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THE

EDINBURGH NEW

PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

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MAVAIOL LATAIOR

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THE

EDINBURGH NEW

rel

PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL,

EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE
PROGRESSIVE IMPROVMENTS AND DISCOVERIES

IN THE

SCIENCES AND THE ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY

ROBERT JAMESON,

REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, LECTURER ON MINERALOGY, AND KEEPER OF
THE MUSEUM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH ;

Fellow of the Royal Society of London; Fellow of the Royal, Antiquarian, and Wernerian Societies of
Edinburgh; Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy, and of the Royal Dublin Society ;
Fellow of the Linnean and Geological Societies of London; of the Royal Geological Society of
Cornwall, and of the Cambridge Philosophical Society ; of the York, Bristol, Cambrian, Northern,
and Cork Institutions; of the Royal Society of Sciences of Denmark; of the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Berlin; of the Royal Academy of Naples; of the Imperial Natural History Society
of Moscow; of the Imperial Pharmaceutical Society of Petersburgh; of the Natural History So-
ciety of Wetterau ; of the Mineralogical Society of Jena; of the Royal Mineralogical Society of
Dresden; of the Natural History Society of Paris; of the Philomathic Society of Paris; of the
Natural History Society of Calvados; of the Senkenberg Society of Natural History ; Honorary
Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York; of the New York Historical
Society ; of the American Antiquarian Society; of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel-
phia; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, &c. Se.

Vol 1
APRIL...OCTOBER 1826.

TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY.

EDINBURGH:
PRINTED FOR ADAM BLACK, NORTH BRIDGE, EDINBURGH ;
AND LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, & GREEN,
LONDON.

1826.

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Arr. I.

II.

III.

VI.
VIL.

VIII.

CONTENTS.

Page

Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kuut, M. P.
Doctor of Natural History, &c. &c. - -
Sketches of our Information as to Rail-Roads. By the
Rev. James Apamson, Cupar-Fife. (Communicated

by the Author), - - - -

On the Natural History and Economical Uses of the
Cod, Capelin, Cuttle-Fish, and Seal, as they occur on
the Banks of Newfoundland, and the Coasts of that
Island and Labrador. Communicated in a Letter to
Professor Jameson, by W. E. Cormack, Esq.

. Description of a New Reflecting Telescope, denomi-

nated the Aérial Reflector. By Tuomas Dick, Esq.
Author of the Christian Philosopher, &c. Commu-
nicated by the Author, - -

. On the Combustion of Alcoholic Fluids, Oils, &c. in

Lamps, with Observations on the Colour and Consti-
tution of Flame. By Henry Home Bvackapper,
Esq. F.R.S.E. Communicated by the Author.
1. Of Lamps without Wicks, - - :
2. Of the Colour of Flame, ‘ ~
Tour to the South of France and the Pyieiase? in 1825.
By G. A. Warkxer Arnott, Esq. A.M. F.L.S. &
R.S.E. &c. Ina Letter to Professor JAMESON,
Notice of a New Zoophyte (Cliona celata, Gr.) from
the Frith of Forth. By R. E. Grant, M.D. F.R.S.E.
F.L.S. M.W.S. &c. Communicated by the Author,
Geological Observations,—1. On Alluvial Rocks: 2. On
Formations: 3. On the Changes that appear to have
taken place during the different periods of the Earth's
formation on the Climate of the Globe, and in the
nature and the Physical and Geographical Distribu-
tion of its Animals and Plants. By A Bovr’, M.D.
Member of the Wernerian Society. Communicated
by the Author, - = “ “

1

32

41

56

66

78

~

XI.

XII.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

CONTENTS.

. Observations on the Climate of the Canary Islands.
By Baron Leorotp Von Bucu, - 92

. On the Wombat of Fuinpers. By Dr Knox, F.R. s. E.

