es in 7 ii et ee tert at (c i et ar ra euce Vana Hit gece Nitad KEEN Bea rt en 44 Mie mu sininate ak ea Ry © EAH RACE et Nea ONSE NN Obst tt ot Rinse aaah tes a ai B Phas a + oh . bs ey Pycaa ns Meyvbe ae aI; lad Pon sts ree SPH PEAR Ra bRRNES Ld OPT revo beeo at INCHED SRY SDM 4 neq i a 34) th “tpathy| Pa UMA Rent 4 hs +" ¥. { 3 ] ie Ls wire ane eyes Pee Soares ~>>-3 pss & tae ke * tenteey ? ‘a bestt ‘ Oe ————— lc r'l.w.”w.!mmlCO™wOCU.UUE oy ’ ; MEGAN Yee alae ip 4 wy a). i ] = ‘i i? - j -” oy bh ‘4 } I mh iy ie Nt ie ee ey ane e 8 ae a rane vs 7 7 ‘ ae : mie as oes “ae _ as * th ' W g te _ ni mn é : _ ro. ¥ ; any ee ae Mo J q Vow *) 7tF pth ce ¥ : 7 af vt ; 7 an | = :™ Wa fie a hee Oe a ert > 7 7 ' { mks Mt : airy ¢ any Hi | Wy yy =a Y bri} : 7 a ) | Evinburgi JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY, BOTANY, ZOOLOGY, COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, PRACTICAL MECHANICS, GEOGRAPHY, NAVIGATION, STATISTICS, ANTIQUITIES, AND THE FINE AND USEFUL ARTS, CONDUCTED BY DAVID BREWSTER, LL.D. F.R.S. LOND. SEC. R.S. EDIN. F.S.S.A. HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY 5 MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ; AND OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SCIENCES OF DENMARK, &e. &e. VOL. I. APRIL—OCTOBER. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH: AND T. CADELL, LONDON. M.DCCC.XXIV. PRINTED BY A BALFoUR AND Co. CONTENTS OF THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. No. I. Art. I. On the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire, with remarks on Trap and Serpentine. By Jonn MacCurtocug, M.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. and M.G.S. Chemist to the Board of Ordnance, and Professor of Chemistry in Addiscombe College. Communicated by the Author, II. Account of a Journey to Monte Rosa, and of the first Ascent of its Southern Summit. By Jos—ErpH ZuMsTEIN and JoHN NicoLas VINCENT, - = : = a a III. On the Astronomical Observations made at Dorpat, by M. StRUVE, IV. An Account of the Janji, or Valisneria Alternifolia of Dr. Roxburgh, the plant used in India in refining sugar. By Francis HAMILTON, M.D. F.R.S. and F.A.S. Lond. and Edin. &c. Communicated by the Author, - - = _ : VY. Contributions to Popular Science, - - No. I. On the Revival of the Inscriptions on Coins and Medals by Unegual Oxidation, - = 2 < < VI. Observations on the Winter Solstice of 1823, made at Paramatta. By his Excellency Sir Tuomas BrispanE, K.C.B. F.R.S.L. & E. and M. RumKEeR. Communicated by the Authors, - VII. Journal of an Excursion through the Himalayah Mountains, from Shipke to the Frontiers of Chinese Tartary. By ALEXANDER GeERaRD, Esq. Surveyor to the Board of Commissioners, Lieut. and Adj. 2d Battalion, 13th Regt. Natiye Infantry, on the Bengal Esta- - blishment. Communicated by the late Colonel GERARD of Roch- soles, - - = VIII. On the Regular Peace of Germaine bodies. By ate ta HaipInGER, Esq. F. R.S. E. Communicated by the Author, IX. Observatians on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, made dur- ing a Voyage from Ceylon to the Cape of Good Hope, in 1820. By Joun Davy, M.D. F. R.S. &c. &c. Communicated by the Author, X. Aecount of a Map of Upper Laos, or the Territory of the Lowa _ Shan. By Francis Hamitton, M.D. F.R.S. and F, A.S. Lon- don and Edinburgh. Communicated by the Author, - Page 16 39 41 62 71 il CONTENTS. - . Art. XI, Notice of Experiments on a Variation in the Rates of Chro- a nometers, with the Density of the Medium in which they are placed. By Gronce Harvey, Esq. F. R.S. E. Plymouth, 73 XII. On the Solution of Copper in Ammonia, and on the Oxidation of Copper plates. By JouHn MacCuttocn, M.D. F.R.S. F. L. S. and M.G.S. &c. Communicated by the Author, 75 XIII. On the Accommodation of the Eye to Different Distances. By Davip Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. London, and Sec. R. S. Edinburgh, - - - = - = “1 XIV. Mean of Twelve Months Meteorological Observations, in the years 1822-3. By his Excellency Sir THomas Brispane, K.C. B. F.R.S. &c. &e. - - - - - 83 XV. Observations on the Measurement of Heights by the Barometer. By CuHaRLEs BaBBaGE, Esq. F. R.S. Lond. & F. R. S. E. and Secre- tary to the Astronomical Society. Ina Letter to Dr. Brewster, 85 XVI. Tables of the Variation of the Magnetic Needle in different parts of the Globe, ~ = : =e s = 87 XVII. Historical Account of Discoveries respecting the Double Refrac- tion and Polarisation of Light, = = 90 Sect. I. Malus’s Discovery of the Polarisation of Light by Reflex: ion, - - - = = 91 XVII. Observations on the General Anatomy of the Gymnotus Elec- tricus, the Electric Eel of America; and on the Philosophical Anatomy of the Electric Organs. By RoBertr Knox, M, D. F.R.S. E. &c. &c. Communicated by the Author, - 96 XIX. On the Crystalline Forms and Properties of several Salts. By WiriaM HatpIncER, Esq. F. R.S.E. Communicated by the Author, - - = = - “5 99 XX. Description of the Circular 5a Micrometer. Communicated by the Author, = - - - -' 104 XXI, On the Passage of Basalt into excuabe By SaMuEL HIBBERT, M. D. F. R.S. E. and Secretary to the Society of Seottish Anti- quaries, &c. &c. Communicated by the Author, - 105 XXII. Description of two surfaces composed of Siliceous Filaments in- capable of reflecting light, and produced by the fracture of a large crystal of Quartz. By Davip BrewsTeER, LL. D. F.R.S. Lond. * and Sec. R. S. Edin. - - _ 108 XXIII. Sketch of the Characters of the Speties of Mosses, belonging to the Genera Orthotrichum, (including Schlotheimia, Micromitrion and Ulota,) Glyphomitrion, and Zygodon. By W. J. HooKer, LL. D. F. R.S. &c. &c. Regius Professor of Botany in the Uni- versity of Glasgow; and R. K. Grevitie, LL.D. F.R.S. E. &c. &c. with three Plates. Communicated by the Authors, 110 XXIV. Account of an Essential Oil, which flows spontaneously from a Tree in South America. Communicated by Dr. Hooker, 133 XXV. Observations on Double Stars. By M. Srruve of Dorpat, 137 XXVI. Account of a curious Electro-Magnetic Experiment. By Pro- _ fessor Bartow. Eshibited at the London Institution, by Dr. Birxsecr, in his Lectures on Electro-Magnetism, - 139 CONTENTS. il Page Aart. XXVII. HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PROCESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS, - 141 1. Mr. Babbage’s Calculating Machinery; - ~ = ib. 2. Explosive Engine, - - - - 143 3. Clymer’s Improved Ptoughs, - - - - 144. 4. Hydro-Pneumatic Lamp, - - - - ib. 5. White’s Floating Breakwater, - - - 145 6. Description of Perkins’s Steam Engine, - - 146 7._M. Bracconnot’s Process for making the Schweinfurt Green Dye, = - - - . 148 8. Dr. Liebig’s Cheap Process for making the Schw — Green, 149 9. Mr. Bevan’s Experiments on the Adhesion of Nails + 150 10. Mr. Church’s Printing Machinery, - - - - ib. XXVIII. ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND MEMOIRS, 151 I. Journal of a Second Voyage for the Discovery of a North-West Passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific, performed in the years 1821-22-23, in his Majesty’s ships Fury and Hecla, under the orders of Captain W. E. Parry, R.N. F.R.S. - 151 II. Experiences sur le Remou, et sur la Propagation des Ondes. Par GEorcE Brpone. From the twenty-fifth volume of the Memorie della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, 158 III. On the Formation of Dew on Metallic Surfaces. By GEORGE Harvey, Esq. F.R.S. E. - = - - 16] . The History of Ancient and Modern Wines, inte 163 “3 Monographie du Genre Hirudo, ou Description des Especes de Sangsues, &c.—Monograph of the Genus Hirudo, or a Des- cription of the Species of Leeches which are found or-are used in Piedmont, with Observations on their mode of Generation, and on other points connected with the Natural History of some of these Species. By Professor H. Carena; with Figures Drawn and Coloured after Nature. From the Memorie della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, - - 167 XXIX. NOTICES OF RECENTLY PUBLISHED BOTANICAL WORKS, : : 170 Great Britain.—Systematic Botany. Smith’s English Flora. Dr. Gie- ville’s Flora Edinensis. Mr. Roscoe’s Monandrian Plants, of the or- der Scitaminea, = = = - - 170, 171 Continental Botanical Works.—Neue Deutschland’s Flora. De Candolle’s Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. Martius, Genera et Species Palmarum Brasiliensium ; and Nova Genera et Species Plan- tarum Brasiliz, = = - 2 - 172-174 Letters on ee Highlands of Scotland, addressed to Sir Walter Scott, Bart. In four yolumesoctayo, _— -~ = - - 174 XXX. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, - - = 176 1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1824, - ib. iv CONTENTS. Page 2. Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society, 1824, 176 3. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1824, 177 Art. XXXI. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, - - 178 I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Astronomy. 1. Mr. Herschel-and Mr. South, on Double Stars. 2. Singular Differences in Astronomical Observations. 3. On Different Circular Micrometers. 4. Mr. Adams's Nautical Eye Tube. 5. Ob- servations on the Occultation of Jupiter on the 5th April. 6. Ele- ments of the Comet of 1824. 7. Return of Encke’s Periodical Co- met, - = = - 178-180 Oprics.—8, Singular Effect of Heat on the Colours of Glass. 9. Effect of Light on the Colour of the Sodalite from Greenland. 10. Phosphor- escence of Acetate of Lime. 11. Effect of Heat on the Form and Double Refraction of Caleareous Spar, - - 180, 181 MaGNeETism. 12. Mr. Barlow’s Neutralizing Plate. 13. Mr. Scoresby’s New Experiments on Magnetism. 14. Magnetic Variation near Litta- kun, = = ‘ = . - - = - 181, 182 Evectriciry. 15. Dr. Hare's Single Leaf Electrometer, - - ib. ELectTrRo-Macnetism. 16, Aurora Borealis imitated by an Electro- Magnetic Experiment, - = - - - 183 METEOROLOGY. 17. Differences in Thermometers at low Temperatures, ib, II. CHEMISTRY, 18. On the Combustion of Iron by Sulphurous Vapour. 19. Dr. Hare’s Method of Impregnating Water with Iron, - - 183, 184 Ill, NATURAL HiSTORY. MINERALOGY. 20. Hyalosiderite, a New Mineral Species. 21. Hopeite, a New Mineral. 22. Childrenite,a New Mineral. 23. Somervillite, a New Mineral. 24. Nuttalite, a New Mineral. 25. Babingtonite a New Mineral, = - = - 185-187 ZooLocy. 26. The Hyena Venatica, or Wild African Dog. 27. Power of the Arctic Dogs, = - < = - 187, 188 IV. GENERAL SCIENCE. 28. Return of the Russian Antarctic Expedition. 29. Impermeability of Glass to Water under High Pressure, - + - - 188, 189 XXXII. List of Patents for New Fash seo Sealed in England since January 1, 1824, - - - - 189 XXXIII. List of Patents granted in Scotland since sth March, 182%, 191 XXXIV. Celestial Phenomena, from July 1, to October 1, 1824, calcu- lated for the Meridian of ee By Mr. Groner INNES, Aberdeen, - - 192 XXXV. Register of the Bicestakcx: Siicnienatied aa Rain-Gage, kept at Canaan Cottage. By ALEx. Ap1£, Esq. F. R.S.E. 195 CONTENTS OF THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. No. II. Page Art. I. A Biographical Account of J. H. Van SwInDEN, A.L.M. Phil. Doct. F.R.S. London, and Ed. Professor of Natural Philosophy, and Member of the Royal Institute of Arts and Sciences of the Nether- lands. By G. Mout, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Uni- versity of Utrecht. Communicated by the Author, - 197 IL. Observations on the Pyro-Electricity of Minerals. By Davip Brew- ster, LL.D. F.R.S. Lond. and Sec. R. S. Edin. - 208 III. Journal of an Excursion through the Himalayah Mountains, from Shipke to the Frontiers of Chinese Tartary. By ALEXANDER GER- ARD, Esq. Surveyor to the Board of Commissioners, Lieut. and Adj. 2d Battalion 13th Regt. Native Infantry, on the Bengal Establish- ment. Communicated by the late Colonel GERARD of Rochsoles. Concluded from page 51, - * - = ~ 215 TY. List of the Localities of some of the rarer Scottish Minerals. By Joun MacCuttoca, M.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. and M. G. S. Chemist to the Board of Ordnance, and Professor of Chemistry in Addis- combe College. Communicated by the Author, - - 225 V. Observations made at Paramatta on the Inferior Conjunction of Ve- nus with the Sun, in Oct. 1823. By his Excellency Sir THomas BrisBane, K.C. B. F.R.S. Lond. and Edin. Communicated by the Author, in a letter to Dr. Brewster, - - - 236 VI. On the Circular Sterns of Ships of War. By Georcre Harvey, Esq. F.R.S. E. M.G.S. &c. Communicated by the Author, 239 VII. An Account of a Genus including the Herba Toxicaria of the Hi- malaya Mountains, or the Plant with which the Natives Poison their Arrows. By Francis Hamitton, M.D. F. R.S. &c. Lond. and Edin. and F. A. S. E. “ - - - = 249 VIII. Observations on the Physical Geography of the South of Africa. By Joun Davy, M. D. F. R. S. &c. Communicated by the Author, 252 1X. Notice respecting the Boilers of Steam Engines. Communicated by the Author, - - R 2 s L 265 iv CONTENTS. Page Art. X. Account of a Map of the Kingdom of Pegu. By Francts Ha- es MILTON, M.D. F. R.S. &c. Communicated by the Author, 267 XI. Observations on the Wheels of Carriages. By JAMES WaLx- ER, Esq. F.R.S. Ed. Civil Engineer. Communicated by the Author, - - - - - - 274 XII. Meteorological Observations, made at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, in the years 1822 and 1823. Communicated by the Rev. A. Rozertson, D.D. F. R.S. Savilian Professor of ee at Oxford, . . 286 XITI. On the Genus Tortuta, of the Order init, By w. J. Gna ER, LL. D. F. R. S. and F. L.S.; and R.K. Grevitre, LL.D. F. R.S. E. &c. Communicated iy the Authors, - 287 XIV. Contributions to Popular Science, - . - 302 No. II. On a Method of Reading the Inscriptions on Coins and Medals in the Dark, with Remarks on the Radiation of Me- tallic Surfaces. Communicated by the Author, - ib. XV. Remarks suggested by the Resemblance which certain ancient Stone Axes found in Orkney and Shetland bear to those which have been found near the Humber. By Samvet H1ipBerrt, M.D. F.R.S. E. and Secretary to the Society of Scottish Ans. quaries, &c. Communicated by the Author, 5 306 XVI. Description of an improved Hair Hygrometer. By M. icnselanl 309 XVII. Account of the most recent Improvements on the Lunar Tables. By M. te Cuervatier Burc. Ina Letter to Dr. Brewster, 311 XVIII. On a Simple Mechanical Method of Forming the Curves for Re- flectors, and of illustrating the Principles of Various Philosophi- cal Instruments, &c. By Mr. Jonn Hart, Civil Engineer. Communicated by the Author, - - 314 XIX. On an Indelible Ink, and on Bistre.. By pete: MucCisrxiichl M.D. F.R.S. F. L.S. and M.G.S. Communicated by the Author, 318 XX. On the Regular Composition of Crystallized Bodies. By Wit- L1aM Harp1ncER, Esq. F. R.S. E. Communicated by the Au- thor. Continued from p. 62, - - . 322 II. Rhombohedral System, - - ib. XXI. Tables of the Variation of the Maimatic Needle in different parts of the Globe, - . - - 334 XXII. Observations on the Rate of a Chronometer, when under the in- fluence of Magnetism. By GEorce Harvey, Esq. F.R.S. E. M. G.S. &c. Communicated by the Author, = 335 XXIII. HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PRO- CESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS, 339 1. Brown’s Atmospherical Engine, - ib. 2. On the Process of Cutting Steel with Soft Bits; - 341 3. On the Effect of Animal Charcoal in preventing the Putrefac- tion of Stagnant Water, - - 342 4. Hughes’ Improvement in the Gudgeons of Water Wheels and Cranes, - : > - ib. CONTENTS. 7 Pa 5. M. Bunten’s Improved Syphon, - - = = S44 6. M. Hempel of Berlin’s Improved Syphon, - ot ib. 7. New Method of Bleaching Flax and Hemp, = ib. 8. Sir H. Davy’s Method of Protecting on Sheeting from Cor- rosion by Sea Water, - = “ ib. XXIV. ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND MEMOIRS, 345 I, Esquisse de Voyage au Pole Austral, et autour du Monde, sous la conduite du Capitaine Bellinghausen. Par M. Srmonorr.— Sketch of the Voyage to the South Pole, and round the World, performed in 1819, 1820, and 1821, under Captain Belling- hausen. By M. Sraonorr, Astronomer to the Expedition, ib. II, On the Anhydrous Sulphurous Acid, and on its application to the Liquefaction of some other Elastic Fluids) By M. Bussy, of the School of Pharmacy, . - 353 III. Memoir on the Theory of Magnetism. By M. Poisson, 356 IV. Ueber die ungleiche Erregung der Warme im prismatischen Son- nenbilde.—On the Unequal Production of Heat in the Prismatic Spectrum. By M. SEEBEcK. Read 13th March, 1819, and inserted in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin, for 1818-1819, p. 305, : A : 358 XXV. NOTICES OF RECENTLY PUBLISHED BOTANICAL WORKS, - - . 360 Great Britain.—Botanical Magazine for July, No. 450. No. 451. Au- gust. Botanical Register, No. 113. July. Loddiges’ Botanical Ca- binet for July, No. 87. No. 88. August. Hooker’s Exotic Flora for July, No. 12. No. 13. August. “Drummond’s Musci Scotici. Botanical INTELLIGENCE. Flora Danica. Lindley’s Collecta- nea Botanica. Smith’s English Flora. Hooker’s Flora Scotica. Information concerning Botany in France, - 360-369 XXVI. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, - - 370 Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, - - ib. XXVII, SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, e ~ - ib. I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. AsTRONOMY.—Il. Observations on the Eclipse of the 26th January 1823, at Casan. ~ 2. Amici’s Improvement on Astronomical Instruments. 3. Long absence of the Solar Spots. 4. Eclipse of the Moon of July 10th observed at Bushey Heath. 5. Effect of Heat upon the Sextant. 6. Singular Spot on the Sun. 7. Observatory at Buenos Ayres. 8. New Comet of 1821, observed only at Buenos Ayres. 9- Astronomical and Trigonometrical sera in Russia. 10. Dr. Tiark’s Astronomical Ex- - pedition, 3 = - - 3 370-372 Oprics.—ll. On a sauabgaie Scintillation of the Stars. 12. Direction of the Axes of Double Refraction. 13. On the Phosphorescence of se- veral Sub-resins, - - - . 372, 373 Macnetism.—14. Gay Lussac on the sicigicl Action of two Magnetic Particles in different Bodies, - - - ~ 373 vl CONTENTS. Page Exvectricity.—15. Berzelius'’s Method of distinguishing Positive and Negative Electricity. 16. Production of Electricity in freezing water, 374 MerTreorotocy.—l7. Simonoff on the diurnal Variation of the Baro- meter. 18. Comparison of Spirit of Wine and Mercurial Thermome- ters, >. = = . = - 7 - ib. II. CHEMISTRY. 19. Minerals produced by Heat. 20. Bowen’s Analysis of Copper-green from Somerville, New Jersey. 21. Berzelius’s Analysis of the Sulphato- tri-carbonate of Lead. 22. Ammonia disengaged from Plants during Vegetation. 23. Influence of Prussic Acid upon Vegetation. 24. Ben- zoic Acid in the Oil of Dahlia. 25. Cyanuret of Iodine. 26. Com- position of Fulminic Acid. 27. Sulphuric and Hydrochloric Acids found in the Rio Vinagro. 28. Dr. Henry’s Method of testing the Nitrous Oxide. 29. Inflammation of Sulphuretted Hydrogen by Ni- tric Acid, - < - = - 2 375-377 III, NATURAL HISTORY. MinERALocy.—30. Sillimanite, a new Mineral Species. 31. Baryto-Cal- cite, a new Mineral Species. 32. A new ore of Lead. 33. Localities of rare Minerals. 34. English Locality of Metallic Lead. 35. Ame- rican Localities, — - - - - 377-381 CrysTALLOGRAPHY.—36. Contraction produced by Heat in Crystals, | 381 Zoo.ocy.—31. New Ascidiz. 38. Amphiuma Means. 39. Annual return of Migrating Birds to the same spot. 40. New Fossil Genus of the Order Enalio Sauri. 41. New extinct Fossil Species of Ichthyo- saurus. 42. Fossil Elephants. 43. Distoma tereticolle, 381-383 Botrany.—44 Red Snow, . t . = s: 383 Ivy. GENERAL SCIENCE. 45. Rapid changes in the Quicksands of the Lesser Syrtes. 46. New Russian Expeditions. 47. Dutch Expedition. 48. Portable Gas Light Companies» 49. Changes in the Contents of Brine Springs, 383, 384 XXVIII. List of Patents for New Inventions, Sealed in ice since April 8, 1824, id - 384 XXIX. List of Patents granted in Scotland since April 19, 1824, 386 XXX. Celestial Phenomena, from Oct. 1, 1824, to January 1, 1825, calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh. By Mr. GrorcE Innes, Aberdeen, . - - ib, XXXI. Register of the Barometer, ocotencin and Ruin Ciege. kept at Canaan Cottage. By ALEX. ApIE, Esq. F.R.S.E. 388 INDEX, - - - . = os 389 Description of Plates in Vol. I. - - . . 393 ADVERTISEMENT. Havine originally projected, and conducted for five years, the EDINBURGH PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL, the first Journal of Science established in Scotland, the readers of that work, and the eminent authors who have so long supported it by their talents, will expect some explanation of the circumstances which have led to the adoption of a new title. As the agreement with the Publishers was express- ly limited to jive years, and terminated with the Twentieth Number, it became necessary to make new arrangements for the future management of the work. From the experience of five years, and with the advice of those on whose judgment I could rely, it was not difficult to determine upon the changes which had become necessary in conducting it. I accordingly proceeded to organize an effective plan for beginning a new series of the Journal, with the regular assist- ance of several active and able Naturalists; and I communicated to the Publishers the first copy of the Prospectus, in which the work was entitled a NEw SERIES OF THE EDINBURGH PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL. The Publishers, however, having raised a claim of absolute right to this title,—a claim which it would be improper to characterise while it remains under legal ADVERTISEMENT. discussion,—I was thus led to adopt the title of the EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, in order to enable me, in the mean time, to proceed in the publica- tion of the work. Under these circumstances, and while the Twentieth Number was printing, I entered into an arrangement with the present Publisher, and inserted in the Scien- tific Intelligence the following notice, beside others of a similar kind. The arrangements respecting the Edinburgh Philosophical Jour- nal, which Dr. Brewster, as the general editor of that work, made ~ with Professor Jameson and the Publishers, having been limited to Jive years, or to Twenty Numbers, this work, as conducted by them, terminates with the present Number. Having been the original projector of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, and its General Editor, as well as the conductor of all its different departments, excepting those of Mineralogy, Zoology, and Botany, Dr. Brewster is occupied in bringing out No. I. of the Edinburgh Journal of Science, which will appear on the Ist of July next, and the suc- ceeding Numbers regularly every quarter. In this new work, he is to be assisted regularly by Dr. MacCuxutocu, F. R. S. Chemist to the Board of Ordnance, and Professor of Chemistry in Hertford College, in GroLocy and CuHEmistry ;—by Dr. Wixi1am JackK- son Hooker, F.R.S. Regius Professor of Borany in the University of Glasgow, in Borany ;—by Wiii1Am Harpinc_er, Esq. F. R. S. Edin. in MrneraLocy ;—by Rosert Knox, M. D. F.R.S. Ed. &c. in ZooLocy and CompaRaTIvVE ANATOMY ; and by SamuEL Hizsert, M. D. F.R.S.E. in GeoLtoey and ANTIQUITIES.* In the other branches of Physical Science, he has already receiv- ed the most efficient aid from many of the most eminent Philoso- phers in Europe. The Numbers of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal exhibit the general principles upon which the present work will be conducted ; but a more expeditious and more extensive system of foreign correspondence has been arranged, for the pur- pose of obtaining the earliest intelligence of new Inventions and Discoveries. The same kind of information which has been given * The name of the Rey. Dr. Joun FLremine of Flisk, F. R.S. E. who has since kindly agreed to assist me in this work, was not in the preceding notice. ADVERTISEMENT. in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, will be given in the pre- sent one, but with various improvements, both in the embellish- ments, and in the scientific character of the work. - As it is proposed to give frequent notices of Works of Science, particularly Scientific Voyages and Travels, and individual Papers published in the Transactions of learned Societies, the Authors or Publishers of such Works as wish them to be early noticed, are requested to transmit them to Dr. Brewster. The Works will al- ways, when required, be carefully returned, without injury. A proof of the sheet containing this notice, accom- panied by a letter from Mr. NEILL, the printer of the work, was about to be dispatched for my final revision, when Mr. ROBERT CADELL, one of the Publishers, came to the Printing-Office, and, after reading Mr. NEILL’s letter to me, struck out the above notice from the Scientific Intelligence, and or- dered the sheet to be instantly put to press. In or- der to execute these commands, the printers wrought during the whole night, and the Twentieth Number of the JOURNAL was completed before either Mr. NEILL or myself were acquainted with this violation of our respective rights, or could take the proper steps for ~ their vindication. By this proceeding, unprecedented, it is believed, in the history of literature, the readers of the EDIN- BURGH PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL, and the numerous contributors to it, have been prevented from learning, that the old work, under its former management, had entirely ceased, and that. I was proceeding to carry on my original plan of the EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. The effects of this delusion, however, though it has to a certain extent proved successful, cannot continue long; and the cultivators of science, and the patrons of scientific labour will have no difficulty in determin- ADVERTISEMENT. ing whether they will support the interests and pro- perty of men of science, or the speculations of indivi- duals, who, in the ardour of protecting what they conceive to be their own property, have forgotten the respect that is due to the rights and feelings of others. D. B. Eprinsureu, 10, Coates’ Crescent, June Tth, 1824. In adding a few words to our Correspondents, we earnestly request that they will excuse us for having been obliged to leave out many papers that were in- tended for the First Number. Some of them were actually in the hands of the printer, but the arrival of more temporary communications rendered it neces- sary to postpone them. 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On the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire, with remarks on T'rap and Serpentine. By Joun MacCouttocu, M.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. and M.G.S. Chemist to the Board of Ordnance, and Professor of Chemistry in Addiscombe College. Communicated by the Author. Tue limestone which I have here undertaken to describe has been long known to mineralogists, having been often visited on account of the agate which it contains; while it is at the same time very accessible to observation, from the extent of the excavation formed in it for economical purposes. The cir- cumstance alluded to is, perhaps, however, the least interesting of the numerous peculiarities it presents, nor is any apology necessary for describing in some detail a set of appearances very singular in themselves, and calculated to throw light on some of the general doctrines of geology. The micaceous schist of the highland mountains, extending from Dunkeld and Marly northwards, is succeeded towards the south by argillaceous and graywacke schist, dipping ge- nerally towards the north-west at a high angle. ‘This is fol- lowed by the conglomerate and red sandstone, placed in a re~ verse position, and at much lower angles, occupying the great plains of Stormount and Strathearn, and a considerable dis- trict beyond these, and interrupted only by the ineunibent chains of trap rocks that form the Sidlaw range, the Ochils, and the hilis of Fife. VOL. I. No. 1. suLy 1824. B & Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire. A more narrow mass of overlying trap occurs in the vici- nity of the place here in question ; and to this may be traced, not only the vein which forms a principal part of the interest of this communication, but many others which exist in the same neighbourhood. To enter on all the interesting circum- stances which are visible in this district, and which are con- nected with this trap, would require a much more extensive detail than is here admissible, and would interfere with the more particular objects of this paper. They must therefore be reserved for another opportunity ; and I shall only briefly remark, that, in many places, it presents those interesting ap- pearances which I have described in the Geological Transac- tions as occurring in the hill of Kinnoul, as well as others of a no less important nature, which are noticed in my account of the Western Islands. Between the argillaceous schist and the conglomerate, which in general follows it in immediate succession, there are to be seen interposed, in this neighbourhood, one or more masses of a calcareous rock, of which that quarried at Clunie forms the leading object of this communication. I have said one or more, doubtingly; since it has been exposed and quar- ried in two places, and there is no mode of ascertaining whe- ther these two are independent masses, or parts of the same ; and whether or not, similar ones, yet undiscovered, do not exist in the same line. While it has been sometimes too ge- nerally concluded that any given stratum was prolonged through a considerable space, such appearances have been supposed to arise from a partial exposure of a single bed ; and strata of an indefinite extent have thus been laid down, where only separate and independent masses existed. In this way, the existence of a mass of limestone at the lake of Clunie, would lead us to suppose a bed of calcareous rock continuous- ly interposed between the schist and the conglomerate. I have already mentioned that these are generally in contact; and when the. limestone shall be described, there will be fur- ther reasons apparent for concluding that it is a detached, un- stratified, and independent mass. Whether the two masses above alluded to are one and the same, is a matter of less consequence ; and as the appearances which attend the small- Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire. 3 er one are of little importance, I shall pass it over altogether, and limit this description to that which appears at Clunie. Thisis to be seen near the southern angle of this picturesque and pleasing Jake, where it has been quarried to a considerable extent ; no Jess to the advantage of the geologist than to the improvement of the agriculture of this fertile tract of country. By means of this quarry, ready access is obtained to all the peculiar circumstances which distinguish the rock, and the greatest facility is afforded for the selection and comparison of specimens. On one side also its termination has been traced, since the limestone to the eastward has been exhausted by the operations of quarrying; and thus the additional reasons, to which I above alluded, for supposing it an insulated mass, are apparent. A sketch and section (see PLare I. Figs. 1 and 2.) are subjoined to facilitate the apprehension of the circum. stances which attend it. It will be seen that at the eastern end it is every where sur- rounded by the conglomerate, but its termination westward cannot be discovered. That part which lies on the northern side of the trap vein at this point has been exhausted as far as it has been exposed; and the ground does not admit of its being traced beyond the quarry in a western direction on either side of that vein. On its northern side a portion of clay-slate ap- pears, but immediately separated from it, as well as from the conglomerate, by the trap vein which has made its way be- tween the two; afterwards crossing the body of the limestone, ~ and being lost in the conglomerate ; since here also the ground does not permit it to be traced any further. Such are the most obvious appearances. In examining the relations of the several rocks, no other evidence than that of proximity can be adduced, of the con- nexion between the schist and the conglomerate, which have already been shown to follow each other in a regular and con- nected manner throughout the district formerly mentioned. But from that general fact we are entitled to conclude, that the point under examination is one of those where the-com- mon boundary of the schist and the conglomerate exists; and that the deficiency of connexion in this place arises, partly from the form of the ground, partly from the disturbance which attends the trap vein, and perhaps also in some degree 4 Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire. from the casual occurrence of the independent calcareous rock. It is not so easy to determine the precise position of the limestone with respect to these rocks, but I must premise that it bears no marks whatever of regularity or stratification. It is an irregular mass, displaying every where a set of hete- rogeneous forms divided by natural seams in various intricate directions, curvilinear as well as straight; and breaking, whe- ther naturally or artificially, into those shapeless fragments which are characteristic of many crystalline limestones, some of which are found in the primary strata, while others, as I have shown in my account of Sky, appertain to the se- condary. Its abrupt termination in the conglomerate at its eastern end, serves also to prove the absence of a stratified disposition. It has been shown that the trap vein prevents its relation of the limestone to the schist from being examined ; but it can be readily compared with the conglomerate on the oppo- site side. That rock is here decidedly stratified, and is seen lying above and to the south of the limestone, dipping south- wards iv an angle which cannot well be ascertained, but which seems to vary from twenty to thirty degrees. At the contact of the two there is a mutual penetration of parts; the lime- stone first containing scattered fragments similar to those which form the conglomerate, and which, by their gradual accumulation seem to cause it to graduate into the latter ; not, however, preventing us from perfectly distinguishing the one rock from the other, although the conglomerate also contains some calcareous matter at its junction. It is plain from this description, that the limestone is, in one part, decidedly followed by the whole mass of conglome- tate, and consequently of sandstone, in regular order; while no stratified rock is interposed between it and the schist. It lies therefore between the two; and were it determined to be a prolonged stratum, we should have had a bed of calcareous rock interjacent between the schist and the secondary strata. But this part of the difficulty does not remain to contend with, as I have already shown, and as is still further confirmed by the circumstance that, in another place, it is entirely involved in the conglomerate. We must therefore conclude that it is a solitary and independent mass, lying in an oblique direction Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire. 5 with regard to the schist and the conglomerate, or rather irre- gularly, and, as it were, accidentally intruding at the place where these two more regular rocks meet. If its position in this respect is singular, its analogy to the similarly irregular masses which are found in gneiss and in micaceous schist will be apparent ; and if we are unable to explain the origin of the one, we are no less at a loss to assign that of the other. Under the circumstances described, it will be asked whe- ther this is a primary or a secondary limestone. This ques- tion appears not to require an answer. There has been a time when its irregularity, and the absence of the stratified structure, would probably have decided its place among the primary rocks, or at least among those which have been called transition; but as I have, on other occasions, shown that the same characters are found among the more decidedly secondary limestones, it is an insufficient ground for judg- ment : its natural history is not the Jess intelligible, and may perhaps be more useful, if divested of such systematic views. The mineral character of this rock is at once various and remarkable. In its simplest form it is of a grayish, yellowish, or dirty-white colour, rarely green. In fracture it displays almost every variety, the crystalline, the conchoidal, the splintery, the large or small granular, and the earthy ; while, in composition, it equally varies. Specimens of the purest carbonate occur in some places; while, in others, it contains silex, argil, or magnesia, separately or mixed, and to such an extent that it almost loses the character of limestone. It is scarcely necessary to add, that its hardness and specific gra- vity, as well as its economical properties, undergo correspond- ing variations. The effects of these combinations are abun- dantly obvious in examining its produce at the kilns; where various glasses, frits, and porcelain-like products, are found rejected by the burners. Besides these varieties of composition, it contains many in- dependent substances, dispersed throughout it in concretions, or in fragments of different sizes. ‘The most numerous of these are the fragments of the primary rocks which constitute the conglomerate, and which are principally abundant near the places of its contact with that rock. In most of these the iron is highly oxydated, and of a red or purple hue ; and six 6 Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Clunic, in Perthshire. milar appearances, both of oxidation and rottenness, are ap- parent, I may add, every where in the vicinity of these junc- tions. From this admixture many parts of the rock may be considered as a breccia with a calcareous base; but there is always a gradation between the conglomerate and the simple rock, without any indications denoting a separation of the two, or a line of stratification between them. The limestone itself appears also to have been, in some places, broken into fragments and reunited ; and brecciated masses, purely cal- careous, are thus dispersed in various parts of it. Besides the fragments now described, of which many, from the degree of their decomposition and oxidation, possess the characters of burnt clay, nests of a fine pulverulent soft blue clay are to be seen dispersed in various parts of the pure limestone at considerable distances from each other. These vary, from the size and figure of an orange, to pieces of many feet or even yards in extent, and are both perfectly defined, and readily separable from the calcareous rock. Other frag- ments of a substance less easily defined are also abundant, and they occur principally in the vicinity of the trap. This isa purple clay, containing much iron, having often the aspect.of serpentine, until it is broken, when it falls into powder ; ap- pearing, like the ironstones, to have decomposed in succes- sive crusts. It is either found in distinct nodules, in irregu- lar veins, or in shapeless masses ; and is sometimes accompa- nied by a green earth, resembling at times steatite, and at others the green earth or chlorite of the trap rocks. This latter mineral is also found, in some places, in considerable abundance, of a slaty or laminar form, confusedly intermixed with the limestone, so as to give the whole a green tinge, and to conceal the nature of the rock, from which it cannot, owing to the intimacy of the admixture, be separated. In the rifts there is also to be seen flesh-coloured and platy sulphat of barytes ; and, in larger cavities, the dog-tooth variety of