U.S.Army Coast Erg. Sede NCS
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MP 1—73

ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OFFSHORE
DREDGING AND BEACH
NOURISHMENT: A REVIEW

by
John R. Thompson

MISCELLANEOUS PAPER NO. 1—73
JANUARY 1973

U. S. ARMY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS

COASTAL ENGINEERING
res RESEARCH CENTER
Uso

Ue Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

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Center.

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The findings in this report are not to be construed as an official —
Department of the Army position unless so designated by other
authorized documents.

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ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OFFSHORE
DREDGING AND BEACH

NOURISHMENT: A REVIEW

By
John R. Thompson

MISCELLANEOUS PAPER NO. 1—73
JANUARY 1973

U. S. ARMY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS

COASTAL ENGINEERING
RESEARCH CENTER

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

ABSTRACT

A review of ecological effects of offshore dredging is presented, based on literature
review and personal contacts, to provide a framework for determination of need for
further knowledge. In general, little concrete effort aimed specifically at the determination
of effects of offshore dredging was uncovered, although basic ecological works that are
generally applicable are available. Much additional research of basic, but practical,
orientation is needed to approach full understanding.

Report shows that the beach may be divided into three zones on the basis of moisture
and biota found, and describes the possible effects on these biota resulting from offshore
dredging and deposition of sediments on a beach.

Background descriptive material and impacts on both offshore dredged areas and
nourished beaches, and suggestions for further research follow. A selected bibliography is
included.

FOREWORD

This report, the first of a series, was prepared as a part of the Coastal Engineering
Research Center (CERC) research program on the ecological effects of dredging sand from
offshore borrow areas for beach nourishment and erosion control. It resulted from a
literature search and state of knowledge study carried out by the University of Southern
Mississippi under Contract No. DACW-72-71-C-0001 with CERC.

The author is Dr. John R. Thompson, Professor of Biology at the University of
Southern Mississippi, who has been a marine environmental consultant to CERC on the
ecological effects of offshore dredging.

At the time of publication, Lieutenant Colonel Don S. McCoy was Director of CERC;
Thorndike Saville, Jr. was Technical Director.

NOTE: Comments on this publication are invited.
This report is published under authority of Public Law 166, 79th Congress, approved

31 July 1945, as supplemented by Public Law 172, 88th Congress, approved 7 November
1963.

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ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OFFSHORE DREDGING AND BEACH NOURISHMENT

SECTION
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT.
FOREWORD

INTRODUCTION
1. Aims and Objectives
2. Compilation

3. Complexity of the Problem and the Need for Broad-based Knowledge .

4. Value Judgements and Reconciling Conflicts .

SYNOPSIS OF ECOLOGY FOR APPLICATION TO OFFSHORE
DREDGING AND BEACH NOURISHMENT .

1. Synopsis of Background Ecology

. Mainstream of Marine Coastal Ecology

. Bottom Inhabitants and Associated Organisms

. Other Significant Factors in the Living Environment .

. Ecological Impacts of Offshore Dredging

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. Ecological Effects of Deposition of Fill (Nourishment) on Sand
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ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING .

RESEARCH NEEDS

1. Short-Term, Specific, Project-Oriented Researcht

2. Longer Range, More Fundamental Studies .

A GENERAL SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY .

SELECTED ANNOTATIONS .

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ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OFFSHORE DREDGING AND BEACH NOURISHMENT:
A REVIEW

by
John R. Thompson

I. INTRODUCTION

This report examines on two principal phases of interest to the Corps of Engineers:
Effects upon the environment of (a) the removal from offshore areas of parts of the
substrate, and (b) deposition of these materials ashore, primarily for nourishment or
development of beach areas.

1. Aims and Objectives.

To provide a frame of reference for the remainder of the report, certain aims and

objectives should be stated. Specifically they are to:

(a) Review ecological knowledge pertinent to offshore dredging and beach
nourishment by examining, digesting, summarizing, and interpreting work completed or in
progress.

(b) Delineate and discuss areas of insufficient knowledge where research is needed
for rational planning.

(c) Suggest specific and general long- and short- range research projects needed to
serve as bases for future action.

(d) Discuss possible management of commercial dredging contracts to reduce dredge
damage.

(e) Determine possible beneficial ecological aspects of dredging activities.

(f) Provide an annotated bibliography.

In pursuing these aims, it was found that little work directly pointed at offshore
dredging or beach nourishment has been accomplished. Nonetheless, many works provide
some bases for decisions connected with these activities.

The study also has turned up many areas where research is needed. Research to be
accomplished depends on a review of methods, instrumentation, and development of
principles. Ecology is a relatively young science. It is only now coming into its own as a
quantitive science distinct from natural history.

2. Compilation.

The literature in a field as wide as ecology is scattered and voluminous. Important
papers are published in journals, major and obscure, in more than a dozen languages, and
under several disciplines—geology, biology, chemistry, biochemistry, engineering, and
others in addition to ecology itself.

Three catagories of aides have been used: (1) professional abstracts (Biological
Abstracts, Oceanic Index, Water Pollution Abstracts, and others); (2) review papers with
comprehensive bibliographies; and (3) authorities familiar with the more important
literature sources.

In addition to searching back an average of 6 years in the abstracting series where
available, certain classic works (e.g., Pearse, et al., 1942) of earlier periods that have set
standards and provide bases for more recent work have been consulted. The bibliographies
included do not reference standard textbooks of marine biology or ecology, because these
are easily obtainable, are generally not specific, and are often outdated.

Much accomplished research takes 2 to 10 years to get into the literature. Thus, even a
search of the existing literature may not reflect a true review.

To find the more outstanding references, personal interviews were conducted with
scientists in Washington, D.C., and along the Atlantic coast, and the West coast and Hawaii.
These interviews, backed by correspondence as necessary, provided a feel for the current
status of research. Additional contracts were made at professional meetings and during
academic duties.

This review showed that many of the projects are on the mechanical-descriptive level;
little study was designed for the elucidation of principles. Much of the research is more
technical than scientific. Many reports are merely raw data.

3. Complexity of the Problem and the Need for Broad-based Knowledge.

Ecology attempts to consider the whole biotic and abiotic environment, and the
interrelations existing between its various components. We have much good work, as
exemplified in the bibliography to this report, but we have an overconcentration in some
fields at the expense of others. And, thus, we do not have a complete, or nearly complete,
ecological picture of many, if any, ecosystems.

In the present problem—beaches and offshore sandy areas—the ecosystem problems are
relatively simple compared with those of an estuary or the Continental Slope. It is
surprising, then, that this ecosystem grouping has not been more intensively studied.

A list of research areas that would lead to usable knowledge follows immediately below,
but is discussed later.

(a) Detailed studies of substrate composition, spatial structure, and stability in
offshore sand and gravel and on beaches.

(b) Concomitant or immediately following studies on the relationships between
substrate and overlying water column in regard to exchange and cycling of such substances
as organic carbon, silicon, phosphates and nitrates, sulfur compounds, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and others.

(c) Studies of local currents and other physical features.

(d) Inventory studies of faunal and floral, constituents of substrate and overlaying
columns, on as quantitative a basis as is feasible, to provide information on stock
components and biomasses.

(e) Biotic-abiotic interdependency studies leading to knowledge of niches and
changes of biotic community composition with changes in the physicochemical

environment.

(f) Bioeneregetic (tropic-dynamic) studies of material and energy flow through
communities, including group and individual contributions and drains, life histories,
growth rates, food webs, and recognition of key species or groups leading to development
of balance sheets and specific structural-dynamic information.

(g) Model studies.

(h) Studies in social and technological sciences.

4. Value Judgements and Reconciling Conflicts.

Once the ecological studies are well in hand, the task has merely begun. The basic
ecological work must be layered with such sociological disciplines as the political, social,
economic, aesthetic, cultural, and historical that may apply in the study area. Each of
these must be examined as systematically, as objectively, as quantitatively, and within as
well-developed a framework, as was the ecology. This is probably the more difficult
undertaking, for here we deal with people.

An operations-research approach is a necessity. Inputs from the natural and social
sciences should funnel into a coordinating group consisting of an abstract-sciences team of
computer, statistics, and model-development specialists, ecological mentors, and
representatives of the social groupings, and then to a decision-making body. Public
relations are extremely important.

II. SYNOPSIS OF ECOLOGY FOR APPLICATION TO OFFSHORE DREDGING AND
BEACH NOURISHMENT

1. Synopsis of Background Ecology.

There is a dearth of the ecological facts needed for decision making before making
environmental modifications. Definite needs have not been met, and are not being met by
most ecologists studying the environment.

