof a historical work, which iays, " The star of the central maiision and the extreme pole of the heavens is wl^ere ^ ^ Alpha in Draco,* the sin^ylaTly bright one, coiistai^tly resides." Upon whicl^ a commentator remarks,
that Wan-yaou-keu says, The essence of ^ ^ Alraccaba, of the central mansion, is the present polar star ; while ano- ther writer testifies, that the position of 7%, '^ Alraccab?i, of the polar regions^ was once the same with jj^ ^ Alpha in Draco ; which a commentator would explain to mean, that
p5v ^ A^l^^^^ "^ Draco is only another name for Alrapcaba, in Uisa Minor ; ii^ which, however, he is mistaken. Again,
K'hang-he says, that ^ ^ Arcturus, in Bootes, is the divine palace of the king of heaven ; upon which the commentator remarks, that according to So-yin, who quotes the Yuen-shin- k'he, Arcturus is the place where he sits to give audience ; while Sung-keun says, that the seat referred to is the divine throne. Further, tha lexico^jrapher adduces a passage to say, that in the hall of the three bright ones, about the con- stellation Hercules, there are five stars, which are called ^J ^@E t^*^ throne of the five Tes, or Ras algethi, and the stais in the neighbourhood. Thus, in this acceptation, the word Te is merely to be understood as the name of a star; while, in treating of the same, expressions are employed, which intimate that the original meaning of Te is retained, even when its, use is thus varied. Under the sixth head, K'hang-he tells us, that ^ Te is sometimes used for the name of a place.
The following article was written on the subject of the Su- preme Ruler by a Chinese, named ;^^/iS Wop t'heen sin, who has received Christian instruction.
" Among the most honourable, there i& non^ to l?e. compar- ed with the Supreme Ruler, and amidst those possessed of au- thority, there is none equal to the Highest Potentate. The Supreme Ruler's dignity should be universally ye4)erated,. and his righteous dealing everywhere known. Now in. the world, there are many who bear the name of *qr gods, (a number of whom he enumerates,) but these are all dif-, ferent from the Supreme Ruler. With reference to the vi- sible expanse, men use the word 5C Heaven ; with res pest to what is carried on around us, they employ the term ^ ^
* In the year of the world 1704, alpha in Draco was the polar star.
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the IrueGoJ or spirit ;* and alluding to the universal Poten- tate, they designate him the j^ »^ Supreme Ruler. The Supreme Ruler is incorporeal and immaterial ; before hea- ven, earth, and all things came into being, the Supreme Ruler existed ; the great Lord and Gover nor, who created
and governs heaven, earth, and all things, is called y ^^
Shang te, the Supreme Potentate. But why is he called ♦^
Tti 1 Some say, that the meaning of ^ Te, is one who governs ; and because he presides over all under heaven, therefore he is called the Governor of th3 world. Others say,
that the idea to be attached to '^ Te, is one who judges, and he is called the Supreme Jud,^e, because he justly, and universally, judges all things, hence he is called the Judge*
The meaning of ^ Te is thus two-fold, but the prim?iry ac- ceptation being that of the Lord and Governor of all things, he is therefore called the Potentate. But why is the word Supreme prefixed to that of Ruler ? We should answer, that corrupt devils have no ^J efficaciousness, while the Su- preme Ruler is alone efficacious, (in granting answers to prayer,) and the word Supreme is attached, to shew His effi- caciousness. All the Shins (or genii) are ignoble, but the Supreme Ruler is alone honourable ; the word Supreme is therefore added, to indicate his dignity. Invisible beings in general are without authority, and the Supreme Ruler is possessed of unlimited authority ; therefore the word Supreme is put first, to indicate that he is the head of all authority and power. In such a being love should exist, sufficient to benefit mankind, and the love of the Supreme Ruler is exten- sive and abundant; in Him virtue should be apparent, calcu- lated to illumine the world with its glory, and the virtue of the Supreme Ruler is exalted and resplendent: in Him there should be wisdom, adequate to instruct all generations, and the wisdom of the Supreme Ruler is distant and long, coritinued ; in Him there shoukl be power, sufficient to res- train the wills of men, and the power of the Supreme Ruler is undivided and unique. To his glory, nothing can be su- peradded, and in his throne he has no competitor ; hence he is said to be hi.r|i and exalted above all, while he looks down to contemplate the surrounding world •. and when we wish to
* The phrase ^ ^{^ Chin 8hln, true God, is not a Chinese collo- cation, but having been used by the Missionaries, with whom the writer of the above ^ssay had been much associated, he employs it out of deference to them ; and attaches to it, doubtless, the meaning above given.
2C3
acknowledge his greatness, and find liiai llie Glorious Hea- vens are unequal to the comparison, we then use the word Supreme, to designate him. Thus viewing it, and having in this way illustrated the msaningr of the words, we find that the appellation of the Supreme Ruler most truly at- taches to Him, and tiie throne of the Highest Potentate most assuredly belongs to Him ; while what the men of this world call Sliins, are only sprites and elves, and ghosts, and hob- goblins, which cannot afford protection and happiness to men, nor be for a moment compared to, or put upon an equal footing with the Supreme Ruler? In the creation of heaven and earth, the sun and moon, hills and vallies, rivers and seas, we certainly perceive the wonderful power of the Supreme Ruler ; in the agitating and moving of the wines and clouds, the rain and dew, the frost and snow, the thun- der and lightning, we also see the subtile and genial influ- ences of the Supreme Ruler ; at his impulse the first origin of the superior principle of nature sprang into existence, and the original constitution of the inferior principle came into being ; the first uniting and transforming of heaven a- bove, and earth beneath, with the myriad of things scattered about, and flowing on without intermission, was doubtless inconsequence of the regulation and control of the Supreme Ruler, and subject to the presiding government of the Highest Potentate. Thus in the Six Classics there are many references to the Supreme Ruler ; such as, '' The gacrifice corresponding to the celestial one was oflfered to the Supreme Ruler ;" a- gain, ''Present a pure offering to the Supreme Ruler ;" both wi]ich sentences intimate the extreme of respect, with which the ancients honoured the Highest Potentate. Again, '' Lu- minously serve the Supreme Ruler," and '* respectfully receive (the decree) from the Supreme Ruler," which refer to the high veneration in which they held the Majesty of the Universe. Further, "How glorious is the Supreme Ruler !" and " how intelligent is the universal Potentate !" referring to his om- niscience. Do not say, no one hears me ; for the Classic avers that" the Supreme Ruler comes near to you ;" do not say, no one sees me ; for the Classic again says, " the Supreme Ru- ler is on our right hand," which phrases refer to his omnipre- sence. The Classics also say, " that the sages exert their in- fluence, to sacrifice to the Supreme Ruler," and "at the winter solstice pay their vows to Heaven at the round hil- lock;" all which means, that the ancient worthies honoured and worshipped the Supreme Ruler. Moreover he who vast- ly illumines the glorioup heavens, without error or mis- take, is the Supreme Ruler ; he who shakes by his wrath the august heavens, killing and makuig alive whom he will,