M.W.S. Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology,
Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons in Edin-
burgh, and Conservator of the Museum. Com-
municated by the Author, - 104
On an Air-Pump without Artificial Valves. By Wi.-
u1aM Ritcuie, A.M. Rector of Tain Academy.
Communicated by the Author, - 112
Table exhibiting the Highest and Lowest Degrees of
Temperature, with the State of the Weather, of New
Brunswick in North America, as observed on the
coast, and at a distance of about fifty miles from
the sea, from October 1. 1818 to September 30.
1820. By ALEXANDER Boy e, M.D. Fellow of the
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, and
~ Surgeon to his Majesty’s Forces, Communicated
by Dr Duncan junior, - ~ ~ 113

. Notices regarding Fiery Meteors seen during the

Day. By J.H. Serres, Sub-prefect of Embrun, 114

. Picture of Vegetation on the Surface of the Globe, 117
. On Falling Stars. Ina Letter from Prof. Branpgs

of Breslau to Professor JAMESON, - 124

. On the Management of the Water-Melon and the

Cucumber in Russia. By Witt1am Howison, M.D.
Lecturer on Materia Medica and Botany. Com-
municated by the Author, . - 125°
Notice respecting the Presence of a Rudimentary
Spur in the Female Echidna of New Holland.
By R. Knox, M. D. F.R.S.E. M.W.S. Conservator
of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons.
Communicated by the Author, - - 130
Observations on Philadelphee and Granatex, two
new Families of Plants. By Davin Don, Libr.
L. S. Corresponding Member of the Wernerian So-
ciety, &c. Communicated by the Author, 132
Account of a rare Fish (Scizena Aquila) found in the
Shetland Seas. By P. Nei, Esq. F.R.S. E.
F.L.S. & Sec. M.W.S. Communicated by the
Author, “ = be “ 135

CONTENTS. sid

Art. XX. On the Transparency of Space. By Dr Oxsens of

XXI

XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXYV,

XXVII.

XXVIII.
XXIX.

XXX.

1. Lieut.

vati

Bremen, - - - - 141
. Observations on the Spontaneous Motions of the Ova
of the Campanularia dichotoma, Gorgonia verru-
cosa, Caryophyllee calycularis, Spongia panicea,
Sp. papillaris, cristata, tomentosa, and Plumularia
falcata. By Ropert E. Grant, M.D. F.R.S.E.
F.L.S. M.W.S. Communicated by the Author, 150
Remarks on the Noises that sometimes accompany
the Aurora Borealis, - - - 156
On the presence of Iodine in the Mineral. Spring of
Bonnington, near Leith. By Epwarp Turner,
M.D. F.R.S.E. &c. Ina Letter to Prof. Jameson, 159
Intelligence from the Arctic Land Expedition under
Captain Frankiin and Dr Ricuarpson, ~ 10]
Remarks on the Structure of some Calcareous Sponges.
By Rosert E. Grant, M.D. F.R.S.E. F.L.S.
M.W.S. &c. Communicated by the Author, 166

. List of Rare Plants which have Flowered in the Royal

Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, during the last three
months ; with Descriptions of several New Plants.
Communicated by Professor Granam, - 171
Celestial Phenomena from July 1. to October 1. 1826,
calculated for the Meridian of Edinburgh, Mean
Time. By Mr Georce Innes, Aberdeen, 176
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 178
Proceedings of the Wernerian Nat. History Society, 175

ScrentTiFic INTELLIGENCE.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
Drummond on the means of facilitating the Obser-
ons of Distant Stations on Geodesical Observations, 182

METEOROLOGY.

2. Deception occasioned by Fog. 3. Apparent nearness of
Objects. 4, Mirage in Persia. 5. Shower of Fishes in

Argyleshire.. 6. Shower of Herrings in Galloway. 7

ie

Shower of Herrings in Kinross-shire. 8. Shower of

Shells in Ireland. 9. Colours of Lightning. 10. Meteoric

Stones, - = - - - 183-188
CHEMISTRY.

11. Effects of Mineral Substances on Animals. 12. Salts as-

sum

e different primitive forms, according to the men-

iv CONTENTS. »
struum in which they crystallise. 13. Compound for
preserving Substances from Humidity. 14. Inconye-
niences of the Pressure apparatus for Cooking. 15. Car-
bonate of Magnesia. 16. Changes that take place in the
texture of different solid substances in the course of time.
17. Constituent parts of Magnesian Limestones from the
vicinity of Jedburgh, as ascertained by Mr William Cop-
land. 18. Analysis of a Powder which is sold in Paris
under the name of Colour, and used in giving trinket gold
the colour of fine gold, “ - - 188-190

MINERALOGY.
19. Gay-Lussite. 20. Titanium, a general ingredient in Fel-
spars and Serpentines. 21. Fluids in Cavities of Mine-

rals, = ~ - - - 191, 192

GEOLOGY.