Investigation of over 1,500 references showed only a small amount of research directed
specifically at the ‘‘offshore dredging-beach fill” problem. This was expected because the
use of offshore borrow pits is relatively new. On the other hand, it was expected that
studies made for other reasons or in other situations would provide information applicable
to the problem and or provide background knowledge. This has proved to be so, for the
most part, but definite and important gaps still remain. Although beaches and the
Continental Shelf have received a share of research attention commensurate with their
apparent importance to man, much of the beach work has been more natural history than
dynamic ecology, because hard data was lacking, and much of the work has been
uncoordinated.

Search of the literature and interviews with persons engaged in coastal ecological work
showed a need for: (a) coordination of effort, (b) directed imagination to accompany
quantified raw data, (c) interdisciplinary work, and (d) the application of methods
applying broad, general survey data to specific locations.

Knowledge of our coastal ecosystems is incomplete. Perhaps estuaries, extremely
complex ecosystems in the coastal areas, are best understood as a result of recent
concerted efforts. The estuarine work, and the methods and concepts derived from that
work, should be applied to the more exposed beaches and offshore dredging sites.

3

There is little direct evidence to serve as guidance in predicting the effects of offshore
removal of sand and gravel or of placing these materials for beach nourishment. The
information available is broadly general, incomplete, and often conflicting. It is necessary
to consider basic ecological mechanisms and principles plus applicable data gleaned from
studies of navigation, dredging, and beach fill projects. The end result, while not as precise
as would be hoped, turns out to be predictions based on more thorough study of principles
and observations.

Two significant generalities can be stated at this point: (1) There is no objective reason,
uncovered in this study, why offshore dredging should not be carried out, providing it is
carried out with certain precautions to be enumerated; nor is there any reason discerned,
ecologically speaking, why the offshore material should not serve satisfactorily as beach
nourishment material. (2) Although the preceding statement, is couched in negative terms,
it is based on a comprehensive and detailed review, which has as its major shortcoming that
knowledge available (with few exceptions) deals with generalities, and detailed, local,
on-the-scene investigations must still be considered as necessary preludes (and postludes) to
cover local idiosyncracies and special local conditions. The remainder of this section is an
overview of the type of ecological data considered in evaluating effects, and predicting the
effects of action. It is a synthesis of material obtained from many sources and many
research studies made in the past 40 years. Not all of this material is documented in the
accompanying bibliographies, due to space limitations. The bibliography includes a
selection deemed important as indicating trends, representing classic works, works with
above-average bibliographies, reviews, or works especially pertinent to the current problem.
Such a selection is necessarily subjective and reflects the mood and interests of the
compiler.

There is in any ecological system a mass of obscuring detail. An attempt is made in the
following summary of ecological background to provide a frame for discussion to
emphasize the main flow.

2. Mainstream of Marine Coastal Ecology.

a. The Inorganic Environment. Ecologically, the physical environment—the
substrate and the overlying water column with their contained characteristics—is important
to organisms because it provides a source of support, attachment, shelter, and food.
Substrate and water are important to life, as is the complex of interchanges between the
two. Of particular importance are interface phenomena between water-air, water-substrate,
and layers of substrate.

Since sandy substrates are of chief concern here, two fundamental substrate situations
of great ecological importance are noted—unstable, shifting sand beds, and more stable,
nonshifting beds, usually with a greater admixture of silt, clay, or other material. Dredging
on unstable beds could be expected to have a less harmful effect, both short-range and
long-range, than would dredging on the nonshifting bed, though effects on shifting sand
areas would be more difficult to predict.

b. The Inorganic-organic Environment. Both the substrate and the water column
have nonliving organic complexities due in large measure to biotic activities. These range
from presence of phosphates, nitrates (and other nitrogenous compounds), and silicates, to
dissolved organics—the important external metabolites of earlier British authors.

c. The Biotic Environment. The world of animal and plant life is a world of energy
and material transformation and of cyclic phenomena, as life is a continuum.

The impact of engineering activities on this part of the environment has great import.
To be considered are life stages, breeding and feeding conditions, environmental
adaptations, and sustainable ranges of conditions for dwellers within and on the substrata,
in the ecotone layer of water immediately above the bottom and filled with life equally
dependent on bottom and water, or in part, in the remaining water column. Migratory
capacities to repopulate disturbed areas must also be considered as well as occupation of
niches.

What is the import of life in the water column above the bottom? The primary source
of all energy is the sun. The primary producer or energy convertor is the green plant. All
other living things depend on plants as an energy source. In the sea most of the primary
energy production takes place near the surface as a result of photosynthetic activities of
chlorophyll-containing, microscopic, planktonic algae. These marine algae are responsible
for nine-tenths of the world’s energy conversion. Secondary sources of conversion in
shallow water are attached macroscopic algae (kelps and others) and rooted higher plants
(eel grass and others), and to a lesser extent, (and less well-measured extent), benthic
bacteria.

The algae that convert the sun’s energy are consumed by small animals adrift in the
water; or the algae sink to the bottom where they are eaten by bottom dwellers such as
oysters, clams, some crustaceans, and annelid worms; or the algae are directly decomposed
by bacteria. Assuming they are eaten by small animals, these in turn are eaten by larger
consumers (predators), and so on in a complex food web with large energy losses at each
step. Both the producers and the consumers continually are giving off into the water
excretions and secretions which contribute to the organic part of what was earlier termed
the inorganic-organic environment. Some organic materials remain mixed or dissolved in
the water; much rains down on the bottom to become part of the substrate. This material
is particularly concentrated on the water-substrate interface and is usually measured as dry
weight of carbon.

On the bottom, the material is used directly as food by bottom-dwelling animals, which
also continuously contribute their share of excretions and secretions. Eventually these and
the dead bodies of larger plants and animals—consumers and _ producers—will be
decomposed and converted by bacteria, freeing, expecially, phosphates, nitrates, and
silicates for use by photosynthetic algae in reinitiating the energy cycle.

Study of plankton has, for years, fascinated marine biologists, and various collections
have been analyzed in attempts to typify areas. Plankton data are available from the
National Oceanographic Data Center, and the collections may be deposited at the

)

Smithsonian Sorting Center, Washington, D.C., or stand on dusty shelves in the marine
laboratories of the world. Correlations may be made between the egg and immature stages
of fishes and invertebrates in the plankton, and biomasses of the adults in given areas may
be calculated.

Thus, for large-scale areas, including potential dredge areas, data are available on the
characteristics of the overlying water masses and their biota, with some correlatable data
on bottom-dwelling organisms. These data, however, must be supplemented with detailed
local studies to be useful from an engineering standpoint. More detailed or more specific
follow-up studies are needed.

3. Bottom Inhabitants and Associated Organisms.

Bottom-dwelling organisms, from bacteria to bottom-dwelling fish would bear much of
the impact of dredging activities.

Sandy offshore bottoms that support a varied biota may be divided into two categories.
First, there are those areas composed of shifting, usually pure, sand. This habitat is usually
sparsely populated by animals that are mobile, relatively wide-ranging, and agile.
Community structure is neither permanent nor intricate. Second, there are the more stable
areas, usually composed of sand with silt, mud, or detritus, where the biota is richer, more
varied, and more permanent. Though either catagory might be dredged this second habitat
is of primary concern, for it presents greater ecological problems, and is of greater
ecological importance.

Associated with the sandy substrate, especially the more stable, are a host of
microscopic, semimicroscopic, and macroscopic organisms which are generally sessile and
can best be sampled with a grab. A grab is an instrument somewhat like a small
steamshovel bucket, which bites a predetermined volume of bottom material. Such
sampling is known as quantitative bottom sampling, and from it is derived an estimate of
bottom biomass. This estimate is often too low, but as the method is standard, it provides
an index for comparing different areas. Such grab-derived estimates of richness or poverty
of areas are available for broad comparisons from the National Oceanographic Data Center.

The oragnisms commonly taken by the grab on sandy bottoms are annelid worms,
echinoderms, crustaceans, and molluscs in addition to the omnipresent bacteria, algae, and
protozoans.

Most of these organisms lie on the bottom or are shallow burrowers. They serve as food
for higher organisms including fish, and are responsible for the presence of the higher
organisms. Several commercially important molluca such as surf clams and quahogs also
fall in this category.

Immediately above the bottom, in the lowermost water layers, is a transition zone rich
in fauna, known as an ecotone. This is an area at the junction of two interfaces presenting
the ecological advantages of both, as the border between a field and a woodlot in a
terrestrial situation. Here are found many bottom-dependent fishes and crustaceans which
feed on the smaller burrowers, crustaceans, and smaller fish. Of these, the flounder, other
flatfish, crabs, and shrimp are of great importance to man. Commercial fisheries operate on
these sandy grounds.

4. Other Significant Factors in the Living Environment.

The offshore environment is dynamic and ever-changing. Seasonally it is characterized
by stocks of migrating fish and numerous eggs and larvae of pelagic and bottom-dwelling
organisms. Thus, the picture gained as a result of a short-term study probably would not
typify the area. A study must consider the seasonal and cyclical year-to-year aspects. For
an accurate picture of the biota of an area, it is also important to use a wide range of
sampling gear designed for capture of the variety of types of life to be expected—both
mature and immature—and to quantify the results.