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is the Supreme Ruler. Besides which, the conferring happi- riess'on the good arid misery on the bad, depends on the in- spection and examination of the Supreme Ruler ; the ap- plauding of virtue and' the punishing of vice, rests with the' majesty and authority of the Supreme Ruler ; therefore when any one's mental qualities are excellent andclear, the Su- preme Ruler draws forth his mind and remove! impediments out of his way ; so also when any one's views are purposely confused and disturbed, the Supreme Ruler takes away his privileges, and deprives him of the light he had; the sending clown of this encouragement upon thosa who need nouris^h- ment in virtue, aud the inflicting of this great calamity on ^ those'who will not follow the right path, are severally the; v»^'y§ in which the Supreme Ruler warns and alarms the ni-n of' little mhids. Otight not the people of the world; triercfore, to hoi. our arid worship the Supreme Ruler, and comply with the heavon-appointed way! Thus it is, that the uood man, in holding intercourse with^ mankind, should constantly guard against idle wandering and empty pleasure •; while the way in which he venerates the Supreme Ruler is*,'' by the employment of correct conduct and rigid respect, loolt^-; ing up to Him for protectioti and aid, without a single'' thought of insincerity'; so also in communion with' the invi'- sible'world, he should perpetually' avord indolence and neg- lect, while the way^ in whicfh he honours the Htorh Potentaie' is by the display of reverential regard and awe, keeping h'ig^ thoughts perpetually upon Him, without a' single mornerit's" indifference. This is the way in which the good man exhi- bits respect and calitioh; in waiting for Heaven's blessing, and submitting to the inspection of the Supreme Mind; but' those men of the world do not understand the righteousness ' of the Supreme Ruler, and not venerating the High Poten- tate, ho w xan th^y min iitely enquire into his r ightedus dcal- ings ?" 13
We add anothtr paj^er fiohi ^f H^ Ching jih ping^ on the difference between the Supreme Ruler and the Shins. . " Thi Supreme '. Ruh.r, is the Great Lord and Governor of heaven and earth, a distinction to which the Shins cannot^ pretend. The Supreme Ruler existed before heaven and, earth; he is omniscient and omnipotent; while the myriad of things are the result of his miraculous energy. The Shins existed subsequently to heaven and earth, and can of them- selves know nothing and do nothing, of whom wooden ima- ges are the fit representatives. Thus we aee a manifest dif- ference, and it is hard to be deceived in mistaking one for the other. The Classics, in speaking of the Supreme Ruler, say, that "he is gloriously displayed above ;" but when they
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^reat of the Kwci Shins, they are va^ue in their expresaiona, and wantin* in proof. B''.fore the Gospel was handed down, nien's minds were much in the dark, so that they were delu- ded into the beilief of corrupt Shins, and deceived by the de- vil ; until they served carved and molten images, without knowing what they were about. Those who sought for hap- piness, early and late consulted the divinations ; while those who were fond of seduction, knocked head at the new and full itioon. Those who went to extremes presented incense and worshipped Buddha, continually borrowing assistance from the nuns ; they also observed fasts and abstinences, giving themselves over to the direction of the priests ; thinking that their merit was still incomplete, msn sought to be changed in- to demons and elves; and eagerly enquiring after the way of pardon, every one of them inclined to become genii and ftiiries. Worse than this ; the more extravagant and volup- tuous., on a pretext of burning incense, merely went to look at the crowds, while the abandoned and licentious priests got up meetings with the view of entrapping young females ; suppo^;- ing tlieir Shins to have the least knowledge, they could not en- dure such things, and thus it is that the beautifully adorn- ed temples have been converted into mere willow groves ; and the supposed virtues or vices of devotees, have failed of meet- ing with the expected rewards and punishments. From this we may know, that betwixt heaven and earth, there is only- one Supreme Ruler, and besides Him all are corrupt Shms. For the Supreme Ruler possesses power to renumerate with- out fail, while thos^ depraved Shins, with their little arts, have no ability to bring down blessings or curses ; if we o- bey the will of the Supreme Ruler, ia order to cultivate vir- tue, we may attain to the highest heaven and enjoy endless bliss ; but if we believe the delusions of vicious Shins, and act accordingly, we shall find it diffi:ult to escape the lowest hell, where we shall suifer torment without end. I have heard, that in the 2d year of He, the duke of I.ob, the |jt ^^^'^^•y rustici of the city of Po, were involved in calamity : now what are the lares but Shins ! and if it was a difHcult mat- ter to exempt tlie lares of P6 from trouble, how could these again protect the black-haired people, and deliver them from woe ? The good man, on reading this, may know that the Shins have no knowledge, a- id are destitute of power ; from which we may infer the duly of worshipping the Supreme Ruler alone. 1 will therefore add aline of pot^try ; When the Supreme Ruler vouchsafes his presence, do Hot blind yourself to his glories; when depraved Shins delude you, do not fall into their malpractices; if for one day yuu do
Hh
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Wickedness, a hundred puaish meats will be inflicted on you ; st«rn and severe, heaven's mirror is here. Again I would offer a couplet, Virtue is followed by blessings, and vice by curses ; Heaven's ways are thus illustrated, without the slight- est mistake; therefore worship the Supreme Ruler, and act according to the proper riles, when he will protect and con- fer on you endless happiness.''
in reviewing what has been adduced from C hinese authors, on the subject of the Supreme Ruler, or God, we find that the ideas elicited may be distributed under the following heads :
1. His existence ii argued (p. 185) from the expression of the Book of Odes, " that the spirit of Wan-wang was long after his death, ascending and descending in the presence of the Supreme, which could not have been true, unless the Su- preme Ruler were himself in existence, and maintainod hi^ throne in heaven."
2. His incorporeality is alluded to (p. 247), where the com- mentator on the Chow-le says, that when the Emperor of- fered a pure sacrifice to the Supreme, no object was pointed at on the occasion, but it was merely intended to refer to the Lord and Governor of the high Heavens.
3. The mind of the Supreme is distinctly recognized (p. 209) as inspecting the virtues and vices of mankind.
4. He is spoken of as a |f(^ spiritual and intelligent being, (p. 156), that cannot be deceived (p. 157) ; his f^ spirit is supposed to be extensively pervading (p. 254); while ihe Supreme Ruler is twice spoken of (page 231) as ^^ jj^ fj^ the spiritual part of heaven : and (on p. 222) the spirit of the Supreme Ruler is said to smell the sweet savou: of the sacrifices offered to him.
5. His glory and majesty are referred to (p. 219, twice) where he is said to shine gloriously; while (p. 242) the splen- dour and purity, the elevation and expansion of his energies , are spoken of as p-^xuliarly indicated, when the word Supreme Ruler is used. The phrase^ that High Imperial One, (p. 45) most honourable and without compare, will be fresh in the recollection of our readers ; while the ascription of praise to that Majestic One (page 219) the Supreme Ruler, highly ex- alted and dwelling on high (p. 219), may remind us of the inspired language of Isaiah, Ivii. 15. regarding " the high and lofty One, that inhabiteth eternity, and dwelleth in the high and holy place."
