I xz. HMmmmmummnipli^i . TT-IE SCIENTIFIC SERIES ^3*--S>fiVS \ ^T h e o Case. \ Shdf Book, L T B R A. R ^ OF TllK logical Sem PRINCETON, N. J. Divisic ■ Secii.,. ^ 1 inary'. ', 1 - 1 I) i List of ^'olumes already Published in THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES. Fourth Edition. I. THE FORMS OF WATER IN CLOUDS AND RIVERS, ICE AND GLACIERS. By J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. With 26 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Price 5^^. Second Edition. IL PHYSICS AND POLITICS ; OR, Thoughts on the Application of the Principles of "Natural Selecton" AND "Inheritance" to Political Society. By Walter Bagehot. Crown 8vo. Price 4s. Third Edition. III. FOODS. By Dr. Edward Smith. Profusely Illustrated. Price 5 J-. Third Edition. IV. MIND AND BODY : The Theories of their Rela- tions. By Alexander Bain, LL.D., Professor of Logic at the University of Aberdeen. With Four Illustrations. Price 4s. Fourth Edition. V. THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY. By Herbert Spencer. Crown 8vo. Price 55. Third Edition. VI. ON THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. By Professor Balfour Stewart. With Fourteen Engravings. Price 5^. Second Edition. VII. ANIMAL LOCOMOTION ; or, Walking, Swimming, and Flying. By J. B. Pettigrew, M.D., F.R.S. With 119 Illustrations. ^^^'^^ 5-y- Second p:dition. VIII. RESPONSIBILITY IN MENTAL DISEASE. By Dr. Henry Maudsley. Price 5^-. Second Edition. IX. THE NEW CHEMISTRY. By Professor Josiah P. Cooke, of the Harvard University. With Thirty-one Illustrations. Price 55. Second Edition. X. THE SCIENCE OF LAW. By Professor Sheldon Amos. Price 5^-. XI. ANIMAL MECHANICS. A Treatise on Terrestial and Aerial Locomotion. By E. J. Marey. With 117 Illustrations. Price y. XII. THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT AND DARWINISM. By Professor OscAR Schmidt (Strasburg University). XIII. HISTORY OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN RELI- GION AND SCIENCE. By J. W. Draper, LL.D., &c. Price 5^. XIV. THE CHEMISTRY OF LIGHT AND PHOTO- GRAPHY. By Professor VoGEL (Polytechnic Academy of Berlin). XV. ON PARASITES IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. By Mons. Van Beneden. *^* For List of forthcoming Books in the Series see the Catalogue at the end of this Book. THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES VOLUME XIL THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT AND DARWINISM 7 OSCAR '^SCHMIDT PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF STRASBURG WITH TWENTY-SIX WOODCUTS SECOND EDITION Henry S. King & Co. 1875 {The Rights of Traaslal/on and Rcprodiictio7i are reserved. PREFACE, The important chapter which closes this work was included in a public lecture which I delivered at the meeting of Naturalists and Physicians held this year at Wiesbaden ; my purpose being, as I am willing to con- fess, to ascertain, by experience, whether on this signifi- cant subject I had struck the right note to suit a circle of hearers and readers not hampered by prejudice. After the reception given to this fragment, which I also issued in a separate pamphlet, under the title of " The Doctrine of Descent, in its application to Man " (Die Anwendung der Descendenzlehre auf den Mens- chen), I venture to hope that the whole may find a welcome. With the exception of the Ecclesiastico-political question, no sphere of thought agitates the educated classes of our day so profoundly as the doctrine of de- scent. On both subjects the cry is, "Avow your colours!" IV PREFACE. We have, therefore, endeavoured to define our standpoint sharply in the introduction, and to preserve it rigidly throughout the work. This is, indeed, a case in which, as Theodor Fechner has recently said, a definite deci- sion has to be made between two fundamental alter- natives. May our exposition afford a lucid testimony to this dictum of one of the patriarchs of the philo- sophical view of nature. Strasburg, October iWi, 1873. Oscar Schmidt. CONTENTS, PACE INTRODUCTION— Summary of the Results of Linguistic Inquiry — Positive Knowledge preliminary to the Doctrine of Descent — Belief in Miracle— The Limits of the Investi- gation of Nature i II. The Animal World in its Present State 24 IIL The Phenomena of Reproduction in the Animal World. . 39 IV. The Animal World in its Historical and Pal.eontological Development 60 V. The Standpoint of the Miraculous, and the Investigation OF Nature— Creation or Natural Development— Linn.cus — Cuvier—Agassiz— Examination of the Idea of Species . 82 VI. Natural Philosophy— Goethe- Predestined Transformation according to Richard Owen — Lamarck 104 VI CONTENTS. VII. I'AGH Lyell and Modern Geology— Darwin 's Theory of Selection —Beginning of Life 127 VIII. Heredity— Reversion— Variability— Adaptation— Results of Use and Disuse of Organs— Differentiation leading to Perfection 165 IX. The Development of the Individual (Ontogenesis) is a Re- petition OF THE Historical Development of the Family (Phylogenesis) 195 X. The Geographical Distribution of Animals in the light of THE Doctrine of Derivation 222 XI. The Pedigree of Vertebrate Animals 248 XII. Man 283 REFERENCI::S AND QUOTATIONS 3 II LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGF. 1. Legs of Bird and Chick 9 2. Medusa, Tiaropsis Diadema 31 3. Stauridium. Medusa, Cladonema Radiatum . . -43 4. Spermatozoa 45 5. Section of Larva of Calcareous Sponge . . . -Si 6. Embryo of Hydrophilus Piceus 53 7. Sessile Stage of Crinoid 56 8. Larva of Crayfish 56 9. Graptolites 69 10. Trilobites remipes 70 11. Pal/EONiscus . 72 12. Larva of Echinoderm 197 13. Larva of Sea-Snail 200 14. Stauridium. Cladonema 203 15. Hydractinea carnea 204 16. Larva of Parasitic Crustacea 207 17. axolotl 2c8 18. Amblystoma 209 19. Ammonites Humphresiakus 214 20. Ancyloceras 216 21. Section of Larva of Calcareous Sponge . . . .217 22. Larva of Lancelet 251 23. Larva of Ascidian 253 24. Full-grown Ascidian 255 25. Impression of Tail of Arch^opteryx 266 26. Skeletons of Feet : Anchitherium, Hipparion, Horse . 274 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT AND DARWINISM. Introduction— Summary of the Results of Linguistic Inquiry — Positive Know- ledge preliminary to the Doctrine of Descent— Belief in Miracle— The Limits of the Investigation of Nature. A CRAVING to understand existence pervades mankind, and the life of every self-conscious individual. Every system of philosophy has endeavoured to penetrate into the nature of things, and has originated in the attempt to apprehend the coherency of those great series of material and spiritual phenomena, of which man flat- ters himself that he is the centre or the end. Some quiet themselves by emphasizing the contrast between mind and body, idea and phenomenon ; others, by the catchword of identity ; some have deemed them- selves and the world in the most beautiful harmony ; others, from the times of the Buddhists, in the 6th cen- tury B.C., to the eccentric saints of the present day, the followers and reformers of Schopenhauer's system, re- gard the world as a mere accumulation of discomfort and conflict, from which the sage may escape by a B 2 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. complete withdrawal into himself, and a return, by the force of an iron will, to an absence of needs and to nothingness. In all these endeavours to be reconciled and contented with the world, the consciousness of man has made no very important progress. Marvellous as are the attain- ments of our generation, whether in the domain of individual sciences, or in the sphere of commerce and industry, it is scarcely less wonderful how little certain oi advanced is the opinion of the multitude on general questions. Even now, as much as in the days of Aristophanes, the multitude, and likewise many men of "culture," allow themselves to be imposed upon by empty jargon. We no longer burn witches, but verdicts of heresy still abound. As the basis of sci- entific medicine, our experimental physiology enjoys unexampled encouragement, and a general instinctive recognition unparalleled in former times ; but these do not prevent the door from remaining open, in all classes of society, to the most audacious quackery. We have only to look round at the spiritualists and summoners of souls, who now form special sects and societies ; at the advocates of cures by sympathy and incantation, and we can but marvel at the extensive sway of a superstition hardly superior to the Fetichism of a race so alien to ourselves as are the negroes. These are only individual cases of the very widespread lack of judgment, which prevails wherever the supposed enigma of human existence is concerned. Millions and millions who would turn away indignantly if required to believe that anything not entirely natural occurred in the most complicated machine, in the most elaborate product RESULTS OF LINGUISTIC RESEARCH. 3 of the chemical retort, or in the strangest results of phy- sical experiment, are yet disposed to seek a dualism behind the processes of life. Wherever, also, the ex- planation of life, and the reduction of vital phenomena to their true natural causes is concerned, they would wish to deny point-blank the possibility of such ex- planation or such knowledge, and to refer life to an unapproachable and mystic domain. Or, if the solu- tion of the problem of life be admitted in the abstract, at least something peculiar, and a different standard from that by which other living beings may be measured, is required for the beloved Self. If we thus see, on the one side, a great portion of our contemporaries either standing before the most impor- tant of all problems in utter perplexity and helpless- ness, or solving it by the theology of revelation, we may, fortunately, point, on the other side, to the goodly host of those who, since the development of science has admitted of it, have encountered the investigation of man's place in nature with sincere interest, and have weighed the problem with intelligence. This craving for a knowledge based on philosophical and natural science, became apparent about a century ago, and coincided with the first beginnings of linguistic science. It is the more appropriate to allude here to this, as the theories of the origin of language are profoundly affected and influenced by opinions as to the origin of Man, and vice versa. The result of an inquiry, made in 1580, as to the lan- guage of Paradise, having been that God spoke Danish, Adam Swedish, and the serpent French, Leibnitz, in his letters to Newton, first attempted to regulate the B 2 4 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. method of linguistic research by recommending as its basis the study of the more recent and known lan- guages. And when, in the middle of last century, the two opinions, that language was invented or revealed, were sharply opposed to each other, and when Siissmilch (1764), in contradiction to Maupertuis and Jean J. Rousseau, had established that invention was not possi- ble without thought, nor thought without language, and, therefore, that the invention of language was a self-con- tradiction, Herder opportunely entered the lists with his work on language (1770), which formed an epoch in the science. According to him, language begins with imitations of sounds, at first almost unconscious; the tokens, as he expresses it, by which the soul distinctly recalls an idea. He makes language develop itself from the crudest beginnings, by the increasing need of such verbal tokens ; and shows that with the development of mankind, the store of words must also have uncon- sciously and instinctively increased. The multiplicity of languages is due to the dispersion of nations, whose idiosyncrasies are reflected in the various languages. Thus Herder long ago pointed out the importance of a psychology of nations. He was joined by Wilhelm von Humboldt, whose opinions form the basis of the present science of language, and who held that the imi- tations of sounds are instinctively crystallized into words, and that with this formation of words and language thought commences. It follows from the nature of these beginnings, that language is the natural expression of the spirit of a people ; that it docs not stand still, but is for ever in process of transformation. WHAT IS AFFINITY? 5 The science of language, with its great results, dis- plays the most important side of human nature — man in the elevation which he has gradually acquired above the rest of the living world^but it displays this side alone. Although the founders of linguistic inqi.iry, of whom we have already spoken, had already represented man as first acquiring reason and becoming man, by means of language proceeding from primitive rudi- ments, they were, nevertheless, satisfied to assume the privileged position of man as an absolute endowment, or a self-evident axiom. This continued as long as natural science was limited to a merely superficial clas- sification of organisms, Man, as consisting of flesh and blood, seemed, indeed, akin to the higher animals ; but so long as their descent, their actual consanguinity was not discussed, so long as nothing was demanded beyond their juxtaposition, ac- cording to the analogy of their characteristics, without any scrutiny of the deeper causes of their divergence or similarity, man indisputably occupied the highest grade in the system of living beings. Linnaeus places man in the order of Primates, together with bats, le- murs, and apes, without, on that account, being accused from pulpit and from chair of an assault on the dignity of mankind. Bufi"on, likewise, was able, unrebuked, to indulge his whim, by specially discussing our race in his description of the ass. Only when, quite recently, the world became aware that the word " afiinity," hitherto uttered with supreme indifference, was henceforth to be taken seriously and literally, since that which is akin is also the fruit of one and the same tree, a beam of joyful recognition thrilled 6 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. through those to whom man appeared a being com- pletely within the bounds of nature. But others, who can think of man only as a being absolutely endowed above his natural surroundings, could not fail to regard as a sort of crime the deduction which an all-embrac- ing theory applied with relentless logic to man. The interest with which the modern theory of kindred and descent has been received does not, therefore, proceed from friends alone, but quite as much from antagonists, who perceive, more or less distinctly, the danger with which the new doctrine threatens their standpoint of miracle. Even in England the opposition to the great Eng- lishman, with whose name the revolution is connected, has been very considerable, especially since it became evident that, true to himself, he includes man also within the range of his researches, and purposes to apply to him all the consequences of his doctrine. But it appears to me that the dispute and the agitation are still keener on this side of the channel, where Darwin- ism is meat and drink to the daily papers, and to the philosophical and theological periodicals. This phenomenon is obvious to all eyes, and we are convinced of the deep importance of the subject which, whether we take part for, or against it, must influence our whole theory of life. Here too that has happened to many, which so often happens in ques- tions the difficulties of which are veiled by an apparent general familiarity. Every one thinks himself capable of deciding about life, and, since to non-scientific per- sons the notorious relationship with apes is the alpha and omega of the doctrine of Descent — since the most REFERENCE TO DARWIN. 7 confused heads are often most thoroughly convinced of their own pre-eminence — on no subject do we so fre- quently hear superficial opinions, mostly condemnatory, and all evincing the grossest ignorance. I wish then to render the reader able to survey the whole ramified and complicated problem of the doctrine of Descent, and its foundation by Darwin, and to enable him to understand its cardinal points. But we must first dispose of a preliminary question of uni- versal importance and special significance, which is frequently ignored by philosophical and theological opponents, that is, the question of the limits of the in- vestigation of nature. For if it were an established prin- ciple that the mystery of the living is different from that of the non-living, that the former might be disclosed, but that the latter is shrouded in a veil which never can be raised, as is even now so frequently asserted, then, indeed, all research directed towards the comprehension of life would be utterly vain and hopeless. But if the possibility of investigating life and its origin be not opposed by any d prioj'i scruples, still more, if the limits of investigation and knowledge, which un- doubtedly exist, are no other for animate nature than for the inanimate world of matter, we may venture to approach our task. This will be most adequately effected by making ourselves somewhat familiar with the object of the doctrine of Descent, restricting ourselves, however, to the animal world. If I say then that we must obtain a foundation for the theory of derivation or descent, for the doctrine of the gradual and direct development of the higher and now-existing organisms from lower ancestral forms — in short, for the doctrine of the continuity of 8 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. life, we must begin with a survey of the animal forms now spread over the earth. As astronomy begins with the mere classification of the stars and constellations, and the knowledge of their apparent motions, so do we also range our material in large groups, and this in the manner offered by the historical development of science. What first strikes the observer of the animal world is, that it consists of apparently innumerable forms. The primary requirement is discrimination and arrange- ment. In the first stages of their development, zoology, as well as botany and mineralogy, necessarily consisted of mere descriptions, of a knowledge of objects in a state of completeness. Physics and chemistry, on the other hand, deal with the investigation of phenomena directly referring to their origin, that is to say, with series of phenomena mutually connected as causes and effects, the knowledge, of which, therefore, leads at once to results satisfactory and tranquillizing to the mind. This description, at first limited to the exterior, was gradually extended to the interior, because zootomy and com- parative anatomy, even more than fifty years ago, had advanced so far in the accumulation of endless details that Cuvicr then ventured to found the Natural System. But this delineation of the animal world required completion on two sides, and, as the science proceeded towards perfection, it received it almost simultaneously on both. To the knowledge of the existence of an animal belongs also the description of its origin. I say emphatically, " the description," for the history of animal development is not as yet in itself a natural science in the same sense as the mathematico-physical COMPARATIVE ANATOMY AND EVOLUTION. sciences ; it is a mere description of nature. But it yields a far more accurate knowledge. In many cases it discloses, for the first time, the significance of organs, and gives to comparative anatomy the confirmation, and frequently the possibility of interpretation. The wing of a bird, in its individual parts, may be traced back without difficulty to the anterior extremities of a reptile or a mammal. But the leg of a bird, as a com- plete organ does not har- monize with the leg of other vertebrata until the develop- ment of the bird in the egg reveals that the disposition of the segments and of the articulations is precisely the same in both cases, and that the apparent anomaly is produced merely by the subsequent anchylosis of bones, which generally re- main separate. The complete leg of the bird (A) shows us at a, the femur, or thigh bone, and at d, the tibia, or lower leg bone ; but instead of the bones of the tarsus and me- tatarsus, the latter of which afi"ords attachment to the fig. i. toes, we find only the long bone c, and at its lower 10 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. extremity a small bone supporting the four toes. Earlier writers were content to say that the astragalus (c) re- places the tarsus and metatarsus. But this is not the case ; for the chick in the egg (B) shows that the bird's leg consists of the thigh, or femur (a), and the shank or tibia (d), two tarsal (m ;/), and three or four metatarsal bones (c), and the toes, or phalanges ; that the upper tarsal bone is anchylosed with the tibia, and the lower one with the consolidated metatarsus. Only thus do we obtain a true perception of the fact manifested in A, although the cause of the fact does not as yet appear. The next example is rather more difficult. With- out the history of development, comparative anatomy is incapable of explaining why man possesses three little bones in the auditory apparatus, the bird only one. The history of development shows that out of the ma- terial which in man is applied to the formation of the malleus and incus, two other portions of the skull are evolved in the bird, having little or nothing to do with the auditory mechanism. In short, the history of deve- lopment, which describes the gradual formation of the organism, is at every step a beacon to comparative anatomy. In itself, however, the history of development does not as yet exceed the rank of a merely descriptive branch of erudition. But if we now perceive how the evolutionary stages of individuals represent series from the lower to the higher, analogous to the various members existing side by side in the same group of animals, — how, for instance, the mammal passes through stages at which the lower vertebrata remain fixed, — a connection, at first sight POSITION OF PALEONTOLOGY. II mysterious, is indicated between the evolution of the individual and the general constitution of the animal world. This connection requires a scientific solution, a reduction to causes, and this all the more urgently be- cause their relations, though as yet hidden, are rendered more probable by a third series of phenomena, the conquest of which is likewise the achievement of natural history. We allude to the record of the primaeval world. Therefore, the knowledge of paI?2ontological facts also forms part of the indispensable basis of our opera- tions. Geology entered the right track forty years ago. We now know that the world was not made backwards, but originated by gradual formations and metamorphoses ; we may — nay, we must, infer that, at a definite epoch of refrigeration, life appeared in a natural manner, that is to say, without any incomprehensible act of creation ; and during this slow transformation of the earth's crust, v/e see living beings also gradually increasing, differentiating, and perfecting themselves. Yet more. As was first convincingly proved in detail by Agassiz, one of the most vehement antagonists of the theory of descent, we behold the palasontological or his- torical series of organisms in the same sequence as the phases of the development of the individual. There are here vast chasms yet to be filled up by future observa- tion, though in many points we must not altogether despair of success. But that the process of palaion- tological development is, in general, the one indicated, is disputed only by naturalists, who, like Barrande, years ago anchored themselves to inalterable convictions in science, as in creed, to dogmas. 