ey 
. 
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THE 


. Erinburgh 
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, 


EXHIBITING 
A VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY 


IN NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY, BOTANY, 
ZOOLOGY, COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, PRACTICAL MECHANICS, GEQGRAPHY, 
NAVIGATION, STATISTICS, ANTIQUITIES, AND THE FINE AND USEFUL ARTS. 


CONDUCTED BY 


DAVID BREWSTER, LL.D. 


F.R.S. LOND. SEC. R.S. EDIN. F.S.S.A. 


HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SWEDISH 
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ; AND OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SCIENCES OF DENMARK, &c, &c. 


VOL. IL. 
NOVEMBER—APRIL. 


WILLIAM BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH: 
AND T. CADELL, LONDON. 


M.DCCC.XXV. 


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CONTENTS 


OP THE 


EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 


No. III. 


Ant. I. Observations on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina, in 
reference to certain supposed Discoveries respecting Vision announ- 
ced by Mr. Charles Bell. By Davin Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. 
and Sec: R.S. Ed. &c. - - - - 

II. An Account of a Plant allied to the cnt Piper. By Francis 
Hamitton, M.D. F.R.S. F. A. S, Lond. and Ed. Communicated 
by the Author, - - - - - - 

TII. On the Theory of the Existence of a Sixth Sense in Fishes ; suppos- 
ed to reside in certain peculiar Tubular Organs, found immediately 
under the Integuments of the Head in Sharks and Rays. By Ro. 
BERT Knox, M.D. F.R.S.E. &c. Communicated ys the Au- 
thor, - 

IV. On the Natural Hitt tha Physical Geography of the Districts of 
the Himalayah Mountains, between the River-Beds of the Jumna 
and Sutluj. By GeEorce Govan, M.D. Communicated by the 


Author, - - 2 = _ . = 
¥Y. Description of the First mel omit Communicated by the Au- 
thor, - s 


VI. On a Method of Splitting Rocks by Fire. By J OHN Mp etiete hex, 
M.D. F.R.S. F, L. S. and M. G. S. Chemist to the Board of Ord- 
nance, and Professor of Chemistry in Addiscombe College. Com- 
municated by the Author, - 3 = % 

VII. An Account of the Frontier between Part of Bengal and the 


Kingdom of Ava. By Francis Hamitton, M.D. F.R.S. and 


F. A.S. Lond. and Ed. Communicated by the Author, 2 
VIII. Remarks on the Culture of the Silk Worm in the North of Italy. 

By Joun Murray, Esq. F. A.S. F. LS. M.W.S. Lecturer on 

Chemistry. Communicated by the Author. - - L 
JX. Account of the Specific Gravity of several Minerals. By Wi- 


LIAM Harpincer, Esq. F.R.S. E. Communicated by the Au- 
thor. ° = - 


Page 


47 


38 


44 


48 


59 


67 


il CONTENTS. 


X. On the Meteorological Tables kept in 1822 at Macquarie Har- 
hour and Hobart’s Town in Van Diemen’s Land, and transmit- 
ted to theRoyal Society of Edinburgh, by his yore Sir THomas 
Brispaneé, K.C. B. F.R.S. - 

XI. Notice of the Echinodermata of the Frith of Forth. By Mr. J OuN 
Foseo, Junior, Leith. Communicated by the Author. - 
XII. Observations on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, made dur- 

ing a Voyage from the Cape of Good Hope to St. Helena, in 1820. 


Page 


By Joun Davy, M.D. F. R. S. Communicated by the Author. 79 
XIfI. Account of an Insect of the Genus Urocerus, which came out of 
the Wood of a Table. By Mr. Joun Foceo, Leith. Communicated 
by the Author. - - - - 85 
XIV. On the Regular Composition of Crystallized Bodies. By Wit- 
piamM Harpincer, Esq. F.R.S.E. Communicated by the Au- 
thor.—(Contizued from Vol. I. p. 333.) - - - 83 
XV. On the Emigration of a Colony of Caterpillars, observed in Pro- 
vence. From the MS. Tour of JastEs SKENE, Esq. of Rubieslaw. 93 
XVI. Notice respecting the Discovery of a Black Lead Mine in Inver- 
ness-shire, on the property of Glengary, - s = 97 
XVII. On the Formation of Single Microscopes from the Lenses of 
Fishes, &c. By Davip Brewster, LL. D, F.R.S. and Sec. R.S. 
Edinburgh, - - - 98 
XVIII. Description of a New Self-acting eee Sluice, and of a pends 
Sluice, invented by Rozpert THom, Esq. Rothesay. Communi- 
cated by the Author, - = = 2 a 1006 
XIX. Description of an Extraordinary Parhelion observed at Gotha on 
the 12th May, 1824; - = = = = 105 
XX. On the Botany of America. By Wiitt1am Jackson Hooxer, 
LL. D. F. R. S. E. Communicated by the Author, - 108 
XXI. On the Production of Crystallized Minerals by heat. By Mr. E. 
MirscHErticu, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Ber- 
lin, - - - - - - 129 
XXII. Notice respecting Euchroite, a New Mineral Species. By Wi1- 
LIAM HaiDINGER, Esq. F. R. S.E. Communicated by the Author, 133 
XXIII. Contributions to Popular Science, - . - 135 
No. III. On the Structure of Rice Paper. - am ib. 
No. IV. On the Convergency of the Solar Beams to a point 
opposite the Sun, - - - 136 
XXIV. History of the Great Mass of Native Malleable Tron of Louisiana, 
now deposited in the Museum of the New York Historical Society, 138 
XXV. On the Existence of Siliceous Solutions in the Drusy Cavities of 
Minerals. = oe wide > = = = 140 
XXVI, DECISIONS ON DISPUTED INVENTIONS AND DISCO- 
VERIES, - - - 143 
1. Professor Leslie’s Differential ‘Thermometer invented by Profes- 
sor Sturmius. 2. Daniell’s Platina Pyrometer, partly anticipated 
by M. Guyton. 3. Mr. Nicholas Mill’s Pyrometer, anticipated 
by Dr. Ure, ~ s = es = 144—148 


CONTENTS. ill 


Page 

XXVII. HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PRO- 
CESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS, 148 
1. Mr. Vallance’s Apparatus for Freezing Water, : ib. 

2, Account of Mr. Dalton’s Process for determining the Value of _ 
Indigo, - - - - - 149 
3. Mushet’s Process for pera Copper for Ships, - ib. 


4. Mr. Mackintosh’s Process for rendering impervious to water 
and air all kinds of Cloths ; also Leather and Paper, &c. 150 
5. M. M. Farrimann and Thilly’s Process for rendering Leather, 


Canvass, Linen, &c. Water Proof, - a ib. 
6. Siemen’s Improvement on the Process of making Brandy from 

Potatoes, : S = ale Tage 151 
7. Account of Improvements on Thin Circular Saws, - ib. 
8. On the Invention of Floating Breakwaters, - y ib. 


XXVUI. ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND MEMOIRS, 152 


I. Der Monte Rosa. Eine Topographische und Naturhistorische 
Skizze nebst einem Anhange der von Herrn Zumstein gemach- 
ten Reisen zur Ersteigung seiner Gipfel.—Monte Rosa. A To- 
pographical and Historical Sketch, with an Appendix of the 
Journies of M. Zumstein to these Summits. By Lours Baron 
DE WELDEN. With a Topographical Chart and Lithographic 


Plates. Vienna, 1824, - - ib. 
II. Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical cae! of Maritim, 
ter. Second Series, vol. iv. - 156 


III. Account of the Bell Rock Light House ; eid the Details 
of the Erection and peculiar Structure of that Edifice. 1 vol. 
4to. pp. 534. By RoBERT STEVENSON, Esq. F. R.S. E. Civil 
Engineer, - ” - - - 160 
IV. Acta Academie Nature Curiosorum. Tom. XI. Part I. 164 


XXIX. NOTICES OF RECENTLY PUBLISHED PERIODICAL 
BOTANICAL WORKS, - - 165 


Great Britain.—Botanical Magazine for September, No. 452. Botanical 
Register for September, No. 115. No. 116. October. Hooker's 
Exotic Flora for September, No. 14. No. 15. October. No. 16. No- 
vember. Loddiges’ Botanical Cabinet for September, No. 89. Gre- 

| ville’s Scottish Cryptogamic Flora, No. 27. September. No. 28. Oc- 


tober. No. 29. November, - - - - 165-169 
XXX. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, - - 169 
1. Proceedings of the Royal Society ef Edinburgh, - ib. 
2. Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society, 170 

3. Proceedings of the Society for promoting the Useful Arts in 
Scotland, - - - - - - 171 


iv CONTENTS. 


Art. XXXI. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, 3 2 171 
I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Astronomy. 1. Elements of the New Comet of 1824, 2. The 
Buenos Ayres Comet of 1821. 3. Spots on the Sun in 1824. 4. Lohr- 
mann’s Maps of the Moon. 5. La Place on the Masses of the Planets. 

6. Parallax of the Sun. 7. Copley Medal adjudged to Dr. Brinkley. 


8. Opposition of Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta, - 171-173 
Oprics. 9. Singular Colour of the Sun. 10. Frauenhofer’s Large 
Achromatic Telescope, - - - 173-174 


Maenetism. 11. Oscillations of the Needle affected, by being enclosed 
in a copper case. 12. No diurnal variation of the Needle at the Equa~ 
tor. 13. Variation of the Magnetic Needle, observed in Africa in 
1823. 14. Variation of the Magnetic Needle on the Coast of Karama- 
nia. 15. Declination of the Magnetic Needle at Paramatta, New 
South Wales. 16. Magnetic Variation and Dip observed in the North 
Seas, by Captain Sabine. 17. Scoresby’s Observations on the Dip of 


the Needle, - - - - - - 174-175 
Mereonrotocy. 18. Increase in the quantity of Rain. 19, Saline Im- 
pregnation of Rain, = - - ~“ 175-176 


Il. CHEMISTRY. 
20. Analysis of the Root of the Male Fern. 21. M. Berzelius’s Analysis 
of 1000th parts of Carlsbad Water 22. Analysis of Chrysoberyl. 
23. Oxides of Titanium and Iron. 24. Potassium and Sodium, 176-177 
Ill. NATURAL HISTORY. 
MrineEratocy. 25. Rosélite, a New Mineral Species. 26. Columbite. 
27. Brochantite, a New Mineral Substance. 28. Fluellite, a New Mi- 
neral Substance. 29. Analyses of several Native Carbonates of Lime, 
Magnesia, Iron, and Manganese, ey M. P. Berthier. 30. Torrelite. 


31. Metallic Titanium, - - 177-181 
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 32. The Bainborgh ieovicie and Mr. Phillips, ib. 
Botany.—33. Bois de Colophane. . The late Baron de Schack. 


35. C. S. Parker, Esq. 36. Red pists 37. Govan’s Herbarium. 
38. Algarum Systema Manuale. 39. Dr. Hooker’s System of Plants. 
40. Hooker and Taylor’s Muscologia Britannica, - 181-185 
Zootoay.—41. Discovery of a Fossil Bat. 42. New Species of Mammi- 
ferous Animal. 43. Fossil Elephant discovered between the Rhine 
and the Saone. 44. Lamantine. 45. Anas Rufitorques. 46. Loligo 
Brevipinna. 47. Lernwa. 48. Batrachoides. 49. Sword fish, 185-187 
Ivy. GENERAL SCIENCE. 
50. Natural Ice-houses near Salisbury, North America. 51. Dr. Mat. 


thew Baillie’s Works, - - - - 187 
XXXII. List of Patents for New Inventions, Sealed in England since 
June 15, 1824, - - 188 


XXXIIL. List of Patents granted in Béoslandre since August 13, 1824, 189 

XXXIV. Celestial Phenomena from January 1, to April 1, 1825, caleu- _ 
lated for the Meridian of Edinburgh. By Mr. Grorcr Innes, 
Aberdeen, - = = 3 = 189 


XXXYV. Register of the Barometer, Thermometer, and Rain-Gage, kept 
at Canaan Cottage. By ALEX. ADIE, Esq. F. R.S. E. 192 


CONTENTS 


or THE 


EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 


No. IV. 


Art. I. On the Mechanical Effects produced when a Conducting Liquid is 
electrified in contact with Mercury. In a Letter from J. F. W. HER- 


SCHEL, Esq. Sec. R. S. Lond. F. R.S. Edin. &c. &c. to Dr BREW- 
. STER, . - - 


II. Analysis of a Peach-Blossom Coloured ee. from Chursdorf, near Penig, 
in Saxony. By C. G. GMELIN, Professor of Chemistry in the University 
of Tiibingen. Communicated by the Author, - = = 

ILI. Observations on the Optical Structure of Lithion-Mica, analysed by Pro- 
fessor GMELIN. By David Brewster, LL. D. F. R. S. Lond., and 
Sec. R. S. Edin. - - - = - 

IV. Description of a Boat with a Revolving Paddle Scull, regis by AN- 
DREW WADDELL, Esq. F. R.S. E. Communicated by the Author, 

V. On the Dispersion of Stony F ragments remote from their Native Beds, as 
displayed in a Stratum of Loam near Manchester. By Samuer Hin- 
BERT, M. D. F.R.S. E., and Secretary to the Society of Scottish Anti- 
quaries. Communicated by the Author, - - - 

VI. Table of Tides kept at the Mouth of Macquarrie Harbour, in-Van Die- 
men’s Larid, between July 21st, and September 27th, 1822. Communi- 
cated by his Excellency Sir Tuomas BrisBank, K. C. B. F. R.S. L. 
& E. &e. . - : = 

VII. Researches on Hydrocyanic Acid and Opium, in reference to their Coun- 
ter-Poisons. By JouHN Murray, F.L.S. M. W. S. &c. 
cated by the Author, - s = 2 st 

VIII. Description of Withamite, a New Mineral Species found in Glenco. By 
Davip Brewster, LL. D..F. R. S. Lond. and Sec. R. S. Ed. 

IX. On the Gerus Hookeria of Smith, of the order Musci. By W. J. 
HooKER, LL. D. F. R. S. &c. &c. Regius Professor of Botany in the 
University of Glasgow; and R. K. GREVILLE, LL, D. F.R.S. E. &c, 

* &c. Communicated by the Authors, - = fs 

X. On the Distribution of Granite and of Trap in different Parts of Scotland. 
By Joun MacCuttocn, M.D. F.R.S. F. L. S. and M. G, S. Chemist 
to the Board of Ordnance, and Professor of Chemistry in Addiscombe 
College. Communicated by the Author, 


Communi- 


- - - 


Page 


199 


206 


236 


il CONTENTS. 


Page 
Anrv. XI. Remarks on the Influence of the Winds on the Barometer. Com- 

municated by the Author, - - - 241 
X11. On a New Formation of Anhydrous Siipnene ptine Observed by C 
G. Gmetrn, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tubingen. 

Communicated by the Author, - - - - 244 
XIII. Observations on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, and on the 
Specific Gravity of Sea~-Water, made during a Voyage from St Helena to 
England in 1820. By Joun Davy, M.D. F. R.S. Communicated 


by the Author, - > - - - . 246 
XIV. Description of Gmelinite, a New Mineral Species. By Davip Brew- 
sTER, LL.D. F. R. S. Lond. and See. R. S. Edin. - 262 
XV. Description of a New Quicksilver Pump. Invented by Mr Tuomas 
Cxiark, Edinburgh. Communicated by the Inventor, - 267 
XVI. Analysis of Helvine. By C. G. GMELIN, Professor of Chemistry in nthe 
University of Tiibingen. Communicated by the Author, - 268 


XVII. Additional Observations on the Natural History and Physical Geo- 
graphy of the Himalayah Mountains, between the River-Beds of the 
Jumnah and the Sutluj. By GEorcE Govan, M. D. Communicated 
by the Author, + = - x A 2 277 

XVIII. Analysis of Diploite, (Breithaupt.) By C. G. GmExry, Professor of 
Chemistry in the University of Tibingen. Communicated by the Author, 287 

XIX. Description of a New Double Valve Sluice. Invented by RoBERT 
Tuom, Esq. Rothesay. Communicated by the Author, - 289 

XX. On the Force exerted by Hydrostatic Pressure in Bramah's Presses ; and 
on the resisting Power of the Metal, with Rules for computing the thick- 
ness of the same for different Pressures. By PETER BarLow, Ksq. F. R.S. 
of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Communicated by the Au- 


thor, < ~ A » es a A 293 
XXI. On the Acoustic Figures produced by the Vibrations communicated 
through the Air to Elastic Membranes. By M. FeL1x Savarr, 296 


XXII. Analysis ef Euchroite. By Epwarp Turner, M. D. F.R.S. E. 
-  &c. Lecturer on Chemistry, and Fellow of the Royal College of Physi- 


cians, Edinburgh, - - - - - - 301 
XXIII. Description of Fraunhofer’s non Achromatic Telescopes. With a 
Plate, - - = - - - 305 


XXIV. On the Neptunian Formation of Siliceous Stalactites. By the Rev. 
Joun Frremine, D. D. F.R.S. E. Communicated by the Author, . 307 
XXYV. Notice of the Rev. W. WHEWELL’s General Method of calculating 
the Angles made by any Planes of rhe and the Laws according to 
which they are formed, - - - 312 
XXVI. Gn the Methods of Preventing the weritteniel Discharge of Fire-Arms, 
Invented by the Rey. J. SOMERVILLE, Minister of Currie. Communi- 
cated by the Author, : 2 s 3 * 4 316 
XXVII. On Lestie’s Photometer, and its application to determine the relative 
Intensity of the Sun’s Rays, and the Illuminating Powers of Coal and Oil 
Gas. By Wiuram Rircure, A. M. Rector of the Academy at Tain. 
Communicated by the Author, - - - - - 321 
XXVIIL. Notice respecting Trona, the native Carbonate of Soda from Fez- 
zan. By WILLIAM HAIDINGER, Esq. F. R.S. Edin, Communicated 
by the Author, = = - 2 4 & 325 


CONTENTS. ill 


: Page 
nv. X XIX. Description of Levyne, a New Mineral Species. By Davip 
BrewsTER, LL. D. F. R.S. Lond. and Sec. R. S. Edin. - 332 


XXX. DECISIONS ON DISPUTED INVENTIONS AND DISCO- 
VERIES, - - - - 304 

1. The Daily Variation of the Barometer not discovered by Colonel 

Wright. 2. Bryson’s Compensation Pendulum, invented by Mr David 

Ritchie of London. 3. Sir William Congreve’s Moveable Ball Clock, 

invented by M. Serviere. 4, Heulandite first separated from Stilbite 

by Professor Mohs, and not by Mr Brooke. 5. Mr Nicholas Mill’s 
Platina Pyrometer, - - - - - 384—338 


XXXL HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND PRO- 


CESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS, - - 339 

1. Mr Ritchie’s Photometer, and the [luminating Powers of Oil and Coal 
Gas, - - - - - - = ib. 
2. M. Ducom’s Cylindrical Artificial Horizon, . 341 
3. Mr Jeffrey’s Method of condensing Smoke, Metallic Vapdtiek; &e. 342 
4. Casting of Wooden Ornaments and Veneers, - - ib. 
5. Account of the Lapidary’s Wheel of the Hindoos, - - ib. 
6. Dr Church’s New Boring Auger, - - =e 343 
7. Evans’s New Method of Roasting Coffee, - - - ib. 
8. Braconnot’s Process for making Blacking for Leather, - ib. 
9. Mr Jenning’s Improved Gas Burner, - - - 344 
XXXII. ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND MEMOIRS, 344 


I. Description of a Monochromatic Lamp, with Remarks on the Absorp- 
tion of the Prismatic Rays by Coloured Media. By Davip BREw- 
stTER, LL.D. &c.—On the Absorption of Light by Coloured Media, 
and on the Colours exhibited by certain Flames, &c. &e. By J. F. 
W. HerscuE., Esq. Sec. R.S. Lond. and F.R.S. Edin. - ib. 
II. Some Account of the late M. Guinand, and of the important Discovery 
made by him in the Manufacture of Flint Glass for Large Telescopes, 348 


XXXIII. NOTICES OF RECENTLY PUBLISHED PERIODICAL 
BOTANICAL WORKS, - - 354 

Great Britain.—Monandrian Plants of the Order Scitaminee, by William 
Roscoe, Esq. No. 2. Drummond’s Musci Scotici. Botanical Magazine 

for December, No. 458. Hooker’s Exotic Flora, for December, No. 17. 
Loddige’s Botanical Cabinet, Part 92, December. Part 93, January 1825: 
Greville’s Scottish Cryptogamic Flora. BoTANIcAL INTELLIGENCE. 
Progress of Botany in Russia. Intelligence from Austria. Intelligence 


from North America. Denmark, Sweden. Mexico, - 354-359 
XXXIV. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, - - - 360 

1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, - - ib. 

2. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, - 361 


3., Proceedings of the Society for Promoting the Useful Arts in Scotland, 362 


1Vv CONTENTS. 


Art. XXXV. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, - - 364 
I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Asrronomy.—l. Remarkable Double Tail in the Comet of 1823. 2. Sup- 
posed influence of Comets on the Sun’s Surface. 3. Periodical Comet of 
1819. 4. Depression of the Horizon at Sea, - - - 364, 365 

Optics.—5. Refractive Power of Dry and Humid Air. 6. Polarisation of 
Light from Solid or Fluid incandescent Bodies. 7. Optical Phenomena ob- 
served by M. Ruppell. 8. Remarkable Dichroism of Axinite. 9. Optical 


Structure of Somervillite, - - - - 365, 366 
MacGnETIsm.—10. Magnetic Variation at Lake Superior. i. Magnetic De- 
clination at Paris in 1822 and 1823, - - - 366, 367 


MeETEOROLOGY.—12. Great Inundation in Sweden and at St Petersburgh. 
13. Great Rain at Manchester in 1824. 14. Diurnal Variation of the Ba- 
rometer at Marseilles, = - - “ < 367 ~369 


Il. CHEMISTRY. 

15. Deoxidating property of the Vapour of Water. 16. Quantity of Heat 
disengaged during Combustion. 17. On the Colouring Matter, called Chica, 
by the Indians. 18. Avogadro’s Table of the Affinities of Bodies for Ca- 
loric. 19. Avogadro’s Table of the Neutralizing Powers of different Sub- 
stances. 20. Analysis of the Sulphuret of Manganese from Transylvania, by 
Arfyedson. 21. Analysis of Blende, Crystallized, Yellow, and Transparent, 
by Arfyedson. 22. Analysis of Capillary Pyrites, by Arfvedson. 23. Ana- 
lysis of two varieties of Harmotome, by Dr Wernekingk of Giessen. 24. 
Analysis of Sideroschisolite, by Dr Wernekingk. 25. Analysis of Uranite 
by Berzelius, 3 = = “ - 369-372 


III. NATURAL HISTORY. 

MINERALOGY.—26. Axotomous Arsenical-Pyrites, a New Mineral Species. 
27. Prismatoidal Copper-Glance, a New Mineral Species. 28. Axotomous 
Antimony-Glance, a New Mineral Species. 29. Hemiprismatic Ruby- 
Blende, a New Mineral Species. 30. Fergusonite, a New Mineral Species. 
31. Picrosmine, a New Mineral Species. 32. Brookite, a New Mineral 


Species, “ - - - - - 373-377 
Botany.—33. On the Nature of Galls, - - - 378 
ZooLocy.—34. Physalia Arethusa, - - - - ib. 


Iv. GENERAL SCIENCE. 
35. Hatching of Fish. 36. Mr Lizars’ Work on the Renioval of Ovaria. 37. 
Mr Bate’s Essay on Spectacles. 38. Mr Innes’s Tide Tables for 1825. 39. 


The Emperor of Russia’s Present to Professor Barlow, - 378, 379 
XXXVI. List of Patents for New Inventions, Sealed in England since 
July 27, 1824, - - 379 


XXXVII. List of Patents granted in Scotland since Massie | 30, 1824, 381 
XXXVIII. Celestial Phenomena, from April 1, to July 1, 1825, calculated 

for the Meridian of Edinburgh. By Mr GrorcE InnxEs, Aber- 

deen, - - - - - - ib, 
XXXIX. Register of the Barometer, Thermometer, and Rain-Gage, kept 

at Canaan Cottage. By ALEX. ADIE, Esq. F. R.S.E, - 384 


THE 


EDINBURGH 
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 


‘Art. I.—Observations on the Vision of Impressions on the 
Retina, in reference to certain supposed Discoveries respect- 
ing Vision announced by Mr. Charles Bell.* By Davip 
Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. and Se., R.S. Ed. &c. 


Tuerz is no branch of physical science which has made less 
progress than that which relates to the optical functions of 
the eye. Although the phenomena of vision are constantly 
presented to our consideration, and although experiments 
without number, and speculations without.end, have been ac- 
cumulated, yet during the last century no prominent discove- 
ry has been made respecting the physiology of this most im- 
portant organ. 

It was, therefore, with no inconsiderable satisfaction, that I 
observed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1823, a paper 
by Mr. Charles Bell, containing an account of discoveries which 
promised to throw a new light not only upon the optical, but 
upon the metaphysical: questions which have so long. been 
agitated respecting vision. In studying that paper, however, 
these expectations have been disappointed. After a careful 
repetition of the experiments which it contains, and a minute 
investigation of the phenomena, to. which it relates, I haye no 
hesitation in stating, that its facts and reasonings are to a 
great extent incorrect and inconclusive. 

In submitting the results of this inquiry to the Royal Socie: 


_* Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, December 6, 1824. 
VOL. IT. NO. 1. JAN. 1825, - B 


2 Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina. 


ty, I trust it will not be supposed that I am engaging their at- 
tention to a subject of a controversial nature. I have no incli- 
nation to offer any criticisms, or make any comments upon 
those parts of Mr. Bell’s paper, which are open to controver- 
sy. My only object is to establish certain scientific facts and 
laws of vision which have been misunderstood or perverted ; 
and I shall but ill perform the task I have undertaken, if I 
leave the subject in any doubt, or fail to impress upon those 
who hear me, the same conviction of their certainty which I 
entertain myself. 

In order that the facts and doctrines maintained by Mr. 
Bell may not be misinterpreted, I shall state them in his own 


words. 


«* When the eye is at rest, as in sleep, or even when the eyelids are 
shut, the sensation on the retina being then neglected, the voluntary 
muscles resign their office, and the involuntary muscles draw the pupil un= 
der the upper eyelid. This is the condition of the organ during perfect 
repose. 

On the other hand, there is an inseparable connexion between the ex- 
ercise of the sense of vision, and the exercise of the voluntary muscles 
of the eye. When an object is seen we enjoy too senses; there is an 
impression upon the retina ; but we receive also the idea of position or 
relation, which it is not the office of the retina to give. It is by the 
consciousness of the degree of effort put upon the voluntary muscles that 
we know the relative position of an object to ourselves. ‘The relation ex- 
isting between the office of the retina and of the voluntary muscles, may 
be illustrated in this manner. 

Let the eyes be fixed upon an illuminated object, until the retina be 
fatigued, and in some measure exhausted by the image, then closing the 
eyes the figure of the object will continue present to them: and it is 
quite clear that nothing can change the place of this impression on the 
retina. But notwithstanding that the impression on the retina cannot 
be changed, the idea thence arising may. For, by an exertion of the vo- 
luntary muscles of the eyeball the body seen will appear to change its 
place, and it will, to our feeling, assume different positions according to the 
muscle which is exercised. If we raise the pupil we shall see the body 
elevated, or if we depress the pupil, we shall see the body placed below 
us; and all this takes place while the eyelids are shut, and when no new 
impression is conveyed to the retina. The state of the retina is here 
associated with a consciousness of muscular exertion ; and it shows that 
vision, in its extended sense, is a compound operation, the idea of posi~ 
tion of an object having relation to the activity of the muscles. * * * 

If we move the eye by the voluntary muscles, while this impression con= 

' tinues upon the retina, we shall have the notion of place and relation rais- 
ed in the mind ; hut if the motion of the eyeball be produced BY ANY OTHER 


Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina. 3 


CAUSE, hy the involuntary muscles or by pressure from without, we shall 
have no corresponding change of sensation. 

If we make the impression on the retina in the manner described, 
and shut the eyes, the image will not be elevated, although the pupils be 
actually raised, as it is their condition to be when the eyes are shut, be- 
cause there is here no sense of voluntary exertion. If we sit at some 
distance from a lamp, which has a cover of ground glass, and fix the eye 
on the centre of it, and then shut the eye and contemplate the phantom 
in the eye; and if, while the image continues to be present of a fine 
blue colour, we press the eye aside with the finger, we shall not move 
that phantom or image, although the circle of light produced by the pres- 
sure of the finger against the eyeball moves with the motion of the fin- 
ger- 

May not this be accounted for in this manner: The motion produced 
in the eyeball not being performed by the appropriate organs, the volun- 
tary muscles, it conveys no sensation of change to the sensorium, and is 
hot associated with the impression. on the retina, so as to affect the idea 
excited in the mind? It is owing to the same cause, that, when look~ 
ing on the lamp, by pressing one eye, we can make two images, and we 
can make the one move over the other. But if we have received the im- 
pression on the retina so as to leave the phantom visible when the eye- 
lids are shut, we cannot, hy pressing one eye, produce any such effect. 
We cannot, by any degree of pressure, make that image appear to move ; 
but the instant that the eye moves by its voluntary muscles, the image 
changes its place ; that is, we produce the two sensations necessary to 
raise this idea in the mind; we have the sensation on the retina com- 
bined with the consciousness or sensation of muscular activity.”—Phil, 
Trans. 1828, p. 177—180. 


The passage now quoted contains three important results : 

1. That when an impression is made upon the retina by 
strong light, this impression, in the form of a coloured spec- 
trum, remains absolutely fixed and immoyeable, if the eye- 
ball is moved by the pressure of the finger, or by any other 
external cause than that of the voluntary muscles of the eye- 
ball. 

2, That during sleep, or upon the closing of the eyelids, 
the voluntary muscles resign their office, and the involuntary 
muscles draw the pupil under the upper eyelid. 

3. That during this involuntary motion or displacement of 
the globe of the eye, the spectral impression continues abso- 
lutely fixed and immoveable. 

From these three results, Mr. Bell draws the highly impor- 
tant conclusion, that ‘it is by the consciousness of the de- 
gree of effort put upon the voluntary muscles, that we know 
the relative position of an object to ourselves,” or that “ the 


- 


4 Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina. 


notion of place or relation is raised in the mind ;” and hence 
he explains the old paradox of an inverted picture upon the 
retina producing the appearance of an erect object. 

In estimating the value of this singular conclusion, we 
shall first admit its truth, as well as the correctness of the 
facts from which it is deduced, im order to form some notion 
of the consequences in which it will involve us. 

Since the notion of place or relation depends solely on the 
consciousness of exerting the voluntary muscles of the eye- 
ball, let the observer, with a spectral impression on his retina, 
close his eye, and turn round his head either in a vertical or 
a horizontal plane, by the muscles of his neck alone. It will 
now be found, that the spectrum follows the motion of the 
head ; and hence we must conclude, that the notion of place 
or relation depends on the exercise of the muscles of the 
neck, as those of the eyeball have been entirely at rest. 

But. as there may exist some undiscovered sympathy be- 
tween the muscles of the neck and those of the eyeball, let 
the observer, with his eyes closed be now placed upon a stool, 
to which an assistant communicates a rotatory motion 
through the intermedium of a leathern belt. In this case 
also, it will be found that the spectrum revolves with the 
stool in the same manner as if the eyeball had performed the 
same angular motion by the action of its voluntary muscles. 
Hence we must conclude, that the notion of place or relation 
depends on the muscles of the assistant’s arm, conveyed by 
some sympathetic action to the observer’s eye along the lea- 
thern belt ; a result so inadmissible, that, to use the sentence 
which Mr. Bell directs against the illustrious Kepler, « The 
mind might as well follow the ray out of the eye, and like 
the spider, feel along the line.” 

_ In order to view this subject under another aspect, let us 
suppose that, by cutting the voluntary muscles, the eyeball is 
left to float. in its socket; or, what is the same thing, that 
these muscles have lost their power of giving motion to the. 
eyeball. In such a case, will the eye retain its notions of 
place or relation? or will it lose them entirely? It is quite 
clear that the impression of external objects on the retina 
will not be affected by this condition of the voluntary mus- 


cles; and therefore it follows, that if the notion of place is 
3 


Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions on,the Retina. 5 


ost, the eye must either see the object erect as usual, ‘or in- 
verted, or in some intermediate position, or what is more pro- 
bable, in all these positions at once. For if it has a determi- 
nate position, the eye will only have exchanged its notion of 
true position for a notion of false position, a result too absurd 
fo be for a moment entertained. Fortunately for this argu- 
ment, Mr. Bell has actually described a’ case under the care 
of Dr. Macmichael, which occurred after his paper was read. 
« In ‘this case,” says he, “ which shows the consequences of 
the eye and eyelids being rendered immoveable; the surface 
of the eye is totally insensible, and the eye rémains fixed and 
directed straight forward, whilst the vision is entire.” If 
there ever was an experimentum crucis, which could settle at 
once a controverted question, we have one in the case now 
quoted. Dr. Macmichael’s patient preserved: his vision en- 
tire, when “ the outward apparatus was without sensibility 
and motion,” and when there was no consciousness of effort 
in the voluntary muscles to convey the notions of place and 
relation. 

* Although mathematicians have acknowledged the legitima- 
cy of the reductio ad absurdum, which constitutes the princi- 
pal feature of the preceding argument, yet we fear this will 
not be admitted in physical science, unless it is accompanied 
with an acknowledgment of our ignorance respecting the facts 
and principles which the paralogism involves. I shall there- 
fore proceed to an examination of the facts themselves. 

1. The leading fact which has: misled Mr. Bell in this in- 
quiry, is the alleged immobility of the spectral impression, 
when the eye is displaced by the pressure of the finger. 
‘This spectrum is by no means immoveable. It is quite true 
that it moves through a very small space ; but this space, 
small as it is, is the precise quantity through which: it ought 
to move according to the principles of optics 5 and the expla- 
nation of this fact leads us to investigate the difference’ be- 
tween the vision of external objects, and that of inmipressions 
upon’ the retina. ' f 

In order to understand this difference, let A, Plate IT. Fig. 
1, be the eye of the observer, and’ O an external object, 
whose image at P is seen along the axis of vision POM. 
‘Let the eye be pushed upwards, suppose Poth of} an-inch, 


6 Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina. 


into the position B, the external object O remaining fixed. 
The image of O upon the retina will now be raised from P 
to Q in the elevated eye at B. Hence the object O will now 
be seen in the direction QON, having descended, by the ele- 
vation of the eye, from M to N. 

Let the eye be now brought back to its caiautal staid 
A, and let the object O be the lamp with ground glass used 
by Mr. Bell. The spectral impression will therefore be made 
upon the retina at P, and will remain on that spot till it is 
effaced. If the eye A is now raised to B, the impression will 
still be at P in the elevated eye, and it will be seen in the di- 
rection PR parallel to PM, having risen only jth of an 
inch, or the height through which the eye has been raised by 
pressure. This small space is not very visible to an ordinary 
observer, when his head is at liberty to move; but if the 
head is carefully fixed, the motion of the spectrum becomes 
quite apparent. Hence it is obvious that Mr. Bell has been 
first misled by not observing the motion of the spectrum, and 
secondly, by supposing that the vision of an impression fol- 
lowed the same law as the vision of an external object. 
The difference between these two cases of vision which Mr, 
Bell has overlooked, consists in this, that in ordinary vision 
the object forms a new image upon a new part of the retina, 
after the eye is pushed up; whereas in spectral vision, the 
original object has nothing to do after the eye is displaced, 
the spectrum itself which retains its place on the retina be- 
ing now the only object of perception. 

2. The second fact announced by Mr. Bell is, that during 
sleep, or upon the closing of the eyelids, the eyeball is in- 
voluntarily turned up beneath the upper eyelid, and so far 
even as to withdraw the pupil from the faint light which that 
eyelid transmits. 

This singular result stands in direct contradiction to the 
opinion of Soemmering and other anatomists, who consider 
the eyeball as perfectly stationary when the eyelids are shut; 
but as Mr. Bell has deduced his opinion from direct experi- 
ment, it requires to be strictly examined. I have frequently 
and carefully repeated the experiment which he describes, 
and I find that no such motion of the eyeball takes: place 
upon shutting the eyelids; but that, on the contrary, 
they remain perfectly stationary. I am informed also by 


Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions om the Retina. % 


Dr. Knox, that he saw a case of a protrusion of the iris through 
the cornea, which could very readily be distinguished even 
when the eyelids were closed ; and that the protuberance occu- 
pied the same position whether the eyelids were open or shut. 

The impossibility of the existence of such a motion may 
be deduced also from other principles. When the observer, 
with a spectrum in his eye, closes his eyelids, Mr. Bell admits 
that the spectrum remains stationary, which is undoubtedly 
the case ; but as we have already demonstrated that the spec- 
trum actually follows the moyements of the eye as it ought 
to do, upon the ordinary principles of optics, the absolute 
immobility of the impression, upon shutting the eyelids, be- 
comes an incontrovertible proof, that when the eye is closed, 
the eyeball is not displaced by the action of any inyoluntary 
muscles. 

In order to strengthen his arguments for the existence of 
this involuntary revolution of the eyeball, Mr. Bell has stat- 
ed, in a very ingenious manner, the final cause of such an ar- 
rangement. 


«* The purpose of this rapid insensible motion of the eyeball will be 
understood on observing the form of the eyelids, and the place of the 
lachrymal gland. The margins of the eyelids are flat, and when they 
meet, they touch only at their outer edges, so that when closed, there is a 
gutter left between them and the cornea. If the eyeball were to remain 
without motion, the margins of the eyelids would meet in such a man- 
ner on the surface of the cornea, that a certain portion would be left 
untouched, and the eye would have no power of clearing off what obscur- 
ed the vision, at that principal part of the lucid cornea, which is in the 
yery axis of the eye ; and if the tears flowed, they would be left accumu- 
lated on the centre of the cornea ; and winking, instead of clearing the 
eye, would suffuse it. To avoid these effects, and to sweep and clear the 
surface of the cornea, at the same time that the eyelids are closed, the 
eyeball revolves, and the cornea is rapidly elevated under the eyelid.”— 
Phil. Trans. 1823, p. 169. 


Unfortunately for these views, the clearing away of the 
lubricating fluid which is left in the groove between the closed 
eyelids has not been accomplished by Almighty wisdom. 
Those who are familiar with this class of experiments, will 
have no difficulty in observing the ridge of accumulated fluid 
remaining after the eye is opened, and gradually falling to 
its level by the united forces of gravity and capillary attrac- 
tion. In order to perceive this effect, let the eye be direct- 
ed to a small point of light, such as the image of a candle 


8 Dr. Brewster on the Vision of Impressions on the Retina. 


diminished by reflexion from a convex surface, and Jet this 
image be brought near the eye, ‘so ‘that the pencils of rays 
which diverge from it may have their foci a great way be- 
hind the retina. When the eye is open, the image of this 
luminous point will be a circular disc of light, or a section of 
the cone of rays formed by the refraction of the eye. If, when 
looking at this circular disc, shown at A in Fig 2, we shut the 
eyelids, and’ then open them gradually, examining at the same 
time the appearance of the disc, we shall at first observe’ it 
to have the compressed form shown at B, occasioned by the 
ridge of fluid, and then gradually extending itself into its 
regular circular form, an effect which may be produced at 
once by the operation of winking ; the only one which naturé 
has combined with the ordinary motion of the eyeball for the 
purpose of smoothing the outer surface of the cornea. ; 
In concluding these remarks, I cannot avoid expressing a 
wish that Mr. Bell will re-examine his own observations, and 
repeat with care those to which I have had occasion to re+ 
fer, before he proceeds to his ulterior object of establishing 
upon such a basis an arrangement of the nerves of the eye, 
and ‘a distinction of them according to their uses. Such an 
arrangement must be affected by’ the facts upon ‘which it is 
founded ; and the present advanced state both of human and 
comparative anatomy, requires that all their classifications, 
and particularly their most difficult ones, should not rest on 
contested data, or be regulated by ambiguous principles. 


Before quitting this subject, I am desirous of stating to 
the society some views connected with the preceding obser- 
vations, and relating to a more recondite affection of the eye, 
which it seems to receive through the agency of the mind: 

When the eye is not exposed to the impressions of exter-_ 
nal objects, or when it is insensible to these impressions, in 
consequence of the mind being engrossed with its own ope: . 
rations, any object of mental ‘contemplation which has either 
been called up by the memory, or created by the imagina- 
tion, will be seen as distinctly as if. it had been formed from 
the vision of a real object. In examining these mental im- 
pressions, I have found that they follow the motions of the 
eyeball exactly like the spectral impressions of luminous ob- 
jects, and that they resemble them also in their apparent im- 


Dr. Hamilton on a Plant allied to the Genus Piper. 9 


mobility when the eyeball is displaced by an external force. 
If this result (which I state with much diffidence, from hav- 
ing only my own experience in its favour) shall be found ge-~ 
nerally true by others, it will follow that the objects of men- 
tal contemplation may be seen as distinctly as external ob- 
jects, and will occupy the same local position in the axis of 
vision, as if they had been formed by the agency of light.* 

Hence all the phenomena of apparitions may depend upon 
the relative intensities of these two classes of impressions, and 
upon their manner ‘of accidental combination. In perfect 
health, when the mind possesses a control over its powers, 
the impressions of external objects alone occupy the attention, 
but in the unhealthy condition of the mind, the impressions 
of its own creation. either overpower, or combine themselves. 
with the impressions of external objects ;—the mental speetra 
in the one case appearing alone, while in the other they are 
seen Projected among those external objects to which the eye- 
ball is directed. 


| 


Art. II.—An Account of a Plant allied to the Genus Piper. 
* By Francis Hamitton, M.D. F.R.S. F..A.S. Lond. 
and Ed. Communicated by the Author. 


Tux different species of the genus Pirer, as constituted by 
Linnzus from the Piper of the ancients, and the Sawrurus 
of Plumier, offer a considerable number of differences in the 
parts of the fructification, and attempts have been therefore 
made to divide it into several genera.. Swartz separated the 
Lacistema, called Namatospermum by Richard ; and this ar- 
rangement seems to have met with general approbation. Ruiz 
again restored the Sawrurus of Plumier under the new-fan- 
gled name Peperomia, which has been adopted by several 
excellent botanists, especially Kunth; while others of equal 
authority (Poiret and Vahl) object to this innovation (Enc. 
Meth. Sup. iv. 454.) In fact, ‘the separation would at any 
rate appear to be premature; for in the greater number of 
species, the details of the fructification are still wanting, and 

* These results, and several others which I shall have occasion to explain 


in another paper, confirm, in a remarkable manner, the views of my friend Dr. 
Hibbert, in his able work on the Philosophy of Apparitions. 


_ 


10 Dr. Hamilton on a Plant allied to the Genus Piper. 


of course we do not yet know what weight certain characters 
should have, when we attempt to separate the species into na- 
tural groups. 

_ The characters, therefore, by which different authors have 
endeavoured to distinguish Piper from Peperomia, have been 
not only different, but it remains still uncertain whether the 
species that should be respectively arranged under these ge- 
nera, according to such characters, would form two groups 
distinguished from each other by a remarkable difference in 
general appearance. It is also uncertain whether or not all 
the species of Piper can be reduced to the two genera, as dis- 
tinguished by any characters yet proposed. For instance, 
Hedwig, (Gen. Plant. 22.) endeavours to distinguish the Pé- 
per, by its having no calyx, from the Peperomia, which has 
a calyx, consisting of one peltate scale; but the P. nigrum 
or aromaticum, the P. betle, and the P. longum, the oldest 
and best established species of Piper, have exactly this cha- 
racter, by which Hedwig endeavours to distinguish Peperomia. 

The generic character given by Kunth to the Peperomia, 

(Spadix cylindricus floribus undique tectus. Flores herma- 
phroditi, singulus squama suffultus. Stamina duo, Antherz 
uniloculares. Stigma indivisum. Bacca monosperma,) is 
very applicable to many species, and may distinguish them 
from the old established kinds of Piper, which, with several 
others that I have found in India, have a habit as well as a 
character (Spadix cylindricus undique tectus squamis uniflo- 
ris. Flores dioeci. Mase. filamenta duo vel plura antheris 
bilocularibus. Foem. germen unicum. Stigma sessile, pro- 
funde divisum,) very different from the Peperomia rubella, 
(Hooker Exotic. Flora, 58,) which nearly resembles a species 
from Nepal, which I gave to Sir E. J. Smith. But the Pe- 
peromia incana, (Hooker, 66,) and Peperomia maculosa, 
(Hooker, 92,) with the same character, have little or no re- 
semblance either to the two species first mentioned, to the old 
established species of Piper with dioecious flowers, or even to 
each other. Until, therefore, the species of Piper have been 
more fully described, the subdivisions that have been made 
can only be considered as provisional, and merely as such I 
propose what follows. 

On the hills near Goyalpara I found a shrub, which Lin- 

nzus would probably have called a Piper, but which differs a 


Dr. Hamilton on a Plant allied to the Genus Piper. 11 


good deal both in general appearance and in the characters of 
its fructification, from any of the species yet mentioned. In 
the catalogue of dried specimens which I have given to the 
India House, this plant has been called CryrpHxa ERECTA, 
on account of the sexual organs being concealed in a singular 
manner by the filament, which resembles a berry. I “shall 
here give a description. 

Frutices erecti. Rami oppositi, glabri, internodiis ad ba- 
sin incrassatis compressis. Folia opposita, oblonga, ultra me- 
dium latiora, acuminata, mucronata, serrata, venosa, undula- 
ta, glabra. Petiolus brevissimus, annulo denticulato ramu- 
lum cingente amplexicaulis. Séipule alioquin nulle. 

Pedunculus communis terminalis, folio multo brevior, spi- 
cas gerens quatuor brachiatim oppositas, ultra spicas mucro- 
natus. Bractee ad singulas spicas minute, ovate, persisten- 
tes, spice (vel si velis amenta vel spadices) erectz, floribus 
oppositis quadrifariam imbricatis quadrisulcz, glabra, unciam 
longee, mucronate. Fores albi, parvh singuli denticulo spi- 
cz insidentes. 

Calyx squama minuta, acuta, Eee spice bracteans. 
Corolla nulla. Filamentum unilaterale, ovatum, carnosum, 
extra convexum, intus sinu excavatum. Antherw@ due unilo- 
culares, marginibus filamenti infra apicem inserte. Germen 
trigonum, filamentum inter et rachim intra filamenti sinum 
nidulans, denticulo spice insidens. Stylus brevis, crassus. 
Stigma acutum integrum. 

Bacca ovata, carnosa, albida Se ata pisi minoris, api- 
ce gerens. Semen unicum, globosum, leeve, stipiti s. funiculo 
umbilicali e basi fructus prodeunti lignoso recto insidens. Pe- 
rispermum magnitudine seminis album, durum. Embryo ho- 
rizontalis, teres, rectus, indivisus, ab uno seminis latere ad 
centrum pertingens. 

Plate II. Fig. 8, represents a flower cut vertically through 
the middle, and the nearest side removed. 1. Part of the 
Rachis communis. 2. Denticulus, on which the flower is 
placed. 3. Calyx. 4. Filament. 5. Anthera. 6. Pistillum. 

Fig. 9. is a flower separated and viewed from the side next 
the rachis. 1,1, 1, Filament. 2,2, Antherse. 3, Pistillum. 

Fig. 10. is a vertical section of aberry. 1, 1,1, Pulp. 2 
Seed with embryo. 3. Stipes supporting the seed. 

The figures are a little magnified. 


12 Dr. Knox on the Theory of a Siath Sense in Fishes, 


Axr. I1I.—On the Theory of the Existence of a  Siath Sense : 
in Fishes ; supposed to reside in certain peculiar Tubular 

i Organs, found immediately under the Integuments of the 
Head in Sharks and Rays.. By Rosert Knox, M.D. 
F.R.S.E. &c. Communicated by the Author. 


Iw dissecting the shark, tope fish or skate, none, I think, 
not even Mey most careless observer,. could have missed noti- 
cing certain groups of very singular organs, which seem as 
it were peculiar to these families of animals. They. were 
long confounded in anatomical descriptions with the lacunar 
or mucous system, which I believe to be common to all, or 
at least to most fishes, until clearly shown by Mr. Jacobson 
of Berlin, to be perfectly distinct from the laiter, and differ- 
ing probably as much in function as in structure. Mr. 
Jacobson concluded from his dissections, that they were or- 
gans of touch ; and however improbable this opinion may at 
first sight appear, it seems not unlikely that it will ultimately 
be very generally adopted. 

' The organs I allude to have been long known to compa- 
rative anatomists, nor indeed is it possible to examine even 
with ordinary attention the head of the shark, without per- 
ceiving very readily their general structure:—A vast as- 
semblage of parallel transparent tubes, filled with a gelatinous 
fluid, and supplied with large branches of nerves, communi- 
cating with a flat surface, and as it were perforating the in- 
teguments. Such are the organs I now speak of, and which, 
in whatever way they are viewed, merit the highest attention 
on the part of the comparative physiologist. 

To form a sufficiently accurate idea of these organs, the 
reader has only to imagine a congeries of comparatively small 
tubes, springing from a common stalk like grapes from.a vine 
branch ; of a cylindrical form, and greatly resembling in shape 
a champagne glass; each of these is supplied with a nerve, 
forming as it were the stalk of the glass or tube : this is filled 
with a eelians body, strongly resembling the vitreous hu- 
mour of the eye. 

It has been said by a distinguished anatomist,* “ that the 


* Treviranus. 


residing in the Tubular Organs of Sharks and Rays. 18 


interior of these vesicles or tubes is divided into compart- 
ments by longitudinal septa or divisions ;” but this is an 
error which does not require any refutation. The contained 
gelatinous matter is perfectly cylindrical, and the tubes, 
though they appeared to me homogeneous in texture, were 
found to be composed of fibres perpendicular to the axis of the 
tube. I am indebted for this fact to Dr. Brewster, who at my 
request examined several of the tubes under a microscope of 
high powers. Dr. Brewster, at the same time, mentioned to 
me his suspicion that the fibres, of which the tubes were 
very evidently composed, were not circular, but spiral, and 
that the whole tube might thus be composed of a single fibre. 

The tubular organs undergo various modifications, accord- 
ing to the tissue in which they are placed, and according to 
the nature of the parts they have to pass through on their 
way to the surface; on the snout, they do not appear to reach 
the skin entirely, at least every where, as there is interpos- 
ed a thick cartilaginous lamina into which they scarcely 
penetrate; and accordingly, though most abundant on the 
upper and lower surfaces of the snout in the tope, by no arti- 
ficial pressure can the gelatinous or vitreous contained mat- 
ter be forced through the pores of the skin, which neverthe- 
less are here very abundant. On the other hand, around the 
mouth, and even the orbits, the gelatinous matter can be 
forced through the pores of the skin by very gentle pressure. 
In some parts of the snout, the tubular organs approach 
quite close to the integuments; they become much firmer, 
and of a transparent horny texture; when cut through, a 
mass of them greatly resembles a honey comb. Over the or- 
bits they run in long tubes, having parietes of a dense white 
fibrous structure, but are still evidently the same organs, and 
perhaps having their roots in the one or other of the two 
great gelatinous masses placed on either side the snout, form- 
ing the great bases of the tubular organs. The latter are, 
however, rather imbedded in the large gelatinous mass, and 
do not absolutely seem to grow from it; that is, the large 
branches of the fifth pair of neryes penetrate into these masses, 
and dividing into extremely numerous, and detached branches 
send one to each of the tubes. The tubes are entirely shut at 
the extremity next the nerve. I did not observe any thing 
peculiar in their peripheral extremities. When we remove one 


14 Dr. Knox on the Theory of a Sixth Sense in Fishes, 


of the tubes and place it under a microscope of small powers, 
We perceive that the nerve is distributed to the short extremity 
of the tube by fibrils. Let a, Plate II. Fig: 18, represent 
the tube filled with the gelatinous matter; 6 the nerve, di+ 
viding into several small branches, which creep up to a short 
distance perpendicularly on the sides of the tube. But if 
the extremity of the tube be examined after cutting the nerve 
across, then the distribution of the nerve may be well enough 
understood by inspecting Fig. 19, in which the nerves seem to 
proceed from the centre to the circumference like the spokes 
of a wheel. t 

When strong pressure is applied, the gelatinous fluid fill- 
ing the tubes passes by narrow apertures into the Canals of 
the lacunar system; but I consider-this as by no means proving 
a direct communication, for we never perceive any of the 
gelatinous fluid naturally in these canals, nor scarcely any 
thing else, as M. de Blainville very well remarks in his ac- 
count of these organs. 

In the thorn-back, the arrangement of the tubular organs in 
the snout is precisely as in the tope or shark ; but the tubes 
of the lacunar system are much more developed and distinct. 
In the specimen I last examined these tubes contained only 
a few globules of air, and a small quantity of a mucous fluid. 

What are the functions of the tubular organs? And for 
what purpose have nerves been distributed to them in such 
abundance? Mr. Jacobson (a distinguished German anato- 
mist) has replied to this question ; he considers them to be or- 
gans of touch, almost active. 

If I mistake not Mr. Jacobson’s opinions, (which have been 
given to the public only through the medium of Dr. De 
Blainville,) that gentleman views the tubular organs, though 
terminating on extended smooth and flat surfaces, as organs 
of touch ; against which opinion it might be argued, that the 
peripheral terminations of these organs are but ill adapted ta 
exercise the sense of touch, which we find in almost all ani- 
mals to be more or less connected with a prehensile and mus- 
cular tissue, calculated to be extended and applied in some 
way or other to the surfaces of bodies; 2d, That in many 
fishes there are organs of touch of an entirely different form, 
relative to whose functions no doubt can be entertained ; 
lastly, 'That these peculiar tubular organs exist in certain fishes, 


residing in the Tubular Organs of Sharks and Rays. 15 


inhabiting chiefly the great seas ;. and it is difficult to ima- 
gine on what occasions these organs could be so exercised so 
as to ascertain the presence of other bodies by touch. 

G. R. Treviranus, to whom the minute anatomy of insects 
owes so much, has advanced the opinion, that the tubular or- 
gans of sharks and rays exercise a sense perfectly peculiar and 
distinct from those which man and other animals possess ; 
that the number of the senses which may exist in animals 
ought not to be limited to five (the number usually assign- 
ed to man) ; but he at the same time admits, that the precise 
nature of the functions exercised by these organs remains 
still a profound mystery. 

We need not here stop to discuss these hypotheses, which 
are really without any foundation ; they may be classed with 
the sixth sense invented by Buffon, with the theories of Spal- 
lanzani relative to the accurate flight of bats through darken- 
ed chambers, after he had destroyed the organs of sight and 
hearing, leaving to them that organ of sense, by which the flight 
was really directed ; or with the sense of resistance, which a 
skilful metaphysical writer invented and defended so plausibly. 

We cannot, I imagine, greatly err in considering these or- 
gans as organs of touch, so modified, however, as to hold an 
intermediate place between the sensations of touch and hear- 
ing. 'They may perceive the undulations of the waters, and 
seem admirably adapted for this purpose by the quantity of 
nerves distributed to them; by the interposition of a tremu- 
lous gelatinous body interposed between the sentient extremi- 
ties of these nerves and the impressing medium, and by the 
intimate connection of the sixth and auditory pairs of nerves 
of fishes. * 

The boldness and rapacity of the ital and perhaps also 
of the ray, imply the presence of active organs of sense. 
The eye-ball is large, and the sight apparently tolerably 
good, but quite inadequate to explain the facility with which 
the-shark discovers and follows a vessel through the trackless 
ocean ; it is not improbable, therefore, that he owes this fa- 
culty to the organs we have just endeavoured to describe. 
‘he undulation of the water caused by a tolerably large ves- 
sel must be sufficiently strong to impress a sensation on or- 


* The similarity of the peripheral terminations of these nerves with the auditory 
in most animals is forcible and very striking. 


46 Dr. Knox on the Theory of a Sixth Sense in Fishes. 


-gans so exceedingly delicate, and to advertise their possessor 
of the presence of a living or at least a moving body. 

There is still another reason for supposing these organs to 
exercise, though in a peculiar way, the sense of touch. It is 
this: Linné notices several sharks as possessing a sort of cirri 
around the mouth, and particularly under the throat and 
lower jaw ; and the same appearances have been remarked 
by a late observer as occurring in the enormous ray frequent- 
ing the seas of the West Indian Islands ; now, these cirri 
may, perhaps, be mere prolongations of the tubular organs, 
or a substitute for them. 

* Thus it would seem that the nerves of the fifth pair under- 
go considerable modifications in different avimals, according 
to the nature of their peripheral terminations. When ex- 
panded in the papillae of the tongue, certain branches of this 
nerve in most of the mammalia become gustatory; in the 
proboscis of the elephant, of the tapir, and in the prolonged 
snout of the pig, mole, ornithorynchus, and duck, they are 
true organs of touch, less perfect than the human hand 
only by reason of the form of the organ on which the nerves 
terminate. In certain fishes possessing labial cirri, they 
very evidently exercise the same sensation, viz. that of 
touch: dastly, in sharks and rays they are distributed toa 
new organ, holding as it were an intermediate place be- 
tween touch and hearing, but approaching nearest to the 
latter. If we view these nerves in fishes anatomically, 
and compare them with the true auditory, it is evident 
that a close analogy must subsist between their respec- 
tive functions; for in most fishes they are so intimately 
united at their point of communication with the brain, that 
most comparative anatomists have viewed the auditory as a 
branch of the fifth, (which, however, is not strictly trues) 
whilst peripherally they each terminate in, or are expanded 
on a substance exceedingly well adapted to perceive the un- 
dulatory vibrations of the medium in which they live. It is 
reasonable to think, that organs whose functions are such as 
we have supposed these to. be, would necessarily be found 
chiefly in those animals whose habits of life most, required 
their presence ; and it would seem that in the shark they are 
most extensively developed, and, at the same time, most ac- 
tively employed. 


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Dr. Govan on the Himalayah Mountains. 17 


Ant. IV.—On the Natural History and Physical Geogra- 
phy of the Districts of the Himalayah Mountains Biiicen 
the River-Beds of the Jumna and Sutlwj. By Groner 
Govan, M. D.* Communicated by the Author. 


Pie districts in the Himalayah to which the following ob- 
servations apply, are situated chiefly between the aveebeas 
of the Jumna and Sutluj, which form their boundary ; the 
former on the south-east, the latter on the north-west and 
partly on the north; the plains of Hindostan forming the 
south-west frontier. . 

The whole tract is included nearly between the parallels of 
north latitude 30° 25’ and 31° 50’, which is probably about 
the farthest point to the northward which the bed of the 
river Sutluj reaclies. 

_ Its greatest breadth is from longitude 76° 30’ to 78° 40’, 
. the junction of the river Lee, or Speetee, with the Sut- 

uj to the farthest point west which that river reaches before 
‘emerging from the lower hills near Roopoor. 

Viewed from the plains of the upper provinces, this belt of 
mountain district presents the appearance of parallel ranges 
in different numbers at different places, gradually towering 
‘above one another from the low ranges in the immediate vi- 
‘cinity of the plains ; some of which are really nearly parallel 
‘to each other, until the view is terminated by the summits of 
the snowy ridges, shooting up in the back ground, arranged 
in a direction nearly north-west and south-east ; parallel to 
these, the whole of the ranges in front have the appearance 
‘of being disposed, but on examining the grand lines of high 
level, as indicated by the sources ana course of the diverg- 
ing rivers, it will be seen that this appearance is a decep- 
tion, some of the principal mountain-ridges, as well as the 
largest rivers intersecting the country in lines, more nearly at 
right angles to the direction of the snowy ridge; these, how- 
ever, being viewed from the plains in the line of their direc- 
tion, the subordinate lateral ridges which they, in their turn, 


* * This interesting paper was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 
the 6th of June, 1824. 
VOL. 1, No. 1. Jan, 1825. c 


18 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical 


send out at different angles, give an appearance of parallelism 
to the whole. mA ; a a 

The plains of Hindostan, at their northern extremity, 
where they adjoin this part of the hilly tract, have an eleva- 
tion, probably of from about 800 to 1000 feet above the level 
of the sea. Saharanpore is stated as 1015 feet, by Captain 
Herbert, from an observation of the mean elevation of the 
barometer during August, compared with the mean of the 
same month in Calcutta. 

The data upon which the elevations of different points in 
the Himalayah have been calculated, both barometrically and 
trigonometrically, ure now before the public. From 15,000 
to 16,000 feet above the level of the sea have been assigned 
to the crests of the passes in the branch of ‘the chain to the 
southward of the Sutluj bed, (that which I have chiefly visit- 
ed,) and which have been crossed by several different ob- 
servers. From 8000 to 4000 feet more to the inaccessible 
summits on either side. Upwards of 25,749 feet has been 
stated by two eminent mathematicians, Captains Hodgson and 
Herbert, as the elevation, trigonometrically ascertained, of 
one of the Jowahir peaks. 

Lastly, two observers (Messrs. Gerards) of unquestioned 
zeal, industry, and intelligence, in that part of the chain to 
the northward of the Sutluj, have actually reached, with ba- 
rometers in an efficient state, an elevation where the mercury 
sunk to 15° 180, 15° 220 at mid-day, and 14° 675. T. 21°. 
Thermometer standing at 23° and 24°. If the Sutluj bed, 
not far from its reputed source in the lake Rawun Rhudd, 
is nearly 15,000 feet, for which we have Captain Webbe’s 
calculation, the high level connecting this part of the Hima- 
layah with the plains of Tartary, and separating the waters 
of the Indus, the Ganges, the Sutluj, and the Burumpooter, 
situated on such a base, may yet lead to loftier summits in 
the interior. 

Perhaps it is yet necessary that some plan should be sug- 
gested by which all the accuracy of which they are suscepti- 
ble may be given to barometrical approximations under such 
circumstances. 

Calculations have usual y been founded either upon com- 
parison with the medium height of the barometer in Calcut- 
ta, or at the level of the sea (perhaps 1200. miles— off) 


Géography of the Himalayah Mountains. 19 


during the month in which the observation on the mountain 
was made. 

Even where cotemporaneous observations are obtained, 
- have we ascertained that the alterations. of atmospherical 
pressure in any accessible part of the Himalayah and Calcutta 
are cotemporaneous ? 
~ During the cold weather months in India, when the atmos. 
phere all over the country is in a state of comparative tran- 
quillity, and the barometer is said hardly to vary above 5th 
of an inch at Calcutta, and that only at the usual Siariial pe- 
riods of variation, perhaps a calculation respecting the eleva~ 
tion of any point in the northern part of the plain, or any 
accessible point in the mountain belt, without any cotempo- 
raneous observation, would give a more correct approxima-. 
tion than at another time of the year with one. 

. Unfortunately, the greater elevations, are inaccessible at 
in time of the year, which, otherwise, might perhaps be 
considered as the best for obtaining correct results. 

It were vain to attempt eee oe the enthusiasm and de- 
light experienced by the admirers of nature on first entering 
these districts with the invading army in the end of 1814, 

Inhabitants of the north, fae exiled from the place of 
their birth, and contending with the fiery atmosphere of the 
tropical regions, ean alone conceive the pleasure which many. 
derived from the approach to a northern climate, and the 
gradual appearance of the features of a northern landscape, , 
which the pines, more than any othcr vegetable, contributed 
to give to the wooded heights, while the streams were more 
animated and cheerful, from their clearness, rapidity, and, 
pebbled beds, so different from the sluggish and muddy wa- 
ters of the plains, their unvaried surface and monotonous pro- 
ductions, , 

‘To the more philosophical admirers of nature, the prospect 
of an ascent from the alluvial depositions going on under the 
eye in the river bed of the Ganges, through an unexplored 
country, to the primeval summits, forming the southern 
crest of the high table-land of ‘Tartary, through all the gra~ 
dations between a tropical and a polar, flora, Daiced obiaae 
of still higher i interest, 


20 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical 


The snow-clad mountain barrier, long seen and admired 
from the plains of Hindostan, at distances even of 150 miles, 
skirting the whole of the north-east frontier for 500 or 600 
miles, of which the sublime and imposing aspect had conse- 
crated it among the Hindoos as.a favourite residence of their 
gods, is now accessible at many different points; and a long, 
laborious, and patient investigation, requiring time and the 
union of numbers, will be requisite, before the various objects 
interesting to science which it contains can be properly inves- 
tigated, or the amount which it is capable of furnishing, to 
increase our knowledge of geology, mineralogy, botany, and 
meteorology, completely ascertained. The assistance, also, and 
suggestions, of the learned in Europe, must be highly neces- 
sary to those who, in a climate unfavourable to the European 
constitution, and secluded both from the means of informa-’ 
tion furnished by society and books, are, with no trifling per- 
sonal exertion, directing their inquiries to these subjects. 

Those whose taste leads them more directly to the practi- 
cal application of all acquired knowledge, to improvement in 
the moral and physical condition of the human race, its no- 
blest purpose, will here find ample fields for their benevolent 
exertions and enlightened suggestions, in the low and debased 
condition of the human inhabitants, in many parts of this 
interesting region, over whose destinies the British govern-' 
ment has been called to presides Divided among themselves, 
and the rule over the numerous smaller states having long 
been a constant object of contention among the larger ; or, at 
a later period, over-run by the Ghoorkali power, and many 
of them treated with a barbavity proportioned to the gallant-° 
ry with which they resisted its aggression, under the govern-' 
ment of warlike chiefs, whose principal object, during their 
short rule, was the realizing to the utmost all the revenue’ 
which the severest measures could exact, little opportunity of 
improvement has been afforded them. 

In many parts of the country may be seen ruined villages, 
buildings, and temples, as well as numerous artificial flats 
for cultivation, now unoccupied, works both of much time, 
labour and expense, evidencing some former period of pros- 
perity, population, and Icisure, such as no longer exists.’ 


Geography of the Himalayak Mountains. 21 


Wars and: misgovernment, attended by famine and pestilence, 
are the causes usually assigned for this by the people them- 
selves. During even the common occurrence of a scanty crop, 
the difficulty with which the petty states in the interior could 
supply themselves from more fertile countries was very great ; 
the bulky commodities which they had to give in exchange hav- 
ing to be transported by themselves, from the want of roads 
and beasts of burden, and across the territories of neighbour- 
ing chiefs, subjected to innumerable and arbitrary exactions 
in their transit. So that any temporary pressure of the po- 
pulation against the available supply of food, has here been 
invariably productive of crime and misery, unexampled in 
many other parts of the globe, equally or more sterile in re- 
spect of resources, but better regulated and more elevated in 
the scale of moral and intellectual existence. It may be suf- 
ficient only to mention the facts which have obtruded 
themselves upon the observations of all British officers em- 
ployed in these districts, without dwelling upon them, that 
bloodshed seems to have been a common occurrence in private 
quarrel between members of the different states; as also the 
sale of females among each other, and the exposure of child- 
ren, particularly the females, not as practised among Raj- 
poots in different parts of India from family pride, lest, not 
finding suitable matches, they might degrade themselves by 
intermarrying with inferiors, but chiefly from the mothers 
being unable to spare time from their other duties to rear in- 
fants, likely ultimately only to add to a population increased 
already beyond its steadily available means of subsistence. 
Hence also polyandry, common almost throughout the coun- 
try, particularly the interior and poorer parts of it, which 
must not only be considered as an evidence of some great de- 
rangement in the constitution of society, but can hardly be 
supposed to have any other than a most injurious effect upon 
the moral character of the people. 

It has been doubted what became of the superfluous fe- 
males in countries similar to these districts, and 'Thibet, where 
polyandry prevails. The practice of exposing or destroying, 
particularly the female children, and the marts established in 
the vicinity, in former days, (when such traffic was permitted, ) 


22 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and eral 


for the sale of slaves, form probably sufficient answers to this 
r question. 

From many of the causes to which these evils owed sliote 
origin the country is now happily freed. Conquered by the 
-British from its Goorkali invaders, in a contest which couldnot 
with honour beavoided, it has been restored to its former chiefs. 
Property has been secured, nor will the former temporary 
expedients of a petty and short-sighted authority, in collect- 

ing the revenues, which are sbviously:i injurious to the future 
prosperity of a state, be permitted under their presiding eye. 
That eye, however, cannot safely be withdrawn, It seems 
very doubtful whether, during the exile into which many of 
the restored feudal chiefs were driven by the Goorkali, and 
in the state of indigence and dependence to which they and 
their families were reduced, that liberality and those high 
qualities by which arbitrary power is rendered tolerable or 
even useful to a community in certain states of society, have 
been much cultivated in their characters. The very security, 
too, of the restored chiefs, under the British government, de- 
prives the subjects, in some degree, of one of the most power- 
ful means they formerly possessed of insuring a mild and 
paternai exercise of the feudal authority.» 

An attempt on the part of any-of the paramount authorities 
to levy a larger sum for the protection afforded to a smaller 
state, than the protected found it for their interest to pay, 
was resented by a defection, not easily prevented in a country 
possessed of such strong natural defences to the banner of a 


rival state. The subjects of a petty chief found shelter and: 


protection, under similar circumstances, in the territory of a 
neighbour more able or more willing to be generous and con- 
ciliating in his dealings with those under his protection. 

‘ The power of emigration still remains as a remedy, but in 
no part of the world is this willingly exercised. And here it 
is still less readily resorted to, from the bad effects of the’ cli- 
mate, eitlier of the plains or of the lower hills, upon the con- 
stitutions of the inhabitants of the more elevated regions; the 
more durable and expensive structure of the houses, ren- 
ders them valuable property, and less willingly abandoned 


by their possessors, than the almost moveable huts of the: 


plains of Hindostan, formed of mud, straw, and bamboos, 


Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 23 


even if we allow nothing for that attacliment which, even 
among the mountaineers of these degraded regions, subsists 
for the imposing scenes which have associated themselves with 
their earliest impressions. 

While the attention of a liberal and enlightened government 
is directed to the removal of the obstacles to prosperity and 
happiness, which in these states have hitherto existed, at will 
remain for those occupied in scientific pursuits, after acquir- 
ing accurate information respecting the natural productions 

-and resources of the country—its varied climate, soil, agri- 

culture, and capacities, to suggest whatsoever may appear to 
them likely to promote internal improvement, among peo- 
ple so situated, as indicated by the practices of more enlight- 
ened states, inhabiting a country similar in physical circum- 
stances;—to make known to them many of their own vegetable 
productions, applicable to use in medicine, and in the arts 
with which they themselves may be yet unacquainted ; and 
to effect an exchange of vegetable productions, mutually be- 
neficial to both, between them and this country, which I 
am persuaded will be ultimately done, as several successful 
experiments have already been made. 
The evidence given, by the presence of allied genera and 
species in our districts of the Himalayah, that we may ulti- 
mately be able also to raise those which, in other parts of the 
world, are usually found associated with them, and which 
may contribute in the most essential manner to the internal 
improvement of the country, is one of the most important 
subjects to which the attention of a naturalist in the Hima- 
layah can be directed. 

In this comparatively small section of a country possessing 
such extent of mountain surface, it is evident, that to acquire 
a.correct notion of its geological structure, a Jong, patient, 
and laborious examination would be necessary, into the ex- 
tent, elevation, superposition, and internal characters, evi- 
dencing identity in the rocky masses, of which it is composed. 
in approaching the snowy ranges, and the ridges proceeding 
from them at many places, and by different routes. 

In a country where the climate, the soil, and its produc- 
tions, as well as the aspect or physiognomy of its different 
belts of elevation, are constantly varying as we ascend ; where 


2 


94 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physicul 


our progress is marked by the successive appearance of plants, 
often the inhabitants of Jatitudes widely distant from each 
other; where we gradually get habituated to form a tolerable 
rude estimate of our elevation, by the associated genera we 
observe in their natural situations around us, it is obvious 
that the field for botanical research must be equally ex- 
tensive. In these districts are found many species belonging 
to those genera of plants, with which in Europe we are fami- 
liar, approaching in some cases so near to the European spe- 
cies, as only to be discriminated from them by the practised 
botanist. Many fine species of our most noble fruit and forest 
trees, flowering shrubs, plants used in medicine and in the 
arts, and many congeners at least, if not the individual spe- 
cies, which form the chief vegetable riches of other regions 
where they flourish, here likewise make their appearance. 
The laws observed in their geographical distribution, their 
natural associations, the peculiarities of soil, climate, and ele- 
vation, which seem best suited to give to each its highest de- 
velopment and most perfect form—the interesting analogies 
which press themselves upon our observation between the 
European, the American, and Asiatic alpine countries in their 
botanical geography, all form so many interesting objects of 
attention, that we turn with regret to the necessary labour of 
specific discrimination, here rendered particularly an ungrate- 
ful task, from the want of Herbaria, and works of reference. 
In the short account which I am at present able to give, of 
a few of the most striking facts pervading so interesting a 
field for observation, will only be traced the outline of a plan 
which I had laid down for myself, to which time, and more 
favourable circumstances only could have enabled me to do 
any justice; as during the two or three journeys which 
the liberality of government enabled me to make through the 
Himalayah, I was labouring under irregular attacks of in- 
termittent, which, at last, necessitated my undertaking a 
voyage to the Cape of Good Hope. ‘his place the vessel, 
from stress of weather, being unable to make, I returned to 
this country, leaving many of my materials in India. I am 
anxious, during my residence in Britain, to add as mueh as 
possible to the accuracy of my mineralogical knowledge, and 
to derive, from my intercourse with the members of a society, 


Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 25 


to communicate with whom I consider so high a privilege, as 
many suggestions as possible, for the direction of my future 
inquiries, in case I may ever again return.to the districts in 
question ; the period of my first acquaintance with which will 
ever form a marked era in my life, from the interest then ex- 
cited in scenes so imposing and remarkable. 

Before proceeding to detail a few of the phenomena which 
present themselves on entering the hilly tract at the foot of 
the Himalayah, it may be proper to premise a few topogra- 
phical remarks on the country forming the northern extremi- 
ty of the plains of Upper Hindostan, between the river beds 
of the Sutluj and Jumna. These leave the hills at a distance 
from each other of about eighty British miles, the latter a 
clear stream in a broad comparatively shallow bed, filled with 
rolled stones, rapid at its first exit, particularly during the 
rains, but soon showing, by its division into different channels 
and windings, the flatness of the level at which it has arrived: 
The extensive Sal forest and grass jungle, composed of gigantic 
species of saccharum, (among which elephants might remain 
concealed, during the rainy months) to be found at this place 
and its vicinity, made Padshahmuhul a favourite spot, to 
which the Delhi emperors were wont to resort, in order to en- 
joy the diversion of hunting. When the smaller streams are 
dried up by the heats of April and May, it abounds with 
wild elephants, tigers, leopards, and the hog and spotted deer. 
Its closeness from surrounding heights, however, and the un- 
healthy vapours and heavy night dews which fall during the 
rainy months, make it a most unhealthy residence at that 
time, when it is only visited by the woodcutters, preparers of 
actechu, or by travellers, who pass through without remaining 
a night if possible. 

The remains of a royal palace are still to be seen here, up- 
on which the jungle has encroached on all sides, so that tigers 
have been roused within a few yards of its mouldering walls. 
There, in the days of Bernier’s visit to Delhi, whose descrip- 
tions it is so interesting to contrast with the present state of 
that capital, the splendid courts of the Mogul Emperors en- 
camped around their prince. 

In no Situation do the reflections of the eastern poet upon 
the instability of human greatness impress themselves more 
strongly on the imagination. 


26 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical 


Spiders have woven their webs . 

In the halls of the Cesars. ES 
The owl stands sentinel 

Upon the watch-towers of Afrasiab. 

A tradition prevails among the people that many of the 
ladies of the court became affected with the goitre from re- 
siding bere, a malady sufficiently common in different parts 
of the Himalayah, but which I have not often seen here, al- 
though sallow unhealthy complexions and enlarged spleen, 
the usual sequels of intermittents, are common enough. 
~ A great contrast exists between the districts of the Dooab, 
of the Jumna, and Ganges, where they adjoin to the hilly 
belt, and those farther to the south-west, lying towards the 
river district of the Indus. * 

The Saharunpoor district, in the upper part of the Dooab, 
(country between two rivers,) was reckoned one of the most 
fertile and productive belonging to the Mogul empire. The 
depth of rich soil,—the proximity of the water to the surface, 
—the numerous streams by which it is intersected from the 
hills, perhaps the effects resulting from the striking of the 
prevailing westerly or south-west winds upon the line of the 
hills, all conspire to give it its peculiar characters, as well as 
the extent of Kadir lands, or lands flooded during the rains, 
almost all the rivers having an extent proportioned to their 
size of this Kadir land in their vicinity, and a high bank, 
marking the extent of their annual inundations, often at a 
very great distance from the diminished stream of the cold 
and dry seasons. 

Vast extents of lofty grass jungle, abounding in wild ani- 
mals, often occupy these occasionally flooded tracts. 

_ The nights in the Kadir land-are often excessively cold to 
the feelings, and a much heavier dew is deposited than in the 
higher lands. The endemic disease of the country is bilious 
remittent, terminating in obstinate ague, if not fatal at first. 
The countries on the right bank of the Jumna, on the con- 
trary, and proceeding towards the Indus, seem more favour- 
able to animal and less so to luxuriant vegetable life. 

Water is found at great depths ; from 50 it is said to 250 
feet, or even 300, I have heard, and is often brackish. Most 


of the streams only flow during the rains, and are frequently 
lost in the sands. 


Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 27 


An inundation of drifted sand in some places is apt to cover 
any tract left for a time uncultivated, and the immense quan- 
tities of saline matter contained in most of the wells, appear 
ike hoar frost upon the grounds where irrigation has been 
going on. 

Proceeding farther to the S. W. we have the Skekozat 
country, and the sandy desert of Bicanere, crossed by the 
Cabul embassy, generally almost a flat, with the exception of 
a few low rocky hills, the Indus Bee said to leave its last 
hilly boundaries of rock salt at ree 

The salt lake of Samhur is also a feature in the topography 
of the country, which is twenty miles in length and one mile 
and. a half in breadth ; the evaporation of this, by the heats 
of summer, leaves a solid mass of salt a tolerably pure muri- 
ate of soda; the immense quantities broken up and carried 
away being annually supplied by fresh depositions, after the 
rains of the following year. 

. Farther to the south we have the maritime district of 
Catch, in which is that tract of country called the Runn, a 
dead flat, hardly elevated above the level of the sea, said to 
have a square surface of nearly 8000 miles, resembling an 
arm of the sea, from which the water had seceded, covered 
with saline incrustations and marine exuvie frequently, of 
which during earthquakes a great portion has been occa- 
sionally covered with water, as was- said to have occurred in 
1819. 

_ The low elevation of this whole tract of country above the 
level of the sea, (the few observations I have of the barome- 
ter, though I do not consider them as perfectly satisfactory, 
at Rewarrie, giving its height at from 800 to 900 feet,) its 
deep alluvial soil, its generally sandy and saline character, 
would give considerable interest to any attempts that might 
be made to ascertain the strata of which it is composed, par- 
ticularly the nature of the organic remains contained in the 
strata of white friable limestone used for building, and said 
to be found in many parts of the sandy desert. 

That the sea here extended considerably farther to the 
northward may be considered perhaps as certain; but in the 
absence of precise and conclusive observations of the nature 
above alluded to, we can hardly be permitted to speculate re- 
specting the extent to which it may have reached. If the 


68 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical 


clevations assigned to the northern parts of the plain of Hin- 
dostan be correct, a rise of 800 or 1000 feet in the ocean’s le- 
vel would insulate nearly the Deccan and Peninsula, bring- 
ing the waves to the foot of the mountain barrier of the Him- 
cd i 

In cutting a new well 50 feet deep in the cantonment at 
Rewarric, where hardly any water can be found, except in 
one or two places free from salt, the following appearances 
occurred : 

8 Feet.—Of vegetable mould. 

% Feet.—The alluvial deposit known by the name of Kun- 
kur all over India, consists of small oblong indurated pieces 
of limestone, of a dark colour, cemented by a calcareous clay 
nearly white, both almost entirely soluble in acids. By the ac- 
tion of air and of rain, some part of this clayey cement is 
washed away, leaving a hard honey-combed surface not easi- 
ly separated. 

26 Feet.—A calcareous clayey mixture of light yellowish 
red, effervescing strongly with acids; the upper part of the 
bed contains numerous masses of compact limestone of a flat- 
tened cylindrical shape, growing larger and less numerous to- 
wards the lower part of the bed, where they are sometimes 
eight inches or a foot long, three or four inches in diameter. 
They seem in general to lie horizontally, the’ surface honey- 
combed and covered with the whitish clay, but the ends naked, 
presenting the internal surface of dark compact limestone as in 
a fresh fracture ; as these become larger, the quantity of cal- 
careous matter in the bed seems to diminish as if they were 
increasing by accretion of calcareous particles at the ends. 
They are entirely soluble nearly in acids. 

9 Feet.—Becoming more clayey and moist, only slight ef- 


* The analogy in physical characters between the plain of lower Egypt and the 
districts here described, in alluvial calcareous stratification, sandy plains, and salt 
lakes, (in the one case the salt is soda, and in the other the muriate,) seems very 
strong. If the natron of the lakes of Egypt was originally deposited in the state 
of muriate, whence arises the decomposition in the one case and not in the other ? 

The occurrence of the Asclepias gigantea and Rhamnus lotus with much fre- 
quency in the African plains is mentioned by Mr. Park. I know not if the 
Hindostanee Asclepias Syriaca and Zyziphus jujuba, every where almost meeting 
the eye in the Gangetic plain, have been compared with them. If specifically 
distinct, they are vegetable forms at least almost the same, and the berries of the - 
Rhamous seem to be formed into bread in Africa as well as in India. 


Geography of the H imalayah Mountains. 29 


fervescence in distant points, water collects at about 50 feet, 
in a mixture of clay and sand of a light yellowish grey. No 
perceptible effervescence. 

The slope of the Rewarrie plain is northward, towards 
which during the rains considerable streams flow, and are 
lost, it is said, in the sands. 

The ranges of low rocky hills running from N. E. to 8. W. 
generally, which here make their appearance, are said to 
commence a little to the northward of Honsi, and may be 
considered as the first outskirts of the group of the hills of 
the Deccan and ‘peninsula. 

They are here commonly composed of clay slate, of a 
bluish and greyish black, too decomposable, and of a struc- 
ture too little crystalline to admit of its being ranked proba- 
bly among the primary or primitive classes; it seems to rest 
upon a species of mica slate, however, and is pervaded in, 
many places by veins, and contains very considerable beds of 
quartz rock, and pure white quartz. 

In the vicinity of many of the veins the same alteration in 
the structure of the slate, waving and contortion of the la- 
mine, which have been noticed in similar rocks elsewhere, 
is very frequent. The highest summit in this vicinity which 
I have estimated, having then no other means of judging of 
it, at from 900 to 1000 feet above the plain, is composed of a 
very hard compact rock of a bluish-black colour, which ap- 
peared to me to agree in its characters with that to which the 
name of Lydian stone is given. On its slope flesh-coloured 
quartz rock, sometimes slaty in its structure, and in ver- 
tical layers, occurs sometimes spotted with large whitish 
maculze, in it is contained a very rich ore of iron, and to- 
wards the lower parts of the bed where it reposes on the clay 
slate, are cavities containing sometimes pretty large and per- 
fect rock crystals incrusting them. These hills are gene- 
rally naked and barren of trees, except stunted mimose, 
Barleria prionitis and Justicia, the Caparis heteroclita may 
also be found among them, a scandent species : . 


The Salvadora persica. 
Mimosz seerissa. 

Farnesiaca, 

eee Ih ATADIGA 


30 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Phajsical 


The Mimosz Catechu. 
Aischynomene grandiflora. 


Nauclea. Clerodendron Phlomoides. 
Meliz. Mimusops. 
Butea frondosa. Cassia fistula. 


' The district, however, possesses few natural trees of great 
luxuriance, these being chiefly reared round the well-endow= 
ed residences of Hindoo mendicants, or the tombs of Maho- 
medar saints. ; 

The most common bushes are the Capari is aphylla and a 
Gardenia, I think, Dumetorum; several species of Zyzyphis, 
and an Indigofera. 'The only species of Spartium I ever 
found in India was here. The voluble and delightfully 


fragrant Asclepias, or Pergularia odoratissima, spreads its 


rich and heavy perfume all around in the rainy months. 

In no part of India are the hot winds more violent than 
here, they sometimes continue blowing during most part of 
the night—from: the west, or a little to re north or south of 
that point, during April and May and part of June—every 
thing is in a state so parched and dry at this season, that 
conflagrations, where they occur among the thatched cot- 
tages of the natives, spread most extensively. The high 


state of positive electricity in which the bodies of all animals’ 


are at this season, cannot fail to produce, one would imagine, 
remarkable effects upon the state of their health. This place 
seems also subject, in a remarkable degree, to violent north- 
westers, darkening the air to a lurid red at noonday, and 
raising whirlwinds of sand from the deserts to the west- 
ward. 

The rapidity with which verdure spreads itself over this 


dry, parched, and sandy region, as soon as the rains begin to: 


fall, is astonishing. 
: The internal structure of the hills of the outward barrier of 
the Himalayah, is very distinctly seen, particularly in some of 


the passes into the Doon or valley of Deyrah. The Reet or. 


Timley pass, (through which the heavy guns were taken dur- 
ing the campaign,) is one of the most remarkable in this Te- 
spect. 'The pass, like most of the others, which however are 
generally on a smaller scale, is formed by the broad and 
winding bed of a water course, presenting, according- to the 


Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 3l 


season of the year at which it is viewed, a disturhed torrent 
filling great part of the breadth of its bed, or a clear and 
small stream shrunk up to occupy only the central portion of 
the vast flat surface of larger and smaller, rolled and water- 
worn stones, which are strewed profusely around. The sum- 
mits, fram 500 to 900 feet in elevation, are generally of the 
clayey, calcareous, alluvial deposition, well known all over 
India, which by the action of rain and air, and by the heat 
of the sun, hardens into cliffs, often presenting in miniature, 
the aspect and appearances assumed by more perfectly form- 
ed rock-formations. During the rainy months, when every 
tree in the surrounding forests is in a state of green luxu- 
riance, more lovely scenes cannot be conceived than those 
formed by the amphitheatres, of which new varieties open to 
us as we advance, and our view is closed in by those behind, 
in winding up these gravelly passes, with lofty wooded emin- 
elices, precipitous steeps, and shady. ravines opening on 
either side. The gigantic scandent bauhinia, the stem of 
which resembles a snake of the largest size, twines round the 
trunks of the trees, often hanging its festoons over us from their 
loftiest branches, bearing its large woody siliquae or flowers 
which mingle their fragrance with that of the mimosae. 
Numerous species of Arwm Orchidaceae, Curcuma and Amom- 
wm, the roots of which have remained. inactive and unob- 
served during the cold and dry seasons, now show their flow- 
ers and foliage tempting the unwary admirer of nature, by 
the smiling aspect of all around, to linger in these unhealthy 
spots, where scarcely any native of the country can remain 
for a week or two, particularily passing the night, without an 
attack of remittent fever. As the first tendency to these at- 
tacks displays itself in disorders of the digestive functions, it 
has produced a belief among the people, otherwise at a loss to 
account for the diseases to which they are here subject, that 
the water by its unwholesome qualities, acts a much more im- 
portant part in their production, than is probably the case. 
The stratification of the interior of these eminences, where 
it is often displayed in mural precipices, is almost always the 
same, consisting of layers of different thickness, dipping a lit- 
tle to the northward or southward of east, most commonly the 
former, and at angles of from thirty to forty degrees. ‘These 
are generally of a gravelly deposit, studded with the same 


82 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical 


water-worn rounded stones, which strew the river bed alter= 
nating with the strata of an imperfectly formed sandstone, so 
friable as to crumble under the pressure of the fingers. The 
steep natural faces of the cliffs commonly point towards the 
plains; while towards the Doon, the ground slopes with a 
gentle declivity and deep soil, covered with Sal forest. From 
this quarter no cliffs almost can be seen ; the general level of 
the Doon too, is considerably elevated above that of the plains 
in front of the hilly barrier; and here we may observe is the 
first indication of a law which seems to prevail very generally 
over all the hilly country under consideration, without except- 
ing perhaps the snowy range itself, and the valley of the Sut- 
luj on its north-east face, viz. the dip of the stratification in a 
north-easterly direction, giving the best surface and moisture 
for the nourishment of trees, which, most frequently, gene- 
rally speaking, are numerous and large on that face, or the 
north-west sometimes. Some other speculations can hardly 
fail to be suggested by the circumstances under. which the 
rolled stones occur in the stratification of the pass, lst, From 
the uniform thickness of the same strata, and the distribu- 
tion of its rolled masses, we can hardly fail to conclude that 
they were originally deposited in a horizontal position, and 
that they acquired their elevation towards the plains, or 
their dip towards the line of the hills, by some subsequent 
change.* 2dly, The rolled stones in the river’s bed are many 
of them the debris of those beds a second time disintegrated. 
3d, The rolled masses themselves are fragments of rocks 
only found in the mountains of the interior. In their original 
situation some of them appear to be the compact almost crys- 
talline limestone of an interior range, which is almost entirely 
soluble in acids, and is now collected from among the other 
debris, by those in the habit of distinguishing the stone, in 
order to furnish the purest lime for building. Among these 
summits. the Pinus longifolia of Dr. Roxburgh, the sp. of 
lowest level, first makes its appearance, though the trees are 
greatly diminished in number since the first entrance of Eu- 


- * Although styled alluvial, therefore, thesc hills may be considered as belong- 
ing to the oldest of the depositions into which the class has of late been divided by 
Mr. Buckland. 


Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 33 


ropeans into the hills. The most common genera of trees 
are the Mimose sirissa, Catechu, and several other species. 


Several species of _ Bignonia Indica 
Gardenia suaveolens 

_ Pterocarpus suberosa ? 
Eugenia Semicarpus anacardium 
Erythrina Echites antidysenterica 
Bombax Casearea tomentosa 
Cedrela Murraya exotica 
Bauhinia « Prunus puddum 
Pyrus, 1 sp. 1, 


Of shrubs the Grislea tomentosa. 

Different species of Zyzyphus and Carissa. 

The Combretum ovalifolium is to be found in the plains 
outside of the pass. 

Sal forest (Shorea robusta ) clothes both sides of the range, 
but in the pass there are few trees of that valuable species of 
timber tree to be seen. The valuable Sissoo (Dalbergia sis- 
soo) affects moist situations in the Doon, where the lofty 
grass jungle again covers great part of the face of the coun- 
try. The Siphonanthus, or Ovieda verticillata, is of frequent 
occurrence about Senspoor, forming another vegetable fea~* 
ture of the grass jungle in the Doon. 

From Senspoor we proceed to cross the river Jumna, into 
the smaller valley or Doon, called Kerda, from the name of a 
small village in it, forming a route very frequently adopted. 
in entering the hills. Where the river cuts the range above 
Padshahmuhul, the jungle is too thick to admit of a passage 
along its banks, although difficult footpaths may be found, 
at the hazard of being devoured by wild animals. 

This valley has been almost entirely abandoned to jungle, 
being chiefly visited by woodcutters and preparers of the Cut 
or Catechu, from the Mimosa furnishing it. Tradition how- 
ever represents it as having been less thinly peopled in former 
days. Its superior unhealthiness to the valley of Deyrah 
probably arises from its narrowness, and being more com- 
pletely shut in by mountains and hills in the direction of the 
prevailing winds. 

Among the wooded heights in the ascent from this valley 
to the town of Nahn, besides most of the trees noticed before, 

VOL. II. No. I, JAN. 1825. D 


34 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical 


we find the Neriwm odorum occupying most of the stony 
water courses, several species of Dyospyros, the formed wood 
of one of which is said to be ebony. The Rottlera tinctoria, 
and a tree seemingly a species of Conocarpus, known by the 
name of T'sal, seem to be peculiar to this belt of elevation. 
The - Gmelina arborea 

Garuga pinnata 

Limonia crenulata 

Solanum pubescens 
are common trees and shrubs. 

The most common scandent plants are the 

Hastyngia coccinea 

Echites dichotoma 

Geertnera racemosa 

Menispermum verrucosum 

Smilax ovalifolia. 

Nahn is reckoned upwards of 3000 feet above the level of 
the sea; 3207 according to Captain Hodgson, commanding a 
fine view of the plains of Hindostan. A valuable belt of 
bamboos occupies a space extending to about 1000 feet below 
the level of the town, a plant of which we here take leave, un- 
‘til we again meet a species occupying a very high elevation 
indeed, on the slope of some of the mica slate mountains. The 
Pinus longifolia assumes its greatest perfection on the sum- 
mit of this range. The town is situated on the summit 
of a range of compact sandstone hills, of which the rock, 
though differing in its hardness, and the aggregation of its 
particles, yet resembles in its dip and direction, that of the 
alluvial strata formerly mentioned. The face of the hill, and 
the space between it and the plains, is filled up by a forma- 
tion perfectly similar in many respects to that of Timley, a 
continuation indeed of the same. Where the sandstone in- 
vesting the sides of this is laid bare, in the beds of streams 
about 1000 or 800 feet below the town, considerable quanti- 
ties of carbonaceous matter are to be found in it, some of it 
perfect coal, but in small inet and much pervaded by 
silicious matter. 

Here I first noticed the custom which has been frequently 
observed to prevail in these districts, of laying the children 
to sleep, apparently much to their satisfaction, at the com- 


Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 35 


mencing heats, and until the rainy season begins, with their 
heads under little rills of the coldest water, directed upon 
them for some hours during the hottest part of the day. . 
Here it was practised in the case of a life no less precious 
than that of the young Rajah of Sirmoor, a boy about 10 
or 12 years of age,—a sufficient evidence of the estimation 
in which the practice is held. It is most commonly, how- 
ever, followed in the case of infants at the breast. The tem- 
perature of the water I have observed to be from 46° to 56° 
and 65°, and have only to add, that it seemed to me most 
common in those districts which, having a good deal of cold 
weather, are nevertheless subject to very considerable sum- 
mer heats. It was a great preservative, the people affirmed, 
against bilious fever, and affections of the spleen, during the 
subsequent rainy months. Does it act in this way—(for 
of the fact of its utility I have no doubt) from the sym- 
pathy subsisting between the brain and the hepatic system ? 
and if so, may we not expect to derive some advantage from 
its adoption in the medical practice of the plains, particular- 
ly among European children who suffer so much from these 
diseases? 'The want of the facilities enjoyed in the hills for 
its application, seems to be the chief objection. Might it 
ot even be sometimes practised as a preventive in the case 
of adults? The violent attacks of congestive fever with 
hepatic affection which result to newly arrived Europeans, 
from exposure of the head to the direct rays of the sun, 
seem to complete the evidence respecting the mode of its 
operation, by pointing out the consequences of a converse 
mode of treatment.* Hitherto the agriculture and native ve- 
getable productions have differed but little from those of the 
northern part of the plains of Hindostan—when we descend 
the north-east face cf the Nahn range, to ascend the Jeituk 


* Hence perhaps one of the advantages in resisting the daily influence of cli- 
mate tending to the production of chronic disease, enjoyed by the native over the 
European inhabitant of Hindostan. The turbaned and shaven head of the latter 
admitting of the ready and frequent access of cold water, forms a part of Eastern cos- 
tume too widely extended, and immemorially used, among the most civilized inha- 
bitants of the tropics, (whose fashions are neither adopted, nor pass away arbitra- 
rily, as ours do,) to have been originally adopted without reason, or perhaps now 
neglected with impunity by us, when residing permanently among them. 


36 Dr. Govan on the Natural History and Physical 


or Dhartee range, the scene begins to change more remark- 
ably. We take leave of the Croton, used for fences at Nahn, 
and of the Euphorbia, of arboreous girth, of which nume- 
rous plants, resembling Candelabra, occupy the interstices of 
the Nahn sandstone. The cultivation of ginger, turmeric, and 
arum, occupy richly manured artificial flats, where copious 
irrigation can be most easily applied at the foot of the 
Dhartee. 

This range contains elevations of from 4000 to 5600 feet 
above the level of the sea, and consists principally of a rock 
nearly allied in character to the Nahn sandstone, but consi- 
derably more compact and indurated ; it is of a light bluish 
grey, sometimes with macule of a dark purple,—the hills, 
however, have altogether a different outline, and _stratifica- 
tion is often hardly perceptible. Towards the foot of the 
range, and at some parts of the summit, either the same 
mineral acquires a slaty structure, or rests upon a variety of 
clay slate—the strata of which are frequently nearly ver- 
tical, but generally with an inclination in the usual di- 
rection. 

The summits are occasionally capped with sandstone beds 
of small extent, and also. I believe, with limestone of an 
earthy fracture, though the latter I have not seen. Large 
accumulations of a highly indurated reddish clay occupy ma- 
ny places on the north-east face of the range. The mine- 
ral, I rather think, is grey wacke, and grey wacke slate, or 
perhaps resting upon clay slate. 

The prevailing vegetable productions are now almost en- 
tirely changed,—the range is generally little wooded,—the 
patches of Pinus longifolia—(native name, Cheer)—and Ban, 
the Quercus of lowest elevation, occupy chiefly the north- 
east and north-west faces. 


The Andromeda ovalifolta—(Dr. Wallich.) 
Simplocos racemosa, 
Morus serrata, 
Xanthoxylon alatum, 


are common, as well as several arboreous Urticwa, the Seha- 
roo, and Beeool, the latter Grewia, a trifoliated species of Rhus, 
the species of lowest level here first makes its appearance. 


Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 37 


The Rhododendron puniceum, and Pinus deodara, or Indian 
larch occur but rarely as yet, except in the highest summits. 
Different species of Galium, the Rubia munjeet, Hypericum 
cernuum, Berberis angustifolia, Crategus integrifolia ; the 
Salvia lanata, Androsace cordifolia, and the first species of 
Delphinium. 'The mango ripens nowhere higher than Nahn, 
although trees of it may be seen a few hundred feet below 
the summit of the range, which have been reared with care. 
One species of Olea is also found here indigenous, a fine 
umbrageous tree, but the fruit is small and of no use. At 
this level, or perhaps a little higher, I hope the European, 
a much more valuable species, may ultimately be intro- 
duced. 

Descending the north-east face of the Jeituk or Darthce 
range into the bed of the river Julall, we pass over a series 
of undulating heights, which give to the range viewed from 
this face a much more rounded and less steep aspect than 
viewed from the plains it bears. These are often formed by 
the red indurated clay before mentioned, and in banks of this 
the bed of the Julall is often deeply cut. Crossing this river 
we ascend the Sein rauge, the massive contour and more 
equable elevation of which marks it as formed of a mineral 
we have not yet had occasion to notice; the whitish appear~ 
ance of the cliffs, which occasionally display themselves only 
near the very summits, in the rains beautifully contrasted 
with the green of a fine pasturage, for which this range seems 
more favourable than the former, leads even a superficial ob- 
server to expect limestone ; and the similarity between the ex- 
ternal aspect of the range and those I have seen depicted, 
formed of the same material, in many drawings of Grecian 
scenery, immediately occurred to me. 

The vegetable character of this range does not differ very 
remarkably from that of the last mentioned ; the loftiest sum- 
mit in it is perhaps A7vol, stated by Captain Hodgson at 7812 
feet above the level of the sea. It has, however, certain 
plants peculiar to it, and many of those which are rare, or 
only beginning to appear on the former, are here in their 
highest luxuriance. The hot wind of the plains, greatly 
abated in violence from the shelter given by that in front, af- 
fects considerably the temperature of the range during April, 
May, and part of June, when they preyail. 


38 Description of the first Steam-Engine. 


It appears at a distance to be almost destitute of trees, but 
in many of the dells and northerly faces it is well wooded 
with the Pinus deodara and longifolia, besides the species of 
Quercus, called Ban by the natives, formerly mentioned. A 
second evergreen species of oak, bearing the name of Mohroo, 
becomes common. Here, and more remarkably at similar ele- 
vations in the ranges interior to this, many of our fruits com- 
mon in Europe come to considerable perfection in their natural 
state, and by the introduction of European modes of culture 
and engrafting, I feel confident that ultimately great improve- 
ment may be effected in many of these, as the apple, pear, 
apricot, peach, plumb, walnut, raspberry, strawberry, &c. &c. 
Even the fruit of the Prunus puddum, which in warmer belts 
of elevation is useless, becomes here an eatable cherry. Be- 
gonice, potentille, and a great variety of orchideous plants 
here show themselves during the rains, particularly the orchis 
or Habenaria gigantea and pectinata, described by Dr. 
Buchanan in the Flora Exotica I believe. The Roscoca 
purpurea becomes here common; a species of daphne also 
begins to appear, that from the roots of which paper is made ; 
a species of parnassia may also be found ; and confined to ra- 
ther a narrow belt at about this elevation, the small tree fur- 
nishing the fruit called Kaeyphul, mentioned by General 
Hardwicke in his Serinugur tour, but the genus of which, 
from never having seen it in flower, I am unable to fix. 


Ant. V.— Description of the First Steam-Engine. Com- 
municated by the Author. 


Or all those whose names are associated with the history of 
the steam-engine in its first stages, the Marquis of Worces- 
ter, who lived in the reign of Charles II. is by far the most 
renowned. A book was published by the Marquis himself in 
1663, under the title of ** 4 Century of the Names and Scant- 
lings of such Inventions as at present I can call to mind to 
have tried and perfected, (which my former notes being lost, ) 
I have, at the instance of a powerful friend, endeavoured now, 
in the year 1655, to set these down in such a way as may suf- 
Jiciently instruct me to put any of them in practice.” 


Description of the First Steam-Engine. 39 


When considered as a description or index of the disco- 
veries and inventions of one individual, it is certainly one of 
the most extraordinary scientific productions which has yet 
issued from the press in any age or nation. 

The 68th article in this book is that on which rests his 
claim to the honour of having invented the steam-engine. It 
is in these words ; 

‘s An admirable and most forcible way to drive up water 
by fire; not by drawing or sucking it upwards, for that must 
be, as the philosopher calleth it, intra spheram activitatis, 
which is but at such a distance. But this way hath no bounder 
if the vessels be strong enough ; for I have taken a piece of 
a whole cannon, whereof the end was burst, and filling it 
three quarters full of water, stopping and screwing up the 
broken end, as also the touch-hole ; and making a constant 
fire under it, within twenty-four hours it burst, and made a 
great crack; so that having a way to make my vessels, so 
that they are strengthened by the force within them, and the 
one to fill after the other, I have seen the water run like a 
constant fountain stream forty foot high. One vessel of wa- 
ter rarefied by fire, driveth up forty of cold water ; and a man 
that tends the work is but to turn two cocks, that one vessel 
of water being consumed, another begins to force and re-fill 
with cold water, and so successively, the fire being tended and 
kept constant, which the self same person may likewise abun- 
dantly perform in the interim, between the necessity of turn- 
ing the said cocks.” 

Not having met with any design or drawing of a steam-en- 
gine to which the above appears applicable, but in place of 
that, having seen it doubted by some, and denied by others, 
that any engine can be constructed exactly upon these prin- 
ciples, the following description and sketch are submitted to 
the consideration of the readers of the Edinburgh Journal of 
Science. 

In Plate II. Fig. 3. A represents a boiler placed in a com- 
mon air furnace; a6cd, and efgh, two water vessels; ikl 
the steam pipes, and & the steam cock ; x x x a the force pipe; 
RS a cistern, which may be supposed to be placed at the height 
of forty feet above the engine, to receive the water from the 
force pipe; and vv valves placed within the force pipe to’ 


40 Description of the First Steam-Engine. 


prevent the return of the water; mno the cold water pipes, 
and n the cold water cock ; the dotted lines b ze represent 
’ the cold water fountain, which is here supposed to be imme- 
diately behind the engine, and the water in it standing nearly 
upon ‘a level with the top of the cold water vessels. Fig. A. 
is a ground-plan of the fountain, where mo represent the 
cold water pipes, m the water cock, and F the reservoir. 
Fig. 3. represents a section of the two cocks, which are in 
every respect similar; the black circle adc represents the 
key of the cock, and the black shaded part the passage 
through the key ; the dotted circle r s¢w the shell or body cf 
the cock, the two dotted lines ¢ z the pipe that leads from the 
boiler, the two dotted lines sz the pipe that leads to the right 
hand water vessel, the two dotted lines z «the pipe that leads 
to the left hand water vessel, and the curved dotted line w zy 
the top of the boiler. . | . 

From an inspection of Fig. B. it will appear, that by a quar- 
ter turn of the key of the cock k, (Fig. 1.) the steam may 
either be directed into the right or left hand water vessel, 
and, in like manner, by a quarter turn of the key of the cock 
wn, cold water may be permitted to pass into either of the 
vessels. 

Suppose the fire burning, and the boiler sending forth 
steam, and the key of the cock & turned so as to permit the 
steam to enter into the vessel a dc d, then will the steam drive 
out all the air of that vessel up the force pipe a2 aw, and 
occupy its place, steam will then be seen to issue from the 
nosel w of the force pipe. When this is observed, the key of 
the steam cock & must be turned, to permit the steam to pass 
into the vessel efgh, and, at the same time, the key of the 
eold water cock 7 must be also turned, to permit the water from 
the fountain to be forced into the vessel a 0 c d, (by the pres- 
sure of the atmosphere,) as the steam therein condenses with 
the cold water ; and when the vessel adcd is filled with wa- 
ter, and the vessel efgh with steam, the key of the steam 
cock & is to be turned back into its first position, which will 
again permit the steam to pass into the vessel abcd, to act 
upon the surface of the water in that vessel, so as to drive it 
up the force pipe w # x, and, at the same time, the key of the 
cold water cock 2 must also be turned, to permit the cold wa- 


Description of the First Steam-Engine. 41 


ter to condense the steam and fill the vessel e fg h, and which 
will also be forced into this vessel, (by the pressure of the at- 
mosphere,) to occupy the vacuum effected by the condensed 
steam. ‘The cock m is next to be turned so as to permit the 
vessel abcd “ to force and re-fill with cold water,” and, at 
the same time, the steam cock & is to be turned, so as to per- 
mit the steam to act upon the surface of the water in the ves- 
sel efgh, and so on alternately, producing a constant stream 
from the top of the force pipe. The boiler may be supplied 
with water from the cistern RS, by means of a small pipe and 
stop cock. ° 

To produce “ a constant stream forty foot high, one vessel 
of water rarefied by fire, driveth up forty of cold water, (or 
in other words, forty times the quantity in the boiler.) A 
man that tends the work is but to turn two cocks, that one 
vessel of water being consumed, another begins to force and 
re-fill with cold water, (by the pressure of the atmosphere,) 
and so successively, the fire being tended and kept constant, 
which the self same person may likewise abundantly perform 
in the interim between the necessity of turning the said cocks.” 

Although the Marquis of Worcester has only proposed to 
force water by his engine to a great height, yet it appears 
that he knew that water could have been brought up from a 
limited depth by suction, (by the pressure of the atmosphere 
into a vacuum); for the 68th article commences with these 
words: ** An admirable and most forcible way to drive up 
water by fire, not by drawing nor sucking it upwards, for that 
must be as the philosopher calleth it, intra spheram activi- 
tatis, (within its sphere of activity,) which is but at such a dis- 
tance.” 

It is therefore very obvious that the Marquis had a know- 
ledge to what height water could have been raised from the 
effects of a vacuum, and which he had put a small value upon 
in comparison of what he had in view; for he adds, * But 
this way hath no bounder if the vessels be strong enough.” 
The Marquis a little further on says, * So that having a way 
to make my vessels, so that they are strengthened by the force 
within them.” 

This can only apply to strengthening his boiler and vessels 


42 Description of the First Steam-Engine. 


by riveting radiating arms inside of them, and making them 
in other respects strong. 

Mr. Thomas Savery’s engines were made, (to use the Mar- 
quis of Worcester’s words,) both to suck and force, as ap- 
pears from an engraving of Savery’s engine in Harris’s Lexi- 
con Technicum, which has what is there called a sucking 
pipe, as also a forcing pipe. It has two boilers, a larger and 
smaller one, and two water vessels, there called receivers. 
The small boiler is supplied with cold water by a branch 
pipe from the forcing pipe, and the large boiler is supplied 
with hot water from the small one. The steam, after enter- 
ing the receivers, is condensed by water falling from a cold 
water pipe on the outside of the receivers. 

By the Marquis of Worcester’s engine not having a suction 
pipe, the steam in his water vessels is condensed by permit- 
ting the cold water from the fountain to refill them alternate- 
ly. 

The great waste of steam in these engines, occasioned by 
its coming in contact with the surface of the cold water in the 
receivers, led to the following devices to prevent that waste. 

First, That of introducing a surface of oil upon the wa- 
ter. 

Secondly, That of introducing acolumn of air between the 
steam and the water. 

Third, That of introducing a floating piston between the 
steam and the water ; and, 

Lastly, The introduction of steam-tight pistons. 

From what has been stated, it must appear obvious, that 
the Marquis of Worcester had the honour of being the inven- 
tor of the steam-engine, and that Mr. Savery had the merit 
of being the first that brought it to be so far practicably use- 
ful. But it was toa Mr. Thomas Newcomen that the min- 
ing interest was first indebted for making it serviceable in the 
draining of mines. (See Switzer’s Hydrostatics.) 

With regard to the experiment of bursting the cannon 
mentioned in the same article, this will appear quite practica- 
ble, if we take into account the time that the cannon was kept 

‘in the fire, which was much longer than sufficient to have 
melted it down, had the fire been suitable for that purpose ; it 


Description of the First Steam-Engine. 43 


must, however, have been a great fire, as it would have been 
attended with much danger to supply it with fresh fuel. It 
is, therefore, reasonable to suppose, that from this great heat, 
there would arise a continual increase of the expansive force of 
the steam, and a continued decrease of the strength of the me- 
tal of the cannon, until the strength of the cannon became un- 
equal to the expansive strength of the steam, and, in conse- 
quence thereof the cannon would give way and make “a 
great crack.” 

Prior to the date of the Marquis of Worcester’s book, one 
Branca, an Italian, applied the force of steam from a large 
£olopyle upon thé vanes of a wheel, somewhat like those of 
a horizontal wind-mill, so early as 1629. But in no way 
could this manner of applying steam be transferred, or lead 
to the construction of any one part of the Marquis of Wor- 
cester’s steam-engine, of Mr. Savery’s, or of any other that is 
entitled to the name of a steam-engine. 

The writer of this article, about thirty years ago, fitted up 
a boat, or rather a canoe, to be wrought by spiral oars made 
of sheet-copper; but as the canoe was not of sufficient dimen- 
sions to carry a person to work the oars, they were wrought 
by means of a copper Aolopyle, placed on a fire-grate within 
the canoe, that ejected steam against the vanes of a horizon- 
tal wheel made of tinplate, and which communicated motion 
to the spiral oars. 

At the time when the above experiments were made, the 
writer of this had no knowledge of a similar experiment hav- 
ing ever been made with the AZolopyle ; he first met with an 
account of Branca’s application of steam in the first edition of 
Gregory’s Mechanics, published in 1607. 

The Aolopyle experiment was an unprofitable waste of 
steam, and could show but little of the effects of it ; whereas, 
that of the bursting the cannon was a great first experiment. 


A. §. O. 


September 30, 1824. 


44 Dr. MacCulloch on a Method of Splitting Rocks by Fire. 


Art. VI.—On a Method of Splitting Rocks by Fire. By 
- Joun MacCuttocu, M.D. F.R.S. F.L. 8. and M.G:S. 
Chemist to the Board of Ordnance, and Professor of Che- 
mistry in Addiscombe College. Communicated by the 


Author. " 


Many large tracts of the mountainous land of Scotland, 
which possess an excellent soil capable of cultivation, are in- 
cumbered by huge alluvial or detached blocks of stone; and 
the expense of removing these from the surface forms, in 
many cases, nearly the whole difficulty which stands in the 
way of their improvement. Where dikes, or stone-walls are 
required to enclose such land, the expense of thus-clearing 
the soil is materially diminished by the countervailing value 
of the quarry which the field itself thus affords. But even 
in these cases, where the blocks are too large to be weighed 
and removed entire, a considerable expense is incurred by 
the necessity of blasting them by gunpowder until they are 
reduced to a portable dimension. This, however, is the 
practice almost universally resorted to in Scotland; and 
every where, I believe, throughout Britain, where this kind 
of improvement is earried on. 

In making the Highland roads also, where it is generally 
necessary to provide a quantity of stone for the masonry re-- 
quired in supporting the lower side of the road, in fortifying 
the upper bank, and in the construction of drains and bridges, 
it is usual to have recourse to such blocks, wherever the road ~ 
itself is not carried through rocks in such a manner as to 
produce the necessary quantity of materials. In this case 
also, the process of blasting is adopted, as it necessarily is, 
whenever solid rocks are to be cut down or levelled. 