6. The supremacy of the celestial Potentate is distinctly recognized (p. 219), where is he called the Lord and Ruler of Heaven, and (p. 247) the Lord and Governor o( the three pow«rs of nature, managing the frame-work and axle-tree
2f)7
of the universe ; he alio (p. 223) is the Qovernor among the nations, far elevated abov« kings (p. 233), who are all subject to his sway, yea emperors (p. 249) are under his inspection. 7. The decrees of the Supreme, by whom kings reign and princes decree justice, are very frequently referred to ; it is he that decrees (p. 221) the empire to whom he will : upon him depends the rise and fall of dynasties (pages 207, 21.1, 212, 217, 218, 225); good ruUrs are said (p. 208, 251) intelli- gently to receive his decree, amongst whom Wan-wang and Wob-wang (p. 216) are specified, who respectfully (p. 211) ac- cepted of the appointment. His decree is spoken of (p. 212) ai capable of being traced and understood, and when once ascertained, the ancient worthies (p. 211, 212) did not dare to set it aside ; for the Supreme Ruler wae such an object of dread (p. 208), that they never ventured to contravene his commands. The tendency of the divine decree was some- times (p. 212) indicated by prognostications; nevertheless it was said (p. 209, 210) not to be invariable in favour of one family, but mainly depended on the conduct of individual ru- lers ; the decree, therefore, appointing any particular race to the thron* (p. 214) was not to be too confidently relied on, be- cause the Supreme Ruler sometimes (p. 213) changed his de- cree, and appoined another sovereign in the stead of an op- pressive tyrant; while he was occasionally (p. 204) angry with monarchs, and deprived them of their thrones. It being under- stood, therefore, that the Supreme Ruler (p. 219, 220) patro- nized certain families as rulers^ and favoured certain mo- narchs (p. 204) by giving them the throne ; the decree of the Highest Potentate was supposed (p. 249) to be in favour of the present Tartar dynasty, and the Supreme Ruler is imagined (p. 249) to have adopted Shiin-che, the founder of the Man- chow race of rulero, as his son. The glorious will of the Su- preme Ruler (p. 215, 216) is said to be promoted by a virtu- ous prince, by which means he may shew the people, in a most evident manner, that he is chosen by the Supreme to rule over the empire.
8. The goodness of the Supreme Ruler is evidenced by his conferring (p. 208, 209, 223) the just Medium, or a virtu- ous nature, on mankind ; while he is said to give (p. 226) a plentiful harvest, to confer prosperity (p. 210) on empires, and to aid and assist the patriotic (p. 219) in their efforts.
9. The work of creation is his, not as a subordinate, but as the principal, for he is said (p. 209) to have transformed and produced the myriad of things. See under article 28.
10. Providence is alike ascribed to him, for he is described (p. 219, 220) as looking down on this lower world ; while the rewarding of goodness and the blaming of faults, rests (p. 209)
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ill every case witli the inspection of the Supreme ; he observes; and rewards (p. 222) sincerity ; he takes notice (p. 216) of human faults ; he disapproves of vice (p. 211) and pun- ishes it ; the fragrance of virtue is perceived (p. 213. 215. 222) by the Supreme ; and he is influenced (p. 214) by vir- tuous conduct ; while the tyrant Chow (p. 2J0) is punished for setting aside his worship. He sometimes withholds his protection, (p. 214) and sends down calamities, cutting off (p. 215) thrones and dynasties ; though thete calamities, brought on men, are not to be ascribed to him (p. 224), so much as to the vices of wicked rulers ; in such instances, the Supreme Ruler sometimes (p. 224) refuses to assist men on account of their wickedness, and will not even exempt sovereigns (p. 225) from the general calamity, nor afford them room for es- cape (p. 225), nor estimate (p. 225) the devotedness of his worshippers, when he reverses his usual procdedings (p, 223), and brings down calamities on mankind.
11. With regard to the sacrifices and services to be paid to the Supreme Ruler, we find that sacrifices (p. 242, 243, 247) were to be ofiered to him generally ; but the especial offer- ing due to him was that presented at the border of the coun- try, or the ^P keaou tacrifice, (p. 204, 211, 230, 247, 249 three times) which has been also called the celestial sacri, flee, on account of its being peculiarly appropriated to Hea- ven ; we sometimes find both the JqJ kcaou and ^ shay, or the celestial and terrestrial sacrifices, presented to him, (p. 204, 205, 251 J when the Chinese chose to recognize the Ruling Power under the dual form, as heaven and earth;
further the ?p[ luy, or corresponding sacrifice (p. 227. 243) was sometimes presented to the Supreme Ruler, when they had occasion to sacrifice to him at an unusual time ; at which time, it not being customary to offer the celestial sacrifice, they presented one corresponding thereto ; again, the offering presented to the Supreme Ruler was called (242 twice^ 247) jj^ yin, a pure sacrifice, and (p. 241, 242) a great sacrifice ; a burnt-offering (p. 232) was also especially presented to the Supreme Ruler ; while the sacrifices offered to him were oc- casionally preceded (p. 249) by sei vices of minor impor- tance, in order to prepare the mind for the more solemn servi- ces, and to proceed step by step to the higher and more im- portant duty ; the Supreme Ruler was supposed to be pacified (p. 222, 250) by such sacrifices, and to enjoy (p. 212) the ser- vices of the good : he is said to have accepted of sacrifices (p. 228) when every ceremony was in perfect order ; boiled flesh (p. 233) was occasionally presented to him ; and the sages sa- crificed (p, 234) to the Supreme Ruler, in order to acknow-
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ledge his favours ; he was prayed to (p. 05, 228) for grain ; Wan-waiig is said to have served the Supreme Ruler (p, 219) in an intelligent manner ; indeed it was the peculiar busi- ness of the emperor to serve (p. 232) the Su[)reme Ruler; intelligent kings (p. 232) are said to have attended to this du- ty; and the most ill-favoured person, (p. 207) after having pro- perly prepared himself by fasting and bathing, was consider- ed eligible to serve the Supreme ; clever men (p. 215, 216) honoured the Supreme ; respect towards the Supreme Ru- ler (p. 227) was required from all; and he was not to be served (p. 102) with common feelings, nor (p. 103) with common things ; music was among the requisites (p. 2^3 twice) to be employed in serving the Supreme ; and the Su- preme Ruler is invited (p. 249) to partake of the sacrifices of- fered.
12. As the results of such sacrifices, we are told, that the Supreme Ruler sometimes vouchsafed his presence, see page 249 ; and that he so regarded with favour a lady, who worshipped him with sincerity, as to cause her miraculously to conceive and bring forth a son, see page 226.
13. The Supreme Ruler is appealed to, on the taking of an oath, see page 241 ; while the people curse before him, see page 156.
14. He is supposed to be gratified by the putting to death of hypocritical worshippers, see page 156.
15. The Taouists say, that he sent a priest of Taou to the Great Yij, in order to teach him how to drain off the wa- ters of the delugee, see page 248.
16. Human rulers are required to assist the Supreme Ruler in governing mankind, see page 206 twice ; and while acting thus they are said to be carrying out his authority, see p. 213.