12 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. These groups of facts, thus mutually referring to each other, must be, in some degree, examined by any one desirous of understanding them. In other words, we must first review this vast material, before we turn our attention to the magic spell which sifts and makes it comprehensible. The toil is great, but the reward is glorious ! For, as regards the organic world, the craving inherent in the human mind for the knowledge of reasons — the need of causality, is satisfied singly and solely by the doctrine of Descent. As yet we do not regard it as complete ; in many special cases it still owes us an answer ; but, on the whole, it does as much as any other ingenious theory has done ; it interprets by a single prin- ciple those great phenomena which without its aid remain a mass of unintelligible miracles. In a word, it raises the knowledge of organic nature to a science. Even now much of mere professional knowledge is wont to style itself science. But as the doctrine of Descent includes all life, it cannot stop on approaching Man. Were we doubtful as to the origin of language, or even forced to admit total ignorance on this point, we could not, from the existence of language, deduce the inapplicability to man of the doctrine of Descent, without, as it seems to us, arbitrarily breaking the chain of ratiocination. We will now return to the preliminary question already indicated, as to the limits of the investigation of nature. It is the more important, as incompetent judges are wont to assert, that these limits are exceeded. The frivolity of the logic by which such accusations are ren- dered' plausible to the multitude surpasses all licence. We open, for instance, Luthardt's " Apologetic Lectures on the Fundamental Truths of Christianity," (" Apolo- THE INVESTIGATION OF NATURE AND MIRACLE. 1 3 getische Vortrage liber die Grundwahrheiten des Chrlst- enthums,") and see how he defends the reality of miracles. " Miracles," he says, *' are not even miracles. They do not even repeal the laws of nature ; they merely release single occurrences from the dominion of those laws, and place them under the law of a higher will and a higher power. Of this we have many analogies in lower spheres. If my arm hurls a stone into the air, this is contrary to the nature of the stone, and is not an effect of the law of gravitation, but the interposition of a higher power and a higher will, producing effects which are not the effects of the inferior powers. These powers and these laws are not hereby repealed, but still subsist." Let us pause a moment. To say that it is contrary to the nature of the stone that gravity should be apparently overpowered for a few moments by muscular agency, is physically absurd. The stone remains the same weight, its nature is wholly the same, even while in the motion of projection ; and it is utterly unjustifiable and so- phistical to prate about muscular force as a higher power opposed to gravity. If the stone weighs two hundred-weight, where is the higher power then.'* But when the champion of supernaturalism has mis- led and prepared his hearers by his worthless analogy^ he proceeds : " Thus in the miracle, a higher causality interposes, and evokes an effect which is not the effect of the concatenation of those lower causalities, and yet subsequently submits to these concatenations. But this higher causality ultimately coincides with the highest moral objects of existence. To serve them is nature's highest and most glorious pursuit. Therefore if miracle 14 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. stands in connection with these objects, if its conditions are moral and not arbitrary, it is not contrary to nature and its purpose, but in the highest sense conformable to it." Thus as soon as belief in miracle comes into conflict with the investigation of nature, it says : " You overstep your limits, and must here suspend your judgment. It is a question of a higher moral object ; the domain of ethics is higher than that of physics, and therefore a higher causality, which physicists have no right to criticise, has suspended the chain of cause and effect with which you naturalists are familiar." This passage\ in which one of the most learned and honoured champions of the belief in miracle lays down, like a sophist, the limits of the investigation of nature, is, however, among the most moderate of its kind. But our point of view and our logic differ radically from that of antagonists of this description, in one particular, namely, that to us the opposite to knowledge is igno- rance, whereas they supplement knowledge by a so- called higher knowledge, and by faith. While holding by the maxim of Pico della l^.Iirandola, *' Philosophy seeks. Theology finds, Religion possesses the Truth," ^ it is forgotten that there are truths and truths. The subjective visions and sensations of sound by which the mentally diseased are excited and alarmed, are to them a reality, yet a reality quite different to that of the sights and sounds received through the healthy organs of the senses. Philosophy and science seek that truth which is deduced from the palpable connection of things. But the other truths, so often negatived by the former, are generally impalpable, and are incom- LIMITS OF INVESTIGATION. 1 5 mensurable with scientific truths. We will therefore abide by the words of Goethe : Whoso has art and science found, , Rehgion, too, has he; Who has nor art nor science found, His should rehgion be.* And now, having provisionally averted uncalled-for objections and conflicts with ambiguous ideas, we may quietly consider the limits of natural science. Let us first pause at the address delivered with general approval by the physiologist Dubois-Reymond, at the fiftieth assembly of German Naturalists and Physicians. He made reference to a passage in the classical works of Laplace, in the Introduction to the Theory of Science, which we cannot refrain from quoting in full. The author of the "Mechanism of the Heavens," says: "Pre- sent events are connected with the events of the past by a link resting on the obvious principle that a thing cannot begin to exist without a cause which produces it. This maxim, known by the name of the Principle of Sufficient Cause, extends likewise to events with which it is not supposed to come in contact. Even the freest will can- not evoke them without a determining impulse." "We must, therefore, regard the present condition of the uni- verse as the consequence of its former, and the cause of its future, condition. A mind, for a given moment acquainted with all the forces which animate Nature, and the reciprocal relations of the entities of which it is * Wer Wissenschafft und Kunst besitzt, Hat auch Religion ; Wer jene beiden nicht besilzt, Der habe Rehgion. l6 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. composed — possessed, moreover, of powers of compre- hension sufficient to submit all these facts to analysis, would be able to reduce to a single formula the motions of the largest heavenly body and of the lightest atom. To such a mind nothing would be uncertain, and the future, like the past, would lie open before it. The human mind in all the perfection which it has been able to give to astronomy, offers but a faint image of such a mind as this." "All efforts of the human intellect in the search for truth tend to approach the mind above portrayed, but will always remain infinitely removed from it." The Prussian physiologist then quotes the " Thou art like the Spirit whom thou comprehendest" of Faust ;* and is of opinion that, in the abstract, the formula of the universe is therefore not impenetrable to the human intellect But we own we are cordially indifferent to an abstract perfection which never comes to light, and regard the unattainableness of this vague formula of the universe as a very endurable limit to human inquiry. But independently of the dubious consolation of the formula of the universe, we must agree with Dubois- Reymond, when he considers that the limits, before which the highest conceivable intelligence must pause, are also insurmountable to man. In accordance with the views now prevailing among physicists and biologists, Dubois-Rcymond has thus specified the only limit given to the investigation of nature': "The knowledge of natural science, more closely defined above, is no real knowledge. In the attempt to comprehend the constant, to which the mutations in * Du gleichst dem Geist, den du begreifst. ATOMS IDEALLY REPRESENTED. 1/ the material world may be traced back, we stumble on insoluble contradictions. An atom contemplated as a minute, indivisible, inert mass, from which forces ema- nate, is a chimera. In the impossibility of compre- hending the nature of matter and force lies the only limit to the knowledge of natural science." These propositions require some elucidation. Beyond the subdivision mechanically possible, we must think of substance or matter as consisting of particles ultimately indivisible. Of these atoms, according to the present standpoint of science, we are obliged to admit as many different species as are not chemically reducible to more simple elements. Now there is no doubt that these atoms are, in the actual sense of the word, imaginary, hypothetical quantities ; and theory seems to indicate that all matter, in the most different phenomena in the material world, is based on a single species of atom. Every manual of physics or physiology will show that, in order to understand and calculate the properties of these atoms and their combinations into the ingre- dients of compound bodies, susceptible of chemical analysis, they are ideally represented under various material forms, spherical, cubical, &c. ; furthermore, that in their combinations and co-operations as bodies, they must be contemplated as surrounded by a rarefied atmosphere of an universally diffused ether. But the atom itself, and therefore the nature of matter, is something incomprehensible, unattainable. In these atoms, forces are inherent, which display themselves in attractions and repulsions, and in motion in general. But the final cause of these motions, and how far these motions are, as it were, identical with the existence of C l8 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. the atoms, is likewise included in the incomprehensi- bility of matter. " If we pass over this," says Dubois-Reymond again, " the universe is approximately comprehensible. Even the appearance on the earth of life in the abstract does not render it incomprehensible. For life in the abstract, contemplated from the standpoint of the theoretical investigation of nature, is merely the arrangement of molecules in a state of more or less stable equilibrium, and the introduction of an exchange of material, partly by their own elastic force, partly by motion trans- ferred from without. It is a misapprehension to see anything supernatural in this." This is the point which is usually contested wdth the greatest vehemence. If all the motions and states of quiescence of the inanimate world can be thoroughly explained, the inexplicable must commence with the basis of life. The imputation cast upon the reasoning powers by this assumption may be formularized as follows, in the question put by another sound and thoughtful physiologist, A. Pick : * " Are the charac- teristics of such a particle, as already explained, applicable and effective during the period of its sojourn in an organism ? Thus, for instance, will the motions of a particle of oxygen be affected and altered by a neighbouring particle of hydrogen, in accordance with the same laws, when one or both form part of an organism, as when they are out of it ? " To reply in the negative is to avow the vitalistic conception of life, that is, to take refuge in unknown forces quite extraneous to matter, and to admit that the self-same particle can vary its nature, according HEAT, A MODE OF MOTION. I9 to whether it be internal or external to an organism, is, in other words, to affirm a miracle. If this is weighed against the physical view, '' which in its perfection reduces every organic process to a problem of pure mechanics," it may be done in the certainly impartial words of the naturalist just quoted : " I am of opinion that the mechanical view of organic life is demonstrated only when all the motions in an organism are shown to be the effects of forces, which at other times also are inherent in the atoms. But similarly I should regard the vitalistic view as proved, if in any case a particular motion actually observed to take place in an organism were shown to be mechanically impossible. At pre- sent, neither is to be thought of. Nevertheless, if a decision must be made without full proof, I provisionally profess myself unequivocally in favour of the mechanical view. Not only does it recommend itself d priori by its superior probability and simplicity, but the progress of scientific development raises it almost to a certainty. When it is seen how certain phenomena — such as the evolution of animal heat, which it was formerly believed could be explained only by vital force — are now ascribed, even by those who in general assume the existence of a special vital force, to the universally active forces of the material particles, we find ourselves almost forced to the conviction that by degrees all the phenomena of life will become susceptible of mechanical explana- tion." For the elucidation of the example just given of animal heat, let us observe that modern physics have learnt to know heat as a peculiar mode of motion. The motion of the hammer as it falls upon the anvil is not lost, but C 2 20 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. is transformed into the atomic motion of the places struck, a motion, invisible, it is true, but sensible as heat. But likewise the combination of the particle of oxygen introduced into the animal body by the respi- ration, with the un-oxygenated constituents of the blood, is a motion subject to computation, and manifesting itself as oxydation, combustion, or the evolution of animal heat. This chemical act of combustion keeps the animal steam-engine in motion. In this way, by the application of mechanical prin- ciples, modern physiology has traced to their causes a great number of organic processes, and the phantom of vital force, which formerly reigned paramount over the whole intestinal canal, incited the glandular cells and the muscular fibres to their offices, and glided along the nerves, now scarcely knows where to breed disturbance. Thus the investigation of nature does not shrink from enrolling life and the processes of life in the world of the comprehensible. We are foiled only at the conception of matter and force. But we are much further advanced than Schopenhauer and his adherents, who for the idea of Force substitute that of Will ; for we have analyzed into their several self-conditioned momenta a multitude of processes, which the word " Will," incomprehensible in itself, is supposed to explain in their totality ; and much further also than the fashionable philosopher of the day, von Hartman, who regales us with the agency of the '* unknown " in the domain of the organic world. "And yet," Dubois-Reymond thus formulates another limit, " a new incomprehensible appears in the shape of consciousness even in its lowest form, the sensation of desire and aversion. It is, once for all, incomprehen- CONSCIOUSNESS. 21 sible how, to a mass of molecules of nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, phosphorus, and so on, it can be otherwise than indifferent how they lie or move ; here, therefore, is the other limit to the knowledge of natural science. Even the mind imagined by Laplace cannot go beyond this, to say nothing of our own. Whether the two limits to natural science are not, perchance, identical, it is, moreover, impossible to determine." In these last words the possibility is indicated that consciousness may be an attribute of matter, or may appertain to the nature of the atoms. And we may add, that the attempt has of late been repeatedly made to generalize the sensory process, and to demonstrate it to be the universal characteristic of matter, as by von Zollner, in his work on the Nature of Comets, which has created such a justifiable sensation. He holds that, if by means of delicately-formed organs of sensation it were possible to observe the molecular motions in a crystal mechanically injured in any part, it could not be unconditionally denied that the motions, hereby excited, take place absolutely without any simul- taneous excitement of sensation. We must either re- nounce the possibility of comprehending the pheno- menon of sensation in the organism, or " hypothetically add to the universal attributes of nature, one which would cause the simplest and most elementary opera- tions of nature to be combined, in the same ratio, with a process of sensation." It might be imagined that reflections of this kind would lead to the delusive abysses of speculation ; but if, still speaking only of organisms, we descend from the manifestations elicited by sensations of desire and 22 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. aversion in the higher consciousness of man and of the superior animals, till we see all reaction to external ex- citation dwindle into the scarce perceptible motions of the simplest protoplasmic animalculae, it is evident that there can be no question here of either consciousness or will. We cannot then separate the idea of those sensations of desire and aversion, by which mo- tions are excited, from the elementary attributes of matter, as we are wont to do v/ith regard to the higher animals.* In precisely the same sense. It was said some years ago by one of the most talented investigators of lan- guage— Lazarus Geiger, now unfortunately deceased:^ " But how is it, if further down, below the world of nerves, a sensation should exist which we are not capa- ble of understanding .-* And it probably must be so. For as a body that we feel could not exist unless it consisted of atoms that we do not feel, and as we could not see a motion were it not accompanied by waves of light which we do not see, neither could a complex living being experience a sensation strong enough for us to feel it also, in consequence of the motion by which it is manifested, if something similar, though far weaker and imperceptible to us, did not occur in the elements, that is to say, in the atoms. If we only con- sider that we are as little capable of knowing that the falling stone feels nothing, as that it does feel ; it is fully open to us to decide, in accordance with the greatest probability, that the world is susceptible of explanation." We have examined the limits which the investigation of nature has prescribed for itself. The organic world, MAN HAS RISEN FROM A LOWER GRADE. 23 far from rearing itself before us as an incomprehensible entity, invites us to fathom its nature, and promises to reflect fresh light upon the inanimate world. We must now pass in review a great portion of ani- mate nature, and shall then arrive at the same con- clusion as the linguistic inquirer, to whom — we again quote his words — " it became, on historic grounds, incon- trovertibly certain that man has risen from a lower, an animal grade." 