This process is both tedious and expensive, but the price, ' 
of course, varies with the wages of labour in different places. 
Where I am writing it is now 2d. per inch, and, according 
to the dimensions or nature of the rock to be split, the mine 
varies from eighteen inches to two feet in depth, or, exclu- 
sive of the expense of gunpowder, the cost of this mime or 
blast hole will range from 3s. to 4s. It will be a very mode- 
rate calculation to estimate twelve inches for one mine, or 2s. 


Dr. MacCulloch on a Method of Splitting Rocks by Fire. 45 


for every large stone; and in most parts of the Highlands, 
or of Scotland in general, this is nearly a day’s labour for a 
man, on account of the time expended in coming to the 
ground and in returning. To this expense, however, must 
be added, not only the price of the gunpowder, but that of 
sharpening the gads, which is considerable, and the other 
wear and tear of tools. I cannot here procure an exact esti- 
mate of these expenses, nor is it material, as it will easily be 
calculated by all those who have an interest in doing so, or 
have such work in hand. I need only add, that as, in many 
cases, the quantity of such stones on ground otherwise fit for 
cultivation is enormous, it is material to find out the means 
of diminishing an expense which may exceed the fee-simple 
of the land when cleared. The same reasoning applies to 
the Highland roads, which, from their expensive construc- 
tion, trench so deeply on the funds provided for them, that 
nothing remains to replace the accidents arising from tor- 
rents or other causes, or for the purposes of ordinary repairs. 

The contractor for a road from Loch Ewe to Gerloch, 
who resides at this place, finding it difficult to carry on his 
work at the contract price, has abandoned the process of 
blasting, and has had recourse to fire alone; and in this way 
he has now conducted.his road for some miles with a great 
saving both of time and labour. Whether he has had any 
precursor, except Hannibal, in this practice, I know not, as I 
have not found it in use elsewhere in any part of Scotland ; 
but he appears at any rate to have the merit of an original 
inventor, as he had heard neither of any predecessor nor rival 
in his art. 

In conducting the process, a fire of peat is made on the 
surface of the stone, and being then secured at the margin 
by stones and turf, it is kept in activity for five or six hours. 
At the beginning of his career, when the fire was extinguish- 
ed, Mr. Mackenzie was in the habit of throwing water on the 
rock, which was then found to open in different places, in 
such a manner as easily to admit a wedge or two, and thus 
to be split by a few blows of the sledge. But finding, in 
some situations, that it was difficult to procure water, and 
that the expense was thus materially increased, he abandoned 


46 Dr. MacCulloch on a Method of Splitting Rocks by Fire. 


this part of the process, and now finds that the stone, on cool- 
ing, is equally fissured, and equally admits the wedge. 

Qn examining the nature of the rocks submitted to this 
process, I doubted its efficacy, and was only convinced by 
witnessing the effects. They consisted of the roughest va- 
riety of gneiss; that kind which is composed, in a great de- 
gree, of compact felspar, and of varieties equally tough and 
refractory, of hornblende rock or hornblende schist. Nor 
could any fissures be discovered in the blocks before the ac- 
tion of the fire, by which, if not produced, they were at least 
enlarged from a state previously invisible. As these are the 
only rocks which this part of the country affords, I cannot say 
whether the same effects would be found to take place in all, 
more particularly in granite. It is probable, however, that 
every rock is equally susceptible of being split by the same 
cause; as there are none in nature more compact and more 
apparently free from flaws, than those in which the tig pe 
succeeded at Loch Ewe. 

It is easy to understand how the effect is produced, as it is 
in glass, by the unequal expansion of the parts, even without 
the assistance of water; and it is equally easy to comprehend 
how a fire of only three or four feet in diameter is thus capa- 
ble of acting on a stone of many tons in weight. 

It is probable that the quantity of fire, as well as its dura- 
tion, must be made to vary with the dimensions of the block 
to be split ; but, in all the instances which he had attempted, 
he had not at this time experienced a single failure, though a 
very considerable number of rocks had been removed in con- 
ducting the road for a space of about five miles. 

At the place in question, the peat was every where at 
hand, and required scarcely any expense of carriage; none 
other, in short, but that of being cut and cast in readiness 
for use whenever it was wanted. Wherever it may require a 
distant carriage in addition to that, it is evident that the 
charge will be augmented. In Highland road-making, peat 
is rarely far off; and, indeed, when it is not at hand, the 
same purpose may be served by the heath and turf, which is 
every where present, and of which a great quantity is neces- 
sarily removed in lining out the road. In clearing land in 

2 


Dr. MacCulloch on @ Method of Splitting Rocks by Fire. 47 


the Highlands, the same reasoning applies, as, either peat is 
seldom far distant, or the land itself furnishes brush-wood and 
weeds. These are often burnt for no other purpose than 
that of destroying them, and procuring the ashes and burnt 
earth attached, which are found to form an useful manure ; 
while by making this use of them the same produce would be 
obtained in addition to the other advantages. 

In clearing land by this process, it would be necessary to 
form previous deposits of fuel in convenient parts of the 
field, that no impediment might take place during the pro- 
cess of firing, but that all the labour required for the several 
parts of the work, may, at one time, be directed to one object 
only. Thus the labour which, during one period, has been 
expended in distributing the fuel, will, in the second, be en- 
gaged in firing the stones ; and, in the third, in splitting them 
by the wedge, when they will be ready for removal, either by 
the plug and gin, or by the more common proceedings. 

It will be seen that, in this case, the great saving of labour 
takes place in the firing, as one man can attend a considerable 
number of fires over a large space, and thus, in a single day, 
prepare an extensive tract for the hammer and wedge. Thus, 
it is calculated, that the firing and the previous labour of col- 
lecting fuel will not exceed the price of tools and gunpowder, 
and the comparison will then remain between the time or la- 
bour required to bore so many mines, or to split the blocks 
by the wedge. These are data easily ascertained with very 
little attention ; and if, on more extended trials, the balance 
in favour of the method used at Loch Ewe shall be found to 
correspond elsewhere, as it has there done, it will be found a 
valuable acquisition both to road-makers and to improvers of 
rough land in the Highlands. 

It remains to be ascertained to what extent the same prac- 
tice is capable of being applied in splitting solid rocks, no ne- 
cessity for this having occurred at the place in question. 

It is evident that it will, in this case, be limited in many 
places, by the form of the rock, as the fire cannot often be 
effectually applied except to a horizontal surface. But, 
doubtless, many cases will occur where this practice can be 
brought into use with economy. 


48 Dr. Hamilton’s Account of the Frontier between 


Arr. VII.—An Account of the Frontier between Part of Ben- 
gal and the Kingdom of Ava. By Francis Hamixton, 
M.D. F.R.S. and F.A.S. Lond. & Ed. Communicated 
by the Author. 


Berween Bengal and the kingdom of Ava there are three 
principal routes by land: Is¢, through Asam ; 2d, through 
Kashar and Munipura; and 3d, by Arakan, passing the 
boundary at the river Naaf. In the second part of The An- 
nals of Ortental Literature, while treating of Asam, I have 
given some account of the first two routes, and of the coun- 
tries situated between the northern parts of Bengal and the 
dominions of the king of Ava. It is now my intention to 
mention some particulars concerning the countries which are 
situated between this kingdom and the southern parts of 
Bengal, including the districts of Tiperah (Tripura) and 
Chatigang. 

Both these districts at one time seem to have belonged to 
the Rajas of Tripura, who are celebrated in the ancient 
Hindu traditions for their luxury; and on the Minamati 
hills, called Lolmi by Rennel, the situation of their ancient 
abode may be traced for a great extent, about six miles west 
from Komila. I travelled there, through the remains of brick 
buildings, for about a mile and a half. At the northern end 
of this ruin are the remains of a fort about 200 yards square ; 
and a mile south from thence are four or five steep hills 
composed almost entirely of brick, and connected and sur- 
rounded by ditches, which seem to point out the royal resi- 
dence. 

These princes seem to have been early attacked by the 
kings of Bengal, whose Mohammedan subjects then seized a 
large part of the country, leaving, however, the Tripura 
princes in possession of large estates as tributaries, while the 
more inaccessible parts of the country continued independ- 
ent, and occupied by the aboriginal inhabitants, who use 
languages totally different from the Bengalese. ‘The Mo- 
hammedans of Bengal were, in their turn, worsted by the 
kings of Arakan, (Rakhain,) who conquered the whole 
country near the sea, and were not driven out until after the 

3 


Part of Bengal and the Kingdom of Ava. 49 


accession of the house of Timour ; nor have the Tripura Ra- 
jas recovered any part of this southern portion of their an- 
cient dominions ; although, in several parts among the hiils of 
Chatigung there are remnants of this tribe. I shall, for the 
present, content myself with an account of that part of the 
frontier where the Tripuras still retain some sort of inde- 
pendence, or claim a supremacy. 

In 1798 Radun Manik, the Rajah of Tripura, resided at 
Agatola, near Komila, his whole estates on the plains having 
been long tributary and subject to the government of Bengal ; 
but the Tripura nation, or tribe, maintained, under his. au- 
thority, a kind of independence .among the hills for about 
thirty miles in width, along the banks of the Monu river, 
which falls into the Surma, and along both banks of the Go- 
muti and Phani (Fenny R.) rivers, a length ‘of about 120 
miles. 

The Tripuras seem to be divided into three tribes: 1st, 
The Tripuras, properly so called, who occupy the banks of 
the Gomuti; 2diy, the Alinagar, who occupy the banks of 
the Phani, and especially ofits principal branch the Muri, which 
passes Kundal ; but a part of this tribe occupies the banks 
of the Alta, a branch of the Karnaphuli, which is included in 
the district of Chatigang; and 3dly, the Reang, who occupy 
chiefly the banks of the Monu, which falls into the Surma. 
All the Tripuras are by the Bengalese commonly called 
Teura. It was with the southern tribe alone that I had any 
intercourse, and these did not call themselves Tripuras but 
Baruksa, the final sa being analogous to the English word 
men, when speaking of nations, as Frenchmen, Irishmen, 
Scotchmen; so that Baruk is the name of this tribe at least ; 
whether it is applicable to the whole Tripura nation I cannot 
say, but I was assured by the Raja’s principal officer, (Dewan) 
that all the three tribes of Tripuras speak the same language, 
although this varies into several dialects, as usual among all 
people having no literary standard. © These tribes indeed, the 
Dewan says, are mere local distinctions. - I took down some 
of the most common words from those who inhabit. the banks 
of the Karnaphuli, and on comparing them with those used 
near the Phani, I found some differences ; but this may have 

VOL. II, No. 1. JAN. 1825. E 


50, Dr. Hamilton’s Account of the Frontier between 


arisen from misapprehension. The following are the words 
which I took down: 

1. Sun, sal. 2. Moon, éal, or in the dialect of the Phani,, 
hando kree, 3. Star, hando goorua. 4 Earth, ha. 5. Wa- 
ter, tet. 6. Fire, hor. 7%. Stone, holoong. 8. Wind, nobar. 
9. Rain, yate?, or in the Phani dialect, watei. 10. Man, droo. 
11. Woman, bree, or in the Phani dialect, brut. 12. Head, 
bokroo. 13. Mouth, bokook, or in the Phani dialect, kowk ; 
from which we may perhaps infer that the Jo. prefixed. to 
this and the preceding word is the mark of some inflection. 
14, Arm, yauk, or in the Phani dialect yauktawk. 15. Hand, 
yaukgora. 16. Leg, yatee, or in the Phani dialect yapa- 
toe. 17. Foot, yapalei, 18. Bird, tauksa. 19. Fish, aw. 
20. Good, hamo. 21. Bad, hamya. 22. Great, godja. 
23, Little, gvorwa. 24, Long, Jawo, or in the Phani dialect 
kalow. 25. Short, bara. 26. One, kaisha. 27. Two, ko- 
not;, 28. Three, kotam. 29. Four, boroi. 380. Five, ba. 
$1. Six, dowk, 32. Seven, cheenee. 33. Eight, seeko. 34. Nine, 
chee. 35. Ten, cheence. This being the same with the word 
given for seven, there is probably some mistake. When these 
people have occasion to mention higher numbers than ten, 
they have recourse to the Bengalese language. 36. Eat, cha- 
day. 37. Drink, loungday. 38. Sleep, hogulday, or in the 
Phani dialect towanay. 39. Walk, baraweinay, or in the 
Phani dialect ookumfcelday. 40, Stand, basaday. 41. Kill, 
tanday. 42, Yes, oonglea. 43. No, korey. 44. Here, pai- 
dee. 45. There, oojan. 46. Above, tchowo. 47. Below, 
hasseeo, or in the Phani dialect kKamma. From this it will 
appear that the Tripura language has no affinity with that of 
Hindustan, and very little with thatof Ava. In one instance, 
indeed, the word kree (great) has evidently been introduced 
from the latter, the moon being called the great hando, and a 
star a little (goorua) hando. The word cha for eat is also 
the same with tsaw of the Ratahain dialect. Day or nay an- 
nexed to all the verbs is evidently the sign of the imperative, 
and is in use at Ava. 

The Tripuras have features entirely like the Chinese or 
people of Ava, and have their huts built on posts like the lat- 
ter, whose impure customs they follow, so that they must be 


Part of Bengal and the Kingdom of Ava. al 


considered as of the same race, although their princes have 
adopted Hindu names and customs, and may very likely be 
of Hindu origin ; but I did not learn their genealogy. It is 
probable, however, that both they, and a considerable portion 
of their subjects, who in former times cultivated the plains 
between the eastern hills and the Megna, came from Hindus- 
tan and settled among the Tripura nation, as from their build- 
ings they evidently appear to have been a race much farther 
advanced in society. ‘The mode of succession which prevails 
in the family may seem to militate against the Hindu origin 
of the Tripura Rajas. The Raja is not succeeded by his 
son, but by his nephew. In 1798 the Dhup Raja was con- 
sidered as the heir apparent, although his father was then 
alive, and an older man than Radun Manik, who then was 
prince. A similar practice, however, prevails in Malabar ; but 
then it is a sister’s son who succeeds. ‘The same indeed may 
be the case in Tripura; for at the time when I noted the na- 
ture of the succession, I was not aware of the nature of the 
succession through females used in Malabar, and the father 
of the Dhup Raja may not have belonged to the family ; it 
may have been by his mother that he was nephew to Radun 
Manik. 

~The Tripuras cultivate what are called jooms, of which 
the following is the nature :—During the dry season, the 
people cut down to the root all the bushes growing on a 
sufficient extent of hilly land, that has a good soil. After 
drying for some time, the brushwood is set on fire, and by 
its means as much as possible of the large timber is destroy~ 
ed; but if the trees are large, this part of the operation is 
seldom very successful. ‘The whole surface of the ground 
is now covered with ashes, which soak into the soil with the 
first rain, and serve as a manure. No sooner has the ground 
been softened by the first showers of the season, than the 
cultivator begins to plant. To his girdle he fixes a small 
basket, containing a promiscuous mixture of the seeds of all 
the different plants raised in jooms. These plants are chiefly. 
rice, cotton, capsicum, indigo, and different kinds of cucur- 
bitaceous fruits. In one hand the cultivator then takes a 
dibble, pointed with iron, if this can be procured, and with 


5Q Dr. Hamilton’s Account of the Frontier between 


this he makes small holes, at irregular distances ; but in ge- 
neral about a foot from each other. Into each of these holes 
he with his other hand drops a few seeds, taken from the 
basket as chance directs, and leaves the farther rearing of 
the crop to nature ; only he resides near, in a temporary hut, 
to drive away destructive animals, and to reap the crop as 
each kind ripens. Next year, in general, the cultivator se- 
lects another spot covered with wood ; for in such a rude 
cultivation, the ashes are a manure necessary to render, the 
soil productive, except in a few places peculiarly rich that 
bear a second crop. When the wood on a former joom has 
grown to a proper size, the cultivator again returns to it ; 
and then there being few large trees standing, the opera- 
tion of cutting is easier, and the ground is more perfectly 
cleared. 

In this state of society, no tribe, whatever extent it may 
occupy, can make any considerable progress in the arts either 
of peace or war; and accordingly the Tripuras, subject to 
Radun Manik, are useless but harmless neighbours, along a 
frontier of about a degree and a half of latitude, and in a 
political sense are altogether insignificant. 

The distance in a direct line east from Komila to the frontier 
of Ava Proper, near the river Khizenduzn, is rather more 
than 200 geographical miles. The Tripura tribe reach witb- 
in a few miles of Komila, and extend about thirty miles to 
the eastward, while Taunduzn, the capital of the Aengiin 
- subject to Ava, (Phil. Journ. iv. 83, vii. 232.) the nearest 
part of this kingdom, is from twenty to thirty miles in a di- 
rect line west from tne Khiznduen. — As the territory of the 
Aengiin may reach twenty or thirty miles farther west than 
its capital, there is great reason to think that the space in- 
tervening between the Aengiin and the Tripura nation, will 
be somewhat above 100 geographical miles in width. . No 
inquiries that I made either in Ava or Bengal, enabled me 
to ascertain that there was any passage entirely through this 
space. There perhaps intervenes a mountainous barrier, that 
has not been overcome, owing probably more to its rugged- 
ness than to its great elevation ; for mountains of an Alpine 
height are not visible from either side, which they could not 


Part of Bengal and the Kingdom of Ava. 53 


fail to be were there any in so narrow a space. (See Phil. 
Journ. vii. 233.) 

Towards the west, between the territory of the Tripura 
race and the central inaccessible mountains, there is a wide 
hilly region occupied by the people called Kungkis, mention- 
ed in my account of Asam, (Annals of Oriental. Literature, 
part ili. p. 264, and in the Phil. Jour. iv. 264.) as being 
the Langeh of the people of Ava, and the Lingta of the 
Bengalese. I have had no intercourse, nor farther informa- 
tion ‘concerning the tribe of this race, which occupies the 
frontier towards the Surma, by which there is the most di- 
rect and important route between Bengal and Ava. Farther 

‘south, ten kinds of the Kungkis, who dwell about the heads 
of the Gomuti, are claimed as dependents by Radun Manik, 
the Tripura Raja; but his authority over them is probably 
very small ; for his power is inconsiderable, and the Kungkis 
seem to be a warlike predatory people. They are, or at 
least in 1798 were, subject to a chief named Longshue, al- 
though I am not sure whether this name was that of the in- 
dividual chief, or his title as head of the tribe; but I think 
that the last is most’ probably the case, as the people on the 
banks of the Karnaphuli, who were chiefly subject to the 
depredations of these Kungkis, called the tribe Lusai or Lu- 
shee, the same name, I suspect with Longshue: yet it must 
be confessed that the Dewan of Radun Manik spoke of the 
Lushee as being only one of the ten kinds of Kungkis de- 
pendent on his master.’ The dependance of this tribe, or of 
Longshue on the Tripura Raja is rather problematical, and 
the Lusai, are rather supposed by the people on the Karna- 
phuli to be subject to the tribe of Kungkis, called Bonzhu, or 
Bonjugy. In war, probably the two kindred tribes unite ; 
but in peace, the Tripura Raja having the command of the’ 
-commereial routes, may exert a kind of authority, and re- 
ceive a toll or tribute. 

- Ihave not heard of any tribe that inhabits between the 
Longshue Kungkis and the great central ridge, the eastern 
side of which is occupied by the tribe, which the people of 
Ava call Khien, (Phil. Journ. ii. 263.); nor, as I have said, 
have I been able to trace any route across the ridge: yet I 


54 Dr. Hamilton’s Account of the Frontier between 


have some suspicion that a communication exists; for Long- 
shue has a very great resemblance to Launsci, the name of a 
town on the east side of this ridge. (Phil. Journ. vii. 233.) 
This town, indeed, is inhabited by a tribe of the Mranma 
race called Jo, and between it and the ridge are interposed 
the Khizn, totally different from the Kungkis ; but it is not 
improbable that the town derives its name from being the 
mart for trade with the Longshue, of which origin of names 
I know several similar instances. It must also be observed, 
that another town of the Jo nation subject to Ava, is called 
Zho, (Phil. Journ. vii. 234.) which is the same name with 
what some tribes at least of the Kungkis give to themselves, 
from which circumstance a similat conclusion may be in- 
ferred; but the language of the Jo, notwithstanding the re- 
semblance of the names Jo and Zho, (Phil. Journ, vi. 235.) 
or Zhu, has no affinity to that of the Kungkis, being a mere 
provincial dialect of that spoken at Ava. 

On a cluster of hills situated a little south from the tropic, 
and which, as I was informed, separates the waters falling 
into the Phani and Karnaphuli from those falling into the 
Gomuti, there is said to reside a tribe called Langmang, 
more rude than even the Kungkis, with whom they are 
at constant war. I have never seen any of them; but they 
are said by the Bengalese to sleep on trees like baboons. 
They do not cultivate rice, but live chiefly on the kind of 
grain called Kangun, (Panicum Italicum.) ‘The latter cir- 
cumstance is probable; but it can only be when they are 
watching their fields that these poor people can be supposed 
to sleep on trees, a rude stage placed among the branches, 
with a few leaves by way of thatch, being a kind of resting 
place, which I have seen used by watchmen in several places 
of India, where elephants abound, as they do on the hills near 
Kundal. It is probable that the Langmang are merely one 
of the tribes of Kungkis, of which Radun Maniks Dewan 
spoke; and there are many Kungkis both on the north and 
south of these hills. 

These are the tribes interposed between Ava and Bengal, 
from about the latitude 24° 25’ to 22° 55’ N. I shall now 
give an account of the principal river by which this space is 

6 


Part of Bengal and the Kingdom of Ava. 55 


watered. Itis properly called the Gomuti, which Major Ren- 
nell writes Gomut (Bengal Atlas, map 1,) or Goomty (Ibid. 
map 9,) and which seems to be derived from its crooked na- 
ture. I am persuaded, that by some mistake the rivers, 
which, in the 9th map of the Bengal Atlas, appear as the 
heads of the Chingree river, in fact belong to the Gomuti, 
the Chingree, or Chimay, as the natives call it, terminating, 
according to all the information received by me, at the hills 
on the south side of the tropic. The Gomuti, therefore, 
either passes through, or springs from the hills laid down in 
the above-mentioned map as the boundary of Ava, although 
I have reason to think, that the great central ridge is pro- 
bably 20 or 30 miles farther to the east. Whether or not 
this space is altogether unoccupied, or whether it be inha- 
bited by tribes subject to Ava, or by people that are alto- 
gether independent, I have not learned ; but the last is pro- 
bably the case; as farther south, this farther ridge, at the 
sources of the Karnaphuli, is peopled by an enterprising tribe 
of the Kungki race, and the same is probably the case at the 
sources of the Gomuti. 

The hills lower down these rivers consist of clay and sand 
slightly indurated in thin plates, involving in some places 
small masses of a‘more solid nature, that admit of being cut 
with the chisel, and in a few places masses of petrified wood. 
In two places north from Islamabad there continually issues 
from chinks in these strata an inflammable gas, the burning 
of which has been successfully employed by some priests as 
a means of extracting gain from the superstitious. These 
hills rise to a considerable elevation, seldom exceeding 150 
feet perpendicular, while the streams that run through the 
intermediate valleys or ravines have a very gentle current, 
and a sandy bottom; so that canoes can be pushed along 
to a great extent, especially in the rainy season. Unfor- 
tunately the country’becomes then so unhealthy, that even 
the Bengalese do not venture to remain, but quit the hills 
with the first showers of summer. ‘This prevented me from 
attempting to penetrate into the country of the Kungkis, as 
the rainy season had comménced when I was at Komila; 
and all the information that I can give concerning the route, 


56. Dr. Hamilton’s Account of the Frontier between 


is derived from the Bengalese wood-cutters, who are far 
from accurate. I shall ree however, mention what these 
people say, although it cannot be received as at all accurate 
in the details; but it will serve to show the nature of the 
country between Komila and what Rennell.calls the Mugg 
mountains, a name totally unknown among such natives as I 
have consulted. 

The wood-cutters state that February is the month best 
suited for penetrating with canoes through the country, 
which is then healthy ; nor is there any want of water for 
bearing the canoes. 

A canoe proceeding from Komila up the Gomuti takes 
two and a half pahars (seven and a half hours) to reach the 
mouth of the Kazi, a rivulet arising from a large marsh 
(jil) named Lodi, which, although nearly dry in the hot sea- 
son, produces, in the rainy monsoon, an immense quantity 
of fish. The Kazi enters the Gomuti on the left going up, 
and its banks are inhabited by Kungkis. These marshes, 
or jils as they are called, are common among the low hills 
along the eastern frontier of Bengal. They occupy gene- 
rally the greater part of the wider valleys winding among 
the low hills; and being perfectly level, are deeply covered 
with water during the rainy season, but have nothing like 
bog in their soil, which is in general excellent, and quite 
firm. The ground is so deeply inundated during the rainy 
season that it is unfit for the joom cultivation, and it is 
therefore neglected by the mountaineers. In some parts, in- 


deed, stagnant pools or small lakes remain throughout the 


year ; but in a large proportion the water dries up soon after 
the rains cease, and might be cultivated with the plough for 
winter crops. Indeed the water is in most parts so shallow, 
as to be well fitted for the cultivation of rice, and, by deepen- 
ing the rivulets that pass through the extent of such land, 
might easily be increased, as has been done in many adjacent 
parts that are occupied by the Bengalese. This manner of 
cultivation, however, is not practised by the hill tribes who 
are most inured to the climate. 

Two pahars (six hours) journey farther up, brings the 
canoe to the mouth of the Kalipani (black water) entering 
from the left. Its banks are not inhabited. 


Part of Bengal and the Kingdom of Ava. 57 


‘One pahar and a half (four and a half hours) take the 
canoe to the mouth of the Sundal, entering from the right, 
and having no inhabitants on its banks. At the same dis- 
tance, and from the same side, enter two rivulets named Rani’ 
and Kani, the latter of which comes from the Hani jil or 
marsh. 

One day (twelve hours) farther brings the canoe to the 
Jamjuni rivulet on the right. It comes from the Suksagar 
jil or lake, on the banks of which there are many Bengalese 
peasants, and a house of Radun Maniks called Udypura, or 
as Rennell writes, Oudapour. If he is right in placing this 
nineteen miles distant in a direct line from Komila, this may 
serve as a scale for the rate of the canoes going, as it takes 
thirty-four and a half hours to proceed this length; so that 
on a long route, a canoe does not advance more than six miles 
a day in a direct line. South from Udypura are Kungkis, 
who must be the same with the Langmang,—that I have be- 
fore mentioned. 

In two pahar, or six hours, farther on the left is the 
mouth of the Dhupa, whose banks are inhabited by Kung- 
kis. Two gurries (forty-two minutes) from its mouth, it 
passes through a ridge of hills called Debta Mura—(Deities 
Head.) 

The canoe in half a pahar (one and a half hour) more, 
comes to the Gangacherra, where there are no inhabitants. 
In two pahars more it reaches Keteycherra, also uninhabited. 
To the right is Kyddakacherra, where the Raja had a house 
named Amarapura (abode of Angels;) but in 1798 it had 
been deserted. 

Two pahars (six hours) farther up, entering from the left, 
is the Moilak ; one and a half pahar (four and a half hours) 
farther is Peelak, entering from the right; two pahars (six 
hours) farther, entering from the eft, is Dalak; and six 
gurries (two hours and twenty-four minutes) farther, enter- 
ing from the right, is the Koorma. These four last mention- 
ed rivulets have no inhabitants. 

Above Koorma, in one and a half pahar, the canoe reaches 
Seela Gonga, on whose banks the Reang of Tripuras have 


acolony. This colony, there can be no doubt, is the Reang 
1 


58 Dr. Hamilton on the Frontier of Bengal and Ava. 


of Rennell (Bengal Atlas, map 9.) which he places om the 
Chingree river 105 miles from its entrance into the Karna- 
phuli; but I have already said, that in all probability: the 
Chingree rises from hills on the south side of the tropic ; and 
that what Rennell represents as its upper parts belongs to the 
Gomuti. Allowing that this proceeds nearly east above Ou- 
dapour, the fifty-five hours, proceeding at the same rate as 
between Oudapour and Romila, would bring the canoe near 
the Mugg mountains of Rennell, nearly at the tropic, and 
the Seela gonga will then be the stream represented by that 
eminent geographer as coming from Reang. In this case; 
however, the mouth of the Seela gonga would require to be 
placed much farther east than Rennell has done the course of 
his Chingree in its upper part. 

The woodcutters from Komila proceed no farther up the 
Gomuti than the mouth of the Seela gonga, as in many parts 
beyond that, the channel, in February, is nearly dry, although 
there are deep pools between, as usual in mountainous coun- 
tries; for here the river passes through what Rennel calls 
the Mugg mountains, beyond which nothing is known to the 
woodeutters, nor had they ever heard of a river called Chin- 
gree or Chimay. 

The Phani (serpent) river, at the ferry between Jurilgunge 
and Duckinseek, to use Rennel’s orthography, is of consider- 
able size; but this is owing entirely to the tide. A little 
lower, indeed, at the ferry bebween’ Jurilgunge and Cossidea, 
it isa mile wide; but the tide flows only a little way above 
the ferry at Duckinseek, and the stream then is very insig- 
nificant ; nor could I find that the natives ascend it in canoes, 
so that by far the most considerable branch of the river, as 
represented by Rennel, is the Muri, which comes from Kun- 
dal. This is one of many instances where a large river, on 
joining a much smaller one, loses its name. 


Mr. Murray on the Culture of the Silk Worm. 59 


Art. VIII.—Remarks on the Culture of the Silk Worm in 

the North of Italy. By Jouxn Murray, Esq. F. A. S, 
F.L.S. M.W.S. Lecturer on Chemistry. Communicated 
by the Author. 


Havre been highly interested in the improved culture of 
the silk worm on the principles of Count Dandolo, and which 
I witnessed in full operation in the north of Italy, during the 
year 1818—1819, I conceived that some succinct notice of 
a few of the more curious facts connected with the subject 
would not be unacceptable to you. For the materials of this 
paper I am chiefly indebted to the very interesting work of 
Conte Dandolo * Dell Arte di governare i Bachi da Seta.” 
Seconda edizione, Milano, 1818. 

The hygrometer of Bellani has its zero correspondent with 
that of De Saussure, and I have connected the thermometric 
expression of Reaumur, used by Count Dandolo, into the 
scale of Fahrenheit. 

Professor Giobert of Turin informed me, that the process 
instituted by Count Dandolo was universally successful, 
though some of the lower class had arrayed themselves in op- 
position to it, as was done in this country against the intro. 
duction of machinery to supersede manual Jabour,—an hosti- 
lity which dicated its value, 

I was informed that the Marchese de la Rovere had no 
less than thirty-five ounces of ova cultivated, (on the princi- 
ples published by Count Dandolo,) in the year 1819. 

The certainty to which the process is hereby reduced,—a cer- 
tainty equivalent to the culture of an exotic in the conservatory, 
is not the least in the train of its recommendations. A solitary 
blast of the Schirroco frequently destroyed the hope and pro. 
mise of the year; but all this is now avoided. The average 
return is more than doubled, and even successional crops may 
be realized. It is clearly adapted to every climate, even to 
a higher latitude than ours, and I cannot doubt that it is’ 
worthy the attention of our enlightened legislature; and 
while it might add to our finances, it would form an important 
and interesting feature in our industry. 

According to Count Dandolo, the amount of raw silk and 


silk articles exported from Italy, in the years 1807, 1808, _ 
1809, and 1810, amounted in all to $34,580,628 lire Milan- 
ese, being an average of 83,720 lire Milanese annually, or 
L.2,790,671, 18s. sterling, calculating the lira Milanese at 
8d. sterling, which is within a fraction, being = 763 cente- 
Sim? 

I have often thought that the cultivation of the. silk worm, 
on the principles adopted so successfully by Dandolo, would 
form a most valuable and profitable addendum to the poor 
houses in England. The aged and infirm even might find 
here an occupation of healthful interest to themselves, and re- 
lief to the burdened benevolence which supports them. 

The preservative phial of Guyton de Morveau is found by 
Dandolo a valuable support to the health of the silk worm, 
and would be, in like manner, to those employed in the ma- 
nagement. This interesting machine is much improved by 
Mons. Boulay. 

Count Dandolo gives a decided preference to a stove con- 
structed of tile over one of iron. The latter, he says, con- 
sumes the wood too rapidly’; the management becomes con- 
sequently difficult, and the silk-worms are injured. Iron 
stoves are injurious, and induce illness ; but a plate or shal- 
low basin of water placed on the head of the stove, as I found 
practised among the Appenines, will prevent the bad effects 
thence resulting. Shallow vessels containing water, and de- 
posited on the floor, will sustain the proper hygrometric state, 
if the atmosphere should at any time be too dry. 

There can be no question about the success of this method 
of culture in England. With all the disadvantages the indi- 
viduals had to combat with, I have seen several pounds weight 
(I think siz,) raised in one season, some years ago, by a poor 
family in Whittlesea, near Peterborough. : 

King James the First of England, in the sixth year of his 
reign, issued a royal edict recommending the cultivation 
of the silk-worm, and did all in his power.to promote. this 
branch of national industry, by the issue. of packets of mul- 
berry seeds, &c. and a patent was issued to John Appletree, 
Esq. under the great seal, dated 23d May, 1718, for the 
planting of mulberry trees and erection of buildings, and for 
the culture of the silk-worm. 


60 Mr. Murray on the Culture of the Silk Worm. : 
: 


a i i 


Mr. Murray on the Culture of the Silk Worm. 61 


The comparative trials of Count Dandolo clearly prove, 
that the wild mulberry is decidedly preferable to the engraft- 
ed mulberry, in the value of the leaves furnished to the silk- 
worm. The following is the Count’s conclusion : 

« Questi fatti adunque dimostrano che nella foglia tratta 
dal gelso scloatico comparata alla foglia innestata avvi sotto 
ad uno stesso peso copia maggiore di sostanza alimentaria, 
maggior copia di sostanza alimentaria, maggior copia di sos- 
tanza resinoza, e meno d’inutile sostanza parenchimosa.” 

Many different substances have been proposed as a substi- 
tute for the leaves of the mulberry, as those of the lettuce, 
oak, elm, beet, mallow, rose, spinage, nettle, &c. but the mul- 
berry stands prominent, though perhaps lettuce might be 
used in the first period of the evclution from the ova, and 
until the mulberry puts forth its leaves. Only sixty Ibs. 
weight of leaves were in 1813 consumed by the young silk- 
worms of five ounces of ova, during the two first periods. 
The experiments of Mr. Knight show that the mulberry can 
be easily forced, and perhaps the same room which contains 
the ova would serve this purpose. In the “ British Review” 
of July 1788, a writer recommends the powder of dried mul- 
berry leaves ; and Bertezen, (see * Thoughts,” &c. London, 
1789, p. 22,) tells us that “« one seed of black mulberry leaves 
is worth more than two of white.” 


Management of the Silk Worms, produced from five Ounces 
of Ova. 


Leaves Internal External 
supplied. | Temperature. | Temperature. 


1813. 
First Age. 


Months. 


Days of 


Treatment. Fahrenheit. | Fahrenheit. 
45 


74.75 + 
74.75 

74.75 | 65.75 
94.75 65.75 
14.75 


orPwrnor 


* The common pound of silk (libra grossa) contains eight light ounces, 
+ Corresponding to 17° Reaumur. 


* 62 Mr. Murray on the Culture of the Silk Worm. 


Management of the Silk Worms, produced from five Ounces 


of Ova—continued. 
1813. > Leayes and Internal |- External 
Second Age. ss ins Stems. |Temperature. | Temperature. 


Days of 
'Freatment, Ibs. oz. | Fahrenheit. | Fahrenheit. 
23. 12 0 73.15 63 .58 
vi 24, 20 O 73.75 63 .50 
3 25. 22 0 72 .50 64 .62+4 
9 26. 0 72 .50 65 .75 
0 
Third Age. 
10 27. 0} V1 .37 
ll 28. 0; 71.37 
12 29. 0} 70.25 
13 30. 0 70 .25 
14 SL. 0} 70.25 
0 
Fourth Age. 
15 June }. ——| 70.25 
16 ae 65 0 70 .25 
17 8 110 Of 69.124 
18 4. 150 0} 69.12+ 
19 be 170 O 69 .12+ 
20 6. 85 0} 69.124 
21 7. 20 O| 69.124 
22 8. en csei | 169. 12-5 
Fifth Age. 
23 9. 69 .12+ 
24 10. 69 .12+ 
25 Il 69 -12+ 
26 12. 68 
27 13 68 
28 14 68. 
29 15. 68 
30 16 69 .12+ 
31 17 69.124 
32 18. 69 .124 


Fifth Age [3660 
Fourth Age | 600 
Third Age | 200 
Second Age 60 
First Age 20 


4540 
Unconsumed | 475 
Lost .... | 350 


cocoojT cooocoeo;cocoocoocoocsco & 


Total. . . + |5365 


i) 


Mr. Murray on the Culture of the Silk Worm. 63 


Management of the Silk Worms, produced from five Ounces of Ova. 


External 
1814. Months, | Leaves Internal | Temperature, /Hyorometer 
First Period. &c. —_|consumed. | Temperature. Fr ae ° Clock, of Bellani. Weather. 


ern Exposure. 


Fahrenheit. 


Tbs. 0z 
Days, 1. |Vay 23. Lett 4272°-50 van) §52°25 -«.e.» |Rain. 
2. 24, 2 7) 70.25 47.75 + «+ |Rain occasionally. 
3. 25. 3 07] 70.25 var.| 43.25 ho Raiu and fair. 
4, 26. 6 0} 69.12 45 .50 « - » + |Cloudy & sunshine. 
5 27. BO 0 woe 50 -» ++ (Cloudy. { 
6. 28. 2141] 71 .37+ 54 .50 ateteervel HERAT: 
20 0 
d Period. 
va 29. 5 14 | 70.25 AT 75 68° |Rain. 
8. 30.4 “11 04 70.25 53 .37+4 70 Mist and sunshine. 
9. 31.| 15 14] 68 56.75 64 Ditto. 
10. |June 1.| 15 O | 68 56.75 66 |Rain. 
ie “aR 7 0} 68 63 .50 66  |Reain and sunshine. 
12. a 1 O | 69.12+ 61.25 70 =‘ |Cloudy. 
55 0 
Third Period. 
13. 4.| 14 0] 69.12 54.50 68 Rain and sunshine. 
14. 5.| 30 0! 68 54.50 69 |Cloudy, &c. &c. 
15. 6.| 40 0O | 69.12+ 61.25 70 Rain and sunshine. 
16. 7.| 60 O | 69.124 56.75 75 =‘ |Rain. 
17. 8.| 60 0 | 69.124 55 .62+ 74 = {Rain. 
18. 9.| 20 O | 69.12+ 52.25 79 Rain and sunshine. 
19. 10. 2 69 .12+ 56.75 78 Ditto. 


69 .12+ 56.75 76 Rain and sunshine. 


21 12.) 85 69 .124+ 63 .50 75 |Cloudy, &c. 
22. 13. | 120 68 64.62+ | ° T1 Fine. 
23. 14. | 130 66 .87+ 61.25 ve} Cloudy & sunshine. 
24. 15.| 166 66 .87+ 63 .50 15 Sun and rain. 
25. 16. 70 68 ‘ 65.75 72 Ditto. 
26. 17. 5 69 .12 56.75 70 = |Fine. 
620 
Fifth Period. 

rofl 18. ; 120 68 60 .12+ 72 Fine. 

Ns 61.25 73 Rain and sunshine.} 
29. 20. | 240 68 56.75 13 Ditto. 
30 21.) 310 66,.87+ ~| 59 s Tb Rain. 
31 22. | 360 68 56.75 73 {Cloudy and rain. 
32. 23. | 450 68 52.25 72 {Rain and sunshine. 


33. 24. | 550 68 54.50. 74 Ditto. 

34. 25. | 650 68 53 .37+ 73 ~ Ditto. 

35. 26. | 500 69 .12-f- 54.50 13 Ditto. 

36 27.| 280 69 .12+ 54.50 73 {Cloudy and rain. 
37. 28. | 180 69.124 50 72 Rain and sunshine. 


» 
is 3] 
_ 
=) 
— 
o 
i) 
ey,esssssessosso i=) eosooocoeo eS 
i~7) 
a 


Fifth Period. . . |3820 


64 Mr. Murray on the Culture of the Silk Worm. 


Management of the Silk Worms, produced from five Ounces 
of Ova—continued. 


Fifth Period | 3 , 4 : 3820 0 
Fourth Period : ‘ in : 620 0O 
Third Period % 2 3 216 0 
Second Period ae 5 . 55 0 
First Period A 5 A . 20 0 
Leaves devoured. J 5 A 4731 0 
400 0O 

290 O 

Total 2 45 5421 0 


For each ounce of ova, 1084 lbs. of leaves have been taken from the tree. 

‘The silk worms, from five ounces of ova, have consumed the above 5421 lbs. 
of leaves, and each produced 401 Ibs. of coccoons, &c. 

For each pound of coccoons there have been consumed about 133 lbs. of mul- 


berry leaves. 


The Temperature required for the Production of the Silk 
Worms from the Ova, anterior to 23d May, 1814. 


1814. Internal External 1814. Internal External 
Month. , Temperature.} Temperature. || Month. | Temperature. | Temperature. 


May 11. Fa. 63.50 |Fa. 50.26 |\May 18. |Fa. 70.25 |Fa. 50.00 


12. 63.50 45.50 19% 72.50 50.00 
13. 63.50 45.50 20. 74.75 52.25 
14, 63.50 45.50 2i. 77. 52.25 
15. 65.75 47.75 22. 73.25 54,50 
16. 65.75 52.25 23. 81.50 52.25 
17. 68. 50.00 


The external temperature was ascertained at 5 o’clock every 
morning, from a western exposure. 

During the thirteen days in which the silk-worms were 
developed from the ova, 134 lbs. of food were consumed. 
The lb. of 28 ounces is to be understood, or 2 lbs. Troy equi- 
valent to 0.7625 kilogrammes of France. 


Mr. Murray on the Managemnt of the Silk Worm. 65 


The following is the Daily Decrease in Weight of 1000 
ounces of Coccoons in a Room, the Temperature of which 
is from 70° 25 F. to 12° 50 F. 


Day Ist, 1000 oz. Day 7th, 960 Jess 6. 
2d, 991 less 9. 8th, 952 less 8. 
3d, 982 less 9, 9th, 943 less 9. 
4th, 975 less 7, 10th, 934 less 9. 
5th, 970 less 5. ilth, 925 less 9. 
~ 6th, 966 less 4. 


So that the 1005 ounces have’ lost in 10 days during the 
mutation 75 ounces.. There is a gradual declension for the 
first five days inclusive, and a regular gradation for the five 


last days. 

8 oz. of ova have lostin 5 daysin weight 100 gr. in 8 days 360, and in 10 days 440. 
6 oz. do. . do. do. S86gr. do 178 do. 248. 
5 oz. do. do. do. 60gr. do. 168 do. 216. 
4 02. do. do. do. 80gr. do. 181 do. 224, 


Each grain contains about 68 ova, and an ounce weight 
39,168 ova. The oncia Milanese contains 575 grains. The 
above number is to be understood of fecundated ova. ‘Those 
which are badly impregnated contain 43,080, and are of a 
reddish colour; and of those not at all impregnated, and of 
a yellowish tinge, there are in the ounce 44,100. 


The Expense of the Contingencies of the 5 ownces of Crop 
in 1814 are thus calculated by Count Dandolo. 


Cost of 5 ounces of ova, : ° 15. 
Wood for fuel, - - 3 i278 
5500 lbs. of leaves of mulberry at 7 lire per 100 Ibs. 385. 
Expense of gathering the leaves, . 96.5 
1000 lbs. at 32 soldi, 3 A 16. 
Supplement, - : ; 4.10 
Supplemental paper, A. 
Oil for light, UD: 
Preservation phial, 1.10 
| : Daily labour, : i 100. 
Lire Milanese 642. 
i Interest, &c. on capital, . 90. 
Total expense, 732. 
401 Ibs. of coccoons obtained, which, being sold at 
78 soldi per lb. produced 1,563.18 


{| Nett profit 
vol. 11. No. I. JAN. 1825. F 


Lire 831.18 


66 Mr. Murray on the Management of the Silk Worm. 


Note.—A Lira Milanese is equal to about 8d. and there 
are 20 Soldi in a Lira M. 

The calculation, as above, includes not only interest on ca- 
pital, but a valuation on the mulberry leaves, which is about 
one-half of the total expence. 


The Augmentation and Diminution of the Silk Worms in 
Weight and Size. 


Increasing Progression. Weight. Increasing Progression. Size. 
100 ova weigh about Grain 1 | The ova in the Ist instance say 1 Line- 
After the Ist change about 15 | After the Ist change, length say . 
2d change say 94 2d change, 3 
3d change say 400 3d change, . .- 12 
4th change say 1628 4th change, . - 20 
5th change say 9500 5thehange, . «» 40 


Note.—In thirty days the silk-worm has increased in 
weight 9500 times; and, in 28 days, the animal has aug- 
mented in size about 40 times. 

The French Line is equal to 1.67 Lines English, calculat- 
ing 100 Lines English to the inch. 


Decreasing Progression. 
Grains. 
100 Silk. Worms at their greatest size weigh above ; 1766 
100 chrysali weigh ‘ F x : 3900 
100 females weigh . : - . 2990 
100 males weigh : : ° 1700 
100 females, after the ova are degamted. weigh ° 980 


100 females, naturally dead, and the eggs or ova deposited, &c. 350 


In the space of above 28 days more the silk-worm has di- 
minished in weight about 30 times. Thus the length of the 
silk-worm from the time of its greatest increase to the mo- 
ment it is converted into the chrysalis, has diminished about 
three-fifths. 

The chrysalis is the intermediate state between the worm 
and the winged insect. 


. 
’ 
e 
“ ‘ , 

J 

. 
‘ 

, 
. 

. 

. 

3 

L 
+4 

x 
; 

- 

4 

; 
. 7 

. 


Fu. 
uu] At 
) 


Fi 
ug: vi 
6 


Ss 


———————— 


Mr. Haidinger on the Specific Gravity of Minerals. 67 


Space occupied by each ounce of Ova cultivated. 


In the first age an area of square Braccia * 4 
In second an area of ditto : ° 8 
In third an area of ditto c 5 19 
In fourth an area of ditto F Bs 45 
In fifth an area of ditto 4 A 100 


Note.—The Braccio di Milano is divided into 12 ounces 
or inches, and corresponds to 5,95 palms, which may be cal- 
culated at 22 English inches nearly. 


Amount in Weight of Mulberry Leaves consumed by the Silk 
Worms. For every ounce of Ova, there have been consumed 
1078 lbs. of Leaves, divided as follows, viz. 


First age eaten Ibs. 4 Leaves, &c. left destroyed unused. 
Second do. : 12 In first’ age : Ib. 1 
Third = do. . 40 In second do. 5 2 
Fourth do. z 120 In third do. : 6 
Fifth do. : 732 In fourth do. 3 18 
In fifth do. é 68 

lbs. 908 

Ibs. 95 


In the course of the management of the silk-worms, the 
1073 Ibs. of leaves from the tree (from evaporation, &c.) will 
have lost '70 lbs. 

Note.—There have been devoured by the silk-worm about 
515 lbs. of pure mulberry leaves. ‘The 1073 lbs. of leaves as 


taken from the tree will yield 80 lbs. of coccoons, calculating 
from one ounce of ova. 


Ant. 1X.—Account of the Specific Gravity of several Mine- 
rals, By Witt1am Harpinerr, Esq. F.R.S.E. Com- 
municated by the Author. 


Tue specific gravity of minerals is one of those physical pro- 
perties which are most useful for the student who intends to 
become acquainted with the inorganic productions of nature, 
since it can be very easily ascertained to a considerable de- 
gree of accuracy, and is constant in minerals of the same spe- 
cies, or at least ranges within very narrow limits, if we have 


68 Mr. Haidinger’s Account of the Specific Gravity 


taken care to employ specimens free from visible mechanical 
admixtures. ‘T'oo little attention has been bestowed by most 
mineralogists on this important branch of the resources of 
their science, and at a period of so assiduous labour as the 
present is in mineralogy, we are often referred to the deter- 
minations of Brisson or of Muschenbroek, in regard to the 
specific gravities of bodies, of which either the species was not 
correctly determined, or the great bulk employed in the ex- 
periment rendered the purity of the mass very problematic. 
Indications of this kind were taken upon authority, and trans- 
ferred from one mineralogical work into another, but seldom 
verified by subsequent observations ; nay, it happened some- 
times, that even if there were correct statemeuts ‘existing, yet 
erroneous ones have been ignorantly selected, and the de- 
scription of the species deprived of one of its most essential 
characters. ; 

I have arranged in the following list a part of a series of 
observations which I lately had occasion to make, and which 
were thought by some distinguished mineralogists to contain 
some interesting information, as they are pure matters of fact, 
relating to one of the most important departments of mineralo- 
gy. The specific gravities were all taken by means of hy- 
drostatic balances; and, what is the most necessary precau- 
tion in operations of this kind, the specimens were sufficiently 
purified, and the air bubbles which adhere to them when 
immersed in water disengaged. The numbers obtained by 
experiments at different temperatures, I have reduced to that 
of 15° centigr. or 59° Fahren. by means of tables of the spe- 
cific gravity of distilled water at different temperatures, pub- 
lished by Dr. Young and Prof. Tralles. Most of the experi- 
ments were made with distilled water, or water obtained from 
melting very pure snow, and a few of them with spring water, 
from which the air had been disengaged. The difference in 
the specific gravity of these fluids is so very slight, seldom 


exceeding 0.001, that it will be of no consequence to leave — 


it out of sight, as in general the range of the specific gravi- 
ties within a species is much greater than could be account- 
ed for by the difference in the specific gravity of the water 
employed for ascertaining it. The substances themselves are 


disposed nearly in the order of the system of Professor 


OE 


of Several Minerals. 69 


Mohs ; such species as are not yet enumerated in that sys- 
tem I have mentioned in those orders where they are likely 
to be included in future, and marked with an asterisk ; such 
as could not be included even in this manner, are reserved 
for an appendix. 

Orpver I. Hatorpr. 


- Gypsum, a perfectly white transparent crystal, from Oxford, 2.310 
2. Anhydrite, a rectangular four-sided prism, obtained by cleay- 


age, grey, semitransparent, from Hall, Tyrol, 2.899 
3. Alumstone, the crystallised variety on the surface exposed in 
the drusy cavities, from Tolfa, 2.694 
4. The compact part of the same specimens, 2.671 
5. Kryolite, the white cleavable variety, 2.963 
_ 6, Apatite, massive, asparagus-green, transparent, from Salzburg, 3.180 
7. Apatite, asparagus-green crystals, from Cabo de Gata, 3.225 
8. Fluor, combinations of the hexahedron and octahedron, dark 
violet-blue, from St. Gallen, Stiria, : 3.140 
9. Fluor, an octahedron obtained by cleavage, of a greenish- 
blue colour, from the Hartz, 3.163 
10. Fluor, twin-crystals, pale violet-blue by reflected light, yel- 
lowish white by transmitted light, Alston, 3.177 
11. Fluor, an octahedron obtained by cleavage, pale violet- 
blue, Alston, 3.178 
12. Arragonite, yellowish-white, perfectly Matt sigan crystals, 
from Bohemia, 2.931 
13. Calcareous spar, a brown cleavable variety, 2.715 
14. Calecareous spar, another brown cleavable variety, but pre- 
senting curved faces of cleavage, as 2.721 
15. Calcareous spar, crystallised in the form (P+1)3.R+o, 
white, semi-transparent, from Alston, Cumberland, 2.721 
16. Calcareous spar, yellowish grey, small individuals, aggre- 
gated in a granular composition, 2.727 
17. Caleareous spar, individuals of a columnar composition, 
honey-yellow, semi-transparent, 2.731 


18. Caleareous spar, in large cleavable individuals, of a reddish- 
brown colour, owing to the admixture of oxide of iron. ‘This 
variety was sent from Paris to the collection at Gratz, as Chaur 
carbonatée ferrijére, 2.778 
19. Calearous spar, white translucent cleavable masses, en- 
gaged in the hydrate of magnesia from Unst, (see OnpEr V. 20.) 2.647 
20. Caleareous spur, crystals of the form of the fundamental 
rhombohedron, associated with small crystals of adularia, epidote, 
and chlorite, from Dauphiné. 2.508 
This is a remarkable variety. I could not find a difference 
in its.angles or in its hardness from Iceland spar, and yet 


the substance seemed perfectly homogeneous. 


70 Mr. Haidinger’s. Account of the Specific Gravity 


21. Macrotypous lime-haloide, Brown-spar, greyish-white crys 

tals of the form R, perfectly cleavable in pretty even faces, lustre 

almost pearly. Is found in Gollinggraben in Salzburg, in fissures 

of a limestone rock, 3 2.842 
22. Brown spar, greyish-white, easily cleavable, affording bril- 

liant planes, Freiberg, 2.861 
23. Brown spar, reddish-white crystals of the form R. (P)3, 

from the Himmelfarth mine near Freiberg, 2.870 
24. Rhomb spar, greyish-white, cleavable, from a bed of ov- 

tahedral iron ore, where it is associated with amphibole, &c. from 


Presnitz, Bohemia, 2.859 
25. Dolomite, white granular composition, forming the massin 

which tremolite is imbedded, from St. Gothard, 2.859 
26. Rhomb spar, yellowish-white, perfectly cleavable, 2.878 
27. Ankerite,§ yellowish-white cleavable masses from Eisenerz, 

Stiria, 3.000 


28. Ankerite, in granular compositions consisting of small indi- 
viduals of a grey colour, from the Raiding mountain in Stiria, 3.049 
29. Ankerite, a greyish-white granular variety, from the val- 


ley of Rétz, in Stiria, 3.084 
30. Ankerite, large cleavable masses, of a cream-yellow colour, 

from Golrath, Stiria, 3.089 
31. Breunneritet, a clove-brown, perfectly cleavable variety, — 

forming imbedded crystals, from the Tyrol, 3.001 
*32,. Wavellite, globular shapes of a dirty asparagus-green co- 

lour, from Barnstaple, Devonshire, 2.337 


Orver II. Baryre. 


1. Red manganese, a massive variety, compound parallel to the 
planes of R— w, like slate spar, from Beschertgliick mine near 


Freiberg, 3.428 
2. Sparry iron, crystals from the Pfaffenberg mine, near Harz- 

gerode, in the Hartz, 3.829 
3. Prismatic Zinc-haryte, yellowish-white semi-transparent ~ 

crystals, from Rossegg, Carinthia, 3.380 


4. Rhombohedral Zinc-baryte, honey-yellow crystals, in the 


§ I venture to propose this name for the paratomous Lime-haloide of Mohs, in 
honour of Professor Anker of Gratz, an individual who has done much m in- 
vestigating the mineralogy of his country, Stiria, where this substance occurs in 
immense quantities, and has been first distinguished as a particular species by Pro- 
fessor Mohs. It is mentioned in the Edinburgh Journal of Science, No. II. p.325. 

+ This is the brachytypous Lime-haloide of Mohs, the carbonate of iron and 
manganese of Brooke. It was first discovered and distinguished from the other 
species of the genus Lime-haloide, by Mr. Mohs, while at Gratz, and described 
in his Characteristic of the Natural History System, published in 1820. It is 
named in honour of Count Breunner, an Austrian nobleman, well known in this 
country, who unites an extensive knowledge in several departments of natural 
history, with much zeal for the promotion of the sciences. 


shape of rough six-sided pyramids, from Altenberg, near Aix-la- 


of Several Minerals. 71 


Chapelle, 4 AAD 
5. Tungsten, a fragment of a yellowish-white translucent crystal, 
from Schlaggenwald, Bohemia, 6.076 
6. Strontianite, delicate white crystals, aggregated to globular 
groupes, from Braunsdorf, Saxony, 3.605 
7. Celestine, fragment of a cleavable white translucent mass, 
engaged in trap, from the Tyrol, y 3.858 
8.Witherite, a cleavable variety; yellowish-white, and semitrans- 
4.30 


parent, from Anglesark, Lancashire, 
9. Heavy spar, very thin tabular bluish-white semitransparent 


crystal, of the form primitive of Haiiy, from Kremnitz, Hungary, 4.412 

10. Heavy spar, a number of small transparent columnar crys- 
tals, of a white colour, from the Hartz, MALS 

11. Heavy spar, cleavable, very pale yellowish-grey, and trans- 
lucent, from Marienberg, Saxony, 

12. Heavy spar, the variety called prismatic heavy spar by 
Werner, pale yellow, transparent crystals, very perfectly formed, 
and imbedded in a large translucent crystal of straight lamellar 
heavy spar, 

13. Heavy spar, prisms obtained by cleavage, white, and se- 
mitransparent, 4.430 

14. Heavy spar, yellowish translucent crystals, from Kremnitz, 4.430 

15. Heavy spar, similar crystals from Beschertgliick, Freiberg, 4.445 

16. Heavy spar,white, semitransparent crystals, from Beschert- 
gliick, 4.446 

17. Heavy spar, smalt-blue transparent tabular crystals from 


4.415 


4.426 


Offenbanya, Transylvania, 4.A73 
18. Heavy spar, a white transparent crystal from Dufton, 

Westmoreland, 4.480 
19. Heavy spar, in white faintly translucent columnar comipo- 

sitions, commonly called columnar heavy spar, from the aban- 

doned mine of Lorenz Gegentrum, Freiberg, 4.488 
20. Heavy spar, a single columnar crystal, pale smoke-grey, 

translucent, from Hiskow near Nissburg, Bohemia, where it 

oceurs with copper-pyrites, blende, and calcareous spar, in a kind 

of septaria, 4.493 
21. Heavy spar, pale yellow transparent columnar crystals, 

from Przibram, Bohemia, 4.210 
22. Heavy spar, prisms obtained by cleavage from wax-yellow, 

translucent, tabular crystals, from Bleiberg, Carinthia, 4.679 


The two last varieties differ so much in their specific gra- 
vity from each other, and from the rest of the heavy spars, 
that I was led to suppose the angles of their forms would dif- 
fer from cach other. I had ere then measured the angles of 
several varieties, which did not agree with each other, and 
found that these differences in the angles were in close rela- 


72 Mr. Haidinger’s Account of the Specific Gravity 


tion with the degrees of specific gravity. I have not, how- 
ever, so far succeeded as to establish clearly the specific differ- 
ence among these substances, which is indicated by several 
of their properties. Mr. Mitscherlich is at present occupied 
in ascertaining several of them; and also in examining the 
chemical composition of the substances themselves, in search 
of the isomorphous bodies of sulphate of strontia and sul- 
phate of lead. 


23. Di-prismatic Lead-haryte, (carbonate of lead,) columnar 
compositions, perfectly white, almost opaque, from the Hartz, 6.339 
24. Di-prismatic Lead-baryte, similar composition, but of a 


yellowish colour, superficially almost brown, from the Hartz, 6.417 
25. Di-prismatic Lead-baryte, greyish-white, easily cleavable . 

crystals, from Bleiberg, Carinthia, 6.461 
26. Di-prismatic Lead-haryte, fragment of a white strongly 

translucent crystal, from Leadhills, 6.465 
272. Rhombohedral Lead-baryte, (phosphate of lead) a single 

green crystal, from Zschopau, Saxony, ” 7.098 
28. Arseniate of lead, bright yellow crystals, from Johanngeorg- 

enstadt, Saxony, : TAZ 


There is a considerable difference between this and the 
preceding variety in regard to specific gravity, but there is 
likewise a difference in the form. I found the inclination of 
the faces of the pyramid at the base = 80° 45’ in a green va- 
riety of phosphate from Freibiirg, = 80°44’, in a green va- 
riety of the same from Cornwall, = 79° 40’, in the yellow ar- 
seniate from Johanngeorgenstadt ; the correspondent angle in 
phosphate of lime is = 80° 25’. 


29. Hemi-prismatic Lead-haryte, (chromate of lead) several 
isolated crystals from Siberia, 6.004 
30. Pyramidal Lead-baryte, (molybdate of lead) longish deep ; 
wax-yellow crystals, from Bleiberg, Carinthia, 6.698 
31. Pyramidal Lead-baryte, fragments of an orange-yellow, 
perfect crystal, from Annaberg, Austria, 6.760 
32. Prismatic Lead-baryte, (sulphate of lead) broad deeply 
striated crystals, of a white colour, and faint translucency, from 


Leadhills, 6.228 
33. Prismatic Lead-baryte, erystals similar to the preceding, 

but of a brownish colour, from Leadhills, 6.255 
34. Prismatic Lead-haryte, a white translucent tabular crystal, 

from Leadhills, 6.298 
35. Prismatic Lead-baryte, fragments of a large semitranspa- 

rent crystal, from Leadhills, . 6.309 


2 


of Several Minerals. 73 


36. Axotomous Lead-baryte, (sulphato-tri-carbonate of lead, ) the 
acute crystals commonly called rhombohedrons, of a dark yellow- 


ish-grey colour, and translucent, from Leadhills, 6.266 
37. Axotomous Lead-baryte, the six-sided laminae, of a pale 
yellowish white colour, semitransparent, from Leadhills, 6.864 


During the late stay of Professors Mitscherlich and Rose 
in Edinburgh, I have had occasion to show them those spe- 
cimens from which I had derived the hemi-prismatic form of 
the species. ‘They have been perfectly convinced of the ac- 
curacy of my observations, called in question by Mr. Brooke, 
(Edin. Phil. Journ, No. XXI. p.157.) | They have also ob- 
served the double system of coloured rings exhibited by the 
mineral in polarised light, in a plane passing through the 
short diagonal of the oblique prism of 59° 40’, and the nume- 
rous regular compositions, not only deducible from experi- 
ments in polarised light, but also from the lines upon the 
face of P— om, and some that occur in other directions, of 
which I shall give a description, among the regular composi- 
tions of hemi-prismatic substances. 


38. White antimony, transparent crystals, about 1” in diame- 
ter, yellowish-white, from Braunsdorf, Saxony, 5.566 


Orver III. Kerare. 


1. Horn-ore, a very pure, greyish-white, translucent variety, 
compounded of granular individuals, from Peru, 5.552 


Orpver IV. Maracuite. 


1. Copper-green, massive, fracture conchoidal ; colour, dark 


verdigris green, translucent, from Siberia, 2.031 
2. Copper-green, thin botryoidal coats upon compact brown 

iron-ore, pale green, faintly translucent, Bannat, 2.206 
3. Prismatic Lirocone-malachite, (lenticular copper,) sky-blue _ 

erystals, from Cornwall, 2.926 
4. Prismatic Azure-malachite, (blue carbonate of copper,) frag- 

ments of very pure crystals, from Chessy, 3.831 
5. Malachite, a cleavable dark-green variety, from Chessy, 4.008 
6. Malachite, a fibrous dark-green variety, from Siberia, 3.802 
7. Malachite, perfectly compact, of a pale green colour, opaque, 

from Schwatz, Tyrol, 3.670 


8. Prismatic Habroneme-malachile, (phosphate of copper,) 
dark-green crystalline coat, from Rheinbreitbach on the Rhine, 4.206 
*9. The Radiated acicular olivenite of Jameson, oblique pris- 
matic arseniate of Phillips, globular shapes of a dark blue colour, 
a little greenish, translucent, 4.192 


74 Mr. Haidinger on the Specific Gravity of Minerals. 


* 10. Scorodite, pale green, semi-transparent crystals, from 
Stamm Asser am Graul, Saxony, 


Orper V. Mica. 


1. Vivianite, (phosphate of iron,) fragments of transparent 
crystals, from St. Agnes, Cornwall, 

2. Cobalt-bloom, (arseniate of cobalt,) red acicular crystals, per- 
fectly cleavable, from Schneeberg, Saxony, 

3. Cobalt-bloom, showing red and green colours in the same 
crystals, from Gotthold-stolln near Platten, Bohemia, 

4. Tale, apple-green laminae, from the Greiner mountain in 
Salzburg, 

5. Chlorite, loose scaly particles of a dark green colour, earthy 
chlorite of Werner, 

6. Chlorite, massive, composed of large granular individuals, 
dark green, from the Rothen Kopf mountain in Salzburg, 

7. Chlorite, of the same kind, only the individuals smaller, 

8. Chlorite, a similar variety, consisting of still smaller indi- 
viduals, 

9. Chlorite in large laminae, and most perfectly cleavable, more 
translucent, from the same locality, 

10. Chlorite, liver-brown rhombic prisms, imbedded in compact 
green chlorite, from the same locality, 

11. Chlorite, composition almost impalpable, and fracture slaty, 
of a dark mountain-green colour, 

This variety contains minute crystals of rutile. 

12. Green-earth, a compact, celandine-green variety, from 
Monte Baldo, near Verona, 

On account of the difficulty of obtaining it free from mecha- 

_ nical admixtures, this specific gravity is perhaps not quite exact. 

13. Mica, perfectly cleavable individuals, engaged in granite, 
showing iridescent fissures parallel to the laminae, colour oil-green 
perpendicular to the axis, more brown parallel to it, from the 
Schwamberg Alps in Stiria, 

It has two axes of double refraction, like the white mica from 
Siberia. 

14. Mica, perfectly black, in a granular composition, exhibiting 
a tendency to slaty structure, from the district of Pinzgau in Salz- 
burg, 

15, Mica, silver-white crystals from Zinnwald, Saxony, 

16. Mica, greenish-black, in large perfectly cleavable individu- 
als, Siberia, A 

17. Lepidolite, peachblossom-red, compound of granular indi- 
viduals, from Rosena, Moravia, 

18. Another specimen of the same, f 

19. Pearl-mica, perfectly cleavable, reddish-white crystals, 

*20. Hydrate of magnesia, white laminae, perfectly cleavable 
and translucent, from Unst, 


(To be continued.) 


3.162 


2.661 


2.946 


3.033 


2.744 


2.706 


2.713 
2.729 


2.731 


2.775 


2.781 


2.799 


2.834 


2.883 


2.911 
2.945 


2.949 
2.831 
2.833 
3.022 


2.350 


. 
SS 


~~ 
or 


Sir Thomas Brisbane’s Meteorological Tables. 


Art. X.—On the Meteorological Tables kept in 1822 at 
Macquarie Harbour and Hobart’s Town in Van Diemen’s 
Land, and transmitted to the Royal Society of Edin- 
burgh. By his Excellency Sir THomas Briszanr, K.C.B. 
F.R.S.* 


Tue Meteorological Registers now laid before the Society 
were kept in the year 1822, and contain regular observations 
on the barometer and thermometer, and on the general state 
of the weather. 

The state of the barometer and thermometer was marked 
Jive times a day, or every three hours, from 9 o’clock in the 
morning till 9 at night. Had the observations been con- 
tinued during the night at 12 o’clock, and at 3 and 6 in the 
morning, the average of these would have given a very cor- 
rect measure of the mean temperature of the day; but as 
the thermometer was not marked at these hours, it becomes 
necessary to reject entirely the observations made at noon, 
and at 3 and 6 o’clock in the evening, and to deduce the 
mean temperature from those made at 9 o’clock in the morn- 
ing, and 9 o’clock in the evening. 

By this process, the propriety of which cannot admit of 
the slightest doubt, we obtain the following mean monthly 
temperatures for Hobart Town and Macquarie Harbour : 


1822. Hobart Town. Macquarie Harbour. 
January, 63°.06 Fah. 64°.23 
February, 63.07 64.23 | estomet 
March, 55.46 : 56.00 
April, 53.47 57.56 
May, 45.72 48.88 
June, 40.68 u 43.05 
July, 40.18 45.46 
August, 45.56 48.40 
September, 47.13 58.79 
October, 54.06 * 56.51 
November, 57.60 57,90 
December, 63.04 64.23 

Mean, 529.42 55°44 


* These valuable Tables haye been deposited in the Library of the Royal So- 
ciety. As they are too bulky for publication, the following Report upon them 


was drawn up by the Secretary, and read to the Society. 


76 Sir ‘Thomas Brisbane’s Meteorological Tables. 


Hence the mean annual temperature of Hobart 'Town at 
a point 281 feet above the level of the sea, and situated in 
42° 53’ 22” of south latitude, and 147° $4’ 39” of east longi- 
tude, is 52°.42; and the mean annual temperature of Mac- 
quarie Harbour, at a point 26 feet above the level of the sea, 
and situated in 42° 11’ 88” of south latitude, and 145° 27 
30” of east longitude, is 55°.44. 

As these observations, along with those made at Paramatta, 
are the only ones that have been made in the southern hemi- 
sphere, with the exception of those made at the Cape of Good 
Hope, they become of great importance, in so far as they 
enable us to compare the distribution of heat in the southern, 
with that which takes place in the northern haif of the globe. 

The latitude of Hobart Town does not differ greatly from 
that of Rome, and yet the mean temperature of Rome is 
60°.44, while that of Hobart Town is only 52°.42, making a 
difference in favour of the European climate of nearly 7°, 
when an allowance is made for the difference of latitude. 

On the other hand, the town of Salem in Massachusets, 
which has almost exactly the same latitude as Hobart Town, 
possesses a mean temperature of 48°.68, making a difference 
in favour of the Australasian climate of nearly 4°. 

The climate of Hobart Town, therefore, is intermediate 
between that of Europe and America, and affords us reason 
to believe that the isothermal lines in the southern hemi- 
sphere are related, as they are in the northern one, to two 
poles of maximum cold, which have nearly the same position 
as the magnetic poles of the earth. 

In order to determine this point, I have computed the 
mean temperature of Hobart Town, by supposing the poles 
of maximum cold to have the same position in the southern 
as they have in the northern hemisphere. If we suppose the 
pole nearest to Hobart Town to have the same degree of 
cold as the American pole, then the mean temperature of 
Hobart Town will be 53°.11 ; differing little more than half a 
degree from the observed mean temperature ; and if we sup- 
pose it to be the same as the Asiatic Pole, the mean tempera- 
ture will be 54°.67, differing 2° from observation. It de- 
serves to be remarked, however, that both these computed re- 
sults lie between the mean temperature actually observed at 


Mr. Foggo on the Echinodermata of the Frith of Forth. (7 


Hobart Town and at Macquarie Harbour; so that either of 
the two formulae which represent the distribution of heat in 
the northern hemisphere gives for Van Diemen’s Land results 
so correct as to be comprehended within the range of those 
which have been deduced from observation. 

By comparing the mean temperature of Van Diemen’s 
Land with that of the Cape of Good Hope, as ascertained 
by many accurate observations reduced by Mr. Colebrooke, 
we obtain a position for the eastern pole of maximum cold in 
the southern hemisphere corresponding with the position of 
the opposite Pole in the northern hemisphere. 

In the letter from Sir Thomas Brisbane which accompa- 
nies these registers, he promises to transmit to the Royal So- 
ciety of Edinburgh the registers kept in New Holland, at Para- 
matta, the seat of government, and also at Sydney; and he 
mentions the very remarkable fact, which we believe to be 
unexampled, that though these two places are distant only 
ten miles, yet their mean annual temperature differs near TEN 
degrees! Sir Thomas conceives, that the cause of this re- 
markable fact is local, and that he will be able to give a satis- 
factory physical eee gs of it. D. B. 


Art. XI.—WNotice of the Echinodermata of the Frith of Forth. 
By Mr. Joun Focao, Junior, Leith. Communicated by 
_ the Author, 


Or the echinodermatous Radiaria which inhabit the Frith 
of Forth, the most frequent are the different species of Aste- 
rias and Ophiura. The Asteriae are the 

A. glacialis. 'This species appears to be gregarious, and 
is very abundant on the sea-shore near the neighbourhood of 
Leith and Newhaven. I have found some specimens with 
three rays, and. only the rudiments of the other two visible. 

A. rubens and A. papposa. 'These two species inhabit the 
Black Rocks near the Martello Tower, where they may be 
found at all seasons of the year. They are very often thrown 
ashore by the tides. 

During the storm that occurred here in the second week of 
October 1624, a small species was picked up by Mr. R. Pol- 


18 Mr. Foggo on the Echinodermata of the Frith of Forth. 


lock, which does not appear to have been observed before. 
Its characters are, “ above, muricated, disc well defined, ele- 
vated; the rays convex, 9 in number, longer than the breadth 
of the disc.” It is about three inches in breadth, of a lively 
red colour, and the rays have the appearance of being slight- 
ly palmated. If it be a new species, it might be assigned a 
place in the British Fauna with the trivial name Rotata. 


Of the Ophiurae, the most common on eur coast is the 

O. echinata. It may be often found at low water-mark 
between Leith and Portobello, and among the roots of the 
 jJarger fuci left by the tide. When thrown ashore alive they 
often bury themselves in the sand. 

O. lacertosa occurs in great numbers at Portobello har- 
bour among the rejectamenta of the sea. I have never seen 
it alive. 

O. bodotriae. 1 have given this name to a species of which 
I found several specimens in August 1824, near Gosford 
House. In appearance it is exactly intermediate between the 
O. echinata and lacertasa. 

It is about the same size as the former, of a light brownish 
red, and may be easily distinguished by its spines, which are 
strong, patent, and very short, their length not exceeding one 
half the breadth of the ray ; while in O. echinata they are 
much longer, and in the lacertosa, very delicate, and closely 
adpressed so as to be scarcely visible. 

Good essential characters might perhaps be drawn from 
the form and arrangement of the scales. On the O. echinata 
there are two triangular scales, at the insertion of each of the 
rays, their smallest angles directed to the centre, the rest of 
the disc being covered with tubercles and spines in form of a 
stem; and, in full grown specimens at least, a ridge of tu- 
bercles extends throughout the whole length of the ray. O. 
bodotriae has the disc covered with orbicular scales arranged 
nearly in concentric circles, and separated from each other, 
as are the elliptical scales of the rays, by minute papillae and 
smaller scales. In the axils of the rays in the O. lacertosa, 
there is a small scale beautifully crested ; on the disc, at the 
insertion of the rays, there are two similar scales as in the 
O. echinata, differing in size and figure from the others, 


Dr. Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, &c. 79 


which are mostly angular, and arranged in the form of a star 
with ten rays. 
Echinus esculentus. This animal is seldom or never thrown 


ashore; but it is taken in great numbers by fishermen when 


dredging for oysters. 

When floating on the surface of the water, as I have seen 
them on the coast of Fife, they may be approached with ease, 
but they sink the moment they are touched, or disturbed by 
the slightest rippling of the water. } 

Spatangus canaliferus. Among some hundreds which I 
have picked up, not more than two contained the living ani- 
mal. Great numbers are often thrown ashore in Aberlady 
Bay, about a furlong to the east of Gosford House, and more 
sparingly on Portobello sands. 


Art. XII.—Observations on the Temperature of the Sea 
and the Air, made during a Voyage from the Cape of Good 
Hope to St. Helena, in 1820. By Joun Davy, M. D. 
F.R.S. Communicated by the Author. 


Ir was our intention to have reimbarked early yesterday morn- 
ing, but we were prevented by a strong SE. wind. It mode- 
rated a little however in the afternoon, and we went on board. 
We sailed the same evening by moonlight, the wind blow- 
ing almost a gale. 
April 20. 
Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 


125 w. 64° 59° —_ SE. moderate, clear. Out of 
sight of land, water greenish. 


At daylight this morning no land was to be seen; and at 
noon the Captain was of opinion that we were not in soundings. 

It is a curious circumstance, that the temperature of the 
sea near the Cape shore should be several degrees lower than 
the mean annual temperature of the coast. 


April 21. S. Lat. 31°38’, E. Long. 14°. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
125 w. 69° 67° 6° SE, gentle, clear, water blue. 
6p.mM. 66.5 65 5 Do. do. do. 
8 66.5 —_— 3 Do. do. do. 


The night was fine, and the breeze steady. 


80 Dr. Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, 
April 22. S. Lat. 30° 6’, E. Long. 11° 42, 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
Sha. m. 67° 67° 4° SSE. gentle, clear. 
10 69 68 5 Do. do. do. 
12 68.5 68.5 5 Do. moderate, do. 
2p.m. 68.5 67.5 3 Do. do. do. 
6 68 68 2.5 SSW. do. do. 


The night was fine, and the breeze gentle. At noon the cur- 
rent was setting strong to the west, and a little to the south. 


April 23. S. Lat. 28° 45’, E. Long. 9° 58’. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
Sb a.m. 67° 68° a” SSE. gentle, clear. 
10 68 68 2 Do. do. do. 
12 67 68 1.5 S. moderate, do. 
2P.Mu. 67 - 68 2 Do. do. do. 
6 67.5 68 2.5 Do. do. do. 
8 67 —_ 1.5 Do. do. do. 


The night was fine. After sunset every thing on deck 
seemed to be covered with dew; but a glass wiped clean and 
dry, and exposed to the air for half an hour, remained perfect- 
ly dry. The sails were quite wet in the morning. Does this 
effect arise from the deliquescence of salt, or is it owing part- 
ly to this, and partly to the formation of dew connected with 
the deliquescent salt, and not occurring when the latter does 
not take place? Perhaps the salt may have a disposing ef- 
fect in regard to dew, somewhat similar to that which lime 
has in respect to the formation of saltpetre. 


April 24, S. Lat. 26° 55’, East Long. 7° 34. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
Sha. mM. 68° 69° 5° SE. moderate, rather cloudy. 
10 68.5 69 6 SSE. fresh, pretty clear. 
12 68 68.5 6.5 Do. do. rather cloudy. 
2P.m. 67.5 68.5 5 Do. do. pretty clear. 
6 67.5 68 5.5 Do. — do. clear. 


The night was fine. The current during the last forty- 
eight hours has been setting pretty strongly to the west. This 
morning a flying-fish was seen. 


during a Voyage from the Cape to St. Helena. gl 
April 25. 8. Lat. 24° 56’, E. Long. 5° 26’. 


Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 
Sh a.m. 69° 698 ae SE. moderate, clear. 
10 70.5 69 7 Do. do. do. 
12 71.5 69.5 8 Do. do. do. 
3p.m. 69 69 6 Do. do. pretty clear. 
6 68 67 6 SSE. do. cloudy. 


The night was cloudy, and the wind gentle. The current 
in the last twenty-four hours has been setting to the west. 


April 26. S. Lat. 23° 32’, E. Long. 4° 4. 


Air, Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 
8h a.m. 69° 69° 4° East, gentle, overcast. 
10 71.5 70 5 Do. do. cloudy. 
12 72 70.5 6 Do. almost calm, do. 
=P. Me 71 70.5 6 Do. do. clear. 
6 68.5 70 2.5 Do. do. do. 
9 68.5 _ 2.5 Do. do. do. 


There appears to have been no current during the last 
twenty-four hours. Dr. Halley observed, that an east wind at 
St. Helena commonly produced a cloudy sky. 


April 27. S. Lat. 23° 2’, E. Long. 3° 30’. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8h a.m. 71° 70° 58 East, almost calm, clear. 
10 72 70.5 7 Do. very gentle, do. 
12 73 71 8 Do. do. light clouds. 
3P.M. 73 72 7 Do. nearly calm, do. 
6 70 71 6 Do. calm, do. 
8 69 _ 5 Doz - da 4g do. 


The night was fine, and calm till midnight, when a gentle 
breeze sprung up from the NW. 


April 28, S$. Lat. 22° 43’, E, Long. 3° 26’. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8h a. um. 70° 71° 5°.5 NW. very gentle, light clouds. 
10 72 71 6 NNW. do. clear. 
12 72.5 72 6.5 Do. do. do. 
3pm. 73 72 7 Do. do. do. 
6 70 71 5 W. by N. gentle, cloudy. 
9 70 — 4 S. by N. do. do. 


VOL. II. NO. I. JAN. 1825. G« 


82 Dr. Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, 


The night was moderate, and the wind gentle till about 
midnight, when it freshened, and came round more to the 
south. 


April 29. §. Lat. 21° 28’, E, Long. 2 8 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
sh a.m. 70% 70°.5 6° SSE. fresh, pretty clear. 
10 70.5 71 6.5 SE. do. do. 
¥2 70.5 ve 6.5 Do. do. do. 
3r.m. 70 71 6 Do. do. do. 
6 70 71 6 Do. do. do. 


The night was fine, and the wind moderate. 


April 30, S. Lat. 20° 6’, E. Long. 0°19’. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8 a.m 70° TS 8° SSE. moderate, overcast. 
10 70.5 72 8 Do. do. do. 
12 71.5 72 8.5 Do. do. pretty clear. 
3Pr.M. 70.5 72.25 7.5 Do. do. do. 
6 70 72 q Do. do. clear. 


The night was fair. Towards morning the wind changed, 
became more easterly, and produced a cloudy sky. 


May 1. S. Lat. by Dr. R. 18° 44’, W. Long. 1° 22’. 


Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 
8h a. Me 70°.5 72° 10° ESE. moderate, cloudy. 
10 Wh5 72.5 10 Do. do. overcast. 
12 72.5 72 il East, do. do. 
3r.Mm. %2 72.5 8 Do. do, clear overhead. 
6 71 12 9 Do. do. clear. 
10 71.5 a 10 ESE. do. do. 


The night was fine. 
May 2. §. Lat. by Dr. R. 17° 31’, W. Long. 2° 44’. 


Air. Water. Hyg. Wind and Weather. 
8 a. Mm. 73° 72°.5 9° _ ESE. moderate, clear. 
10 126° | M8 85 E.byS. do. do. 
12 73.5 73 8.5 E. by N. dv. do. 
3r.M. 73 73.5 8.5 NE. do. cloudy. 
6 72 13 9 E, do. clear. 


The night was fine. 


during a Voyage from the Cape to St. Helena. 83 
May 3. S. Lat. 16°19’, W. Long. 4° 27’. 


Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 

Sha. mM. 73° 739.5 8° East, moderate, cloudy 
10 15 73.5 10 ENE. do. do. 
126 14 10 Do. do. clear. 
3e.M. 73.5 74 8.5 Do. do. do. 
6 72.5 74 8.5 E. by N. do. do. 


The night was fine. 


May 4. S. Lat. 15°55’, Long. and James’s Town 5° 36’ 30” 


West. 
Air. Water. Hysgr. Wind and Weather. 

Gha. uM. 72° 73°:8 1 ESE. moderate, cloudy. 

8 72.5 73.5 8 Do. do. do. 
10 74 74 9 Do. do. do. 

12 76 [4 10 Do. do. do. 

lrp.™M. 74 _ Do. do. do. 7 miles from shore. 
2 74.5 — Do. do. do. 4 miles from shore. 
3 75 74.5 7 Do. do. do. ~*~ 

44 74.5 _ Do. do. do. 3 miles from shore. 
6 74 74.5 7 Do. do. do. 4 a mile off James’s 


town, at anchor in 21 fathoms. 


May 5. At anchor off James’s Town. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
ThA Me — 74° _ 


As we approached nearer St. Helena, the land appeared 
bolder, and when we were only two or three miles distant, 
the features of the island were wild and grand in the extreme, 
consisting of perpendicular and very lofty cliffs, craggy peaks 


‘and hills, and mountains parched, brown, and barren, as if 


just thrown up by a volcano. The only exception to this re- 
mark appeared in the high central neck of land, where there 
‘was a stripe of verdure, and where we could distinguish the 
buildings of Longwood. 

In consequence of the dark bottom of the road, the water, 
even in soundings, continues of a dark blue colour. It is re- 
markable that in approaching St. Helena, the temperature 
‘of the sea at its surface does not change. This is probably 
owing to the peculiarity of the island being situated in the 


84 Dr. Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, &c. 


unfathomable ocean, and not surrounded by shoals, as islands 
generally are. . 

Very little is known respecting the climate of St. Helena. 
More rain is said to fall at Plantation House, than in the 
wettest part of Devonshire. The mean annual temperature 
appears to be 64°, the thermometer rarely falling to 54°, and 
seldom rising to 74°. For weeks together in the house, it has 
been observed at 64°. The temperature of Longwood is con- 
sidered a little lower than that of Plantation House, and that 
of James’s Town about 10° higher. 

This island is generally considered as of volcanic origin, and 
all my observations confirm this opinion. The rock of which 
the island consists exhibits great variety. In some places it 
is very like basalt in texture, colour, and general character. 
In other places it is extremely porous, vesicular and cellular, 
indeed almost cavernous. Very often it has quite the appear 
ance of a slag. In a part of a rock remarkably cellular, sta- 
lactites had formed exactly like some I had seen in the Mu- 
seum of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and which had been 
brought by Sir George Mackenzie from Iceland, and were 
decidedly of igneous origin. ‘The substance of those I saw 
at St. Helena was very like compact basalt. In some places 
the rock showed a slaty structure, the imperfect strata ap- 
pearing variously inclined. 

In point of disposition to decompose, the rock exhibits 
much variety. In the same mass some part is entirely de- 
composed and converted into clay, another part is undergoing 
the change, and in different states of iis progress, while ano- 
ther part is not in the least altered. ‘The decay of course is 
greatest at the surface, where the rock is exposed to the at- 
mosphere, but it is not confined to the exposed parts. The 
clays which are formed from the decayed rock are of several 
colours, of which brick red and pink red are the most com- 
mon. The latter I suspect is produced by manganese. I 
did not see or hear of any beds of ashes or of pumice in the 
island. 

Owing to the facility with which most of the rocks decom- 
pose, the soil is in general deep. Even in the most barren 
spots in the neighbourhood of James’s town, there did not 


appear to be any deficiency of soil, and I have no doubt that 
5 


Mr. Foggo on an Insect found in the wood ofa Tabie. 85 


if the lower grounds were as well watered as the higher 
ones, they would be little inferior to them in fertility. 

At St. Helena the quantity of rain that falls seems to be 
proportioned to the height, but in what ratio I could not as- 
certain. At James’s town very much less falls than at Plan- 
tation house, and much seldomer at the former than at the 
Jatter. Lime occurs in two places in the island. It was de- 
scribed to be imbedded in the Lava Rock, and is an ageluti- 
nated mass. I could not see a specimen of it ; but from what 
I could learn, it is a saturated carbonate. ' 

Although it is said that no minerals cecur in the island, yet 
I found several specimens of lamelliform stilbite, and two or 
three specimens of mesotype imbedded in Java, resembling 
basalt. Near the landing place, and in my ride to Longwood, 
I think I detected olivine and augite in a very compact lava. 


_I am not quite certain of this, as the crystals were very 


small, and my examination of them hurried. 

We returned from our ride to James’s town about two 
o'clock ; and almost immediately after sunset weighed anchor, 
and continued our course. 

Diana’s Peak, the highest-point of the island, is stated to be 
2692 feet above the level of the sea. The following heights 


I determined by the barometer : 
Height above the Sea. 


Cuckold’s Point - . : 4 2672 feet. 
Hlalley’s Mount p ’ J 4 2467 
Flag Staff - = : - , 2272 
Bun , 4 - . : : 2015 
Longwood . : . , . 1762 


Arr. XIII.— Account of an Insect of the Genus Urocerus, 
which came out of the Wood of a Table. By Mr, Joun 
Focco, Leith, Communicated by the Author. 


Tue insect I am about to describe is a species of Urocerus, 

and is quite distinct from the U. gigas, the only British spe- 
cies which has any resemblance to it. It protruded from a 
folding table of fir veneered with mahogany. When the in- 
sect was discovered, the table had been folded for some days ; 
and what first excited observation, was a large quantity of 


86 Mr. Foggo on an Insect found in the wood of a Table, 


very fine dust which covered the whole of the: under: leaf. 
On examination, it was found to have proceeded from a hole 
in the upper leaf, and to have been occasioned by the insect, 
in attempting to escape from its confinement. It had pene- 
trated the under leaf to the depth of % of an inch. . Fortu- 
nately, the table was in the possession of Mr. Robert Strong, 
junior, a gentleman who could well appreciate the value of 
the incident. Mr. Strong carefully removed the imsect from 
its cell, and found it dead, no doubt suffocated, the circula- 
tion of air in the room recoiling upon it the dust which its 
own exertions had made. Having taken proper precautions, 
he has so far succeeded, as now to have it in a tolerable state 
of preservation, with the exception of the antennae and palpi, 
which gave way in the process. See Plate II. Fig, 4.- Itis 
in length rather more than an inch, exclusive of the horn-like 
process which gives the generic name, and is two lines long. 
When the animal was discovered, the antennae were reflected, 
lying close to the back, and reached to the anterior of the last 
segment of the abdomen. One of the palpi is still attached to 
the head; it is of a yellow colour, increasing in thicknesstowards 
the tip. ‘The head is rather compressed than globular, with 
a large yellow protuberance behind each eye. The throat, 
trunk, and part of the head are covered with short stiff brown 
hairs. The scutellum is ovato-acuminated, of a dark brown 
colour; the thighs and anterior segments of the abdomen are 
also of a brown colour, the rest yellow. The vagina extends 
about three lines beyond the extremity of the horn. 

Within these few years, several instances exactly similar 
to the above have been published, but as yet no satisfactory 
explanation has been given. By some naturalists, they have 
been considered quite analogous to the well-known facts of 
reptiles being found alive in solid rocks, and have been re- 
ferred to the same cause, a temporary suspension of the vital 
functions. The circumstances, however, are essentially dif- 
ferent. We have reason to believe, that the reptiles were 
enclosed in the same state as when they were discovered. 
But with respect to the insects, in whatever state they enter- 
ed the tree, they must have undergone some of the different 
processes of transformation. It becomes, therefore, interest- 
ing to ascertain in what state the animal has existed during 


eS ee. ee eee 


Mr. Foggo on an Insect found in the wood of a Table. 87 


its confinement, and what are the causes which have retard- 
ed its advancement to maturity. A late author has conjectur- 
ed, that the ovum from which the insect was produced, hav- 
ing been prevented from undergoing the necessary evolution, 
had retained its animating principles till summoned into ac- 
tion by some change in its relation to external objects; and 
further, that it might have lain dormant for an indefinite 
space of time. The same author has likewise endeavoured 
4o explain in this manner the periodical visitation of the lo- 
cust, palmer worm, Hessian fly, &c. with the additional hy- 
pothesis that certain modifications of the atmosphere may be 
peculiarly favourable for their production. This explanation, 
however, is liable to several objections. It is difficult to con- 
ceive any cause that could operate year after year in pre- 
venting the animal from arriving at maturity, and that too, 


apparently in the very situation selected by the instinct of 


the mother. Moreover, on examining the cavity in which 


‘this animal was lodged, it is evident that, while within the 


tree, it must have passed its life in an inert state. This is a 
fact which is scarcely consistent with our knowledge of the 


economy of insects, for they are, I believe, always most vora- 


cious in the larva state. It is, therefore, most. probable, that 
the larva penetrated the tree in order to prepare for becom- 
ing a chrysalis, and having at last assumed its perfect form, 
emerged into light in the usual time. That the insect made 
its appearance in the ordinary period peculiar to the species, 
is rendered probable from several collateral facts. It is well 
known that several species of insects remain in the chrysalis 
for many years; that the locust appears in numbers, once on- 
ly in 17 years, and the palmer worm in 30 years, yet these 
are cycles not recognised by meteorologists. The tribe Uro- 
cerata is also subject to periodical swarming, ‘‘ et paraissent 
certaines années en telle abondance quils ont été pour le peuple 
un sujet deffroi.” Mr. Marsham mentions, that several in- 
dividuals of the Urocerus Gigas issued from the planks 
forming the floor of a bed-room. A solitary individual of 
the U. psyllius was taken in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, 
which very likely found its way into this country by a simi- 
lar means. 


88 Mr. Haidinger on the Regular Composition 


Ant. XIV.—On the Regular Composition of Crystallized Bo- 
dies. By Wi111aM Harpincer, Esq. F. R.S. KE.) Com- 
municated by the Author.—(Continued from Vol. I. oa 
333.) 


Amone those minerals of the rhombohedral system, which 
present regular composition in directions inclined to the axis, 
Calcareous spar is one, whose individuals assume a great num- 
ber of different positions, and produce a variety of curious 
and interesting phenomena; not only from the position of 
the individuals, but also from the mode in which their sub- 
stance is extended in regard to the faces of composition. 

One of the rarer occurrences is represented Plate III. Fig. 1. 
The form of the individuals is that of the rhombohedron, 
R—1, called éguiaxe by Haiiy. The axis of revolution is 
parallel, the plane of composition perpendicular to one of the 
edges of this rhombohedron. Its crystallographic sign will 
be R—1, pat. The rhombohedron in this variety 
is occasionally combined with the faces of R+ a ;_I found 
it in the Ludewig vein in the mine of Beschertgliick, near 
Freiberg. 

More frequently the regular composition is parallel to one 
of the faces of R, the rhombohedron of 105° 5’, which is the 
fundamental form of the species. One of the most simple va- 
rieties is that of Fig. 2, a group from the Hartz, in the col- 
lection of the Mining Academy at Freiberg. Its sign is 
R—o@.R+o, {5}. Thus, likewise, Fig. 3. is compo- 
sed; the form of the simple individuals, however, is R — 1. 
R-+o. This variety is from the Himmelsfiirst mine, near 
Freiberg. If the prism is long in comparison with the diame- 
ter of the crystals, the compound group takes a geniculated 
appearance, not uncommon among the claviform crystals from 
Braunsdorf near Freiberg, of which Fig. 4. is a representa- 
tion. I have seen a specimen from the same locality, in the 
possession of Mr. Breithaupt, in which the substance of the 
two individuals was continued beyond the face of composition, 
and produced the cruciform appearance of Fig. 5, designated 


Published. ty W Llackwood Kiinburgh 


of Crystallized Bodies. 89 


by R—1. R+1.R +o, 2 fe} The composition of 
some of those called heart-shaped twins, first described by 
_-Count Bournon, may be explained according to the same law. 
Mr. Allan possesses a beautiful crystal of this kind, which is re- 
presented in Fig. 6. Its crystallographic sign is R — 1. (P)°. 
R + o@, {> xt Another equally interesting crystal is the one 
of Fig. ‘7, likewise in Mr. Allan’s collection, and denoted by 
(PY. R40, ft}. In a regular composition of the simple 
pyramid according to this law, Fig. 8, the edges w and x 
will include an angle of 144° 32’. It is an acute terminal edge 
‘of each crystal, which terminates here in the re-entering angle. 
The crystals of this and the preceding variety are generally 
a little flattened, as represented i in the figures. The angle 
included by the cima w and w is= 141° Ww. 

The most common, however, of all the regular coniposi- 
tions in Calcareous spar, is that parallel to one, or even pa- 
rallel to all the faces of R—J. Of the first of these cases, 
Figs. 9. 10. and 11. represent interesting varieties. Fig. 9 
is expressed by the sign R—o. R—1. R+1.R +a, 

Fh. It refers to a variety from the Hartz, in the posses- 
sion of Mr. Sack of Bonn. Fig. 10. is from the mine of Him- 
melsfiirst near Freiberg. I have been indebted for a speci- 
men of it to Mr. Euler of Deuxponts. Its crystallographi¢ 
sign is R—1.R+0, Ft: The variety, Fig. 11, ex- 
pressed by (P)", {=}, has been discovered by Mr. Allan 
in a vein eighteen inches wide, and consisting only of this 
species, near Westmanhaven in Stromoe, one of the Faroe 
islands, and first described by Count Bournon. The crystals 
are perfectly transparent, and generally lengthened in the di- 
rection of a, as the figure indicates. The variety Fig. 12, 
from Chamouni, in the collection of Mr, Allan, is expressed by 
R— ow. R, 2 {8}. The two individuals do not terminate 

at the face of composition, but they reach beyond it, which 
produces the cruciform aspect of the whole, and the parallel- 
ism of the face P in one, with P’ in the other individual. The 
incidence of o on o’ is = 127° 29’. The face of composition in 
_ Fig. 13. is perpendicular to one of the terminal edges of R. 
This is the supplemental composition of that according to 
which Figs. 9. 10. and 11. are grouped. The variety Fig. 12. 


90 Mr. Haidinger on the Regular Composition 


contains them both, and thus demonstrates that the two ap- 
parently different laws of composition enter in fact within a 
single one. The signof Fig. 13.is R—1. R.R +1. (P)°. 
R+ o,{*—-"}. It has been found at Bleiberg, in Carinthia. 
The angle at which the acute terminal edges x and 2’ of the 
two individuals meet, is = 106° 16. Fig. 14. represents the 
simple pyramid (P)*, composed according to this law, per- 
pendicular to an edge of R, and forms an interesting point of 
comparison with Fig. 15, which contains two individuals pos- © 
sessing the same simple form, but joined according to the 
above-mentioned supplemental law, parallel to one of the 
faces of R—1. The inclination of the two obtuse edges y 
and y is =171° 18’. Both these kinds of composition are 
united in Fig. 16, which will serve to illustrate the mode of 
their formation. A variety similar to Fig. 15. is preserved 
in the Wernerian collection at Freiberg. 

In Fig. 17, which represents a group of crystals of the 
form R —1.R +1, {r-1.r}, the composition takes place 
perpendicularly to all the terminal edges of R at once, so that 
the group seems to consist of a central crystal, round which 
the others are aggregated. Generally, however, in this case 
each of the crystals joined to the central one, again has crystals 
attached to it, according to the same law. This variety has 
been found at Moldawa, in the Bannat, where it occurs with 
malachite and brown iron ore. 

If R, the fundamental rhombohedron of the species itself, 
be composed parallel to one of the faces-of R — 1, the result 
will be like Fig. 18, a form which it is very common to ob- 
tain among the cleavages of this species. Among many ex- 
amples, some of the most distinct are found in the varieties 
from the Pfaffenberg mine, near Harzgerode. Generally, 
however, the reversed situation of one of the parts of the 
rhombohedron in respect to the other, is soon interrupted by 
another part of the first joming in a plane parallel to the for- 
mer composition, which again makes room for part of the se- 
cond, and so on, and thus produces a succession of laminze 
belonging to two individuals, Fig. 19. If these plates are 
thin enough, they produce striz upon two opposite faces of 
a rhombohedron parallel to the horizontal diagonals, which 
will be observable upon all the faces of cleavage, if the com- 


of Crystallized Bodies. 91 


position take place parallel to all the faces of R—1. Very 
often the substance of the two or more individuals may be 
separated with considerable facility in the faces of composi- 
tion, and produces what has hitherto very often been erron- 
eously considered as cleavage. Thin plates of one individual 
engaged in another, according to this law, occur from the most 
beautifully transparent Iceland varieties, down to the quite 
opaque ones ; they also occur in other species, whose forms re- 
semble those of Calcareous spar, as in the Paratomous Lime- 
haloide, mentioned above, but particularly in Sparry Iron-ore. 
I have succeeded in extracting from a variety of the latter, 
found at Niederalpel in Stiria, the form represented in Fig. 
20, bounded partly by faces of cleavage P, P, P, partly by 
faces of composition g, 2, @, the whole being, in no small 
degree, alike to certain varieties of Sphene. Also, in respect 
to cleavage, the composition perpendicular to the terminal 
edges of R sometimes takes place at the same time in three di- 
rections, as in the case of Fig. 17. Thus, is the variety Fig. 
21. composed of four individuals, three of which are joined 
to a central one, according to the above-mentioned law. 
Many specimens of this kind, containing even a greater num- 
ber of individuals, joined to the outer ones of the composi- 
tion, occur in a limestone quarry near Harzgerode. 

The preceding law of regular composition is so frequently 
found in Red Silver-ore, that it may be considered as one of 
the greatest rarities to observe a group of crystals of this 
substance, which does not present it. The simplest modes 
of this composition are represented in Fig. 22. where it takes 
place only ou one of the terminal edges of R—1, and Fig. 
23. where it is met with on all the three edges at once. The 
sign of Fig. 22. is R—1.P + @, {ate Bh ; the sign of 
Fig. 23. R—1.P 4 a, fr—2-r-1}, But generally each 
of the three individuals, joined’ to the central one, in the 
edges a, a, a, has two other individuals attached to the remain- 
ing edges 6, b, and b, so that the group becomes composed of 
ten individuals, or even of more if to these again other indi- 
viduals are fixed. Large crystals are often surrounded in 
this manner by smaller ones, branching out, as it were, from 
the main shaft, on the alternating edges of the six-sided 
prism. There are hollow six-sided prisms of Red Silver-ore, 
from the mine of Kurprinz, in the possession of Dr. Ro- 


92 Mr. Haidinger on the Regular Composition, §c. 


hatsch of Freiberg, the outside and inside of which are form- 
ed by smooth faces of crystallization. This shape depends 
entirely upon regular composition, the sides of the hexangu- 
lar tube being formed by a tissue of small crystals, all 
ageregated, according to the above-mentioned law. Also the 
complement to this law occurs, though less frequently, if as 
in Fig. 24, the face of composition is pelle) to one of the 
faces of R — 2. 


While at Freiberg I also observed a composition sunilar - 


to the preceding one in Rhombohedral Lead-baryte (the arseni- 
ate of lead) from Johanngeorgenstadt in Saxony, upon a spe- 
cimen in the possession of Count Lubiensky. Two individuals 
of the form R— w. P. P+ o, Fig. 25. are compound in a 
plane perpendicular to one of the terminal edges of the iso- 
sceles pyramid, as represented in Fig. 26. 

Besides the twin-crystals described in the last number of 
this Journal, in Rhombohedral Iron-ore, Figs. 20. and 22, 
as being produced by the union of two individuals with 
parallel axes, there exists still another law of regular com- 
position in that series, according to which the axis of re- 
volution is perpendicular, the face of composition paral- 
lel.to a face of the fundamental rhombohedron R = 852 
58’. A group thus formed of a small crystal joined to a 
large one, is represented in Fig. 27, and refers toa bright 
specimen of the specular iron-ore, from Stromboli, in Mr, 
Allan’s collection. The faces P and P’ fall into one and 
the same plane, o and o’ produce an angle of 115° 17... The 
crystals from Elba very often present traces of this compe- 
sition. The lines upon their surface in a direction agreeing 
with that which a plane parallel to a face of R would pro- 
duce if intersecting the crystal, originate in thin films of the 
substance being engaged in them in a reversed position, like 
the portion abcd, in the rhombohedron, Fig. 28. The 
angle P’ P’ is = 171° 56. P P’ = 188° 4’. We find this 
not only in crystals, but also in massive varieties; and 
those from Sweden, in particular, which appear to be cleav- 
able with greater facility than others, owe the even planes, 
which may be obtained in the direction of the faces of R, 
not so much to cleavage as to their being composed in that 
direction. The same ‘applics to the green varieties of Rhom- 


2 ’ 
— 


a: z eg 
2 ie See ee ae ae * ak : ’ , ae 
c ——— SS 


is 

< - —_ ——— 
4 fi . — 
La 

ns . 

-) 


- 
Re 
Sate 
aye 
~ Pas 
> 2 - 
a — , 
Pim © 
ig 
nr mel sat , . 
a ~ i 2. Pa 
= 
= Pg 


M 


Part of 


He servowr 


| ~ 
|| Kmbankment 


Horizon 


Bilin’ Published 9 W. Elavkwood i521. 


Mr. Skene on the Emigration of Caterpillars. 93 


bohedral Corundum, or in fact to all those which seem to 
possess a more ‘distinct cleavage than other varieties of the 
same species. The fracture of the films engaged in the mass 
is generally conchoidal or uneven, and only occasionally a 
small part of an even face will betray the reverse situation of 
these plates, which, if any, must take place if the cleavage itself 
be at Jeast very indistinct in that direction ; and the composi- 
tion cannot therefore assume that remarkable appearance of 
the very obtuse re-entering angles, observable in cleavage, 
which distinguishes albite from felspar. Upon the face of 
R—~o, this composition produces striae crossing each other 
at angles of 60° and 120°. Sometimes we observe these striae 
only in one or in two directions; and in the same manner also 
sometimes only one, sometimes two of the faces of R are ob- 
tained with greater facility, by breaking a mass of Corundum, 
than the rest, which present a glassy conchoidal fracture. It 
is worth noticing, that the isomorphism of the two oxides of 
alumina and of iron extends even to this occurrence of regular 


composition, which at first sight would appear to be entirely 


accidental. The last mode of composition also occurs in 
Chabasie, two rhombohedrons being joined in one of their 
faces. It has been observed in the varieties from Fassa, and 
in those from Faroe, which accompany Mesole and Apophyl- 
lite. 

(To be continued. ) 


Art. XV,—On the Emigration of a Colony of Caterpillars, * 
observed in Provence. From the MS. Tour of Jamss 
SKENE, Esa. of Rubieslaw. 


Ixy scrambling over one of the arid coteaux above 'Tolonai, 
the beautiful summer residence of our worthy old friend, 
Marshal Comté Gallifet, I was attracted by the manceuvres 
of a troop of emigrating insects, which amused me very much. 
Tt is very easy to attribute the singular economy in the ac- 
tions of the insect world to the mere influence of instinct, as 
the governing principle of every living thing below the scale 
of reason; but we must either extend the meaning of that 
word beyond the mere actions of an involuntary impulse, or 


* This is probably the Phalena processionea of Linnus. 


94 Mr. Skene on the Emigration of Caterpillars. 


find it fall short of explaining much of what may be observed 
in the operations even of that lowest tribe of creatures... We 
readily lavish our admiration on the wonderful arrangements 
of some tribes, whose operations may be more particularly 
exposed to our scrutiny, but this may arise fully more from 
our deficiency of observation or opportunity, than from the 
inferiority of one class to another in the marvellous nature 
of their operations. Wherever our observation penetrates in 
the wide field of nature, we shall not want cause for wonder 
or motives for diffidence in the limited extent of our own fa- 
culties. It is admitted that instinct may account for their pro- 
ceedings so long as they remain uninterrupted by opposition, 
but what must we call that species of intelligence that instant 
ly proceeds to remedy, if practicable, any unforeseen accident 
that may interrupt their proceedings ? 

Iobserved, what appeared to me,a very slendersnake, writh- 


ing across my path, which, but for the unusual season for these » 


reptiles to appear, I should, no doubt, have passed unheeded. 
See Plate II. Fig. 5. Upon examination, however, it turned 
out to be the orderly emigration of a colony of large caterpillars. 
They were proceeding assiduously along therocky path, inaline 
of march by single files, and so close that they appeared to 
have a hold each of his neighbour's tail, and the continued 
wave formed by their motion had a very singular effect. The 
stony surface of the path rendered their progress exceedingly 
tortuous, and interrupted by much. climbing over stones, as 
they seemed in general more disposed to go over the top of 
a stone than round its base. When such obstacles occurred, 
the march, notwithstanding, did not sustain the slightest de- 
rangement, as no troops could mark time with greater precision 
and patience than the rear of the line, while the front was en- 
gaged in climbing over any obstacle, or the leader had stopped 
to examine the difficulty; the front, in their turn, tarrying until 
the rear had succeeded in surmounting the obstruction which 
the front had just passed. ‘They were twenty-two in number, 
and nearly of the same size, except one, considerably larger 
than the rest, whose place was exactly in the centre of the line. 
The leader, on the contrary, was rather smaller than any of 
the rest. A large precipitous stone was in their way ; the 
leader reared up, moving his head from side to side, as if 
2 


Mr. Skene on the Emigration of Caterpillars. 95 


gazing at it, or willing to reach some corner ; and leading his 
troop round, he frequently performed the same examination, 
until they reached a small bush, round the stem of which he 
ascended, the long line following with perfect confidence, and 
by means of a branch of the bush, they attained footing on the 
stone. 

Traversing the stone, the opposite side of which was quite 
precipitous and pretty high, it became uncommonly interest- 
ing to see how this intelligent general would proceed. He 
examined with accuracy, trying every possible break, during 
which time the main body remained patiently waiting, and 
without making the slightest attempt to assist in the examina- 
tion, which their leader conducted with much activity and so- 
licitude. At length, having ascertained the pass to be quite 
impracticable, he resolved upon a counter march, which was 
instantly performed with the most surprising regularity. For 
the whole line in succession advanced to the wheeling point on 
the brink before they turned, performing the evolution with 
as perfect precision as the best trained troops, the advancing 
and retreating lines passing close alongside of each other, and 
even climbing the same twig, while the front line descended 
without confusion, passing even over each other’s bodies with- 
out interruption or hesitation. 

Having completed their descent in the same manner as they 
had mounted, a new line of direction was taken, which however 
was very soon most alarmingly interrupted by the arrival of a 
woman leading an ass loaded with brush-wood, of which some 
branches trailed along the path. After the passage of this for- 
midable assailant, J returned with some anxiety to examine the 
state of my colony, and found that they had suffered materially 
from the disaster, and were thrown into the greatest confu- 
sion. The line of march had been broken; a considerable 
body still followed the leader with a quickened pace; others, 
united in parties of three and four, regularly keeping their 
position in the rear of each other, while their temporary con- 
ductor sought,-with evident anxiety, to find out the main bo- 
dy, hastening first to the one side and then to the other. A 
good many were scattered singly, and much distressed, seem- 
ingly uncertain how to proceed. I took each of them up in 
their turn, and with a view to ascertain the range of their vi- 


96 Mr. Skene on the Emigration of Caterpillars. 


sion, placed them at different distances from the main body, 
with their heads turned towards it, and I found that they uni- 
formly remained quite unconscious of its presence, until plac- 
ed within half an inch of each other. They then approached 
with evident eagerness, and were readily admitted into the 
line, by the rear halting until they had taken their places. 

I put one of these stragglers in front, with his tail to the 
leader’s head, but he pertinaciously refused the honour of con- 
ducting the line; a considerable sensation seemed to be com- 
municated through the whole body at this attempt at usur- 
pation, of which they seemed to become aware, but by what 
means I could not discern. As soon as this forced usurper 
was at liberty, he turned round to the leader, who repulsed 
him with vigour, and bit at him; upon which he retreated 
hurriedly along the line, constantly trying to,.get into his 
place, but was bit at by every one as he run the gauntlet, till 
at last a good natured friend permitted him to join the line. 
I then took out the large one, who was obviously a stupid 
fellow, when the rear immediately closed uputhe breach. I 
placed him at the head, and used every inducement to make 
him take the lead, but in vain. He seemed much confused 
by the hearty buffets given to him by the active little Bona- 
parte whom I wished him to supplant, so that he probably 
would have failed in regaining his place, had I not given him 
some assistance out of sympathy, for the distress my experi- 
ment had occasioned him. He seemed delighted to get into 
his place again ; but was so much confused by the adventure, 
that he mistook the first sharp turn the line came to, and 
threw the whole rear into confusion. They broke their line, 
and much consternation and bustle ensued, until each had re- 
placed his head close to his neighbour’s tail. 

I now took up the leader, obviously less, though more ac- 
tive and intelligent than the rest, when the alarm instantly. 
spread over the whole line. I expected the second to take the 
command, but he seemed the most distressed of any, and 
eagerly sought about from side to side, and in his perplexity he 
turned quite around, as if consulting with his follower. The 
hesitation and confusion was now universal. Various parties 
broke off as the impression reached the rear, and sought anx- 
iously about, returning again to the line, Having replaced 


‘On a Black Lead Mine in Inverness-shire. - 97 


ahe leader at the head, he instantly took the command, ad- 
-vancing with confidence, and conducting the whole line in 
perfect order. When I now interrupted: their: march, the 
main body no longer exhibited. their former anxiety and im- 
patience when the leader was removed, but seemed to wait 
with perfect composure and confidence, ‘until the obstruction 
was overcome, which the leader used every means and inge- 
nuity to accomplish. It did not occur to me till I had left 
these amusing travellers, to try the experiment of placing the 
leader in the rear, in order to observe how he would bear. the 
degradation, and to ascertain if the head of the column would 
have been thereby changed. 


Arr. XVI.—Notice respecting the Discovery of a Black 
Lead Mine in Inverness-shire, on the property of Glengary. 


Tue only mines of Black Lead which have hitherto been 
wrought in Scotland, are those of Cumnock in Ayrshire, and 
of Glenstrathfarrar, in the county of Inverness.* . This last 
mine was discovered so recently as 1816, but does not seem 
to have been wrought to any extent. 

Under such circumstances, therefore, it is with great satis- 

faction that we announce to our readers the discovery of an- 
other black lead mine in Inverness-shire, on the property of 
Glengary. The mine is situated near the top of a rocky ra- 
vine, close to the head of Loch Lochy, on the south-east side, 
and within a mile of the Caledonian Canal. The mine is so 
situated, that an artificial trough or slide, of simple construc- 
tion, like that one used at Alpnach in Switzerland, for, tim- 
ber, might be erected to convey the black lead ore by its own 
force of descent from the mine to the Caledonian Canal. 
_ We have now before us specimens of this ore, and of the 
rock in which it is found, taken from the surface of the rock, 
where it is exposed to the action of the weather. ‘The breadth, 
of the vein is in many places, where it crops out, fully three 
feet in breadth. 