17. The word Supreme Ruler is sometimes considered as synonymous with Heaven, and the one word is explained by the other in K'hang-he ; but it is evident that the reference is in such cases to the ruling power above, in the same way that the Hebrews were accustomed to say, that the Heavens do rule ; the terms are also used interchangeably, in the sense of rewarding the good and punishing the bad, see page 210 ; and with respect to the celestial decrees, which dctermme the rise and fall of empires, see 211 : but an ancient author tells ws, that Heaven is not to be confounded with the Supreme Ruler of the Glorious Heavens, (see page 242) ; while a later writer, who had seen the books of Christians, says, that to refrain from adoring the heavens, which lie partly to the east and partly to the west, and not to honour the earth, which is .trod under our feet, while we worship the Supreme Ruler, is reasonablcj sae page 253 ; we meet triih frequent instances,
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moreover, of their anxiety to make clear the distinctian be-- tween the canopy of heaven and the Supreme Potentate ; which we shall see more particularly, when we come to treat of the word ^ te, Ruler.
18. Human ancestors are sometimes associated with the Supreme Ruler in acts of worship, seepages 230, 231; but the idea intended to be conveyed by this ceremony is, that as the Supreme Ruler is the origin of all things, so human ancestors and parents are the more immediate authors of our being, and they may therefore be associated together, in ac- knowledging the source from which we sprang. It will of course be understood, that we are not here pleading for the practice, but only endeavouring to account for the adoption of it by the Chinese, with whom the worship of ancestors holds so high a place. Still we arc far from believing that even the -Chinese considered human aticestors to be on a pajr with the author of all, though they did improperly associate them in sacrifice : while the practice was instituted mainly witli reference to the case of How-tseih, who was supposed to be miraculously conceived, and of celestial origin.
19. Human rulers are alio viewed as corresponding to the Supreme Ruler, in view of their supremacy over the af- fairs of the empire, as the Highest Potentate is supreme over the universe. See page 204, four times, and page 218. Hu- man rulers are also ranked with the Supreme, with reference to their virtue^ in consequence of which they obtain universal rule. See page 210, twice.
20. With regard to the arrangement in which we find the Supreme Ruler placed, we may observe, that the Chinese generally put the Highest Potentate first, and then the Shins of heaven and earth, with the manes of ancestors ; see page 54, twice, 210, and 227, 228. But two cases are met with, in which the Shins are put before the Supreme Ruler, see page 77, where it is done to prevent the reader falling into a mistake, by supposing that the Kwei Shins were the spi- rits of the Supreme Ruler ; so also in page 229, the like in- verted arrangement is observed, in order to carry out the cli- max from the less to the greater.
21. One Chinese author eays, that the Supreme Ruler is not to be confounded with the imajres found in the temples, cee page ]S5, which are the inventions of later ages, and were not known at the Confucian period.
22. A late writer, who had met with Christian books, complains that Europeans have borrowed the idea of the Su- preme Ruler from the Six Classics, and yet abuse the reli« gions of China, see page 253. From which we infer, that
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the Chiiiese literati find no fault witli tlie justness of the eit- pression, but only complain of our borrowing it from them j as if we were not at liberty to avail ourselves of all the stores which the languao^e contains.
23. The titles given to the Supreme Ruler, in various parts of the preceding pages, shew the estimation in which the Chi- nese held that august Being. The most common, and most ancient, as it occurs in the Book of Odes, is ^L ^ jQ w the Supreme Ruler of the Glorious Heavens ; thii title is not to be considered as the name of anoth«r God, like the ^ ^C _[^^ Heuen t'heen shang te, of the Taou sect; but as ano- ther way of expressing the name of the same being, who alone can read the heart, and estimate and reward the devo- tions of mankind, soe page 65. During a severe drought, al- so, when the people trembled, as if the thunders rattled over their heads, and when the poor remnant of the Chow race were almost cut off to a man, the emperor ascribed the deso- lating scourge to tha vengeance of the ^^C jf^.'^ Supreme Ruler of the Glorious Heavens, who had not even exempted the monarch from the universal calamity ; Seuen-wang, the then ruling prince, having appealed to the spirits of the for- mer dukes in vain, applied at last to the Supreme Ruler of the Glorious Heavens, to grant him a method of escape. See page 225. In the commentary to the Chow-le, we have a long dissertation on the title in question, where the writer says, that the Supreme Ruler of the Glorious Heavens con- trols nature and its elements, that his throne is on high, and that to him divine honours must be offered, while he is not to be confounded with Heaven on the one hand, nor with the deities presiding over the five elements on the other. See page 242, 243. This was also the title that the emperor Sliun is said to have derised for the Lord and Governor of
all, see page 248. Aiiother very ancient title, is that of ^
r. ^ Hwang shang te, the august Supremo Ruler, who ori- ginally conferred the just medium, or a virtuous nature, on mankind, aee page 208 • and regarding whom it is said that the retributions of Providence are tha doings of this august Supreme Ruler, see page 217. But this is not to be consider- ed as the title of another deity, no more than Jehovah Elo- him, or the Lord God, ought to be looked upon as a separate divinity from Elohim, or God, used alone, when met with in
the Hebrew Scriptures. A third title is, that of ^ ^ J^ ^ Hwang t'heen Shang te, met with in the Shoo-king, where Imperial Heaven's Supreme Ruler, is spoken as chang-
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ing the decre ; in favour of his chief son, tha empsror of the Yirl dynasty, and appointing over the empire the house of Chow, which had then attained universal rule. Here it is evident, also, that the sama Supreme Potentate is referred to, by whom alone kini^s reign, and prince's decree justice. In the Book of Rites, we meet with a passage, where the people are commanded to exert their utmost strength to serve ^ 5C -JL. i^ the Supreme Ruler of the Tmp3rial Heavens, in order to pray for blessings on the land. See page 227. A fourth title
is, the HH ^ -h '^ ^'"& chaou Shang te, the brigrht and glorious Supreme Ruler, who gives the people a plentiful har- vest, which rhey receive ns ins bright gift, see page 225. A fifth title is that supposed to be ascribed by Shiin to the Lord and Governor of all, when he called him 5^ ^ "^f^ ^ the Great God and Lord of Heaven, see page 248 ; aiid la«t- ly, that adopted by a European writer in Chinese, 5CS _ll ^ the Supreme God and Lord of Heaven, See page 256. In none of which do we discern any trace of the adoring different and separate divinities under these various titles, but perceive that it is the title of one and tlie same Supreme God.
24. We add one extract to shew that the word _^ 'fff Shang te is capable of assuming the plural form, which some have affected to doubt. For in one of the Classics of the
sect of Taou, we meet with the phrase ^'j^Ju^ all the Supreme Rulers of the various heavens, see page 247 ; of these heavens, the Taouists suppose, that there are thirty-three, with a separate divinity over each, who, being supreme in his own department, is called the Supreme Ruler of that heaven.
25. One instance occurs in which the word Supreme Ruler is applied to a human ruler, but that is in the sense of an au- tocrat, who exercises despotic sway on earth, as the Supreme Ruler governs universal nature, and keeps all beneath his sway. See })age 217.
26. A single instance is found of the Chinese speaking dis- paragingly of the Supreme Ruler, when they consider him in the light of tf)e author of evil ; but the writer even therd checks and corrects himself, ascribing all goodness to him as its author, and all wickedness to man, see p. 223. Would thai we could say as much of western writers.
27. The representation of the Supreme Ruler, enthroned ia heaven, and the spirits of the just, according to the Chinese ideas, ascending and descending in his presence, demands our particular attention, see page 218, 25L See also 1 Kings xxii. 19. Job. i, 6.