calcareous spar is found crystallized in considerable abun- dance. But the most remarkable of the independent minerals found in it is chaleedony, or agate, as it may perhaps more in- telligibly be called. This is of a yellowish red hue, and is dis- persed throughout it in various places. It has the usual as- pect and semi-transparency of the cornelians, but is rarely found in distinct nodules. It either forms ramifying veins Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire. 7 and reticulations, or is disposed in a granularly aggregated manner amid the limestone, or else it assumes the appearance of large irregular concretions, which, at the edges, become gradually broken and dispersed among the surrounding rock. This mineral is not necessarily connected either with the trap or with the conglomerate boundary, but is found indiscrimi- nately even in the central parts of the rock, from which it is always easily distinguished by the contrast of their respective colours. Grains of transparent quartz may also be here and there observed, and so united to the surrounding materials, that, where this is pure, they are not readily distinguished from the carbonate of lime. The other peculiarities visible in the limestone will be more intelligible when the trap vein has been described. The general position of that vein may be comprehended from the sketch. Veins of a similar substance are found ina corresponding direction on the north side of the lake; and it is possible that the present is a prolongation of one of them. It is more likely, however, to be distinct, and, like them, a process from the great superincumbent mass, of which indeed the evidence seems sufliciently clear. It passes through the limestone in a curved direction, as may be seen in the plan, proceeding first from the north, and then inclining towards the west. It is erect in position, but not sufficiently even and regular to admit of its inclination being stated. For the same reason its thickness cannot be assigned ; but it may be said to vary from three or four yards to thirty or forty. The upper portion of the vein, as will be seen by the sketch, over- lies, in some measure, that rock which is merely intersected by its lower one ; independently of which it ramifies, sending off branches into the limestone.. It is a massive rather than a laminated vein. In its general structure it may be calleda greenstone, since that term has commonly been used in a very lax sense ; but no felspar can be detected in it by the eye, the whole appearing an uniformly black granular mass. The magnifying glass, however, discovers the felspar, which, from the blackness of its colour, is otherwise easily confounded with the hornblende of the compound. In many places, ‘it betrays a tendency to decompose into laminated spheroidal forms, an appearance much too common to require notice, 8 Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire. were it not here particularly conspicuous from the minute- ness of the concretions, and the singular effect produced by their accumulation in those parts of the rock where they abound. But the most interesting circumstance in its composition, independently of the change of substance which it undergoes, is the existence of specular iron. ‘This mineral, however, is confined to one part of the vein; but, where it does occur, it is abundant. It is in scales of different dimensions, rarely exceeding the quarter of an inch, and irregularly intermixed in the rock. In general, those plates are without definite form, but they are also to be found regularly crystallized, as- suming the most common figure presented by volcanic speci- mens, namely, that of a table, or a very short hexagonal prism, of which two opposed sides are much longer than the other four. This fact is valuable, as tending to approximate, in another point, the rocks of the trap family to the products of existing volcanoes. The greater portion of the rock is of a moderately coarse granular texture, becoming finer as it approaches near to the edge of the vein. Here that change commences which forms the most interesting part of its history. ‘The first step is the acquisition of a finer texture, with a structure approaching by degrees to the laminar, and which gradually becomes more distinct to the very edge of the vein, where it frequently splits off by the progress of decomposition into lamin, resembling on a cursory view a black shale. These laminz are often in- tersected by other cross fissures, dividing the whole into cu- boidal masses, which sometimes decompose still further into spheroidal forms. During this approximation to the ealca- reous boundary, and whether the lamine are present or not, the texture becomes gradually finer and softer, the rock still retaining its black colour, or sometimes assuming a greenish cast. At length the observer finds the vein converted under his hand into serpentine, without being at first aware that any change has been brought about. In reviewing it, he traces a regular gradation from the greenstone to the serpentine, in proportion to its approximation to the limestone; and_ this change is visible, with more or Jess distinctness, wherever. the one substance is in contact with the other, most conspicuous- Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire. 9 ly, however, and most deeply, where the two are most com- pletely entangled together. The minuter ramifications which branch from the vein into the limestone, are entirely compos- ed of serpentine. It is proper to remark, that no such change is seen in the vein where it is in contact either with the schist or the conglomerate, but that it is entirely limited to the vici- nity of the limestone. The zone of serpentine thus described cannot, on account of its gradation into the greenstone, be rigidly defined ; but it can scarcely be estimated at more than a foot, and is often limited to six inches in breadth. This serpentine is generally smooth and soft, with an earthy aspect, and a black colour, sometimes verging on green. In some parts it is mottled with red, when it assumes a more compact texture, a greater lustre, and a somewhat conchoidal fracture, being then undistinguishable from that variety which occurs most abundantly at the Lizard point in Cornwall. It is in- tersected in an irregular manner by thin laminz of purple, green, and white steatite, generally not exceeding paper in thickness. In some places, however, veins of transparent green steatite, of a quarter of an inch im thickness, and either compact or fibrous, are found in it; and these veins, it must be remarked, never penetrate the greenstone, but terminate somewhere before the change from the one to the other sub- stance is completed. Similar veins of green asbestos, pos- sessing a changeable lustre, are found in it, removing, toge- ther with the steatite, all doubt of the character of the sub- stance in which they lie, if any doubt could be entertained after the facts above stated. Although there is great mecha- nical confusion, with appearances of fracture and displace- ment, where the trap vein and limestone are in contact, it seems always sufficiently easy to define them; no gradation being any where to be traced between the vein, or rather be- tween its serpentine crust and the calcareous rock. They are indeed amply distinguished by the contrast of their colours, the whiteness of the one, and the blackness of the other. Jn one part of this contact, however, there is to be found an af- finity, or rather a mineralogical gradation, where the distinc- tion of colour still appears to form a marked boundary. This consists in a substance of a steatitical nature, which is found mixed with the limestone, extending, like the serpentine, but 10 Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire. ; a few inches from the line of contact before mentioned. It is often equally difficult, in this case as in the former, to distin- guish precisely between the steatite and the limestone with which it is united ; a gradation, or else an intimate mixture of the two taking place; while the colours of both being si- milar, the difficulty of making the distinction is rendered still greater to the eye. The steatitical substance presents the usual ambiguous mixture of indurated steatite and noble ser- pentine, with a transition between the two, possessing equal claims on each. Small portions of a softer kind accompany it; while the whole, which is readily cut with a knife in its native bed, acquires, on removal and drying, the usual de- gree of hardness which attends these substances when pre- served in cabinets. The colours of this portion of the rock are variously intermingled; and they are reddish, yellowish, pale green, white, and bluish gray. In attending to the che- mical composition and mineralogical characters of this stea- tite, (to use a general term,) and that of the serpentine with which it is in contact, it 1s evident that there is here a real gradation from limestone to trap, through the mtervention of serpentine, however the differences of colour may cause an apparent division. This circumstance is, for aught I know, as novel as it is interesting, and adds one to the many record- ed examples of changes existing in rocks where they are tra- versed by veins of trap, being an occurrence perhaps no less re- markable than that of the gradation of greenstone to serpentine, Before terminating the description of these rocks, two circumstances respecting the limestone remain to be noti- ced; they were reserved till the trap vein had been describ- ed, since they appear particularly connected with its influ- ence, and are found in its immediate vicinity. In the one, the limestone is so charged with yellow clay, that by degrees it nearly loses the calcareous character, becoming an earthy rock, scarcely distinguishable from some of the claystones that belong to the recent porphyritic formation. In the other, two colours, a purplish brown anda white, are disposed in stripes, contorted together in a most intricate manner, yet still re- taining their parallelism, and exactly resembling the effect produced by disturbing a mixture of two tenacious fluids of different colours. It is almost superfluous to allude to the Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire. 11 well-known theory respecting the igneous origin of trap, and the equally notorious fact of the fusibility of carbonate of lime, which may be adduced in explanation of this and many other circumstances detailed im the preceding description. I have nothing further to add to the description of these rocks, having discovered no other appearances among them capable of throwing light on their history and origin, or by which they might be connected with rocks of the same nature in other si- tuations. But it will now be useful to point out the very few analo- gous facts of the connexion between trap and serpentine, and of the relation of this apparent gradation to the calcareous rocks, that have occurred in my experience. They are scanty, but will, while they confirm the appearance above related, tend to induce others to seek for additional evidence on this © subject in places where it probably exists, although yet over- looked. The numerous trap veins that traverse the hard calcareous sandstone in Strathaird abound in steatite, which here also is found at the outer walls of the vein, where it is in contact with the calcareous substance. A more remarkable resem- blance is, however, to be found in a vein that passes through a mass of the white marble of Strath. In this case, the sides of the vein in contact with the limestone pass gradually into serpentine; the whole being, except in point of magnitude, undistinguishable from the appearances already described as occurring at Clunie. At the line of contact also, a zone of transparent serpentine, of a fine oil-green colour, is found in- termixed with the limestone, producing those ornamental spe- cimens formerly described in the account of Sky, given in my work on the Western Islands. These are the most decided analogies that have occurred tome. A feecbler one may be found in a circumstance ex- tremely common in the trap rocks. It consists in a coating of steatite, often of a fibrous appearance, and sometimes mis- taken for a slickenside, or the result of friction, which is found investing veins of calcareous spar ; and consequently, asin the former cases, interposed between that substance and the trap. This fact must be fainiliar to all geologists; but its value has hitherto been as little understood as its real nature. It 3 12 Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire. is one of many of those insulated remarks which become valuable by being thus generalized and brought to bear on some leading and theoretical view ; and, in this case, it serves to confirm the stili obscure connexion between trap and ser- pentine. On reviewing the facts as thus stated, there appear to be many circumstances defying our present means of explana- tion, both in the characters of the limestone, and in those of the greenstone. ‘The appearances attending the former are indeed less remarkable than the peculiarities of the greenstone ; since corresponding, if not identical ones can be traced in other cases. ‘To the most common of these, its irregularity of structure, its detached nature, and the admixture of fo- reign substances, I need scarcely allude, as they will suggest themselves to all who are familiar with the primary rocks. These irregularities may perhaps in this case be attributed to the disturbing influence of the trap vein; a supposition not unreasonable, since analogous appearances are frequently to be observed in similar cases, J cannot here lay much stress on the cause above noticed, which has been assigned for these phenomena, namely, the fusibility of carbonate of lime, since difficulties of a chemical nature attend this explanation, which, if they are not insuperable, are still, in the present state of our knowledge respecting the affirties of the earths, incapable of a definite answer. I allude to the minerals mixed with it; which the action of fire at present causes to enter with the calcareous earth into new compounds ; a difficulty, never- theless, which the presence of carbonic acid in the one case, and absence in the other, might be sufficient to explain. ‘The proximity of the steatite to the serpentine, which gives the appearance of 2 gradation between the limestone and the greenstone, might be supposed merely accidental; and, in this view, the difficulties attending this rock would be dimi- nished. But it has been shown to occur in other cases where trap veins are found traversing limestone; a circumstance proving a natural, if not a necessary affinity, between the one phenomenon and the other. In the primary limestone, the occurrence of steatite and of noble serpentine is not unusual; it is to be found in Iona, in Glen Tilt, at Balahulish, in 'Ti- ree, in Harris, and in many other places; and in most in- Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire. 13 stances it exists in that part of the calcareous rock which is in contact with the other primary rocks in which it is imbed- ded, the granite, gneiss, or micaceous schist. Even these ana- logies render it probable that it is the result of some combi- nation between the different substances at the point of con- tact, or of some influence of the one rock over the other, con- cerning which our present information will not allow us to speculate further. Hereafter, it may possibly be elucidated by some of those discoveries which, in the present activity of geological investigation, are occasionally added to the yet li- mited stock of our knowledge on these subjects. The geological connexion of the serpentine, both with the trap and the limestone, is still less intelligible. While the very imperfect knowledge we yet possess of the nature and connexions of serpentine, is the source of this difficulty, it renders, at the same time, mere valuable, any new fact ca- pable of ultimately throwing light on the history of this rock. As yet, serpentine has, I believe, been found only among the primary rocks. Thus, at least, it exists in this country, im Cornwall, in Anglesea, in Ayrshire, in Forfarshire, in Aberdeenshire; at Portsoy, in Sutherland, in Shetiand, and in the island of Scalpa; the only situations in which I am practically acquainted with it. In some of these places, where it is associated with gneiss, it forms obscure strata, as far as their forms are concerned, though the stratification can ad- mit of no question. In others, the beds are limited, or re- semble rather large concretions, conformable, as far as they reach, to the rock in which they lie ; and very similar in this respect to the independent masses of limestone so often found m the same rock. In other cases, as where it occurs in gra- nite, it appears more akin to the unstratified substances, being analogous in position to the more ancient or the more recent formations of trap or porphyry ; and possibly, like both, ap- pertaining to very different periods. In this manner, in par- ticular, it occurs in Aberdeenshire. If, in those latter in- stances, it is really an unstratified rock, and analogous to the trap formation, it may possibly be found, as the rocks of this division are, associated with the secondary as well as with the primary strata; a situation in which, as far as I know, it may indeed have already been discovered. Even in this case, it 14 Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Clunie, in Perthshire. must, however, be considered as secondary, only in the same way as trap is; not as a deposit regularly alternating with the strata, but produced under circumstances unconnected with their original stratification, concerning which we can do little more than conjecture. In support of this opinion, there is at present no evidence to adduce beyond the few facts al- ready mentioned. It is easy to imagine that veins of ser- pentine might exist, passing, like the compound one of Clu- nie, indiscriminately through the primary and secondary strata; since there is no sufficient reason why the serpentine, in the instance now described, should not predominate, to the exclusion of the trap, in the larger vein, as it does in the smaller ramifications. The conjectures thus offered may be entirely unfounded, but they will still be useful in directing the attention of geologists to these obscure rocks, and in affording hints to- wards a method of investigating them; while, at the same time, they will give the stimulus, so often advantageously presented by any hypothesis capable of directing our atten- tion to some focal point. But one circumstance more remains to be noticed: it is the nature of the mineralogical connexion between the green- stone and the serpentine. There can be no doubt of the gradation between the two, nor of the perfect character of each substance, at the extreme points of both. As far as composition is concerned, it is known that hornblende is an ingredient in both rocks; but there are still essential differ- ences, as well in their chemical nature as in their mineral composition. We are as yet incompetent to explain the nature or cause of this transition; though the mere circum- stance of such a transition is sufficient te prove an affinity between the two. That which occurs on a small scale is equally possible on a large ore; and there is no difficulty in conceiving the existence of a mountain composed both of frap and serpentine, passing inte each other, and mutually con- nected in a common geological relation. On a very super- ficial examination of the serpentine of Cornwall, made many years ago, without any geological object, some facts occurred which may perhaps throw additional light on the connexion between that rock and trap; but the recollection of them is Dr. MacCulloch on the Limestone of Chainie, in Perthshire. 15 now too indistinct to permit of any detail. A careful inves- tigation of the Lizard Point, and of the shores contiguous with it, is recommended to those geologists whose local situation or pursuits give them access to this part of Cornwall. The !imitation of the serpentine toa short distance from the limestone, might at first sight give cause to suppose that the greenstone had been converted into that substance by the influence of the calcareous rock, or by some combination be- tween tne two. But this supposition is not confirmed by any thing we know of the respective compositions of these different substances. At present it must remain, among other difficulties, a prize held out to the more successful ef- forts of some geologist who may follow me in this obscure track. POSTSCRIPT. It is long since the above paper was written; and though I have kept it by me in hopes of additional information, very little has occurred to elucidate the different points discussed in it. ‘The publication of.it will perhaps induce those geologists who may have an opportunity, to turn their attention to this almost unknown subject, and to lend their assistance in ex- plaining the present very obscure history of serpentine. Yet the original hints, to the same effect, thrown out in the description of Sky, in my work on the Western Islands, have been noticed, and these views confirmed by Breislak, where he quotes some parallel remarks on the same subject, made in the Bosphorus by Vivian. In this case, a similar transi- tion from trap to serpentine has been traced. Possibly other analogous observations may be known to those who are conversant with the recent writings of foreign authors, and who have not, like me, been lately cut off from all means of information. I must trust that they will thus be induced to bring them forward, and also to give their own aid in completing, by further observations, a work from which I am in future for ever debarred. ‘ I have added a Figure, (see Prats I, Figs. 1 and 2.) for the purpose of rendering the description of these appear- ances more intelligible. The explanations on the figures 16 M. Zumstein’s Account of a Journey to Monte Itosa. themselves will supersede the necessity of any other de- tails in this place. Art. II.—Account of a Journey to Monte Rosa, and of the Jirst Ascent of its Southern Summit. By Josrrn Zum- stEIN and Joun Nicotas VINCENT. * Mowrr Rosa, from which many other mountains branch out, is terminated by several aiguiiles, which are always co- vered with snow and with ice. ‘These peaks form a sort of crown round this grand amphitheatre, which may be compar- ed to a sea of ice. Saussure himself believed it impossible to reach it, and even to the present hour nobody has attempted to gain the summit of this celebrated mountain. Accustomed from early life to ascend mountains, I formed a project, in concert with my friend M. Vincent, of examining these high glacial masses; and after providing ourselves with barometrical and trigonometrical instruments, and all the usual implements and utensils, we were ready for the undertak- ing. On the 4th of August 1819, M. Vincent ascended with the loaded mules to the central cabin, at the confines of per- petual snow. The road being now impassable by mules, the instruments were carried by miners to the upper cabin, about a league above the ordinary confines of the icy region, and he here spent the night with his attendants. Onthe 5th of August, early in the morning, he took with him two men, and a skilful Chamois-hunter, for the purpose of erecting a wooden cross on the summit of the aiguille. After traversing immense plains of snow, exposed to great sufferings and dan- gers, they reached the talus, which forms the base of the ai- guille, and they succeeded in gaining its summit at 11 o’clock in the morning. Here they were surrounded on all sides with a thick fog, but they lost no time in marking their arrival, by * This Journey was performed in August 1819. An account of it was read to the Royal Academy of Turin in June 1820, and published in the Memorie della Reale Accademia di Torino, tom. XXV. p. 230, from which | we hzve translated and abridged the following Narrative. —Ep. M. Zumstein’s Account of a Journey to Monte Rosa.. 17 fixing the cross at the depth of six feet in the snow. After resting half an hour, they descended with much difficulty, and reached the bottom exhausted with fatigue. On the 10th of August, M. Bernfaller, canon of the Hos- pice of Great St. Bernard, accompanied with a mountaineer, set out in the evening, by moonlight, and following the path ot M. Vincent, he reached the summit at 8 o'clock in the morning. From the serenity of the sky, the view which he enjoyed, was of the most superb kind, while a sea of fog undulated under his feet, and covered the surface of the earth, as far as the eye could reach. The loftiest summits of Monte Rosa, and those of the surrounding mountains, were the only objects that rose in insulated forms out of this sea of mist. On the 11th of the same month, M. Vincent and I set out at three o’clock, P.M. accompanied with a skilful hunter; we ascended the valley by the Trinité Urssieu and Boedemié, the last hamlets that can be inhabited during winter, and reached the place called Rigga. Here we cease to see the Meleze, and above this the rhododendron rarely takes root, and still more rarely the juniper. Passing over verdant hills; covered with the debris of rocks, detached and rolled down from the mountains, (which , are called Gofér in the country,) cur path conducted us to a small height, where we were charmed with the view of the mountains of Gabiet, which we reached at five o’clock, after passing the place called Nidelgasse. Having refreshed our- selves at this place with a little milk, we pursued our route across green pastures towards the river of Lafets. The fine cascade which appeared on our left, and the Alps of Lafets in perspective, presented a very delightful view. This cascade may be regarded as one of the finest, next to that of the Rhine, and that of Tousa in the valley of Pomat, especially if we see it in June, when from the melting of the snows, it exhibits all its magnificence. Advancing by the right of the cataract, we come to the mountains of Indren, which appears like a kind of basin. Here are established the mills for the mines belonging to M. Vincent ;, and at this height there grow only a few wild herbs that exhale a very strong odour. hele VOL. I. No 1, JULY 1824, c 18 M. Zumstein’s Account of a Journey to Monte Rosa. After a few minutes rest we ascended various eminences, and reached the second barrack of the miners, at the distance of a league from the mills, and where the region of the gla- ciers begins. Immediately behind this cabin commences the first perpetual snow, over which we walked more than an hour, and arrived for the night at the last barrack of M. Vincent’s workmen. According to Daubuisson and others, this cabin, which is only inhabited two months in the year, is the highest in Eu- rope. It is situated on a branch stretching from the central mass of Monte Rosa, and it separates the great glacier of Indren from that of Embours. The cabin is placed on a rock, almost vertical, and its entrance can only be reached by a path two feet in width. Here the barometer stood at 19 inches 6 lines, and the thermometer at 14° of Reaumur, which, according to Lindenau’s tables, corresponds to a height of 10,086 Paris feet, or 1681 toises. At the foot of this declivity, on the side of Embours, are si- tuated the galleries of the mines, to which we descend by a zig-zag path cut in the rock. Here we passed the night, under a mild temperature and a serene sky, but I experienced a decided oppression on the chest, which prevented me from closing my eyes the whole night. At break of day we rose, and, strengthened by a little soup, we continued our course; M. Vincent and the guides having their eyes covered with crape, while mine were de- fended by spectacles: with blue lenses. Thus equipped, we reached the Glaciers, properly so call- ed, at the distance of only twenty steps behind our barrack. The air was loaded with vapours; but we still cherished the expectation of a fine day. As soon as we arrived at the first plane of the glacier of Indren, which unites itself towards the S.W. of the glacier of Garstlets, we perceived towards the W.N.W. the first rays of the sun which gilded the ma- jestic summits of Mont Blanc, Mont Velant, and Mont Cervin, and the further summit of Monte Rosa, which formed the ob- ject of our Jabour. This was a view of which no pen caneven trace the outline. We advanced for several hours over these plains of ice, which resembled the waves of the sea, without being stopped by icy S M. Zumstein’s Account of a Journey to Monté Rosa. 19 crevices, partly from the massy surface being so solid as to sup- port us, and even serve as a bridge over the precipices, and part- ly from our keeping to the right, as the least dangerous side of the mountainous declivity, near the places where the glacier of Embours commences towards the N.E. From this Glacier there stretches out one of the branches of the Sesia. Pro- ceeding a few hundred yards farther on the crest of the rock, and being greatly fatigued, we refreshed ourselves for a while with a few drops of Madeira. ‘T here observed the barometer, which indicated a height of 11,256 feet above the level of the sea. We could with diffi- culty see upon the rocks some lichens, and some umbilicariz, all other vegetation having ceased. The bare and arid stone showed itself from time to time, and even upon this the eye delights to repose, when exhausted with the brightness of the snow. Having rested here another half hour, we pursued our journey over the icy ridges, which be- came more and more rugged as we advanced ; and we were often obliged to stop for breath, particularly when we en- countered large crevices marked out by long blue lines, and which we were obliged to ascend by winding round their ex- tremities. Frequently were we obliged to trust ourselves upon bridges of snow, the strength of which we had no means of ascertain- ing ; and, drenched with perspiration, we continued to ascend, seldom discovering the tracks of those who had preceded us. The horizon now began to be overcast. From the bosom of the valley there ascended, im all directions, thick vapours, which excited great alarm respecting our return. The fine view which we had enjoyed disappeared, and the azure sky showed itself only through the small openings between the clouds. We had still before us another declivity, before we reached the base of the aiguille. We passed with rapidity below an enormous wall of ice, having the form of a canopy, and threatening to overwhelm us. Our alarm on this o¢ca- sion was not without reason, for I saw the tremendous mass fall on the following day, with a crash like the loudest thun- der; and, in the month of September, from the observatory of Turin, I was able to distinguish, with a good telescope, the scattered fragnients of this icy wall. 20 M. Zumstein’s Account ofa Journey to Monte Rosa. Not far from this place M. Vincent felt a tendency to faint ; but it soon left him, and having succeeded in surmounting this last crest of ice, it only remained for us to ascend the aiguille itself. To the right, and below a rock almost per- pendicular, and at the depth of nearly 150 toises, (300 yards,) we saw the great glacier of Alagna, intersected with crevices ; and to the left we had a snowy declivity, which gradually rose to form above, the point which we were anxious to reach. Towards its base, this same declivity was extended by an enormous crevice from eight to twelve yards at its mean width, and nearly 200 yards long, and which is capable of being seen from the observatory of Turin. Its sides were of a bluish- gray tint, and at an immense depth there was seen an enor- mous quantity of water. In the middle of these two horrible precipices, the crest which I have mentioned, cr one of the angles of this species of pyramid, upon which we were, lead- ing us often astray to the more dangerous abyss on the right, was the road by which alone we could ascend to the summit of the aiguille. We had, therefore, no choice. After some minutes rest, the boldest of our party, a miner, advanced with a hatchet in his hand to cut out holes for our feet. 'The hunter followed, to remove with his shovel the debris of the ice, M. Vincent marched next, while I brought up the rear. The steps were formed on the declivity of this tortuous ascent, and upon this, the body being inclined one half, we were al- most suspended. We grasped firmly with our right arm the margin of the abyss towards the glacier of Alagna, and, from the bent position into which we were thrown, often only a sin- gle point of our feet was supported on the steps. Surrounded with so many difficulties and perils, we advanced with the greatest precautions ; for the least false step would infallibly have precipitated us on the right or on the left. We aided ourselves with an iron pointed staff as often as this was pos- sible, and thus slowly reached the half-way point of the crest, keeping always to the left, when the sight of a projecting rock, on which we might take a little rest in safety, began to de- light us at a distance. We continued for some time quiet at our post, in order to give time to the miner to continue his work, when, all on a sudden we saw the hunter grow pale, and support himself in a tottering position on the declivity at M. Zumstein’s Account ofa Journey to Monte Rosa. 21 his left. M. Vincent, who was nearest him, was alone able to give him assistance; for the miner, who was before the hun- ter, was unable to go backwards, while I durst not quit my. position for fear of slipping down. M. Vincent, therefore, with much presence of mind, took a handful of snow, and rubbed with it several times the forehead and temples of the poor hunter. This application was so successful at this criti- cal juncture, that we had no occasion to have recourse to the spirituous liquors,which the hunter himself carried on his back. This accident, which might have proved very alarming to us all, caused us to forget our own danger; for we were scarcely at our ease, and our safety depended solely on the strength of our joints. During this crisis, the miner carried on his work till he reached the projecting rock above men- tioned, which we were gradually approaching with slowness and circumspection. We at last reached it, and it was for- tunate that we did; for we had great need of rest. Our small provisions were now displayed, consisting of bread and cheese, cold meat, onions, and wines, which contributed to renew our strength so easily re-established in elevated regions, Tt was now half-past eleven, and we had still half a league to march. A proposal was now made to tie us all together with the same cord; but I resisted this measure, as the slip- ping of a single foot might haye dragged us all together into the abyss. Our first guide again set out to excavate new steps with his hatchet, and we soon came up with him by an ascent that be- came more and more rugged. ‘The brink of the snow began to grow wider, and, after fifty steps of less difficult ascent, we at last reached the summit of the Needle. It was now past 10 o'clock, and the road which we had formed, by cutting more than 600 steps in the ice, had cost us three hours of difficult and laborious exertion. The summit on which we now stood was abut six yards in diameter. The triangular space which it forms is rounded towards the south. It has a yery steep declivity to the S.E. and the form of a half moon towards the N.N.E. It is from this last point that there sets outa particular and uninterrupted chain of mountains, which stretch to the plains of Canavais, and terminate with the Serre near Cigliano, 22 M. Zumstein’s Account of a Journey to Monte Rosa. The view which was now presented.to us of this basin, sur- rounded with these immense glaciers, and studded on its margin with five large aiguilles, and many of smaller size, was in itself truly unique. This part of the landscape alone was illuminated by a per- fectly serene sky, whilst the rest of the horizon, which ex+ tended far over Piedmont and Lombardy, was obseured by clouds, and deprived us of one of the finest views which could be seen. A single opening in the clouds permitted us to see the valley of Lys, which we had great difficulty in recognis- ing. It appeared like an obscure cleft of a rock, which the Lys, like a thread of silver, traversed with its serpentine stream. The atmosphere around us was entirely free of va- pours ; and the cyanometer of Saussure indicated the inten- sity of the blue colour of the sky to be from 38° to 40°. The sound of the voice appeared to be less here than else- where, owing, no doubt, to the air being scarcely fitted by its rarity for the propagation of sound. A perfect silence reign~ ed around us, and a gentle zephyr scarcely breathed from the S.W. and the N.E. As soon as we had recovered from the agitation and fatigue of our journey, I felt my own pulse and also that of the others. M. Vincent’s was 80 in the minute, mine was 101, that of the hunter 77, and that of the miner 104. The barometer and thermometer remained steady at the same point, from half-past one to half-past three o'clock, as follows : ' Barometer 3 ‘ : 16 inches 10 lines, Attached thermometer f 12° Reaumur. Detached thermometer ; 83° do. On the same day, at the observatory of Turin, the follow- ing observations were made : Barometer : é “ 27 inches 3 lines. Thermometer : : aay Buh. Thermometer towards the north 24°. According to the Tables of M. de Lindenau; these obser- vations give a height of 2820 toises, or 13,920 feet above the level of the sea. We were very little disposed to eat, but we were all very thirsty. We made a moderate repast, and drank a little of M. Zumstein's Account of a Journey to Monte Rosa. 23 the Alkermes to the health of the celebrated naturalists De Saussure and Alexander Humboldt, I remarked upon the snow some silvered butterflies, having some resemblance to our common butterflies, of a pearly hue. In stooping to catch some of these little insects, I experien- ced a considerable giddiness, which went off as soon as I re- covered the erect position. - I now began my trigonometrical observations, and measur- ed the altitude of three of the principal aiguilles, which I have already mentioned, by means of a compass divided into 360°, which was skilfully adjusted to a level, anda telescope, as well as a semicircle also divided into the same number of de- grees. From these observations I obtained the following heights above our positions : Feet. The first aiguille, towards the N. E. of our position, and which rose from the glacier of Alagna, was 560 The second point, of a mammillated form, and which rose by steps from the great glacier of Lys, between the N. W. and N. N. W. ‘ + 1200 The third, and the most remote, as well as the high- est, rose towards the N. N. E. almost perpendicular- ly, from the bottom of the glacier of Macugnaga, 1680 But, as the absolute height of our position was 13,920 Paris feet, it follows that the highest summit of Monte Rosa is 15,600 Paris feet above the level of the sea. It must be admitted, that, in this determination, there is some imperfection ; but it cannot be doubted, that the highest point of Monte Rosa exceeds considerably that of Mont Blanc, and that we can no longer dispute its claim to be the highest mountain in Europe, since Mont Blane, according to Profes- sor Tralles, is only 14,793 Paris feet above the level of the sea. As it was now four o’clock, our stay could not be prolong- ed with safety, and we accordingly set out on our descent, in the same order in which we came, and by the same steps. About 100 paces from the place where the descent was not very steep, I detached some fragments of a rock, which ap- peared to be what is called aventurine, with quartzy and red micaceous scales. 