Not more than a ton or two of ore has been yet taken from 
the mine, and that too merely gathered from the surface. 


* Black Lead has been found in Gilen-Ely and Shetland. 
VOL. II. No. 1. JAN. 1825. H 


98 Dr. Brewster on the Formation of Single Microscopes 


In Plate II. Fig. 12. we have given a sketch of the ap- 
pearance of the vein of black lead, from the pencil of Mr. 
Skene of Rubislaw, who has examined the mine, and to whom 
we have been indebted for the preceding particulars. 

The letters B, B, B show the vein of black lead ore, and 
©, 'C,C, the clay slate rock in which it occurs. 


Art. XVII.—On the Formation of Single Microscopes from 
the Lenses of Fishes, &c. By Davip Brewster, LL.D. 
F.R:S. and Sec. R.S. Edinburgh. 


Havine been occupied for many years in a minute examina- 
tion of the optical and anatomical structure of the lenses of 
varius animals, the idea has frequently occurred’ to me of 
employing the lenses of the smaller ones as single microscopes. 
In putting this idea to the test of experiment, however, I did 
hot at first'‘obtain the réstlts which I expected ; ‘but this failure 
arose principally from want of attention to several minute cir- 
cumstances, which are essential ‘to the success of ‘the experi- 
ment. 

In the examination of objects of natural history and ana- 
tory, ‘cases frequently occur where the compound microscope 
fails, ‘and ‘where ‘a single lens can ‘alone be advantageously 
employed. ‘Those who have been reduced to ‘such a ‘difficul- 
ty, must have experienced the imperfections even of the 
simple ‘instrument, afd must have abandoned inquiries which 
promised 'to lead to new and important results. If the ob- 
server has lenses ground by the first ‘artists, and has even 
taken the precaution of illuminating his objects with homoge- 
neous light, so as to remove the indistinetness ‘arising from the 
different refrangibility of light, he has’ still to encounter the 
équally formidable evil of spherical aberratidn, which in 
small lenses at least, we fear we shall never be able to re- 
medy. Having been often reduced to this dilémma, it ap- 
peared to me ‘not an unreasonable expectation, that when the 
joint efforts of science and practical skill had failed, we might 
have recourse to that pre-eminent wisdom, which He who 
made the eye has displayed in the structure of the crystalline 
lens; and avail ourselves of those single microscopes which 


Srom the Lenses of Fishes. 99 


occur in such abundance and variety in the eyes of the diffe- 
rent classes of the animal kingdom. 

As a high magnifying power is, under stich cireumstarices, 
indispensable, we are of course limited to the use of the 
smaller lenses of animals, and perhaps also to those which 
have nearly a spherical form. The lenses of fishes are, there- 
fore, most likely to answer the object which we have in view, 
both from their being generally of:a spherical form, and from 
their superior density, which renders) them less liable to in- 
jury than those of birds and quadrupeds, when they are in a 
state of preparation for use. 

As the lenses of fishes, however small, are not tr a ick 
rical, but are generally of a spheroidal form, it becomes abso- 
jutely necessary, previous to their use, that we determine the 
optical axis of the lens, or the axis'of vision of the eye from 
which it is taken, and place the lens in such a manner that its 
axis is parallel to the axis of our own eye. In no. other di- 
rection but this is the albumen or matter, which composes the 
lens, symmetrically disposed round a given line ;—and in no 
other direction does the gradation of density, by which the 
spherical aberration is corrected, preserve a symmetrical re- 
lation to the axis of vision. : 

When the lens, therefore, which we shall suppose that of a 
small Par, freshly taken from the river, has been removed, along 
with the vitreous humor from the eye, by cutting with a pair 
of sharp scissars an opening in the sclerotic coat, it should 
be placed upon a piece of fine silver paper, previously freed 
from all the little adhering fibres. The absorbent nature of 
the paper will assist in removing all the vitreous humor from 
the iens; aud when this is carefully done, there. will still re- 
main round or near the equator of the lens\a black ridge, 
consisting of the processes by which it was suspended in the 
eye. This black circle points out the true axis of the lens, 
which is perpendicular to it. 

When the small crystalline has been freed from all the hei 
hering vitreous humor, the capsule in which it is kept will have 
a surface as fine and smooth as if it were a pellicle of fluid. 
It is then to be rolled upon a piece of silver paper, by push- 
ing it about with another piece of silver paper, and afterwards 
dropped from this paper into a cavity c d, (Plate II, Fig. 13.) 


100 Mr. Thom on New Self-acting: Sluices, 


consisting of a brass rim raised upon the circular plate of 
brass AB, and its position shifted till the black processes, seen 
at N, are parallel to the circular aperture on the lower side 
of AB. When this is done, the axis LM will be perpendi- 
cular to the plate AB, and paraliel to the axis of vision. 

Having fitted up two or three lenses from the eye of a Par 
in this manner, I was surprised with the’ perfection of the 
magnified image thus obtained, and also with the effect which 
was produced, when this Jens was made the object glass of a 
compound microscope. A lens of this description will last some 
hours, and may be preserved for a longer time, either by im- 
mersing it in the vitreous humor from which it was taken, or 
keeping it in a moist vessel. This, however, is perhaps un- 
necessary, as it is so easy to replace it with a new crystalline 
lens. It is not often that a naturalist requires more than one 
or two hours observation with a microscope, and if he obtains 
one which answers his purpose much better than any wnat 
he need not regret the necessity of renewing it. 


Art. XVIII.—Description of a New Self-acting Lever 
Sluice, and of a Waster Sluice. Invented by Rozert 
Tuo, Esq. Rothesay. Communicated by the Author. 


The Lever Sluice, Puate IT: Figure 1. 


Tuts apparatus, when placed on a reservoir that supplies 
any canal, mill, or other work with water, (where the aque- 
duct between the reservoir and such work is on a Jevel,) will 
always open of its own accord, and let down the quantity of 
water wanted by such work and no more; so that it not 
only supersedes a bow a but also saves a great deal of 
water. 

In Plate II. Fig. 6, AB, is a tunnel through which the wa- 
ter passes from the reservoir to 

BC, the aqueduct that carries the water to the mills. 

BD, a float that rises and falls with the water in the wae 
duct. } 
_ A, an aperture in the mouth of the tunnel.’ 


Mr. Thom on New Self-acting Sluices. 101 


_ E, the self-acting sluice that opens and shuts that aperture. 
'. FG, a lever which turns upon the fulerum H, and is con- 
nected at one end with sluice E, and at the other with the 
float BD. 

The sluice E is here represented open, (as when the mills 
are going,) but when the water is stopped at the mills, it 
rises in the aqueduct, and with it the float BD, which raises the 
end G and lowers the end F of the lever FG, and shuts the 
sluice E. When the water is again let upon the wheel at 
the mills, the surface of the aqueduct fails, and with it the 

‘float, which opens the sluice E qs before. 

Upon the lever FG, there is another small lever KL, which 
turns upon the fulerum L, and has a weight M suspended to 
the other end K. In the ordinary working of the apparatus 
this lever is quite stationary, and produces no effect whatever ; 
but during floods the aqueduct is swelled by streams that 
run into it between the reservoir and the mills, and when 
this happens when the mills are not at work, the water, rising 
in the aqueduct, presses up the float upon one end of the 
lever when the other can get no farther down, and would 
thereby strain or break the apparatus; but by this contriv- 
ance this extra pressure merely pushes up the small lever 
KL without straining any other part. Of course, the weight 
M is so adjusted, that the lever KL will not at any time move 
ull the sluice is shut, but upon the least extra pressure after 
it shuts, the lever will rise. 

The dimensions of the float are nineteen feet square by 
seven inches deep; the lever is twenty-seven feet long, being 
twice the length between the fulcrum and the sluice, that it 
is between the fulcrum and the float. 'The sluice is three 
feet three inches long, and fifteen inches deep. 

_ To determine the proper dimensions of the float, and.rela- 
tive lengths of the ends of the lever, it was necessary to as- 
certain how far the sluice required to be raised to pass the 
quantity of water wanted, and also how far the water in the 
aqueduct might be raised above the level absolutely necessary 
for supplying the works; the first was found to be seven 
inches, and the last only four inches. The end of the lever 
connected with the float was made therefore only half the 
length of the end connected with the sluice; and the float 


TOR» Mr. Thom on New Self-acting Sluices. 


was made of such dimensions, that when sunk half an inch 
in water, the weight of water thereby displaced was equal 
to twice the weight required to shut the sluice.* “When, 
therefore, the water in the aqueduct rises upon the float half 
an inch, (besides what it sinks by its own weight,) the sluice 
begins to move ; and by the time the water rises other three 
inches and a half, the sluice is of course seven inches down, 
or shut. . 

This apparatus was erected at Rothesay in 1816. 


The Waster Sluice; Puate Il. Figure 7. 


This sluice, when placed upon any river, canal, reservoir, 
or collection of water, prevents the water within the embank- 
ment from rising above the height we choose to assign to it ; 
for whenever it rises to that height the sluice opens and passes 
the extra water ; and whenever that extra water is passed, it 
shuts again; so that whilst it saves the banks at all times 
from damage by overflow, it never wastes any water we wish 
to retain. 

_ ACBL is part of a canal, river, stream, or collection of wa- 
ter. 

BC, high-water-mark, or the greatest height to which the 
water is to be allowed to rise. 

BD, a sluice, or folding dam, which turns on pivots at D. 

EF, a hollow cylinder, having a small aperture in its bot- 
tom, to which is joined, 

EL, a small pipe always open. 

IIII, small holes in the cylinder EF, or the line of high- 
vate hark 

GH, another cylinder, water proof, that moves up and 


* Twice the weight, because here the lever is two to one against the float. 
To ascertain the power required to open or shut the sluice, (which is easily 
done by a lever and weights,) it must be, tried when the water in the reser- 
yoir is at the highest, which, in this case, is seven feet above the bottom of the 
sluice. To ascertain how far the sluice must be raised to pass the necessary 
supply, it must be tried when the water in the reservoir is nearly at the low- 
est, and in this instance was done when it stood three feet above the bottom 
of the sluice. The quantity of water required is equal to about the power of 
fifty horses, the fall at the wheel being twenty feet. The aqueduct is about 
seven hundred yards long, twelve feet wide, three deep, and its bottom about 
twelve inches lower than the bottom of the sluice. 


Mr. Thom on New Self-acting Sluices. 103 


down freely within the cylinder EF ;, and the weight of which 
keeps the sluice BD shut by its connection with 

BKH, a chain fixed to the cylinder GH at H, thence pass- 
ing over the pulley K, has its other end fixed to the sluice 
BD at B. 

When the water in the canal, river, or pond, rises to the line 
BC, it passes into the cylinder EF, at the small holes ITII ; 
and this lessens the weight of cylinder GH so much, that the 
pressure of the water in front of sluice BD throws it open. 
When the water subsides, so as not to enter these holes, the 
cylinder is emptied by the tube EL, and then the weight of the 
cylinder GH shuts the sluice as before. The dimensions and 
weight of this cylinder must of course correspond with the 
weight of the column of water pressing upon the sluice BD. 
An apparatus of this kind was first erected at Rothesay in 1817. 
The dimensions of one of these are:—cylinder GH two feet 
diameter, and two feet deep over all; weight 500 Ibs. * Cy- 
linder EF five feet ten inches deep, two feet one inch diame- 
ter inside: sluice BD four feet long and two feet deep. 

This sluice is here represented with the pivots on which it 
turns at its under edge, but they may be placed either at the 
upper or under edge, as circumstances render advisable. The 
upper edge is also here represented on a level with high-wa- 
ter mark, but if necessary, it may be placed any where be- 
tween that and the bottom of the pond or aqueduct, or right 
below, as on an aqueduct bridge, or similar situation. The 
cylinders may also be placed on the outside of the dam or 
embankment by having a pipe to communicate between them 
and the water within ; but in whatever situation the sluice or 


* This weight is considerably more than necessary when the sluice is placed 
with the pivots at its under, and the chain at its upper edge; but it was cal- 
culated to be powerful enough when the sluice was turned with the pivots at 
its upper and the chain at its under edge, ¢ to which position it has since been 
changed. 

Although the cylinder GH requires to be heavier to shut the sluice when 
its pivots are at the top, yet, to pass the same quantity of water, it does not 
require to move half so far as when they are at the bottom, and therefore the 
cylinder EF may be made much shorter ; so that the cost in either case is near- 
ly the same, or rather in, favour of the pivots being at the top. In most 
cases this last position is preferable ; there are instances, however, in which 
the other is more advisable, such as in a river where wood, ice, or other bulky 
substances may be expected to float occasionally on the surface; but such 
¢ases require a particular construction adapted to the circumstances. 


104 | Mr. Thom on New Self-acting Sluices. 


cylinders may be placed, the pipe that communicates between 
the cylinders and the water within the embankment must al- 
ways have its opening there exactly at the level of high-wa- 
ter mark, or at the greatest height to which the water therein 
is to be permitted to rise. 

On this principle a self-acting dam may be raised in any 
river or stream, up to high-water mark, by which means a 
considerable reservoir will be obtained, whilst, during floods, 
the dam will fold down, and no new ground be overflowed. 

In lawns or pleasure grounds, through which streams or 
rivulets flow, these sluices might be applied to advantage ; 
for by placing one on the bank of each pond, the water with- 
in would always be kept at the same height, whether the 
weather were wet or dry ; and hence flowers or shrubs might 
be planted close to the water’s edge, or in it, (as best. suits 
their respective habits,) and their position with regard to wa- 
ter would always be the same. 


Prate II. Figure 7. A. 

This is merely a different construction of the waster sluice 
figure ‘7. 

AB is the sluice which turns on pivots at the upper edge < 

CD, a lever attached to that sluice. 

E, a hollow can of cast iron attached to the extremity of 
that lever at D, and into which small stones are put until it 
becomes heavy enough to shut the sluice against the pres- 
sure of the water in front. 

F, a pulley. 

G, a hollow cylinder of copper (or tin-plate setae with 
a small aperture in its bottom. ; 

DFG, a chain, one end of which is fixed to the lever at 
D, then, passing over the pulley F, has its other end fixed to 
the cylinder G. 

AH, a tube which communicates between the water: in 
front of the sluice AB and cylinder G. 

When, therefore, the water in front of the sluice is not so 
high as to flow along the tube AH, the sluice AB remains shut, 
but.when the water rises so as to flow along that tube, it fills 
the cylinder G, which then descending, raises the lever CD and 
can E, and opens the sluice. Again, when the water falls so as 


Description of an Extraordinary Parhelion. 105 


not to flow along the tube AH, the cylinder G is emptied by 
the small aperture in its bottom, and then the can E shuts the 
sluice. I erected a sluice. of this construction in 1821, at 
Cartsburn-mill, Greenock. The sluice is four feet long, two 
and a half feet deep; the lever five feet long from B to D, 
the cylinder E sixteen inches diameter, and eighteen inches 
deep, and filled with small stones till it weighs two hundred 
and sixty pounds.* The cylinder G is eighteen inches deep, 
and the same diameter. ‘This method, wherever it can be 
adopted, is preferable to that of Fig. 7; being simpler and 
less expensive in the construction. 


Art. XIX.—Description of an Extraordinary Parhelion 
observed at Gotha on the 12th May, 1824. 


Tuts very singular parhelion appeared at Gotha on the 12th 
May, 1824, and was seen at several places around that city. 
It was seen at Meinengen, eight leagues from Gotha, but not 
a trace of it was observed at Bamberg, which is twenty-four 
leagues from Gotha. 

This parhelion was observed by M. de Hoff, by Dr. Buch, of 
Frankfort, who happened to be at Gotha, and by Professor 
Kreis. Unfortunately, however, none of these gentlemen mea- 
sured the arches of the phenomenon with a sextant; but there is 
reason to think that the drawing of it sent by M. de Hoff to 
Baron Zach, which we have given in Plate II. Fig. 14. and 
his description of it, from which we have made the following 
abstract, are tolerably correct. This drawing was taker at 
half-past seven in the morning, when the apparent height of 
the sun was 24° 51’. At this time the parhelion S” appear- 
ed in the horizon, so that the radius of the interior circle SS’” 
was a little less than 24° 5]’. The radius SG=SA=SB 


* The quantity of water pressing upon the sluice is twelve and a half cubic 
feet, or 781 lbs. The pressure at the upper edge of the sluice is to that at 
its under edge as 8 to 22 nearly; therefore the pivots of the sluice support 
208 Ibs. which leaves 573 to be supported by the can E; but there is a lever 
power of two to one, which reduces this weight one half, or to 286 lbs. The 
weight of the lever CD itself is equal to about 30 lbs. more than the weight of 
the empty cylinder G; so that the whole weight of the can E requires only to 
be 260 lbs. 

1 


106 Description of an Extraordinary Parhelion 


appeared to be double of the radius of SS”. The part of the 
sky occupied by the sun was. covered with small light clouds. 
It was quite clear and blue in the Zenith. In the sky oppo- 
site to the sun there were also very small, white, detached 
clouds, upon which the parhelion appeared, being always in- 
terrupted in the clear and blue sky. 

The true sun appeared at S, and was surrounded by; a cir- 
cle of shining light S’C'S” S’””.. M. Kreis observed that this 
light was yellow, and the interior margin red. 

Two parhelia appeared at S’ and S”, a little out of the 
circle S’C S$” S’”, and at the same height as the true sun S. 
They were very bright, and shone with all the colours of the 
rainbow. The red being nearest to the sun, and the green 
on the opposite side, and they terminated in small tails below 
the false suns. 

A third parhelion appeared at S”. It was less brilliant 
than the others, and did not appear in the horizon till be- 
tween 73" and 8", An arc of a great circle ADFB, truncated 
on A and B, showed at D and F very lively colours of the 
rainbow. At its extremities, A and B, and at the other part 
DF, it was whitish ; but the whiteness could be easily distin- 
guished from the colour of the sky. In these two ares the 
red colour was always next the sun, and the green on the 
opposite side; the centres of the two circles were, the one 
on the side of the sun, and the other on the opposite side. 
Dr. Buch, who observed the parhelion a quarter or half an hour 
before M. de Hoff, saw a great portion of the circle DCF 
turned upwards. Professor Kreis, instead of one arc, saw 
two, which intersected in C, as shown in Fig. 15. The 
point C appeared to him extraordinarily brilliant, but without 
any image of the sun. 

There was also a great circle) AHGIB, concentric with 
the small one, S’C 8’ S”, the upper part of which shone 
with the most brilliant colours of the rainbow. The red was 
still turned towards the sun. The rest of that circle appear- 
ed to M. de Hoff white, but M. Kreis remarked, near. the 
horizon, the colours of the rambow. A ‘part of the circle 
dipped under the horizon, cutting the two circles ADFB and 
AS’SS’B at the same point A and B... Its radius appeared 
to be double that of the circle S’CS”S”. 


observed at Gotha on the 12th of May 1824. 107 


Another circle KGL appeared with very brilliant colours, 
and, touching the circle AHGIB in the point G, the red of 
its outer border being turned towards the sun, and the green 
being in its inner circumference. This circle seemed to me 
to have a radius smaller than that which immediately sur- 
rounded the sun. It is possible, however, that, from an op- 
tical illusion, they might appear of different sizes, though 
their magnitude were the same. The upper circle KGL was 
not complete, from the want of white clouds to receive it; 
but at the part where it touched the other circle, and at some 
distance beyond its two sides, the colours had an extraordi- 
nary brilliancy. 

The Zenith was nearly at Z. <A great shining circle 
ssves/” 8” passed through the centre of the true sun and 
the two parhelia S’ and S$”. It was parallel to the horizon, 
and had its centre in a line which passed from the Zenith to 
the Nadir. The two parhelia S’ S” were confounded with the 
small tails opposite to the sun. The parhelia appeared at A 
and B. 

This great horizontal circle did not appear at the beginning 
of the phenomenon. Some parts of it appeared at the parhe- 
lia. It was quite entire at 7.» 

Three parhelia S’” S”’” S’”” appeared upon this great cir- 
cle; the two first being 90° from the real sun, and the last 
180°. They were white and their light feeble. 

Two luminous arches OP and QR, which seemed to be 
portions of two great circles cut the false image of the sun at 
right angles. M. Kreis saw them differently, as shown in 
Fig. 16. He says that they crossed the horizontal arch 
nearly in a vertical direction. 

Professor Kreis observed the portion of a circle MS”N. a 
little after seven o’clock, and Dr. Buch saw it re-appear near- 
ly at eight o'clock. 

This singular parhelion began to appear at 63°, M. de 
Hoff saw it at three quarters of an hour after 6. At 7 in the 
morning the barometer stood at 27 inches 1 line 4. At 5° in 
the morning the thermometer was +2° Reaumur, 363° of 
Fahrenheit, so that at no great height in the atmosphere the 
temperature must have been so low as freezing. 


108 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 


Arr. XX.— On the Botany of America, By Wit11amM 
Jacxson Hooxer, LL.D. F.R.S.E. Communicated by 
the Author. 


Tx noticing, as we propose to do, the progress of botany, and 
the present state of that science in various parts of Europe, 
it is by no means our intention to pass by in silence what has 


been effected by our brethren in North America, a country, 
which, for extent and interest, has scarcely any parallel in. 
the world. If we were to estimate it from its southern extre-. 


mity, we should commence our calculations at the tenth de- 
gree of north latitude ; but as we shall confine our observa- 
tions to those districts which have submitted to the sway of 


the United States, or to those which may, with more proprie-: 
ty, be termed the British possessions in North America, we. 
shall omit the Mexican dominions altogether ; and beginning 


with the thirtieth degree of latitude, we have a space extend- 
ing northward beyond the arctic circle ; andif we include the 
island of Newfoundland, through eighty degrees of longitude 
in its utmost breadth. ‘The vegetation is as various as are 
the climate and the soil, throughout this vast extent of conti- 
nent. In the Floridas grows a majestic species of Palm, 


(Chameerops Palmetto,) and the Orange, the Cotton, the Jn-, 


digo, and even the Sugar cane may be cultivated there to 
great perfection and advantage. In the Carolinas and the 
Floridas the eye of the traveller is charmed with the beauty 


and grandeur of the forest trees, the various species of Hver- 


green oak, the numerous kinds of Pine, Walnut, and Plane ; 
the majestic Tulip tree (Liriodendrum tulipiferum ), reach- 
ing to the height of 140 feet, and loaded with large and. bril- 
liant flowers, the curious deciduous Cypress, and the superb 
Magnolias. 

A different vegetation occurs in the more northerly of the 
United States; and what renders the botany of North Ame- 
rica peculiarly interesting to the British naturalist is, that a 
very large proportion of its vegetable productions may be as- 
similated to our own climate. This is especially the case with 
that extensive portion of it under our immediate considera- 
tion. The Oaks and Firs of this district of North America 


q 


Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 109 


now decorate many of our plantations and pleasure grounds, 
and as the quality of their timber comes to be better known 
and appreciated, they will doubtless oceupy a’ conspicuous 
place in our woods and forests. Our shrubberies owe their 
greatest beauty to thevarious species of Kalmia, Azalea, Rhodo- 


‘ dendron, Robinia, Cornus, Sambucus, Ceanothus, and Lonicera, 


to the Syringa, the flowering Raspberry, and a hundred 
others, which flourish as if they were the aboriginal natives 
of our soil; whilst the gardens of the curious are indebted 
for many of their choicest productions to the herbaceous plants 
of North America; the greater number being remarkable for 
the brilliancy of their blossoms, and not a few, such as the 
Dionea and Sarracenia, striking us as amongst the most sin- 
gular of all vegetable productions in their structure. Nay, 
such is the superiority of the climate, and the fertility of the 
soil, that our European fruits, which were taken over by the 
early settlers, have improved prodigiously in quality; to that 
degree, even that we now procure grafts of them for our orch- 
ards and wall-trees; and the most highly flavoured apples 
that we (north of the Tweed at least,) can obtain for our des- 
serts, are actually imported themselves from America. 

In the arctic regions of the New World, there is a striking 
similitude in the botanical productions with those of the sum- 
mits of our highest Scotch mountains. 

The earliest accounts of the plants of North America con- 
sist of detached memoirs, principally published by foreigners, 
the Americans being themselves, for a long time, too much 
occupied in commerce and agriculture to devote their time 
and attention to science; nor is it till a country has ar- 
rived at that degree of political and mental improvement to 
which we find the United States now to have attained, that 
we can expect any branch of science to be estimated as it de- 
serves. 

A small history of the Plants of Canada by Cornuti ap- 
peared in Parisin 1635. About the year 1740 was published 
Catesby’s Natural History of Carolina, &c. in 2 vols. large 
folio, illustrated with a great number of highly coloured fi- 
gures of plants, &c. Gronovius edited the Flora Virginica 
of Clayton, at Leyden, in 1739. In the Memoirs of the 
American Academy, Dr, Cutler printed his Account of the 


110 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 


Vegetable Productions of the New England States ; and, in 
1788, Walter's Flora Caroliniana appeared in London. |... 
The elder Bartram, during his extensive and interesting 
travels, discovered many curious plants, and was the means 
of making them known to the botanists of Europe, especially 
of Britain. His friend and patron, Mr. Peter Collinson, who 
kept up a constant correspondence with him, Colden, and 
other naturalists of America, was one of the first to cultivate 
the plants of that country in England, which he did with 
much success, at his charming garden at Mill Hill, near Lon- 
don. Dr. Garden was another eminent promoter of Ameri- 
can botany, and in his communications to Linnzus, he sent 
many new and interesting plants. His botanical enthusiasm 
seems to have been very great; and we have some striking 
proofs of it lately published by Sir J. E. Smith, in the Lin- 
nan correspondence. In one of those letters, addressed to 
the illustrious Swede from South Carolina, Dr. Garden thus 
expresses himself on the occasion of his being disappointed 
of an intended journey to the Apalachee mountains, by an 
order for the expedition to return. “ In my letters,” he says, 
‘“¢ to you at that time, I gave you an account of my intended 
journey, and in what manner the arrival of our new governor 
put a stop to us. Good God ! is it possible to imagine. the 
shock I received when the unhappy express overtook. us, just 
two days march on this side of the mountains. . My prospect 
of glutting my very soul with the view of the southern parts 
of the Great Apalachees was instantaneously blasted... How 
often did I think of the many happy hours that I should have 
enjoyed in giving you a detail of their productions. How 
often did I think of the secret pleasure which I should have, 
in being instrumental, though in the least degree, to the ad- 
vancement of our knowledge of the amazing works of the 
Supreme Architect. How happy should I have been to have 
thrown in my mite, by adding one new genus or species. to 
the vegetable or mineral kingdom. With what pleasure did 
I bear the sun’s scorching beams, the fatigue of travelling, the 
cold ground for my pillow, and the uncomfortable dreariness 
of rain, when I had in view the wished-for examination of 
the productions of the mountains. We had advanced about 
260 miles of our journey through the woods, when our hour 


Dr. Hooker on American Botany. i111 


was come that all our promised Elysium vanished, and left 
nothing but a blank, a doleful blank to me, and I may say to 
every one of the company ; for we were happily collected, and 
unanimity reigned amongst us. What will you think when 
I tell you that one of our company was a very accurate 
drawer, ‘and he had promised me to do every thing for me, 
and according to my direction, that I should desire ; so that, 
in this one circumstance, my loss was irreparable. But why 
do I dwell on the most disagreeable of all the incidents that 
ever Providence mingled in my lot ?” 

Kalm, the celebrated pupil of Linnzus, who was also Pro- 
fessor of Natural History at Abo, in Finland, visited Ameri- 
ca at the expense of the king of Sweden, in the years 1747— 
51. His researches extended so far as Canada, and the plants 
which he collected served materially to enrich the Species 
plantarum of his great master; while the Linnean herba- 
rium, as Sir J. E. Smith assures us, abounds in specimens 
brought home by Kalm, and distinguished by the letter K. 
The name of this botanist is commemorated in the beautiful 
genus Kalmia. 

Until the year 1803, however, nothing had been published 
containing a thoroughly scientific arrangement of any extensive 
portion of the northern part of the New World. The pro- 
viding of materials for such a work was reserved for André 
Michaux, a Frenchman, every way qualified for the task, and 
who, after returning from a most successful botanizing expe- 
dition to Persia, and bringing with him, amongst other trea- 
sures, the curious Rosa simplicifolia and Michauxia campanu- 
lata, was appointed to visit North America at the charges of 


_ the French government, with a view to enrich France with its 


various vegetable productions, particularly its forest trees ; 
for which, it must be confessed, that the climate of that coun- 
try is even better qualified than that of England. 

New York Michaux constituted the depot for the collec- 
tions which he made through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and 
Maryland; and he there established a garden, from whence 
he dispatched numerous packages to France. Another depot 
was formed at Charleston, for the reception of the productions 


_of the Carolinas and the Alleghany mountains, which he ex- 


plored with great difficulty and danger, travelling no less than 


112 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 


900 miles across the wilds of Carolina and Georgia alone, 
Thence he visited Spanish Florida, making his way up'the 
rivers for considerable distances, in a canoe hollowed out from 
a single trunk of the deciduous Cypress (Cupressus disticha.) 
In May 1789, he investigated the mountains of Carolina, and, 
assisted by some Indian guides, without whom it would have - 
been impossible to have made any progress, he penetrated the 
vast woods of the intervening plains, through thickets of Rho- 
dodendron, Kalmia, and Azalea; but was prevented from go- 
ing so far as he had intended, in consequence of a dispute, be- 
tween the Indians and the white people, .which rendered it 
unsafe for Europeans to venture among the former. He 
therefore returned to Charleston by New York and Phila- 
delphia.. He now recommended and instructed the Ameri- 
cans to collect and prepare the root of the Ginseng ( Panaa, 
quinquefolia,) in the same manner as the Chinese do for sale ; 
and, for a long time, a trade was actually carried on with 
China in that article. 

Michaux had still another object in view, which was tae 
of tracing the botanical topography of America; and, having 
effected so much in the southern States, he resolved to ex- 
tend his researches as far north as Hudson’s Bay. In short, 
he arrived at a country, where, as he says himself, ** nought 
but a dreary vegetation was found, consisting of black and 
stunted pines, which bore their cones at four feet only from 
the ground ; dwarf Birch and Service Trees, a creeping Ju- 
niper, the Black Currant, the Linnea borealis, Ledum, and. 
some species of Vacciniwm.” ’ 

Michaux did not return to Europe till 1796, when he was 
shipwrecked on the coast of Holland. The circumstance is. 
thus related by his biographer in the third volume of the 
Annales du Musewm @ Histoire Naturelle. ‘The passage 
had not been unpropitious; but on the 18th of September, 
when in sight of the shores of Holland, a dreadful tempest 
arose; the sails were rent, the masts broken, and the vessel. 
struck and split against the rocks. Such was the state of 
exhaustion and lias to which all the sailors and passengers 
were reduced, that the greater number would have been lost, 
but for the assistance ‘that was rendered by the inhabitants. 
of Egmond, a little neighbouring village... Michaux was 


Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 113 


lashed to one of the yards, and he was senseless when earried 
on shore; he did not recover till some hours after, when he 
found himself extended before a fire, with more than fifty 
persons standing around him. © His first idea, when his re- 
eollection returned, was to inquire for his collections. He 
was informed that the packages which contained his own 
effects had been lying on deck, whence they were washed by 
the violence of the waves; but that those chests which had 
been lodged in the hold had been taken out safely, This in- 
telligence consoled him. Notwithstanding the wretched state 
of his health, Michaux was compelled to remain six weeks at 
Egmond, and to work day and night. His plants having 
got wetted by the salt water, he was obliged to immerse them 
all in fresh newer and one after another, to dry them between 
new papers.” 

On his return to his native country, Michaux employed 
himself in preparing his History of Oaks, a work which re- 
flects the highest credit upon its author ; not only because of 
the number of new species which are there made known to 
us, but also on account of the important uses to which the 
timber of the different kinds may be applied. An appoint- 
ment to explore other countries * prevented him from pub- 
lishing himself any of his various new and important dis- 
coveries. His History of the Oaks was indeed printed, but 
the plates were not all ready for the press before his depar- 
ture from Europe. It was edited in 1801. But that work 
which more immediately concerns our present subject, and 
which was compiled from the materials that he collected du- 
ring his travels in North America, is his Flora Borealis Ame- 
ricana, sistens Characteres Plantarum quas in America Sep- 
tentrionali collegit et detewit Andreas Michaux. This ap- 
peared in 1803, (the very year of Michaux’s death,) in two 


* He embarked in the ill-conducted expedition under Captain Baudin; but 
like many others of the officers, when the vessel arrived at the Isle of France, he 
refused to proceed farther, and thinking that Madagascar presented a glorious field 
to the naturalist, he quitted the expedition ; keeping his motives a secret till the’ 
moment of the ship’s departure. Landing on the east coast of that island, he 
resolved taprepare a garden for the reception of his plants in the vicinity of Ta- 
matada ; but here he was seized with a fever, the consequence of the climate, aids 
ed by over-exertion, and of which he died in 1803, 


VOL. II. NO. 1. JAN, 1825, i 


114 Dr, Hooker on American Botany. 


volumes octavo, with fifty-one neat plates in outlines. The 
anonymous editor, and indeed he may justly be considered 
the author, was the eminent Claude Louis Richard, late pro- 
fessor of botany at the School of Medicine in Paris, and un- 
questionably one of the most profound botanists that Europe 
has ever known. The whole is in Latin, and, as may be sup- 
posed, the proportiona] number of new species is extremely 
large, and certainly considered as the first Flora of so exten- 
sive a country as North America ; it confers the highest cre-~ 
dit on the industry and acuteness of Michaux. 

Long before the publication of this work, another natu- 
ralist, Frederick Pursh, a Pole, we believe, by birth, but 
educated in Dresden, instigated by the richness of the vege- 
tation, and the hope of making numerous discoveries, re- 
solved to visit North America, nid carried his plan into exe- 
cution in 1799, when he embarked for Baltimore, in Mary- 
Jand, with the resolution not to return to Europe till he had 
examined the country, and collected materials to the utmost 
extent of his means and abilities; and it is certain that he 
did this under many and great disadvantages. His travels 
were extensive ; for he remained nearly twelve years in Ame- 
rica, and in two summers only he went over an extent of 
country equal to 6000 miles, principally on foot, and with 
no companion save a dog and his gun. From the first four 
or five years of his residence in America, Pursh seems to have 
been chiefly employed in collecting plants about Philadel- 
phia, and in receiving them from id correspondents for culti- 
vation in his gardens there, In 1805, he explored the west- 
erm territories of the southern states, including the high 
mountains of Virginia and Carolina; and in 1806, he went 
through many of the northern States, commencing with the 
mountains of Pennsylvania, and extending his inyestigations 
to those of New Hampshire, embracing the country of the 
lesser and great lakes. 

But the most important of the advantages to which I al- 
lude, were derived by Pursh’s personal acquaintance with, 
and communications from, various botanists, who about this 
time were to be found in different parts of the United 
States. 


Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 115 


Among these, the first undoubtedly in point of rank and 
Meracter, will stand the amiable Dr. Muhlenberg, minister 
of the German church at Lancaster, in Pennsylvania. He 


was thoroughly conversant with the vegetable productions of 


his own district, and in a measure with those of America - 
generally: for he published, in 1813, a Catalogue of the 
Plants of North America, which contains a great number of 
new species; and,what redounds still more to his credit, 
though it was a posthumous work, he was the author of an 
excellent treatise on the Grasses and Sedges of North Ame- 
rica, which was edited in 1817 by his son, assisted, as he 
tells us in the preface, by Mr. Elliott, Mr. Baldwin, and Mr. 
Collins. This work is entirely in Latin. Dr. Muhlenberg 
carried on a most extensive correspondence with the botanists 
of Europe, by whom he was greatly esteemed. He supplied 
the celebrated Hedwig with many of the rare American 
mosses, which were published either in the Stirpes Crypto- 
gamice of that author, or in the Species Muscorum. To 
Sir J. KE. Smith, and Mr. Dawson Turner, he likewise sent 
many plants, and one of his new mosses was published by the 
latter gentleman in the Annals of Botany, under the name of 
Funaria Muhlenbergii. It is well known that Dr. Muh- 
lenberg possessed very extensive materials for a general de- 
scription of the plants of the New World ; but what has be- 
come of these we have been unable to ascertain. His her- 
barium is in the possession of the American Philosophical 
Society. 

_ Another of the friends of Pursh was Dr. B. Smith Barton, 
a physician and a naturalist, and unquestionably a great pro- 


_ moter of Science, and especially of Botany in America. He 


was appointed Professor of Natural History 1 in the university 
of Philadelphia in 1789. We recollect, in our early youth, 
reading with great delight some of his Fragments of Natural 
History, as they were appropriately termed, which first 
brought to our notice many highly curious objects of that 
country, and reminded us of the writings of our own Still- 
ingfleet and White. He has the credit of publishing an 
elementary work on Botany, which, though rather diffuse in 
style, is full of entertaining anecdotes; and the references 
and terms being all made applicable to American plants, it 


116 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 


must have done much towards recommending the study of 
botany in that country. 
Mr. Marshall, author of a work on the forest trees of 
America, was then living, and he imparted to Pursh some 
useful materials, principally afforded by his garden, rich in 
trees and shrubs. j 

The sons of the celebrated John Bartram, before men- 
tioned, possessed an old established garden, founded indeed 
by the elder Bartram, at Philadelphia, on the banks of the 
Delaware. Mr. William Bartram, the well-known author 
of the travels through North and South Carolina, was then, 
and we believe is still living; a man who merits the gratitude 
of every naturalist, for the cordial reception which he 
gave to Wilson, the ornithologist, at the period when that 
highly-gifted individual had scarcely a friend in the world. 
It was the advice and encouragement that Mr. Bartram gave 
him that was mainly the cause of the appearance of one of 
the most valuable works on science that was ever published 
in any country, the American Ornithology.* Mr. Pursh 
appears to have received an equally kind reception and much 
valuable information from Bartram. . 

In 1802, Mr. Pursh had the charge of the extensive gar- 
dens of W. Hamilton, Esq. called the Woodlands, which 
having, immediately previous, been under the charge of Mr, 


* We cannot help here, though but little connected with the subject of this 
paper, making an extract from the interesting life of Wilson, published by Mr. 
Ord, in the 9th volume of the American Ornithology. ‘* His residence being 
but at a short distance from the botanical garden of Messrs, Bartram, situated on 
the western bank of the Schuylkill, (a sequestered spot, possessing attractions of 
no ordinary kind,) an acquaintance was soon contracted with that venerable na- 
turalist, Mr. William Bartram, which ripened into an uncommon friendship, and 
continued without the least abatement until severed by the hand of death. Here 
it was that Wilson found himself translated, if we may so speak, into a new exist+ 
ence. He had long been a lover of the works of nature, and had derived more 
happiness from the contemplation of her simple beauties, than from any other 
source of gratification. But he had hitherto been a mere novice; he was now 
about to receive instructions from one whom the experience of a long life, spent in 
travel and rural retirement, had rendered qualified to teach. Mr, Bartram soon 
perceived the bent of his friend’s mind, and its congeniality to his own, and took 
every pains to encourage him in a study, which, while it expands the faculties and 


purifies the heart, insensibly leads to the contemplation of the glorious author of 
nature himself.” 


Dr. Hooker on American Botany: 117 


Lyon, an Englishman, and an eminent collector, were found 
to be enriched with a number of new and valuable plants ; 
and Mr. Pursh affirms, that through Mr. Lyon’s means, more 
rare and novel plants have been introduced from thence to 
Europe than through any other channel whatever. The her- 
barium, as well as the living collection of Lyon, was of great 
use to Mr. Pursh ; and the plants described by him, from spe~ 
cimens seen only in that herbarium, are numerous, 

The interesting expedition of Messrs. Lewis and Clarke 
across the vast.continent of America to the Pacific Ocean, by 
the way of the Missouri and Great Columbia rivers, was pro- 
ductive of a small collection, of about 150 species of plants, 
(but of which not a dozen were previously known to the na- 
tives of America,) which Mr. Pursh had the opportunity of 
describing. 'These were gathered during the rapid return 
of the expedition from the Pacific Ocean towards the United 
States. A far more extensive herbarium had been formed 
by the same expedition on the ascent towards the Rocky 
Mountains, and among the chains of the Northern Andes ; 
but this was lost, in consequence of the inability to carry it 
beyond a certain point. 

Another set of specimens to which Mr. Pursh had free ac- 
cess, was that belonging to Mr. Ensley, a German naturalist, 
who had been sent out to America by Prince Lichtenstein. 
It was particularly rich in the vegetable productions of Lower 
Louisiana and Georgia. 

Thus, by Mr. Pursh’s personal exertions and industry, 


and by the aid of other botanists, he found himself about the 


year 1807, in possession of materials for a Flora of North 
America, amounting to nearly double the number of species 
enumerated by Michaux. He began seriously to think of 


publishing them, and applied to some bookseller in Philadel- 
phia for that purpose ; but his intention was deferred in con- 
sequence of his being called upon to take the management of 


the public Botanic Garden at New York, originally establish- 
ed by Dr. David Hosack, and his private property. Here, 


again, keeping his favourite object respecting the publication 


of a Flora in view, he had the opportunity of adding farther 
to his knowledge of the plants of the United States, and of 
obtaining still greater assistance, particularly from M. le 


118 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 


Comte of Georgia, and from the estimable Professor Peck * 
of New Cambridge University. . 

Fortunately for the cause of science, there existed at the 
time of which we are speaking, so many obstacles to the pub- 
lication of scientific works in America, that Mr. Pursh was 
led to visit England, where the reception he met with from 
Sir Joseph Banks, and A. B. Lambert, Esq. made him re- 
solve upon printing his book in this country. The access 
which was granted him to the Libraries and collections of 
these two eminent men, were alone a source of much advan- 
tage to him. He had also the opportunity of examining, 
amongst others, the select Herbaria of Clayton, in the Bank- 
sian collection, from which the Flora Virginica was formed ; 
of Walter, from which the Flora Caroliniana was compiled, 
in the possession of Messrs. Frazers of Sloan Square; of 
Catesby, part of which is in the British Museum, whilst 
another part, together with numerous additions from Walter, 
Michaux, J. Bartram, and a Mr. Filden, from Hnudson’s 
Bay, is in the Sherardian Herbarium at Oxford; that of 
Plunket, in the British Museum ; of Pallas, (in the possession 
of Mr. Lambert,) rich in the vegetable productions of northern 
Asia, which, as is well known, bear a great affinity to those of 
the northern parts of America; of Mr. Bradbury, which was 
formed in Upper Louisiana, in the possession, we believe, of 
the Botanic Garden at Liverpool; and of A. Menzies, Esq. 
which was selected, during that gentleman’s voyage with Captain 
Vancouver, upon the N. W. coast of America. Nor should the 
various collections be omitted which are found in the gardens 
of England, especially in the vicinity of London. 

Thus prepared, the Flora Americe Septentrionalis, or a 


* We recollect when, many years ago, this gentleman did us the honour of a 
vicit in England. He mentioned that his taste for natural history was induced 
by the perusal of an imperfect copy of Linnzus’s Systema Natura, a work then 
scarcely known in America, and which he obtained from the wreck of a ship which 
was lost near the spot where he resided. Professor eck afterwards became emi- 
nent, particularly for his knowledge of insects; and his communications to our 
great entomologist, the Rev. Mr. Kirby, are highly vaulable. Many of these 
were published by Mr. Kirby, in the Transactions of the Linnean Society, and 
amongst them the curious Xenos Peckii, an insect which inhabits the joints in the 
abdomen of the Wasp. Another insect nearly allied to this is the Stylops Me- 
litta of Mr. Kirby’s Monographia Apum Anglia, and which inhabits the same si- 
tuation in the body of the Honey bee. 


. 


Dr. Hooker én American Botiny. 119 


Systematic Arrangement and Description of the Plants of 
North America, by Fk. Pursh, appeared in London in the 
year 1513, with 24 well-executed plates of new species, in 
2 vols. Svo. The specific characters are in Latin, the obser- 
vations in English. 

The arrangement is that of the sexual system; but the au- 
thor has made considerable deviations from the generally re- 
ceived arrangement of the Linnean school. The classes Do- 
decandria and Polyadelphia are omitted, as well as Monecia, 
Diecia and Polygamia and their genera ate referred to other 
classes, some according to the number of stamens, others to 
his 19ih class, which is called Declinia, and which contains 
Euphorbiacee, Amentacee, and Conifere ; thus bringing in- 
to his arrangement an union of a natural and artificial sys- 
tem, which has not been adopted by others. 

Michaux’s work included the whole of the class Cryptoga- 
mia; but this, though all perhaps that was then known, con- 
tained so scanty a list as scarcely to deserve notice, Mr. 
Pursh professes to go no farther than the order Filices of the 
class Cryptogamia. 

Sometime after the publication of his Flora, the ie 
again visited America, but with a view of confining his re- 
searches to a part which had been very little explored, name- 
ly Canada. There he died in 1820. His herbarium of that 
country, which was considerable, has been purchased by Mr. 
Lambert, who, we believe, is also the possessor of that far 
more extensive and valuable one which Pursh had made in 
his former travels in the United States. 

In the year 1814, there appeared in America, printed at 
Boston, the Florula Bostoniensis, or a Collection of Plants 
of Boston and its environs, by Jacob Bigelow, M.D. in 1 
vol. 8vo. It is in English, and strictly arranged according to 
the Linnzan system. It was destined principally for the use 
of the students in Botany ; and the plants described therein 
were all collected during two seasons, in the immediate vici- 
nity of Boston, or within a circuit of from five fo ten miles ; 
and although very few new species are added, the number of 
individuals is very considerable for so limited a space.* Dur- 


* At the moment of our sending these notices to the press, we have receiv- 
ed from its esteemed author, who is a Professor in Harvard College, New 
4 


120 Dr. Hooker on American Botany: 


ing the year [816, accompanied by our valued friend Dr. 
Francis Boott, Dr. Bigelow examined the botany of the 
White Mountains in New Hampshire, and published an ac- 
count of it in the New England Journal of Medicine and 
Surgery for that year. ‘This was one among many other 
journies made by these gentlemen in the New England States, 
with a view to the publication of a Flora of that district. 
The design, however, has been relinquished, and the princi- 
pal cause, since it has arisen from Dr. Boott’s naturalization 
among us, we ought not to regret. Science, however, has 
been a sufferer; for, from our personal knowledge of this 
gentleman, we are satisfied that he would have been a most 
able and zealous coadjutor in such an undertaking. A very 
extensive collection of the plants of that country has been li- 
berally presented to us by Dr. Boott, which has satisfied us, 
that in the art of preserving specimens, no one has ever ex- 
ceeded, or perhaps ever. equalled him; and the names are 
very frequently accompanied by valuable notes. 

It is delightful to see a man, of the talents and rank in life 
of Mr. Elliott of Charleston, the excellent President of the 
Literary and Philosophical Society of South Carolina, deeply 
engaged in important public affairs; yet. cheerfully devoting 
his leisure hours to the promotion of the arts and of science, 
and actually engaged in publishing a Flora, under the unas- 
suming title of a Sketch of the Flora of South Carolina and 
Georgia, which he commenced in 1816. This is arranged 
according to the Linnean system, having specific characters 
both in Latin and in English, and very copious notes and de- 
scriptions. A work thus conducted cannot fail to be of great 
importance to the student of American botany; the more so, 
since the author has written from his own personal observa- 
‘tion, depending little upon the assistance of others, and in a 
capital where science has not been so much cultivated as in 
the northern States. In a letter now before us, the author 
says, ‘* No one in Europe can, probably, appreciate correct- 


Cambridge, a second edition of the Florula Bostoniensis, containing about twice 
the number of plants enumerated in the first edition, and also many valuable 
remarks, particularly on the useful natures and qualities of the species. Dr. 
Bigelow is also the author of a valuable work, entitled, American Medical Bo- 
tany, begun in 1817, of which three parts have reached us, 


Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 12] 


ly the difficulty of the task in which I have engaged. The 
want of books, the want of opportunities for examining living 
collections or good herbaria, the want of coadjutors, have all 
served to render my task arduous, and to multiply its imper- 
fections.” Nevertheless, there are many new species, de- 
scribed with great care and fidelity, and the grasses, which are 
accompanied with some neat plates, have particularly at- 
tracted the author’s attention. There are several beautiful 
novel species, and some newly established genera. We have 
received of this work to the 6th No. of the 2d volume, which 
includes so far as the class Monacia; and we are informed 
by Mr. Elhott, that another number will complete the Sketch. 
This we regret, as the work cannot thus take in the Crypto- 
gamia; and we consider Mr. Elliott’s talent for minute 
description admirably calculated for such plants as that class 
embraces. No man seems to be more strongly impressed 
with the value of the study of natural history than Mr. 
Elliott. ‘* It has been, for many years,” says he, “ the oc- 
cupation of my leisure moments; it is a merited tribute to 
say, that it has lightened for me many a heavy, and smooth- 
ed many a rugged hour; that beguiled by its charms, I have 
found no road rough or difficult, no journey tedious, no 
country desolate or barren. In solitude never solitary, in a 
desert never without employment. I have found it a relief 
from the languor of idleness, the pressure of business, and 
from the unavoidable calamities of life.”* 

We come now to the agreeable employment of mentioning 
a very important work, both on account of the extended na- 
ture of the publication, and of the manner in which it has 
been executed ; we allude to the “* Genera of North Ameri- 
can Plants, and a Catalogue of its Species to the year 1817, 
by Thomas Nuttall,” in 2 vols. 12mo. printed at Philadelphia. 
Mr. Nuttall is an Englishman by birth, and a native of York- 
shire; but he visited North America at an early age, and is 
now domiciliated in that country. His love of botany and 
mineralogy is exceedingly great, and a personal acquaintance, 
which his late visit to this country has enabled us to have 
the pleasure of forming, has only served to increase the es- 


* See Elliott's address to the Literary and Philosophical Society of South 
Carolina, delivered at Charleston, and published there in 1814. 


422 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 


teem and respect which his writings had already taught us te 
entertain towards him. For many years previous to the pub- 
lication of his Flora, the.author was engaged in visiting very 
extensively the territories of the United States, particularly 
the southern and western ones. ‘ For nearly ten years,” 
he says in his preface to his Journal of Travels into the Ar- 
kansas territory, “1 have travelled throughout America, 
principally with a view to becoming acquainted with some 
favourite branches of natural history. I have had no other end 
in view but personal gratification ; and in this I have not been 
deceived ; for innocent amusement can never leave room for 
regret. ‘To converse, as it were with nature, to admire the 
wisdom and beauty of creation, has ever been, and I hope 
ever will be, to me a favourite pursuit; and to communicate 
to others a portion of the same amusement and gratification 
has been the only object of my botanical publications.” 

The “ Genera of North American Plants” is entirely in 
English ; and it appears that it was the design of the writer 
to have arranged it according to the natural orders. But 
out of deference to public opinion, in a country where the ar- 
tificial system of Linnzus had almost exclusively been studi- 
ed, Mr. Nuttall adopted that method. He has, however, 
made a great many valuable remarks upon the natural orders, 
following several of the genera, and has recommended the 
adoption of some new ones. He has well defined the charac 
ters of the order Monotropee, to which he has properly 
referred the highly curious Pferospora. As, however, the 
well-known genus Pyrola belongs unquestionably to the same 
family, the term Pyrolew might perhaps have been considered 
as more appropriate. The characters of the genera (which 
he here extends to 807, exclusive of any cryptogamia,) have, 
as may be inferred from the title, occupied a greater share of 
attention from Mr. Nuttall. He has added to the essential. 
characters, those taken from the habit of the plant, and he 
has noticed their geographical distribution. In the enume- 
ration of species, he has included all that have been described 
by other authors, sometimes made observations upon them, 
and added a very considerable number of new individuals, 
which have been discovered by himself or his friends. This 
book may therefore be well said to form an era in the history 


Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 123 


of American botany ; and we rejoice that the execution of it 
has fallen into such able hands. 

Mr. Nuttall has added still more to his credit as a natu- 
falist and a man of most acute observation, by the publica- 
tion of his Travels in the Arkansa Territory. This was a 
journey accompanied with great difficulty, and not a little 
danger. The plants which he collected were numerous and 
interesting, very different from the vegetation of the rest of 
the United States, and many of them perfectly new. Some 
detached accounts of the botany of this singular district have 
already appeared, particularly in the Journal of the Academy 
of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, and not a few of the 
plants themselves are now cultivated in our botanic gardens, 
from seeds gathered by Mr. Nuttall. 

This gentleman now occupies the chair of Natural History 
in the University of New Cambridge. 

We regret not to be able to give any account of Laton’s 
Manual of Botany, nor yet of Barton’s more extended Flora 
of North America, (which is, we believe, in the course of 
publication,) never having had the opportunity of seeing 
these works. 

The various scientific journals which are published in 
America, contain many memoirs upon the indigenous plants. 
Among the first of these in point of value, and we think al- 
‘so the first with regard to time, we must name Silliman’s 
American Journal of Science, in which we find Botanical 
Tracts by Professor Ives of Yale College, and Mr. Rafines- 
que, by Dr. Torrey, a physician at New York, “ On the 
plants collected by D. B. Douglass of West-Point, in the 
expedition around the great lakes, and the upper waters of 


‘the Mississipi, under Governor Cass, during the summers of 
-1818—20 ;” and also “‘on a new species of Usnea* from 


* Dr. Torrey did not possess the fructification of this plant. We were so 
fortunate as to obtain a specimen of it through the kindness of Mr. Edwards, 


late surgeon of the Hecla, which came from the same country, and has fine 


shields. It is one of the handsomest species of Usnea that we are acquainted 
with ; but it certainly approaches very near the U. sphacclata of Brown, from 
the Arctic regions. Dr. Mitchell, who communicated the plant to Dr. Torrey, 
seems inclined to believe this lichen to be the only vegetable production of 
New South Shetland. We have received half a-dozen different ones, and will 
yenture to predict that many more will yet be discovered, 


J24 Dr. Hooker on American: Botany: 


New South Shetland,” (U.,fasciata of Torrey,) by Mr. Lew- 
is de Schweinitz, in a valuable ‘*‘ Monograph of the genus 
viola,” by Mr. Nuttall, on a “collection of plants made in 
East Florida, by Mr. Ware,” by Mr. M. C. Leavemvorth, 
on “ four new species of plants from Alabama,” by Professor 
C. Dewey of William’s College, upon ‘+ Carices.” 

In the Journal of the Academy of Sciences, the Botanical 
Memoirs are entirely from the pen of Mr. Nuttall. 

The Annals of the Lycewm of Natural History of New 
York were only commenced last year ; but the numbers, (of 
which we have received five from that excellent institution,) 
contain several communications on the subject of botany. In 
No. I. is a “ Synopsis of the Lichens of the state of New 
York,” by Mr. A. Halsey, and a description by Dr. Torrey 
of « some new and rare plants collected in the rocky moun- 
tains, during the expedition thither, commanded by Major 
Long, by Dr. Edwin James-;” in No. II. a ‘* Synopsis of the 
Carices,” by Dr. Schweinitz. No. III. contains an article ‘¢ on 
the American Utricularie,” by M. le Comte, who enumerates 
11 species. No. IV. “on the genus Gratiolia,” by the same 
author. No. V. “on the genus Rwellia,” by M. le Comte, 
and on “some new grasses found by Dr. James, on the rocky 
mountains,” by Dr. Torrey. 

Mr. Schweinitz, whom we have already more than oncé 
alluded to, is a native of Germany, where, as well as through- 
out Europe, he is advantageously known, in conjunction 
with M. Albertini, as the author of a Latin work on the 
Fungi of Upper Lusatia. Since his residence in America, 
he has continued to dedicate most of his attention to the 
fungi; and his manuscript, containing an account of 1373 
fungi found in Upper Carolina alone, was edited by Dr. 
Schwaegrichen in 1823, under the title of “ Synopsis Fun- 
gorwm Caroline Superioris,” in a thin volume, 4to; and it 
is not a little singular to observe how many of these are com- 
mon to Europe as well as America. 

We shall close our notice of American botanical publica- 
tions by the mention of that, which if we may judge from 
the first number (which is all that we have yet received from 
the author,) bids fair to rank among the most valuable that 


a 


Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 125 


has appeared in that country; the Flora of the Middle and 
Northern Sections of the United States, by Dr. Torrey. A 
frequent correspondence, and a mutual interchange of bo- 
tanical specimens, have made us acquainted with the zeal 
and acquirements of this gentleman; both of which are now 
assiduously engaged in the preparation of his work, the con- 
tinuation of which we anxiously expect. No. I. extends as 
far as, but not to the conclusion of, the Class Triandria, and 
Order Digynia ; for here likewise the arrangement is that of 
Linneus. The whole is in English. The synonyms are 
sufficiently copious, and the descriptive part contains much 
useful criticism and observation. We know, too, that Dr. 
Torrey has made a most ample collection of the cryptogamic 
plants of the United States; that he is well acquainted with 
the species and their characters ; and we may therefore con- 
fidently hope that this department of botany will now find a 
place in the Floras of North America. ‘ 
~ Our attention has hitherto been almost exclusively turned 
to the progress of botany in the United States. There is 
still a vast extent of highly interesting country to the north- 
ward, from the 45th parallel of lat. to 74, including 29 de- 
grees, and to the westward, which, as being for the most 
part either in the acknowledged possession of the British 
government, or of the Hudson’s Bay Company, or what has 
been explored by British enterprise, we shall denominate the 
British possessions in North. America. 

_ Small, indeed, compared to the extent of the country, is 
the amount of what has been published exclusively on the 
plants of these regions. We may, we believe, sum up the 
whole in the mention of the Botanical Appendix to Captain 
Franklin’s Narrative, and those to the various recent Arctic 
Voyages of Discovery, among which the observations of our 
countryman, Brown, have given an additional interest to the 
subject, besides a small paper upon some new and rare Ca- 
nadian plants, gathered by Mr. Goldie during an excursion 
of some extent in that country, which was printed in the 
Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. Unless we indeed extend 
our remarks to Greenland, of which country a list of the 
plants has been printed by Sir Charles Giesecké, in the 
Edinburgh Encyclopedia, art. Greeniann, and other 


126 Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 


species are inéluded in the Flora Danica of Professor Horne- 
mann. york 

Brief and scanty as is this catalogue, we anticipate, from 
the mostly unpublished collections that have been formed, 
and from the various expeditions that are now sent out; 
or that are about to be so, that, in a very few years Great 
Britain will be in a condition to fill up the void which exists 
in her Flora of her portion of North America. 

The herbaria at present existing, as connected with the 
plants of those countries, over and above those to which we 
have already alluded, are perhaps not very extensive. Sir 
Joseph Banks made collections on the Labrador coast, and 
we believe that the missionaries of that territory have sent 
home many plants to the Museum of their Society. Lady 
Hamilton possesses numerous well-dried plants of Newfound- 
land, and we have ourselves opened a correspondence with 
some gentlemen of that island, from whom much may be ex- 
pected. In Canada, besides what has been effected by Mr. 
Pursh, we know of several individuals who are industriously 
engaged in furthering the Flora of that country, and of Hud- 

son’s Bay. In the first rank of these, we are proud to be 
able to mention the Right Honourable the Countess of Dal- 
housie, the lady of his Excellency the Governor, whose rank 
and influence, no less than her superior acquirements and 
great love of science, entitle us to hope for much from her 
in the promotion of our wishes. On the sea coast of Hud- 
son’s Bay, collections made as far north as Chesterfield Inlet, 
during Duncan’s voyage of discovery, exist, we believe, in 
the Banksian Herbarium. Mr. Graham in Foster’s time, 
sent plants as well as animals home from -Churchill, Tul- 


7 


den’s plants, in the Sherardian Herbarium, are from Moose- - 


factory; near the bottom of Hudson’s Bay. In the interior, 
to the eastward of the rocky mountains, no one has botanized 
but Dr. Richardson, during Franklin’s journey. With the 
fate of a large portion of that collection, and with the affect- 
ing and afflicting cause of it, the public are well acquainted. 
On the north-west coast, Mr. Menzies* has been the princi- 


* Many of these plants have been ably described by our valued friend Sir J. E. 


Smith, President of the Linnean Society, in the botanical part of Rees’s Cyclo- 
pedia. 


Dr. Hooker on American Botany. 127 


pal. investigator ; but 2 Mr. Nelson, who perhaps accompa- 
nied some of the voyagers, who succeeded Captain Cook in 
the survey of that coast, has communicated many specimens, 
which are in the Banksian or Lambertian Herbarium. Pallas’ 
Herbarium, in the hands of Mr. Lambert, contains plants 
gathered by the Russians in the Aleutian isles, and De Can- 
dolle has published, in his Prodromus, some interesting indi- 
viduals, communicated by Dr. Fischer from the same neigh- 
bourhood. 

More ample materials may confidently be looked for from 
the following sources:—The great attention already be- 
stowed during former voyages by Captain Parry and his 
officers, to the vegetable productions of the Arctic regions, 
would alone warrant us in expecting that the same desire 
will be felt during the present expedition, to contribute all 
in their power to the natural. history of the countries which 
they explore., But we have farther the assurance of the dis- 
tinguished commander of the expedition himself, in the last 
letter which we received from him, dated Whale Fish Islands, 
July 1, that no exertion should be wanting on his part to se- 
cure every species of plant that may be met with in the course 
of the voyage. 

The Horticultural Society of London have despatched one 
of their most able collectors to the mouth of the Columbia, 
David Douglas, who was formerly one of the head gardeners 
at the Glasgow botanical garden. He had, immediately pre- 
vious to his being sent on the present expedition, done him- 
self great credit, and given his employers the highest satisfac- 
tion, during his mission to the United States, for the purpose 
of procuring plants and fruits for the society. His under- 
taking is now a far more arduous one, and one in which we 
know that no exertions on his part will be wanted to bring it 
to a successful issue. After spending the ensuing season in 
collecting on the north-west coast, through nearly ten degrees 
of latitude, he will cross the Rocky Mountains in lat. 55°, and 
fall in with Captain Franklin’s line of route at Isle de la 
Crosse, and return overland with that enterprising officer to 
Hudson’s Bay. 

The Hudson’s Bay Company, with a liberality that reflects 
the highest credit upon them, made application and provision 
for a surgeon to one of their ships, who, to his medical know- 


128 Dr, Hooker on American Botany.- 


ledge should have added the acquirement of natural history, 
particularly of botany. It was our good fortune to have in 
view, at the period when the application was made to us, a young 
man every way qualified for such a situation, Mr. Scouler, 

_unquestionably one of our ablest botanical students. He em-— 
barked for the north-west coast of America in the month of 
July of this year (1824,) and will be absent altogether two 
years. 

The greater portion of the interior of this.extended coun- 
try, and its northern coast, remains to be explored and inves- 
tigated by Captain Franklin and our inestimable friend Dr. 
Richardson, together with the officers and men who will be 
appointed to accompany them. Of the botanical acquire- 
ments of the last-named gentleman we have the highest opi- 
nion. For zeal in collecting he cannot be surpassed ; still, in 
order that his collections may be more complete, and that a 
greater extent of country may be embraced, he has, partly at 
his own expense, and partly by the aid of government, re- 
solved upon taking with him Mr. Drummond of Forfar, 
whom we have already mentioned in this Journal most fa- 
vourably, as the author of a valuable work on the mosses of 
Scotland, and whom we have no hesitation in pronouncing to. 
be one of the most acute and ardent followers of botany that 
this country possesses, 

The expedition, as is well known, will embark early in 
February, and it will land at New York. Captain Franklin, 
Dr. Richardson, and Mr. Drummond will proceed together 
as far as Red River on Lake Winipeg, or Carlton House on 
the Saskatchawan, which will be Drummond’s head quarters 
for two summers, from whence he will make excursions in 
company with the fur traders, at the head of that vast valley 
which forms the extensive plain across the Missouri, and 
opens towards Mexico. Here, therefore, he may be expected 
to meet with a highly curious vegetation and plants, similar 
to those which Nuttall, James, and Bradbury discovered on 
the banks of the Missouri itself. He will likewise have the 
opportunity of botanizing on the declivities of the | 
Mountains, in lat. 52°. 

Captain Franklin and Dr. Richardson will proceed together 
as far as the mouth of the Mackenzie River, which will pro- 
bably be the extreme northern point attained by the latter ; 


Prof. Mitscherlich on Crystals formed by Heat. 199 


for his great object is to examine, with the utmost care, the 
region which lies between Mackenzie and Coppermine rivers ; 
and here he will unquestionably more than supply the place 
of those collections which were lost during the former journey. 
Captain Franklin again, and the officer that accompanies him, 
will proceed from the mouth of the Mackenzie in boats, to 
Behring’s Straits; they will doubtless devote as much time ag 
their other important avocations will permit, in gathering 
plants and other objects of natural history ; and Dr. Richard- 
son will take care to instruct one or more of the party in the 
mode of preserving vegetable productions. ‘The prayers and 
the wishes of their friends, and of every friend to science, will 
accompany these able and intrepid investigators. 

Some idea may now be formed of the extent and value of | 
the collections which will be cbtained, and we are confident 
that such arrangements will be made as will secure to every 
botanist the credit of his respective discoveries. We think 
then, that these should be destined for the foundation of a 
Flora of the British Possessions in North America ; which, 
if no individual more competent to the task presents himself, 
the writer of the present article will not shrink from under- 
taking ; and this he offers to do the more readily, since some 
of the most effectual aid has already, and unsolicited, been 
offered to him. 


An. XXI.—On the Production of Crystalhzed Minerals by 
heat. By Mr. &. Mirscnerricnu, Professor of Chemistry 
in the University of Berlin. 


Ar Fahlun and Garpenberg in Sweden, and in several of 
the founderies of Germany, I had observed that the scoriae 
possessed the same form, and were composed of the same 
elements as certain minerals found in nature; and I possess 
at present upwards of forty different species. Among these 
are the subsilicate of the protoxide of iron, the Alwate’ of the 
protoxide of iron, also that of the protoxide of iron and of 
lime, and that of magnesia and lime. These substances, 
when crystallized, present the form of peridot. Another 
class of them are the bisilicates of protoxide of iron, of pro- 
VOL, Li, NO. I. JAN. 1625. K 


130 Prof. Mitscherlich on the Production of 


‘toxide of iron and lime, of lime and magnesia, which are 
formed among the slags of iron furnaces; these possess the 
“same primitive and secondary forms as pyroxene. I possess 
also the trisilicate of lime, the protoxide of copper, the oxide 
of zinc, the deutoxide of copper, the magnetic iron-ore (ozi~ 
dum ferroso-ferricum,) the sulphurets of iron, zinc, and lead ; 
the arseniuret of nickel, &c. 

1. Having the form of Peridot.—The silicate of iron is 
an important compound in the processes of melting copper 
and iron. I found two varieties, 1. from the melting of 
copper, and 2. from the refining process of cast-iron, com= 
posed of 


Silica, ; , 30.93 $1.06 
Protoxide of iron, 69.07 67.34 
Magnesia, i ; 0.00 00.65 


ae 


100.00 99.05 


Another variety formed in a high furnace, yielded to me as 
much as 12 p. cent. carbonate of lime; the oxygen of the silica, 
however, was the same as that of lime and protoxide of iron 
taken together. All these crystals have exactly the same 
form as peridot, whose primitive form is 4 right rectangular 
prism, and which, therefore, is the form of those silicates, 
whose bases have two atoms of oxygen. The common varie- 
ties resemble Fig. 35. of Plate III; and Fig. 34. is the projec- 
tion upon the plane of P, of all those secondary faces which } 
have observed in any of those slags, in Peridot, and in Hya- 
Josiderite together. The latter has been described by M. 
Walchner ; it is a Peridot, which contains more iron than the 
common varieties. . 

2. Having the form of Pyroxene.—When I came to Paris, 
M. Berthier had the kindness to communicate to me the re- 
sults of a vast number of researches, which he had instituted - 
on the fusibility of the silicates. Some of these silicates had 
crystallized and assumed the crystalline forms, the same 
angles, and the same essential external characters as those 
minerals which possess a similar mixture. Thus M. Ber- 
thier has fused silica, magnesia, and lime, in a carbon crucible 
in the necessary proportions to forma bisilicate, in which the. 


Crystallized Minerals by Heat. 131 


oxygen of the lime was equal to the oxygen of the magnesia ; 
and in another experiment, he melted the same elements in 


such a proportion, that the oxygen of the magnesia was 


double the oxygen of the lime. The results of both were 


pyroxenes, the counterparts of which we find in nature; the 
first is the ordinary pyroxene, the other is one of those from 
Finland, analysed by Mr. Nordenskidld. The crystals of 
silicate of manganese, which I had never seen before, obtain- 
ed by M. Berthier in fusing carbonate of manganese with 
silica, are particularly remarkable ; they are very well pro- 
nounced, and possess exactly the form of the silicate of iron 
described above, and of peridot. 

_ 8. Having the appearance of Mica.—There are some va- 
rieties among the old scoriae, found in the vicinity of Gar- 
penberg castle in Sweden, which present absolutely the same 
characters as mica. They produce an uniform mass, consisting 
of lamellze of two or three lines diameter, semitransparent and 
splendent. In the drusy cavities there are transparent six- 
sided tabular crystals. .In regard to its composition, which 


“T ascertained by analysis, it resembles the black Siberian mica, 
_ analysed by Klaproth. 


Mica from Garpenberg. Mica from Siberia. 


Silica, : ; ~ , £7.81 42.00 | 
Alumina, ‘ . 5.74 11.05. 

_ Peroxide of Iron, ; 28.91 22.00. 
Peroxide of Manganese, 0.48 2.00 
yori palace ie 0.23 0.00 
Magnesia, : 10.17 9.00 
Potash, , ‘ 1.05 19.00 


Inferences from the preceding observations in regard to 
Geology.—The artificial production of minerals by fusion 
puts beyond the slightest doubt, the idea of our primitive 


_ mountains having been originally in a state of igneous fusion. 
_ This state gives a satisfactory explanation of the form. of the 
_ earth, of the increase of temperature at greater depths, of hot 
_ springs, and many other phenomena. At that time, during 


this high degree of temperature, the water of the sea must 
have formed an elastic fluid round the globe, according to the 


_ experiments of M. Cagnard de la Tour, . 


182 Prof. Mitscherlich on the Production of 


The primitive mountains are distinguished from the vol- 
eanic productions, chiefly in their containing lime and mag- 
nesia in the state of carbonates, while they form silicates and 
bisilicates with the silica in volcanie rocks. It is conceivable, 
that the silica, which in a higher degree of temperature at the 
ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, drives away the carbo- 
nic acid, is on the other hand expelled by the carbonic acid 
under the influence of a high pressure. It is not therefore 
surprising to find quartz crystals in Carrara marble. But, as 
at the period of the formation of volcanic rocks, this high 
pressure, produced by the evaporation of the water of the 
sea, did not take place any longer, we find in them the same 
combinations which we obtain in our laboratories, and in me- 
tallurgical processes. 

It is proved by many observations, that the level of the sea 
must have been, at some ancient period, higher than it is at 
present. This can be easily accounted for, if we consider that 
water heated must be more expanded than the solid earth. If 
we suppose with M. de la Place, that the average depth of 
the sea is 96,000 feet, and assume the dilatation of the earth to 
be equal to that of 2 Aah we find, that at a temperature of 100° 
centigr., the sea would be 4000 feet higher than it is at pre- 
sent, and that it would cover most of the secondary moun- 
tains. The melted masses shrink during their cooling. If 
this happens jn large masses, Cavities, garnished with eayetals, 
must result, geodes, &c. 

Inferences drawn in regard to metallurgical processes. —T he 
process of the melting of copper ore at Fahlun may be ex- 
plained as follows, viz. The ore consists of copper-pyrites, 
and iron-pyrites, of two varieties ; one of them is rich, and the 
other very much mixed with quartz, They are first roasted, 
and thereby converted into a mixture of sulphuret, oxide, and 
sulphate. The roasted mineral is now melted in the propor- 
tion of three parts of the rich ore to one part of the quartzy 
variety. But the melters must be always attentive to the fur- 
nace,.and add now part of the one, now part of the other of’ 
the two kinds of ore, so as always to have the slags, consisting 
ofa bisilicate of protoxide of iron. ‘This slag is lamellar, and 
crystallizes like pyroxene. At the same time metallic com- 
pounds are obtained, consisting of sulphuret of iron, and ‘sul-’ 


Crystallized Minerals by Heat. 133 


phuret of copper. If the ore has been too much roasted, 
there remains too little sulphuret of iron to collect all the cu: 
preous particles throughout the whole mass of the slags ; and 
the smelters must add in this case some of the rich ore not 
roasted. ’ 

The metallic compounds are roasted six times; and, by 
this operation they are transformed into a mixture of magne- 
tic oxide of iron, and oxide of copper. This mass is now 
melted either with quartz, or with the quartzy ore, and their 
result is a silicate of the protoxide of iron and black copper: 
In the process followed in the Hartz for refining copper; 
much protoxide of that metal is formed, in the middle of 
which large crystals of arsenious acid are found, but never, 
as far as I know, any oxide of antimony. 

The purpose of refining iron is to separate along with the 
carbon, all those substances which might have a bad in- 
fluence on the quality of the wrought iron. In this view part 
of the pig-iron is first oxydised ; the oxide of iron combines 
with the silica, which either is introduced by the charcoal, or 
produced by the decomposition of the silica contained in the 
iron, and forms.a silicate. If the quantity of oxide of iron is 
too great, this oxide again acts upon the melted iron, or it 
combines with the silicate, and forms a sub-silicate, which 
being very fusible, will mix entirely with the melted mass, 
and burn its carbon, because the affinity between the oxide 
and silica is greater for forming a silicate than an embrolicate, 
and to discharge the rest of the oxide, when in contact with 
thé carbon at the temperature of the refining furnaces.— 
(Ann. de Chim. tom xxiv, p. 355; Ann. des Mines, tom ix. 
p- 176.) 


Ant. XXII.—Notice respecting Euchroite, a New Mineral 
Species. By Witt1AmM Haipincer, Esq: F.R.S.E. Com- 
municated by the Author. 


A winerat. has lately been brought to this country, under 
the name of Euchroite, of which a ation notice will find here 


134 Mr. Haidinger on Euchroite, a New Mineral. 


its proper place, as it does not seem to have yet been descr ib- 
ae even in the foreign journals. 
Form, prismatic: P = 119° 7’, 81° 47, 120° 5a. 
(a :6:¢=1:/0.928:: ./0.344)... Approximation. 
Simple forms. P—o(P); P +0(M) = 117°20; 
(Pr + 0) °(s) = 95°12"; (Pr + m)* (7%) = 78° 4%; Pr 
(n) = 81°52’; Pr +4 am (k.) | 
Combinations, 1. P —x. Pr. P +o. (Pr + ay. 
Plate HI. Fig. 29. 2.P—a.Pr.P+o@.(Pr+a). 
(Pr + oy. Pr + o. Fig. 30. 


Cleavage, indistinct, eee to the horizontal prism 2, 
and to the vertical prism m, very much interrupted. Frac 
ture, small conchoidal, uneven. Surface, the vertical prisms 
striated parallel to their common edges of intersection, the 
horizontal prism smooth, P — » ities rounded, as if a drop 
of the solution had remained after the complete formation of 
the crystal. 

Lustre, vitreous. Colour, bright emerald-green. Streak, 
pale apple-green. Double refraction, considerable. Semi. 
transparent, translucent. ; 

. Rather brittle. Hardness = 3.5... 4.0 (very near the 
same as fluor). Sp. gr. = 3.389. As the specimen employs 
ed was not entirely free from the oxide of iron, it is possible 
that the specific gravity is a little higher, though this ean be 
but very inconsiderable. 


Observations. 

1. The specimen of Euchroite to which the preceding de- 
scription refers, was purchased last summer by Mr. Allan when 
in London, from Mr. Sowerby, who had received the mineral 
from Mr. Bartsch of Vienna. It has been found at Libethen 
in Hungary, and occurs in crystals of considerable size, in 
fissures in the common quartzoze mica slate of that locality: 
Some of the erystals i in Mr. Allan’s specimen are upwards of 
three lines in every dimension, though the most perfect erys- 
tals are much smaller. They are in no small degree like those 
of Dioptase, and will enter the genus Emerald-malachite of 
Mohs. 


On the Structure of Rice Paper. 183 


®. Euchroite contains a considerable proportion of water 
and copper. An exact indication of the rest of the ingre- 
dients in its remarkable chemical composition, will be given 
in the next number of this Journal, Dr. Turner having, at 
my request, kindly undertaken an examination of it. 


Art. XXI[I.—CONTRIBUTIONS TO POPULAR SCIENCE. 
No. ITI. On the Structure of Rice Paper. * 


Tue substance commonly known by the name of Rice Pa« 
per is brought from China in small pieces, about two inches 
square, and tinged with various colours, It has been for 
some time used as an excellent substitute for drawing paper, 
in the representation of richly coloured insects, and other ob- 
jects of natural history, and has been employed in this city 
with still more success in the manufacture of artificial flowers. 
Although rice paper has a general resemblance to a sub- 
stance formed by art, yet a very slight examination of it with 
the miscroscopé is sufficient to indicate a vegetable organizas 
tion. In order to observe and trace the nature of its strues 
ture, it was necessary to give it some degree of transparency ; 
and I expected to accomplish this by the usual process of im- 
mersing it in water or in oil of the same refractive power. 
This operation, however, instead of increasing the transpa- 
rency rendered the film more opaque, and suggested the pro 
bability that, like Tabasheer, it was filled with air; and that 
the augmentation of its opacity arose, as in the case of that 
silicious concretion, from the partial absorption of the fluid. 
‘In order to expel the air from the cells in which it seemed 
to be lodged, I exposed a piece of the rice paper to the influ- 
ence of boiling olive oil. The heat immediately drove the 
air in small bubbles from the cells near the margin; but it 
_ was with some difficulty that it was forced to quit the interior 


___* From an unpublished MS. by Dr. Brewster, read before the Royal Society 
of Edinburgh, on the 4th March, 1822, 


136 On the Structure of Rice Papers 


parts of the film. As the olive oil had now taken the place 
of tlie air, and filled all the cells, the film beame perfectly, 
transparent, and displayed its vesicular structure when plac- 
ed under a powerful microscope. 

It will appear from the drawing executed by Mr. Greville, 
Plate II. Fig. 11, that the rice paper consists of long hex- 
agonal cells, tna! length is parallel -to the surface (ait the 
film ; that these cells are filled with air, when the film is in 
its usual state; and that from this circumstance it derives 
that peculiar softness which renders it so well adapted for the 
purposes ‘to which it is applied. When’ the film is exposed 
to polarised light, the longitudinal septa of the cells depolarise 
the light like other vegetable membranes. 

Among the three specimens of rice paper which I have 
produced, there is one from which all the air has been expell- 
ed by the boiling oil; another in which some of the air bub- 
bles still appear in the vesicles, the air having been only par- 
tially expelled by boiling water; and a third, whichis in con- 
tact with water, without having been deprived of any of its 
air bubbles. 

Upon mentioning to Mr. Neill the preceding experiments, 
he informed me that the lady in Edinburgh, Miss Jack, who 
had employed rice paper with such success in the manufac- 
ture of artificial flowers, had learned from her brother, who 
was in China, that it was a membrane of the bread fruit tree, 
the arlocarpus incisifolia of naturalists, 


No. IV. ‘On the Convergency of the Solar Beams to a point — 
opposite to the Sun. 


Tue divergency of the solar beams, when the sun is des 
seending in the west, is a phenomenon which occurs so fre- 
quently, that the most careless observer must have had occas 
sion tu notice it. ‘This phenomenon, however, is sometimes 
accompanied with one of an opposite kind, viz. the conver- 
gency of the solar beams to a point opposite to the sun, and as 
Sar below the horizon as the sun is above it. 'This phenome- 
non is'extremely rare; and we are not aware that it has been 
described more than once, viz. by Dr. Robert Smith of Cam? 


On the Convergency of the Solur Beams, 137 


bridge who observes, that he once saw it upon Lincolnheath.* 
He describes it as “¢ an apparent convergence, of long whitish 
beams, towards a point diametrically opposite to the sun. 
For as near as I could estimate, it was situated as much be- 
low the horizon as the sun was then elevated above the op- 
posite point of it.” “In the unusual phenomenon,” Dr, 
Smith afterwards adds, ‘‘ I well remember, that the con- 
verging sun-beams towards the point below the horizon, were 
not quite so bright and shining as those usually are which 
diverge from him, and that the sky beyond them appeared 
very black, which certainly contributed to the evidence of this 
appearance.” Smith’s Optics, vol. ii. Remarks, p. 57, 58. 

On Saturday, the 9th October, 1824, Dr. Brewster had 
the pleasure to, observe this curious phenomenon when tra- 
velling from Melrose to Edinburgh, and of pointing it out to 
two friends who accompanied him. It was first seen at that 
part of the road opposite to the avenue to Kirkhill, the seat of 
John Tod, Esq. at about a quarter past four o'clock. The 
sun was then considerably elevated above the Pentland range 
of hills, and was throwing out his diverging beanis in great 
beauty throegh the interstices of the broken masses of clouds 
which floated in the west. The eastern part of the horizon, 
where the converging lines were seen, was occupied with a dark 
black cloud, as described by Dr. Smith, and which seems ne- 
cessary as a ground for rendering visible such faint radia- 
tions. The converging beams were very much fainter than 
the diverging ones, and the point to which they converged 
‘was as near as could be estimated, as far below the horizon 
as the sun was above it. About ten minutes after the phe- 
nomenon was first seen, the convergent lines were black or 
very dark. This arose from the real beams having become 
broad, and of irregular intensity, so that the eye took up,.as 
it were, the spaces between the beams more readily than the 
beams themselves. 

In order to explain the cause of this phenomenon minutely, 
several diagrams would be necessary, for which we cannot at 


* A similar phenomenon has, we understand, been observed near Freiberg, 
by Professor Mohs and Mr. Haidinger. There were clouds in the west be- 
tween the observers and the sun. 


= 


135 On the Convergency of the Solar Beams. 


present find room ; but we think it may be perhaps more ea- 
sily understoed from the following illustration. 

Let us suppose a line to join the eye of the observer and 
the sun; let rays issue from the sun in all possible directions, 
and Jet us suppose that planes pass through these radiations, 
and through the line goining the observer and the sun, which 
will be their common intersection, like the axis of an orange, 
“or the axis of the earth, through which there passes all the septa 
of the former and all the planes passing through the meridians 
of the latter. An eye, therefore, situated in that line or coms 
mon intersection of all the planes, will see them diverging from 
the sun on one side, and converging towards the opposite pointy. 
just as an eye in the axis of a globe would perceive all the 
planes passing through the meridians, diverging on one side 
and converging on another. 


Ant. XXIV.—History of the Great Mass of Native Malle- 
able Iron of Louisiana, now deposited in the Museum of 
the New York Historical Socicty. 


Just as the last sheets of this Journal were about to be put 
to press, we have been favoured, through the kindness of Mr. 
Allan, with the last number of Professor Silliman’s Journal, 
which has arrived by a shorter channel than our own copy, 
and which contains two articles of such deep scientific interest, 
that we have been obliged to delay several other articles in 
order to find room for them. The first of these relates to the 
malleable iron of ,Loaisiana, and has been drawn up from 

"various original documents communicated to Professor Sillis 
man. 


*¢ In 1808, while Captain Glass was trading among the Pawnee and 
‘Hictan nations, he heard of a curious mineral, and saw the Pawnee In- 
dian who discovered it on the territory of the Hietans. Captain Glass 
and several of his party accompanied some Indians, and saw the mass 
in situ. The Indians regarded it with much veneration, and ascribed to 
it singular power in the cure of diseases. They informed him that they 
_ knew of two other smaller pieces, the one about thirty, and the ea 
about fifty miles distant. 

‘This intelligence having excited much curiosity, two rival parties were 
formed in 1810 for obtaining this metal, one at, Natchitoches, consisting: 


History of the Malleable Iron of Louisiana. 189 


of George Schamp, who had been with Captain Glass, and nine asso- 
ciates ; the other at Nacodoches, censisting of John Davis; who also 
had been with Captain Glass, and eight or ten associates. 

- The Nacodoches party first arrived at the place of destination ; but 
having, in their hurry to anticipate the rival party, made no preparations 
for carrying away the metal, they laid it under a flat stone, and went, 
away for wheels and draft horses. 

The Natchitoches party arrived a few days afterwards; and after 
searching several days, succeeded in finding their object. Being pro- 
vided with tools, they made a truck waggon, to which they harnessed six 
horses, and set off with their prize towards the Red River. They crossed 
the Brassos without much difficulty ; but a straggling party of Indians 
having one night stolen all their horses, they were detained until two of 
their party could go to Natchitoches for more horses. On arriving at 
the Red River, some of their party went down in a boat with the iron, 
while others took the horsesdown by land. From Natchitoches the me- 
tal was taken down the Red River and Mississippi to New Orleans, from 
whence it was shipped to New York. 

In February 1812, John Maley, an erratic adventurer, went with a 
few associates up the Red River, to explore the country, to trade with 
the Indians, and to bring away the two remaining masses of metal. He 
saw one or both of the masses ; but being unable to make the remunera- 
tion for them demanded by the Indians, he continued his tour farther 
west. Returning, he continued to barter for the pieces of metal, a cer= 


tain quantity of merchandise, to procure which, he returned to Natchi- 


toches, and proceeded to New Orleans. 
On his second expedition up the Red River in 1813, he and his asso- 


‘ciates being robbed by a party of the Osages of the merchandise and 


horses, were compelled to return on foot, relinquishing their object.”— 
Maley’s MS. Journal. 


As at least two masses, therefore, of this metal undoubt- 


edly exist in this quarter, it becomes very interesting to de- 


termine their probable locality, and any other circumstances 
connected with them. ‘These masses are said to be fifty or 
sixty miles south-west of Pawnee village, on the banks of the 


Red River, some hundred miles above Natchitoches. Cap- 
‘tain Glass makes the locality of the metal some days journey 
‘to the south of the Pawnee village, on the River Brassos. 


Dr. Sibley, who had conversed with Captain Glass, and others 
of the parties who went in quest of the metal, states the dis- 


tance from Natchitoches to the Pawnee village as nearly 400 


miles by land, and the distance by water from the place of 


embarkment to Natchitoches as nearly 1000 miles. The 
“account then proceeds :— 


140 History of the Malleable Iron of Louisiana. 


«¢ John Maley travelled in these regions subsequently to the removal 
of the large mass, but visited one or more smaller masses.‘ Crossing 
the river,” he says, “‘ at the Pawnee village, we took a S.W. course 
over large ledges of limestone and extensive prairies. After a journey of 
three days, we were conducted by the Indians to this metal. It lay a 
few miles from the mountain, which appeared to be the same that I have 
before described as running parallel to the Red River.” He does not 
state whether he saw one piece or more; but he afterwards stipulated 
for the two pieces of metal. The Pawnee village, he says, is 1500 miles 
above the confluence of the Red River with the Mississippi. 

Judge Johnsen being in company with Mr. Maley some years since, 
entered into conversation on this subject. He was informed by Maley, 
that the pieces were found in the midst of an open sterile plain, /ying 
over each other, and appearing as if broken and scattered in the fall of one 
entire mass. ‘¢ The place was described by Maley as about 200 (400 ?) 
miles in breadth, north and west from Natchitoches, in (near?) the 
ridge between the waters of the Red River and the Rio Bravo.” 


Mr. Bringier has mentioned, (Silliman’s Journal, vol. iii. 
p- 15.) apparently from personal observation, that the local- 
ity of the metal is in West I.ong. 95°10’, and North Lat. 
$2° 7’. Mr. William Darby places it twenty degrees west of 
Washington city, or in long. 97°, and in lat. 32°20. As 
this mass of iron contains nickel, like the other masses found 
in the other parts of the globe, there can be no doubt that it 
is of meteoric origin, and, consequently, every particular con- 
nected with its history possesses the deepest interest. 


Art. XXV.—On the Eaistence of Silicious Solutions in 
the Drusy Cavities of Minerals. 


Tur same Number of Professor Silliman’s Journal from 
which we have abridged the preceding interesting article 
contains-another of not Jess importance to science. It is en- 
titled, Facts tending to illustrate the Formation of Crystals 
in Geodes ; and we have no doubt that the two great and 
new facts which it contains will for ever put to rest this sone 
agitated question. 

‘kn the few paragraphs and splecndlinrde which this paper 
contains, the author mentions more than once the new fluids 
discovered in’ minerals by Dr. Brewster; but from some 


On Solutions of Silex in the Cavities of Minerals. 141 


sivange mistake, he calls them microscopic fluids, and as dis- 
cernible only by the aid of powerful microscopes. If the author 
had read with care the account of these fluids, be would have 
found that some of the cavities (the one in Mr. Allan’s. fine 
specimen, for example) are nearly the fifth of an inch long, 
and that the fluids have been taken out of the cavities, looked 
at with the naked eye, and touched, tasted, and subjected to 
chemical experiments. Having corrected this misapprehen- 
sion, arising no doubt from the author’s quoting from me- 
mory, we proceed to the facts themselves. 


«* When Mr. B. F. Northrop, of Yale College, was breaking some ballast 
stones, from New Orleans, consisting of hornstone, flint, chalcedony; 
and quartz pebbles, he found many of them with cavities lined with crys- 
tals of hyaline quartz. Some of the cavities were lined with mammil- 
lary chalcedony, and others with a white spongy deposite resembling an 
earthy precipitate. Upon breaking an oval pebble of hornstone, whose 
diameter was three inches by two, Mr. Northrop found in its centre a 
cavity of three-fourths of an inch by half an inch, filled with a milky 
fluid, like water containing magnesia. 

He unfortunately spilled the greater part of the fluid, an before the 
remainder could be secured, it was exhaled (it being a very hot day) 
by a rapid evaporation, leaving a white spongy precipitate lining the ca~ 
vity, and staining the surfaces of fracture. During this rapid evapora~ 
tien minute prismatic crystals shot from the fluid, even under the eye of 
the observer, occupying not only parts of the cayity, but also of the sur- 
faces.of the fracture. Both the crystals and the spongy mass were easily. 
ascertained to be siler. They neither effervesced nor dissolved in acids, 
and when rubbed between surfaces of glass, they took hold of it with 
great eagerness, instantly depriving it of its polish, and scratching it as 
distinctly as a file does iron. 

This was true, not only of the spongy matter, but of the separate crys- 
tals, which we are entitled to consider as crystals of quartz, almost in- 
stantaneously deposited, from a rich silicious solution, These crystals 
were of a rather dull white, without much lustre or transparency. Their 
diameter was that of fine sewing silk, and their length not exceeding 
one-sixth of an inch. It is much to be regretted, that no‘ opportunity’ 
was afforded of examining the fluid, so that it is impossible to say whe- 
ther it was some modification of water, or a distinct fluid. The earthy 
deposite, and the crystals were tasteless, and proved to be a very sharp 
grit between the teeth. 

In the centre of another pebble, five inches by three, and consisting of 
a mixture of hornstone and chaleedony, Mr. Northrop found another 
cavity of one and a half by one inch, nearly filled with the spongy sili-: 
cious deposite already described, but it was still moist, to such a degree, 

4 


142 On Solutions of Silex in the Cavitics of Minerals. 


as to form a pulpy or gelatinous mass, very soft and impressible ; this 
mass was also soon dried by the intense heat of the weather. As there 
was less fluid to evaporate, so, as might have been expected, there were 
but few crystals formed ; still, they shot, here and there, as in the other 
eavity. The spongy mass in the cavity of the larger stone admits a knife 
to penetrate it more than an inch, and portions of its surface have a ma 
millary and stalactitical appearance. It is silex, like the other. In many 
other pebbles cavities have been observed, some lined with the spongy 
silicious deposites, intermixed with minute prismatic crystals,which have, 
however, rather more lustre than those which were so rapidly formed ; 

and the stone forming most of the immediate walls of the cntltitie 
of the cavities is of an opaque enamel, white as if it had been penetrated 
by a fluid, and in some measure softened by incipient solution. In a few 
éavities, the silicious matter had concreted into well-eharacterized mas 
millary chalcedony.” 


The next fact mentioned by Professor Silliman is not less 
interesting than the preceding, and was communicated to 
him by Mr, Eli Whitney of Newhaven, who saw the speci- 
mens alluded to in Georgia in 1806, 


“In clearing a mill-dam, built on a solid mass of agate, (a silicious 
stone, consisting of a mixture of jasper, hornstone, quartz, and chalce+ 
dony,) the workmen discovered a great number of hollow balls in their 
form resembling bomb-shells. Some of them were as large as a man’s 
head, and some even eight or nine inches in diameter. When broken 
they proved to be mere shells, the walls of which were from five-eights 
to three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and the capacity of the cavity 
was from a pint to two quarts or more. This cavity was filled with @ 
milky fluid, so nearly resembling white paint or white wash, that it was 
used to whiten the fire places and the walls of the rooms of the neigh- 
bouring houses. 


The next fact quoted by our author is from Bournon’s 
Mineralogy, vol. ii. p. 33, and which relates to a cavity con- — 
taining water, and which, after the evaporation of the water, 
coheed a spongy, crystalline, amorphous mass of carbonate 
of lime. The learned editor has omitted to cite a still more 
remarkable case of a group of regular crystals of carbonate 
of lime, discovered by Dr. Brewster in a cavity of a quartz 
crystal from Quebec, in the cabinet of Mr. Allan, one of the 
most curious specimens of the kind that has perhaps ever 
been seen. This specimen is fully described in the Edin- 
burgh Transactions, vol. x. p- 29. 


| 


Decisions on Disputed Inventions. 


Art. XXVI.—DECISIONS ON DISPUTED INVENTIONS AND 


DISCOVERIES. 


"Tuere are few subjects which come under the notice of the historian 
of science, which excite so lively an interest as the discussion of conflict- 
Although the rights 
which are thus brought under review are always those of Individuals, 
yet Nations have often descended into the arena, and, on some occasions, 
even the New World has arrayed itself against the Old, upon a question 


ing claims to valuable inventions and discoveries. 


of scientific history. 


In the progress of human knowledge, the most valuable inventions and 
discoveries are often completed by different individuals, and at distant 


intervals. To one we may owe the germ of an original thought ; 


ano- 


ther may be employed in bringing it towards maturity, while the 
genius of a third may be requisite to carry it to the perfection of which 
it is susceptible. Insuch cases, which resemble that of the Steam En- 
gine, it is extremely difficult to apportion to each author his due share of 
merit ; and it is perhaps unnecessary, as long as history continues, to re- 


cord the exertions and labours of each competitor. 


In other cases, however, the difficulty of adjudication is not so great. 
An invention has often been excluded from the history of science, when 
its importance has been derived from subsequent discoveries, or when it 
has been recorded in a work which is either too profound to be generally 
read, or too rare to be generally accessible. When such inventions have 
been brought forward as new, we must be careful of accusing of plagia- 
rism the philosopher who announces them. Men who are engaged in 
similar inquiries are often led to the same views, and even to the same 
inventions ; and no calumny can be more injurious than that of charging 
such a person with the most odious of literary crimes, when he is perhaps 


entitled to the full honour of a second inventor. 


There are circumstances, however, under which a charge of plagiar- 
ism may be preferred. When a second inventor embraces the earliest 
opportunity of stating that he has been anticipated, when he openly and 
fairly discusses the claim of his predecessor to the invention ;—then if he 
has been in the habit of doing justice to others, of acknowledging their 

_ merit, and of praising the inventions of his riyals when praise is due, 
posterity will have no difficulty in assigning to him all the merits of a se- 
cond inventor, and in adding to that the higher attribute of an honest and 
liberal mind. But if, on the contrary, he strives to conceal or put down 
the claim of the first inventor,—if he omits every opportunity of acknow- 
ledging the anticipation,—if, to this obstinacy, he adds the general 

_ character of grudging every man his share of fame,—if, as an auy 
thor, he declines to record the labours and discoveries of those whom he 
places in the list of his enemies or his rivals,—and if, as a teacher, he re+ 
fuses to explain to the youth under his charge the inventions end discove+ 


t 


144 Decisions on Disputed Invenitions. 


ries of his contemporaries,—if, to these unequivocal symptoms, he adds 
another, viz. that of exaggerating and praising his own inventions, 
and of obtruding them in all his writings,—then, the character of 
such a man is drawn by his own hand; and if public decency pre- 
vents his contemporaries from adding the title of plagiarist to his 
Christian name, posterity-wilk not fail to write upon his monument,’ 
«¢ Here lies a man whose love of reputation was so inordinate, and his 
love of justice so small, that he appropriated to himself the inventions 
and discoveries both of the dead and the living ; and when he had car-. 
ried off all that his shoulders could bear, returned to spike and to de 
stroy all that he had left behind.” * 

Such are the principles of scientific law, which we shall apply to the 
iJlustration of those contested questions, that we shall from time to time 
submit to the decision of public opinion. _ Our design is to be just and. 
merciful. If at any time we forget these attributes, that public opinion 
which we invoke on others will not fail to fall heavily on ourselves. 

The task of deciding such causes as these, though a difficult one, is 
not of an ungenerous character. What we take from one we liberally 
confer upon another ; and when. the contest is with a living candidate, 
we may perhaps lay claim to some share of right feeling, even if we are 
too generous to those who are long since gone, and whose rights and la~ 
bours are not under the protection of country, kindred, or friendship,— 
or any of those strong holds of local feeling, in which the claims of liv- 
ing genius are so deeply intrenched. 


1. Professor Leslie's Differential Thermometer invented by Professor 
Sturmius. 

More than twenty years ago, Professor Leslie announced to the world 

his invention of a differential thermometer, for measuring small differ- 


*® In these views we are supported by the high authority of Professor Playfair. 
Speaking of Descartes’ alleged Plagiarisin of the Law of Refraction, discovered by 
Snellius, he says, ‘¢ There is no doubt, therefore, that the discovery was first 
made by Snellius ; but whether Descartes derived it from him, or was himself the: 
second discoverer, remains undecided. The question is one of those where a man’s 

“conduct in a particular situation can only be rightly interpreted from his general 
character and behaviour. If Descartes had been uniformly fair and candid in his 
intercourse with others, one would have rejected with disdain a suspicion of the 
kind just mentioned. But the truth is, that he appears throughout a jealous and 
imperious man, always inclined to depress and conceal the merit of others.. In 
speaking of the invention of the telescope, he has told minutely all that is due to 
accident, but has passed carefully over all that proceeded from design; and has 
incurred the reproach of relating the origin of the instrument without mentioning | 
the name of Galileo. In the same manner he omits to speak of the discoveries of 
Kepler as nearly connected with his own; and in treating of the Rainbow, he 
has made no mention of Antonio de Dominis. It is impossible that this should not 
produce an unfavourable impression ; and hence it is that the warmest admirers of 
Descartes do not pretend that his conduct towards Snellius can be completely jus- 
tified. "—Supp. Ency. Brilt. Vol. II. p. 101. 


cena 


History of the Differential Thermometer. 145 


ences of temperature ; and he made it the basis of a series of instru- 
ments which bear his own name, and which have been manufactured and 
sold, by himself. . 

About the same time, or perhaps carlier,* Count Rumford announced 
the construction of an instrument, called a Thermoscope, which he used 
in the same manner, and for the sime purposes, and which, he says, ‘ he 
contrived for measuring, or rather for discovering, very small changes of 
temperature.” Count Rumford was loudly charged, not only with hav- 
ing stolen Mr. Leslie’s invention, but even with having abstracted, or 
caused to be abstracted, certain sheets of Mr. Leslie’s work on Heat from 
Gillet’s printing office. 

It is needless. to inform our readers that Count Rumford’s thermo- 
scope, and Mr. Leslie’s differential thermometer are identically the same, 
and that they both consist of a glass tube, bent in the shape of the letter 
U, and having at each end a glass ball filled with air, while the legs 
and horizontal branch contain a coloured fluid. 

We do not mean at present to decide the question between Count Rum- 
ford and Professor Leslie, though the details which it involves furnish 
much curious matter of scientific history. 

Sir Humphry Davy, in his Elements of Chemical Philosophy, publish- 
edin 1803, (pages 75, 76, and Plate I. Figs. 2, 3.) was the first to rectify 
the history of the differential thermometer. This distinguished chemist 
ascribes it to Van Helmont, who died in 1644, and he placed on the 
same plate engravings of the instrument of Van Helmont, and of that 
of Mr. Leslie. No sooner did this work of Sir Humphry’s appear, than 
it was attacked in a letter in the newspapers, bearing, we believe, Mr. 
Leslie’s name, which was ably answered by some friend of Sir Humphry 
Davy’s. 

Although no candid inquirer could doubt that Van Helmont anticipa- 
ted the invention of the differential thermometer, yet there was one little 
loop hole in his description of it through which a person of small di- 
mensions might creep ; and in this way, from a slight flaw in the indict- 
ment, the differential thermometer has been allowed to preserve a kind 
of separate existence. 

Abandoning therefore the cause of Van Helmont, though a good one, we 
are now prepared to prove, that the differential thermometer was invented 
by John Christopher Sturmius, Professor of Mathematics at Altdorff, who 
published an accurate account of its construction and theory, illustrated by 
drawings, in his Collegium Experimentale Curiosum, which was’published 
at Nuremberg in 1676. Professor Sturmius calls it a thermometer and 
also a thermoscope, the very name used by Count Rumford ; and he de- 
scribes no fewer than, five varieties of them, of which his own is the third. 
The first thermoscope consists of a thermometer tube, with a ball at the 
end of it containing air. This tube with the air ball uppermost, is placed 
With its open end in a vessel of coloured liquor. The degree of heat, by the 


* Mr. Leslie’s book on heat appeared in 1804. Count Rumford’s paper was 
read before the Royal Society on the 2d Iebruary 1804. 
VOL, II. NO. I. JAN. 1825. L 


146 - Decisions on Disputed Inventions. 


expansion of the air in the ball which pushes down the fluid, is marked 
upon a scale attached to the tube. In the second thermoscope, the air- 
ball is at the lower end of a tube like the letter /, and there is a small 
hole in the ball at the upper end, to allow the coloured fluid to risa 
when the air in the lower ball is expanded by heat. 

The third thermoscope, which is the differential thermometer, is a 
combination of these two, and is represented in Plate II. Fig. 20. The 
following is Sturmius’s own description of it. ‘* Tertium e duobus 
prioribus ferme compositum sic habebat: Parato posteriori genere 
ABCD plane ut antea, super imposita est et firmiter agglutinata ejus 
extremitati apértae D, sphaerula E in eum finem seorsim fabrefacta ; 
ita ut jam aeri nec ingressus nec egressus pateret. Hic, dum calida 
manus applicabatur sphacrulae E, summa superficies spiritus inclusi C 
descendebat ; si frigidum quippiam, ascendebat : contrarium autem plane 
fiebat admotis istis sive calidis sive frigidis ad inferiorem sphaerulam 
A. Solius viro aeris liberi calori exposito instrumento, sphaera A (quam 
notetur angustiorem fuisse notabiliter altera E) semper prevalebat et 
sola operabitur: ita scil. ut incalescente magis aere liquorem a C suble- 
varit, ac ad ascensum cogeret ; ad descensum contra, cum calor aeris 
remitteret et plus frigoris succederet. Notandum tamen ascensus istos 
ac descensus liquoris, sive a liberi aeris, sive ab admotarum rerum ca- 
lore vel frigore causatos, ad minus notabile spatium se extendisse, seu 
vias breviores confecisse, quam in genere precedenti.”’ Page 49, 50. 

In explaining the theory of the instrument, he goes on, ‘ 

*©In tertio genere nihil equidem agit aer externus, utpote penitus 

-exclusus ; eodem tamen res recidit, cum et superus aer EC et inferus 
AB ad equalitatem virium redacti, medium aquae cylindrum CB im- 
motum tamdiu sustineant, quamdiu alterutrius vires non augentur no- 
tabiliter. Utri ergo primum nova vis accesserit, is alterum vincens 
aquae cylindrum a se removebit ; et contra, utri accedens frigus ali- 
quid virium detraxerit, is alteri cedens aquei cylindri pondere arctius 
urgebitur et comprimetur. Quod si contingat utrumque equali caloris 
gradu in aere libero rarefieri, tune superum CE, quippe copiosiorem, 
vincere, et inferum BA cedere, necessum alicui videatur, quia tune 
partibus aequalibus singulis utriusque aeris aequalis vis expansiva per 
rarefactionem accrescat, tales autem partes plures habeat aer superior 
quam inferior. Verum cum contrarium nune accidat, ratio videtur e 
praecedanea majore aeris AB condensatione petenda.” Page 54. 

In an appendix to this work, Sturmius goes on to discuss the proper- 
ties of his thermometer, and he mentions that the Dutch artists, in place 
of agglutinating the ball E to the stem at D,, leave an opening at A, 
which is afterwards hermetically sealed. He then mentions an experi- 
ment, in which he muffles up the lower ball A, and exposes E to the 
action of the solar rays. The liquid then descended, as the air in the 
sphere DE became warmer. “ In quo meo ratiocinio penitus confirmor 
ipso momento, dum hoc ipsum thermometrum meum, de quo hic ago, in- 
voluta prius muccinio spherula inferiore A, ita fenestre admoveo ut sola 
superior a meridiani solis radiis feriatur, videoque nunc liquorem sensim 


. History of Platina Pyrometers. 147 


descendere, prout aer sphere DE magis magisque incalescit.” Page 
89. App. 

This amiable author then proceeds to consider who first invented the 
thermometer. ‘‘ Ecquisnam primus fuerit thermoscopii inventor, vix 
constat. Aliqui, quos inter supra laudatus Lana, Roberto Fludd seu a 
Fluctibus id honoris tribuunt, Samueli Reyhero autem, Mathem. in alma 
Kilonensi Prof. P. videtur prima inventio deberi Drebbelio.” P. 89, 90. 

These passages, which we purposely leave untranslated, settle for ever 
the invention of the differential thermometer; and as we and many 
others know that Mr. Leslie has read and studied the Collegium Curio- 
sum of Sturmius, we trust that he will avail himself of the first oppor- 
tunity, both in his lectures and in his writings, of restoring voluntarily to 
that amiable and learned Professor the honour of an invention which so 
unquestionably belongs to him. 

In a future number, we shall proceed to rectify the history of the 
Hygrometer, the Photometer, the Athrioscope, the Drying and the 
Freezing processes, &c. &c. &c. of Professor Leslie, which we trust we 
shall illustrate as successfully as we have done that of the differential 
thermometer. 

In the mean time, we proceed to other claims. 


2. Daniell’s Platina Pyrometer, partly anticipated by M. Guyton. 


Our scientific readers are no doubt well acquainted with the merits 
of Mr. Daniell, to whom we owe many excellent inventions and admira- 
ble memoirs on scientific subjects. In the year 1821, he published in 
the Quarterly Journal of Science, (vol. xi. p. 309.) a description of a py-= 
rometer for high degrees of heat, which consisted of a platina bar placed 
within a tube of black lead earthen ware. The expansion of the bar 
was indicated upon a circular scale, through the intermedium of a pla- 
tina wire acting upon the axis which carried the index. 

Mr. Daniell does not seem to have been aware that M. Guyton had 
exhibited to the National Institute in 1803 a similar instrument, con- 
sisting of a rod or plate of platina, placed in a groove formed in a cake 
of hardened white clay. One of the ends of the platinum bar presses 


against a bended lever of platina, whose longest arm forms an index to a 


graduated arc. 

The principle of these instruments is the same, both of them depend- 
ing on the difference of the expansions of pottery and platina; but they 
differ in this, that the whole of Guyton’s instrument is put into the fur- 
nace, whereas, in Mr. Daniell’s, the platinum bar is alone exposed to 
the heat, the index and scale being kept at a distance from it. See the 
Ann. de Chim. No. 138, vol. xlvi. p. 274, Nicholson’s Phil. Journ. vol. vi. 


_ p.89, and the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Art. PrrometeR, vol, xvii. p. 


215, where both of them are described. 


8. Mr. Nicholas Mill’s Pyrometer, anticipated hy Dr. Ure. 


In the year 1824, Mr. Nicholas Mill published in the Monthly Medi- 
00-Chirurgical Review, &c. a drawing and description of a pyrometer, 


148° History of Mechanical Inventions 


consisting of a hollow bulb and tube of platina containing air, the ex=" 
pansions of which were indicated by its action upon a column of mer 
- cury in a vertical glass tube, contained within the platinum tube. Dr. 
Ure, however, in his Dictionary of Chemistry, published in 1821, has; 
proposed the very same instrument, with more minute details respecting 
the graduation of its scale. These two instruments are fully described 
in the article Pyrometer, in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Vol. XVII. 
Part I. just published. i 


Art. XXVIII. HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND 
PROCESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS. 


1. Mr. Vallance’s Apparatus for Freezing Water. 


Tue apparatus described by Mr. Vallance is represented in Plate I}. 
Fig. 17. and is founded on the principles of freezing in the air-pump, 
discovered; as our author states, by Dr. Cullen and Mr. Nairne, and im-, 
proved by Mr. Leslie. This method consists in passing a current of dry 
rarefied air over the extended surface of the water, which, by impinging 
on it, carries off the aqueous vapours. The water is placed in a flat bot- 
tomed vessel aa, so as to form a stratum about half an inch deep. The 
greater part of the air is to be removed from the vessel through the pipe 
b by two good air-pumps, till the pressure of the air within will support 
about an inch of mercury. A hollow tube ¢ passes through a stuffing- 
box in the lid of the vessel a, where it is enabled to slide up and down, 
and has at its bottom a circular plate or disc d, which is brought to . 
within half an inch of the water, and rises a little conically in the mid+ 
dle. 

Another similar tube e is attached by flanges to the upper end of c, . 
and passes through a stuffing-box in the upper vessel f; from which a 
bent pipe g passes into another vessel h, which is nearly filled with leaden . 
bullets, and has a small air-hole below. A quantity of sulphuric acid is 
occasionally poured on these bullets to wet their surface. Several air- 
holes are made in the lid of the vessel a, and also in the plate d, and are - 
closed air-tight with glass, to show the progress of the operation within. 

When the air-pump draws the air from the vessel a, the stop-cock g is 
to be partly opened, so as to admit air as fast as the pumps exhaust it. . 
This air passes between the leaden balls in h, and has its aqueous , 
particles absorbed by the acid. A current of dry air thus passes from hi - 
through the pipe g, the vessel f, the tubes e and c, and descends upon the 
surface of the water under the disc d in the vessel a. This current of air 
being drawn off by the air-pumps through }, carries off the heat from - 
the water and makes it freeze. After one stratum is frozen, more water , 
is introduced into a, so as to be about half an inch deep on the ice, and 
this is frozen by a similar operation, till the vessel is filled up with ice. 
See Newton's Journal of the Arts, vol. viii. p. 251. 


3 


7 and Processes in the Useful: Arts. 149 


2. Account of Mr. Dalton’s Process for determining the Value of Indigo. 


In order to find the value of any sample of indigo, Mr. Dalton directs us 
to take one grain, carefully weighed from a mass finely pulverised. Put 
this into a wine glass, and drop two or three grains of concentrated sul- 
phuric acid upon it. Having triturated them well, pour in water, and 
transfer the coloured liquid into a tall cylindrical jar, about one inch in- 
side diameter. When the mixture is diluted with water, so as to show 


’ the flame of a candle through it, mix the liquid solution of oxymuriate 


of lime with it, agitating it slowly, and never putting any more in till 


~ the smell of the preceding portion has vanished. The liquid soon be- 


comes transparent, and of a beautiful greenish-yellow appéarance. Af- 


“ter the dross has subsided, the clear liquid may be passed off, and a lit- 


tle more water put into the sediment, with a few drops of oxymuriate of 


’ lime, and a drop of dilute sulphuric acid ; if more yellow liquid is pro- 
“duced, it arises from particles of indigo ‘which have escaped the action 


of the oxymuriate before, and must be added to the rest. The value of 
the indigo Mr. Dalton considers to be in proportion to the quantity of 
real oxymuriate of lime necessary to destroy its colour. He is of opinion 
also, that the value may be well estimated by the quantity and intensity 


’ of the amber-coloured liquid which the indigo produces, which is found 


independently of any valuation of the oxymuriate of lime. The following 
results obtained with several samples, show the great value of this me- 
thod. 


Qxymuriate of lime used 
to destroy its colour, 


Precipitated and sublimed indigo 3 - c 140 grains. 


Flora indigo. : : " : 70 
Another sample : . 5 * : : 70 
Two other indigos_. . 5 5 3 , 60 
Two other samples. 5 $ 5 3 7 50 
Another sample : : ° A ° , 40 
Another sample ° A She : A - 30 or 35, 


Mr. Dalton is of opinion, that to destroy indigo by oxymuriatic acid, 
twice the quantity of oxygen is necessary that is required to revive it 
from the lime solution. See Manchester Memoirs, New Series, vol. iy. 
p. 437, 438, 439. 