24 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. II. The Animal World in its Present State. In order to approach the doctrine of Descent, and to prepare for its necessity, we purpose next to pass in review a main part of its object, — the present condition of the animal world in its general outlines. Organisms, as every one may see, are distinguished from ^nimate bodies by a certain mutability of existence ; a sequence and alternation of phenomena, combined with constant absorption and expulsion of matter. These changes, which are ultimately molecular motions, and are there- fore calculable, definable, and susceptible of investiga- tion, take place in particles in a state of saturation — that is to say, soaked in water and aqueous fluids ; and this peculiar, yet purely mechanical condition, suffices for the explanation and comprehension of many of the neces- sary phenomena of life. Experience shows that this capacity for saturation, and this mobility, essentially characterize the combinations of carbon ; and the sum of these motions and displacements, of which a great part has already been susceptible of mathematically cer- tain investigation, is termed Life. Now it is impossible to resist the impression that there are simple and composite, lower and higher, living beings ; and we likewise feel, more strongly than words will express, a certain antithesis between the plant and LOWER FORMS OF LIFE. 25 the animal. Poetically regarded, the plant is the passive organism as described by Riickert : •• I am the garden flower And meekly bide the hour, The guise, with which you come Within my narrow room." * The antithesis of the passive, quiescent plant and the pugnacious active animal diminishes, however, as we descend in the scale of both kingdoms. The more highly developed animal evinces its animal nature by the vivacity with which it reacts to external influences and excitations. In the lower animals the phenomena of life assume a more vegetal character, and in -many groups of lower beings, which Haeckel has recently comprised under the name Protista, we see the pro- cesses of metamorphosis of tissue, nutrition, and repro- duction taking place, indeed, but in a manner so simple and undifferentiated, that we too must attribute to these beings a neutral position betwixt plants and animals. We gain the conviction that the roots of the vegetal and animal kingdoms are not completely sundered, but, to continue the simile, merge imperceptibly into each other by means of a connective tissue. In this inter- mediate kingdom the much derided " primordial slime " (Urschleim) of the natural philosophers has regained its honourable position. Many thousand cubic miles of the sea-bottom consist of a slime or mud composed in part of manifestly earthy inorganic portions, in part of * " Ich bin die Blum' im Garten Und muss in Demuth warten, Wann und auf welche Weise Du trittst in meine Kreise." 26 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. peculiarly formed chalk corpuscles, still perhaps ambigu- ous in their nature (the Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths), and finally, which is the main point, of an albuminous substance which is alive. This living slime, the so-called Bathybius, does not even exhibit individuality, or the definiteness of a separate existence ; it resembles the shapeless mineral substances, each particle of which bears the character- istics of the whole. The conception of an organism as a being composed of various parts, with various offices or functions, and appearing under a definite form gradually developed, is in our day so inherent and intuitive, that it is only with great exertion that we are able to accommodate our- selves to the idea of a living mass either absolutely formless and undefined, or defined arbitrarily and acci- dentally. Let any one, who either cannot or will not do this, pause for a moment to contemplate another simple being — for instance, Haeckel's " Protamoeba." A small albuminous mass increases by the absorption of nutriment, and by the appropriation of matter, until it reaches a certain circumference, and then propagates itself by spontaneous fission into two equal parts. To our means of observation, these and similar beings are the simplest organisms devoid of organs. While ac- centuating the limits of research as restricted by inade- quate means of observation, we maintain the validity of Rollet's retort,' that our reason cannot properly admit such homogeneous organisms, performing all the functions of life solely by means of their atomic con- stitution ; that we are dealing with the still utterly unknown structure of the molecules formed by the PROTISTA. 27 aggregation of atoms ; and that if Brlicke says, " Apart from the molecular structure, we must also ascribe to living cells another structure of a different order of com- plexity, and this is what we denote by organization," we must likewise ascribe this yet unknown combination to the Monera of Haeckel. But independently of this complexity of the molecular structure, it is of extreme importance to the investiga- tion of animate nature to have become acquainted with bodies which present the simplest structure to the as- sisted eye, and to anatomical research. The substance which characterizes them is found again in plants as well as in animals ; and plants and animals must now be regarded as two classes of organisms, in which the processes of self-preservation and reproduction have, in different ways, assumed the character of a higher com- plexity and development, by the differentiation of the originally homogeneous substance into various morpho- logical structures and organs. As we shall have another opportunity of expressing an opinion in regard to the beginnings of animal life, and its points of contact with protista and plants, we shall transfer ourselves from the dubious boundary line into the midst of the animal kingdom, in order to master our subject by sifting and arranging it. The first impression of infinite variety is succeeded by another, that there are lower and hiq-her animals. On this point complete harmony prevails. For if, from teleo- logical considerations, invalid in our eyes, the nature of every creature were said to be perfect, that is, in corre- spondence with its purpose or idea, every one takes it for granted and self-evident that a standard of excellence 28 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. exists, without taking account of the scale by which it rises or sinks. This standard will, however, soon be made manifest by the comparison of a lower with a higher animal. Let us select the fresh-water polype and the bee. The little animal, several lines in length, which in our waters usually lives adhering to a plant, is a hollow cylinder, of which the body-wall is formed of two layers of cells, a layer of muscles, and a supporting membrane, which gives consistency to the whole, and may be compared to a skeleton. The mouth is sur- rounded by arms of similar construction, and varying in number from four to six. The surface of the body is studded with numerous little stinging vesicles, which by their contact stun any smaller animalculae straying within the reach of the polype, and render them an easy prey. This is, in a few words, the construction of the animal. It possesses no arterial system, no special respiratory apparatus ; the functions of the nerves and the sensory organs are performed by the individual parts of the surface. Reproduction is usually effected by the budding of gemmules, which fall off at maturity, but occasionally also by the produce of very simple sexual organs. On the other hand, hours do not suffice to describe the structure of a bee. Even externally, its body, which possesses so highly complicated a structure, pro- mises a rich development of the interior. The man- ducatory apparatus can be rendered comprehensible only by comparison with the oral organs of the whole insect world. The various divisions of the alimentary canal are each provided with special glands. The rich psychical life, all the actions which imply intelligence, SYSTExMATIC ARRANGEMENT. 29 calculation, and perception of external situation, are rendered possible by a highly developed nervous system, and the marvellously complex sensory organs combined with it, of which the eyes are especially remarkable. Independently of the generative organs, consisting of manifold parts of greater or less importance, the history of the multiplication and development of the bee de- mands a study of itself The function, and therewith the rank and value, of the bee's body seem to us higher than that of the polype in proportion as it is more complex. The superior com- plexity and variety of the parts is anatomically evident, and similarly the higher phase of the life. The superior energy of the existence, the functional capacity and per- fection of the bee as contrasted with the feebleness of the polype, is obviously a result, or more correctly an expression, of the greater mechanical and physiological division of labour. In one animal, as in the other, life is spent in the function of self-preservation and the maintenance of the species, or reproduction ; in both, the cycle of phenomena is limited, unbroken ; but the means of execution are very different, and therefore the general effect is different. In the variety and correlation of the organs destined for the different manifestations of life, we have a standard for the rank of the animals. This rank has a twofold character, general and special. In other words, the position of an animal in the system is defined, first, by the general attributes, which it has in common with the forms harmonizing with it in the main characters of their organization ; and, secondly, by the more special characteristics, which place the animal in its 30 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. own rank and station among its own immediate kindred. Some insight into this classification of the animal kingdom is naturally indispensable to any one, who wishes to test and understand its reasons, and to render an account of it is an essential part of our task. Since Cuvier's reconstruction of Zoology in the early part of this century, our science has been familiarized with the expression "type," or "fundamental form," introduced, long before, by Buffon. Cuvier, by ex- tensive dissections and comparisons, first proved that animals were not, as people were formerly inclined to suppose, made on a last or shaped upon a block ; but that they fall into several great divisions, in each of which expression is given to a peculiar constitution, arrangement, and distribution of the organs ; in short, to a peculiar style. The sum of these characteristic peculiarities, as well as the whole of the species united in it, was termed a *' type." Various views, it is true, even now prevail as to the extent of several of these types or families, as we will already term them ; but if we dis- regard the dubious, and in many ways suspicious, exis- tences, generally comprised under the name of primordial animals, there is a general agreement as to the following number, but less as to the sequence of the animal types, than as to those groups, each of which has its peculiar physiognomy and special characteristic structure. The class Coelenterata includes the Polypes and Medusae, and in the closest connection with it stands the interesting class of the Spongiadae, especially in- structive as affording direct evidence of the doctrine of Descent. The organs of these animals are nearly always TYPES AND FAMILIES. 31 arranged radially round an axis, passing through the dorsal and ventral pole. The cavity, which in most other animals — for instance, in man — is termed the abdominal cavity, the space between the intestinal wall and the abdominal parietes, is deficient in them ; but, on the other hand, from the stomach proceed in general various kinds of tubes and branchia, which to a certain extent replace the abdominal cavity. P'ig. 2 represents a Medusa, Tiaropsis Diadema, after Agassiz. The darkly- shaded organs form the so-called coelenteric apparatus. Of the Echinoderms, the reader is probably ac- quainted, at least with the star-fish (Asterias) and the sea-urchin (Echinus), of which the general form is like- wise usually radiate. Besides a peculiar chalky deposit, or greater or less calcification of the skin covering, a system of water-canals forms a characteristic of this family. With these are connected the rows of suckers, which, by protrusion and retraction, serve as organs of locomotion. On account of the radiate structure pre- vailing among the Echinoderms, Medusae, and Polypes, 32 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. Cuvier believed them to be more nearly related, and introduced them alto""ether, under the name of Radiata. This similarity, however, is only superficial, for whilst, on the one hand, anatomy discloses the great difference of the Coelenterata and Echinodermata, the history of evolution still more decidedly banishes the Echinoderm from this position, and connects them more closely with the next division. In this, that of the Vermes, the systematizer of the old school finds his real difficulty ; in so many ways do they deviate from each other, so great is the distance between the lower and the higher forms ; and after deducting the distinctive marks of orders, so little remains as a common character, so variegated is the host of smaller scattered groups, and even of single species, which demand admittance to the system of the Vermes. If we attempt to describe their typical nature in a few words, it must be something like this : The Vermes are more or less elongated, symmetric animals, which possess no actual legs, but effect their locomotion by means of a muscular system, closely combined with the integuments, which frequently become an actual muscular cylinder. To this we will add, that the per- plexities and difficulties in reference to points of classi- fication are transformed into sources of knowledge for the adherent of the doctrine of Descent. The relations of the previous family with the type of the Articulata is so conspicuous, that the " kinship " of the two was never questioned, even by the older zoologists. The very name of one, the highest division of the Vermes, that is, of the Annelids, or segmented worms, indicate this connection. This distinctive mark GRADATIONS WITHIN THE TYPE. 33 of the Crustacea, Arachnida, Myrlopoda, and Insecta, is that their bodies are constructed of sharply-defined rings or segments, the legs, antennae and mandibles likewise sharing in this segmented character. A faithful expres- sion of this segmentation is afforded by the nervous system, which lies, ladder-like on the ventral side, that is, beneath the intestinal canal, nearly encircling the gullet with its anterior loop. The display of segmentation is favoured by a deposit of horny substance, which gives a skeleton-like stiffness to the integuments. The direct reverse is shown in the integuments of the Mollusca, our mussels, snails, and cuttle-fish. For although so many are supplied with protecting scales and shells, these are mere excretions from the actual skin, which remains soft, and characteristically moist and slimy, owing to the secretions of numerous glands contained in it, and has an inclination to lay itself in folds, and form a mantle-like investment to the body. The body therefore remains more or less clumsy ; it pos- sesses none of the grace of the Articulata, and especially of the insect ; it is destitute of segmentation, and this deficiency is likewise evinced in the nervous system. This consists only of a ring, encircling the oesophagus, and a few smaller ganglia. We shall most readily come to an understanding as to the Vertebrata, the family with vv'hich man is insepa- rably united. The essential part is the vertebral column, that portion of the internal and persistently bony or* cartilaginous skeleton, in which the main portion of the nervous system is contained. It is thus established that the systematic classification of the animal kingdom is based on certain prominent D 34 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. characteristics of form and internal structure ; and it is very easy to select from every type forms in which the distinctive marks, comprised in the systematic diagnosis, may be displayed in full perfection. But this is imme- diately succeeded by a further observation, that of gra- dations within the type. When we previously compared the polype and the bee, and were obliged to assign to each a very different rank, a portion of this difference of grade is certainly due to the difference of the family; but the forms united by family characteristics likewise diverge widely from each other, and the systematist speaks of lower and higher classes within every type, of lower and higher orders within every class. Reason is compelled to this by the same considerations which forced themselves upon us in the comparison of the polype and the bee. Why does the mussel stand lower than the snail .^ Because it does not possess a head, because its nervous system is not so concentrated and so voluminous, because its sensory organs are more de- fective. In one, as in the other, the structural material is present in quantities sufficient for the completion of the type ; but in the snail it is more developed, and the single circumstance of the integration of various parts to form the head confers a higher dignity upon the snail. It is needless to illustrate this gradation within the families by further examples ; the most superficial com- parison of a fish with a bird or a mammal, of one of the parasitic Crustacea with a crayfish or an insect, shows, as the older zoology represented it, that in the actual forms the ground plan, or "ideal types," find very diversified expression. A further result of this descriptive inquiry is the TREE-LIKE GROUPING. 35 tree-like grouping of the members of the same family. The reciprocal relations of the various families can- not be represented in a simple line ; though in former days more importance was attributed to the general indications of the relative value of the types. On the other hand, descriptive zoology had long been compelled to devise tables of affinity for the S3^stematic subdivisions, descending even to species according to the criterion of anatomical perfection ; and these found expression only in diagrams of highly ramified trees. Branches ap- peared which terminated after a brief extension ; others are greatly elongated with numerous side branches ; in every branch characteristic phenomena and series are made manifest. Let us attempt it with the Vertebrata, for example. Even with the fishes we fall into great perplexity ; which to place at the end as being the highest. But take which we will, the sharks or our teleostei, the am- phibians cannot be annexed in a direct line, nor does the elongated branch line of the latter merge, as might be imagined, into the reptiles. The birds, on their side, offer a sharp contrast to the mammals, and this separa- tion and divergence extend to all the subdivisions. We must figuratively represent family branches, clusters of genera, and tufts of species, which latter ramify into sub-species and varieties. With this representation of the tree-like distribution of the system, we shall gladly revert to the comparison of the members of different types, with reference to their functional value. The bee in itself is manifestly a far more complex organism than the lowest fish-like animal, the lancelet ; and in these two we compare a low form of a high type, and a high form D 2 36 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. of a low type. By varying and combining comparisons of this sort, and taking account of the points of connection between the various types, to which we shall immediately refer, the figure of the systematic trees completes itself into one vast tree, of which the main branches are re- presented by the types. Had the systematizers of the old school been familiar with the construction of plants and animals, they would have first established the diagnoses and distinctive cha- racters, and then called to life the types and their species ; for their chief torment has been, that the diagnoses are liable to so many exceptions, and that the characters of the fundamental forms are without any absolute value. Roughly and generally speaking, polypes are radiate in form, but not a few are bilateral, or symmetric on two sides. Most snails possess well-marked mantle-folds, but we can scarcely speak of the testa of many thoroughly worm-like slugs. Head and skull seem an inalienable mark of the vertebrata, yet the lancelet has no such head, but merely an anterior end. Nevertheless, it may be objected, it has a vertebral column ; yet this, the special badge of nobility of the vertebrate animals, like the auditory appa- ratus, and the notochord, is, even if only transiently, a possession of the Ascidians, a class of animals which in their mature condition do not bear the remotest re- semblance to the Vertebrata. When we become aware of these deviations from so-called laws of form and structure, seemingly well established, we are prepared for a manifest failure of the system, in regard to con- necting forms, and forms of uncertain position in the system. INTERMEDIATE FORMS. 37 If the result of the systematic sifting and arrange- ment within the individual types can be comprised in diagrams of trees, forms intermediate to the members of the types, classes, orders, &c., follow as a matter of course. For if the figure be correct, every ramification of the branches must include species diverging very slightly from the species standing in the lowest portions of the bough from which it branches off. And thus all systematizing, in fact, amounted to the insertion of the right intermediate forms between each two forms devi- ating from each other in a higher degree ; nay, in some cases, intermediate forms were sought where none exist. The older zoology always regarded the duck-mole (Or- nithorhynchus) as the mammal most nearly allied to the birds, though the cause of the bird-like appearance of the lowest mammal known, is by no means to be sought in a direct relationship, but in a remote cousinhood. But we must draw attention, not to these connecting forms, which natural history assumes as perfectly self- evident, but to those which are, as it were, inconvenient to systematic description, and threaten to render illusory the groundwork so laboriously gained. There are some fish- like animals, the Dipnoi, (Lepidosirens and their congeners) with the characters of Amphibians. The Infusoria possess many characteristics of the so-called primordial animals, but in other ways they differ from them, and point to the lowest Turbellaria. A minute animal inhabiting our seas in countless multitudes, i.e. the Sagitta, is neither a true annelid nor a legitimate mollusc. The class of the Radiata fits neither into the system of the actual Annulosa, nor into that of the true Articulata, yet provision must be made for it in the 38 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. system ; and any one who clings to the typos as ideal and inalterable fundamental forms, falls into sad per- plexity how to dispose of his Radiata. Example after example might be thus accumulated to show that the rigid partitions of the system are scarcely raised before they are again broken down in every direction ; and this in direct ratio with the increase of special science. As before said, descriptive natural history necessarily gained this experience. It then spoke of exceptions and deviations, without being able to adduce any reason why the classes and types should be able to break through their limits, and indeed most frequently without feeling any need of accounting for the failure of the rigid system. 