24 M. Zumstein’s Account of a Journey to Monte Rosa. We had no sooner begun our descent along the icy declivi- ty, than we saw with terror that the sun had softened the snow with which the ice was covered. ‘This was the greatest disaster which could have occurred to us; and, in such cir- “cumstances, good advice would have been invaluable ; for our lives were so evidently in danger, that we were on the point of despairing of our return. It became necessary to re-cut, in a great degree, the steps which we had excavated in the morning; and we thus advanced with infinite difficulty, _ taking care at each step to drive into the ice the spikes which we had upon our shoes. At this time there was displayed, in ail its horror, the frightful abyss which opened at our side, and we were obliged to turn our eyes from the scene as much as we could. The slightest blast of wind would have precipitated us with as much facility as it would have carried off the slenderest leaf. With every precaution, therefore, we slid in trepidation along this dangerous crest, to the commencement of the large cre- vice which was formerly mentioned, and where the glacier assumed at last a more rounded form. The greatest dangers were now past ; and, extended on the snow, we recruited our- selves by our spirituous liquors. The two workmen emptied, at a few draughts, a bottle of Jamaica rum, while M. Vincent and I preferred a little of the Madeira, which still remained. The repast which we then made was the most delicious we had ever enjoyed, and we returned thanks to Providence on finding ourselves out of the dangers to which we had just been exposed. After half an hour’s repose, we tied ourselves to one another, at the distance of twenty paces, by means of a very long cord, for on this occasion I approved of the scheme, and we marched gaily forward, with the snow sometimes up to our knees. In order to shorten our road, we often slid down steep declivities, always tied to one another, and with- out taking much care of the crevices which might have cross- ed our path, being rather heedless of smaller dangers, after the great ones which we had survived. In this state of confidence, when we were all sliding down a declivity, the one being drawn by the other, the first upon the cord arrived at a crevice. The snow which covered it sunk down all on a sudden, and the poor man fell backwards / M. Zumstein’s Account of a Journey to Monte Rosa. 25 -into the crevice. M. Vincent, who followed him with his _ eye, had the presence of mind to strike his iron-pointed baton against the sides of the ice, and by this quick manceuvre he prevented us from tumbling, one over another, into the crevice. The man who had fallen in, did his best to extri- cate himself from the crevice, and by our assistance he was brought out with no other injury than a little fright, which rendered us all more circumspect in future. In our progress we heard, more than once, both from our right and left, loud noises, similar to claps of thunder, which were produced by the fall of great masses of ice, or avalanches of snow, which the heat of the day had detached. Exhausted with fatigue, and drenched with perspiration, we arrived, towards the evening, at the same barrack from which we had set out in the morning, and, with a good fire, and a little nutritive soup, we spent the night in tranquillity. On the next day, the 13th of August, our eyes began to smart, as well as the skin of our faces, and some days after- wards it peeled off, and slightly disfigured us. The chain of Monte Rosa, which we passed over towards the south, appeared to be composed of alternate beds of gneiss and grained granite. From Gressoney, on the left of the Lys, to Urssieu, and even to the cow stations of Gabiet, calcareous rock and common serpentine prevailed. On the right, towards the Pass of Olen, we found foliated, or scaly serpentine, and an ore of iron ; and some paces high- er I found the radiating asbestos, and epidote containing small garnets. We afterwards met, in several places, the debris of granite, in efflorescence, of a reddish brown colour, between the beds of which there occurred a very compact ore of antimony. Towards the top, and about a league beyond the commencement of the icy region, we find the gold mine of M. Vincent, within the veined granite, mixed with milky quartz, ‘The veins of this mine stretch from S.W. to N.E. and are placed almost vertically, like the primitive rock. The gneiss and the quartzy vein accompany one another almost ‘invariably, even to the summit of the mountain. Thus terminated an excursion to the glaciers, more happily than we had reason to expect. If Providence still give us health, and a favourable opportunity, we propose, in another 26 On the Astronomical Observations made at Dorpat. journey, to go to the centre of the crown formed by the aiguil- les of Monte Rosa, for the purpose of ascertaining correctly its figure and height, and of examining, at this prodigious elevation, the phenomena of light, heat, and of the boiling point of water. Our efforts will be particularly directed to effect the ascent of the highest point of Monte Rosa; and we venture to say, that we want neither the courage nor the bo- dily strength which this ascent requires. Art. III. On the Astronomical Observations made at Dor- pat, by M. Srruve. Tuer new university of Dorpat, in Livonia, established by the Emperor of Russia, possesses an observatory, that, from the instruments with which it has been furnished, and from the zeal and ability of the Professor, M. Struve, is likely to take a distinguished place among those of Europe. Three volumes of Observations have been already publish- ed, of which two have only recently reached this country. A short account of these will, we conceive, be not uninteresting to our astronomical readers. We have already given, in con- siderable detail, M. Struve’s valuable observations on double stars, which are also contained in these volumes, and shall here principally confine ourselves to his observations with the transit instrument. He possessed no good instrument for ob- serving declinations at the time he made these observations, He has since acquired one of Reichenbach’s three-feet circles. The transit observations will probably bear an adyantage- ous comparison with any transit observations that have ever been made, both from the ingenuity and skill by which M, ‘Struve got rid of the usual sources of error in his instrument, and from the exactness of his results, relative to some of the most delicate inquiries of astronomy. The transit instrument was made by Mr. Dollond, is eight feet in length, and the axis is four feet. The aperture of the object glass exceeds four inches. Mr. Struve speaks very highly of the optical powers of his instrument. He mentions that he has been able to observe the small star of the eleventh On the Astronomical Observations made at Dorpat. 27 magnitude 18” from the pole star, when the wires were consi- derably illuminated ;—that he has also been able to observe it when the twilight was so strong that the wires did not require illumination ;—that he has observed several stars of the third magnitude, when the sun was near the meridian ; and that he has even observed ¢ Cassiop. a star of the fourth magnitude, when on the meridian with the sun. At first, he had only five wires in the focus; afterwards he inserted seven. His clock appears to have been a good one; but, from the manner in which he has ordered his most deli- cate observations, he was able toavoid any dependence on the going of the clock for more than a very short space, often for only a few minutes. He principally applied himself to observations of cirs eumpolar stars. The reasons heassigns for thus confining him- self are, that these stars have been less accurately observed by other astronomers ; that, in stars near the pole, where both culminations could be observed, he could apply his observa- tions to the investigation of the aberration of light, and the parallaxes of the stars. The skies of Dorpat appear to be par ticularly favourable to observations of this kind, for M. Struve mentions it seldom happened that he was unable to make an observation of the pole star. He states, with the utmost minuteness, the steps he took to insure accuracy ; and it will be necessary, before we refer to his results relative to parallax and aberration, to relate very briefly some of these. The formule by which the errors of a transit instrument may be corrected or allowed for are to be found in Delambre, Bessel, &c. but they appear to have been more used and more strictly attended to by M. Struve than by other astronomers. Indeed this was required by many of his observations, The three adjustments of a transit instrument are, 1. To make the line of collimation perpendicular to the axis. 2. To make the axis level. 3. To adjust the instrument to the meridian. The effects of the errors arising from the want of these three adjustments are expressed by 28 On the Astronomical Observations made at Dorpat. + asin. x sec. d + bcos. x sec. d+-¢ sec.d above the pole: and + a. mM. 74° 7 5° S. by E. gentle, pretty clear. 10 77.5 77.5 7.5 Do. — do. do. 12 78 77 8 Do. do. do. 2p.mu. 76 77 6.5 Do. do. do. 6 75.5 76 6.5 Do. do. do. 9 70 a 7 Do. do. very clear. The night was very fine, and the breeze gentle. The de- gree of evaporation at 9 p. M. was very surprising. Under so clear a sky, and so gentle a breeze, dew would have form- ed in Ceylon. The dryness of the air at sea, at a great dis- tance from land, is a subject that merits attention and inyesti- gation. Feb. 29. S. Lat. 24° 34’, E. Long. 61° 56’. Air. Water. Hygr. «© Wind and Weather. 60 a. a. 74° 76°.5 6° S. by E. gentle, clear. 10 76.5 76.5 7.5 8. do. do. 12 17 77 8 S. by E. do. do. 2rn™u. 76 77 7 Do. do. do. 6 76 76.5 ‘i Do. moderate, do. 9 76 —— 7 Do. do. do. The night was fine, and the wind moderate. during a Voyage from Ceylon to the Cape. 65 March 1. S. Lat. 25° 6’, E. Long. 58° 42’. Air. Water. Hiygr. | Wind and Weather. 6La.m. 76° 7T6°.5 8°.5 E. by S. moderate, clear. 1 ie iy 17 8.5 Do. do. do. 12 78 17 7 Do. do. pretty clear. Sem. 77.6 eh! 6.5 Do. do. do. 6 77 77 6 Do. do. do. 9 77 — 6 Do. do. rather clear. The night was cloudy, and the wind rather fresh. About noon there was a pretty strong current setting to the west, and a little to the south. March 2. S. Lat. 26° 7’, E. Long. 55° 48’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 63 a. o..77° 76°.5 8° E. by S. moderate, overcast par- tially. 10 78 77 10 Do. do. slightly overcast. 12 78 77.5 10 Do. do. SP. M977 77.5 8 Do. do. pretty clear. 6 77 78.5 1 Do. do. do. 8 77 _ 7 Do. do. do. The night was fine, and the breeze steady. During the twenty-four hours before noon the current was setting more to the north. There was a considerable swell from the east before noon. March 3. SS. Lat. 26° 43’, E. Long. 52° 54’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 72 a. Mz. 76° 78° 7 ts E. moderate, cloudy. 12 73 78.25 7 Do. do. pretty clear. 3P.M. 78 78 7 Do. do. do. 6 G7 77.4 7 Do. do. do. 8 G7 _ 7 Do. » do. do. March 4. S. Lat. 27° 55’, E. Long. 50° 7. Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. qha,m. 77° ie 4° E. moderate, pretty clear, 10 73.5 77 5.5 Do. do. do. 12 79.5 97.5 7 Do. do. do. 3P.M. 78.5 17.5 6.5 E. NE. do. slightly overcast. 6 78 77 4 E. by N. do. pretty clear. 9 73 76.5 3 E. NE. do. overcast. The night was squally, with much swell. At 9b p. m. there was some appearance of dew, every thing being moist, VOL. I. NO. I. JoLy, 1824. F 66 Dr. Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, This is owing to the deliquescence. of salt, with more or less of which every thing on the deck of a ship is impregnated. A dry glass tumbler when exposed remained dry. March 5. §. Lat. 28° 47’, E. Long. 46° 40’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. ™ma.m. 78° v.75 | 3 NE. fresh, rather cloudy, muck swell. 1o 80 76.5 4 N. NE. do. do. do. 12 79 76.5 3 N. by E. do. overcast, do. 3rpum. 79 76.5 3 N. by E. do. pretty clear, do. 6 718 76 BF NE. hard, partially overcast, do, 8 77 77 3 Do. do. do. The night was squally and rainy. March 6. S. Lat. 29° 21’, E. Long. 45° 5’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 625 a, M. 75° 97° 3° W. hard, overcast, much swell. 10 77 77 4 Do. do. do. do. 12 77.5 77 5 W. SW. do. do. do. 3Y. Mm. %6 77 3 SW. fresh, partially overcast,do. 6 76 77 3 W. SW. moderate, cloudy, do. 9 76 — 4 S. SE. gentle, rather cloudy, do. The night was moderate. March. SS. Lat. 28° 47’, E. Long. 43° 56:. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. Gha.m. 76° q7°.5 6° SS. by W. gentle, pretty clear, swell , _ subsiding. i0 77 78 7° SW do. rather cloudy. 12 77.5 78.5 8. SW. do. pretty clear. From the temperature of the water I was led to infer, that the ship was ina current from the north; but, from a com- parison of the observations and dead reckoning, it appeared, on the contrary, that, during the last two ne the ship was in a current setting to the north. There is, consequently, a difficulty in accounting for the high temperature of the sea in this case. This current may, therefore, be an eddy of the great south current flowing through the Mozambique Chan- nel, Perhaps it may flow round the Belliqueux Bank. 3° par 76.5 78°5 6° SW. by W. moderate, cloudy. 6 76 78 6 | SW. fresh, pretty clear. 9 76 77.5 6 Do. do. cloudy. during a Voyage from Ceylon to the Cape. | G7 The night was moderate. We tacked twice during the night, being apprehensive of running upon the Hagus rocks, described by Captain Wilson, in §. Lat. 28° 20’, and 42° 13’ E. Long. March 8. S. Lat. 29° 17’, E. Long. 42° 5’. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather, a.m. 75° 17°.5 3° SW. gentle, clondy. 10 77 735 7 S. wip... Oe 12 76 77 7 S. moist, pretty clear. According to Captain Stewart, we have been, since yester- day, im a current of no great strength, setting a little to the west and south. At 10" a.m. when the temperature of the sea was 75°, we were probably crossing the southern extremi- ty of the Belliqueux shoal. No change appeared in the colour of the water, and consequently the depth must have been con- siderable. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 32am 75°5 _77°. 6° S. ari pretty clear. 6 14.5 °° "5 * 5.5 Do. do. 9 7 a 6 Do. = do. The night was fine. In the evening I saw three different meteors, or shooting stars, of considerable apparent maguitude, and great brilliancy. They appeared suddenly, and shot in different directions. The two largest seemed about the size of Venus. ? March 9. S$. Lat. 29° 38’, E. Long. 39° 26’. Air. Water. Hyer. * Wind and Weather. - WDa.m. 73° 77°.5 4° © _-§. fresh, overcast, rainy. 10 75 76.5 4% & Do. do. overcast. 12 75 77 S$ * Do. do. pretty clear. The Captain infers, from his reckoning, that we have been in a current setting towards the NE. though the contrary would appear to be the case, from the occasional high temperature of the sea. The effect may be owing to a counter-current or eddy. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind aud Weather. S> pw 6749.5 7 FS S. fresh, pretty clear. 6 73 ~77.4 6.5 Do. do. do. 8 74 77 * Do. gentle, do. The night was fine. 68 Dr. Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air; March 10, S. Lat. 30° 51’, E. Long. 37° 12’. Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 6) a. M. 75° 7° | Be E. gentle, cloudy. 10 77 77.5 9 Do. do. pretty clear. 12 78 77.6 9 E. by 8. do. rather cloudy. According to Captain Stewart, the current during the last twenty-four hours has been setting towards the SW. Many flying fish were observed yesterday and this morning. Num- bers of black petrels were seen yesterday. and a very dark al- batross this morning, which is the first we have observed. Air. - Water. Hyer. ‘Wind and Weather. Sp. | 87? 17° Yo E.SE. gentle, pretty clear: 6 75.5 76 6 SE. do. do. 9 WEG jaies ite Bk! oS, byEedode, The night was fine. March 11. 8. Lat. 31° 54’, E. Long. 34° 42), Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 7D a. M. 76° 77° 6° S. by E. gentle, pretty cleat. 10 73 77.5 8 Do. do. do. 12 73.5 77.5 9 Do. do. clear. 3P. M. 77 75 6 E. by S. moderate do. 6 75.5 75.5 4 Do. do. do. 9 75.5 — 4 Do. do. de. The night was fine. An albatross was seen this morning, and several flying-fish. The captain had never before seen thie fish in so high a lati- tude. March 18. 8, Lat. 98° 50’, E. Long. 32° 26. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 645 a.m. 75° Tons joe E. by S. moderate, clear. 10 G7 76.5 4 Do. do. do. 12 97.5 75 3.5 E. by N. do. do: 3P. M. SU 76 4 Do. do. rather cloudy. 6 ri 76 2 Do. do. rather cloudy. 9 76 76 2 Do. do. clear. The night was rather fine. There was no dew, though there was an appearance of it, as former ly mentioned on the 4th of March; a dry glass, when exposed, remaining dry. During the last two days we have been in a current setting about W.SW. : ie “ during a Voyage from Ceylon to the Cape. 69 March 1, 8. Lat. $3° 41’, E. Long, 29° 16. Air. | Water. Hygr. | Wind and Weather. 615 a.m. 76° 76° 3° E.NE. fresh, hazy at horizon, heavy swell. 10 77 75.5 5 NE. do. do. 12 73 75 4 NE. do. do. 3p. M. 79 77.5 4.5 NE. do. do. 6 77 77 4 E.NE. do. do. 8 77 74 4 Do. overcast, lightning. 9 — 14 = NW. by W. do. do, At night, when the lead was heaved, no bottom was dis- covered at 95 fathoms. According to our reckoning we were off Algoa Bay, and at 8" F. m. at the edge of the bank, which the temperature of the water seemed to indicate. Between 8 and 9 o’clock we steered more to the south, and consequent- ly came into deeper water, which was also indicated by the rise of the thermometer. The night was squally and the wind contrary. In the evening, and during the night, there was a good deal of light- ning, but no thunder was heard. Had the atmosphere been clear, we expected to have seen land in the evening. March 14. S, Lat. D.R. 94° 34, E. Long. 27° 20. Air. ~ Water. | Hygr. Wind and Weather. 6h> a.m. 76° 17 Zz NW. by W. fresh, hazy below, cloudy above. 10 76.5 76.5 2 Do. do. do. 12 73 75 A W. by N. do. overcast after rain. 4P.M. 72 75.5 3 SW. by W. moderate, cloudy. 6 73 15 “®. re Do. do. 3 73 75 4 S.SE. do. do. The night was cloudy and the wind moderate. March 15. S. Lat. 35° 41’, E. Long, 24° 13’, Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 6 a.m. 67° 76° 4° S.SE. moderate, cloudy. 8 68 75.5 4 Do. do. do. 10 68 76 5.5 Do. do. do. 12 63 76.5 6.5 Do. do. do. 2P. M 68 76 — 6 SE. by S. do. overcast. 4 ' 68 75.5 6.5 SE. do. do. 6 67.5 495 4.5 Do. do. do. 8 68 72 46 Do. do. do. 10 68 69 2 Do. do. do. " = 6 om 40 Dr. Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, The night was unpleasant, with some rain. The current, during the last two days, has been strong, and has set about S. SW. Though the thermometer is not below 68°, we feel so dis- agreeably cold that I am obliged to write wrapped up in a boat cloak, and yet do not feel warm. The remarkable change in the temperature of the sea be- tween 6 and 10 rv. m. seems to show that we are on the bank of Lagullas, and confirms the accuracy of our reckoning. It is in situations of this kind that the thermometer promises to be particularly useful in navigation. It will, no doubt, indi- cate a bank, even when the bottom is too deep to be ascer- tained by sounding, and it is far from improbable that it may become an excellent substitute for the lead, the use of which is attended with so many inconveniences at sea. If the tem- perature of the water, for instance, on different parts of the bank, and at different seasons, were once well ascertained, q ship on her voyage to or from India, and not intending to touch at the Cape, would not require to use the lead rat supposed to be on the bank of the Lagullas, but might as- certain the fact without delay or trouble, by the thernionieter, and make a fresh departure from the bank with confidence. The sea was very luminous, and the swell heavy. Many porpoises and many birds were seen in the course of the after- noon, “ March 16. S. Lat. 35° 27’, E. Long. 20° 20, Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. * 2ha.M, ~=— 68° — —_ = 4 — 68 a — — 6 67° 69.5 2 SE. moderate, overcast. 8 70 69-5 3 SE. by E. gentle, do. after a Tah: 10 71 70 4 E. by N. do. do. . | ali 72 70 5 NE. by E. moderate, partial sunshine. 2 P. Me 72 70 5 E. do. cloudy. 4? 71 70.5 45 E.SE. do. 6 67 57 n2 _ Do. do. pretty elear, overcast. 8 63 57 2 Do. do. do. . The night was fine, the air very cold, and the horizon hazy. during a Voyage from Ceylon to the Cape. 71 At 6" p. m, the water was greenish, and the Lagullas about 10 miles off. At 125 p, m. the lead was thrown out, and the bottom found at about ‘70 fathoms. The current has carried us a good deal to the SW. and I suspect it must have acted most powerfully between 12 and 6v,M. We are now steering for Point Lagullas, Many albatrosses and several gannets were seen this morn- ing. The appearance of the latter bird is considered as a prcof of being on the bank, March i7. S. Lat. E, Long. Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. isha. M. 63°.5 60° 2° EE. moderate, clear overhead. 6 65 60 2.5 SE. do. do. Cape of Good Hope about 3 miles off. 8 63 52.5 2 Do, moderate, about 3 miles from land. 10 65 51 4 Do. about 3 miles from Chapman’s Point. 12 72 54 9 Hardly 1 mile from shore, under Lion’s Head, ~ $PpeMuM. 72 52 8 Do. _ About 5" p. u. the ship anchored in Table Bay, about 13 mile from land, and in about seven fathoms of water, Art. X.—Account of a Map of Upper Laos, or the Terri- tory of the Lowa Shan. By Francis Hauitton, M. D. F.R.S. and F. A. S. London and Edinburgh. Communi- cated by the Author. Te accompanying map (PLaTe II.) has been reduced from the original drawing given to me by the slave of the heir-ap- parent of the kingdom of Ava, who has been mentioned, ( Phil. Journ. i. 89.) It represents the territory, which, in 1795, was in the possession of the Prince of Upper Laos, or of the Lowa Shan, but by no means the whole territory which at times has belonged to that people or its princes, and which is repre- sented in the general map by the same person, ( Phil. Journ. ii.) as I have endeavoured to show in treating of Zenme, (Phil. Journ. x. 65.) I then stated, that probably 16,000 square British miles, which at one time had belonged to Upper Laos, had been separated from it; and this alienated e 72 Dr. F. Hamilton on a Map of Upper Laos, portion comprehended all the country on both sides of the Mekhaun, Mekhoup, and Mzpreen rivers. Nothing, there- fore, remained then to the Prince of Upper Laos, "but the territory on the Meghue, and from thence to the Saluen river. “This accordingly forms the western boundary of Up- per Laos, although Mr. Arrowsmith has brought it through the centre of the country. The principality of Upper Laos, therefore, in 1795, ex- tended from about Lat. 24° 05’ N. where the Saluzen leaves China, to about 21° 50’ N. where I suppose the Maghue joins the Mepreen, or principal branch of the river of Siam. In Arrowsmith’s map, this is represented by a small branch joining the Maygue (as he writes it) on the east, and the name Maygue is extended down to Siam, in place of ending at the junction, as it ought to have done. The junction, be- sides, he brings too far south ; as from the maps of Zeume, as well as the accompanying one, it is evidently at or near the frontier ; the Mzeghue not appearing in the maps of Zenme, nor the Mzpreen in that of the Lowa Shan. The principa- lity, in its reduced state, extends about 135 geographical miles (60 to a degree) from north to south; and at the capi- tal may be 75 miles wide, but towards the north it is much contracted, and its area does not probably exceed 3000 square British miles, or one-third of its original extent. Such a great diminution of territory was probably owing to the Lowa Shan having given provisions to the Chinese army, in the dispute with the Mranmas about the mines at Boduen, and to their having refused to pay tmbute in the reign of Zhen- brusheen. ‘The. northern ba sadace of Upper Laos is formed by the territory of the Independent, or Wild Lowas, probably the Lolos of the Chinese; and this tribe in all probability occu- pies all the adjacent parts of the Chinese empire, which ex- tends also along the eastern boundary, until we reach those parts of Laos w chich have been given to Zeume. The south- ern boundary is Zenme, and the western is the Saluzn. _ K-aintoun, the present capital, is about 30 or 40 miles from the southern end of the territory ; and in place of being on the Saiuzea, as represented by Mr. Arrowsmith, is ABaut half-way between the eastern and western boundaries. In or the Territory of the Lowa Shan. 1s the sacred dialect, it is called Kemalatain. Leng, the former capital of the principality, was situated in the territory which has been alienated. ‘There still, however, remain, besides the capital, twelve governments or cities marked in the map by squares; while the places marked by circles are Ruas or dependent towns. All these governments seem placed near the frontier, which is very mountainous ; but there would ap- pear to be an extensive plain around the capital, and towards the Meghue on the north-east, and on the Mrenlo towards the north and west. This last-small river runs through the centre of the country ; but no connexion between it and an other is mentioned : it seems to rise in one cluster of hills, and to terminate in another. ‘There are, in warm climates especially, many similar rivers ; but from such a rude draught, it would not be safe to conclude that the Mrzeulo is lost either by evaporation, which is not likely in a country so well sup- plied with rain, or by sinking into a cavern. It may very possibly be a branch of the Saluen. Mr. Arrowsmith, in- deed, seems to have confounded it,with that river, and there- fore brought the Saluzn through the middle of Upper Laos, as I have already mentioned. Even among the northern mountains an extensive flat of rice ground is laid down be- tween Lzhlu and M. Lue; so that, on the whole, the coun- try is probably fertile, which will account for so many towns in so smal] an extent. With respect to the scale, we have séven days’ journey for the distance between the extreme towns; and allowing each of these to be 10 miles from the frontier, and the whole length to be 135 geographical miles, we shall have about 16 of thése miles direct distance for a day’s journey on lines of a consi- derable length. This, however, is probably too much, and could not be applied to the lateral distances. -Art. XI.—WNotice of Experiments on a Variation in the Rates of Chronometers, with the Density of the Medium in which they are placed. By Guorcr Harvey, Esq. F.R.S.E. Plymouth, Ix a series of interesting experiments on chronometers, Mr. Harvey has lately been led to the important discovery, that the 74 Mr. Harvey on a@ Variation in the Rates density of the medium in which a chronometer is placed, has a sensible influence on its rate, én most cases producing an acce- leration when the density is diminished, or a retardation when the density is increased. Ina few timckeepers he has found the reverse to take place, viz. a decrease of rate from diminished density, and an increase from increased density, but the form- er appears to be the most general effect. -Mr. Harvey has proved this to be the case, by an extensive course of experi- ments, and in which he has subjected many chronometers to pressures, from half an inch of mercury to 75 inches ; and in all cases he has found, that if a timekeeper gained by increas- ing the density, it lost by diminishing it, and vice versé. A “difference of density, denoted by an inch of quicksilver, i is sufficient to produce in many chronometers a visible altera- tien of rate. We have been favoured with a few of Mr. Harvey’s re- sults, which are as follow. A pocket chronometer, which possessed a steady rate of +1”.6, under the ordinary circumstances of the atmosphere, had its rate increased to +6”.2, when the density of the air was diminished to a quantity represented by 20 inches of quicksilver ; and, on afterwards placing it in air, of a density denoted by 10 inches of mercury, a farther increase of its rate to +11”.6 took place. On restoring the timekeeper to the ordinary circumstances Of the atmosphere, its rate re- turned to +2”.1. Tn another set of experiments, with the same chronometer, Mr. Harvey placed it in a condens¢r, under an atmospheric pressure of 45 inches, when its rate changed to —4’.4; and onuincreasing the density of the air to a quantity denoted by 60 inches of mercury, the daily variation farther declined to — 8’.2; and a nearly proportional declension was obtained when the pressure was increased to 75 inches of quicksilver. In another remarkable experiment, Mr. Harvey found that when the rate of a chronometer was 423”.5, undera yeceiver, having its air exhausted to a quantity denoted by half an inch of mercury, the rate was altered to —17”.2, when the air was increased to a density corresponding to 75 inches of quicksilver; the rate of the time-keeper, under ‘the ordinary circumstances of atmospheric pressure, being - ie £ of Chronometers, with the Density of the Medium. % Mr. Harvey has, we understand, drawn from this disco- very several important conclusions. For example, that a chro- nometer constructed in London, nearly on the level of the sea, would undergo an alteration of rate, from difference of atmo- spheric pressure aloue, if transported to Geneva, to Madrid, to Mexico, or any other place, situated much above the level ef the place where it was constructed. The whole of the interesting results obtained in this en- quiry are about to be laid before the Royal Society. Azgt. XII.—On the Solution of Copper in Ammonia, and on the Oxidation of Copper plates. By Jonx MacCutzocn, M.D.F.R.S. F.L.S.and M.G.S, &. Communicated by the Author. Ir is an unaccountable omission of chemists, not to have observed that copper is soluble in ammonia; I mean, of course, in the metallic state. This solution takes place ra- pidly in the heat at which the water of ammonia boils. The water is decomposed during the process, for the purpose of oxidating the metal, and hydrogen is obtained. This fact may be turned to use in the arts. Gold trinkets, such as chains, are often made of a very inferior alloy ; and, in this country I believe, theys are never better than eigh- teen carat gold. They of course require to be coloured, te use the jeweller’s term. This is done by dissolving the cop, per of the alloy to a certain depth on the surface; so that, after this operation, the metal is in fact gilded, nothing but pure gold being visible. The coat of pure gold is thus so slight, that it easily wears off in use; so that the operation’ of cleaning, (as it is supposed to be by the owners,) requires to be frequently performed, and this is done by a fresh pro- cess of solution, or colouring. The method used by the artists is the application of a mixture of neutral salt, intended to disengage nitric acid, with the assistance of heat. In whatever manner, however, this.is managed, there is much gold also dissolved in the op- eration ; so much indeed, that where much work of this na- ture is performed, the quantity of metal rescued from thé yr i 76 Dr. MacCulloch on the Solution of Copper in Ammonia. solutions amounts to a very considerable quantity annually. Artists are accused of doing this with fraudulent views; with what truth I shall not pretend to say. Whatever the fact may be as to this, a few repetitions of the colouring pro- cess are sufficient to destroy the finer kinds of workmanship, to the great regret of our ladies. Boiling in ammonia is a safe substitute for this pernici- ous process, as it dissolves the copper from the alloy, and leaves, in the same manner, a gilded or yellow surface, It has the advantage that it can be performed by any one, with, out the necessity of employing an artist. The oxidation of copperplates is a matter of very great importance in the arts; nor are the printers aware of the in- jury which these sustain in consequence of it. It is usual in all great and expensive works, not to print more impressions at once than are required for the present demand, when the plates are laid aside till they are again wanted. Thus they are often kept for many years; while, after each operation, they acquire an iridescent oxidated surtace, which is removed by the hand of the operator in the first inking. A scale is thus repeatedly removed from the plate, to the great injury of all the finer lines ; producing bad impressions, and, toge- ther with the ordinary injury from the hand and the chalk, at length rendering i what is technically called rotten and useless. The mere operation of inking must, in time, wear out any plate, even in the most careful hands; but this evil would be diminished by preventing the oxidation in question; which, in some cases, produces a far thicker crust than would be ima- gined, and as, in itself, sufficient to be a cause of very serious injury to the distances and fainter parts. This evil might be diminished by printing more impres- sions at one time ;_ but, where it is necessary to lay the plate aside, it might be entirely prevented by varnishing. For this purpose, common lac varnish is easily applied; and it can be removed, when requisite, by spirit of wine. The varnish of caoutchouc might also be used for the same pur; pose, but I know not that it is more convenient. | Dr. Brewster on the Accommodation of the Eye, &e. %7T Art. XIII.—On the Accomodation of the Eye to Different Distances. By Davin Brewster, LL. D. F. R.S. London, and Sec. R. S. Edinburgh. * Turns is no part of the physiology of the eye which has ex- cited more discussion than the power by which it accommo- -dates itself to different distances. Although the most distin- guished philosophers have contributed their optical skill, and the most acute anatomists their anatomical knowledge, yet, notwithstanding all this combination of science, the subject is -as little understood at the present moment as it was in the days of Kepler, who first attempted the solution of the pro- blem. In recollecting the great names which have appeared in this controversy; it is impossible to approach the subject with- out much diffidence; but this feeling is, in some degree, re- moved, when we observe the utter discordance of the results, -and their absolute incompatibility with the principles of op- ‘tics, on the one hand, and the structure of the eye on the other. Kepler was of opinion, that, in the process of adjustment, the eye was lengthened and shortened by the action of the ciliary processes. Descartes supposed, that the crystalline lens changed its form, by the muscularity of its own fibres. -Huygens conceived, that the crystallfne approached the cor- nea, by the pressure of the external muscles, or that the lens might be made more convex by the same action. M. de la Hire maintained, that the whole effect was produced solely and immediately by the enlargement and diminution of the pupil; and Dr. Porterfield chauietid, that the crystalline dens was drawn backwards and forwards by the action of “the ciliary processes: These different opinions have been revived by more recent physiologists. The opinion of Huygens was modified and defended by Dr. Monro. Mr. Walker has endeavoured to support the hypothesis of De la Hire, and Dr. Thomas * This paper was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh on the 15:h Dec. 1823. 78 Dr. Brewster on the Accommodation Young has revived the opinion of Descartes, and sustained it with all the ingenuity which might have been expected from his profound knowledge of Optics and Physiology. In the elaborate memoir which he has composed on this subject, he has attempted to show, that the fibres of the crystalline are muscular, and, that the accommodation of the eve to remote objects is effected by the increase of convexity which that muscularity produces. In estimating the value of this hypothesis, it is important to state, what Dr. Knox in- forms me is confirmed by all his observations, directed espe- cially to this point, that the crystalline lens floats loosely within its capsule, in the liquor morgagni ; and that no anatomist has traced to it any nervous filaments. In stating this objection we have taken it for granted, that the fibres, if they were muscular, are capable of increasing the convexity of the lens; but, when we consider the singular constitution of this part of the eye, and especially the fact, that the fibres are lines of contrary flexure, we venture to say, that no sagacity is capable of predicting the actual effect which would arise from their contraction. One thing only is certain, that the fibres of the outer laminz would, in the pro- cess of contraction, press upon those of the inner lamine, and destroy that compound gradation of density, * by which the aberration of sphericity is so finely corrected. In studying the changes which take place when the eye ad- justs itself to different distances, it has been long ago observed that the pupil contracts in viewing near objects, and dilates in observing distant ones. By combining this admitted fact with a fallacious experiment, De la Hire maintained, that the diminution of the pupil united upon the retina the rays of near and luminous objects by excluding unnecessary light, and cutting off the extreme rays of the pencils, while the enlargement of the pupil gave distinctness to distant objects by admitting a greater quantity of light into the eye. * The compound gradation of density here alluded to has not hitherto beew noticed in the crystalline lenses of animals. 1 have described it fully in a paper on the Human Eye, which was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh on the 2d Dec, 1822, and will soon be published. of the Eye to Different Distances. 