3. Mushet’s Process for alloying Copper for Ships. 


In order to increase the tenacity of pure copper, to render it more 
fibrous, and to prevent the common effects of sea-water upon it, Mr. 
Mushet has taken out a patent for the following process :— 

He mixes with the copper, as an alloy, regulus of zinc, in the propor- 
tion of two ounces of zinc to 100lbs. weight of copper ; or two ounces of 
block or grain tin ; or four ounces of regulus of antimony ; or eight 
ounces of regulus of arsenic, in the same quantity of copper. Or, ine 
stead of employing these substances alone in the above-mentioned pror 
portions, to 100lbs. of copper he proposes to add half an ounce of regu. 


150 History of Mechanical Inventions 


lus of zine, half an ounce of grain or block tin, one ounce of regulus of 
antimony, and two ounces of regulus of arsenic. a 


4. Mr. Mackintosh’s process for rendering impervious to water and air 
all kinds of Cloths ; also Leather and Paper, Sc. 


This very valuable process, which we owe to the ingenuity of our 
countryman Mr. Charles Mackintosh, consists in joining the surfaces 
of two pieces of cloth by a flexible varnish, made of caoutchouc dis- 
solved in the naptha obtained from the distillation of coal.. The caout- 
chouc, after being cut into thin shreds, is steeped in the varnish com- 
posed of twelve ounces of caoutchouc to one wine glass full of the oil. 
Heat may be applied, and the thick varnish must be strained through a 
sieve of wire or horse-hair. ‘The cloth is stretched on a frame, and 
then covered by means of a brush with a coat of the elastic varnish. 
When the varnish has become sticky, another piece of similar cloth, si- 
milarly varnished, is laid upon the first, the surfaces being placed face to 
face; and, to promote the adhesion, they are pressed between a pair of 
plain rollers, and then dried in a warm room. This cloth, of which we 
have now several very fine specimens before us, besides being used for 
outer garments to keep off rain, will be found highly useful for various 
purposes in the arts and sciences. 


5. M. M. Farrimann and Thilly’s Process for rendering Leather, 
Canvass, Linen, &c. Water Proof: 

To 100 lbs. of the best linseed oil add 13 1b. of sugar of lead, (acetate of 
lead,) 11 1b. of coloured amber, 13 1b. of white lead, and 14 lb. of pumice 
stone, very finely powdered. When the solid substances are well ground 
and mixed, they are to be boiled in the oil for ten hours over a moderate 
fire, to prevent the oil from burning. The varnish thus made ought to 
have such a consistence, that when mixed with a third part of its weight 
of pipe clay, it is as thick as treacle. After settling for eight days, it is 
then passed through a lawn sieve. In a solution of strong and clear 
glue, as much pipe clay is to be ground as amounts in weight to the 
tenth part of the oil employed, and mixed to the consistence of oint- 
ment, adding the varnish by degrees, and stirring it with a wooden spa- 
tula. When this varnish has become perfectly fluid by repeated stirring, 
the requisite tint is given, by adding a fourth part of the colour ground 
in oil. 

The composition is applied to each side of the linen, when stretched on 
a wooden frame, with a spatula three inches broad and nine long. The 
same composition is used for leather and skins; but a smooth and bril- 
liant surface is given to them by the following varnish : Five pounds of the 
oil varnish, and an equal weight of well-clarified resin, are boiled, till the 
resin is absorbed. ‘Two pounds of oil of turpentine, having the required 
colour ground with it, is then to be added, when passed through a lawn 
sieve. This varnish is then to be applied with a brush. When the 
varnish is perfectly dry, it is rubbed even with a pumice stone and wa- 


and Processes in the Useful Arts. — - 151 


ter, and then washed clean. Two or three coats of varnish being ap- 
plied to the leather, &c. and each coat permitted to dry for two or three 
days, a brilliancy equal to that of Japan lacker will be produced.— Bul- 
letin de la Société d’ Encouragement, &c. or Gill’s Tech. Repos. May 1824, 
p- 320. 


6. Siemen’s Improvement on the Process of making Brandy from 
Potatoes. 


. The introduction of this process, which has been adopted in many 
parts of Germany and in the north of Europe, has been recommended to 
the Swedish government by M. Berzelius, and to the Danish govern- 
ment by Professor Oersted. From the trials made at Copenhagen, it 
would appear that one-third more brandy is produced than by the usuai 
processes. In Professor Oersted’s report, we find the following account 
of the process. The potatoes are put into a close wooden vessel, and ex~ 
posed to the action of steam, which heats them more than boiling water. 
The potatoes can thus be reduced to the state of the finest paste with the 
greatest facility, it being necessary only to stir them with an iron instru- 
ment furnished with cross pieces. Boiling water is then added to the 
paste, and afterwards a little potash, rendered caustic by quicklime. 
This dissolves the vegetable albumen which opposes the complete con- 
version of the potato starch into a fluid. Professor Oersted frees the 
potato brandy from its peculiar flavour by means of the chlorate of 
potash, which is said to make it equal to the best brandy made from 
wine.—Gill’s Tech. Repos. No. 29, p. 322. 


7. Account of Improvements on Thin Circular Saws. 


In order to prevent thin circular saws from bending, or buckling as it 
is termed, they are generally confined between two flat circular plates. 
The improved method, however, consists in confining the binding to a 
more narrow ring near the periphery or rim of the saw. By this simple 
contrivance, the saw revolves with such truth and accuracy that it is fit 
for the nicest operations, such as cutting the teeth of the finest combs. 
The gentleman who communicated to Mr. Gill this contrivance, always 


_softens his circular saws when their teeth require sharpening, which great- 


ly facilitates the operation. He tempers them only to a yellow colour, 
by which they last much longer than when they are tempered to the 
spring temper. Mr. Gill likewise mentions, that the late Mr. 8. Varley 
prevented the very common evil of the bending of the saw-arbor, which 
arises from the imperfection of the screw upon it, by forming the exter- 
nal face of one of the circular plates convex, and the face of the binding 
screwed nut concave ; both being portions of spheres of the same diame- 
ter. They were thus allowed to ply or yield to the irregularity of the 
serew, which could not take place when their surfaces were made flat as 
usual.—See Gill’s Tech. Repos. No. 31, p. 64. 


8. On the Invention of Floating Breakwaters. 
We have much pleasure in inserting the following article, which is the 


152 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. 


substance of a letter addressed to us by David Gordon, Esq. already well 
known to the public as the ingenious inventor of the portable gas lamps : 

«“ As Mr. White has lately taken out a patent for a floating break- 
water, and you have noticed it in your Ldinburgh Journal of Science as 
a new invention, I beg leave to refer you to the Repertory of Arts, Vole 
XLI. page 206, wherein you will find the specification of my patent, 
dated 14th January 1822, for improvements on floating breakwaters, a 
copy of which I sent to you, and of which you gave a short notice in the 
Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for October 1822. Vol. VII. page 373. 

«In fact I had, from observing the effects of a field of ice aground be- 
twixt two islands, and at the mouth of a bay, and large American rafts 
anchored in similar situations, many years ago, contrived a floating 
breakwater, and for a long time thought myself the first inventor thereof, 
but upon returning to this country, I discovered that General Bentham 
had proposed to make floating breakwaters in separate parts or floats 
of wood, to make the floats of a triangular or rather a prismatic shape, 
and to hold them in their places by means of iron chains, &c.; and 
that he had actually given in a plan and estimate for forming the break= 
water at Plymouth of wooden floats, the cost of which he calculated at 
L.201,826. Under these circumstances, I saw that it was impossible to, 
claim being the first inventor of floating breakwaters, and limited my 
claim to improvements thereon. 

«J humbly think that both General Bentham’s and Mr. White's 
plans are defective in several particulars, even in others than I could in- 
clude in my specification, and which I propose to give an account of in 
some observations on sea walls, piers, and breakwaters.” 


Art. XXVIIL—ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND 
ye MEMOIRS. 


I. Der Monte Rosa. Eine Topographische und Naturhistorische Skizze nebsé 
einem Anhange der von Herrn Zumstein gemachten Reisen zur Ersteigung. 
seiner Gipfel. 


Monte Rosa. A Topographical and Historical Sketch, with an Appendix of the 
Jouynies of M. Zumstein'to these Summits. By Louis Baron DE WELDEN. 
With a Topographical Chart and Lithographic Plates. Vienna. 1824. 


Wun Monte Rosa was regarded as inferior in altitude to Mont 
Blanc, it enjoyed a sort of peaceful existence, which was neither disturb= 
ed by the approach of travellers nor by the hammer of the Geologist. No 
sooner, however, was it conjectured that it was the king of European 
mountains, than travellers flocked to it from different quarters. Its 
ridges were ascended, its ravines explored, its rocks broken up, and me~ 
moirs written in commemoration of its newly acquired sovereignty. 

In our last Number we gave a translation and abstract of the very in- 
teresting journey which M. M. Zumstein and Vincent performed to one 


Baron Welden’s Account of Monte Rosa: 153 


of its summits, and:we stated the trigonometrical observations by which 
they obtained, from its most elevated peak, an altitude exceeding 
that of Mont Blanc. It appears, however, that these observations were 
not correctly made, and that Mont Blanc is still entitled to the high- 
est dignity among our European mountains. 
The following are the observations which have been made at different 
times upon the height of Monte Rosa. 


Toises. 
| In 1788, M. Oriani, from Milan re = 2389 
from Mont Generoso - 2391 
In 1803, from Milan - - 2385 
In 1824, M. Carlini, from Milan - - 2374 
from Turin - - 2343 
from Superga - 2357 
from Mondovi 4 - 2319 Rejected. 
In 1822, Baron Welden, from Monte Carnero - 2370 
Mean height of Monte Rosa - 2373 


The following observations have been made at various times on Mont 
Blanc. 


Toises. 
In 1796, M. Tralles - - 2468 
~ In 1821, M. Carlini, from Mont Colombier < 2460 


The Austrian Engineers from Mont Trelod 2462 
from Perron d’Encombres 2159.9 
from the Glacier of Ambin 2463.9 
from Roche Melon 2458.8 

The French Engineers from Mont Granier 2460.1 


Mean height of Mont Blane - 2461.8 
Do. of Monte Rosa - 2373.0 
Hence, Mont Blanc is higher than Monte Rosa by - 88.8 Toises. 


As some persons have claimed for Mont Oerteles, in the Tyrol, an 
elevation equa] to that of Mont Blanc, we shall give the following mea- 
sures of its height, as obtained in 1818 by the Austrian engineers, from 
the triangulation which they then conducted in the Tyrol. 


e Toises. 

In 1818, from Pflinn Spitze - - 2012.5 
from Monte Motto - - - 2010.1 

from Corno di S. Colombano ms 2009.5 

from Pizzo del Ferro ~ = 2010.0 


Mean height of Oerteles - 2010.5 
Tleight of Mont Blane . 2461.8 


Hence Mont Blanc is higher than Oerteles by - 451.3 Toises. 


154 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. 


Although Monte Rosa is thus deprived of the honour of being placed - 
at the head of our mountains, yet it has acquired a new degree of inter- 
est during its temporary elevation. Baron Welden, the author of the 
present work, conceived the laudable design of exploring and describing 
the topography, the orometry, the geology, the natural history, and 
the botany of this mountainous region. 

Monte Rosa is finely seen from the rich plains of Licnlicdalag It is 
seen distinctly from the Gulf of Genoa, while Mont Blanc is concealed 
behind the mountains of Cogne and Saone. Baron Welden has observed 
Monte Rosa from the whole chain of the Appenines, from Sasso di Cas- 
tro, above Loano, on the road from Florence to Bologna, from Monte 
Cimone, on the road from Modena to Pistoja, from Lacissa of Pontre- 
moli at Parma, and also from the Col de Tende. In general it is seen 
in all directions to the south and the east, as the view of it is not inter- 
rupted by any mountains of sufficient altitude. Towards the east it is 
seen from the whole chain of Mont Cenis; and Baron Welden has ob- 
served it from all the chain of the Oberland in Berne, which stretches 
from the Gemmi and the Diablerets to the lake of Geneva. 

Monte Rosa was called by the ancients Mons Sylvius, a name which 
was afterwards conferred on its neighbour, Mont Cervin. The name 
of Monte Rosa seems to have been first given to it by Scheuchzer, in 
his Jtinera Alpina in 1702—1711 ; and Baron Welden thinks that it de- 
rives its name from the roseate tints which the first rays of the rising 
sun throw upon its whitened summits. 

The summit of Monte Rosa has not yet been reached by any traveller. 
One Maynard pretended that he had reached the summit on the 13th 
of August, 1813; but it is evident from his own account, that the 
point which he attained was very far from the summit. In 1817 Pro- 
fessor Parrot of Dorpat, along with M. Zumstein of Gressonay, made 
two attempts to ascend this mountain, but both of them failed. 

In 1819, M. Zumstein performed the interesting ascent of one of its 
southern summits, which we have published in our first number. He 
made a second ascent in August 1820; a third in August 1821; a fourth 
in July 1822; and a fifth in August of the same year ; an account of all 
of which is published at the end of Baron Welden’s work. 

After Baron Welden has given an account of the various triangula- 
tions connected with Monte Rosa and the Swiss Mountains, he gives a 
table of the height of the European mountains which have been accu- 
ratcly measured, and which is too valuable to be omitted. 


FIRST CLASS. 


Paris feet. Paris feet. 

Mont Blanc - - 14,764 Monte Rosa, 4th Peak - 12,984 
Monte Rosa, Ist, or highest Peak 14,222 5th Peak - 13,650 
2d, Peak 14,154 6th Peak - 12,984 


3d, Peak 14,028 


—E 


Baron Welden’s Account of Monte Rosa. 155 


SECOND CLASS. 


Paris feet. Paris feet. 

Mont Cervin, Saussure - 13,854 Le Geant - - 13,044 
Finster Aarhorn, Tralles - 13,234 

THIRD CLASS. 

Paris feet. Paris feet. 

Mountain between the valley of Eigner, Tralles - 12,368 

Matter and Saas = 12,882 Mountain N.W. of Briangon 12,138 

Jungfrau, T'ralles = 12,872 - Point Oerteles, Tyrol = 12,059 

Ménch - - 12,666 Aiguille du Midi - - 12,054 

The Great Peloux, W. of Bri- Breithorn, Saussure - 12,012 

angon — = 5 12,612 Glockner in Salzburg, Schiegg 11,988 


Shreckhorn, T'radles - 12,560 Monte Viso, M. Plana - 11,808 
Iseran in Savoy - - 12,456 


FOURTH CLASS. 


Paris feet. Paris feet. 
Zebru Konigs-Spitze, near Oer- Sustenhorn - 10,910 
teles = a 11,516 Roche Melon, S. E. of Mont 
Wetterhorn, T'ralles - 11,453 Cenis < PS 10,878 
Altes = a - 11,432 Titlis, Saussure - 10,818 
Aiguille D’Argentiere,Raymond11,412 Aiguille d’Arve, Savoy - 10,776 
Frau, Trailes - 11,393 La Pelouse, Savoy —« - 10,775 
Dent Parassée, Savoy - 11,388 Mont Perdu, Pyrenees 10,518 
Gallenstock = - 11,330 Monte Confinale, near Oerteles 10,392 
Monte delle Disgrazie - 11,316 Glacier d’Ambin - 10,380 
Weissbachhorn, Salzbourg 11,300 Vigne Male - < 10,374 
Doldenhorn, Tralles - 11,287 Moschelhorn - 10,280 
Monte Tresero - 11,136 Mount Etna, Shuckburgh 10,254 
Roche St. Michael, the highest Pizzo Scalino - 10,248 
point of Mont Cenis’ - 11,058 Liconcio - - 10,221 
Dedi - - : 11,839 Poz Valrhein - 10,220 


La Rame in Savoy - 10,968 Glacier de Chardon - 10,200 
Monte Adamello, Tyrol - 10,950 


After giving an account of the trigonometrical operations among 
the Alps, and the longitudes, latitudes, and heights of the principal 
mountains and peaks, Baron Welden treats, at great length, of their zool- 


ogy, botany, and topology, of the vegetation of the mountains, of the line 


of perpetual snow, and of their glaciers, torrents, and mines. He gives 
also a very interesting account of the inhabitants of the valleys around 
Monte Rosa which is encircled by a German population, who have 
preserved their customs and language entire. This German population 
to the south and east of Monte Rosa amounts to 9000, of whom 4000 
inhabit the valley of the Lys, where there are two parishes and several 
hamlets. The other 5000 are dispersed in the parishes of Allagna and 
Mucugnaga. 

The plates of this work are very interesting. Besides the map of the 
triangles, there are five small views of Monte Rosa executed by the Ca- 

1 


156 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. 


mera Lucida, viz. a view of Monte Rosa from the Lago D’Orte; a second 
from Turin ; a third from Vercelli; a fourth from Gemmi; and a fifth 
from Rothorn. The last of the plates is a fine topographical chart of 
Monte Rosa and its environs, on a scale of 3200 toises to a’ Paris inch. 
It is finely engraved by Bonati of Milan, and is considered by Baron 
Zach, a competent judge, as a perfect model for topographical charts. 


II. Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. 
Second Scries, vol. iv. 


Norutne has contributed more to the advancement of science, and to 
the diffusion of general knowledge in Great Britain, than the establish- 
ment of Provincial Societies for literary and philosophical purposes. 
Among these institutions, which are every year increasing in number, 
the Society of Manchester has long held a distinguished place, and con- 
tinues to sustain its high character, under the auspices of Mr. Dalton 
and Dr. Henry ;—names which have long been associated with some of 
the finest discoveries in chemical science. 

‘rhe present volume, which we propose only briefly to notice, contains 
sixteen papers, five of which are literary, and eleven scientific. 

The first scientific paper is by Mr. Dalton, and is entitled, On Oil, 
and the Gases obtained from it by Heat.. As this paper was read so long 
ago as 1820, the results which it contains have been in some measure su~ 
perseded by later observations. Mr. Dalton found that oil gas is not 
altered by being kept two or three years over water or mercury, either by 
itself, or in mixture with three or four times its bulk of oxygen gas. 
He found that oil gas was highly absorbable by water, about sixty per 
cent being absorbed. The gas expelled from the water was richer than 
the original, or contained more superolefiant gas, both from the increase ~ 
of carbonic acid, and of the requisite oxygen. Mr. Dalton considersit as 
nearly demonstrable, that oil gas is a mixture of carburetted hydrogen, 
carbonic oxide, and hydrogen, with a greater or less portion of a gas sui 
generis, consisting of the elements of olefiant gas, united in the same 
proportion, but differing in the number of atoms. 

In a note appended to the volume, and dated July 1824, Mr. Dalton 
adds the following important information on this subject: “ From a 
recent train of experiments, I found that the heat from the combustion 
of those gases is accurately, or very nearly, in proportion to the oxygen 
consumed, and that whether the gases are diluted or not ; but the light 
is nearly in the compound ratio of the oxygen consumed, and the density 
of the combustible gas, when the last is nearly pure; but if it is diluted 
with any incombustible gas, or even with hydrogen, the diminution 
of light is yastly greater than in proportion to the dilution. I find 
one cubic foot of oil gas (spec. grav. 0.9) equivalent to 2 or 2: of coal 
gas (spec, grav. 0.6) for the purpose of illumination.” Page 527. 

The next scientific paper, also by Mr. Dalton, is entitled Observations 
in Meteorology, particularly with regard to the Dew Point, or Quantity 
of Vapour in the Atmosphere. These observations were made from 1803 
to 1220, on the mountains in the north of England, with the view of 


Memoirs of the Lit. and Phil. Society of Manchester. 157 


ascertaining whether or not there existed a distinct vapour atmosphere, 
mevhanitally blended with the common one, but acting by its own ten- 
sion or elasticity, and being subject to condensation by cold exactly in the 
same rmamner as an insulated atmosphere of steam would be. Mr. Dal- 
ton’s observations, however, though original in their nature and design, 
do not in his own opinion establish the existence of such an atmosphere. 
The following are the results which their author has deduced from them: 

1. That the quantity and density of vapour is constantly (or with 
very rare exceptions) less the higher we ascend. 

2. That wherever a dense cloud or fog exists, then the Niininaaaedl 
of the air and the dew point are the same. 

3., That when a mountain is wholly, or in great part, enveloped in 
fog, there. is little variation in ascending, either in the temperature of 
the air, or in the dew-point. 

4.:That, upon an average, the temperature of the air sinks after the 
rate of 1° for every 80 yards of perpendicular ascent, about the middle, 
or warmest part of the day ; and that of the dew-point 1° for every 130 
yards perpendicular ascent. 

& That the phenomena of aqueous meteors, such as rain, fog, dew, 
&c. depend upon the known relations of heat and water, and are ex- 
hibited to us in miniature every day in our domestic economy. Elec- 
tricity appears to be a consequent, rather than an agent, in the forma- 
tion and decomposition of clouds ; or, if a necessary agent, it is equally 
so in the boiling of water, or in the drying of piece-goods in a stove. 

Mr. Dalton concludes his paper with the following useful Table, 
which exhibits in numbers the drying power of the air, according as its 
temperature is elevated above that of the dew-point. 


Dew ‘Temperature of the air above the Dew Point. 


Point. 

6 | 8 10 12 14 16 18 | 20 
30 8 | 16 | 24 | 32 41 51 63 74 86 98 
35 SPP TR E26 SF 48 61 72 85 99 | 114 
40 10 | 22 | 33 | 45 57 71 85 | 100 | 117 | 135 
45 12 | 24] 37 | 51 66 81 99 | 117 | 135 | 154 
40 14] 28 | 43 | 60 78 96 | 115 | 135 | 155 | 178 
55 16 | 33 | 51 | 69 88 | 109 | 131 | 155 | 181 | 209 
60 18 | 37 | 57 | 77 | 100 | 126 | 153) 182} 213 | 244 


The next paper in this volume is a yery elaborate and interesting one, 
entitled, Tubles of the various Species of Periodical Birds observed in the 
neighbourhood of Manchester, with a few Remarks, tending to establish 
the opinion that the Periodical Birds Emigrate ; by Mr. John Black- 
wall. The following tables will exhibit Mr. Blackwall’s arrangement 
of periodical birds, and the principal facts which he has observed. 


Tasie 1.—Periodical Summer Birds. 


Appear. Disappear. 
Sand Martin Hirundo riparia April 6 Sept. 16 
Wryneck Yunx torquilla do. 


Water Wren Motacilla trochilus do. 12 do. 12 


Redstart _ 
Wheatear 
Swallow 
Whinchat 
Black-cap 
Martin 
Cuckoo 
Yellow Willow Wren 
Stonechat 
Sandpiper 
Grasshopper Warbler 
Whitethroat 
Swift 
Petty chaps 
Land Rail 
Fly-catcher 
Hedge Warbler 
Red-backed Shrike 
Goat-sucker 


Motacilla phoenicurus 
Motacilla ocnanthe 
Hirundo rustica 
Motacilla rubetra 
Motacilla atricapilla 
Hirundo urbica 
Cuculus canorus 
Motacilla sylvicola 
Motacilla rubicola 
Tringa hypoleucos 
Motacilla locustella 
Motacilla sylvia 
Hirundo apus 
Motacilla hortensis 
Rallus crex 
Muscicapa grisola 
Motacilla salicaria 
Lanius collurio 
Caprimulgus Europeus 


Tasxe I].—Periodical Winter Birds. 


Snipe 

Redwing 
Mountain Finch 
Woodcock 

Jack Snipe 
Fieldfare 

Water Rail 


Scolopax gallinago 
Turdus Lliacus 


Fringilla montifringilla 


Scolopax rusticola 


. Scolopax gallinula 


Turdas pilaris 
Rallus aquaticus 


Appear. 
Sept. 28 
Oct. 9 

do. 18 

do. 26 
do. 
Nov. 1 


Disappear. 
do. 5 
do. 13 
Oct. 11 
Sept. 17 
do. 
Oct. 13 
June 28 
Sept. 10 
do. 

do. 19 


do. 17 
Aug. 18 
Sept. 11 

do. 30 
do. 13 


do. 


Disappear. 
March 31 
do. 26 
April 14 
do. 2 


March 18 


Taste IIl.—Birds irregular in Appearing and Disappearing. 


Crossbill 
Siskin 
Chatterer 
Hoopoe 
Great Shrike 


Loxia curvirostra 
Fringilla spinus 
Ampelis garrulus 
Upupa epops 
Lanius excubitor 


Appear. 
Aug. 5 
Dec. 


Taste IV.—Birds partially Periodical. 


Throstle 
Starling 

Green Grosbeak 
Common Bunting 
Pied Wagtail 
‘Red Bunting 
Lesser Redpole 
Yellow Wagtail 
Lapwing 
Merlin 

Grey Wagtail 
Ring Ouzel 


Turdus musicus 
Sturnus vulgaris 
Loxia chloris 
Emberiza miliaria 
Motacilla alba 
Enmberiza schoeniclus 
Fringilla linaria 
Motacilla flava 
Tringa vanellus 
Falco zsalon 
Motacilla boarula 
Turdus torquatus 


Appear. 

Feb. 4 
do. 9 
do. 25 

March 3 
do. I1 
do. 17 

April 3 
do. 17 
do. 

Oct. 

Dec. 


Disappear. 


Nov. 19 


Disappear. 
Nov. 2 
Aug. 
Oct. 23 


do. 16 


Sept. 
Nov. 5 
Sept. 10 


April 


Memoirs of the Lit. and Phil. Society of Manchester. 159 


‘Mr. Blackwall proceeds to inquire if there is any connexion between 

the mean temperature of the times of the appearance and disappearance 
of periodical birds; but it is quite obvious from his tables, and from 
similar tables in other latitudes, that the weather is, generally speaking, 
much colder when they appear than when they disappear, from which 
we should be disposed to draw the conclusion, that they have a greater 
affection for our temperate one than for the warm climate to which they 
emigrate in winter. 
* In order to show that the periodical birds migrate to warmer climates, 
in place of becoming torpid in winter, as has been supposed by some na- 
turalists, Mr. Blackwall derives his principal arguments from the ab- 
surdity of the latter opinion. He also argues from the important fact, 
that several species of periodical summer birds moult during the interval 
that elapses between their departure and re-appearance ; and he consid- 
ers it ridiculous to suppose that these birds could throw off their old fea- 
thers and put on new ones, if they were in a state of torpidity, or if their 
animal functions were entirely suspended. 

Mr. Blackwall has enriched this volume with other two papers, one 
On the Notes of Birds, including an Enquiry whether or not he) are in= 
stinctive, and another On the Cuckoo. 

In the first of these papers, he clearly shows, in opposition to Daines 
Barrington, that the notes of birds are instinctive, and do not ‘ depend 
on the master under whom they are bred.” His principal observations 
are arranged in tables, which we cannot withhold from our readers, 
and which we have thrown into one. 

Taste V.—Catalogue of Singing Birds, with the time of their beginning 
and ceasing to sing, from a mean of five years’ observation, with the 
numerical value of their notes, twenty being that of absolute perfection. 


Begins. Ends. _|Mellow- |Spright- |Plaintive-| Compass, |Execu- 
ness. liness. | ness. tion. 

Redbreast Jan. 3/Dec. 14] 9 8 12 14 14 
Wren do. 13} do. 3] 1 16 0 4 5 
Missel Thrush |Feb. 1/May 28]. 3 4 1 5 3 
Throstle do. 8|Aug. 12| 3 10 2 10 4 
Skylark do. 9July 8 4 19 4 18 18 
Hedge Warbler | do. 9) do. 19) 3 4 3 4 4 
Chaffinch do. 10} do. 7 2 14 1 4 5 
Starling do. 15|May 30| 4 2 2 4 2 
Blackbird March 20,July 13|} 8 1 4 5 3 
Green Grosbeak | do. 24/Aug. 12] 5 cy 5 § 5 
Titlark - April 4July 9 3 2 2 2 2 
Lesser Redpole | do. 5)Aug. 5) 1 4 0 3 3 
W oodlark do. Oct. 25) 18 2 17 8 6 

oldfinch do. 11\June 4, 16 4 10 12 
Redstart do. 14' do. 29 1 4 0 Pe 2 
Willow Wren | do. 14/Aug. 23| 6 4 5 5 5 
Linnet do. 15July 6} 10 15 6 12 13 
Lesser Field-Lark| do. 17| do. 8 8 7 5 4 5 

wallow do. 19/Sept. 25| 4 6 2 F] 3 
Stonechat do. 24\June 1 3 0 3 Zz 
Whinchat do. 25\July 1 1 3 0 2 2 
Blackcap do. 25) do. 22} 14 12 12 10 8 
Whitethroat do. 29) do. 16 1 4 0 3 3 
Pettychaps May 12| do. 11] 14 6 14 10 9 
Sedge Warbler do. 17) do. 16 2 16 0 18 14 


160 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. v 


Mr. Blackwall’s Observations on the Cuckoo, will be read with much 
interest by naturalists. He confirms, in general, the interesting results ob- 
tained by the late Dr. Jenner, and we regret much that we cannot find: 
room for an abstract of his ingenious observations. "t 

The other scientific papers in this half volume, are On the Transverse’ 
Strain and Strength of Materials ; by Mr. Eaton Hovexinson. This 
is a paper of great interest and value, and we may probably return to it at, 
some future opportunity. 

On the Saline Impregnations of the Rain which fell during the late 
Storm, December 5th, 1822; with an appendix toit; by John Dalton, 
F. R.S. An abstract of this paper is given in our Scientific Notices. 

On the Nature and Properties of Indigo ; by Joun Dauton, F.R.S.. 
The principal part of which we have already given in our History of 
Mechanical Inventions and Processes in the Useful Arts, p. 149. 

Experiments on the Analysis of some of the Aeriform Compounds of Ni- 
trogen; by Witt1am Henny, M.D. F.R.S. See our last Number, 
p- 377. for an extract from this ingenious paper. 


III. Account of the Beil Rock Light House ; including the Details of the 
Erection and peculiar Structure of that Edifice. 1 vol. 4to. pp. 534, 
By Rosert Srevenson, Esq. F. R.S. E. Civil Engineer, 


‘* Far in the bosom of the deep, 
O’er these wild shelves my watch I keep, 
A ruddy gem of changeful light. 
Bound on the dusky brow of night, 
The seaman bids my lustre hail, 
And scorns to strike his timorous sail.” 
Sin Watter Scort. 


Ir England has justly boasted of the Eddystone Lighthouse as one of 
the greatest public works of the age in which it was erected, and if the 
skill and intrepidity with which it was planned and executed, have re- 
flected immortal honour on the name of Smeaton, Scotland may, with 
equal justice, be proud of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, and may claim an 
equal share of reputation to Mr. Stevenson, for the skill, and intrepidity, 
and patience with which he has planted that magnificent beacon upon our 
stormy coast. The erection of a bridge, the formation of a canal, or, in- 
deed, any of the common works of the civil engineer, require only those 
ordinary resources both of mind and machinery which long experience 
has sanctioned ; but in the erection of a lighthouse, upon a submerged 
rock in the bosom of a stormy sea, the engineer is thrown upon new re- 
sources, of which neither theory nor experience furnishes him with any 
knowledge. His building is subjected to strains different from those of 
gravity ; his materials are exposed to disintegrations worse than the cor- 
rosions of time or weather ; and every part of his operations, however tri- 
vial they may be on dry land, requires precautions and combinations which 
nothing but patience, and temper, and sagacity can enable him to anti- 


Mr. Stevenson’s Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse. \61 


cipate. But even when he has provided for the usual contingencies of 
the elements, he has to encounter storms and surges, the effects of which 
he could neither foresee nor calculate. 

In greater peril, perhaps, than the military engineer, who erects his works 
in the middle of cannonading redoubts, and who sees his men falling a- 
round him, his defences broken down, his implements and his materials 
crushed or dispersed, the engineer of a submarine-feunded lighthouse is 
surrounded on all points by an enemy still nearer him ;—an enemy that 
sometimes undermines his foundations, unscrews his bolts, breaks his 
iron beams, and whirls his granite blocks into the air, as if Neptune and 
all his court had stumbled over this pillar of the deep. 

The work of which we propose to give here a brief notice, is a large 
quarto, illustrated with twenty-three engravings. Itisably drawn up by 
Mr. Stevenson, the engineer of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, and is pub- 
lished under the direction of the Commissioners of the Northern Light- 
houses, a body organised in 1786, and to whose labours (which are 
purely ex officio, and without any remuneration whatever) the country 
is under the greatest obligations. 

The sunken reef on which this Pharos has been erected, is about 427 
feet long, and 230 broad, and lies about 12 feet under water at the ordi- 
nary height of spring tides. The Board of Commissioners, about the 
year 1800, being desirous of erecting a light-house on this rock, directed 
Mr. Stevenson, their engineer, to survey it; he reported, that it was 
quite practicable to construct a stone building on the principles of the 
Eddystone Lighthouse. Various opinions in the first instance existed 
regarding the practicability of the undertaking, from the depth of the 
foundation so far surpassing that of the Eddystone. Captain Brodie of 
the Royal Navy proposed an erection on iron pillars, and other’ modes 
were likewise projected, when the Commissioners consulted the late Mr. 
Rennie. That eminent engineer coincided in opinion with Mr Ste- 
venson, in favour of a building upon the principles of the Eddy- 
stone. An act of Parliament was accordingly applied for, and pass- 
ed in 1806, which provided for a loan to the Board of L.25,000; and 
as there were surplus duties to the amount of L.20,000 in the hands of 

_the Commissioners, the work commenced with funds to the amount of 
L.45,000. The operations began in 1807; a temporary floating light 
was provided ; a work yard for preparing the stones was established at 
Arbroath ; and a temporary beacon house erected on the rock for the ac- 
commodation of about 30 workmen. At this period of the undertaking, 
the labours and dangers of those employed were very great: The lower floor 
of the beacon house, which was used as a smith’s forge and for preparing 
the mortar, though elevated 25 feet above the rock, was often set adrift 
by the violence of the sea, and the lime casks, and even the smiths’ an- 
vils, whirled among the waves. During the whole of the operations of 
the first season, Mr. Stevenson remained constantly with the artificers at 
the rock, and contributed by his example, as well as by his skilful ma~- 
nagement of the tempers of the workmen, to surmount the difficulties 
which often threatened to overwhelm them. ‘The dangers of delaying 

VOL. 11. NO. 1. JAN. 1825, M 


162 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. 


the most dificult operations rendered it necessary that the work should 
be carried on upon Sunday ; and Mr: Stevenson and all the artificers, ex- 


cept a mason or two, who declined to labour more than six days in the — 


week, continued their labours from day to day without intermission. 
In boring the holes in the rock, the men often wrought knee deep in wa- 
ter, On many occasions the smith was obliged to labour at his forge with 
his feet in the sea, while his face was scorched with the fire, and buffet- 
ed with the smoke and the sparks which the wind scattered in volumes 
around him. F : 

These individual calamities, however, became more general in the 
month of September. The sloop Smeaton broke adrift from her moor- 
ings ; and from the current of the tides, it was impossible that she could 
return till after the rock was overwhelmed by the sea. Two boats only 
were now upon the rock, which could not hold more than one-half of 
the thirty-two workmen, especially in a heavy sea. The drifting of the 
Smeaton was known only to Mr. Stevenson and the landing-master. The 
artificers, while either sitting or kneeling at their work, in the founda- 
tion pit, did not know their perilous situation, till the rise of the sea 
drove them from their work, and made them repair to their respective 
boats for their jackets and stockings. To their astonishment they saw 
only two-boats in place of three. ‘ Not a word,” says Mr. Stevenson, 
‘© was uttered by any one, but all appeared to be silently calculating the 
numbers, and looking to each other with evident marks of perplexity 
depicted in their countenances.” . In this state of alarm a pilot boat 
fortunately came to their relief, and after a dreadful passage, in which 
Mr. Stevenson’s face and ears were encrusted with a film of salt, from 
the sea spray which broke over the bow of the boat, they got all safely 
on board of the floating light-ship. 

In the year 1808 the work proceeded with great activity. The stones 
were all prepared at Arbroath, and were fixed with trenails of oak wood 
and jogeles of stone, as in the Eddystone Lighthouse. The cranes and 
implements were prepared; the site of the beacon was excavated, in 
some places to the depth of five feet, and the foundation stone was laid 
on the 10th July. In this season four courses were completed, which 
brought the masonry to the height of 53 feet above the lowest part of 
the foundation pit. , 

In 1809 the building advanced with rapidity. When it had attained 
the height of eight feet, one of the cranes was erected on the top of it, 
and in the course of the season it rose to the height. of about thirty feet 
above low water mark. On the 19th of June, bowever, there was a 
remarkable ground swell, which made a tremendous breach upon the rock. 
The sea, at the meeting of the waves, was observed to rise in the most 
beautiful conical jets of about thirty or forty feet in diameter at the 
base, to the height of ten or fifteen feet above the crane, and some of the 
last laid stones were partially lifted, in consequence of_theix not having 
been fixed by trenails. On the 11th of August another swell of the sea 
broke one of the legs of the shear crane, an iron bar containing about 
sixteen square inches of section, which was snapped, on three different 


Mr. Stevenson's Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse. 163 


oceasions, by the force of the waves. In the month of September the 
building had risen to the height of thirty feet, which completed the solid 
part of the structure, and concluded the operations of the season. 

During the year 1810 this great structure was completed. The ma- 
sonry had reached its full height of 100 feet in the month of October, 
and in December the light was advertised to the public for exhibition, 
on the 1st of February 1811. 

Long after the completion of the lighthouse, viz. on the 14th Novem- 
ber 1812, the building was struck with a tremendous sea, the effect of 
which was more alarming than any thing that had been experienced 
since its erection. ‘The locks upon the doors were heard to rattle, and, 
what was very singular, the building was notstruck by another sea dur- 
ing the whole tide. The alarm was so great that the artificers, and two 
of the lightkeepers, sprung from the kitchen up to the balcony, imagin- 
ing for the moment that some vessel must have got upon the rock, and 
that the report which they heard was the discharge of a gun ; but they 
soon found that their alarm had been occasioned by the sea alone. 

The following short table will exhibit to our readers the relative di+ 
mensions, &c. of the Eddystone and Bell Rock lighthouses. 


Eddystone. Bell Rock. 
Height of rock about Level with high water Level with low water 
‘ matk. mark. 
Height of masonry above 
ee yo feet S PORTERS CTR 
Diameter of the meet & -fisteoreag theo EAE ae 
__ tire course 
Gabi, contents, i ie} 2 13147 Lo. 62) 28,580 
about 


Expense understood. tol —_¢93. 900, ascertained £61,331'9: 2 
haye been about 


The brief notice which we have now given of the leading operations at 
the Bell Rock will, we hope, induce the reader to peruse the full and in- 
teresting details of them which Mr. Stevenson has given in the work 
before us. Independent of these details, the scientific reader will find 
very interesting inquiries respecting natural history, hydrography, and 
general science, with which this work is enriched. In the introduction 
Mr. Stevenson has given an historical narrative of the. institution of the 
Board of Commissioners, and of the progress made in the erection of 
the northern lighthouses ; and he has inserted in an Appendix various 
important documents, connected with the subject of his work. The 
plates and letterpress are highly creditable to the several artists. The 
frontispiece is engraved by. Horsburgh, and the general view by Millar. 

The light:keepers of this establishment consist of a principal, a prin- 
cipal assistant, and two others, three of whom are, always at the rock on 
duty, while one is absent on leave. Their, pay is from fifty to sixty, 
guineas per annum, besides rations of provisions, uniform clothes, and 
houses provided for their respective families at Arbroath. Between that 
place and the light-house, it is not a little curious to,observe that a com= 


164 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. 


munication is occasionally kept up by the flight of carrier pigeons, with 
Killets tied round their legs. The commissioners, with proper feelings to- 

ward the inmates of this dreary abode, have provided them with a se- 
-lection of Voyages and Travels, &c. ; a weekly newspaper, though, (on ac- 

count of the tides, it cannot reach them oftener than once a fortnight) 
_and also one of the monthly journals. 


IV. Acta Academie Nature Curiosorum. Tom. XI. Part 1. 


I may be interesting to our Zoological readers to be informed, that 
this volume, (which has but lately reached Britain, ) contains several zoo- 
logical papers, to which some very distinguished names are attached ; 
we have not, however, been able to observe any very striking or novel 
views in these memoirs. Dr. Lehman has described several new species 
of dipterous insects, which he discovered in the country around Ham- 
burgh ; and there is a paper calculated to render more precise our know 
ledge of the larger cetacea by Dr. de Chamisso, being the drawings of 
several species of whales taken from wooden figures of these animals fa-_ 
bricated by the inhabitants of the Aleutian Isles. A memoir on the fossil 
remains of a gigantic ruminating animal, by Bojanus, is followed by - 
another, the preduction of E. d’Alton, in which the teeth of the Giraffe 
are carefully examined and described with a direct reference to the es- 
say of Bojanus on the fossil animal which he has called Erycotherium 
Sibericum. Dr. Tilesius has attempted in.a short memoir to prove 
that the Avgalis of Pallas must be the primitive or wild stock whence 
the domestic sheep is derived. The opinion of this excellent naturalist 
is disputed by Bojanus, in an anatomical paper, entitled, “ Craniorum 
Argalidis, Ovis et Capre Domestice Comparatio ;” we shall here no- 
tice, though very briefly, the objections offered by Bojanus to the opi- 
nions of Tilesius. 

1. In the sheep, the occiput is much longer and broader than in the 
argalis ; on the other hand, the forehead of this latter is much broader 
than in the sheep. The face is shortest in the argalis, and the horns 
do not diverge so rapidly. 

2. The tail of the argalis is very short, its habits are wild and sa- 
vage, and it is clothed with hair instead of wool. 

8. It differs from the genus Capra, in not possessing the lachrymal 
lacune, but rather resembling the sheep in this part of the osteology of 
the head. Bojanus concludes from these data, that the argalis belongs 
to a species distinct from the sheep or goat. 

We shall not here stop to argue whether or not the argalis be really 
the original stock of the domestic sheep; we shall merely remark, that 
the objections drawn from the slight dissimilarity in the crania of ee 
animals are of little moment: 

1. The size and length of the occiput in the domestic sheep, when 
compared with the argalis, seem to depend on the elongation of the 
head and face ; now, this is owing chiefly, as may be observed in the 


Acta Academie Nature Curiosorum. 165 


horse, to the rankness or strength of the pasture on which the animal 
feeds, and to the comparative humidity of the climate. The forehead 
is said to be broader in the argalis than in the sheep, but this may be a 
deception ; it is, however, evident that .the orbits are more projecting, 
and, consequently, that there is a wider range of vision ; but this occurs 
in many varieties of dogs (as the fox terrier,) without our viewing them 
as distinct species. The extreme vigilance required on the part of the 
argalis to guard against its numerous enemies, may have necessitated 
this structure, which, in the domestic sheep has gradually become less 
distinct. Upon the whole, we are disposed to think Tilesius right in 
the views he has adopted relative to the argalis, though there is but lit- 
tle which may be called novel in his Memoir. 

We shall speak of but two memoirs more contained in this volume: 
the first of these is by Carus, and is entitled, ‘“‘ Icones Sepiarum in Lit- 
tore Maris Mediterranei Collectarum ;” these engravings are very beau- 
tifully executed. He takes notice of the remarkable coloured points vi- 
sible on the integuments of the cuttle-fish, which contract and dilate al- 
ternately, as if possessing a certain degree of pulsation: these contrac- 
tions and dilatations cease shortly after life becomes extinct. Though - 
these coloured points may possibly have been long ago noticed by many 
naturalists, it seems to us that they were first described by De Blain- 
ville ; some time afterwards Carus, and finally Sangiovanni, in the Gior- 
nale Encyclopedia di Napoli, an. xiii. No. 9. redescribed this system of 
coloration, and offered explanations of the phenomena any thing but 
satisfactory. The writer of this notice observed these pulsating points 
in the skin of the cuttle-fish in 1821, with the same want of success, 
as to a correct theory of their true nature ; the aid of the microscope was 
not neglected. 

The last memoir is one by Rosenthal on the branches which form the 
Vena magna galeni, and on the veins of the brain generally. (K.) 


Agr. XXIX.—NOTICES OF RECENTLY PUBLISHED 
PERIODICAL BOTANICAL WORKS. 


Botanical Maguzxine for September, No. 452. 


Tas. 2509. Azalea indica, var. B. plena, a state of the plant far inferior, 
in our opinion, to the common one. t. 2510, Ornithogalum Narbonense, 

a native of the South of Europe. t. 2511, Bellis sylvestris, an inhabit- 
_ ant of Portugal and Spain. We have received the same plant from our 
excellent correspondent, Mr. Bentham, from about Montpellier. t. 2512, 
Coreopsis tinctoria of Mr. Nuttall, who found this beautiful and most 
desirable species in the Arkansa territory. In the Glasgow Botanic 
Garden we have cultivated it in the open air, where it bears incompara- 
bly finer flowers than in the green-house. t. 2513, Monarda Russelli- 
ana, first mentioned by Mr. Nuttall, and named in honour of his friend, 
Dr. Russell, in his travels in the Arkansa territory. Raised by Mr. 
Barclay of BuryhilJ, as well as by ourselves in the Glasgow garden. 


166 Notices of Botanical Works recently 


t. 2514, Euphorbia carinata of Donn’s Hort. Cant. (E. canaliculata of 
Lodd Cab. and Crepidaria carinata of Haworth’s Succul. Plants, Suppl. 
p. 67.) This appears to us not to be different from the figure in Dil- 
lenius’ Hort. Elth. t. 288, the Pedilanthus tithymaloides, g. of Poiteau 
in Ann. du Mus. v. 19. p.390. t. 19. f. 1. and the P. tithymaloides of 
Kunth, in Humboldt’s Nov. Gen. y. 2. p. 63. This is surely a good 
genus ; Pedilanthus is the older name, though having the same meaning, 
as Mr. Haworth’s Crepidaria. t. 2515, Malva prostata of Cayanilles, 
and De Candolle. Introduced by the late Mr. JohnWalker from Brazil. 
t. 2516, Ophrys arachnites of Linn. and Willd. 


Botanical Register for Sept. No. 115. 


Tas. 825. Isochilus prolifer, a rare and interesting plant, indigenous 
to the West Indies, the Epidendrum proliferum of Swartz. Under this 
article are some valuable observations on the Exotic Orchidea, by Mr. 
Lindley. +t. 826, Leucadendron tortum, Br. t. 827, Ardisia punctata, 
n. sp. * foliis lanceolatis coriaceis sinuatis versus basin attenuatis, corolla 
subcampanulata punctata, lobis obtusis.”” Sent from China to the Hor- 
ticultural Society of London, by the late Mr. T. Potts. t. 828, Canonia 
capensis. t. $29, Rosa moschata, var. nepalensis, the R. glandulifera of 
Roxb. Fl. ined. t. 830, Dolichos purpureus, Willd. t. 831, Arum cri= 
nitum, Hort. Kew, and Willd, a remarkable plant, with the spatha 
enormously large, not much unlike the extraordinary Aristolochia gran- 
diflora, of which the blossoms are used by the children of South America 
and the West Indies for bonnets. 


Wo. 116. October. 

Tas. 832. Brassia caudata of Lindley, (Epidendrum of Linn. and 
Malaxis of Willd.) Imported by Lee of Hammersmith from the 
West Indies. Under the descriptive part of this plant we have an enu- 
meration of the genera of the first section of “‘ Epidendree, Ecalcarate, 
polliniis duobus.” t. 833, Wicotiana nana, n. sp. ‘‘ 2-3-uncialis, foliis 
lanceolatis pilosis, radicalibus quam flores solitarii longioribus, corolla 
calyce longiore, laciniis obtusis.” A curious dwarf plant, sent to the 
Horticultural Society of London, by W. Bird, Esq. from the rocky 
mountains of North America, and stated to be the kind from which the 
Indians make their best tobacco. t. 834, Melodium monogynum of Dr. 
Carey, “ foliis ovali-lanceolatis acuminatis, panicula glaberrima.” In- 
troduced from the East Indies by Messrs. Whitley and Brames. t. 835, 
Scabiosa graminifolia, a pretty species, native of the south of Europe. 
We have gathered it in the north of Italy. t. 836, Guatteria rufa of 
Dunal and De Candolle. Sent by Mr. Potts from China to the Hor- 
ticultural Society’s Garden at Chiswick. t. 837, Pedilanthus tithyma- 
loides of Poiteau. t. 838, Heliophila digitata, De Candolle. The leaves 
are represented glabrous, and the flowers large, otherwise it very much 
resembles the H. stricta of the Bot. Mag. t. 2526. t. 839, Acacia 
calamifolia of Sweet in Coly. Cat. “ petiolis filiformibus longissimis 
cernuis, pedunculis solitariis petiolo multoties brevioribus, leguminibus 
arcuatis articulatis corrugatis.” 


; 


Published in Great Britain. 167 


Hooker's Exotic Flora for September, No. V4. 


Tas. 119. Dendrobium Barringtonie, (Sw. and Br. Epidendrum 
Barringtoniz, Smith Ic. Pict.) t. 220, a beautiful new species of Den~ 
drobium, named Hurrisonie, in honour of Mrs. Harrison of Argsburgh, 
near Liverpool, who introduced it from Riode Janeiro: ‘ bulbo ovato 
unifolio, folio ovato-lanceolato undulato basi attenuato, scapo unifloro, 
petalis duobus inferioribus dorso unitis apice bidentalis.” t. 121, Braya 
alpina of Sternberg, from the gardens both of Edinburgh and Glasgow: 
t-- 122, Pothos acaulis. t. 123, Pleuothallis racemiflora of Lindley, 
“ caule elongato unifolio, scapo folio oblongo emarginato longiore erecito, 
floribus racemosis secundis acuminatis tetrapetalis.” This is the Den- 
drobium racemiflorum of Swartz; and it was first imported from the 
West Indies by Messrs. Loddiges. 


No. 15. October. 

Tas. 124. Dendrobium pubescens, n. sp. “ bulbo oblongo-ovato, foliis 
distichis lanceolatis glabris, scapo elongato floribusque laxe spicatis pu- 
bescentibus, labello oblongo trilobo petalis tribus exterioribus inferne 
unitis basi saccatis.” A very interesting species, communicated by Mr. 
Shepherd, who had received it from Dr. Wallich. A native of Calcutta. 
t. 125, Convallaria oppositifolia of Lond. Bot. Cab. a native of Nepaul, 
whence it was sent to the Glasgow Garden by Dr. Wallich.  t. 126, 
Trixeuxis falcata, Lindl. Coll. Bot. from the Liverpool Botanic Garden, 
whither it had been transmitted from Trinidad by Baron de Schack, 
M.D. t. 127, Ornithocephalus gladiatus, constituting a highly curious 
and new genus, belonging to the 4th section of Mr. Brown’s Orchidex 
in Hort. Kew: “ Flores resupinati. Labellum subpedicellatum, longe 
attenuatum. Petala subequalia, duo superiora demum reflexa. Colum- 
na brevis, hinc apice una cum anthera longissime rostrata. Masse 
pollinis 4, pedicello valde elongata, basi biglanduloso affixe.” This is 
a small parasitic plant, with equitant leaves. The very singular elon- 
gated process of the upper part of the column, with the corresponding 
anther case which lies upon it, have suggested the generic appellation. 
Communicated by the Baron de Schack, to the Glasgow Botanic Garden, 
where it blossomed in August 1824. 


No. 16.—November. 


Tab. 128. Trichilia odorata. t. 129. Pleurothallis? coccinea, 
which the author has, since the engraving of the plate, ascertained to 
be the Rodriguesia lanceolata of Loddiges, and the Rodr. secunda of 
Humb. and Kunth. t. 130. Monarda Russelliana of Nuttall.—No. 131. 
Baptisia? nepalensis ; a very handsome plant, raised from Nepaul seeds 
by Mr. Neill at Canonmills, near Edinburgh. “ Foliis ternis breviter 
petiolatis, foliolis lanceolatis subsericeis, stipulis petiolum subequanti- 
bus ovatis acutis deciduis, germinibus pubescentibus, corolli alis invo- 
lutis.” After this plate likewise had been engraved, and most of the 
impressions finished, a fully formed seed vessel was communicated to 


~ 


168 Notices of Botanical Works, §c. 


the author by Mr. Neill; and this led him still more to consider the 
plant as not belonging to the genus Baptista, but rather to Thermopsis of 
Mr. Brown. Mr. Lindley has been kind enough to inform us, that this 
is the Podalyria sericea of Dr. Wallich’s MSS. ; Anagyris indica of Roxb. 
MSS. ; and probably of the same genus with Podalyria lupinoides, from 
Dahuria ; and therefore belonging to the Thermopsis of Brown. Still, 
Mr. Lindley, who has seen ripe fruit of our plant, is inclined to consider 
it not generically distinct from Anagyris. t. 132. Chrysiphiala pauct- 
flora.— Floribus ante folia, perianthus laciniis erecto-patentibus, sta- 
minibus subequalibus, corona brevi tubulosa, dentibus bifidis.” Sent 
to the Horticultural Society from Peru, by James Cowan, Esq. 


Loddiges’ Botanical Cabinet for September, (No. 89.) 


Tab. 881. Lychnis Suecica. 882. Erica flava. 883. Orobus coccineus. 
884. Ribes lacustris. 885. Azalea sinensis. 886. Primula integrifolia. 
887. Epidendrum anceps. 888. Aquilegia canadensis. 889. Asarum cana- 
dense. 890. Gnidia imbricata. 

No. 90. Tab. 891. Thalictrum petaloideum. 892. Cytisus purpureus 
$93. Erica stellata. 894. Nerium coccineum. 895. Cypripedium pubescens. 
896. Dianthus zunctatus. 897. Lupinus Nootkatensis. 898. Monsonia 
speciosa. 899. Erysimum lanceolatum. 900. Anemone pratensis. 

No. 91. Tab. 901. Arnica crenata. 902. Erica pendula. 903. Justi- 
cia coccinea. 904. Conanthera bifolia. 905. Canna iridiflora. 906. Cero- 
pegia Africana. 907. Mahernia incisa. 908. Rhododendron myrtifolium. 
909, Acacia calamifolia. 910. Pachysandra procumbens. 


Greville’s Scottish Cryptogamic Flora. 


We have only been hitherto deterred by the narrow limits of our 
space from noticing periodically, the contents of Dr. Greville’s Scottish 
Cryptogamic Flora, and not from any insensibility to the value of his 
work, or to the interest of the subjects which it contains. No branch of 
the botany of this country required to be more illustrated than the fun- 
gi, which occupy the greater portion of this publication ; and although 
they are not calculated at once to strike and arrest our attention like so 
many of the plants in the works mentioned immediately above; yet 
when these productions come to be attentively examined, and their struc- 
ture and mode of growth closely studied, we shall be led to conclude, 
that no tribe of plants is more calculated to display the wisdom and pow- 
er of the Almighty, than these little individuals. We know that by one 
naturalist the fungi have been called the Vermes of the Vegetable Crea- 


tion, by another the depurators and scavengers of Nature ; but he who 


bestowed upon them the latter apparently sordid and opprobrious epi- 
thet, has at the same time borne witness to their importance in the scale 
of creation. ‘‘ The wisdom of Providence,” says Mr: Kirby,* ‘ has 
not only been attentive to provide against the atmosphere being over- 


* In his account of the genus Ammophila in the 4th vol. of the Linnwan Trans- 
actions, p. 196. 


i) 


FBLA ETE R 


eee 


Proceedings of Societies. 169 


loaded with sweets, it has also used similar precautions to prevent its 
being corrupted with exhalations of a contrary natare ; and to effect this 
purpose, it employs an infinite number of insects, which class of animals 
in conjunction with the fungi, may be called the depurators and scaven- 
gers of nature.” 


No. 27. September. 


Tab. 131. Nostoc ceruleum. t. 132. Leangium? -Trevelyani, a new, 
very curious, and ‘rare species, discovered by the gentleman whose 
name it bears. t. 133. Orthotrichum Ludwigii, a recent addition to the 
muscology of Britain. t. 134. Erysiphe Pisi, the cause of mildew on 
that valuable species of esculent vegetable, the common Garden Pea, 
infesting its leaves with a fine white film, t. 135. Cucurbitaria cinnaba- 
rina. 


No. 28. Octover. 


Tab. 136. Stromatospheria fragiformis var. levis. t.137. Orthotrichum 
speciosum, another species new to Britain. t. 138. Spheria rosella. t. 139. 
Peziza Wauchii, nov. sp. t. 140. Myrothecium Carmichaelii, nov. sp. 


No. 29. November. 


Tab. 141. Erineum griseum et clandestinum. t. 142. Thelephora quer- 
cina. t. 143. Helvella leucophea. t. 144. Sclerotium scutellatum et se- 
men. t. 145. Weissia splachnoides. 


Art. XXX.—PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 


1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 


November 15th.—The Royal Society resumed its sittings for the winter. 
A paper was read by Mr. Haipixerr, on the Determination of the 
Idea of the Species in Mineralogy, according to the principles of Profes- 
~ sor Mohs. 
The purpose of this paper is to show, that in the determination of the 
“species, no attention should be given to the chemical properties of bo- 
dies, that is, to those which are observable while a mineral ceases to 
exist ; but that every property should be taken into consideration which 
minerals exhibit in their natural state. Bodies which agree in this re- 
spect either entirely, or in which the differences in their characters may 
be joined by continuous series, belong to one and the same species. 
Chemical considerations on the composition of minerals are then only 
conclusive, if the species has been previously determined ; and a com- 
prehensive knowledge of them can only be obtained, if we do not slight 
any of the properties of minerals, which has but too frequently occurred, 
by supposing that in mineralogy there is nothing so satisfactory as the 
chemical composition of a body. 


170 Proceedings of Societies. 


November 22.—At a general Meeting of the Society, held this: day,. 
the following Office-bearers were elected :— 
Sir Walter Scott, Bart., President. 


Right Hon. Lord Chief Baron, 


ane ae e, Vice- Presidents. 


Professor Russell, 
Dr. Brewster, Secretary. 
Thomas Allan, Esq. Treasurer. 
James Skene, Esq. Curator of the Museum. 
Physical Class. 
Alexander Irvine, Esq. President. 
John Robison, Esq. Secretary. 


Counsellors. 
Rey. Dr. Macknight, James Jardine, Esq. 
Robert Stevenson, Esq. Sir William Forbes, Bart. 
Sir William Arbuthnot, Bart. Dr. Home. 


Literary Class. 
Henry Mackenzie, Esq. President. 
Peter F. Tytler, Esq. Secretary. 
Lord Meadowbank. Rev. Dr. Lee. 
Professor Wilson. The Right Hon. the Lord Adyocate. 
Sir William Hamilton, Bart. Henry Jardine, Esq. 

December 6th.—At this meeting, there was read by Joun Cay, Esq: 
a notice respecting two Ancient Graves, discovered at North Charlton, 
parish of Ellingham, Northumberland, in January 1823. 

At the same meeting, there was read Observations on theVision of Im- 
pressions on the Retina, in reference to certain supposed discoveries re- 
specting Vision, announced by Mr. Cuaries Bert. This paper forms 
the first article of the present number. 


2. Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society. 

November 13th.—There was read a notice by Major-General Hard- 
wick, of the Incarceration of a Live Toad in a well at Fort William 
barracks, Calcutta, for 54 years. The evidence relative to the actual in-~ 
carceration of the toad, and its total exclusion from the external world, 
seemed to be quite imperfect. 

The preface of a paper by Mr. George Don, was read on the mono- 
cotyledonous and acotyledonous plants, found between the 4th and 11th 
degrees of north latitude on the west coast of Africa, 

There was read, an account of a viviparous variety of Juncus Lampo~ 
carpus by Mr. Parry. It was doubted whether this was a new variety 
of the plant alluded to, and even whether this was the name of the speci~ 
men submitted to the Society. The occurrence of viviparous varieties 
among similar plants was said to be by no means unusual. 

December 5.—There was read notices regarding the Blair Drummond: 
fossil whale, by H. Home Drummonp, Esq. and Mr. BLackappeEr. 

5 


Scientific Intelligence— Astronomy. 171 


The President, R. K. Grevitte, Esq. requested Dr. Knox to ascer- 
tain, as far as the specimens admitted, to what species of the cetacea 
the bones now presented to the Society belonged ; and to give in a no- 
tice on that subject at a future meeting. 


3. Proceedings of the Society for promoting the Useful Arts in Scotland. 


December 7th.—There was read, the Description of the first Steam- 
engine, invented by the Marquis of‘ Worcester. 

This paper forms Art. V. of the present number. 

The following papers were also laid before the Society, to be read in 
their order at the next meeting on the 21st of December. 

1. Description of the original Machine for Drying Linen by Steam, 
invented by the late Mr. James Watt. The Drawing and Description 
by Mr. Warr. 

2. Description of the new Fangate Sluice, invented and erected on 
the Steinenboch Canal by M. Branxen of Amsterdam. 

3. Description of several new Sluices, by Mr. Tuom of Rothsay. 

4. Description of an Instrument called a Trigon, for solving Problems 
in Navigation, by Mr. Burnett, Dunse. 


The following Instruments were exhibited at the Meeting :—~ 


1. Mr. Burnett’s Trigon. 
2. Files manufactured by M. Raoul of Paris. 
3. Specimens of Curves described by Mr. Jopling’s Machine. 


Art. XXXI.—SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


ASTRONOMY. 

_ 1. Elements of the New Comet of 1824.—This comet was discovered 
on the 23d of July by M. Scheithauer of Chemnitz; on the 24th July 
by M. Pons at Marlia ; on the 26th July by M. Gambard of Marseilles; 
and on the 2d August by M. Harding at Gottingen. The following are 
the elements of its orbit as calculated by M. Capocci, M. Carlini, and 
M. Encke: 


Capocci Carlini Encke 
at Naples, at Milan. at Seeberg. 
D. D. D. 

Passage of Perihelion, Sept. 1824 29.0465 28.800 28.847 
Log. of Perihelion Dist. - 0.02175 0.02346 0.02392 
Long of Node, - - 279° 1930” 279° SI’ 35”. 279° 28 27° 
Long. of Perihelion - 4 24 36 4 25 29 4 2 27 
Inclination of Orbit - 54 41 20 S61 10 55 1 24 


Motion direct 


M. Encke seems to have obtained other elements, which establish that 
the comet has an hyperbolic orbit. The following are those which have 


appeared : 


4 


172 Scientific Intelligence. 


Passage of Perihelion, Sept. - - 29 02259 
Long. of Perihelion - - - 4°25! 57! 22 
Long. of Asc. Node - “ - 279"'15"'S1 6 
Inclination of Orbit - - - 5443 7 8 
Eccentricity - - - - 1,006046 


M. Carlini has remarked it as a curious circumstance, that though 
the distance of the comet from the sun was increasing, the light of the 
comet was increasing also. 

On the 1st of January, 1825, its right ascension will be 75° 8’ its de- 
clination 47* 5’ north, the log. of its distance from the sun 0.2618, and 
the log. of its distance from the earth 9.96207. Zach. Cor. Astron. vol. 
xl. p. 196.—Phil. Mag. vol. lxiv. p. 309. : 

2. The Buenos Ayres Comet of 1821.—The observations on the comet 
which we mentioned in our last number, vol. i. p. 37, as very suspicious, 
have turned out to be an imposition. M. Encke of Seeberg has: been at 
the trouble to compare the Buenos Ayres observations with Dr. Brink- 
ley’s elements of the comet of 1821, observed by Captain Basil Hall, 
and the result is, that the observations are false. Baron Zach very ap- 
propriately remarks, that if the other transactions of that country re- 
semble this, the new republic of Buenos Ayres will soon take the road 
of the comet. 

3. Spots on the Sun in 1824.—About the end of May, M. Flaugergues 
observed on the west limb of the sun a very large spot about to disap- 
pear. From that time till near the end of August he had not observed 
any spots whatever on the sun’s disc. M. Pons of Marlia observed a 
fine spot on the sun on the 26th of May, and surrounded with a penum- 
bra like Saturn’s ring. He saw numerous white spots on the sun’s disc. 

4. Lohrmann’s Maps of the Moon.—M. Lohrmann, Professor in the 
Military Academy at Dresden is about to publish an Atlas of Lunar 
Maps, which will represent the whole surface of the lunar globe with 


an accuracy and precision beyond any thing that has yet been attempted. 


Baron Zach has seen the first section of these maps containing a part 
of the Mare Nubium, of the Mare Vaporum, and. of the spots named. Ptole- 
my, Hipparchus, Albategnius, &c. which he considers as executed with 
infinite care and accuracy. 

5. La Place on the Masses of the Planets.—In a new edition of his 
celebrated work entitled Exposition du Systeme de Monde, which has 
just appeared, he has given the following new measures for the masses 


of the planets : 
New Masses. Old Masses. 


. . 1 1 
Georgium Sidus - - i798 19504 
S ‘ : 

aturn - - 5512 5559,4 
JSupi : : 
upiter - = 1070,5 1067,06 
Vi : wie 
enus = 7 = 354956 Be Tee 
. . 1 ' ‘ 
The Earth - = : 405871 556652 
_1 Of that of the 1 


The Moon - ; - 75 Earthin placenf 68,5 


ve 


. 


Astronomy.— Optics. 173, 


6. Parallax of the Sun.—That able astronomer M. Encke of Gotha, 
is about to publish an elaborate work on the Parallax of the Sun, as de- 
duced from the Transit of 1769. The parallax obtained for the transit 
of 1761 was between 8.429813 and 8.551237. The result of M. 
Encke’s computations is 8.5776. The semidiameter of the sun at his 
mean distance is 858°"424. From the transit of 1639 he deduces the 
‘motion of the node of Venus’ orbit, which he finds to be 20°.508. “Ba- 
ron Lindenau’s Letter to Baron Zach, in the Corr. Astron. vol. x. p. 174. 


7. Copley Medal adjudged to Dr. Brinkley.—The President and Coun- 
cil of the Royal Society of London have adjudged to that distinguished 
astronomer the Rev. Dr. Brinkley the Copleyan Medal, for his able ob- 
servations and papers on the parallax of certain fixed stars. 


8. Opposition of Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta.—The following are 
the times of opposition of the four new planets: 


Anomaly. Dist. from the 


. Earth. 
Vesta, 1825, Feb. 28. 9h 91° 1° 1.357 
Pallas, March 13. 7 232. 2 2.80 
a Ceres, March 14. 9 207 16 1.603 
Juno, June 23. 8 38 16 2.143 


According to Mr. Groombridge, Pallas will probably appear like a star 
of the eighth magnitude. Juno will be too near its aphelion in the in- 
ferior part of its orbit to be visible with any illumination of the wires, 
but its transit may be compared with fixed stars. The following are 
some of the previous positions of these planets. 


R. Ase. Decl. N. 
Vesta, Feb. 6, [825, at 12h - 115 19’ 26” 14° 14 
Feb. 15. - 1l 13 40 15 303 
Dec. S. 
Pallas, Feb. 18, 1825, at 12h e J1» 49’ 55” 5° 44/ 
March 1]. - 11 42 59 1 35 
Decl. N. 
Ceres, Feb. 18, 1825, at 12h - 12 22 38 15 26 
: March 1. fe - 12 16 12 16 42 
Decl. S. 
Juno, May 3]. ~ a 18 25 44 »» 4°58 
June 10. - - 18 18 24 4 39 


Phil. Mag. vol. \xiv. p. 359. 


OPTICS. 

9. Singular Colour of the Sun.—On the 13th September, 1824, from 
2h p.m. to 53" p.m. the sun exhibited a very extraordinary colour, 
which we never before observed, and have never seen mentioned by any 
author. It was of a fine salmon colour, which it preserved for many 
hours. The sky had a vapoury aspect ; but the sun was not surround~ 
ed by any halo or penumbra of any kind. The barometer stood at 29.74 
inches, and the thermometer at 583°. The wind was in the west, and was 


174 Scientific Intelligence. 


considerable. The day threatened rain, but only a few drops fell, though 
showers were seen farther to the west. After 5n 30’ when the sun dis- 
appeared, the whole horizon was covered with an uniform tint of a 
bluish French grey. In the evening the moon had the same appearance 
as the sun, and although there were faint clouds about her disc, yet 
these clouds seemed to be illuminated neither by transmitted nor reflect< 
ed light. The moon shone with a faint dead light, which made’no im- 
pression upon any external objects. Late in the evening, when her al- 
titude had increased, a faint penumbral light surrounded her disc. 

At 11" p,m. A great storm of wind arose, and continued all night. 
These phenomena were observed near Melrose in Roxburghshire. 

10. Frauenhofer’s Large Achromatic Telescope—This splendid instru- 
ment, which was ordered by the Russian government for the observatory 
of Dorpat, under the direction of that able astronomer M. Struve, is at 
last completed ; and Frauenhofer is said to have succeeded beyond his 
most sanguine expectations. Its focal length is 18 feet 4 inches, and the 
aperture of the object glass is 9 inches Paris measure or 9 inches and 
6-10ths English measure. 


MAGNETISM. 


11. Oscillations of the needle affected, hy being enclosed in a copper case.— 
We understand that, at a recent meeting of the Academy of Sciences, M. 
Arago has shown that the magnetic needle, when disturbed, makes 
fewer oscillations in coming to rest, when enclosed in a copper case than 
in one of any other material, whether of metal or wood. Letter from 
Paris. 

12. No diurnal variation of the needle at the Equator.—M. Arago has, 
we understand, deduced from M. Duperry’s observations on the diurnal 
variation of the needle, that there 7s no diurnal variation at thé earth’s 
equator. 


13. Variation of the Magnetic Needle, observed in Africa in 1828. Cap- 
tain Smith observed the Declination of the Needle, in Africa, as follows: 


N. dyat.\ 9 East Long. Variation. 

Mesurata, ° 32° 21’ 26” 15° 16’ 45” 16°° 50° W. 
Melhufu, ‘ 31 58 56 15 27 55 16. 30 
Isa, “ - 31 32 50 15 31 46 16. 10 
Zaphrun, ~ 31 12° 10 16 41 29 | 16 40 
Boosheida, . 30. 59 30 17 39 21 16 0 
Kadia, : 30 44 13 18 17 50 15 26 
Bushaifa, $ 30 17 40 19 11 30 15 10 
Braijea, “ 30, 23. 29 19 39 30 14 25 
Gharra, - 30 47 20 19 57 24 1a 0 
Corcora, . 31. 28 20 20 50. Ln 4) ite ae 
Bengazi, 2 32. Bo OU 2 ie 0 14 40 
Tholomela, . 32 42 29 20 54 50 14 30" 
Cape Rasat, Se. Sa. 90 21 38 54 14 12 


ena Zach’s Corresp. Astron. tom. viii. p. $35. 


Magnetism—Metcorology. 175 


14. Variation of the Magnetic Needle on the Coast of Karamania.—Cap- 
tain Beaufort has given the following measures of the Variation of the 
Needle, in his Hydrographical Atlas, on the Coast of Karamania. 


N. Lat. East. Long. Variation. 
Syra Isle, > 37° 26’ 30” 24° 55% © 0” 14° OW. 
Koloyeri Rock, 38 9 33 251%) 40 13. 45 
Sahib Isle, . 38 39 43 26 28 15 15.) 
Sighajik, : 38 11 54 26 44 53 12 45 
Kastelorizo, . 36 ».8! 33 29 37 28 11 40 
Kakava, ; 36 10 47 29 53 55 11 30 
Ptolemais, . 36 35 50 Sk 49 0 10 50 
Alaya, : 36 51 51 a2. 2 24 10 40 
Cape Anamour, 36 O 40 See ole O 10 35 


15. Declination of the Magnetic Needle at Paramatta, New South 
Wales.—The following Observations on the Declination of the Magnetic 
Needle have been made at Paramatta, and communicated by Mr. Rum- 
ker to Dr. Olbers. 


Declination. Declination. 
1822, Oct. 23, 8° 43/’50/ 1823, Mar. 14, 8° 37’ 12” 
1823, Feb. 10, 8 46 47 19, 8 38 38 
12, 843 0 20, 840 7 
14, 8 34 0 21, 8 53 40 
15, 7 37 50 : 22, 8 39 50 
17. 8 36 0 26, 8 47 32 
27, 8 49 10 27, 8 50.33 
Mar. 10, 8 51 30 31, 8 43 27 


16. Magnetic Variation and Dip observed. in the North Seas, hy Cap- 
tain Sabine.—The following Measures of the Variations and Dip of the 
Needle were obtained by Captain Sabine. 

N. Lat. W. Long. Variation. Dip. 
Hammerfast . . 70° 40? 23° 45’ E. 11° 26’ W. 77° 15'N. 
Fairhaven... . 79 50 11 40 E. 2512 W. 8111 N. 
.. Drontheim .. . 63 26 10 22 E. 2040 W. .74 42 N. 


17. Scoreshy’s Observations on the Dip of the Needle. 


N. Lat. W. Long. Mean Dip. 
1823, March 29, Liverpool. 71° 33’ 0” 
June 10, .. 71°31’ 14” 12° 7 hoae 78 3 6 
July 5, .. 71 38 O M7 3h 0 719-0 9 


Quarterly Journal, No. 33. 


METEOROLOGY. 


18. Increase in the quantity of Rain.—M. Flauguergues of Viviers, who 
has for 47 years carefully observed the quantity of rain that fell, has re~ 
marked, by taking periods of ten years, that the quantity of rain is con- 
tinually increasing, and also the annual number of rainy and cloudy days, 
not only at Viviers, but throughout the South of France. 


176 Scientific Intelligence. 


1@. Saline Impregnation of Rain.—After a severe storm on the 5th De- 
cember 1822, Mr. Dalton examined the rain that fell at Manchester, and 
found that it contained 1 grain of salt, muriate of soda, in 10,000 grains 
of water ; and as sea water contains 1 grain of salt in 25 of water, 
there must have been 1 grain of sea water in every 400 grains of rain 
water. This storm was from the S.W. to the W.. The S8.W. wind 
comes from the coast of Wales, distant 100 miles, and the W. wind 
from off Liverpool, distant from 30 to 40 miles. In subsequent storms, 
Mr. Dalton found that there was 1 grain of salt water in 200 grains of 
rain water, and that the salt water had been brought mechanically by 
the wind at least 30 miles.—Manchester Memoirs, New Series, vol. iv. 
p- 330, 370. 


Il. CHEMISTRY. { 


20. Analysis of the Root of the Male Fern.—As the root of the Poly- 
podium filee mas has been almost universally used asa worm medicine, 
M. Morin has submitted it to a careful analysis. It was found to con- 
sist of, 1. Volatile oil; 2. A fat matter, composed of elaine and stearine ; 
3. The gallic and acetic acids; 4. Unerystallizable sugar ; 5. Tannin ; 
6. Soap; 7. A gelatinous matter, insoluble in water and in alcohol. It 
contains also the sub-carbonate, sulphate, and hydro-chlorate of potash, 
carbonate and phosphate of lime, alumine, silex, and oxide of iron. 
Journ. de Pharm. May 1824, p. 230. 


21. M. Berzelius’ Analysis of 1000 parts of Carlshad Water. 
Sulphate of soda, 2.58713 Carbonate of magnesia, 0.17834 
Carbonate of soda, 1.26237 Subphosphate of alumina, 0.00032 


Chloride of sodium, 1.03852 Carbonate of iron, 0.00362 
Carbonate of lime, 0.30860 Carbonate of manganese, 0.00084 © 
Fluate of lime, 0.00320 Silica, - ~ 0.07515 
Phosphate of lime, 0.00022 poeen eree) 
Carbonate of strontian, 0.00096 5.45927 


22. Anilysis of Chrysoberyl—Mr. H.Seybert of Philadelphia has pub- 
lished. the following analyses of. the Chrysoberyl, 1, from Haddam in 
Connecticut, and 2, from Brazil, in which hitherto the presence of 
Glucina had escaped the notice of Klaproth, Thomson, and Arfvedson. 
The proportions in the third column are those which Mr. Seybert con- 
siders as the true mixture of the species, and the fourth contains the 
oxygen of each substance. 


i Haddam. Brasil. ; 
Alumina, A 73.60 68.666 75.75 35.38 


Glucina, : 15.80 16.000 17.64 5.49 
Silica, > 4.00 5-999 6.61 Sue 
Protoxide of iron, 3.38 4.733 0.00 

Oxide of titanium, 1.00 2.666 0.09 

Moisture, : 0.40 0.666 0.00 

Total, — “ 98.18 98.730 100.00 


2 


MM ineralogy. 177 


- 23, The oxides of titanium and iron Mr. Seybert regards as accidental. 
The chemical formula, according to the method of Berzelius, is given’ 
A*S+2G At. Among the physical properties of the chrysoberyl from 
Haddam are quoted a fale green colour, and a specific gravity found 
in one specimen = 3.508, in another = 3.597. It does not present the 
opalescence of the varieties from Brazil and Saratoga. It occurs in the 
well-known mixture of albite, quartz, manganesian garnet, and yellow 
granular beryl. (Silliman’s Journal, vol. viii. p. 105.) 


24. Potassium and Sodium.—Mr. Frederick Butz of Nion (Canton de 
Vaud) in Switzerland, manufactures potassium and sodium for sale, the 
price of potassium is L.2 per ounce, that of sodium L.4 per ounce. 
(Schweigger’s Journal, x. p. 494.) 


Ill. NATURAL HISTORY. 


MINERALOGY. 

25. Rosélite,a New Mineral Species.—Form prismatic. Combination 
observed similar to Plate III. Fig. 35. inclination of a” on a2 over 
P=A7? 12’, of e# on et over P = 45° 0, LZ’ on b’, over e3 — 79° D5%3 
Bb’ on b’ over a’ = 114° 24; b on 5 adjacent = 140° 40’; edge z on edge 


% = 125° 7’; b on e3 = 199° 0’ Cleavage distinct and brilliant parallel 
to P. Surface, a® rough, and as it were hollowed out in the middle, 
the rest smooth. Colour deep rose-red. Translucent. Hardness = 3.0, 
the same as calcareous spar. It was discovered by Mr: Levy in the col- 
lection of Mr. Turner, in small well-defined crystals on amorphous 
greyish quartz from Schneeberg in Saxony.. Mr. Levy remarks that its 
great resemblance with the arseniate of cobalt from the same locality, 
had hitherto caused its being placed with it. It is named in honour 
of that distinguished mineralogist, Mr. Gustavus Rose of Berlin. 
According to Mr. Children, who examined its chemical properties, it 
gives off water before the blowpipe in the matrass, and becomes black ; 
with borax and salt of phosphorus in the oxidating flame upon pla- 
tina wire, it yields an intensely deep blue glass. It gives soluble salts 
with muriatic acid, which produce a precipitate with oxalate of ammo- 
nia. Digested in caustic potash, evaporated, redissolved, and the 
alkali neutralized with nitric acid, it gaye, with nitrate of silver and 
ammonia, a brown-red precipitate of arseniate of silver ; with bicarbo- 
nate of ammonia and phosphate of soda, it gave indications of mag- 
nesia. It therefore contains water, oxide | of cobalt, lime, arsenic acid, 
and magnesia. 

Roselite is a very rare mineral, though from the preceding description 
it appears that the specimen in Mr. Turner’s collection is not the only 
one described in mineralogical works. There is a specimen of it in the 
Wernerian Collection at Freiberg, to which the ancient but not very 
accurate description by Werner of the crystals of cobalt bloom refers, 
that they are compressed, acute, double, six-sided pyramids. (Jam. Syst. 


VOL. 11. No. 1. JAN. 1825. N 


178 Scientific Intelligence. 


3d. edit. Vol. 11. p. 193.). They arein fact lenticular, compressed Be- 
tween the faces. marked a’ in the figure, which are somewhat rounded 


and rough, and contains besides e and g. Upon examining that spe- 
cimen in comparison with the crystals of arseniate of cobalt, it was 
clear that it belonged to a different species ; the establishment of which, 
however, is entirely due to Mr. Levy, as it was impossible to detach 
a crystal from that group for ascertaining its characters without too 
much injuring the specimen. 

26. Columbite-—Dr. Torrey of New York has ascertained that Haddam, 
in Connecticut, is the most likely locality of that variety of Columbite 
which had been sent to Sir Hans Sloane by Governor Winthrop of Con- 
necticut, and in vain sought for in the vicinity of New London, the 
locality quoted. Count Trolle Wachtmeister first discovered that there 
was tantalite in one of the specimens of the Haddam rock, containing 
cymophane, beryl, &c. sent to him by Dr. Torrey. This was, however, 
only a very small quantity. Dr. Torrey found lately amorphous masses 
half an inch in diameter, and smaller crystals, which are-yery -perfect, 
and engaged in the red garnet, which has been found by Mr. Seybert 
to contain 30 p. cent. of manganese. . These crystals are frequently asso- 
ciated with cymophane, as is the case in a speeimen of the latter in Mr. 
Allan’s cabinet. (Ann. of the Lyceum of Nat. Hist, New York.) 


27. Brochantite, a New Mineral Substance.—Form, prismatic. Crystal~ 
lization observed similar to Plate III. Fig. 31. Inclination of a’ on a’ — 
150° 30’, of M on M = 114° 20, of e* on e* (adjacent) = 63° 0’. Faint 
indications of cleavage in the direction of M. Surface of M blackish and 
dull, the rest of the faces brilliant, and fit for measurement by reflexion. — 
Colour, emerald green. Transparent. Hardness, about the same as that 
of green carbonate of copper. It has been described by Mr. Levy, who 
measured the angles of the crystals by means of the reflective goniome- 
ter; and named it in honour of Mr. Brochant at the suggestion of Mr. 
Heuland. It occurs in very minute crystals on mamillated green car- 
bonate of copper, lying upon massive red copper, from the bank mine, 
Ekatherinaburgh, Siberia. 

According to Mr, Children’s cubcriinenik upon a very small quantity, 
before the blowpipe, it consists chiefly of sulphuric acid, and oxide of 
copper ; but on account of its perfect insolubility in water, he is.of opi- 
nion that it must contain some other substance beside these, which from 
some appearances while trying it with salt of phosphorus, might be 
silica or alumina, or perhaps both. It gives no signs’ of arsenic, phos- 
phorus, lime, magnesia, manganese or iron, though likewise tried in the 
humid way. 


_ 28. Fluellite, a New Mineral. Substinee. + Fu prismatic. Couibina. 
tion observed an acute scalene four-sided pyramid, having its most acute 
solid angles taken off, Plate III. Fig. 32. Angles = 109°, 82°, 144, 
(nearly,) the transverse section, therefore, early! 105°, according to Dr. 

6 


Mineralogy. > 179 


Wollaston. Colour white. Transparent. Index of refraction = 1.47. ‘Mr. 
Levy had remarked this substance ‘in minute crystals, accompanying the 
wavellite from Cornwall. Dr. Wollaston examined it at his request, 
and found it to be a compound of alumina and fluoric acid, im reference 
to which he suggested the name of Fluellite. His comparative exami- 
natien of the refractive power of wavellite, gave for the index of the 
latter 1.52. (Annals of Philosophy, Oct. 1824, p. 241.)'” 


~ 29. Analyses of several native Carhonates of Hers Magnesia, Iron, and 
Manganese, by IM. P. Berthier. : 


Protoxide of 
Manganese, 


ee 


Mag- 
nesia. 


ee 

Or ee ee 
ereee 
oteeee 
seeee 


seeene 


odatee ~ Ji Seeeeee 


ocavew gar a 
.| Water 


-  eeenee 


1. Compact dark-gray secondary Bee from Ardennes. 

2. Freshwater limestone, from Quincy, near Meélun. Resembling 
chalk. 

3. Compact yellowish-gray secondary eneatones from Epinae. 

4. Dolomite, white, friable, and resembling sugar. 

5. Dolomite, from the Alps. , : 

6. Rose-coloured calcareous spar, and. wich the brown watiety, analysed, 
No. 10, from Moutiers .in Savoy, where it occurs along with the golden 
titanium. Cleavable in large rhombohedrons, with faces of composition 
parallel to R—1. Spec. gray. = 2.71. 

7. Compact gray secondary limestone, from the iron works of Ran- 
cié, Arriége. . 

8. Compact gray secondary limestone, forming the roof of the iron’ 
ore at la Voulte, Ardéche. Spec. grav. = 2.68. 


180 Scientific Intelligence. 


_ 9. Compact gray, almost earthy. limestone from Timor, from> the 
expedition of Captain Baudin. Spec. grav. 2.60. This gray variety 
is mixed with another which is brown, and becomes brown itself on be- 
ing calcined. e erseat I 
. 10. Brown opaque calcareous spar, from Moutiers, cleavable in rhom- 
boidal laminae, occurs with No. 6. Spec. gray. = 2.64. Its colour is 
owing to an incipient decomposition. : 

11. Limestone from Devonshire. 

12. Calcareous spar, from Notre-Dame-du-Pré, in Sayoy. Cleavable, 
of a violet-blue colour. Spec. grav. = 2.9. This variety seems to con- 
tain free oxide of iron, as its carbonic acid is not sufficient for saturat- 
ing all the bases. ' 

13. Calcareous spar, from ota in Savoy. Crystallized in the primi- 
tive rhombohedron. White, semi-transparent, of a lustre approaching 
to pearly.. Spec. grav. = 2.94. 

Its surface becomes brown on being exposed to the moist atmosphere. 
It would be interesting to know from the indication of the angles of the 
rhombohedron, of hardness, &c. joined to that of specific gravity, whether 
the two last varieties do not belong.to some of those species which have 
lately been separated from the real calcareous spar. 

14, Granular yellowish-white, or grayish-white calcareous spar, with 
a pearly lustre, from Framont, in the department of the Vosges, where 
it accompanies the hydrate of iron. Analysed by M. de Beaumont. 

15. Sparry iron, from Allevard. © Cleavable’ in large laminae, of a 
pale colour, which are perfectly homogeneous. 

16. Sparry iron, from Autun. —Cleavable in large laminae, of a pale 
colour. 

17. Small-grained sparry iron, from Allevard, mixed with quartz. 

18. Sparry iron, from St. George de Huntieres, in Savoy. | Small- 
grained, of a very pale colour. 

19. Kidney-shaped clay iron-stone, from la Voulte, Ardeche. Com- 
pact, gray in the interior, and red on the outside. Spec. grav. —3.08, 
Analysed by M. Lamé. é 

20. Kidney-shaped clay-iron stone, from “Martigues, Bouches-du- 
Rhone. Compact, earthy, consisting of alternating parallel layers of 
a yellowish and grayish colour. 

'21. Compact sparry iron, from Chaillaud, Dep. de la Mayenne. 
This variety occurs in a mine worked for brown iron-ore, in kidney- 
shaped masses, called conillards, and thrown away by the workmen, as 
containing no iron. It is red on the outside, but dark gray, nearly 
black within. The fracture is very fine grained, and conchoidal. Spec. 
grav. = 3.58. It acts very distinctly upon the magnetic needle. It. 
seems to contain 2.5 per cent of the magnetic oxide of iron. The dark 
colour of the mineral is owing to bituminous matter. 

22. Compact Pelloyish-pray magnesian uae from Elba, of an 
earthy fracture. 

23. Rose-coloured carbonate of manganese, from Nagy-ag. Cleayable 
and translucent on the edges. 


Mineralogy—Crystallography. 181 


24. A similar variety of the same from Freiberg. 
~* {See the Annales des Mines, t. xiii. p. 887.) 


' 30. Torrelite—Under this name in honour of Dr. Torrey, the analysis 
of a mineral by Professor Renwick. has been published, which is found 
‘in Sussex county, New Jersey, and supposed to be new. It yielded 


Silica, ” 32.60 

¢ Peroxide of cerium, 2 12.32 
i _ Protoxide of iron, F 21.00 

rr Alumina, é + 3.68 
“emi Lime, : : 24.08 
Water, : F 3.50 

4 Loss, . 2 2.82 
om 100.00 


31. Metallic Titanium—Metallic titanium, first discovered by Dr. Wol- 
laston in the iron slags from Merthyr Tydvil, has lately been found by 
Dr. Walchner in similar slags from the high furnace of Kanderea in 
Baden, and appear from the description given to be exactly similar to 
those which have been found in this country. (Schweigger’s Journal, © 
xi. p. 80.) 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 


32. The Edinburgh Review and Mr. W. Phillips.—In an able article in 

the Edinburgh Review on Mineralogical Systems,* well worthy of being 
perused by those who are bigoted to their own views of that science, 
the acute author has stated it as a fact, which must “ affect. the degree 
of confidence which we can place in crystallographic indications,” that, 
according to Mr. W. Phillips, the differences in the angles of cleavage 
planes, amount even to fifty minutes of a degree. Ina sharp note in the 
Annals of Philosophy, No. xl. p. 285, Mr. Phillips has shown that the 
Reyiewer had mistaken his meaning, in using the word cleavage, as he 
meant the natural planes of the crystals. 
_ This slight oversight being admitted, justice compels us to vindicate the 
Reviewer (of whom we have no knowledge) from the charge of ignorance - 
too strongly brought against him; and to state with confidence, that the 
Reviewer’s argument is not in the slightest degree affected by this over- 
sight. 

_ Mr. Phillips distinctly states, that ‘‘ the measurements of the Crys- 
talline forms, and especially of the secondary planes (given in his own 

* We trust that the author of this article will reconsider the opinion which he 
has stated on the system of Professor Mohs. Had he studied Mr. Mohs’ own 
work, which has been published in German, and which will soon appear in Eng. 
lish, he never could have expressed such an opinion. It is hard, that the labours 
of such an eminent mineralogist should be judged of from the erroneous accounts 
of them that have been given by persons who have noteyen studied his writings. 


182 , Scientific Intelligence. 


work) are not precisely exact,” and that ‘ the limit of error is conside- 
rably within one degree,—rthat it, rarely exceeds 40, minutes, and is fre- 
quently confined to a minute or two.” * 

Now, though it is quite eertain that the cleavage planes of calcareous 
spar, sulphate of (barytes, &c. meet at-angles differing very (little in va- 
lue in.different specimens); yet, as there are Aundreds of crystals in-whieh 
the cleavage planes are either not found at all, or are very imperfect, it 
follows necessarily, that in general the forms of crystallized bodies must 
be deduced from the inclinations of their natural planes. Even if there 
are 50 crystals in which the cleavage planes meet at angles which do not 
vary one second, the conclusion drawn by the Reviewer from Mr. Phil- 
lips’s own admission, remains substantially and undeniably true. The 
variation of more than eight minutes produced in the inclination of the 
faces of carbonate cf lime by an increase of temperature from 32° to 212°, 
must also be considered as affecting our confidence in crystallographic in- 
dications, until the law of the variation shall be discovered. 


‘BOTANY. | 


33. Bois'de Colophane.—On reading the account’ wives in site am hibdaabch 
of our Journal of the laurel oil, Captain Carmichael observes, * ‘it. 
brought to my recollection a tree I had often met with ‘in the woods of 
Mauritius, and which is there called Bois de Colophane; a Bursera if 1 
am not mistaken. From the slightest wound in the bark of this tree 
there issues a copious flow of limpid oil, of a pungent turpentine odour, 
which soon congeals to the consistence of butter, assuming the colour of 
camphor. “Like camphor also, it burtis with a vivid flame, and leaves no 
residuum:”~ This is probably the Bursera panniculata of Lamarck’s En- 
cyclopédie’ Botanique, which is a native of the Isle of France, and of 
which that author says, that an abundant whitish resin flows naturally 
from the aly of i its bark. 


34. The tite Baron de Schack: —We regret to learn that the Baron te 
Schack, ‘so well known’ to botanists and cultivators’ of plants, died last 
September, at La Guayra in South America. He was a native of the 
Austrian dominions, but had long resided in'the island of Trinidad, from 
whence “he had, for many years, sent most valuable contributions of 
plants, both to the Botanical Gardens of Glasgow and of Liverpool, and 
likewise, we believe, to that of the Horticultural Society of London. He 
discovered many new plants, particularly among the parasitical Orchidee 
and the Tillanasie, some of which are already described, and others will 
soon appear, that have recently flowered in our stoves. With great dif- 
ficulty, and after many failures, the Baron de Schack succeeded in trans+ 
mnitting to this country living roots of the d7racacha, one plant of which 
has flowered at Liverpool, by an examination of which we are enabled 
confidently to state, that it is the Conium moschatum of Humboldt.’ 


* In another place, Mr. P. admits, that ‘* even the minute crystals, which are 
generally the most perfict of all, rarcly agree in the angles they afford.” 


eee 


Botany. ; 188 


35. C..S8. Parker, Esq-—This gentleman, the son of C. Parker, Esq. 
Blochairn, near Glasgow, a most zealous naturalist, who studied the 
principles of botany under the celebrated De Candolle at Geneva, in a 
late visit which he made to his concerns at Demerara, formed a very large 


_ and valuable collection of the plants of Dutch Guiana. Proceeding thence 


to the West Indian islands, during the last summer he chartered a ves 
sel on his own account, with the view of rendering himself independent 
of the ordinary but uncertain mode of conveyance in those seas, and had 
already investigated many of the islands, when an accident occurred, 

than which none more disheartening can befal a naturalist,—the loss of 
his vessel, of the crew, and of the whole of his collections. Deeply as we 
sympathise with our young friend in this destruction of lives, and of a 
property (the amount of which noné perhaps but a botanist, who has 
himself gathered such treasures, under such a sun, and with so much 
toil and fatigue, can’ duly appreciate,) we cordially rejoice with his fa- 
mily in Mr. Parker's own safety. “We have been permitted to make the 
following extract from his letter, dated on board the Wail Boat, Endea- 
vour, off Antigua, Sept. 23, 1824. 

«© When I had the pleasure of last addressing you from the roads of 
Basseterre, I little foresaw the circumstances of imminent danger in 
which I was placed, my merciful preseryation from which I can. only 
ascribe to the gracious protection of an overruling Providence. J disem- 


barked at Basseterre on the forenoon of the 7th instant, with. the inten- 


tion of ascending the Souffriere, and starting next day for the islands to 
leeward. The exorbitant anchorage-dues imposed by. Admiral Jacob, 
amounting to thirty-four dollars upon a small vessel in ballast for a sin~ 
gle night, decided the captain in lying off and on during the night. The 
afternoon was rather squally, and-we had several heavy showers while 
ascending the mountain to a cottage where we spent the night.. I awoke 
suddenly about midnight, and found that a tremendous gale was raging, 
tearing up forest trees by their roots, devastating the plantations, and 
doing incalculable damage to buildings and crops, particularly among the 
coffee trees and plantain walks. At dawn of day, when the fury of the 
storm had in some degree subsided, the devastated Jandscape presented 
an aspect truly dismal], while not a sail was to be descried on the agitated 
ocean. The loss of lives has been very serious, several vessels having 
parted from their cables, and grounded on the roads of the Santas. Of 
the crew of one of them, a garda-costa, manned by thirty-two sailors and 
officers, not an individual survived to tell the tale. Fifteen days have now 
elapsed, without a syllable of intelligence having reached me respecting 
the fate of my unfortunate schooner, which [-had chartered, and on board. 
of which were many objects invaluable in my estimation. But on these 
losses, and others which a mere pecuniary investment (heavy, indeed, in 
amount,) may replace, gratitude for my extraordinary preservation, and 
regret for the doom which 1 fear has befallen my companions, forbid me 
to permit my mind for a moment to dwell.” 

We have much gratification in being able to state, that of the collec- 
tions made by Mr. Parker, those formed at Barbadoes, Trinidad, and St. 


184 Scientific Ii ntelligence. 


Vincents, haye safely reached this country. All eare after one ae 
riod are lost. 


‘36. Red Snow.—We have good reason to believe, that the famous red 
snow will prove to be a vegetable production of far more common occur- 
rence than has been supposed.. It may excite some surprise if we state 
that it is a native of Britain. We mentioned in our last number that 
Agardh had informed us that it was found in Sweden, and we have 
lately received specimens of an Alga, from Captain Carmichael, gather- 
ed in Appin, Argyleshire, which we find to correspond exactly with the 
Arctic red snow. We are not even sure that it has not been included by 
some authors under the appellation of Lepraria jolithos, a plant which 
every one talks of, but which nobody knows ; some taking one thing, and 
some another for it. This is a subject well suited for one of Dr. Gre- 
ville’s illustrations. On mentioning our ideas to Dr. Richardson, he 
writes thus: “ With regard to red snow, I had some suspicion that it 
had been before known as a Lepraria, from haying observed a red sub- 
stance upon the stones at Fort Enterprize, which tinged the snow in 
spring, and which Captain Franklin recognised as the red snow which he 
had seen at Spitzbergen, at the same period that Captain Ross observed 
it in Baffin’s Bay. I noticed it only on the immediate banks of rivers, 
and in the beds of mountain torrents, and suspected at the time that it 
was a deposit of some animal substance, matter, or ova, because it seem- 
ed to be always within flood matk, and to be carried off in the same man- 
ner. Having no microscope with me of sufficient power, I did not at- 
tempt to ascertain its nature.” 


37. Govan’s Herbarium.—The herbarium of the late celebrated Govan, 
Professor of Botany at the University of Montpellier, has recently been 
purchased by Dr. Hooker, Professor of Botany at Glasgow, together with 

‘his correspondence, which, amongst those of many other eminent natur- 
alists of that period, contains forty original letters of Linneus. The 
collection, it is estimated, includes about 7000 species of plants, and, as 
may be supposed from the nature of the author’s publications, is particu- 
larly rich in the productions of the south of France and the Pyrenees. 
There are likewise many plants from Northern Africa, Egypt, Arabia, 
(derived from Forskal,) Spain, and Peru. Their arrival in Glasgow is 
almost daily expected. 


38. Alearum Systema Manuule.—The celebrated Professor Agardh of 
Lund, who had begun a Species Algarum, has been under the necessity 
of discontinuing it; but he has actually published what will prove of 
great importance to the student of this beautiful order of plants, a 


synopsis of the species, under the title of Algarum Synopsis Manuale. It 


includes all the known Alge, European and Exotic, and is comprised in 
twenty-two sheets, printed i in Latin in a 12mo. form. 


39. Dr. Hooker's System of Plants.—The publication of Dr. eu 
work, the System of Plants, which has been announced to appear dur- 


= c a . " —r 
i aaplart ey > = hotels ds ‘ 
ee eer Bly “ = if Seed: — 


Botany— Zoology. 185 


.ing the year 1825, is deferred till the early part of the spring of 1826. 
This delay is rendered almost imperative by the great number of ma- 


» terials which the author has received from various quarters of the globe, 


~which could not possibly be arranged in time for description’ during’ the 
period originally named, and which are too: valuable to be omitted. 


The work, therefore, will’be considerably benefited by such a postpone- 


ment ; and, indeed, were it not to attain such a result, this deviation 


»from the first plan could not be justified. Tk A 


Dr- Hooker is desirous of expressing his obligations to his publishers, 


. Messrs. Harding‘and Mavor, for the readiness with which they} regard- 


less\of every thing ‘save the improvement of the book, ‘have ‘acceded to 
the present arrangement. 


40. Hooker and Taylor's Muscologia Britannica.—For a similar reason, 
the long-promised second edition of the Muscologia Britannica, by 
Hooker and Taylor, is yet delayed. There is a degree of botanical 
ardour now existing, in ‘thisas well as in other countries, which 
promises to extend very considerably the present boundary of our 
knowledge in this delightful branch of science. In Scotland alone, the 
number of discoveries recently made has been truly extraordinary ; 
and perhaps in the course of a few years time, no country will have been 
more successfully investigated in a botanical point of view. 


“ 


ZOOLOGY. 


41. Discovery of a Fossil Bat.—About the middle of last October, the 
workmen employed in the quarries of Montmartre discovered the fossil re- 


_ mains of a Bat. This most interesting specimen was almost immediate- 


ly presented to Baron Cuvier by the gentleman into whose possession it 
‘had come. Permission to examine this hitherto unique production was 
“very readily granted to the author of this notice who was then in Paris. 
- The portion of stone in which the fossil remains are imbedded, had 
been subdivided during the operation of quarrying, as to leave the exact 
‘impression of the animal equally well marked on each surface: the spe- 
‘cimen altogether seemed to be so exceedingly perfect, and to resemble in 
‘size, proportion of the pectoral members, head, &c. the ordinary species 
-of bats now existing. Nothing positive, however, can be said’as to any 
“exact resemblance between the antediluvian bat and those of the present 
day, until the anatomy of the head and teeth be made out, by removing 
from them the incrustation of solid stone at present entirely concealing 
the structure of these parts. 

' The discovery of a fossil bat must be considered as a sort of era in 
‘the history of the organic remains of a former world ; hitherto, so far 
as we know, no animal so highly organized has ever been unequivocally 
‘shown to exist in a fossil state. Between the Bat and Man, naturalists 
have interposed but a single species, the Quadrumana : may we not hope 
that future research may at last add to the list of antediluvian remains, 
the so much sought for Anthropolite ? (K.) 


186 Scientific Intelligence. 


42. New Species of Mammiferous Animal-—A. correspondent informs us, 
that’: MuIsidorus St. Hilaire, a young naturalist of great promise, has 
obtained the honourable notice of the Institute, by adding a new species 
to the list of mammalia already known. The animal was brought from 
‘the Cape by the late M. de la Lande, (a collector employed by the 
French government to add to the museum of natural /history,) and is 
described as being analogous in some respects to the hyena, and in others 
to the civet. He has given it the name of Proteus. In the following 
number of this Journal, we'shall offer ‘some remarks on this new species, 
which probably has not hitherto been accurately described by.any na- 

_ turalist, though it is extremely well known to the colonists, and even to 
oceasional travellers in Southern Africa. The name by which the animal 
is known onthe banks of the Great Fish River, has at present escaped 
our recollection. (K.) afe: tay ‘Ses 


43. Fossil Elephant discovered bétween the Rhine and the Saone —The 
bones of this elephant were found on the east side of Lyons, in a garden 
situated ova hill, between the Rhine and the Saone,. The bones were 
found in what the men supposed was virgin earth. M. Bredin found 
that they were those of the elephant.. The humerus was twelve and a 
half feet long, and nine inches broad at its upper extremity. The 
tibia was two and a half feet, and two fragments of the scapula were to- 
gether two feet long. Some bones of an ox were found among the ele- 
phant’s ones.— Phil. Mag. vol. Ixiv. p.316. 


44. Lamantine.—T wo species of this interesting genus have been deter- 
mined by Cuvier, chiefly from the characters,of the bones of the head, 
viz. Manatus Americanus and M. Senegalensis. , The former inhabits the 
shores of South America and the West Indies. . Dr. Harlan has publish- 
ed some valuable observations on another. American species, which ap- 
proaches so closely in character to the African one, as to give strong in- 
dications of their identity. It is found in considerable numbers about 
the mouths of rivers, near the Capes of East Florida, Lat. 25°, is killed 
by the Indians with harpoons during the summer months, and measures 
from eight to ten ‘feet in length. Dr. Harlan, considering that the snout 
of the Florida species is wider below the eyes than the African one, pro- 
poses to denominate it M. Latirostris, but as yet no better marked speci- 
fic difference has been ascertained, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia, 
vol. iii. 390. (F.) ; 


45. Anas Rufitorques.—This species of duck, belonging to the genus Ny- 
roca, has been lately established by Mr. Charles Bonaparte. Journ. Acad. 
Phil, iii. 381. . It was figured by Wilson in his American Ornithology, 
vol. viii, p.60, Tub. 67. f. 5.as the Anas Fuligula of European authors. It 
differs, however, in the bill having two white bands, neck with a glossy 
chesnut band, flanks with dusky zig-zag lines, and the speculumash-grey. 
Inhabits the North American rivers, as a winter visitant. It feeds on 
vegetables, and its flesh is tender. Its summer residence and breeding- 
place is unknown. (F.) 


‘ 


Zoology—General. Science. 187 


46. Loligo Brevipinna.— Sac short, thick, cylindric anteriorly ; sub- 
xompressed, obtuse, and rounded posteriorly ; fins narrow, rounded, 
distant.” This species has been described and figured by M. C. A. 
Lesueur,, Journ. Acad.\Phil. iii. 282. Tab. 10.) It was taken in Dela- 
ware Bay. It makes\a-nearer approach to the L. Sepiola, in the form of 
the body, and the position of the fins, than to any of the other species. 
The acute author,of this description ‘states, in opposition to Blainville, 
that the sepiola.occurs\in the British Channel, he having caught one in 
the Port.of Havre in.1814.,, Pennant’s specimen was taken off F lintshire, 
ons there is one, now before us, from the Frith of Forth, ete) 


42. Lernea: aM. Lesueur has published in Journ. lise, Phileii iii. 286, 
dextoiptions ani): figures of three new species belonging to this Linnzan 
genus. Two of these, cruczata and radiata, may be included inthe ge- 
nus Lerneocera of Blainville, provided this genus were moditied to in- 
clude, in a section, species with simple arms. If those with simple arms 
be excluded, our author proposes a. new. genvs for their reception, viz: 
Lerneenicus, ‘‘ body elongated, attenuated before, and dilated behind ; 
head furnished with many simple subcorneous arms radiating around the 
mouth.” The third species belongs to the genus Lerneopenna of Blain- 
ville, and is termed L. Blainvillii. --(F-) 


48. Pitecbaidehng lve genus was instituted by Lacepede, and is repre- 
sented by the Gadus Tau of Bloch. Ich. Tab. 67. f. 2. M. Lesueur has 
recently added two species ; viz. B. Variegata from Egg harbour, New 
Jersey, and B. Diemensis, from the coastof Van Diemen’s Land. Journ, 
Acad. Phil. iii 395. Both these species belonged.to the section having 
cirri. This group of fishes seems nearly connected with the Lophius 
of Linneus, from, which, however,-it differs in the greater hardness, of 
the skeleton, and in the pectorals being ninahitpate of those footstalks, ree 
presenting the radius and ulna. (F.) 


49. Sword-fish—A specimen of the Ziphias gladius was found on a 
sand-bank in the Tay, in the end of August, and sent to Dr. Fleming 
of Flisk. It was upwards of six feet in length, exclusive of the snout or 
sword, which was two feet and a half.. It had. been long dead, and was 
much mutilated, and putrid. On, the bronchi one specimen of the T'ris- 
toma Coccineum of Cuvier occurred. The stomach contained numerous 
remains.of the Loligo sagittata, which seems its ordinary food, along 
with the following intestinal inmates, Ascarus incurva, Tetrarhynchus ate 
tenuatus, and Bothriocephalus plicatus, of Rudolphi, . (F:).. 


IV. GENERAL SCIENCE...) . 5 


50. Natural Ice-houses near Salishur y North America.—Chasms of con- 
siderable extent are met with in the mica slate, (Lat. about 43° N.) form- 
ing natural icehouses, where the ice and snow remain most of the year. 
One of these, in the east part of the town, is perhaps worthy of a particular 


‘188 ‘Scientific Intelligence. 


_ qlotice.. The chasm is several hundred feet long,'sixty feet deep, and about 
forty in width: ‘The slate is of a very compact kind, and must have re- 
quired a powerful convulsion to have separated it. ‘Ihe walls are perpendi- 
‘cular, and correspond with much exactness. At'the bottom there “is a 
spring of. cold water, and a cave of some extent. As you enter the 
chasm, you are struck with the romantic beauty of the spot. Above, it 
is completely over-reached with lofty pines (Pinus strobus) and hemlock 
(P. canadesis), together with stately walnuts, (Juglans parcina) and 
putter-nuts, (Juglans cinerea) &e. &e. while below, ‘the ‘ground is 
adorned with a great variety of plants, and the rocks with numerous 
species of mosses, lichens, and ferns. These, together with its coolness 
and entire: solitude, make it a very’ pleasant retreat ‘in summer. It is 
called W olf Hollow, from its formerly being a famous haunt for wolves. 
Professor Silliman’s Journal, vol. viii. p. 254. owl. .8 

51. Dr. Matthew Baillie’s Works.—We are glad to learn, that a com- 
plete edition of the works of the late Dr. Matthew Baillie, with an ac- 
count of his life, drawn up from the most authentic sources, will speed- 
ily be published by our eminent countryman Mr. Wardrop. 


Arr. XXXII.—LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS, 
SEALED IN ENGLAND SINCE JUNE 15, 1814. 


June 15. For an Improved Gas Smoke Consumer. To W. Baitey, 
Staffordshire. ; op 04 

June 22. For Improved Gas Apparatus. To Joun Hossins, Wal- 
sall. ; piety 
June 22. For Improved Carving Knife, and other Edged Tools. To 
J.B. Hicem, London. t 

June 22. For Improved Shearing Machines. ''To H. Austin, Glou- 
cestershire. ‘ 

June 29. For Improvements in Propelling Vessels. To W. Busx, 
London. 

July 1. For Improvements in Adjusting the Pressure of Fluids in Pipes 
and Measuring the Fluids. To W. Pontirex, Jun. London. 

July 3. For a Method of Twisting, Spinning, or Throwing Silk, Cot- 
ton, &e. ToJ. L. Brapsuny, Manchester. } 

July 3. For Improvements on Steam Engines. To Puitie Taytor, 
London. 


July 7. For Improvements on Masts, Yards, and Ships Tackle. To 
J. L. Hieerins, London. 


July 7. For Improved Machinery for Raising and Dressing Cloth. 
To W. Harr, and J. Woop, Leeds. 

July 7, For a New Method of Weaving, Woollen Cloth. To J.C. 
DaniELtr, Stoke. 


July 13. For Improvements on Tillers and Steering Wheels of Vessels. 
To C. Puiturrs, Kent: 


List. of Scottish Patents. 189 


_ July 27. For Improvements on Fire Arms. To Cuartes Rannom, 
Baron vE Berencer, Middlesex. 

July 27. Fora process of Manufacturing certain materials into coarse 
Paper or Felt. .To,Auxxanper Nessitt, London, 


Art. XXXII. —LIST OF PATENTS GRANTED IN SCOTLAND 
SINCE AUGUST 13, 1824. 


15. For an Seinen Umbrella. To Joseru Foor, Middlesex 
Sealed 1st September: ; 

16. For a Hat ona new Construction. To Rozserr ae D, Tandy 
Sealed August 30. 

17. For 4 new Apparatus for giving Tension to the Warp in Looms. 
To W.H.Horrocks, Stockport. Sealed 31st-August. 

18. For Improved Machinery for Cleaning and - Spinning Cotton fad 
Wool. To J. G. Bopmer, Manchester. Sealed 21st September. 

19. For a‘new Mode of Twisting, Spinning; &c.Cotton, Wool, or other 
Threads, &e. To J. L. Brapsury, Manchester. Sealed 23d Septem- 
ber. ; 

20. For a Method of Manufacturing.Salt.. To Josrru iets, 
Manchester. Sealed 25th September. 

21. For Improved Methods, of Preparing and Manufacturing Sill 
To Joun Heatucoat, Tiverton. Sealed’ 29th September. : 

22. For Improved Machinery for Dressing and Spinning Flax,; Wool, 
Silk, &c. To Puitie Hitt, Kensington.. Sealed 25th October. 

23. For Improved. Methods of, Manufacturing and Purifying Gas hy 
the Admixture, of Atmospheric Air. To Stmzon BroapMEaDows, 
Abergavenny. Sealed 29th October. : 

24.-For Improvements on; Power Looms. To James TetTLow; 
Manchester. - Sealed 29th October. 

25. For Improved Machinery for Washing and Whitening Cotton, 
Tinen, &e. To Junius Smtru, London Sealed November 6th: 

26. For Improvements in Masting Vessels. To Ricnarp Gurry, 
Bristol. Sealed 6th November. 

27. For an Improved Steam Engine. To Samuet Hatt, Basford. 


Sealed 6th November. 


28. For a new Filter. To Herman Scuraver, Hackney. Sealed 


30th November. 
29. For Improved Machinery for Making Cord or Platt, &c. To Joun 


Heap, Banbury. 


Art. XRT .—CELESTIAL PHENOMENA, 


From Scalers 1, to ‘April 1, 1824, calculated for the Meridian of Edin- 
burgh. By Mr. Georcr Innes, Aberdeen. 


These calculations are made for Astronomical time, the day beginning 


190 


Celestial Phenomena, Fanuary—April 18235. 


at noon. The Conjunctions of the — and Stars are given ‘in Right. 


Ascension. 


JA ror 


DAAAD > PP SW We me em 
_ 
-_ 
oo 
— 


31 12: 
$1 12. 36 


46 Im. IV. Sat. 1¢ 
16 Im..I. Sat. 2g | 
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THE 


EDINBURGH 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 


Art. I.—On the Mechanical Effects produced when a Con- 
ducting Liquid is electrified in contact with Mercury. In 
a Letter from J. F. W. Herscuet, Esq. Sec. R. S. Lond. 
F. R.S. Edin. &c. &c. to Dr Brewster. 