A wide range of information concerning the life of a marine area can be obtained from
the National Oceanographic Data Center, or major marine laboratories, in the form of raw
data covering such characteristics of the environment as productivity and bottom biomass.

Attempts to piece together all the parts—from primary productivity to final
consumption and the various ecosystem cycles—have been too few and are badly needed.
Such attempts could provide a better ecological picture, bring out the more elusive
interractions between the many components, and reveal the possible effects of man’s
interference. Such attempts can provide practical, usable information on which to base
action, monitor effects, or evaluate impacts. Such syntheses that have been attempted have
been largely in estuaries or sheltered bays. Offshore ecological syntheses are lacking.

The major purpose of this introduction to ecological continuity is to provide a sense of
flow or integration to the consideration of ecological effects caused by interference with
natural conditions. Thus, interference with worms could be as important as interference
with fish or clams or other organisms of direct importance to man through changing the
food-web flow.

5. Ecological Impacts of Offshore Dredging.

It must be recognized that the bottom provides homes for innumerable living organisms
that are parts of energy webs culminating (from man’s viewpoint) in commercially usable
species.

Anything that affects the bottom, will necessarily affect or have impact on the
ecological balance and ultimately man’s use of coastal areas.

Dredging involves disturbance and removal of parts of the bottom. This affects the
environment. What are the effects produced and how great are they? Several aspects should
be considered.

a. Mechanical Disturbance. The most obvious effect on the offshore environment is
mechanical, due directly to removal of substrate and indirectly to redeposition of
suspended sediment and turbidity. Since a varied fauna depends on the substrate, removal
or disturbance of the bottom material will reduce the fauna. The effect on the total system
depends on the magnitude of the disturbance created. Factors to be considered include
(a) nature of the grounds—shifting or stable, (b) type of dredging operation, (c) extent of
dredging and amount of substrate removed, (d) temporal nature of the disturbance, and
(e) ability of disturbed biota to withstand or recover from the disturbance.

These factors can be discussed separately to highlight needed research and indicate
certain restraints to be exercised in the interim.

a

The use of shifting rather than more stable beds as a borrow site has several ecological
advantages, as well the practical advantage of supplying clean sand since these beds are
usually composed of coarse, pure sand in contrast to fine sands with admixtures of mud,
silt, detritus and similar components of the more stable beds. Plants and animals are sparse
on shifting beds, and are either transitory or highly mobile. These communities are less
organized and usually are of less commercial and ecologic importance than those of the
more stable bottom. Also, physical effects of dredging could be erased through filling, as
indicated by the quick filling of borrow areas between reefs on some relatively shifting
sand areas off Florida. (Walter R. Courtney, personal communication.)

Selection of such sites could be determined by grab samples and coring. Underwater
towed observation vehicles such as the Remote Underwater Fishery Assessment System
(RUFAS), developed by the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), for faunal
assessments could be used for rapid scanning before designing a complex survey system to
identify bottom sediments and benthic animals.

Dredging shifting sands could be much more extensive without ecological harm than
could operations on more productive, stable beds. This leads to the conclusion that even
extensive dredge operations on beds of shifting or unstable sands would have little direct
long-range ecological effect on the immediate area. The role these shifting sand areas play
in natural beach nourishment or in nourishment of other areas is usually unknown, but
should be determined before dredging.

Dredging on stable beds is apt to be more serious because of the richer, and more
diverse nature of resources and the lesser mobility of most of the components of the biota.

It is on these more stable bottoms that shellfish and commercially important finfish
occur in large numbers, because the more permanent and higher organized food-web
structure attracts more fish. Although studies have been made of recovery of channel
dredge areas and harbors (Reish, 1954), little helpful information is available about the
recovery of stable offshore dredge areas, either physically or biologically. Minor
excavations can hardly be viewed as serious; indeed they may be beneficial. Follow-up
studies on minor excavation sites would provide needed information for evaluation of the
effects of more extensive excavation. Expecially needed are data on (a) rates of filling of
borrow areas under a wide range of conditions and bottom types, and (b) rates of
repopulation of borrow areas by biota. In view of the needed research, extensive dredging
in stable sand areas should be preceded by studies on effects of minor dredging and
collection of more complete ecological data before and after dredging.

The type of dredge used is another factor to be considered. Hopper dredges are suited
to offshore conditions, and appear to inflict the least ecological harm. To shallowly dredge
sand deposits over extensive areas, and allow a layer of sand to remain might cause less
harm than to dredge deep pits covering a limited area. Deep borrow areas hamper trawling
and harm level-bottom communities. The disturbance would be spread over a greater area
because a greater surface area would be involved in obtaining the same amount of material.
Safeguarding against opening a different interface through removal of all of the sand and

8

avoiding creation of precipitous sides of deep pits would result in a better habitat. The
amount of sand that should be left to prevent damage would depend on requirements of
the species in the area and would vary. Spreading dredging activities to avoid opening new
or different interfaces and creating deep holes is practical with hopper-dredge operations.

The maximum size of the offshore dredging operation could be based on a
proportionate removal of a deposit. Information is available from CERC of the sand survey
of the Inner Continental Shelf to estimate amounts to be removed. Unfortunately, the
quantitative effects of dredging on the fauna, quantitative substrate requirements of the
fauna, or the adaptability of the fauna (long- or short-term) to dredging and substrate
removal activities are unknown. Studies of minor or restricted dredging would provide an
initial basis for predicting the effects of larger scale operations.

The amount of dredging and substrate removal required for beach-nourishment projects
probably would not be harmful in most situations. Situations could be readily identified as
potentially harmful before operations began. Commercial removals, on the other hand,
might involve: (a) larger areas, (b) larger volumes, and (c) long-term use of sites.
Commercial removal, if by leases or permits, should be controlled by detailed dredging
specifications that should be strictly monitored and enforced. However knowledge on
which to predict effects of extensive and continued offshore dredging is lacking. If
commercial sand dredging operations are concerned with removal or extraction of minerals
from the sands, then tailings and potential pollutants would also have to be considered.
This, however, is a separate problem.

The two factors for which information is lacking and on which reasonable predictions
of effects of extensive dredging activities must be based are: (1) fill-in rates or physical
recovery rates in borrow pits, and (2) abilities of biotic components to withstand or
recover from dredging activities. Solutions of these problems do not require complicated
techniques, or complex instrumentation. Both are uncomplicated observation-type studies.
However, dredging operations of various intensities in varying areas must be studied.
Knowledge would result from monitoring studies made during and after dredging.

b. Turbidity and Sediment Effects. Sherk and Cronin (1970), have summarized the
knowledge of turbidity and sediment effects in their bibliography, “The Effects of
Suspended and Deposited Sediments on Estuarine Organisms.” This work reveals little
concrete, long-range detrimental effect due to either turbidity or sediment. The authors
were concerned with estuarine areas, but the effects should be even less important in
offshore areas, though perhaps less predictable.

Offshore dredging areas should lie beyond the oyster beds, of prime concern in silting
and smothering studies, and far beyond coves and quiet bays where settling effects would
be expected to be most pronounced and dangerous. Offshore sands and gravels, coarser
than the average channel dredge material in inshore areas, would not cause such siltation
effects as are caused by finer sediments. Scouring effects, however, may be serious where
strong currents sweep coarse material across reefs. (Levin, 1970). The general conclusion,

9

based upon available knowledge is that turbidity and sediment effects on marine organisms
from offshore dredging of sand and gravels are to be considered generally insignificant or
short-term.

Peculiar local bottom-current effects on sediment transport should be monitored on
individual projects.

c. Miscellaneous Effects and Considerations. A prime concern of many authorities,
(for example, Loosanoff, 1962, p. 13, Thorson, 1964, p. 99, and Wilson, 1958) is the
effect of change in water clarity (effect of suspended solids) and the effects of bottom
deposits on larval development and particularly larval settlement. Larvae of
bottom-dwelling invertebrates have subtle requirements that must be met before the larval
stages will leave the water column, settle to the bottom and transform into juveniles. The
nature of dissolved organics in bottom deposits and other unknown conditioning factors
influence the settling of larvae. Conclusive evidence for or against dredging effects on larval
stages is not available. Periods of greatest larval incidences in the water column of those
species important in the bottom communities should be observed. Ideally, dredging periods
should be adjusted to allow settlement to take place with least interference.

Other factors of concern are effects of seabed topographic changes created by dredging,
and other effects due to deepening areas. Both effects can be mitigated by shallow
stripping operations when desirable. Manmade refuges through creation of deepened areas
provide habitats for fish.

d. Dredge Operation—Monitoring and Management. Although no strong basis for
disapproval of dredging for sands and gravels in offshore areas has been found, steps should
be taken to include safeguards in dredging to ensure environmental quality or to meet
other special conditions.