79 Although succeeding philosophers saw the general fallacy ef this principle, yet, in their eagerness to renounce it, they fell under the influence of another no less meompatible with observation. It was universaily allowed that the pupil va~ ried its size in the adaptation of the eye to different distances, but this was considered as merely a concomitant effeet, de- pending entirely on the varying intensity of the light of the objects to which the eye was directed. In the dilatation of the pupil by the action of Belladonna, Dr. Wells and other physiologists remarked, that the eye lost its power of seeing near objects; but this instructive fact, though of primary im- portance in the inquiry, was not pursued as it ought to have been; and the phenomenon which it presented was supposed to be consistent with every theory of adjustment, as those parts of the eye on which this adjustment depended might be supposed to be paralysed along with the iris during the action of the Belladonna. In this state of the subject I was desirous of discovering the cause, and estimating the influence of this variation of the pupil. For this purpose I selected a near and a distant ob- ject equally illuminated, and directed a young person to look attentively and successively at both. The result of this ex- periment was, that the pupil contracted in viewing the near object, and dilated in viewing the distant one, so that the va- riation which it experienced could not have been produced by the stimulus of light. In order to ascertain what took place at the two limits of the range of distinct vision, I took a piece of paper, as shown in the an- , nexed figure, and wrote upon it the ON | THE | EYE three words, oN THE EYE. Having placed a fold of white paper behind the word tur, and two folds behind the word rrr, I fixed the piece of paper at one end of a square draw-tube, and placed my eye at the other end, so that I could read all the words by the transmitted light of a candle held behind the paper. The word on was most luminous; the word THe was less luminous, and the word EYE still less so. I now brought the paper as near my eye as possible, so that E could see the word on with per- fect distinctness. When this was done, no exertion whatever could enable me to read the word rue, and still less the word 80 Dr. Brewster on the Accommodation EYE. I then looked at them through a small aperture which, upon De la Hire’s principle, ought to have given me distinct vision, but it produced the opposite effect, and increased the indistinctness of the last two words. By making the words ur and £YE as luminous as the word ox, or by bringing another candle near the eye, so as to force the pupil to con- tract still farther, they could be read with the greatest faci- lity. From this experiment we may draw three important infe- rences. lst, That the contraction of the pupil which accompanies the adjustment of the eye to near objects does not produce distinct vision, by the diminution of the aperture, but by some other action which accompanies it. Qd, That the eye adjusts itself to near objects by two ac- tions, one of which is voluntary, depending wholly on the will; and the other involuntary, depending on the stimulus of light. $d, That when the voluntary power of adjustment fails, the adjustment may still be effected by the involuntary sti- mulus of light. It now became an interesting inquiry to ascertain what takes place at the other extremity of the range of distinet vi- sion, namely, in viewing distant objects. If the contraction of the pupil is a necessary accompaniment of the action which adjusts the eye to near objects, the dédatation of the pupil ought to have the same relation to the action which ad- justs it to remote ones. As objects must cease to be visible when the stimulus of light is withdrawn to such an extent, as to produce a great dilatation of the pupil, it becomes somewhat difficult to show that this dilatation is essential to the vision of remote objects. The experiments with the Belladonna incontestibly prove, that when the pupil is widened to its utmost extent, the eye loses the power of adjustment to near objects, and has its power of observing distant ones improved and extended ; but, as the whole eye may be considered as in a paralysed state during the experiment, it is necessary to employ another method of observation. It occurred to me, that, if the dilated condition of the pupil was essential to remote vision, all short-sighted of the Eye to Different Distances. 81 persons ought to have their sphere of vision extended in the evening. [accordingly found, upon inquiry, that this was the case to a great degree, and that several short-sighted persons could count the six stars of the Pleiades, though they were unable to see objects distinctly at a moderate dis- tance during the day. The most superficial observer, indeed, must have remarked the distinctness of remote objects in the evening, especially in that state of the heavens when all adja- cent objects are lost in obscurity, and when the eye recognises only the precise and well-defined outlines of the trees and mountains that are projected against the horizontal sky. This remarkable effect of the dilatation of the pupil may be deduced from the converse process of observation. If we look at distant objects while the light of the sun is reflected upon the eye, the voluntary power of adjustment is still ca- pable of dilating the pupil so as to produce distinct vision ; but the tendency of the iris to contract under the involuntary stimulus of light, produces such a painful sensation in the eye as to leave no doubt, even if the dilatations were not vi- sible, that the iris was under the influence of two opposite actions. Having thus stated the most palpable arguments which may be adduced on this subject, it appears to me impossible to avoid the conclusion, that the power of adjusting the eye de- pends on the mechanism which contracts and dilates the pu- pil; and, since this adjustment is independent of the variation of its aperture, it must be effected by the parts which are in immediate contact with the base of the iris. At this point, however, observation and experiment fail; but, though we may never be able to point out the precise manner in which the action excited at the base of the iris produces the adjust- ment, yet, by excluding all other possible hypotheses, it may not be difficult to fix upon the true one, and establish it by that degree of evidence which is deemed satisfactory in other physiological inquiries. The mechanism at the base of the iris may be conceived to produce the adjustment in four ways. Ist, By elongating the eye during the contraction of the pupil. 2d, By increas- ing the convexity of the cornea. $d, By altering the con- vexity of the capsule of the lens; and, 4th, By increasing VOL. I. No 1. JULY 1624, G 82 Dr. Brewster on the Accommodation of the Eyc, &c. the distance of the crystalline lens from the retina. The first two of these modes of adjustment are excluded by the direct observations of Mr. Ramsden and Sir Everard Home, which prove, that neither the convexity of the cornea, nor the length of the eye, is altered during adjustment. The 3d mode, depending on a supposed alteration in the curvature of the capsule of the lens, cannot produce the effect, because ' the liquor morgagni, in which the lens floats, has nearly the same refractive power as the aqueous humour, and therefore no change in the curvature of a membrane which separates them, could produce a perceptible deviation in the transmit- ted rays. The last hypothesis, therefore, remains as the only proba- ble one, namely, the removal of the lens from the retina by the contraction of the pupil, the eye being adjusted to objects at the remote limit of its range when in a state of perfect re- pose. Independently of this train of argument, the opinion we have been supporting derives much countenance from va- rious well-ascertained facts. The loss of the power of ad- justment by the extraction of the lens, proves that this part of the eye is essential to the process, and many physiolo- gists have considered a motion of the lens as the most proba- ble change that could take place in the interior of the eye. The want of muscularity, however, in the ciliary processes, induced many of them to abandon this opinion, while those who continued to maintain it, never supposed that it might be effected through the agency of the iris by the combination of a voluntary and an involuntary action. The anatomy of the base of the iris has been hitherto so imperfectly understood, that it is not easy to point out the precise manner in which the muscular action of this mem- brane may be propagated to the lens; but these parts have been accurately examined, in reference to this inquiry, by Dr. Knox ; and the Society will be able to judge from the de- tails which he has given in a separate paper, whether or not they present any objection to the views which have now been explained. The preceding experiments and observations have an im- mediate application to those imperfections of vision to which Meteorological Observations at Paramatta. 83 the eye is exposed as an optical instrument. The range of distinct vision is necessarily affected by any diminution in the voluntary or involuntary powers of adjustment, and so ex- tensive, sometimes, is the influence of such a change, that the eye may be regarded as blind for objects at particular dis- tances, and under particular degrees of illumination. The cure of these apparently serious, and often alarming imperfections, is often extremely simple, by merely increasing or diminish- ing the involuntary stimulus of light, or by an alteration in the range of vision by means of coloured glasses, a purpose to which, so far as I know, they have never yet been applied. Art. XIV.—Mean of Twelve Months Meteorological Ob- servalions, in the Years 1822-3. By His Excellency Siz Tuomas BrisspaNe, K.C. B. F.R. S. &e. &c. ! 1822. |Thermometer.|| Barometer. Hygrometer. Rain. Inches. | Highest | 30.23 | Lowest | 29.50 Mean j| 29.87 Fahr, Highest} 72° MAY. Lowest | 42 Mean 60 Highest] 67 JUNE. |Lowest | 26 Mean 53.3 i SS — OO Highest | 30.20 Lowest | 29.55 Mean 30.09 — Highest} 63 suLY. |Lowest | 27 Mean 51,5 Highest} 77 ||Highest | 30.20 AUGUST. |Lowest | 35 Lowest 29.54 Mean | 56.5!'Mean | 29.80 Highest | 30.25 'Lowest | 29.50 Mean | 29.96 eee ee Ss Highest| 93 | Highest | 30.20 ||Highest| 60 SEPT. |Lowest | 36 Lowest 29.70 ||Lowest | 26 Rain 3.413 inches. Mean 62. ||Mean 29.92 ||Mean AALS j Highest|106 OCTOBER. |Lowest | 42 Mean 68 Highest} 99 NOVEMBER.|Lowest | 48 ——_ Highest | 30.23 ||Highest | $7 Lowest | 29.72 |;Lowest | 40 Rain 0.516. Mean | 30.02 ||Mean Sis \Highest | 30.35 || Highest} 80 (Lowest | 29.53 4|\Lowest | 24 Rain 5.235. Mean 72 em 29.88 |\Mean 50 iY Highest|102 |/Highest | 30.30 ||Highest) 77 DECEMBER.|Lowest | 47 || Lowest | 29.60-Lowest | 35 |} Rain 1.092. Mean 74 Mean | 30.05 ||/Mean 53.5 84 Meteorological Observations at Paramatta. TasLE—continued. 1823. |Thermometer.|| Barometer. || Hygrometer. Rain. | Fahr. Highest |L06° ganuanry. |Lowest | 52 ||/Lowest Mean 73 |\Mean Highest 97 ||\Highest FERRUARY.|Lowest | 49.5|| Lowest Mean 68.5]|Mean Highest} 98 || Highest marcn. |Lowest | 49.5|\Lowest Mean 60 |\Mean Rain 5.261. Rain 6.660. Rain 7,215. Highest} 74 |\Highest APRIE. |Lowest | 40 ||Lowest Mean 59 ||Mean The zero of the hygrometer is the greatest damp, and 100° the greatest drought: The elevation of the barometer is 62 . feet above the level of the sea. Fahr. The Annual Mean Temperature of the air at Pa- yamatta, as deduced from these observations, is 63°.16 The Mean Temperature of the air at Paramatta, as calculated by Dr. Brewster's formula, for two poles of maximum cold, is about 63° The Mean Temperature of the earth at Paramatta, as determined by Sir Thomas Brisbane, in 1822, by thermometers placed deep in the earth, was about 61°.5 This difference of about 12° between the temperature of the air and that of the earth, is nearly the same as what takes _ place 3 in corresponding latitudes in the northern hemisphere. Inches. The mean height of the barometer for 1822-3 is 30.00 The quantity of rain 29.948 Annual range of the batometer . 0.95 Greatest degree of heat : 106° Fahr, Greatest degree of cold : 26° Annual range of the thermometer : S0° Mean state of the hygrometer : 45°.7 Annual range of the hygrometer : 67° Mr. Babbage on Barometrical Measurements. 85 Art. XV.—Observations on the Measurement of Heights by the Barometer. By Cuaries BasBace, Esq. F.R-S. F.R.S.E. and Secretary to the Astronomical Society. In a Letter to Dr. Brewster. My DEAR SIR, I mEenTIONED to you, a long time since, that I had some ideas relative to the measurement of heights by the barometer, which it might be interesting either to verify or disprove. As it is very uncertain when I may find myself in situations favourable to the trials I propose, I should be very happy if, through your means, any other person were induced to un- dertake the investigation. It is generally admitted by those who have determined al- titudes by the aid of this instrument, that when the lower ob- servation is made in a narrow or deep valley, situated at the foot of a mountain range, the upper observation being made on an exposed summit, the elevation of the mountain thus determined falls short of its true height. This effect has sometimes been ascribed to a current of air cooled by the snow on the summit, and acting with the velocity due to its descent on the quicksilver in the basin of the instrument at the lower station. Other reasons haye been assigned; but, without determining the real cause, it seems possible, from its observed effects, to deduce an approximate measure. I have remarked, in a variety of instances, that when I have made an observation of the barometer and thermometer in a valley at the bottom of a mountain, and again, several other observations in ascending it, until I reached the summit, when the lowest and highest observations have been computed, they have generally fallen short of the sums of the heights, as deduced from a calculation of the height, from the first to the second station, from the second to the third, and so on to the summit. In a height of about 1500 feet, measured in the valley of Lauterbrunnen, with considerable care, I found, The direct height, . . ; ? 1485.7 feet. The sum of two heights, there being only one intermediate station, ’ ; 1490.9 Diff. - ; 5.2 86 Mr. Babbage on Barometrical Measurements. On the Simplon, on a height of 4350 feet, I found, by em- ploying four stations, a difference of 11.3 fect, but the cir- cumstances here were not very favourable to the trial. At Chamouni, in the neighbourhood of Mont Blane, on a height of 5300 feet, I found a difference of 76 feet by three stations. I mention these cases, not as sufficient to found a theory upon, nor as having been made with care enough to verify one when contrived ; but merely as a few of those facts which called my own attention to that subject, and as affording a reasonable ground of further inquiry. The algebraical formula which represents the height of any station above any other, by observations of the barometer and thermometer, contains within it certain constant quantities which must be ascertained by observations for each particular place : of these, the mean temperature of the air, and the dif- ference in length of the column of mercury in the barometer, at the two stations, are the most essential. ‘There are, how- ever, others of less amount, which must not in all cases be omitted ; and the system of inquiry which I would propose is, to assume some law of action for these descending currents, or for any other presumed cause; and, having introduced this new consideration into the formula, to determine the con- stants belonging to it, by the various observations made in ascending to the summit. Thus, if one additional constant were admitted, it would be necessary to make one intermedi- ate station; if more constants appeared, the observations must be more numerous. The equation for determining these constants would be deduced from the condition, that the sum of the heights of all the steps, from the bottom to the top, should be equal to the total computed height from the iowest and highest observations. In order to verify this theory, it would be desirable to se- lect a situation where the lower station ig if a deep valley, overlooked by lofty mountains, on whose sides 6ther stations are to be chosen, and a series of observations made simulta- neously. The altitude of these stations should, if possible, be measured trigonomctrically. It would probably be found necessary to try several hypo- thetical assumptions relative to the action of this unknown cause; but if any traveller should be induced to make obser- ; Tables of the Variation of the Magnetic Needle. 87 vations, with sufficient care, on altitudes of from six to twelve thousand feet, these would form most valuable data to those whose speculations might otherwise be of minor utility, from the want of the necessary facts with which to compare them. Before I terminate this letter, I shall make one other sug- gestion, relative to the detached thermometer, in order to as- certain the temperature of the air at any station, influenced as little as possible by radiation from surrounding objects. I would recommend that it be inclosed in a small cylindrical case, open at both ends, and perforated with a few holes, and that, when suspended by a string, it be whirled rapidly about. The current of the air which passes over it will probably have a greater effect in communicating to it the temperature of the air than can be counterbalanced by radiation from the neighbouring objects.—I remain, My Dear Sir, faithfully yours, Devonshire Street, Portland Place, C. BABBAGE. May 5, 1822. Axt. XVI.—Tables of the Variation of the Magnetic Needle in different parts of the Globe. Tue following Table from Hansteen is given by itself, on account of the great number of new observations which have been made in the part of the world to which it refers. These new observations, which we have printed in the form of sup- plementary tables, comprehend the observations of Captain Koss, Captain Franklin, Captain Parry, Captain Hall, and Mr. Foster. TaBLe.—Containing the Variation of the Needle, as observ- ed in America and the adjacent Islands. Year of] Magne- | | Yearof| Magne- NaMEs OF PracEs.| Obser-| tic Va- || NAMEs OF Pxaces.| Obser-| tic Va- vation.} riation. riation. Acapulco, : 1744 | 3° 0’ E.| 1B Ilan f | 1596 |13° 0’ E. Albany Fort, 1730-23 OW) {| 1610 |13 30 { 1774 17 O W.) Beverley, 1781 |7 4 W. Antigua Island, 1727 | 4 28 E. |\Barbadoes, Car- {| 1726 | 4 24 E. 1761 | 4 31 W.|| lisle Bay, | 1761 | 3 47 7 48 Augustin Cape, 1670 | 5 30 E. ||Bastimento’s Isle, 1726 83, T aBsLE—continued. earof) Magne- | Year ot | -Mague- Obser-| tic Va- ||Names or Praces.| Obser-| tic Va- NAMEs oF PLaceEs. m4 vation.| riation: Boston, Button Isle, Buenos Ayres, 15 32 E. Bahia, Brasil, 4 30 9-0: W : 0 Cambridge, | . “ [ ) 52 \Cape Cathivas, Cartbagena, St. Croix Island, St. Christopher’s, Basseterre, Cuba, PB WARNARAAH 2 Res .|| Hermii Island, Juan Fernandez, Jamaica, Portland Point, Port Royal, Black River, .||Jamba Point, Lima, Mexico, Martinique, . | Marie Galante Island, St. Martha, Cape, Masafuera Ia) Mendocino, Cape, { au de Matanzas,| 1726 | 4 24 Moose Fort, Hud- Havannah, 1732 | 4 30 son’s Bay, \ (.|.1672 |11 .0 Musquitoe Cove, Cayenne Island, i] 1682 | 5 30 Seen, Conception, - | 1709 |10 20 Monterrey, : Coquimbo, s 1700 | 8 32 Montserrat, : (Curacoa, : 1704 | 6 40 Newfoundland, ae C 1799 | 4 14 Fort St. Pierre, esapeake Ba 1732 | 4 58 W. Cod Bay, % 1789 | 6 45 | Nutks Cape Christian, 3 Norton Sound Greenland, \ 1605 112 15 Norriton, ‘tn 1712 |12 O E. |jPorto Bello, 4 St. Catharine’s Is].~ | 1785 |12 0 Pisco, 3 1804] 7 51 Paraibo, 2 Cape Corientes, 1684 | 4 28 Quito, Discovery Harbour, | 1792 |21 30 Queb Desolation Sound, | 1792 |19 16 Pete. 8 { St. Diego, California,) 1792 |11 0 : : Dincetis Bateall 1726 |3.27 | Bio Janeiro, Domingo, Resolution Island, 1772 20 Savage Island, Cape Francois, 1776 30 Smith’s Sound, 1783 32 Santiago, Chili, Alta Vela Island, | 1728 2 Frio, Cape, 1670 |12°19 © |Sebalt Island, { Fernando Naronha, | 1610 Spitzbergen, Florida, Cape, 1726 Fuego, ‘Terra del, eo ee OO D 0O D Sr Or Gr - — So Christmas Sound, | 1774 |24 43 Good Success Bay,| 1769 |24 9 Godthaab, Green- f{ | 1784 |50 30 W. land, V| 1787 |51 21 Guadaloupe, 1726_| 3 22 E. Bell Sound, Cross Rheid, Horn Sound, Magdalen Sound, Poopy Bay, vation. 1707 |20° 0’ E. 1767 |1l1 O 1726 1726 1732 1726 17¢9 1769 1682 1704 1760 1726 1704 1765 1767 1795 1693 1786 1774 1776 1795 1760 1772 1778 1792 1778 1770 1704 1707 1698 1742 1649 1686 1768 1787 1615 1615 1616 1794 1683 1707 1613 1596 1610 1613 1614 1613 Tables of the Variation of the Magnetic Needle. tiation. — SMOOCORWOAEAADALGA _ i) a ~ i] Tables of the Variation of the Magnetic Needle. 89 Taste I.—Continued. ; Yearot| Magne- Yearot| Magne- Names or Puiaces.| Obser-| tic Va- ||NameEs oF Piaces.| Obser-| tic Va- vation. | riation. vation.| riation. Read, Beach,| 1596 |16° 0’ W. 1725 [21° o W. Vogelsang, | 1773 |20 38 Pr. Wales’ Fort, 1742 |17 0 Unalashka Samga- sail 1769 41 nome} 1778 |19 59 E. Ylo, Peru, 5 1710 38 E. Vics Chaz 1769|6 40 | (| 1686 | 8 45 , 1776 | 7 30 ' || 1723 | 7 20 . 1709 | 9 30 |York, New 4] 1750 | 6 20 rh Valparaiso, { 1795 |14 49 raped 11175515 oP Valdivia, P 1670 | 8 60 lL 1789 20 SuprLEMENTARY Tazsie [.—Containing the Variation of the Needle, as observed by Captain Ross out of the Ship's Attraction, in Baffin’s Bay, in 1818. North Magnetic Lat. Variation. West North Magnetic West Long. Lat. | Variation. Long. 75° 50’ 91° 33'W. 75 55 92 44 76 30 103 41 76 33 107 56 76 8 109 1 70 35 86 33 SOG Tae ey 80° 1’ W.) 64° 437 57 56 | 74 1 80 30 65 40 6l 5 | 75 32 88 13 | 72 54 63 0 | 75 51 87 50 Ch | 64 41 75 59 91 17 78 48 64.45 | 75 50 90 18 RUSE SuppLeMENTARY Tare II.—Containing the Variation of the Needle, as observed by Captain Parry in 1819 and 1820. West North Magnetic West North Magnetic Long. Lat. Variation. Long. Lat. Variation. 48° 97 | 59° 49’ 48° 38’ W.I105° 54’ | 78° 37 158° 4/E, 61 59 | 63 44 60 20 |!107 3 | 74 58 151 30 62.8 .|.63, 29 60 56 110 49 74 47 2 127 49 09 12 | 70 29 74 39 110 36 | 75 35 135 4 59 56 | 72 O 80 55 \f1l 57 75 5 123 48 60, U2 3) (3 3 82 37 112 53 | 74 24 110 56 17 22..| 73 31 108 47 113 43 | 74 26 106 7 89 41 72 45 118 16 112,11 74 27 114 35 88 18° | 73 33 115 37 71 18 =| 71 16 91 29 91 47 74 40 128 58 68 37 | 70 22 80 59 103 44 | 75 9 165 50 E. 90 Historical Account of Discoveries respecting the SuprLEMENTARY Tasie IL}.—Containing the Magnetic Variation observed in His Majesty's Ship, Conway, Cap- tain Basil Hall, in 1820, 1821, and 1822. * Names oF | West | South Magne- Names or | West | South Magne- PLACES Long. | Lat. Gc Va- PLACES Lone. | Lat Puc. Va ; f riation. , i * | riation. Valparaiso, 71°31’| 33° 2/14° 43’ E.| Pt. Pescadores.| 73° 33’| 16° 154119 20’ E. Mocha Island,| 73 46 |38 19/19 34 Callao Castle, | 77 6 |— —J10 34 Arauco, 73:13 |37 14/18 22 Ancon, - | ——| 11 46)10 25 Talcuhuana, | 73 0 |36 43/15 30 Huacho, — — |— —| 9 36 Bay of Co- Payta, _|——_—|——|]9 0 quimbo, } EAB 12904 14 0 Guayquil, 79 40) 2 12/9 5 Guasco, . | 71 9 {28 27/13 30 Galapagos, 90 21 | O 32] 8 20 Arica, : 70 13 |18 29]|10 25 Panama, es ee Point Coles, ©} 71 20 |17 42|10 18 Acapulco, 99 54 |}— —| 8 40 Mollendo, “1 S4 (1% 2 o San Blas, 105 17 | 21 32] 8 40 Ant. XVII.—Historical Account of Discoveries respecting the Double Refraction and Polarisation of Light. Tur papers which we have already published on this sub- ject, comprehend what may be called the first period of its history, during which no discovery of any marked import- ance succeeded the original inquiries of Bartholinus, and the fine generalisations of Huygens. A new era, however, now commenced ; and the subject of double refraction was destined to take an elevated place among the most interesting branches of natural philosophy. Periop LV.— Discoveries of Malus. In the year 1808, the Institute of France proposed as the subject of a prize, to be adjudged in 1810, the following question : . To give a Mathematical Theory, verified by experiment, of the Double Refraction which Light experiences when trans- mitted through different Crystallized Bodies. T'wo or three memoirs competed for this prize; but on- ly one of them was considered by the Institute as meriting * From Captain Basil Hall's Journal, written on the Cousts of Peru, &c. vol il. app. p. 59. Double Refraction and Polarisation of Light. 91 their special approbation. This memoir, which was crowned in 1810, bore the name of E. L. Malus, Member of the Egyptian Institute and Colonel of the Imperial Corps of En- gineers. ‘This distinguished officer had accompanied the ex- pedition to: Egypt under Bonaparte, and had returned to his native land, worn out with the insalubrity of the climate, and with the sufferings of a campaign, in which the horrors of famine and defeat were combined. In the calm seclusion of a scientific life, he expected to reinvigorate his exhausted frame; but he had miscalculated the effects of mental labour on the animal functions, and probably found, when it was too late, that the unrestrained efforts of the mind were no less hurtful than the severest privations or the most overstrained exertious to which the bodily frame can be exposed. Secr. I—WMalus’s Discovery of the Polarisation of Light by Reflexion. The prize offered by the Institute mduced Malus to en- ter with zeal on the study of double refraction. He mea- sured all the phenomena, as exhibited through natural and artificial faces of calcareous spar, variously inclined to the axis of the rhomb, and having observed the wonderful coin- cidence of his measures with the law of Huygens, he was soon convinced that this law was an accurate expression of the phenomena. During these experiments, which were made in the Rue des Enfers, in Paris, he accidentally direct- ed a prism of calcareous spar to the windows of the Luxem- bourg, which were then illuminated by the setting sun, and he was surprised to observe, that one of the doubly re- fracted images of the windows vanished alternately during the revolution of the prism. Perplexed with this unexpected fact, he at first ascribed it to the agency of the atmosphere, but this hasty opinion was speedily corrected, and he at last found that the light had acquired this new property by re- flexion from the panes of glass. Hence, he was immediately led to his great discovery, that when a pencil of light, RS, Fig. 5, Plate I. és reflected by the surface of water AB at an angle RPS of 52° 45’ with the perpendicular SP, the reflect- ed ray SV has all the characters of one of the pencils produ- ced by the double refraction of a regular crystal. 3 92 Historical Account of Discoveries respecting the « This pencil ST,” says Malus, “is no longer susceptible, like direct light, to divide itself constantly into two pencils in’ passing through a rhomboid of Iceland spar ; and as, in the case of light, which has already experienced the action of a first crystal, this faculty depends on the angle contained by the principal sections of the two crystals, so, in the present case, it depends on the angle comprehended between the plane of reflexion and that of the principal section of the erystal which receives the reflected light. In general, in all phenomena of this kind, the plane of reflexion RPST replaces the plane of the principal section of the first crystal. ‘‘ If we receive the reflected ray ST’ on any crystal what- ever that has the property of doubling images, and whose principal section is parallel to the plane of reflexion RST, it will not be divided into two pencils, as if it bad been a pencil of direct light, but it will be refracted entirely according to the ordinary law, as if the crystal had lost its property of duo- bling images. If, on the contrary, the principal section of the crystal is perpendicular to the plane of reflexion RST, the reflected ray ST will be refracted entirely according to the extraordinary law of refraction, In all termediate po- sitions it will be divided into two pencils, according to the same law, and in the same proportion as if it had acquired its new character by the influence of double refraction. «The ray ST reflected by the surface AB of the fiuid, has, therefore, in this circumstance, all the characters of an ordinary ray produced by the refraction of a crystal whose principal section is parallel to the plane of reflexion RST, or of an extraordinary ray formed by a crystal, whose principal section is perpendicular to the same plane. “ In order to analyze this phenomenon completely, I have placed vertically the principal section of a crystal; and, after having divided a luminous ray by double refraction, I re- ceived the two pencils on the surface of water, and at an angle of 52° 45’. The ordinary ray was partly refracted, and partly reflected, as if it had been a pencil of direct light, but the extraordinary ray penetrated entirely the water, and not one of its particles escaped refraction. On the contrary, when the principal section of the crystal was perpendicular to the plane of incidence, the extraordinary ray produced Double Refraction and Polarisation of Light. 98 only a partial reflexion, and the ordinary ray was refracted entirely. i « The phenomena now described, as taking place with water, are the same with all other transparent bodies, whether solid or fluid; but the angle RST, at which light experiences this modification, is variable for each, and is in general great- er in bodies that refract light most. Within and beyond this limit, a part of the rays is more or less modified, and in a manner analogous to what takes place between two crystals whose principal sections are neither parallel nor rectangular. «< In order to observe the principal phenomenon without measuring it exactly, we must place a lighted taper before the diaphanous body, or the vessel containing the liquid which is to be used for the experiment. We must then examine, through a prism of Iceland crystal, the image of the flame re- flected by the surface of the body or of the liquid. This image will generally be seen double; but in turning the crys- tal slowly round the visual ray as an axis, one of the images will be seen to grow fainter, while the other increases m in- tensity. Beyond a certain limit, the first begins to increase in intensity at the expense of the second. We must then seize, as nearly as possible, the point where the intensity of the light of one of the images is at its minimum, and move the reflecting surface to a greater or a less distance from the taper, till we obtain an angle of incidente at which this image entirely disappears. This distance being determined, we shall perceive, by turning the crystal round slowly, that one of the two images vanishes alternately at every quarter of a revolu- tion. ‘*'The phenomenon which we have observed in light re- flected at a particular angle, PST, at the surface of transpa- rent bodies, takes place at a different angle in the pencils reflected at the inner or second surface of the same bodies; and the sine of the first angle is to the sine of the second an- gle in the ratio of the sines of incidence and refraction. Thus, if we suppose the face of incidence AB, Fig. 4, Plate I. and the face of emergence CD parallel, and the angle of incidence RSP, such as the phenomenon requires, the ray So T reflect- _ed at the second surface will be modified in the same manner as the ray reflected at the first surface; and if the incident 94 Historical Account of Discoveries respecting the ray RS has been previously polarised, or is such that all its particles escape partial reflexion at the first surface AB, they will also escape it at the second CD. «: If we examine the light arising from the partial reflexion of bodies, such as black marble, ebony, &c. we likewise find an angle at which light receives the modification above de- scribed. « Polished metallic substances are the only ones which do not appear to be susceptible of producing this phenomenon com- pletely ; possibly because the partial light which has received this modification is confounded with the rays which proceed from total reflexion.” * Malus now proceeded to examine the appearances which take place when a ray, polarised by reflexion from one glass, is again reflected from a second plate of glass, having a rota- tory motion round the polarised ray, and forming with it a constant angle. Let aray RS, Fig. 3, proceeding from the sun, supposed to be due south, be polarised by reflexion from the surface AB, - and let it be received upon a second reflecting surface CD, so that PTV, the angle of reflexion from CD, may be equal to PST, the angle of reflexion from AB. Let the plate CD be now supposed to revolve round the ray ST, preserving ifs inclination to the ray, viz. STC, invariable; then, in the case represented in the figure, where the second plate CD faces the South, and where the plane of the second reflexion from CD is parallel to the plane of the first reflexion from AB, the ray ST will suffer partial reflexion in the direction TV, as if it had been common light. If the plate is now made to revolve round ST in different azimuths, so that its face begins to turn to the East, the intensity of the reflected pencil TV will gra- dually diminish; and when it has performed a revolution of 90°, or has its face turned towards the East, the pencil TV will disappear entirely, not a single ray of it suffering partial reflexion, in which case the plane of reflexion from CD is at right angles to the plane of reflexion from AB. By continu- ing to turn the plate, the ray TV will re-appear, and will gradually increase in intensity till the plate has turned round * Théorie dela Double Refraction de ta Lumiére, p. 222. Paris, 1810. Double Refraction and Polarisation of Light. 95 180° from the beginning of its motion ; in which case the plane of reflexion from CD will be again parallel to the plane of re- flexion from AB, and the reflected ray TV will then be a maximum, as it was at the commencement of its motion. By continuing to turn the plate, the reflected ray will again dis- appear at an azimuth of 270°, and will regain its maximum upon returning to 360°, or 0°, the poimt from which it set out. It is obvious, from Fig. 1, that, in the two positions of the plate CD, when the intensity of the ray T'V ‘s a maximum, viz. at 0°, and 180° of azimuth, the inclination of the two plates of glass is 160 — (90° — 54° 35’ + 90° — 54° 35’) = 70° 50’ in the first case, and that they are parallel in the second case. In the azimuth of 90° and 270°, where the ray TV entire- ly disappears, the inclination of the plates will be represented by Cos. @ = Cos.? 9 where 4 is the angle of polarisation, in this case 54° 35’, and @ the inclination of the plates, which will be found to be 70° 22’ 35”. Hence it follows, that if we take two plates of glass, AB, CD, inclined to one another at a fixed angle AOD of 70° 22’ 35”, and conceive a line drawn from the first plate to the second, so as to make with both an angle = BST, CTS, of 35° 25’, and whose projection upon both will form, with their common intersection, an angle of 30° 5’ 30”, every ray reflected by one of the plates of glass parallel to this line will suffer no reflexion from the second, but will wholly penetrate it. On both sides of these angles this effect will come to be produced, but the farther we go from the limits in either di- rection, the more will the quantity of the reflected light increase. The variation of the intensity of the reflected light in passing from the minimum to the maximum, may be represented, as Malus has shown, by supposing it proportional to the square of the cosine of the ee of azimuth, or to any even power of the cosine. Thus, if a is the angle of azimuth, which the plane of the second reflexion makes with the plane of the first, I the maximum intensity of the reflected penal TV, and P the intensity of the pencil corresponding to any azimuth a, then P= I Cos.? a, or P =I Cos.ta. By taking a succes- Sively equal to 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, it will be seen that either of these formule represents the different phenomena which have been above explained. Thus, if a =.0°, then Cos. a=1, Cos.* a, or Cos.1a = 1, and P = 1, that is, the reflected pen- 96 Dr. Knox on the Gymnotus Electricus. cil is at its maximum; and if a= 90°, then Cos. a= 0, and Cos.2 a = 0, or Cos.1 a= 0, and P = 0, that is, the reflected pencil will entirely disappear. Art. XVIII.—Observations on the General Anatomy of the Gymnotus Electricus, the Electric Eel of America ; and on the Philosophical Anatomy of the Electric Organs.* By Rosert Knox, M.D. F.R.S. E. &c. &. Communicated by the Author. Tue objects I had in view, in examining (after dissections by Hunter and Cuvier) + a specimen of the Gymnotus Electri- cus were, 1st, to reduce, if possible, the singular organs pos- ’ sessed by the electrical animals to some. corresponding or ana- logous tissue common to all animals, or at least to that class to which they naturally belong, and, 2dly, to obtain farther information relative to my favourite pursuit, the comparative anatomy of the nerves, which I hoped I should find by the dissection of an animal, in which a portion of that system of organs was carried to its highest degree of developement, giv- ing rise to the phenomena by which the analogies subsisting betwixt the efficient cause of muscular contraction and those universally acting imponderable fluids, known under a variety of names, such as electricity, galvanism, &c. were Sraeee- equivocally to exist. My distinguished friend, the Chevalier Geoffroy St. Hilaire, examined, at an early period of life, the electrical organs of the Silurus electricus, the electric Eei of the Nile; and he concluded, from his dissections, performed, it is true,. under circumstances highly unfavourable for such pursuits, | that * The Paper, of which this is an abstract, will be read before the Royal Society of I-dinburgh, on the 6th of June, 1824. ++ Those who have not at their command the Philosophical Transactions, or the Annales du Musum, in which the papers of Hunter and Geoffroy are printed, will find drawings and descriptions of the electric organs of fishes in the Article ELEc- TRICITY, in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Vol. VIII. p. 472—480. + If my memory does not fail me, this gentleman, who has, since that period, risen to the highest rank as a zoologist, examined the Silurus amidst the miseries and privations of a siege ; for at that time Alexandria was invested by the British arms ; so difficult is it to repress the ardour of a truly philosophic and scientific mind. Dr. Knox on the Gynnotus Electricus.” 97 the electric organs of these, and of other similar animals,’ might be considered as organs of sensation. Pursuing these. principles, laid .down by himself, and by M. de Blainville, than whom, perhaps, no more accurate anatomist lives, I have ventured to class the electrical organs with the muscular system, and to consider them as organs of motion ; that the unknown fluid, expended in exciting the muscular fibre to contraction, is, in these organs of the Gymnolus, collected for the purpose of being discharged from the surface of the ani- mals, for its defence and protection. The arrangements adopted by eminent writers on compara~ tive anatomy prove that they deem these organs as defying classification with others: in the ** Lecons d’Anatomie Com- parée,” they are described near the termination of the work with the organs of peculiar secretion; in the “ Principesd’Ana- tomie Comparée,” they are viewed as an appendage of the in- teguments, which, at first sight, seems rather an anatomical than physiological arrangement, though no doubt, if we adopt certain other views of the distinguished author of that work, this view would, in some measure prove correct. In the excellent little manual of M. Blumeubach, these organs are considered along with the brain and nerves ; but as near- ly all the organs of any animal might be viewed in this way, it must be evident that the exact place the electrie organs ought to hole, had not been determined, nor their precise nature agreed on. But, in whatever way these partly theoretical views may be received, I trust I have added a few additional facts to the’ anatomy of the animal, which may become important m more philosophic hands ; and which may serve as-an apology for the more speculative parts of the memoir, of which it is meant to give, in this place, only a very brief abstract. The first part of the memoir is occupied chicfly with the strictly anatomical details—a part of the subject which had been already examined with great care, and nearly exhausted, by Hunter and Cuvier ; be these truly great men had left, as was to be expected, but little to be done by others! The electric Eel examined by me, was 19 = inches in length, and about two where broadest. Its greatest circumference was 3% inches. Tn shape it resembles an ee! ; but the head and VOL. I. No. 1. yuLY 1824. u 98 Dr. Knox on the Gymnotus Electricus. jaws are much broader, and do not taper as in the latter. From the anterior extremity to the anus is 1-.th ofan inch, and from this to the extremity of the tail was found to be nearly 18 inches ; hence may be understood the vast prepon- derance of the part of the animal destined to inclose the elec- tric organs, over that containing the thoracic and abdominal viscera. The position, however, of the orifice of the rectum in the Gymnotus is not a true measure of the capacity of the abdominal cavity, which extends considerably beyond it to- wards the tail; the actual length of the great electric organs was found to be 15, inches ; their ratio then, to the total length, is as 15.5 to 19. The organization of the greater electric organs themselves is sufficiently simple. On their dermal aspect are found thir- ty-one longitudinal and nearly parallel white lines, the termi- nating edges of so many laminz, which, in this way, intersect the organ, proceeding from the outer to the inner surface, and terminating in the enveloping and central lamina, dividing the greater organs from each other. In order to understand the nature and distribution of the second substance entering into the composition of the electric organs, we must return to the external surface of these organs. We now perceive that the longitudinal septa are intersected at right angles by plates of a much softer texture, proceeding across the organ, placed excessively close to each other, but yet apparently inclosing spaces of exceedingly small capacities. * We may either consider the plates I now speak of, as ex- tending from one side of the organ te the other, or as consti- tuting so many distinct plates, intercepted by the white longi- tudinal laminze. Very careful and repeated observations convinced me, that the first of these opinions is the most cor- rect, so that we must view each transverse plate as equalling in length the breadth of the electric organ to which it belongs, and of a depth necessarily varying with that of the organ it- self. As it was important to ascertain the correctness of this view by every way in my power, I requested Dr. Brewster to submit small sections of the organ to a powerful microscope. * The number of plates occupying the space of an inch, was found to be about 240, which is remarkable for being precisely the number counted by Mr. Hunter in a much larger fish. Dr. Knox on the Gymnotus Electricus. 