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28. Mistakes are aniicipaf.ed, and sought to b3 conect'^d, by the Chinese commenlators on the classics, who supposing it possible fhai such misapprehensions may arise, tell us dis- tinctly, that it is a mistake to imngine tliat the 3J ^ five rulers, presiding over the elements, are synonymous with J^ '^ the Supreme Ruler ; that it is wron^r also to think that the Supreme Rider is unequal to the five rulers : fur- ther they decry the idea, that the Supreme Ruler is identical with Heaven, or that he is at all inferior to Heaven, but the One Siipreme Lord and Governor of all. S le pages 242, 243.
Thus out of 175 instances in which the word Shang-te is used, in the Chinese classics, only one refers to human rulers, and all the rest to th^ Supreme Ruler; and in only one instance of the latter class is any thing said complninintr. ly or disparagin^rly of the Hi^h^st Potentate ; which queruloui expression is, however, immediately suppressed, and the op- posite view given. In no case do \Te find Sh4ng-te exhibited under any figurative repretentations ; indeed, wd arc warned against confounding him with the imiges in the temples ; while the Supreme Rubjr is d^alared, a;ain and again, to be distinct from the visible heavens. VV- need scar :ely add, that no intimation is given us, in all th*. Chin3se classics of any thing like the voluptuous charact'^r which is attributed to the Jupiier ofthe Greeks being ascribd him who is Supreme in the estimation of the Chinese; nobody, parts, or passions being assigned to him; and the main idea attached to the Shang-ff, being that of universal supremacy, uncontroiiahle power, 'jus- tice, glory, majesty, and dominion. He has neither wife nor children, unless we except the instance of the emperor of th^ Yin dynasty being spoken of mitaphorically as his cliirif ton. He is sometimes alluded to as synonymous with Heaven, on account of his elevation, and the over-shadowing protection he aflfords ; and is sometimes associated with the autocrats of earth, ill allusion to their universally presiding over the em- pire ;but we arc distinctly informed, that he is essentially dif- ferent from all thise. Such is th; view given us, in the Chi- nese classics, of the Supreme Ruler ; the superstitious of later ages have gradually corrupted the ori^rjnal idea attached to Sking-te, and applied the name, with various additions, to different deities, the creatures of their own imaginations, to whom they have erected temple*, dedicated imngcs, and ap- pointed birt!» and feast days ; but these are as different from him whom the ancients worshipped under the title of the Supreme Ruler, as the Jore of the western world is from Jehovah, the God and Father of all, from whom the name of the fabled father of gods and men^ i^ probably darived.
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We now proceed to the consideration of the word ^ Te, Ruler, which the attentive reader will have ueen is, in a. num- ber of instances, used interchangeably with Shang-te the Supreme Ruler, in the extracts given throughout tlie prsce- ding pages : thus we find,
29. That ^ Tc, Ruler, or, as we are compelled to render it, God, IS designated the Supreme and undivided One, the Infinite Extreme, the First Beginning, who constituted 'hea- ven and earth, produced light and darkness, brought about the four seasoni, and appointed the Kwei Shins ; he existed before the powers of nature were divided, and before the my- riad of things were produced ; thus wonderful was the Su- preme One. See page 82, 83, 84. Te, the (Supreme) Ruler, or God, is spoken of as causing things to iisue forth, page 234 ; all things are said to have come originally from him, page 231, and the celestial sacrifice is offered to him, as referring with gratitude to him as the origin of all things, page 231 ; it is he tliat animates the issuings forth of nature's springs, page 233, and encourages their revertings, page 233 ; he produces and completes the myriad of things, page 233, and causes the energies of nature to bud forth and move on, m the spring of the year ; his outgoings and incomings are illustrated by the goi»jgs forth and returnings of nature, page 235, 237 ; his adjusting* are seen in nature's adjustings, p. 237 ; he is displayed in nature's displays, p. 237 ; he superintends the whole nourishing of nature, page 237, and governs this uni- versal fabric, see page 237 ; the contentions of nature are of his creating, page 228 ; he causes things to revert to their proper place, paire 228. and manages the completion of all, see page 228. From all which quotations from the Confucian classics we gather, that J^ Te, God, is the author of being, the source of existence, and the great founder of all. The principal classic of the sect of Taou also says, that *^ Te, God, is the beginning of all things. See page 246.
30. Te, or God, is said to be the ruler of the invisible world, to whom departed spirits pray with acceptance, see page 145 ; and the spirit of VVan-wangis said to aseend and descend, in the presence of the Supreme, where he shines brightly in the realms above, see page 185, 218. He is thus represented as the Divine Majesty of the Heavens, ruling over the armies of heaven and among the inhabitants of the earth.
31. Te, or God, is set forth as the supreme disposer of the fate of princes : it was he that appointed T'hang to rule over the empire, on account of hi» virtue, page 227 ; for he raises up virtuous sovereigns, page 220, while he conducts intelligent princes to the throne, page 220. It is his decree
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that appoints the empire to any one, pn^e 218,225; his de- cieei are not to be opposed, paj^e 227 ; and his protection is necessary to the retention of the sceptre, page 249 ; hence rulers must be obedient to Him, page 157. Sec alio under article 7, of this arrangement.
32. Te, is represented as the God of Providence, for he appoints corn for the universal nourishment of living thing*, page 225; and sends down his inflictions, page 213 ; he con- fers favours, page 157, and approves of the virtuous, page 213; his dealings are spoken of a» the Divine dispensations, page 213 ; and his blessing being obtained, may l)e handed down to posterity, page 221 ; he regulates the mind of the virtuous, page 22C ; and is supposed by the present imperial family to have conferred the name of Ghio-ro on the reigning Tartar race, page 249 ; but his laws must be followed out, in order to attain perfection, page 221. See under article 10, of the present arrangement. '**
33. filff Te, God, is represented as speaking to Wan-wang, guarding him against selfishness, urging him to virtue, and giving him directions regarding his conduct, see page 221. In what way the Chinese suppose the Divine Being to have communicated his will to the monarch in question does not appear, neither is it material ; all we wish to argue from it is, that the idea of the Ruler of Htaven conveying his wishes to rulers on earth is not strange to the Chinese, while it as- signs an identity and personality to that Being, which is not embodied in the vague notion of Heaven, or Nature, Provi- dence, or an undefined Power.
34. A modern Chineie writer tells us, that the ancient sages constantly alluded to Heaven, under the designation
of ^ the (Supreme) Ruler, in order to over-awe, and in- struct mankind, see page 251. Thus we find the '^(Su- preme) Ruler is regarded with the veneration with which the Chinese generally contemplate Heaven, and honoured with
the 55 celestial sacrifice, see page 81, 230. In sacrificing to him, the victim was to be kept up in the stall for three months, page 231 ; the main thing to be observed, however, in sacrificing to him, was sincerity, page 233, and intelligence page 205, while the ceremony was to be performed in the illus- trious hall, page 233. His worship was considered fortunate, or a source of blis», page 233. Sec also article 11, of the pre- sent arrangement.