Dear Sir, 
As I think it the duty of every contributor to science to ici 
all possible justice to his predecessors, as far as their labours 
_ become known to him, I beg leave to call the attention of your 
_ readers to an interesting paper by Professor Erman of Berlin, 
_ published by Gilbert in his Annalen der Physik, vol. xxxii. p. 
— 261—292, 1809, entitled, Wahrnehmung uber das gleich- 
seitige entstehen von ‘mechanischen Cohdrenz wnd chemischen 
' Verwandschaften, or “ Notice of the simultaneous Production 
of Mechanical Cohesion and Chemical Affinities ;” a title from 
which no one certainly could divine any analogy between the 
_ phenomena intended to be treated of by the learned professor 
and those described in my Bakerian Lecture, On the Motions 
produced in Fluid Conductors when transmitting the Electric 
Current. This paper, however, I find has been referred to 
as anticipating my experiments im toto; and I therefore owe 
‘it to myself, as well as to its author, to enter into some little 
examination of its contents ;—premising, that, at the time of 
_ publishing my experiments, I was totally ignorant that the 
subject had ever been investigated either by Pryfeiage Erman 
or. by any other. 
VOL. II. NO. 11. APRIL 1825. ) 


194 Mr Herschel on the Mechanical Effects of 


The paper in question purports to be an extract from a 
treatise read in 1808 to the Academy of Berlin, containing __ 
his principal results, which, digested by him into aphoristical , Be 
propositions, (in aphoristischen Sitzen,) run as follows : 

1. So soon as chemical affinities are excited in galvanic pro- 
cesses, there takes place at the same time an increased inten- 
sity of cohesive attraction, (Fldchen-anzichung,—literally, the 
attraction of surfaces.) 

2. hat the connexion which has been supposed to exist be- 
tween cohesion and chemical affinity receives from this a not- 
able confirmation. 

3. That the increase of cohesive attraction arising from elec- 
tricity, between bodies which act chemically on each other, is 
altogether different from any electrical attraction of bodies hi- 
therto observed. 

4. There is ground to suspect, that, in the galvanic process, 
attractions at a sensible distance operate in conjunction with — 
‘that of cohesion (Flachen-anziehung.) a 

5. Increased attraction of cohesion, and exalted mutual at-. 
traction of the ultimate molecules, which arise im quite deter- % 
minate polarising points, (die in ganz bestimmten polarisiren- — 
den punkten entstehen,) are the immediate physical product. 
The chemical product is dependent thereon by the universal i. 
bond which connects adhesion with chemical affinity. 

These results he considers as proved by the facts announ- — | 
ced in this paper, so far as cohesive attraction is concerned. 
As to the attraction at sensible distances, he regards it as still 
problematical. 

Professor Erman’s results, thus aphoristically stated, espe-— 
cially the 5th, possess certainly in perfection one distinguish- _ 
ing quality of aphorisms—obscurity ; but, putting the best in- _ 
terpretation on them they will bear, it is still difficult to ima- 
gine what connexion they can possibly have with the pheno- — 
mena described by me. But this difficulty is cleared up on— 
reading farther, when it appears that these general deductions 
are totally unsupported by the facts described. The pheno-- 
mena themselves, however, disencumbered of the aphorisms, 
are interesting and important, and are, indeed, as far as they 


go, the same with some of those detailed in my paper, or im- 
4 


ee oF scids 


~ 


a Conducting Liquid electrified in Mercury. 195 


mediate and necessary consequences of the physical law there 


established. 

In the professor’s first experiment, a plate of iron, suspend- 
ed horizontally to one arm of a balance, was brought in con- 
tact with water, and its adhesion just balanced by weights in 
a scale attached to the other arm. ‘The water being connect- 
ed with one pole of a galvanic pile, and the plate and balance 
with the other, the equilibrium remained undisturbed. But 
when the plate was placed in contact with a thin stratum of 
water covering mercury, on connecting one pole with the mer- 
cury, and the other as before with the balance, the equili- 
brium was immediately destroyed, and the plate descended 
with a jerk. This effect he attributed to increased cohesive 
attraction, but its true cause must be looked for in the sudden 
displacement of the water by the radiating currents produced 
in the mercury—in the manner described in my paper, the 
rush downwards from the plate to supply the void, the set of 
the surrounding liquid inwards, and the pressure of the atmo- 
sphere, which foksus down the plate into the vacuum left un- 
supphed from the sources just enumerated. 

Another experiment described by Professor Erman is as 
follows: A globule of water dropped on the surface of a flat 
dish of mercury is brought into connexion with the positive 


pole, while the mercury is connected with the negative. It 
instantly flattens, and spreads to twice its diameter, regaining 


its former sphericity when the circuit is broken. On this he 
remarks, that ‘‘ the same act which has imparted to the quick- 
silver 2 decomposing affinity for the water, has at the same 


time, or previously, effected an increased cohesive attraction 


between these two fluids.” Im this view of the case, the ex- 
tension of the drop on the quicksilver is purely a statical re- 
sult, the molecules assuming their position of equilibrium un- 


der the new circumstances of capillary action in which they 


are placed: In my paper, the same phenomenon is described, 
and is attributed, if I mistake not, to its true immediate cause, 
viz. a radiation of the superficial molecules of the mercury in 


all directions from the points nearest the positive pole as a 


centre, dragging with them the fluid particles adjacent, and. 


thus diffusing them over a larger surface. In this view, the 


196 § Mr Herschel on the Mechanical Effects of 


effect is one purely dynamical. It is wonderful that Professor. 
Erman should not have apprehended this distinction, and the 
fallacy of his explanation, as he has noticed the very violent 
circulation which takes place in the drop—a circulation total- 
ly incompatible with the state of statical equilibrium his theory 
supposes. Yet, so satisfied does he rest of the truth of his 
explanation, that, having found the same extension of the drop 
not to take place on a solid metal, he observes, that, ‘* there- 
Sore, the curvature of the two surfaces, mutually altered by 
their increased attraction of cohesion, is. the fundamental prin- 
ciple of the phenomenon, whence all the remaining detail 
flows.” 

Mr Erman then describes an experiment in. pee mer- 
cury and water being introduced into a capillary tube, and 
electrified, the column of mercury advanced by starts towards 
the negative pole. This motion he regards as, indeed, capa- 
ble of rigorous explanation by the augmentation of the capil- 
lary action of the water on the mercury; but having also ob- 
served that a drop of mercury electrified under water exhibits 
motions precisely similar, though less marked, he hence con- 
cludes, that attraction at sensible distances has a share in these 
phenomena. 

Whoever repeats the experiment described in my paper, 
where a drop of mercury is placed under sulphuric acid be- 
tween the two poles, even many inches asunder, and has wit- 
nessed the extraordinary activity with which it darts to the 
negative pole, like a ball of iron to a powerful magnet, will 
undoubtedly believe, as I myself did when I first observed an 
effect so surprising, that a more evident case of attraction and 
repulsion at a distance was never exhibited, and that a new 
species of magnetism was here produced. Yet the analysis 
given of this phenomenon in my paper is sufficient, I presume, 
to convince any one of the absence of all traces of such attrac- 
tions and repulsions, and to demonstrate the justice of the ex- 
planation there given of it, viz. the reaction of the fluid and 
the bottom of the vessel on the mercurial currents, which ra- 
diate in all directions from the point in the globule opposite 
to the negative pole, along its surface, and return along its- 


a Conducting Liquid electrified in Mercury. 197 


axis, keeping up a constant circulation ; and that an increased 
capillary attraction has absolutely nothing to do with it. 

The most interesting part of Professor Erman’s paper is his 
account of the circulation which takes place in mercury when 
electrified in contact with conducting fluids. He has seen and 
described the circulation of mercury under sulphuric acid, and 
carbonate of potash; and has thus undoubtedly anticipated 
much that I believed new in my investigations. 

His account of these phenomena (which he calls galvanic 
figures) he concludes with this remark, that ‘“‘ These pheno- 
mena incontestably originate in an increase of cohesive attrac- 
tion of the two fluids.” An increased cohesive attraction be- 
tween two fluids will make them adhere more firmly to each 
other ; it will alter, while it lasts, the figure of equilibrium of 
their common surface ; but it is contrary to every principle of 
mechanics to attribute to it regular, continued, violent, and 
extensive internal motions, and a subversion of all equili- 
brium. 

So far Professor Erman. It will readily be seen by the 
foregoing sketch, how far his researches extend. Whatever 
we may think of his theory, two LEADING Facts, that regular: 
and constant motions arise in fluids under the influence of the 
Voltaic current passing over mercury, and that these motions 
vary with the nature of the fluids, are certainly his discovery, 
and I most gladly yield him the priority. Every thing be- 
yond this in my Bakerian Lecture,—the minute analysis of 


the phenomenon, the influence of variations in the electro-che- 


mical nature of the fluid,—the intense effect of alloys of almost 
infinitesimal portions of the electro-positive metals present in 
the mercury, and the comparative inertness of the electro-ne- 
gative ones,—the explanation of the complicated anomalies 
presented in these delicate experiments,—and the reference to 
one general fact, of the innumerable minute and enigmatical 
phenomena observed both by myself, and by M. Serrulas in 
his very curious papers in the Journal de Physique, on the 
rotatory motions assumed by the alloys of potassium when 
floated on mercury under water,—I think I may fairly claim. 
The subject is certainly of the highest interest, and merits 
every attention from the electro-chemical philosopher; and 


198 Mr Herschel ‘on the Mechanical Effects; Gc. >, 
indeed, from the physiologist, when we consider the bearing 
which.the discovery of mechanical powers, exerted by electria 
city, may, one day, have on that most mysterious of si sa 
gical: problems, the origin of muscular motion. 
Although no visible effect in producing, suspending, or al- 
tering the radiating currents appeared in my experiments to 
arise from the presence of powerful magnets, yet, as it seemed 
not impossible, that the mutual action of the elementary elec- 
tric currents traversing the mercury and the supernatant li- 
quid, (probably with very different velocities,) might deter- 
mine motions in the media transmitting them, and thus be at 
the bottom of the whole, I resolved to put this to the test of 
experiment, as follows: I divided a saucer into two equal 
cells, by the thinnest film of mica I could detach, and secured 
the insulation of the cells from each other by sealing-wax. I 
then filled them to the same height with perfectly clean dry 
mercury, and having prepared two piles of 10 pairs each, in 
full action, I completed the circuit of the one in the one cell, 
and of the other in the other. But whether the currents pass- 
ed 1 in the same or in opposite directions,—whether the ‘con- 
tacts were made close to the mica or at a distance from it,— 
whether both piles were in action, or one only,—whether their 
actions were equal, or one was purposely rendered feebler than . 
the other, or totally abstracted, or united to the other, not the 


slightest motion was produced in either cell. When the two . 


currents were transmitted at once through sulphuric acid over 

mercury, their effects seemed to be merely superposed, no ap- 

pearance of interference arising; but each molecule of the 

mercury obeying their joint impulse, apparently according to 

the usual mechanical laws of the composition and resolution of 

motions. It is not, therefore, in the magnetic vortices that 

we are to look for the cause of these motions, but in some new 
and singular action of electricity, to develope which more fully 

will require numerous and delicate experiments. 


I have the honour to remain, 
Dear Sir, very truly yours, . 


J. F. W. Herscuen. — 
London, Jan. 21, 1825. . ering 


Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Mica. 199 


Art. IIl.—Analysis of a Peach-Blossom Coloured Mica, from 
Chursdorf, near Penig, in Saxony. By C. G. Gmettin, 
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tiibingen. 
Communicated by the Author. 


Tue researches of M. L. Cordier * had made it extremely pro- 
bable that Mica and Lepidolite are one and the same mi- 


- neralogical species. By the discovery of lithion in Lepi- 


dolite, there was established a difference between these two 
minerals, which, though it might not prove a specific diversi« 
ty, according to the views of mineralogists, was still interesting 
to the chemist, and explained the great difference in the de- 
gree of fusibility of both minerals. But though Lepidolite 
and Mica very nearly agree with each other, as well in their 
physical relations as, on the whole, in their chemical composi- 
tion, yet the argument for such an identity is strengthened 
by the discovery of a real Mica with large lamine, fully agree- 
ing in chemical composition with Lepidolite. 

Considering that Amblygonite, a mineral which, among 
those hitherto known, contains the largest quantity of lithion, 
occurs im a newer granite, together with a great many other 
minerals, as Tourmaline, Mica, Topaz, Albite, Apatite, &c. I 
supposed that this alkali might not be found exclusively inam- 
blygonite, but might also occur in other fossils accompanying 
it, as it forms an ingredient of spodumene, lepidolite, tour- 
maline, minerals that occur in the Island of Uton. I requested, 
therefore, my friend, Mr Breithaupt, to provide me with spe- 
cimens of fossils found in the neighbourhood of amblygonite. 
Amongst these the peach-blossom coloured Mica first attracted 
my attention, and reminded me of Lepidolite by its exceedingly 
great fusibility. By the purple colour, which I afterwards per- 
ceived in the fame of the blow-pipe in which this Mica was 
melted, I became fully convinced of the presence of lithion in 
this Mica, and of its identity with Lepidolite. 

A. Specific Gravity of this Mica.—Three very pure bits 
weighed in the air 5.08 grammes. Having been previously 
freed from adhering atmospheric air by means of a moistened. 
pencil, they weighed in water of + 93° Reamur, 3.293 gr. 


* Gilbert’s Annalen, vol. xi, p. 250. 


200 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis ofa 


The specific gravity of this Mica would accordingly be = 2.8427, 
at + 91° R. Eight hours after; during which time. the bits. 
were lying in water, the specific gravity was found = 2.8603, 
the temperature of the water being + 93°R. After three days, 
when they had always been es in water, the specific gravity 
was — 2.8929, at + 103°R. Their weight in water no longer. 
changed in a sensible manner. These variations in the spect- 
fic gravity evidently depend on air interposed between the la- 
minz of this Mica, which is by degrees displaced by the wa- 
ter when it is lying in this fluid, whereby the specific gravity 
1s increased. 

B. Relations before the Blow-Pipe.—This Mica fuses so 
readily, that very thin laminz, when held in the flame, without 
blowing upon it, melt to a globule. In the flame which is as 
usual blown at, even thick lamine quickly melt (swelling 
up, and imparting to the flame a beautiful purple colour) to 
a white glass, full of blisters, which, at the moment when it is 
removed from the flame, is transparent, but soon becomes opal- 
escent. In the matrass, it gives off water which tinges Brazil 
wood paper yellow, and contains, of course, fluoric acid ; the 
glass is somewhat corroded. Borax dissolves it in large quan- 
tity to a clear glass, which has an amethyst colour in the oxy-’ 
dating flame, but is discoloured by the interior flame. Salt of 
phosphorus dissolves it, leaving a skeleton of silica; the glass 
opalesces a little after full cooling, and then also the manga- 
nese reaction is perceived, which becomes much more distinet 
by means of nitre. Soda dissolves it with effervescence to a 
clear glass, having an amethyst colour from manganese. Upon 
a platinum lamina, the green reaction of manganese is very 
marked. Moistened by nitrate of cobalt, it becomes blag: 
when melted. 

C. Awnatysis.—1l. Determination of the Bases.—1. 402° 
grammes were cleft thinly by a knife, then cut into small. 
quadrangular pieces by scissars, mixed with six times their 
weight of carbonate of barytes, and ignited in a platinum cru- 
cible. During one hour, the crucible had been kept mode- 
rately red-hot, when, during half an hour, the fire was in- 
creased to whiteness. The ‘enitad mass appeared half melted, 
and of a green colour ; the form of the micaceous lamine, which _ 
now showed a deep green colour, was still discernible in it. 


Peach-Blossom Cotoured Mica. 201 


a) The mass was soaked in the crucible with water as much 
as possible, and put into a glass; the rest, firmly adhermg 
to the crucible, was dissolved *by muriatic acic, which was 
quickly heated and poured off again, that it might not act 
too much upon platina by its evolving chlorine. The whole 
mass was now dissolved in muriatic acid. The red solution 
formed was evaporated to full dryness in a porcelain dish. 
The dry mass being soaked in water, some muriate of platina 
and potash, together with silica, was left undissolved. The 
silica was put upon a filter, and washed. It weighed, after 
ignition, 0.7526 gr. = 52.259 per cent. 

8. The liquid was then precipitated by sulphuric acid, the 
sulphate of barytes put upon a filter, and washed out. It was 
now again precipitated by caustic ammonia, the precipitate dis- 
solved in muriatic acid, and the muriatic solution boiled with 
an excess of pure potash. From the alkaline solution alumine 
was thrown down in the usual manner. It weighed, after ig- 
nition, 0.3974 gr. = 28.345 p. c. When dissolved in sul- 
phuric acid, and mixed with sulphate of potash, it crystallized 
entirely into’ alum. 

c.. The residue left undissolved by potash was reckoned to 
be pure oxide of manganese, without sensible traces of iron ; 
it weighed, after ignition, 0.057 gr. = 4.065 p.c. of oxide 


_ of manganese = 3.663 p. c. of protoxide of manganese. 


d. 'Vhe liquor (in 8) from which barytes by means of sul- 
phuric acid, and then alumine and oxide of manganese, by 
méans of ammonia, had been thrown down, was evaporated, 
and the residue ignited. ‘The fused mass being dissolved in 
water by the assistance of a few drops of muriatic acid, was 
mixed with hydrosulphuret of ammonia. The sulphuret of 
manganese precipitated was decomposed by muriatic acid, the 


_ acid solution precipitated by carbonate of potash, and the 


oxide of manganese obtained, already accounted for in No. c. 
The liquor separated by the filter from the sulphuret of man- 
ganese was evaporated, and the residue melted ; there remain- 
ed 0.394 gr. of a salt, which was dissolved in a little water 
By adding muriate of platina to this solution, a considerable 
precipitate was formed, composed of muriatic acid, oxide of 
platina, and potash. The solution, freed from potash, was 
now evaporated, and strongly ignited. The fused salt was 


202 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of a 


dissolved in water, in order to separate metallic platina, which 
had been formed, evaporated, and melted. There were obtain- — 
ed in this way, 0.215 gr.-of sulphate of lithion = 0.067187 
gr.of lithion = 4.792 p. c. These 0.215 gr. sulphate of h- . 
thion being deducted from the whole quantity of the sul- 
phate, (= 0.394 gr.) there remain 0.179 gr. sulphate of potash 
= 0.096785 gr. of potash = 6.903 p. c. 

It need scarcely be observed, that it was proved, by the 
appropriate tests, that the salt considered as sulphate of lithion 
was really nothing else; and that it was converted into a 
carbonate, in which form lithion is characterized by its slight 
solubility, as well as by its action upon metallic platima, &c. 

This Mica is accordingly composed of— 


Silica, - ~ 52.259 (a) 
Alumine, - - = » 28.345 (5) 
Protoxide of manganese, - 3.663. (c) 
Potash, - - 6.903 (d) 
Lithion, - - 4.792 (d) 
95.957 


2. Determination of the Quantity of Fluorie Acid.—In or- 
der to determine the quantity of fluori¢ acid, the method used 
by Professor Berzelius in his analysis of topaz was followed. 
2.627 gr. of mica, finely cut, were ignited with three times 
their weight of subcarbonate of soda. There were obtained 
0.478 gr. of strongly dried fluate of lime = 5.069 p. c. of flu- 
oric acid. This fluate of lime was decomposed by sulphuric 
acid, the excess of acid, for the greatest part, driven off by heat 5. 
and the mass then digested with alcohol, filtered, evaporated, 
and ignited. But there remained no trace of phosphoric acid. 

This peach-blossom coloured Mica is therefore composed of — 


Silica, - - - 59.254 
Alumine, - - - 28.345 
Protoxide of manganese, - 3.663 
Potash, - - - 6.903 
Lithion, - - 4,792 
~ Fluoric acid, - - 5.069 
Traces of water, = - 
101.026 


3. Search after Owide of Titaniwm.—Mr Peschier of Ge- 
neva thought that he had discovered oxide of. titanium in se- — 


Peach-Blossom. Coloured Mica. - 203: 


veral species'of mica; but it appears clearly, from the experi~ 
ments of MM. H, Rose and Vauquelin, that, in so far as respects 
the quantity of the oxide of titanium, this chemist is quite in. 
the wrong. As Mr Vauquelin, however, has himself discovered 
in several specimens of mica, which -he recently subjected to 
analysis, traces of titanium, I did not omit to examine whether 
or not this Mica also contains titanium. I followed exactly the 
method proposed by Mr Vauquelin, * which is certainly well 
fitted to discover the smallest traces of this metal in a mimeral, 


- but I was not able to detect unequivocal traces of it) Muri- 


atic acid, which was boiled with the silica, separated by evapora- 
tion in a water bath, had taken up nothing but a little chloride 
of silver, (derived from the crucible in which the mineral had 


- been ignited with potash,) which was thrown down by water ; 


and by adding afterwards an infusion of galls, no fusible pre- 
cipitate fell down. The chloride of silver, somewhat colour- 
ed, was, however, collected and examined before the blow-pipe 
with salt of phosphorus. There was obtained metallic silver ; 
but the glass assumed, even after the addition of tin, such an 
undecided reddish hue, that the reaction could not be consi- 
dered as a decided one. The other ingredients of this Mica 
contained no trace of titanium. 

With respect to the lithion, which Mr Peschier conceives 
he has discovered in a species of mica, it appears not impro- 
bable that this chemist has likewise been deceived, and that:he 
has considered to be lithion what is really magnesia. His ex+ 
periments, at least, by no means prove the presence of lithion, 
but rather of magnesia. I tried several pieces of mica before 
the blow-pipe, but could not discover this alkali, not even ina 
rose-red mica from North America, for which I am indebted 
to my friend, Mr Brooke. 

It is evident, that the Mica from Chursdorf is nothing else 
but a largely lamellated Lepidolite ; and it might, therefore, be 
more adequate to distinguish the micas that contain lithion to- 
gether with potash, from those which contain no lithion, by 
the name of lithion-mica. It appears, besides, that potash is 
as essential an ingredient of Lepidolite as lithion, and that Le- 


“ Annales de Chimie et de Physique, par MM: on et Arago, 
4, xxvii. p. 67. 


204 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of a 


: pidolite, therefore, cannot be considered as a mixture of com- 
mon (potash} mica with lithion-mica. Amongst the different 
species of mica which occur in the same tract, I have disco- 
vered some which bear a great resemblance to Lepidolite com- 
monly so called, being composed of small lamellz agglutinat- 
ed to larger masses ; others, on the contrary, possessed of si- 
milar external characters, contained no lithion. 'The easily 
fusible micas in the Dolomites of St Gotthard, mentioned by 
M. Cordier in his T'’reatise on Lepidolite, are most likely h- 
thion-micas, but I have had no opportunity of examining them. 

It may be observed, that the presence of lithion ina mine- 
ral seems to exclude a larger quantity of iron; I made this 
observation, when I examined several species of tourmaline, of 
which those that contained much iron never contained lithion ; 
and even the black tourmaline, which occurs along with li- 
thion-mica near Chursdorf, can at least contain no large quan- 
tity of lithion, as it does not tinge red the flame of an oil lamp. 
On the other hand, lithion seems to associate more readily 
with manganese, as may be seen in the tourmalines and micas 
that contain lithion. The lithion-micas contain likewise a 
Jarger quantity of fluoric acid than common micas. 

In the formations of the neighbourhood of Penig, lithion 
seems to be considerably diffused. Near Hartmansdorf, be- 
tween Chemnitz and Penig, a peculiarly formed quartz is 
found in serpentine, composed of agglutinated round concre- 
tions, whose fracture exhibits fibres diverging from a common 
centre. Splinters of this quartz tinge the flame somewhat red, 
which does not happen with a splinter of rock-crystal when — 
treated in the same manner. I could not, however, decided- 
ly prove by analysis the presence of lithion in this quartz. I 
obtained 99.57 p. c. of silica, with traces of iron and alumine, ~ 
and equivocal traces of lithion. In a manner a little more de- 
cided, this alkali is manifested by the blow-pipe in the Anda- 
lusite, which formerly was found in a mass of granite imbed- 
ded in Weiss Stein, in a valley between Penig and Rochsburg. 
But in a most unquestionable manner lithion is discovered in this 
way in a substance which is found adhering to the quartz already 
mentioned in small particles. This substance has a wax-yel-: 
low colour, is unctuous to the touch, very soft, a little trans- 
parent, and may be spread with a knife upon paper. It 


Peach-Blossom Colowred Mica. 205 


seems to be the Kerolite of Mr Breithaupt, * and it occurs 
under the same geognostic relations. It does not melt be- 
fore the blow-pipe, becomes white, and imparts to the flame 
a beautiful purple colour. I shall communicate the analysis of 
these minerals in another paper. 


Art. IIT.—Observations on the Optical Structure of Lithion- 
Mica, analysed by Professor Gmelin. By Daviw Brew- 
ster, LL. D. F.R.S. Lond., and Sec. R. S. Edin. 


As Professor Gmelin had the goodness to transmit to me, 
along with the MSS. of the preceding paper, some specimens of 
the Lithion-Mica, with a request that I would examine its opti- 
cal structure, I lost no time in complying with his wishes. 

In the year 1816, while examining the various Micas, I 
found that the inclination of the resultant axes of Mica and Le- 
pidolite was 45°; and that other Micas had their axes inclined 
only about 14°, while in tale they formed so small an angle 
as 7° 24. I afterwards found two Micas from Greenland, 
in large masses, which had only one negative axis of double 
refraction. M. Biot, who also performed many accurate ex- 
periments on Mica, found specimens in which the inclination 
of the axes was 30°, 31°, 32°, 34°, and 37°, and some in 
which it was under 25°. He discovered also some Micas 
which had a single positive axis, and when these specimens 
were analysed by M. Vauquelin, the wniaral crystals were 
found to contain magnesia, while in the diaral ones there was 
not even a trace of that earth; and the inclination of the axes 
seemed to diminish as the oxide of iron increased. 

Under these circumstances, the examination of the Lithion- 
Mica became more than usually interesting. Upon exposing 
the plates sent me by Professor Gmelin to polarised light, I 
was very much struck with their compound appearance. In 


_ place of being individual crystals, like almost all the specimens 


of Mica that I had examined, they were obviously composed 
of several individual crystals, having their axes lying in vari 
directions, and producing most irregular polarised tints, a 


‘more particular examination, however, led me to observe the 


s Charakteristik des Mineral Systems, 2 te Aufl. p. 145. 


206 Dr-Brewster or the Optical Stracture of Lithton-Mica. 


reniarkable fact, that these plates of Lithion-Mica were’ com- ~ 
posed of crystals with one axis, united to crystals with two axes, 
and without the appearance of any joint or face of ¢omposi- 
tion. By insulating the uniaxal portions, which occupied 
much less space ean the biaxal ones, I found that the charac- 
ter of their axis was negative; and by insulating the hiaxal 
portions, I found that the inclination of the resultant axes, af 
ter refraction, was almost exactly 45°, the principal axis bemg 
also negative. The inclination of the axes before refraction — 
was 70°. ° In some other parts of the plate, which where irre- 
gularly crystallised, I found the angle so high as '74° and 75°. — } 

Now, as all the uniaxal epeeall of Mica that have yet 
been analysed, differ from the biaxal ones in chemical composi+ 
tion, we would recommend it to Professor Gmelin to detach, — 
if possible, all the uniaxal parts from the biaxal parts, and to | 
make a separate analysis of both. If he shall find, what ana- x 
logy authorizes us to expect, that ihese two portions are che- r 
mically different, the result will be a most important one, both 
for mineralogy and for analytical chemistry. It will set aside _ 
all analyses of minerals, where it is likely that the body ana- — 
lysed has not been an individual crystal, and it may thus es> — 
tablish, upon a firmer basis, the law of definite proportions. 

In examining the Lithion-Mica with a microscope, I no- 
ticed, in various places, considerable portions of a substance — 
lying between the laminz, which was of a bright scarlet cos 
lour, whether seen by reflected or transmitted light. It is 
now indurated, but seems, from its outline, to have been once — 
fluid. The origin and nature of this substance deserve to be 
investigated. | 


Ant. IV.—Description of a Boat with a Revolving Paddle 
Scull, Invented by ANDrew WavDELL, Esq. F. R.5. KE 
Communicated by the Author. 


Tue following is a sketch of a Boat with a pret A Paddle % 

1, of whibh an experiment was made in May 1824, on the - 

er Basin of the Wet Docks of Leith, by Mr Waddell of 

Hermitage Hill. , ee. 
The boat was twenty-six feet long, and six pon broad, ar 

was propelled by means of the revolving scull projecting fron 


WH. Liears se 


PLATE Iv. Bilin? Jor | 


mMihet Science Vol it 


Fig. 2 


Tig 7. Method 75 & 


Embantaent [LIE __lo}s¢ 
ee i cP 


B 


Pig. 6 


1 


Embankonent 28K ff WS Fiow for Side 195 
28K ‘ 


Tunnel 


4 thod 2% 
Part of Fig.& Fig 8 Method 


Key Detached 


| 
| 
} 


Purts of 


Method 2% 


WU hieare #0 


Mr, Waddell’s Description of a Revolving Paddle Scull. 207 


the stera, and wrought by two men with a crank, or winch 
handle, attached to the mner end of its spindle or axis. 
_ The propelling part of the scull was formed of two thin iron 
plates, each eleyen by ten inches in size, producing a surface 
of 220 inches in whole, which gave a velocity to the boat of 
four and three-fourth miles per hour. But as the after part 
of the boat was confined, and the labour in working the scull 
very great, the men were soon fatigued, and enabled to con- 
tinue their operations only for a short period. 

This invention of Mr Waddell’s promises to be of consider- 
able. utility, and, when operated on by a constant power, to 
produce great velocity. But to attain the best effect, the 
scull must revolye from eighty to ninety times in one minute. 

_ It may be applied to any vessel, and so placed as to be raised 
out of the water at a moment’s notice, without interfering with 
the movement of the vessel when under sail. 
In the various experiments Mr Waddell has made on small 
models of vessels, during the last five or six years, with pro- 
pelling machines of different descriptions, he has found the re- 
_ volving scull to produce the greatest velocity with the least 
_ power. In smooth water and light winds, it exceeds the pad- 
. _ dle-wheels in general use by one-fifth or more ; but in strong 
__ head winds, with heavy sea, Mr Waddell is of opinion, that 
. ‘the paddle-wheels would have the advantage. 

This scull might be of great utility in res of war, when 
; in action, during calms and light winds, by presenting with fa- 
"2 - cility the pace te of the ship towards the enemy; and for 
a that purpose, might be wrought from a bow or after port- 
hole on the lower gun-deck, with less than half the number of 
i _ revolutions stated. 

The boat, with the propelling apparatus, &c., is represent- 
: edi in Plate 1V. Fig. 1. | 
_ AA, the boat, which draws about eighteen inches of water. 
BB, the scull in its proper place when propelling the boat, 
“a spindle or axis of which being an iron rod of about one 

_ inch diameter passing through an aperture in the stern-post, 
& its inner end fixed to an universal joint connected 
oo ak pinion work, which operates within board. 

4 scull, when not in use, is drawn up through the 

ye mentio%ed aperture, which is elongated for that purpose, 


208 Dr Hibbert on the Dispersion of Stony Fragments; 


and fixed by a rope and small block attached to it at the up- 
per part of the stern of the boat at D. 

E, the rack and pinion work, secured by strong iron 
plates to a thwart near the stern of the boat, consists of two 
pinion wheels, the axes of which are horizontal, and in the 
line of the keel of the boat; and the lower pinion wheel is one- 
half the diameter of the upper one, and has the universal 
joint at F fixed to the after-end of its axis, which being united 
to the scull in its diagonal position, and wrought by means of 
the crank GG, fixed to the fore-end of the axis of the upper 
pinion wheel by the two men at H, produces an increased ve- 
locity, and accelerates the motion of the vessel. 

The paddle plates at the extremity of the axis of the scull 
are placed at right angles to each other; and at an angle of 
45 degrees with the said axis or spindle, and are secured to 
each other in that position by a strong iron strap, in the centre 
of which there is a square aperture to receive the outer end of 
the axis of the scull, to which it is fixed by a screw nut. 


Hermitace Hitz, February 5, 1825. 


Art. V.—On the Dispersion of Stony Fragments remote 
JSrom their Native Beds, as Displayed in a Stratum of 
Loam near Manchester.* By Samuret Hriszert, M. D. 
F.R.S.E. and Secretary to the Seciety of Scottish Anti- 
quaries. Communicated by the Author. | 


Tue important researches of Professor Buckland, on the sup- 
posed evidence of diluvial action afforded by deposits of loam 
and gravel, are now beginning to excite the attention which 
they so well deserve. This geologist has proposed to separate 
two classes of phenomena, which were previously referred to 
one common cause. Of these, the first is the general disper- 
sion of gravel and loam over hills and elevated plains as well . 
as vallies, which he conceives to be the effect of an universal 
_and transient deluge. To the gravel and loam. thus said to 
be dispersed, the name of Diluviwm, in reference | eir al-— 
leged cause, has been given. ‘The second class of phenomena 


* Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, January 3, 1825... 


Remote from their Native Beds. 209 


includes the partial collection of gravel at the foot of torrents, 
and of mud at the mouths, and along the course of rivers:; this 
partial collection of gravel, mud, or sand, being distinguished 
by Professor Buckland, from the first class, by the name of | 
Alluvium. Thus, we are said to have deposits either of Delu- 
vium or of Alluvium,—the first of these being referable to the 
action of an universal deluge, the latter (or the alluvium) to 
that of existing causes. Into the reasonableness of this view, 
it is not my proper business at present to inquire ; nor is the 
individual who may be inclined to follow up the researches of 
Mr Buckland, obliged to admit that the evidence which has 
been adduced is perfectly conclusive. The validity of the 
theory must rest upon a much greater number of observations 
than we at present possess; and, in the meantime, it is less 
the duty of the geologist to contend for the speculative dis- 
tinctions, which a far too limited sphere of research has pre- 
maturely suggested, than simply to commit to record all ap- 
pearances of transported materials which occur either in the 
form of gravel, or which are imbedded in loam. Under this 
impression, therefore, the following notice on the i soi is 
‘now submitted to the Society. : 
Professor Buckland has prominently adverted to the very 
remarkable deposit, considered by him as dilwvial, which 
is to be found on the east coast of England; this consists, 
in general, of a tenacious blue clay. I have examined 
that of Yorkshire with some degree of attention. Innumer- 
able fragments of primitive rocks are rmbedded in it, which, 
‘it is supposed, cannot be identified with any that exist in 
Great Britain, but are referable to those of Norway. This 
assertion, however, is unsatisfactory, unless it can be shown 
that the fragments thus dispersed have (like those of the vici- 
‘nity of Edinburgh, which were the subject of. Sir James Hall’s 
‘truly philosophical paper) been, bona fide, made the subject 
_ of comparison. Whether this has been actually done.or not, 
“we are by no means informed. In order, then, that a compa- 
“rison of this kind may be carefully instituted, I shall now no- 
‘tice a deposit of loam, (to which Professor Buckland would 
‘not have the least hesitation in assigning the name of dilwvial,) 
‘the imbedded stony fragments of which appear derivable, not 
VOL. If. No, 11. APRIL 1825. P 


210 Dr Hibbert on the Dispersion of Stony Fragments, 


from the Continent, but from the rocks of our own island. 
This deposit, which consists of a thick continuous bed of clay, 
very tough, and of a reddish or yellowish brown colour, is to 
be seen on the north of the town of Manchester, near Strange- 
_ ways Hall, an ancient family seat of Lord Ducie. It stretches “a 
in a direction from north to south, being interrupted by the 
cliffs of the newer red sandstone rio Mc which are exposed 
at the confluence of the rivers Irk and Irwell. How far from 
this point the bed extends, I am unable to state, but am in- 
clined to think it must be considerable, since I have observed 
the same kind of stony fragments, which are to be found in 
the loam of Strangeways, employed for several miles north in 
repairing the highways. I am equally unable to assign any 
limits to the breadth and thickness of this deposit, which are 
various. As the clay near Strangeways is now in the progress 
of being cut away for the purpose of brick-making, as well as 
of widening a road, sections are observable in it to the height 
perhaps of thirty feet, or more. But this is very far short of 
its real thickness. The principal circumstance relative to it 
deserving attention is, that innumerable fragments of rocks, 
some of which seem of several tons weight, are constantly de- 
tached from it by the labourers; and that, while the rocks of 
this part of Lancashire consist of the newer red sandstone, or 
of the red marl of geologists, many of the fragments included 
in the loam are of a much older date, since they belong to the 
primitive or transition class of formations, and have been evl- 
-dently transported from a considerable distance. Granite, a 

stranger to the rocks of this district, is abundantly interspersed 
through the loam, most of the specimens of it containing horn- 
blende in greater or less quantity. Several varieties of trap- 
rock, particularly of greenstone, equally unknown én situ, are 
no less common. Other loosened relics of the hills, of far re- 
moier districts, possess a stratified structure, and consist chief- 
ly of the rock named by most geologists grauwacke-slate, but | 
by Dr Macculloch, with far greater propriety, argillaceous |_ 
-schist. It hasa basis of clay-slate, with much quartz, dissemi- | 
nated through it in the form of granular particles. Some i 
fragments of this rock have a decidedly conglomerate struc- 
ture, containing numerous attrited nodules of granite. An- | 
other variety of stony materials found in the loam may be | 


Remote. from their Native Beds. 211 


described as a bluish quartz, which, when it existed in situ, 
was probably interstratified, or otherwise associated with the 
argillaceous schist already described. The quartz-rock is far 
more abundantly found than the grauwacke, owing, probably, 
to its having been better enabled, from its peculiar chemical 
nature, and from its superior hardness, to resist the processes 
of disintegration. 

Such, then, is the character of some of the imbedded mas- 
ses which occur in the loam of the south-east of Lancashire, 
and, from the recollection which I have of the rocks of West- 
moreland, little doubt remains in my mind, but that these dis- 
persed fragments will be found to correspond with them, and 
that the-particular site of the grauwacke district, to which 
they are referable, may, with the greatest precision, be identi- 
fied. This has been, in fact, the impression of some other 
geologists, when they have adverted in a very general manner 
to the boulders strewed over the plains of Lancashire and 
Cheshire ; but a mistake has been assuredly made, in suppos- 
ing that they might be identified with the rocks in the vicinity 

~of Shap Fells, in Westmoreland. Now, I have never found the 
very peculiar porphyritic granite, that characterises this district 
in the loam which I am now describing. I am inclined, 
therefore, to consider the fragments as transported from a dif- 
ferent place, perhaps from the vicinity of Dufton, near Ap- 
pleby. But the exact determination of this point will be my 
object on some future occasion. I shall merely remark for 
the present, that as no rocks in situ, similar in their nature 
to the fragments which are found imbedded in the loam of 
Manchester, can be anywhere found nearer than 80 miles 
from this town, no small degree ef support is given to the 
conclusion, that an overwhelming force, most probably from 
the North, far greater than any which can be attributed to 
_ existing causes, has transported these boulders to a situation 
so very remote from the place whence they were originally de- 
tached. 

But, besides the granite, greenstone, quartz, and argillaceous 
schist, which occur in the loamy deposit of Lancashire, I have 
also noticed fragments of newer rocks. These consist first of 
a very dark-coloured limestone, (the carboniferous or moun- 
tain limestone of English geologists,) which, from being un- 


212 Dr Hibbert on the Dispersion of Stony Fragments. 


like any specimens of the kind that I have seen in the adjoin- 
ing south-easterly county of Derby, may have been detached 
from some limestone hillsina more northerly direction. Other 
numerous fragments which the loam contains are of sandstone, 
shale, and coal, these having been most probably removed 
from the extensive coal district of Lancashire, which is inter- 
mediate to the red marl formation of Manchester, and to the 
Westmoreland hills of grauwacke and granite. . 
Thus, then, it appears, that a considerable bed of loam, to 
be found in the south-east of Lancashire, contams imbedded 
fragments of rocks, which have been dispersed from a far dis- 
tant northerly district of Westmoreland, where the rocks consist 
of granite, trap, grauwacke, and quartz; that the same clay 
contains specimens which have been removed from a remote 
district of mountain limestone, and that it likewise furnishes 
evidence of a similar transportation having been effected of 


the stony materials which compose an intervening district of — 


the coal formation ; cach of the districts, from whence the ma- 
terials have been removed, lying to the north of the leam in 
which they are found to be deposited. 


I shall, lastly, observe, that most of the transported frag- 


ments of rocks, which have come under my observations, ap- 


pear to be water-worn, I noticed, however, some fragments _ 


which showed few or no marks of attrition. 


‘'hese are the few remarks which I shall at present offer on — 
the transported materials of rocks that occur in the south of — 


Lancashire. They have been suggested by a consideration of 


the interesting researches which Professor Buckland has of 
late been so actively pursuing. Whatever may be the true 


theory which the labours of this indefatigable geologist are 
calculated to support, our obligations to him must remain un- 
affected. Yet, it must be confessed, that we have at present 


too few observations from which the important question can be | 


solved, whether the transportation of stony fragments, so far 
from their native beds, be referable to an event of such an uni- 
versal nature as the Mosaic deluge, or to far more partial causes. 
But granting even the latter supposition, namely, that a partial 
cause may have contributed to produce an effect of this kind, 


still we must admit, that it far exceeds any ordinary operation 


of nature with whicl: we are conversant at the present day. 


Sir Thomas Brisbane's 7'able of Tides, Sc. 213 


Arr. VI.—Table of Tides kept at the Mouth of Macquar- 
vie Harbour, in Van Diemen’s Land, between July 21st, 
_and September 27th, 1822. Communicated by his Excellen- 
cy Sir Tuomas BrisBANE, K. C. B. F. R. 8. L. & E. &e.. 


HicH Wa-| Low Wa~a- . 
TER. TER. Tisre oF Fiow-| TIME OF EBB- 
ING. ING. 


DaTE. 


1822. H. M. Past. | H. M. Past. 


July 22 210) Een.) 6,5) OA, Mais eo) 6 wi 5 ss 14 hours 50 min. 
23 4 30 8 30 8&3 hours. 16 hours. 
24 4 0 9 0 7% do. 17 do. 
25 5 30 8 30 &} do. 15 do. 
26 6 0 10 0 94 do. 16 do. 
27 
QBS) oe a's es OG, SION ES iaeg® siege) oda aite 
29 , 
31 | Mop ABel sy apa yews, hap whiney sepia | one ‘ 2 days. 
Aug. 1 4 30P.M GP Opes alta letecens,'s . | 133 hours. 
2 5 0 6 0 11 hours. | 13° do. 
3 5 10 7 0 10 do. 40 min.| 13 do. 50 min. 
4 5 30 7 10 104 do. 13 do. 40 min. 
5 4 0 7 30 8 do. 50min| 153 do. 
6 4 30 8 0 9 do. 153 do. 
q 5.0 8 30 9 do. 155 do. * 
8 8 30 6 0 12 do. 94 do 
9 9 0 19 0 15 do. 13° do 
10 9 30 10 30 113 do. 13 do. 
1l 
MOR ual ctavchatete Acetate. creck. SUA ee AT. level arte, rah - 
13 § 
WM at= lanl Kopin | hs facet ct vgn iis vay sis! @ohush @ 24 hours 
15 6 OP.M.| 10 OA.M.}.....-.-. 16 do 
16 3 0 6 30 5 hours. 153 do 
17 3 30 6 0 9 do. 143 do 
ee 5 0 10 do. 13° do. 
Sept. 8 5/30 A.M... 4:30)P1 Mi. |i os 2h 0.0 ee de 
9 4 0 5 113 do. 13° do. 
10 4 OP.M.| 6 0A.M.} 11 do. 14. do. 
4 11 4 30 6 30 103 do. 14 do 
12 5 (0 i elgh 104 do. 14 do 
13 5 30 7 30 103 do. 14 do 
14 6 0 Br0 104 do. 14 do. 
15 6 30 & 30 104 do, 14 do \ 
16 7 0 9 0 104 do. 14 do, 
17 7 30 9 30 103 do. 14 do. 
18 8 0 10 0 104 do. 14 do 
19 8 30 10 0 104 do. 14 do. 
20 9 0 ll 0 104 do. 14 do. 
21 9 30 11 30 104 do. 14 do. 
: 22 }10 0 12 0 104 do. 14 do. 
, 23 | 10 30 12 30 P. M.| 104 do. 14 do. 
; 24 | 11 0 1 0 104 do. 14 do, 
25 | 11 30 1 30 10}, do. 14 do. 
26 | 12 0 20 104 do. 14 do. 


214 = Mr Murray on Hydrocyanic Acid and Opium, 


Art. VII.—Rescarches on Hydrocyanic Acid and Opiwm, in 
reference to their Counter-Poisons. By Joun Murray, ~ 
F.L.S, M. W.S., &. Communicated by the Author. 


In June 1815, a paper of mine was read to the Linnzan So- 
ciety, developing a simple and apparently decisive method of 
ascertaining the sedative virtues of vegetable juices and their _ 
counter-agents. 

The sciatic nerves of the prepared frog were taken up by a 
silver probe, and moistened with the tincture, and the result 
indicated the sedative power or its obverse; the degree was 
determined by the specific gravity of the solution employed, 
and the power measured by the duration of the period requir- 
ed to produce its maximum effect. 

It would be superfluous now to describe what has already 
been amply detailed. It was clearly proved from the result, 
that a suspension of the voltaic excitement, more or less de- 
cided, was the consequence of certain vegetable juices, and that 
in such as were operative in this manner, acetic acid was found 
to be a counter-agent, 

It may be worthy of remark, in this place, that discoveries 
have since manifested new alkaline bases, characterized by 
specific characters, in such as having produced a sedative ef- 
fect, were neutralized by acetic acid, as morphia, atropia, 
&e. 

The following paper is intended simply to detail the results 
of some experiments instituted with reference to the discovery 
of counter-poisons to their agency on the system. Facts are’ 
soon stated, and it is not necessary that they be amplified 
or extended by unnecessary details. The truths gleaned from 
actual experiment are immutable, while the consequences 
which may be deduced in support of a theory may soon be 
overlooked in the progress of intelligence. 

I had always found, that the violent headache which some- 
. times occurred i in preparing hydrocyanic or prussic acid, was 

relieved and removed by ammonia, which induced me to think, 
that the antidote to that acid and yirulent and formidable 


poison might be found in ammonia. 
5 Sa 8 


in reference to their Counter Poisons. 215 


A small portion of hydrocyanic acid was given to a healthy 
young rabbit, which proved fatal in ten minutes. Soon after 
its administration, the head declined on one side. Violent 
spasms supervened, while the eye lost its lustre, and the ani- 
mal died in dreadful convulsions. 

On dissection after death, the lobes of the lungs appeared 
paler than usual. Coagulable lymph was found lining the 
trachea as in cynanche tr., and the stomach was found in- 
flamed near the pylorus. The brain was not examined. 

The muscular fibre was still excitable by voltaic agency; 
but the excitability soon declined. 

A drop or two of hydrocyanic acid on the head of a frog 
soon proved fatal. The colour promptly changed to an un- 
wonted paleness. 

The sciatic nerves of the prepared limbs were moistened 
with hydrocyanic acid, but no suspension of the voltaic excite- 
ment supervened. It was accompanied by a tremulous move- 
ment of the muscular fibre connected with the lines of the 
nerves, and this spontaneous irritability seemed increased by 
the application of an alcoholic solution of iodine. | 

It isa singular fact, that not unfrequently the alcoholic solu- 
tion of iodine dropped on the muscular fibre of a frog excited 
phenomena similar to the action of the voltaic apparatus. It 
seemed also to renew excitability when the susceptibility had 
declined, or was lost. 

When the symptoms were verging toa fatal issue, (in a frog,) 
a drop or two of ammonia on the head effectually restored the 
animal. 

A greater quantity of hydrocyanic acid was given toa young 
rabbit than proved fatal in the case detailed. Ammonia was 
occasionally applied to the mouth on a sponge. The animal 
exhibited no unhealthy symptoms whatever. 

A considerable quantity of hydrocyanate of ammonia, with 

exces of base, was administered to another rabbit, but with- 
any deleterious effect. 

Half a drachm of bydrocyanic acid was given to a healthy 
young rabbit. The effects were prompt. Respiration became 
laborious and difficult, with a grating in the throat ; the eye 
lost its brilliancy ; the head dropt. It raised a sharp cry, ‘and 


216 Mr Muriay on Hydrocyanic Acid and Opium, 


was convulsed. Strong ammonia was dropt into the ammal’s 
mouth, and it was repeatedly wetted with a sponge dipt in 
ammonia. It almost instantly revived, and even licked re- 
peatedly the finger which sometimes applied the ammonia, ap- 
parently quite sensible of the instant and continued relief it af- 
forded. The animal effectually recovered. Its lips were ex- 
coriated by the ammonia. 

Conscious of the complete antidote to this formidable pol- 
son found in ammonia, I took a quantity of hydrocyanic acid, 
sufficient to produce violent head-stupefaction, &c. but diluted 
ammonia afforded me instant relief. I occasionally applied it 
to the olfactory organs, and bathed the forehead. 

Since hydrocyanic acid has been introduced into our Phar- 
macopeeia, and employed in phthisis pulmonalis, and acciden- 
tal poisoning may be anticipated, it is of much moment to 
know an effectual barrier to its virulence; and such is my 
complete conviction of the antidote, that I would feel no he- 
sitation whatever in taking a quantity sufficient to prove fatal, 
provided there stood by a skilful hand to administer the re- 
medy. : 

It is admitted, that morphia is the active principle in opium. 
Morphia dissolved in alcohol, in which, however, it is sparing- 
ly soluble, produced on the sciatic nerves of a prepared frog 
effects analogous to those of the tincture of opium. Acetic 
acid aor the voltaic excitability. 

The sciatic nerves were moistened with superacetate of mor- 
phia, but the excitement was the same as if none had been ap- 
plied. ; 

A frog’s head and abdominal viscera were steeped in - super- 
acetate ae morphia, but the voltaic action remained unhinged. 

Half a drachm of superacetate of morphia was given to a 
young rabbit, but no apparent derangement of its healthy 
functions took place. It rather seemed to act as a stimulus to 
appetite. Yi gf 
These experiments pointed out acetic acid as the count A 
poison to opium; and, from its volatile properties, and.other 
characters in which it differs almost essentially from acetic acid, 
having no affinity with it, except in an acid character, and 
having much of the features of an ether, I am of opinion that 


in reference to their Counter-Poisons. 217 


acetic acid may prove serviceable, where acetous_acid would 
not prove effectual. 

Two and a half drachms of tincture of opium were given to 
arabbit. In a short time the eye became more opake. The 


- pupil dwindled to a mathematical point, and was insensible to 


. 


the stimulus of light. The head fell to the floor—the breath- 
ing was laborious and difficult, and loud—and there super- 
vened a total prostration of strength. Acetic acid was then 
administered through a quill, and applied to the mouth on a 
sponge repeatedly. The head was also bathed with acetic 
acid ; and it was also applied to the extremities, and in the 
direction of the spine. The whole quantity of the acetic acid 
used was about a fluid ounce. The animal was also frequent 


ly roused, and finally kept warm. ‘The animal effectually re- 


covered. 

These experiments were repeated with uniform success on 
other rabbits. Several days have elrerd and they continue 
in the most healthy condition. 

I much regret that these experiments have been so painful 
to me, as to cause for some time an interruption ‘of my re- 
searches on Hyoscyamus niger, Atropa belladonna, Cicuta vi- 
rosa, and other vegetable poisons; and nothing but the high 
importance which might attach to the discovery of an antidote 
to their fatality could have induced me to commence these ex- 
periments. 

I have no hesitation to pronounce with most positive cer- 
tainty, that in ammonia will be found a complete antidote. to 
hydrocyanic acid, and in acetic acid an effectual counter- poi- 
son to opium. 

The agency of voltaic excitement holds out a method to 
discover the comparative sedative or narcotic properties of 
vegetable juices, as well as their counter-agents. It unfolds 
also those that are stimulant, and those that are not, with 


their relative correctives. By this means, we are prepared, by 


well-grounded anticipation, for the successful application of an 


_ antidote. 


218 Dr Brewster's Description of Withamite, 


Art. VIII.—Description of Withamite, a new mineral species | 
found in Glenco. By Daviv Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. 
Lond., and Sec. R.S. Ed. 


Tue mineral, of whieh I propose to give a short description, 
was found by Henry Witham, Esq. in Glenco, in Argyleshire, 
during a mineralogical excursion which he made to the High- 
lands of Scotland, in the month of August 1824. 

The mineral occurred in a trap-rock of a reddish brown co- 
Jour, and was disseminated in grains, or in small masses, which 
shot out into regular crystals in the larger cavities. These 
crystals are very minute, seldom exceeding the 100dth part of 
an inch in diameter. They occur in radiated spherical groupes, 
the central parts of which are of a light red colour, while, to- 
wards their cireumference, they terminate in separate crystals, , 
which, by reflected light, have a dark red colour, like that of — 
arterial blood. Very fine groupes of transparent crystals 
sometimes penetrate the quartz which occasionally accompa- 
nies the mineral; and when thin chips of this quartz are im- 
mersed in Canada balsam, which has nearly the same refrac- — 
tive power as quartz, and submitted to a powerful microscope, 
the separate crystals of the mineral are displayed with peculiar 
advantage. 

Having sueceeded in detaching some saree, crystals from 
specimens submitted tome by Mr Somerville, who accompanied 
Mr Witham to the Highlands, I found that they had generally 
the form of an irregular six-sided prism with flat summits, and 
that in the broken erystals there was an imperfect, though to- 
lerably distinct, cleavage, perpendicular to the axis. Ina fine . 
specimen belonging to Mr Witham, I have since observed 
various faces upon the summit of particular crystals, but they 
are too minute to admit of measurement. The following are 
the angles of the prism, which I obtained by the relearn go- 
niometer. See Plate VIII. Fig. 1, 2. 


t 


Aupon B 198° 0’ D upon E 166° 30° t 
B——C_ 63 2 E——F 76 0 ; 
C——D 168 20 F—A 118 30 


a’ New Mineral Specics found in Glenco. 219 


Between the faces F and A, I observed other two very imper- 
fect ones, which were inclined 156° and 147° respectively to. 
A. 

From the irregularity of this prism, of which only two of 
the opposite sides are parallel, Mr Haidinger, who had like- 
wise measured the angles, was led to believe that the crystals 
are compound, and by computing the angles of the com- 
pound prism, on the supposition that one of the individual 
crystals was turned round 180°, he obtained a very satisfac. 
tory confirmation of his opinion. 

The hardness of Withamite is about 6.5, scratching glass 
with facility. Its specific gravity, as determined by Dr Tur- 
her, is about 3.187, and the specific gravity of the rock apoet 
2.669. 

In examining the optical characters of this substance, I 
have dxpieHiented considerable difficulties from the minuteness 
of the crystals. By plunging them, however, in oil of cassia, 
the oil of the highest refractive power, I was enabled to ascer= 
tain that their ordinary refraction greatly exceeds that of oil 
of cassia,—that their double refraction, which is considerable, 
is negative in relation to the axis of the prism,—and that the 
two images may be easily separated by looking through any of 
the two acute angles of 63° or 76°. 

The most interesting optical property of Withamite is its 
dichroism, or double colour, which it exhibits both in common 
and polarised light. When common light is transmitted 
through the two ‘patallel faces of the prism, the tint is of a 
crimson or amethyst colour, with a mixture of straw yellow. 
Upon turning the crystal round, the yellow tint disappears, 
and the colour becomes a deep crimson red. On continuing 
to turn the prism, the colour changes to a straw yellow, and 
at the end of half a revolution the crystal resumes its com- 
pound tint. In the groupes of crystals which have penetrated 
the quartz, some of them occupy, accidentally, the position 


which gives the yellow colour,—others that which gives the 


red colour, and some that which gives the compound tint; so 
that, without a knowledge of their dichroitic property, the 
groupe might have been considered as composed of three dif. 
ferent sets of crystals. 


220 Dr Brewster’s Description of Withamite, 


‘This mineral is not acted upon by acids either cold or hot ; 
and it does not phosphoresce on a heated iron. The following 
experiments upon it with the blow-pipe were made by Mr 
Haidinger. 

When placed alone upon charcoal it intumesces, and as- 
sumes a shape like cauliflower, but it fuses with difficul- 
ty, and has the appearance of a dark greenish grey ena- 
mel. With borax it effervesces, and forms a transparent 
globule, of a deep yellow colour, when hot, but becoming 
pale on cooling. The tint in the oxidating flame is slight- 
ly yellowish, and in the reducing flame greenish. It is dis- 


solved with effervescence by salt of phosphorus, with the ex- b 


ception of a skeleton of silica. The globule is yellow while 
hot, but becomes white and opaque, or, at least, opaline, on 
cooling. With a little soda it fuses with difficulty into a deep 
green glass, but a larger quantity renders it infusible. With 
soda upon platina foil it gives a green colour, which is purer 
than that from the epidote of Arendal, but less melining to 
blue than that from the pure oxide of manganese, or from the 
manganesian epidote of St Marcel. Wiaithamite exhibits the 
same phenomena before the blow-pipe, as the epidote from 
Arendal, only it is a little more difficult of fusion. Silica, iron, 
and manganese, are unequivocally indicated among its consti- 
tuents. Lime is probably one of its ingredients, on account 
of the intumescence, and the opacity of the globule when 
melted. with salt of phosphorus. 

From these experiments, and from the similarity in the 
crystallographic form, and composition of the two sub- 
stances, Mr Haidinger, whose knowledge of minerals is un- 
rivalled, was disposed to consider Withamite as a new and 
remarkable variety of epidote. I was therefore induced to 
re-examine a fine crystal of epidote from Chamouni, which 
Mr Haidinger gave me for this purpose, and to compare it, 
as far as I was able, with the Withamite. The result of this 
comparison, though favourable to the opinion, that these two 
minerals are closely allied jn their natural history properties, 


. . . i . 
was such as to convince me, that the Withamite exceeds epl- — 


dote both in lustre and double refraction, and very greatly in 
its ordinary refractive power. This result I was enabled to 


confirm by another mode of observation.—Mr Somerville had ; 


ie a 2 ae 


LOM CHORE. 


HM. 


MOLI VO, 


2. fl 


heg0nt 


, De 


ae 


a New Mineral Species found in Glenco. 231 


put into my hands a specimen of the rock containing small 
masses of Withamite, which he had carefully polished. The 
high lustre of the Withamite was thus rendered obvious to 
the dullest eye; but I was surprised to observe, that the pale 
red mineral which almost always separates the Withamite 
from the trap-rock, was quite inferior in lustre to it. I there- 
fore examined the action of these three surfaces upon light 
when reduced by the opposite action of oil of cassia. When 
the i image of the sun was reflected from the surface of the 
rock, the light was faint, and of a pale blue colour ;—when it 
was reflected from the surface of the Withamite, it was bright 
and of an orange colour; but when it was reflected from the 
surface of the ‘pale red substance round the Withamite, the 
image was scarcely visible. Hence we conclude, that this 
saountd substance, which seems to be a new mineral, has the 
same refractive power as oil of cassia, and that in its action 
upon light it comports itself like topaz from Brazil. 


_ Upon mentioning this experiment to Mr Haidinger, he ex- 


amined the pale red substance, and considers it as having 


some resemblance to Saussurite. 


Art. IX.—On the Genus Hookeria of Smith, of the or- 
der Musci. By W. J. Hooxer, LL.D.F.R.S. &c. &e. 
Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow ; 
and R. K. Grevittez, LL.D. F.R.S.E. &e. &e, rer 
municated by the Authers. 


Hooxenria. 


Gen. Cuar.—Seta lateralis. Peristomium duplex. ext. e den- 
tibus sedecim; in¢. membrana 16-laciniata, nunc ciliis 
alternantibus. Calyptra mitriformis. 


Tue genus Hookeria wasestablished by Sir J. E. Smith, ina 


memoir published during the year 1808, in the Transactions 


of the Linnean Society, vol. ix. and was defined there by cha- 
acters, which, with very slight exceptions, we have here a- 


_ dopted. The well-known moss Hypnum lucens, is to be con- 


‘sidered as the type of the genus ; to this, Smith added H. gua- 


_ drifarium, the Leskea pennata of Labillardiere, L. filiculifor- 
mis, Wedwig, L. tamariscina, L. rotulata of the same author, 


Hookeria flabellata, H. Arbuscula, L. flewilis of Hedwig, and 


222 Dr Hooker and Dr Greville on the Genus Hookecria 


H. uncinata. Of these species, the authors of the Muscologia 
Britannica, perhaps too hastily, considered that the sever 
last should be rejected, as not well according with it, either 
in their essential character or natural habit. We have here, 
however, been induced to receive into the genus, Hookeria fili- 
culiformis, tamariscina and rotulata,* which, however va- 
rying in habit, as they certainly do, from the type of the ge- 
nus, agree with it, nevertheless, in the structure of their peri- 
stomes, and we believe, (but we cannot speak with certainty,) 
also in the form of the calyptra. We have indeed seen some 
specimens of rotulata, where the calyptra appeared fully 
formed, and was quite entire; whilst in others, even while re- 
maining upon the capsule, we have observed it to be split on 
one side. Still, from the general form of this part, which 
may be considered as campanulate, we are inclined to think 
that its splitting is an accidental circumstance, similar to 
what we have seen, and what Schwaegrichen has figured, in 
Trichostomum funale, and which may perhaps be caused by 
the sudden curvature of the seta, where it is embraced by the 
base of the calyptra. Still we must allow that the union of 
these species with Hookeria lucens, acutifolia, cristata and 
quadrifaria, does in some measure destroy the natural habit 
of the genus. But this we can safely affirm, that the more 
we investigate the structure and character of the mosses, the 
more we are satisfied that the nature of the peristome will not 
afford characters for their natural distribution. What plants, 
for example, can be more similar in habit than Cynontodium 
cernuum of Hedwig, Leptostomum inclinans of Brown, (Gym- 
nostomum of Hooker) Ptychostomum compactum of Hornch uch, 
and Bryum turbinatwm? So much alike are they indeed, 
that with the eye, unassisted by the microscope, they are 
scarcely to be distinguished from one another; yet in their 
peristomes, and in them only, they are so widely different, that 
according to the present ideas of the arrangement of mosses, 


* The Smithian Hookeria, which we think should be removed from that genus, 
are the species last mentioned by that learned author; viz. Arbuscula, flewilis, and 
uncinata. ‘The two former are figured in the Musci Exotici as Hypna, and in the 

cylindrical stems and general habit they certainly depart from the genus Hookeria ; 
at the same time we must remark, that we have not, neither has Smith, had the 
opportunity of seting the calyptra. H. wncinata has altogether so much the habit 
of Hypnum cupressiforme, that till the discovery of its calyptra shall ascertain its 
trae genus, we should prefer placing it among the Hypna. 


of Smith, of the Order Musei. 228 


they must constitute so many distinct genera ; and in the sys- 
tem these are placed very widely apart. 

The main characters, then, of the genus Hookeria, we con- 
sider to depend, first, on the lateral insertion of the fruitstalk ; 


} secondly, on the peristome being double, and like that of Hyp- 


num and Leskea, having the inner one formed of a membrane 
cut into sixteen segments, with or without intermediate ciliary 
processes; and thirdly, upon its having a calyptra, which is 
mitriform. 

There exists, at the same time, certain characters which are 
common to a considerable portion of the species. The stems 
in the greater number are creeping, and not unfrequently 
clothed at the base with a reddish down; in the arbusculoid 
section they are erect. The leaves are sometimes exactly dis- 
tichous, in almost every instance more or less bifarious, and 
forming compressed or complanated branches; their structure 
is generally highly vascular, or. in other words, loosely cellu- 


lar and pellucid, on which account many are aptly compared 


to Jungermanniew. The margin is occasionally thickened, 
with or without serratures, the base sometimes oblique; the 
nerve rarely reaches to the point, is at times bipartite, but 
more frequently deuble, the two being distant from each 
other, sometimes wholly wanting, The fruitstalks are mostly 
elongated; but in H. concinna and pennata they are short; 
smooth, or scabrous, or even scaly, as in H. cristata. The 
capsule, which often occurs reticulated,* is rarely erect, 
sometimes inclined, but mostly drooping, and that in conse- 
quence of the curvature of the upper extremity of the seta, 
the capsule itself not being oblique or arcuate in the slightest 
degree ; this circumstance we esteem to be a remarkable fea- 
ture in the capsule of this genus. The beak of the opercu- 
lum, too, although often much elongated, is equally straight 
in its direction. The form of the calyptra is almost as vari- 
able as that of the genus Orthotrichum, being sometimes quite 
entire at the margin, sometimes cleft into a few short and 


* We believe it will be found, that in those species of Hookeria which have the 
leaves most decidedly cellular, the capsule and calyptra are most strikingly reticu- 
lated ; the reticulation being’ only caused by the enlargement of the cellules, as in 
HI. cristata and lucens. In other species, we do not find the calyptra and capsule 
to be reticulated ; hence we do not consider that mark as being of sufficient conse- 
‘quence to form a generic distinction. 


224 Dr Hooker and Dr Greville on the Genus Hookeria — 


broad Jacinize, at other times into long narrow filiform seg- 
ments, as in Hookeria cristata and scabriseta. The surface 


is never furrowed, but occasionally pitted and distinctly cel- 


lular, either glabrous, hairy, or hispid with short thick = 
cesses. 
With regard to station, the Hookeriw grow on the ground 
and on the trunks and branches of trees. Some inhabit the 
tropics, others are peculiar to the southern hemisphere, two 
only are found in Europe, one of which reaches to very high 
northern latitudes. 

The excellent Schwaegrichen, treading in the sieps of his 
illustrious predecessor Hedwig, discards the calyptra in the 
formation of his generic characters of mosses, and hence will 
not allow the Hookeria of Smith to be a valid genus; and in 
the 2d volume of his Supplement, he has given the name 
Hookeria to a genus of mosses, which Hooker himself had 
previously ae in Brande’s Journal of Science, under the 
appellation of T'ayloria. 

One species of this genus, Hookeria pennata, was so long 
ago as the year 1505 published by P. de Beauvois in his Pro- 
drome del 4Ethéogamie, under the name of Cyathophorum pte- 


ridioides, but with a character so loose and imperfect, and a _ 
name so inexpressive, that no author seems to have adopted 


it; and it was unquestionably intended solely for the plant in 
question. We might say the same of this author’s genus, 
Racopilum, which he designed should embrace our H. depres- 


sa, and the Hypnum tomentosum of Hedwig. To it he as- 


signs the character of a calyptra cleft on one side; but with 
aniewitiat more propriety, Bridel only places the single spe- 
cies H. tomentosum, in this genus. 

In the Methodus APruscci tii; published in 1819, Bridel 
has formed a genus Chetephora, from Smith’s H. cristata, 


the character resting mainly upon the filamentous calyptra- - - 


Lastly, we may observe, that in the work just quoted, its 
author has also invented the genus Pterygophyllum,which he 
expressly states to be the Hookeria of Smith, and the Cyatho- 
phorum of Beauvois, differing from Chatephora solely in its 
glabrous calyptra. He has made the number of its species 
fifteen, but of these he mentions two as but doubtfully be- 
longing to that genus, whilst three others, P. struthiopteris, 


of Smith, of the Order Musct. 225 


asplenioides, and jungermannoides, are taken up from imper- 
fect specimens, of which no fructification has been seen. 

In essential characters, the genus which Is most allied to 
Hookeria, is undoubtedly Daltonia of the Muscologia Bri- 
tannica. This includes. Cryphaa of Weber and Mohr, and 
some species of Pilotrichwm of Beauvois, and has ciliary pro- 
cesses alternating with the teeth, not united at the base by a 
distinct portion of the membrane. According to our views 
of the genus Daltonia, it will contain, besides D. splachnoides 
and heteromalla, several beautiful individuals, which have 
been hitherto united with Neckera, and which we hope short- 
ly to be able to enumerate. 


A. Folits uniformibus undique insertis: seu 
ExstTIPuLAT a. * 
(Fere omnibus caulibus procumbentibus ramosis.) 
* Foliis enervibus, vel obsoletissime basi binervibus. 


1. Hookeria ducens, complanata, foliis bifariis, late ovatis 


_ obtusis integerrimis reticulatis enervibus, capsula ovata hori- 


zontali, calyptra integra impresso-punctata. 


H. lucens, Smith in Linn. Trans. v. 9. p. 276. Engl. Bot. t. 1902. 
Hooker and Tayl. Muse. Brit. p. 89. t. 27. Hobson’s Musc. Brit. v. 1. 

Hypnum lucens, Linn, Sp. Pl. p. 1589. Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 243. 
Turner Musc. Hib. p. 155. Moug. et Nestl. St. Crypt. No. 40. 

Leskea lucens, Schwaegr. Suppl. v. 2. p. 164. t. 84. _Funck. Deutsch. 
Moos. p. 54. t. 35. 

Pteryophyllum lucens, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 149. 

Has. Moist subalpine banks, Europe. West Coast of N. America, 
A. Menzies, Esq. This beautiful and well-known moss has a near af- 
finity to the following species, with which it agrees in its very pale 
whitish-green colour, and exceedingly lax reticulation. 


2. H. acutifolia, foliis bifariis ovatis acutis enervibus reti- 
culatis, capsula ovata horizontali, calyptra impresso-punctata. 


a: V. 


* For the sake of convenience, (the terms not being strictly correct,) we here 
employ the expressions stipulate and exstipulate., In the former of these divisions, 
the larger leaves are regularly distichous, and inserted on two opposite sides of the 
stems. ‘There exist likewise intermediate leaves, sometimes forming a single, 
somtimes a double tow, always different in figure, and considerably smaller than 
the lateral ones. ‘These we have denominated stipules, although they are free 


- from any attachment to the larger leaves, and only correspond to what are term- 


ed the stipules of Jungermannia. In the latier division, no leaves of this kind 
exist. 


VOL. II. No. 11. APRIL 1825. Q 


226 Dr. Hooker and Dr. Greville on the Genus Hookeria 


~ Han. Nepaul, Dr. Wallich. SOLD 

_ Similar in size and habit to H. lucens, which it also resembles in the 
horizontal dark-coloured capsule and pale entire and reticulated calyptra. 
Its acute leaves, however, constitute a remarkable point of difference 
between the two species. ; 

3, H. prelonga, “ caule pinnatim ramoso laxe folioso, 
foliis distichis subrotundis acuminatis integerrimis enervibus.” Me 
Arnott. Pr. V. 


H. prolonga. Arnott in Wern. Toniies y. 5. p: 203. 

Has. Near Rio Janeiro. Mr. Jameson. 

The stems of this species are two or three inches in length, pinnated 
with small ramuli three or four lines long ; the leaves of the ramuli are 
ovato-lanceolate. Its fructification is unknown. 

4. H. flavescens, caule vage pinnatim ramoso, ramis bre- 
vibus simpliciusculis subcompressis, foliis undique laxe im- 
bricatis ovato-acuminatis integris enervibus perichetialibus 
lanceolato-acuminatis, capsula nutante, calyptra basi multifida. 

Has. Demerara. C. S. Parker, Esq. 

Stems creeping, irregularly pinnated with short branches. Leaves 
pale yellow green, the lower ones inclining to brown, shortly, but very 
sharply acuminated, entire, neryeless, somewhat reticulated, and of a 
thin and membranaceous texture.—P1. V. fig. 1. Cauline leaf; 2. 
pericheetial leaf. 


** Foliis uninervibus. 


5. H. microcarpa, caule simpliciusculo, foliis patentibus, 
late obovatis obtusissimis integerrimis immarginatis su¢culentis 
opacis medio diaphano laxe reticulato, nervo infra apicem 
evanescente “ capsula erecta urceolata exigua.” 

Hypnum microcarpon, Hedw, Sp. Muse. p. 244. t. 59. Schwaegr. 
Suppl. 2. p. 197. r 

Pterygophyllum microcarpon, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 149. 

Has. South Sea islands. 

We only possess specimens of this moss without fructification from 
Mr. Dickson. The habit and structure of its leaves are quite peculiar, 
though at first sight it bears some resemblance in the former particular 
to H. cristata. 

6. H. Dicksoni, subcompressa, foliis late ovatis acuminu- 
latis tenuissimis pellucidis marginatis subundulatis integerri- 
mis pulcherrimo-reticulatis, nervo ultra medium evanescente, 
capsula nutante, calyptra, basi (ut videtur) laciniata. Px. V.. 

Haz. ...+2. Received from Mr. Dickson. 

3 


Sf Smith, of the Order Musci. 227 


Of this plant we have only one small specimen, but it is sufficient to 
afford satisfactory characters for a very distinct species. In habit it 
comes near to H.depressa, but differs in the peculiar form and structure 
Of its leaf, which, under the microscope, is extremely beautiful, with 
delicate roundish reticulations. 

7. H. radiculosa, repens compressa subtus radicans supra 
foliosa, foliis ovatis subacuminatis integerrimis immarginatis, 
nervo ultra medium evanescente, capsula ovata nutante, oper- 
culo rostro curvato, calyptra basi integra. 

H. radiculosa, Hooker, Musc. Exot. t. 54. Humb. et Kunth. syn. Pl. 


y. i. p. 59. 
Has. Moist shady banks, near Caripe, 8. America, at an elevation of 
2680 feet, Humboldt. Orinoco, Herb. Willd. Hornsch. in litt. 


*** Foliis binervibus. 
+ Foliis integerrimis. 
8. H. pendula, ramis pinnatis curvatis compressis, foliis 


undique imbricatis ovatis basi binervibus, capsula pendula, 
q 


operculo conico-rostrato, calyptra carnosa pilosa basi fim- 
briata. 
H. pendula. Hooker, Musc. Exot. t. 53. Humb. et Kunth. Syn. 


Pl. v. I. p. 60. 
Has. In temperate regions upon the mountains of the Andes. Hum~ 


boldt. 

A long straggling plant, with somewhat bipinnate compressed branches. 
Its capsule is oblong-ovate, and drooping ; the calyptra laciniated at 
the base,*and hairy like that of many Orthotricha. The perichetial 
leaves have a remarkably long acumination, and are slightly serrated. 

9. H. diaphana, ramis paucis laxissime foliosis, foliis pa- 
tentibus oblique late obovatis attenuato-acuminatis immargi- 
natis integerrimis laxissime reticulatis pellucidis nervis duo- 
bus obscuris versus medium evanescentibus. 

Hypnum diaphanum. Swartz, Prod. p. 140. Fl. Ind. Occ. p. 1828. 
Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 243. t. 61. f. 1-6. (the magnified portions very in~ 


q correct.) Schwaegr. Suppl. 2. p. 193. 


Pterygophyllum diaphanum. Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 150. 

‘Has. Island of Jamaica. Swartz. 
"This species is remarkable for having the leaves very thin and pellu- 
cid. Their apex we find to be always twisted. The fruit of this plant 
being unknown, it is from its general habit and the structure of its foli~ 


age that we are induced to place it in this genus. 
10. H. pallescens, ramis compressis, foliis undique imbrica-- 


Sis < Dr, Hookér'aid. Dis Greville of he Genus Heakeria 


tis ovatis obtusis minute reticulatis basi binervibus, seta Rog 
gata, capsula subovata, calyptra multifida. 


H.. pallescens, Hooker, Muse. Exot. t. 28. Humb. et Kunths Ait: 
Pl. v. 1. p. 60. 


Has. On the banks of the Orinoco, in shady places, near Esmerelda. 
Humboldt. 

ll. H. filiformis, ramis earth foliis undique imbricatis ; 
vel subsecundis ellipticis integerrimis arcte reticulatis, nervis 
duobus pellucidis fere ad apicem attingentibus apice longe 
attenuato filiformi flexuoso. Pt. V. 

Has. Island of Guadaloupe. 

Unfortunately our specimens of this plant are without fructification. 

They were communicated by Professor Sprengel, under the name of 


Hypnum Bosgii. Its leaves are strikingly different from those of any 
other species which we are acquainted with. 


++ Foliis versus apicem serratis. 
+ Capsula suberecta. 


12. H. scabriseta, caule subpinnatim ramoso compresso, 
foliis undique imbricatis, late ovatis subacuminulatis, seta — 
scabra, calyptra longe laciniata subhispida. 


H. scabriseta. Hooker, Musc. Exot. t. 52. Humb. et Kunth. Syn. 
Play. 1. p. 59. 

Hae. Moist rocky places near Caripe. Humboldt. 

This species is remarkable for the roughness of its fruitstalk, and the 
great length of the segments of its calyptra. The perfect fruit we have 
not seen. 


13. H. leptorhynca, caule repente caespitoso vage ramoso, 
ramis brevibus, foliis laxe imbricatis ovato-lanceolatis acu- 
minatis apice serrulatis nervis duobus infra apicem evanes- 


centibus, capsula cylindrica, operculo subulato, calyptra sex- 
fida glabra, Pt. V. 


Has. Island of St. Vincent’s, Rev. L. Guilding. 

A small, but extremely beautiful species, with loosely reticulated 
leaves, their nerves long and very strong, the capsule nearly erect, and, — 
what we consider a remarkable circumstance, having a calyptra, which, 
though decidedly campanulate, does not cover more than one half of the 
capsule. 


+ + Capsula nutanie, vel pendula. 


14. H. cristata, caule erecto ramoso, foliis obovatis margi- 


of Smith, of the Order Musci. — 229 


natis succulentis reticulatis basi nervo bipartito, seta arcuato- 
curvata apice cristata, capsula pyriformi cernua, calyptra mul- 


 tifida. Pu. V. 


Leskea cristata, Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 211, t. 49. Schwaegr. Suppl. II. 
p- 159. 

_ Chetephora cristata, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 149. 

Has. South Sea islands, where we believe it was first found by Mr. 
Forster, during the celebrated voyage round the world with Captain 
Cook. Isle of France, Aubert du Petit Thouars. 

This species is very remarkable for the curvature of its fruifstalk, 
which is bent down at the top like the neck of a swan, and at that part is 
beautifully crested with membranaceous scales. These scales exist, 
though of a smaller size, and regularly imbricated, upon all the rest of 
the seta, which is of a succulent nature, much resembling that of a 
Sphagnum, and swelling out into a small bulbous base. The substance 
of the leaves is remarkably succulent, that of the perichetial ones mem- 
branaceous, nerveless, and ending in a long acumen. ‘The capsule is 
rich brown, and beautifully reticulated ; the lid we have not seen. The 
calypira is large, companulate, whitish, rigidly membranaceous, multi- 
fid at the base in the same manner as that of Daltonia splachnoides ; 
its segments very narrow, pellucid and rigid, resembling, when highly 
magnified, the quill portion of a feather, its upper part is hispid. Some 
specimens which we have received from the Isle of France, of a Hookeria 
without frutification, seem exactly to coincide’ with the character of this 
species. The plant which Bridel has called Pterygophylluin asplenioi- 
des, and which was sent to him from the Isle of Bourbon, appears also to 
be H. cristata. 


15. H. Parkeriana, caule elongato, ramis complanatis, fo- 
lis imbricatis subbifariis oblongis acutis undulatis apice serru- 
latis nervis duobus fere ad apicem attingentibus, capsula 
oblonga horizontali, calyptra laciniata. Px. V. 


' Haz. Upon trees in Demerara, C. §. Parker, E'sq. 

This noble moss, which in its habit much resembles Neckera crispa, 
especially in the form, size, and disposition of its foliage, we have named 
after its discoverer, our excellent friend C. §. Parker, Esq. of Blochairn, 
near Glasgow. The stems creep to a great length, and are bare of 
leaves; the branches are irregularly pinnated, two or three inches long, 
and, including the leaves, a quarter of an inch broad. The fruitstalks 
are humerous, about an inch and a half long ; the capsule oblongo-pyri- 
form, horizontal ; the calyptra quite glabrous. 


_ 16. H. undata, compressa, foliis imbricatis ovato-lanceola~ 
tis longe acuminatis versus apicem undulato-crispatis serratis- 
que, nervis duobus ultra medium evanescentibus, ‘ capsula 
oyata, operculo Jonge conico.” Pt, V. 


230 Dr. Hooker and Dr. Greville on the Genus Hookeria 


Leskea undata. Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 214. t. 52. Schwaegr. Suppl. 
IT. 165. 

Hypnum Guadalupense, Schwaegr. Suppl. II. p. 189. 

Pterygophyllum undatum, Brid. Meth. Muse. p.°149. 

Haz. Jamaica, communicated to Hedwig by Swartz. 

As far as we can judge from the descriptions given by Bridel and 
Schwaegrichen of Hypnum Guadalupense, that plant does not differ from 
the present individual ; an opinion in which we are supported by Mr. 
Arnott. 


17. H. letevirens, complanata vage pinnatim ramosa, foliis 
bifariis ovatis acuminulatis margimatis apice subserrulatis 
usque ad apicem fere binervibus, capsula ovata horizontali, 
operculo conico-rostrato, calyptra integra. 


H. letevirens, Hooker and Tayl. Muse. Brit. p. 89. t. 27. 

Has. Ina bog near Cork, Ireland, Mr. Drummond. 

An exceedingly beautiful species, of a full bright shining green colour, 
two inches or more in length. The capsule and calyptra are very simi- 
lar to those of H. lucens and acutifolia. It has never been found in any 
station except the one above given. 


18. H. Langsdorfii, elongata ramosa, foliis distichis com- 
pressis ovatis subacuminatis apice serratis, nervis duobus ante 
apicem evanescentibus, capsula ovata nutante, operculo he- 
misphzrico rostrato, calyptra bast sexfida. 


H. Langsdorfii.. Hooker, Musc. Exot. t. 121. 

Has. Near Rio Janeiro, Langsdorff; communicated by Mr. Siwains 
son. 
A fine species, nearly five inches in length, and resembling in its Be 
neral habit both H. albicans and H. letevirens. 


19. H. albicans, 'ramis complanatis, foliis bifariis ovatis 
apiculatis summitate serratis pellucidis laxe reticulatis nervis 
duobus divergentibus infra apicem evanescentibus, capsula 
nutante ovata, operculo acuminato, calyptra basi laciniata. 


Leskea albicans, Hedwig, Sp. Musc. p. 218. t. 54. f. 13—16. varia 
Suppl. IT. p. 162. Swartz. Fl. Ind. Occ. p. 1811. 

Hypnum albicans, Swartz, Prod. p. 140. 

Racopilum Aubertii. Pal. de Beauv. /Ethéog. Prodr. p. 37. 

* Pterygophyllum albicans, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 150. 

Has. Jamaica, Swartz. St. Vincent’s, Rev. L. Guilding. 

In general appearance this comes near to H. letevirens, but its leaves 
have a much more lax reticulation, and are very pellucid; the sinetrs 
moreover, is not horizontal, nor its calyptra entire. 

Bridel, under P. albicans, quotes Neckera Aubertis of his Sp. Musco= 


i 


of Smith, of the Order Musci. 231 


rum, Vv. 2. p. 28; and also his Hypnum vesiculosum, Sp. Muse. v. 2. p- 
100. 

20. H. incurva, foliis bifariis obovatis subacinaciformibus 
obtusis denticulatis ultra medium binervibus reticulatis, pe- 
richzetialibus cordato-acuminatis, capsula ovata nutante, calyp- 
tra basi laciniata. 


_Chetephora incurva, Hornsch. in Hore Phys. Berol. p. 65. t. 13. 
~ Has. Chili, Chamisso. 

A very beautiful and distinct species, well figured by Hornschuch in 
the work above mentioned. We find the denticulations to be of a very 
peculiar structure, evidently formed of cellules similar to those of the 
rest of the leaf, sharpened, very acute, and placed with great regularity 
upon the otherwise even margin of the leaf. 


21. H. depressa, ramis subcomplanatis, foliis laxe imbri- 
catis oblongis breviter acuminulatis apice serrulatis, nervis 
duobus infra apicem evanescentibus siccitati crispatis, capsula 
ovata nutante, operculo conico acuto, calyptra basi breviter 
laciniata. 


‘Hypnum depressum, Swartz, Prodr, p. 141. 

Leskea depressa, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 144. Swartz Fl. Ind. Occ: 
p- 1804. Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 215. t. 53. Schwaegr. Suppl. LI. p. 166: 

H. affinis, Arnott, in Wern. Trans. vy. 5. p. 202. 

Has. Jamaica, Swartz. St. Vincent’s, Rev. L. Guilding. St. Do- 
mingo, Thuill. Guadaloupe, Sprengel. Garrow Hills, E. Indies, Dr. 
Wallich. 


22. H. falcata, foliis falcato-secundis lanceolatis longe acu- 


minatis serratis binervibus, capsula ovata horizontali, operculo 
subulato, calyptra basi sex- vel octo-fida. 


H. falcata Hooker, Musc. Exot. t. 54. . 

Has. In valleys of the Andes, between Almaguer and Pasto, Hum- 
boldt. 

Remarkable for its falcato-secund and much acuminated leaves. The 
calyptra is cleft into broad segments, and is scabrous at the apex. 


23. H. repens, ramis compressis sericeis, foliis subfalcato- 
secundis imbricatis bifariis ovato-lanceolatis attenuatis reticu- 
latis versus apicem dentato-serratis obsoletissime binervibus, 


-capsula exigua horizontali, calyptra integra. Pu, V. 


Has. St. Vincents, Rev. L. Guilding. 

A small creeping species, with delicate foliage. The leaves are falca- 
to-secund, especially towards the extremities of the branches. The 
fruitstalk is extremely slender, with a narrow and oblong capsule, the 
calyptra glabrous and entire at the base. 


232 Dr. Hooker and Dr. Greville on the Genus Hookeria 


B. Foliis tri-quadrifariam insertis (anterioribus minoribus) ; 
| Seu 


STIPULAT. 


* Caulibus vix ramosis. 


24. H. pennata, caule erecto simplici, foliis bifariis verti- 
calibus ovato-lanceolatis serratis enervibus, stipulis orbiculatis 
mucronulatis serratis, seta brevi, capsula ovata erecta. _ 

H. pennata, Smith in Linn, Trans. y. 9. p. 277. Hooker, Muse. Exot. 
t. 163. 

Pterygophyllum pennatum, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 149. 

- Cyathophorum pteridioides, Beauv. Ath. p. 52. 

Leskea pennata, Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 2. Bi 206. t. 253. Schwaegr. 
Suppl. II. p. 160. 

Anictangium bulbosum, Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 44. t. 6. f. 1—5. 

Has. New Holland, Labillardiére. Dusky Bay, New Zealand, A. 
Menzies, £sq. Van Diemen’s Land, R. Brown, Esq. 

Of this noble moss we ‘have received specimens from Mr. Brown, 
which measure 5 or 6 inches in height, and bear fructification in every pe- 
riod of growth. The calyptra is, as Mr. Brown first ascertained, entire, 
campanulate, and tipped at the extremity with the persistent style. 

25. H. quadrifuria, caule erecto subramoso, foliis quadri- 
fariis reticulatis medio uninervibus, lateralibus distichis verti- 
calibus ovatis, intermediis (seu stipulis) subrotundis erectis 
appressis, capsula subcylindracea pendula. 

H. quadrifaria, Smith in Linn. Trans. y. 9. p. 277. t. 31. f. 1. Hooker, 
Muse. Exot. p. 109. 

Pterygophyllum quadrifarium. Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 151. 

Has. In Dusky Bay, New Zealand, A. Menzies, Esq. 1791. 


One of the finest species in this genus, nearly 4 inches in 


length ; and from its extremely succulent nature bearing a 
strong resemblance to a Jungermannia. 


** Caulibus apice valde ramosis arbusculoidets. - 


26. H. concinna, caule erecto bipinhato inferne”nudo, foliis 
bifariis verticalibus stipulisque oblongis brevi-acuminatis 
apice setratis, nervo attingente ; seta ae capsula erecta, 
operculo subulato. ce 


Leskea-concinna. Hooker, Musc. Exot. t. 34. 


Has. In Dusky Bay, New Zealand, A. Menzies, Esq. Van Die- 
men’s Land, Dr. Spence. 


of Smith, of the Order Musci. 233 


. We are ignorant of the calyptra of this beautiful species, but have re- 
ferred it to this place, on account of the affinity of its habit, leaves, and 
stipules, with those of H. rotulata and its allies. 


27. H. filiculiformis, « ramis fasciculatis tripinnatis, foliis 
ovatis trifariis complanatis integerrimis enervibus, intermediis 
(seu stipulis) parum minoribus.” Smith. 


H. filiculiformis, Smith in Linn. Trans. v. 9. p. 278. 

Leskea filiculiformis, Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 212. t. 50. Schwaegr. Suppl. 
II. p. 259. 
~ Pterygophyllum filiculiformis, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 151. 

Has. South Sea Islands. 

With this species we are unacquainted. The stems, according to Hed- 
wig’s figure, are four or five inches high, and much branched at their up- 


per extremity, in a tripinnate manner ; the leaves and stipules are desti- 
tute of nerves. 


28. H. rotulata, caule apice pinnatim ramoso, foliis bifa- 
ris oblique ovato-acutis marginatis grosse denticulato-serratis 
nervo supra medium evanescente, stipulis duplo minoribus ro- 
tundatis apiculatis marginatis serratis integerrimisve nervo 
excurrente, capsula nutante ovata, operculo longe rostrato. 


_ &. Ramis compactis subfaciculatis, foliis strictioribus perichetialibus ob= 
longo-lanceolatis acuminatis, stipulis minoribus. 

H. rotulata, Smith in Linn. Trans. v. 9. p. 279. 

Leskea rotulata, Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 213. t. 51. Schwaegr. Suppl. II. 
p. 159. 

Pterygophyllum rotulatum, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 151. 

B. ramis laxe pinnato-fasciculatis, foliis subundulatis stipulis majoribus 
perichetialibus late ovatis magis concavis, breviter attenuatis. 

H. tamariscina, Smith in Linn. Trans. v. 9. p. 279. ? 

Hypnum tamarisci, Swartz, Prodr. p. 141. FI. Ind. Oce. p. 1825. 

Has. « South Sea Islands, Hedwig. New Zealand, A. Menzies, Esq. 
—f. Jamaica, Swartz. Nepaul, Dr. Wallich. Rio Janeiro, Dr. 
Langsdorff; Cape of Good Hope, A. Menzies, Esq. ( Smith.) 

In its general appearance this plant is liable to considerable variation ; 
our New Zealand specimens have the branches densely fasciculated, as 
Hedwig’s figure well represents ; those from Nepaul are more loosely 
branched, whilst in some from Jamaica the main ramifications are con- 
siderably elongated, and the pinne distantly placed. In our first variety, 
the perichetial leaves are more erect, narrower, almost plane, and of a 
somewhat compactly membranaceous texture ; whilst both in East and 
West Indian specimens of the variety 4, the perichetial leaves are scarce- 
ly half so long, much more concave, and suddenly lengthened into a 
very narrow point. ‘Their reticulation also is considerably looser. 

We find great confusion to exist in what regards the two species of 
this genus, which have been published by Swartz and Hedwig, under 


234 Dr. Hooker and Dr. Greville on the Genus Hookeria 


the names of Leskea tamariscina and L. rotulata. ‘The appellation ta- 
mariscina, (or rather Tamarisci, as Swartz has it,) was first established 
by that author upon a Jamaica plant, which we have clearly ascertained 
from his own specimens, as well as description, to be synonymous with 
the L. rotulata of Hedwig. On the other hand, Hedwig, taking his re- 
presentation and account from an Australasian plant, which had been 
given him, we suspect, by Dickson, has a totally different species. By 
right of priority, therefore, the name of Tamarisci should be applied to 
I. rotulata. But we consider the Hedwigian /amariscina to be so well 
established, and so generally known by the excellent figure given in the 
Species Muscorum, that the general adoption of it will prevent confu- 
sion. Sir J. E. Smith, under his H. tamariscina, has included Swartz’s 
Jamaica plant, and another species allied to it from the Cape of Good 
Hope, which we shall presently have occasion to describe ; and he seems 
to us to have made his description from the West Indian individual, 
which is our H. rotulata ; but he has referred to the plate of the Hed- 
wigian ¢tamariscina. Our valued friend is, therefore, strictly correct in 
regard to the name ; and he has made the observation, that he was un- 
able to discover the bristles mentioned by Hedwig, which only belong to 
Hi. tamariscina. 


29. H. tamariscina, foliis bifariis oblique ovatis margini- 
bus denticulatis nervo infra apicem evanescente, stipulis ova- 
to-acuminatis marginatis laciniato-serratis, processibus seta- 
ceis in axillis foliorum, ‘* capsulis ovatis pendulis.” Hedw. 


Leskea tamariscina, Hedw. Sp. Muse. p. 212. t. 51. 

Hypnum Tamarisci, Schwaegr. Suppl. v. 2. p. 182. (but not H. Tae 
marisci of Swartz, nor Hookeria tamariscina of Smith.) 

Pterygophyllum Tamarisci, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 151. 

Has. South Sea Islands, receiyed from M7. Dickson. 

This most remarkable species, as far as our_observation extends, con- 
stantly possesses the axillary setaceous processes described and figured 
by Hedwig. These may probably be regarded in the light of abortive 
leaves, of which the nerve alone has been developed. 

We have endeavoured to clear up the obscurity in which the present 
and the last-mentioned species have been involved, in our description of 
H. rotulata, and we have there stated our reasons for retaining their pre- 
sent appellations. 


30. H. laricina, caule erecto inferne denudato, apice pin- 
natim ramoso, foliis oblique ovatis submarginatis denticula- 
tis basi uninervibus, stipulis cordatis breviter acuminatis ser- 
ratis nervo perbrevi, capsula ovata nutante, operculo rostro 
curvato. 

H. laricina, Hooker, Musc. Exot. t. 35. 


Hypnum laricinum, Humb. et Kunth. Syn. Pl. v. 1. p. 62. 


Has. Cape of Good Hope, A. Menzies, Esq. Mountains of the Ane 
des, Humboldt. 


of Smith, of the Order Musci. 235 


The nearest affinity of this species is with H. rotulata, but it differs 
inits leaves being softer, scarcely at all margined, and with a short 
nerve, whilst the stipules have hardly any nerve at all. There is also 
a decided, but very short nerve in the perichetial leaves. 


SPECIES DUBIZ. 


31. Hypnum rigidum, (Schwaegr. Suppl. II. p. 189,) 
“ erectum, apice ramosum, foliis subdistichis remotis ovatis 
acutis binervibus serratis.” Schwaegr. 


Pterygophyllum rigidum, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 150. 

Has. Supposed to be a native of South America. 

Mr. Arnott seems to be of opinion that this may prove the same with 
Hookeria scabriseta ; but its fructification being unknown, we cannot 
speak with certainty. The author compares it with H. albicans. 

32. Hypnum duplicatum, (Schwaegr. Suppl. EH: P- 198.) 
“repens, ramis simplicissimis, foliis bifariam imbricatis ob- 
Jongis acutis basi semiduplicatis enervibus integerrimis.” 
Schwaegr. 

Has. In the Isle of Bourbon. 

The fruit of this species also has not been discovered. Schwaegrichen 
observes, that it strongly resembles H. diaphanum, (our Hookeria dia= 
phana.) 

33. Hypnum splachnifolium, (Aubert; Brid. Suppl. Muse. 
2. p. 101.) “repens, subramosum, foliis bifariam imbricatis 
lanceolato-subulatis longissime reticulatis, operculo longiros- 
tri.” Schwaegr. Suppl. 2. p. 193. 

Pterygophyllum ? splachnifolium, Brid. Meth. Muse. p. 150. 

BRAG. (323.223 Se. Seta anne aaza 

The calyptra of this moss is unknown. ; 

34. Pterygophyllum jungermannoides (Brid. Meth. Musc. 
p- 152.) “ caule repente basi erecto simpliciter pinnato, foliis 
remotis distichis oblique ovato-cuspidatis serrulatis nervo 
evanido siccitate undulato-rugosis, teguminibus unius seriei 
appressis cordato-acuminatis.” Brid. 

Has. New Holland, Desfontaines. 

This moss, of which no fructification has been discovered, seems near= 
ly allied to Hookeria laricina and rotulata. 

35. Hookeria flabellata, (Smith in Linn. Trans. v. ix. p. 
280.) “ caule erecto, ramis sparsis pinnatis, foliis distichis 
complanatis, apice serratis.” Smith. 


256. Dr MacCulloch on the Distribution of Granite 


Has. West Indies, according to Mr. Dickson. tigi 

This plant, although it has the same habit as the arbusculoid Hooke=.. 
rie, yet possesses no stipules, and has a seta scarcely longer than the _ 
perichetial leaves; circumstances which, viewed conjunctly with its 
other characters, bring this moss so exceedingly near to Neckera den- 
droides of Musci Exotici, that we are much disposed to look upon them 
as the same.’ 


Ant. X.—On the Distribution of Granite and of Trap in 
different Parts of Scotland. By Joun MacCuttiocn, 
M.D. F.R.S.F.L.S. and M.G.S. Chemist to the Board 
of Orduance, and Professor of Chemistry in Addiscombe 
College. Communicated by the Author. | 


Tue circumstances in the distribution of granite and of trap, 
which form the object of this paper, are not only interesting 
in a geological view, but especially deserve the attention of 
such practical geologists as may be engaged in forming geolo- 
gical maps of those parts of the country where they occur. 
To treat of them as fully as they deserve, from their import- 
ance in both these respects, would require that which is here 
inadmissible, namely, a geological map of the districts in _ 
question, as well as a length of discussion far too great for the 
present purposes, and which could not indeed well be made 
intelligible without a very extensive geographical description 
of the tracts where these appearances are found. 

Although granite exists in many parts of Scotland in con- 
tinuous tracts of very considerable extent, as in Galloway, in 
Lorn, in Sutherland, in Perthshire, and in Aberdeenshire ; it 
is often also found occupying very small spaces, and sometimes — 
in very unexpected situations. In Aberdeenshire, this occur- 
rence is very common: but it is not there a matter of sur- 
prise, when the peculiar circumstances attending the stratified - 
rocks of that district are considered. It is easy to perceive 
that the gneiss, which constitutes the chief of these, has been 
destroyed over a great extent of surface, and to a considerable 
depth; the earth, and fragments produced. from its destruc- 
tion, sometimes remaining in the form of alluvial soil, forming 


and of Trap in different Parts of Scotland. 237 


‘deep beds; and being, in other places, carried away by 
‘the usual’ causes which transport loose materials along the 


surface. 
Hence the granite appears at the surface in a very irregular 


“manner, and often very unexpectedly. In these cases it has 
‘no relation to the form or altitude of the place where it oc- 


curs; since it is found in the lowest as well as the highest si- 


-tuations; in both of which also, the gneiss appears in the 


same uncertain manner. In many places it will thus happen 


that a patch of granite may not occupy an extent of more 
‘than a few yards, or perhaps a few hundreds; and cases of 


this nature occur in every part of that granitic district. 

To the geologist who is anxious to lay down a district of 
this nature in a map, this circumstance is a source of great 
Jabour ; requiring all his care and industry, and demanding, 
indeed, a degree of toil which is almost incomprehensible. 


‘Here, also, the difficulty is not limited to the granite only ; 


affecting the stratified rocks nearly in an equal degree. Where 


“strata present a considerable continuity over any tract of coun- 


try, it is almost always easy to infer the existence of large 
portions of them without actual examination; by the compa- 
rison of bearings and dips, and by general inferences respect-' 
ing their necessary connection or prolongation. But where 
they are found forming masses so thin as barely to cover the 
subjacent granite, not only their dips and bearings are irregu- 
lar and uncertain, but the frequent interruption to which they 
are exposed by the intruding granite, renders it impossible to 
prolong them, or infer their existence in any particular spot 
without actual examination. Thus they become as difficult of 
investigation as the granite itself, in which.the want of strati- 
fication precludes all species of investigation, but that which 


proceeds on the basis of actual and manual examination. 


In Aberdeenshire, other causes tend materially to increase 


‘the labour of the geological surveyor. The quantity of allu- 


vial matter arising from the decomposed gneiss is such, as of- 


‘ten to cover all the rocks to a great depth; so that it is only 


from the most casual appearances, in the bed of a rivulet, a 
quarry, or the side of a road, that we are enabled to discover 
whether gneiss or granite is present, or whether some other of 


238 Dr. MacCulloch on the Distribution of Granite 


the primary strata is not the one at the surface. Nor does 
the general outline afford the least assistance, as the same con- 
tinuous and low undulating line often pervades both classes of 
rock alike. Thus, the geological surveyor must every where 
intersect, in the minutest manner, the ground which he is ex- 
amining; nor is it till after many successive trials, and much 
minute observation, that he is enabled to trace the boundaries. 
of the several rocks as they appear at the surface. This, 
however, is a necessary part of his duty. It is to little pur- 
pose, whether for the objects of science or economy, to con- 
struct a map in which, instead of observations correctly lo- 
calized, general features are expressed. Nothing useful can 
be drawn from a survey of this nature, while the practice is 
attended with the further evil of encouraging a hasty mode of 
concluding, instead of examining ; and thus of substatutiog 
prejudices for facts, and fiction for truth. 

The difficulties which attend the examination and discovery 
of small tracts of granite are, however, very much augment- 
ed, where it occurs in independent situations, and in a scat- 
tered manner, in districts of primary: strata, where no exten- 
sive masses of it are present. Here it is impossible to con- 
jecture where it is to be found, or where, after being once 
found, it is again to be expected. In these tracts it occurs in- 
differently in the lowest and in the highest situations; nor is. 
it in general marked by any peculiarity of outline, or by any 
one circumstance indicating its existence. The observer only 
finds it at his feet, and cannot even always recognise it as cer- 
tain, till he has detached a specimen. Thus, if he is desirous 
to gain a reputation for accuracy, or really to lay down the 
rocks that occur in any given district, he dares not omit even 
a square mile in his investigation, or even, in many cases, far 
less; but is obliged to traverse every spot where this rock, 
giving no data from which to infer its existence, may be found. 
It is, indeed, from the number of any such smaller masses of 
rock, whether of granite or others, found in any geological 
survey, that the accuracy of the observer may be conjectured. 
General details are in every one’s power, but of such it may 
truly be said, in the ancient maxim, that “ dolus est generali- 


and of Trap in different Parts of Scotland. 239 


bus.” ‘They are too often the result of conjecture, instead of 
actual examination. . 

- It will not be amiss to point out/a very few of the places 
in Scotland where these unexpected’ masses of granite are 
found. 

They occur both in districts of micaceous schist and of 
gneiss, and they are even found, in more than one place, i in 
the middle of the old red sandstone. 

In the gneiss district, on the west coast, from Morven north- 
ward, they are very common, as they are in the central parts 
of Inverness and Ross-shire. About the sources of the Spey 
and the Findhorn, such small masses abound often not exceed- 
ing many square yards in dimensions. Even in Rannoch such 
masses are found in a district of micaceous schist, and remov- 
ed by many miles from any other similar rock. It is unne- 
cessary to multiply examples; and it would be equally unne- 
cessary to offer this caution to any geologist, who has accu- 
rately examined these tracts, as he cannot fail to have met 
with instances of this occurrence. 

The chief difficulty of investigating granite, arising from its 
want of stratification, is an equal source of toil in the examin- 
ation of the trap-rocks. These also abound in Scotland; 
and, like granite, they are found, in some places, in large ex- 
tensive continuous tracts, in others, scattered in very minute 
patches, and separated by wide intervals. 

To connect these separated portions requires a different view 
from that by which we attempt to reunite the scattered masses 
of granite. These latter are judged, from all experience, to 
be actually, and at present, continuous beneath the superficial 
or incumbent strata. T rap lies above the stratified rocks; 
and, when discontinuous, it is so, either because it has been 
originally deposited in that manner, or because the larger 
masses, once continuous, have been destroyed in particulary 
spots so as to lose their continuity. Both of these are the con- 
sequences of interesting geological causes which are not the 
objects of edkdderation here. The fact alone is the subject 
of the present discussion. 

Although trap is unstratified, it often possesses a peculiar 
aspect, cither in its outline, or in the nature of its vegetating 


240 Dr MacCulloch on the Distribution of Granite 


‘surface, when compared with the surrounding country, by 
which it may be known even at a distance ; and thus the geo- 
logist. may escape a considerable degree of the labour, of mi- 
nute investigation. But these features are by no ‘means, uni- 
versal ; nor is it often possible to form the slightest conjecture 
respecting the presence of these rocks except by careful, man- 
ual investigation. For example, it dogs not always occupy 
the hills, or even the insulated summits, when it occurs in 
sandstone countries. » On the contrary, it is by no means un- 


usual for the trap to be found in the lowest parts of sucha — 


country, while the sandstone occupies the highest; and, of 
this, Fife presents abundant examples. Neither is it unusual 


for the stratified rocks to assume the external outline of trap, 


while this rock is totally void of characteristic features. 

It is also usual in Scotland for trap to occur in connection: 
with the secondary strata, and the particular tracts where it is 
most abundant are well known. There the investigation, at 
least of larger masses, is comparatively easy ; because the sub- 
stance is expected, and because the contrast which it presents 
to the sandstones to which it approximates is commonly very 
strongly marked. But it is found also in many places, and 


often in an insulated manner, in the primary districts, where, _ 


from previous general experience, it would scarcely be ex» 
pected to exist. There also its general external characters are 
less strongly contrasted with those of the surrounding rocks, 
and thus it may escape the notice of a superficial or hasty ob- 
server. 


These are the causes which not only render the investiga-. b 


tion of a country of trap in itself difficult, but which produce 
equal difficulty in examining the stratified rocks of any district. 


in which even one insulated mass of this rock bas been found.- 
The observer there loses all confidence in his power of infer-. 


ring the existence of the stratified rocks in any place where he: 
has not actually observed them, because he is never certain 
that some insulated mass of trap may not occur among them. 
Thus, as in the case of granite, every spot must be traversed. 
and examined in a critical manner, if he would attain that ac- 
‘curacy without which a geological survey is scarcely of any 
value. 


and of Trap in different Parts of Scotland. 241 


In countries of this structure also, as in the granitic districts 
of Aberdeenshire, a depth of alluvia sufficient to conceal ef- 
fectually the subjacent rocks, is a perpetual source of obscu- 
rity and labour. Here, indeed, it commonly arises from a dif- 
ferent cause, the alluvial covering being the produce of the de- 
composed trap itself, and proceeding from that cause which 
has produced the discontinuity of the larger masses, and insu- 
lated the detached spots and summits which abound in. dis- 
tricts of this nature. 

To quote examples of the fact now noticed, would be to 
enumerate nearly all those districts in Scotland where trap oc- 
curs. I shall satisfy myself with stating, in the most general 
manner, that they may be found in the whole central district 
of Scotland, which is included between the Highland moun- 
tain boundary and the schist of the south. Whoever may 
wish to make a map of this tract, as of many others in Scot- 
land, may be assured that he will only succeed by examining 
nearly every square yard; and that, without this attention, 
he will only produce that which will be as useless for its in- 
tended purposes as discreditable to himself. 

I need not prolong this subject, and shall be satisfied if these 
hints, the fruit of hard experience, shall be of use. to those 
who may intend to labour in this department of geology, or to 
those who expect to profit by their labours. 


Ant. XI.—Remarks on the Influence of the Winds on the Ba~ 
rometer. Communicated by the Author. 


Atzour the beginning of the last century, Mr Hawskbee pro- 
posed the following experiment to explain the descent of ‘the 
barometer during a storm. ‘ Having connected the cisterns 
of two barometers by a horizontal pipe of three feet, he insert- 
ed in the sidé of one of them a pipe opening outwards, and 
connected the other side with a large receiver, into which three 
or four charges of atmosphere had been compressed ; ov open- 
ing the cock the air rushed with vehemence over the mercury 
in the cistern and effected its escape, while both columns fell 
simultaneously about two inches, and rose again as the force 
VOL. 11. NO. 11. aApRit 1825. R 


242 Remarks on the Influence of the 


of the blast diminished ;” from this experiment he derives 
four corollaries, the first two of which are, 1, ‘* That we have 
here a clear and natural account of the descent and. vibrations 
of the mercury during a storm.” And, 2, “‘ That not only the 
different forces, but also the different directions of the wind, 
are capable of producing a difference of subsidence of the 
mercury.” Upon this Professor Leslie* remarks: ‘‘ This ex- 
periment has a specious appearance, and might seem to war- 
rant the conclusions drawn from it, but a closer examination 
dispels the illusion; since the air had been condensed four 
times, it must issue from the vessel with the velocity of 2700 
feet in a second; this is a rapidity, however, twenty times 
greater than the most tremendous hurricane; the very small 
change of the 400dth part of an atmosphere would hence have 
been sufficient to produce the strongest wind ever known, and, 
therefore, its influence in passing over the mercurial column 
must have been quite insignificant. But the experiment itself 
is absolutely fallacious; the peculiar result proceeded from a 
casual circumstance, the exit-pipe being Jarger than the pipe 
which introduced the air; for the air being previously con- 
densed, and still restrained in its passage through the induc- 
tion pipe, on entering the cavity of the box, immediately ex- 
pands beyond the Jimit of equilibrium, and finding an easy 
escape through the exit-pipe, allows that state of dilatation over 
the mercury during the time of the horizontal flow, but the 
air contained in the other cistern must, from its communica- 
tion by the pipe, suffer a like expansion, and the columns will] 
subside equally.” 

That this reasoning is also fallacious may, I think, be thus 
shown: That the air, even after its ‘* dilatation” in its pas- 
sage tbrough the cistern, is still considerably denser than the 
surrounding air, (otherwise the blast would cease,) is beyond 
dispute; whence then the fall of the mercury? it should ra- 
ther rise; this explanation is evidently inadequate. That the 
difference of size in the induction and exit pipes will effect - 
the result is admitted, indeed, it is evident; and I am inclin- 
ed to think, that, if in the above case, the blast had been 
equally swift and less confined, the result would have been 


* Vide Suppl. Encycl. Brit. Art. Meteorology. 


Winds on the Barometer. IAD 


. 


more striking, and, therefore, that “ the influence of the 
strongest wind ever known would not be quite imsignificant.” 
The Professor continues, “ Such is unquestionably the true 
explication of the fact,” and confirms it by this experiment : 

“ Let A, Plate IV. Fig. 2. be any cylinder, suppose three 
inches long, and two in diameter, having an open pipe insert- 
ed at B, a quarter of an inch wide, and perhaps two inches 
Jong, and another at C about three-eighths or half an inch 
wide, and one inch long; at right angles to these a syphon 
GHF of one-tenth of an inch bore is cemented below contain- 
ing coloured water. If a blast be injected into the cavity at 
B, the water will rise to G, showing the diminished pressure, 
and consequent rarefaction of the air above it; but if a cap D 
with a narrow pipe of perhaps one-eighth of an inch bore be 
adapted to C, on repeating the experiment, an opposite effect 
will take place, and the column of water will subside to H. 
It is evidently the difficulty of the escape through D which 


occasions the accumulation of air in the cylinder.” 


The reason given in the latter case is undoubtedly just, but 
not so in the Pee for to produce a rarefaction of the air 
in the cylinder, it is necessary that more air should pass out 
through C than is injected at B, an incident which we cannot 
look for. 

I will now show that the wind may partially remove or in- 
crease the vertical pressure according to its direction. 

Let AB, Fig. 3. be any tube of equal bore, into the side of 
which the syphon CE containing coloured water, opens at an 
angle of about 30° with the tube AB; now, if a blast be sent 


through the tube fron A to B, the column in C will fall, if 


from B to A, the colums will rise, and even flow out through 
the tube AB, the latter result will take place, whatever the situ- 
ation of the tube C, provided the blast does not take effeet 


__down the opening of C, for then the column will be depressed. 


These latter proofs of the action of the wind were suggest- 


ed by an article in a late number of the “ Mechanics’. Maga- 


zine,” in which the writer says he raised water to the height of 
eight inches in a funnel by,the blast of a pair of bellows di- 
rected over the mouth of it. I have since found the princi- 
ple of much service in the use of a syphon, for by directing a 
blast from the mouth through a tube rather larger than the 


244 Professor Cain on a New Formation 


syphon, in a direction nearly parallel with the leg, the liquid 
is raised over the bend, and thus begins to flow without the 
inconvenient process of filling it as is usual. That the wind 
does diminish or augment the vertical pressure of the atmo- 
sphere sufficiently to account for the variations of the barome- 
ter I will not venture to assert; but a friend once told me, 
that he had found his barometer so unsteady whilst in a pas- 
sage where there was a draught, that he was obliged to 
move it. 