Proper environmental dredging management should include precautions to control
adverse sediment effects by taking advantage of tidal currents and littoral currents to guide
sediments put in suspension by dredging. Use of currents to control direction of suspended
sediment flow could improve the environment through deposition of the sediments
selectively and through directed dispersal of released nutrients.

Where green plants are present, water clarity during daylight hours is important for
maintenance of primary productivity, and dredging only at night may be necessary.
Conversely, studies of faunal day-night activity may show that dredging at night may harm
the animal community, and dredging may have to be restricted to daytime hours. This
emphasizes the need for many local studies.

Other controls could increase benefits by retention of an agreed percentage of the sand
substrate, bypassing concentrations of valuable living resources, and otherwise planning
dredging for ecosystem protection and enhancement, with the least cost and least harm.

Monitoring can be a positive rathern than a negative adjunct to dredge operations. As a
part of dredging management, monitoring can supply on-site information to aid future
management decisions. In a sequence of research involving before, during, and after

10

studies, the monitoring team would ideally be the during research team, for the benefit of
the operation and longer range research. Monitoring could and should be used much more.
6. Ecological Effects of Deposition of Fill (Nourishment) on Sand Beaches. Here the
focus changes from offshore dredge sites to beaches where dredged material is deposited
for beach restoration of nourishment. The same general ecological cycles and
progressions—from the primary producers through the upper order carnivores, with
bacterial breakdowns and replenishments of nutrients such as phosphates and
nitrates—take place on the beaches as well as offshore, though details may differ.

Before considering the effects of depositing fill on the beaches, the normal ecosystem
should be considered. Many studies of the general features of beach life have been made,
beginning with the classic work of Pearse, et al., (1942) on North Carolina beaches and
continuing through Dexter (1967, 1969a, and 1969b) and Trevallion, et al., (1970).
Trevallion, et al., provide an excellent review of research, a comprehensive bibliography,
and a comparison of world-wide beach features. .

The beach surface presents a harsh environment. Temperature of the sand on a hot
sunny day may be extremely high, but less than an inch below the surface, the temperature
is lower and more conducive to life. Thus, most permanent residents of the upper parts of
the beach are burrowers, and come out primarily at night. As in most harsh environments,
the fauna and flora are limited in number of species, often in number of individuals, and
the inhabitants include many examples of extreme adaptation to a specialized way of life.
The beach not only has a harsh temperature environment, but also is constantly shifting
and changing character which makes permanent residence difficult without special
adaptations. Present are: blowing sand, bright sun, winds and rains, wave action, and
predation from within the beach, from the sea, and from the dunes. The food chain is
long—from bacteria through the usual marine categories, principally algae, crustaceans,
mollusks, annelids, and echinoderms, and also including reptiles (lizards and snakes), birds,
and man. Man, however, interferes little with normal workings of the beach community; he
occupies the surface when most community members are not likely to be abroad.

For convenience, the beach environment is divided into component zones or parts, each
with its own principal faunal and floral components. Dunes are not included.

a. Beach Zoning. Trevallion, et al., (1970), provide a scheme of zoning well suited
for beach discussion and for further beach research. On the basis of fauna, they divide the
beach into upper, middle, and lower zones, recognizing that there is a mobile element of
the beach population not restricted to any zone. They state that there is amazing
world-wide similarity in the faunal types occupying these zones.

The upper zone is characterized by populations of ghost crabs (Ocypode) and sand fleas
or amphipods (Talitridae). This zone, dry except in storms, is backed by the dune areas,
and reaches slightly above the waterline. In addition to crabs and amphipods, predatory
and scavenger beetles and other transient animals are found in the upper zone. Typical
inhabitants are high-order predators. Plants are scarce or absent, and this zone is dependent
for production on lower zones or the dune areas. Wrack along the debris line provides some

11

of the food and also shelter for many species. Bacterial decomposition of stranded fishes
and algae takes place here, and provides most of the nutrients required for the production
cycle. Animal activity cycles can be well traced by observing the marks left in the loose
sand (Bider, 1968), providing an excellent way to study behavior and predator-prey
relationships. The substratum sand in this zone is usually finer than that in the zone of
uprush, but coarser than that of the dunes.

The middle zone is characterized by annelid worms, the small coquina clam, Donax, the
mole crab Emerita, and various other crustaceans and mollusks. Most are found where the
spent waves wash the sand; they alternately burrow and are uncovered by wave action.
Most are excellent and rapid burrowers, an adaptation necessary to preserve their position
where food is carried to them by the water. A number of interstitial animals are also found
here, feeding among the sand grains on bacteria and unicellular algae. The zone contains an
admixture of herbivores, primary carnivores, and some high-order carnivores such as the
mole crab. Flora consists mainly of bacteria and unicellular algae; these play a large role in
beach production. Humm, in Pearse, et al., (1942), discusses bacterial roles at some length.
Habits and action of coquina and the mole crab have been thoroughly studied and
reported. The annelid worms in this zone, are mostly tube dwellers, and are partly or
wholly buried in the sands except when feeding. This zone is particularly harsh due to
environmental fluctuations, and often is oxygen-poor. Thus, here is found a paucity of
species, though large numbers of individuals, and species that are often curiously modified
to meet the particular environmental requirements. As in the upper zone, the animals of
this zone are not only agile and mobile, but are also capable of resisting long periods of
environmental stress.

The lower zone, the zone under water all or most of the time, contains a relatively rich
and varied fauna. Burrowing crustacea, such as the mud shrimps Callionassa or Eupogebia
are often found here as are the sand dollars, Mellita, and many snails. In the water column,
are small fish and crabs of the genera Callinectes, Arenius, and Ovalipes. A number of kinds
of tube-dwelling annelid worms are also present. Most of the worms and carnivores rely on
food washed in from the sea or off the beaches by waves. Though bacteria and unicellular —
algae contribute some primary productivity, it is probable that most of the production
takes place in the sea, and the producers are swept in with the waves.

This then is a broad picture of the normal fauna and flora of a typical sand beach, with
a nutrient and energy cycle not unlike that of submerged seabeds of nearshore waters,
except that it is dependent to a greater extent on adjoining areas for products of primary
production. The beach is also more difficult to study because the faunistic and topographic
borders are less well defined.

b. Beach Stabilization. The beach is constantly changing. It is changed by waves,
tides, longshore currents, wind, and man’s activities. There are, however, stabilizing factors.
The sum of all the interstitial (between-grain) fauna, such as the worms and crustaceans
may provide a cementing action that is an efficient factor in holding beach sands together.

12

In addition, where present, beach grasses are holders of the substrate. Unfortunately,
tourists like beaches composed of clean, clear sand, thus, the interstitial animals, which no
one sees and about which few are concerned, remain the primary cementing agents.

c. Biotic Dependence on Physical and Chemical Characteristics. As elsewhere, there
is a strong correlation between the types of life found and the characteristics of the
substratum. This is marked in the lower zone of the beach that is especially rich in
interstitial fauna. Such sediment factors as grain size, polarization, latticework structure,
and even mineral content influence the fauna. In general, the smaller the sediment grains,
the smaller the interstices, and the smaller the individuals of the fauna. Correlated with
fine sand is a decreased capacity for holding oxygen. Organic content is also important in
settlement of the larvae of the tube-dwelling worms and other groups. The bacteria and
unicellular algae are usually present as films or patches on and around the sand grains.
Differences in available surface area and in size of interstices markedly affect these
organisms, which are important in primary productivity and as food for the herbivores.

d. Ecological Effects of Deposition of Fill (Nourishment on Sand Beaches). At first
glance it would seem that to dump quantities of sand on top of the normal beach surface
would have serious consequences on the biota. Mechanical disturbance alone would seem
to have far-reaching disruptive qualities. But this is not entirely true. It has been shown
that the animals of the beaches are accustomed to change—incorporating change into their
daily lives. Further, most faunistic members are agile and capable of escape from or
lengthy resistance to adverse conditions. Moreover, migrations from adjoining sides of the
nourished area are likely either in the form of adult or larval organisms coming in to fill
empty niches. Studies of succession in areas nourished with material taken inland, show a
rapid invasion of fauna and little lasting harm is apparent.

The least effect would ensue if the sand placed on the beach resembled the original sand
in grain size and other physical characteristics. The effects of change in profile could also
be important. The three zones outlined earlier, are defined not only faunistically, but in
relation to water levels—above water, water-land interface (alternately above and
submerged), and totally submerged. Altering the profile would necessarily alter the
proportion of surface available for each zone; hence, it would alter the proportion of fauna
typifying each zone, with unknown, but possibly important, effects on the environment.