99 The result proved the accuracy of the common glass I had used, confirming the opinion, that the transverse soft plates of the electric organ, intersecting the longitudinal ones, are not interrupted in their course by these longitudinal and ver- tical lamine, but are continuous, passing quite across the organ, and must be viewed as a number of plates whose length is not to be measured by the distance of the longitu- dinal septa from each other, but rather by the whole breadth of the organ. The electric organs are supplied by nerves communicating with the spinal marrow only ; which, when first seen lyimg im- mediately below the great lateral nerve, on their escape from the vertebral column, are observed to be remarkably large and numerous. As the whole of the organ was not exposed, it is impossible for me to state the precise number of the nerves proceeding to the electric organs, but it seemed to be in the proportion of fifteen nervous branches to every inch of the organ. They varied in size according to the corresponding bulk of the organ at that particular point in which they en- tered ; they are flat like the ciliary nerves in the mammalia, constituting one mass at leaving the vertebre ; but dividing generally, if not uniformly, into five distinct branches before entering the organ itself. Having given off nervous: twigs, equalling at least the longitudinal septa in number, the larger branches pass through the fatty matter separating the greater from the smaller electric organs, and are distributed upon these apparently in the same way as upon the larger ones. I do not believe that any branch of the sympathetic nerves is sent to the electric organs. (To be continued.) Art. XIX.—On the Crystalline Forms and Properties of several Salts. By Wititam HaipinceEr, Esq. F.R.S.E. Communicated by the Author. I uxvertoox the examination of the forms, and of some of the other natural-historical properties of the following hitherto undescribed, or but imperfectly described salts, at the request of Dr. Brewster; who was so kind as to communicate to me those crystals to which the descriptions refer, and to add the 100 Mr. Haidinger on the Crystalline Forms characters relative to their refraction and the number of opti- cal axes. 1. Sulphate of Ammonia and Chromium. Form, tessular; crystals observed in the shape of a re’ gular octahedron, Pirate III. Fig. 4. Cleavage, octahedron’ imperfect. #racture, conchoidal. Strfiuce of the octahedrons - rather uneven. Lustre, vitreous. Double Refraction, none. Colour, be-: tween violet-blue and columbine-red, deep and beautiful ; the colour inclines more to red where the specimens are thickest. Streak, very pale lavender blue, nearly white. Feebly translucent. Hardness, = 2.0...2.25*). Sectile. Taste, sweetish and’ saline, very faint. Observations.—The crystals of this salt were sent to Dr. Brewster, by Mr. Cooper of Paradise Row, Lambeth. 2. Molybdate of Ammonia. Form, hemi-prismatic. Fundamental form, a scalene four-. sided pyramid, Pare IIT. Fig. 26, in which the ratio of the lines AP: MB: MC: MP =a: d:c¢:d is equal to that of 20: 45:45.5:1. The inclination of the axis, or the angle PAM is = 2° 52, the inclination of P upon P=132° 18’ — - of P’ upon P’ = 140° 50’ = — i PS The simple forms observed in the combination, Fig. 27, of which Fig. 28 is a projection upon a plane parallel to the face c, are the following, together with the angles at which they meet contiguous to a plane passing through n,o, p, and 1’. BS (P)=133°18. (Pr + o)3 (a) = 127° 26. a = (c) = 166° 28. (P + )* (6) = 152° 16’. * In estimating the comparative degrees of hardness of salts according to the scale of Mohs, where 2 expresses the hardness of Rock-salt, and 3 that of Calcareous spar, it will be found useful to interpolate the common Potash Alum as an interme- - diate degree, which is expressed by 2.5, so that the hardness of the Sulphate of Ammonia and Chromium being = 2.0. ,. 2.25, though superior to that uf Rocke salt, is yet very little different from it, j and Properties of Several Salita. 101 as gee fase 50. PE W@ 6S. Art. XXXIII.—LIST OF PATENTS GRANTED IN SCOTLAND Since 18th March, 1824. 1. For Improvements in the Machinery for Working Pumps. To Jor Spitier, of Chelsea. 2d March, 1824. Written to the Seal, &c. 18th March, 1824. 2. For Improvements in the Process of, and Apparatus for Distilling. To Jean Jacques Srarnmare, of Belmont Distillery, Wandsworth, County of Surrey, distiller. 3. For an Apparatus or Improved Method of Reefing Sails. To Dantet Tonce of Liverpool, Lancastershire, ship-owner. Written to the Seal, &c. 29th April, 1824. 4. For an Improved Fid for the upper masts of ships. To Bensamin Rorcn, Esq. of Furnival’s Inn. Written to the Seal, &c. 29th April, 1824. 192 Celestial Phenomena. ° 5. For Improvements in the Machinery and Process of making Metal- lic Plates, Rollers, Pipes, Cylinders, &. To Tuomas Geruen, Esq. Henry Street, Pentonville. Written to the Seal, &c, 29th April, 1824. 6. For the manufacturing or making of an Elastic Fabric from Whale- bone, and the manufacturing or making of Elastic Fabrics from Whale- bone, Hemp, and other materials combined, suitable for making into Elastic Frames or Bodies for Hats, Caps, and Bonnets, and also the ma- nufacturing or making of such Elastic Frames or Bodies from the same materials, by the mode of plaiting. To Joun Gipson, hat-maker, Glas- gow. Written to the Seal, &c. 19th May, 1824. 7. For an Apparatus to be applied to a Windlass. To Witti1am Yetts of Great Yarmouth, Norfolk, merchant. Warrant dated at Carlton- House, 5th May, 1824. Written to the Seal, &c. 19th April, 1824. Art. XXXIV.—CELESTIAL PHENOMENA, From July 1, to October 1, 1824, calculated for the Meridian of Edin- burgh. By Mr. Georce Innes, Aberdeen. These calculations are made for Astronomical time, the day beginning at noon. The Conjunctions of the Moon and Stars are given in Right Ascension. JULY. AUGUST. D. Rn. M Sz. D. H. M. Ss. 2 ee OR Se ee We ae ee ne a 3 2 22 3 ) First Quarter. 1 9 36 47 ) First Quarter. 5 ll 47 15 8 OH 3.9 T7—dS)rm 7 3 3 40 6)6m 3.10 3 48 6)H $ 7 49 — 6) BOph 7 O — — 8 neara & 10 6 53 —:6)H 9 7% 24 49 © Full Moon. 10 16 12 36 © Full Moon 14 21 — — Q neara & 14 18 28 2 402% 17 8 23 15 ( Last Quarter. 18 17 10 — 6° 9% 17S Aa 8s 18 19 49 19 ( Last Quarter 18 8 45 — 6)h ao 6. SG ee 19 14 34 — ¢) 132 & 2 9 40 — oe y 2° 2's Bee 22 11 43 11 © enters & 22 18 6 31 © enters tty 23.5" 3 = 6) 1328 316 4— 5 3B 24 9 30 — £3 24 2 15 58 @ New Moon. 25 6 43 2 g)yy 24 14 49 — 6)2 2 13 32 — 60% 25 (AD LT. ve pe ay 27 oe ye 299 0 .10;x= de 25 19 2 11 @ New Moon. 30 20 30 4 ) First Quarter. 25 19 36 & Bie 27.4 2%— 4)68 27 B Sa S78 ee 29 1 43 32 © Celestial Phenomena, July—October, 1824. 193 SEPTEMBER. Dn 1. M. S. D. -H. M. 3&8. 2011 149 ee 6 J beh 20 16 40 20 Im. I. Sat. 2 2 14 36 — 6)H 22 10 6 32 @ New Moon. 7 83 Greatest Elong. |23 12 40 — 6) Q 7 {1 23 57 © Full Moon. 23 14 36 15 © enters & 13*"12*" 50. =! 65am as 25% Ao SG ie 13° 14 46 34 Im. I, Sat. 2f£ 95 (1964. 3-5 Pe 13° 19 22 —= S)28 27 8 — <= GO neara ty 14 14 40 — g)h 28 15 10 48 ) First Quarter. 15 18 49 56 ( Last Quarter. 17 SO ee Ga EY 16 11 51 é6)eu 29° 81 37 te ie: 20 51 — 6 DU Eclipse of the Moon. On the 10th of July, there will be a small Eclipse of the Moon, partly visible ; The times are as follows : Be Hat Be Bs The Eclipse begins, : “ July10 15 17 35 Moon sets Eclipsed, ; . — 15 41 40 Middle of the Eclipse, : : — 16 1 46 Ecliptic opposition, < . — 16 12 36 End of the Eclipse, 16 45 57 Digits Eclipsed, 1° 38’ 11”, on bh south sak of the Moon’ s Disc. Occultation of the Georgian Planet. On the 6th of August there will be an Occultation of the Georgian Planet by the Moon. The foilowing are the elements and principal results of a calculation for Edinburgh. eM Geocentric 4 of the ) and HI, Edinburgh, Mean Time, August,6 10 3 48,09 apparent time, 9 58 18,20 Geocentric Conjunction in Longitude, : 282° 36 42,36 Sun’s Right Ascension, . : 136 45 43,39 horary motion in Right ea a 2 23,62 Obliquity of the Ecliptic, . . 23 27 44,40 Moon’s Latitude North increasing, ° ° 18 24,19 Geocentric Latitude of FI South, . 25 7,48 Moon’s horizontal parallax for the Latitude of 2 Bainburgh ‘ 54 25,90 horizontal semidiameter, , 14 52,01 horary motion in Longitude ai the instant of con- junction, 5 - 30 4,86 for the hour pate, - 30 5,26 for the hour following, oa 30 4,47 horary motion in Latitude at th¢ instant of con. - junction, : + 2 44,67 for the hour popletl. + 2 44,73 — for the hour following, + 2. 44,61 VOL. I. NO. I, JULY 1894, 0 194 Celestial Phenomena, July—-Ociober, 1824. The following are the principal results in making the calculation for Edin- burgh, reduced Latitude 55° 47’ 32” N.; Longitude in time 12’ 41,4” West of Greenwich. For the Immersion. For the Emersion. Apparent Time. ~ ote ‘HJM. °S.|] He. Me 'oS*S |}He MM.) Se | He M.S. Instants assumed; f 9-46 18,20) 9 47 18,20} 10 52 18,20) 10 53. 18,20 Right Ascension of the Meridian, 983° 19 47,67|283 34 50,06/299 52 25,65)300 7 28,04 Moon’s Longitude, . - | }982 80 41,47/282 381 11,57/283 3 46,15)283' 4° 16,22 - true Latitude N. . 17 51,26 17 54,00 20 52,35) 2) 55,07 Altitude of the Nonagesimal, 12 27 47,5|12 31 25,0} 17 40 28,3 | 17. 46° 38,6 Longing? of the Nanegesypal, 306. 54 25,9 [307 30 7,5 |837 10 19,2 |337. 32, 15,1 Parallax in Longitude, - —4 52,03) —5 0,07) —13 25,55 13 33,74 Parallax in Latitude, . . . 53 15,52 53) 14,78 51 56,96 51. 55,17 Appar. diff. Long ) ana Hd “10 53,02 10 30,96|.. 13 38,14] ,. 14. 0,96 par. diff. Lat. ) ‘and ET 10 16,83) 10 15,35 5 57,18 5 52,66 Moon's Appar. mot. in 1 of time, $,34 23,14 Errors pit Instants assumed, — 0,74 + 80 — 6,48 + 16,71 $28. ae ns tee? Be Olea Immersion 6 9 46 22,66 Emersion6 10 52 37,87 No allowance has beeen made for the horary motion of the Planet. The om are the final results, in Astronomical Mean time. D. H. M. 5S. Tinmeneron August 6 9 51 52,56 {at 10’ 16” 8 N. nites si Emersion ' 10 58 7,52 5 5/55” ON. € atithe p's centre. Observations on the Occultation of the 5th of April, 1824. At Aberdeen, the evening. of the 5th of April waswery favourable for observing the occultation of Jupiter and his satellites by the moon, in as. far .as regarded the-immersions. The following are the times of these phenomena ; after allowing for the error and rate of the clock, which were ascertained by transits of the sun. By Observation. By Calculation. ' galgy D:. Hao Be D, (A. “Ree: Immersion of the 3d‘satellite, Aipril”~ 5116 52,7 i: aceite OP, a nae 1110 5,2 First external contact —- - 11 17, 37.7 5: tl ay. 12 58 First internal contact - « ©) ae aos ace ll 18 7,81 Immersion of the 2d satellite - He. 28.7 SAK ae Second internal contact ap A Gees 12°99 12,6 giae Baek ~OS Second internal ponte, ‘ i el! 21s: 9 De, 88 The winthekatin of he ath satellite happened at so short an interval from that of the planet,’ that it could not be conveniently-attended to. The times of the immersions are supposed to have been obtained to the nearest half second ; ‘but a haze, | Wehich ‘afterwards accompanied the moon, rendered the two observations of the planet subject each to an uncertainty of two or three seconds. The telescope used was a 3} feet achromatic one, by Dollond, with a power of about 70.* t 7 Aa obsbrvation of ‘this | eoesadestioil at Fehon ner Jeb ons in pages 179, 180. 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Art. I.—A Biographical Account of J. H. Van SwinvEn, A. L. M. Phil. Doct. F. R. S§. Lond. and Ed. Professor of Natural Philosophy, and Member of the Royal Institute of Arts and Sciences of the Netherlands. By G. Mott, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Utrecht. Communicated by the Author. Mr. Van Swtnvden was born at the Hague, on the 8th June, 1746. His father, an eminent barrister, intended to bring up his son to the same profession, and with this view he watched his early education with the tenderest care. The young Van Swinden, however, soon showed a disposition to studies of a different kind; and he took peculiar delight in calculating, drawing, watchmaking, and mechanical pursuits. Blassiere, author of some good mathematical treatises, was his teacher in that department of science; but the young pu- pil soon outstripped his tutor. At an early age he was sent. to the university of Leyden, where he had the good fortune of meeting with Mr. Hennert, afterwards my predecessor in the university of Utrecht, and then private lecturer in Leyden. Hennert, a staunch Eulerian analyst, initiated his friend into all the intricacies of the modern calculus. It was, however, intended that Mr. Van Swinden’s princi- pal study should be the law; but the strong bent which his mind had taken towards studies of another sort was not to be counteracted. If a sense of duty prompted him to attend the VOL. I. NO. 1. oct. 1824, P J 198 Professor Moll’s Biographical Account lectures of the professors of law, a natural inclination made him eagerly follow those given in that department of science which he was destined to adorn. Even at the commencement of his philosophical career, Mr. Van Swinden was struck with the eminent qualities of the ce- lebrated Sir Isaac Newton, as a mathematician, as a writer, and asa philosopher. The works of that great man were among the chief objects of his study in the university ; and ‘when he was about to leave it, his dissertation de Attractione, with which he took his degree, abundantly showed how deep- ly he had entered into the views of the author of the Prin- cipia. He afterwards appeared to have seized every opportunity of explaining and illustrating the philosophical method of Sir Tsaac. At the early age of 20, (1767,) when he was called to the chair of natural philosophy in the university of Franeker, he opened his lectures with a discourse, De cawsis errorum in rebus philosophicis. On another opportunity (1779) he spoke de philosophia Newtoniana ; and when he was afterwards called from Franeker to Amsterdam, (1785,) he again open- ed his lectures with a discourse, De hypothesibus physi- cis, quomodo sint e mente Newtoni intelligendac. In all these discourses, which have been printed, that sober-minded phi- losophy which has its foundation in experiment and induc- tion, and of which he acquired a taste in the writings of Chan- cellor Bacon and Sir Isaac Newton, is strongly recommended ; and there exists perhaps no better antidote against the poi- sonous influence of that mystical and hypothetical manner of treating subjects of natural philosophy now so common, than the perusal of these writings of Mr. Van Swinden. At Franeker, the tranquillity of a small town gave full scope to his ardour for study. He would often not stir from home for weeks together, and all his time was divided between his closet, his pupils, and his observations. This overstrain- ing of his faculties had its usual effects; his health was im- paired, and the mineral waters of Spa, Aix-la-Chapelle, Pyr- mont, were frequently resorted to, in order to restore his strength, and above all, to drive him from his study. He en- tered with ardour into all the new discoveries of that period, either in natural philosophy or chemistry, and kept up an of the late M. Van Swinden. 199 extensive correspondence with many of the most prominent scientific characters of that time, as Charles Bonnet, Spallan- zani, 'T. A. Euler, Saussure, De Luc, Dr. Maty, Wilcke, Bertholon, Lalande, &c. The subjects of meteorology, electricity, and magnetism, then particularly engaged his attention; and he applied him- self with unremitting zeal to such observations as were like- ly to throw some new light on these interesting subjects. Amongst his earliest writings, is his T'entamen de Magnete, published in 1772, in which he exposes his mathematical theory of what he calls the punctum culminans. During the long space of ten years, the magnetic variation was actually observed every hour of the day by Mr. Van Swinden, or his pupils. With equal care, during thirteen years, he kept an exact register of the barometer, thermome- ter, and hygrometer. No circumstance relating to atmosphe- ric phenomena escaped his attention; no aurora borealis ap- peared during his residence in Franeker but what was accu- rately observed. Part of his house and garden were arrang- ed as an observatory. His friends, his pupils, even his ser- vants, sustained the parts of observers during such absences as he was compelled to make. Even in other parts of the country he procured observers, to whom he gave directions and encouragement. By these means, he collected an im- mense number of facts relating to the subjects of his investi-~ gation, whilst by unremitting study, and an excellent memo- ry, he acquired a degree of learning which may almost be said to be unrivalled. His Recherches sur les aiguilles aimantécs, to which the Academy of Sciences of Paris adjudged the prize, (1777,) contain such a vast number of observations, and sucha variety of curious facts relating to magnetical phenomena, as are sel- dom found in any writer on natural philosophy. When the Academy of Bavaria (1776) proposed as a prize question the investigation of the analogy between magnetism and electri- city, Van Swinden received the program so late as to leave him only a few days to prepare an answer to the question. But he had thoroughly considered the subject. The experi- ments required had been made long before ; and the first me- dal was awarded to him. ‘This paper, together with some 200 Professor Moll’s Biographical Account others on the same subject, he translated afterwards from Latin into French ; and they are well known to philosophers under the title of Mémoires sur [ Analogie de T Electricité et du Magnétisme, 1784. The ancestors of Mr. Van Swinden were refugees, who had been driven from France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The domestic use of the language of their forefa- thers subsisted among these refugees for many generations ; and Mr. Van Swinden under the paternal roof, had had the opportunity of making himself so completely master of the French language, as to speak and write in it with that ele- gance and correctness, which Frenchmen contend to be al- most beyond the reach of foreigners. Many of the works of Mr. Van Swinden were accordingly written in French. Thus his excellent work on thermometers, and two others on mete- orological observations, are all written in that language, and this circumstance certainly contributed greatly to extend his reputation over all Europe. The Journal de Physique, the Journal des Savans, the Memoirs of the Academies of Ber- lin, Paris, of the Royal Society, of the Academies of Turin, Brussels, Haarlem, Petersburg, contain many of his papers. When Charles Bonnet’s Contemplations dela Nature were translated into Dutch, Mr. Van Swinden made many addi- tions and notes, which Bonnet judged so important as to have them inserted in subsequent French editions of his work. M. Biot, in his Treatise on Natural Philosophy, tom. ti. page 143, asserts that we are indebted to Cassini IV. for whatever we know about the diurnal variation of the needle. This, I think, is not fair. We do not mean to undervalue M. Cassini’s observations, but it is unquestionable that, long before the publication of that philosopher’s work, Mr. Van Swinden had observed and published that which M. Biot Jess accurately is pleased to ascribe to his countryman. In this respect, however, Mr. Van Swinden was treated with more justice by other eminent French philosophers, such as Haiiy, Halley, and Burkhardt. Among all these various occupations which took up Van Swinden’s time at Franeker, he applied himself with assiduity to various branches of mathematics, as political arithmetic, ) the doctrine of chances, mortality, tontines, &c. In the works of the late M. Van Swinden. 201 of the Haarlem Society, he gave a new demonstration of New- ton’s formula of the binomial theorem. Van Swinden performed his academical duties with strict care, His numerous pupils, and their progress and success in life, showed his abilities as a teacher to great advantage. The newest discoveries in science were introduced into his lec- tures. He endeavoured to communicate useful knowledge to his pupils, whilst he guarded them constantly against the baneful influence of that hypothetical mode of reasoning which began at that time to prevail among philosophers. In 1785, he accepted the situation of professor of philoso- phy at Amsterdam, thus changing his habitation from the small and tranquil town of Franeker to the bustle of a Jarger city. In consequence of this, his habits and pursuits were in many respects altered. His assiduity and diligence remained the same, but their objects were materially changed. Amongst the new duties imposed upon him were mathe~ matical lectures. He explained the elements of geometry, and indeed of mathematics in general, in an excellent work, which would have established his fame as a geometer, if it had been written in a language more generally known. In this book, the strictness of demonstration of the ancients is united with practical illustrations, the use of mathematical instru- ments, and the history of the science. In the last edition of his work, published in 1816, it is striking to find how the ve- nerable author, then far advanced in years, knew and had stu- died even the most recent publications, Another work, which he began to publish after he was re- moved to Amsterdam, is more generally known. The Posi- tiones Physicae, as far as they are published, are allowed ta rank amongst the best elements of natural philosophy, and have been found by actual experience to belong to the best sources from which the young student could draw his infor- mation, on those parts of natural philosophy, and its general principles, as are contained in the first volume and part of the second, which is all that was published. The work itself is on a most extensive plan; and the multifarious avocations which crowded on Van Swinden in Amsterdam, delayed the publication, and made him afterwards abandon all thoughts ef completing a work, which would have done the greatest 202 Professor Moll’s Biographical Account honour to its author, and which even now, unfinished as it is, is celebrated as-an excellent specimen of sound reasoning and profound learning. Some time after he came to Amsterdam, he was elected. one of the Directors of the school for the education of sea- men, and he did not cease till the last days of his life to pro- mote the object of that charitable institution, with the utmost zeal and care. That zeal prompted him, at the age of more than seventy, in the absence of the teacher of navigation of that school, to proceed thither every day to give the boys their lessons of navigation. With equal ardour he managed the concerns of the school for the blind; and the interests of the Walloon Church, to which he belonged, found in him a ready and zealous promoter. Neither fortune nor fame were the primary objects of his ambition. But he eagerly endeavoured to render himself useful to his friends, to his country, and to science in gene- ral. He never spared any pains, when he could anticipate that his time thus employed would promote the public good ; nor did he ever refrain from speaking the truth from a sense of the inconveniences, in which truths unpalatable to those in power usually involve those who bring them to light. Thus, when in 1795, a census was to take place in Am- sterdam for the first time, Van Swinden conducted this busi- ness, which then met with considerable opposition. As chairman of a Committee, to inquire into the state of civil hospitals, medical police, and other institutions respect- ing salubrity and sanitary measures, at Amsterdam, he ren- dered most important services to the cause of humanity. By this inquiry a series of abuses and mismanagements, of long standing, were brought to light. Medical and police institu- tions, which hitherto were deemed excellent, were shown to be really most defective and inadequate. 'The best means were, at the same time, pointed out for correcting the exist- ing evils. Myr. Van Swinden had then an opportunity of learning, by his own experience, that there is no surer way of exciting envy and hatred, than by bringing to light abuses, in the continuance of which many find their real or pretend- ed interest. But such considerations could not deter Van Swinden from his duty, and he enjoyed even that satisfaction of the late M. Van Swinden. 203 which he wished for. A number of the existing errors were in course of time corrected, many of the plans which he sug- gested were adopted, and he certainly had the prospect that several more of the salutary institutions which he proposed would be introduced within a few years. As early as 1787, the present minister of Marine of the Netherlands had instituted a commission for correcting charts, introducing improvements in navigation, and publishing use- ful books on nautical subjects. Van Swinden was its chair- man. In that capacity he caused the first accurate nautical almanack published in Holland to be printed. He wrote an excellent and extensive work on the theory and practice of finding the longitude by lunar observations, and another on the use of nautical instruments. The service thus rendered to his country, by promoting the practice of the best nautical methods, entitles him to the warmest gratitude of his country- men. In 1798 the French government wished to have the metri- cal system of weights and measures discussed, not only by scientific men in France, but also by those of other nations. A scientific congress was consequently assembled in Paris, where such nations as were then at peace with France had their deputies. Van Swinden was one of the two sent from this country, and some of the most eminent men in Europe were thus brought together. Among the leading members was Van Swinden, who took a most active part in all these proceedings. He belonged to the commission, whose mem- bers had to repeat separately all the calculations of the mea- sured arc from Dunkirk to Barcelona. He was also one of another commission for determining the metre, and of that for fixing the unit of the new weight. At the close of this investigation, the honour was conferred on Van Swinden of making the general report of the whole, with the necessary explanations. This duty he performed first to the scientific class of the French Institute, and afterwards, in a public sit- ting of the four classes of that learned body. The elegance, conciseness, and good taste, with which he expressed himself on that occasion, the clearness and accuracy with which he explained the most abstruse parts of the operations, drew forth the most unbounded applause. Frenchmen could not 204 Professor Moil’s Biographical Account believe that it was possible for a foreigner to express himself in their Janguage with that particular grace, which they con- sider to belong to themselves, and which they believe to be above the reach of any but their countrymen. The amiable and gentleman-like manners of Van Swinden, so entirely dif- ferent from what is supposed in France to characterize fo- reign savans, the frankness and ease of his conversation, set off in Paris his vast erudition and deep learning to great ad- vantage. He acquired the friendship and esteem of all who had an opportunity of making his acquaintance, and his stay in Paris made a deeper impression than could otherwise have been well anticipated. With many of the first scientific cha- racters, such as Laplace, Delambre, Thouret, and Fourcroy, he kept up a constant correspondence. Wonderful as it may. appear, the eminent qualities displayed by Van Swinden, both as an amiable and as a scientific man, were not forgotten in Paris even after a period of twenty years. After his return from Paris, he published an elaborate and learned work on the subject of weights and measures, and he greatly contributed by his subsequent writings, tables, and reports to government, to make the new system adopted in the Netherlands. It was about that period that those who then managed the affairs of this country hoped that some good might arise to the public, if a man who had_ acquired such a brilliant re- putation in Paris, and who was personally acquainted with the principal rulers of the French republic, should be raised to the first office of state. He was consequently called from his studies to the most eminent functions. It was soon found, however, that scientific merit was little calculated to make any durable impression on those who then conducted the affairs of the French republic. Van Swinden himself was soon convinced that politics were not for him, nor he for politics. The firmness of his character, and his constant love of justice and liberty, marked his conduct throughout his brief political career. In that period he had the satisfaction of making government resolve to order a general accurate trigonometri- cal and astronomical survey of the country ; which has since been ably executed by General Krayenhoff. In less than a year one of those political concussions, then so frequent on of the late M. Van Swinden. 205 this side of the channel, drove Mr. Van Swinden from office, and he cheerfully returned to his studies and resumed his wonted occupations. But when Napoleon gave the manage- ment of our affairs to his brother Louis, the new king treated Van Swinden with particular favour, and pressed him eagerly to enter again upon a political life. This, however, he con- stantly and firmly declined. When his country, however, required his services as a scientific man, Van Swinden was sure to be found ready and prepared. At Louis’s desire, he framed the plan of the present Royal Institute of the Nether- lands. He was its first president, and took a most active part in ail its proceedings. He was chairman of a Committee for taking into consideration the hydraulic situation of the coun- try, and for proposing the necessary measures for correct- ing the existing evils. The plan according to which Louis intended to alter the Universities of Holland was drawn up by Van Swinden, and three other members of the Institute. The subjects of money, coin, and currency, had made a fa- vourite part of his studies, and he was frequently called upon to report to government on matters connected with these im- portant investigations. When Holland became a part of Napoleon’s immense em- pire, Van Swinden retired as much from the public eye as was practicable. Born in a republic, and strongly attached to liberty and to his country, he could net but deeply lament the many acts of oppression and tyranny which were then daily witnessed. Though in many respects, from early habits and frequent intercourse, rather attached to Frenchmen, he now looked upon them as the oppressors of his country, and as such he sincerely rejoiced at their overthrow in 1813. He then appeared to have taken a new lease of life, and devoted himself with juvenile ardour to whatever service the public good might require of him. In the decline of life he seemed gifted with new strength, and his abilities, instead of decrea- sing, appeared to acquire fresh energy. ‘The king of the Netherlands honoured him with his confidence and favour on many occasions, and, asa Councillor of State, he faithfully dis- charged his duty. Respected and beloved by his country- men, full of activity and life, he was suddenly seized with an lness, which he soon felt to be fatal. With that strength of 206 Professor Moll’s Biographical Account mind, which sustained him through life, he foretold and awaited its close. In those last moments he displayed the calmness, serenity, and resignation, which become a man and a Christian. He expired on the 9th March, 1823, regretted by his king, and lamented by his widow, his relations and his countrymen, at the age of seventy-six years and nine months. As a social man, Van Swinden was not less amiable than he was respectable in science. He delighted in the company of well-educated females; and young men, who could appreciate his merits, eagerly courted his society. The cheerfulness and hilarity of his countenance was happily tempered by a gravity of expression which had in it nothing pedantic, but always commanded respect. Even Napoleon, who, when he was at Amsterdam, loaded every one who approached him with con- tempt and abuse, treated Van Swinden with kindness. When J.ouis was appointed king of Holland, and was about to make his public entry into Amsterdam, it was re- quired by the Master-General of Ceremonies, that every one who had occasion to address his majesty should previously hand in a copy of his proposed speech, in order to have every thing that was too free struck out or amended. This order Van Swinden, who was then president of the College of Pro- fessors, firmly refused to obey. A professor, he said, ought not to suffer himself to be treated like a schoolboy, who hands in a theme for correction, and as for himself he would say to the king nothing but what was at once proper and decent. Louis soon after instituted an order of knighthood. Van Swinden of course was among those for whom the distinction was in- tended, but he peremptorily declared, even to the king him- self, that he did not approve of the institution, and could on no account eonsent to become a member of it. A more try- ing opportunity, however, of showing the strength of his cha- racter was soon afforded to Van Swinden. ‘The school for navigation at Amsterdam had been founded by voluntary subscription, large funds had been left by will to this esta- blishment, both for the education of young mariners and the relicf and support of the aged, the disabled, their widows and children. The management of this private property had been given in trust to a certain number of gentlemen, duly elected by the contributors. Napoleon thought proper to, take the whole of the property from the hands of the trus- 1824. of the late M. Van Swinden. 207 ow tees, to send the boys.on board of his vessels, and to leave the old men and the women to their fate. The painful task of delivering up the whole to the Prefect maritime, and to the Conseil de Préfecture, devolved on Van Swinden, This he did with an elaborate speech in the French language, in which he pointed out, in the strongest terms, the impolicy, the injus- tice, and the iniquity of this tyrannical act. Those who knew how matters were managed at that time, trembled at this piece of boldness, and every one expected to see Mr. Van Swinden transported to Paris. But the attention of the rulers of that period was soon strongly engaged elsewhere ; and it was Van Swinden’s good fortune to witness and celebrate the restoration uf an institution which he so much valued. One of the first acts of the present King of the Netherlands was, to re-establish the school of navigation, and to restore to its trustees such property as had been saved from the French. The following is a list of the principal works of Mr. Van Swinden :— Dissertatio de Attractione, 1766. De Causis Errorum in Rebus Philosophicis, 1767. Cogitationes de Variis Philosophiae Capitibus, 1767. De Philosophia Newtoniana, 1779. De Hypothesibus Physicis, quomodo sint e mente Newtoni intelligendae, 1785. Tentamen Theoriae Mathematicae de Phaenomenis Magneticis. Lugd. Bat. 1772, 4to. Observations sur le froid rigoureux de Janvier, 1776. Amst. 1777, Svo. Recherches sur les aiguilles aimantées et leur variations. Mémoires Présentés 4 ’ Académie des Sciences de Paris, t. 8. Dissertation sur la Comparaison des Thermometres, 1778, 8vo. Observations Météorologiques faites a Franeker pendant lVannée 1779. Amst. 1780, 8vo. Description of the Orrery made by Eise Eisingain Friesland. Franeker, 1780, 8vo. (Dutch.) A new edition of this work is in the press. Recueil de Mémoires sur l’Analogie de lélectricité et du Magnétisme. La Haye, 3 vol. 8vo. 1784. Description du Planétaire de M. Adams, 1786. Plano. Positiones Physicae, vol. i. and vol. ii. part i. Harderovic. 1786, 8vo. A Treatise on Finding the Longitude by Lunar Observations. The Ist edition appeared in 1787, and the 6th in 1819. (In Dutch.) A Treatise on the Use of Hadley’s Octant and Sextant, 1788, 8vo. (In Dutch.) Explanation of the Nautical Almanack, 1789, 8vo. Dutch. Elements of Geometry, 1720, 8vo. The last edition appeared in 1316. 208 Dr. Brewster on the Pyro-Electricity of Minerals. Report on the Census of Amsterdam, folio, 1795. On Weights and Measures. Amsterd. 1802, 2 vol. Sve. Lectures on Van Laun’s Planetarium, Tellurium, and Lunarium. Am-< sterd. 1803, 8vo. Besides these works, many papers drawn up by Mr. Van Swinden are printed in the Transactions of those Societies and Academies to which he belonged. In those of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, there is one in the first volume, on the laws of atmospherical pressure, deduced from observations at Zwanenburg in Holland. In the third volume of the same collection, there is a paper in which Mr. Van Swinden maintains the rights of Huygens, as inventor of the pendulum : of this a translation has been given in Dr. Brewster’s Journal. We may still expect some publication on the invention of the telescope, and that of spectacles, by the same author. Some part of the correspondence of Van Swinden and Senne- bier has been lately published in the Bibliotheque Universelle, tom. 24, December 1823. ; Urrecnut, June, 1824. Art. II.—Observations on the Pyro-Electricity of Minerals. By Davip Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. Lond. and Sec. R.S. Edin. Tur brilliant discoveries of Professor Oersted respecting the magnetical effects of electricity, and the highly important ones of Dr. Seebeck, relative to the thermo-electricity of cer- tain metals, have attached a great degree of interest to the kindred subject of the pyro-electricity of minerals. In so far as we know, however, this circumstance does not seem to have drawn to the last of these classes of phenomena the at- tention of those eminent philosophers who have so successfully investigated the first; and we are not aware that any later observations have been made on the production of electricity by heat, than those which have been published by the Abbé Haiiy. The name of the philosopher who first observed that the Yourmaline was rendered electrical by the simple application of heat, has not been recorded ; but there can be little doubt Dr. Brewster on the Pyro-Electricity of Minerals. 