The learned Professor proposes a new theory of the varia- 
tions of the barometer, the principle of which is, ‘* That as a 
horizontal current of air must, from the form of the earth, 
continually deflect from its rectilineal course, such a deflection 
being of the same nature as a centrifugal force, must diminish 
the weight or pressure of the fluid.” This may be sufficient 
to account for the fall of the barometer in high winds, but it 
necessarily ascribes the rise of it to a cause merely negative, 
viz., the absence of wind, yet the rise of the barometer in a. 
north-east wind is often very considerable. On the other 
hand, if we consider the north wind as blowing downwards, 
(which we may perhaps do as coming from a colder region,) 
the fact accords with Mr Hawksbee’s theory. 

E. A.* 


Lonpon, January 27th, 1825. 


Art. XII.—On a New Formation of Anhydrous Sulphuric — 
Acid. Observed by C. G. Gmxxiy, Professor of Chemistry — 
in the University of Tiibingen. Communicated by the 
Author, 


Tr has been an opinion hitherto received, that anhydrous 
sulphuric acid can be obtained in no other way, than by de- 
composing in a distillatory apparatus such sulphates, as, 
when heated, give off their acid, such as calcined iron-vi- 
triol. It is generally known, that the fuming oil of vitriol 
from Nordhausen is procured in this way. I have found, 


~* We shall be glad to have farther communication piriape E. A., and 
learn his address.—Eb. 


f 


of Anhydrous Sulphuric Acid. 245 


that the not fuming (so called in English) oil of vitriol yields 
at a certain period of the distillation fuming acid._ I heated in 
aretort, connected with a receiver, 6 pounds 143 ounces Eng- 
lish oil of vitriol, of a specific gravity, = 1.8435 at + 103° R. 
which was not the least fuming. ‘ihe acid never came to 
boiling ; the temperature of the air was 0° R. four ounces hav- 
ing distilled, having a strong smell of sulphurous acid, the re- 
ceiver was emptied, cleansed, and applied anew. When eight 
ounces of an acid, which was quite destitute of smell, had 
distilled over, the receiver, which had. hitherto been perfectly 
transparent, was suddenly filled with vapours. It was re- 
moved, and another dry receiver applied, which was now 
surrounded with powdered ice. ‘There was condensed an acid 
partly not transparent, partly transparent and crystalline; a 
good deal of the solid acid was found in the neck of the re- 
tort. This solid acid was exceedingly fuming like that pro- 
duced from the fuming oil of vitriol; it remained solid at 
+ 12° R., and had no smell of sulphurous acid. When 
brought in contact with a certain quantity of sulphur, in a 
close air-tight glass vessel, a green compound, having the 
colour of muriate of chrome, was formed, and a little sulphus 
rous acid was disengaged. ‘This green mass being brought 
im contact with water, a very great heat was evolved, sulphu- 
rous acid formed, and sulphur dissolved. When the solid 
acid was brought in contact with water, diluted acid was form- 
ed, but no sulphurous acid. ‘This diluted acid being saturat- 
ed by potash, and evaporated to crystallization, no nitre was 
formed, nor were nitrous vapours produced by heating the 
dry mass with concentrated sulphuric acid. The specific 
gravity of the acid left in the retort, which was now sensibly 
Juning, was found = 1.8503 at 4+- 13° R., the specific gravi- 
ty of the acid which distilled over, = 1.4309 at + 113° R.* 
This experiment being repeated with the same acid, the same 
result was obtained. But it may happen, that the moment at 
which the fuming acid is formed is overlooked ; in the experi- 
“ments just now mentioned, it was not formed, but in the first 
half of the third day, (during the two first days, from seven 


'* The specific gravities were determined by means of a small bottle, 


provided with a plate ground upon its neck. 
= 


246 Dr Davy on the Temperaturé of the Sea and the Air, 


o'clock in the morning till nine o’clock in the evening, fire had 
been kept in the furnace,) and its formation could not longer 
be perceived than during about half an hour.* These ex- 
periments leave, I think, no doubt, that the solid acid real- 
ly was anhydrous sulphuric acid. Its formation may thus 
be explained, that, in a certain concentration of the aqueous 
sulphuric acid, part of the acid yields its water to another 
part of the acid, and is volatilized, whereby, on one side, by 
the great volatility of the anhydrous acid, on the other side 
by the great fixity of the acid containing water, this kind of 
decomposition seems to be induced. 


Arr. XITI.— Observations on the Temperature of the Sea and. 
the Air, and on the Specific Gravity of Sea Water, made 
during a Voyage from St Helena to England in 1820. 


By Joun Davy, M.D. F. R.S. Communicated by the 
Author. 


Arren quitting St Helena on the 6th May, I again resumed 
my observations on the temperature of the sea and the air. 


May 6. S. Lat. 14° 59, W. Long. 6° 22. Out of sight of 


Land. 
Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
&h A. M. 73° eae 7 S. by E. gentle, overcast. 
10 74 74 7 SE. do. do. 
12 79 7A 9 SE. do. do. 
3 P.M. 74.5 74.5 & SE. do. do. 
6 79 7a 6 SE. do. do. 


The night was moderate, and rather cloudy. 


May 7. 8. Lat. 13° 32’, W. Long. 8° 6’. 
Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 


8h a. M. 74° U9°.5 6°.5 SSE. moderate, overcast. 

10 76 79.5 8.5 SE. do. clear. 

12 77 76 a SE. do. overcast. 
3 PY. M. 73 75.5 2.5 NE. by E. moderate, overcast, slight rain. 
6 72 76.5 2. SE. do. slightly overcast. 


The night was pretty fine, and the breeze moderate. 


* I quote these circumstances, that it may appear, how slowly the 
distillation proceeded. Probably no fuming acid will be formed, when the 
@uid in the retort is brought to boiling. 


during a Voyage from St Helena to England. 24% 


May 8. S. Lat. 12° 9, W. Long. 10° 8. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8ha.m. 74° Wf 4° E. by N. moderate, slightly overcast. 
10 77 77.5 7 Do. do. __ pretty clear. 
12 77 77.5 6.5 SE. by E. do. overcast. 


Since yesterday, at twelve o’clock, the ship has been carried 
by a current twenty-nine miles to the south. The sudden ele- 
vation of the temperature of the sea agrees with this. 


Air. Water. . Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
shp.m. 77° 78° 7°.5 SE. byS. moderate, overcast. 
6 76 47-5 6 SSE. gentle, do. 


The night was fine, and the breeze moderate. 


May 9. S. Lat. 10° 50’, W. Long. 11° 3%. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8ha. at. 77° 78° 7h SSE. gentle, clear. 
10 78 vii 7.5 SE. moderate, cloudy. 
12 79 79 8 Do. do. do. 
2pm. 78 79 7 Do. do. clear. 
6 718 79.5 8 East, do. do. 
9 1163 — 5.5 Do. do. do. 


During the twenty-four hours preceding noon, we have 
been carried twenty-seven miles to the west. 
The night was fine, and the breeze moderate. 
May 10. S. Lat. 8° 57’, W. Long. 13° 24/. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 


8ha. mM. 78° 78°.5 5° SE. moderate, cloudy. 
10 18 79 5 Do. do. overcast. 
12 79 79 6.5 Do. do. do. 

3 Po Mei 30.0 79.5 4.5. East, do. . clear. 

6 78 80 6 Do. do. do. 
ll 78.5 80 5 Do. do. do. 


In the twenty-four hours preceding noon, the ship has been 
carried to the west fourteen miles. 
At 5" 30’ P. M. Ascension Island was seen in the horizon, 


“immediately a-head. At first, we had some difficulty in dis- 
tinguishing it, as it was about forty miles distant. The high- 


> 


248 Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, 


est point of it is said to be 2400 feet above the level of the 
sea. At eleven o'clock at night, when I tried the tempera- 
ture of the sea, we were about six miles from the island. 
About midnight, we were abreast of it, and we passed about 
three or four miles to the north-west of it. At day-light this 
morning, when the island was sixty miles behind us, it was 
distinctly visible. The island is rich only in turtle. 


May 11. S. Lat. 6° 43’, W. Long. 14° 55’. 


Air. Water. -Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8ha.M. 80°.5 80°.5 6°.5 East, moderate, clear. 
10 82 80.5 8 Do. do. do. 
12 82 80.5 8 Do. do. do. 
3) P.M... Ob 80 7 Do. do. do. — 
6 i9 80 5 I. by S. do. cloudy. 


The wind was variable during the night, and there were 
several heavy showers. 


May 12. 8. Lat, 4° 54’, W. Long. 15° 53’. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 


8ha.m. 77° 80° 2° East, gentle, overcast. 

10 78 80.5 2 SW. do. do. 

12 77.5 80.5 2 Do. do. do. slight rains. 
3Pp.M. 79 80.5 7 S.by W.do. do. pretty clear. 
6 78 &0 3 S. by E. do. do. 


At noon, we were in a very gentle current, setting to the 
north-west. 
The night was fine, and the sea luminous. 


May 13. $8. Lat. 3° 5’, W. Long. 17° V. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 


8ha.m. 79° 80° 4° S. by E. gentle, cloudy. 

10 81 80.5 5 SSE. moderate, pretty clear. 
12 82 80.5 6 Do. do. rather cloudy. 
3 P.M. 81. 80.5 5 ESE. do. do. 

6 80 80 4 Do. do. do. 


. The night was fine, and the sea luminous. 
During the twenty-four hours before noon, we were carried 
about ten miles to the south-west. 


during a Voyage from St Helena to England. — 249 
May 14. S. Lat. 1° 8’, W. Long. 18° 16/. 


Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 
Sha. Mm. 80° 79°.5 5 £. by S. moderate, rather cloudy. 

10 81 79.5 5 Do. do. do. 

12 81 79.8 4 E. by N. do. do. 
27r.M. 80 80 4 Kast, do. pretty clear. 
6 80 79.5 4 Do. do. do. 

9 8&0 80 4 Do. do. clear. 


The night was fresh, and we crossed the Line about 10" 28’ 
P. M. 

We were carried, in twenty-four hours preceding noon, 
about sixteen miles to the west, and one or two to the south. 

According to the observations collected by M. D’Apres, 
there are shoals near the Line, to the southward, between the 
meridians 21° W. and 18° W. A ship, for example, received 
a shock, as if from touching a sand-bank, in 0° 20’ S. Lat. 
and 20° 50’ W. Long.; another met with the same accident 
in 0° 20’ S. Lat. and 18° W. Long.; and a third in 1° 35” 
S. Lat. and 17° 50’ W. Long. A sand island also was seen 
in 0° 23’, and 19° 10° W. Long. The comparative low tem- 
perature of the sea to-day is in favour of the opinion that the 
bottom we have been passing over is not very deep, particu- 
larly so as the current seems to set rather southward than 
northward. Very many flying fish have been seen to-day ; 
‘often more than 100 together. 


May 15. N. Lat. 1° 24’, W. Long. 18° 40. 


Air. Water. Hvgr. Wind and Weather. 
8ha:m. 81° 81°.5 4°.5 East, moderate, cloudy. 
10 82 81.75 6 Do. do. do. 
12 82.5 82 5.5 ESE. do, do. 
3 p.M. 82 82.25 5 Do. do. do. 
6 80 82 4 SE. do. do. 


During the twenty-four hours preceding noon, we have 
been carried nine miles to the westward, and thirteen to the 
south. : 

A little after six in the evening, the weather changed. The 
wind became variable and squally, and the sky obscured with 
dark clouds, threatening rain. We shortened sail as speedily 

_ as possible; and whilst this was doing, the wind blowing hard 


250 Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, 


and on our beam, the ship went with great rapidity, at the 
rate of twelve knots an hour. ‘The effect of a vessel dashing 
through a sea of foam, brightly luminous, and emitting a sil- 
ver light, was extremely beautiful and striking. The squall 
was soon accompanied with heavy rain, which lasted till 
about 10° P. M. The rain then ceased, and the wind abated, 
and was moderate during the rest of the night. 


May 16. N. Lat. D. R. 4° 13, W. Long. 19° 15, 


Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 
Jha. M. 82°.5 82° 6° ESE. fresh, cloudy. 
10 82 &2 5.3 East, do. overcast. 
12 77 81.5 2 Do. do. do. slight rain. 
2 a. 79 81.5 3 ENE. moderate, overcast. 
6 79 81 35 E.by N. do. do. 


A squall, which threatened us at 10 A. M., commenced 
soon after, and lasted till noon. The wind was strong and va- 
riable. Our main-top-shéet was torn to pieces. The accom- 
panying rain was heavy. 

Between sunset and midnight, the weather was pleasant, the 
breeze gentle, and the wake of the ship was remarkably lumi- 
nous. The luminous appearance was unusual, being confined 
to distinct oval luminous masses. Between midnight and sun- 
rise, it was almost calm, and it rained the greater part of the 
time very heavily. 


May 17. N. Lat. 6, W. Long. 19° 377’. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
Jha.m. 79° 80° 2° NE. gentle, overcast. 
10 81% |= ipol 4.5 _ NE. by E. gentle, pretty clear. 
12 62 81.5 3.5 NE. do. do, 
2pm. 81 82 4 Do. very gentle, do. 
6 80 81.5 4 Do. do. do. 
9 81 —_— 6 Do. do. clear. 


During the last forty-eight hours before noon, we have been 
carried about twenty-two miles to the north, and about as 
much to the north-east. 

The night was very fine, and the breeze very gentle. Both 
now and formerly, I have observed the air warmer and drier 
at nine or ten o'clock than just after sunset. 

8 


; during a Voyage Srom St Helena to England. 251 


‘We had the great pleasure, this day, of secing once more 
the north pole star, a little above the horizon.’ 


May 18. N. Lat. 6° 49, E. Long. 20° v. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
Sha. mw. 819.5 86°.5 4°.5 NE. by N. gentle, clear. 

10 82.5 80.5 6.3 Do. do. do. 

12 82 81 5 NNE. do. cloudy. 
3r.m. 81 81.5 4.5 Do. moderate, pretty clear. 
6 80 80.5 4 North — gentle, —_ do. 

9 79 — 3 NNE. do. clear. 


The night was fine. During the twenty-four hours before 
noon, we do not appear to have been in any current, yet, from 
the rippling of the surface last night, just before sunset, we 
were supposed to be in one; but this test seems to me a falla- 
cious one. 


May 19. N. Lat. 7° 27’, W. Long. 21° 46’. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8h A.M. 77° 77° Dts NNE. moderate, overcast. 
10 78 77 5 Do. do. slightly do. 
ow 78.5 17.5 5 Do. do. pretty clear. 
3 A.M. 78 78 5 NE. by N. do. slightly overe, 
6 71 77 3 Do. do. do. 
9 i7 77 3 Do. do. pretty clear. 


The night was fine.. During the twenty-four hours pre- 
ceding noon, we have been carried sixteen miles south, and 
six west. The remarkable change in the temperature of the 
water indicated a southerly current. From the temperature 
of the water at six o’clock last night, I infer that we were not 
then in the current. Hence we may conclude, that its course 
is not rapid. May not this current be connected with the 
Gulf Stream reflected from the African coast ? 


May 20. N. Lat. 8° 10’, W. Long. 23° 17’. 
Air. Water. Hygr. | Wind and Weather. 


7) a. M. “76° YW be 3° NE. by N. moderate, pretty clear. 
10 79 78 au eos S do. do. 
, 12 79 78.5 4 Dostana do. do. 
3pm... 78 78  .3 Do. do. . slightly overcast. 
eS - 77 78 3 N. by E. do. __ pretty clear. 


The night was fine. During the twenty-four hours pre- 


252 Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, 


ceding noon, we have been carried eight miles south, but no 
way to the west. 


May 21. N. Lat. 9° 1’, W. Long. 25° 8, 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 


8ha.m. 76° 17°.5 4° N. by E. moderate, overcast. 
10 77 rit 5 Do. do. slightly do. 
12 77 17 5 NNE. do. do. 

3p.M. 76 76.5 4.5 Do. do. __ pretty clear. 

6 78 76.5 3.5 NE. do. do. 

9 75 _ 3.5 NE.by N. do. do. 


The night was fine. In the twenty-four hours before noon, ~ 
we have been carried by the current eight miles to the south. 


May 22. N. Lat. 10° 25’, West Long. 26° 53’. 


Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 
Sha. mM. 75°.5 75°.5 4°.5 NE. by N. moderate, slightly overc. 
10 76 76 5 Do. do. do. 
12 17 76.5 5.5 Do. do. do. 
3r.m. 76 76.5 5 Do. fresh, do. 
6 75. 715 4.5 Do. do. rather cloudy. 


The night was tolerably fine. In the twenty-four hours 
before noon, we have been carried five miles to the northward, 
and in the forty-eight hours, fifteen miles to the westward. 


May 23. N. Lat. 12° 6’, W. Long. 28° 28’, 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
Jha. M. 75° 76° 6° NNE. moderate, pretty clear. 
_ 10 ad 76.5 Ue tle Vu. do. do. 
12 77 77 7 Do. fresh, cloudy. 
3r.M. 75.5 17 5.5 Do. do. rather cloudy. 
6 74.5 76 5.5 Do. do. do. 


The night was cloudy, and the wind fresh. In the twenty- 
four hours before noon, we have been carried fourteen miles 


to the WSW. 
May 24. N. Lat. 13° 52’, W. Long. 30° 33’. 


Air. Water.  Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
Shia. Mw. 739.5 74°.5 4°.5 NNE. fresh, cloudy. 
10 79 74 5 Do. do. do. 
12 75 73.5 6.5 Do. do. pretty clear- 
3pr.M. 74 73.5 5 Do. do. overcast. 


6 73 73.4 4 Do. do. do. 


during a Voyage from St Helena to England. 258 


The night was similar to the preceding. In the twenty- 
four hours before noon, we have been carried twenty miles to 
the west. 


May 25. N. Lat. 15° 50’, W. Long. 82° 88’. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
Sha. mM. 73° 73° 4° NE. strong, overcast. 
10 74.5 73 5 Do. do. do. 
12 78 73 5.5 Do. do. cloudy. 
oP. Me f4 3” 5 Do. do. do. : 
6 73 73 4 NE. byE.do. do. 


The night was like the preceding. In the twenty-four 
hours before noon, we have been carried about eighteen miles 
to the west, and about four to the south. 


May 26.. N. Lat. 18° 15’, W. Long. 34° &. 


Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 
Sha. mM. 72°.5  73°.5 4 NE. by E. strong, overcast. 
10 73.5 73.5 5 Do. do. do. 
12 755 74 5 Do. do. do. 
3p. mM. 73.5 79 5 Do. fresh, _ clear. ; 
6 73 73.5 5 Do. do. rather cloudy. 


The night was tolerably fine, and the wind fresh. The 
current still sets to the westward, but not to the southward. 
The weather is boisterous and squally, and the sea running 
high. During the two first nights, the highest clouds have 
been moving in a direction opposite to that of the lower, which 
have followed the course of the wind. The latter had travel- 


Jed rapidly, the former slowly. 


May 27. N. Lat. 20° 55/, W. Long. 35° 49. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
Sha. a. 72°.5 73° 5°.5 NE. fresh, overcast. 
10 73 713 5 Do. do. do. 
12 73.5 73.5 4.5 NE. by E. do. , do. 
3rpM. 73 73.5 6 Do. do. clear. 
6 72.5 73.5 6 E.by N. do. cloudy, 
9 72.5 re 5 Do. moderate, clear. 


During the twenty-four hours before noon, we have been 


carried about eighteen miles to the west, and about seven to the 
4 


254 Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, 


north. A good many pieces of sea-weed were seen floating 
this evening, resembling in colour and figure the common 
spray. They generally make their appearance, and in great 
quantities, a little farther to the north. They are supposed 
to be brought from the American coast by the current, which 
may be considered a branch of the Gulf Stream. Not only 
these weeds, but the state of the thermometer, scem to indi- 
cate that we have been in a current to-day. The night was 
very fine, and the breeze moderate. We saw the southern 
coast a little above the horizon. 


May 28. N. Lat. 23° 27’, W. Long. 37° 8. 


Air, Water. — Hygr. Wind and Weather. _ 
Sha.m. 74° piers 7.5 E. hy N. moderate, clear, 
10 73.5 74 oie NE.” * “do. rather cloudy. 
12 74.5 74 15 Do. de. clear. 
3PM. ~ 98. 74 5.9 .E. by WN. do. do. 
6 WPA 79 5 Do. do. rather cloudy. 


The night was fine, and the weather delightful. In the 
twenty-four hours before noon, we have been carried fourteen 
miles to the west, and twenty to the northward, 


May 29. N. Lat. 25° 50’, W. Long. 37° 50’. 


Air. Water, Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8ha. mM. 72°56 2.6 He E. by N. moderate, pretty clear. 
10 4 73 7 Do. do. do. 
12 73.5 73 7 Do. do. do. 
3°,M, | 72 73 3 Do. do. do. 
6 7k IZ 7 Do do. a squall approaching. 


During the twenty-four hours before noon, we have been 
carried thirty-two miles to the west, and ten to the northward. 
A little sea-weed was seen yesterday, and a good deal this morn- 
ing. It is a delicate species of fueus. The stem and branches 
were cylindrical, and the leaves long and lancecolated, and 
there were attached to the branches numerous hollow spheri- 
eal bodies. ‘The colour of the weed was between light apple- 
green and straw-yellow. Many of the spherical bodies. were 
enveloped in a delicate crust, or a reticulated coralloid, quite 
white. Several small eels, of the same species, were caught 
om the weed, and two or three gelatinous bodies, of regular 
forms, and irritable. 


OE 


during a Voyage from St Helena to England, 25 


“The squall, which occurred at six Pp. M., was short, and at- 
tended by slight showers. 


May 80. N. Lat. 28° 1’, W. Long. 87° 57’. 


Air. 
Sha. um. 72° 


10° 73 
12 72.5 
oP, M0 72 
6 7) 
9 70 


Water. Hyer. 


72° if 
72 7 
72 6d 
72.5 6 
rp 5 
_ 4 


The night was moderate, 


Wind and Weather. 
moderate, pretty clear. 


East, 

Do. do. 
Do. do. 
Do. do. 
E. by S. do. 
Do. do. 


light clouds. 
cloudy. 
pretty clear. 
do. 
do. after a shower. 


In the twenty-four hours, we 
have been carried by the current twenty-five miles to the 
west. Sea-weed, in great quantities, similar to that noticed 
before, has been seen to-day. 


May 31. N. Lat. 29° 48’, W. Long. 37° 31.’ 


Air. 
8h a. mM. 72° 
10 70 
12 67 
3 P.M. 70 
6 69 
& 68.5 


Water. Hygr. 


70°.5 5° 
70.5 6 
70 2.5 
70.5 6 
69.5 4.5 
= 3.5 


Wind and Weather. 
EK. by S. moderate, light clouds. 
very gentle, overcast, slight rain. 


Do. 
N. 
NE: 
Do. 
Do. 


gentle, 


overcast. 


very gentle, rather cloudy. 


do. 


light clouds. 


gentle, pretty clear. 


The night was fine, and the breeze gentle. The north-east 
trade-wind frequently ceases, and variable winds succeed it. 
Very little sea-weed has been seen to-day. 


June 1. 
Air. 
8ha. at. 69° 
10 70.5 
12 70 
3 p.m. 70 
6 69 


9 68.5 


N. Lat. 31° 8’, W. Long. 38° 27. 


Water. Hygr. 


69° 4° 
70 5 
70 4 
70 5 
69.5, 4.5 
— 4.5 


Wind and Weather. 


E. by N. very gentle, light clouds. 


Last, 
E. by 


gentle, 


N. do. 


The night was fine, the wind very gentle, and the sea un- 


‘usually smooth. 


In the last twenty-four hours we appear to have been car= 


ried a little way by a current to the north-west. 
‘ ° 


256 Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, 


June 2. N. Lat. 32° 25’, W. Long. 38° 35. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8ha.m. 71° 70° 6 NE. by E. very gentle, clear. 
10 71 71 7 NE. do. do. 
12 vA 71 7 Do. do. do. 
3pm 71 71.5 7 Do. calm. do. 
6 70 72 if Do. do. do. 
9 68.5 70.5 5.5 Do. do. do. 


The night was fine and calm. The current, during the 
twenty-four hours, has carried us a little way to the south- 
westward. It was found by an experiment of the first mate, 
Mr Harrison, to be flowing north-west about half a mile an — 
hour. 


June 3. N, Lat. 33° 12’, W. Long. 38° 3%. 


Air. Water. | Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
Jha. um. 71° 69° 6° NE, by E. very gentle, clear. 
10 - 7 69.5 6 East, gentle, light clouds. 
12 71 70.5 6 Do. do. ~' clear. 
3 p.m. 70,5 71.5 5.5 ESE. very gentle, do. 
6 70 rl 5 Do. do. light clouds. 
9 70 70.5 5 Do. do. do. 


The night was fine, and the breeze very gentle. A great — 
many species of aquatic animals were seen, the appearance of 
many of which was beautiful, resembling, in colour and form, 
flowers rather than animals. 


June 4, N. Lat. 34° 8’, W. Long. 37° 57’. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8ha,M. 70°. 70°.5 5° ESE. very gentle, clear. 


10 72 71 6.5. "100, do. do. 

12 73.5 72 7 Do... do. do. 
3 P.M. 72 72 6 SE. by S. gentle, do. 
6 7l 71.5 5.5 S.byW. do. rather cloudy. 
9 70 — 5 Do. do. overcast. 


The night was moderate, and the breeze gentle. Some sea- 
weed, similar to the former, was seen to-day, as well as the 
day before. The current has set gently to the north-west= 
ward. In the last twenty-four hours, we have been carried 
by it five miles to the westward, and six to the northward. 


during a Voyage from St Helena to England. = 257 


“June 5. N. Lat. 85° 3’, W. Long. 36° 25’. 


Air: Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
Sha.m. 70°.5 69°.5 3°.5 S. by W. gentle, slightly overcast. 
10 75 68.5 5 sw. dos do. 
12 71.5 68 5 WSw. do. do. 
3 pM. 70.5 69 3.5 Do. moderate, do. 
6 70 68.5 2.5 Do. do. do. 
a 6.5 — 2 Do. do. _ do. , 


The night was rather squally, and towards the morning 
there was heavy rain. 


June 6. N. Lat. 36° 53’, W. Long. 33° 53’. 


Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 


8 a.m. 68° 66°.5 2° S. strong, overcast. 
« 2 PM. 67 66.5 2 W. squally, do. 
Q 5 66 66 1 SW. do. do. slight rain. 


ORE 


It was stormy the whole of the morning, and the rain was 
incessant, and very heavy. ‘The night was also stormy, and 
the showers frequent and heavy. 

b , 


it June'{. N. Lat. 89° 46’, W. Long. 33° 16’. 


_— 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
7. Qhacm. 65°.5 64°.5 2° S. squally, overcast. 
be 12 65 64 2.5 S.byE. do. — do. 


3°4.M. 65.5 64 2.5 Do. do. do. 
7 66 65 3 SSE. strong, pretty clear. 


The night was pretty clear, and the gale abating. The sea 
ran high. We have seen none of the Azores, the most north- 
ern of which we have now nearly cleared. 


June 8. N. Lat. 42° 16/, W. Long. 30° 36’. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 


Sha. mM. 68° 64° 5° SE. fresh, pretty clear. 
12 65 64 5 Do. do. do. 
3 P.M. 65 64.5 5 Do. do. do. 
6 64 64.5 4 Do. do. cloudy. 
8 64 64.5 4 Do. do. do. 


The night was fine, and the wind moderate. 


-VOL. Il. No. 11. APRIL 1825. s 


258 Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, 
June 9. N. Lat. 43° 58’, W. Long. 28° 19’. 


Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 
8h a. M. 63° 62°.5 4°.5 SE. by S. moderate, cloudy. 
10 64 63 5 Do. do. do. 
12 64.5 63.5 5 SE. do. = do. 
3 Pp.M. 62.5 63.5 3.5 Do. gentle, rather cloudy. e 
6 63 63.5 3.5 SSE. do. _ pretty clear. 
9 63.5; _ 4 S.by E. do. do. 


During the last three days, we have been in a current set- 
ting to the north-eastward. In the last twenty-four hours, we 
have been carried about twenty-eight miles to the northward, 
and as many to the eastward. 


June 10. N. Lat. 44° 51’, W. Long. 26° 37’. 


Air. Water, Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
Tia. M. 63° 62°.5 3° S. by E. gentle, pretty clear. 
10 64 63 4 SSE. do. slightly overcast. 
12 65° 63.5 4.5 Do. do. pretty clear. ei 
3PM. 64.5 64 4 S. by E, do. slightly overcast. 
6 64 64 4 SW. do. _ pretty clear. 4 
9 64 ~ 3.5 Do. do. do. 4 


The night was fine, and the breeze gentle. In the last 
twenty-four hours the current has set strongly to the north- 
ward, and slightly to the eastward. 

The sea, during the last three days, has looked greenish. 


June 11. N. Lat. 45° 12/, W. Long. 24° 27’. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8h a.m. 63° 64°.5 4° S. by W. gentle, rather cloudy. 
10 G4 63.5 4 SW. by W. do, do. 
12 66 63.5 6 Wwsw. do. do. 
3 r.M. 65 64.5 5 W. by N. do. do. 
6 64.5 63.5 4 Nw. do. do. 
8 64 63.5 4 Do. 7 do. do. 


The night was moderate, and cloudy. During the last 
twenty-four hours, the current has set strongly to the east- 
ward. 

June 12. N. Lat. 46° 4, W. Long. 21° 44. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8ha.M. 63° 61°.5 2° NNE. moderate, cloudy. 


10 62 61.5 1 N. very gentle, overcast, after slight rain. — 
12 63 62 2 Do do. do. 
3PM. 62.5 61.5 2 NE. do. do. 
6 62 61.5 3 NE. byN. fresh, do. 


during a Voyage from St Helena to England. 259 


There was very little wind during the night. ‘The current 
appeared during the last twenty-four hours. 


June 13. N. Lat. 46° 8’, W. Long. 19° 51’. 


Air. | Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8ha.M. 61° 61° 5° NNE. very gentle, overcast. 
10 615 615 2 Do. do. do, slight rain 
12 62 62.5 3. NE. do. clear. 
3 pM. 615 63 4.5 Do. do. do. 
6 61 61.5 4.5 Do. do. do. 
8 59.5 61.5 4.5 Do. do. do. 


The night was fine, and almost calm. During the last 
twenty-four hours, we have been in a current setting to the 
eastward. 


June 14. N. Lat. 46° 11’, W. Long. 18° 21’. 


Air. . Water.  Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8ha.M. 59°: 60° 3° E. by N. very gentle, clear, 
10 58.5 60 4 Do. gentle, do. 
12 59 61 4 Do. do. do. 
3 PM. 59 61 4 Do. do. do. 
6 58.5 61 4 Do. do. do. 
8 57 60.5 4 Do. do. do. 


The night was fine, and nearly calm. The current set to- 
day to the north-east, but not strongly. 


June 15. N. Lat. 45° 49’, W. Long. 1'7° 265’. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 

8ha.m. 57° 60° 4 E. by N. very gentle, clear. 
10 57.5 60.5 4 Do. do. do. 
12 58 62 4 Calm, _ do. 
3 pM. 60 63 6 Do. _ do. 
6 60 61.5 5 Do. = do. 
8 59 61 5 Do. —_ do. 
10 58 60 4.5 Do. — do. 


The current, during the last twenty-four hours, has set 
gently to the south-eastward. 
Though the air is so cool, yet the sun is powerful. Not a 


single cloud, or any vapour, is to be seen in the sky; and the 
. 8 

| 
) 
| 


260. Dr Davy on the Temperature of the Sea and the Air, 


calmness is such, that the sea is like a mill-pool, and reflects 
the images of the moon and of Venus. The calm continued 
through the night, till sunrise, when a gentle breeze sprung 
up from the north-west. 


June 16. N. Lat. 45° 57’, W. Long. 17°. 


Air. Water. Hyer. Wind and Weather. 

Sha. mM. 58°.5 59° 2° NW. very gentle, clear: 
Fy 60 60 3 NW. by W. do. do. 
10 61.5 60.5 3.5 Do. do. do. 
12 62 61.5 3.5 Do. do. do. 
3PM. 63 60.5 3.5 Do. gentle, dos 
6 64 60.5 4.6 Do. do. do. 


8 62 60.5 2 Do. do. do. 


The night was fine, and the wind gentle. During the last 
twenty-four hours, there was no appearance of a current. 

Though it was completely calm during the night, and the 
air very clear, yet there were no indications of dew. The cir- 
cumstances ascertained by the thermometer and hygrometer 
were certainly sufficient to prevent it ; and there is reason to 
believe that they afford a good general explanation of dew 
never making its appearance at sea at a great distance from 
land. The observations on the temperature of the sea, and on 
the temperature and dryness of the air, are interesting in other 
respects, especially as indicating the effects of the sun’s rays 
on the air and sea by day, and the effect of the radiation, and 
of heat, from the sea to the air, by night. 


© June 17. N. Lat. 47° 5/, W. Long. 14° 12’. 


Air. Water. Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
8ha. Mm. 60°.5 59° 1°.5 NNW. gentle, pretty clear. 


10 61 59.5 16 Do. do. — slightly overcast. 
12 62 59.5 2 N. by W. do. do. 

3 pM. 62 59 2 Do. do. do. 

6 61 59 2 Do. do. do. 

8 60 58.5 15  W.byS. do. do. 


The night was moderate. During the twenty-four hours a 
current has set to the eastward. 


during a Voyage from St Helena to England. 


June 18. 
Air. 
8ha.m. 61° 
10 61.5 
12 62 
3 PM. . 615 
5 61 
8 es 


Water. 
58° 
58.5 
58.5 
58.5 
57 
56 


261 


N. Lat. 472 59/, W. Long. 129 8. 


Hygr. | Wind and Weather. 
1°.5 W. moderate, hazy. 
2 Do. do. _ slightly overcast. 
2.5 Do. do. pretty clear. 
2 Do. fresh, overcast. 
= Do. do. do. 
— Do. do. do. raining. 


The night was tolerably fine, and the wind fresh. 


June 19. N. Lat. 


Air. 
6ba. mM. 56° 
8 56 

10 55.5 

12 56 
3P.M. 56 
7 55 


Water. 


56° 

95.9 
55.9 
55.5 
55.5 
54.5 


W. Long. 
Hygr. Wind and Weather. 
3° N. fresh, clear. 
4 N. by E. do. do. 


4 N. by E. do. do. 
5 N. by W. do. do. 
4 Do. do. do. 
4 N. by E. do. overcast. 


During the two last days the current has set very little to 
the eastward. Captain Stewart was of opinion that we were in 
soundings, and that we entered them last night about the 
time when the temperature of the water suddenly fell about 


two degrees. 


About nine o’clock we saw the Lizard Light. 


June 20. 

Air. Water. 
3gha. mM. 53° 53° 
7 54 54 

10 54.5 52.5 
12 56 5.35 
3 a. M. 56 53.5 
6 55 54 
June 21. 
Air. Water. 
5ha.m, 52° 55° 
 38rp.m. 60 55 
7 57 (56 
June 22. 
Air. Water 
4h a. M. 55° 56° 
12 59 55.5 
6 p.m 60 56-5 


W. 


Wind and Weather. 
NW. by N. fresh, pretty clear, Off the Lizard. 
Do. do. do. Off the Eddystone. 


Do. do. cloudy, Off the Bolthead. 
W. fresh, cloudy, Off Froward Point. 
W. moderate, do. 


W. by N. gentle, pretty clear, Off Portland. 


Wind and Weather. 
N. by E. gentle, 


clear, Off the Isle of Wight. 
gentle, pretty clear, Off Arundel. 


W. very gentle, clear, Off Beachyhead about 3 miles, 


W. 
Ww. 


Wind and Weather. 


yery gentle, clear, Dungeness a-head, & in sight. 
gentle, do. Off Dover about 4 mile. 


SW. gentle, cloudy, Passing through the Downs. 


262 Dr Brewster’s Description of Gmelinite, 


June 24. . Since the 22d, we have been coming up the river 
with the tide, the wind being either very light or contrary, 
About noon to-day we reached Gravesend, and landed, ' 


London, July 16. 1 have just ascertained the specific gra- 
vities of the different specimens of sea-water which I took up 
between the Cape and England, There appeared to be no 
sensible loss by evaporation. Each bottle was quite sweet and 
unaltered. ¥ used the delicate balance of the Royal Institu- 
tion, and a bottle with a long neck, weighing '7’78 grains, and 
of the temperature of 63°, holding 970.3 grains of distilled 
water. On the sides of the glass stople there was a fine groove. 
The temperature of the different specimens of sea-water was 
the same as that of distilled water, viz. 63°. Most of the ex- 
periments were twice repeated. 


No» Lat, Long. Specific Gravity. 
1 30° 6S. 11° 42’ E. 102667 
2 26 55 7 34 10267} 
3 6 ON. 19 17 W. 102667 
4 9 5 25 8 102671 
5 12 6 28 28 102671 
6 15 56 32 38 102762 
7 18 15 34 6 102762 
8 20 55 35 49 102762 
9 23 27 37 8 102823 

10 28 1 37 57 _ 102823 
ll 31 8 38 27 102762 
12 34 8 37 57 102823 
13 4210 30 86 102742 
14 44 5) 26 37 102721 

15 47 5 14 12 102721 
16 49 3 Fae | 102721 
17. Off Dover 3 mile. _ 102648 


Arr. XIV.—Description of Gmelinite, a New Mineral Spe- 
. cies. By Davin Brewster, LL. D. F. R. S. Lond. and 
Sec, R. 8. Edin, 


Awmonc the minerals of Monte Somma, the late Mr Thom- 
son of Cambridge discovered some crystals of a flesh-red col- 
our; to which he gave the name of Sarcolite. The Abbé 
Hauy, to whom he sent some fragments of these crystals, 


a New Mineral Species. 263 


found them to be cubes, having their solid atigles replaced by 
eight faces, each of which was inclined about 125° to the 
faces of the cube. As these crystals had a vitreous aspect, and 
scratched glass, Hauy did not scruple to consider them as a 
variety of Analcime.* In this opinion, he has been followed 
by all succeeding writers on mineralogy, and when cubical 
crystals of a flesh-red colour were discovered in Arthur Seat, 
the same trivial name of sarcolite was used to designate that 
acknowledged variety of Analcime. 

At Montecchio- Maggiore, and at Castel, in the Vicentine, 
there was afterwards discovered another substance which 
Hauy and other mineralogists have regarded as sarcolite. It 
was of a flesh-red colour, and occurred in small rounded mas- 
ses engaged in wacke. It accompanied white crystals of A- 
nalcime, and though it had a less vitreous fracture than the 
sarcolite of Thomson, yet, by Hauy’s observations, it was found 
to pass into the Analcime, assuming by degrees the vitreous 
tissue of the latter. 

According to the analysis of Vauquelin, however, the flesh- 
coloured crystals of the Vicentine contained less soda, and 
more water, than Analcime, and although M. Leman had dis- 
engaged from a mass of sarcolite from Castel some crystals 
of the form of hexaedral prisms, terminated by hexaedral 
pyramids, which Vauquelin considered to be the same as the 
amorphous variety, yet Hauy and all succeeding writers on 
mineralogy have still regarded these substances as Analcime.+ 
That the six-sided prisms of Leman could not possibly be 


_ united to Analcime ought to have been very obvious; but 


their similarity in form, composition, hardness, and specific 
gravity to Chabasie rendered it probable that they belonged to 
that species. 

Mr Allan, whose cabinet has enriched mineralogy with so 
many new species, had the good fortune to pick up in the 
Little Deer Park of Glenarm, in the county of Antrim, a spe- 
cimen, containing two or three fine crystals of a whitish as- 


pect, resembling the six-sided prisms of Leman, and which 


Trailé, 2d Edit. Tom. III. p. 177, 179. 
% De Dree, in his Catalogue des Iuit Collections, p. 18, designates the 
substance analysed by Vauquelin by the name of Hydrolite, a name given 
by Sir George Mackenzie to the Stalactitical Opal produced by hot springs. 


264 Dr Brewster’s Description of Gmelinite, 


he considered as the same substance.* As I had devoted 
much attention to the examination of the Analcime and the 
Chabasie, Mr Haidinger was so good as to put into my hands 
this interesting specimen, and also a specimen of the flesh-co- 
Joured masses from the Vicentine. The slightest comparison of 
these substances in their optical characters, put it beyond a 
doubt, that they had no relation to Analcime or Chabasie, and 
that the whitish crystals from Glenarm were similar to the 
flesh-coloured masses from the Vicentine, and formed a new 
and a very interesting mineral species. 

To this species I propose to give the name of Gmelinite, in 
compliment to G. C. Gmexin, Professor of Chemistry in the 
University of iibingen, whose analyses of minerals have 
ranked him among the first analytical chemists of the present 
day, and whose friendship I am happy to have the present 
opportunity of acknowledging. 

This new species comprehends the flat six-sided prisms 
from Glenarm, and the flesh-coloured masses which accom- 
pany them; the flesh-coloured mineral from the Vicentine, 
and probably the six-sided prisms observed by Leman. 

The Gmelinite from Glenarm crystallises in the form shown 
in Plate VIII. Fig, 2, which is a regular hexagonal prism, 
terminated at both ends by six-sided pyramids, with flat sum- 
mits. The following are the angles of the crystal, taken with 
the reflective goniometer. See Plate VIII. Fig. 2.) 


u upon ¥ 131° 48 
oy) y 138. 14 
u u 1200 oO 
7 ——"9" 96° 24 


Rhombohedral. Combination P—o. P.. P+o.. The 
angles of the isosceles pyramid = 145° 54’, 71° 48’. | 

Cleavage distinct, parallel to R. Fracture uneven. Sur- 
face streaked, the prism in a horizontal direction, the isosceles — 
pyramid parallel to the edges of combination with R; Rk for) 
rough, but even.+ pe 

The flesh-coloured Gmelinite, from the Vicentine, has 
more than one cleavage. It is very imperfectly crystallized ; 


* Mineralogical Nomenclature, Edit, 1819, Voc. ANALCIME. 
t For this character of the combination and cleavage, as well as the fi- 
gure, I have been indebted to Mr Haidinger. ; 


\ 


a New Mineral Species. 265 


but transmits light when reduced to a considerable degree of 
thinness. It often contains small spherical groupes of fila- 
mentous crystals, intensely white, which, if they are Gmelin- 
ite, which is not probable, must have lost their water of crys- 
tallization. . 

The specific gravity of the flesh-coloured Gmelinite, from 
the Vicentine, is 2.05, and its hardness about 4.5, scratching 
glass with some difficulty. The crystallized variety from 
Glenarm appears to have a less degree of hardness. 

The optical structure of the Gmelinite differs entirely from 
that of the Analcime, or the Chabasie, both of which are com- 
posite minerals, the individuals of which they are composed 
having never yet been found in nature. The double refraction 
of Gmelinite exceeds that of Analcime and Chabasie, and may 
be distinctly seen through the two opposite faces of the pyra- 
mid by immersing it in water, which gives a great degree of 
transparency to the Glenarm crystals. The double refrac- 
tion is negative in relation to the axis of prism, which is the 
axis of double refraction. 

The flesh-coloured masses from the Vicentine are also sim- 
ple substances, which, though rendered imperfectly transpar- 
ent by flaws and disseminated matter, give distinctly the colours 
of polarised light. Their index of ordinary refraction is about 
1.474, less than that of almond oil. By immersing the sum- 
mit of one of the Glenarm crystals in a parallelopiped of 
almond oil, I was enabled, without detaching the crystal 
from its matrix, to ascertain that its refractive power was 
also inferior to that of almond oil, and in the same degree as 
the flesh-coloured masses. As the refractive power, both of 
Analcime and Chabasie exceed considerably that of almond oil, 
this simple experiment, which requires no other skill than that 
of looking through the crystal, establishes the identity of the 
minerals from Glenarm and the Vicentine, and fixes them 
as a new mineral species different from Analcime and Chabasie. 

The chemical characters of Gmelinite are not less distine- 
tive and interesting than its optical ones. When we hold a 
fragment of the Vicentine crystals near the flame of the candle, 
and supported in a loop of platinum wire, small portions gra- 
dually raise themselves, and after standing on their ends as if 
they were under the influence of electricity, they are propelled 


266 Dr Brewster’s Description of Gmelinite. 


with violence from the fragment. The continued application 
of the heat drives off the water of crystallization, and reduces 
the fragment to a white fibrous-looking powder. In perform- 
ing this experiment, by exposing the fragment on a piece of 
glass to the fire, I was surprised to observe, upon looking at 
the powder with a microscope, that many of the particles were 
im a state of restlessness, some of them leapmg from the glass, 
and others endeavouring to separate themselves from the 
larger particles to which they were attached. This effect was 
no doubt owing to the heat of the glass, which continued to ex- 
pel the water of crystallization which still remained in some 
of the particles, for I could not discover in the powder any 
trace of pyro-electricity. The property which has new been 
described is possessed also by the Gmelinite from Glenarm, 
but it is not possessed by Analcime or Chabasie, or, so far as I 
know, by any other mmeral, and may be regarded as an infal- 
lible chemical character of this species. 

The following is the composition of the Gmelinites from the 
Vicentine, according to Vauquelin. 


. Gmelinite from Gmelinite from 
Montecechio Maggiore. + Castel. 

Silex - 50 ~ - 50 
Alumine - 20 - - 20 
Lime - - 4.5 - - 4.25 
Soda - - 45 - - 4.25 
Water - Q1 - “ 20 
Loss ~ - ty) - - LS 

100 - - 100 


I cannot conclude this notice without «directing the attention 
of the philosophical mineralogist to the peculiar value of opti- 
cal characters. The analysis of the Vicentine minerals by 
Vanquelin gave results so like those obtained from the Cha- 
basies, that the chemical mineralogists even never felt them- — 
selves authorized to consider them as new. In hardness and 
specific gravity these minerals were almost exactly the same as_ 
Chabasie, and the obtuse rhomboid from which the six-sid- 
ed prisms from Castel are derivable, has almost the same — 
angle as that of Chabasie. Hence, Mr Haidinger was led to 
consider them as Chabasies, and, indeed, in any system which 
does not take cognizance of chemical and optical characters, 


Mr Clark’s Description of a New Quicksilver Pump. 26% 


they must be ranked with that species. From this perplexity 
the optical method immediately relieves us, not merely by de- 
tecting unequivocal characters in the mineral under examina- 
tion, but by insulating, as it were, the kindred species of Anal- 
cime and Chabasie, which possess a composite structure of the 
most remarkable kind. 


Axr. KV.—Description of a New Quicksilver Pump.* Invent- 
ed by Mr Tuomas Criarx, Edinburgh. Communicated by 
the Inventor. 


_ Tue new machine invented by Mr ‘Thomas Clark, for raismg 


Water, is a quicksilver pump, and works without friction. It 
has great power in drawing and forcing water to any height, 
and is extremely simple in its construction. It is made by 
twisting a piece of iron tube into the form of a ring, ABC, 
Plate IV. Fig. 4, having the ends of the tube hse into the 
centre D, and again bent outwards so as to form an axle to 
the wheel or ring thus formed. One of the ends of the axle 
is inserted, by means of a stuffing box at D, into the side 
of the main pipe EF, which leads down to the well, which 


allows it to move easily, and at the same time keeps it 


air tight. In the main pipe EF, immediately below where the 
axle is inserted, or at any other convenient distance, is placed 
avalve ¢ lifting upwards, another valve / lifting upwards is 
also placed immediately above the axle, or at any other conve- 
nient distance. ‘There is now put into the iron ring a quan- 


tity of quicksilver, filling it from x to 7, which slides backwards 


and forwards as the ring is made to vibrate upon its axis in 
the stuffing box at D, forming a vacuum in the main pipe as 
the silver recedes in the tube from A to C; the water rushes 
up from F to fill the vacuum, and when the silver slides back 
again towards A, the water is expelled through the upper 
valve hs and éscapes at the top of the main pipe at i, A 
wheel of twélve or thirteen feet diameter will lift water the 
sdme height as a common lifting pump, and force it 150 feet 
higher, without any friction. 

* Our readers will obserye, that this very ingenious quicksilver pump 


is essentially different from that of Mr Haskins, which is described in the 
Epinsuncn Encycrorapia, Art. Pumr, Vol. XVII. p. 307. 


268 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. 


Arr. XVI.—Analysis of Helvine. By C. G. GMEtiy, Pro- 


fessor of Chemistry in the University of Tubingen. Com- 
municated by the Author. 


Turis very rare mineral occurred formerly in a peculiar bed- 
formation, (Lager-f.) on primitive mountains, accompanied by 
brown blende, fluor spar, quartz, schiefer spar, chlorite, &c. 
in the neighbourhood of Schwarzenberg, in the Saxon Erz- 
gebirge. The first notice and previous characteristic of it was 
communicated by Professor Mohs,* who placed it in an ap- 
pendix close to common garnet, as a mineral not yet deter- 
mined. Werner made a peculiar species of it, which he placed 
in his system between colophonite and garnet, and named it, 
on account of its marked yellow colour, Helvin, after the 
Greek 7As0s, the sun. Professor Mohs, in his Grundriss der 
Mineralogie, joined the Helvine to the genus garnet, by the 
name of tetrahedral Garnet. Mr Breithaupt placed it in his 
sphen-kiesel genus, and Mr Cordier thought that it might be 
united with Crichtonite, a sparry magnetic iron-ore, contain- 
ing oxide of titanium. 
We possess already a chemical analysis of Helvine by Dr 
Vogel of Munich,+ according to which it is composed of— 


Silica - - = 39.80 
Alumine - - - 18.65 
Lime - - - 0.50 
Oxide of iron - - - 37.75 
Oxide of manganese = 3.75 

97.15 


The action of the blow-pipe upon Helvine clearly shows, 
as has already been observed by Professor Berzelius, + that’ 
manganese is a principal ingredient in this mineral, and that iron’ 
can only be contained in it in a small quantity. The method 
of separating iron from manganese, followed by Dr poe 


* Beschreib. des von der Null schen Minerallien Kabinets, Abth. p. 92. 
+ Schweigger’s Journal, Vol. XXIX. p. 319. : 
+ Use of the blow-pipe, Kc. 


Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. 269 


who was provided only with a small quantity of this mineral, 
does not seem to be sufficiently exact. I agreed, therefore, 
with pleasure to the wish of my friend Mr Breithaupt, who 
kindly provided me with a considerable quantity of this rare 
mineral, to subject it to a repeated analysis. 

Specific gravity of Helvine.—This was found by a very'sen- 
sible balance to be 3.166, the temperature of the water being 
+6°R. According to Mr Breithaupty, it is between 3.1 and 3.3. 

Relations before the blow-pipe-—As to these I refer to the 
inquiry of Professor Berzelius,* with whom I agreed in the 
results. The sparkling which ensues, according to Dr Vogel, 
when Helvine is held in the flame, I have likewise distinctly 


- observed. But I endeavoured, in vain, to discover ‘the sul- 


phur contained in it, by means of the blow-pipe. It appears 
that the large quantity of oxide of manganese, which, together 
with sulphate of manganese, forms an ingredient in Helvine, 


destroys the reactions for sulphur. The slowness, on the 


other hand, with which the manganese-reaction, by means of 
soda upon a platinum lamina ensues, might be derived from 
the sulphur contained in it. 

Analysis.—(1.) Relying upon the assertion,+ that acids do 
not act upon Helvine, and considering that, in the analysis of 
Dr Vogel, sulphur is not mentioned to be an ingredient, I 
resolved to decompose the mineral previously reduced to an 
impalpable powder by trituration with water, } by means of 
carbonate of barytes, in order to discover any alkaline sub- 
stance that might be contained in it. 3.712 grammes of the 
powder were mixec with six times their weight of carbonate 
of barytes, and ignited in a platinum crucible.. There was 
obtained a blackish-blue mass hardly cohering, which, in some: 
spots, appeared in a melted state, muriatic acid being poured 
upon this mass, previously soaked by water, such a quantity 
of sulphuretted hydrogen was disengaged, that the vessel, con- 
taining the solution, required to be removed out of the room ; 


_* Use of the blow-pipe, &c. 
-+ Leonhard’s Handb. der Oryktognosiecy p. 431. 
{ It deserves to be noticed, that water, with which Helvine is tritu- 
rated, passes quite clear through the filtre, which, in general, never hap- 
pens with other minerals similarly treated. 


270 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. 


at the same time, some lac sulphuris was precipitated, and, as it 
seemed, sulphate of barytes, together with silica, not disolwal 
by the acid. The solution was now evaporated to perfect 
dryness in a water-bath, the residue treated with water and a 
little muriatic acid, the substance left undissolyed washed up- 
on a filtre with boiling water and ignited, then boiled with 
a solution of carbonate of potash, obtained by ignition of the 
crystallized carbonate, and the solution filtered boiling. 
There remained upon the filtre a white loose powder; and 
in the liquid, which had passed quite clear through the filtre, 
a great quantity of a gelatinous semitransparent precipi- 
tate of silica was formed, which was entirely dissolved again 
by heating the liquor, and appeared anew by cooling.* The 
powder that remained upon the filtre was carbonate of ba- 
rytes, with traces of undecomposed sulphate of barytes. The 
liquor separated from sulphate of barytes and silica by the 
filtre was thrown down by carbonate of ammonia, filtered, 
evaporated, and ignited. There was left a substance not so- 
luble in water, which, because the absence of an alkaline sub- 
stance had been proved, was not particularly examined.+ 

(2.)'The method of analysis followed m No. 1. not hav- 
ing led to a satisfactory result, I inquired particularly whether 
Helvine might not be decomposed by acids; and then found, 
that it is, in fact, decomposed by muriatic acid at a moderate 
digestion heat, with the disengagement of sulphuretted hydro- 
gen, and that it even forms a jelly with that acid. 

a. 1.927 grammes of the dried powder of Helvine were poured 
over in a porcelain dish with fuming nitric acid, free from sul- 
phuric acid, and then a certain quantity of fummg muriatic 
acid was added. By digestion a jelly was formed, the li- 
quor heated to boiling, and evaporated at last at a moderate 
heat to full dryness. Silica was separated perfectly white; it 
weighed after ignition 0.64088 gr. = 33,258 per cent. 


" Professor C. H. Pfaff was the first, so far as I know, who observed, 
that silica is perfectly and in abundance dissolved by the pure subcarbo- 
nates of potash and soda, when heated with the solutions of these salts. 
(Journ. of Schweigger, Vol. X XIX. p. 383.) 

+ It appears from the following inquiry, that this substance was. ply. 
cine, which had been dissolved by the excess of carbonate of ammonia. 


gee tt 


Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. Q71 


6. The Silica being removed, the sulphuric acid, formed by 
the action of nitro-muriatic acid, was thrown down by nitrate 
of barytes. The sulphate of barytes weighed after ignition 
0.7063. gr. = 0.097442 gr. of sulphur = 5.057 per cent. of sul- 
phur. 

¢. The barytes in excess being precipitated by sulphuric 
acid, and the sulphate of barytes removed by the filtre, the 
liquid was evaporated in a porcelain dish, It became first 
red, then green, whereby nitrous vapours were disengaged. 
Having been evaporated almost to dryness, a white powder 
separated. by addition of water, which was entirely dissolved 
by an additional quantity of sulphurie acid. The sulphuric 
acid. solution was now decomposed by ammonia, and the pre- 
cipitate put upon a filtre. The liquor, which had passed 
quite clear, became troubled by degrees, and assumed a brown- 
ish hue; it was concentrated by evaporation, whereby the ex- 
cess of ammonia was expelled, and the oxide of manganese 
collected upon a filtre. It weighed after ignition 0.0604 er. 
= 2,824 p.c. Oxalate of ammonia afforded no precipitate in 
the filtered solution, a proof of the absence of lime ; hydro- 
sulphuret of ammonia precipitated sulphuret of manganese, 
which was dissolved in muriatic acid, and joined to the solu- 
tion of manganese obtained below. The liquid was now 
evaporated and ignited; but there remained in the crucible 
nothing but a slight trace of manganese, which was dissolved 


_ by oil of vitriol with red colour; by muriatic acid with dis- 


engagement of chlorine, and whose solution likewise was join- 
ed to the solution of manganese obtained below. 

_d. The precipitate is still to be examined, which was thrown 
down by caustic ammonia (in c). It was dissolved in muria- 
tic acid, the solution evaporated, in order to expel the acid in 
excess, then boiled with a solution of pure potash. The brown 
residue left was dissolved in muriatic acid with disengagement 
of much chlorine; from this solution the iron was thrown 


down by succinate of ammonia. 0.119 gr. of oxide of iron 


were obtained = 8,564 p. c. of protoxide. 

¢, The liquor from which the iron had been removed, jomed 
with that (in ¢.) obtained by the decomposition of sulphuret 
of manganese, was thrown down by boiling with a solution of 


272 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. 


subcarbonate of potash. The oxide of manganese weighed after 
ignition was 0.865 gr. 0.77945 gr. of the protoxide =40.449 
p-c. In case that the sulphur of Helvine is combined with man- 
ganese to a sulphuret (which is very probable, the iron being 
at any rate not sufficient to saturate the sulphur), from the 
0.77945 gr. of protoxide of manganese, 0.22076 gr. (corre- 
sponding to 0.17233 gr. of metallic manganese, which: satu-. 
rate the 0.097442 of sulphur) must be deducted. There re- 
main, then, 0.55869 gr. protoxide of manganese = 28.993 p. c.' 
and the whole quantity of protoxide of manganese amounts to 
31.817 p. c. At the same time we obtain for the sulphuret 
of manganese 0.26977 gr. = 14.000 p. c. 

J. The alkaline lixivium, separated from the brown precipi- 
tate (in d), was supersaturated by muriatic acid, and the li-’ 
quid then thrown down by a small excess of carbonate of 
ammonia. A white earth fell down, which, after ignition, 
weighed 0.1988 gr.= 10.161 p.c. The liquor separated by 
the filtre from this precipitate deposited after some time a 
white precipitate ; it was, therefore, evaporated together with 
the wash-water, and the precipitate collected upon a filtre. 
It weighed after ignition 0.036 gr. = 1.868 p. c. As it was 
found afterwards, that this precipitate, and the earth already 
mentioned, were one and the same substance, the whole quan-- 
tity of the earth obtained amounts to 12.029 p-¢. 

g. 1.039 Grammes of Helvine left after ignition 1.027 gr. ; 
100 p- would therefore lose 1.155. p: ce. 

The nature of that earth is established by the following ex- 
periments : 

It is not changed before the blow-pipe, nor does it become 
yellow by heating. It is dissolved by borax and salt of phospho- 
rus in large quantity, and yields a clear glass, which becomes 
milky by flaming; by a large addition to these fluxes, the’ 
glass becomes milky by itself when cooling. It is not acted up- 
on by soda, nor is there formed a white ring surrounding the 
assay ; when heated with nitrate of cobalt, a blackish grey mass 
is obtained. The solution of this earth in acids is thrown 
down by carbonate of ammonia, the precipitate is almost entire- 
ly dissolved by an excess of it, leaving behind a little alumine 
not perfectly pure, forming alum with sulphuric acid and pot- 

4 


‘ 


Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. 273 


ash; from the ammoniacal liquid the earth separates by 


boiling asa light flocculent powder, which, when washed upon a 


filtre with boiling water, is dissolved by acids with efferves- 
cence, and forms no alum with sulphuric acid and potash. 
This earth is likewise dissolved by a solution of subcarbonate of 
potash, when it is precipitated from its solutions by an excess 
of this salt, and the liquor boiled. When this earth is precipi- 
tated from its solutions by caustic ammonia, and this alkali is 
added in a very great excess, almost no perceptible quantity of 
itis dissolved, which falls down again, when the excess of 
ammonia isexpelled by heat. With an excess of muriatic acid 
a mass noi distinctly crystallized is formed during evapora- 
tion, which deliquesces in the air, and is decomposed by heat 
in muriatic acid and earth that is left. This muriate has a very 
sweet, and at the same time an astringent, and not metallic taste. 
Combined with sulphuric acid it crystallizes by a slow evapor- 
ation, when the acid is only added in the quantity required 
for its solution. The sulphate has an acrid taste ; it is de- 
composed by a moderate ignition ; only a small portion of the 
residue is dissolved in water; by far the greatest part is left 
undissolved, in the form of a mucilaginous substance. 

In acetic acid this earth is dissolved, the solution does not 


_ erystallize by evaporation; by a slow evaporation a gummy-like 


transparent mass is formed, which does not attract humidity 
of the air, becomes full of cracks, and dissolves anew in water ; 
by a quicker evaporation the residue becomes in part milky. 
Sulphuretted hydrogen forms no precipitate in the solutions 
of this earth. Caustic potash dissolves it, as it appears al- 
ready from the analysis. 

This earth is therefore glycine, mixed with a very small 


; quantity of alumine, and helvine is composed of — 


 . ‘ Containing Oxygen. 
Silica, - 5 hee 33.258 (a) 16.73 


Glycine, with a little alumine, 12.029 (d) 3.75 

Oxide of manganese, - 31.817 (c) 6.98 
Oxide of iron, - - 5.564 (d) 1.27 
~ Sulphuret of manganese, - 14,000 (e) 

Loss by ignition, - Te! 1.155 (g) 
ei 97,823 


VoL. 11. No. Tr. aprit 1825. i T 


274 Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. 


Experiments for ascertaining the Ewistence of Fluoric 
Acid in Helvine.—a, 1.605 grains of powdered helvine were 
mixed with three times their weight of carbonate of soda and 


ignited. A black fused mass was obtained, showing on the . 


edges a reddish-yellow hue. Water, when digested with this 
mass, was not coloured, nor did it receive any smell; a quite 
colourless liquor was formed, and a black powder was left, 
which was lixiviated upon a filtre by boiling water. The 
liquid which had passed through the filtre was rendered 
somewhat troubled by digestion with carbonate of ammonia, 
and the precipitate thrown upon the same filtre. The li- 
quor being now supersaturated by muriatic acid, and after ex- 
pulsion of carbonic acid in a moderate heat, mixed with caustic 
ammonia and muriate of lime in a well-closed bottle, no sensible 
precipitate was formed ; a proof of the presence of fluoric acid. 
4, The black powder was dissolved in muriatic acid. There 


was evolved at first a sensible smell of sulphuretted hydrogen, . 


which was soon displaced by a strong smell of chlorine; a pel- 
licle of sulphur appeared at the same time upon the liquor. 
Lhe. muriatic solution was evaporated to dryness, and silica 
separated, which after ignition weighed 0.5661 gr.=35.271 p.c. 
¢, The fluid was then boiled with an excess of a solution of 


pure potash ; the alkaline liquor separated by the filtre from 2 


the brown precipitate, supersaturated by muriatic acid, and 
precipitated by caustic ammonia. The glycine weighed after 
ignition 0.1482 gr. = 9.234 p.c. It was dissolved im muria- 
tic acid, and the solution put in digestion with an excess of 
carbonate of ammonia. A white earth was left undissolved, 
which, even bya much larger quantity of carbonate of ammonia, 


was not taken up, and which after ignition weighed 0.0232 — 


gr. = 1.445 p. c. When dissolved in sulphuric acid, and 
mixed with sulphate of potash, two small crystals of alum 
were formed. Nevertheless this earth was not pure alumine, 
for it produced, when treated with nitrate of cobalt before the 
blow-pipe, not that fine blue colour, which characterises pure 
alumine, but became, on the contrary, bluish-black, and this 
colour was scarcely to be distinguished from that afforded by 
pure glycine with this metallic salt. It seems, therefore, that 


a certain quantity of glycine in chemical combination with 
8 


J 


‘ 
A 


v 


Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Helvine. 275 


alumine is retained by this latter, whereby the reaction with 
cobalt is alitiost entirely destroyed. The earth, which was 
dissolved by carbonate of ammonia, proved to be pure glycine. 
When dissolved in sulphuric acid, and mixed with sulphate of 
potash, there was formed no trace of alum. Alumine, on the 
other side, being a little soluble in a considerable excess of 
carbonate of ammonia, it seems, in the present case, to have 
likewise left its solubility i in this menstruum, by its chemical 
combination with glycine, in the same manter as it, at least 
partly, loses its solubility in pure potash by its chemical 
combination with magnesia. d, ‘The brown precipitate (inc.) 
was dissolved in muriatic acid, whereby chlorine was evolved. 
From this solution the iron was precipitated by succinate of 
ammonia, and 0.1425 gr. of oxide of iron obtamed = 0.12825 
gr. of protoxide = 7.990 p.e. ¢, The liquor was then preci- 
pitated by an excess of subcarbonate of potash, 0.7267 er. of 
oxide of manganese were obtained = 0.65484 er. of protoxide 
= 40.800 p. c. This oxide was dissolved in muriatic acid, 
the solution rendered neutral by evaporation, precipitated by 
a hydrosulphuret of ammonia. The liquor separated by the 
filtre from the sulphuret of manganese, and evaporated 
in order to drive off the excess of the hydrosulphurety 
was boiled with a solution of subcarbonate of potash; but 
no precipitate fell down. f, The ‘carbonate of potash (in 
e.) having been supersaturated by muriatic acid, and the car- 
bonic acid expelled by heat, there was formed a small preci- 
pitate by caustic ammonia, which, collected upon a filtre and 
ignited, weighed 0.0038 er. = 0.237 p. ¢., and examined by 
nitrate of cobalt, proved to be glycine. , According to the 
first analysis, 100 p. of helvine contain 14 p. of sulphuret of 
manganese, which must therefore be deducted from the 40.8 


p. c.; and helvine is according to the analysis composed of — 


Containing Oxygen. 


Silica, - . 35.271 (b) 17.75 
Glycine, - - 8.026 (¢ and f) 2.50 
Alumine, with some glycine, 1.445 (c) - 0.67 
Oxide of manganese, - 29.44 (¢ and o) 6.43 

Oxide of iron, - - 7.990 (d) 1.82 
Sulphuret of manganese, 14.000 
Loss by ignition, - 1.65 


97.231 


276 Professor Gmielin’s’ Analysis of Helvine. 


The loss, somewhat considerable, which occurred in both 
analyses, may be justified partly by the small quantity of the 
substance subjected to analysis, partly by the difficulty which 
is met with in the exact determination of the protoxide of 
manganese. It is, indeed, very probable, that manganese is 
contained in this mineral in the form of protoxide, because 
otherwise no such considerable disengagement of sulphuretted 
hydrogen should take place, when the mineral is treated with 
muriatic acid. But the oxide of manganese obtained by the 
ignition of the carbonate had been reckoned black oxide, 
though under these circumstances a certain quantity of the 
red_oxide might have been formed, in which case, the quanti- 
ty of manganese would have been underrated. The great 
quantity of oxide of manganese contained in helvine satisfac- 
torily explains why the sulphur contained in this mineral 
had escaped Dr Vogel, because this oxide is superoxidat- 
ed when the fossil is ignited with potash, whereby the  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen, disengaged by muriatic acid that is pour- 
ed upon the ignited mass, is immediately decomposed by chlo- 
rine, which is evolved at the same time. 

The results of these analyses of helvine are such, that this 
mineral will scarcely be placed hereafter close to garnet. It 
appears, besides, not to be possible to decide what the chemi- 
cal composition of helvine may be, when it is considered, that 
scarcely an analogous composition had been hitherto discover- 
ed amongst minerals. It might be, perhaps, regarded as a 
combination of double-silicates of oxide of manganese and 
glycine, with an oxysulphuret of manganese ; the results, par- 
ticularly those of the second analysis, are not unfavourable to 
this view. But I consider this as a mere conjecture, as the 
rarity of the mineral has hitherto not allowed me to examine | 
it to such an extent as I could have wished. 


—— ———S-- 


Dr Govan’s Observations on the Natural History, §c. 277 


Arr. XVII.—Additional Observations on the Natural His- 
tory and Physical Geography of the Himalayah Mountains, 
between the River-Beds of the Jumna and the Sutluj.* 
By Grorce Govan, M. D. Communicated by the Au- 
thor. 


In the paper which I had the honour of laying before the 
Society a short time ago, my remarks upon the Physical Geo- 
graphy of certain districts in the Himalayah Mountains closed, 
at what may be considered by some as the most elevated 
points of the transition limestone of the Sein range. In order, 
however, to avoid as much as possible that hypothetical lan- 
guage to which the appearances presenting themselves can 
hardly fail strongly to incline an observer, we may merely 
mention, that these remarks applied to the first of the divi- 
sions, into which the districts under consideration (with re- 
ference to geological structure) seem naturally to arrange 
themselves, viz. the belt of somewhat parallel ranges about 
fifteen or twenty miles in breadth, next adjacent to the plain 
of Upper Hindostan, the rocky masses composing which are 
of a much less compact and more earthy structure than those 
of the succeeding divisions, upon which they may be observed 
to rest at different points, elevated from five to about seven 


' thousand feet above the level of the sea. A subdivision of 


this may perhaps be made at Nahun, where the sandstone be- 
comes perfectly durable and hard, of a dark grey .colour, 
with dark purple macule, besides losing all traces of carbona- 


-ceous matter. The next divisions are, Ist, The central moun- 


tain groupe of the Choor. 2d, The high snowy ridge, and the 
ranges proceeding from it. A marked difference subsists be- 
twixt the two last mentioned tracts, and that formerly treated 
of, in the luxuriance of their vegetation, being much better 
wooded, in many places, with noble trees of the largest di- 
mensions, particularly three new species of pine, the Kail,} re- 
sembling the Weymouth,—the Khutrow, analogous to some 
of the varieties of the spruce,—the Pindrow to the Yew-leaved 


- * Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, December 20, 1824. 

+ The seeds of the Kail are those which have succeeded most readily 
in the climate of Great Britain, and have now been raised in considerable 
number. 


278 Dr Govan’s Observations on the Natural History and 


Pine, the latter always occupying the loftiest belt along with 
the Kurso, a species of Quercus, the Rheum, Juniperus, a se- 
cond species of Rhododendron, the Birch and Sorbus, which 
two last trees here, as in the high lands of other countries, are 
generally found the most elevated: and in a stunted shape, the 
last arboreous forms of which we take leave in ascending to 
the region of snow and desolation. ; 

A vast variety of northern genera here present themselves, * 
never before known to exist in such close proximity to the 
arid plains of Hindostan ; and the labours of Dr Wallich, it 
is to be haped, may soon enable botanists to compare the 
Asiatic with the European and American species so closely 
allied to them, if not in many cases varieties merely. To- 
wards the summits, and on the N. E., or Tartarian face of 
the snowy ridge, many genera and species closely allied to 
the Siberian begin to make their appearance. 

All the peculiarities of hill vegetation and agriculture are, 
in the lewer part of this belt, fully developed. 

Three species of Polygonum, known by the native names 
of Paphra, Ogla, and Chabree, with the frumentaceous Ama- 
ranthus, furnish the most common grains, besides wheat, and 
the valuable six-sided naked barley, called Ooa.+ 

Opium, from the facility of its transportation, here, the 
most valuable of all properties, as well as its superior quality, 
at the elevation of 8000 feet, is often spoken of as the only 
production in some of the interior states, of which the expor- 
tation to the plains enables them to pay their government’s 


* Among these may be enumerated many species of ~ 


Morina, 1 Sp. Lilium. Spirea. Ulmus. 
Trillium. Hemerocallis. Rubus. Fraxinus. 
Frittillaria. Androsace. Ribes. Alnus. 
Fumaria. Valeriana. Rosa. Coriaria. 
Convallaria. Salvia. Tlex. Andromeda. 
Impatiens, (some Euonymus. Cornus. Acer. 

of them gigantic Viburnum. Olea. Astrantia. 

in size.) Lonicera. ZEsculus. Cnicus, 
Polemonium. Crategus. * Clematis, Paris. 
Gentiana. Mespilus. Corylus. Hypericum. 
Galium. Laurus. Pinus- Pedicularis.* 
Fragaria. . Daphne. Aconitum. Quercus. 
Rubia. Cystus, Atragene. Delphinium. 


+ Since introduced into Scotland. 


* 


Physical Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 279 


assessment, the small bulk which it occupies setting at des 
fiance all revenue regulations for its exclusion. 

Tobacco can no longer be cultivated with advantage here, 
as the plant, although it thrives luxuriantly, is quite super- 
seded by the superior quality of that imported from the 
plains. In anticipation of details, which, under favourable 
circumstances, I hope at some future period to be able to 
lay before the Society, I shall submit a few general observa- 
tions upon the geology of the districts, included under the 
two divisions above mentioned ; if mere notices respecting the 
surface rocks, occurring at different parts, with the elevation 
of their outgoings, are entitled to that appellation. - 

Bundur Pooch and Sirga Rohini are the loftiest summits 
of the snowy ridge here which I have seen. 

From these the Ganges, the Jumna, the Tonse, originate 
to proceed southerly, and various feeders of the Sutluj in 
a northerly direction. 

The country between them, and towards the Sutluj, as 
viewed from the summit of the Manjhee ridge, between the 
sources of the Jumna and Tonse, seems an extensive and 
inaccessible waste of thickly grouped snowy summits, where 
one would hardly imagine a living thing could exist. As the 
streams descend, however, and their beds become more warm 
and sheltered, a thinly scattered population occupies their 
sides, immersed in filth, ignorance, and superstition, earning a 
seanty and precarious subsistence by the cultivation of sonie 
of the crops previously noticed, in artificial flats about the 
village, by the transportation to the plains, or neighbouring 
states, without any convenience from roads, or beasts of bur- 
den, of some of their vegetable or mineral productions, but 
chiefly by the produce of numerous flocks of sheep and goats, 
which are driven to pasture higher and higher, as the melting 
of the snows in spring leaves behind it a green and tender 
herbage, and which again gradually descend lower as the 
southing of the sun embrowns the surface by admitting the 
gradual prevalence of nightly frosts. 

The same rapidity of vegetation which distinguishes the 
summer of the polar regions, soon covers these upland’ pas- 
tures with a thick and luxuriant drapery of beautifully flow- 


280 Dr Govan’s Observations on the Natural History and 


ering, plants, Anemones, Potentillz, Primule, Dryas, &c. &c., 
on the spots occupied by the snow-beds ;—the solvent proper- 
ties of the snow seeming to favour the formation of that rich 
black mould in which these plants chiefly flourish. * 

The wooden galleries surrounding the upper flats of the 
slate and shingle-roofed houses are, during the summer, stored 
with grass drying for the winter subsistence of the diminu- 
tive breed of cows, and of the flocks which occupy, during 
the cold season, the ground floor, as, in the vicinity of many 
of these villages, the snow lies from two to four months in the 
year, giving promise, by the quantity in which it falls, of a 
proportionably abundant wheat harvest. 

The returns of wheat,+ indeed, are said in many of these 
villages generally to’ equal, and often to exceed, those from 
many of the best wheat lands in the plains of the upper pro- 
vinces, under the influence of liberal manuring, with com- 
posts formed of oak leaves, snow, and the dung of the sheep 
and goats. 

The line of snowy summits, stretching in a north-westerly 
direction to Wangtoo, from 40 to 50 miles direct distance, 
with passes from the southerly to the northerly face, elevat- 
ed from 15,000 to 16,000 feet above the level of the sea, 
has its vertical summits eternally clothed with snow, where 
one would not imagine, from the erectness of the plain- 
ward faces, any moveable substance could rest, and is, of 
course, at most places altogether inaccessible. The Rol 
pass, which I crossed on the 25th September 1817, may per- 
haps be formed by the decomposition of a hed of White 
Feldspar, of which immense tabular masses hurled from 
above occupy the bed of its northern river, the Shatooltee. 
The summits on either side are not of Granite; but of a grey 

, - 

* A most remarkable natural provision for their defence against the in- 
clemency of the weather to which they are exposed, is displayed by some 
of the plants inhabiting these elevated regions, an elongation of their low- 
er leaves, which become clothed with a dense lanuginous or cottony inves- 


titure, and rise to form, by their junction, an arch over the tender flow- 
ers, The same plants, occurring in other situations, have none of this. 


+ From 7 seer of seed, 160 seer of produce is frequently obtained ; it is 


asserted a seer is about 2 pounds. 
4 


Physical Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 281 


Gneiss, of which the foliated structure is chiefly observable in 
the large or weathered masses, having black mica, and a 
porphyritic appearance from longitudinally imbedded masses 
of Feidspar of a dirty white. An alternate flux and reflux 
of the waste of milky vapour, constantly going on between 
the northerly and southerly face through the gorge of the 
pxss, at certain seasons, evinces the striking effects which 
these elevated summits must necessarily produce on the me- 
teorology of the sultry and arid plains to which they adjoin. 

Where the Sutluj emerges from behind this range, and 
washes its base at Wangtoo, its bed is formed in a small 
grained, compact, grey granite, smoothed by the water's at- 
trition ; but from which, (owing to its durability,) no speci- 
men could be broken by any common means; in this are to 
be seen occasionally large veins indissolubly united with the 
rock itself, ia which all the granitic ingredients are separately 
crystallized,—the feldspar, the chief ingredient, of a snowy 
white,—the mica in large separate flakes, quartz, and occa- 
sionally Schorl in smaller quantity, these may be seen to pass 
through the superincumbent black micaceous schistus, without, 
however, seeming to produce either eceniarnns of position, 
or altered structure. 

I have observed horizontal sandstone stratification wpon the 
face of this range to an elevation of between 7500 and 8500 feet. 

The little flat (small compared to the surrounding moun- 
tainous country) where the Jumna leaves the main range 
round about the village of Kursalee, from the depth of its al- 
luvial soil, and the narrow pass at the lower extremity, sur- 
rounded with horizontal strata, bears the appearance, often 
remarked, of having been a lake which had burst a boundary, 
within which, for a time, it had been contained. 
. The chains proceeding in south-westerly directions from 
the main range, on the extremities of which the minerals of 
the parallel ranges are superincumbent, are chiefly composed 
of gneiss, mica, and clay-slate, often seemingly graduating 
into each other. mn 

The mountain groupe of the Choor, about 12,000 feet 
above the level of the sea, does not bear: snow during the 
whole year, although snow may almost always be found 
throughout the year in some of its sheltered chasms. The 


282 Dr Govan’s Observations on the Natural History and 


summit is composed of vast tabular masses of compact 
Granite, very susceptible in many places of decomposition ; 
but not having the granitic materials at all in the same highly 
erystallized and durable union as the rock of the Sutluj bed. 

The vegetable inhabitants are here, in many respects, the 
same with those of the main range of snowy cliffs, to which it 
is united by a continuous ridge nearly 8000 feet in elevation 
at the source of the Girri. On the very summits of the 
Choor first appear the Juniper, Alpine Rhododendron, and the 
lofty Aconite, the well known poisonous effects of which, when 
taken internally, seem to have given rise to a belief among the 
natives, that it poisons the air in its vicinity ; an opinion for 
which I never could discover any foundation, unless it may 
be found in the lofty elevation of the belt, inhabited by this 
showy plant, where occasionally (certainly not always or uni- 
formly) the disagreeable effects usually ascribed to the rarity 
of the air are canine by travellers. 

If the symptoms noticed by many eminent cxsealeeliond as 
arising from the rarity of the air, really are to be imputed to 
that cause, whence comes it, that, like the descent of the mer- 
cury, they are not in some degree proportioned to the eleva- 
tion and rarefaction, and invariably occurring where a cer- 
tain degree of the latter takes place ? . 

In passing the night at elevations, on two occasions, up- 
wards of 14,000 feet above the level of the sea, higher than 
the summer limit of perpeiual snow, and in crossing the 
Himalayah by the Rol pass, (considerably above 15,000 
fect,) they were neither experienced by myself, nor by any 
individual of a party of forty native soldiers, and attendants ac- 
companying me. Both in these same places, and at other in- 
ferior elevations, they have been experienced on other ocea- 
sions, and were anticipated as probable upon these by the 
natives. 

These facts would rather seem to indicate the phenomena 
in question being dependant upon some less uniform atmo- 
spherical condition, such as the electrical, which, about natural — 
conductors so elevated, must be in a state of constant fluctua- 
tion. 

Whether the Choor is of contemporaneous or subsequent 
formation to the range of snowy cliffs, we have no mforma- 


. Physical Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 288 


tion yet to enable us to guess. It has, radiating from it 
in all directions, ridges, composed, Ist, of successive strata of 
mica-slate, some containing precious, some common garnet, im- 
bedded; the latter in imperfect dodecahedral crystals, which I 
have seen of considerable size. 

The mica-slate has also small beds of primitive limestone, 
some of which form a beautiful marble of large crystalline 
grain, and snowy whiteness. 

The succeeding clay-slate contains a rich iron ore, with 
Pyrites, by the oxygenation of which, probably, we have at 
many places inexhaustible stores of an impure sulphate of 
iron, which forms an article of trade with the plains. 

Respecting the metallic riches of these districts, I may re. 
mark, that Gold, although found plentifully in a state of very 
minute subdivision in the sand of the bed of the Sutluj, has, - 
as. yet, been nowhere discovered in its natural situation. Cop. 
per exists at various places in the clay-slate, and most of the 
mines have been abandoned. Galena, which (I think, gene- 
rally occurs near the junction of the clay and mica-slate, is 
worked to a considerable extent) is the chief substance, be- 
sides the iron, in which the metallic riches of the country con- 
sist: The miners are the least communicative race whom I 
have encountered in these hills ; but I never could learn from 
any certain authority, that Silver was contained, or had been 
procured from any of the Galena on the plainward face of 
the Himalayah, although it is said to be brought from some 
of the Tartarian provinces beyond the Sutluj. 

- The mines of Galena—partly, I believe, from a desire to 
_ keep their history and their value unknown to strangers— 
4 partly to enable the miners and the officers of the native go- 
_ vernment safely to league together, in order to defraud the 
Rajah of his prescribed share of the produce—partly, per- 
haps, from ignorance and indolence, are excavated in so slo- 
venly a manner as to be quite inaccessible to any one (at least 
at two different places where I visited them) except a 
_ practised miner among themselves, who, as we have some- 
_ times ‘experienced in military operations, seem to have ac- 
_ quired by habit a power of breathing where ouly moles or 
oe snakes could support existence. 
[Such are the most common mineral substances of which the 


' 


284 Dr Govan’s Observations on the Natural History and 


country is formed, and which meet the eye on a-cursory exa- 
mination ; but numerous subordinate mineral beds exist, hi- 
therto unexplored, and long likely to remain so, unless the 
energies of the people themselves shall receive a stimulus from 
their improved circumstances under our government. 

The personal exertions of the daily journey form a labour 
amply sufficient for any one merely passing through the coun- 
try, along foot-paths winding round the edges of precipices, 
descents into deep and sultry river courses, painful and fa- 
tiguing ascents to places which seem near, and yet requiring 
almost a day’s journey to reach ; and a minute and accurate 
knowledge of the structure of the country will never be ac- 
quired by any one who has not zeal sufficient to induce him to 
leave behind all heavy baggage, adapt himself as much as 
possible to the simple diet of the natives, and continue to pro- 
secute his researches from some fixed point, with as few fol- 
iowers as possible, the country being incapable, in many places, 
of furnishing supplies for the retinue with which European 
officers usually travel. 

In the plaims of Hindostan, it has been often remarked, 
that it is almost impossible for the European officer to have 
much personal acquaintance either with the social character or 
domestic habits of the natives. Much mutual misapprehen- 
sion is apt to exist between those who meet only in public— 
who only feel mutual sympathy on some great occasions of 
common danger or display. The customs of eastern countries 
admit only of the most-public parts of the hospitable roof being: 
accessible to any but the nearest of blood relations. The non- 
observance of thé Mosaic ritual separates the Eurdpean from 
the Mahomedan ; the doctrine of Caste from the Hindoo; a, 
certain degree of contempt, in which it is alleged the British, 
more than other European nations, hold the fashions of those 
whose customs. differ from their. own, equally alienate him: 
from both, in such social intercourse as their different. situa- 
tions might otherwise admit of their holding. 

Even the rude, though not indecorous, simplicity of the 
most respectful behaviour in the inferior towards his superior: 
(recalling the memory of Scriptural and Homeric times) is 
not always understood as it is meant, by those lately trans-: 
ported to eastern climes from these more highly favoured 


‘Physical Geography of the Himalayah Mountains. 285 


northern regions. ‘The climate of the plaixs, too, so hostile 
to the constitution of the European, by confining him much 
to the house, renders it impossible he shoald see much of the 
native, except in the field, upon parade, as a domestic servant, 
or in some subordinate office of the law or revenue depart- 
ments, in all of which, except perhaps the first, he appears in 
an artificial and acquired character. 

In the hill districts, most of these obstacles, to a close ob- 
servation of the native character, have less influence. 

Those peculiarities of diet, purification, and discipline, by 
which: the Hindoo is alienated from every other human being, 
are here adhered to with much less pertinacity than in the 
plains, where the fashions and superstitions of an aboriginal 
race, the occupants of the soil, previous to their acquaintance 
with their earliest conquerors or teachers of civilization, the 
Hindoos of the plains, seem still to be more or less prevalent. 
The climate, too, above 8000 feet of elevation above the level 
of the sea, is generally sufficiently cool to admit of a Euro- 
pean spending much of his time in the open air during the 
day ; and among the,hill Sepoys, formerly in the pay of the 
Gorkhali, one can find zealous associates, in many of the 
sports of the field, possessing more of the activity and good 
humoured hardihood of the best style of European soldier 
than the dignified and phlegmatic, though respectful, disposi- 
tion of the rajpoot of the plains, who would seldom, proba- 
bly, from inclination, or for his own amusement, think of seek- 
ing with alacrity to join in pursuit of the pheasant, the hill 
partridge, the bear, or the hyena. 

The occasional inclemency of the weather, and the difficul. 
ty of conveying tents at all suited to resist its severity, often 
unites all ranks and classes under one roof in the village, in the 
portico of the Deota’s temple, or under thefriendly shelter of the 
cavern around the blazing pine-wood fire. When the native taste 
is here allowed to display itself unrestrained in conversation 
among each other, features of character make their appear- 
ance, which years of a cantonment life in the plains never would. 
have brought into notice. 

The Mahomedan fictitious narrative, abounding, after the 


manner of the Arabian Tales, with gorgeous and glittering 


palaces, princes, princesses, fairies, magicians, and Genii, de- 


286 Dr Govan’s Observations on the Himalaya Mountains. 


lights the listenin audience ; the dark and gloomy legends ‘of 
the Hindvo mythology succeed, related perhaps by the want 
dering religious mendicant, often seemingly im character a most 
ditttelligiblé compotnd of knavery, enthusiasm, aid insanic 
ty; HOI the most exalted in rank, the most elevatéd' above 
popular prejudices among his countrymen hardly dares to of- 
fend, or even to exclude from notice and charity even in his 
most uncouth form.” He finds his way, and seems to meet 
with a welcome everywhere, the carrier of mtelligenee between 
Juggurnauth and Cape Comorin, and Astrachan or Siberia ; 
the-established medium of communication: between hostile ar- 
mies, spy to both parties, faithful to neither ; equally ac- 
quainted often with what passes in the interior of” ‘private fa- 
milies, in defiance of all the obstacles which Eastern jealousy 
has devised to render such knowled¢e almost impossible ; un- 
der these circumstances often the plausible pretender to super-_ 
natural powers, himself, perhaps, sometimes believing in his 
possession of that to which he habitually lays claim. 

The itinerant minstrel sometimes furnishes more agreeable 
subjects of human interest, when he sings of the lofty and in- 
dependent spirit of the rajpoot chieftains of old, at the period 
of the early invasion of Hindostan by the Mahomedans, their 
undaunted valour, their chivalrous readiness to abandon life 
and all it has ta give, when any thing inconsistent with honour 
was required of them. 

The observations called forth, and the discussions which 
ensue upon these occasions, often afford a rich field for specu- 
lation to any one delighting in the study of the human mind, 
and the observation of human character in its most varied 
forms and circumstances. 

In few places, however, is there any thing in the eivil and 
moral history of the country to bear us out in the analogy 
which.the mind would so much delight. m establishing be- 
tween these states and the European ‘Alpine districts, ir Noeeh 
hardy natives probably are occupied in pursuits not dissimi- 
lar, and inhabit a country equally abounding in sublime scene- 
ry and the grandest of natural objects. 

The abeatice of all the domestic charities under the system 
respecting females, formerly aliuded to, the irregular calls for 
the exertion of industry, with intervals of listless mdolenee; 


Professor Gmelin’s Analysis of Diploite. 287 


necessarily resulting from the insecurity of its acquirements 
and obstruction in the channels of their exchange. and distri- 
bution ; lastly, the dominion of a dark, gloomy, and debasing 
superstition, seem to be the sources of most of the evils wider 
which they labour. Under such circumstances, their wars 
among each other seem to have been merely bloody and fero- 
cious, displaying but rarely instances of that generous emu- 
Jation in hardy enterprise, by which those of many nations 
but little advanced in civilization have been occasionally dis- 
tinguished. 

The character which the British Government shall acquire 
and maintain by the policy pursued towards these hill states, 
(many of which hailed its ascendancy as a deliverance,) will 
be spread far and wide among the extensive, though yet but 
little known population of Central Asia, and in no situation 
will the liberal principles of British administration, and that 
desire of bettering the condition, both civil and moral, of the 
body of the people, by which our policy 1s so honourably dis- 
tinguished, be more apt to be duly appreciated than where our 
protection has succeeded to the sway of a body of needy and 
rapacious adventurers. 


Art. XVIII.—Analysis of Diploite, * (Breithaupt.) By 


C. G. Gmetix, Professor of Chemistry in the University 
of Tiibingen. Communicated by the Author. 


Tus mineral was given to Mr Breithaupt by Dr Thalacker 


in Herrenhut. It occurs upon the island Amitok, near the 


‘coast of Labrador, and forms, with carbonate of lime, mica, and 


feldspar, a heterogeneous mixture, which probably belongs to 
the primitive rocks. 
* This mineral is undoubtedly the same to which Mr Brooke (Annals 


of Philosophy, May 1823, p. 383) has given the name of Latrobite. As 
the latrobite, according to Mr Brooke, has cleavages in three directions, 


the name Diploite, which relates to its having two cleavages, is perbaps 


not quite suitable. This mineral has, according to Mr Brooke, three cleay- 
ages parallel to the lateral and laminal planes of a doubly oblique prism. 
The cleavage parallel to the terminal plane is very dull, and the measure- 
ment obtained from it not to be confidently relied on. It forms angles 
with the lateral cleavages of about 98° 30/ and 91°. The cleayages parallel 
to the lateral planes form an angle of 93° 30’. 


288 Professor Ginelin’s Analysis of Diphoite. te 


Characteristic according to Mr Breiruaurr.—Lustre vi- 
treous, passing to pearly upon the most perfect cleavage. Co-— 
lour rose and peach-blossom red. Rhombic. Massive, and 
coarsely disseminated. Has cleavages in two directions, the 
one distinct, the other less so, formimg with the former an 
angle of about 95°. Hardness 6.5 to 7. Specific Gravity 2.72, 
(according to Mr Brooke about 2.8.)* 

Relations before the Blow-pipe.—Before the blow-pipe it 
loses its colour, becomes snow-white, swells up, and melts on 
the edges to a little transparent mass, full of bubbles. With 
salt of phosphorus, it melts to a clear glass, containing a skele- 
ton of silica ; with borax, to a colourless glass. With soda, it 
melts to a white glass, a little transparent, which, by an addi- 
tional quantity of soda, becomes less fusible. Upon a plati- 
hum lamina, the manganese reaction appears. 

I shall only give the results of two analyses to which di- 
ploite was subjected. , 

The Analysis with Carbonate of The Analysis with Carbonate 


Barytes afforded— of Potash— 
Silica, = 44.653 41.780 
Alumine, - 36.814 32.827 
Lime, - 8.291 9.787 
Oxide of manganese, 3.160 5.767 (with a little magnesia.) 
Magnesia, with some 
manganese, - 0.628 
Potash, . 6.575 6.575 
Water, = 2.041 _ 2.041 
102.162 98.777 


For the analysis with barytes 1.776 gr. and for that with 
potash 0.815 gr. were expended. A particular analysis was 
besides instituted to ascertain whether fluoric acid is an ingre- 
dient of diploite; but, as not more than 0.2 gr. could be ex- 
pended, the negative result, that has been obtained, cannot be ~ 
considered as a decisive one. Perhaps the formula ofS +5AS, 
or KS + 2CS + 15AS might represent the composition of 
diploite. Hence the opinion of Mr Breithaupt, that diploite 
is nearly related to feldspar and scapolite, is confirmed also by 
chemical results. 


* This is equivalent to 5.25—5.5 in the scale of Mohs, between Apatite 
and Actynolite, but nearer the latter.—Ep. 


Mr Thom’s Description of a New Double Valve Sluice. 289 


Art. KIX LL Description of a New Double Valve Sluice. In- 
vented by Roserr Tuom, Esq.. Rothesay. Communicated 
by the Author. 


The Double Valve Sluice. Pirate IV. Figure 5. 


Tuts apparatus seems to answer the same purpose as the lever 
sluice already described in this volume, p. 100; but is more 
applicable in cases where the reservoir is deep, and the em- 
bankment consequently large. It also acts as a waster-sluice, 
by opening and passing the extra water whenever it rises in 
the reservoir the least above the height assigned, and thereby 
supersedes a bye-wash. 

In making hydraulic experiments it will also be found of 
diatderiiie. importance; as, by keeping the surface of the 
water in the cistern, from which we draw water for the expe- 
riments, always exactly at. the same height, it not only saves 
intricate calculations, but renders the result, upon the whole, 
more correct. 

AB, a tunnel through which the water flows from the re- 
servoir to 

BC, the aqueduct that conveys it to the mills. 

AD, a sluice that turns upon pivots at the upper side D. 

I, a lever attached to that sluice, of the same length from I 
to D as from D to A. 

EF, a hollow cylinder. 

GH, another cylinder, (water proof, and of rather less spe- 
cific gravity than water,) which moves up and down freely 
within the cylinder EF. 

IBG, a chain, one end of which is fixed to the lever I, and 
thence passing over pulleys B and J, has its other end fixed 
to the cylinder GH at G. 

KL, a cistern always full of water, being supplied by a 


spring. 


LMF, a pipe that communicates between the cistern. KL 
and the cylinder EF. 
_ NO, a spindle with two valves, O and N, fixed upon it. 
»P, a float that rises and falls with the water in the aque- 
duct BC. 
The water in the aqueduct is here represented at its great- 
VoL. 11. NO. UL. APRIL 1825. U 


290 Mr Thom’s Description of a New Double Valve Shiice. 


est height; the sluice AD and valve N being shuts and. the 
valve O open. 

Suppose, now, that water 1s an frat the aqueduct, the 
float P will fall with the water, and leave the spindle. NO, 
which, then falling by its own weight, shuts the valve O, and 
opens the valve N. . The water then passing from the cistern 
KL, into the cylinder EF, raises the cylinder GH; and then 
the pressure of the water in front of the sluice AD, throws 
it open. Again, when the water issuing from the aqueduct 
is stopped, its surface rises, and with it the float P, which, 
pushing up the spindle ON, shuts the valve N, and opens the 
valve O, when the water in the cylinder EF escapes; and 
then the cylinder GH falling, shuts the sluice AD as before. 
In this way, the surface of the water in the aqueduct is al- 
ways kept at the same level, whether the quantity drawn from 
it be great or small. 

In cae to make this sluice operate also as a waster, it is 
only necessary to have a tube communicating between the re- 
servoir and cylinder EF, the end of which that opens into 
the reservoir being placed at the greatest height to which the 
water therein is allowed to rise. 

Whenever the water in the reservoir rises so as to flow into 
this tube, the cylinder EF will be filled with water, and the 
sluice AD will open; and whenever the water again falls, so 
as not to flow into this tube, the sluice AD will shut, and act 
again as before, ‘This tube must, of course, be made to pass 
more water than the valve O can pass. 

An apparatus of this construction was erected at Rothesay 
in 1819, and has been in constant operation ever since. The 
cylinder EF is four feet one inch diameter, and five feet deep 
inside. 


‘The cylinder GH is four feet Siesta and four feet deep — 
over all. 
Float P, about two feet square, and six inches deopl 
Valves O and N, two inches diameter. 
Pulleys B and J, twenty inches diameter. 
' Sluice AD, four feet long, and six inches deep; but the 
cylinders, &c. are powerful enough to work one of nearly 
twice that area. 


Thus, the area of the sluice is two feet; depth of water 


Mr 'Thom’s Description of a New Double Valve Sluice. 291 


above the centre of the sluice, twenty feet ; of course, there are 
forty cubic feet of water pressing upon the sluice; but one- 
half of this is borne by the pivots, at its upperside. Were the 
specific gravity of the cylinder GH the same as that of water, 
this would leave only twenty feet for its contents; but, to 
make it float freely, it is one-twentieth less; therefore, allow- 
ing one foot more for this, and three feet for friction, twenty- 
four cubic feet would be the necessary contents of the cylinder 
GH ;—but its contents are fifty cubic feet: it was made thus 
powerful, that it might work a larger sluice, if ever it should 
be found necessary. For an improved construction of this 
apparatus, see Fig. 5. 


Prate IV. Figure 6. 


This apparatus is applicable to the same purposes as that 
of Fig. 5; but the construction is much simplified. 

__A, the sluice, which turns upon pivots at its centre of pres- 
sure, 

AB, a lever attached to that sluice, which, with the small 
weight B at its extremity, is heavy enough to overcome the 
friction of the sluice, and keep it shut. . 

AC, the aqueduct that conveys the water from the reser- 
yoir to the works. 

D, a pulley which turns easily round its axis. 

E, a light hollow cylinder of copper, having a very small 
aperture in its bottom, and open at top. 

BDE, a chain, one end of which is fixed to the lever at B, 
then, passing over pulley D, has its other end fixed to cylin- 
der E. ‘ 

¥, a cistern, always full of water, being supplied by a sprmg 
from the rising ground. 

FG, a pipe which communicates between that cistern and 


cylinder E. 


H, a valve that opens or shuts that communication. 

I, a float, that rises and falls with the water in the aqueduct, 

The sluice A is here represented shut, and the water in the 
aqueduct at rest. But suppose a part of the water to be 
drawn from the aqueduct, then, as its surface falls, so will 
float I, which then leaving the spindle of valve H, that valve 
opens, and the water flows from cistern F into cylinder E, 


292 Mr Thoms Description of a New’ Double Valve Sluice. 


which, when full, descends, raises lever BA, and opens the 
sluice. Again, suppose the water to rise in the aqueduct, the 
float I rising with it, shuts valve H, when cylinder E ‘is 
emptied by the small aperture in its bottom, and the weight 
of lever AB again shuts the sluice. This sluice also acts as 
a waster, by having a pipe to communicate between the re- 
servoir and cylinder E, in the same manner as in Fig. 4. 

A sluice of this description was erected at Rothesay in 
1821. Sluice A is three feet long, and eighteen inches deep ; 
lever AB, three feet long; cylinder E, two and a half feet 
diameter, and the same depth. The depth of water above the 
centre of the sluice, when the reservoir is full, is twenty feet. 

By this contrivance, of making the sluice turn on its centre 
of pressure, the weight of the column of water resting on it is 
neutralised ; it being at the same time equally exerted to open 
and shut the sluice. he acting power has, therefore, only to 
overcome the friction, to make it- move in any direction ; 
whereas, in the apparatus Fig. 4, the power must not only 
overcome the friction, but must also be equal to half the 
weight of the whole — of water pressing upon the 
sluice. * 

- Thus, in the present case, there is a column of ninety cubic 
feet of water pressing upon the sluice when the reservoir is 
full. Were the sluice hinged upon one side, as in Fig 4, it 
’ would require the cylinder E to contain forty-five cubic feet 
of water, besides about one-tenth more for friction; and the 
chain, lever, &c. would have to be made strong in proportion. 
But -by this contrivance, the power to act against this. forty- 
five feet of water is wholly saved, and the cylinder requires 
only to contain water sufficient to overcome the friction. . 

The apparatus is also simplified by having only one cyl rlin- 
der and one valve, instead of two of each, as in Fig. 4. But 
this plan has also some small disadvantages :—the sluice, 
when it turns upon pivots at its centre, is more difficult to 


“The other half is borne by the pivots on which the sluice turns. 
When the sluice is hinged at the upper side, the power has rather more 
than half the weight to sustain, and when hinged at the under side, it has 
rather less ; but where the depth of the sluice bears so small a proportion 
to the depth of water above it, the abt is not worth’ noticing” in 
practice. , my , 


Professor Barlow on the Hydrostatic Pressure, &c. 298 


make water-tight than when it turns on pivots at one edge; 
nor does the same aperture pass an equal quantity of water; 
for, besides the space occupied by the sluice in the centre, it 
also tends to disturb the regular flow or current of the water. 
In all cases, however, where the sluice is large, and the ‘re- 
servoir deep, there will be a considerable saving in its: con- 
struction. . 


Arr. XX.—On the Force exerted by Hydrostatic Pressure in 
Bramal’s Presses ; and on the resisting Power of the Metal, 
with Rules for computing the thickness of the same for dif- 

Jerent Pressures.* By Peter Barrow, Esq. F.R.S. of 
the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Commumicated 
by the Author. 


Turs paper commences by an examination of the amount of 
the strain exerted in the circumference of the cylinders in con- 
sequence of any given internal pressure, and the result, al- 
though somewhat differently obtained, is the same-as was first 
determined by Mariotte, viz. “ The circumferential’ strain, 
on any giyen point of the intertor of the cylinder, is equal to 
the pressure of a square inch multiplied by the number of 
inches in the radius.” That is, the force tending to rend the 
cylinder along any line parallel to its axis, is equal to the pres- 
sure on a section between the circumference and axis. ‘This, 
as we have said, is the result which has always been deduced 
by writers on this subject ; but in estimating the thickness. né- 
cessary to resist this strain, it has universally been supposed 


_that all the metal in the thickness opposed an equally resist- 


ing power; from which it resulted, that in presses of the 
same internal diameter, the thickness ought to be proportional 
to the pressure. This principle, however, is known to fail in 
practice, it having always‘ been found requisite to increase the 
thickness in a higher ratio than the pressure, and it was prin- 
cipally with a view to correct this error, that the author un- 
dertook the investigation, at the earnest request of some of 
his practical friends, and having completed it, it has been 


* This Article isan abstract of a paper read before the Society of Civit. 
EncIneers, Feb. 22, 1825. 


294 Professor Barlow on the Hydrostatic Pressure 


presented. to the Society of Civil Engineers, who now rank 
amongst their numbers many of the most distinguished names 
of the United Kingdoms connected with scientific and. practi- 
cal mechanics. 

'The following is the particular part of the investigation to 
which we have alluded. 


To investigate the nature of the resistance opposed to any given 
thickness of metal in a cylinder or ring from internal pres- 
sure. 

“It would appear at first sight, that having found the 
strain on any points, D and C, it would only be necessary to 
ascertain the thickness of metal to resist this strain, when 
applied directly to its transverse area. This, however, is by 
no means the case; for if we imagine, as we must do, that the 
iron, in consequence of the internal pressure, suffers a certain 
‘degree of extension, it will be found that the external circumfe- 
rence participates less in this extension than the interior, and 
as the resistance is proportional to the extension divided by 
the length, it follows that the interior circumference, and 
every successive circular lamina from the interior to the exte- 
rior surface, offers a less and less resistance to the interior 
strain. The laws of which decrease of resistance it is at pre- 
sent our object to investigate.” 

* In the first place, it is obvious that whatever extension 
the cylinder or ring may undergo, there will still be the same 
quantity of surface in the section of the ring, which area is al- 
ways proportional to the difference of the squares of the two 
diameters. 

Let D be the interior diameter before pressure, and D4+d 
its diameter when extended by the pressure. 

Let also D’ be the exterior diameter before, and D’+d the 
-same after the pressure. 

Then, from what is stated above, we shall have 

D°—D?=(D/4d)-—(D+d)? 
_ or, 2D/d'+d?=2Dd+d?. 
Whence (2D/+d’) : (2D+d)::d: d, 
or, since @ and d are both very small, this becomes 
Ty Se ee 

That is, the extension of the exterior surface is to that of the 

interior, as the interior diameter is to the exterior. 


ee", 


in Bramah’s Presses, Sc. 295 


But the resistance is as the extension divided by the length ; 


therefore the resistance of the exterior surface is to that of the 


Ds Dis or D?: D”. 
DD 
That is, the resistance offered by each successive lamina is 
inversely as the square of its diameter, or inversely as the 
square of its distance from the centre; by means of which law 
the actual resistance due to any thickness is readily ascertained. 
Let 7 be the interior radius of any cylinder, p the pressure 


interior, as — 


per square inch on the fluid, ¢ the whole thickness of the me- 


tal, and * any variable distance from the interior surface. 


Let also s represent the strain exerted, or the resistance sus- 


tained, by the ‘gt lamina, then by the law last deduced, 


= the strain at the distance « from the 


2+ n9+8 
Perey o 7.58. 
interior surface, Cusealale 


S| epter= sum of all the strains. 


‘This, when z=t becomes 


1 1 srt 

R=? (—=3) bist 

(Sic r rtt r+t 
That i8, the sum of all the variable strains or resistances on 
the whole thickness ¢, is equal to the resistance that would be 


2 rt Sib. aks ; “ 
due to the thickness rae acting uniformly with a resistance s. 


Let us now suppose (the above law being established) the 
radius 7, and the pressure per square inch on the fluid p, to 
be given, to find the thickness necessary to resist it, or such 
that the strain and resistance may be in equilibrio, the cohe- 
sive power of the metal being also given. Let x represent the 
thickness required, and c— the cohesive power of the metal 


: F rH 
per square inch; then the greatest strain the area ryan 
- x 


sustain is —— ee ? 
when these are equal, we vgpag have 


rp= aes ae? OF pr+pr=x., 
pr 


whence <=———.. 
Cc—p 


' 
and the strain it has to sustain is pz; whence, 


296 _ .M. Savart on the Acoustic Figures 


‘Hence the following rule in words at length. : 

To find the thickness’ of metal—Multiply the pressure per 
square inch by the radius of the cylinder, and.divide the pro- 
duet by the difference between the cohesive power of the me. 
tal per square inch and the pressure per square inch, and the 
quotient will be the thickness sought. 

As an example, let it be requided to determine the dick pas 
of metal in two presses, each 12 inches in diameter, in one of 
which the pressure is 1} ton, and in the other 3 tons, per cir- 
cular inch. ‘The cohesive force of cast iron being 18,000 lbs. 
per square inch. 

Here 13 ton per circular-inch —4 ,278 lbs. per square ene? 


3 tons ditto © - | =8,556 Ibs. ditto. 
Whence by the rule 
4,278 x6 vee et) 
18,000—4,2787- 87 inches thickness, sass 
8,556 x6. . 
and T8,000—5,556="" 43 inches thickness. 


Whereas on the usual principle of ‘computation, the one of 
these thicknesses would be exactly double the other. 


Arr. x XI.—On the Acoustic Figures produced by the Vibra- 


tions communicated through the Air to Elastic Membranes. * 
By M. Fevix.Savart. 


In order.to perform the experiments described by M. Savart, 
we must stretch a thin sheet of paper, about four or, five inches 
in. diameter, over; ‘the mouth of a vessel, such as a large glass — 
with, a foot-stalk, so that the paper has an uniform degree of 
tension, and a horizontal position. A thin layer of fine and 
dry. sand being then scattered over the paper, a plate of glass, 
in a state of vie ation, is brought within a ‘few: inches of, the 
membrane. - The vibrations of the glass plate a are conveyed 

* This article isa brief pa: of an hoes paper it M 1: Sede en- 
titled Recherches sur les Usages de la Membrane du Tympan, et de Voreille 
externe, read to the Academy of Sciences on the 29th April 1822, and 
printed in the Ann. de Chim. tom. xxvi' p. 1. 


4 
—  Pibtished by W Blackwood ° 
“se & » ~" 


pe 


produced by the Vibration of Elastic Membranes. 297 


through the air to the paper membrane, and the sand on its 
upper surface is thrown into figures which have sometimes the 
most perfect regularity, and are often formed with such cele- 
rity, that the. eye has scarcely time to perceive the circum- 
staaces which accompany the formation of the figures. 

This experiment succeeds in general, whatever be the vi- 
brating body which we employ, though thin plates of glass or 
metal are the best; and it is always preferable to make’ the 
circular plate of glass vibrate in the mode in which there are 
concentric lines of repose. It appears from the experiments 
of Chladni, that, in order to obtain this kind of vibration, we 
must ‘render immoveable several points in the surface of 
the plate, or at least two points of the circumference and 
one point of the surface. It is in this way, therefore, 
that M. Savart makes the experiment. He at first renders 
immoveable two diametrically opposite points. of: the cir: ™- 
ference of the plate by seizing it between the middle finger 
and the thumb. He then places lightly the tip of the index 


-finger at a point whose distance from the centre of the plate is 


e. 


about the fifth part of its circumference. The plate, thus 
held, is made to vibrate by drawing the bow of a fiddle across 
its circumference. By employing successively circular plates 
of different dimensions, and which, consequently, give differ- 
ent sounds, it is easy to prove, that, for every number of vi- 
brations, the membrane affects a particular mode of division. 
When the vibrating plate is parallel to the membrane, the lat- 
ter performs normal vibrations, or in a line perpendicular to 


-its surface. The sand sometimes springs to a great height ; 


and, by making use of an apparatus which allows us to ob- 


- serve what passes at both surfaces of the membrane, it is easy 


to see that the distribution of the nodal lines is the same. ‘The 
general character of these lines is to be circular, and their 


‘nuimber is sometimes very considerable. These circular lines 


are often cut by diametral lines, which form stars, ‘whose 
number of points increases with the acuteness of the sound. 
Sometimes figures are obtained which are composed solely of 
these diametral lines. Perfect regularity and symmetry, how- 
ever, can only be obtained by taking the greatest care’ that 


298 M. Savart on the Acoustic Figures. 


the membrane be equally thick and uniformly stretched: The 
first of these conditions may be easily fulfilled by using the 
finest paper, particularly what is called vegetable paper, wha 
is the most homogeneous that can be Salcaak 

Some of the finest figures that are obtained by the aio of 
distant vibrations on the membrane are represented in Plate 
VI. Fig. 1—13. When the membrane is ill stretched, it of- 
ten happens that the lines traced by the sand are very nu- 
merous, and that they form kinds of chains, regularly ar- 
ranged, and apparently the result of concentric lines cut by a 
great number of diametral lines. See Fig. 14. 

From these experiments it follows, that, when the plate onal 
the membrane are parallel, the motion is communicated by the 
air exactly as it would have been if the two bodies had been 
separated by a common rod perpendicular to their faces ; for 
the number of vibrations is the same in both cases; since, 
for each sound produced, the membrane affects a particular 
mode of division, and the direction of its motion is also the 
same, sitice it is perpendicular in the plate and in the mem- 
brane. If the vibrating circular plate is held with one of its 
diameters in a vertical line, the grains of sand have then a 
tangential motion, and the system of lines in repose have in 
general the character of parallelism. By gradually inclining 
the plate, the figures on the membrane change. 

When figures composed of concentric circular lines are ob- 
tained, there is often formed between two of these a circular — 
line, composed of the finer particles of the sand. M. Savart Fs 
is of opinion that this line belongs to a kind of vibration high- 

_er than that which is produced, but which co-exists along with 
the principal vibration. It sometimes happens, also, that the 
centre of the membrane presents an immoyeable point, which 
probably belongs likewise to a higher mode of vibration, so 
that the membranes appear to produce with facility several — 
kinds of motion at once. a Oe 

The preceding experiments may be varied in a great num- — 

ber of ways, by making use of membranes whose dimensions, _ 
nature, tension, and contour, are different ; but they all pre- — 
sent analogous results. The figures produced by a rectangu- — 

8 


‘produced by the Vibration of Elastic Membranes. 299 


Jar * membrane are shewn in Plate VI. Fig. 15—21, and those 
produced by a triangular one in Fig. 22—28. When the dia- 
ameter of the membranes is less than from half an inch to an 
inch, it is not easy to observe regular nodal lines, unless when 
athe sound is extremely acute. 

The figures which have now been described vary with the 
tension of the membrane. In those made of paper, which 
changes its hygrometric state, and consequently its tension, 
continually, M. Savart observed that the figures changed at 
every instant. When the same figure is represented several 
times, it was necessary only to breathe upon the paper to 
create a new one, which in a short time disappeared, and re- 
turned to its former state through a great number of interme- 
diate figures.. Hence M. Savart proposes this as a sure me- 
thod of detecting small hygrometrical variations in the-air. 
Inorder to protect the paper membranes from the humidity of 
the air, they should be covered with a thin coat of varnish 
made of gum lac. 