To summarize, no far-reaching or long-lasting effects from offshore dredging can be
foreseen, nor can detrimental effects be foreseen from deposition of offshore sediments as
beach fill. Further research is needed before the more subtle relationships that might prove
disastrous are completely known. But, in the gross view, the conclusion stands. Design and
monitoring of dredging operations and fill projects should receive careful attention to
safeguard against damage, and to continue before, during, and after studies.

Ill. ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

If offshore sand dredging coupled with beach fill can be looked upon as a single
operation, designed specifically and uniquely for improvement of the coastal environment,
a major breakthrough could be gained in the improvement of the environment. By

13

thorough planning, the synthetic ecosystem developed by beach nourishment could result
in the establishment of permanent or temporary deepwater refuges in the borrow areas
offshore combined with restored beaches for recreation and natural community succession
inshore. Other bonus benefits could be anticipated as accompaniments.

Organizations whose mission require modifying the environment have lately been on
the defensive. With intelligent multidisciplinary investigation beforehand, many
engineering modifications of the environment could be turned into positive environmental
enhancement programs. Such is the meaning of the term ecological engineering.

In the course of dredging or filling for purposes other than beach nourishment,
consideration should be given to the chance for environmental improvement. This entails
viewing the specific engineering undertaking from all possible angles—going beyond the
strict initial purposes of the project to a total consideration of environmental, engineering,
and social aspects.

Where navigation channels must be dredged and the spoil is not used for beach fill, spoil
areas might be located to improve the local conditions for little added cost. Such locations
would have to be carefully planned before starting the projects, and requirements specified
in advance.

Use of ecological engineering offers exciting possibilities in connection with coastal
engineering. Principles of ecological engineering usually have not been applied to the

marine environment.

Deepwater refuges, such as borrow pits furnish protection for concentration points of
many species of fish and shellfish. Effectiveness of these refuges depends on their relation
to the geographical, hydrographical, and ecological requirements of the organisms involved.
Establishment of such areas should be coordinated with commercial and sport fishing
interests.

In many instances, such borrow refuges would be the natural result of normal
operations. In other instances, slight changes in the initial plans might increase the
effectiveness of the refuge. Truly effective ecological engineering would depend on the
study of hydrographic conditions in local areas and of knowledge of fish and shellfish
habits and preferences in local waters before dredging.

Sediment disturbances resulting from dredging can be advantageous in ecological
engineering, if planning and operations are properly carried out. Nutrients released by
dredging are valuable in the flow of energy and material (food) through a community as
emphasized by Cronin, Gunther, and Hopkins (1969). A natural consequence of proper
dredging would be stimulation of some or all aspects of community well-being. Further,
controlled or partly controlled release and direction of sediment loads could be used to
stimulate specific parts of the physical and biological community.

However, Cronin, et al., (1969), warn of the dangers of possible release of harmful
substances as a result of stirring up of bottom deposits. Conceivably this could be properly
directed and controlled, depending on (a) the nature of the released substances,

14

(b) selectivity of effects, and (c) local environmental and biotic factors. An example of the
usefulness of release of substances normally considered harmful from dredging
disturbances, could be cited as the control of unwanted parts of coastal communities that
are more susceptible to the released substance than are the more desirable organisms.

Ecological engineering should be a part of the thinking of all who are required to
modify the environment through engineering or other technological practices. Often it is
just as easy to improve the environment as it is to create a neutral situation or to injure the
environment.

IV. RESEARCH NEEDS

Though no reports of catastrophic results of offshore dredging or beach nourishment
activities have been uncovered in this study, understanding of the underlying processes of
the ecosystem is still far from complete. Thus, a great amount of research remains to be
done, and imaginative interpretation of accomplished research is needed.

Many of the suggestions for research offered in this section have been brought together
here for convenience. They can be divided into specific short-term project studies and
more fundamental, long-range studies, though the difference is not always clear-cut.

1. Short-Term, Specific, Project-Oriented Research.

Connected with specific engineering projects are certain research activities necessary to
provide base lines, guide details of engineering, direct attention to unique features, and
provide for practical protection or enhancement of the environment. Major among these
are the familiar before, during and after studies associated with operational monitoring.
With dredge and fill operations, studies of sediment effects and rates of fill of borrow areas
should be made. These types of studies are well recognized, and are more or less standard.

a. Before and After Studies. Before studies in some form are generally included in
environmental modification proposals. The new requirement for environmental impact
statements makes necessary some prior knowledge, the gathering of which constitutes a
before study.

Biological or ecological before studies traditionally require a series of samples in the
area where effects are expected. Such studies are usually inexpensive, and point out
obvious environmental features and either environmental danger spots or stages in
operation where advantageous modifications could result, and provide some sort of a base
line for later comparisons and conclusions.

Determination of what is present is not enough. The very important whys and hows are
also needed for prediction. Why are the species found in the area? Are they casual users or
premanent residents? Do they represent seasonal groups come to breed or key members of
the ecological food or energy web? How did they come to be there? Is the area a favorable
larval settling area, nursery ground for juveniles or other advantageious site for
concentration?

All of these questions should be answered in greater or lesser detail. Also, all major
levels of the energy and food cycles—ecosystem cycles—need investigation, from primary

15

productivity through the higher carnivores to the decomposers. Implied, therefore, is a
connotation of larger and more intense complicated before studies. Standardization of
investigation methods and instruments is needed for wider use of data, and greater
comparability between sets of data from different institutions. Standardization is gaining
ever-increasing importance among Federal agencies. Examples are the National Marine
Fisheries Service (Department of Commerce, NOAA) with their Marine Resource
Monitoring, Assessment, and Prediction System (MARMAP) and the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), with their background and environmental monitoring studies.

b. Monitoring. The term monitoring is currently used in two senses in biology. The
first and conventional sense implies watching over an operation or activity to safeguard
conformity to set criteria, The second and more recent sense implies a long-term watch
over the normalcy or well-being of a segment of the environment. It is an unfortunate term
in either sense, because of its usually negative, watchdog connotation. It is the
conventional monitoring that concerns us here.

The idea was previously developed of more positively oriented monitoring where
managerial and research responsibilities are included as well as watchdog activities.
Successful monitoring requires sampling at frequent intervals during activities to show
what effects the operation is having on the environment. Feedback of this information can
then be used to document the economical and environmental aspects of the operation for
use as a management guide. Monitoring personnel could gather and compile data of value
in before and after correlations and interpretations in predicting effects. Monitoring that
does not included research and management responsibilities is inefficient and wasteful in
normal operational situations.

Sediment and turbidity studies should form a part of the during monitoring activities
just discussed, with additional study after the operation in and around the nourished beach
and borrow areas. Sufficient background on sediment studies is provided in the
bibliography compiled by Sherk and Cronin (1970), to show that these studies can readily
be carried out. Though not generally considered a cause of long-range harm, sedimentation
should be watched for possible short-term local effects.

On the other hand, little is known about rates of filling of borrow areas. Such after
studies are needed for complete and effective environmental management and prediction
of effects in connection with engineering activities.

Fill rates of borrow pits vary greatly from place to place. Governing factors are ill
defined but include: type of substrate, currents, and tides. Studies of a succession of life
forms during reestablishment of disturbed communities must also accompany observations
of physical factors.

Observation of filling can be readily accomplished by use of scuba. Observations of the
biota would require biological training and the usual equipment for measurement and
assessment. It is possible that some studies would be long-term, but most would be

moderately short, project-oriented studies.

16

2. Longer Range, More Fundamental Studies.

The preceding discussion has dealt in some detail with short-range, project-oriented
studies designed for specific and generally immediate needs. More basic, and general studies
that would provide broad base-line knowledge for prediction of environmental effects
require more time. The resulting information would provide the necessary background for
design of environmental monitoring and warning systems, and also provide knowledge for
construction of beneficial modifications of environments.

The fields needing fundamental research are:

(a) Substrate characteristics.

(b) Interactions between the substrate and the overlying water column in regard to
exchanges of nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other organic and inorganic
constituents.

(c) Detailed local hydrographic studies.

(d) Inventories of fauna, flora, and microbial populations, in and on the substrate
and in the overlying water column, with attention to both developmental and adult stages
of permanent and temporary inhabitants.

(e) Biotic-abiotic interdependency studies.

(f) Studies of material and energy flow through the ecosystem, including the
decomposition and conversion steps of the energy and material cycles.

(g) Construction of mathematical models to aid in coordination and in
interpretation of data.

(h) Studies in social and technological areas to complement the ecological studies.

Research in these areas has usually been uncoordinated with little standardization of
methodology or instrumentation. Consequently results are difficult to compare.
Encouraging signs are emerging of increased effort to provide standardization.

17

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V. A GENERAL SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

AMANIEU, M., “Ecological Research on the Faunas of the Sheltered Beaches of the
Region of Atcachon,”’ Helgolander Wiss Meeresunters, Vol.19 No.4, 1969,
pp. 455-557.