35. The Chinese afford us some explanations on the sub- ject of ^ Te alone, as they do on the phraic_L 'q? Shang-te, in combination. Thus they say, the classics sometimes speak
27r>
of ^ Heaven, and sometimes of'^ its Ruler. From which we are to understand, they say, that when allusion is made to the protecting influence which overshadows man- kind, tfie word Heaven is used, page 214 ; or when they speak of the visible canopy over our heads, and the awe which it inspires, they employ the word Heaven, see page 217 ; or when allusion is made to the form and substance of the body of Heaven, they use the same term, see page 242; for Heaven, they continue, is the general api)ellation for the oriijinal influ- ences of nature, see page 242 ; but that, when reference is
made to the Lord of all, tlie word ^ (Supreme) Ruler is used, see pages 214, 2ir, 242, 243 ; for i^ Te is ^'j}^^ ^ the Lord and Governor of heaven, see pages 235, 248, 250 ; in fact, Heaven is the general appellation given to the original energy of nature, and the word »^ Ruler is employ- ed when this energy is said to be displayed, see page 242. See alio article 2S, of the present arrangment.
36. The "^ Jo w wonderful influence, or inscrutable ex- cellence of the Supreme, is spoken of page 236, and ^ |^ the spirit of the Supreme is said to enjoy the celestial sacri- fice offered by Yiing-ching, one of the emperors of the pre- sent dynasty. 9«e page 249. From which we infer that the Chineie arc in the habit of ascribing invisibility and in- telligence to the Lord of all. See art. 4 of thif arrangement.
37. The word *q^ Te is indeed sometimes used for vari- ous invisible and intelligent beings, the objects of worshi[), in the same way as the word f^ shin is employed, though in a more exalted sense ; thus the *ft? presiding deity on the occasion of a certain sacrifice was "^ ^ T'hae-haou, while the iji$ subordinate genius associated with him in the ser- vice, was ^ -^ Kow-mang, the son of ^ ^ Shabu-haou, himself a descendant of ^ ^ T'hae-haou ; from which we may gather, that as T'hae-haou was to far superior to Kow- mang in age and rank, so the T^ of the one was far above the Shin of the other. This argument may appear to us of little force, but not so to the Chinese. Tiie same idea is seen throughout the whole of the quotations from the Book of Rites referred to, see page 73, 74. The word i^ Te, when aplied to these presiding deities, is generally confined to five, represented by the five ancient emperors, viz. Fuh- he, or T'hae-haou ; Shfn-nung, or Yen-te ; Yen-heung, or Hwang-te •, Kin-teen, or Shabu,haou ; and Kaou-yang, or
277
CUueii-lieiih ; these are called (lie \ »^ human rulers oii earth, who correspond to the 5^ >?}? celedtinl rulers in hea- ven ; these latter are supposed to preside over the five ele- ments and five colours, see pa^es 242, 243, and 260. These five rulers are, however, distinguished from the Supreme Ruler. See p. 243.
38. We meet with the word 'i^ Te, applied to a divine per- son of gigantic stature, in who;«e footsteps Keang-yuen trod, and conceived the celebrated How-tselh, in a miraculoug mari- ner, see p. 222.
39. The title 5^ »^ Ruler, or God of Heaven, is given in the commentary on the Tsb-chujn to the Lord of the upper world, to whom an individual prayed and obtained a fa- vour. It is evident from the context that ^ ^ the Ruler of Heaven is synonymous with the Su|)reme Potentate, see p- 157. The same title is met with in a Buddhist classic, p. 200*
40. The phrase 5^± t'heen chob, often occurs in a Bud- dhist work, applied to tiie god Sakya mun-a, or Buddha, see page, 249.
41. The word ^ God is frequently found prefixed to the name Sakya mun-a^ and is read thus : ^ |!p Te-shih, the God Buddha, see pages 201 and 248.
42. The word '^ "^ Te nyu, a divine female, or goddess, is met with in a Buddhist work, see p. 249.
43. The phrase j^ ^ Great God occurs frequently in a Taouist classic, see page 246 ; as also 5'C J& >!fC T^ »lj? the God and Ruler of heaven, earth, and sea, see p. -^47.
Thus we have adduced upwards of ninety instances from the Confucian classics in which *jf^ Te is used synonymous- ly with j^ ^ Shang^-te, the Supreme Ruler, and must be translated the most Hii^h God. Sixteen cases are adduced of Te being used by classical writers for the gods of the va- rious elements and seasons ; numerous instances also occur in the Buddhist and Taouist classics, in which the word Te is used for God, as they understood the term, and is ap- plied both to Buddha, and the imaginary deities of Taou : from which we infer, that ^ Te by itielf has suflTicient clas- sical authority to warrant its being used for the Supreme Potentate ; while the adoption of the term by all the sects for deities of ditferent orders, as well as for earthly monarchs and judijcs, shews us that ^ Te is the exact representative of Elohim, and is the generic term for God ; more particularly when _[1 Shangis prefixed, it then expresses the idea of the
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most High ♦^ God, and i^} equivalent to the word God, par excellencp.^ as it is expressed in capitals, or with a capital Ut- ter, in our editions of the Bible. 3E Chob, alone, might be made to represent Lord in general, but when the Lord Jeho- vah i8 intended, jl ^ Shang chob, or ^ ^ T'heen chob, might be safely employed.
Let us apply this theory to the translation of those parts of the Scriptures, where the true God and false gods are spok n of, both being represented by Elohim or Theos in the original.
Exodus" XX. 2, 3. " lam the Lord thy God, (fee. Thou shalt have none other orods before me :" which may be rendered
^^^ ^ literally, I am the High Lord, thy Supreme God, thou shaiL have none other gods before me.
1 Kings xviii. 21, 27. If the Lord be God, follow him: but cry aloud, for Baal is a god. ^ JL ± /j _t ^ Ml]
Psalm Ixxxii. 4. God standeth m the congregation of the mighty, he judgeth among the gods. Jl ^ IL^^ ^
Psalm Ixxxii. 6. 1 said ye are gods, and all of you children of the most High, but ye shall die like men. "^ 3^ ^ ^
75 ^ W g ±^Z ^ m M f M JiP A m, ^
John. x. 34, 35. I said ye are gods ; if he called them gods unto whom the word of God came, say ye of m^. thou blas- phcmest, becase I said I am the son of God ? § 2a "^ ^
75'ftf^^±'^;taiif^mm^M11sr0
1 Cor. viii. 4, 6. There is none odier God but one ; for (hough there be that are called gods, whether in heaven or on earth, as there be gods many and lords many, yet to us
there is one God. ±^ 73 — ^ >ftfe ^ "^ ftfe 1^ SI
^ m ^ *n ^ ^ 'f^ ^ s la*^ 5^ ^
ActsviL43. Ygnr God Rcmphan. ^ i^ ^ H ^, Actsxiv. 11. The gods. H 'f[?