-The membranous vibrations and figures which have now 
been described may also be produced by the sound of the pipe 
of an organ, even at the distance of some feet. If we play 
with a slow motion an air on the flute, at about half a foot 
from the membrane, the sand will form lines, the figure of 
which varies unceasingly with the sound produced. But, 
what appears more astonishing, the voice produces an ana- 
ogous effect, which is extremely well marked, even under 


the influence of a sound which is neither strong nor sustained. 
By whatever method, in short, the air is agitated, it is capa- 


ble of communicating to thin membranes the motion which it 
has received, and that without any alteration. 
These experiments succeed also equally well when the mem- 


branes are wetted, or when they have imbibed an oily sub- 


stance. . In this last case, in place of sand, we must cover the 
‘membrane with a thin stratum of oil, which is agitated in rip- 
ples, which increase in number with the acuteness of the 


sound. 


Le 


at Almost all the figures giyen by square membranes are analogous to 
the figure of a square plate, and are almost always of the kind which Mr 
Chiadni calls distortions. 


300 M. Savart.on Acoustic Figures produced by Vibration. 


M. Savart next applies these principles to a method of ap. 
preciating very: small quantities of sound. He stretches a 
piece of thin vegetable paper or goldbeater’s skin across the 
mouth of a glass about four inches in diameter. He then co- 
vers this with sand, and ascertains the intensity of different 
sounds by the distance at which they cease to agitate the 
membrane ;_ and he remarks that they will often be moved by 
an augmentation of sound which the ear itself is incapable of 
appreciating. He proposes also to use it for ascertaining the 
augmentations of sound which arise from the coincidence of vi- 
brations produced by numbers of vibrations not very distant 
from each other. 

Bodies which are neither rigid in themselves, and willie are 
not rendered rigid by tension, such as the skin, a silken fabric, 
paper, &c. are, even when they are not stretched, susceptible of 
being thrown into vibrations by the influence of a body vibrating 
at a distance ; and it appears, that, under some circumstances, 
they are even more susceptible of this kind of action than 
most elastic membranes. This may be proved by covering a 
horizontal portion of any of these substances with sand, and 
sounding the pipe of an organ at the distance of a foot or so. 
The sand will be violently agitated, and will form figures 
composed of numerous curved and bending lines interlaced 
With one another. 

In the second part of this able memoir, M. Savart applies 


these experiments to the illustration of the uses of the mem- — 


‘brane of the tympanum, ‘and of those of the external ear, 
both of which, as he shows by direct experiments on the ears. 
of animals, are’ susceptible of being thrown into a state of vi- 
bration, by bodies vibrating at a distance. As our limits will 
not permit us'to follow our author through his numerous and 
interesting details, we shall conclude this abstract with an enu-. 
meration of the leading results which he has obtained. . 

1. That it is not necessary to suppose, as has hitherto been. 
dénep the existence of a particular mechanism, for continually 
bringing the tympanum to vibrate in unison with the bodies 
which act upon it. It is evident, that the tympanum is always 
in a condition to be infliienced by any number of vibrations. 

2. That its tension does not probably vary, unless to aug- 


‘ 


i 
: 
| 
J 
; 


Dr Turner's Analysis of Euchroite: 301 


ment or diminish the amplitude of its excursions, as Bichat 
had supposed. He supposed, however contrary to the result 
of experiment, that the tympanum unstretched itself for. strong 
impressions, and stretched itself to receive weak impressions. 
8. That the vibrations of that membrane communicate them- 
selves, without any alteration to the labyrinth, ‘by, means of 
the small bones, in the same manner as the vibrations of the up- 
per table of an instrument are communicated tothe lower 
table. + 2. 
- 4. That the ginal bones modify also the excursions ‘of the 
vibrating parts of the organs contained in the labyrinth. 

5. That the cavity ait the tympanum (Caisse dw Tambour) 
serves probably to keep-up near the apertures of the labyrinth, 
and the internal face of the membrane of the tympanum, an 
aérial medium, whose physical properties are constant. 


Art. XXII.—Analysis of Euchroite. By Epwaro Tor- 
wer, M.D. F.R.S.E. &c. Lecturer on Chemistry, and 
~ Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. ° 


A satu fragment of the new mineral species, Euchroite,* 
having been presented to me for analysis by Mr Haidinger, I 
proceeded to a chemical investigation of it in ne following 
manner. 

‘When heated in a clean glass tube per se, its water of cry- 
stallization was disengaged, and this occurred at a tempera- 
ture far short of redness. If the heat is gradually applied, it 
suffers no decrepitation whatever, retaining its form-complete- 
ly; its brilliant colour, however, is afterwards found to have 
changed to a dull green, and it crumbles into powder under 
the gentlest pressure. It undergoes no farther change on 
glass, its point of perfect fusion being above, that: of. diffi- 
eultly fusible glass. Urged by the blow-pipe on a piece 
of clean platinum, without exposure to the: noteeshres feng 


“*See Mr Haidinger’s Description of Buchroite, D 133. of the Bre 
wid Number. 


302 Dr Turner’s Analysts of Euchroite! 


it fuses completely, and crystallizes on cooling into a greens’ 
ish brown mass. Heated before the blow-pipe on charcoal, 
it fuses readily, and at the same moment deflagrates; the 
odour of: arsenic is then also perceptible, and white vapours: 
rise. On continuing the blast, a distinct copper corn is left. 
If the reduction is performed in a glass tube, both a metallie 
crust of arsenic and minute crystals of arsenious acid con-~ 
dense on the cold parts of the glass, which are easily and com~ 
pletely driven off by heat. ; 

It dissolves readily in concentrated ahd diluted nitric ‘atid 
without effervescence, or formation of nitrous acid fumes, everr 
on the application of heat. The addition of water neither 
caused precipitation, nor disturbed the transparency of the so= 
Tution. Ammonia occasioned a greenish blue precipitate, 
which was wholly redissolved by an excess of the alkali, form- 
ing the blue solution characteristic of the peroxide of copper. 
The nitrate of silver caused no precipitate, nor did the mu- 
riatic and sulphuric acids. The absence of iron was proved 
by the tests of ammonia, ferrocyanate of potash, infusion of 
galls, and sulpho-cyanic acid. Acetate of lead caused a white 
precipitate, soluble in an excess of nitric acid. A stream of 
sulphuretted hydrogen, the sulphuret of copper which first 
fell being separated, gave rise to the formation of orpiment. 

It appears from these observations, that Euchroite contains 
nothing but arseniate of copper, and water of crystallization. 
To determine the amount of the latter, 3.905 grains were heated 
at the flame of a spirit-lamp, in a clean glass tube, till all the 
water was expelled. The loss amounted to 0.73 grains, or 
18.69 per cent. In another experiment, 2.565 grains lost 
0.485 of a grain or 18.9 per cent. Taking the mean of these 
experiments, Euchroite contains 18.8 per cent. of water of 
crystallization. The water, as it condensed in the cold parts 
of the tube, was carefully tested by delicate litmus-paper, 
which was not reddened in the least; and I am satisfied, that — 
all the water can be separated, by heating cautiously, without 
the loss of any acid. 

8.35. grains of the anhydrous mineral were dissolved in 
dilute nitric acid, and then a concentrated solution of pure 


Dr Tarner’s Analysis of Euchroite. 303 


potash, which had been prepared by means of alcohol, was 
added in such excess as to separate all the arsenic acid from 
the oxide of copper. After due ebullition and washing, the 
latter was collected on a filtre, ignited, and weighed. By 
this process, 4.925 grains of the peroxide of copper were ob- 
tained. 

The alkaline solution was rendered acidulous by nitric acid, 
and then evaporated to dryness to obtain a perfectly neutral 
solution; and to separate a minute quantity of silica which had 
been dissolved by the potash. ‘The arsenic acid was then 
precipitated by a neutral solution of the nitrate of lead. This 
operation was performed at a boiling temperature, and with 
as slight an excess of the precipitant as possible, to prevent 
the nitrate from combining with the insoluble arseniate of 
lead ;—an inconvenience complained of by Berzelius in the 
case of phosphoric acid, and which I have repeatedly felt my- 
self, when precipitating arsenic acid by the acetate of lead. 
A very pure arseniate of lead was thus procured ; but on eva- 
porating the clear solution by a gentle heat to dryness, and 
re-dissolving the soluble parts, an additional portion of the 
arseniate was obtained,—showing that all the salt had not 
fallen in the first-instance. The arseniate of lead, after bemg 
heated to redness, weighed 9.955 grains, equal to 3.399 grains 
of arsenic acid, on the assumption that arseniate of lead con- 
tains 34.14 per cent. of acid. 

The anhydrous Euchioite consists, therefore, of 


Peroxide of Copper, 4.925 58.97 
Arsenic acid, 3.399 40.7 
8.324 99.67 


~ ‘The crystallised mineral is composed of 
a5 


gst Peroxide of Copper, 47.85 


, Arsenic acid, 33.02 
5 Water, 14.8 
99.67 


_. Did phosphoric acid exist in Euchroite, it would of course 
be present in the arseniate of lead, On decomposing a por- 


304 Dr Turner’s Analysis of Euchroite. 


tion of that salt by sulphuric acid, and neutralizing the clear’ 
solution with potash, nitrate of silver was added. The brick- 
red arseniate of silver subsided without any admixture of the 
yellow phosphate. Another portion of the arseniate of lead 
was heated before the blow-pipe, on charcoal. Decomposition 
readily ensued, with evolution of copious arsenical vapours. 
Numerous globules of metallic lead were procured, but not 
the slightest trace of the characteristic phosphuret of lead 
could be detected. Phosphoric acid cannot, therefore, enter 
ito the composition of Euchroite. 

I shall only remark, with respect to the atomic constitution 
of Euchroite, that the proportion established by analysis is 
not satisfactory in theory. Supposing an atom of the per- 
oxide of copper to be eighty, and an atom of arsenic acid 
sixty-two, (the estimate of Dr Thomson,) we shall require 
almost four per cent. more acid than is given by analysis, to 
establish a due proportion ; and, even then, the water of cry- 
stallization would not agree. The proportions of Berzelius 
are still more discordant. But we are not warranted, I con- 
ceive, in assuming, on speculative grounds, so great an error 


in an analysis, unless it bear internal evidence of maccuracy. 


The quantity operated on was, indeed, of necessity, small, and, 
therefore, the unavoidable errors of analysis would have con- 


siderable influence on the result; but as they were rendered — 
trifling by careful manipulation, and the employment of an — 


exceedingly delicate balance, the whole’ error could hardly 
amount to one per cent. 


It is pleasing to see an analytical boca square neatly with — 


the doctrine of proportions; and when it does so happen, it is 


no small confirmation of the accuracy with which the analyst — 
has operated. So general, indeed, are the laws of combina- 
tion, that an analysis may sometimes be regarded as incorrect — 
which does not correspond with theoretical considerations. Such _ 
an inference, however, is by no means admissible wherever ar-_ 
senic acid is concerned ; for our knowledge of its atomic con- 
stitution is far less precise than that of most other substances. 
To justify this ohservation, I need only mention, that the two . 
celebrated analysts, Professors Thomson and Berzelius, who = 


are deservedly held as our first authorities on this as on many 
10 : 


ieee, 32 


Published ly W.Blackwood 


+ 
¢ 


‘4 


Description of Fraunhofer's Telescopes. 305 


subjects, have both abandoned the opinions they formerly 
maintained, and that the conclusions at which they have event- 
ually arrived are strikingly discrepant. - 

The Euchroite not only differs in mineralogical characters 
from the other native arseniates, but is also distinct in chemi- 
eal composition. The proportion of oxide to acid is very si- 
milar to that of Count Bournon’s third species, as analysed 
by Mr Chenevix : * only this mineral appears to contain no 
water of crystallization. A new analysis of the Cornwall arseni- 
ates Is at present a desideratum ; for, notwithstanding the known 
accuracy of Mr Chenevix, that chemist seems to have disre- 
garded the probable existence of phosphoric acid in some of 
his arseniates. As I expect soon to possess, through the kind- 
ness of Mr Allan and Mr Haidinger, a whole series of the 
‘Cornwall arseniates, I hope in no long time to enter on the in- 
vestigation of them. 


Art. XXIII.—Description of Fraunhofer's Large Achro- 
matic Telescopes. With a Plate. 


Tue great discovery of a method of making flint glass in large 
pieces, and perfectly pure and free from striz, which was made 
by the late M. Guinand, and of which we have given a full 
account in this number, (see p. $48,) may be considered as 
ferming an era in the history of the achromatic telescope. 
‘By means of this glass, M. Fraunhofer, the director of the 
Optical Institute or Manufactory at Benedictbauern, near 
Munich, has constructed achromatic telescopes far superior to 
any that have hitherto been made ; and we can assure our read- 
ers, of what many of them will deem incredible, that this emi- 
nent artist can now make achromatic object glasses with an 
aperture of eighteen inches. But it is not merely in the opti- 
cal part of the instrument that M. Fraunhofer has been suc- 
cessful. His various improvements on the apparatus which 
accompanies the telescope, and his ingenious micrometers. for 
‘measuring angles of all kinds in the heavens, have received the 


*" Phil. Trans. 1801, p. 199. 
VOL. If. No. 11, APRIL 1825. x 


306 Description of Fraunhofer’s Telescopes. 


sanction of some of the most eminent practical astronomers in 
Europe, and are now considered as constituting an instrument 
of incalculable value for general astronomical observations. 

The splendid icaciae which we have already mentioned 
(see p. 1'74) as made for the observatory of Dorpat, is shown 
in Plate VII., where the instrument is represented as mount- 
ed parallactically upon a stand, the telescope being balanced 
in every position. The hour circle is divided by two verniers 
into four seconds of time, and the declination circle into tem 
seconds. The equatorial axis is put in motion by a clock having 
two sets of wheel-work, so that the telescope follows by itself the 
diurnal motion of the stars. But it may also be turned freely 
by the hand in every direction, or by means of an endless 
screw. The friction of the equatorial axis is diminished by 
friction rollers, so that the telescope, though its weight was 
about thirty-six quintals of Bavaria, could be moved by the 
pressure of a single finger. 
~ The figure in Plate VII. represents the telescope as seen 
from the side on which the clock is placed. 

The object-glass i is thirteen and one third feet (Pied de Ro 
de Paris) in focal length, and its aperture is nine inches. 

It has eight astronomical eye-pieces, beside the following 
micrometers. 

1. A repeating line micrometer, with a circle of position, 
whose two verniers give a single minute. This micrometer is 
furnished with a mechanism for illuminating the lines, the field 
remaining obscure, so that these lines appear to be luminous 
stripes on a dark ground. ‘These lines are, as we are inform- — 
ed, cut upon glass with a diamond point. As these lines ap-_ 
pear like so many silver threads suspended in the heavens, the 
transits of the smallest stars across them may be observed, 

2. Two micrometers, each of which consists of two free 
rings. 

3. Two micrometers with one free ring. ‘In all these mi- 
crometers, the rings, which are accurately turned out of brass, 
are fixed upon plates of glass, so that they seem to be suspend- 
ed in the-field of the telescope. By observing the immersions 
and emersions of the stars at the inner and outer circumfer- 
ences of the rings, the differences of right ascension and de- 
clination of two stars are determined. 


Dr Fleming on the Neptunian Formation of Stalactites. 307 


. 4 A micrometer of several concentric rings, which may be 
illuminated in the dark field. This micrometer has, four eye- 
glasses. 

5. An achromatic finder, of thirty inches in focal length, and 
twenty-nine of aperture. 

6. An instrument for correcting the axis of the great object- 
glass. 

The price of the telescope now described is about 8000 
Prussian dollars, or nearly L.1300 Sterling. The total weight 
of the whole package was thirty-eight quintals. 

An achromatic telescope, with an object-glass ezghteen feet 
in focal length, and with an aperture of ¢welve inches, and fur- 
nished with eye-glasses, micrometers, and parallactic stand, 
like the one now described, amounts to about L. 2720 Ster- 
ling. 

Mr Fraunhofer engages likewise to construct these instru- 
ments with object-glass eighteen inches in diameter ; and, as 
the price increases nearly as the cube of the diameter, an in- 
strument of this kind will cost about L. 9200 Sterling. 


Arr. XXIV.—On the Neptunian Formation of Siliceous 
Stalactites.* By the Rev. Joun Fiemine, D. D. F. B.S. E, 
Communicated by the Author. 


Tue formation of siliceous minerals has perplexed, in no or- 
dinary degree, the different sects of Geologists. The Vul- 
canists and Volcanists have, in vain, attempted to repel the 
objection brought against their views, founded on the refrac- 
tory nature of silica in the fire, amounting to infusibility. 


_ The Neptunians have been equally embarrassed with its chas 


racter of insolubility im aqueous menstrua. _ Fluxes have 
been resorted to by the former, and solvents by the latter, 
without any thing satisfactory.to the unprejudiced having 
been announced. It is not to be concealed, however, that 
several facts in the natural history of siliceous minerals, which 
have been established, lead to the conclusion that solvents of 
silica do exist in nature, though these solvents be yet un- 


© Read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, March 7, 1826, 


308 Dr Fleming on the Neptunian Formation 


known to the chemist, and only appear in the results whticl: 
. haye taken place. ici 3} BITTEN 
The occurrence of flint, in concretions arranged parallel to 
the seams of stratification in chalk, and the intalotons position 
of menilite in adhesive slate in gypsum, intimate the existence 
of a condition in which siliceous and calcareous matters have 
been influenced by similar circumstances. In reference to 
the chalk-beds, it may be supposed that the substances were 
deposited in the state of mud, which has been since changed 
into flint and chalk. That such a process of lapidification 
has been going on in the bed, is demonstrated by the occur- 
rence of shells, originally of an imbricated structure and com- 
pact fracture, now exhibiting the granular structure, or foliat- 
ed fracture of marble or calcareous spar; yet retaining dis- 
tinct traces of the albuminous animal matter. The fusion of 
the siliceous mud by heat, and its consequent conversion into 
flint, as has been conjectured ‘to have taken place, by Mr 
Allan in his valuable paper ‘ On the Formation of the Chalk 
Strata, and Structure of the Belemnite,” Edin. Phil. Trans. 
ix. 416, is a view of the matter, the incorrectness of which is 
demonstrated by the appearances exhibited. How is it possi- 
ble to conceive the application of any heat capable of fusing 
the flint distributed in layers throughout the bed, which would 
not fuse, at the same time, the far more fusible surrounding 
chalk ? Yet the chalk in-immediate contact with the flint is 
earthy, and does not exhibit any one of those appearances to 
be looked for in fused carbonate of lime. It is equally m- 
possible to conceive the cavity of an echinus filled with flint in 
fusion, while its thin calcareous, and consequently fusible crust, 
shall be capable of retaining all the delicate arrangement of its" 
parts, preserving unobliterated, the sutures, the tubercles, and 
the minute bronchial pores. Mr Allan seems to have been 
aware of all these objections, but he has been unfortunate in 
his attempt to obviate them. “ But we have,” he remarks, 
“¢ many such anomalies in nature ; the base of many of the 
trap rocks presents as little the appearance of crystallization 
as even the softest chalk, and yet it is now admitted, even by 
the pupils of the Freyberg School, to be of i igneous origin,” 
_p. 417. I was not a little amused, by thus witnessing Mr 


of Siliccous Stalactites. 309 


Allan, in his distress, seeking shelter under the mantle of 
Werner! “He will find it in this case, however, but a cob- 
web. Let us suppose, with Mr Allan, that the pupils of the 
Freyberg school can view these anomalies in trap rocks, and, 
in spite of such testimony to the contrary, continue to believe 
in their igncous origin, it remains to be asked, what explana- 
tion of these anomalies can be given to one, who is not a pupil 
of the Freyberg school, and who does not admit the i igneous 


formation of trap rocks? Can it be any thing but a confes- 
sion, that the hypothesis is opposed by the phenomena ? 


Flinty matter sometimes occurs in older limestones than the 
chalk, in such situations as to offer equally formidable objec- 
tions to the igneous geologists. The specimens now exhibit- 
ed to the Society seem to be of this description. They were 


found, many years ago, in a quarry on the estate of Kirkton, 


near Bathgate, West Lothian. ‘This quarry was opened in a 


bed of limestone, which dips under the great bed of limestone 


belonging to the coal-field which extends north towards Lin- 
lithgow. This great bed is regularly stratified, and dips to 
the west at an angle of about 20°. It encloses the remains of 
those marine auld which are common in the limestones of 
the coal formation, with the beds of which, on both sides, this 


amass is conformable. Flinty matter occurs in this bed, dis- 


seminated in irregular thin layers, or in shapeless masses, oc- 
casionally containing relics of marine animals. 

The bed of limestone to which we more particularly refer 
exhibited in some places the ordinary massive or compact 
structure, but in others it displayed that subconcentric la- 
mellar concretionary arrangement so char acteristic of calcedony. 
‘The different layers of shee undulating plates presented 


many varieties of the botryoidal and mammillary forms. But 
_ the layers did not consist exclusively of carbonate of lime. 
_ Plates of flint likewise occurred, alternating with the lime- 
_ stone in parallel layers. The siliceous matter likewise abounds 


in the Jayers of limestone. When a mass of this substance 
is exposed to the weather, the calcareous matter wastes, and 
Ahe flinty portion appcars in high relief. Maceration in acid, 


_.as has taken place in one specimen, likewise exhibits its true 


structure, In the cavities produced by the irregular com. 


$10 Dr Fleming on the Neptunian Formation 


‘tortion of these strata, crystals of quartz, calcareous: _ 
and ‘Magnetic iron ore, occur. 

Vegetable remains occur in this bed. Several trunks of 
trees, with their branches, could be distinetly traced, enclosed 
by the flinty and calcareous matter, as in the specimens ex- 
hibited. In some cases the woody matter was removed, and 
petrifaction had taken place so completely, as to leave only 
the traces of the original in the fibrous structure of the cast. 
In other cases the texture of the wood seemed to be but 
little altered, as the concentric zones were visible, the per- 
pendicular fibres separable, and even sectile. These re- 
mains were sometimes of a brown colour, crossed with veins 
- of calcareous spar. In the petrified matter, both flint and 
limestone abounded. ‘The casts, except im one instance, pre- 
sented no marks by which the species or genus could be de- 
termined. This example seems to be identical with the 
Phytolithus Plantites verrucosus of Martin, “ Petrificata Der- 
biensia,” Tab. XI. fig. 1, and which I have found to be a 
common production of the sandstone, clay-ironstone, and ve- 
getable limestone of the Lothian coal-field. 

The same objections present themselves against the igneous 
origin of the flint in this case, as in the chalk-rocks. I may 
add, that I have observed calcedony in a similar position to 
the flint in the present specimens, in the compact limestone 
at Inverugie, near Duffus, Morayshire. Are we, therefore, 
‘to consider that this peculiar botryoidal structure in limestone 
is produced by the influence of siliceous matter with the ten- — 
dencies of calcedony? We should feel inclined to adopt this 
opinion, were we not aware of a similar structure prevailing © 
in limestone, destitute of any notable quantity of siliceous 
Matter, as at Inchkeith. 


In the cavities of the chambered univalve shells, which'oc- | 


cur in a petrified state in our limestone rocks, no earthy sub- 
stances are observed, unless in the pipe which opens external- 
ly, or in those chambers which have broken walls. In those 
which are closed on all sides, crystalline minerals are observed 
to have exclusive possession, and these are usually calcareous 
spar and quartz, or rock crystal. That the former, in solu- 
tion, percolated the walls of the chamber, and crystallised in 


of Siliceous Stalactites. 311 


the cavity, will readily be allowed, since the Neptunian cha- 
racter of calcareous spar cannot be disputed ; but what pre- 
vents us from drawing the inference that the rock-crystal 
reached its station under similar circumstances ? 

Silicified wood occurs in alluvial soil, in such circumstances 
as to warrant the conclusion, that the petrifying matter was 
brought into its present situation by the agency of water. 

But the proof that siliceous matter is soluble in aqueous 
menstrua is presented to us in the most unequivocal manner 
by gramineous vegetables. In the epidermis of these plants, 
the silica is arranged in a symmetrical manner. It seems ob- 
viously to be a natural secretion of the plant in the construc- 
tion of its ordinary integuments. Sometimes it occurs as a 
morbid secretion in the joints forming the well known taba- 
sheer. 

The preceding facts leave no room to doubt that silica is 
found in nature in the state in which it appears to have been 
deposited from a solution; and the following observations 
seem to countenance the conclusion. 

In this neighbourhood, the prevailing rocks belong to the 
trap family, and consist principally of amygdaloid, clinkstone, 
greenstone, and compact felspar, as subordinate to the old red 
sandstone. Where quarries are opened in these rocks, the 
rents near the surface are numerous, and form small cavities, 
the walls of which are occasionally covered with calcareous 
and siliceous stalactites, though always in thin crusts. In 
some cases, the liquor from which these have been produced 
seems to have been small in quantity, to have been collected 
in one spot on the roof, and to have left a thin film of the 
earthy matter not larger than the nail of the finger. In other 
eases, the surface covered is of greater extent, but the thick- 
ness of the matter never reaches a quarter of an inch. The 
siliceous matter seems to have dropped from the roof of the 
cavity, in some instances, on the fragments of rock, on the 
_ floor, forming stalagmites. 

The surface of this stalactilic crust is rough, and, where 
thickest, it rises into numerous blunt mammillary processes. 
In the siliceous portions, these processes acquire a degree of 
hardness, translucency, and smoothness of surface, approach- 


312 Rev. Mr Whewell’s General Method of calculating — 


ing to caleedony- When they ate steeped in an acid; they 
part with the calcareous matter, and the macerated remnant 
intimates by its appearance that the two substances occurred 
in alternate layers ; the calcedony, however, prevailing towards 
the surface. 

The specimens now exhibited will serve to give a correct 
idea of the nature of this incrustation, and furnish evidence 
of its recent origin, since it invests even the loose fragments of 
the rock. We know the Neptunian origin of calcareous sta- 
lactites ; and here they occur alternating with those in which 
silica predominates. Need we hesitate, then, to conclude that 
the calcareous and siliceous ingredients were suspended in the 
same menstruum, and deposited under similar circumstances ? 
We may conjecture that the water was aided by heat, by al- 
kalies, or by carbonic acid or carburetted hydrogen, render- 
ed powerful by compression ; but these are mere mental ‘ef- 
forts to avoid a conclusion which the circumstances of the 
case justify, but which militates against our theoretical preju- 
dices. 


Manse or Fuiisx, 22d Febr wary 1825. 


Arr. XXV.—Notice of the Rev. W. WaeweE.t’s General 
Method of calculating the Angles made by any Planes of 
Crystals, and the Laws according to which they are innate ¥ 


Tue object of Mr Whewell’s inquiry was to obtain a new 
system of notation for expressing the planes of a crystal, and 
their laws of decrement, and to reduce the mathematical part 
of crystallography to a few simple formulz of universal appli- 
cation.. ‘The author proposes to represent each plane of a 
crystal by a symbol indicative of the laws from which it re- | 
sults, which, by varying only its indices, may be made to re- 
_ “This Notice is composed of an abstract of Mr Whewell’s paper, as 
read before the Royal Sccicty on the 25th November 1824, and published” 
in the Journal of Science, No. XXXVI. and of 2 short notice of the For- 


mule themselves, which Mr Whewell was so good as tu send us at our re= 
quest.—Ep- 


the Angles formed by any Planes of Crystals. 313 


“present any law, and. by means of which, and.of the primary 


angles of the substance, a general formula may be derived, 
expressing the dihedral angle between any one plane result- 
ing from crystalline laws, and any other. The angle contain- 
ed between any two edges of the derived crystals, may also 
be found in the same manner ; and conversely, haying given 
the plane, or dihedral angles of any crystal, and its primary 
form, the laws of decrement according to which it is consti- 
tuted may be deduced by a direct and general process, 

‘The mathematical part of this paper depends on two for- 

mul, by one of which the dihedral angle included between 
any two planes can be calculated, when the equations of both 
planes are given ; and by the other, the plane angle included 
between any two given right lines can, in like manner, be ex- 
pressed by assigned functions of the co-efficient of the equa- 
tion supposed given. ‘These formule being taken for grant- 
ed, it remains to express, by algebraical equations, the planes 
which result from any assigned laws of decrement for the dif- 
ferent primitive forms. For this purpose, the author assumes 
one of the angles of the primitive form supposed in the first 
case a auebgid, as the origin of three co-ordinates respective- 
ly, parallel to its edges, ond supposes any secondary face ta 
arise from a decrement on this angle, by the subtraction of 
any number of molecules on each of its three edges. It is 
demonstrated, first, that the equation of the plane arising from 
this decrement will be such, that the co-efficients of the three 
co-ordinates in it (when reduced to its simplest form) will be 
the reciprocals of the numbers of molecules subtracted.¢ on the 
edges to which they correspond. 
_ If the constant part of this equation be zero, the faces will 
pass through the origin of the co-ordinates; if not, a face 
paralle] to it may be conceived passing through such origin, 
and will have the same angles of incidence, &ec. on all the 
other faces of the crystal,—so that all our reasonings may be 
confined to planes passing through the origin of the co-ordi- 
nates. 

In order to represent any face, Mr Whewell encloses hd 
tween parentheses the reciprocal co-efficients of the three co. 
ordinates of its equations, with semicolons between .them. 


314 Rev. Mr Whewell’s General Method of calculating ~- 


He then shews how truncations on the edges and angles of 
the primitive form are represented in this notation, by one or 
more of the elements of which the symbol consists becoming 
zero, or negative, thus comprehending all cases which can oc- 
cur in one uniform analysis. 

The law of symmetry in crystallography, requires that si- 
milar angles and edges of the primitive form should be modi- 
fied similarly, to produce a perfect secondary crystal. This 
gives rise to co-existent planes. 

In the rhomboid, three co-existent planes are formed by 
simple permutation of the elements of the symbol, one among 
another. In the prism, such only must be permitted as re- 
late to similar edges. 

In other primitive forms, such as the tetraédron, Mr 
Whewell institutes a particular inquiry into the decrements 
of the co-existent planes which truncate the different angles 
of the primitive form, as referred to that particular angle 
which he assumes as the origin of the co-ordinates. In this 
latter case it follows, from the analysis, that each of the ele- 
ments of the symbol must be combined with its excess over 
each of the remaining two, to form a new symbol. This 
gives four symbols, each susceptible of six pet ora mak- 
ing in all twenty-four faces. 

Mr Whewell then considers a variety of other cases, and 
treats of the order in which the faces lie in a perfect crystal, 
and the determination of such faces as are adjacent, or other- 
wise. Lastly, he investigates the angles made by edges of the 
secondary form. 


The following formule may be used for calculating the 
angles made by any secondary faces of a crystal, when the 
law of its derivation from the primary is known; and con- 
versely, for determining the law of formation when the angles 
of the secondary form are given. 

Let any solid angle, contained by ‘thea plane angles of the 
primary form, be considered as the origin of our measure- 
ment ; let v, y, z be the three edges, foriiied by the meeting 
of the three planes. Let any secondary plane, cut off from 
x, ¥, xs lines of which the reciprocals are p, q, 7, respectively. 


the Angles formed by any Planes of Crystals. - $15 


This plane may be represented by (p;q;7). And. another 
plane for which the corresponding quantities are P> qd: 75 
will be represented by (p'; g'; 7’). Let the dihedral angles at 
the lines; 2, y, x, respectively, be «, 8, y; and let @ be the 
angle contained by the planes (p 3957) and (p';q'; 7’), then 
we shall have, in all cases, 

~ pp'+-qq!+-rri—( pq +p'q) cos y— (pr'+-p'r) cos B—( qri+q'r) cosa 

oe ‘= Pte —Bpq cos y—2pr cos B—2qr cos a) ( p'? &c.)} 

The second factor of the denominator differing from the first, 
in having p', q', 7’ instead of p,q, r. 

Thus, if the primary form be a rhomb, we shall have 

=P—a: and if planes be derived from the same law operating 
upon different edges of the rhomb, the planes will be (p; g;r), 
(p573Q)s (qQirs p), &e. the result will be a bipyramidal do- 
decahedron, and the alternate dihedral angles 4, 6’, at the 
edges of the pyramids, will be given by the formule 


p? + 2qr—(q?+r2+ 2pq+2pr) cos « ‘ 


= $= > > es ; a 
OO PEELED pet pr + gr) 605 a - 
lovee 2pq-+r°—( p? + 92+ 2pr+2qr) cos a 


P+ Ptr —2( py + pr qr) cos « 


If the secondary plane, instead of being derived by trun. 
cating the angle which is the origin, be parallel to the trun- 
cation of some other solid primary form, some of the quantities 
Pp; q vr will be negative, and the formule will still be appli- 
cable. / 

If the secondary plane be parallel to the truncation of an 
edge of the primary, as, for instance, the edge a, the cor- 
responding index p will be 0.. Thus, (0 ; g; 7) represents a 
plane replacing one of the superior edges of the rhomb;. and 
(0;q;—7) represents a plane replacing one of the lateral 
edges. 

The same formula is equally applicable to the other pri- 
‘mary forms besides the rhomb; and the reference of the 

secondary planes of these forms to one of the angles as the 
origin, is capable of being rendered very simple. 


316 Rev. Mr Somerville’s Methods of Preventing the 


Ant. XXVL—On the Methods of Preventing the Accidentat 
. Discharge of Fire-Arms, Ynvented by the Rev. J. SomEr- 
_‘viztE, Minister of Currie, Communicated by the Author. 


Tue principle of these methods of preventing accidental dis- 
charge consists in calling in the aid of the left hand ; so that, 
while the ordinary gun in common use can be fired off solely 
by the action of the right hand, Mr Somerville’s gun requires 
both ; the left hand to undo the stop, slide, or catch, by which 
the gun is locked, and the other to draw the trigger, the same 
as in an ordinar y gun ; the left hand being equally yi, a 
to work the gun in the field as the right. 

The erent now described may be varied to a great ex- 
tent ; but the inventor confines himself at present to the de- 
scription of the two following methods. 

The first method, shown in Plate IV. Fig. 7, prevents ac- 
cidental discharge by means of a stop, slide, or catch, situate on 
the surface of the trigger plate, and either lying on or bedded 
into it, as the gunmaker or sportsman pleases. It is pressed for- 
ward into a nick in the trigger by a spring situate behind them, 
under the strap of the guard, and thereby prevents the trigger 
from acting, or pressing by any accident on the seer of the 
lock, by which the gun would be discharged. On the fore 
part of the guard, whefe the left hand presses, is a moveable 
part, called a key, which may be removed at pleasure, and 
operates upon the stop in the act of discharging the- gun. 
When this key is removed, the gun cannot be ane until it is 
replaced. 

If the sportsman fires with the left hand forward on the 
stock of the gun, instead of being on the guard, then the key 
can be placed forward to any part of the fore-stock ; and in 
that case, the end of the stop towards the left hand must run 
forward to that part of the stock, and there receive the key. 
This key, which may also be of any form or size, is also re- 
moveable at pleasure. ; 

‘Lhe second method (see Plate IV. Fig. 8.) prevents acci- 
dental discharge by means of a peg sence into the end of 
the main-spring, next the swivel, or into the swivel itself. ‘The 


Accidental Discharge of Fire-Arms. : 817 


peg may be also solid, that is, a part of the swivel itself, the 
end of the swivel being lengthened, and shaped into the form 
of a peg. This peg, whe the gun is fired, passes down 
through a hole or opening towards the trigger-plate of the 
gun. The gun is prevented from being discharged by. means 
of a slide, opening and shutting the hole at pleasure, through 
which the peg descends when the gun is fired. This slide is 
pressed forward into the hole or opening through which the 
peg passes in a’similar way to the one just now mentioned in 
the foregoing method. When the gun is fired, the left hand, 
by a gentle pressure, throws back the slide, and thus lays open 
the hole in the stock and trigger-plate, and allows the peg to 
pass ‘downward, and, of course, the main-spring to traverse its 
full distance. Keys are fixed upon, and removeable at plea- 
sure, from this gun, the same as in the former method just 
described. 

The first advantage which this gun possesses over the ordi- 
nary gun is the complete security which it affords against ac- 
cidental discharge, and the consequent preservation of human 
dife. This is the grand object of the present contrivance. Its 
other advantages are all subordinate to this. 

It is not without reason that writers have cautioned pra 
men about the danger of fire-arms, and that the anxiety of pa- 
rents has been awakened by the risk their sons run in the use 
of them. The waste of human life by the accidental discharge 
of fire-arms is truly deplorable. Not only every season, but 
almost every week of every season, brings us accounts of the 
most valuable lives being lost in this way. ‘The inventor, 
within the space of little more than a year, the time when he 
first began to notice such ‘accidents, has marked, within the 
narrow limits of his own observation, no less than sixteen or 
eighteen lives lost by the accidental discharge of fowling-picces. 
The death of a fine youth of eighteen, the eldest son of his 
family, and belonging to his own parish, occasioned in this 
way, and Gti panied with the most tragical circumstances, 
first led the inventor to think of this subject ; and since that 
time he has been in the habit of marking similar occurrences. 
He may state it as a fact, that, at an average, there is not less 
than from twenty to thirty lives, throughout Great Britain and 


318 Rev. Mr Somerville’s Methods of Preventing the 


Ireland, lost every year in this way, besides far more than that 
number maimed and wounded. Against such fatalities the gun 
now described presents the most absolute security. Acciden- 
tal discharge with it is completely out of the question; at least, 
the probability of it is so small, as to be beyond the reach of 
caleulation. If accidental pressure shall touch the triggers, no 
evil happens, because they are locked ; if it touches the key, 
no evil happens, because the pressure, by that time, is sup- 
posed to be removed from the triggers. The pressure must 
be against the triggers and on the key at the same instant of 
time, otherwise the locks will not work. If the triggers are 
touched the twinkling of an eye before the key, or the key be- 
fore the triggers, then no evil can ensue ; for, unless touched 
at the same instant of time, they mutually support and coun- 
teract one another, and thus prevent the gun from going off. 
Accident may touch the key and the triggers of this gun, as 
well as any other; but then accident cannot touch both key 
_ and triggers at the same instant of time. Design only can 
touch ¢wo specific points at one specific time. If accident does 
touch the key and triggers of this gun, it must be in succes- 
sion ; but successive touching will not fire the gun. It must 
be simultaneous to do it; but this supposes thought, and 
thought supposes design. The inspection of the gun or the fi- 
gure will make this more palpable than any words can ; and 
to them we refer to confirm what has been said. 

The second advantage which this gun possesses over the or- 
dinary fowling-piece is superior dispatch, as it allows the 
sportsman always to go with the wtmost security, with his gun 
full cocked, and, of course, saves the time of cocking the gun 
when game rises unexpectedly. So sensible are sportsmen of 
the advantage of having their fowling-pieces always full cock- 
ed, that the writer knows some of them who always go with 
their guns so prepared, though at the risk both of their own 
and the lives of their friends. The present invention, hows 
ever, renders this practice not only harmless, but adviseable 
and advantageous, as it thus unites the greatest dispatch with 
the most perfect security. 

The third advantage which this gun enjoys over others is 
the ease and tranquillity of mind, which it necessarily imparts, ~ 

4 


* Accidental Discharge of Fire-Arms. 319 


not only to the sportsman himself, but to his friends, parents, 
relations, and guardians at home. No man of ordinary feel- 
ing can be perfectly at ease, surrounded by his friends, with a 
loaded gun in his hand, leaping walls, crossing ditches, brush- 
ing through thickets, underwood, and hedges, when, all the 
while, the life of his friends is within the reach of a mortal 
weapon, and the danger of that weapon guarded against only 
by the fallaciousness of memory; and the risk increased ten- 
fold by the eagerness of pursuit, and the suspension of thought 
necessarily occasioned by a species of amusement, which, more 
than any other, lays caution asleep, and occasions that flutter 
and hurry of spirits, from which such fatal accidents general-, 
ly sprmg. Many a melancholy fact attests the truth of this 
remark. Even the most cautious man living, in the eagerness 
of pursuit, and the hurry of the moment, is sometimes off his 
guard; and, with the young and inexperienced sportsman, 
this is the case to an extent, which those accustomed to such 
pursuits only can know. Now, this gun will tend most effec- 
tually to allay all anxiety arising from such causes, and thus 
put the sportsman in the most favourable state, both for en- 
joying his amusement, and doing execution ; as coolness and 
_ ease of mind are essentially necessary to do so with success. 
The fourth advantage which this gun possesses over the or- 
dinary gun is the safety which one of the modes of it gives to 
the left hand, in case the gun should burst. All good writers 
on the subject of shooting strongly recommend the sportsman 
to press the gun to his shoulder with the left hand close upon 
the forepart of the bow of the guard. Notwithstanding, this 
caution and advice are frequently neglected, and the lacera- 
tion or loss of many a left hand, by the bursting of the barrel, 
has taught the sportsman the folly of doing so. With the or- 
dinary gun, indeed, a man may fire with his left. hand close to 
the guard, and thus preserve it: with one of the modes, on 
which this is constructed, he must do so, for there the safety- 
spring is placed, and until it is touched, the locks are immove- 
able. 
Both on this point, and on the danger connected with the 
use of the ordinary gun, the writer begs leave to quote-an au- 
thority, which will not be disputed. . 


$20 =Rev. Mr Somerville’s Methods of Preventing the 


Daniel, in his valuable work on Rural Sports, has the fok 
lowing observations on these subjects: ‘* In shooting witha 
stranger,” says he, ‘¢ who perhaps keeps his gun cocked; and 
the muzzle usually pointed to the left, plead for the right- 
hand station, and that you cannot hit a bird flying to the left; 
with a game-keeper take the right hand without ceremony. 
In getting over a fence, constantly endeavour to go last, not- 
withstanding the usual assurance of, My dear Sir, Iam al- 
ways remarkably careful: and if a person beats bushes. with 
a cocked gun, get out of his company, as @ shooter, with all 
possible expedition. 

“¢ Always,” continues he, ‘ hold the gun sisi the Ze ft Fee 
close to the guard, (and not forward upon the barrel, to strong- 
ly grasp it near the entrance of the ramrod, notwithstanding 
it has been so strenuously recommended ;) all the requisite 
steadiness in taking aim, and even of motion, in traversing the 
flight of a bird, can be obtained by thus holding the heaviest 
pieces; and in case of a barrel’s bursting, the certainty of hav- 
ing a hand or arm shattered, by grasping the barrel, is redu- 
ced to a chance of escaping the effects of such an accident, by 
placing the hand close to the guard beneath it.” 

The fifth advantage which the writer now states is, that he 
thinks a steadier aim can be taken by his mode of holding the 
gun, than in the ordinary way. He is convinced that one 
great cause of bad shooting i is occasioned by grasping the gun 
too firmly with the right hand, or giving the right hand too 
much to do in the act of firmg. The more easy the right 
hand holds the gun, and the less it has to do, with the greater 
precision it will act upon the triggers at the proper time. The 
right hand, therefore, should hold the gun very loosely, and 
have only one thing to do, namely, to pull the trigger, when 
the gun comes into the proper position to be discharged. 
Now, the gun we are here considering admits of this to the 
fullest extent. With it the left hand should do as it were the _ 
whole work, except pulling the trigger... The safety-spring 
being worked solely by the left hand, it should press the.gun 
firmly to the shoulder, by which the safety-spring will be un- 
locked, and thus leave the right hand at perfect freedom, and. 


with nothing to do, but merely to touch the trigger, when the 
be 


Mr Ritchie on Leslie’s Photometer. 82k 


gun ‘comes into the proper position to be fired. Thus, by 
giving the left hand more to do, than in the ordinary gun,and 
therefore proportionally easing the right hand, the writer 
thinks, the gun will be held more steadily to the shoulder, @ 
surer aim be taken, and greater execution done, than with the 
gun in common use, and in the ordinary mode of firing. 
Lastly, a loaded gun'may be rendered perfectly safe, when 
lyimg.in'a house, or entrusted to servants, or in the hands of 
ignorant persons, by merely taking off the key; for then the 
machinery that works the locks cannot be reached, and conse- 
quently the gun cannot be discharged.* 


Manse of Currie, 28th Feb. 1825. 


Art. XXVII.—On Leslie's Photometer, and tis application to 
determine the relative Intensity of the Sun’s Rays, and the 
Illuminating Powers of Coal and Oil Gas. By Witiiam 
Rarente, A. M. Rector of the Academy at Tain. Com- 

-municated by the Author. 


Tue differential photometer of Professor Leslie has lately ex- 
cited so much discussion, and has been so much the subject 
of conversation, that a fair and impartial account of its 
merits and defects cannot fail to be acceptable to the generali- 
ty of readers. Those who defend the accuracy of the instru- 
ment are so lavish in its praise, that we may fairly conclude 
they have neither carefully examined the principles on which 
it 4s founded, nor the inaccuracies to which it is evidently lia- 
ble. Those, on the contrary, who espouse the opposite side 
of the question, are so liberal in their condemnation of it, that 
we are led to suspect they have exaggerated its defects. At 


* All guns, new and old, single and double, flint and percussion, are, 
at a small expence, susceptible of this improvement ; and various speci- 
mens of them, so fitted up, may be seen at Mr William Maclachlan’s, 
gun-maker, No. 39, Nicholson’s Street, and at Mr John Thomson’s, gun- 
maker, No. 3, South St Andrew’s Street, Edinburgh, agents for the in- 
ventor. For England any farther information will be given on this subject, 
by Mr Robert Wheeler, gun-manufacturer, Birmingham, who has made 
arrangements with the patentee, both for fitting up guns on this principle, 
48 well ds supplying the trade in England. ° 

VOL I. No. 11. APRIL 1825. > 4 


322 Mi Ritelie on Leslie’s Photometer. 


such a distance from the scene of action, I cannot be suspect- 

ed of partiality to either party, and shall, therefore, calmly 

express my conviction of the truth, without the least appre- 

hension of giving offence to Mr Leslie, whose love of philo- 

sophic truth is so ardent, that I am convinced he will be the’ 
first to acknowledge the justice of the following observations, 

or to point out the errors into which I may have fallen. 

The photometer is merely a differential thermometer, hav- 
ing one of its balls blown of black enamel, while the other is 
blown as thin and transparent as possible. The whole is then 
inclosed in a transparent glass case. The black ball intercepts 
the greater portion of incident light, whilst the transparent 
one allows the greatest part to pass freely through. The 
light which is thus intercepted by the black ball, is gradually 
conducted to the interior, and thus expands the contained air. 
As the black ball is placed considerably above the transparent 
one, (in the portable photometer,) the ambient air will con- 
tinue to receive fresh accessions of heat, till the expendi- 
ture from the exterior surface of the glass is equal to the in- 
crement of light which the black ball intercepts. Now, as 
this quantity is partly carried off by radiation, and by the 
conducting and carrying powers of the air, it must vary with 
the surrounding sky, and with the density of the atmosphere, 
&c. A cold sweeping wind has also a powerful effect in car- 
rying off the accumulated store of heat. These causes are so 
variable, that though the sun were to shine constantly with 
the same splendour, and remain in the same situation, the in- 
dications of the photometer would be extremely various. To 
be convinced of this, place the photometer opposite the sun, 
in a calm sheltered situation, and then remove it quickly to an 
elevated place, where it is exposed to a chilly wind from the 
north, and the number of degrees will be found to be less than 
formerly, even though the sun continued to shine with un- 
clouded aspect. But, the instrument, when applied to measure 
the intensity of the sun’s rays, is subject to another inaccu- 
racy, which must have, considerable influence in changing the 
result. The reflected light from the clouds and from the 
earth, mingles its effect with the direct radiation from the sun, 
so that we can deduce no conclusion whatever from the indi- 


Mr Ritchie on Lesiie’s Photometer. 328 


cations of the instrument under so many obstructing causes. 
Mr Leslie, with his usual ingenuity, has endeavoured to re- 
move some of these disturbing causes, particularly the reflec- 
tion of light from the surface of the earth; but, though this 


may be removed, the others remain in full force, and exert a 


powerful influence. Without making, therefore, a proper al- 
lowance for these obstructing causes, the indications of. the 
photometer do not afford even an approximation to the rela- 
tive intensity of the solar rays at different periods and in dif- 
ferent situations. 
It has lately been made a question, whether the photometer 
is acted upon by mere heat, unaccompanied with light. Both 
experiment and reasoning concur to prove, that mere heat can 
have no influence whatever upon it, unless that heat move 
with a velocity sufficient to permeate the glass case by which it 
is surrounded.* If the instrument be placed opposite a ball 
of iron heated almost to redness, no effect whatever will be 
produced ;+ but, if the temperature of the ball be raised so as 
to shine in the dark with a dusky red colour, the fluid in the 
stem of the black ball will sink a considerable number of de- 


grees. If the temperature of the ball be raised still higher, it 
will produce a greater effect upon the instrument than the 


flame of the finest oil-gas, though the one possesses a much 


greater illuminating power than the other. 


* The opinion here expressed by Mr Ritchie, is in direct opposition to 
the experimental results of Delaroche and Berard, (recently confirmed 
by Dr Turner and Dr Christison,) which have been almost universally ad~ 
mitted by philosophers. The Rev. Baden Powell, F. R.S. has still more 


recently found, that the heat of luminous bodies, when intercepted by a 


pane of glass, is separated into two portions, one of which is absorbed by 
the screen, and the other transmitted, and that these two portions differ in 


‘their properties, the heat absorbed being always equally absorbable by black 


and white surfaces, while the heat transmitted is more easily absorbed by 
black than white surfaces.—Ep. 
t+ Dr Turner and Dr Christison, have demonstrated by direct experi-~ 


‘eng which we, and many others have seen, that Mr Leslie’s photome- 
ter ‘‘ is powerfully affected by heat,” when placed “ before a ball of iron 


heated, so as not to be luminous, or even before a vessel of boiling water.” 


“As Mr Ritchie has found the very reverse of this to be the case, we 


may conclude, that an instrument which, in such hands, gives such op- 


‘posite results, cannot deserve much confidence,—Ep, 


324 Mr Ritchie on Leslie’s Photometer. 


Tn the late discussions with regard to the relative values of 
coal and vil-gas, those who have employed Mr Leslie's pho- 
tometer, seem to have overlooked the distinction between the 
terms Quentity of’ Light and Illuminating’ Power. By the 
foriier term, I would be understood to mean the number of 
atoms of light shooting out simultaneously from two luminotis 
sources; by the latter, the power which these atoms possess 
of rendering’ external objects visible. The ratio of the former 
mialy be determined by a photometer founded on the expan- 
sion of air by its combination with light. The ratio of the 
latter cahtiot be determined by any iniettiod which does not 
employ the indications of the extremely delicate photoscope, 
the eye, as one of the elements in the calculation. 

The method which Mr Leslie has proposed, evidently de- 
pends on the assumed principle, that the illuminating power 
is proportional to the quantity of light. This principle, from 
a very simple method, which I have lately employed for de- 
termining the illuminating powers of different flames, I find 
to be quite unfounded. When. the colours of the flames are 
nearly the same, the illuminating powers will then be nearly 
proportional to the quantities of light ; but when the colours 
are different, the illuminating power of the most brilliant ight, 
mcreases in a much higher ratio than the mere quantity of 
light. Mr Leslie’s method must, therefore, give results very 
unfavourable to the illuminating power of oil-gas, when com- 
pared with that of ordinary coal-gas. 

But, as mere reasoning can never determine a question in 
physical scietce, unless that reasoning be founded on accurate 
experiment, I had recourse to the following experiment, which 
seems to put the matter beyond the pésaibility of doubt. I 
made a quantity of oil-gas of the very best quality, and an 
equal quantity of coal-gas, of an inferior quality, and not well 
purified. The one burned with a bluish flame, surrounded 
by a red fringe. The other threw out a torrent of white bril- 
liant light. By Mr Leslie’s method, the ratio turned out as one 
to five, though the one did not possess one-twentieth part of the 
illuminating power of the other. JI haye thus taken the qua- 
lities of the twe gases very different, in order to shew more 
clearly the fallacy of the method in extreme cases, as it is More _ 


Mr Haidinger’s Notice respecting Trona. 325 


difficult to detect the error, which becomes small, when the 
caal-gas is of the best quality and highly pumfied. ‘The me- 
thod of Count Rumford, is equally false with that which I 
have now examined, particularly. when the colours of the 


flames are different, as it will be found quite impossible to 


bring the shadows to the same density or even the same colour 
at any distance whatever. Thecelebrated question which has of 
late agitated not only the philosophical, but eyen the com- 
mercial world, has not yet. received a solution sufficiently ac- 


_¢urate to eommand the assent not only of the impartial ob- 


server, but even that of rival companies. 


XXVIII.—WNotice respecting Trona, the native Carbonate 
of Soda from Fezzan. By Wiuttam Harpixcer, Esq. 
F.R.S. Edin. Communicated by the Author. 


Ix order to establish the grounds upon which I believe the 

resent notice not to be without interest to mineralogists, 
I shall previously give the description of Trona itself, and of 
the two species of hemiprismatic and prismatic Natron-salt, 
‘the two latter as contained in Professor Moh’s T'reatise on 
Mineralogy,* before entering upon those observations, which 
will naturally offer themselves in the course of comparing 


these species with each other. 
1. Trona. 


Hemiprismatic crystals observed similar to Plate VITE. eT 
Fig. 5, of which Fig. 6 is a projection upon a plane perpen- , of. + 
dicular to Mand T’. f bt } 


at 


i 


Inclination of » on nm = 182° 30’. 


17 


of Mon T’) = 103° 15” 
of non J’ = 103° 45’. 

These angles were taken with the reflective goniometer, but 
particularly the last of them will perhaps allow of some ¢or- 
rections, if in future better crystals should be obtained. The 
angle a, b, c, at which, in the projection, Fig. 6, the edge be- 
tween n and nis inclined towards the face 7’, was valued at 
about 62° by the assistance of the common goniometer. ‘There 


* Translation, vol. ii. p. 27 and 29. 


326 Mr Haidinger’s Notice respecting T'rona, 


18 also a rough face, replacing the obtuse edge between M and 
T’, the inclination of which, however, I could not ascer- 
tain. 
Cleavage highly perfect, and easily obtained parallel to M; 
faint traces also parallel to m and 7’. Fracture uneven. Sur- 
face of nm and M smooth, of 7' generally striated in a horizon- 
tal direction, or parallel to its edges of combination with 7’. 

Lustre vitreous. Colour white, occasionally inclining to 
yellowish grey, when impure. Streak white. Transparent, 
perfectly so in minute crystals; the larger masses translucent. 
The index of ordinary refraction, measured through the faces 
M and T,, is about 1.43; that of the extraordinary one mea- 
sured in the same plane about 1.52; the two images are fine- 
ly separated. 

Rather brittle. Hardness = 2.5...2.75, very near that of 
alum, though a little superior to it. Sp. gr. = 2.112. Taste 
pungent, alkaline. 

Compound Varieties.—Crystalline coats, consisting of nu- 
merous crystals fixed to the support in the place of the edges 
between m and n, and lengthened between M and T’, generally 
thin, and nearly parallel, so as to produce a very distinct ra- 
diated fracture. 


2. Hemiprismatic Natron-salt. 
Hemiprismatic. P = | oe a fs 154° 31’, 115° 22’. In- 


clination of the axis — 3° 0/, in the plane of the long diagonal. 
Fig. 7. Refl. Gon. 


a:?b..c:.d—19.10 - $4.72 - 1367 
= rE Yr Qe 4 Pr ° t 
Simple forms. @ () = coe; " (2) 58? ae 
(Pr + © )* (M).= 76 28; Pr + (r); Pr+o (2). 
Combinations. 1. es .(Pr+o).Prto. Fig. 8. 
Pr P 


2.55 @ri0).Pr+4o «Pr +00 «Page 


Cleavage distinct, parallel to ¢, imperfect parallel to /, traces 
of M. Fracture conchoidal. Surface smooth and even. 


1l 


the native Carbonate of Soda from Fezzan. 327 


Lustre vitreous. Colour white, when pure. Streak white. 
Semitransparent. (Even very small crystals possess lower de- 
grees of transparency than crystals of Glauber-salt of the same 
size.) 

Sectile. Hardness = 1.0...1.5. Sp. gr. — 1.423. Taste 
pungent, alkaline. 

Compound Varieties.—Several imitative shapes: composi- 
tion columnar. Massive: composition granular. Individuals 
large, generally obtained by the assistance of art, as also the 
crystals themselves. It occurs in nature in a decomposed 
state, reduced to powder by the loss of its water. 


3. Prismatic Natron-salt. 
Prismatic. P = 141° 48’, 52° 9/, 145° 52’ Fig. 10. Ap. 
a.bic=1. ,/ 0.806 : ,/ 0.107. 

Simple forms. P—a ; P(P); (Pr+ )' (d)—107°50; 
Pr—1= 121° 46; Pr (0) = 83° 50/; Pr + (p). 

Combinations. 1. Pr. (Pr +o). Pr 4. Fig. 11. 

2. Pr.P. (Pr + 0). Pr 4 0. Fig. 12. ; 
‘ Cleavage very imperfect ; traces parallel to p; much inten 
rupted by fracture, which is small conchoidal. Surface ge- 
nerally smooth. P— o streaked parallel to its edges of com- 
bination with Pr. 

Lustre vitreous, more bright upon p;_ the horizontal prisms 
being sometimes dull. Colour white ; sometimes yellowish. 
Streak white. Transparent... semitransparent. 

Sectile. Hardness = 1.5. Sp. gr. = 1.562. Taste pun- 
gent, alkaline. 


Observations. 


As it has always been the custom in mineralogy to quote 
Pliny when treating of soda, it may be observed here, that the 
Nitrum of the ancients, generally allowed to be our soda, which 
was found in the vicinity of Naucratis and Memphis, in Egypt, 
may be Trona, because lapidescit ibi in acervis : multique 

sunt tumuli ea de causa saxei ;* im the same way, as we find 


* Plin- Hist. Nat. lib. xxxi. cap. x. vol: iii. p. 985. Elzev- 1635. 


328 Mr Haidinger’s Nolice respecting: T'ronc 
g P ‘Ss t 


in’ the mineralogical works of the present day, that the: natrum 
from the lakes in Egypt, is sufficiently hard .and compact. to 
allow walls to be constructed of it, as in a fort, near the Na- 
trum Lakes, called Qasrr or Cassr, which is now abandoned.* 
But, as this is ascribed to. an.admixture of munate of seda, 
and may be ascribed to a similar admixture. im: Pliny, it does 
not form an undoubted synonym of the species. Yet the co- 
incidence of the accounts of this author, of houses being built 
of ‘salt by the Hammanientes,+ the Amantes of Solimus,} a 
nation carrying on trade with the Troglodytes,. with the ex, 
istence of a fort built of soda, is remarkable enough., Be- 
sides, Pliny comprises many substances under the name of 
nitrum, which are essentially different; Dr-Kidd has already 
observed,§ that some of the Egyptian nitrum, which calee as- 
persum reddit odorem vehementem, must be sal ammoniac, and 
that often it means also our nitre. It appears. that all the 
efflorescent salts were called nitrum, comprehending sulphate 
of soda, sulphate of magnesia, and others; nay, the passage 
in Pliny, nam quercu cremata nunquam multum factitatum 
est, et jampridem in totum omisswm, seems also to include. pot- 
ash, though this is likewise enumerated among the; methods 
of ofbsteie salt, quercus optima, wt qeda paniae cimere syncero 
vim salis reddat. 
Among the modern authors, the etl ba and mn thes same 
time one of the most detailed accounts was given, by Dr 
Donald Monro,|| the first who pomted out, that the pure 
native crystallised. natron occurred in some of the inland 
parts of ‘Tripolivin Barbary. The salt is. there stated to 
* run in thin veins, of about: half an inch, or a. little more, 
thick in a bed of sea-salt; for all of it that has hitherto been 
imported into this country, is covered with sea-salt on each 
side. ‘The one side is always smoother than the other,,and — 
appears as if it had been, the basis on which it rested; the — 
other, which should seem to be the upper side, is: rougher, by 
the shooting of the crystals.. The pieces of the thin, veins ap- 
pear almost as if the salt had been dissolved in water, and. af- 


“ Klaproth’s Essays, vol. ii. p. 62. + Cap. xxx. 
t Libr. v. cap. v. vol. i. p. 251. bh 9g 
§ Outlines of Mineralogy, vol. ii. p. 6. || Phil. Trans. 1773, p- 56%. 


the native Carbonate of Soda from Fezxan. 329 


terwards-boiled up inito thin crystallized cakes, only that the 
erystals are much smaller, and in a manner that cannot be ea- 
sily imitated: by art; for when this salt is dissolved and eya- 
porated to a pellicle, and left to crystallize, it always. shoots 
into crystals resembling those of glauber-salt.” 

Another account was published by Mr Bragge,* Swedish 
eonsul at Tripoli; it is from his notice that more generally the 
indications in the works on mineralogy are taken. According 
to Mr Bragge, the “ native country of this soda, there called 
Trona, is the province Sukena, two journeys distant from Fez- 
zan. It is found at the foot of a rock mountain, upon the 
surface of the earth, at no greater depth than that of an inch, 
and as to breadth mostly that of the back of a knife’s blade. 
It occurs always crystallized ; on the fracture it exhibits con- 
crete, oblong, parallel, and sometimes striated crystals; thus 
resembling crude or unburnt gypsum.” + He states, more- 
over, that it is found twenty-eight days journey from the sea 
coast, where the salt mines are, and that it is not contaminated 
with common salt. Large quantities are exported to the coun- 
try of the Negroes and to Egypt, besides 50 tons annually 
which are brought to ‘Tripoli. 

The description given by Klaproth himself is confined to the 
statement that he examined ‘crystalline incrustations, from 
one-third to half an inch thick, of accumulated parallel plates, 
standing on their smaller edges, and of a lamellar striated tex- 


ture.” 
The systematic works on Mineralogy contain little farther 


information on this subject. Some have distinguished 'Trona 
as a particular sub-species, but the greater part include it in 
one species with the hemi-prismatic natron-salt, according to 
the principle that they both essentially consist of carbonate of 
soda. mg 8 

From the treatises on geography we learn that there is a parti- 
cular district of Fezzan, called Mendrah, with a hard and barren 
soil, but which has a commercial importance for the quantity 
of trona, a species of fossil alkali, which floats on the surface, 


" Vetensk. Acad. Handlingar, 1773, p, 140. 
+ Klaproth’s Essays, yol. ii. p. 63. 


330 Mr Haidinger’s Notice respecting Tronay, 


and settles on the banks of numerous smoking lakes. Great 
quantities of it are brought by the merchants of Fezzan to be 
shipped at Tripoli. It is used in Morocco as an ingredient 
in the red dye of the leather, and in other manufactures. It 
forms part of the domains of the crown.* ’ 

The difference between the chemical composition of the 
two substances, though evident in itself at the time when it 
was discovered, has only of late received a rule in the doc- 
trine of fixed proportions, and becomes doubly interesting 
when compared in this point of view. The analysis of hemi- 
prismatic natron-salt, by Klaproth, gives 


Soda, - 2 : 22.00 
Carbonic acid, - 16.00 : 
‘ Water, - - 62.00 


The formula by Berzelius, Na 64.20 Aq., making use at 
the same time of his numbers, gives this proportion : 


Sola; wey Dim : 21.77 
Carbonic acid, cast in 15.33 
Water, - - 62.90 


The results of the analysis of Trona, by Klaproth, and 
of an analysis by Mariano de Rivero,+ instituted with a native 
carbonate of soda, from the Lake of Merida, in Columbia, are 
the following : 


Fezzan. Columbia. 
Soda, - - 37-00 41,22 
Carbonic acid, - 38.00 39.00 
Water, - - 22.50 , 18.80 


The 2.5 per cent. of sulphate of soda, in the analysis by 
Klaproth, not being considered as essential, the first of these 
results agrees very nearly with the formula, Na C544 Aq. 
or, 


Soda, a *o 37.99 
Carbonic acid, - 40.15 
Water, - - 21.86 


particularly, if we suppose that a small portion of the water 


* Playfair’s Geography, vol. vi. p. 167. Horneman’s Travels in arses 
t Edin. Phil. Journ. yol. xi- p. 215. 


the native Carbonate of Soda from Fezzan 33 


was united to the sulphate of soda; while in the analysis by 
Mr Rivero, the proportion of soda is a little larger than the for- 
mula would require. 

Klaproth observed, that it does not, like the common crys- 
tals, dissolve in its water, but that it retains its form, though it 
be exposed to a moderate red heat. It gives off the water 
_ with a crackling noise, if exposed in a glass tube to the spirit- 
lamp. It is much more difficultly soluble in water than the 
hemi-prismatic, or also the prismatic natron-salt ; also its taste 
is less intensely alkaline. It does not like them give off its 
water of crystallization when exposed to the air; and it may 
be preserved for any length of time unchanged in an atmos- 
phere, rendered perfectly dry by the contact of lime. 

The chemical difference of the prismatic natron-salt and the 
hemi-prismatic species, if any, probably lies in the quantity of 
water which they contain, but it has not as yet been ascertain- 
ed. They were first distinguished from each other as parti- 
cular species in the first volume of the Grundriss der Minera- 
logie, by Professor Mohs, p. 526; the hemi-prismatic form of 
one of the species has also been recognised by Messrs Brooke 
and Levy. They may be both easily obtained from a solu- 
tion of carbonate of soda. If this solution be perfectly satu- 
rated, and exposed to a farther evaporation, at a temperature 
of about 80°—100° Fahr., beautiful crystals of the prismatic 
species will be formed, whilst a less saturated solution will pro- 
duce hemi-prismatic crystals at a lower temperature, or if cool- 
ed more rapidly: By recrystallizing under different. circum- 
stances, the crystals of the two species may be easily trans- 
formed into one another. 

A solution of the supercarbonate of soda of the Edinburgh 
Pharmacopeeia, exposed to a slow evaporation, yields small 
transparent. crystals, possessing a hemiprismatic character. 
But they effloresce very readily, and though they seem to be 
different from those of any of the preceding species, I have 
not yet succeeded in obtaining them large enough for examina- 
tion. 

It is not a quite uncommon case, that, mineral species which 
have once been described as such, or at least mentioned in” 
works relating to the science, are subsequently neglected by 


332 Dr Brewster’s Description of Levyne, 


those, whose care in constructing treatises on mineralogy should 
be to prevent information we are already in possession of, from 
perishing. Very frequently, indeed, they may be excused for’ 
having followed that course, when the description given was 
so viadeterritite, that no remarkable points of difference from 
other species could be deduced from them, or when no de- 
scription at all was given. 
Trona has been very much in this situation. I have been 
indebted to Dr Hope for the specimens which have enabled me 
to ascertain some of its characters, and so far to supply the 
defects in the former descriptions, that it may in future be 
considered as a particular mineral species. The difference 
between the common carbonate of soda (the hemi-prismati¢ 
natron-salt of the method of Mohs) and the 'Trona of Fezzan, 
had already been pointed out by Klaproth ; but it seems that 
even the chemical mineralogists have not paid that degree of 
attention to his correct determination. which it deserves, be- 
cause there was yet wanting the exact statement of those 
characters, which it possesses in its natural state, and upon 
which alone the determination of the species can be founded. 


Art. XXIX.—Description of Levyne, a New Mineral Spe- 
cies. By Davip Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. Lond. and 
Sec. R. S$. Edinburgh. 


Tue mineral of which I propose to give a brief deserrption, 
was kindly transmitted to me for examination about a year 
ago, by Mr Heuland. In the memorandum which aceom- 
panied it, Mr Heuland stated that he suspected it to be new, 
and upon examining its optical properties, and comparing it 
with those minerals with which it seemed to be most closely 
allied, I had no doubt that it constituted a new and interest- 
ing species. 

This mineral occurs in the cavities of an amygdaloidal rock, 
‘from Dalsnypen, in Faroe, and sometimes accompanies the 
Chabasie and Analcime, but particularly a new variety of the 
Heulandite. 


a New Mineral Species. 333 


Although this mineral is evidently a compound one from 
the distinctness of the re-entering angles, yet this composition 
is not seen when examined by polarised light, through the 
faces perpendicular to the axis. This circumstance would of 
itself have been sufficient to show that it has only one axis of 
double refraction, but I determined this to be the case, by the 
direct examination of the polarised rings. Its double refraction 
is negative, like that of calcareous spar, and other obtuse 
rhomboids, and though not great, yet the images may be easi- 
ly separated. Its ordinary refraction is a little greater than 
that of almond oil, and very nearly the same as that of Pri- 
mitive Chabasie. 

I have sent a specimen, containing a few minute crystals 
of this substance, to M. Berzelius for analysis, but I have not 
yet received the results which he has obtained from them, 

It is not soluble in acids, nor does it gelatinise with them. 
It whitens and intumesces with heat like Chabasie and Meso- 
type, and, according to Mr Haidinger’s observations, it yields 
with salt of phosphorus a transparent globule, which contains 
a skeleton of silica, and becomes opaque on cooling. . 

For the following crystallographic observations I have been 
indebted to Mr Haidinger. 

Rhombohedral. R= 79° 29. 

a= J 8.38. 

Simple forms) R— » (0); R—1(g)= 100 4; R 
Pic oR +t 1 {ny ="70° 7: 

Character of Combination. Rhombohedral. 

Combination9 R— oo. R—1. R. Fig. 4 of Plate 
VIII. represents two individuals composed parallel to R — @, 
the individuals being continued beyond the face of composi- 
tion, as in Chabasie. Inclination of o on g@ = 136° 1’, of o 
on P = 117° 2¥, of o on n = 109° 13’. 

Cleavage, indistinct, parallel to R, Fracture Seomashect 
conchoidal. Surface, R —1 and R streaked parallel to their 
common edges of intersection. R — © uneven, and often 
curved, so that the opposite faces are often inclined on each 
other at an angle of 2° — 3°. 

Lustre vitreous. Colour white. Streak white, Semi- 
transparent. . 

Brittle. Hardness = 40. 


‘ 


834 Decisions on Disputed Inventions and Discoveries. 


I propose to distinguish this species by the name of Levyne, 
in compliment to Mr A. Levy, M. A. of the university of 
Paris, who is already well known to mineralogists, by his ery- 
stallographic acquirements, and by his determination of several 
‘new and interesting mineral species. 


Art. XXX.—DECISIONS ON DISPUTED INVENTIONS AND 
DISCOVERIES. 


In discharging the duties which the present series of papers has imposed 
upon us, we are glad to find that the principles we have laid down, as well 
as our method of applying them, have already obtained the sanction of 
those whose approbation will always be our highest reward. 

As these pages can never be stained with personal allusions, nor the de- 
cisions which they bear influenced by any other feelings but those which 
truth inspires, we are not without the hopes, that the greater number of 
those whom we may place in the list of second inventors will acknowledge 
the justness of our sentence, while those who have a. less veneration for 
the even-handedness of justice, will know in time to respect a tribunal to 
which they themselves may confidently appeal, and before which: their 
own usurped rights may ‘be vindicated. 

To persons of inferior candour, and particularly to selfish plagiarists, 
we would recommend the perusal.of the first paper in this Number, in 
which one of our most eminent Philosophers freely renounces to a fo- 
reigner the merit of discoveries which he had published, and believed to 
be his own; and also the communication from Mr-Nicholas Mill, in p. 
338 of this Number, in which he fixes the precise share which he and other 
philosophers have had in the improvement of the Platina Air Pyrometer. 


“1. The Daily Variation of the Barometer not discovered by Colonel Wright. 
It will doubtless seem strange to our scientific readers, that the disco- 
very of the daily variation of ‘the barometer should be now, almost for the 
first time, made a question for discussion. Their wonder, however, will 
not be diminished, when we inform them, that a grave charge has been 
brought against the Editor of this work, against Mr Brande, and against 
Baron de Ferussac, for transferring the honour of this discovery from M. 
Godin to Colonel Wright of Ceylon; and when we give them the additional 
information, that this charge was made by M. Arago, one of the editors of 
‘the Annales de Chimie, at the time when he was occupying the President's 
chair in the Royal Academy of Sciences, our readers will see the necessity 
of repelling a charge, which, had it come from any other quarter, would 
have received that silent treatment which it merits. 
As the notice which gave rise to this charge appeared originally in our 
Journal, and was merely copied from its pages into the Quarterly Journal, 
and into Baron Ferussac’s Bulletin, it is necessary that the defence should 


Daily Variation of the Barometer. 335 


proceed from us. The original notice in the Edinburgh Philosophical 
Journal stands thus :-— 2 

** Colonel Wright, member of the Ceylon Literary and Agricultural So- 
ciety, is said to,have discovered, that within the tropics the mercury rises 
and falls twice within twenty-four hours, with such regularity, as to afford 
almost an opportunity of measuring the lapse of time by this instrument.” 
—Ceylon Government Gazette.” 

To those who understand English, it must be very obvious that the fact 
here announced is the extraordinary regularity of the rise and fall, which 
would render the barometer almost fit for measuring time. But M. 
Arago chooses to view it in quite a different light. 

“I” Edinburgh Philos. Journal,” says he, conducted by Dr Brewster, 
** le Journal de UV’ Institution Royale de la Grande Bretagne, dirigé par le 
Professeur Brande; le Bulletin Universel des Sciences et del Industrié, 
publié sous la direction de M. le Baron de Ferussac, ont annoncé que sui- 
vant une Decouverre faite par le Colonel Wright, le mercure du baro- 
métré, dans le voisinage de l’equateur, monte et baisse deux fois en vingt- 
quatre heures, avec une telle régularité, quon pourroit presque se servir de 
cet instrument pour mesurer le temps. 

“ Nous prierons ceux des lecteurs des Annales qui trouveraient que nous 
leur communiquons cette découverte un peu tard, de vouloir bien remarquer 
que Godin, Bouguer, et Lacondamine, l’avaient déja faite il y a prés de 
cent ans; qu’aprés ces trois academiciens, presque tous les voyageurs aux 
regions Me tdnttiales s’en sont occupes ; que M. de Humboldt a publié en 
1807, un travail spécial et tres-precieux pour faire connaitre les veritables 
heures des maxima et des minima et I’étendue de Yoscillation (voyez Geo- 
graph. des Plantes.); que Lamanon, dans Vexpedition de La Peyrouse, Hor- 
ner; dans celle de Krusenstern, &c., se sont livrés a des recherches analogues ; 
que par le secours des moyennes, Duc-Lachapelle, 4 Montauban, M. Ra- 
mond, a Clermont-Ferrand, les astronomes de |’Observatoire, a Paris, M. 
Marqué-Victor, 2 Toulouse, &c. &c., ont prouvé que cette oscillation di- 
urne existe aussi dans nos climats; quenfin nous ne manquons jamais, 
dans nos resumés des observations meteorologiques de l’année, de donner 
les valeurs de l’abaissement journalier qu’eprouve le barométre de neuf 
heures du matin a trois heures aprés midi, et du mouvement ascendant qui 
se manifeste entre cette derniére époque et neuf heures de la nuit. 

“« Apres avoir montré pourquoi nous n’avons point parle de la pretendu 
découverte du Colonel Wright, nous desirerions bien expliquer quels motifs 
ont pu, au contraire, determiner les trois savans que nous avons cités, a lais- 
ser insérer dans leur journaux l’annonce de cet officier sans y joindre aucune 
remarque ; mais la tache nous parait difficile, et nous l’abandonnons a qui 
de droit.”" Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Tom. XXV. p. 334. 

The tone in which the preceding extract is conceived, cannot escape the 
observation of an English reader, and it mortifies us to think that'the Pre- 
sident of such a dignified body as the Academy of Sciences should permit 
himself to use the language of sneering, and contempt, in a question of pure 
scientific history. In calling the discovery of a British officer a pretended 


“ The greater part of this passage was translated in the Annals of Philosophy. 


$36 Decisions on Disputed Inventions and Discoveries. 


one, and in making reference to the motives of three gentlemen, whose 
only error could be the annunciation of what they believed to be aynew 
fact in science, M. Arago has forgotten the courtesy which characterises , 
Frenchmen, and has used language which, in our country at least, has ot 
left to grace the oratory of the bar. 

If we suppose that M. Arago did really misunderstand the true and ob- 
vious meaning of Colonel Wright’s notice, he surely could not for a mo- 
ment believe that the three editors whom he censures were ignorant of the 
daily variation of the barometer. With regard to the Editor of this 
Work, he had it in his power to correct his mistake, by looking into 
the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, (a work which he has quoted in some of his 
papers,) in which he would have found the daily variation of the bar- 
meter treated of in more than one place. With regard to Mr Brande, he 
could not but know that a gentleman like him, who held the important 
office of Secretary to the Royal Society, and who even lectured on subjects 
connected with meteorology, could not possibly be ignorant of the daily va- 
riation of the barometer ; and with regard to Baron Ferussac, we have 
every ‘reason to believe that the subject is as well known to him as to 
M. Arago. 

Now, if any reader shall be so dull, as toimagine that we attributed the 
discovery of the diurnal veriation of the barometer to Colonel Wright, or 
80 unjust as to suppose that Colonel Wright pretended to any such dis- 
covery, we have only to assure them, that they have misinterpreted the 
plainest language. 

We believe that this curious fact was first distinctly * noticed by M. Godin, 
aml that M, de la Condamine pursued the discovery. After having men- 
tioned Godin’s observations, Condamine remarks,—“ Je trouvai que vers 
le neuf heurs du matin le barometre étoit asa plus grande hauteur, et vers 
trois heures apres midi ale moindre: Ja difference moyenne etoit 1} ligne.” 
—Journal du Voyage, &c. p. 109. See also p. 50. 

From Godin’s observations, the learned President passes immediately to 
the labours of Humboldt, and terminates with those of the astronomers of 
the Observatory, of which he himself is one; but in all this display of 
names, no English name appears; and the labours of Mr Henry Trail, 
Mr John Farquhar, (the celebrated proprietor of Fonthill, we believe, ) 
and Dr Balfour, so early as 1794, are left in utter silence. This blank, 
however, we shall supply. Mr Trail had observed the daily variation in 
India earlier than 1794. Mr Farquhar, in 1794, observes, 

** That after numerous observations, at all hours during the day and 
night, L found that the mercury is subject to the following variations, with 
the utmost degree of regularity throughout the whole year. From 6» a. wm. 
till about 7 and 8 a. m. it is stationary: It then rises till 9 a. a1. sometimes; 
though rarely, till 10 a. m. when it becomes stationary till noon: It then 
descends, and is lowest at 3 Pr. m. and continves stationary till $ r. m. when 


“ So long ago as 1666, Dr Beale observed that “ very often, both in winter and * 
summrer, the poe 3 stood higher in the cold mornings’ ahd evenings pasa 7 in the 
warmer mi id-day.” Phil. Trens. No. 9, p. 153, &e. 


Compensation Pendulums. 337 


it begins to rise, and continues till 11 Pp. a, and is then at the greatest 

height, as at 9 in the morning.” —Asiatic Reséuirches, vol. x. p. 196. 
Beside the three periods mentioned in the above extract, Dr Balfour 

founda fourth, as described in the following Table :— 


Barometer falls between 10 Pp. mt. and 6A. M. 


rotted rises 6 A.M. (104. M 
falls 10 a. ™M. 6 Pp. M. 
rises 6 Pp. M. 10 P. mM. 


Both Mr Farquhar and Dr Balfour considered these variations as ‘con~ 
nected with the diurnal revolution of the earth. 

We may now add, that our countryman Colonel Wright seems to have 
discovered, that these changes are made with such extraordinary regularity, 
that the barometer may Ty almost used for measuring the lapse of time. 

Tn concluding these observations, we would recommend it to M. Arago 
to desist from his repeated attacks upon English authors,* in which he 
seems to take a peculiar delight, and which can have no other tendency 
than to degrade science, and to exasperate national feeling, already too 
highly excited. If a love of justice prompts him to this speeida of petty 
warfare against England, how comes it that, in a paper on the Polarisa- 
tion of Light, which he has written for the Supplement of the Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica, he has almost entirely forgotten to record the exertions 
of those who haye laboured in that arduous field of inquiry. We can 
easily understand why he has done injustice to Dr Brewster. We can 

also understand why he has done injustice to Mr Herschel ;—it is suffi- 

cient that they are both Englishmen. .We can even understand why 
he has suppressed the labours of Dr Seebeck, for he isa German; but 
we cannot understand why the important discoveries of M. Biot. Re col= 
league in the Academy, should have been so trampled upon and overlooked, 
Those who have followed that distinguished philosopher in his wide 
range of discovery ; and who have witnessed the prodigious ardour and 
force of intellect which he has applied, to one of the most difficult 
branches of scientific inquiry, will never cease to wonder that a presi- 
dent of the Academy of Sciences should have dared to depreciate and sup-= 
press the labours of aman, who must ever be regarded by the philosophers 
of all nations, as one of the brightest ornaments of his country. 


2. Bryson’s ik Pendulum, invented hy Mr David Ritchie of 
London. 

In the article Horot.ocy of the Encyclopedia Edinensis, a compen= 
sation pendulum is described as the invention of Mr Bryson, watch- 
maker in Edinburgh. This pendulum consists of two compound bars. of 
steel and brass placed at right angles to a steel pendulum rod, a little 
above the ball. As the steel rod lengthens by heat, these compound bars 
become more convex, and lift up the ball as much as it was depressed by 


* His attack upon the Rev. Dr Pearson was repelled by that able astronomer 
with great spirit, and we hope that Mr Forster will be equally successful. 


VOL. 11! No. I1.° APRIL 1825. ne ot 


$38 Decisions on Disputed Inventions and Discoveries. 


the elongation of the rod. One of these pendulums is in use at the Albyn 
Club ; but, though ingenious contrivances, we have not learned that they 
are superior to those invented by Elliott, Wood, Reid, and Troughton. 

The pendulum now under our consideration, is not the invention of Mr 
Bryson, but was invented by Mr David Ritchie of Clerkenwell, who re- 
ceived for it the medal of the Society of Arts, and’ who has published 
a full account of it, with drawings, in the Transactions of that body; 
vol. xxx. p. 176—182. 


3. Sir William Congreve’s Moveable Ball Clock, invented hy M. Serviere. 

The Cognoscenti in elegant mechanism have long been in the habit of ad- 
miring a beautiful time-piece, which bears Sir W. Congreve’s name, (but 
whether with or without his sanction we know not), in which the minutes 
are indicated by the descent of a brass ball, along a number of inclined 
planes running alternately from right to left, and left to right, on the face 
of an inclined brass plate. When the ball reaches the bottom of the plate, 
after having described the last of the inclined planes, it releases a detent 
which tilts the brass plate, and inclines it in the opposite direction. The 
ball being now at the top of the system of inclined planes commences its 
retrograde motion, and when it again reaches the bottom, the plate is again 
tilted at the opposite position. 

This clock was invented by M. Serviere, and is minutely described in 
various forms in a French work, which we have now before us, entitled 
Recueil d’ Ouvrages Curieux, &c. Lyons, 1719. In all these clocks, however, 
the ball is carried up by machinery from the bottom to the top of the in- 
clined plane, whereas, in Sir W. Congreve’s, the plane is moveable, as 
above described, which is a very important improvement. 


4. Heulandite first separated from Stilbite by Professor Mohs, and not by 
Mr Brooke. 

In the Ed. Phil. Journal, January 1822, Mr Brooke has given an ac- 
count of his determination of the radiated and foliated zeolite of Werner 
to betwo distinct species, and he has given to the latter the name of 
Heulandite. 

The merit, however, of first separating these two species, belongs to 
Professor Mohs, who published the results under the titles of Prisma- 
toidal and ‘Hemiprismatic Kouphone Spar, in his Characteristic, p. 59, 
which was translated and published in Edinburgh in the year 1820. 

In Mr Brooke’s Familiar Introduction io Crystallography, published 
in 1823, he has not taken the opportunity of mentioning the prior claims 
of Professor Mohs. Mr Phillips has also overlooked this, but we expect 
to see it in the next edition of his Mineralogy. 


5. Mr Nicholas Mill's Platina Pyrometer. 

We have much pleasure in laying before our readers the following can- 
did and liberal explanation sent to us by Mr Mill, regarding the similarity 
which we pointed out in our last number between the Platina Hygrometer 
proposed by Dr Ure, and the Platina Hygrometer evecuted by himself.. 


_ History of Mechanical Inventions, &c. 339 


“In the third number of your Journal, in commenting on an in- 
Sstrument which bears my name, you seem to intimate that I have laid 
claim to an invention which does not belong to me ; * it becomes my duty, 

, therefore, to explain where I rest my pretensions. i : 

“‘ The principle upon which I have perfected the Pyrometer, which is 
the subject of this letter, is the old-established principle of expansion of 
air by heat, and is analogous to the Differential Thermometer of Sturmius, 
claimed by Leslie, and also to the construction of the common steam guage, 
which acts by the pressure of steam against a column of mercury. 

_ “The principle of the instrument, therefore, delineated by Dr Ure, is not 
new, and consequently does not belong to him. Although the suggestion 
of applying it to a Pyrometer unquestionably is his, I have never pre- 
sumed to lay claim either to the one or the other. It is in the mechanical 
construction of this instrument that I claim any merit. Many difficulties 
presented themselves in its construction which could hardly have been an- 
ticipated by Dr Ure, and which required some little ingenuity to over- 
come. It was found that an air-tight screw in platinum could not be 
ade to resist considerable pressure ; it was, therefore, necessary to have 
_recourse to a stem without a joint, which, after a considerable period, I 
accomplished. The internal diameter of the platinum bulb measured one 
half inch, whilst the Stem proceeding therefrom was not the twentieth 
part of an inch internal diameter ; and to construct this in a metal so dif- 
ficultly fusible as platinum was pronounced an impossibility by the first 
philosophical instrument maker of this metropolis. It was also found, 
that, by uniting the platinum stem to a glass tube, as recommended by 
Dr Ure, it was useless in its application, because its frangibility was 
such as to render it liable to be broken by every trifling motion, inde- 
pendently of which, its position could not be accommodated to a furnace. 
It therefore became necessary to havea moveable air-tight joint, in con- 
structing which no small difficulty arose, because the pressure of the con- 
fined air, when intensely heated, was so great as to force itself through 
common joints ; but that obstacle was alsu removed ; and the instrument, 
‘as it now appears, may be made to traverse in any position within the ra- 
dius of a circle ; and without it was so constructed, would, of course, be 
next to useless. 

“I submit, under the circumstances above stated, that the principle of 
‘this Pyrometer belongs to Sturmius, the delineation of it to Dr Ure, and 
the execution of it to myself.” 


Art. XXXI.—HISTORY OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND 
PROCESSES IN THE USEFUL ARTS. 


1. Mr Ritchie's Photometer, and the Illuminating Powers of Oil and 
Coal-Gas. 


Aw account of this ingenious instrument, invented by Mr William 
Ritchie, Rector of the Academy of Tain, has been read before the Royal 


* We have merely pointed out the similarity of the two instruments.-—-ED. 


340 History of Mechanical Inventions and 


Societies both of London and Edinburgh, and a particular account of i¢ 
may be expected in the Transactions of one or other or both of these learn- 
ed bodies. ; 

Mr Ritchie’s photometer is (like that originally proposed by Lambert in 
his Photometria in 1760) a thermometer which measures the heat produced 
by absorbed light, and is, therefore, liable to all the objections which 
Lambert and others have urged against the instrument as a measurer of 
different kinds of light. Our readers are well aware that Mr Leslie 
brought forward Lambert’s photometer as an invention of his own, and 
proposed it as an instrument for measuring every kind of light, the light 
of the sun, (not the light of the moon,) the light of the sky, the light of 
“snow, and the light of coal-gas, nay, even the light of the coloured spaces 
of the spectrum. Now, it is an admitted fact, that the red space in the 
spectrum (to say nothing of the rays beyond the red) shows greater heat 
by the thermometer than the yellow space, while the yellow space is far 
more luminous than the red. The thermometrical photometer, therefore, 
is incapable of measuring different kinds of light. Mr Ritchie, with a de- 
gree of candour not inferior to his ingenuity, admits at once that his 
photometer, which is fifteen or twenty times more sensible than Mr Leslie’s, 
is positively incapable of measuring or comparing any other lights but 
those of the same kind ; and he is now eonvinced, that it will not measure, 
except by a rude approximation, the relative illuminating powers of oil and 
coal-gas. 

The principles on which this photometer depends are, that radiant heat 
does not pass throngh thick plates of glass, but is conducted through them 
in the same manner as through opaque bodies; that light expands in the 
same manner as heat the substances that absorb it ; and that the intensity 
of light varies inversely as the square of the distance. 

The Photometer shown in Plate IV. Fig. 10, consists of two broad flat cy- 
linders, A, B, placed parallel to one another. These cylinders are air tight, 
being closed at their outer sides by a thick disk of glass, while their inner 
sides and their circumference consist of copper or brass, or sheet iron. 
Parallel to the glass disk there is stretched across each eylinder a disk of 
black paper. The cylinders are connected interiorly by a bent tube, DE, 
containing a small quantity of coloured liquor ; and a scale is placed be-~ 
tween the two branches of the tube which are vertical. By exposing the 
glass faces of the cylinders to two lights, the light falling on the disks of 
paper is absorbed ; the air within the cylinders is heated proportionally, and 
the relative expansions indicated by the motion of the liquor towards 

’ the weaker light. This instrument is said to be sensible to the light of a 
candle at the toto of twenty or thirty feet, whereas Mr Papen) s shows 
total darkness at the distance of three inches, 

In reference to the application of this instrument, Mr Ritchie remarks, 
“© It would be a vain attempt,” says he, “‘ to endeavour, by the aid of this 
photometer, or that of Professor Leslie, to ascertain the value of the illu- 
minating powers of oil and coal-gas, since the qualities of the gas are es- 
sentially different. When the flames are nearly similar, as in the case of 


Processes in the Usefid Arts. 341 


oil and coal-gas, this instrument will give a pretty good approximation to 
their illuminating powers, but wnless the colour of the flames be exactly the 
same, neither this method nor that of shadows can pretend to more than a 
mere approximation. I may here remark, that the results of my photo- 
meter, or of any other instrument founded on the expansion of air by its 
combination with light, will always be unfavourable to the illuminating 
powers of oil-gas compared with coal-gas, as it takes no cognizance of the 
fine white colour of the flame of the former compared wah the more 
dusky colour of the latter. When the oil-gas is of a superior quality, and 
the coal-gas not well purified, the results of this photometer, or that of Pro- 
Jessor Leslie, will be exrremE1y wipe of the truth.. The indications of 
this instrument may give the quantities of light as one to three, whilst the 
illuminating power of the oil-gas is at least five or siz times greater than 
that of the coal-gas.’—See p. 321 of this Number. 


2. M. Ducom’s Cylindrical Artificial Horizon. * 

This ingenious instrument, which has already been put to the test of 
experiment by two able astronomers, Professor Simonoff and Baron Zach, 
has not yet been described by the inventor, but the general principle of 
the instrument may be deduced from two long dissertations upon it by 
Baron Zach. 

The instrument consists of two parts, one of which is a copper disk of six 
inches in diameter, with three feet. The second part is a cylindrical cover 
or drum, which performs the part of the glass roof in the common hori- 
zons for sheltering the fluid from the action of the wind. From the 
middle of the first part, or copper disk, there rises a hollow cylinder of 
white iron 4} inches high, and 24 inches in diameter. Upon this cylin- 
der, which is open at top, there is placed a small round disk of white 
iron, (or of boxwood, when mercury is used,) which goes into the top of 
the cylinder, but is prevented from descending by a ledge on which it 
resis. ‘This disk contains the mercury, wine, or prepared syrup which is 
employed. These cylinders are adjusted in such a manner that the sur- 
face of the fluid is exactly 2} inches above the first disk. On the copper 
disk are fixed two brackets, to which is fastened the cylindrical roof or drum. 
This drum, which is made of white iron, is six inches in diameter and 2} 
wide, and is so placed that its centre is in the surface of the fluid in the 
round disk. In the middle of the width of the drum, there are two bands 
of white iron, perforated by two circular openings diametrically opposite 
to one arother, and an inch in diameter, the one for letting in the inci- 
dent rays, and the other for letting out the reflected ones. They have a 
circular motion by a rack and pinion on the surface of the drum, for the 
purpose of being adjusted to the height of the sun or the star. 

“When there is not much agitation in the air, two small funnels or 
truncated cones are placed in the small tubes in the circular apertures, 
and these have the effect of protecting the fluid surface from every agita- 
tion. When the wind is considerable, the funnels are kept on, and a small 
glass with parallel faces is placed at the end, by which means the incident 
rays are admitted ; but if the wind is very high, the funnels are taken off, 


342 History of Mechanical Inventions and 


and a piece of wire gauze is placed in the tube. This permits the exter- 
nal air to be in regular communication with the internal air, which is fa- 
vourable to the accuracy of the observation. See Baron Zach’s Corr. Astron. 
vol. xi. p. 391 and 480, 


3. Mr Jeffrey’s Method of condensing Smoke, Metallic Vapours, &c. 

This ingenious method, the efficacy of which is said to have been proved, 
is represented in Plate IV. Fig. 11. The letters BB represent the flue of 
any ordinary furnace through which the smoke rises. It is shut up at A, 
and after turning horizontally at C, it has a descending branch D, which 
terminates below at the opening F. The branch DD communicates at its 
upper end with a cistern E, having its bottom perforated with holes im- 
mediately above the flue. : 

As the heated current of air, charged with smoke and vapours of differ- 
ent kinds, descends in the branch DF, the constant shower of water from 
the cistern F carries down with it the smoke and all the sublimed matter 
from the fire, and the whole runs out through the opening F, in the state 
of black water, without any smoke. A strong current of air is created in 
the descending pipe by the descent of the cold water. 

’The flues B and D may be close to one another, or may stand at any 
distance, and in any relative direction. See Journal of Science, vol. xviii. 
p. 270. 


4. Casting of Wooden Ornaments and Veneers. 

A discovery is said to have been made in France of a method of convert- 
ing pulverised wood or sawdust inio a solid substance, by which curious 
wooden articles may be formed in moulds, at a small expence, out of rare 
and valuable woods. See Newton’s Journal of the Arts, vol. ix. p. 35. 
The only difficulty which is opposed to such a method consists in obtaining 
a cement sufficiently cheap for holding together the woody particles. It is 
evident that such a composition can never possess any of the beauty of 
structure which is generally the principal one in rare kinds of wood, al- 
though a coarse imitation of this may be effected by particular combina- 
tions of different mixtures varying in colour. 


5. Account of the Lapidary’s Wheel of the Hindoos. 


This wheel, used for cutting precious stones, is composed of one part 
gum-lac, and two parts of powdered corundum (or emery.) The corun- 
dum powder is first heated in an earthen yessel, and when the heat is such 
as to melt the gum, it is added in portions, the whole being stirred 
about to promote a perfect union, The paste thus made is beaten with a 
pestle on a smooth slab of stone; it is then rolled on a stick, and reheated’ 
several times. When the mixture is uniform, it is then taken from the. 
stick and laid on the stone-table, which must be previously covered with 
fine corundum powder, and then flattened into the shape of a wheel with 
an iron rolling-pin: The wheel is then polished by a plate of iron and cor- 
undum powder, and a hole is made through the middle of it by a heated 


metallic rod. 


Processes in the Useful Arts. 343 


When the wheel is mounted on a horizontal axis, the workman gives it 
a motion of rotation with a spring-bow, and holds the stone which he cuts 
in his left hand, applying, occasionally, corundum powder and water. 
The polishing is effected by leaden wheels, and a finer powder. M. De 
La Tour, Mem. du Museum, tom. ii. p. 230. ; 


6- Dr Church's New Boring Auger. 

This patent auger, of which the specification is not yet enrolled, is the 
inveution of Dr Church of Birmingham. One of these instruments, which 
has been tried by Mr Newton, a competent judge of its merits, is one 
inch and one-eighth in diameter. When turned like a gimblet by the 
right hand, it passed through a four inch dry deal, four inches thick, in 
fifty seconds. With the assistance of a bow, it penetrated a post seven in-= 
ches square, in twenty-one seconds. It cuts a perfectly smooth hole, and 
clears itself as it advances. It can be sharpened upon an ordinary grind 
stone, and will retain the same form and properties though ground down 


within a short distance of the stem. Newton’s Journal of the Arts, vol- ix. 
p- 91. 


7. Evans's New Method of Roasting Coffte. 

This process, for which a patent has been taken out by Mr R. Evans of 
London, consists in preventing any of the oily parts of the coffee which 
contain the aroma, from evaporating during the process of roasting it. The 
machine consists of a cylindrical vessel turned by a winch and two wheels. 
It has ledges within to throw the beans from the side to the middle of the 
cylinder. At the middle of the cylinder, opposite to the handle, a tube 
passes from the open air to beyond its centre, having a great number of per= 
forations in it. During the first period of the roasting, the aqueous parts, 
which the heat drives off, pass through the holes of this tube ; but, when all 
the water is driven off, this tube is shut up, and, consequently, during the 
last period of the roasting, the aromatic oil does not escape from the beans, 

In order to ascertain the precise time when the aqueous vapours are 
dispelled, he holds a piece of slate against the outer end of the tube with 
perforations, and the deposition upon its surface, if watery or gummy, 
shows whether the water or the oil is escaping. Small quantities of 
the beans are occasionally taken out with a spoon through the axle, to ob« 
-serve the progress of the operation. An abstract of the specification is pub= 
lished in Newton’s Journal of the Arts, vol. ix. p. 72. 


8. Braconnot’s Process for making Blacking for Leather. 
M. Braconnot has published, in the Annales de Chimie, &c., for Novem- 


ber 1824, p. 333, the following process for making a superior and cheap 
blacking for leather of all kinds. Take 


Plaster of Paris passed through a fine sieve of silk, - 100 parts. 
Lamp black, - - - - - Pe te 
Malt used by brewers, - - ~ Dette Ni a, 


Olive oil, - = : - = “ 5” 


344 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. 


The malt must be first macerated in water nearly boiling, to obtain its 
soluble particles. The plaster andlamp black are then mixed in a basin 
with that liquid, and when it is evaporated to the consisténcy of paste, the 
olive oil is mixed with it, and a little oil of lemons or lavender is added 
to perfume it. In place of plaster, an equal quantity of common potter's 
clay may be used. 


9. Mr Jenning’s Improved Gas Burner. 

This ingenious contrivance, the object of which is to close the passage 
for the gas, even if the stop-cock has been heedlessly left open, and there- 
by prevent all-smell, and all risk of forming an explosive mixture, is shown 
in section in Fig, 12, Plate VIII. The gas rises up the passage a of 
the socket ce, and is prevented from passing into the burner by the ball b, 
which shuts the passage. In order to allow the gas to pass, the burner is 
lifted up by the hand, which raises the ball } out of its place, and the gas 
passes from a into d, and up the tubes ee. When the gas has burned about 
aquarter of a minute, the pin f becomes hot, and the heat is conveyed to 
the bent arm g, which will curl up, as shewn by dotted lines, in conse- 
quence of the different expansions of the two dissimilar metals of brass 
and steel, of which it is made. The ball being thus drawn aside from its 
seat, the burner may be let down from its raised position, and the gas will 
continue to flow. When the flame is extinguished, the pin f and the 
bent‘arm g become cold, and the uncurling of the latter brings the ball 
into its seat and closes the passage for the gas, even if the cock has been 
incompletely shut, or afterwards carelessly opened.—See ahi aii 's Journal 
of'the Arts, vol. ix. p. 179. 


Arr. XXXII ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS AND 
MEMOIRS. 


I, © Description of a Monochromatie Lamp, with Remarks on the Absorp= 
ition of the Prismutic Rays by Coloured Media. By Davip Brewster, 
“ LL.D. F. R.S, Lond. and Sec. R. S. Ed. &c. ; ; 


j On the Absorption. of Light by Coloured Media, and on the Colours exhibited 
by certain Flumes, Sc. Sc.* By J. F. W. Herscuex, Esq. Sec. B.S. 
‘ Lond. and F.R.S, Edin. 


Tue composition of the solar rays has exercised the sagacity of philoso- 
phers since the discovery of the different refrangibility of the rays of light 
“by Newton ; and though unquestionably it is to that great man that we 
owe the frst and prominent fact of the nonhomogeneity of white light, 
yet much has been added to his discoveries by later research, and proper= 


“ These two papers are printed in the Edinburgh Transactions, vol. ix. p. 433 
and 445. It will give us, as well as our readers, great satisfaction to hear frequent- 
ly from the able correspondent to whom we are indebted for this analysis. —ED. 

; 8 


Memoirs on the Absorption of Light. 345 


ties and peculiarities, of which he had not the least conception, have been 
found to belong to the several parts of which the spectrum consists, and 
the media capable of transmitting light. 

The first great discovery, in this line, since Newton’s time, was the dif- 
ference of the dispersive powers, by which different media, under equal 
angles of refraction, separate the extreme rays unequally. Hence the pos- 
sibility of that grend improvement in practical optics, the achromatic tele- 
scope. But this is far from a perfect instrument, and, if we carry the 
magnifying powers of our telescopes beyond a certain extent, we speedily 
become sensible of the limit which the nature of the media, of which its 
lenses consist, places to our further progress. In microscopes, however, 
achromatic lenses had rarely, if ever, been adopted, and in these, accord- 
ingly, the original imperfection of refracting telescopes existed in all its 
force. To obviate the inconvenience of chromatic aberration in these in- 
struments, two methods occurred to Dr Brewster, viz. Either to extinguish 
all the rays, but those of one colour, by the use of coloured glasses, and 
thus to destroy the erratic light before its entry into the eye ; or, 2dly, To 
use homogeneous light ab initio for the illumination of the object viewed, 
The former of these methods, however, is either imperfect, or is attended 
with the loss of so much light, as to render vision obscure, and, though 
affording a certain degree of advantage, Dr Brewster was induced to aban- 
don this method for the above reasons. 

The discovery of a source of homogeneous light next occupied his atten« 
tion, and, after numerous trials, he ascertained the remarkable fact, that 
almost all bodies in which the combustion was imperfect, such as paper, 
linen, cotton, &c. gave a light in which the homogeneous yellow rays pre- 
dominated—that the yellow light increased with the humidity of these 
bodies—and that a great proportion of the same light was generated, when 
various flames were urged mechanically with a blow-pipe or pair of bellows. 
He thence concludes, that the yellow rays appear to be the produce of an 
imperfect combustion. We may observe, however, that combustion is not 
necessarily imperfect in the flames above enumerated. Most inflammable 
bodies, moreover, in a state of incipient or weak combustion, discharge, 
not a yellow, but a blue flame. The blue flame, at the bottom of a 
candle, is known to every one ; that of burning sulphur (in its usual weak 
state of combustion) is hardly less familiar ; and the deep blue flame of a 
piece of paper, scorched on the under side till the upper takes fire, is mat- 
ter of wonder and delight to every child who plays with fire. It is only 
when the combustion becomes full and violent that the yeliow light be- 
gins to predominate in flames. Mr Herschel observes, that sulphur, urged 
to the utmost intensity of combustion, by projecting it into a white-hot 
crucible, discharges a homogeneous yellow light, but as the intensity of the 
heat diminishes, the blue and green spectra appear. The flame of oil urged 
by bellows, (in which state its combustion is undoubtedly most complete, ) 
has been observed by Mr Fraunhofer, (in a conversation with ourselves, ) 
as well as by Dr Brewster, to consist principally or wholly of yellow 


346 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. 


light. Be this as it may, the remark that aqueous vapour present in a 
flame increases the quantity of yellow light, which, we believe, no one 
before Dr B. had made, is curious and important, and furnished him with 
what he was in search of—a monochromatic flame. Déluted alcohol is the © 
pabulum he proposes to employ, and his paper contains a description and 
drawing of a convenient lamp, for maintaining and managing its combus- 
tion with perfect facility. 

Mr Herschel appears to have entered on a somewhat similar inquiry, 
‘having felt the want of some standard homogeneous light in the course of 
optical researches of another nature. He remarks, that the flame of an or= 
dinary spirit lamp consists of two portions, a yellow cone enclosed in a blue 
envelope, but projecting above it, so that the upper part is purely yellow, 
the lower a mixture of yellow and other faint rays. If, however, it be 
viewed through a combination of a pale green with a pale orange glass, it 
appears purely yellow, and if enclosed in a lanthorn of such glass, becomes 
a monochromatic lamp. 

In the course of’ their investigations, both authors were. led to examine 
the action of differently coloured media on the spectrum. ‘The results 
at which they arrive agree in many points. We shall state the principal 
of them. 

1. All coloured media absorb some rays of the spectrum in preference 
to others, and the quantity absorbed depends on the thickness of the 
medium, 

2. The quantity of any coloured ray, transmitted by a homogeneous 
medium, decreases in geometrical progression as the thickness increases in 
arithmetical progression. 

3. Every medium has its own peculiar scale of action on the series of 
differently refrangible rays, or its own peculiar rutio of the geometrical pro- 
gression above mentioned for each degree of refrangibility. 

4. In consequence, as the thickness of a medium varies, the tint changes, 
and this truth, which at first sight appears paradoxical, and never fails to 
surprise when experimentally shown, is general. That ray in the spec- 
trum which is least energetically absorbed will, of course, penetrate 
through the greatest thickness, and its ultimate tint will be a homogeneous 
one of this particular refrangibility. 

5 The energy with which coloured media attack the different rays is not 
only not the same, in all parts of the spectrum, but, moreover, follows no 
regular law of progression in proceeding from one end of the spectrum to 
the other. Dr Brewster has given coloured drawings (to which the engrav- 
er or colourer cannot have done justice) of spectra, seen through various 
media. Mr Herschel represents the intensity of a ray transmitted through 
a medium of given thickness by the ordinate of a curve, taking that of the 
intromitted ray for one, and the length of the spectrum for the abscissa. 
This curve appears in numerous cases to have several maxima and minima, 
in consequence of which, the media it represents have really two or more 
distinct colours, and undergo not merely a change of shade by an increase 

ll 


| Memoirs on the Absorption of Light. S47 


of thickness, but a positive transition from one hue to another. Thus, a 
solution of sap-green, viewed through small thicknesses, is green, but in 
great ones is dark red, and numerous other media present this aiggiiiet 
transition. 

Mr Herschel proposes the extreme red as a standard ray for optical ex- 
periments, not that exhibited by common red glasses, which is always a 
mixed colour, but that transmitted with particular facility by ordinary deep 
blue glass coloured by cobalt. Its place is strictly at the utmost limit of 
the spectrum, and its refrangibility (when insulated by a combination of 
such a glass with a red one) definite, as much so as the yellow light above 
described. Dr Brewster has investigated the effects of heat in changing 
the tints of media. He has observed different glasses to be differently af- 
fected by heat, some having their absorbent powers increased, and others 
diminished—some transiently, and others permanently. Many minerals 
present similar phenomena. The experiments of Dr Brewster on topaz are 
well known. The change of colour in many opaque bodies by heat is 
doubtless referable to this cause. We need only mention minium and the 
peroxide of mercury, which, at a heat just short of ignition, become al- 
most black, and recover their bright red hue when cold. 

In both the papers now before us, the insulation of the yellow rays in 
solar light by coloured glasses, in a state of perfect purity, is regarded as 
impracticable ; but both these authors have succeeded in so far separating 
it, as to place the existence of yellow light in the spectrum beyond all 
manner of doubt, and in showing that the space it occupies is really pretty 
considerable. Dr Brewster, indeed, regards it as encroaching both on the 
limits of the red and green, and Mr Herschel attributes to it a breadth 
not less than one-fourth, the interval between the red and blue. The for- 
mer draws the conclusion, that the orange and green are really composite 
colours, which, if verified, would be a fact of the highest importance, in as 
much as it would prove the prismatic analysis of white light to be imper- 
fect, and refer the impression of colour on the sensorium to some other 
eause than that which produces difference of refrangibility. We do not 
mean to deny this, for, in fact, we think there are other arguments addu- 
eible in its support. We submit, however, that the celebrated observa~ 
tion of Dr Wollaston, on which the opinion advanced by Dr Brewster is 
grounded, must have contained some cause of fallacy. He received in 
his eye the spectrum of a narrow luminous line, and could discern in it no 
yellow, or so very little as to be attributed by him to a mixture of red and 
green from the opposite sides of the aperture. 

Nevertheless, if the red and green portions of a long prismatic spectrum 
be screened, the yellow is rendered very evident ; and in Fraunhofer’sad- 
mirable experiments, (which we had the pleasure of witnessing in perfec- 
tién at Munich through his kindness,) where, from the exquisite limpidi- 
ty of the prisms used, and the delicate adjustment of his whole apparatus; 
the absolute homogeneity of every part of the spectrum is fully assured, the 
orange, the yellow, and the green, are all seen shading into each other by 
insensible gradations ; the yellow being remarkably conspicuous, and of a 


348 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. 


pale straw colour. In a beautifully coloured plate, or rather map, of the 
spectrum before us, in which every part is laid down by M. Fraun- 
hofer, from exact micrometrical measurements, the portion occupied by 
the yellow is 22, the length of the whole spectrum being 286, and the in- 
terval between the red and blue about 77.* Mr Herschel’s estimate agrees 
well enough with these measures. We may here take occasion to remark, that 
although upwards of seventeen years have elapsed since the first discovery of 
black lines in the spectrum by Wollaston, none of the continental opticians, 
with whom we have had opportunities of conversing, seemed aware of their 
having been known previous to the elaborate researches of the eminent 
artist just mentioned. 

Annexed to Mr Herschel’s paper is a determination of the dispersions of 
a variety of specimens of flint and crown glass, (by a peculiar and simple 
method, founded on the same principle as the double image micrometer, ) 
which are considerably above the usual estimates. The dispersion assign- 
ed by Fraunhofer are still higher, as might be expected, from the supe- 
riority of his means of examining the spectrum at its limits. Indeed, it 
is to his ‘* Determination of the refraotive and dispersive powers of differ- 
ent species of glass, &e., &c.,” that we must refer for all accurate know- 
ledge on this important subject. 


\ 


II. Some Account of the late M. Guinand, and of the Important Discovery 
made by him in the Manufacture of Flint Glass for Large Telescopes.— 
* London, 1825, 25 p.+ 


Tue little pamphlet, of which we propose at present to give an abstract, 
is filled with details of the most interesting kind, both to the philosopher 
and the general reader. 

The discovery of a method of making Flint Glass for achromatic tele- 
scopes has been, during the last seventy years, an object of almost nation- 
al ambition. In England, unfortunately, the strictness of our Excise 
laws prevented any attempt from being made on a proper scale to solve 
this great practical problem ; but in France, where no such restrictions ex- 
isted, numerous attempts have been made to perfect the manufacture of 
flint-glass for optical purposes. To what extent these experiments suc~ 
ceeded, we have not sufficient information to enable us to ascertain; but 
we believe it is universally admitted, that the difficulty was neither sur- 
mounted, nor in the way of being surmounted, when M. Guinand, of the 
village of Brenets, in the canton of Neufchatel, began those laborious re~ 
searches, which were finally crowned with the most complete success. 

We shall, therefore, proceed to give a brief history of the life and la- 


'* An engraving of the spectrum, as laid down by Fraunhofer, with most of the 
lines which cross it, will be found in the sine Encyclopedia, Art. OPTICS, 
vol. xv. 'p. 548. Px. 433,—Ep. 


\ t This pampblet is a translation from an article in the Bibliotheque Universelle 
for February and. March 1824. 


Some Account of the late M. Guinand. 349 


bours of this interesting person, abridged from the details in the pamphlet 
under our consideration- 

About 70 years have elapsed since M. Guinand was employed in assist- 
ing his father as a joiner. At the age of thirteen he became a cabinet- 
maker, and occupied himself chiefly in making clock-cases- ; 

At this period he had become acquainted with a buckle-maker in his 
neighbourhood, of whom he learned the art of working in various metals, 
which enabled him, about the age of twenty, to attempt the construction of 
a watch-case; and, having succeeded, he followed the occupation of a watch= 
case-maker. 

Having constructed clock-cases for M. Jaquet Droz, he saw, at the 
house of that mechanist, a fine English reflecting telescope, an instrument 
then very rare in Switzerland. M. Guinand was then in his 20th or 23d 
year, and it cannot be doubted that this circumstance first turned his 
mind towards that subject to which he afterwards devoted his attention. 
Having expressed a wish to take this telescope to pieces, that he might 
examine it in detail, M. Jaquet Droz gave him permission, and undertook 
to put it together should that task prove too difficult for him. M. Guin- 
and took the instrument to pieces ; measured the curves of the mirrors and 
glasses, and afterwards readily put it together; then availing himself 
of his experience in casting ornaments for clock-cases, he attempted the 
construction of a similar telescope ; and his second experiment succeeded 
so well, that it was impossible to determine whether his telescope | or its 
model was the best. , 

M. Jaquet Droz, surprised at this success, asked our artist what treatise 
on optics he had followed as his guide; but he was still more surprised 
when the young man told him that he was not acquainted with any ; he 
placed one in his hands, and it was not until this period that M. Guinand 
studied, or rather deciphered, (for he read with difficulty,) the principles 
of that science. 