39 III. The Phenomena of Reproduction in the Animal World. The faculty of giving existence to new life is part of the evidence of life. A crystal does not reproduce itself, it can only be resolved into its elementary consti- tuents ; and in the natural course of things, or in an artificial manner, these may be induced to form another crystalline combination. But this is not that con- tinuity of reproduction which links individual to indivi- dual, is not procreation wrapped in a cloud of mystery. Herein, it seems, consists a stubborn opposition. Yet, if the distinction between animate and inanimate nature has been recognized as one not entirely absolute ; especially if the possibility, nay even the necessity, has been perceived of the primordial generation or parent- less origin of the lowest organic beings from inorganic matter (of which more hereafter), and if the nature of nutrition and growth is understood to be entirely dependent on the power of obtaining material, — the mystery of reproduction henceforth disappears. Gene- ration is no longer a mystical event ; and the origin of an organism in or from an organism, the emission or development of innumerable germs, may, like the origin of a new crystal, be analyzed into the motions of elements, as yet accessible only to the eye of imagi- 40 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. nation. By this we mean to say that in the province of reproduction the Hmits of inquiry are neither narrow nor pecuHar. We will therefore now proceed to describe the process of reproduction and development in the animal kingdom. If, as must be generally admitted, the most essential characteristics are common to the highest and the lowest life, — and it is only the complexity of the vital processes, together with the variety of the parts by which they are performed, that give rise to graduated diversities, — it will, of course, be in the simplest organisms that we shall most readily recognize the nature of these vital processes. The simplest beings, discovered by Haeckel, such as the Protamoeba, those minute albuminous masses of sar- code, increase to a certain extent. Why these dimensions should vary only within definite narrow limits, and why, on attaining a certain extent, the molecules should gravitate into two halves, we do not know ; at any rate it is an affair of relations of cohesion, theoretically susceptible of computation. It is enough that at a certain size the coherence of the parts is loosened in a central zone, the individual becomics faithless to its name, and divides into two halves, of which each from the moment of separation begins an individual life, while from the commencement of the fission prepara- tions were being made for their self-dependence. This is the simplest case of reproduction, a multiplication by division. Frequently, however, it does not stop at bisection ; the motion of the minute constituents, which causes the fission, proceeds in such a manner that the halves are again divided, and the quarters yet again, the whole being thus divided into a greater number of FISSION — GEMMATION. 4I portions, and the parent-creature is resolved into a swarm of off-shoots. This multipHcation by mere division of the mass pre- supposes that the organism thus reproducing itself pos- sesses no high complexity. The bisection of a beetle or a bird is inconceivable as a means of propagation. Yet Stein's valuable observations on the reproductive process of the Infusoria, make us acquainted with organisms standing far above these simple so-called Monera, of which the subdivisions undergo a series of profound metamorphoses, before separating as self- dependent individuals. This transformation, combined with fission, leads to reproduction by gemmation. As the fission of these low organisms depends on the attainment of a certain limit of growth conditional on adequate nourishment, the case now more frequently occurs that the individual discharges the superfluity of material obtained at a definite part of the body, and forms a bud or gemmule. We are already acquainted with reproduction by gemmation in the simplest organ- ism, the cell ; for all healing and cicatrization in higher beings, even to the re-integration of the mutilated limbs ^ of amphibians, is effected only by the reproduction by fission and gemmation of the elementary morphological constituents. But it- lies in the nature of the process of gemmation, that it should extend far higher than fission in the scale of organisms ; it is the origination of a new being from one already existing, the latter, meanwhile, preserving its individuality wholly or for the greater part, and yet being able to transfer to the progeny its own characteristics in their full integrity. The simplest case of gemmation is where the parent 42 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. animal produces one or more gemmules similar to itself, capable in their turn of producing similar gemmules. Of this, every collection of corals gives numerous examples, and shows how the diversified appearance of the several genera of coral depends merely on minor modifications of this mode of reproduction. Yet single corals exist in which, on careful comparison, not only may accidental deviations be already discerned, but regularly recurring variations between parent and progeny, as Semper has recently shown in Madrepores and Fungiform corals. This brings us to the highly-important phenomenon of Alternate Generation, which we must elucidate by a few examples before entering upon the nature of sexual reproduction. Figure 3 shows in A a polype-shaped being with cruciform tentacles, on which its discoverer, Dujardin, bestowed the generic name of Cross-polype, or Stauri- dium. This animal, growing like a polype upon a stalk, forms above its lower cross, gemmules which make their appearance as spherical balls, gradually assume a bell-like shape, and detach themselves on attaining the structure and form of a Medusa or sea-nettle. The Medusa (termed Cladonema Radiatum, Fig. 3 B) is thus the offspring of its utterly dissimilar parent, the Stauridium ; it repro duces itself in the sexual method, and from its eggs proceed Stauridia. The two generations thus alter- nate; the cross-polype is an intermediate generation in the development of the Medusa, so that the sexual genera- tion never originates directly from its egg. In the tape-worm, we have an illustration of the same process, only in a somewhat more complicated form. It is known that from the intestinal canal of individuals ALTERNATE GENERATION. 43 afflicted with tape-worm, issue so-called somites or seg- ments of the tape- worm. These somites are usually filled with such an extraordinary number of ova that they seem like mere packets of eggs. It appears, how- FlG. 3. ever, from the evolutionary history of the tape-worm, and its relations with other annulosa, namely with leeches and Turbellaria, that notwithstanding their in- completeness and deficiency of organs, these somites are equivalent to sexually mature individuals ; or, according to Haeckel's definition, are endowed with personality. If the tape-worm now comported itself like most other animals, somites would be directly developed from its eggs. But to this there is a very circuitous proceeding. 44 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. If the egg of a tape-worm, by chance and good luck, strays into a congenial stomach, — for example, the egg of the human tape-worm, Toenia solium, into the stomach of a pig, the embryo wanders out of the stomach in which it quitted the egg, and makes its way into the muscles, Avhere it swells out into a sort of cyst. This cyst is the first intermediate generation. It produces a peg-shaped gemmule, which, however, fails of its object as long as the "bladder worm," or " Gargol," remains in the flesh of the pig. It is only when this comes, raw or imperfectly cooked, into the human stomach, that the time has arrived for the release of the pupa. It emerges from its parent the cyst, and the pupa, in which we now recognize the head and thorax of the tape-worm imago, represents a second intermediate generation. Its pro- ductiveness is forthwith displayed; it becomes elon- gated, and as its ribbon-like form increases, shooting out from the posterior portion of the cervix, the more distinctly marked become the transverse stripes and "somites ;" in other words, the individuals of the third or sexual generation. In the evolutionary cycles just discussed, there is an alternation of asexual and sexual reproduction ; and before examining some other cases of asexual multi- plication, we must make ourselves acquainted with the facts of sexual reproduction. The characteristic of this is, that it requires for the generation of the new individual the union of two different products or morphological elements, the ovum and the sperm. The ovum is always, in the first in- stance, a simple cell, of which the nucleus is termed the germinal vesicle, and the nucleole the germinal spot. GERM-CELLS. 45 In many animals It Is provided with a sheath or memibrane of its own ; in others it remains naked, and in that case frequently displays the remarkable movements of pro- toplasm. The germ-cells of different classes of animals vary considerably in their microscopic dimensions ; nevertheless, in the whole animal kingdom, from the sponges and polypes up to the mammals inclusive of man, they are essentially similar. Nor do non-essential differences appear until the primitive germ-cell is more abundantly provided with yelk and albumen, and has surrounded itself with a specially thick and perforated shell, as in insects and fishes, or with a peculiarly formed sheath, in the shape of a double concave lens, as, for instance, in some Turbellaria. As a rule, the ova are formed in special organs, the ovaries. The other sexual element, the sperm, contains, as its peculiar active constituents, the spermatozoa (fig. 4 s), which consist of a pointed, elliptic, or / occasionally of a hook-shaped, ^'^- ■*• head, and a thread-like body. As long as the sperm is capable of fecundation, the filamentous appendage performs serpentine movements, and the development of the spermatozoa from cells, as well as the comparison of their movements with the vibrating movements of ciliated and flagellate cells, enable us to recognize them also as modified cell structures. The vehement dispute of last century between Evo- lutionists and Epigenists has now a merely historical interest. The former maintained that either in the ovum or in the sperm-corpuscle the whole future organism 46 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. was prefigured in all its parts, and that it hence required only the development of the infinitely minute organs already existing. The others, who carried off the victory, saw in the ovum the yet undifferentiated material which subsequent to fecundation had still to be transformed into the various morphological elements and organs. But it is scarcely twenty years ago since the process of fecunda- tion was discovered, and since it was proved that at least one sperm corpuscle, and, as a rule, several or many, must penetrate into the interior of the ovum and unite materially with its substance in order to produce an effectual fecundation. The course of our demonstration obliges us to place sexual in sharp contrast with asexual genesis. But here, again, recent times have produced a series of equalizing and conciliatory observations which must not be neglected by us, bent as we are on tracing the antecedents of the doctrine of evolution, and demon- strating the transition taking place throughout organic Nature. In the cases of alternate generation selected above, the generations which do not produce ova and spermatozoa, reproduce themselves by external gemma- tion. Now, there is manifestly no great physiological difference if the deposition of the material from which the progeny is formed takes place, not externally, but in and by special internal organs. One of the most familiar examples occurs in the evolutionary cycle or alternate generation of the genus Distoma of the Entozoa. In the ventral cavity of one larval genera- tion arise cell-spheres, or germs, which develope into the second generation — the Cercaria. Great excitement was likewise aroused by the dis- DEVELOPMENT OF UNFERTILIZED OVA. 47 covery of the germ-formation of the larvae of a di- pterous insect (Cecidomyia, Miastor). In the ventral cavity of the maggots of these flies arises a second generation of maggots, of which the origin was primarily attributed to a simple germ-formation, until it was shown that these germs proceed from the situation of the sexual glands (which in many insects are deve- loped at a very early stage), and must therefore be regarded as unfertilized ova. The second generation of maggots lives at the expense of its parent, consumes its fatty substance, and afterwards destroys the other organs ; while of the pelican-like parent nothing finally remains but the skin, as a protecting cover to the offspring, which very soon emerges. Without mentioning other cases in which it may be questionable whether germs or unfertilized ova attain development, we will point out a few of those in which development, without fecundation, is established with complete certainty. The queen bee, partly from the natural course of its life, partly from various accidents in which fecundation could not take place, lays regularly a number of unfertilized eggs, from which issue drones, or male individuals ; or if exceptionally eggs are laid by workers, which are imperfectly developed female bees not susceptible of fecundation, these eggs likewise produce drones only. Von Siebold's highly interesting experiments on the reproduction of a wasp (Polistes Gallica), have shown that the hybernating fertilized females, who found a new colony in the spring, deposit eggs whence issue female individuals, and occasionally males. This virgin generation then produces eggs from which males are developed. With various butterflies, 48 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. on the contrary, the unfertlhzed eggs produce females only ; and it is the same with several of the lower crustaceans. We will now revert to the consideration of the evolu- tionary processes displayed in sexual reproduction after fecundation has taken place. Development invariably commences with a process of cell-formation, the bifurca- tion or formation of the germinal membrane, after the completion of which, instead of the one primitive cell, a large number of cells are usually in existence, as the material for the distribution and construction of the embryo. Ova developing parthenogenetically, without fecundation, likewise commence their development by this multiplication of cells ; and even the ova of ani- mals, in which development never takes place without previous fecundation, exhibit an incomplete bifurcation, if not fertilized at a certain stage of maturity. This process, it is true, has been as yet demonstrated only in the ova of the frog and the domestic fowl ; but these cases are sufficient to divest the bifurcation of the character of an independent phenomenon, exclusively restricted to sexual reproduction. Even before the appearance of C, E. von Baer's really classical and fundamental work on the " Evolutionary History of Animals " (Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere),^ the view, founded on incomplete observations, had become established, that in the various stages of their development the higher animals passed through the forms of the lower ones. In this, natural philosophy did not confine itself to the limits of the types ; and hence did not pause at the hypothesis that the mam- malian embryo was successively a fish, an amphibian, TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT. 49 and in a certain sense, by a particular gradual evolution of the organs, a bird also, but made the embryo like- wise repeat and surpass the lower types. To this false tendency, acting on vague analogies, a stop was put by the great naturalist just named. He showed that a number of coincidences might, indeed, be demonstrated between the embryo of the higher and the permanent form of the lower animals, but that this resemblance rested essentially on the fact that in the embryo of the higher animal the differentiation of the general funda- mental mass had not yet set in, and that in the progress of development it passes through stages which are per- manent in the series of inferior animals. On the other hand, he positively repudiated the asser- tion that the embryos of the higher types actually pass through forms permanent in the lower ones. He says that the type of each animal seems from the first to fix itself in the embryo, and to regulate its whole development. As regards the vertebrate animals in particular, the further we go back in the history of their development, the more do we find the embryos alike, both on the whole and in the individual parts. " Only gradually do the characters appear which mark the greater, and later those which mark the smaller divi- sions Af the Vertebrata. Thus from the general type the special one is evolved." Von Baer thus held that the analogy consisted only in the embryonic states of the various animal fqrms; but he was obliged to go beyond the circle of the types, and he thought it probable that among all embryos of verte- brate, as well as invertebrate animals, developed from a true ovum, there is a confoi-mity in the condition of the E 50 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. germ at a period when the type has not yet manifested itself. This led him to the question, ''Whether, at the beginning of development, all animals are not essen- tially alike, and whether a common primordial form does not exist for all .^ " "It might," he finally thinks, " be maintained, not without reason, that the simple cyst-like form is the common fundamental form from which all animals are developed, not merely in idea, but historically." When the barrier which it was formerly thought necessary to erect between asexual multiplication and multiplication caused by fecundation had been recog- nized as non-existent, and it was perceived that all development amounts to the multiplication and meta- morphosis of the primitive germ or egg-cell, the cell was necessarily regarded, in the acceptation of the older investigators, as the common fundamental form. But although the descriptive history of evolution does not go back to this elementary organism, and considers even the bifurcation as merely a preparation for actual development, at any rate the earliest rudimentary larval conditions of different types may be compared with each other. The discoveries of the last ten years with reference to this subject are so numerous, and such striking analogies have been advanced, that we must needs go much further than, at that time, was possible for Von Baer. It is not merely a question of those general analogies in the segregation of tissues from an indifter- ent rudimentary mass, but of homologies in the distri- bution, form, and composition of the embryos and larvae, of which the after effects are of profound importance EARLIEST CONDITION OF LARVA. 51 to the later and actual typical impress. With this object, let us consider the larva of a calcareous sponge at. the stage which Haeckel has designated as the Gastrula phase. The diagram gives the section of a larva of this description, which at this period is nothing more than a stomach provided with an orifice (fig. 5 > v> a f\ :3 0 0 li ^ ^ 2 ■C bo ij ex J '^ c: (u 'c5 E <^ 1 < c ffi '0 1 t3 (U ^ 0 0 3 > -.