ANDERSON, A. E., JONES, E. C., and ODUM, H.T., “Alteration of Clay Minerals by
Digestive Processes of Marine Animals,” Science, Vol. 127, 1958, pp. 190-191.

ANIKOUCHINE, W. A., “A Model of the Distribution of Dissolved Species in the
Interstitial Water in Clayey Marine Sediments,” Dissertation Abstract, Order
No. 66-7867, Sept. 1966, 70 pp.

ANSELL, ALAN D. and TREVALLION, ANN, “Behavioural Adaptations of Intertidal
Molluscs from a Tropical Sandy Beach,” Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and
Ecology, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1969, pp. 9-35.

BAKER, W. J., “Wave Propagation Studies in Confined Sands,” Dissertation Abstract, Order
No. 66-11, Vol. 705, Dec. 1966, 317 pp.

BIDER, J. ROGER, “Animal Activity in Uncontrolled Terrestrial Communities as Deter-
mined by a Sand Transect Technique,” Ecological Monographs, Vol. 38, No. 4, 1968,
pp. 269-308.

BILIO, MARTIN, “The Aquatic Bottom-living Fauna of Salt Meadows of the North and
Baltic Seas, III. The Influences of the Biotype on the Distribution of the Fauna,
Laboratory Study of Contamination of Radioactive Mare, Initial Revision Gesamten
Hydrobiol, Vol. 52,No. 4, Fiascherino, (LaSpezia), Italy, 1967, pp. 487-533.

BOUGHEY, ARTHUR S., Man and the Environment. An Introduction to Human Ecology
and Evolution, Macmillan, New York, 1971, 472 pp.

BROWN, A.C., “Food Relationships on the Intertidal Sandy Beaches on the Cape
Peninsular,” South African Journal of Science, Vol. 60, 1964, pp. 35-41.

BROWN, A. D., “Seasonal Variation in Heterotrophic Bacterial Populations in Waters off
Sydney,” Australian Journal of Marine and Fresh Water Research, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1964,
pp. 73-76.

BRUN, GUY, “Quelques Donnees sur les Temperature dans le Sable D’une Dune du
Littoral Mediterraneen,” (Some data on the Temperatures in the Sand of a Dune on the
Mediterranean Shore) Lab. d’Ecole., Fac., Sci., Marseille, Bull., Natur., Vol. 40, No. 3,
Mus. Nat Hist. Marseilles, France, 1968, pp. 652-656.

19

BURTON, IAN, KATES, ROBERT W., and SNEAD, RODMAN E., “The Human Ecology
of Coastal Flood Hazard in Megalopolis,” Department of Geography, RP No. 115,
University of Chicago, Chicago, 1969.

CAIN, STANLEY A., “The Importance of Ecological Studies as a Basis for Land-Use
Planning,” Biological Conservation, Vol. 1, No. 1, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1968, pp. 33-36.

CALLAME, BERNARD, “‘Interstitial Environment in Intertidal Sand Sediments,” Bull.,
Inst., Oceanog., Vol. 60, No. 1271, (English Summary), Monaco, 1963, pp. 5-30.

CALVERT, S. E., ‘‘Factors Affecting Distribution of Laminated Diatomaceous Sediments
in Gulf of California,’ Memoirs, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 3,
1964, pp. 311-330.

CHAMROUX, S., “A Contribution to the Study of Dentrifying Activity of Marine
Sediments,” An. Inst. Pasteur., Vol. 109, No. 3, 1965, pp. 424-442.

CHANDRASCKHARA, RAO G., and GANAPATI, P. N., “The Interstitial Fauna Inhabit-
ing the Beach Sands of Waltair Coast, Proceedings of the National Institute of Science,
Part B. Biological Science, Vol. 34, No. 2, India, 1968, pp. 82-125.

CHENG, HWA-SHENG, “Role of Exchangeable Potassium and Magnesium on Caesium
Absorption on Marine Sediments,” Nature, Vol. 207, No. 5000, 1965, p. 1010.

CHOUDHURI, R. and BANERJI, K.C., “Some Studies of Shelf Sediments from the
Western Coast off Bombay and Tatigiri,’ Technological Quarterly Bulletin, Vol. 5,
No. 3, Planning Development Division, Fertlizer Corporation, India, 1968, pp. 192-203.

CLARK, MICHAEL BERNARD, “Distribution and Seasonal Dynamics of Animal Popula-
tions in San Diego Beaches,” Master’s Thesis, San Diego State College, California, 1969,
pp. 193.

COLEMAN, J. M., ‘Coastal Sediments and Late Recent Rise of Sea Level, Dissertation
Abstract, Order No. 66-6434, Vermilion, Iberia, and St. Mary Parishes, Louisiana, 1966,
123 pp.

CONNELL, J. H. and ORIAS,E., “The Ecological Regulation of Species Diversity,”
American Naturalist, Vol. 48, 1964, pp. 399-414.

CONOVER, ROBERT J., “Assimilation of Organic Matter by Zooplankton,” Limnology
and Oceanography, Vol. 11, No. 3, 1966, pp. 338-345.

20

CONOVER, R. J., “Factors Affecting the Assimilation of Organic Matter by Zooplankton
and the Question of Superfluous Feeding,” Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 11,
No. 3, 1966, pp. 346-354.

COURTOIS, G., “Possible Use of a Limited Number of Radioactive Grains in the
Quantitative Study of Sedimentary Shifts,” International Journal of Applied Radiation
and Isotopes, Vol. 15, No. 11, 1964, pp. 655-663. (English Summary).

CROKER, ROBERT A., “Niche Diversity in Five Sympatric Species of Intertidal
Amphipods (Crustacea: Haystoriidae),” Dissertation Abstract, No. 2541, Order
No. 67-207, 1966, 221 pp.

CROKER, R. A., “Distribution and Abundance of Some Intertidal Sand Beach Amphipods
Accompanying the Passage of Two Hurricanes,” Chesapeake Science, Vol.9, No. 3,
1968, pp. 187-192.

CROKER, R. A., “Intertidal Sand Microfauna from Long Island, New York,” Chesapeake
Science, Vol. 11, No. 2, 1970, pp. 134-137.

CRONIN, L. EUGENE, GUNTER, GORDON, and HOPKINS, SEWELL H., “Effects of
Engineering Activities on Coastal Ecology,” Interim Report to the Office of the Chief of
Engineers, U.S. Army, Mimeographed Report, 1969, 40 pp.

CUBIT, JOHN, “Behavior and Physical Factors Causing Migration and Aggregation of the
Sand Crab, Emerita analoga (Stimpson),” Ecology, Vol. 50, 1969, pp. 118-123.

DAHL, E., “Some Aspects of the Ecology and Zonation of the Fauna on Sandy Beaches,”
Oikos, Vol. 4, 1952, pp. 1-27.

DALES, R. PHILLIPS, “Symbiosis in Marine Organisms (Invertebrates, Fish), Symbiosis:
I. Associations of Micro-organisms, Plants, and Marine Organisms, Academic Press, New

York, 1966, pp. 299-326.

DEFFEYES, KENNETH S., “Carbonate Equilibria: A Graphic and Algebraic Approach,”
Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 10, No. 3, 1965, pp. 412-426.

DERIJARD, RAOUL, “Stands of the Sandy Marshy and Intertidal Marshy Sediments,
Compacted or Fixed by the Vegetation, in the Area of Tulear (Madagascar),” Rec. Trav.
Sta. Mar. En Doume Marseille, (Supplement 3), 1965, pp. 1-94.

DEVEZE, L., “Bacterial Activities and Organic Materials in Marine Sediments,”
Colloquium of the Division of Soil Microbiology of the French Microbiology Society,
Ann. Inst. Pasteur, (Supplement 3), (English Summary), 1964, pp. 123-135.

2)

DEXTER, D. M., “Distribution and Niche Diversity of Haystoriid Amphipods in North
Carolina,” Chesapeake Science, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1967, pp. 187-192.

DEXTER, D. M. (1969a), “Structure of an Intertidal Sandy-Beach Community in North
Carolina,” Chesapeake Science, Vol. 10, No. 2, 1969, pp. 93-98.

DRISCOLL, E. G., “‘Attached Epifauna-Substrate Relations,” Limnology and Oceanog-
raphy, Vol. 12, 1967, pp. 633-641.

DUANE, D. B., “Sand Deposits on the Continental Shelf, A Presently Exploitable
Resource,” Transactions, National Symposium on Ocean Sciences and Engineering of
the Atlantic Shelf, Marine Technological Society, Philadelphia Section, 1968,
pp. 289-297.