209 that Lemery was the first author who mentions the circum- stance.* M. Apinus of St. Petersburg, was the first per- son who studied with ardour and success the phenomena which it presented. ‘The experiments of this acute philo- sopher were published in the Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin for 1756, under the title of De quibusdam experimen- tis electricis notabilioribus. ‘The examination of the subject was continued by Mr. Benjamin Wilson, Dr. Priestley, and Mr. Canton, who discovered the same property in the Bra- ailian topaz; but it was reserved for the Abbé Haiiy to analyse the phenomena of the Tourmaline with the sagacity and patience of a philosopher, to add several new minerals to the short list of pyro-clectrical ones, and to detect several in- teresting relations which had escaped the penetration of those who preceded him in the inquiry. The following is the list of pyro-clectrical minerals, as given by Haiiy, with the names of those who first noticed their pyro-electrical property. Tourmaline, Lemery. Mesotype, Topaz, Canton. Prehnite, 2 Axinite, Brard. Oxide of Zine, ¢ #4"y- Boracite, Haiiy. Sphene, The principal phenomena of pyro-electricity, as observed in these minerals by the Abbé Haiiy and preceding writers may be stated as follows : 1. When a prismatic crystal of tourmaline is exposed to an increasing heat, one of its extremities will exhibit vitreous, and the other resinous electricity, as may be easily seen by its action on an electrified needle, and by its power of attract- ing and repelling light bodies. 2. At a certain degree of heat, the tourmaline will no long- er give indications of electricity ; but in cooling it again the electricity will reappear, and when its temperature has been reduced to near 32° of Fahrenheit, the electricity again dis- appears; but upon the application of a greater degree of cold it reappears with opposite characters, the end of the tourma- line which had formerly exhibited resinous electricity, now exhibiting vitreous electricity. t “ Mem. Acad. Par. 1719. + This curious fact, announced some years ago as new by the Abbé Haiiy, seems to have been discovered by Canton. See Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Article ELECTRICITY, vol. viii. p. 458. 210 Dr. Brewster on the Pyro-Electricity of Minerals. 8. In most of the crystals which become electrical by heat, the distribution of the electricity resembles the distribution of the magnetic influence in a bar of magnetised steel. The intensity of the pyro-electricity is a maximum at the two poles or extremities of the erystal, and gradually diminishes from these points to the central or neutral point equidistant from both, where it disappears. 4, In the Boracite, the pyro-electricity is distributed in a different manner. The primitive form of this mineral is cu- bical, and each of the four axes joining its solid angles has at its opposite extremities a vitreous and a resinous pole. Ifthe crystal is made to revolve round any of its axes, the vitreous and resinous poles of *the other axes will succeed each other alternately. The maximum intensity is very near the extre- mity of each axis, and the intensity diminishes rapidly in re- ceding from these points. §. Haiiy observed that the Electric Calamine was electrical at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, and exhibited the inversion of poles which he found in the tourmaline. 6. In studying the phenomena of pyro-electricity, Haiiy remarked the curious fact, that while in the great mass of crystals the corresponding summits are similar in the number and disposition of their faces, while in pyro-electrical crystals there is a deviation from this symmetry. In the tourmaline, for example, the vitreous electricity resides in the summit with six faces, while the resinous electricity resides in the opposite summit with ihree faces. Hence it is supposed by Haiiy, that the two fluids had exerted upon the laws of crystalliza- tion opposite influences, which had left their impress se their crystalline form. From this brief and general sketch of the labours of Haiiy and others in this curious branch of physics, I shall now proceed to give an account of the experiments which I made several years ago on the same subject, and of the results to which they lead. These experiments were made in the years 1817 and 1818; but the publication of them was delayed, in the hope that I should find leisure to extend them to large and well-formed crystals of the various bodies of the mineral kingdom. Hav- ing no prospect of accomplishing this task, I commit the sub- ject into the hands of those who have more leisure, and would Dr. Brewster on the Pyro-Electricity of Minerals. 211 recommend it as a fertile source of discovery to any young and active natural philosopher, who may have access to a good ca- binet of minerals. 1. On the existence of Pyro-electricity in various Minerals. In order to determine the existence of pyro-electricity in mi- nerals where it had little intensity, I employed the thin internal - membrane of the Arundo Phragmites, which was cut with a sharp instrument into the smallest pieces. These minute frag- ments were well dried, and the pyro-electricity of any mineral was determined by its power of lifting one or more of these light bodies, after the mineral had been exposed to heat. I used also a delicate needle of brass, the pivot of which moved upon a highly polished cap of garnet, and which was affected by very slight degrees of electricity. In this way I determined the pyro-electricity of the follow- ing minerals: Scolezite.* Diamond. Mesolite.* Yellow Orpiment. Greenland Mesotype. Analcime. Calcareous Spar. Amethyst. Beryl Yellow. Quartz Dauphiny. Sulphate of Barytes. Idocrase. Sulphate of Strontites. Mellite ? Carbonate of Lead. Sulphur Native. Diopside. Garnet. Fluor Spar, red and blue. Dichroite. In examining the electricity of the tourmaline, I found that it could be shown in a very satisfactory manner, by means of a thin slice taken from any part of the prism. The experi- ment is most advantageously performed, when the slice has its surfaces perpendicular to the axis of the prism. When such a slice is placed upon a plate of glass, and the glass heated to the temperature of boiling water, the slice will ad- here to the glass so firmly, that even when the glass is above the tourmaline, the latter will adhere to it for six or eight hours. In this way, slices of a very considerable breadth and thickness are capable of supporting their own weight. “Itis probable, that the Mesotype of Hatiy was one or other of these two minerals, 3 212 Dr. Brewster on the Pyro-Electricity of Minerals. 2. On the existence of Pyro-electricity in Artificial Crystals. It does not appear from any of Haiiy’s writings, that he even suspected the existence of pyro-electricity in crystals formed by aqueous solution. In subjecting some of these to experiment, I was surprised to find that they possessed this property, and some of them to a considerable degree. The following is a list of those in which I discovered it : Tartrate of Potash and Soda. Sulphate of Magnesia. Tartarie Acid. Prussiate of Potash. Oxalate of Ammonia. Sugar. Oxymuriate of Potash. Acetate of Lead. Sulphate of Magnesia and Soda. Carbonate of Potash. —_——— Ammonia. Citric Acid. Iron. Oxymuriate of Mercury. Among the preceding crystals, the tartrate of potash and soda, and the taréaric acid, are pyro-electrical in a very consi- derable degree; but the action of several of the other salts is comparatively feeble. 3. On the Pyro-electricity of the Powder of Tourmaline. Among the curious properties of artificial magnets, none is more remarkable than that which is exhibited, by cutting a piece from one of their extremities. If the piece is taken from the north pole of the magnet, it is itself a regular mag- net, with north and south polarity. The very same proper- ty was discovered in the tourmaline by Mr. Canton, who found that, if it was broken into two parts when in a state of excitation by heat, each fragment had two opposite poles. Coulomb has ingeniously explained the magnetical fact, by supposing that each particle of the magnet is itself a magnet with opposite polarities; and Haiiy has applied the same explanation to the analogous phenomena in the tourmaline. If we attempt, however, to reduce the magnet into minute portions by any mechanical operation, such as filing, pound- ing, &c. the particles of steel are found to be deprived of their magnetical qualities, their coercive power being destroyed by the vibrations or concussions which are inseparable from the process of comminution. Analogy would lead us to expect the same result with the tourmaline; and we have no doubt that most philosophers, confiding in the force of recognised analo- Dr. Brewster on the Pyro-Electricity of Minerals. 213 gies, would expect that the powder or dust of pounded tour- maline would not exhibit any pyro-electrical phenomena. In order to ascertain this point, I pounded a portion of a large opaque tourmaline in a steel mortar, till it was reduced to the finest dust. I then placed the powder upon a plate of glass, from which it slipped off, by inclining the glass, like all other hard powders, without exhibiting any symptoms of co- hesion either with the glass or with its own particles. When the glass was heated to the proper temperature, the powder stuck to the glass; and when stirred with any dry substance, it collected in masses, and adhered powerfully to the sub- stance with which it was stirred. This viscidity as it were, or disposition to form clotted masses, diminished with the heat, and at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere it recover- ed its usual want of coherence. Hence it follows, that the tourmaline preserves its pyro- electricity even in the state of the finest dust, and that this dust, when heated, is an universally attractible powder, which adheres to all bodies whatever. This singular breach of analogy between the distribution of the pyro-electrical and magnetical forces, has an exact coun- terpart in the distribution of the doubly refracting forces in regularly crystallized bodies, and in plates of glass that have been rapidly cooled from a red heat. If a crystal of calea- reous spar is broken into a thousand fragments, the most mi- nute fragment possesses in miniature the same doubly refract- ing structure_as the largest rhomb of that mineral; whereas the plate of glass that has derived its doubly refracting struc- ture from rapid cooling, comports itself exactly like a mag- netised bar of steel. Any considerable portion of the glass, though cut from the positive part, acquires, upon its being de- tached from the plate, both the positive and the negative struc- ture; but if itis reduced to very minute fragments, or pounded, these fragments lose their doubly refracting structure ;—that is, any number of small fragments put together after separa- tion, have not the same doubly refracting force as when they formed part of the plate, the loss of the doubly refracting structure always increasing with the minuteness of the sub- division. This striking analogy between the effects of the electrical VOL. I. No. 11. ocT. 1524. Q 214 Dr. Brewster on the Pyro-Electricity of Minerals. and doubly refracting forces, acquires a new interest from the known relations between the forces of electricity and mag- netism, and is well worthy of being pursued into all its re- cesses. In a paper, which will appear in an early number of this Journal, I shall have occasion to point out many close analogies between the phenomena of magnetism and double refraction, which may help to throw light upon the physical principles which have created so many points of resemblance among the phenomena of the three sciences. 4. On the Pyro-Electricity of the Powder of Scolezite and Mesolite, when deprived of their water of Crystallization. As the powder of Tourmaline, with which the preceding experiments were made, suffered no chemical change by tritur- ation, I was desirous of trying whether or not the pyro-elec- tricity of minerals existed, when the mineral was deprived of any of its ingredients. For this purpose, I converted several crystals of Scolezite and Mesolite into a white powder by heat, so as to deprive them of their water of crystallization, which is now considered as an essential ingredient in any mineral species. When the powder was expesed to heat, upon a plate of glass, it adhered to it like the powder of Tour- maline, and when stirred about by any substance whatever, it collected in masses like new-fallen snow, and adhered to the body that was employed to displace it. This fact is a very instructive one, and could scarcely have been anticipated. As several minerals differ only in the quan- tity of their water of crystallization, the powder which was thus pyro-electrical, could not be considered either as Scolezite or Mesolite, but as another substance not recognised in Miner- alogy. The pyro-electrical property, therefore, developed by the powder, cannot be regarded as a property of the minerals of which the powder formed a part, but merely as a proper- ty of some of their ingredients. In which of the ingredients, or in what combination of them the pyro-electricity resides, may be easily determined by farther experiments. 5. On the probable influence of Crystallographic composi- tion on the distribution of Electricity in Minerals. Although Ihave not been fortunate enough to meet with any of those crystals which are necessary in the investigation Dr. Brewster on the Pyro-Electricity of Minerals. 215 of this branch of the subject, yet there are some facts of sufficient importance to be noticed in such an inquiry. The Abbé Haiiy has particularly mentioned* a crystal of topaz, in which the pyro-electricity was distributed in a very remarkable manner. He observed that its two extremi- ties were both resinous poles, while the intermediate part gave indications of vitreous electricity. As this phenomenon has been observed only in one mineral, and in one specimen of that mineral, and as it has an exact counterpart in the pheno- mena of magnetism and of double refraction, it is very proba- ble that the crystal in which it was observed was a compound crystal, in which the two vitreous poles were in contact. Although the Scolezite and Mesolite are both composite mi- nerals, yet the faces of composition are parallel to the axis of the prism, and therefore cannot affect the distribution of the electricity which is excited by heat. It is therefore in the to- paz, and some of the other pyro-electrical minerals, where we must study the influence of composition.+ ALLERLY, August 2, 1824. Art. Ill.—Journal of an Excursion through the Himalayah Mountains, from Shipke to the Frontiers of Chinese Tar- tary. By ALExaNDER GERARD, Esq. Surveyor to the Board of Commissioners, Lieut. and Adj. 2d Battalion 13th Regt. Native Infantry, on the Bengal Establishment. Communicated by the late Colonel GErarp of Rochsoles. Concluded from page 51. After crossing the Darboong by a good sango, we marched on the 25th Oct. to Lubrung, a distance of 103 miles. The road was good, winding very much, and crossing the Roonung Pass, 14,508 feet high, at the top of which the wind was as strong * Traité de Minéralogie, 2d edit. tome ii. p. 154. We hope that this crystal is in the possession of the Duke of Buckingham, who, we understand has ac- quired the splendid cabinet of the Abbé Haiiy. + Another example of the probable influence of structure on the developement of electricity exists in the Analcime, where the feeble production of electrici- ty by friction, from which Haiiy has derived the name of the mineral, is pro- bably owing to its singular mechanical structure. See Edinburgh Transactions, vol. x. p. 187, 193. 216 Lieut. Gerard’s Ewcursion through the Himalayah and as cold as it was yesterday at Hungrung Pass. We found a great deal of juniper on the way, the berries of which were large and well tasted, having little bitterness. Lubrung is a large village, on the right bank of the Zong rivulet, a couple of miles from the Sutluj, and 9296 feet above the level of the sea. Opposite to it, and a mile distant, is the populous town of Kanum, where Loktus resides during the winter season. There are two brothers of the names of Bu- leeram and Busuntram ; but they are both generally called Loktus, which word, properly speaking, should be applied to their house, which is a building of great extent. We marched on the 26th Oct. to Leepe, 6 miles. The road was bad, lying over sharp rocks. The houses here, as well as at Subrung, are wholly composed of wood. ‘They are small, and in shape exactly resemble cisterns. Leepe consists of an wp- per and lower division, both of which contain a good many inhabitants. It lies upon the left bank of the Tetee, a large stream, having its source amongst snow twelve or fifteen miles to the north-west. ‘The vineyards here are numerous, and the grapes large and of a delicious flavour. We marched on the 27th Oct. to Akpa, 103 miles. The road was rocky, passing the village of Jaugee, and for the last four miles leading through forests of pine upon the left bank of the Sutluj, from which it was about a mile distant. Next day we proceeded toPungee, 107 miles. The foot-path was rugged in the extreme, passing great part of the way over fragments of granite, gneiss, and quartz, which appear- ed to have but recently fallen, and exhibited a heap of gigan- tic ruins, amidst which we saw many a noble pine lying pros- trate, while a few, with their branches broken off, and other- wise disfigured, just barely peeped above the stones. Large portions of rock fall every year, and their ravages are trul y dreadful. They sweep every thing along with them, and sometimes stop up the channels of the largest rivers for whole weeks. From Leepe to this place there is a direct road not exceed- ing fourteen miles, but we chose to go round by the Sutluj, in order to have a view of the Kylas Peaks. On the 29th Oct. we marched to Rogee, nine miles. The road was first a very steep descent of 1000 feet to the Mulgoon, a large stream descending at a considerable angle, rushing over Mountains, from Soobathoo to Chinese Tartary. 217 rocks with rapid force, and forming a series of cascades. We crossed it by a couple of sangos, the current being divided into two. The ascent from it was fatiguing for a mile; the road then for the next five miles was excellent, being broad, and leading upon soil through woods of pine, the trees of which attain a large size; but not quite equal to those near Broo- ang, one of which measured 33 feet in circumference. ‘The last 11 mile was of an extraordinary nature, along the brink of a tremendous precipice, and often upon unsteady scaffold- ing that has been constructed with very great labour. This continues for several hundred yards together, and is formed of spars driven into the crevices of perpendicular faces of rock, with the other ends resting upon trees or posts, and boards across. Now and then you meet with a rude stair of wood and stone, which must have required much trouble to erect. The rocks project above the path, and the traveller is frequently obliged to stop in order to avoid them, whilst at the same time he must pay equal attention to his footing. Part of the road was destroyed last rainy season; and had not upwards of twenty people been early sent off to repair it, we should have been forced to go by the Sutluj, which is nearly a whole march round. By the time that we arrived at the place that had given way, they had made several clum- sy wooden ladders, which answered our purpose tolerably well. The mountains latterly on either side of the river are crag- gy, abrupt, and rent in every direction, almost destitute of soil, and thinly wooded; but in the vicinity of Kushbeer, which we passed half way, the ground slopes gradually to the Sutluj at some distance, and is thickly studded with ham- lets, and adorned with vineyards. At Rogee, we saw many orchards containing apples of an excellent kind, nearly as large as those brought from Kabool, which they far excel in flavour. On the 30th Oct. we proceeded to Meeroo, $3 miles. The road was very uneven, upon angular pieces of quartz, gneiss, and granite, and often skirting a precipice about a mile from the Sutluj, here called Sumudrung. The rocks on our right hand were of the same cracked appearance as yesterday, fre- quently overhanging the foot-path, and menacing destruction. ‘To the left, towards the river, the declivity is more gentle, 216 Lieut. Gerard’s Kacursion through the Himalayah and generally clothed with pines, unless where they have been buried amongst rocks dislodged from above. Meeroo is situated in the district of Rasgramee, and is 8550 feet high. Besides the subdivisions of Koonawur al- ready noticed, there are three more; Uthara-beesht, on the southern bank of the Sutluj, to the westward of Brooang ; Pun- dra-beesht, opposite to it on the north side of the river; and Wangpo, containing only seven small villages, to the north-west of Meeroo, on the banks of a considerable mountain torrent. On the 3lst Oct. we marched 72 miles, and encamped near a cave, close on the right bank of the Sutluj. The pathway was indifferent, ascending and descending alternately ; and passing the village of Chegaon, or Cholang, pleasantly situ- ated near Astuam, five miles from Meeroo. Half a mile on this side of it, the road led through an arch of two stupen- dous rocks of granite, which meet at an angle. On the 1st Nov. we marched to Nachar, eight miles. The way was rough for four miles to the Wangpo, a large mountain torrent, that rushes down a steep declivity, forming many waterfalls in its course, and dashes against the huge masses of rock in its bed with a noise like thunder, throwing up the spray to an astonishing height. We crossed it by a good sango, and proceeded half a mile upon level ground to Wang- too Jhoola, a rope bridge over the Sutluj. It consists of five or six cables close together, upon which is laid half a hol- low fir-tree about two feet long, with pegs driven through it, to prevent its coming off. From this hangs a loop of three or four ropes, in which the passenger takes his ‘seat. It is pulled across by two pieces of rotten twine, which, from con- stantly breaking, render this a tedious mode of transporting baggage. The conveyance is a pretty safe one, but greatly alarming to a novice; for the Jhoola (or rope bridge) is ele- vated twenty feet above the stream, which runs with great ra- pidity and a deafening noise. Near this are the remains of a wooden bridge, such as de- scribed in Captain Turner’s narrative, that was destroyed on the Gorkah invasion of Busehur. We found the breadth of the Sutluj at the bridge 88 feet, and the height of its bed 5200 feet. In some parts it is scarcely 50 fect broad; and it was in attempting to swim Mountains, from Soobathoo to Chinese Tartary. 219 across at a narrow place that one of my servants was drown- ed here last year. After much delay we got every thing across without an accident, and ascended for 33 miles to Na- char, where there are a few grapes, which seldom ripen. The cold does not depend near so much upon the absolute height of the place as its elevation above the bed of a river; for vines come to maturity upon the banks of large streams 9500 feet from the level of the sea; and Nachar does not exceed 7000 feet in height. Next day we proceeded eight miles to Turanda, in Uthara- beesht, and three miles from the western limit of Koonawur. This day’s march was beautiful for the first 31 miles, upon soil and through shady groves of lofty pines from twenty to twenty-seven feet in circumference. ‘The road then was a rocky descent of 14 mile to the Syldung, a rapid tor- rent, dashing over et stones, and coming om the Hima- laya mountains to the southward. We crossed it and another stream a little above their union by a couple of bad sangos, and ascended from its bed by a rocky footpath, winding amongst extensive forests of oak, yew, pine, and horse ches- nut, to Camp. On the 3d Nov. we were detained by a heavy fall of snow and hail, which lay around us in large quantities many hundred feet below the village. Had this shower come on a few days ago, we should have been prevented from crossing Soongnum, which, together with those above 13,000 feet, are blocked up for four months in winter. Our next day’s march was to Soorahun, thirteen miles. It took us almost the whole day to perform the journey; for the path, which is at all times dangerous, from lying near a precipice, upon smooth stones great part of the way, by the late shower of snow, now frozen hard, had become so slip- pery that we could get on very slowly. We crossed four streams of some size, besides many small- er ones. ‘They are all rapid, but of no great depth. The mountains near this are heavily wooded to their sum- mits; the cultivation increases at every step ; the villages are more thickly scattered. Soorahun is 7248 feet above the level of the sea, and Is si- tuated in Dusow, one of the large divisions of Busehur. It is the summer residence of the Rajab, and most of his Wu- . 220 Lieut. Gerard’s Excursion through the Himalayah zeers, who stay here six or seven months in the year, to avoid the great heats at Rampoor. It contains several good houses, and a temple attended by Brahmins. On the 5th Nov. we marched to Dhar, 9§ miles. The road was bad crossing the Munglad, a rapid torrent, by a rotten sango, consisting of two fir-trees about a foot apart, with small twigs, and slates laid across. One of the spars is much lower than the other, and the bridge is both unsteady and unsafe. The descent to the stream was at such a great angle, that we frequently slid many feet at a time. ‘The ascent was equally bad, lying upon pure mica, shining with a bright lustre, and extremely slippery. Next day we marched to Rampoor, distant 81 miles, the road was sometimes rugged, but more commonly even. Part of the way it was a complete swamp, lying through rice fields, intersected by many rills. Rampoor is situated on the left bank of the Sutroodra, or Sutluj. Although the capital of Busehur, it is not so popu- lous as might be expected. There are several fairs here dur- ing the year, to which the Koonawurees bring blankets of va- rious sorts, and coarse shawls, wool, raisins, salt, borax, and chourees, and exchange them for wheat, tobacco, goorh,* swords, &c. The houses may be about 100 in number. They are large, well built, and covered with thick slates of a brown- ish colour, which form very heavy roofs. Upona few of the houses the slates are cut into oblongs, and laid regularly, which give them a neat appearance ; but by far the greater number are of all shapes and sizes, put on without any re- gard to order. Under the rajah’s palace, a handsome edifice at the northern angle of the town, there is a rope bridge simi- lar to the one at Wangtoo, across the Sutluj, leading to Koo- loo. The breadth of the river here is 211 feet, and the Shoola is elevated thirty feet above the stream, which, in the rainy season, comes within four feet of it. In December and January, when the river is at its lowest, people sometimes cross upon inflated skins. We found the bed of the Sutluj, by barometrical observa- tions, 3260 feet above the level of the sea. The site of Rampoor is low, and much confined, and one * Goorh, coarse sugar. Mountains, from Soobathoo to Chinese Tartary. 221 of the worst that could have been fixed upon. Being en- circled by high mountains, subtending an angle of between twenty and thirty degrees, a breath of wind can scarcely ever reach it. There is little soil, and no wood upon the sur- rounding hills; and large portions of naked rock appear on every side of the town, which, being once heated, retain their warmth for a long time, so that in summer the nights are not more cool than the days, and from there being no circulation of the air, the place for several months is like an oven. On the 7th Nov. we marched to Nirt, upon the left bank of the river. T he distance is 124 miles, and the road for the first 423 to the Nonguree, a large rivulet coming from the eastward, consisted of short ascents and descents, sometimes rocky. We crossed it by an excellent high sango with a railing; and the rest of the way was quite plain, lying near the Sutluj. The extreme height of the bed of the river opposite to our camp is 2912 feet, and as this is the last place where we had an opportunity of measuring it, I shall now endeavour to give some idea of the probable height of Mansurowur Lake, from or near which it is said to take its rise. The Sutluj hasa variety of names, being called Sutlooj, Sutroodra, Sumudrung, Sampoo, Langzhing-Kampa, Muksung, and Zung-Tee, in different parts of its course. Sutroodra is the name most commonly used, by which it is known from its source to the plains. Inthe Koonawur language, the words Sumud- rung, Sampoo, Kampa, Muksung, and Tee, all signify river. Zung means gold, and with the addition of Tee, is applied to the stream, at a sandy place near Murung, where gold dust is found. By the accounts of many people who have travelled along its bank to its source, it issues from lake Rawun Rud, called also Ruwathud and Lanka, which was confidently said by every body I saw that had been there to communicate with Mansurowur, although Mr. Moorcroft could not discover the outlet of the latter lake. The circuit of Rawun Rud was represented to be no less than seven days journey ; but it is most likely both lakes were included. From Nirt to Sudum Sango, under Numgeea, the horizon- tal distance by the map is 72 miles, although by the road it is almost 140. The difference of the altitude of the bed of the river in this space isabout 5690 feet, which gives the fall of the river near 80 feet per mile in adirect line. From Num- 222 Lieut. Gerard’s Ewcursion through the Himalayah geea to Mansurowur, which is placed agreeable to Major Hearsey’s intelligence I fancy not far from the truth, as its dis- tance from Shipke agrees well with the accounts I received, the horizontal distance is about 167 miles. If, therefore, only 35 feet be allowed for the fall of the river per mile, from Num- geea upwards, it will give the extreme height of Mansurowur, or Mapang Lake, above 14,000 feet ; and I am inclined to think this estimate rather under the truth than otherwise, for Mansurowur is unquestionably very elevated, from the cir- cumstance of four large rivers, and perhaps five, taking their rise in that quarter. | Ist, The Sutluj issuing from the Jake itself. 2d, The Sind, or Sing-Ke-Choo, known likewise by the name of Siud-Ke-Kampa, has its source north-east of Mansu- rowur. It is described as being a very large river, and the principal branch of the Indus, being frequently named Attuk even near Garoo, three marches to the eastward of which it passes, running close south of the capital of Ludak, and three or four days journey to the northward of the valley of Kash- meer, 3d, The Tamjoo-Kampa springs from the mountains east of Mapang, and at first flows towards the eastward. 4th, The Manja-Choo rises to the south of Mansurowur, and runs south-east. The latter two rivers I conclude to be the Burumpooter and Gogra. I likewise heard of a fifth river, (but only from the accounts of one person,) said to be crossed eight or ten marches east- north-east of Garoo. Its source is reckoned near Mapang, and it runs north-east, so that it is perhaps one of the great Chinese rivers. Onthe$th Nov. wemarched 8} miles, to Kotgoor, where there is a cantonment for two companies of the Ist Museeree Batta- lion. The road at the beginning of this day’s march lay close upon the left bank of the Sutluj, and there was a steep ascent of 3500 feet, latterly winding amongst beautiful woods of oak, pine, and yew. On the 10th we proceeded 71 miles, to Hutoo, in ordertomake some astronomical observations, and get the bearings and eleva- tions of the surrounding objects, The ascent from Kotgoor is not less than 4000 feet. The road at first was good, but after- wards became steep and rugged. Hutoo consists of two small Mountains, from Soobathoo to Chinese Tartary. 228 forts, upon the top of ahill, 10,600 feet above the level of the sea, connected on the north-east with the snowy mountains. The prospect from this spot is very extensive, upwards of fifty forts, with from four to six towers each, may be distinct- ly counted in the Rajahships of Kooloo, Sooked, and Mundee north-west of the Sutluj. Beyond these are seen high moun- tains, covered with snow. To the north-east and east appears _ the great Himalaya chain, extending until it is lost in the horizon, whilst to the south and south-west, the hills decrease in height to the plains, which are clearly distinguished at a distance. We were detained here until the 16th, for we were involv- ed in mist for several days, during which time we could not see half a mile on any side. The thermometer did not get above 34° in a house, with a blazing fire for two snowy days, and at sunrise it was 28°; but, when the clouds cleared away, it rose to 40° and 41° at noon. After completing our obser- vations, we returned, on the 16th, to Kotgoor, where we stay- ed a couple of days, and on the 1%th marched to Jeemoo, 93 miles. The road, for about four miles, was generally good, passing many villages, and lying upon the face of a ieft-hand range, through dark forests of various sorts of trees, to a small stream, from whence there was a very steep ascent of 2400 feet, through a thicket, to Nagkanda Pass, 9000 feet high. We here found a great many hazel trees; but all the nuts were rotten. From the Pass to Camp we had a moderate descent of three miles, on the slope of a range that lay upon our right. On the 20th we marched to Muteeana, nine miles. The road for near six miles was good, upon the right bank of a rivulet, and crossed by many brooks, to Mandunee, where there is a handsome temple, built in the Chinese style. After leaving it, we crossed the Kuljehur, a stream coming from the north- ward, that divides Keoonthul from Koomarsaeen, two small states under chiefs called Ranas. The descent to the Kulje- hur was steep, and the ascent to Camp equally so, each about 1000 feet. The mountains we passed are wooded with pines and oaks in the valleys, but above produce little except grass. We marched to Bunee on the 21st Nov. 142 miles. The road consisted of easy ascents and descents, near the top of 224 Lieut. Gerard’s Tour in the Himalayah Mountains, &c. a range, upon soil, and through a very highly cultivated coun- try, abounding with villages. » On the 22d we wiageedell to Semla, 11 miles, and next day made a forced march of 221 miles, to Soobathoo. The latter part of the road has already been described. Throughout the above tour, the road was surveyed with some care, and a number of peaks were fixed trigonometrical- ly, which agree well together. We were extremely lucky in having clear weather, and always managed to get two, but most commonly four, meridian altitudes of stars, contained in Mr. Pond’s catalogue, at every halting place except one. We had two sextants, and a Troughton’s reflecting circle, having a stand, with the last of which instruments the lati- tudes were usually observed. We carried no less than four- teen excellent barometer tubes with us, only two of which re- turned in safety. Before setting out, they were all found to stand at the same point ; and the height was always measured from the surface of the mercury. At every Camp we tried the height of the boiling pomt, with a good thermometer, which never gave the altitude above 200 feet different from the barometer. The largest theodolite was constructed by Troughton, and graduated both vertically and horizontally, to twenty seconds; the elevations of most mountains, subtend- ing small angles, were taken with it, and those above 10° were observed either with the sextant or circle, and artificial horizon. The height of the colossal Tuzheegung, whose summit is al- most 22,500 feet above the level of the sea, was determined by angles of elevation between 4° and 24°, taken at eight dif- ferent stations, varying from 9000 to 19000 feet in height, and from two to about thirty miles distant from it, allowing one- fifteenth for terrestrial refraction ; and the extreme difference between any two of the observations does not amount to 250 feet. The Kylas peaks, besides many others, were calculated from many stations at various distances, and none of them differ above 500 feet from one another. The next highest peak to the Tuzheegung that we saw is above 21,000 feet. It was seen from Hutoo, 53 miles distant, under an angle of 1° 47, and its altitude, deduced from this, comes within 200 feet of what the observation at Rogee gives it, when the dis- tance was eight miles, and the elevation 15°. Dr. MacCulloch on Rare Scottish Minerals. 225 Art. IV.—List of the Localities of some of the rarer Scottish Minerals. By Joun MacCuttrocu, M.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. and M.G.S. Chemist to the Board of Ordnance, and Pro- fessor of Chemistry in Addiscombe College. Communi- cated by the Author. As no mineralogist has yet thought proper to draw up a list of such minerals as are found in our own country, the following contribution is offered towards this object. To know what species we possess, out of the extensive list of minerals now ascertained, is not only a subject of rational curiosity, but is of use to the student, by engaging his at- tention, and by exciting his industry and observation during his investigations. To find in its native place the mineral he has only seen in cabinets, is an event always highly in- teresting; while it is no less useful in making him acquaint- ed with all their obscurer modifications or varieties, which, from that very cause, their being less perfect, are rarely ad- mitted into collections. A quick eye for the discrimination of minerals in their obscurer forms, or when intermixed with other substances, can indeed scarcely be obtained with- out practice of this nature; while it also accustoms the young observer to keep his attention alive to the objects around him, and thus, not only to find substances already known, but to be the discoverer of new minerals. He will thus also learn, not to trust to the mere physiog- nomy of minerals in his investigations, but to acquire that fundamental knowledge of their real distinctions, without which he will frequently find himself at a loss in recognis- ing any particular substance under a different aspect from that with which alone he has been familiar. He will not be long in discovering, in his attempts to investigate or name minerals in their native place, that the merely empirical knowledge of their best characterised appearances which he has acquired in cabinets, will not go far in ascertaining them in nature. The completion of a geographical list of native minerals, may thus eventually add, not only to the amusement, but to the instruction of the student. It is true, that in the sys- tems of mineralogy drawn up by our several native writers. 