^ 0 ii H K It m akes m sntion I of species and races of mankind, he sp ede s b eing regarded as no longer existing, X 2 308 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. while the present forms of man are distinguished only as races. On this subject, we shall not lavish many words, since, examined in the light, it is an affair of words only. In the order of Primates, man constitutes a single family, and represents it by a single genus. Whether Negroes, Caucasians, Papuans, American-Indians, &c., be called species or races, matters little. The facility of intercrossing the different nations would favour their characterization as races ; but as the crossing of species does not differ in principle from the crossing of races, and as to the bodily varieties displayed in colour, hair, skull, limbs, and other characters are added the profound differences of language, the division of the genus homo into species, diverging into many races, seems after all more natural. But ultimately, as in the question of species in general, the individual feeling of each person proves decisive. Whether it was a lucky hit to found the division of mankind on the position of the hairs, in tufts or equally distributed upon the scalp, and furthermore on the section of the hair, whether it be more flat and oval or circular in form, and finally on the inclination to curl or to lie stiff and smooth, the future must decide. The twelve races cited in the table given above, may be characterized by the aid of natural history ; and as v/ithin the limits of the best known races, languages and families of languages m.ay be found, which preclude any common origin, it follows that the formation of language began only after the still speechless primordial man had diverged into races. In geological periods and primordial history, all chronology is extremely decep- tive : we may, nevertheless, acquiesce in an estimate ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 309 made by Friedrich Miiller as to the development of the languages of the Mediterranean races. The lin- guistic families of the nations dwelling chiefly in the basin of the Mediterranean are Basque, Caucasian, Hamito-Semitic and Indo-Germanic languages. "The languages of these four families," says Friedrich Miiller, "are, as is generally accepted by the most competent linguists, not mutually related. If we therefore see that the Mediterranean race includes four families of people in no way related to one another, the inference is obvious that, as each language must be traceable to a society, the single race must have gradually fallen into four societies, of which each independently created its own language. A further inference is, that the race, as such, does not acquire a language ; for, were this the case, race and language would now be co- extensive, which is not the case. " We must therefore assume that at the time when the various nations of the Mediterranean race were one,. — the time when man belonged to no nation, but merely to a race, — mankind was destitute of language. Miiller considers 3000 years approximately sufficient for the period elapsing between the divergence of the race into still speechless societies, and the epoch at which they formed nations, separated and characterized by lan- guages ; a period which might seem to many, estimated as far too short. If the ancient civilized people of Egypt be now added on, and the period of its conjectured migration from Asia computed, "the year 6,500 before the commencement of our chronology seems to be the earliest epoch at which we may speak of a Hamito- Semitic primaeval people in the north of Europe." There- 310 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. fore a Mediterranean race already existed 12,000 years ago. But what space of time was requisite to enable primitive man to separate into races, is entirely beyond computation, and the more so as not the slightest trace of him has hitherto been found. With the invariable testimony of Geology that the periods of the terrestrial strata imperceptibly merged into one another, and that, especially from the Ter- tiary, through the Diluvial period, to the present age, continuity has been only locally interrupted, the ques- tion of the "fossil man," formerly looked upon as cardinal, has assumed another aspect. In Europe, man lived with the mammoth and the rhinoceros with a bony nasal partition (Elephas primogenius, Rhinocerus tichorhinus). It has been asserted that European man existed as early as the upper Tertiary age, but the evi- dence is disputable. Such remains as we have of this oldest man known to us, display a high grade of develop- ment, and certainly belong to the period at which man had already found in language the implement where- with gradually to free himself from the dross of his lowly origin. Whether the primitive man be found or not, his origin is certain. IfVtrvw ^.^- nuXZk/^ REFERENCES AND QUOTATIONS, ' Luthardt, Apologetische Vortriige. 7 Vortrag. P. 129. ^ Philosophia quaerit, theologia invenit, religio possidet veri- tatem. ^ Tageblatt der Naturforscher-Versammlung in Leipzig, 1872. P. 12. The discourse was also printed separately. * A. Fick, Physiologic, i860. • Any one who wishes to be more deeply instructed in the problem of sensation, as an universal primary characteristic of the constituent elements of ma.tter, may be referred to the very lucid and interesting work, " Das Unbewuste vom Standpunkt der Physiologic und Descendenztheorie" (Berhn, 1872). Pubhshed anonymously. ^ L. Geiger, Ueber den Ursprung der Sprache. (Stuttgart, 1869.) P. 207. 7 RoUet, Ueber Elementartheile und Gewebe und deren Unter- scheidung. Rollet, Untersuchungen, etc. 1871. s Karl Ernst v. Bar, Ueber Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere, Beobachtung und Reflexion, 1828. » lb. I. 223. 10 lb. I. 230, &c. " Credner, Elemente der Geologic, 1872. P. 253. 12 Agassiz, Essay on Classification, 1858. " It exhibits every- where the working of the same creative Mind, through all times, and upon the whole surface of the globe." ^^ Riitimeyer, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der fossilen Pierde. Verhandlung der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel, 1863. III. 642. 1^ The passages are from an occasional address— Oratio de ellure habitabili— contained in the Amcenitates academicae. " Initio 312 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. rerum ex omni specie viventium unicum sexus par fuisse creatum, suadet ratio." ^' lb. Non multum a veritate me aberratiim confido, si dixerim, omnem continentem terram fuisse in infantia mundi aquis sub- mersam et vasto oceano obtectam, praeter unicam in immenso hoc pelago insulam, in qua commode habitaverint animalia omnia et vegetabilia Isete germinaverint." ^^ Tot numeramus species, quot ab initio creavit infinitum ens." ^'^ Geoffroy St. Hilaire wrote to Cuvier : " Venez jouer parmi nous le role de Linne, d'un autre legislateur de I'histoire naturelle." ^^ Ossements fossiles. '^ L. Agassiz, An Essay on Classification, 1859. P. 253: — " As representatives of Species, individual animals bear the closest relations to one another ; they exhibit definite relations also to the surrounding element, and their existence is limited within a definite period. " As representatives of Genera these same individuals have a definite and specific ultimate structure, identical with that of the representatives of other species," etc. See also P. 261 : — " Branches or types are characterized by the plan of their struc- ture; " Classes, by the manner in which that plan is executed, as far as ways and means are concerned ; " Orders, by the degrees of complication of that structure ; " Families, by their form, as far as determined by structure ; " Genera, by the details of the execution in special parts ; and, " Species, by the relations of individuals to one another, and to the world in which they live, as well as by the proportions of their parts, their ornamentation," etc. 2° Haeckel, Generelle Morphologic der Organismen (Berlin, 1866). II. 323, &c. ^' L'espece est — "la reunion des individus descendant I'un de I'autre et des parents communs, et de ceux qui leur ressemblent autant qu'ils se ressemblent entr'eux." Cuvier, Le Regne Animal. -^ O. Schmidt, Die Spongien der Kiiste von Algier, 1868, and Versuch einer Spongienfauna des atlantischen Gebietes, 1870. ^^ Haeckel, Die Kalkschwamme, Eine Monographie in Zwei Banden, Text und einem Atlas mit 60 Tafeln Abbildungen (Berlin, 1872). REFERENCES AND QUOTATIONS. 313 2^ Hilgendorf, Ueber Planorbis multiformis in Steinheimer Siiss- wasserkalk. Monatsbericht des Berliner Akademie aus dem Jahre 1866. P. 474, &c. ^^ Waagen, Die Formenreihe des Ammonites subradiatus. Beneke's Beitrage, 1869. Vol. 2. Zittel, Die Fauna der altern Cephalopoden fiihrenden Tithonbil- dungen. Palaontologische Mittheilungen, 1870. Neumayr, Jurastudien. Jahrbuch der geologischen Reichsanstalt, 1871. L. Wiirtenberger, Neuer Beitrag zum geologischen Beweise der Darwin' schen Theorie, 1873. 2^ Darwin, The Variation of Plants and Animals under Domesti- cation 1868. ^"^ L. Oken, Die Zeugung, 1805. Lehrbuch der Naturphiloso- phie, 1 809-1 1, Pt. 3. 28 I have borrowed the following account from my essay : " Wae Goethe ein Darwinianer ?" (Was Goethe a Darwinist?) Gratz, Leuschner and Lubinsky, 1871. Also another small work of mine : " Goethe's Verhaltniss zu den organischen Naturwissenschaften" (Berlin, 1852). To the pas- sages given in the text, which might make Goethe appear as a Darwinist, I may add the following from Eckermann's " Gesprache mit Goethe" (3 Ed. p. 191). " Thus man has in his skull two empty cavities. The question why ? would not go far, whereas the question how? teaches me that these cavities are remains of the animal skull, which in those inferior organisms exist to a greater degree, and are not entirely lost even in man, notwith- standing his higher elevation." ^^ A somewhat depreciative opinion of Goethe's importance in this sphere is pronounced by V. Carus in his " Geschichte der Zoologie" (Miinchen, 1872). The reader may compare : " How little, notwithstanding his repeated study of anatomy, he had gained a true insight into the structure of animals, as determined by law, is testified by his Introduction to Comparative Anatomy. He finds no other means of harmonizing the dry details of descrip- tive anatomy, and the morphology which vaguely hovered before him, but by indicating the idea of a primitive type for animals, which he is, however, unable to define or to render in any way palpable by more general indications. His whole idiosyncrasy 314 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. made such a type a necessity to him, not scientifically, but aestheti- cally," etc. P. 590. ^° R. Owen has declared his attitude towards the doctrine of descent in the concluding chapter of his "Manual of the Com- parative Anatomy of the Vertebrata." It is published sepa- rately under the title of "Derivative Hypothesis of Life and Species," 1868. lb " such cause being the servant of predetermining intelligent will." 22 " No one can enter the saddling-ground at Epsom before the start for the Derby, without feeling that the glossy-coated, proudly- stepping creatures led out before him are the most perfect and beautiful of quadrupeds. As such, I believe the horse to have been predestined and prepared for man." lb. P. 11. ^^ " I deem an innate tendency to deviate from parental type, operating through periods of adequate duration, to be the most probable nature or way of operation of the secondary law whereby species have been derived one from the other." lb. P. 22. ^•* Lamarck, Philosophie Zoologique (Paris, 1809). In the text allusion is made to the following passages : — " Ainsi Ton peut assurer que, parmi ses productions, la nature n'a rdellement forme ni classes, ni ordres, ni families, ni especes con- stantes, mais seulement des individus qui se succedent les uns aux autres, et qui ressemblent a ceux qui les ont produits. Or ces individus appartiennent a des races infiniment diversifiees, qui se nuancent sous toutes les formes et dans tous les degres d'organisation, et qui chacune se conservent sans mutation tant qu'aucune cause de changement n'agit sur elles." I. 22. " La supposition presque generalment admise, que les corps vivans constituent des especes constamment distinctes par des caracteres invariables, et que I'existence de ces especes est aussi ancienne que celle de la nature meme, fut etablie dans un temps ou Ton n'avait pas suffisament observe, et ou les sciences naturelles dtaient h. peu pres nulles. Elle est tous les jours ddmentie aux yeux de ceux qui ont beaucoup vu et qui ont longtemps suivi la nature." I. 54. " Les especes n'ont rdellement qu'une Constance relative h. la duree des circonstances dans lesquelles se sont trouves les indi- vidus qui les reprdsentent." I. 55. REFERENCES AND QUOTATIONS. 315 " — les considerations, et nous font voir — " I. Que tous les corps organises de notre globe sont de verita- bles productions de la nature, qu'elle a successivement executdes h. la suite de beaucoup de temps. " 2. Que dans sa marche la nature a commencd et recommence encore tous les jours, par former les corps organises les plus simples, et qu'elle ne forme directement que ceux-la, c'est k dire que ses premieres ebauches de I'organisation, qu on a designees par I'expression de generations spontanees. " 3. Que les premieres ebauches de I'animal et du vegetal etant formees dans les lieux et les circonstances convenables, les facultes d'une vie commengante et d'un mouvement organique etabli ont necessairement developpe peu a peu les orgaiies, et qu'avec le temps elles les ont diversifies ainsi que les parties. " 4. Que la faculte d'accroissement dans chaque portion du corps organise etait inherente aux premiers effets de la vie ; elle a donne lieu aux differens modes de la multiplication et de regenerations des individus ; et que par la, les progres acquis dans la composi- tion de I'organisation et dans la forme et la diversite des parties ont ete conserves. " 5. Qu'a I'aide d'un temps suffisant, des circonstances qui ont dte necessairement favorables, des changemens que tous les points de la surface du globe ont successivement subis dans leur etat, en un mot, du pouvoir qu'ont les nouvelles situations et les nouvelles habitudes pour modifier les organes des corps dou^s de la vie, tous ceux qui existent maintenant ont et6 insensiblement formes tels que nous les voyons. " 6. Enfin, que d'apres un ordre semblable de choses, les corps vivants ayant eprouve chacun des changemens plus ou moins grands dans I'etat de leur organisation et de leurs parties, ce qu'on nomme espece parmi eux a ete insensiblement et successivement ainsi forme, n'a qu'une Constance relative dans son etat, et ne peut ainsi etre aussi ancien que la nature." I. 65, &c. " La progression dans la composition de I'organisation subit, ga et la, dans la serie generale des animaux, des anomalies operdes par I'influence des circonstances d'habitation et par celle des habitudes contractees." I. 135. " Dans tout animal qui n'a point ddpassd le terme de ses developpemens, I'emploi plus frequent et routind d'un organe 3l6 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. quelconque fortifie peu h. peu cet organe, le developpe, I'agrandit, et lui donne une puissance proportionn^e k la duree de cet emploi ; tandis quel e defaut constant d'usage de tel organe I'affaiblit insensiblement, le d^tdriore, diminue progressivement ses facultes, et finit par le faire disparaitre. " Tout ce que la nature a fait acquerir ou perdre aux individus par I'influence des circonstances ou leur race se trouve depuis longtemps exposde, et par consequent, par I'influence de I'emploi pr(!dominant de tel organe ou par celle d'un defaut constant d'usage de telle partie, elle le conserve par generation aux nou- veaux individus qui en proviennent." I. 235. " La volonte dependant toujours d'un jugement quelconque n'est jamais vdritablement libre ; car le jugement qui y donne lieu est, comme le quotient d'une opdration arithmdtique, un rdsultat necessaire de I'ensemble des elements qui I'ont formd." 1.342. " Les animaux contractent, pour satisfaire k cesbesoins, di verses sortes d'habitudes, qui se transforment en eux en autant de penchans, auxquels ils ne peuvent rcsister et qu'ils ne peuvent changer eux memes. De Ik I'origine de leurs actions habituelles et de leurs inclinations particulieres, auxquelles on a donnd le nom d'instinct. Ce penchant des animaux a la conservation des habi- tudes et au renouvellement des actions qui en proviennent, dtant une fois acquis, se propage ensuite dans les individus, par la voie de la reproduction ou de la generation, qui conserve I'organisation et la disposition des parties dans leur dtat obtenu, en sorte que ce meme penchant existe deja dans les nouveaux individus, avant meme qu'ils I'aient exerce." I. 325. 35 The acute author of the book, " Das Unbewusste" defines instinct in essentially the same manner as Lamarck. " In this sense it may be said that every instinct is in the last instance by its origin an acquired habit, and the proverb that ' habit is second nature ' thus receives the unexpected supplement that habit is also the beginning and origin of the first nature, i.e., of instinct. For it is always habit, z'.e., the frequent repetition of the same function, which so firmly impresses the mode of action, however acquired, upon the central organs of the nervous system that the predisposition thus originated becomes transmissible." p. 182. 36 The highly important doctrine which Lyell has substantiated REFERENCES AND QUOTATIONS. 317 with his rich experience is also distinctly and concisely enunciated by Lamarck in the Philosophic Zoologique : — " Si I'on considere, d'une part, que dans tout ce que la nature opcre elle ne fait rien brusquement, et que partout elle agit avec lenteur et par d^gres successifs, et de I'autre part que les causes particu- lieres ou locales des desordres, des bouleversemens, des deplace- mens, etc., peuvent rendre raison de tout ce que Ton observe a la surface de notre globe, et sont n^anmoins assujetties a ses lois et a sa marche gdnerale, on reconnaitra qu'il n'est nullement necessaire de supposer qu'une catastrophe universelle est venue culbuter et detruire une grande partie des operations memes de lanature." 1. 80. ^^ Principles of Geology. 2^ In 1870, as well as in 1872, the majority in the French Academy bore this testimony to Darwin. The reiterated proposal of electing him a member was certainly not rejected until such men as Milne-Edwards and Quatrefages had made the stand- point clear to the scientific judges. S9 Origin of Species. Fifth Ed. 1872. The other works cited are, " The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication," 1868; "The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection," 2nd ed., 1871; "Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals," 1872. ^° Malthus (1798) investigated the conditions of the increase and decrease of human population. He finds that the rise in popula- tion is necessarily limited by the means of subsistence, and that the growth increases in proportion to the means of subsistence, setting aside some special impediments easily discovered. These impediments, which always keep the population below the amount warranted by the means of subsistence, are moral restraint, crime, and misfortune. Malthus depicts the struggle for existence without pronouncing the word ; he demonstrates that the dreams of a future blissful equality of all mankind on the earth transformed into a vast garden, are based upon delusions. Each individual must much rather labour indefatigably to ameliorate his position. By the experience of breeders and gardeners he knows that animals and plants may be improved and ennobled. No organic ennoblement of the human race as a whole is perceptible, nor can the human race be ennobled save by condemning the less perfect individuals to celibacy. 3l8 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. These, and similar thoughts in the work of MaUhus, first sug- gested Darwin's theory, as he has informed us. '*^ Variation of Animals and Plants. I. loo. ^^ Two treatises by A. Kerner are also very instructive with regard to the question of species : " Gute and Schlechte Arten." (Innsbruck, 1866.) And " Die Abhangigkeit der Pflanzenwelt von Klima und Boden. Kin Beitrag zur Lehre von der Enstehung und Verbreitung der Arten, gestiitzt auf die Verwandtschaftsverhiiltnisse, geographische Verbreitung und Geschichte der Cytisusarten aus dem Stamme Tubocytisus D.C." 1869. Kerner's latest work, " Die Schutzmittel des Pollens" (Innsbruck, 1873) is likewise an admirable investigation of the variability, adaptation, and formation of species. *3 Origin of Species. 13th ed. p. 84. '*'* Origin of Species. 13th ed. p. 96. ^^ Origin of Species. ^* P. 7. The following pages contain an epitome of the objec- tions offered to the inadequacy of the theory of selection. "*" Moritz Wagner, Die Darwin'sche Theorie und das Migrations- gesetz der Organismen, 1848. ''* Nageli, Enstehung und Begriff der naturhistorischen Art. (Sitzungsberichte der bairischen Akademie der Wissenschaften), 1865. Nageli's later investigations (Sitzungsberichte der mathe- matisch-physikalischen Klasse der Miinchner Akademie, 1872, p. 305) confirm the doctrine of descent. He shows that the grega- riousness of merely allied species and their varieties proves more favourable to the formation of species than isolation. " The asso- ciated forms — of certain Alpine plants — have, as it were, recipro- cally modified one another ; they exhibit, to express myself thus, a specific social type, which is different in each assemblage, and therefore iii every neighbourhood. This fact incontrovertibly shows that the forms have altered since they were associated. " The specific social type consists in their showing a notable accordance in certain characteristics, while in others they repre- sent extremes, and in these sometimes exceed all their congeners in other districts. " From these facts it follows undoubtedly that the movem.ent in the cenobitic forms {i.e. living together) is divergent. For extreme characteristics are developed in them, whereas the eremitical forms exhibit a medium in their characteristics. REFERENCES AND QUOTATIONS. 319 " Nageli proves that since the glacial period an alteration has taken place in Alpine plants, and the manner in which it occurred." ^^J. Broca, UOrdre des Primates. Parall^le anatomique de I'homme and des singes, 1870. ^* Descent of Man, p. 367. ^' At the time at which we write, we have before us, unfortunately, only the incomplete reports of the daily papers, and the syllabus of Professor Max Mailer's "Three Lectures on Mr. Darwin's Philosophy of Language." ^^ Zollner, " Ueber die Natur der Kometen" (i ed. p. 305). 