DUANE, D. B., “Sand Inventory Program in Florida,” Shore and Beach, Vol. 36, No. 1,
1968, pp. 12-15. :

DUANE, D. B., “Sand and Gravel Deposits in the Nearshore Continental Shelf, Sandy
Hook to Cape May, New Jersey,” Abstract with Programs for 1969, Part 7. Geological
Society of America, 1969, pp. 53-54.

DUANE, D. B., “Sand Inventory Program; A study of New Jersey and Northern New
England Coastal Waters,” Shore and Beach, Vol. 37, No. 2, 1969, pp. 12-16.

DUANE, D. B. and MEISBURGER, EDWARD P., ““Geomorphology and Sediments of the
Nearshore Continental Shelf, Miami to Palm Beach, Florida,” Coastal Engineering
Research Center, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TM 29, 1969.

DUFFEY, ERIC, “An Ecological Analysis of the Spider Fauna of Sand Dunes,” Journal of
Animal Ecology, Vols. 1-27, 37, No. 3, Monks Wood Exposure Station, Abbots Ripton,
Huntingdonshire, England, 1968, pp. 641-674.

EPPLEY, RICHARD W. and SLOAN, PHILLIP R., “Carbon Balance Experiments with
Marine Phytoplankton,” Journal of Fisheries Research Board, Canada, Vol. 22, No. 4,
1965, pp. 1083-1097.

ESTCOURT, I. N., “A Note on the Fauna of a Ripple-Marked Sandy Sediment in Western
Cook Strait, New Zealand,” New Zealand Journal of Marine and Fresh Water Research,
Vol. 22, No. 4, 1968, pp. 654-658.

EVANS, J. W., ‘““A Method for Measurement of the Rate of Intertidal Erosion,” Bulletin of
Marine Science, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1970, pp. 305-314.

FAGER, EDWARD W., “A Sand-Bottom Epifaunal Community: Invertebrates in Shallow
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22

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WHITTAKER, R.H., “Gradient Analysis of Vegetation,” Biological Reviews, Vol. 42,
1967, pp. 207-264.

WIEDEMANN, A. M., “Contributions to the Plant Ecology of the Oregon Coastal Sand
Dunes,” Dissertation Abstracts, Vol. 27, No. 3005, Mar. 1967.

WILLIAMS, LOUIS G., “Possible Relationships Between Plankton-Diatom Species
Numbers and Water-Quality Estimates,” Ecology, Vol. 45, No. 4, 1964, pp. 809-823.

WILLIAMS, P. M., ‘“‘Fatty Acids Derived from Lipids of Marine Origin,” Journal of
Fisheries Research, Canada, Vol. 22, No. 5, 1965, pp. 1107-1122.

WILLIAMS, P. M. and STRACK, P. M., “Complexes of Boric Acid with Organic Cis-Diols
in Seawater,” Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 401-404.

WILSON, D. P., “‘Some Problems in Larval Ecology Related to the Localized Distribution
of Bottom Animals,” Perspectives in Marine Biology, Buzzati-Traverso, University
California Press, Los Angeles, 1958, pp. 87-104.

33

WILSON, RONALD FAY, “Studies of Organic Matter (Carbon Measurement Method),”
Aquatic Ecosystems, Dissertation Abstracts, Vol.25, No.11, No. 6858, Order
No. 64-11860, May 1965, 182 pp.

WORME, T.E., ‘“‘Paleoecological Aspects of the Recent Ecology of Mugu Lagoon,
California,” Dissertation Abstracts, Vol. 27B, No. 3572, Order No. 67-4472, Apr. 1967,
4.58 pp.

YOUNG, G. A., “The Physics of the Base Surge,” Dissertation Abstract, Vol. 27B,
No. 261, Order No. 66-5711, July 1966, 293 pp.

ZATSEPIN, V.1I., “Quantitative Distribution of Different Trophic Groups of Bottom
Invertebrates in the Barents Sea,” Okeanologiya, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1970, pp. 153-165.

ZINN, DONALD J., ‘““Between Grains of Sand,” Underwater Naturlist, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1967,
pp. 4-8.

34

VI. SELECTED ANNOTATIONS*

ANIKOUCHINE, 1966. A mathematical description of the distribution of dissolved
chemicals—silicate, oxygen, sulfate, and manganese—in the interstitial water of marine
sediments.

ANSELL, 1969. A thorough consideration of intertidal animals, especially mollusks,
stressing burrowing and emergence activities, agility, and environmental conditions of
the stress situation represented by the intertidal zone. Also mentions crustaceans of
intertidal zone. Good review. Emphasizes ability of these animals to survive under
adverse conditions.

BIDER, 1968. Presents a method of tracking animal activity through swept-sand transects,
of possible application to beach areas. Activities categorized as due to: (1) animal
fluctuations, (2) phenological fluctuations (maintenance, reproduction, etc.),
(3) meteorological fluctuations, and (4) climatological fluctuations.

BROWN, A. D., 1964. A discussion of heterotrophic bacteria and fluctuations in bacterial
populations with seasons, chlorinity, and other factors. No correlation with temperature
or organic phosphorus or with phytoplankton populations. Counts from samples ranged
from 10 to 1,000 per mililiter. No species identifications attempted.

BURTON, KATES, and SNEAD, 1969. A lengthy and illustrative discussion of the coastal
megalopolis, and the pro’s and con’s of coastal population increases. Must reading for
persons concerned with coastal zonation and human coastal affairs.

CAIN, 1968. A discussion of the role of the ecologist as a synthesizer of knowledge and a
component in the overall organization that includes also clutural anthropologists,
economists, political scientists, and lawyers. A man-oriented discussion stressing
interactions.

CHANDRASCKHARA and GANAPATI, 1968. A comprehensive study of fauna from
protozoans through higher invertebrates in relation to sediments, ranked as fine,
medium, and coarse. Majority of larger predators found in coarse-grained substrate;
maximum faunal concentrations in medium-grained; life-poor or sparse in fine grained
substrates (apparently corelated with absence of interstices of adequate size, oxygen-
carrying capacity, and other factors). Cites texture of substrate, temperature, moisture,
and food as primary distributional factors. Finds most intertidal animals of wide-spread
geographical occurrence and widely adaptable.

CROKER, 1966. A discussion of interrelationships between species of amphipods. Great
overlaps exist. Different horizontal distributions and some vertical. Includes a discussion
of foods and feeding as well as of associated animals.

*For complete reference, see A General Selected Bibliography, Section V.
35

CROKER, 1970. A comprehensive listing of interstital fauna from a Long Island beach
area. Provides a base for further work on beach ecoystems.

CRONIN, GUNTER, and HOPKINS, 1969. An overview of predicted effects of engineering
activities on coastal environment. Offshore-dredge and beach-fill comments indicate
little long-range damage foreseen. Cautions are presented as to possible damage if all
sediment removed by dredging, opening a new interface, and of release of damaging
chemicals with sediments. Good general reference.

CUBIT, 1969. Explains migration and distribution of the mole crab Emerita analoga, in
terms of water flow and behavioral responses and processes. This discussion of behavior
and distribution of the Pacific species fits well with Pearse, et al. (1942), who describe
the Atlantic species.

DEXTER, 1969b. A study of the community structure and faunal makeup of the
intertidal area of sand beach. One of few community studies. Includes a species listing
and discussion of diversity. Fair bibliography.

DRISCOLL, 1967. Contains a discussion of relations between the epifauna and the
substrate as part of the comprehensive study of Buzzards Bay. Most abundant fauna
found associated with medium-sized sand grains. Epifaunal organisms, prefer grains
coarser than do infaunal components.

DUFFEY, 1968. A good discussion of sand dune habitats and usefulness of botanical
classifications of niches to zoology. Also contains a good bibliography of dune research.

FAGER, 1964. The marine tube-building polychaete annelid Owenia fusiformis, builds
tubes of sand grains. It and an associated small sea anemone act together to help
stabilize the sand surface against movement by the wave surge. This allows establishment
of a varied fauna and flora in the stabilized area. Also discusses ability of the annelid to
concentrate hornblende at least 25 times by incorporating the mineral in its tubes.

FAGER, 1968. Results of studying a community of epifaunal invertebrates occupying a
sandy substrate in shallow water for 6 years. A few-species environment. Discusses
distribution in relation to settling and mortality, randomness and aggregation. Suggests
that labeling some species in a community as important, and others as unimportant may
not be a true reflection of fact, and might lead to the dismissal of those labeled
unimportant in future studies to the deteriment of those studies. Found the community
to exist as a steady-state system.

FEBVRE, 1969. A “before” study of faunas on differing substrates in conjunction with a
proposed harbor construction project in France. Found definite community differences
with bottom differences, with richest fauna on mixed sand and mud. Concludes that
harbor building may well enhance some elements of the fauna by providing shelter and
calm conditions.