226 Dr. MacCulloch on the Localities of many such localities have been recorded. But even those which are generally known, are not all to be found in any one of these works, nor can they be extracted without la- bour; while these writers, with all their industry, have not always been able to obtain the yet unpublished knowledge, of this nature, which is dispersed among many individuals. There are many persons whom this list may probably in- duce to transmit to this Journal, such localities of this nature as they are acquainted with. When thus rendered more perfect, it will be of use, not merely for the purposes already suggested, but will form a fund on which the future writers of mineralogical systems may draw with little labour. I have here only pretended to give the places and names of such minerals as I have myself found; some of which, itis true, have been long known to many other persons as indigenous to Scotland. There are many others in that country which ought to be recorded; but that task is best left to those who have seen them in their native places. T would willingly have described the exact spots of those which I have named in a more particular manner, but that could not have been done without prolonging this paper to an inconvenient length, nor even then could a mineralogist have been directed to them with unerring precision. The minerals of most common occurrence are not noticed, for the most obvious reasons; but all the varieties of such of these as are rare, or in any way interesting, are mentioned. If such a list shall hereafter be rendered tolerably com- plete in the way here suggested, it might easily be reprint- ed in a condensed form, as a manual to the travelling mi- neralogist. QUARTZ. Of this very common mineral, it is only necessary to no- tice the varieties which are rare, and which more particularly comprise those that present peculiarities of colour. Foetid.—At Pol Ewe and Loch Greinord, on the western coast of Scotland. ‘This is found in gneiss, forming veins, and the smell often resembles that of putrid sea weed. It is sensible only on friction, and diminishes when the specimens have been so long kept as to lose their water. Green. Coloured by chlorite. In Bute; on the shore of some of the Rarer Scottish Minerals. 227 Cowal; on the south-eastern shore of Jura, and on the north-western of Isla, opposite. This quartz forms veins in chlorite schist, and is always accompanied by common chlo- rite. Some of the varieties are so dark as to be nearly black. It has been mistaken for prase, from which it is essentially different. The following variety is the prase of the Ger- mans. Green. Coloured by green actinolite. Prase. I have found this variety only once, and it was in a very limited quantity even there. This was in a small island within, and not far from the entrance of Loch Hourn. As it is too in- significant to have a name in the map, I cannot direct mine- ralogists to it more accurately. This quartz is in veins, traversing actinolite schist; and, according to the quantity of the intermixed colouring matter, it varies from a very fight to the usual dark green of this mineral. Green. Coloured by the green earth of the trap rocks. In Rum, in Scuir-more, together with the heliotrope of that place. In Glen Farg, and in the hill of Kinnoul. It also occurs in Ayrshire; and generally, in this case, it is inter- mixed with other chalcedonies and agates. Green. Coloured by an intermixture of green compact felspar. In Rona, (East) at Pol Ewe, and on various parts of the western coast of Ross-shire. Pink. Opaque, and pink or flesh-coloured. Common quartz, coloured by an unknown ingredient. In Lewis, from gneiss. Pink. Opalescent, or rather milky. In Coll; in Aber- deenshire, on the Buck of Cabrach. The latter specimens are nearly transparent. In Loch Maddy in North Uist. Brown red. Transparent. Apparently coloured by iron. On the western ccast of Sutherland, in veins traversing gneiss, between Loch Inver and the Ru Storr. In East Rona; in the Angus hills. Brown red. Milky or chalcedonic quartz. At Gerloch in Ross-shire, in gneiss. Purple or lilac. Opake. In Shetland, near Selie-voe, in gneiss. Violet blue. Pale; opalescent. In Loch Maddy, in North Uist, in gneiss. 228 Dr. MacCulloch on the Localities of Purple. Crystallized; amethyst. In trap in the hill of Kinnoul, and elsewhere; found in the centre of agate no- dules. In the hills of Mar, in granite. Grey. Blueor French grey. Opake. In Glen Tilt, in veins in gneiss; and in Aberdeenshire. Grey. Blackish. Common quartz, irregularly transpar- ent. In various parts of Aberdeenshire, and in Shetland. Grey. Blackish. Chalcedonic quartz. In Gerloch, in Ross-shire; on Ben Lair in the same county, in gneiss. The colour varies from very pale to very dark blackish grey, and the specimens are also exceedingly various in their de- grees of transparency. Black. Common transparent quartz, apparently coloured by an intermixture of hornblende, just as it is sometimes co- loured green by actinolite. The fine splinters are translu- cent. In Ben Lair, in Ross-shire, in hornblende schist; but it seems very rare. Brown. Transparent quartz. The colour varies in in- tensity, but the colouring ingredient is not known. It is discharged by a moderate heat. It is found crystallized, notedly in Cairngorm, in granite. In Arran, and in Ben- na-Chie, in granite. In St. Kilda, in that syenite which is connected with augite rock and greenstone. At Killin, per- fectly transparent, but uncrystallized; in nodules in chlorite schist. In North Rona, in granite veins, unerystallized. Yellow. A brownish yellow crystal occurs in the hills of Mar. Yellow quartz, imperfectly transparent and full of fissures, is not uncommon in the Perthshire hills, but it seems in general to have been coloured somewhat recently, by having admitted a stain from the rust of iron. Colourless or greenish. White amethyst. In Fife, and in the hill of Kinnoul. Colourless: ‘Transparent. ‘The crystallized kind is too common to deserve notice; but as it is rarely transparent when in veins and nodules, I may here remark that it occurs in this manner in the chlorite schist, at the south-eastern ex- tremity of Jura, and the north-eastern of Isla. Granular white quartz, resembling refined sugar, is found in Harris, and in Ben Lair, in veins traversing gneiss. There is here also found a singular variety, in which a pure- 2 some of the Rarer Scottish Minerals. 229 ly hyaline quartz passes gradually into this snow-white and finely granular kind. It is unnecessary to point out the lo- calities of the other varieties, which abound everywhere. FELSPAR. As in the case of quartz, I shall here only notice the most remarkable and most rare varieties of this mineral. I may remark, generally, that they are principally found in those districts which consist of gneiss, and are almost always inte- grant portions of the granite veins with which that rock abounds. Pure white. Opake. At Hillswick, in Shetland, inter- mixed with actinolite, and very splendent. At Cape Wrath, in granite veins. In Coll, Harris, and in Arisaik. White. Translucent where thin; splendent and ieflect: ing much pearly light from the interior. This very beauti- ful variety occurs in Harris, on the southern side of Roneval The ordinary white varieties, under many different aspects, are too common to require particular notice. White. Crystallized. In Cairn Lia, one of the summits of Ben-y-gloe, in micaceous schist. In Aberdeenshire, not very uncommon ; particularly in the granite of Bennachie. Flesh-coloured. A brownish flesh-coloured variety, cha- racterized by a high degree of transparency, and pearly lus- tre in the thin fragments, occurs in east Rona. A ver beautiful yellowish flesh-coloured and similarly splendent variety abounds im North Rona. This colour is here dis- tinguished for its peculiar purity and beauty, compared to the ordinary colours of felspar. Blue-grey. This variety also arama in North Mona, but I have never observed it elsewhere. Brick-red. Very bright. This occurs in Lewis, in Ard- gower, and in Shetland, but is rare. Reds declining from this in brightness and purity, are too common to require no- tice. Purple-brown. In Eriska and Fudia, and less perfect in Coll. ‘ Brownish grey. Inclining to purple in some instances, and resembling that of a Eafieador, but not iridescent. In Sky, in veins in hypersthene rock, and in Rum. In Aber- deenshire. VOL. I. No. IT. oct. 1824. R 280 Dr. MacCulloch on the Localities of Glassy Felspar. In the basalts and clay-stones of the western islands in general. Very large in the clay-stones of Blaven in Sky. COMPACT FELSPAR. Bright green. In Iona, and in Tirey, in gneiss. Very abundant in the same rock at Loch Greinord, and generally on the western coast of Ross-shire. In different parts of Inverness-shire and Aberdeenshire, but more rare. This mineral has hitherto been mistaken for quartz and for epi- dote. Lead-grey. In Loch Maree, in Ross-shire. Brown Purple. At Pol Ewe in Ross-shire. These two resemble precisely the compact felspars of Sweden. White. InJona. In West Rona, in North Uist. This is an extremely beautiful substance, and it also occurs in Sweden; but I have never yet seen specimens from any other place or country. HORNBLENDE. Crystallized in East Rona ; also in Ben Lair. Platy and splendent. Dark green, resembling diallage ; in Coll. Fine fibrous. Resembling black satin, in Perthshire. In general it is too common, under its ordinary forms, to require further notice here. Fine fibrous radiated. In clay-slate at Boharm, in Banff- shire. This is a very singular and -beautiful variety; put- ting on many remarkable forms, and, as far as I know, pe- culiar to this spot. Pargasite. In Tirey, in white marble. The characters ' are extremely well marked. ACTINOLITE. Intermixed in large crystals. Either alone or imbedded in tale. In Glen Elg near Eilan Reoch. In Isle Oransa in Sky. At Hillswick in Shetland. . Fibrous. Continuously straight, curved, or undulated. In Glen Elg, and in Aberdeenshire. Schistose. In Glen Elg; very finely laminar. In Suther- land, in Shetland, in Nether Lorn. Short fibrous entangled. In Glen Elg. In Isle Oransa. Near Fedaland in Shetland. some of the Rarer Scottish Minerals. 231 Flat Platy, entangled. In Isle Oransa. Finely stellated, entangled. Near Fedaland in Shetland ; near Blair in Atholl. Nearly pulverulent, and very pale. In Shetland, near Burra Voe. The stellated and this last are extremely beau- tiful and singular minerals, to which I have seen no resem- blances among foreign specimens. Nearly white. Crystallized entangled. Near Handa in Sutherland. In this case there is a near approximation to tremolite; and it may even be doubted whether there are any essential differences. TREMOLITE. In large crystals openly entangled and independent. In Tirey ; from primary limestone. In large crystals imbedded. In Glen Tilt. Large fibrous, radiated or straight. In Glen Tilt. Of very large dimensions. Flat bladed, radiated. In Cairn Lia (Ben Gloe), in Unst (Shetland.) Fine fibrous, radiated or straight. In Glen Tilt, at Port- soy, in serpentine; at Dunkeld, in clay-slate. Fibrous, asbestiform or silky. In white primary lime- stone. In Glen Elg. Small stellated, imbedded. In Glen Tilt. In imbedded and radiated spheres. In Glen Tilt. In short fibrous crystals, compacted into a solid mass. In Glen Tilt. This variety sometimes appears to be almost granular. The specimens of tremolite, in this locality, al! occur in primary limestone, and are very splendid; and most of the several varieties here named are so rare that I have seen no parallel to them in foreign collections. It is re- markable, that in Tirey, crystals of tremolite and of Sah- lite are so confounded, that a single crystal sometimes con- tains both substances, as if there was a transition between the two minerals. HELIOTROPE. Chalcedony, coloured by green earth. In Scuir-more in Rum. In nodules, in the trap conglomerates of Kerrera. In the hill of Kinnoul; in Ayrshire; in Mull, under Gri- bon. On the beach at St. Andrews, loose. pio) (SS) ris) Dr. MacCulloch on the Localities of DIALLAGE. In Unst and Fetlar, in serpentine and in diallage rock. In Balta, in diallage rock. In Ayrshire, in serpentine. STAUROTIDE. In Bixeter Voe, Shetland, in micaceous schist. The crys- tals here are as large as those of Britanny. HOLLOW SPAR. In micaceous schist near Balahulish. This mineral occurs abundantly in Skiddaw, in clay-slate, as is well known; but I have never found it in Scotland, except in the above-men- tioned place. APATITE. In Ross-shire, near Bonar Bridge, in gneiss and granite. In trap, (claystone) in Rum. HYPERSTHENE. In Sky, and in Ardnamurchan, in hypersthene rock, In Rum, in veins in augite rock. It appears also to have been found loose in Banffshire; but its native place has not even been conjectured. STAUROLITE. At Strontian, in a granite and metalliferous vein. In the Kilpatrick hills, in trap. It is not crossed or twined in either of these places; but the crystals are of great magnitude. PINITE. In Ben Gloe and in Forfarshire, in porphyritic veins. In Argyllshire, in massive porphyry. In these cases it forms an abundant ingredient in the rock, and has been mistaken for mica. SPODUMENE. In Glen Elg, in granite. In this case it is an ingre- dient of the rock, generally diffused with the felspar, mica, and quartz. CYANITE. In Shetland, at Hillswick, and in the southern promontory of Mainland, in mica slate. In Glen Tilt, in quartz. At Boharm in Banffshire, in clay slate. This last is the locality where the mineral was first found; whence it was sent to Saussure, and by him named Sappare,—a term corrupted from Sapphire by the person who transmitted it. some of the Rarer Scottish Minerals. 233 GARNET PRECIOUS. At Strontian and in Ardgower, in granite and gneiss. In Harris, in gneiss. At Ely in Fife, loose. ‘That of Stron- tian resembles the Hungarian in colour. That of Harris re- sembles the Greenland and the Indian garnets. TOPAZ. Blue, white, and brown. In decomposed granite in Brae- mar, loose. Single crystals weighing fifteen ounces have been found. A fragment in my possession belongs to a crystal which must have weighed eight pounds when entire. The blue and brown are sometimes united in one crystal. BERYL. In the same situations and place. The topaz is tolerably abundant; but this is rare, and the crystals imperfect gene- rally, as if carious or corroded. CHLORITE CRYSTALLIZED. In Cairn Lia, in micaceous schist. In Jura, in chlorite schist. In Bute. At Dunkeld. The crystals of Cairn Lia are very large and perfect, being compounded hexagonal prisms terminated by pyramids. FLUOR SPAR. In Sutherland and Aberdeenshire, in gneiss and granite. That of Sutherland is purple. That of Aberdeenshire is most commonly green and white, and the green colour is dis- charged by exposure to air. At Strontian, in a granite and metalliferous vein. In Ayrshire, and in Papa Stour in Shet- land, in claystone amygdaloid. This last situation is very rare. CHLOROPHEITE. In Rum, in claystone and basalt; and near Burntisland in Fife. I found this mineral first in 1810. It varies in lustre in these two localities, the former being transparent when first found. CONITE. In Glen Farg, in Mull, in Sky, and in the Kilpatrick Hills, in amygdaloidal trap. These are the only places in which I have yet observed this new mineral. PREHNITE. In gneiss, in Yell, Shetland. In traps in the following si- tuations: At Bishoptown, near Paisley. In the Kilpatrick 234 Dr. MacCulloch on the Localities of Hills. In Glen Farg. In Mull, Sky, Arran, and Rasay. In Edinburgh castle rock, and in Salisbury Craig. In Dum- barton castle rock. LAUMONITE. In Sky, near Loch Brittle. In the Kilpatrick Hills. APOPHYLLITE. In Sky, near Loch Brittle. In the Kilpatrick Hills. STILBITE. In Sky. In the Kilpatrick Hills, red. Near Stonehaven. In Fife. In the Shiant Isles. In Staffaand Canna. In all these places in traps. In Arran in granite. At Strontian in a granite vein. In Kerrera, red, in argillaceous schist ; be- ing the only instance, I believe, of that association. COMPTONITE. If this be a new mineral, it is the supposed stilbite of Stron- tian above mentioned. ANALCIME. In Sky, Canna, Staffa, Ulva, and Mull. In the Kilpa- trick Hills. In Edinburgh castle rock, and in Salisbury Craig. In Dumbarton castle rock. In Sky it is often trans- parent. In the Kilpatrick Hills it passes by a complete tran- sition into prehnite. The primitive form occurs at Talisker, in Sky. MESOTYPE. In Glen Farg. In Sky. In Arran, the Shiant Isles, Staffa, and Ayrshire. NADELSTEIN. In the Kilpatrick Hills’ In Sky. In Arran. The radi- ated variety, called natrolite, occurs in Staffa, and near Burntisland in Fife. The nadelstein of Talisker and Dunve- gan in Sky, often resembles the finest cotton, or flaw silk, and is so light as to float in water. CHABASITE. In Sky, at the Stoor, and at Talisker, in traps. WAVELLITE. In the Shiant Isles, in an indurated shale or flinty slate of the secondary class, which belongs to the coal strata of the Western Islands, and is indurated by the vicinity of trap. OLIVIN. This is rare in Scotland. In Sky, in trap, near Loch Brit- tle; forming half the mass of the rock. some of the Rarer Scottish Minerals. 235 ADULARIA. . In granite in Arran. In granitic veins in micaceous schist in Cairn Lia. This mineral is very rare even in those lo- calities. AUGITE. In Run, in trap rocks, with felspar ; very remarkable, and of a very large size. In St. Kilda, Arran, Sky, &c. in a si- milar manner. In Tirey it is found in white primary lime- stone, and sometimes regularly crystallized. SAHLITE. In Tirey, often crystallized, and of various colours, form- ing very beautiful specimens. In Harris equally or more va- rious, and often of a dark brown. In Glen Elg, silvery white. In Rannoch, pale green. In Glen Tilt, white, mas- sive, in large beds; where it is associated with tremolite, as it also is in Tirey ; decomposing also into a very tenacious and unctuous clay. ANDALUSITE. In Aberdeenshire, in granite. CALCAREOUS SPAR. Green. Coloured by green earth, of a light green. In Rum. Of a dark green, by common chlorite in Bute. Those varieties are extremely singular and rare. Yellow. Crystallized in the inverse rhomb. In the pri- mitive rhomb. In Sky also. The varieties found at Stron- tian are so well known that I need not enumerate them. HYDRATE OF MAGNESIA. In Unst in Shetland, and in Balta. Found in serpentine and in tale schist. OXYDULOUS IRON. Octahedral. In hypersthene rock in Sky. In tale and in chlorite at Fillswick in Shetland. In chlorite schist in Bute. Micaceous. In veins or nests, in clay slate, at Dunkeld. In dispersed grains, in gneiss and granite, in Shetland. In the same manner in a compact grey (old red) sandstone. Specular-volcanic. In trap veins in Perthshire. This is crystallized in prolonged hexagonal plates, and resembles that of Vesuvius. BOG IRON ORE. The resinous variety. In Foula, Shetland. This variety i 236 Sir Thomas Brisbane’s Observations on the is not common, and resembles, in its lustre and fracture, those Hungarian jaspers which have been improperly called pitch- stone. OXYDE OF CHROME. In Unst, in chromate of iron. This new mineral is the pure oxyde of chrome, not the mineral called by this name in Lucas’s system ; and is either compact or pulverulent, be- ing sometimes green, at others yellow. GOLD. In Sutherland, near Helmsdale. In Perthshire, in the sands of the Tay. SULPHURET OF MOLYBDENA. In Glen Elg. BLACK LEAD. In Ayrshire, at Cumnock. In Glen Elg. In Strathpef- fer. In Shetland. I have not here noticed the lead ores-of the Lead Hills, or the other metallic minerals of that spot, as they are generally known, and as their locality is equally notorious. I may add to this enumeration of the rarer earthy minerals of Scotland, that I am in possession of two new minerals, ap- pertaining to the family of Zeolites, respecting the analysis and distinguishing characters of which I have not yet so far satisfied myself as to venture to give names to them. Art. V.—Observations made at Paramatia on the Inferior Conjunction of Venus with the Sun, in Oct. 1823. By his Excellency Sir Tuomas Brispane, K.C.B. F.R.S. Lond. and Edin. Communicated by the Author, in a letter to Dr. Brewster. My pear Sir, I addition to the scientific communications which I have alréady transmitted to you, I beg leave to add another, on the inferior conjunction of Venus with the Sun; a species of observation which, I believe, has never before been made in the southern hemisphere, and which may perhaps throw Inferior Conjunction of Venus in 1823. 237 some farther light on the parallax of that planet. I regret that there was no large star near Venus, in order to have compared it with her. The observations on the stars now sent have been made more with the view of exhibiting the state of the mural circle with which the observations were made than for any other purpose. As Mr. Rumker’s health has been so bad for the last three months, that he has been obliged to retire into the country about forty miles off, the observations have been entirely made by myself and Mr. Dunlop, in whose accuracy I have the most perfect confidence. I have seen your Journal as late as April, in which I al- ways find valuable matter. And I therefore wish you to use any communications I may send you from time to time as you may wish ; as my sole object is the general extension of science ;—and observations lose more than half their value if they are not circulated. I think the activity of the observatory will not be diminish- ed by Mr. Rumker’s absence. I am preparing to observe the solstice, which will be the fifth observation of it I shall have made with the same sixteen-inch repeating circle of Reich- enbach. In the course of these observations, I shall have run through nearly 10,000 degrees, as I never unclamp the instrument but for repetition for the three weeks I am ob- serving. _ Trusting to hear from you soon, I remain, My Dear Sir, Yours most faithfully, THoMas BRISBANE. Government House, Paramatia, New South Wales, Nov. 3, 1823. yurey Ala A So 08 oe) = 08 6I ~ = ~~ =< ie ‘ojod qng OL «66 Crem “Apnoyo qurey (ojod qng) “sno[nwol 7, [RIN ays Aq AOS YOO[D *SyIBWOY Fh 6s GT 6 66 él 6G LL 9T 989 &!1 OL LP alr 91 08 81 Or. ol Il GP éT Lo ut 9t 8 8 4éI 781 19 “SI *apAD [RANI ayy Aq uvipoIl ay} JAAO JisuvL YL, I v v L 0 6 0 é 8 0 ‘sy & 8 g 8 & 6 68 0 & y 96 & "8 L Ls fe FA 9 6D 6 6L © 9 6 66 6 91 OPEL 8 6 v9T ST | TT ‘AI 0 0 8P v 6 &P ¢ 6 1é ¢ yb OF I & L L S 6 9¢ & So OF 6 hot 8 & be 6 8 $1 0 0 69 8 8 SP é 6 9V 6 Oca ORS 8 lg| 0 9F 6 06; IL 86 0 91) &° Sé Dee oe 8 ¢&| I 8 0 S1| 6 Te OF Sen lee heee 6 AL} 6 06 © Gl |= or 0n 8 IT |5 8) 96 0} BL | 2 ke 6 9L1} & 81 § 0¢ | & 9 G iL} 0 WG "ul *sadoasO101[AL ‘WT SOFPNHRAOHMrFOCONSCMHKrONNHODNSHArOHDSH = = lL 6P 6 196 9G oF8 at *s00KRISIC, IL[Od — 4 ee (‘yuawnaysuy ay} JO 94e}s puv uoly SB8T <9gQ0}9Q “DIDUDAD 6a]941) [OLN AY? hg parsasgo sp ‘ung ay) pu snuaf 0 aounys solejuy quay Jamory quay sedd yy solvjuy qui reddy quay reddy quuy raddQq quny saddy) quay raddq quuy 19M0'T quuy 1aMory qu, 19M07y7 solejUy qu] sadd q quay amory wakry 2 quny radd 4 quart 19.M0ry osiy ¢ sorvjuy quay sodd quay 1a.M0ry osiy ¢ os1y 97 quuy 1aMory quay 19Mory osiy ¢ quuly 1aaory quay aaddq +E FO FOeHO¢HOHO FO oO © “Ih 069°66 Sok 069°66 ¢"89 09°66 “LL PES'6S “ph PES 6S "Sh 099°66 ¢'F8 P9966 o'18 899°66 “LL P9L'6S “OL PILO6 OSL. 09866 oll 098°66 "oh 819°66 "bL 819°66 VL 819°66 8°69 008°66 Sol 008°66 Soh 008°62 9°69 O9L'6S “BL 9TL°66 9°8L OL L'66 o°8L 9TL'6S GOL P8L'66 8°99 000°0& “OL 60°06 *6L 60°06 "99 090°0& “SL O6L°0E ooh O6L0E “rye “MOULIN, L, |"AOJOULOLL FT "98 — ‘Suruzouw 4x9 Ny 6 eg SSuIu1OUl 1X9Ny — ‘Surus0ul 3x0 N "66 ‘Tg ‘Surui0ut 7x0N ‘06 *G] ‘SUIUIOW 3X9 NT 2) ‘OT SSUTUIOW FXON ‘er — ‘Suut0ul 4x9 NN ‘TI — ‘SuLus0Ul 4xX9Nt ‘OL +g ‘Burur0ul 1X8 Ny *h — ‘Burrow 3X9 NT *9 10901909 *CZ8T ‘1910900 isod ay} Moys 03 A[Uo papuasut aav s.ivyg ayy, ) Lmjog pun uorsuaosp Wy Fay ur aouavafuy Mr. Harvey on Circular Sterns. 239 Arr. VI.—On the Circular Sterns of Ships of War. By Georce Harvey, Esq. F.R.S.E. M.G.S. &e. Commu- nicated by the Author. Iw consequence of an article which appeared in the 18th Number of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, on the Circular Sterns for Ships of War, I have been induced to re- sume the investigation of that subject, and by a further ex- amination of several ships, with sterns of both kinds, in the harbour of Hamoaze, Plymouth, to discover if any real grounds existed for the opposition this truly excellent plan has received. And, after giving it the most deliberate con- _ sideration, I would observe, that both as regards the mecha- nical strength of the ship, and the improved means of defence it affords, on many difficult and trying occasions, from the action of the sea, and the shot of the enemy, I can arrive at no other conclusion than that the system ought to be decided- ly persevered in, and by no means abandoned or compromised ; and that to return to the weak and defenceless form of the square stern, would only be to restore a barbarous and im- perfect remnant of a system of ship-building, which ought, long ere this, to have been banished from the dock-yards of a great and enlightened nation like our own. It may not perhaps be known to some of the readers of the Edinburgh Journal, that the application of circular sterns to ships of war, forms a necessary and important part of the improved system of ship-building, latterly introduced mto the public service by Sir Robert Seppings, and that without the full and perfect application of it, to ships of all classes, this excellent system will be rendered in a considerable degree imeffectual. Indeed, the necessary and essential connexion between the diagonal trussed frame, the shelf-pieces, * and thick water ways, and their peculiar adaptation to the form of the circular stern, renders it impossible to separate either from the new system of ship-building, without producing a most important injury to public service. * Mr. Knowles, in his valuable work on Preserving the Navy, observes, “ It is but justice to acknowledge, that the great benefit which naval architec- ture has derived from the introduction of shelf-pieces, is due to the French.” 240 ' Mr. Harvey on Circular Sterns. The general and unexceptionable merits of the diagonal system are now universally acknowledged, but the advanta- ges resulting from the shelf-pieces and thick-water ways, and the admirable mode by which the beams are connected to them, by means of coaks and bolts passing through the whole, although clearly understood by those well-informed men, who have turned their attention to the inquiry, have, nevertheless, not attracted so largely the attention of the scien- tific world, as might have been expected. Their advantages, however, are as unquestionable as those resulting from the diagonal trusses; and there can be no question but the lon- gitudinal strength communicated by the latter, would be con- siderably diminished, if the lateral strength afforded by the former were removed, or in any great degree impaired. Hence, without an intimate and perfect union of the advan- tages resulting from both, and which can alone be done by the perfect application of circular sterns, the separate streneths afforded by the two can never be effectually united. In ships with square sterns, the application of the diagonal system of trusses does not produce its maximum effect, nor is the continuity of the shelf-pieces preserved, since the most abrupt termination of them takes place at the quarters, a difficulty entirely removed in the circular form by the hap- py introduction of the ekeing, and affording a perfect illus- tration of the term “ internal hoop,” so appropriately applied to them by Sir Robert Seppings. The opponents of the circular stern are therefore imped- ing the advancement of naval architecture most essentially, by endeavouring to prevent its introduction into the public service ; nor can I comprehend by what erroneous and mis- taken views those are guided, who endeavour, in the face of reason, the clear and evident principles of mechanics, and of every sound and legitimate conclusion of science, to resist the progress of a system of ship-building, which it will be the honour of this age to have produced. It has long appeared to me that this much controverted question, divested of the questionable and trifling considera- tions relative to beauty of external form, is capable of being reduced into a very narrow compass, and of admitting of a fair and perfect demonstration. In the first place, it cannot Mr. Harvey on Circular Sterns. % 941 be denied, but that circular sterns remove a form, notorious- ly weak and feeble, (in truth, the weakest part by far of the ship,) and possessed of no one excellence to recommend it ; and, secondly, That the form substituted, possesses in a pre- eminent degree, all the essential attributes of mechanical strength, and under many difficult circumstances, is capable of affording the most effectual and perfect defence, which the other, under the same circumstances, would be altogether in- capable of yielding. Now, if the sailing qualities of a shig are not impaired by the change, and that they are, cannot bc satisfactorily proved, mechanical strength, and superio means of defence, are all the requisites that can be reasona bly denied, and that time will triumphantly prove these ad vantages to result from the application of the circular stern, is what I most firmly believe. It will not be the first cas: in which praise and approbation have been slowly obtained. Iamratherat a loss to discover, whether the author of the pa- per which has occasioned these observations, be really a friend to the introduction of the circular stern or not, since many of his remarks partake of an ambiguous character. There are some points of the paper, however, to which I wish to direct the attention of your readers. In the first place, it is contend- ed, (page 354,) that in case of a round stern vessel getting on the quarter of a ship, “ the fire of at least the aftermost gun on the broadside, when in that position, is entirely lost.” Now this is by no means the case, as I have proved by ac- tual experiment, and, indeed, from the known fact, that cir- cular stern ships are all equally broad, and generally consi- ‘ derably broader at the aftermost broadside port, than similar ships with square sterns, the gun must necessarily act with at least equal effect. In the next place, no statement has ever been made, that as many guns could not be fired right aft, in the square stern, as in that of the circular form. Now, although the right-aft fire has not been the point in question, still, as it has been alluded to by the author of the « Observations,” it may be proper to remark, that the superiority of the circular stern, in point of convenience of working the guns, is consi- derably increased, and the chances of fire very much dimi- nished, for I have found, from actual experiment, that when 242 Mr. Harvey on Circular Sterns. an eighteen pounder was trained right-aft on board the Ha- madryad, a forty-six gun frigate, having a circular stern, the muzzle was beyond the outer side of the stern eighteen inches, whereas, the same gun, similarly placed on board the Boadi- cea, a ship of the same class, but with a square stern, had its muzzle twenty-one inches within the rail, or eight inches in- side the sill of the port. And, with respect to training the guns in the last mentioned position, the superiority was so great in the ship with the circular stern, as to call forth the warm admiration of several experienced and intelligent naval officers who witnessed the experiments.* In the circular stern, the right-aft guns could be readily made to sweep horizontal arcs of seventy-six degrees, with the utmost ease, and with- out disturbing a single lining ; but, in the square stern, af- ter removing all the linings of the ports, so as to present the naked timbers, the utmost amplitude that could be obtained for the right-aft gun was 59°, a difference by no means in- considerable, and to be attributed altogether to the superior form of the round stern, and to the improved modes of tim- bering. Nor was the are for the square stern obtained with- out much more exertion and care than could be bestowed on such a point in the day of battle. Added to this, in ranging the gun in the former case, the muzzle was always without the external edge of the port, but in the latter, the gun, when trained to its greatest angle, had its muzzle thirty inch- es within the rail, or sixteen inches 2imside the sill of the port, thus increasing considerably the danger from fire. In the same page also, a singular allusion is made to the poops of brigs, as if they possessed some latent connexion with circular sterns. Poops, however, were not. added to brigs by Sir Robert Seppings, and, if they had, it would be somewhat difficult to trace their relation to circular sterns. In another part of the same page, an allusion is made to alterations said to have taken place in the circular stern of the Vengeance, now building at Pembroke; and the author expresses his regret, ‘* that such extensive alterations should * T ought particularly to acknowledge, in this place, the handsome assist- ance I received from Captains Wise, Arthur, and Richards, of the Royal Navy, in prosecuting this interesting and important subject. Mr. Harvey on Circular Sterns. 245 be carried on before the inventor’s ideas are matured on the subject.” With respect to these “ extensive alterations,” I find, from the most unquestionable authority, that they amount to no more than a simple change of the water closets from one situation to another. ‘ Extensive alterations” have not therefore been made, excepting the trifling changes here alluded to can be characterised as such. But, granting, for the sake of argument, that “ the inyentor’s ideas are not ma- tured on the subject,” but which no one will admit; who is acquainted with the high professional talents of Sir Robert Seppings, and with the great caution which has always dis- tinguished him in his mechanical investigations, ought it to be regarded as an anomaly in the history of human improve- ments, that minor alterations have been made from time to time, ina plan of acknowledged importance? Can a single instance be selected from the boundless catalogue of examples of mechanical skill, of which this country has the happiness and the honour to boast, in which the subject started at once from the fertile mind of its inventor, into general or even partial application, with no change between the first exam- ple of its powers, and that which graced its final triumph ? Was the first steam-engine of the immortal Warr possessed of all the excellences and advantages of that which his latter years produced, when time had enabled him to contemplate more perfectly the relations and properties of all its parts, and to bestow on them all the benefits capable of being im- parted by a mind like his, improving daily its powers by new accessions of mechanic skill? Does the suspension bridge acress the Menai exhibit no proofs of superiority over that of the Tweed ? And does the ingenious and active constructor of the latter claim for it no higher distinction in the scale of ex- cellence than that afforded to bridges of the kind when con- structed of simple wire ? Time and experiefice are at all times necessary to perfect mechanical, as well as every other im- provement ; and when it is considered, that circular sterns form so necessary and essential a part of the improved system of ship-building—an art identified more intimately than any other with the most vital interests of the country—it js not too much to claim for it, that fair and proper time for its im- 244 Mr. Harvey on Circular Sterns. provement to which every other branch of art has been hi- therto entitled. The author of the paper under consideration makes also an allusion to the examples furnished by Sir Robert Sep- pings, of weakness in the square stern, and would have it understood, that one hundred and twenty were all the in- stances the ingenious author of the circular stern could disco- ver among the documents to which, from his official situation, he must necessarily have had access. Now, although in most experimental inquiries one hundred and twenty cases would be considered as forming no very unexceptionable grounds for inquiry; still, if stronger evidence be wanting, of the ne- cessity of change in the square stern, many more instances might be obtained by “ ransacking records ;” since Sir Ro- bert Seppings, at page 5 of his letter to Lord Melville, when alluding to the examples of weakness furnished in its appen- dix, observes, that ‘ the list could have been considerably in- creased, had he not considered it as affording ample evidence to prove the insufficiency of the square structure.” And had the author of the diagonal system felt disposed to collect in- stances of “ ships being weak in the bows,” he might have referred to a period when weakness also characterized that important part of a ship; and have contrasted the results which such an examination would afford with these proofs of superior strength which the records of the navy must neces- sarily present, since the introduction into the naval service of his circular bow; nor is it improbable but that such a compa- rison would afford many strong and powerful arguments in favour of a change of form in the square stern. More examples, however, than what Sir Robert Seppings has already furnished are scarcely necessary to convince a candid and unprejudiced mind, that the square stern is de- cidedly the weakest part of a ship, both as regards its mecha- nical strength and its means of defence ; and that it therefore becomes an object of national importance to improve its con- struction. According to the author of the “* Observations,” the exam- ples of weakness quoted in my former paper, only prove “an almost invariable tendency in the sides to separate.” Now, al- though this of itself is a sufficient reason to prove that some Mr. Harvey on Circular Sterns. 245 change is necessary, it will nevertheless be found, that exam- ples of general weakness in the stern are far from being un- common. For instance, in the report relative to the Valiant, it is stated, that the stern post, and au the stern works ; that in the Diadem, the afterpart of the ship sunk so much, as to cause a considerable friction of the rother against the post ; and in the case of the Adamant, the stern frame was so very much depressed, that the stern timbers were nearly out of their steps on the wing transom. . In one remarkable instance also, of the Courageux, the working of the stern JSrame was so great ina heavy gale of wind, as to occasion the loss of five tillers ; and on the storm assuming afterwards a still more tremendous character, the working about the stern Srame and post was so great, as to render it necessary to throw twelve of her after guns overboard, to ease and lighten her. And ina similar scene of peril, in which the Albion was situated in 1809, thirty-one guns were thrown overboard, twenty-four of which were from the after extremity of the ship. Nor is it always necessary for a gale of wind to exist, in order to prove the weakness of the square stern, since, in the example of the Defence, the heels of her counter timbers were reported by her Captain to work very much, even in moderate weather. And the stern of the London was found to tremble much in light winds, and to increase its motion con- siderably in heavy seas. In the Aquilon also, the stern Srame was found to be much shook by firing the after guns. The poop of the Bellona was found likewise to labour so much as to work the foremost bulk head partly down; and that when the Minotaur rolled, the whole body of the poop went over from side to side. The stern of the Cumberland also, above the wing transom, worked so much as to Jorce the Oakum out of the butts of the lower counters, at the rabbit of the stern post, as likewise out of the seams of the lower counters. Such are a few of the striking examples on which Sir Ro- bert Seppings grounds his arguments for a change in the figure of the stern; facts which had been silently accumulat- ing for a long period in the records of the Navy Office, await- ing the hand of a “ master,” to draw from them unquestion- able proofs of the general weakness of the square stern, and, VOL. I. NO. 11. ocT. 1824. S 246 Mr. Harvey on Circular Sterns. at the same time, to afford the elements and principles of a better system ;—a system which should add, in no inconsi- derable degree, to the strength and security of our ships of war. I forbear entering, on the present occasion, into the supe- rior means of defence afforded by the circular stern, because it is my intention to give the results of a series of actual ex- periments on this subject in another paper.