- Having been always weak-sighted, he found, when he began to make 
watch-cases, that his spectacles were no longer of service ; and, being di- 
rected to a person whose glasses were said to have given great satisfaction, 
he obtained a pair which really suited him no better than the others ; but, 
by looking on while they were in progress, he learned the art of forming 
and polishing the lenses. He therefore undertook to make spectacles, not 
only for himself, but for various other persons. This new acquirement he 
found very ‘useful in his favourite pursuit ; and he amused himself in ma- 
nufacturing telescopes of an inferior quality, for which he made the tubes 
of pasteboard. 

The discovery of achromatic glasses having reached that country, it 
could not fail to be interesting to M. Guinand. M. Jaquet Droz, having 
procured one of these new glasses, permitted M. Guinand to take it to 
pieces, and to separate the lenses. It will readily be conceived that the 
purpose of the latter was to construct a similar instrument, but in this he 
was disappointed, by the difficulty of procuring glasses of different refrac- 
tive powers. It was not until some years afterwards, ‘that an acquaintance 


‘3 


: 


850 Analysis of Scientific Books-and Memoirs. 


-of his, M. Recordon, having gone to England, where he took a, patent for 
his invention of self-winding watches, which were then in great request, 
-brought him, from that country, some flint-glass ; and though the speci- 
‘men was much striated, he manufactured from it some good achromatic 
glasses. Having obtained supplies of this material on various occasions, 


sand having seen other glasses besides those of M. Jaquet Droz, he easily 


ascertained that flint-glass, which is not extremely defective, is rarely to 
‘be met with. Convinced of the impossibility of procuring it of that quali- 
ty which he wished, and having become skilled in the art of fusion, he 
melted in his blast-furnace the fragments of this flint-glass ;_no satisfac- 
‘tory. result was obtained, but he discovered, from some particles of lead, 
which re-appeared during the process, that this metal was a constituent in 
‘the composition of flint-glass. At the time of this first experiment, he 
‘had attained his 35th year. The ardent desire to obtain some of this glass 
.then induced him to collect such notions of chemistry as might be useful 
.to him; and, from 1784 to 1790, he employed a part of his evenings in 
different experiments, melting, at each time, in his blast-furnace, three 
or four pounds of glass ; in every experiment he took care to note down 
the substances and proportions of his combinations, the time of their 
fusion, and the degree of heat to which he had subjected them ; so that, 
‘by an examination of the results, he endeavoured to discover the causes 
which had rendered his products defective. While occupied in these re- 
‘searches, he derived a strong incentive to perseverance, from the prizes 
which he understood to have been offered for this desideratum by differ- 
ent academies. Atalater period he also learned the almost total impossibi- 
lity of procuring flint-glass exempt from strie, which impressed him with 
-the:importance of the discovery at which he was aiming. 

Having relinquished, at the age of forty, the trade of watch-case-maker 
for that of maker of bells for repeaters, at that time very lucrative, (since 
he could make as many as twenty-four in a day, for which he was paid five 
francs each ;) he resolved to prosecute his experiments on a more extend- 
ed scale. Having purchased a piece of ground on the banks of the river 
Doubs, near Brenets, where his establishment is at present situated, he 
constructed a furnace capable of melting two hundred weight of glass, and 
he settled there with his family, in order to dedicate his leisure to new ex- 
periments. . 

His perseverance, however, had to overcome many untoward accidents. 
At one time, his furnace threatened to burst while heating, and he was ob- 
liged to rebuild it with materials procured from abroad ; at another time, 
he noticed an essential defect in its construction, which obliged him to 
suspend the melting ; sometimes his crucibles, which he had procured at 
great expence, or manufactured himself, cracked without his being able to 
discover the cause, and the vitreous matter was lost. These fruitless at- 
tempts discouraged him on some occasions, but on others, excited him. so 
as to deprive him of rest, and he meditated day and night on the probable 
causes of the accidents, and on the means of obviating them. At length, 
however, he obtained a lump of glass, of about two hundred weight ; hav- 
ing sawed this lump vertically, he polished one of the sections, in order to 


Nome Account of the late M. Guinand. ‘351 * 


exdmine what had taken place during fusion. “On the upper surface of 
the vitreous matter there were many little semi-globules, which had the 
‘appearance of drops of water, terminating by a thread or little tube of 
greater or less depth, at the extremity of which there was a small spheri- 
cal bulb. The cause of this appearance was, that these drops and tubes 
consisted of a denser kind of glass than the rest. In another part, there 
arose from the bottom of the crucible other cylinders or tubes, terminat- 
ing also in a kind of swelling or bulb; these had a hollow appearance, be- 
cause they were formed of a substance less dense than the rest of the 
glass ; and lastly, here and there were seen specks or grains ending with 
‘a tail, of a substance less dense than the rest of the mass; these, on ac- 
count of their appearance, he denominated comets. 

Having often seen on the surface of his glass small globules of lead, he 
supposed that certain particles of the lead which enters into the composition of 
his vitreous matter separate from it, and appear on its surface in their metal- 
lic state ; that becoming again oxydated by contact with the air, or re-calcined 
after being revived, they combine with the vitreous matter on which they 
rest, and thus form that glass of greater density which appears on the surface 
in the form of drops. The specific gravity of this substance causes it to 
sink to the bottom of the crucible ; but, in descending more or less slowly, 
according to the temperature of the furnace, it leaves in its passage a train 
which occasions those threads of glass that possess a stronger refraction. 
Having reached the bottom, this vitreous matter, in some degree saturated 
with minium, attacks the substance of the crucible, and forms with it a 
vitreous compound of an inferior density to the mass, and ascending, in 
consequence of its specific levity, produces those cylinders or tubes, form- 
ed of a less refractive glass. Lastly, when this solvent, by melting the 
substance of the crucible, especially that of the bottom, has detached from 
it a grain of sand or baked clay, this half molten grain rises and floats in 
the mass in an oblique direction, because, being still attached to a part of 
the vitreous matter which it has produced, it is not actuated on all its 
points to ascend with equal rapidity. 

Whatever may be thought of this explanation, thé question was, how to 
remedy the non-homogeneity of strongly refractive glass ; and it was here, 
in particular, that M. Guinand had great obstacles to surmount. Having, af- 
ter many expensive trials, been so fortunate as to obtain glass of which 
some parts were perfectly homogeneous ; and, therefore, destitute of those 
strie of which flint-glass is so rarely free, he reflected on the different cir- 
cumstances which, in this experiment, might have contributed to the re- 
sult, so that, in subsequent attempts, he obtained blocks of glass possess- 
ing larger portions of homogeneous substance, and he has almost arrived at 
a certainty of obtaining in the fusion of from two to four hundred weight 
of glass, at least one-half of it perfectly homogeneous, and, consequently, fit 
for optical purposes. 

_M. Guinand admitted that his processes had not yet attained all the per- 
fection which might perhaps be desired ; but as he has by these means 
succeeded in making disks, perfectly homogeneous, of twelve, and in one 


852 Analysis of Scientific Books and Memoirs. 


instance even of eighteen inches in diameter, and having no doubt that, 
in operating on a greater scale, he might easily be able to obtain one of a 
diameter double or triple the extent of those last mentioned, he concludes 
that his process has at length removed the obstacle which the non-homo- 
geneity of flint-glass opposed to the construction of large achromatic ob- 
ject-glasses. 

When M. Guinand first aidkeinda bloeks including portions of good 
glass, his practice was to separate them, by sawing the blocks into sections 
that were horizontal, or perpendicular to their axis; then polishing the 
sections he selected the portions adapted to his purpose, and returned the 
others.to the crucible ; but, independently of its tediousness, and the waste - 
oceasioned by sawing, this process was attended with the disadvantage of 
not cutting the finest parts of his glass in the manner best calculated for 
large disks ; for frequently the most homogeneous parts were thus divided. 
A fortunate accident, however, of which he availed himself, conducted him 
to a better process. 

While his men were one day carrying a block of this bie on a hand-+ 
barrow to a saw-mill which he had established at the fall of the Doubs, 
at the distance of half'a league from his house; the mass slipped from its bear= 
ers, and, rolling to the bottom of'a steep and rocky declivity, was broken to 
pieces. M. Guinand was at first grieved at this misfortune, but having se- 
lected those fragments which appeared to be perfectly homogeneous, he 
softened them in circular moulds in such « manner, that on cooling he ob= 
tained disks that were afterwards fit for working. To this method he’ad- 
hered ; and he contrived a way of cleaving his glass while cooling, so 
that the fractures should follow the most faulty parts. When flaws oceur 
in the large masses, he removes them by cleaving the pieces with wedges, 
he then melts them again in moulds, which give them the form of disks, 
taking care to allow a little of the glass to project beyond one of the points 
of the edge, so that the optician may be enabled to use that portion of glass 
in making a prism, which shall give him the measure of the index of refrac- 
tion, and babies obviate the necessity of cutting the lens. The refraction of 
M.. Guinand’s glass varies almost at every casting, while, on the other 
hand, that of each casting is of such homogeneity, that the refractive force 
of two pieces taken indifferently, one from the top and the other from the 
bottom of the crucible, is absolutely the same: 

M. Guinand removes the defects by means of the wheel ; then by re- 
softening the disks, the vitreous matter expands and fills up the hollows that 
have been made; if, after polishing, he finds them still defective, he re« 
peats the process until the disks are perfect. By these means he has often 
succeeded in soldering pieces of glass which have left no trace of their se- 
paration: at first these pieces were only cemented ; there was frequent- 
ly even air or sand between the united surfaces; in these cases, he cut 
along the line of junction a small semi-cylindrical groove, in order that the 
vitreous matter, while melting, might fill it, not by flowing from its edges 
to the bottom, but by raising the bottom itself, and by repeating this ope= 
ration he declares that he has succeeded in totally effacing all traces of 
junction. 


Some Account of the late M. Guinand. 353 


M. Guinand, having visited Paris in 1798 or 1799, presented to the 
late M. de Lalande several disks of from four to six inches of the glass 
which he obtained in sawing his blocks, (not having at this period thought 
of the expedient of remelting them ;) that celebrated astronomer advised 
him to work them up himself, so as to demonstrate the goodness of his 
glass. M. Guinand followed this advice, and while continuing his manu- 
facture of bells for repeaters, he pursued for several years the making of 
glass and the working of lenses ; he constructed achromatic telescopes, 
some of which had object-glasses of four or five inches, free from striez ; 
and haying purchased a smal] water-mill at Brenets, he adapted it to the 
polishing of his glass. 

Though his success was not publicly known, yet he was visited by seve 
ral men of science. Having in this way become acquainted with Captain 
Grouner, of Berne, the latter had occasion when in Bavaria to speak of the la= 
bours of M. Guinand, and, a short time afterwards, in 1804, he asked him, 
on the part of M. Fraunhofer, the director of the celebrated establish- 
ment of Benedictbauern, for some specimens of his glass. M. Fraunhofer, 
after examining them, and requesting several disks of the glass, was so 
well satisfied with them as to repair to Brenets, a distance of 260 miles, 
where he engaged M. Guinand to go into Bavaria. Having arrived in 1805, 
he determined to settle there ; and during a residence of nine years he was 
almost solely occupied in the manufacture of glass. 5 

After having discontinued for several years subsequent to his return all 
his optical labours, his taste for the pursuit revived, and from that time - 
he was alternately occupied with the manufacture of glass and the construc= 
tion of telescopes. 

Among the opticians who have used this glass may be mentioned M. 
Lerebours, a French artist, who, during a visit to Brenets in 1820, obtain- 
ed all the glass which M. Guinand then had, and was so well satisfied 
with it that he requested a fresh supply, and made overtures for obtaining 
the process. We may also mention M. Cauchoix, who, in a notice rela- 
tive to the telescopes in the last exhibition at the Louvre, has spoken high- 
ly of the flint-glass of which they are constructed. When the Bibliothéque 
Universelle announced the formation of the Astronomical Society of Lon- 
don in 1821, M. Guinand was requested to present to them a sample 
of his glass, upon which they made a report as favourable as the small size 
of the specimen could warrant ; they also offered to make another, on disks 
of a larger dimension. M. Guinand accepted the offer, and they have 
now in progress a disk of seven inches.* 

* Among the telescopes made by M. Guinand after his return to Switzerland, 
there are several of remarkable magnitude and effect ; in general the greater part ap- 
pear to advantage on a comparison with English ‘telescopes; a merit which is owing 
in an especial manner to the quality of the glass. But the most. singular circum- 
stance is, that they have beea constructed by an old man of seventy-six years of age, 
who himself manufactured the flint, and crown glass, after having made with his own 
hands his vitrifying furnace and his crucibles, who, without anyy mathematical 


VOL. Il, NO. I. APRIL 1825. Aa 


354 Notices of Botanical Works recently 


This disk of seven inches was wrought, by that able artist Mr Tully, in- 
to an object-glass twelve feet in focal length ; and in his report to the 
Astronomical Society, on the 25th January 1825, he says, that he ‘has 
not quite succeeded in working the glass to his mind, and adds, ‘* But 
I have no doubt I shall be able to make it into a very perfect instrument ; 
the glass seems entirely homogeneous and free from fault. The material 
of the glass,” he continues, ‘‘ appears to be different from our flint-glass, 
asit grinds and polishes much easier. I have another piece of flint-glass 
34 inches, of the same manufacture, that seems likewise to be quite free 
from fault, and is as clear all over as any fluid.” 

To the preceding interesting particulars we regret to add, that M. 
Guinand died, after a short illness, about the end of 1823, and about the 
76th year of his age, immediately after arrangements had been made with 
the French goyernment for the purchase of his secret. His son fortunately 
possesses all the details of the process, and is ready to supply ap aera, with 
gles for object-glasses of large apertures. 


Art. XXXII.—NOTICES OF RECENTLY PUBLISHED 
FERIODICAL BOTANICAL WORKS. 


Monandrian Plants of the Order Scitaminee, by William Roscoe, Esq. 
No. 2. 


Tx second part of this valuable publication appeared during the year 
1824, and it fully justifies the expectations which we had entertained from 
the well known talents of its author. The plates we consider to be executed 
in better style than those of the first number. It contains Canna compac= 
ta, n. sp.;—Canna pedunculata of Lodd. Bot. Cab.—Maranta gibba, Sm. 
in Rees’ Cycl. Hedychium acuminatum, n. sp. Hedychium Gardneria- 
num of Dr Wallich, (a most superb plant ;) Kampferia rotunda, Curt.— 
Curcuma Amada of Roxb. Fl]. Ind.:—and Globba saltatoria (Mantisia 
saltatoria of Curtis. ) 


Drummond's Maset Scotici. 
The second volume of this useful work, some of the contents of which 
were noticed, previous to its publication, in our second number, has now 
appeared. 


Botanical Magazine for December, No. 458. 


Tas. 2531. Crinum arenarium #. from Australia. t. 2532. Pergu- 
laria sanguinolenta, Lindley in Hort. Trans. t. 2533. Hamelia patens, 


knowledge, devised a graphic method of ascertaining the proportion of the curves 
that must be giver to the lenses, afterwards wrought and polished them by means pe- 
euliar to himself; and, lastly, constructed all the parts of the different mountings 
either with joints or on stands, melted and turned the plates, sei the tubes, 
prepared the wood, and compounded the varnish. 


Published in Great Britain. 355 


Linn. t. 2534. Cyrtanthus striatus, a new species; but with a specific cha- 
racter ten lines in length ; native of the Cape.  t. 2635. Paliurus virga- 
tus of Don’s Fl. Nepal. t. 2536. Clerodendrum macrophyllum : introduc- 
ed by Mr Barclay from the Mauritius, Fn rts 


Hooker's Exotic Flora, for December, No. 17- 

Tas. 133. Callicarpa longifolia, Lam., but not, we think, of Roxb. Fl. 
Ind. ; from the Liverpool garden. t. 134. Murraya paniculata of Malag. 
Mise., communicated from the Hort. Soc., who received it from Sumatra. 
t. 135. Habenaria gracilis, Colebrooke, mss.: native of Sylhet, E. Indies, 
t. 136. Habenarva marginata, Colebr. mss., found growing on the turf at 
the Bot. Garden, Calcutta. ¢. 137. Balsamina setacea, Colebr. mss. na- 
tive of the mountains N. of Sylhet. The three last plants have not been 
introduced in our gardens. 

( , 
Loddige’s Botanical Cubinet, Part 92, December. 

No. 911. Veronica taurica. 912. Hamanthus multiflorus. 913. Arnica 
Sscorpioides. 914. Potentilla glabra. 915. Asphodelus creticus. 916. Pri- 
mula sinensis. 917. Erica viridiflora. 918. Clematis angustifolia. 919. 
Mespilus acuminata. 920. Lachenalia bifolia. 


Part 93, January 1825. fF cee 
No- 921. Maranta bicolor. 922. Persoonia Slewifolia. 923. Jasione 
perennis. 924. Cactus speciosissimus. 925. Habenaria blephariglottis. 
926. Erica Carniola. 927. Cymbidium lancifolium. 928. Styrax officin 
ale. 929. Orobus hirsutus. 930. Spigelia marilandica. 


Greville’s Scottish Cryptogamic Flora. 


The notice respecting the Nos. of this work will be inserted in the next 
Number of our Journal. 


Borantcat INTELLIGENCE. 


Progress of Botany in Russia. 


We learn from a little work that has lately been published at Moscow, 
by the celebrated Hoffman, entitled, “‘ De Fatis et Progressibus rei Her« 
bari, imprimis in imperio Rutheno,” that the Sovereigns of Russia, since 
the time of the first Emperor Paul, have been great protectors of the 
sciences. They have engaged learned men upon expeditions which have 
included the whole empire. Under Peter I., Messerschmidt of Dantzic 
was the first who made a voyage to Siberia, for the advancement of know- 
ledge. The physician, G. Schobers, visited the banks of the Wolga, and 
the coasts of the Caspian Sea. Christopher Buxbaum, (after whom Bur~ 
haumia is named,) member of the academy, extended his researches thence 
to'the Black Sea and Asia Minor. The Empress Anne, more anxious to 
cultivate the soil, and to become acquainted with the treasures of nature, 
than to extend the bounds of her domain, sent Trangott Gerber, director 


356 Botanical Intelligence. 


of the Botanic Garden of Moscow, to the mountains of Orenbourg, and of 
Tartary: but, of. still more consequence was the embassy which she dis 
patched to Kamtschatka, and to the coasts of America, under the command 
of the famous navigator, Behring, a Dane, who was accompanied by the 
naturalists, J. G. Gmelin * and Stephen Kraschenninnikow. Five years 
after, Stephen and W. Steller of Weinhaim, in Franconia, visited the Bay 
of Awatcha, and the north-west coasts of America, whence they brought 
very interesting collections of plants. Gmelin again, in company with G. 
F. Miiller and Di l’Isle de la Croyére, accomplished their travels into Si- 
beria, in the years 1734 and 1743. 

Under the reign of the Empress Catherine, new expeditions were under- 
taken into the north of Asia, and throughout all Russia, by Pallas, Falke, 
Grendelstedt, Georgi, Lepechin, and Hablizl. The Floras of Siberia, and 
of the Altaic mountains, were enriched by the researches of a Swede, Eric 
Laxmann ; that of Livonia, by Grindell, Germann, and Driimpelmann ; 
that of Petersburgh, by Sobolewsky, Leboschiitz, and Trinius, (well known 
by his labours among the grasses,) that of Moscow, by Stephen, Martins, 
Adams, Fischer, and Goldbach. The Caucasus was visited many times 
by Marshal Von Bieberstein, whence originated the Flora taurico-caucas- 
ica. Other learned botanists have published their discoveries in the Me- 
moirs of the Society of Natural History ; these are Londes, de Victingshoff, 
Haas, Wilhelms, Parrott, Engelhardt, &c. Botanic Gardens have been es- 
tablished, and kept up with greater or less care at Abo, in Finland, at 
Casan, Charkow, Cremenery in Volhynia, at Dorpat, Moscow, Wilna, 
Warsaw, St Petersburgh, &c. Among those of the last mentioned city, 
that of Paulowsky stands pre-eminent, as containing the rarest. plants 
brought from very distant countries, by the recent Russian navigators. 
To these remarks, which were published in 1823, we are enabled, through 
‘the kindness of our excellent friend Dr Fischer, and of Mr Goldie, to add 
some notices respecting the truly princely establishment of the new Im- 
perial Botanic Garden of St Petersburgh, founded in 1824. 

The celebrated Botanic Garden of Prince Razomoffsky, at Moscow, which 
was under the direction of Dr Fischer, at the death of that nobleman ex- 
cited no interest in the mind of his son, and Dr Fischer then used his ut- 
most exertion to have a Botanic Garden worthy of the Russian empire, 
established at its capital, St Petersburgh. This, happily, throngh the in- 
tervention and influence of the Empress mother, a great lover of Botany, 
and who herself possesses a very fine collection of plants, was accomplish- 
ed. 

Upon one of the small islands formed by the branches of the Neva, to 
the north of the town, and named, from the circumstance that we are a- 
bout to mention, Aptekerski stroff, (Apothecary’s Island,) was founded 
by Peter the Great, a small garden for the cultivation principally of such 
plants as were useful in medicine, and which was given to the Company 
of Apothecaries. Here Peter built, with his own royal hands, a hut which 


“ Author of the excellent Flora Sibirica, and of Travels through Siberia. 


Progress of Botany in Russia. 357 


still exists, and planted several trees, especially of Poplar and Lime, which 
have attained a considerable size, and are preserved with a sacred care. 
This spot, consisting of good soil, and watered upon one side by a branch 
of the Neva, was fixed upon as the scite of the present garden. Other 
ground, however, was added to it in 1823, so that it includes an area of 
sixty English acres, in part surrounded by a wooden fence, and partly by 
a hedge, which occupies an extent of about two hundred yards next the 
river. yh 

In 1824, a series of operations were commenced and carried into execu- 
tion, such as perhaps have scarcely any parallel in the annals of Botanical 
Institutions. Orders were given for ranges of Greenhouses, Conservatories 
and Stoves, the cost of which was estimated ata million of roubles, (about 
L.40,000 Sterling,) and the whole to be completed before the present win- 
ter. 

The principal houses are three in number, facing the south, each 700 
feet in length, and twenty to thirty feet from back to front, placed in par 
allel lines, but at such a distance from each other, that by two other 
houses of the same length, running from north to south, and placed at the 
ends of these, the whole forms a parallelogram, measuring 700 feet each 
way, intersected by a central line or house of the same lerigth. The middle 
building is the most lofty, being forty feet high in the central part. The 
three that face the south have a sloping light in front, reaching from the 
top to the ground. 

Those which run north and south have a double roof, are comparative- 
ly low, and have the path in the centre. All are heated by means of com- 
mon flues, and with wood, principally birch. Water is raised by engines 
from the river, and cisterns filled in various parts of the houses, and in 
the most convenient situations. The large spaces of ground, or areas 
between the buildings, are filled with shrubs, and flower-beds ; only, 
behind the most southern one is a splendid suite of apartments for the 
Royal Family. These have windows, opening from above into the house 
below, so that the plants may be seen to great advantage. 

Dr Fischer, who has the charge of the establishment, occupies at pre- 
sent a small wooden dwelling within the garden. Handsome and com- 
modious habitations are to be built for him, and forthe two chief gar- 
deners, one of whom is a Dane, and the other a Frenchman. Two Se- 
cretaries are employed, one of them is a French gentleman, M. Fleury, 
who lately visited this country with Dr Fischer, the other a Russian ; and 
also an excellent botanic painter, a native of Germany, who has already 
executed some very beautiful drawings of new and rare plants. 

There is scarcely a garden in Europe, which will not, if it has not al- 
ready done so, contribute to stock this superb establishment. The col- 
lection is even now very great. One hundred thousand roubles were ap- 
propriated for the purchase of plants, at the commencement ; and 68,000 
roubles annually, for the ordinary expences. During the last year, which, 
as we have seen, was the first of the commencement of the institution, no 
less than 14,000 packages of seeds were sown in 60,000 pots. Dr Fischer 


358 Botanical Intelligence—Austr 1a—North America— 


paid a hasty visit to England and Scotland in last autumn, and collected 
so great a number of living plants, (above 4000,) that he engaged Mr 
Goldie of the Monkwood Nursery, near Ayr, to take charge of them dur- 
ing the voyage, and to assist in their transplantation. This was success- 
fully accomplished, and on Mr Goldie’s quitting St Petersburgh in Octo- 
ber, the whole collection was in a most thriving condition. 

' We have inquired in vain for correct information respecting the state 
- of this noble institution, since the late inundations of the Neva, but we 
can hear nothing certain. | We dare not flatter ourselves with the expec- 
tation that it can have escaped without severe, very severe injury ; but we 
do earnestly hope that the report which has been circulated, respecting its 
utter destruction, will prove to be as much exaggerated as. those early ac- 
counts which we received of the loss of lives and of property by the same 
dreadful calamity. 

It is satisfactory to be able to announce, that Dr Fischer has provided 
very extensive materials for the publication of a Flora Rossica. His 
long residence in Moscow, and the great intercourse which subsists be- 
tween the Eastern and Southern parts of Russia and that city, gave him 
facilities in obtaining possession of plants which no other naturalist has 
had the means of acquiring. No stranger, it is well known, can explore 
any part of Russia, with a view to science, without express permission 
from the Emperor, and this is not easily obtained. But strict orders have 
been given for the plants.to be collected by those resident in the respec 
tive districts, throughout every part of the Russian dominions, and to be 
transmitted to the new garden. Besides which, collectors are to be sent 
purposely into Siberia, and other remote parts of the empire, at the ex- 


pence of Government. 


Intelligence from Austria. 

By a letter which we have just received from Professor Jacquin of Vien- 
na, we learn ‘that the Fasciculi 3d and 4th of his ‘‘ Ecloge” have been 
published ; and that some more Fasciculi yet will appear in the course of 
the present year. 

The Botanical Public have long been in expectation that Dr Host, au- 
thor of the superb work entitled Grumina Austriaca, would publish a 
Monograph, on a similar plan, of the Salices of Austria. We have the 
pleasure of being able to state, that the first volume of this publication, 
containing 100 coloured plates, will appear during the present year. It 
will be completed in two volumes, comprising 250 ee The same author 
is engaged in preparing a new Flora Austriaca, to serve as a second edition 
of his Synopsis. 

-M. Pohl has ready for publication, a numerous collection of drawings 
of Brazilian Plants, and M. Schott of Ferns, from the same country. 


Intelligence from North America. 
In addition to the information which we gave in our last Number relative 
to American Botany, we have the satisfaction of being able to state, that 


Denmark—=Sweden—Mexico. 359 


Dr Schweinitz and Mr Halsey are engaged in collecting materials for a 
Cryptogamic Flora of that country. 


Denmark. 

The valuable work which Professor Schow has written. in the Danish 
language, upon the Geographical Distribution of Plants, with maps, has 
already been translated into German, and Professor De Candolle is about 
to publish a French translation. 

Dr Nolte, an excellent and zealous botanist of Lauenbourg, who, at the 
expence of the King, has botanized during many years in Holstein and 
Lauenbourg, is engaged upon a Pleat oitiat Flore Holsatie-Lauenbour= 
gensis. The same author will soon publish a treatise upon the Hydroch- 
aridee and the Alismacee of the North of Europe, upon which he has 
made many interesting observations. 

Professor Hornemann is employed in preparing a new edition of his 
Hortus Hafniensis, and a 2d part of his Geconomical Flora of Denmark. 

Professor Schumacher has written a treatise upon the Genus Cinchona, 
and has nearly finished his book in Danish upon Medicinal Plants. 

M. Schonsboe, Consul of Legation and Danish Consul-General at Tan 
giers, already well known as an excellent Botanist, has for many years 
studied the Marine Algex of the coast of Barbary, and will now publish 
a particular work upon that subject, for which plates have been already 
engraved. 

Lieutenant Holbélt of the Royal Danish Navy, and son of the head 
gardener at the Botanic Garden of Copenhagen, has lately made a large 
collection of plants on the coast of Greenland. During his passage to that 
region, he fell in with the British Discovery Ships, and was presented by 
Captain Parry with a copy of the supplement to his first voyage. ‘This - 
circumstance was the more gratifying to the young Botanist, as, upon his 
return to Copenhagen, and even so late as the month of December, no 
copy of that work had reached Denmark. 


Sweden. 
Wahlenberg has edited at Upsal a Flora Suecica. 


Mexico. 

The important political changes that have taken place in Spanish and 
Portuguese America seem already to have had an influence upon the li- 
terature of those countries. Our excellent friend, Mr Barclay of Bury 
Hill, Surry, has obligingly communicated to us the 1st No. of an imports 
ant botanical work, which is just printed at Mexico, entitled “‘ Novorum 
Vegetabilium Descriptiones, in lucem prodeunt opera Paulli de la Llava, 
et Joannis Lexarza, Reip. Mexic. CIV.” ‘This first part includes de- 
scriptions of 40 new species, of which 13 constitute 2s many undescribed 
genera. The greater number of the plants are among the Composite. 


360 Proceedings of Societies. 


Art. XX XIII.—PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, : 


1. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 
December 6.—The following gentlemen were elected Ordinary Members: 
Dr John Campbell, Physician in Edinburgh. 
George Anderson, Esq. Inverness. 

At this Meeting Mr Harpincrr read a paper on the Determination of 
the Idea of the Species in Mineralogy, according to the principles of Pro- 
fessor Mohs, the particular object of which was mentioned in our last 
Number. 

December 20.— At this Meeting there was read Additional Observations 
on the Natural History and Physical Geography of the Himalayah Moun- 
tains. By Grorce Govan, M.D. This paper is inserted in this Num- 
ber, p. 277. 

January 3.—At this Meeting Robert Brown, Esq. was elected an Ho- 
norary Member of the Society. 

There was also read by Dr Hisserv, a paper on the Dispersion of Stony 
Fragments remote from their native beds, as displayed in a stratum of 
loam near Manchester, This paper is printed in this Number, p. 208. 

At the same Meeting Mr Harpr1ncer reada Description of Fergusonite, 
a new mineral species. For a notice of this mineral, named in compliment 
to Robert Ferguson, Esq- of Raith, see p. 375. 

January 17.—At this Meeting Mr P. F. TyTier read extracts from a 
Journal of Travels through Persia, by Mr James Baiure Fraser. 

February 7-—The following gentlemen were elected Ordinary Members: 

Major Leith Hay of Rannes. 
Rev. John Williams, Rector of the Edinburgh Academy. 
John Hugh Maclean, Esq- Advocate. 

At this Meeting there was read a Description of Withamite, a new mi- 
neral species found in Glenco. By Dr Brewster. This paper is pub- 
lished in this Number, p. 262. 

February 21.—There was read an Account of a Sepulchral Urn, con- 
taining fragments of bones and a boar’s tusk, found near the village of Ra~ 
then in Aberdeenshire. By Joun Gorpon, Esq. of Cairnbulgh. 

The sepulchral urn described in this paper was circular, resembling in 
shape a ball of about thirteen inches in diameter, cut through about four 
inches from the top. It was nearly filled with the remains of human 
bones in small particles, together with a considerable quantity of dry 
earthy matter. The urn was surrounded by upright stones about a foot 
and a half in length, on the top of which was placed a flat one, resembling 
the one on which the urn stood. ‘The boar’s tusk was perfectly sound and 
entire when found ; but in about a month it cracked, and broke in one or 
two places. About fifteen or twenty years ago, several similar urns were 
dug up ; but we have not learned that any boars’ tusks were found in them. 


Cambridge Philosophical Society. 361 


There was also read a Description of a new Photometer, with its applica- 
tion. By Mr Witi1am Rircuie, Rector of the Academy of Tain. See p. 
339. 

At the same Meeting there was read 4 paper on the First Introduction 
of Greek Literature into England after the dark ages- By Patrick Fra- 
sER TyTLER, Esq- 

March 7.—The following gentlemen were elected. Members : 

Foreign Members. 
M. Mitscherlich, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Berlin. 
M. Gustavus Rose, Professor of Mineralogy in the University of Berlin. 
Ordinary Members. 

Dr William Preston Lauder, Physician in Edinburgh. 

Right Honourable Lord Ruthven. 

Dr Edward Turner, Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and 

Lecturer on Chemistry, Edinburgh. 

At this Meeting was read a paper on the Neptunian Formation of Sili- 
ceous Stalactites, by the Rev. Dr Frzeminc. ‘This paper is printed in this 
Number, p. 307. 


2. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 


May 3, 1824.—A communication was read from C. Bappace, Esq. 
F. R. S. Fellow of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, on the Determi- 
nation of the General Terms of a new class of Infinite Series. 

A paper was also read by G. B. Arry, Esq. Fellow of the Camb. Soc. on 
the Construction of a new Achromatic Telescope. 

May 17.—A communication was read from J. Hoce, Esq. Fellow of 
the Camb. Phil. Soc. on two Petrifying Springs in the neighbourhood of 
Norton, in the county of Durham. 

A paper was read by G. B. Arry, Esq. Fellow of the Camb. Phil. Soc. 
on the Principle and Construction of the Achromatic Eye-Pieces of Tele- 
scopes, and on the Achromatism of Microscopes. 

May 24.—A paper was read by Dr Havitanp, President of the Cam. 
Phil. Soc. on the Cases of Secondary Small-Pox, and of Small-Pox after 
Vaccination, which have occurred in Cambridge during the last year. 

A paper was read by the Rey. Professor Farisu, Vice-President of the 
Camb. Phil. Soc. on a Method of obviating the Inconyeniencies arising 
from the Expansion and Contraction of the Iron in Iron Bridges. 

May 25.—Being the anniversary meeting of the Society, the following 
officers were appointed for the ensuing year: 

Dr Haviland, Regius Professor of Physic, President. 
Dr F. Thackeray, 
Rev. W. Farish, Jacksonian Professor, Vice-Presidents. 
Rey. J. Cumming, Professor of Chemistry, 
Rev. B. Bridge, Treasurer. 
Rev. G. Peacock, Tutor of Trinity, } Srovetinies. 
Rey. J. S. Henslow, Professor of Mineralogy, 


362 Proceedings of Societies. 


Rev. W. Whewell, Tutor of Trinity, Steward of the Reading Room. 


7 


Council. 

J. King, Esq. Tutor of Queen’s, 

Rev. A. Sedgwick, Professor of Geology, 
M. Ramsay, Esq. 

Rev. J. Studholme, 

Rey. R. Crawley, Tutor of Magdalene, 
Rev. R. Jeffreys, ; 

Rev. J. P. Higman, Tutor of Trinity. 


Nov. 15.—A communication was read by Rev. Professor Ciena on 
the Use of Gold Leaf in the Detection of Magnetism. 

A paper was read by Rev. W. Wakwkte Fellow of the Camb. Phil. 
Soc. on the Principles of Dynamics. 

Nov. 29.—A communication was read by Rev. Professor Cunmrne, « on 
the History of Electro-Magnetism. 

‘Dec. 13.—A paper was read by Rey. Professor Fartsn, Vice-President, 
on the Construction of the Cogs of Wheels, and also on the Action of 
Wheels with Cogs in the Form of Involutes of Circles. 


‘ 
3. Proceedings of the Society for Promoting the Useful Arts in Scotiand. 


. Dec. 21, 1824.—The Rev. Mr Somervitte of Currie gave an account 
of his contrivances for preventing the accidental discharge of fire-arms, 
and exhibited to the society various guns to which they were applied. 

There was read also a Description of the original Machine for Drying 
’ Linen, invented by the late Mr James Wart, and communicated by him 
to Dr Brewster. 

‘An Account of Mr Tuom of Rothesay’s New Double Valve Sluice was 
read. Sce this Number, p. 288. 

. Professor Waxtace read a Report on Mr Burnet’s Trigon for solving 
Pebliibital in Navigation. 

- Jan. 4, 1825. es was read a Report by Professor Wattacr, Mr 
Kinnear, and Dr Brewster, on Mr Sommerville’s Contrivanees for 
Preventing the Accidental Discharge of Fire-Arms. 

A Description of the Single Valve Sluice, invented by Mr Tuom of 
Rothesay, was read. 

Jan. 18.—Mr Tuomas Crarx described to the Society his new Quick- 
silver Pump, without Friction, and exhibited the Pump in Operation. See 
this Number, p.: 267. 

Mr James Jarprne gave his Report on the New Fangate Sluice, in- 
vented by M. Blanker, and described the principles of its construction. 
An account of it by Professor Motz will be given in our next Number. 

Feb. 8.—A Description of Dr Dyce’s TREE Balance was read, and 
the Balance itself exhibited. - 

A notice of the late Mr Sropart’s Alloys of Steel with Gold, Silver, 
Platina, and Rhodium, was read, and specimens of them were exhibited 

: 10 ; 


, 


Society of Arts for Scotland. 363 


to the Society, with a view of exciting some of our artists to.direct their 
attention to this important branch of the arts. 

Feb. 22.—There was laid before the Society a Drawing and Description 
of an Improved Mortice Lock,. invented by Messrs Joun and Tuomas 
Situ of Darnick, near Melrose. This lock exhibited much ingenuity, 
and possesses many advantages over the common one. __ 

Mr Witr1aM GasraitH, A. M. gave an account of a method where- 
by, with a small additional apparatus, Hadley’s sextant may be converted 
into a dipsector. This improved sextant was exhibited to the Society. 

Mr Joun Broster described to the Society his Apparatus for convers- 
ing with the Deaf and Dumb, and exhibited it to the Society. 

March 8.—A Description of a Boat with a Revolving Paddle Scull, in- 
vented by AnpRew Wanppett, Esq. of Hermitage Hill, was read, and.a 
model of the boat was exhibited to the meeting. 

The Movex which accompanied Mr Waddell’s paper, is from the Plan | 
of a French corvette, or sloop of war, and is on a scale of one-fourth of an 
inch to a foot; but although this vessel measures above 300 tons, her real 
burden is much less, being constructed with a very sharp bottom, for the 
' purposes of fast sailing. With this model, many of Mr Waddell’s experi- 
ments were made, and by the revolving scull at present fixed to the stern, 
the greatest velocity has been produced. It is of the same construction 
as that used in the boat with which the experiments were made on the 
Wet Dock at Leith, as described in this Number, p. 206. Each of the 
paddle-plates of the scull, according to the scale of the model, have a 
surface of eighteeen feet, or thirty-six square feet in both. 

The accompanying common paddle-wheels, of fifteen feet diameter, 
when fixed on the end of the Azle, in the centre of the model, and set in 
motion, produce a propelling surface nearly double that of the scuil, not- 
withstanding which, the scull propels the model with a velocity of ninety 
English feet in sixty-four seconds of time, while the common paddle. 
wheels above stated, take eighty seconds of time to perform the same; 
and the moving power applied to both, isa small clock-spring with a train 
of wheels. See p. 206. 

Mr Sutett gave a Description of his very ingenious Triangle used at 
the late Fire for elevating the Jet of the extinguishing Engine, and exhi- 
bited a Model of it to the Society. 

The following articles of foreign and domestic manufacture were exhi- 


bited to the Society : 
1. Several specimens of Wood hy of French manufacture, with 
specimens of German ditto. 
2. Specimens of French Glue. 
3. Specimens of Painted Canvas from Antwerp. 
_ 4. Specimens of Gelatine from a manufactory near Paris. 
'5. Specimens of Woollen Cloths from MM. Terneaux of Paris. 
6. Specimen of a stuff made from the produce of the Cashemire Goats 
introduced into France by Messrs 'Terneaux. 
7. Specimens of a very cheap manufacture by the same. 
§. Specimens of cheap Sheffield Cutlery. 


364 Scientific Intelligence. 
- ~ Art. XXXIV.—SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


I. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


ASTRONOMY. 


1. Remarkable Double Tail in the Comet of 1823.—As this singular fact 
has been observed both in Europe and America, there can be no doubt of its . 
truth, and therefore the particular details of it become very interesting to 
the Astronomer. This phenomenon was observed by several persons at 
Newhaven Connecticut, on the evening of January 23, and previous to 
this by President Day of Yale College. The faint stream of light which 
was seen to extend from the comet towards the sun, was not directly op- 
posite to its usual tail, but inclined at an angle of 1783° or 178° to it. In 
its brightness and length it was variable, being sometimes visible only near 
the nucleus of the comet, and at other times extending to as great a dis~ 
tance as the usual tail. It was, however, narrower, and was supposed by 
some to converge to a point. It was observed again, through a very clear 
atmosphere, on thé morning of the 27th, when both were fainter than 
before, but it retained the same relative position. It vanished a little be- 
fore the tail of the comet, after having been a few days visible. 

The very same phenomenon was observed by M. de Biela at Prague. He 
first saw it on the night of the 22d January, and also on the 25th and 27th, 
but neither before nor after. He describes the: stream of light as a tail 
turned towards the sun, and he says that the two tails were not exactly 
opposite to each other, but forming a very obtuse angle. The new tail 
was neither so brilliant nor so long as the usual one. See Professor Silli- 
man’s Journal, vol. viii. p. 315- 


2. Supposed Influence of Comets on the Sun’s Surface-—M. de Biela con- 
ceives that he has observed an effect produced on the luminous state of the 
sun by the proximity of comets, and he is said to have observed the in- 
crease of spots on its surface when comets have approached to their peri-: 
helion. 


8. Periodical Comet of 1819.—According to the calculations of M. Da- 
moiseau, the following are the elements of the comet at its return in 1825. 


Passage of Perihelion, September 17 084 


Eccentricity - - 0.8449784 
_ Long. of Perihelion = - 157° 14’ 30” 
Long. of Nede ; - 334 22 8 
Inclination of Orbit - - 13 23 29 
Mean Daily Motion - - 1070”. 0866 
Half of the Greater Axis - 2.223611 


The following ephemerides of the comet will enable us to find it in 1825, 
though there is little reason to hope that it will be seen during that period, 
as its elongation from the sun varies from 49° to 33° in the interval em- 
braced by the following table. After it passes its perihelion it is still less 
likely to be seen, In the autumn of 1828, howeyer, it will be visible over 
all Europe. 


‘Astronomy— Optics. 365 


R. Asc. N. Decl. Dist. from Dist. from Comp. 
Earth. Sun. Light. 
1828, July 14. 075 59° 6’ 28° 47” 1.775 1.345 0.175 
: 24. 073 70 5 30 52 1.597 1.198 0.273 
Aug. 3. 086 84 15 23 56 1.439 1.041 0.445 
13. 087 99 48 23 44 1.316 0.874 0.597 
23. O61 4118 5 21 28 1.243 0.697 0.647 
Connoiss. des Tems, 1827, p. 223, 224. 


4. Depression of the Horizon at Sea.—In an interesting notice by M. 
Arago on this subject, he compares the differences between the calculated 
and observed depression with the differences between the temperature of 
the air and the sea as observed at the same time. When the calculated 
depression is greater, the errors are called positive, and when they are less, 
negative. M. Arago found that the error of the computed depression will 
be positive in a climate where the temperature of the air exceeds that of 
the sea, but that the negative errors are observed indiscriminately in all re~ 
lative temperatures of the air and the sea. Connoiss. des Tems, 1827, p. 
319. 


OPTICS. 


5. Refractive Power of Dry and Humid Air.—M. Arago has found by 
a particular method, that the refractive power of humid air differs a very 
little from that of dry air, the elastic force of each being the same. Con« 
noiss. des Tems, 1827, p- 320. 


6. Polarisation of Light from Solid or Fluid incandescent Bodies —M. 
Arago has observed, that the rays which issue from solid or fluid incandes- 
cent bodies are partly polarised by refraction, when they form with the 
surface of emergence an angle of a small number of degrees. The light of 
combustible gases presented no traces of polarisation. Hence M. Arago 
concludes, that a considerable portion of the light of incandescent bodies is 
formed in their interior, and at depths which he has not yet completely 
determined. Ann. de Chim. tom. xxvii. p. 89. 


7. Optical Phenomena observed hy M. Ruppell—tIn observing the 
eclipses of the stars by the moon, near the ruins of Solib in Upper Egypt, 
M. Ruppell had, on the 4th of June, directed his large telescope to the ob- 
scure limb of the moon. Close to it he observed a star of the 5th magni- 
tude, which was about to be eclipsed by the moon. When it was near the 
limb, and on the point of disappearing, he observed, to his great surprise, 
that the star of the 5th magnitude was divided into two smaller ones of the 
8th magnitude, which he saw with extraordinary distinctness. A few se- 
conds afterwards they successively immerged behind the moon’s limb. M. 
Ruppell asks, was this distinctness of vision produced by the atmosphere 
of the moon? Baron Zach explains this effect by saying, that M. Ruppell 
saw the star better, and consequently double, (for we presume it was real- 
ly a double one,) in consequence of his looking longer at it ; but this can 

never be considered as an explanation of the extraordinary distinctness of 


366 Scientific Intelligenice. 


which M. Ruppell speaks. If M. Ruppell first saw the star near the mar- 
gin of the field, and afterwards saw it near the middle of it, the explana- 
tion would be easy ; but it is necessary to suppose that the distinctness’ in 
question arose from the proximity of the star to the moon. It is by no 
means impossible that the dispersion produced by the lunar atmosphere 
might correct the uncorrected colour in the telescope, if such uncorrect- 
ed colour existed. 


_ 8. Remarkable Dichroism of Awinite-—The dichroism of this mineral 
has already been observed, and mentioned in the Philosophical Transac- 
tions for 1819, p. 20; but Mr Haidinger has observed in Mr Allan’s Col- 
lection a crystal feohe Cornwall, in which it is very remarkable, and he got 
it cut for the purpose of exhibiting it to advantage. By looking through 
the faces rr’ of the figures of Axinite in Hauy and Mohs, there is a line in- 
clined towards the face ¢, where common light transmitted thruugh the plate 
is aminimum, and of a dark red colour, but not polarised, or rather consist- 
ing of two superimposed pencils polarised.in opposite planes. By continuing 
the inclination towards 7, the light becomes brighter and whiter, and all 
polarised in one plane, as if transmitted through a bundle of glass plates. 
By inclining the plate in the opposite direction towards z, the very same ef= 
fect is produced. These effects are obviously owing to the absorption of 
one of the pencils by the crystal, as described in the Article Orrics, of the 
Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Vol. XV. p. 601. 


9. Optical Structure of Somervillite—This interesting mineral species, 
which we have already described in this Journal, Vol. I. p. 187, has one 
axis of double refraction, as it ought to have by the optical law of primi- 
tive forms. he action of that axis upon light is negative, by the exa- 
mination of the rings, and the double images, as it ought to be by another 
optical law. The separation of the images is easily seen through the faces 
P and a, in our Figure, Vol. I. Plate VIII. Fig. 4. Somervillite contains 
several crystallised cavities, when examined by the microscope. For the 
specimen with which we made the preceding observations, we have been 
indebted to Dr Somerville, whose name it bears. 


MAGNETISM. ‘ 
10. Magnetic Variation at Lake Superior.—The following observations 
have been made by Mr Thompson, astronomer to the Boundary Commis- 
sion: 


W. Long. N. Lat. Easterly Variation. 
Point Marmoaze, - 84° 34’ YY hiataiah (8 o VW 
Thunber Point, “ 3 89 4 48 20 10 
Fort William, -  - 89 22 48 22 6 63 
Gtand Portage, - 89 42 47 58 , 
31 Miles west of Grand Portage, - - 2 0 
River St Louis,’ = 92.10. 46 44 1d 0 
Ninigan Bay, _, - - 88 0 48. 56 Camatiime much 

disturbed. . 


The urecéiieur obseneetions seem to have been made in 1822. 


Magnetism.—Meteorology. 367 


11. Magnetic Declination at Paris in 1822 and 1823.—The declination 
of the needle at Paris, in these years, was, : 
1822, Oct. 9th, 22° 11’ 1823, Nov. 20th, 22°23 
The last observed dip of the needle at Paris seems to have been in 1814, 
when it was 68° 36’. 


METEOROLOGY. 


12. Great Inundation in Sweden and at St Petershburg.—There are few 
events in the physical world that have excited so much attention, and done 
so much mischief, as the tempest of the 18th and 19th November 1824, 
and the extraordinary inundation which accompanied it- 

The storm began on the coasts of England and Holland, and, after hay- 
ing occasioned numerous shipwrecks on the north coast of Jutland, it ad- 
vanced to Gottenburg and Stockholm, keeping more and more to the di- 
rection of N- W: and S.E. — 

On the 13th and 14th Nov. the barometer at Stockholm fell lower than 
it had ever been seen, below even that which took place at the great earth- 
quake of Messina in 1783. On the following days the sky was cloudy and 
the weather variable ; but on the night of the 18th, and morning of the 
19th November, a storm arose, which, after wrenching the vessels from 
their moorings, dashed them against each other, unroofed houses, and co- 
vered the roads with uprooted trees. A sheet of the copper roof of the 
palace of the Princess Sophia, about sixteen yards long, was carried off to 
the square of Gustavus Adolphus. Twenty-five ships, which were lying 
near the bridge of Munlbron, on Lake Maelar, was carried away with the 
bridge, and submerged. 

Analogous sffects were experienced at Gottenburg, Vibourg, and Ude- 
walla on the 18th. At Udewalla the sea rose eight feet above the great- 
est elevation, and its motion was so rapid, that many persons had not 
time to escape. In the higher parts of the town, whole houses were car- 
ried away, and some ships were transported into the fields, 4000 feet from 
their anchorage. One vessel of 150 tons was actually wrecked in the mid- 
dle of a street. 

At Christiania, on the 18th, at jh p.m., the waters of the Firth rose 

suddenly more than three yards above their mean level. After producing 
terrible destruction, they sunk suddenly below their ordinary level ; but 
next day they rose again with such rapidity, that a new inundation was 
apprehended in the lower part of the town, as well as in the fauxbourgs 
of Waterland and Lierdingen. 

For several days before the tempest appeared at St Petersburg, gusts of 
wind from the S. W. carried off several roofs in Wassili-Ostrow.. On the 
18th the storm increased, and the waters of the Neva rose to the height of 
the parapets. At 9" a.m. of the 19th, they quitted their channel, and 
spread themselves over all the town to such a height, that, on the quay of 
the Neva, the lamp-posts were not visible. All the wooden-bridges, great 
and small, were carried away, and the houses inundated to the height of 
ten feet, and even to the height of five feet in the higher parts of the city. 


368 Scientific Intelligence. 


Entire houses tumbled down, and four-wheeled carriages were hurried away 
by the waves. Barks of the largest size were carried over the quays, and 
shipwrecked in the middle of the city, where boats were ready to collect 
the unfortunate inhabitants of the lower stories. A brig remained overset 
in the middle of the street of the Grand Perspective. The parapets along 
the banks of the river, which were built of enormous blocks of granite, 
were opened in several places. The wind was so violent, that it rolled up 
like sheets of paper, and carried off the plates of white-iron, which covered 
the roofs of the houses. 

To the distance of five leagues from St Petersburgh, the rise, and the 
fury of the waters, were not less remarkable. Near Catherinoff, a whole 
village was carried away, and a number of country houses were destroyed. 

At Cronstadt the sea everywhere rose fourteen feet, and the imperial 
fleet of twelve ships and four frigates, which lay in the Roads, were torn 
from their cables, and dashed upon the coast. A ship of 100 guns disap- 
peared entirely. | The wooden batteries were wholly razed on the side op- 
posite to the sea, and those built with stone were greatly injured. The 
gun-carriages, separated from the cannon, floated on the waves. 

These facts will enable us to form some idea of the extraordinary rapi- 
dity of this torrent and its elevation. The following particulars will show 
the extent of the devastation, and of the losses which accompanied them, 
and of the number of human victims which perished. 

A whole regiment of carabineers, men and horses, was drowned. The 
carabineers had ascended the roof of the barracks for safety, but they were 
all swept away. 

At the foundry of M. Clark, four versts from the city, on the road of 
Peterhoff, the workmen perceiving too late the progress of ithe waters, saw 
their own habitations, containing their wives and their children, swallowed 
up by the sea. More than fifty bodies were extricated at that place. 

The number of sufferers has been estimated at from 500 to 700, and the 
loss at 150 millions, (of roubles we presume). Among these losses are 
Mentioned 15,000 tons of hemp, 500 oxen, 200,000 quintals of hemp, 
2,460,000 lbs. of sugar. 

All these ravages, which have been compared to the destruction sustain- 
ed by Moscow in the late war, were produced between nine A. M. and 
three P.M. The rise of the waters was sixteen feet, whereas in 1777, 
when a similar disaster happened, the rise was only fourteen feet. 

This phenomenon has been ascribed to one of two causes; by some to 
the effect of the wind in accumulating and pushing up the waters of the 
river, and by others to some subterraneous convulsion. This last opinion 
is supposed to be countenanced by the sudden elevation and depression of 
the sea at Christiania, by the spontaneous breaking forth of new springs in 
the Upper and the Lower Rhine ;—by crevices which have been opened in 
the solid ground ;—by aslight earthquake which was experienced at Ports- 
mouth and in the Alps; and by the volcanic eruption of Donnersberg, 
which, for the first time, discharged flames and ashes. 

4 ; 


Meteorology.—Chemistry. 369 


13. Great Rain at Manchester in 1824.—According to the accurate obser« 


vations of M. Dalton, the following extraordinary quantities of rain fell 
during the four last months of the year :— 


September, - - 5.440 inches. 
October, = - 6.896 
November, - - 3,510 
December, ~ - 7.835 

Total, . 25.681 


The mean annual quantity of rain at Manchester is only about 34 in= 
ches. " 


14. Diurnal Variation of the Barometer at Marseilles—M. Gambart, 
the astronomer at Marseilles, has announced, that, in the year 1823, the 
diurnal variations of the barometer have been the same as in the Torrid zone. 


CHEMISTRY: 

15. Deowidating property of the Vapour of Water.—Professor Pfaff, of 
Kiel, has observed that nitrate of silver assumes a yellow or even a deep 
brown colour, by exposure to the vapour of pure water; but the change 
of colour does not appear till the solution is raised by the vapour to the 
boiling point. M. Pfaff attributes these changes of colour to deoxidation, 
for the following reasons: 1. 'The similarity of the changes to those pro« 
duced by light. 2. The disappearance of the colour by the addition of 
nitric acid. 3. The production of the same effect by the vapour of water 
upon other metallic solutions, which are easily deoxidated by light or by 
any chemical action.. 4. The disengagement of oxygen gas during the 
process. The most convincing proof, however, according to M. Pfaff, is 

‘furnished by a solution of gold, so diluted as scarcely to retain a yellow 
tint. The vapour of water causes it to assume a fine blue colour, perfect~ 
ly similar to that produced by a tincture of galls. The acetate of silver is 
much more feebly discoloured thon the nitrate. M. Gay-Lussac remarks 
upon these results, that they do not leave a complete degree of conviction. 
He says, that it is not necessary to make the vapour of water pass over the 


solutions, but that their ebullition is sufficient. Ann. de Chim. tom. xxviii. 
p 215. 


16. Quantity of Heat disengaged during. Combustion—In his remarks 
on respiration, M. Despretz has found, that hydrogen gas in burning melts 
315.2 times its weight of ice, and carbon 104.2. It is remarkable, as M. 
Welter observes, that the number 315.2, and 104.2, are almost rigorously 
‘proportional to the weight of oxygen absorbed by the hydrogen and the 
carbon. For, ftom the chemical proportions of Berzelius, supposing the 
first number 315.2, the second will be 104.066. This observation is fayour~« 
able to the conjecture of M. Welter, that the quantities of heat disengaged 
in combustion, are in definite proportions——See the Ann. de Chim, tom. 

VOL. Il, NO. II. APRIL 1825, Bb 


370 Scientific Intelligence. 


xix. p. 425. M. Welter observes, that in the combustions which he has” 
moentioned, that of carbon deviates most from the law, whereas by Des- 
pretz’s experiments, it is the one which deviates the least.—See Ann. de 
Chim. tom. xxvii. p. 223. 


17. On the Colouring Matter, called Chica, by the Indians.—The chica, 
with which the Indians of Rio Meta and the Orinoco paint their bodies: 
red, is obtained by boiling the leaves of the Bignonia Chica for a long time 
in water. The red feculent matter is quickly precipitated by adding some 
pieces of the bark of a tree which is common in the savannalis of Meta, 
and is called arayana. The red matter is then carefully washed, and be- 
fore drying, it is put up in round cakes, from five to six inches in diame= 
ter, and from two to three high ; in which form it is met with in com-— 
mon. M. Boussingault remarks, that they have begun to employ chica in 
dyeing. When fixed in cotton, it gives it a yellow orange colour.—See 
Ann. de Chim. tom. xxvii. p. 315. 


18. Avogadro’s Table of the Affinities of Bodies for Caloric. 


Oxygen, - - 1.0000 Chlorocyanic acid, - 1.2901 
Nitric acid, = - 1.0596 Oxide of carbon, - 1.4265 
Oxygenated chloric acid, - 1.0693  Oxalic acid, - - 1.4296 
Nitrous acid, - - 1.0700 Cyanogen, - - 1.4384 
Chloric acid, - = 1.0840 Hydrochloric acid, - 1.4805 
Hyponitrous acid, - 1.0847 Peroxide of hydrogen, - 1.6464 
Deutoxide of chlorine or chlorous Carbon, pare - 1.6819 

acid, - - 1.1068 Hydro-cyanic acid, ~  - 1.8295 
Nitrous gas, - “ 1.1073 Acetic acid, = 1.9676 
Protoxide of azote gas, - 1.1464 Point of true neutrality, +- 2.0041 
Protoxide of chlorine or euchlorine, 1.1465 Water, - 4 2.2219 
Chlorine, - - 1.1800 Ammonia, - - 3.1296 
Carbonic acid, - 1.1860  Olefiant gas, - 3.1566 
Phosgene gas, or chloroxi-car- Carburetted hydrogen, - 4.2648 

bonic acid, - - 1.2120 Hydrogen, - - 12.0674 
Azote, - - 1.2299 


Memorie della Reale Academia de Torino, tom. xxviii. p. 68. 


19. Avogadro’s Table of the Neutralizing Powers of different Substances. 
—In the following table, the acidifying or acid neutralizing powers, are 
marked with the sign —; and their alkalinity, or neutralizing alkaline 
power, by the sign +. ; 


Oxygen, - - — 1.0000 Azote, - — 0.7710 
Nitric acid, - — 0.9406 Chlorocyanic acid, - — 0.7118 
Oxygenated chloric acid, — 0.9310 Oxide of carbon, - — 0.5752 
Nitrous acid, - — 0.9303 Oxalic acid, - — 0.5741 
Chloric acid, - — 0.9163 Cyanogen, - - — 0.5634 
Hyponitrous acid - — 0.9156 Hydrochloric acid, - — 0.5215 
Deutoxide of chlorine or chlorous Peroxide of hydrogen, « —.0.3562 

acid, - - — 0.8936 Carbon, ems — 0.3209 


Nitrous gas, - - — 0.8931 Hydro-cyanic acid, - —90.173% 


Chemistry. . 371 


Protoxide of azote gas, — 0.8542 Acetic acid, eget — 0.0364 
Protoxide of chlorine or euch- Point of true neutrality, - 0.0000 
lorine, - - — 0.8541 Water, - - + 0.2169 
Chlorine, - - — 0.8207 Ammonia, - + 1.1209 
Carbonic acid, s — 0.8148 Olefiant gas, - + 1.1478 . 
Phosgene gas, or chloroxi- Carburetted Hydrogen, - + 2.2515 
carbonic acid, —~ - — 0.7889 Hydrogen, - - + 10.0222 


Mem. dell. Reale Acad. Torino, tom. xxviii. p. 75+ 
20. Analysis of the Sulphuret of Manganese from Transylvania, by 


* Arfvedson. 


Manganese, - - - 62.60 
Sulphur, - “ “ 37.00 
The formula Mn S?, giving one atom of manganese, and two of sulphur, 
makes this proportion = 63.88: 36.12. (Poggendorft’s Ann. der Phys. 
1824.5.) 
21. Analysis of Blende, crystallized, yellow, and transparent, by Arfved« 
son. 
Zine, . S : - 166.34 
Sulphur, - - - 33.66 
It contained, besides, a trace of iron. The formula Zn S*, expressing one 
atom of zinc, and two of sulphur, agrees with the proportion 66.34 : 33-09. 


22. Analysis of Capillary Pyrites, by Arfvedson. 
Nickel, f a wa hte Gee 
Sulphur, - -* - 34.26 
It appeared to contain traces of cobalt and arsenic. The proportion be- 
tween one atom of nickel and two atoms of sulphur is 64.35: 35.02. ° The 
sulphuret of nickel is not magnetic. 


23. Analysis of two varieties of Harmotome, by. Dr Wernekingk of 
Giessen. 
From Annerode. From Schiffenberg- 


Silica, “ 3 53.07 44.79 
Alumina, - - 21.31 19.28 
Lime, . - 6.67 1.08 
Baryta, - - 0.39 17.59 
Oxide of iron and manganese, 0.56 0.85 
Water, - - 17.09 15.32 


Both kinds occur in the cavities of basaltic hills, near Giessen, in Hes- 
sia, at a distance of about three miles from each other. (Gilbert's Ann. 
_der Physik. 1824, 2. p. 171.) 


21. Analysis of Sideroschisolite, by Dr Wernekingk. 


Silica, - - - 16.3 
Black oxide of iron, - - 75.5 
Alumina, - - - 4.1 
Water, - - - 1.3 


103.2 


372 Scientific Intelligence. 


Dr Wernekingk is of opinion, that this mineral is a variety of the Cron- 
stedtite of Steinmann, at least in so far as may be inferred from the descrip~ 
tion given by Zippe of the latter mineral. He described Sideroschisolite as 
Occurring in small simple three-sided and six-sided pyramids ; the former 
resembling tetrahedrons, fixed to the support with their most acute solid 
angle or apex, and showing a perfect cleavage perpendicular to the axis, 
the face of crystallization parallel to it being smooth, the inclined faces of- 
ten convex. ‘These forms would be analogous to the hemi-rhombobedral 
ones of tourmaline and red silver ore. They are sometimes grouped with 
divergent axes. The hardness is between 2.0 and 3.0, (gypsum and cal- 
careous spar) ; the specific gravity probably above 3.0. Before the blow~ 
pipe, it melts easily into a black magnetic globule; thin lamine of the 
mineral, exposed to the flame of a candle, become iron-black and mag- 
netic. Exposed to nitric acid, they become white and keep their form, 
but show a gelatinous consistency when touched. 

The sideroschisolite occurs along with conchoidal magnetic pyrites and 
sparry iron at Conhonas do Campo, in Brazil. (Poggendorff’s Ann. der 
Phys. 1824. 8. p. 387.) 


; 


25. Analysis of Uranite hy Berzelius. 
From Autun. From Cornwall. 


Baryta - - 1.51 0.00. 
Lime - - - 5.66 - 0.00. 
Oxide of Copper - - 0.00. 8.44. 
Magnesia and Manganese 0.19 0.00. 
Oxide of Uranium - 59.37 60.25. 
Phosphoric Acid - 14.63 15.57. 
Water - - 14.90 15.05. 
Foreign Admixtures - 2.85 0.70. 


The variety from Autun showed, besides, traces of fluoric acid and am- 
monia, that from Cornwall arsenic acid and fluoric acid. The chemical 
formulae given by Berzelius are for the varieties 

From Autun  - — Ca. P24 AU P + 48 Aq. 
From Cornwall - Cu3 p2 +4 U P + 48 Aq. 


They differ in their ingredients of lime and copper. Berzelius proposes 
_to apply in future the name of Chalcolite to the variety from Cornwall, in 


order to distinguish it as a particular species from the French variety, for . 


which he retains the name of Uranite. He says, “ Since, according to 
Mitscherlich’s excellent discovery, lime and oxide of copper are isomor= 
phous bodies, they must assume the same form of crystallisation, if com- 
bined with the same number of atoms of oxide of uranium, phosphoric 
acid, and water, and therefore remain only one mineralogical species in the 
eyes of those who take no notice of any thing but the crystalline forms, 
which, however, cannot be allowed to be just, when viewed from the che-= 


mical side of the question.” It er be added, that not only the forms, 


on non, ea 


ne 


ikea eeetee 


Chemistry—Mimeralogy. | 373 


but also the rest of the characters of the two kinds of Uranite have not hi- 
therto presented any decisive mark by which they might be distinguished 
with perfect security; but it must be allowed that the substances them- 
selves are very imperfectly known. When these, particularly the variety 
from Autun, shall have been more accurately examined, it will be possible 
to say whether or not they should form separate species, for nothing can 
follow from the isomorphism of two bodies upon the determination of the 
species ; since Berzelius himself, who derives the specific difference of 
Chalcolite and Uranite from the presence of two isomorphous bases, consi« 
ders the presence of arsenic acid, in greater or smaller proportions in the 
Chalcolite, as unavailing, because this and the phosphoric acid are iso- 
morphous bodies. (Poggendorff’s Ann. der Phys. 1824. 8. p. 379.) 


III. NATURAL HISTORY. 


MINERALOGY, 
26. Axotomous Arsenical-pyrites, a New Mineral Species. 
Prismatic. P == 117° 28’, 90° 51’, 121° 58’. Approx. 
(a:b: ce = 1: ./0.8747 : /0.4806.) 

Simple forms. Pr (0) = 51° 20'; P + » (d) = 122° 26’. 

Combination. Pr P+. Fig. 13. Cleavage, P—w, perfect; less 
distinct Pr = 86° 10’; traces of P + ». Fracture uneven. Surface faintly 
streaked parallel to the common edges of combination, frequently smooth. 

Lustre metallic. Colour between silver-white and steel-grey. Streak 
greyish-black. 

Brittle. Hardness = 5.0...5.5. Sp. Gr. = 7.228, the massive va- 
riety from Reichenstein. 

Compound varieties. Massive: composition granular, individuals small, 
often nearly impalpable, and strongly connected, fracture uneven ; composi- 
tion columnar, rather thick and irregular, and divergent. Faces of composi- 
tion irregularly streaked. 

Observations.—The axotomous arsenical-pyrites contains arsenic and 
iron, in proportions which have not yet been ascertained. It occurs in a 
bed of sparry iron, at Loling, near Hiittenberg, in Carinthia, along with 
octahedral bismuth and skorodite, and was distinguished by Professor 
Mohs from the other more common species of arsenical-pyrites. The 
same species he found afterwards among the cobalt ores from Schlad- 
ming, in Stiria, and imbedded in the serpentine from Reichenstein, 
in Silesia. In the latter place it seems to occur in very considerable 
quantities. The crystals have been observed among the varieties from 
Schladming. (Mohs, vol. ii. p. 522. T'rans!. vol. ii. p. 448.) 


27. Prismatoidal Copper-Glance, a New Mineral Species. 

Prismatic. Combination. 1. Pr(P) P +. (M) Pr + 0” (h): 
Sim. Fig. 11. Cleavage, Pr + » rather perfect, though interrupted. 
Fracture imperfect conchoidal. Surface rough. Lustre metallic. Colour 


blackish lead-grey. Streak unchanged. Brittle. Hardness= 3.0. Sp. 
Gr. = 5.7365. 


374 Scientific Intelligence. : 


Compound Varieties. Massive: composition granular, individuats 
Strongly connected. 

Observations.—The prismatoidal Copper-glance has been hitherto found 
only in the beds of sparry-iron at St Gertraud, near Wolfsberg, in the 
valley of Lavant, in Carinthia. It is very nearly allied to the follow- 
ing species. It will depend upon future accurate examinations, parti- 
cularly of its regular forms, whether or not the varieties of the two 
species are identical. This species was determined by Professor Mohs, 
before he was acquainted with any of the varieties of the Bournonite. 
Though it is likely that they do not present any specific difference, it 
would be too precipitate to unite them, without being eS of affording 
a demonstration of their identity. 

Before the blow-pipe, the two species give very nearly the same results. 
They both contain sulphur, antimony, lead; and copper ; but the prisma- 
toidal copper-glance yields also a little silver, for the extraction of which it 
is collected by the miners, without, however, properly speaking, being an 
object of mining. (Mohs, vol. ii. p. 559; Transl. vol. iii. p. 4.) 


28. Avotomous Antimouy-Glaace, a New Mineral Species. 


Prismatic. Simple forms. P + © = 101° 20’ (nearly) ; Pr+ o. 
Combinations, of the preceding forms, their terminations not observed. 
Cleavage, P — « highly perfect ; less distinct, though easily observed, 
when the crystals are not too small, the prism P + », and Pr + @ the 
plane parallel to the short diagonal. Fracture not slccieaia Surface 
deeply streaked, parallel to the axis of the prisms. Lustre metallic. Colour 
steel-gray. Streak unchanged. Sectile. Hardness = 2.0 ... 2.5 Sp. Gr. 
= 5°564. 

Compound Varieties. Massive: composition columnar, individuals ge- 
nerally very delicate ; straight and parallel, or divergent. 

Observations.—Nothing as yet is known of the proportions among the 
ingredients of the present species. It contains sulphur, antimony, and lead. 

The axotomous Antimony-glance seems to be a rare mineral, or at least 
not sufficiently attended to by mineralogists. It occurs in masses of con- 
siderable dimensions in Cornwall, sometimes along with the diprismatic 
Copper-glance, as in Huelboys. In Hungary it is engaged in rhombohe- 
dral Limehaloide, but its locality is not exactly known.—( Mohs, vol. ii, 
p- 586. Transl, vol. iii. p. 6.) Mr Haidinger proposes for this species 
the name of Jamesonite, in honour of Professor Jameson, who has so much 
contributed to the present general diffysion of mineralogical knowledge. 


29. Hemiprismatic Ruby-Blende, a new Mineral Species. 
Hemiprismatic. Fundamental form. Scalene four-sided pyramid. P= 


bee a! \, 130° 7', 77° 16’. Inclination of the axis = 11° 6‘, in the plane 


of the long diagonal. Approx. (a:b: c:d=5.1: 9.5: 8.7: 1.) 


Combinations. 1. P— » (4). et et P+a(f). Fig. 14 


Pal Gee eRe pee 


Mineralogy. 375 


BPe+ 8 ti Pr i 

Zz 
fon f = 86° 4’; of b on edge x = 101° 6’; of g on the same = 151° 31’; 
of ¢ on the same 132° 34’. There occur many secondary faces ; the whole 
has much the appearance of crystals of hemiprisinatic Vitriol-salt. 

Cleavage, parallel to g, and to a face replacing the edge x of the prism, 
imperfect. Fracture imperfect conchoidal. Swrface, deeply streaked pa- 
rallel to the edges of combination with y, particularly b and f, as indi- 
cated in the figure ; the pyramids are smooth, ¢ rough, though even. 
Lustre intermediate between metallic and metallic adamantine. Colour 
iron-black. Streak dark cherry-red. Opake, except in thin splinters, 
where it transmits a deep blood-red colour. Very sectile. Hardness = 
2.0 0 25s Sp. Gre = 5.2 0 5.4. 

Observations.—The chemical composition of this species, one of those 
which were formerly comprised under the dark-red silver, has not been as 
yet exactly ascertained. Before the blow-pipe, it gives results nearly 
agreeing with those of rhombohedral Ruby-blende, but it contains only 
about 35.00... 40.00 per cent. of silver, besides sulphur and antimony, 
The only specimen of it, in the possession of Mr Von Weissenbach at 
Freiberg, is supposed to have been found in the mine called Neue. Hoff- 
nung Gottes, at Braunsdorf, near Freiberg, in Saxony. It consists only of 
crystals, and is not accompanied by any other mineral. 

A finely crystallised specimen from Hungary is in the possession of Mr 
Brooke, which seems to have some properties analogous to the hemipris- 
matic Ruby-blende. Yet its combinations appear to be tetartoprismatic, 
and may therefore belong to another species. (Mohs, vol. ii. p. 606. 
Transl. vol. iii. p. 42.) Professor Mohs remarks, in regard to the light 
and dark-coloured varieties of Red Silver, that the difference between these 
varieties, though originally founded on the different tints of colour and 
streak of the two minerals, and on their Justre, which is dependent upon 
them, is deeper rooted in the essence of these bodies than it would appear 
at first sight. Though the forms do not seem to be very different, and the 
peculiarities in the series of crystallizations be common to both, the spe- 
cifie gravity of the two substances is considerably different, being circum~ 
seribed, as far as our present information goes, within the limits of 
5.8 ... 5.9 for the dark-red, and of 5.4... 5.6 for the light-red variety. A 
dark-red cleavable variety from the Hartz gave 5.831, a light-red one, 
also cleavable, from Annaberg, 5.524, and a crystallised one from the 
Churprinz mine, near Freiberg, having the colour of the dark-red variety, 
5.422. his subject deserves the particular attention of mineralogists, 
though as yet it is impossible to settle any thing in regard to the determi- 


nation of the species. 


P+ ©. Fig. 15. Inclination of 


2 P—o. 


"30. Fergusonite, a New Mineral Species. 
Hemipyramidal, with parallel faces. P= 100° 28’, 128° 27' Approx. 


(as n/ 4.5.) 


376 _  Serentific Intelligence. 
Combination. P— x (i), P(s). PHU), LE +e), 


Fig. 17. Inclination of z on x’ = 159° 2’. 

Cleavage, traces parallel to P. Fracture perfect conchoidal. Surface 
rather uneven. Lustre imperfect metallic, inclining to resinous. Colour 
dark brownish-black, in thin splinters pale. Streak very pale brown, like 
peritomous titanium-ore. Opake, in thin splinters translucent. Brittle. 
Hardness = 5.5... 6.0. Sp. Gr. = 5.838, Allan; = 5.800, Turner. Wot 
magnetic. 

Observations.—Before the blow-pipe, it loses its colour, and becomes 
pale greenish-yellow, but is alone infusible. It is entirely dissolved in 
salt of phosphorus, but some particles remain a long time unaltered. The 
pale greenish globule becomes opake by flaming, or on cooling, when very 
much saturated. Before the whole portion has been dissolved, it assumes 
a pale rose colour in the reducing flame. It has been considered as an 
Yttro-tantalite, which is not contradicted by the experiments before the 
blow-pipe. It is described under that denomination in the German Grund- 
viss of Mohs. Mr Haidinger has given it the name of Fergusonite, at the 
or ae of Mr Allan, in compliment to Robert Ferguson, Esq. of 

aith. : 

It was discovered by Sir Charles Giesecke, imbedded in rhombohedral 
Quartz at Kikertaursak, near Cape Farewell, in Greenland. The speci-~ 
mens to which the preceding description refers are in the cabinet of Mr 
Allan. Crystals of it had been described by Mr Phillips, and examined 
before the blow-pipe by Mr Children, under the name of Allanite; from 
which, however, it is sufficiently distinguished by the tetartoprisimatic 
form of the latter.—(Mohs, vol. ii. p. 688. Transl. vol. iii. p. 98. T'rans, 
Roy. Soc. Edinb. vol. x. part 2, p. 271.) 


31. Picrosmine, a New Mineral Species. 

Prismatic. P = 151° 3’, 120° 0’, 67° 59’. Approx. (a: b:¢ — 
1: ,/11.00: 2.75.) 

Simple forms and combinations not known ; the character of the latter 
prismatic, as it appears from cleavage. Cleavage, Pr + © (M) perfect ; 
Pr + @ (T) less, Pr (i)= 117° 49’ still less distinct. Least of all P+ 
(s) = 126° 52’. The product of all the faces of cleavage is represented 
by Fig. 16. Fracture uneven, scarcely perceptible. Lustre peatly, dis- 
tinct upon Pr + «, inclining to vitreous upon the other faces. Colour 
greenish-white, passing into greenish-grey and mountain-green, sometimes 
also oil-, leek-, and blackish-green. Streak white, dull. T'ranslucent on 
the edges ... opaque. Very sectile. Hardness = 25... 3°0. Sp. Gr. = 
2°660 of a cleavable compound variety, 2°596 of a columnar variety. 

Compound Varieties. Massive: composition granular, strongly coherent. 
If the composition becomes impalpable, the fracture is earthy. The par- 
ticles of columnar compositions are very thin ; fracture splintery. 

Observations. Its chemical composition is unknown. Before the blow- 
pipe it is infusible, but gives out water, becomes first black, then white 
and opaque, and: acquires a degree of hardness nearly = 5-0. It is soluble 


Mineralogy. 377 


in salt of phosphorus, with the exception of a silica skeleton. When heat- 
ed with solution of cobalt, it assumes a pale red colour, even when fused, 
and appears therefore to contain water, silica, and magnesia. 

The cleavable varieties have been found, accompanied by octahedral Iron- 
ore and macrotypous Lime-haloide, in a bed in primitive rocks. The only 
locality hitherto known is the iron mine called Engelsburg near Presnitz 
in Bohemia. , i 

It is likely that many varieties of the common Asbestus of Werner, 
(Jam. Syst. vol. ii. p. 156,) particularly that from Zoéblitz in Saxony, 
should be referred to this species. According to Wiegleb, it consists of 
silica, 46.66 ; magnesia, 48.45; oxide of iron, 4.79. 

Various localities are quoted for the common Asbestus ; but since Asbes- 
tus contains also varieties of pyroxene and amphibole, they cannot all be 
supposed exact, and it would, therefore, be very interesting to institute a 
closer natural-historical examination of all these minerals. Among the 
localities chicfly quoted are Zéblitz in Saxony, Silesia, the Tyrol, and 
many other countries along the line of the Alps, the Shetland isles, 
Portsoy, &c.,. where it occurs in veins traversing serpentine, in the 
Taberg and other places in Sweden, where it occurs in beds, along with 
octahedral Iron-ore, with several species of Pyrites, rhombohedral and ma- 
crotypous Lime-haloide, &c. 

Picrosmine was proposed as a species of its own by Mr Haidinger, who 
has been ‘indebted for the specimens which he examined to Mr Lingke, 
mathematical and_philosophical instrument maker at Freiberg. The tri- 
vial name is derived from sxgis, bitter, and écu7, odour, from the bitter 
and argillaceous odour the mineral exhales when wetted.—(Mohs, vol. 
ii. p. 672. Transl. p. 137.) 

32. Brookite, a New Mineral Species. 

Prismatic. P == 135° 46’, 101° 37’, 94° 44’ 

(a: b:c¢==1: 3.237: »/1.149.) 

Combination. 1. Pr.—1 (a). Pr (a). (4 P—2)5 (i). (Pr— 
1)° (63). + Pr (c3). P(e). (Pr +@)5(m). Pr+o (mM). Prt a 
(g’). From Snowdon. Fig, 18- 

Inclination of a? on a? = 148° 56’; of a’ on a’ = 124° 52’; of m on 
m == 100° 0’; of i oni, over a’, = 149° 37’; of 64 on 6%, over a, = 
135° 41’. 

Lustre metallic adamantine. Colour hair-brown, passing into a deep 
orange-yellow, and some reddish tints. Streak yellowish-white. Trans 
lucent ... opuke, the brighter colours are observed by transmitted light. 

Brittle. Hurdness = 5.5 ... 6.0. 

It contains titanium, but has not yet been analysed. This beautiful 
substance has been described as a particular species by Mr Lévy, and 
named in honour of Mr Brooke. The first varieties had been noticed by 
Mr Soret among the minerals accompanying pyramidal Titanium-ore from 
Dauphiny ; but much finer crystals, some of them halfan inch in diameter, 
haye lately been found at Snowdon in Wales. In both places they are 
accompanied by rhombohedral Quartz, in Dauphiny, besides pyramidal 
Titanium-ore, also by Crichtonite and Albite—Ann, of Phil. Feb. 1825. 


378 Scientific Intelligence. 


BOTANY. 

33- On the Nature of Galls—In a memoir that M. Virey has inserted in 
the Journal de Pharmacie, for July 1823, he states, that with a view to 
ascertain the internal structure of the vegetable excrescences commonly 
called Galls, he has subjected to a microscopical investigation the spongy 
interior of the great galls of the Tozin oak, ( Quercus Toxa, ) those of the 
corn Saw-wort, (Serratula arvensis, ) and the central portion of the galls 
upon the rose-bush, (vulgarly called in England Robin Redbreas?’s pin- 
cushions.) The conclusion at which M. Virey has arrived is, that these 
substances do not consist of vegetable fibres, properly so called, but that 
the swelling of the cellular tissue of the plants is occasioned by the ir- 
ritation produced by the acrid venom of the Cynips which there deposits 
its eggs: that this irritation is analogous to that excited in the cellular 
tissue of animals by the prick of a thorn ; finally, that the gallic acid and 
the tannin of' galls are contained in tubular vesicles. ‘These two prin- 
ciples, the abundance of which constitutes the excellence of the best gall- 
nuts, are evident under the form of an opaque, brown, and grumous 


matter. 
ZOOLOGY. 


34. Physalia Arethusa—Dr Eichwald has published some very inter- 
esting observations on this species. ‘The body is an oblong bag, the upper 
part of which is attenuated, and contains an aperture. This bag is thicker, 
and less transparent than an inner one, with the walls of which it is in 
contact at the sides, but not at the extremities, unless at the aperture. 
The branchia constitute a crust on the right side, of complicated organiza- 
tion. The inner bag is supplied with secreted air, by which the body is 
enabled to rise to the surface of the water. The cavity in the interior of 
the outer bag, opposite the aperture, is plicated, and exhibits many open- 
ings, the termination of the canals of those organs with which the inferior 
disc of the body is covered. These our author divides into two kinds. 
The tubuli auctorii, terminate in an expanded disc or sucker, and are con- 
sidered as organs of nutrition. The funiculi proliferi, are longer, narrow- 
er, more complicated, and considered as subservient to the reproductive 
system, according to the gemmiparous mode. They probably likewise 
serve as prehensile organs.—See Mém. de Acad. Imp. des Scien, de St 


Petersbourg. t. ix. 453. Tab, xv. (F.) 


GENERAL. SCIENCE. 


35. Hatching of Fish—The Chinesé have a method of hatching the 
spawn of fish, and thus protecting it from those accidents which generally 
destroy a large portion of it. The fishermen collect with care, on the 
margin and surface of water, all those gelatinous masses which contain the 
spawn of fish ; and after they have found a sufficient quantity, they fill 
with it the shell of a fresh hen’s egg, which they have previously emptied, 
stop up the hole, and’ put it under a sitting fowl, At the expiration of 

LOM . 


a 


rd 
&e 
s 
3 


General Scrence. 379 


a certain number of days, they break the shell in water warmed by the 
sun. The young fry are presently hatched, and are kept in pure fresh 
water till they are large enough to be thrown into the pond with the old 
fish. The sale of spawn for this purpose, forms an important branch of 
trade in China—Professor Silliman’s Journal of Science, Vole VIII. p. 
381. : oe. Wy / 


36. Mr Lizars Work on the Removal of Ovaria.—We are glad to see 
that Mr Lizars, surgeon, author of the System of Anatomical Plates, has 
announced an account of his successful operations for the removal of en- 
larged Ovaria. In one of these cases, the abdominal cavity was laid open, 
and an ovarium extracted which measures eleven inches long, by seven 
and a half broad, and weighs upwards of five pounds. The work is to be 
accompanied with four Plates, demy folio size, coloured after nature ; the 
1st showing the situation and appearance of the viscera, and enlarged ova~ 
rium, during the operation. 2d, The extent and appearance of the wound 
when healed. 3d, Front view of the ovarium, the natural size. 4th, La- 
teral view of the ovarium, the natural size. 


37. Mr Bate’s Essay on Spectacles.—This little work, addressed ‘* F'n 
all who value their Sight,” and entitled ‘‘ A few Practical Suggestions and 
Illustrations, intended simply to awaken the attention of every individual 
to the condition of his eyes, and enable him to promote the improvement 
and preservation of that invaluable faculty,” has just been published by 
Mr R. B. Bate, optician, Poultry, London, whose professional eminence 
and acquirements are wellknown. The treatise is written with great per- 
spicuity and plainness, and is well worthy the perusal of all classes. 


38. Mr Innes’s Tide Tables for 1825.—Mr Innes, whose talents as an 
astronomical calculator are well known to the readers of this Journal, has 
published (in November 1824) his “‘ Aberdeen, Leith, and London Tide 
‘Tables for 1825, with various other useful tables, and a list of vessels re- 
gistered at the port of Aberdeen.” ‘This little work has all the advantages 
of an almanack, and will be found of great use to commercial readers. 


39. The Emperor of Russia’s Present to Professor Barlow.—His Ma~ 
jesty the Emperor of Russia has presented Professor Barlow, of the Royal 
Military Academy, through his Excellency Count Lieven, with a gold 
watch and rich dress chain, as a mark of the value which his Majesty 
places on the magnetic discoveries of that gentleman, and their important 
application to the science of navigation. 


Ant. XXXVI.—LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS, 
SEALED IN ENGLAND SINCE JULY 27, 1824. 


July 27. For Improvements in Power Looms, and Preparation of Warps. 
To T. W. Sransre py, Leeds, 


380 List of English Patents. 


July 27. For Improved Roller Printing-Presses. To E, CARTWRIGHT, 
London. 
July 29. For a New Swift for Winding Silk, &c. To C. Jerreaizs 
and E. Drake, Congleton. 
July 29. For a Method of Improving the Tones of Piano Fortes, Organs, 
&c. To W. Wueatstone, London. 
Aug. 5. For Improvements on Spinning Machines. To Joun Price, 
Stroud. 
Aug. 5. For a New Mariner’s Compass. To Gzoncr Graypon, Bath. 
Aug. 5. For a Method of Evaporating Fluids, for conveying Heat, &c. 
To W. Jounson, Great Totham. 
Aug. 9. For Improvements in Propelling Vessels. To Jacos PERKINS, 
London. 
Aug. 11. For an Improved Method of Heating Woollen Cloths. To 
Joun Fussety, Mells. ; 
Aug. 11. For a New Filter. To HerMAN ScHRODER. 
Aug. 28. For a Method of Producing Intense Cold. To Joun Vat- 
LANCE, Brighton. See this vol. p. 148. 
Sepi- 6. For Improved Methods of Propelling Ships. To James Ni- 
VELL and W. Busx, London. 
Oct. 1. For an Improved Method of Casting Steel. To He. W. NeEep- 
uAm, London. 
Oct. 1. For Improved Steam-Engines. To W. Foreman, Bath. 
Oct. 7. For Improved Methods of Preparing Spelter or Zinc. To F. 
Benecke, D. Towers Spears, and J. H. Spears, London. 
Oct. 7 For an Improved Method of Generating Steam. To P. ALEGRE. 
Oct. 7% For an Improved Flue for Furnaces, &c. To H. Jerrerys, 
Bristol. See this vol. p. 342. 
Oct. 7. For Improved Metal Casks or Barrels. To R. Dickinson, Lon- 
don. 
Oct. 7. For Improved Fire Escapes. To Francis Ricuman, London. 
Oct. 7% For Machinery for Making Velvet, Sc. To S. Wison, Strea- 
tham. 
Oct. 7. For an Improved Process for Making Vinegar. To Joun 
Ham, West Coke. 
Oct. 7. For Improved Machinery for Printing Calicoes, Sc. To 
Matruew Busu, Westham. 
Oct. 7 For Transverse Spring Slides for Trumpets, &e. To Joun 
satel Milltown. 
Oct. 7. For Improved Shoes for Horses, &c. ToJ- T. Hopeson, Lam- 
beth. 
Oct. 14. For Improved Machinery for Spinning Flax, §c. Yo Pariire 
Cue Lt, London. 
Oct. 14. For Improved Machinery for Spinning Cotton and Wool. be 
J. G. Bopnier, Manchester. 
Oct. 14. For Improvements on Wheeled Carriages. To James Gun, 
London. 


— 
ae i 
eit asa” 


aS te Ceo 


eitiaped 
. 


= eae 


List of Scottish Patents. 381 


Art. XXXVII—LIST OF PATENTS GRANTED IN SCOTLAND 
SINCE NOVEMBER 30, 1824. 


30. Dec. 16. For Elastic Stoppers, for Stopping, Releasing, and Regu. 
lating Chains and other Cables. To T. R. Bowman, Aberdeen. 

31. Dec. 30. For Improved Looms, &c. To P. J. B. Victor Gosser, 
London. 

32. Dec. 30. For Improved Looms. To Joun Porrer, Smidley. 

1. Jan. 1, 1825. For Improved Portable Gas Lamps. To Davip Gor- 
pon, London. 

2. Jan.17. For Improvements in Steam-Engines. To W. Foreman, 
Bath. 

3. Jan. 17. For Improved Looms, &c. To T. W. StansFre py, Leeds. 

4. For Improved Ship’s Tackle. To W.S. Burner, London. 

5. Feb. 9. For Improved Carriages, §c. To Davip Gorpvon, London. 

6. Feb. 10. For Improvements in Propelling Vessels. To Lieut. W. 
H. Hit, Royal Artillery. 

7. Feb, 14. For Improved Paper Machinery. To J. and C. Putrrs. 

8. Feb. 21. For Diaphane Stuffs, communicated by a Foreigner. To 
S. Witson, Streatham. 

9. Feb. 22. For a New Method of Applying Heat. To J. Sunney, 
Battersea. 

10. March 5. For Improvements in the Manufacture of Silt, Se. To 
R- Bapnatt, Leek. 

11. March 7. For an Apparatus for Bottling Cy aoe To Tuomas 
Mastrrman, London. 

12. March 7. For an Improved Method of Corking Bottles. To Joun 
Masterman, London. 


Art. XXXVIII—CELESTIAL PHENOMENA, 


From April 1, to July 1, 1825, calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh. 
By Mr Georce Innes, Aberdeen. Communicated by the Author. 


These calculations are made for Astronomical time, the day beginning 
at noon. The Conjunctions of the Moon and Stars are given in Right 
Ascension. 


APRIL. nD.’ eer Peers: 
D-H. M. Ss. ANS) U7 Sane Ons 
1 7 2 —d3%lx 5 12 11 54 Em. II. Sat. 7 
1 18 27 20440 5 22 26 25 d)dm 
2 18 13 39 © Full Moon. 7 8 51 0d) B Oph. 
3 9 18 49 dpim 7 10 10 —d% o 
3 11 4 18 Em. I. Sat. 2/ 9 2 5) 31 d)jot 


382 Celestial Phenomena, April—July 1825. 


D. H. M. S58. D. H M S. 
9 5 10 40 d)rf 17 0 56 384) x 
9 16 17 28 4) 17 11 49 27 @ New Moon. © 
9 16 57 15 ¢ Last Quarter. 17 16 36 — 4) 9 
10 12 59 11 Em. 1. Sat. Y 17 16 55 204) ¢ 
12 7 27 56 Em. I. Sat. 7 17 2 0 16 yA x 
yy 2a ae (2) New Moon. 18 -5 20 0 5)“ 
18 17 1 3 d¢)yg¢ 18 12 3 9 4)h 
18 17 55 —d xd 19 4 4 54 Inf d@ g 
19 9 22 54 Em. I. Sat 7/ 20 4 2 556)y7KL. 
19 13 47 37 dydm 20 7 27 16d )yIL 
19 15 37 32 ¢)8 20 21 56 30 © enters II 
19 21 35. 47 © enters& 21 2-138 yt OL. 
20 13 54 27 yA yx es Me 
20 15 36 28 dye y 23 3 21 15 ¢)Qau5 
20 22 27 1246)2 24.7 29 50 Z)rgQ 
20 23 6 38 d) 2248 24” 8, 35y, 5 y First Quarter. 
20 23 26 34 d)h 2610 5 2 4goO¢s 
22 & Greatest Flong. [28 4 29 13 gyi ny 
22.22 21 74) 182 yx 29 9 44 50 8 gay 
22 22 23 30 4) Il. 30 18 39 53 dyém 
23 19 42 5 6) ZIL. 
25 10 55 5d )7 JUNE 
25 12 13 10 ) First Quarter. 1 4 28 0 ¢ ) B Oph. 
26 11 17 54 Em. 1. Sat. 7 rw 27466 h 
2% 12 45 WdyEQ 2.24 3 gy of 
26 16 53 6 dyon 2 23 16 50 dy x ft 
27.1 26 55 6 )a Q 3B 2 4 2 Bydt 
30 9 20 34 Em. IT. Sat. 7 3 8 56 52 4 )H 
30-19 51 27 G ys ny 4 7 41 12 6) By 
4 9 50 33 Em. I. Sat. 
MAY. 8 2 3 1 ( Last Quarter. 
113 19 14¢hay 10 % Greatest Elong- 
2 2 43 35 © Full Moon. 1 3 4 4 4 1x 
ay Ai caine oR Ly ala 13, 7 21 24.6) 2 
4 18 35 0 4 ) B Oph 14 3 OSD Dace: 
6 11 38 104)0 f 14 3 58 436) AB 
G ll 40 28 Em. III, Sat. 2/ 14 12 58 224¢)2x8 
6 13 49 46 qd) af 5 2 4 Wd)h 
Gag stil bd ft 15 13 37 14¢) 4 
% 11 57 32 Em. IL. Sat. 7/ 11614 25 13d) 4 ee 
9 9 4 27 (Last Quarter. 17 7 Al 5 6) Il. 
1k 4 45 —¢ Y ¢ nearcontact-/1g 9 35 40 6d BEY 
2 a? orgie s 19 119 536 3a 
12 9 36 41 Em. I. Sat. 7/ 19 9 7 30 d)2ag5 
13 17 45 — Inf.¢ © 3 19 11 30 54). 
1419 55 52 4) nx 2 4:15 3 YG )yoQ 
16 20 24 40 dyim 20 12 56 53 Cyr Q 


Ceiestial Phenomena, April—July 1825. 383 


i “Ha eM. 8 Din ae ke a Oe a 


21 6 36 58 © enters g5 28 13 0 0 6) B Oph. 
22 23 3 35 ) First Quarter. 29 21 55 9 Full Moon. 
2 5 06 Wd sh 30 5 57 IL dg)jyot 
24 5 7 304 4 132 ¥ 30 8 Ho23d6)a7 Ft 
24 10 49 22 ¢ yi m 30 11 43 56 ¢6)dft 
27 2 2 50 ¢)yom 30 16 10 32 6)H 


On the 31st of May there will be a very small Eclipse of the Moon, 
which will be visible. 


DM 8 
The eclipse begins May, - - 31 11 38 


22 
Ecliptic opposition, - - - ll 42 35 
Middle, “1. LES EOE Lae ad 
End of the eclipse, - - - - 12d ee 


Digits eclipsed, 0° 12’ 25”, by the south side of the earth’s shadow, or on the 
north part of the moon’s disc. 


Times of the Planets passing the Meridian. 


APRIL. 

Mercury. | Venus. Mars. Jupiter. Saturn. | Georgian. 

D.| H. M.| HOM. | Ho M|ou m| BM. | ow, M 

1. 0. 25 2 49 0 57 7 45 3 31 18 45 

5. 0 39 2 44 0 52 7 30 a, i 18 30 

10.} 0 55 2 29 0 45 7 10 2 59 18 10 

15. 1 8 2 28 0 40 6 52 2 4) 17 50 

: 20. 1 14 2 16 0 34 6 34 2: 24 17 31 

25. 1 13 Bed 0 29 6 15 Bh li 
May. 


Mercury. Venus. Mars. Jupiter. Saturn. | Georgian. 


H. M. H. M. H. M. 


sie gst 1 37 0 23 
0 45 A ray | 0 19 
0 19 0 50 0 13 
23° 45 0 18 0 8 
23 «16 23 42 0 3 
22. 53 23: 13. 23 58 


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Jupiter. Saturn. | Georgian. 


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INDEX TO VOL. II. 


ABSORPTION of light, analysis of two 
memoirs on the, 344. 

Acoustic figures produced by elastic 
membranes, 296. 

Acta Academia nature curiosorum, Tom. 
XI. No. I. analysed, 164. 

Adie, Mr, his meteorological registers kept 
at Canaan Cottage, 191, 384. 

_ Africa, on the physical geography of the 

south of, 252. 

Air, dry and humid, refractive power of, 
36. 

America, on the botany of, 108. 

Anas Rufitorques, 186. 

Antimony glance, axotomous, 374, 

Arsenical pyrites, axotomous, 373. 

Arts, Society of for Scotland, 171, 362. 
Auger, new boring one, by Dr Caurch, 
343. 
Austria, botanical intelligence from, 358. 
Ava, account of its frontier towards Ben- 
Avogadro, M. on the affinity of bodies 
from caloric, 370—on their neutralis- 

ing powers, ib. 

Axinite, dichroism of, 366. 

Baillie, Dr M. his works announced, 
488. 

Barlow, Professor, on the force exerted 
in Bramah’s presses, 293—receives a 
present from the Emperor of Russia, 
379. 

Barometer, on the influence of winds on 
the, 241. 

Bat, discovery of a fossil one, 18. 

Bate, Mr, his treatise on spectacles re- 
commended, 379. : 

Batrachoides, 187. 

Beams, on the convergency of the solar 
ones, 136. : 

Berthier, M., his analysis of native car- 
bonates of lime, magnesia, iron, &c. 
179. 

Bell, Mr Charles, his supposed discover- 
ies respecting vision examined, I. 

Bell Rock Lighthouse, account of it by 
Mr Steyenson, 160. 

Berzelius, M., his analysis of the Carls- 
bad water, 176—of uranite, 372. 

Black-lead mine in Inverness-shire, 97. 

' Blacking for leather, Braconnot’s process 
for making it, 343. 

Blende, analysis of, 371. : 

Botanical works newly published, notices 
of, 165, 354. 

Botany of America, account of it, 108, 

Braconnot’s process for making blacking, 
343. 


VOL, Il. NO. 11. APRIL 1825, 


Bramah’s presses, on the force exerted 
in them, by Professor Barlow, 293. 
Brandy, process of making it from pota- 
toes, ldl. 

Breakwaters, on the invention of floatin 
ones, 15]. | 

Brewster, Dr, on the vision of impres- 
sions on the retina, 1—on single mi- 
croscopes from the lenses of fishes, 98— 
On rice paper, 135—on the convergen- 
cy of the solar beams, 186—on the op- 
tical structure of the lithion mica, 205 
—on Withamite, a new mineral, 218 
—on Gmelinite, a new mineral, 262— 
on Levyne, a new mineral, 332—on the 
absorption of light, 344—on the opti- 
cal structure of Somervillite, 366. 

Brinkley, Dr, receives the Copley me- 
dal, 173. : 

Brisbane, Sir Thomas, on Meteorological 
tables kept in Van Diemen’s Land, 75 
—on the tides at the mouth of Mac- 
guarrie Harbour, 213. 

Brochantite, « new mineral, 178. 

Brookite, a new mineral, 577. 

Burner, gas, Jenning’s improved one, 
344. 

Carlsbad water, analysis of the, 176. 

Caterpillars, on the emigration of a co- 
lony of, observed in Provence, by Mr 
Skene, 93. : 

Celestial phenomena, 189, 381. 

Chalcolite, a new mineral, 372. 

Chica, a colouring matter, 370. . 

Chrysoberyl, Seybert’s analysis of, 176. 

Coffce, new apparatus for roasting it, 343. 

Clark, Mr Thomas, on a new quick~ 
silver pump, 267. 

Colophane, Bois de, account of it, 182. 

Columbite, observations upon it, 178. » 

Comet of 1824, 171—one of 1821, 172— 
of 1819, 364—double tail of, 365. 

Comets, their supposed influence on the 
sun, 367. 

Compensation pendulum ef Mr Ritchie, 
337- . 

Composition of crystallised bodies, 88. 

Contributions to popular science, No, IIL. 
135—No. IV. 136. 

Copper, process for alloying it for ships, 
149. 


Copper glance, prismatoidal, 373. 

Crystals, Rev. W. Whewell’s general 
method of calculating their angles, 312) 

Dalton, Mr, his process for valuing indi- 
go, 149—his experiments on oil, and 
the gases obtained from it by heat, 156 
—on the dew point, or quantity of va- 


Cc 


. 386 


pour in the atmosphere, 157—on the 
saline impregnations of rain, 160, 176. 

Dandolo, Count, his method of cultivat- 
ing the silk worm, 59. 

Davy, Dr John, on the physical geogra- 
phy of thesouth of Africa, 252—on the 
temperatureof the sea and sir,in a voy- 
age from St Helena to England, 246. 

Denmark, botanical intelligence from, 
359. 

-Depression of the horizon at sea, 365. 

Despretz, M., on the heat disengaged 
during combustion, 369 

Dichroism of axinite, 366. 

Diploite, Professor Gmelin’s analysis of, 
287. 

Ducom, M., his cylindrical artificial ho- 
rizon, 341. 

Echinodermata of the Firth of Forth, 77. 

ew fossil, discovered in France, 

Me 

Erman, Professor, onthe motions of con- 

ducting liquids electrified in mercury, 
195. 

Euchroite, a new mineral species, de- 
scribed, 133—analysis of it by Dr E. 
Turner, 301. 

Evans’s method of roasting coffee, 343. 

Fergusonite, a new mineral, described, 
375. . 

Fern, male, analysis of its root, 176. 

Fire-arms, method of preventing their 
accidental discharge, 316. 

Fleming, Dr, on the Neptunian forma- 
tion of siliceous stalactites, 307. 

Fluellite, a new mineral, 178. 

Foggo, Mr John, jun. on the Echino- 
dermata of the Firth of Forth, 77—on 
an insect of the genus Urocerus, found 
in the wood of a table, 85. 

Freezing water, apparatus for, 148. 

Furnace for condensing smoke, &c. 342. 

Galls,. on their nature, 376. 

Gas from oil, on its illuminating power 
compared with that from coal, 324,339. 

Gmelin, Professor C. G. on the analysis 
of a peach-blossom coloured mica, 199 
—on a new formation of anhydrous 
sulphuric acid, 244—his analysis of 
helvine, 268—his analysis of diploite, 
287. ; i 

Gmelinite, a new mineral species, describ- 
ed, 262. 

Godin observes the diurnal variation of 
the barometer, 336. 

Gordon, Mr, on a sepulchral urn, 360. 

Govan, Dr, on the natural history of the 
Himalayah Mountains, 17, 277. 

Gowan’s herbarium, 184. 

Granite, on its distribution in Scotland, 
236. : H 

Greville; Dr, on the genus Hookeria, 221. 


INDEX. 


Guinand, M. account of his life, and of 
his process for making flint-glass for 
achromatic telescopes, 348. 

Haidinger, Mr, on the specific gravity of 
several minerals, 67—on the regular 
composition of crystallized -bodies, 88 
—on euchroite, a new mineral species, 
135—on trona, the native carbonate 
of soda, 325—on picrosmine, a new 
mineral species, 375. 

Hamilton, Dr Francis, on a plant allied 
to the genus piper, 9—on the frontier 
between Bengal and Ava, 48. . 

Harmotome, analysis of, 371. 

Hatching of fish in China, 376. 

Helvine, Professor Gmelin’s analysis of, 
268. § 

Herschel, Mr J. F. W. on the motions of 
conducting liquids electrified in mer- 
cury, 193—on the absorption of light, 
344. 

Hibbert, Dr, on the dispersion of stony 
fragments, 208. 

Himaldyah Mountains, on the natural 
history and physical geography of, 17, 
277; 

Hooker, Dr, on the botany of America, 


108—on the genus Hookeria, 221— 


his Muscologia, 185. 
Hookeria, on the genus, 221. 
Horizon artificial, M. Ducom’s, 341. , 
Hydrocyanic acid, on its counter-poisons, 
214, 


-Ice-houses, on natural ones in North 


America, 187. 

Incandescent bodies, polarisation of the 
light of, 365. 

Indigo, how to determine its value, 149. 

Innes, Mr George, on the celestial phe+ 
nomena, 189, 381—his tide tables re- 
commended. 

Inundation, remarkable one, in Sweden 
and at St Petersburgh, 367. 

Inventions, decisions on disputed ones, 
143, 3342-mechanical ones, history of, 
143, 342. 

Iron, native, malleable, on the great mass 
of from Louisiana, 138. 

Jeffrey, Mr, his furnace for condensing 
smoke, 342. : 

Jenning’s improved gas’ burner, 344. 

Knox, Dr, on the theory of the existence 
of a sixth sense in fishes, 17. 

Lamantine, 186. 

Lapidary’s wheel of the Hindoos, 344. 

Lernea, 187. 

Leslie’s photometer examined, 321. 

Levyne, a new mineral, described, 332. ] 

Lizars, Mr; his work on ovaria announ- 
ced, 379. ; 

Liquids, on their motions when electri 
fied in mercury, 193. 


LS 


INDEX. 


Loligo brevipinna, 187. 

Macculloch, Dr, onthe method of splitting 
rocks by fire, 44—on the distribution 
of granite and trap in different parts 
of Scotland, 236. 

Mackintosh, Mr Charles, on rendering 
cloth, &c. water-proof, 150. 

Magnetic needle affected by enclosure in 
a copper case, 174—variations of in 
different places, 174, 175. 

Mammiferous animal, a new species of, 
186. 

Manchester Memoirs, vol. iv., second 

_series, analysed, 156, 

Manganese, sulphuret of, analysed, 371. 

“Membranes, elastic. on the acoustic fi- 
gures produced on them, 296. 

Meteorological tables kept at Macquarrie 
Harbour and Hobart’s Town, 79. 

Meteorological register kept at Canaan 
Cottage, 191, 384. 

Mexico, botanical intelligence from, 359. 

Mica, analysis of one containing lithion, 
199—on the optical structure of it, 
205. 

Microscopes, on single ones formed of 
the lenses of fishes, 98. 

Mill, Mr Nicholas, his platina air pyro- 
meter, 147—his right to the execu- 
tion of it, 338. 

Minerals, on their specific gravity, 67. 

Mohs, Professor, first separates Heulan- 
dite from Stilbite, 338. 

Monte Rosa, account of it by Baron 
Welden, 152. 

Moon, Lohrmann’s maps of the, 172. 

Mountains, table of the heights of, 156. 

Murray, Mr, on the culture of the silk 
worm in{taly, 59—on hydrocyanic acid 
and opium in reference to their counter- 
poisons, 214. 

Mushet, Mr, his process for alloying cop- 
per, 149. 

Muscologia Britannica, Hooker and Tay- 
lor’s, 188. 

Opium, observations on its counter-poi- 
son, 214. f 

Optical plienomenon, 365. 

Paddle scull, account of Mr Waddell’s 
revolving one, 206, 363. 

Parker, C. 5. Esq., account of his seien- 
tific losses, 183. 

Parhelion, on an extraordinary one ob- 
served at Gotha in 1824, 105. 

Patents, list of English ones since June 
1dth 1824, 188, 379—list of Scottish 
ones since August 13th 1824, 189, 381. 

Physalia Arethusa, 376. 

Picrosmine, a new mineral, 376. 

Piper, account of a plant allied to the 
genus, 9. 

Plagiarism of inventions and discoveries, 
observations on the, 143. 


387 


Planets, on the masses of the, 172—new 
ones, on the opposition of the, 173. 

Potassium, 177. 

Processes in the useful arts, 148, 339. 

Pump, a new quicksilver one, 267. 

Pyrites, capillary analysis of, 371. 

Pyrometer of platina first proposed by 
M. Guyton, 147—differential of Dr 
Ure and Mr Mill, 147, 338. 

Rain, increase in the quantity of, 173— 
quantity of fallen at Manchester, 369 
—on the saline impregnation of, 176. 

Rice paper, on its structure, 133., 

Ritchie, Mr William, on Leslie’s photo- 
meter, 321—339. 

Rocks, method of splitting them by fire, 
44. 


Roselite, a new mineral, 177. 

Royal Society of Edinburgh, proceedings 
of, 169, 360. 

Ruby blende, hemiprismatic, 374. 

Russia, progress of botany in, 355. 

Savart on the vibrations of elastic mem 
branes, 296. 

a improvement on thin circular ones, 

ol. 

Schack, Baron de, account of the late, 
182. 

Sense, on a sixth, in certain fishes, 12. 

Serviere’s clock, with a moveable ball, 
338. 

Sideroschisolite, analysis of, 371. 

Siemen’s process fur making brandy from 
potatoes, 151. , 

Siliceous solutions in crystals, 140— 
siliceous stalactites formed by water, 
307. 

Silk-worm, account of its culture in the 
north of Italy, 59. 

Skene, Mr, on the emigration of a colony 
of caterpillars, 93. 

Sluice, on a new self-acting lever one, 
invented by Mr R. Thom, 100—on a 
waster sluice, L102—on a double valve 
one, 288. 

Snow, red, found to be an Alga, 184. 

Societies, philosophical, proceedings of, 
169, 360. 

Sodium, 177. 

Somerville, Rev. Mr, his contrivances for 
preventing the accidental discharge of 
fire-arms, 316. 

Somervillite, optical structure of, 366, 

Specific gravity of several minerals, 67. 

Spectacles, Mr Bate’s essay on, 379. 

Stalactites, siliceous, on their aqueous 
formation, 307. 

Steam-engine, description of the first 
one, 38. 

Stevenson, Mr, his account of the Bell- 

rock Light-house analysed, 160. 
Stony fragments, on their dispersion to a 
distance, 208. 


388 


Storm, extraordinary one, at St Peters- 
burgh, described, 367. 

Sulphuric acid, anhydrous, on the forma- 
tion of, 244, 

Sun, spots on the, in 1824, 172—Paral- 
lax -of the, 473-ccihpulse colour of 
the, 173. 

Sword Fish, 187. 

‘Temperature of the sea and the air, in a 
voyage from St Helena to England, 
246. 

Thermometer, differential, of Leslie, in- 
vented by Professor Sturmius, 144. 
Thom, Mr Robert, on a new self-acting 
lever sluice, 100—on a waster sluice, 

102—on a double valve sluice, 288. 

Tides, table of, in Van Diemen’s Land, 
213. 

Titanium, metallic, 161. 

orrelite, a new mineral, 18]. 

Trona, the native carbonate of soda, de- 
scribed, 325. 

Trap, on its distribution in Scotland, 236. 


4 


INDEX. 


Turner, Dr E., his ana’ys's of euchroite, 
301. 

Tympsnum of the ear, on its uses, 300. 

Uranite, Analysis of, 372. 

Vallance, his apparatus for freezing wa- 
ter described, 148. 

Vapour or water onits deoxidating qua- 
lity, 369. 

Waddell, Mr A., his description of a 
boat with a revolving paddle .scull, 
206, 363. 

Water-proof processes, 150. 

Werncrian Society, proceedings of, 170. 

Whewell, Rev. W., his general method 
of calculating the angles of crystals, 
312. 

Winds, on their influence upon the ba~ 
rometer, 241. 

Withamite, a new mineral, 218. 

Wooden ornaments, method of making 
them by casting, 342. 

Wright, Colonel, on the regular varia~ 
tions of the barometer, 335. 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATES IN ‘VOL. IF. 


PLATE I. 
PLATE II. Figs. 1. and 2 


sions on the Retina. 


Map of the Countries North of the Sutluj. 
. Diagrams illustrative of the Vision of Impres- 


Fig. 3. The Marquis of Worcester’s Steam Engine. 

Fig. 4. A Species of the genus Urocerus, found in Wood. 

Vig. 5. The Migration of Caterpillars. 

Figs. 6. and 7. Represent Sluices, invented-by Mr R. Thom. 
Figs. 8, 9, 10. Structure of the Cryphza Erecta. 

Fig. 11. Structure of Rice Paper. 

Fig. 12. Black-lead Mine of Glengarry. : 
Fig. 13. Microscopes made of the Lenses of Animals. 

Figs. 14, 15, 16. A remarkable Parhelion. 

Fig. 17. Vallance’s Ice Apparatus. 


Figs. 
Sharks and Ruys. 


18, 19. Represent the Tubular Organs in the Heads of 


Fig. 20. Sturmius’s Differential Thermometer. 


PLATE lll. 
Crystals. 
PLATE IV. 


Fig. 4, 


Illustrates Mr Haidinger’s Paper on the Regular Composition of 


Fig. 1. Mr Waddell’s Revolving Paddle Scull. 
Figs. 2 2, 3. Effect of Wind on the Barometer. 
Mr Thomas Clark’s Quicksilver Pump. 


Figs. 4, 5. Represent the New Double Valve Sluices, invented 
‘by Mr Robert Thom, Rothesay. 

Figs. 6, 7, 8. Rev. Mr Somervi'le’s Contrivances for ao} ened 
the Accidental Discharge of Fire-Arms. 


Fig. 10. 


Mr Ritchie’s Photometer. 


Fig. 11. Mr Jeffery’s Patent Flue for Furnaces. 
Fig. 12. Jenning’s New Self-closing Gas Burner. 


PLATE V. 
PLATE VI. 


PLATE VII. 
PLATE VIII. 


Oe ee 


Mllustrative of the Genus HOOKERIA. 

Shows the Figures produced by the Vibration of Plastic Mem- 
branes, according to Savart. 

Represents Fraunhofer’s Great Achromatic Telescope. 

Represents the various a Minerals described in this Number, 


pbs, 


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