22. Contested passage in Tacitus. 23. Hills formed by Springs.
24, On the manner in which Ammoniacal Salts are form-

ed in Volcanoes, - - - 192, 193

ZOOLOGY. oe

25. Whale killed in the River St Lawrence, 600 miles from the
Sea. 26. On the Siliceous Spicula of two Zoophytes from
Shetland. 27. Histoire Naturelle des Mammiferes. 28.
Cows, Horses and Sheep, fed on Fish in Persia. 29.
Swiftness of Animals. 30. Foot race on Clapham Com-
mon. 31. Insects. 32. Mildew in Barley. 33. Taming
Rattle-snakes. 34. Geckoes used for catching Flies. 35.
Heart of the Frog used for Poison. 36. Marabous. 37.

Irish Elk, - - . ms 193-199
BOTANY.
38. Pluvial Trees. 39. Sensitive Tree. 40. Poisoning of
Plants. 41. Leguminose, - - 200, 201
ARTS.

42. On the liability of English Silks and Cottons to become
faded ; and on the superiority of the Silks of France, and

the Cottons of India in that respect, - - 203
COMMERCE.
13. Fisheries of Newfoundland and Labrador, - 205
Art. XXXI. List of Patents sealed in England from 4th Fe-
bruary to 8th May 1826, - - 205

XXXII. List of Patents granted in Scotland from 20th
March to 26th May 1826, - - 208

Arr. L

Il.

III.

IV.

VIII.

XI.

CONTENTS.

Biographical Memoir of the late CurisTIAN SMITH,
M.D. Naturalist to the Congo Expedition. By Ba-
ron Lreopotp Von Bucu, - - -

Description of the Contents of a Tanta i in the Pa-
rish of Burness, Island of Sanday. By Witiram
Woop, Esq. Surgeon. (Communicated by Dr Wi-
L1AM Howison). With a Plate. - -

Observations on the Anatomy of the Corallina opun-
tia, and some other Corallines. By Prof. Scuwetc-
GER, - - - - .

On the Constitution of Flame. By H. Home Brack-
ADDER, Esq. F.R.S.E. Communicated by the Au-
thor. - i a =

. Hypothesis regarding Majeed: By Dr Bicuner,

On the Construction of Meteorological Instruments,
so as to ascertain their indications, during absence,
at any given instant, or at successive intervals of
time. With a Plate. - - -

. Some mechanical Inquiries regarding the Tails of Co-

mets. By Dr Lenmann of Berlin, -

On the Snakes of Southern Africas By ANnprew
Situ, M.D. M. W.S. Assistant-Surgeon 98th Re-
giment, and Superintendant of the South African
Museum. Communicated by the Author. -

. Picture of Vegetation on the Surface of the Globe.

(Continued from p. 124 ) - - -

. Remarks on the Geological Position of the Strata of

Tilgate Forest in Sussex. By Gipzon ManrTe Lt,
Esq. F.R.S. &c. In a Letter to Professor Jame-
SON, - - - . -
Description of a Design for a Rotatory Steam-Engine.
By Mr James Wuite. With a Plate. Communi-
cated by the Author, - - -

216

ii

Art. XII.

XIII.

XIV.

XV.

1 ty

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XX:

XXI.

XXII,

CONTENTS.

Tour to the South of France and the Pyrenees in
1825. By G. A. Watker Arnott, Esq. A.M.
F.L.S. & R.S.E. &c. Ina Letter to Professor
Jameson. (Continued from p. 70.) = 268

On the Changes which the Laws of Mortality have
undergone in Europe within the last Half Cen-
tury, or from 1775 to 1825. By M. Benoiston
DE CHATEAUNEUF, = - - 275

Observations on some Fossil Vegetables of the Coal
Formation, and on their relations to living Ve-
getables. By M. Ap. Broneniart. With a Plate. 282

Professor P. Prevost upon the Magnetical In-
fluence of the Sun, ~ - - 289

On the Reaction of Sulphate of Magnesia and Bi-
carbonate of Soda. By M. Prancue, - 292

Observations on the Nature and Importance of
Geology, : - = -“ 293

On Female Pheasants assuming the Male Plumage.