2 €oF. iv. 4. The god of this world. iHi iit ^ '^^ Acts xix. 37. Goddess, ^ 3ft;' See also 1 Kings xi. 5. Acts vii. 40. Make us gods, ^ ^ j^ If '"^ Dan. xi. 36. The God of gods, ^"^"^ JlW
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Dan. xi. 37. Not reirard any god, ^ i^? fSJ '^
Dan xi 38. A jrod whom fiii faihcis knew not shall he
honor, 5il IE Fir :^^ 1 ;^ 'Hf ^ !i2> #t ^ {fe . ,
Habukkuk i. li. ImpuLm*^ this his power muo hit god,
2 Chron. iixn. 15. iNo god of any-nation was able to do-
liver hi3 people, J^ ^ i^ M Z'^ M'^ tk^ ^^
Exodus xii. 12. The gods of Eg:ypt, ^ ^ ^ ^
f^ Gen. XXXV. 2. Strange gods, J^ '^
Ps. Ixxxvi. 8. Among the gods there is none like unto thee,
Is, xliv. 6. Beiidcs me there is no god, j^ ^ '^ 7fV
2 Chron. xiii. 9. Pricstu unto them that are no gods, ^^ Ps. vni. 5. Thou madest him a little lower than the Elo- Exodus xxi. 6. And he shall bring him to the Elohim, ^j^
Jonah, i. 5. They cried every man unto his god, ^)[]^^ ^^ Ruth i. 16. Thy God shall be my God, ^'^^^)ls
1 fcjamuei xxviii. 13. I see gods arising out of the earth.
As some discussion has arisen regarding the most suitable word for
spirit, and as some persons have recommended the word l&BF Ling»
instead of jji™ Shin, we will here adduce such passages as occur to us
in which the word ^^ ling is found, in order to give the reader some idea of its import.
In the discussion on the lost fifth chapter of the yC ^^ '^'^ ^^^^» we have the following sentiment : ** Owing to the ^^ intelligence of the human mind, every one possesses & certain Je^ree of knowledge."
In the first book of j5l "j Miing-tsz^, page 3, we have a quota- tion from the Book of Odes, to the following efFuct : *' Measure off
the ^g ^§ wonderful terrace, measure it off, and make it." The commentator tells us, that the wonderful terrace, was a name given (o Wan- Wang's terrace by the people ; who were so pleased with what he did, as to give this appellation to the construction erected by him. On referring to the Book of Odes, from which the quotation is made, we find the commentator assigning, as therea&oii of the above design a-
280
tion to the terrace, that it was so rapidly executed, and po suddenly completed, that it appeared as if it had been the work of I[[^ ^g in- visible beings. Hence the most suitable term for ^^ Hng, in this connection, ii wonderful or miraculous. The same terra is applied to a park and a pool, connected with the terrace, which must also be translated in the same manner.
In the Shoo-king, Book IV. section 1. we have the following pas- sage : *' Heaven and earth are the parents of the myriad of things ;
and amongst all animals, man ii the most ^g intelligent^ Upon which the commentator says, *' when the various animals were produ- ced, human beings were found to be the most subtile and ^g intel- ligent, beii.g provided with all good principles, and fully prepared with every virtue, far surpassing all other living things in knowledge and perception."
In the 5th book, section 3id, we read as follows : — " The king further said. Oh you numerous officers of the Yin dynasty, now has
oiir king of Chow been aMe, in a very ^ worthy manner, to under- take the businest imposed on him by the *^ (Supreme) Ruler."
Here the commentator tells us, that ^^ ling, m^zxxB good.
In the 5th book, 7th section, we have a similar passage, " He spe- culated on the decree of the 'fff* (Supreme) Ruler, and yet could not- increase the things on which the people depended for support ; while' he extensively brought down inflictions on the people, and multiplied the confusions of China; the causes of these things originated in the universal disorders of the palace, in consequence of which he was un- able ^§ worthily to receive the multitude, (as his subjects.)" The
paraphrase here explains the word ^g Itng by ^^ good.
In the same section occurs another passage : ** Our king of
Chow alone could ^ rvorthily receive the multitudes (as his iub-
jects.)" Here also ^ ling is interpreted to mean good.
In the 6th book, 8tti section, we read, " The people of Meaou
were not ^§ good, and conducted their government on the principle
of inflicting punishment." The explanation here given of ^g ling,
is also ^^ good.
We now turn to the Book of Odes, and in tlie ^ ^ Sang-min section, read as follows: "Her firstborn was brought forth as a lamb, without bursting or tearing, without harm or injury, to manifest
the ^ miraculous nature of the conception." The commentator
here explains ^g ling by strange and unusual ; while the paraphrast says, that the birth was diff*erent from the usual course, in order to shew, that when a sage is born, his entrance into the world is very d fferent from thnt of common men.
In the last section of the same work, we read, " The city of Shang
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is well -regulated, and an exam))le to all around, how celebrated her fame, and how glorious her ^^ dignity !"' The paraphrnst here ex- plains th« term in question by ^ |^ dignity, majesty, ifltimidatiiig power.
In the Book of Rites, in the ^ ^ Yu^-Kng ceetion, we re»d o^ offerings being prepared to be sacriticed to the Sains from all quarters,
and the ^^ spirits residing in the aneestorial temples, and at the al-
tars of the lares rtistici." Thus ^^ ling here means, the manes and lares to which the people were accustomed to present sacrifices.
In the ;S W Tso-chuen, in the 3rd year of ^ ^ Yfn-kung, we read of Muli, the duke of Sung, charging his minister to rais. his
brother's son to the throne after his death, saying, " If by your >^ awe-ingpiring influence, I should be able to die a natural death, I shall then have something to reply to my brother, the late duke, in the
shades below." Here the commentator couples ^ ^ wef ling to- gether, and of course the meaning of the word must be dignity and intimidating influence.
In the same work, under date of the 23rd year of He-kung, the
duke of Tsin assures the ruler of Tsoo, that " if by his ^^ awe-in- spiring influence, he should be able to return to his country, he would manifest his gratitude, by retiring before his troops, in any future con- test that might take place between them." Here the meaning of the term under discussion is the same as in the last quoted sentence.
Further on, under date of the 13th year of Seang-kung, we have another phrase of similar import with the two preceding ; where the
ruler of Tsoo, after having recommended himself to the ^^ awe-in- spiring influence of one of his ministers, requests that, after his death,
he would assign him the posthumous title of ^J ling, which signifies in that connection, one who brought about some confusion, which has. not however proceeded to utter ruin.
Again, under date of the I. 5th year of Chaou-kung, an ambassa- dor irom the Tsin country, at the court of Chow, being asked why the Tsin state did not maintain the dignity of the royal house of Ciiow, as others had done, replied, That the princes of the empire, when ap- pointed to their difl'erent domain?, were in the habit of receiving the regalia from the imperial court, as significant of their defending their hearths and altars ; these then mi.rht be presented at court, and con- stitute a reason for intercourse. But the Tsin people dwelt in the hill country, near to the regions of barbarians, and far from the royal
house, 80 that the ^jg favours of the king did not reach them, while they had no leisure from the busy negotiations which they had
to maintain with the barbarians," I^ing is here explained by ^§ chung, favour.
iVIoreove.r, under date of the 2 1st year of Ghaou-kung, Kung-teze- ching, returned from the Tsin country, to the help of Sung ; when
J i
282
one Hwa-paou addressed him by name. Chtng took ofience at this, and turned his back on him ; when he was about to shoot him, Hwa- paou also bent his bow ; upon this, Kung-tsz^-chtng cried out. May
the ^^ manes of my deceased father Ping-kung now be friend me.