5'* For the further instruction of the reader, we will allow another Philosopher and Naturalist to speak respecting the primordial com- mencement of life, to our apprehension so simply accountable. The hypothesis of origin is under discussion. In the critical examination of the " Philosophie des Unbewussten" (7) it runs thus, p. 22. The " Philosophie des Unbewussten" says, p. 558 : " It is probable that before the origin of the first organisms, organic combinations existed which (p. 556) were under the influ- ence of a damp atmosphere, abounding in carbonic acid, and of a higher temperature, light, and stronger electric influences. If these presuppositions are adopted, and the consideration added that if conditions thus favourable to primordial generation once existed, which they must have done — they probably endured during con- siderable geological periods — the inference is in truth inevitable that in lapse of time and with change of circumstances, these organic substances aggregated into innumerable combinations. Among these innumerable modes of arrangement, groupings and combinations, by far the greater portion must remain at the grade of inorga.mc form, because it has not attained the needful chemical composition and physical properties ; a very much smaller portion of the results produced by these combinations of organic materials might perhaps transitorily approach the organic form or even actu- ally assume it, yet without possessing the constitution necessary to maintain it permanently ; a third and yet smaller portion might perhaps maintain this form for itself in the exchange of material, about as long as the approximate duration of life of one of the most primitive of the present Protists, yet lacked those properties which preserve the species by division and reproduction after the 3-20 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. natural extinction of the individual ; a fourth portion might possess the properties requisite for self-preservation as well as for the preservation of the genus, yet lacked that peculiar tendency to vary (Philosophic des Unbewussten, p. 591), or at least that ten^ dency to vary in the particular direction which was alone capable of leading to development into higher forms ; and finally a fifth portion possessed this property in addition to the others. It is the progeny of the fourth and fifth classes of our division which still populates the ocean and the earth.* From which species of JMonera proceeded the advanced development of the Infusoria ; whether from one still living or from an extinct species we do not know as yet ; but this much we may accept as certain, that the majority of the Protists that we still know, belong to that fourth class which is incapable of development. The persistence of the ephemeral creations of our second and third classes would natu- rally be secured only so long as circumstances continued favour- able to their renewed primordial generation, but from the teleo- logical standpoint the first class must be described as that of the completely abortive attempts at creation." These, and similar more or less interesting fancies to which we attribute no great importance, are all derived from Haeckel's hypothesis of Autogony (" Generelle Morphologic der Organis- men," 179 seq.), which he set up after his beautiful discoveries on the simplest organisms now existing — the Moncra and the Protists. From this work we select the following passage : — " Doubtless we must imagine the act of autogony, the first spontaneous origin of the simplest organisms, to be quite similar to the act of crystal- lization. In a fluid, holding in solution the chemical elements composing the organism, in consequence of certain movements of the various elements among themselves, certain points of attraction are formed, at which the atoms of the organogenetic elements (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen) enter into such close contact with one another that they unite in the formation of a complex ternary or quaternary molecule. This primary group of atoms — perhaps a molecule of albumen — now acts like the analogous crystal- * It is a simpler and more probable explanation that these low organisms continue to exist because there is room for them. They remain in spite of differentiation and in consequence of differentiation. REFERENCES AND QUOTATIONS. 32 1 line molecule, attracting the homogeneous atoms dissolved in the mother wather ; and they now likewise coalesce in the formation of similar molecules. The albuminous granule thus grows and trans- forms itself into a homogeneous organic individual, a structureless moner or mass of plasma, like a Protam^eba, &c. Owing to the easy divisibility of its substance, this moner constantly tends to- wards the dissolution of its recently consolidated individuality, but when the constantly preponderating absorption of new substance outweighs the tendency to disintegration, it is able to preserve life by the exchange of material. The homogeneous organic individual, or moner, grows by means of imbibition (nutrition) only until the attractive power of the centre no longer suffices to hold the whole mass together. In consequence of the preponderating divergent movements of the molecules in diff"erent directions, two or more centres of attraction are now formed in the homogeneous plasma, which henceforth act attractively on the individual substance of the simple mould, and thereby induce its fission, or partition, into two or more portions (reproduction). Each part forthwith rounds itself again into an albuminous individual, or mass of plasma, and the eternal process begins again, of attraction and disruption of the molecules, producing the phenomena of exchange of substance, or nutrition, and reproduction." Relying on the known peculiarities of the combinations of carbon, Haeckel has attributed to this substance the most im- portant part in his representation of the first development of life and the physiological phenomena of the lowest organisms. This is the " carbon theory " so strongly deprecated by his antagonists. Minds would be less heated on the subject were it remembered that a refutation of this " adventurous attempt," as Haeckel terms it, to assist the idea of genesis, would not change a hair in the compulsory logical necessity of acknowledging the evocation of life by natural means. The arguments against the carbon theory have been developed, among others, by Preyer, " Ueber die Erfor- schung des Lebens (Jena, 1873). It is shown that carbon, in its present terrestrial conditions, points almost exclusively to organic origin, and, as yet, no source of carbon has been demonstrated adequate for the first formation of living bodies on the earth. "A. R. Wallace, The Malay Archipelago (3rd ed. : London, V 322 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. 1872), and Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection (2nd ed.: 1871). 5^ " The hypothesis of Pangenesis, as applied to the several great classes of facts just discussed, no doubt is extremely complex, but so assuredly are the facts. The assumptions, however, on which the hypothesis rests cannot be considered as complex in any extreme degree ; namely, that all organic units, besides having the power, as is generally admitted, of growing by self-division, throw off free and minute atoms of their contents, that is, gemmules. These multiply, and aggregate themselves into buds and the sexual elements ; their development depends on their union with other nascent cells, or units, and they are capable of transmission in a dormant state to successive generations. " In a highly organised and complex animal, the gemmules thrown off from each different cell, or unit, throughout the body must be inconceivably numerous and minute. Each unit of each part, as it changes during development — and we know that some insects undergo, at least, twenty metamorphoses — must throw off its gemmules. All organic beings, moreover, include many dormant gemmules derived from their grand-parents and more remote pro- genitors. These almost infinitely numerous and minute gemmules must be included in each bud, ovule, spermaozoon, and pollen grain. Such an admission will be declared impossible, but, as previously remarked, number and size are only relative difficulties, and the eggs or seeds produced by certain animals or plants are so numerous that they cannot be grasped by the intellect." Darwin, Variations of Animals and Plants, II. 526. ^7 A. Rollet, Ueber die Erscheinungsformen des Lebens und den beharrlichen Zeugen ihres Zusammenhanges. Almanach der kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften (Wien, 1872). 5** Darwin, Variations of Animals and Plants, I. 200. 59 V. Graber, Ueber den Tonapparat der Locustiden, ein Beitrag zum Darwinismus. Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Zoologie. Vol. 22. ^" Hermann v. Nathusius, Vorstudien fiir Geschichte und Zucht der Hausthiere zunachst am Schweineschadel, 1864. " lb., p. 108. «- Descent of Man, I. 412. REFERENCES AND QUOTATIONS. 323 ^^ Origin of Species. 13th ed., p. 171, ^^ Lamarck also constructed a pedigree at the end of his "Philo- sophic Zoologique," in which he disposes of the greater number of classes, while he attributes to the remainder another point of derivation. He thus assumes in the animal kingdom two primordial forms derived from primordial generation. His scheme is as follows : — TABLEAU Servant a montrer I'origine des differents animaux. Vers. Annelides. Cirripedes. MoUusques. Infusoires. Polypes. Radiares. Insectes. Arachnides. Crustacees. Poissons. ReptileSr Oiseaux. Mammales amphibiens. Monotremes. Mammales onguicules. ■■••... M. cetacdes. "■•• M. ongulds. A comparison of this pedigree with the one which we now set up is extremely interesting, and shows the progress of our knowledge. Y 2 324 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. ^^Zum Streit liber den Darwinismus, " Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung," 1873, No. 130. ^^A short preliminary communication in the " Revue Scienti- fique" (Paris, 1873). No. 37. ^"^Braun, Ueber die Bedeutung der Entwickelung in der Naturgeschichte (Berhn, 1872). " The vegetal kingdom shows us — " I. Plants, which in their vegetative development of the germ, exhibit a sexual generation, mostly in a thallus-like form. (Thallo- gens, Bryophytes, the Thallophytes of the authors, and Charas and Mosses.) "II. Plants in which the first generation is transitory, and only the second develops into the vegetative, leaf-forming stem, with- out, however, advancing to the stage of phenogams. (Acrogens Cormophytes, the ferns, &c.) " III. Plants in which metamorphosis advances as far as the formation of a blossom, yet without reaching the final formation, that of the formation of the carpel. (Phenogams without real fruit, gymnospermic Anthophytes.) " IV. Plants which reach the final and highest conclusion of vegetable development, that of true fructification. (Angiospermic Anthophytes ; Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons as secondary gradations.) ^^ As we have discussed in this chapter individual development with reference to historical development, we must also notice the strange opposition to the doctrine of descent offered by Kolliker. He has laid down his views in his " Monographic der Penna- tuliden," and, in a separate pamphlet, bearing the title of " Mor- phologic und Entwickelungsgeschichte des Pennatuhdenstammes, nebst allgemeine Betrachtungen zur Descendenzlehre " (Frank- furt, 1872). Whereas Darwinism derives the continuity and harmony of the organic world from variability, natural selection, heredity, and adaptation — in short, from palpable, visibly efficacious causes — Kolliker is of opinion " that the same general formative laws which govern inorganic nature hold good also in the organic kingdom, and hence a common pedigree and a slow transformation of one form into another are entirely unnecessary for the explana- tion and comprehension of the accordance of the forms and series REFERENCES AND QUOTATIONS. 325 of forms of the animate world" (p. 3). Except decided dualists, no one disputes the first part of Kolliker's thesis. But the identifica- tion of the development of the organic individual, excluding the law of heredity, with the simple process of crystallization, or any other operation of chemical combination repeating itself under given conditions, scarcely needs a detailed refutation. Kolliker says, and tries to prove, that the so-called monophyletic hypo- thesis, according to which the different families of organisms are derived from a single primordial form, has to struggle with insur- mountable difficulties; that the hypothesis of descent from many families (polyphyletic) possesses more probability. If this be admitted, then — and here comes a bold leap of the imagination — the adherent of the polyphyletic hypothesis finds himself in a position to attribute different pedigrees and primordial forms not only to the higher divisions, but even to their genera, and to assume their independent origin. Nay, it even seems credible that the self-same species may appear in different pedigrees ; as by the incontrovertible supposition of general laws of formation, it cannot be seen why like primary shapes should not, under certain circum- stances, be able to lead to hke final forms (see p. 21). Nay, this hypothesis does more, for " even if individuals of the same species occupy remote localities, as, for instance, Pennatula phosphorea, Funiculina quadrangularis, Renilla reniformis, &c., it is surely more fitting to assume their independent origin." Kolliker's polyphyletic hypothesis put an end to all difficulties, and, among others, it ex- plains the so-called "representative forms" to be mentioned in our tenth chapter ; for, from " this standpoint, it is credible that these forms are not genetically connected, but belong to different pedi- grees" (p. 23). And all this, and much more, is supposed to be conceivable, because the world of organisms, in its consecutive development, follows intrinsic causes or definite laws of formation, " laws which, in a perfectly definite manner, urge on the organisms to constantly higher development." At the same time, Kolliker deliberates (p. 38) whether, just as here germs and buds, so also free existing youthful forms of animals did not possess the power of striking out a development different from the typical one, which freedom must be severely mulcted by the law of development, which can and must create individuals of the same species at the 326 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. opposite poles. Kolliker (p. 44) thus sums up his fundamental view — " that in and with the first origin of organic matter and of organisms, the whole plan of development, the collective series of possibilities, were also potentially given, but that various external impulses operated determinatively on individual developments, and impressed a definite stamp upon them," Notwithstanding the scientific dress, dualism is here complete ; whereas, Physics and Chemistry make their laws, applying to inorganic as well as to organic nature, comprehensible in their form, purport, and effects, Kolliker knows nothing of the constitution of his laws. The doctrine of natural selection allows us to recognize the causes and effects of heredity and adaptation, and establishes the phenomenal series under the form of laws. But laws which are founded only on a plan which is to be carried out prospectively and in subser- vience to this dower of imperfect organisms, are ignored by natural science. ^^ Ueber die Herkunft unserer Thierwelt. Einezoo-geographische Skizze von L. Riitimeyer (Basel, 1867). We have made copious use in our text of this extremely instructive writing. ?» A. R. Wallace, Malay Archipelago. P. 10, &c. 7^ G. Koch, Die indo-australische Lepidopteren-Fauna in ihren Zusamnenhang mit den drei Hauptfaunen der Erde. (i Ed. Ber- lin, 1873.) 72 Peschl, Neue Probleme der vergleichende Erdkunde, 1870. 7^ All the more distinct is the affinity of the Mastodon and the Elephant. Between the pliocene Mastodon Borsoni and the Elephas primigenius, twenty species are interposed, among which are our still living species, the Indian and African elephants. The limits of the two genera are hereby entirely obliterated. According to other statements, the Elephas primigenius (the mammoth) falls into at least four geographical varieties, which join on to the American species. A dwarf species. of elephant is found in the caves of Malta, which in dentition attaches itself to the African species. 7^ Joh. Schmidt, The Relationships of the Indo-Germanic Lan- guages. 1872. 75 Various antagonists of the doctrine of descent have vented their moral dismay in the most poignant expressions, precluding REFERENCES AND QUOTx\TIONS. 327 any scientific discussion, on finding that the pedigree of the Verte- brata, and therewith of man, is actually traced beyond the verte- brated animals to so low a being as the Ascidians. It is otherwise with the critics of Kowalewsky's and Kupffer's observations, who acknowledge the facts, but think themselves obliged to differ in their interpretation. One of these is A. Giard, in his work on the " Embryogenie des Ascidiens." (Archive de Zoologie experi- mentale, Paris, 1872.) The pupil of Lacaze Duthiers says : — "La chorde et I'appendice caudale sont chez la larve Ascidienne des organes de locomotion d'un importance assez secondaire malgr^ leur g€Tv€x2X\X.€, pour qii^07i les voie disparaitre presqiie enticrement dans le genre Molguia, ou ils sont devenus inutiles par suite des mceurs de I'animal adulte ; I'homologie entre cette chorde dorsale et celle des vertebres n'est done qu'une honiologie d^adaptatio7t determinee a remplir I'iodentite des fonctions, et n'indique pas de rapports de parente immediate entre les vertebres et les Ascidiens." The author thus denies the consanguinity of the vertebrate animals and Ascidians, and traces back to adaptation the resemblance approaching identity occurring in the organs of the two. The inferences in these few sentences appear to us utterly at fault. The circumstance that in Molguia, and many other Testacea, de- velopment takes a narrower course, makes as little alteration in the importance of the facts as, for instance, the Nauplius development of the Peneus observed by Fritz Miilier, or the Navicula of the Molluscs, is prejudiced by the fact that the other Decapods have forfeited the Nauplius phase, or the Landsnails the navicula phase. But it is simply incomprehensible in what the identity of functions is to consist which in the Vertebrata was capable of producing the notochord, with, it is particularly to be remarked, the spinal cord (which M. Giard entirely forgets) ; and, in the other case, the " homologie d'adaptation." We, on the contrary, see these organs performing different functions, because in the one they remain of fundamental importance through life, and not in the other. Thus we conversely lay the stress on the morphological identity accompanying functional difference. M. Giard adduces no facts. 7*^ T. H. Huxley, Manual of the Anatomy of the Vcrtebrated Animals. German Ed. 328 THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT. "7 March, American Journal of Sciences and Arts, February, 1873- '^ Eckermnn, Gesprache mit Goethe. II. 152. ^^ Rousseau, Emile (GEuvres, Paris, 1820, IX. 17). " Nous n'avons point la mesure de cette machine immense ; nous n'en pouvons calculer les rapports ; nous n'en connaissons ni les premieres lois, ni la cause finale ; nous nous ignorons nous-memes ; nous ne con- naissons ni notre nature, ni notre principe actif." ^^ Metamorphose der Thiere. 81 R. Valdck in the " Presse," 1865, No. 327. 8^ Huxley, Man's Place in Nature, 1863. Manual of the Anatomy of the Vertebrated Animals. ^3 Broca, L'Ordre des Primates. Parallcle anatomique des I'Homme et des Singes. (Paris, 1870.) ^' Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvolker, 6 thl., p. 796. Bear- beitet von Gerland. ^' Do. p. 708. 8fi " Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung," 1873, Nos. 92-94. Beilage, ^^ I heard the lectures delivered at Strasburg by this scholar, '* Ueber die Resultate der Sprachswissenschaft," with great interest and advantage. ^^ L. Geiger, Der Ursprung der Sprache, 1869, p. 37. *" Steinthal, Der Ursprung der Sprache, 1851. ^^ Fr. M tiller, Allgemeine Ethnographie. Wen., 1873. I N D E X. Agassiz, L. ii, 80, 86, 223. Alca impsnnis, 186. Amblystoma, 210. Ammonites, 71, 74, 97. Amniotes, 250. Amphibians, 209, 258, 264. Amphioxus. See Lancelet. Anchitherium, 242, 273. Ancyloceras, 216. Anguis, 185. Annelids, 32, 198. Annulosa, 260. Anoplotheridas, 274, Anteater, 246. Antelopes, 273, 277. Apes, 280, 288. Arachnida, 33. Archaeopteryx, 72, 265. Archaeosauros, 83. Archegosauros, 258. Armadillos, 228, 246. Articulata, 32, 53, 72, 201, 219. Ascarides, 206. Ascidians, 36, 219, 252. Axolotl, 209. Baer, C. E, von, 48, 191, 197, 201, 219, 293. Balenidas, 280, Barraude, ir. Bathybius, 26, Batrachians, 72, 258, 264. Bats, 228, 246 269. Bavey, 212. Bears, 243. Beaumont, Elie de, 130. Beavers, 247. Bees 28, 47. Beetles, 185. Bflemnites, 74. Bf neden, Van, 209. Birds, 227 232, 250, 265. Bison, 277. Elastoids, jj, Bleek, 304. Bos, 277. BoLirguignat, 224. Brachiopoda, 70. Braun, 193, 220. Brehm, 182, 267. Broca, Prof. 160, 187. Briicke, 25. Bruta, 237, 271. Bubalos, 277. Buffaloes, 244, 247. Buffon, 5. Butterflies, 227. Cachelots, 280. Camels, 223. 330 INDEX. Camper, P. loi, 119. Campsognathus, 264. Canidas, 278. Carnivora, 241, 273, 278. Carpenter, Dr. 64, 93. Cassowaries, 237. Cassidulidas, 77. Cats, 100, 170, 234. Cecidomyia, 47. Cephalopoda, 70, 154, 201. Ceratoda, 258. Cercaria, 46. Ceroxylus laceratus, 181. Cestoda, 205. Cetacea, 238, 273, 279. Chalina, 154, Chalinula, 154. Cheiroptera, 280. Chelonia, 263. Chimpanzee, 288. Chirotes, 185. Cidaridas, 77. Cirripedes, 207. Civets, 234. Cladonema Radiatum, 42, 202. Clymenia, 71. CIypeastr.:e, 80. CoccoHths, 26. Cockleshell, 199. Coecilia, 259. Coelenterata, 31, 218. Coenopithicus, 245. Coleoptera, 184. Comatula, 80, 197. Conchifera, 71. Copepoda, 207. Corals, 42. Crabs, 150, 153, 207, 210, 238. Credner, 64. Crinoid, 56, 76. Crocodiles, 75, 260, 262. Crossopterygii, 258. Ctenomys, 184. Curtius, G. 304. Cuscus, 234. Cuttlefish, ir. Cuvier, 30, 85. Cyclostomi, 256. . Cytisus, 146, Darwin, 131, 184, 248. Deciduata, 272. Deer, 234, 246, 275. Delphinoidoe, 279. Dentalium Teredo, 200. Desor, 76. Dicynodonta, 260. Didelphidoe, 245. Dinosauria, 261. Dinotherium, 295. Dipnoi, 37, 256, 258. Distoma, 46, 206. Dodo, 186. Dogs, 99, 138. Dubois-Reymond, 15, 20. Duck-mole, 237. Dujardin, 42. Dumeril, A. 209. Earl, G. Windsor, 230. Echidna, 270. EchincE, 76, 80. Echinoconidae, 'jj. Echinodermata, 31, 'j6. Edentata, 79, 237, 246, 269, 271. Elasmobranchii, 256. Elephants, 80, 231, 242, 247, 269, 310. Enaliosaurians, 74, 238, 260. Endocyclica, 77. Eozoon, 68. Ephippigera vitium, 172. Eucladiajohnsoni, 76. Feather stars, 76. Pick, A. 18. Fisk, 260, 264, INDEX. 