36

FENCHEL, 1969. An extremely important paper that, though emphasizing ciliated
protozoans, discusses the microfauna of coastal bottom areas in relation to the
substrate, including mechanical properties of the sediments and their significance,
energy flow, decomposition, redox-potential phenomena, laboratory model studies,
significances of the microfauna (respiration of microfauna exceeds that of macrofauna
as a rule, and ciliated protozoans are prominent among the former, especially on sand
bottoms), and suggestions for future research. Also contains faunal listings. A basic and
fundamental paper.

FENCHEL and JANSSON, 1966. Discusses the microfauna of bottom communities with
regard to factors including temperature, salinity, grain size, oxygen, hydrogen-ion
concentration, oxidation-reduction (redox) potential, and others as related to distribu-
tion. Vertical distribution developed with factors above as indicator factors.

FOURNIER, 1966. Discusses cycles of nourishment and enrichment in relation to
phytoplankton responses and community limitations. A part of the primary productiv-
ity research that has received little attention. Discusses reliability of information in
relation to enrichment periods. ;

GINSBURG and LOWENSTAM, 1958. Discusses the influences of organisms on
sedimentation and stabilization through modification of water circulation patterns and
bottom conditions. Modifications range from sediment trapping as achieved by some
blue-green algae to formation of barrier reefs producing lagoon conditions in the tropics.

GRAY and JOHNSON, 1970. Discusses the value of bacteria in the food web. One of few
such studies, although primarily concerned with the bacteria themselves. In this and
previous papers, it is pointed out that interstitial organisms discriminate among bacterial
species as food. An important aspect of food-web relations.

HARRIS, 1966. Suggests organisms (diatoms, radiolaria, sponges) may be responsible for
controlling the concentration of oceanic silica. Another study in the too-small group of
biotic-abiotic interaction studies.

HARRISON, LYNCH, and ALTSCHAEFEL, 1964. One of few papers failing to find
significant correlations between fauna and bottom type. States that modifications to the
natural bottom by dredging and spoil deposition had only a temporary effect on
infauna. Resettlement of disturbed areas stated as rapid and a result of migration and
distribution of juveniles by hydrodynamic phenomena.

LEVIN, 1970. A discussion of the effects of dredging on coral and associated fauna and
flora of the coral community, especially in terms of turbidity, currents, shearing effect
of coarse sediments, and also increased erosion. Discusses dredge management to reduce
deleterious effects as much as possible. Actually issued in April 1971.

37

LING, 1963. A micropaleontological study confirming a close correlation between
organisms and type of sediment—namely between foraminifera and grain size.

LOOSANOFF, 1972. A comprehensive study of turbidity effects on lamelli-branches,
using laboratory studies for the most part. Results do not indicate conclusive long-range,
large-scale detrimental effects from dredging.

MEADOWS and ANDERSON, 1968. A study of the micro-organisms abundantly attached
to sand grains, relevant to study of interstitial feeding studies, larval settlement studies,
and as a factor in substrate selection by adult invertebrates. Micro-organisms investigated
include bacteria, blue-green algae, and diatoms.

MERO, 1966. A semipopular account of the ready availability of many minerals (listed) in
the sea, and statement that extraction from sea is simpler than on land. Potential
offshore greater than inshore, marine potential given as 5 to 10 times that onshore (as a

group).

NORTH, 1954. One of the few papers giving efficiency factors for food usage by a coastal
gastropod (Littorina) important in food-web calculations, and illustrative of a type of
work that should be encouraged and extended.

ODUM, COPELAND, and McMAHAN, 1969. An exhaustive compilation of material
descriptive of (mostly) inshore ecological systems. Hopefully this will be published and
made more generally available. Much basic material included.

PAMATMAT, 1966. A thesis study important because it is one of the few concerning
respiration rates and productivity on the sand flats; therefore, it forms a base for future
studies, at least as far as basic concept.

PEARSE, HUMM, and WHARTON, 1942. A classic study of a sand beach community,
comprising an early thorough study of ecological relationships on the east coast.
Descriptions of the fauna, flora, and microbial elements of the community are included,
with particular attention to life history and habits of Emerita as a typical intertidal
animal and to the roles of bacteria in beach ecology. Contains biotic listings.

REISH, 1961. A study of repopulation of an area newly created in construction of a boat
harbor. Designed as a succession study, it indicates that true succession did not take
place; rather the principal species in the fauna were present from the beginning invasion.
The fauna showed a peek in quantity after about 2 years. Relatively rapid migration into
the area is indicated.

SANDERS, 1958. Discusses the relations between faunal elements and the substrate.
Author finds filter feeders dominant in sand and deposit feeders in mud, as might be
expected. Well-sorted fine sand was found to support the largest populations.
Hydrodynamic factors relevant to the relations are discussed.

38

SANDERS, 1960. Soft-mud communities marked by presence of few species that are
dominant, numerically and with regard to biomass. Mollusks and annelids perdominated.

SHERK and CRONIN, 1970. A thorough bibliography of effects of sediments, with
reference to estuaries, but of broader application. Little direct information on subject
available. Review of entries indicates little long-range disturbance of environment as a
result of turbidity or sediment effect.

SOKOLOVA, 1959. Although concerned with deepwater fauna, correlates abundance of
that fauna with amount of organic matter or deposit in the sediments, suggesting
possible (though not necessarily so) homologies in coastal areas.

SWEDMARK, 1964. A basic review of interstitial fauna to the early sixties, an important
source reference. Sets stage for follow-up studies. Emphasizes substrate-faunal interrela-
tions, especially grain size correlations.

THORSON, 1964. A basic reference regarding larval responses to light levels. Sensitive to
narrow ranges. Importance of this report lies in effects of disturbed sediments
(turbidity) in modifying light levels and thereby interfering with larval development or
spread and settling.

TIETJEN, 1966. Although an estuarine study, important in being one of the few studies
failing to find correlation between size of population and sediment size. Contains, in
addition, a discussion of relation between organic detritus and benthic microflora.

TRAVALLION, ANSELL, SIVADAS, and NARAYANAN, 1970. A comprehensive
account of beach ecology, complete with summaries and bibliography as well as with
zonation schemes, community relation studies, and zoogeographic comparisons—
pointing out similarities between faunas of widely separated beach areas, within zones.

WARREN, 1971. A text of basic value to management ecologists and biologists in general.
Although designed for water pollution biologists, its value should be appreciated far
more widely. Applicable to any work associated with environment modification and
man-oriented usage planning.

WEBB, 1969. Excellent and unique discussion of the effects of grain orientation, and
effects of porosity and drainage for Amphioxus and many interstitial animals.
Permeability, compaction, and capillary space listed also as important factors.

WEBB and THEODORE, 1968. Irrigation of submerged sands may be an important source
of nutrients and correlated with productivity of benthic communities.

WEILER and MILLS, 1965. A discussion of surface properties and pore structure of
substrate including a new method of determination worthy of consideration in attempts
to standardize procedures. May be relatable to niches and other ecological aspects.

39

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9 ataliahassstnn

UNCLASSIFIED

Security Classification

DOCUMENT CONTROL DATA-R&D . :
(Security classification of title, body of abstract and indexing annotation must be entered when the overall report is classified

Depar men G oF the Keny author) 2ORELASSIFIED * CLASSIFICATION
oastal Engineering Research Center
201 Little Falls Road, N.W.

ashington, D.C. 20016

3. REPORT TITLE

ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OFFSHORE DREDGING AND BEACH NOURISHMENT: A REVIEW

4. DESCRIPTIVE NOTES (Type of report and inclusive dates)

5. AUTHOR(S) (First name, middle initial, last name)

ohn R. Thompson

6. REPORT DATE 7a. TOTAL NO. OF PAGES 7b. NO. OF REFS
anuary 1973 48 196

8a. CONTRACT OR GRANT NO. 9a. ORIGINATOR’S REPORT NUMBER(S)

Miscellaneous Paper No. 1°73

9b. OTHER REPORT NO(S) (Any other numbers that may be assigned
this report)
10. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

b. PROJECT NO.

41. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 12. SPONSORING MILITARY ACTIVITY

Department of the Army
Coastal Engineering Research Center
5201 Little Falls Road, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20016

9
review and personal contacts, to provide a framework for determination of need for

further knowledge. In general, little concrete effort aimed specifically at the
determination of effects of offshore dredging was uncovered, although basic ecological
orks that are generally applicable are available. Much additional research of basic,
but practical, orientation is needed to approach full understanding.

Report shows that the beach may be divided into three zones on the basis of moisture
and biota found, and describes the possible effects on these biota resulting from
offshore dredging and deposition of sediments on a beach.

Background descriptive material and impacts on both offshore dredged areas and
nourished beaches, and suggestions for further research follow. A selected bibliography
is included.

DD ,70"..1473 Sssocere ron anuy use. ie UNCLASSIFIED
, Security Classification

UNCLASSIFIED eS

Security Classification

KEY WORDS

UNCLASSIFIED
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