* But I would observe, in reference to the celebrated retreat of Admiral Cornwallis, that it by no means follows, because they were only able to fire right aft, that guns in the quarters could not have been advantageously employed ; and I conceive that no better example could be afforded of the superior means of de- fence, afforded by the round stern, than the case of a small number of ships chased by a superior force. A gun at the quarter, under such circumstances, would be at least as ser- viceable as one right aft. The author of the ‘“‘ Observations” must also be, in a great degree, a stranger to the fitting of the iron railing in ships of the line, or he would have known, that it is so contrived as to open and fall back in the wake of the guns without producing the smallest inconvenience ; and, with respect to the danger to be apprehended from fire by the projection of the platform, no greater can arise than that produced by firing over the channels, which is the case with the greater part of the guns on the forecastle and quarter deck. I am also of opinion, that few naval officers could be found who would think of transporting an after gun forward, or a forward gun abaft, when his ship was attacked at either extreme. The most na- tural course of proceeding, under such circumstances, would be, to place the aftermost gun in one of the aftermost vacant ports, and the foremost gun in either of those forward. It would be a singular mode of defence, to transport a gun from one extremity of the ship to the other ; nor has it ever been intended to keep the stern ports armed with additional guns. * These experiments were performed in the presence of several distinguish- ed naval officers ; and I may briefly add, that the results were so decidedly in favour of the Circular Stern as to leave not the smallest doubt in the minds of all present, of the immense advantages it possesses over the square form. Mr. Harvey on Circular Sterns. 247 With respect to the range of the guns, in the diagram re- ferred to in my former essay, I hope in another paper to prove, that the circular stern admits of a ready and perfect defence, of more than an entire semicircle, without “ wooding the guns,” or depriving the men of sufficient room for work- ing them. [If also the line DH, in the diagram contained in the paper under consideration, be intended to form a right - angle with the longitudinal axis of the vessel, a greater ad- vantage than what this position will afford can be obtained. For I have found by experiment that the gun can readily be trained to an angle of 79 degrees, or, in nautical language, one point before the beam ; giving, therefore, a greater ad- vantage to the gun, at the quarter, than contended for by the author of the «« Observations.” I feel no ordinary pleasure in stating my belief, that the hostility which was once so vigorously displayed against the circular stern, is now considerably diminished. The torrent of feeling, which seemed at first destined to overwhelm the improvement, has in some measure subsided. The disappro- bation of change, which at one time assumed the loud voice of thunder, has insensibly melted into tones of a gentler kind. Inquiry has been awakened; and many who imagi- ned they saw in the alteration, indications of decay in the martial energies of our marine, now contemplate it with re- lation to the superior strength it affords, and the more am- ple means of defence it unfolds. Some, however, faithful to the ancient form, still regard the circular stern with unabat- ed hostility. But to such it may be said, are we to arrest the march of architectural improvement? Is the new prin- ciple of ship-building, which has already conferred such transcendent advantages on our country, and which is now introduced into most of the naval establishments of Europe, to be deprived of one of its essential elements? While every other part of our men of war, has received accessions of strength, is the stern to remain in all its primitive weakness, without receiving a single benefit, from the science, and en- Jarged experience, that have been latterly applied to ship- building? Can such an anomaly long remain to mock the efforts of modern improvement? Is the naval engineer to be doomed perpetually to reflect, that in the magnificent bul- 248 Mr. Harvey on Circular Sterns. wark he has raised, science has lent her best efforts to strengthen the mighty frame, in all its parts, excepting one ? Or is the old system to be persevered in to afford another ex- emplification of the maxim, ‘ that partial strength is general weakness ?” Is it consistent with that noble spirit of ad- vancement, which so pre-eminently characterizes the age, and which in its general operations, confers so great a lustre on our own beloved country, to allow mere feelings of conve- nience, and vague and uncertain notions of beauty, to stand in the way of genuine improvement? Shall we, who have even shaken off those ancient commercial restrictions, which seemed identified with our very national existence,—which had grown with our growth, and attended us in the brilliant career of our glory and power, refuse, in the present instance, to abandon an ancient form, opposed to every principle of genuine science? Rather let us, by the universal adoption of the circular stern, prove that we only adopt a system which sound experience sanctions ; and that we only advance another, but a most important step, in the career of that im- provement, which has been latterly introduced into ship- building ; and that we are no longer enemies to the doubtful forms of beauty, than when they stand opposed to the pro- gress of real improvement. The period, however, I confidently hope, is not far dis- tant, when the circular stern will be contemplated by all with more real pleasure than that form which has nothing but time, and the false perspective of centuries to recommend it ; shedding new lustre on the name of its celebrated author, and adding to the other intellectual trophies he has achieved, one not the least valuable ; since it will carry with it the unerring symbol of truth, having made its way, amidst prejudices of no ordinary cast, and in spite of an opposition of no ordi- nary kind; time having proved its unquestionable merits, and numbered it among its choicest and most valuable trea- sures. PrymoutH, March 6, 1824. Dr. Hamilton on the Herba Toxicaria. 249 Art. VII.—An Account of a Genus including the Herba Toxicaria of the Himalaya Mountains, or the plant with which the natives poison their arrows. By Francis Hamitton, M.D. F.R.S. &c. Lond. and Edin. and F.A.S.E. [Having lately had an opportunity of seeing, in the Herbarium of Dr. Francis Hamilton, at Leny House, specimens of the plants with which the natives of certain parts of India are wont to poison their arrows, we expressed a desire that the characters and descriptions of these might be given to the public; and that gentleman, with the li- berality which he has ever displayed in furthering the cause of science, has kindly communicated to us the following particulars—W. J. Hooker. | Iw June, 1810, being on the frontier of Nepal, I sent a man to the alpine regions of the Himalaya mountains, beyond the sources of the Kosi river. He was to collect specimens, roots, and seeds, of the alpine plants, having for some time been trained in drying specimens, and preserving seeds; and his attention was particularly directed to procure the plant used in India for poisoning arrows. In July he returned with no great store; but, among his acquisitions were specimens of the poison plant, and of two other species of the same genus, which has entirely the habit of several species of Ranunculus and T’rollius. In my Account of Nepal, I have made the following observations on these plants, which may serve for giving the reader an idea of their history; and this I shall here follow up by botanical descriptions of the specimens, which were unfortunately imperfect. “ The term bish or bikh, according to the pronunciation of the same letters on the plains, and in the mountains, is applied to four different plants with tuberous roots, all in great request. I have already mentioned the Singgiya bish, as found on the lower mountains and hills, and supposed it to be a species of Smilax. The others have not the smallest resemblance to it, but are so strongly marked by a resem- blance to each other, that I have no doubt of their all be- longing to the same genus, although I have only seen the flower of one. This is called Dishma or hikhma, and seems 250 Dr. Hamilton on the Herba Toaicaria, or the to me to differ little in botanical characters from the Caltha of Europe. The bishma or bikhma is also, I believe, called mitha, although I am not certain but that this name may be also given to the following species, which deserves the most serious attention, as the Jikhma is used in medicine, and is a strong bitter, very powerful in the cure of fevers, while the plant that will be next mentioned is one of the most virulent poisons.” «© This dreadful root, of which large quantities are an- nually imported, is equally fatal when taken into the sto- mach and when applied to wounds, and is in universal use throughout India for poisoning arrows; and there is too much reason to suspect for the worst of purposes. Its im- portation would indeed seem to require the attention of the magistrate. The Gorkhalese pretend, that it is one of their principal securities against invasion from the low countries ; and that they could so infect all the waters on the route by whick an enemy was advancing, as to occasion his certain destruction. In case of such an attempt, the invaders ought, no doubt, to be on their guard; but the country abounds so in springs, that might be soon cleared, as to render such a means of defence totally ineffectual, were the enemy aware of the circumstance. * This poisonous species is called bish, bikh, and kodoya bish, or bikh; nor am I cer- tain whether the mitha ought to be referred to it, or to the foregoing kind.” «< The nirbishi, or nirbikhi, is another plant of the same genus, and, like the first kind, has no deleterious qualities, but is used in medicine. The president of the Asiatic So- ciety, in a note annexed to Dr. Roxburgh’s account of the Zedoary, gives the nirbisha, or nirbishi, as a Sangskrita or Hindwi name of that plant, which has not the smallest re- semblance to the nirbishi of the Indian Alps. In fact, the nomenclature of the materia medica among the Hindus, so far as I can learn, is miserably defective, and can scarcely fail to be productive of most dangerous mistakes in the prac- tice of medicine.” * «© In fact, our troops, in a subsequent invasion, suffered nothing from such means ; nor do I believe that they were attempted.” 1 Plant with which Arrows are Poisoned. 251 The specimens of the Bishma which I have given to the India House are, in the catalogue, called Caltha bisma, al- though it differs much in habit from the Caltha palustris ; and it has only four petala, and four germina, which may perhaps induce some to consider it as a new genus. CALTHA BISMA. Radix tuberosa. Caulis herbaceus, simplex, cubitalis, glaber. Folia caulina plura alterna, petiolata, cordata, sub- rotunda, glabra, venis reticulata, sabquinquenervia, quinque- loba lobis cuneatis, apice incisis, acutis. Petiolus longus, am- plexicaulis, glaber. Panicula terminalis, rara pedunculis elongatis, paucifloris, ex apice caulis, vel ex foliorum superiorum axillis. Bractea subsessilis, trifida, parva, pedicello paulo infra florem posita. Flores parvi, erecti, virides, extra nigricantes. Calyx nullus. Petala quatuor, crassa, ovalia, concava, ob- tusa, ruda. Filamentaplura, hypogyna, brevissima. Antherw erect, bisulcz, utrinque emarginate. Germina quatuor subulata, polysperma. Styli crassi, subulati. Stigmata sim- plicia, acuta. The specimens of the Nirbishi sent to the India House I have called CALTHA NIRBISIA. Radix tuberosa. Caulis herbaceus, simplex, glaber. Folia caulina plura alterna, petiolata, cordata, triangularia, pilis raris brevibus, marginem versus aspersa, subquinquenervia, venis reticulata, lobis cuneatis incisis acutis quinquefariam divisa. Petiolus longissimus, amplexicaulis. The specimens of the Kodoya bish, or Radix towicaria, which I sent to the same collection, are called CALTHA CODUA. Radix tuberosa. Caulis herbaceus, erectus, cubitalis, Folia caulina plura alterna, utrinque pilosa, nervosa, venosa, ovata, peltata, lobis multis incisa cuneatis, iterum lobatis. Lobuli obtusiusculi, incisuris duabus apicem versus folii pro- fundis. © 252. Dr. Davy on the Physical Geography of South Africa. Art, VITI.—Observations on the Physical Geography of the South of Africa. By Joun Davy, M.D. F.R.S. &e. Communicated by the Author. Tux day upon which we anchored in Table Bay was par- ticularly interesting. As we sailed along the shore, seldom more than three miles off, we had a fine view of the boid coast, extending from the Cape of Good Hope to Table Bay. The weather was favourable, and the wind was blow- ing a gale from the south-east. Although we seldom obtain- ed a glimpse of Table Mountain, through the cloud which hung over it, yet we could easily distinguish the minute fea- tures of the lower hills, many of which rose abruptly from the sea. The character of the scenery of this shore is naked boldness. Nothing presents itself to give an idea of fertility or cultivation. Nota tree is to be seen, nor a field, nora green patch; and till near Table Bay, not a dwelling nor a vestige of man. Rugged rocks—heaps of sand—parched hills—arrest the eye in every direction. This is the dry sea- son, and no doubt the country, which is naturally arid, ap- peared to disadvantage. It was curious to observe how the wind passed down through every opening of the mountains. Even at the dis- tance of a mile or two from land, the wind, which was blowing directly off it, was impregnated with fine dust, which produced a very unpleasant effect upon our eyes. The very great haziness all round the horizon, was very remarkable, as well as the clouds, which, notwithstanding the violence of the winds, rested on the Table Mountain and the higher hills. ‘The formation of this haziness, and of the clouds on the hills, is no doubt connected with the great difference of temperature, in the first instance, between the south-east wind, and the current which it crosses, and again between this wind and the temperature of the water near the shore. March 18.—In Table Bay, 5» a.m. 75°, 52°, 5° S.E. strong; the sky was pretty clear, and a cloud on Table Mountain. After breakfast we landed. As the dust was blowing about so as to be very troublesome, the glass windows Dr. Davy on the Physical Geography of South Africa. 253 in the house we inhabit, are, according to custom, closed, so that the air is unpleasant, hot, and close. The temperature of the room at 3) p.m. is ‘75°. March 19. At Cape Town.—The following are the speci- fic gravities of the salt water which I took up at sea in dif- ferent places. ‘They were obtained by a small balance. The experiments were made in a close room, and most of them repeated twice, the temperature of the air being 76°, and that of the water tried 80°. Latitude. Longitude. Specifie Gravity. 1. 4° 10’ North 80° 15’ East : 10250 2. 0 5 South 81 37 East : : - 10264 3. 7 10 South 82 26 East ‘ - - 10250 4. 9 3 South 81 0 East : : 10250 5. 12 52 South 79 57 East - . 10245 6. 19 15 South 71 56 East - : 10264 7. 21 32 South 69 29 East e . 10264 8. 23 32 South 66 49 East : 10264 9. 24 34 South 61 56 East , 10264 10. 26 7 South 55 48 East - 10259 11. 27 55 South 50 7 East : 10259 12. 29 21 South 45 5 East . 10259 13. 30 51 South 37 12 East : 10259 14. 32 50 South 32 26 East : : 10259 15. 33 41 South 29 16 East 4 10259 16. 35 41 South 24 13 East 3 10259 At the anchorage in 7 fathoms in Table Bay 13 mile from land 10250 On the shore near the Jetty, F 2 10250 Water from the stream from Table Mountain, - 10000 March 23d, Cape Town.—The temperature of the fine stream with which Cape Town is supplied with water from Table Mountain, was 73° at the fountain, and 87° at ano- ther place, a difference arising from local causes. The temperature of a well behind the house at Green Point, was 63°. It was in a sandy soil, resting on clay, about 80 feet deep, and protected from the weather by a well- roofed little building. The range of the thermometer in Cape Town 1s said to be about 20° above or below the mean temperature, occasionally reaching 86° in the hottest wea- ther in summer, and falling to 32° in winter. Now and then a little ice has been observed on a small pool at Green Pomt. A change of 30° or 32° of temperature has been ob- served to take place in twenty-four hours. 254 Dr. Davy on the Physical Geography of South Africa. The prevailing winds here are the south-east and north- west, the former blowing during the summer and autumn months, and the latter during the winter and spring. The south-east wind is generally dry and hot, and often so violent as to upset carriages. In the latter end of autumn, this wind is occasionally cold. When it prevails, a cloud generally rests on Table Mountain. It is probably heated in its course overland from one shore to the other. The north-west and north-east winds are cool and moist. The rainy season is the winter. The rains in winter are heavy, and are said to last sometimes several days without interruption. Showers occasionally occur in spring, autumn, and summer, and are generally slight. The barometer stands unusually high during the south-east winds. Clouds are seen on Table Mountain, not only during the south-east winds, but likewise during the north-west ; and indeed whenever the wind, from whatever quarter it blows, is violent. On the contrary, during calm weather, or when the wind is gentle, the mountain is generally unco- vered. March 27th.—Accompanied by Colonel Hardy, I yester- day ascended Table Mountain. We set out on foot at 11 o’clock a.m. and reached the summit about 2 p.m. and after remaining on the mountain about two hours we de- scended. During our ascent the sun was very troublesome, and the heat rather oppressive. In some sheltered places the stones in the path were so much heated that they could scarcely be held in the hand. On the summit the air was cool even in the sunshine. The shade of the mountain hay- ing preceded us during our descent, we enjoyed the cool air, scented with sweet-smelling shrubs, which are here very abundant. ‘The sky being very clear on the top, we had a fine prospect of the country below, of Cape 'Town and Bay, and of the distant mountains; and the nearer views of the scenery around us were truly grand. Nothing can be finer than the lofty and bold cliffs, and chasms, which present themselves to the spectator when looking down over the brink of the Table land. As soon as I arrived at the Table land, I left my baro- meters in the shade to cool, and to acquire the temperature Dr. Davy on the Physical Geography of South Africa. 255 of the air. At 3h 30’, I observed them. My short barometer did not act, as the height was not sufficiently great. The long barometer, held by the hand, as there was no shrub high enough to suspend it from, was stationary at 26'".95, the attached thermometer being at 85°, and the unattached one at 83°. The evaporation was 13 degrees. At 9b p.m. after my return to Cape Town, the barometer stood at 30.25, the attached thermometer being 69°, and the unattached one 63°. The height of the mountain ap- pears therefore to be 3308 feet. Lieutenant Rivers of the R.N. found it by repeated trigonometrical measurements to be a little more than 3000 feet above the level of the sea. It is probable that at the time when my observations were made on the mountain, the barometer at Cape Town was not so high as at 95 P.M. April 12.—I went yesterday to visit a fountain, which was considered to be interesting, and with the view of as- certaining its temperature. On the declivity of a hill, about 50 feet above the level of the sea, a pit was sunk in the form of a parallelogram, 16 feet by 12, and about 6 feet deep, and lined with masonry. The floodgate was open, and the water in the cistern was only about two feet deep, with a pretty quick running current. It was perfectly trans- parent, and the water could be seen rising up in many dif- ferent places, out of a pretty compact clayey bottom, form- ed by the decomposition of granite. It springs in sufficient quantity to work, without an additional drop of water, a mill of considerable size. The water is always coldest in hot weather, and hottest in cold weather; and its temperature was about 63° at 55 p.m. that of the air being 69°. Since I arrived here, we have made three different excur- sions into the country, to Constantia, to Stellenbosch, and the Paarl, and to Hottentot Holland and the Kloof of the same name. On two occasions we travelled according to the style of the country, in a light strong cart and four horses, and in another in a light waggon drawn by eight horses, and up the Kloof in the common country waggon, drawn by twelve oxen. Here the horses are always driven in hand, whether a single pair or six pair are used, twelve in hand not being an un- common occurrence. Two men are required both for the 256 Dr. Davy on the Physical Geography of South Africa. horse and the ox waggon. A Hottentot leads the four pair of oxen; and the driver, provided with a long whip, rides in front of his waggon, or runs beside it. In managing a horse waggon, the whip is the charge of one, and the reins of ano- ther postilion. We visited Constantia at the time of the vintage. Mrs. Collins and family gave our party a most hospitable recep- tion. We walked over the vineyard, and through the vine storehouse. ‘lhe short vine bushes were loaded with grapes, some yellow, and another kind dark purple, of both of which Constantia wine is made, the colour of the wine correspond- ing with that of the grape. Before the grapes are plucked, they are allowed to be quite ripe. Many of the bushes, in- deed, were almost dried, and converted on the trees into raisins. 'The Constantia grape is remarkably luscious, and must contain a large proportion of sugar, and the wine is merely the fermented juice of this grape. Mr. Collins, ju- nior, denied that the honey plant is used in the manufac- ture. When the grapes are quite ripe, they are brought to the wine-store, and the fruit is separated from the stalk, by means of a sieve, whose meshes are large enough to allow the grapes to pass, while the stalk is detained. A slave operates with his hands, rolling a heap of bushes in the sieve till the fruit is detached, and he does it with great rapidity. The grapes are then thrown into a vat, and the juice, after being partly trampled out by slaves, is drawn off and put into a press. The trampled fruit is then put into the same press, and by the action of a screw as much juice as possi- bleis procured, The juice is then poured into casks, and al- lowed to ferment. In our excursion to Stellenbosch and Hottentot Holland we crossed the Cape Flats, as the plain is called, which hes between Table Bay and False Bay, flanked on one side by the mountain ridge, extending from Table Mountain to that above Simon’s 'Town, and on the other, by low hills parallel to the low chain of the Hottentot Holland Mountains. The broadest part of these flats may be about twenty miles, and the whole may be regarded as a good example of African sandy deserts. The ground is in general flat, and the imequalities, which are inconsiderable, are mostly formed of sand, some- Dr. Davy on the Physical Geography of South Africa. 257 times of clay: and, in one or two places where the ground rises, there are masses of calcareous rock, either level with the ground or projecting very little above it. Besides these in- equalities, there are elevations of land deserving the name of sand hills, some of which appear to be fixed, from the vege- tation with which they are clothed. The plants which grow upon them are different kinds of heath, and some low shrubs. Some of these elevations appear to be shifting, being compos- ed of fine sand, and quite naked, without the slightest trace of vegetation. Some of them are thirty feet high. These sand- hills seem to lie in the course of the prevailing wind, viz. the south-east, and have been probably formed by its action. It has become a question whether the sea ever covered those flats which connect Table and False Bay. Those who maintain the affirmative side of the question, found their opi- nion on the sandiness of the plain, on the lowness of the ground, and on its locality between these bays. I am dis- posed, however, to think that this opinion is not well found- ed; from the existence of inequalities now above the level of the sea, consisting of clay, and of calcareous rock ; from the circumstance of shells not having been discovered in the limestone ; and from the sand having a less resemblance to sea-sand than to that which arises from the decay of the sandstone which forms the summit of the adjoining hills. It contains no pebbles, and no remains of corals or shells, with the exception of a few fresh water shells. The heat on these plains is often very intense, and, during the prevalence of a strong south-east wind, they are almost impassable. The direction of the routes is often changed, in consequence of the shifting of the sands, so that experienced guides are necessary. From the depth of the sand a great force is requisite to drag the vehicle along. |7 97.67. change, the greatest is that in the first quadrant —_—— LM |—0”.80 from B to D; in the second from F to Hi in the vicinity of the balance; in the third from| MA |—0”.76 H to Ks and in the fourth from L to M. AB | — 07.78 | Prymoutn, June 26. junmaeiinzaiit a History of Mechanical Inventions, §ce. == 339 Arr. XXIII.—HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PROCESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS. 1. Brown’s Atmospherical Engine. We have seen a model of a pump in which the air in the barrel was rareficd by burning the shavings of wood at the top of the barrel, an airtight cap being put on when the rarefaction was supposed to be at a maximum. A certain quantity of water was thus raised above the valve at the bettom of the barrel, and the operation was re- peated till the water rose to the desired height. Though this expe- dient might be found useful in cases of exigency, it had not a suffi- ciently practical character, and we have not heard of its being intro- duced. An analogous though totally different principle has been happily ap< plied by Mr. Samuel Brown to create a vacuum in pumping engines, which may be employed both to raise water and drive machinery. The specification of the patent by which Mr. Brown has secured his right to this invention, was enrolled only in June 1824, so that we are not able to speak of this invention on the authority of any actual trial of it on a large scale. The principle, however, of the invention is highly in- genious, and we are disposed to view it as a formidable rival to the steam engine in its best form. In its general character of an atmospherical engine, Mr. Brown’s in- vention resembles the steam engines of Savary and Newcomen, but the vacuum is effected by burning coal or oil gas within the cylinder, so as to consume the atmospheric 2ir. The general appearance of Mr. Brown’s engine is represented in Plate IX. Fig. 16, where a and b are the two cylinders in which the vacuum is to be produced, c and d two rising mains leading from the reservoir 7 to the top of the cylinders a, b. Coal or oil gas is conveyed from a gasometer through the pipes ee and ff, the last of which pass in- to the cylinders, and terminate in the perforated burners g, while the pipe e terminates in small openings with sliders hh, in the sides of the cylinders a and b, immediately opposite to which are lateral jets, com- municating with the burner g. The reservoir 7 is filled with water, which, by passing through the pipe j into k, raises the fioat /, and by pushing up the red m, elevates the end » of the beam nz. The cap o will thus be lifted from the cylinder 4, and the cap p brought down upon the cylinder a. By open- ing the stop-cocks, the gas is to be let into the pipes e and f, and the jets at both ends of the pipe e, near h and hare to be set fire to. The slider h having been lifted by an arm g, moved by the ascent of the rod m, the flame of the jet e instantly communicates. with the burner g, aud causes it to burn within the cylinder. In the upper part of the ap- paratus, there is placed a small cylindrical glass vessel 7, which is more than half full of mercury. It vibrates on pivots, and as the rod mm 340 History of Mechanical Inventions ascends or descends, two small arms 5, fixed to the rod m, strike a pin on the side of the mercury vessel, and thus raise and depress it alter< nately. The mercury being thus made to flow to the lower side gives motion to certain minor parts of the engine, as will be afterwards ex- plained. In the position of 7 in the figure, the rise of the end s of the vessel has by the rod ¢ drawn the slider » over the mouth of the pipe 7 and closed it, opening at the same time the mouth of the pipe wu The water thus flows from 7 into w and into d d, forcing the float x to ascend and lift the rod y, which raises the end z of the beam, and takes the cap p from the cylinder a, while it places the cap o air-tight on the cy- linder b. By this descent of the end x of the beam the rod m is brought down, which, by the intervention of the arm y shuts the slider A. As the gas at g is now burning within the closed cylinder 4, the air is consumed during the combustion, and a vacuum produced. The water, therefore, rises, as in a pump in the main d, and flows over the top into the cylin der 5, which is thus nearly filled, the rarefied air escaping through small valves in the top of the cylinder. During the process, the returning stroke of the beam and the vessel 7 has shifted the slider » from the mouth of the pipe j upon the mouth of u, and by the same operation formerly described, the rod m and the end z of the beam are raised, by which means the end xz descends and places the cap p on the top of its cylinder, and the gas in the cylinder a turns and raises the water into the cylinder in the manner already described. In order to raise the caps off their respective cylinders a and 5, after a vacuum has been made in them, a small quantity of air is admitted by a slide valve in the air pipe A, which is worked by chains BB ate tached to the floats /, and by means of the lever zz to which the slide above A is attached, the ascent and descent of the floats admits the air alternately into the cylinders a and 4 immediately after the water is risen. The gas is turned off and on by chains C, C, with suspended weights, passing from the ends of the vessel 7 to the stop cock in the gas pipe /. The water raised by the engine is retained by the valves at D, D, and it occupies the mains and the outer cases of the cylinders which keeps the interior cool ; but the greater portion of the water that is received into the cylinders a, b, passes off through pipes EE to the trough F, from which it is delivered through a sluice into the buckets of a water wheel GGC, which it drives, and from the axle of which any kind of machinery may be driven. This wheel is unnecessary when the machine is to act merely as a pump. The inyentor remarks, that a piston may be worked on the principle of producing a vacuum beneath it by burning the air in the manner above described ; and he proposes that this be done in a distinct vessel, so as to communicate with several cylinders, and consequently to work several pistons at once; the air and vacuum valves being opened and 6 and Processes in the Useful Arts. 341 shut by the same means as the induction and eduction valves in steam engines. Mr. Brown ‘proposes to Fa te steam boats with this engine, which, he says, will require only a few butts of oil for a long’ voyage. Among the advantages of this engine are its small size, which is only one-fifth the weight of a steam engine and boiler of the same power, and its entire freedom from danger.—See Newton’s Journal of Arts and. Sciences, vol. viii. No. 44, p. 57. . On the Process of Cutting Steel with Soft Tron. We 2 had occasion to notice the remarkable practice of the Shakers in America of cutting the hardest steel with a revolving wheel of the softest iron. Mr. Perkins repeated the experiment in London, and since that time it has excited general notice in every part of Eu= rope. Dr. Hare of Philadelphia, and Mr. Whitney of Newhaven, have both made experiments on the subject to a considerable extent; and Professor Silliman, who witnessed these experiments, considers the process as “ only a peculiar method of cutting red hot or possibly w/ite hot steel, for the mechanical force produces these degrees of heat, and the steel loses its temper at the place of action. iil: s Journal, vol. vii. p. 342. The most careful investigation of this curious process es been iacaddey by M. M. Darier and D. Colladon of Geneva, and the following seem to be the principal results of their experiments : 1. Having found that the iron wheel was covered with small frag- ments of the steel, they could see by a microscope no appearance of softening ; on the contrary, they found these fragments as hard as the best tempered steel. 2. Having fitted up a lathe by which they could give a determinate velocity to the iron wheel, they found that with a velocity of 34 feet per second, an iron wheel was easily cut by a steel graver without any reaction on the graver. With a velocity of 34 feet 9 inches the iron was less attacked, and the grayer began to experience an impression from the iron. At a velocity of 35 feet 1 inch, the action of the iron on the graver was decided, and increased with greater velocities, till at a velocity of 70 feet per second, the iron was no longer touched my the steel, while the steel was cut with the greatest violence. 3. In order to determine the effeet of softening or annealing on the steel, our authors examined the fragments of steel detached from the graver at different velocities, from 40 to 100 feet per second; and in, every case when the iron was only touched for an instant with the steel graver, the latter exhibited'no trace of annealing; but when the graver was long and strongly pressed, it sometimes beeame red hot: In that case, however, the fracture of the steel became quite different, and the, action upon it was rather diminishéd than increased. 9 4. Having thus ascertained that the effect is not owing to the anneal= ing of the steel; and found that the effect was net increased by the frag~ VOL. I. No. 1. ocT. 1824. 2a 342 History of Mechanical Inventions ments of steel, which after some time collect on the iron wheel, our authors justly suppose that the whole effect is direetly mechanical, aris- ing from the brittleness of the steel, which is torn asunder before it has time to introduce itself among the molecules of the soft iron ; and they consider it as analogous to the penetration of wood by a ball of tallow. 5. Upon using wheels made of a mixture of copper and iron, and wheels of pure copper, no effect was produced by them on the graver, though they cut different alloys harder than themselves. In these experiments, however, a very remarkable effect occurred. Little or no heat was generated, when files and steel springs were held firmly against the revolving copper wheel, and our authors observed several other curious facts, which they mean to study with greater care con- nected with the production of heat by the friction of metals.—See Bib- liotheque Universelle, Avril 1824, p. 283-—290. 3. On the Effect of Animal Charcoal in preventing the Putrefaction of Stagnant Water. M. A. Chevallier, of Paris, having been consulted by a gentleman ré- specting the best method of preventing a pond in his garden from putre- fying, recommended the employment of animal charcoal. The experi- ment was tried with perfect success. The small pond or basin was about nine feet in diameter, and three deep. The water proceeded from a spring; but towards autumn it became putrid, and exhaled a mephitic odour. On the 10th of August, 1823, 45]bs. of animal charcoal in pow- der were thrown into it, care being taken to spread it equally on the sur- face, where it at first floated, but afterwards fell to the bottom. The effect of this was to remove all offensive smell from the water; and M. Chevallier, upon examining a bottle of it, found that it had neither an offensive smell nor taste, though it had been out of the pond for eight days. M. Chevallier observes, that the animal chareoal which has been thus used in a pond, might, when taken out, be employed as a manure, as it gives out by slow degrees to vegetable bodies the substances which it has absorbed. See the Journal de Pharmacie for 1824, p. 73. 4. Hughes’ Improvement in the Gudgeons of Water Wheels and Cranes. According to the present method of fixing the gudgeons or pivots into the wooden axles of large wheels by means of an iron cross let deeply into the wood, and held fast by wedges driven round it, the gudgeons are not only liable to heat in working, but they soon get loose, and are split and rendered useless. Mr. Hughes’ improvement, for which he has received a silver medal from the Society of Arts, consists in applying to the end of the axle a cast iron box, and to this box is screwed the iron cross of the gudgeon. On the end of the box there is a projecting flaunch, and ‘on the face of this, four grooves or notches are made for the reception of the arms of the iron cross which forms part of the gudgeon. This cross is firmly attach< ; 36 and Processes in the Useful Arts. 343 ed to the cross by four screw bolts, which pass through the flaunch, and also through the ends of the arms of the cross, having nuts screwed on the outside to make all fast. The hoops and cast iron gudgeons in the old method cost £6, 16s. whereas the expense of the present iniproved one is only £4, 1ts. See the Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. xxxi. 5. M. Bunten’s Improved Syphon The improved syphon of M. Bunten is shown in Plate IX. Fig. 17. where AB is the long branch, with a bulb at A, and DC the short branch. This syphon requires neither to be blown into, nor any suction. It is sufficient to fill the long branch AB, and the ball A, with the liquid, and to plunge the short branch CD into the liquid to be decanted. The bulb A, in emptying itself, draws off the liquid in contact with the short branch, and though the bulb itself is partly empty, the flow is unremits ting.—See the Journal de Pharmacie, Avril 1824, p. 189. 6. M. Hempel of Berlin’s improved Syphon. Another improved syphon by M. Hempel, a practical chemist at Ber lin, is shown in Plate IX. Fig. 18. It has the same advantages as that of M. 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