331 Foraminifera, 93. Forster, G. loi. Fowls, 135. Frogs, 258. Flirbringer, 185. Ganoids, 71, 256. Gargol, 44, Gasteropoda, 70. Gastrula, 51, 218, 257. Gegenbauer, 74, 256. Gerland, 300. Gibbon, 289. Giraffes, 277. Goats, 277. Goetlie, 100. Gorilla, 288. Graber, Von, 171. Graminivora, 240, Graptolites, 69. Gratiolet, 291. Guinea-pig, 100. Haeckel, 40, 89, 178, 198, 218, 250. Heer, 238. Helladotherium, 277, Helliconidce, 179. Herder, 4. Hilgendorf, 96. Hipparion, 273. Hippopotamus, 242, 275. Holothuria, 78, 197, 217. Honeysuckers, 233. Horses, 81, 170, 225, 242, 273, 295. Humboldt, W. von, 4, 222. Huxley, 257, 264, 289, 307. Hydractinea carnea, 203. Hydra tuba, 178. Hydrophilus piceus, 53. Hyasnas, 243, 278. Hylodon Martinicensis, 212. Hypsilophodas, 265. Hyrax, 269, 277. Ichthyornis dispar, 267. Ichthyosauria, 74, 260. Inflata, 216. Infusoria, 269, 280. Insecta, 32. Insectivora, 269, 280. Kangaroos, 233. Kerner, 146. Korte, Dr. 117. Kowalewsky, 199, 219, 251. Labyrinthodonta, 72. Lacertilia, 262. Lama, 223, 245. Lamarck, 85, 124, 148. Lamellibranchiata, 199. Lancelet, 36, 150, 219, 251. Laplace, 15. Leibnitz, 2. Lemurs, 269, 280. Lepidosirens, 37, 238, 258. Leptalidas, 180. Leptotherium, 245. Linnaeus, 5, 84. Lions, 223. Lizards, 185, 261. Locke, 303. Lories, 233. Luca, 289. Luthardt, 12, Lyell, Sir C. 128. Machairodus, 242. Macrauchenidas, 273. Madrepores, 42. Mammals, 73, 240, 250, 264, 269, 277. Mammoths, 79, 244, 247. Man, Tii, 201, 269, 288. Mantidae, 181. Marsh, 267. Marsipobranchii, 256. Marsupial frog, 214. Marsupials, 73, 75, 228, 238, 250, 269. INDEX. Martens, 241, 247. Mastodon, 81. Maupertuis, 4. Maury, 227. Mayer, Ernst, 118. Medusae, 31, 202, 210, 218. Megalonyx Jeffersoni, 246. MoUusca, 33, 199. Monera, 27. Monkeys, 79, 234, 269. — 6"^^ Apes. Monotremata, 269. Muller, Friedrich, 305. Mliller, H. 299. Muller, Johannes, 279. Muller, Max, 161, 208, 238, 303. Musk animals, 242. Mylodon Harlemi, 246. Myriapoda, 32. Myxine, 258. Nageli, 160, 193, Nathusius, H. von, 175, 178. Naumayr, 97. Nauplius, 207, 2 ID. Navicula, 199, Nematoids, 206. Oken, 105. Ophiura, 198. Opossums, 233, 245. Orang, 288. Orniscelidae, 260. Ornithorhyncus, 37, 237, 270. Orthoptera, 171. Ostrich, 237. Ouistitis, 291. Ovibos, 277. Owen, R. 121, 193, 390. Oxen, 247, 275. Oysters, 201. Pachyderms, 79, 240, 242. Palaeochoeridce, 244. Palceoniscus, 71. Pateotheridce, 273. Paludina, 200. Pander, 219. Pavians, 289. Peneus, 208. Petromyzon, 256. Phasmidoe, 181. Physeteridas, 280. Pigs, 175, 178, 242, 244, 275. Pigeons, 133, 170, 177. Pinnipedce, 278. Placoids, 71. Planorbis multiformis, 96. Platelmintha Suctoria, 205, Platypus, 233. Plesiosaurians, 74, 260. Pleuronectid2c, 181. Polecats, 241. Polistes Gallica, 47. Polypes. 28, 30, 174, 203, 218. Polypterus, 258. Primates, 308. Proboscidae, 273. Protamceba, 26, 40. Proterosaurus, 73. Proteus, 259. Protopterus, 238, 258. Pseudopus, 185. Pterodactyls, 75, 250, 263, 266. Pterotrachia, 199. Pulmo-gasteropoda, 224. Puma, 223. Quadrumana, 245. Radiata, 31. Rathke, 55. Regularas, jj. Reniera, 94, 154. Reptiles, 250, 264. Rhabdoliths, 25, INDEX. 333 Rhinoceros, 231, 242, 247, 273, 310. Rhizopoda, 207. Rodents, 246, 269, 278, 280. Rollet, 26, 168. Rousseau, J. J. 4. Ruminants, 79, 240, 277. Riitimeyer, 81, 222, 227, 236, 257, 273, 277. Sagitta, 37, 216, 219. Sahuis, 289. Saint Hilaire, E. G. 85. Salamanders, 209, 211, 258. Salmon, 239. Sauria, 260. Sauropsida, 264. Scaphites, 76. Schleicher, 304. Schmidt, Johannes, 249. Schulze, Max, 154. Sea-cows, 277. Sea-cucumbers, 'jj, 197. Seals, 269. Sea-snails, 198. Sea-urchins, 'j6, 197. Semper, 42. Serpents, 260, Sheep, 136, 244, 277. Shrimp, 208. Siebold, Von, 47. Sirens, 238, 269, 277. Sivatherium, 277. Sloths, 228, 246. Snails, 224. Snakes, 185. Spatangse, 'jj, 80. Spongiadce, 30, 93, 218. Squalodon, 279. Starfish, 76, 197. Stauridium, 42, 202. Stein, 41. Steinthal, 304. Stone-lilies, -jS, 80. Strauss, D. F. 302. Sturgeons, 238. Suctoria, 206. Suidas, 276. Surinam toad, 212. Siissmilch, 4. Tapeworm, 43, 205. Tapirs, 231, 242, 273. Tedania, 94. Teleostel, 256. Tellina, 96. Termites, 178. Tessellas, 77. Testacea, 250, 252. Tetrabranchiata, 199. Thompson, W. 64. Threadworms, 206. Thrushes, 234. Tiger, 241. Taenia solium, 44. Tortoises, 75, 238, 260, 263. Tragulidas, 275. Trematoda, 205. Trilobites, 69. Tritons, 209, 259. Trogons, 234. Tuco-tuco, 184. Turbellaria, 37, 45, 205. Turrilites, 76. Unger, F. 72. Ungulates, 240, 242, 269, 273, 277. Ursidas, 278. Verany, 182. Vermes, 32, 2or. Vertebrata, 33, 154, 185, 250, 264, Viverridae, 241, 278. 334 Wagner, M. 158, 302. Waitz, 300. Wallace, 164, 230. Walruses, 279. Watson, H. C. 151. Werner, 129. Whales, 269, 280. Wolves, 100, Wombats, 233. INDEX. Woodpeckers, 234. Worms, 205. Wiirtenberger, 97, 213. Zeuglodon, 279. Zoea, 208. ZoUner, 21, 162. Woodfall & Kinder, Printers, JVliHord Lane Strand, London, W.C. December, 1874. A Classified Catalogue of Henry S. 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An Account of the History and present Scope of the following Institutions The Royal Society —. ^ . ^, _ . . . , ^ The Royal Institution The Institution of Civil Engineers The Royal Geographical Society The Society of Telegraph Engineers The British Association The Birkbeck Institute The Society of Arts The Government Department of Science and Art The Statistical Society The Chemical Society The Museum of Practical Geology The London Institution The Gresham Lectures. OBSERVATIONS OF MAGNETIC DECLINATION MADE AT TREVANDRUM AND AGUSTIA MALLEY in the Observatories of his Highness the ^Maharajah of Tr.wAncore, G.C.S.I., in the Years 1852 to i860. Being Trevandrum Magnetical Observations, Volume I. Discussed and Edited by Jolin Allan Broun, F.R.S., late Director of the Observatories. With an Appendix. Imperial 410, cloth. 3/. 35. *»* The Appendix, containing Reports on the Observatories and on the Public Museum, Public Park and Gardens at Trevandrum, pp. xii. 116, maybe had separately. Price 215-. EUCLID SIMPLIFIED IN METHOD AND LANGUAGE. Being a Manual of Geometry on the French Sj'stem. By J. R. IVEorell. The chief features of the work are : — The separation of Theorems and Problems — The Natural Sequence of reasoning ; areas being treated by themselves and at a later page — The simpler and more natural treatment of ratio — The legitimate use of arithmeUcal applications, of transposition, and superposition — The general alteration of language to a more modern form — Lastlj'-, if it be assumed to be venturesome to supersede the time- hallowed pages of Euclid it may be urged that the attempt is made under the shelter of very high authorities. THE QUESTIONS OF AURAL SURGERY. By James Hinton, late Aural Surgeon to Guy's Hospital. Post 8vo. With Illustrations. Price xis, 6d. "The questions of Aural Surgery more than 1 cian, a deep and accurate thinker, and a forcible maintain the author's reputation as a careful clini- | and talented writer." — Latuei. 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" A more clear, valuable, and well-informed set I "It has certainly been edited with ereat care of treatises we never saw than these, which are Physiological treatises we have had in ereat bound up mto two compact and readable volumes, number, bivt not one work, we believe which so And they are pleasant reading, too, as weU as thoroughly appeals to all classes of the c'omnfunitv useful readmg. -Zz/.-rao' «W"«««. . las the present. Everything has apparently been We never saw the popular side of the science .'done to render the work really practical and of physiolo.^y better explamed than it is in these usefui.'—Czz'ii Service GazeUf two thin volumes." — Siaiuia?\i. | Second Edition. THE PRINCIPLES OF MENTAL PHYSIOLOGY. With their Applications to the Training and Discipline of the Mind, and the Study of its Morbid Conditions. By W. B. Carpenter, L.L.D., M.D., &c. 8vo. Illustrated, ip. 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A LEGAL HANDBOOK FOR ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS AND BUILDING OWNERS. By Edward Jenkins, Esq.., M.P., and John Raymond, Esq.., Barristers-at-Law, Crown 8vo. 6^. "This manual has one recommendation ^-hich , property. The writer conceives his subject dean^ cannot be accorded to more than a very small I and writes in a manner that is pleasaiit, torciDie, proportion of the books published at the present | and lucid: -La 7V Masa^uie ^"f ^.^''f!'/ „.,,.,„. day^ It proposes to supply a real want As " For a 1 this and "'"^h more about buildings to the style of tire work, it is just v.hat a legal and building contracts which s notj^waxs ea.y handbook should be We warndy recommend for a layman to "" Co., The International Scientific S^^ies— continued. Forthcoming Volumes. Mons. VAN BENEDEN. On Parasites in tlie Animal Kingdom. Prof. W. KINGDOM CLIFFORD, M.A. The First Principles of the Exact Sciences ex- plained to the non-mathematical. Prof. T. H. HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. 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The True Foundation of Science Te.\ching. A Lecture delivered at the College of Preceptors. Svo, sewed, 6d. The Science and Art of Education. A Lecture introductory to a "Course of Lectures and Lessons to Teachers on the Science, Art, and History of Education," delivered at the College of Preceptors. Svo, sewed, 6d. Fkobel and the Kindergarten System of Elementary Education. A Lecture delivered at the College of Preceptors. Svo, sewed, 6d. 65, Cornhill ; and 12, Paternoster Rote, London. J I 'oris FublisJicd by Henry S. King & Co., MILITARY WORKS. MOUNTAIN WARFARE, illustrated by the Campaign of 1799 in Switzer- land, being a translation of the Swiss Narrative compiled from the works of the Archduke Charles, Jomini, and others. Also of Notes by General H. Dufour on the Campaign of the Vatteline in 1635. By Major-General Shadwell, C.B. With Appendix, Maps, and Introductory Remarks. This work has been prepared for the purpose of illustrating by the well-known cam- paign of 1799 in Switzerland^ the true method of conducting warfare in mountainous countries. Slany of the scenes of this contest are annually visited by English tourists, 'and are in themselves full of interest ; but the special object of the volume is to attract the attention of the young officers of our army to this branch of warfare, especially of those, whose lot may hereafter be cast, and who may be called upon to take part in operations against the Hill Tribes of our extensive Indian frontier. RUSSIA'S ADVANCE EASTWARD. Based on the Official Reports of Lieut. Hugo Stumm, German Military Attache to the Khivan Expedition. To which is appended other Information on the Subject, and a Minute Account of the Russian Army. By Capt. C. E. H. Vincent, F.R.G-.S. Crown 8vo. With Map. 6j. " Captain Vincent's account of the improve- I tenant Stumm's narrative of one of the most bril- ments which have taken place lately in all branches liant military exploits of recent years is Captain of the service is accurate and clear, and is full 1 Vincent's own account of the reconstruction, of useful material for the considefation of those j under Milutin, of the Russian Army. Few books who believe that Russia is still where she was left will give a better idea of its progress than this by the Crimean war." — Athenanm. brief survey of its present state and latest achieve- "Even more interesting-, perhaps, than Lieu- | \a&\\\.."— Graphic. THE VOLUNTEER, THE MILITIAMAN, AND THE EEGULAR SOLDIER; a Conservative View of the Armies of England, Past, Present, and Future, as Seen in January, 1874. By A Public ScllOOl Boy. i vol. Crown Svo. Price ss. " Deserves special attention. ... It is a good and compact little work, and treats the whole topic in a clear, intelligible, and rational way. There is an interesting chapter styled " Historical Retrospect," which very briefly traces all the main steps in the growth of the English army from the tfme of the Anglo-Saxons. The writer is at great pains to examine the real facts concerning enlist- ment into the different branches of the army at the present day." — If'esti>iinstcr Review. THE OPERATIONS OF THE GERMAN ENGINEERS AND TECHNICAL TROOPS IN THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR OF 1870-71. By Capt. A. von Goetze. Translated by Col. G. Grraham. Demy Svo. With Six Plans. THE OPERATIONS OF THE FIRST ARMY, UNDER GEN. VON STEINMETZ. By Major von Schell. Translated by Captain E. O. Hollist. With Three Maps. Demy Svo. Price 10s. 6d. able contribution to the history of the great " A very complete and important account o-f the investment of Metz." " The volume is of somswhat too technical a character to be recommended to the general reader, but the military student will find it a valu- struggle ; and its utility is increased by a capital general map of the operations of the First Army, and also plans of Spicheren and of the battle-fields round Metz."— y^A« Btt/i. THE OPERATIONS OF THE FIRST ARMY UNDER GEN. VON GOEBSN. By Major von Schell. Translated by Col. C. H. VOn Wrig-ht. Four Maps. Demy Svo. Price 9^. has he succeeded, that it might really be imagined that the book had been originally composed in English. . . The work is decidedly valuable to a student of the art of war, and no military hbrary can be considered complete witliout it."— Horn: " In concluding our notice of this instructive work, which, by the way, is enriched bj' several large-scale maps, we must not withhold our tribute of admiration at the manner in which the translator has performed his task. So Uaoroughly, indeed, THE OPERATIONS OF THE FIRST ARMY UNDER GEN. VON MANTEUFFEL. By Col. Count Hermann von Wartensleben, Chief of the Staff of the First Army. Translated by Colonel C. H. VOn Wrig"llt. With Two Maps. Demy Svo. Price 9^. "Very clear, simple, yet eminently instructive, 1 estimable value of being in great measure the re- is this history. It is not overladen with useless de- cord of operations actually wftnessed by the author, tails, ii written in good taste, asid possesses the in- I supplemented by official documents." — Atlu7iceii»t. 65, Co7'nhiU ; &> 12^ Paternoster KoWj London. Works Published by Henry S. Klii^ &^ Co., 13 Military \Yor\^s— continued. THE GERMAN ARTILLERY IN THE BATTLES NEAR METZ Based on the official reports of the German Artillerj'. By Captain Hoffbatier Instructor in the German Artillery and Engineer School. Translated bv Cant E O ' Eollist. Demy 8vo. With Map and Plans. Price 21J. " Captain Hoftbauers style is much more simple I able and instructive book ; whilst to his brother and asjieeable than those of many of his comrades officers, who have a special professional interest rn and fellow authors, and it suffers nothing in the hands the subject, its value cannot well be overrated"— of Captain Hclhst, whose translation is close and I Academy. faithful. He has given the general public a read- \ THE OPERATIONS OF THE BAVARIAN ARMY CORPS. By Captain Hug-o Helvig-. Translated by Captain Gr. S. Schwabe. With 5 large Maps. In 2 vols. Demy 8vo. Price 245-. " It contains much material that may prove use- I and that the translator has performed his work ful to the future historian of the war ; and it is, on most cxta7t»t. the whole, written in a spirit of fairness and !im- j "Captain Schwabe has done' well to translate it, partiality. . . It only remains to say that the work ; and his translation is admirably executed.'"— />«// is enriched by some excellent large scale maps, | Mall Gazette. AUSTRIAN CAVALRY EXERCISE. From an Abridged Edition compiled by Captain Illia Woinovits, of the General Staff, on the Tactical Regula- tions of the Austrian Army, and prefaced by a General Sketch of the Organisation, &c., of the Cavalry. Translated by Captain W. S. Cooke. Crown 8vo, cloth. Price js. "Among the valuable group of works on the r ' Austrian Cavalry Exercise' will hold a good and military tactics of the chief States of Europe which useful i>\a.Qs."—West7imister Review. Messrs. King are publishing, a small treatise on 1 History of the Organisation^ Eqjiipaicnf, and JVar Services of THE REGIMENT OF BENGAL ARTILLERY. Compiled from Published Official and other Records, and various private sources, by Major Francis W. Stubbs, Royal (late Bengal) Artillery. Vol. I. will contain War Services. The Second Volume will be published separately, and will contain the History of the Organisation and Equipment of the Regiment. In 2 vols. Svo. With Maps and Plans. [Preparing: VICTORIES AND DEFEATS. An Attempt to explain the Causes which have led to them. An Officer's INIanual. By Col. R. P. Anderson. Svo. 14^-, "The young officer should have it always at [ " The present book proves that he is a diligent hand to open anywhere and read a bit, and we warrant him that let that bit be ever so small it will give him material for an hour's thinking." — United Sei-vice Gazette. student of military history, his illustrations ranging over a wide field, and including ancient and mo- dern Indian and European wAxiaxt."— Standard. THE FRONTAL ATTACK OF INFANTRY. By Capt. Laymann, Instructor of Tactics at the Military College, Neisse. Translated by Colonel Edward Newdig'ate. Crown Svo, limp cloth. Price ■:ls. 6d. "An exceedingly useful kind of book. A valu- able acquisition to the military student's library. It recounts, in the first place, the opinions and tactical formations which regulated the German army during the early battles of the late war ; e.x- plains how thee were modified in the course of the campaign by the terrible and unanticipated effect of the fire ; and how, accordingly, troops should be trained to attack in future \idiXS."— Naval a 7id Military Gazette. ELEMENTARY MILITARY GEOGRAPHY, RECONNOITRING, AND SKETCHING. Compiled for Non-Commissioned Officers and Soldiers of all Arms. By Capt. C. E. H. Vincent. Square cr. Svo. 2S. 6d, language, definitions of varieties of ground and the " This manual takes into view the necessity of everj' soldier knowing how to read a military map, in order to know to what points in an enemy's countrj' to direct his attention ; and provides for this necessity by giving, in terse and sensible advantages they present in warfare, together with a number of useful hints in military sketching. "- Ka-jal a7td Military Gazette. THREE WORKS BY LIEUT.-COL. THE HON. A. ANSON, V.C, M.P. The Abolition of PuRCHA-t^E and the Army Regulation Bill of 1871. Crown Svo. Price One Shilling. Army Reserves and Militia REFOR^?s. Crown Svo. Sewed. Price One Shilling. The Story of the Sipeksessions. Crown Svo. Price Sixpence. 6^, Corjihill ; 6^ 12, Paternoster Pozv, London. 14 Works Published by Henry S. King 6^ Co., Military Works — continued. THE OPERATIONS OF THE SOUTH ARMY IN JANUARY AND FEBRUARY, 1871. Compiled from the Official War Documents of the Head- quarters of the Southern Army. By Count Hermann von "Wartensleben, Colonel in the Pru'^sian General Staff. Translated by Colonel C. H. VOn "Wrigrllt. Demy 8vo, with Maps. Uniform with the above. Price 6s. STUDIES IN THE NEW INFANTRY TACTICS. Parts I. & II. By Major W. von Scherff. Translated from the German by Colonel Lumley Graliam. Demy 8vo. Price -js. 6d. " The subject of the respective advantag^es of attack and defence, and of the methods in which each form of battle should be carried out under the fire of modern arms, is exhaustively and ad- Second Edition. Revised and Corrected. TACTICAL DEDUCTIONS FROM THE WAR OF 1870—71. By Captain A. von Bog-uslawski. Translated by Colonel Ltimley G-raham, late iSth (Roj'al Irish) Regiment. Demy 8vo. Uniform with the above. Price js. the German Armies' and 'Tactical Deductions') mirably treated ; indeed, we cannot but consider it to be decidedly superior to any work which has hitherto appeared in Entjlish upon this all-import- ant subject." — Standard. "We must, without delay, impress brain and forethought into the British Service ; and we can- not commence the good work too soon, or better, than by placing the two books (' The Operations of we have here criticised in every military library, and introducing them as class-books in every tac- tical school." — United Service Gazette. THE ARMY OF THE NORTH-GERMAN CONFEDERATION. A Brief Description of its Organization, of the different Branches of the Service, and their "Role" in War, of its Mode of Fighting, &c. By a Prussian General. Translated from the German by Col. Edward Newdigate. Demy Svo. Price 5^-. "The work is quite essential to the full use of the other volumes of the ' German Military Series,' which Messrs. King are now producing in hancl- some uniform style." — United Serz'ice Magazine. Every page of the book deserves attentive study .... The information given on mobilisation, garrison troops, keepiug up estabhshment during war, and on the emjiloyment of the different branches of the service, is of great value." — Sta}idard. THE OPERATIONS OF THE GERMAN ARMIES IN FRANCE, FROM SEDAN TO THE END OF THE WAR OF 1870-71. With large Official Map. From the Journals of the Head-quarters Staff, by Major William Blume. Translated by E. M. Jones, Major 20th Foot, late Professor of Military History, Sandhurst. Demy Svo. Price 95-. of works upon the war that our press has put forth. Our space forbids our doing more than comr.