In the Imperial Dictionary, under the word ^g. ling, Kang-he, un- der the first class of meanings, joins two words of nearly similar im- port, in order to explain the term in question, and gives us the phrase
SiP ^E subtile influence, quoting in proof a passage from the "/^ ^^
Sg Ta-tae-1^, to the following effect : <' the subtile influence of the
male principle of nature, is called j|j^ Sbtn, while that of the female
principle of nature, is called ^[| ling. He then quotes the passage from the 4th Book, and 1st section of the Shoo^king, where the meaning is subtile and intelligent, as has been already given ; so also
the passage from the ^C ^ Sang-min section of the Book of Odes, where Ling means miraculous, as we have already seen ; also a work
treating on that passage in the ^ ^g Ling-tae section of the same book, which we have seen fit to render wonderful and miraculous, as above ; adding that, whatsoever is subtile and intelligent in reference
to l]iP invisible beings, is called S§llng: meaning probably, that the terrace in question was completed so expeditiously and well, that it looked like the work of invisible beings. Under the second class
of meanings, he calls ^g ling, good ; and then quotes a sentence
from the )^P J^^ Yung-fung Ode, treating of the beneficial rain that
had fallen. In the third class of meanings, he says that 2^ ling raeaHs happy. Under the fourth, that it means a necromancer. Un- der the fifth, he adduces the words ^g ^^ Ung fun, as the name of a celebrated prognosticator. Under the sixth class of meanings, ^ gf ling koo is given, as the name of a six-sided drum. Under the seventh, ^ ^g tsoo ling is given, as the man of straw used at fune- rals, to represent the dead. Under the eighth, ^ ^5^ tsimg ling, is
Baid to be a baggage waggon. Under the ninth, g^ ^ yaou ling, is a phrase used for the sun ; and the three lings, are said to signify
the sun, moon, and stars. Under the tenth, ^g ling is defined to be
grace and favour. Under the eleventh, we have the 23 ^g four fa- bulous animal, viz. griffins, phoenixes, singing tortoises, and dra- gons ; while the ^ fg£ Urh-yay is quoted, as referring to the ^
gg fabulous tortoise, which is said to be able to sing ; and a histori- cal work is brought in saying, that " below there are the prostrate fa- bulous animals." Under the twelfth head, we have the meaning at- taclied to the term in question, when used as a posthumous title : thus when ^ prince has during his lifetime ^* created confusion, without
283
bringing things to ruin," his posthumous title will be ^g Hng ; so alio when " he has not been diligent in perfecting his fame,'* or when " his designs have not been accomplished till after his death/' or when ** after his death, his mysterious energies have become appa- rent," or when ** he has been fond of sacrificing to ghosts and fairies," or when " he has been too much conversant with Kwei Shins or invisible beings ;" in all these cases, his title after death would be
§5 lln?. Kang-h« goes on to give the character in question as the name of a district, and a surname ; shewing also, that it takes differ- ent sounds in order to make it rhyme in pov;;tiy : in wbica rutiO it i3
coupled with the word fjl| fn?r^\
By A rjfjiv.iioc lo Llie oreceding part uf ih's essay, it will be f«een
that on tlie 9th and 10th pages, the ^ etficacions or subt'le part of the principle of the nature is spoken of; and in the 15th and 16th pages, the
^^ efficacy of the Kwei Shins : in page 66, we read of the jljip i§^ efficaciousness or vitality of the Shins of the mountains; on pai^e 172 the Kweis are said to be sometimes efficacious in answering prayers.
In page 165 we read of the Ji^'^ invisible efficacy or spirituality in- herent in the breath of nature: in page 182, the Shin is called the '|j(j spiritual or vital part of the male, and the Kwei that of the female prin- ciple cf nature; at page 97 we read of the soul of man, as diffusing it- self abroad and mounting aloft to become \^ ^^ an invisible and spiritual being ; in page 95^ the ^^ ^§ k'he lins; is called the more intelligent part of the finer spirit ; and the ^ ^ pih ling, the more
subtile part of the grosser ipirit ; in page 97, the phrase f'^ ^ tsing ling occurs as the subtile essence of things, and again in the sense
of subtile and refined spiritual essence ; while page 60 talks of ^^ ^^ tht invisible surety, or the representative of the dead at the sa- crifices. In page ]95 the Taouists say, that [|[i^ spirituality obtain- ^d the principle of unity, in order to become ^ efficacious ; and In
page 200 we read of the descending §n: spirit of Buddha.
In bringing together the various ideas presented before us in the above extracts, we shall see that the meanings attached to the term are :
1st. The subf,ile influence of i\ature, in which sense it occurs six times, combined most comraomly with Shin. To this may be added those passages, in which it has been translated in the earlier part of this essay, efficacious, vital, or spiritual ; but which may also bear the same interpretation Thus we have the efficacy or subtile influencf of the Kwei Shins, and of the mountain genii, occurring four times. We have moreover the phrase Tsing ling twice occurring, and referring to the subtile essence of things ; and the corresponding terms K'h4 ling, and Pih ling, used in allusion to the subtility of the finer and coarser parts of the spirit of man.
2d. Allied to this class of meanings are those uses of the word
284 .^
Ling in the sense of subtile and intellisrent, occurring: four times ; and wonderful and rairaculoua, as if caused by the agency of invisible be- ings, coming before us six times.
3d. We have also adduced four instances, in which the word Ling bears the sense of dignified, awe-inspiring, intimidating, and protecting. 4th. Fiv« cases occur in which Ling must be rendered good, wor- thy, oi suitable.
5th. Two m which it means grace or favour. 6th. One in > hich it signifies happy.
7th, One instance occurs in which Shin ling refers to invisible be- ings, and one to the soul of man.
8th. Two cases are found in which Ling imports the manes of ances- tors.
9th. One in which it means the spirit of Buddha. 10th. Three cases are brought forward of the application of Ling to fabulous animals.
llth. One instance of its being used for the man of straw, and one for the invisible surety, employed at funerals.
12th. One case is given of ling as used for a necromancer, and an- other for the name of a celebrated prognosticator . 13th. Ling is used for a six-sided drum. 14th. For a baggage waggon.
15th. It is also used in combination with other characters, once for the sun, and once for the heavenly bodies.
I6th. Once it occurs in connection with fairy. 17th. Once as th« perfection of the spirituality, which results in complete emptiness, according to the system of the Taouists.
18th. And lastly it is employed in posthumous titles, as referring to the completion of one's fame after death, and to a superstitious fond- ness for ghosts and spirits, while living.
Taking all these meanings together, we are compelled to dissent from the position that Ling, with the addition of Shfng, would be a good translation for the Holy Sprit. We know from experience what a propensity there is in the human mind to overlook the personality of the Divine Spirit, and to consider him merely in the light of an affla- tus, an attribute, or an eastern hyperbole ; and were a term employ- ad, which means principally the subtile influence of nature, and occurs chiefly in the adjective form, we fear that the future neologists of China would not fail to make a handle of it, to pervert the views of the expected c«n verts in this important country. For the same rea- son, we should object to the use of the wordj^fung, wind, or ^^ k'he, which latter is however, preferable, as referring to the breath of nature, and the energy by which all nature is produced and agitated ; vrhile the former only conveys the idea of wind, custom, and the influence of the sages ; but to all these we have the same objection, viz. that it is dif- ficult or imposible to attach the idea of personality, imlividuality, or separate and distinct action to either of them, while all of these can be predicated of the word Shin, which not unfrequently means a spirit, in the fullest genc«e of the word.
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