-:end- ing it earnestly as the most authentic and instruc- tive narrative of the second section of the war that has yet appeared." — Saticyday Review. " The book is of absolute necessity to the mil tary student .... The work is one of high merit." It — United Se7~vice Gazette. " The work of Major von Blume in its English dress forms the most valuable addition to our stock HASTY INTRENCHMENTS. By Colonel A. Brialmont. Translated by liieut. Charles A. Empson, B.A. With Nine Plates. Demy Svo. Price 6i-. " A valuable contribution to military literature." 1 " It supplies that which our own text-books give —Athencemn. but imperfectly, viz., hints as to how a position can " In seven short chaptei-s it gives plain directions best be strengthened by means . . . of such extem- for forming shelter-trenches, with the best method porised intrenchments and batteries as can be of carrying the necessary tools, and it offers prac- | thrown up by infantry in the space of four or five tical illustrations of the use of hasty intrenchments hours . . . deserves to become a standard military on the field of h:i.X.l\t."— United Serz'ice Magazitie. \ yiox\i."—Sta7idard. STUDIES IN LEADING TROOPS. Parts I. and II. By Colonel von Verdy du Vernois. An authorised and accurate Translation by Lieutenant H. J. T. Hildyard, 71st Foot. Demy Svo. Price 7^-. obsen-ant and fortunately-placed staff-officer is in a position to give. I have read and re-read them very carefully, I hops with profit, certainly with great interest, and beUeve that practice, in the sense of these ' Studies,' would be a valuable pre- paration for manceuvres on a more extended scale." — Berlin, June, 1872. *,* General Beauchamp Walker says of this work : — " I recommend the first two numbers of Colonel von Verdy 's ' Studies ' to the attentive perusal of my brother officers. They supply a want which I have often felt during my serz'ice in t4iis country, namely, a minuter tactical detail of the minor operations of war than any but the most DISCIPLINE AND DRILL. Four Lectures delivered to the London Scottish Rifle Volunteers. By Capt. S. Elood Page. CheaperEdition. Cr. Svo, \s. "The very useful and interesting work." — I " An admirable collection of lectures." — Ti?nes. 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MEDICAL GUIDE FOR ANGLO-INDIANS. Being a Compendium of Advice to Europeans in India, relating to the Preservation and Regulation of their Health. With a Supplement on the Management of Children in India. By R. S. Mair, M.D., F.R.C.S.E.-lateDeputyCoronerof Madras. Post 8vo, limpcloth. Price 3^. 6rf. TAS-HIL UL KALAM; or, Hindustani Made Easy. By Captain "W. R. M. Holroyd, Bengal Staff Corps, Director of Public Instruction, Punjab. Crown 8vo. Price 5^. "As clear and as instructive as possible."— i mation, that is not to be found in any other work Standard. " Contains a great deal of most necessary infor- the subject that has crossed our path."— /foMe- vard Mail. EASTERN EXPERIENCES. By L. Bowring-, C.S.I., Lord Canning's '^'Private Secretary, and for many years Chief Commissioner of Myeore and Coorg. Illustrated with Maps and Diagrams. Demy Svo. Price i6j. "An admirable and exhaustive geographical, polirical, and industrial survey."— A theni^7i7n. 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Works Published by Henry S. King &> Co., 17 Books for the Young and for Lending Iav.v^s.VsIy.'-,— continued. DADDY'S PET. By Mrs. Ellen Ross (Nelsie Brook). Third Thousand, Small square, cloth, uniform with " Lost Gip." With Six Illustrations. Price xs. "We have been more than pleased with this I "Full of deep feeling and true and noble senti- simple bit of writing." — Christia7i World. \ Vi\«iVj'7V/(?,?r "Curious adventures with bears, seals, and other I the story deals, and will much interest boys who Arctic animals, and with scarcely more human have a spice of romance in their composition." — Esquimaux, form the mass of material with which | Coia-ani. HOITY TOITY, THE GOOD LITTLE FELL0V7. By Charles Camden. With Eleven Illustraticns. Crown Svo. Price 2,^. 6d. " Relates very pleasantly the history of a charm- I them to do right. There are many shrewd lessons ing little fellow who meddles always with a kindly | to be picked up in this clever little s\.ozy."—Pubiu disposition with other people's affairs and helps | Opinion. THE 3OY SLAVE IN BOKHARA. A Tale of Central Asia. By David Ker, Author of "On the Road to Khiva," &;c. Crown Svo, with Four Illustrations. Price 55-. SEVEN AUTUMN LEAVES FROM FAIRY-LAND, Illustrates with Nine Etchings. Square crown Svo. is. SLAVONIC FAIRY TALES. From Russian, Servian, Polish, and Bohemian Sources. Translated by John T. Naak(5, of the British Museum. Crown Svo. With Four Illustrations. Price 5^. " A most choice and charming selection and thirteen Servian, in Mr. Naak^'s modest but The tales have an original national ring in them, serviceable collection of Siaz'onic Faijy Tales. and will be pleasant reading to thousands besides Its contents are, as a general rule, well chosen, children. 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"The readers of this fairy tale will find them- read it were it twice the length, closing the book selves dwelling for a time in a veritable region of with a feeling of regret that the repast was at an romance, breathing an atmosphere of unreality, end." — Vanity Fair. and surrounded by supernatural beings."— i'oj^. \ " A beautiful conception of a rarelj'-gifted mind." " This delightful work . . . "We would gladly have — Exa7niiier, LAYS OF A KNIGHT-ERRANT IN MANY LANDS. By Major- G-eneral Sir Vincent Eyre, C.B., K.C.S.I., &c. Square crown Svo. With Six Illustrations. Price ^s. 6d. Pharaoh Land. | Home Land. | Wonder Land. | Rkine Land. " A collection of pleasant and well-written | "The conceits here and there arc really very stanzas . . . abounding in real fua and humour." . dim\.\^\ng."— Standard. — Literary World. ' BEATRICE AYLMER AND OTHER TALES. By Mary M. Howard, Author of " Brampton Rectory." i vol. Crown Svo. Price 6s. "These tales possess considerable merit."— I "A neat and chatty little volume."— /A'7lete Ejiglish Editions sanctioned by the Author. " Of all the poets of the United States there is no tion." — Academy. one who obtained the fame and position of a classic " We are glad to possess so neat and elegant an earlier, or has kept them longer, than William i edition of the works of the most thoughtful, grace- CuUen Br j'ant ... Asingularlysimple and straight- I ful, and Wordsworthian of American poets."— forward fashion of verse. Very rarely has any British Quarterly Re-vieiu. writer preserved such an even level of merit "Some of the purest and tenderest poetry of this throughout his poems. Like some other American generation . . . Undoubtedly the best edition of the poets, Mr. Bryant is particularly happy in trimsla- I poet now in existence." — Glasgoiv Ne~vs. ENGLISH SONNETS. Collected and Arranged by John Dennis. Fcap. 8vo. Elegantly bound. Price 3.?. 6d. " Mr. Dennis has shown great judgment in this 1 delight. The notes are very useful. . . The volume selection." — Saturday Rez'ieiu. is one for which English literature owes Mr. Dennis " An e.xquisite selection, a selection which every the heartiest thanks."— V^^''^^'"'. lover of poetry will consult again and again with I Second Edition. KOME-SONGS FOR QUIET HOURS. Edited by the Eev. Cancn R. H. Baynes, Editor of " Lyra Anglicana," &c. Fcap 8vo. Cloth extra, 3^-. &d. "A tasteful collection of devotional poetry of a i good addition to the gift books of the season."- very high standard of excellence. The pieces are Rock. short, mostly original, and instinct, for the most part, with the most ardent spirit of devotion." — Statidard. " A most acceptable volume of sacred poetry ; a %* The above four hooks may also be had handsomely bound ui Morocco with gilt edges. These are poems in which everj^ word has a meaning, and from which it would be unjust to remove a stanza . . . Some of the best pieces in the book are anonymous."— /"«// Mall Gazette. THE DISCIPLES. A New Poem. By Mrs. Eamilton King-. Second Edition, with some Notes. Crown 8vo. Price -js. 6d. " A higher impression of the imaginative power , could scarcely deny to ' Ugo Bassi'the praise of of the writer is given by the objective truthfulness , being a work worthy in every way to live . . . The of the glimpses she gives us of her master, help- ' style of her writing is pure and simple in the last ing us to understand how he could be regarded 1 degree, and all is natural, truthful, and tree from by some as a heartless charlatan, by others as an j the slightest shade of obscurity in thc<;ght or dic- inspired sz.h\t."— Academy. \ tion . . . The book altogether is_ one tliat merits "Mrs. King can write good verses. The de- ^unqualified admiration and \ira.iss."— Daily Tele- scription of the capture of the Croats at Mestre is I ^ra/A. ... , extremely spirited ; there is a pretty picture of the I " Throughout it breathes restramed passion and road to Rome, from the Abruzzi, and another of lofty sentiment, which flow out now and then as a V3.\sYmo:'—Atheita:u>?t. \ stream widening to bless the lands into powerful " In her new volume Mrs. King has far surpassed music."— British Quarterly Review. her previous attempt. Even the most hostile critic 1 ASPROMONTE, AND OTHER POEMS. By the same Author. Second Edition. Cloth, 4^. 6t/. "The volume is anonymous, but there is no reason 1 ' The Execution of Felice Orsini.' has much poetic • for the author to be ashamed of it. The ' Poems merit, the event celebrated being told with dra- of Italy ' are evidently inspired by genuine enthu- malic {o\-z^:'—Athejtn. .. - , , siasm in the cause espoused ; and one of them, | •' The verse is fluent and free. —S/cctacor. ARYAN : or, the Story of the Sword. A Poem. By Herbert Todd, M.A., late of Trinity College, Cambridge. Crown 8vo. 65, Cornhill ; c;^ 12, Paternoster Row, London. 22 Works Published by Henry S. King &» Co., Poetry — continued. THROUGH STORM AND SUNSHINE. By Adon, Author of " Lays of Modern Oxford." With Illustrations by H. Pater- son, M. E. Edwards, A. T., and the Author. SONGS FOR MUSIC. By Four Friends. Square crown 8vo. Price 5^. CONTAINING SONGS BY Reginald A. Gatty. Stephen H. Gatty. Greville J. Chester. Juliana H. Ewing. "A charmin.sf gift -book, which will be very popular with lovers of jioetry.'' — Jehu Bull. " The charm of simphcity is manifest through- out, and the subjects are well chosen and suc- cessfully treated."— Kooi. ROBERT BUCHANAN'S POETICAL WORKS. Collected Edition, in 3 Vols., price iSs. Vol. I. contains, — "Ballads and Romances;" "Ballads and Poems of Life," and a Portrait of the Author. Vol. IL— " Ballads and Poems of Life ;" "Allegories and Sonnets." Vol.III. — "Coruiskeen Sonnets;" "Book of Orm ;" "Political Mystics." " Holding, as Mr. Buchanan does, such a con- spicuous place amongst modern writers, the read- ing public will be duly thankful for this handsome edition of the poet's works.' —Civil Serznce Gazette. " Taking the poems before us as experiments, we hold that they are very full of promise ... In the romantic ballad, Mr. Buchanan shows real power."— //i7«r. THOUGHTS IN VERSE. Small crown 8vo. _ Price \s. 6d. This is a Collection of Verses expressive of religious feeling, written from a Theistic stand-point. " All who are interested in devotional verse should read this tiny volume." — .-Icadcuty. ON THE NORTH WIND— THISTLE- DOWN. A volume of Poems. By the Hon. Mrs. Willoughby. Elegantly bound. Small crown 8vo. -js. 6d. PENELOPE AND OTHER POEMS. By Allison Hughes. Fcap. 8vo. ^s. 6d. " Full of promise. They possess both form and colour, they are not wanting in suggestion, and they reveal something not far removed from imagination. ... If the verse moves stiffly it is because the substance is rich and carefuKy wrought. That artistic regard for the value of words, which is characteristic of the best modern ■vvorkmanship, is apparent in every composition, and the ornament, even when it might be pro- nounced e.xcessive, is tasteful in arrangement." — .4t/icHiZU)n. COSMOS. A Poem. Bvo. 3.^. 6d. Subject.— Nature in the Past and in the Pre- sent.—Man in the Past and in the Present.— The Future. POEMS. By Augustus Taylor. Fcp.Svo. 5.?. NARCISSUS AND OTHER POEMS. By E. Carpenter. Fcap. 8vo. 5^. "In many of these poems there is a force of fancy, a grandeur of imagination, and a power of poetical utterance not by any means common in these days,:'—Standard. AURORA; A Volume of Verse. Fcap. 8vo. 5.?. POEMS. By Annette F. C. Knight. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth. Price 55. " . . . . Very fine also is the poem entitled ' Past and Present,' from which we take the song pic- turing the 'Spirits of the Present.' The verses here are so simple in form as almost to veil the real beauty and depth of the image ; yet it would not be easy to find a more exquisite picture in poetry or on canvas of the spirit of the ^ige."—Scotsm(i7i. " These poems are musical to read, they give true and pleasant pictures of common things, and they tell sweetly of the deeper moral and religious harmonies which sustain us under the discords and the griefs of actual life." — Spectator. "Full of tender and felicitous verse . . . ex« pressed with a rare artistic perfection. . . . The gems of the book to our mind are the poems entitled ' In a Town Garden.'" — Literary Church- nian. A TALE OP THE SEA, SONNETS, AND OTHER POEMS. By James Howell. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, ss. " Mr. Howell has a keen perception of the beauties of nature, and a just appreciation of the charities of life. . . .Mr. Howell's book deserves, and will probably receive, a warm reception." — Pall Mall Gazette. METRICAL TRANSLATIONS PROM THE GREEK AND LATIN POETS, AND OTHER POEMS. By R. B. Boswell, M.A. 0.\on. Crown 8vo. 5s. Most of these translations we can praise as of very high merit. . . . For sweetness and regu- larity, his v( ChJDxlunait. larity, his verses are pre-eminent." — Literary " Mr. Boswell has a strong poetical vein in his nature, and gives us every promise of success as an original poet." — Standard. EASTERN LEGENDS AND STORIES IN ENGLISH VERSE. By Lieu- tenant Norton Powlett, Royal Artillery. Crown 8vo. 5^. " There is a rollicking sense of fun about the stories, joined to marvellous power of rhyming, and plenty of swing, which irresistibly reminds us of our old favourite (Ingoldsby)." — Graphic. Second Edition. VIGNETTES IN RHYME AND VERS DE SOCIETE. By Austin Dobson. Fcap. 8vo. 5^. " Clever, clear-cut, and careful." — Athenaum. " As a writer of Vers de Societe, Mr. Dobson is almost, if not quite, unrivalled." — Examiner. " Lively, innocent, elegant in expression, and graceful in fancy." — Morning Post. SONGS FOR SAILORS. By Dr. W. C. Bennett. Dedicated by Special Request to H. R. H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Crown 8vo. 3J. (>d. With Steel Portrait and Illustrations. An Edition in Illustrated paper Covers. Price IS. WALLED IN, AND OTHER POEMS. By the Rev. Henry J, Bulkeley. Fcp. Svo. sj. " A remarkable book of genuine poetry."— Eve}ii)ig Standard. "Genuine power displayed." — Examiner. "Poetical feeling is manifest here, and the diction of the poem is unimpeachable." — Pall Mall Gazette. 65, Cor?ihill ; 6^ 12, Pater 7ioster Pozc>, London. lVo?'ks Published by Henry S. King &> Co., 23 Poetry — continued. SONGS OF LIFE AND DEATH. By John Payne, Author of " Intaglios," "Sonnets," etc. Crown Svo. 5^. " The art of ballad-writins: has long' been lost in England, and Mr Paj'ne may claim to be its restorer. It is a perfect delight to meet with such a ballad as ' May Margaret ' in the present \olume." — JVest)ni7ister Review. IMITATIONS FROM THE GERMAN OF SPITTA AND TERSTEGEN. By Lady Durand. Fcap. Svo. 4J. " A charming little volume. . . Will be a very \a!uable assistance to peaceful, meditative souls." — Church Herald. ON VIOL AND FLUTE. A New Volume of Poems, by Edmund W. Gosse. With Frontispiece by W. B. Scott. Cr. Svo. 55-. " A careful perusal of his verses will show that lie is a poet. . . His song has the grateful, mur- muring sound which reminds one of the softness and deliciousness of summer time. . . . There is iimch that is good in the volume." — Spectator. EDITH ; OR, Love and Life in Cheshire. By T. Ashe, Author of " The Sorrows of Hypsipyle," etc. Sewed. Price dd. "A really fine poem, full offender, subtle touches of feeling." — Manchester N'eivs. " Pregnant from beginning to end with the re- sults of careful observation and imaginative po^ver."— Chester Ciiror, icle. THE INN OF STRANGE MEETINGS, AND OTHER POEMS. By Mortimer Collins. Crown Svo. ^s. "Abounding in quiet humour, in bright fancy, in sweetness and melody of expression, and, at times, in the tenderest touches of pathos." — Graphic. " Mr. Collins has an undercurrent of chivalry and romance beneath the trifling vein of good- humoured banter which is the special character- istic of his verse." — Athenceuni. GOETHE'S FAUST. A New Translation in Rime. By C. Kegan Paul. Crown Svo. 65-. " His translation is the most minutely accurate tOiat has yet been produced. . . " — Examiner. "Mr. Paul is a zealous and a faithful inter- l^reter," — Sattirday Review . AN OLD LEGEND OF S. PAUL'S. By the Rev. G.B.Howard. Fcp. Svo. 35. 6<^. "We admire, and deservedly admire, the gen- uine poetry of this charming old legend as here presented to us by the brilliant imagination and the' chastened taste of the gifted writer." — Stan- dard. SONNETS, LYRICS, AND TRANSLA- TIONS. By the Rev. Charles Tiirner. Cr. Svo. 4^'. 6d. "Mr. Turner is a genuine poet; his song is sweet and pure, beautiful in expression, and olten subtle in thought."— P^// Mall Gazette. "The light of a devout, gentle, and kindly spirit, a delicate and graceful fancy, a keen in- telligence irradiates these W\o\s.^\Vs.."— Contem- porary Review. THE DREAM AND THE DEED, AND OTHER POEMS. By Patrick Scott, Author of " Footpaths between Two Worlds," etc. Fcap. Svo. Cioth, 5^. " A bitter and able satire on the vice and follies of the day, literar}', social, and political." — Stan- dard. "Shows real poetic power coupled with evi- dences of satirical twftr'gy ."—EdinbT.rgh Daily Kizie-w. EROS AGONISTES. ByE. B.D. Fcap Svo. 3J. 6d. " It is not the least merit of these pages that they are everywhere illumined with moral and reHgious sentiment suggested, not paraded, of the brightest, purest chAraUiir. "—Standa?-d. CALDERON'S DRAMAS. Translated from the Spanish. By Denis Florence Mac- Carthy. Post Svo. Cloth, gilt edges. 10s. " The lambent verse flows with an ease, spirit, and music perfectly natural, liberal, and har- monious. " — Spectator. "It is impossible to speak too highly of this beautiful work. ' — Month. Second Edition. SONGS OP TWO WORLDS. First Series. By a New Writer. Fcp. Svo. 5s. " These poems will assuredly take high rank among the class to which they belong."— British Quarterly Review, April xst. 'No extracts could do justice to the exquisite tones, the felicitous phrasing and dehcately wTouglit harmonies of some of 1" y\V nconformist. wjouglit harmonies of some of these poems. "- 'A purity and delicacy of feeling like morning air.' — Graphic. Second Edition. SONGS OP TWO WORLDS. Second Series. By a New Writer. Fcp. Svo. 55-. " The most noteworthy poem is the 'Ode on a Spring Morning,' which has somewhat of the cliarm of ' L' Allegro ' and ' II Penseroso.' It is the nearest approach to a masterpiece in the col- lection. We cannot find too much praise for its noble assertion of man's resurrection." — Saturday Review. " A real advance on its predecessor, and con- tains at least one poem ('The Organ Boy ') of great originality, as well as many of much beauty .... As exquisite a little poem as we have read for many a day .... but not at all alone in its power to fascinate." — Spectator. " Will be gratefully welcomed." — Examiner. THE GALLERY OF PIGEONS, AND OTHER, POEMS. By Theo. Mar- zials. Crown Svo. ^s. 6d. "A conceit abounding in prettiness." — Ex- amine}-. " The rush of fresh, sparkling fancies is too rapid, too sustained, too abundant, not to be spontaneous." — Academy. THE LEGENDS OF ST. PATRICK AND OTHER POEMS. By Aubrey de Vere. Crown Svo. 5.f. " Mr. DeVere's versificatiou in his earlier poems is characterised by great sweetness and sim- plicity. He is master of his instrument, and rarely oflfends the ear with false notes." — Pall Mall Gazette. "We have but space to commend the varied structure of his verse, the carefulness of his grammar, and his excellent EngUsh." — Saturday ALEXANDER THE GREAT. A Dramatic Poem. By Aubrey de Vera, Author of "The Legends of St. Patrick." Crown Svo. ^s. '• I'lKleniably well written." — Examiner. " A noble play. . . . The work of a true poet, and of a fine artist, in whom tliere is nothing vulgar and nothing weak. . . . We had no con- ception, from our knowledge of Mr. Ue Vere's former poems, that so mucli poetic power lay in him as this drama shows. It is terse as well as full of beauty, nervous as well as rich in thought." — Spectator. 65, Cornhill ; 6^ 12, Paternoster Row, London. 24 Works Published by Henry S. King d^ Co. FICTION, HIS QUEEN. 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We have seldom met with a book so Athe-naum. thoroughly true to life, so deeply interesting in its | OTHER STANDARD NOVELS TO FOLLOW. 65, Cornhill ; &> 12, Paternoster Roiv, London, Works Published by Heiiry S. King a^ Co.^ 27 THEOLOGICAL. THE NEW TESTAMENT, TRANSLATED FROM THE LATEST GREEK TEXT OP TISCHENDORP. By Samuel Davidson, D.D., liLi.D. The desirableness of presenting a single text, especially if it be the best, instead of one formed for the occasion under traditional influences, is apparent. From an exact translation of Tischendorf 's final critical edition, readers will get both the words of the New Testament writers as nearly as possible, and an independent revision of the authorised version. Such a work will shortly appear, with an Introduction embodying ideas common to Dr. Davidson and the famous Professor at Leipzig. STUDIES OF THE DIVINE MASTER. By the Bev. T. Griffith. 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