By M. Istipore Georrroy St Hitarre. With
Notes by the Editor, _ - - 302

1. CavenTov on the Chemical Properties of Starch,
and the various Amylaceous Substances of Com-
merce. 2. EnNGeLHaRT on the Colouring Prin-
ciple of the Blood. 3. On Arsenic, its Oxides,
and Sulphurets; by M. Gurpourt. 4 Prepara-
tion of Chloride of Lime. 5. On the detection —
of Arsenic. 6. On Cafeine. 7. Analysis of
the Root of Bryonia alba. 8. General Treus-
SART on the Preparation of Hydraulic Cements.
9g. On a New Method of Purifying Crystals ; by
M. Rostnet. 10. Repetition of the Comparison
of the Rate of the Mercurial and Spirit Thermo-
meter, <i hotao™ = - 311-326

Description of the Ciconia Ardgala, or Adjutant
Bird. By J. Apam, M. D. - -

On the Theory of the Air-Thermometer.. By Mr
Henry Merkte.. Communicated by the Author. 332

Observations on the Structure of some Siliceous
Sponges. By R. E. Grant, M.D. F.R.S.E.
F.L.S. M. W.S. Honorary Member of the Nor-
thern Institution, &c. Communicated by the
Author, s ah 4 - . 341

327

CONTENTS. iii

Art. XXIII. Notice of a Voyage of Research. In a Letter
from Captain Basit Hatt, R. N. to Professor
JAMESON, - - 351
XXIV. On Achmite, Pie and Trachylite. By
Professor BretrHaupt of Freyberg, - 362
XXV. The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, oc-
casioned by Volcanic Agency, - 365
XXVI. Notice on Oil in the Human Blood, by Dr
Apam; and on the Bite of the Ceylon Leech,
by Joun Tytier, Esq. Assistant-Surgeon,
Garrison of Monghyr, - - 373
XXVII. A Series of Observations on the Temperature of
the Thames, in the year 1824. By Mr J.
Fremsiy, R.N. Communicated by the Au-
thor, - - i - 377
XXVIII. Observations made during a Visit to Madeira,
and a Residence in the Canary Islands. By
Baron Leopotp Von Bucu, - - 380
XXIX. List of Rare Plants which have Flowered in the
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, during the
last Three Months; with Descriptions of se-
veral New Plants. Communicated by Dr
GRAHAM, - - - - 385
XXX. Celestial Phenomena from October 1. 1826 to
January 1. 1827, calculated for the Meridian
of Edinburgh, Mean Time. By Mr Georce

Innes, Aberdeen, - - - 387
XXXI. Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.
ASTRONOMY.
. The Shon and its inhabitants, = Pm ” 389
METEOROLOGY.

2. Transmission of Sound. 38. Showers of Blood in Britain.
4. Bitsberg Meteoric Stone. 5. Morichini on Magnetism.
6. Luminous Meteor. 7. Remarkable Rainbow, 390-392

CHEMISTRY.

8. Chemical Action of Diffused Silica. 9. Chloride of Lime
as an antiseptic. 10. Ammoniac in Alder Water, 11.
Acids and Salts of Soil, - . - 392, 393

GEOLOGY.
12. Quadersandstone belongs to the Greensand. 13. Strne~«

iv CONTENTS.

ture of the Swiss Alps. 14. Apatite in Secondary Green-
stone, - - - - - 393, 394
MINERALOGY.

15. Sulphat of Strontian and Sulphate of Barytes confounded.
16. Telluric Bismuth. 17. Vesuvian of Mussa. 18. Gar-
net. 19. Natural Alum, - - 394, 395
ZOOLOGY.
20. Scottish Entomology. 21, Mastodon found in Bahama.
22. Mammoth at Hudson’s Bay. 23. Whale-Fishery at
Van Dieman’s Land. 24. Fossil Insects, - 395, 396
BOTANY.

25. Nardus or Spikenard. 26. On the Oshac, or Gum Ammo-
niac Plant. 27. The bark of the stem of the Pomegra-

nate, a specific in the cure of Tenia, - 395, 396
ANTHROPOLOGY.
28. Account of a singularly small Child, by T. E. Baker, Esq.
Esq. of Buxar, - = - 398
MENSURATION.

29. Tables for converting Scotch Land Measure into Imperial
Land Measure, and for finding the Rent, Produce, or
Value of an English Acre, having given that of a Scots
Acre, - - - - . 399, 400

NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS,

30. Daubeny on Volcanoes. 31. Lothian’s County Atlas of
Scotland. $2. Dr Fyfe’s Manual of Chemistry. 33.

Captain Parry’s New Work, = - - 401

Art. XXXII. List of Patents granted in England from 26th
May to 9th September 1826, - 402

XXXIII. List of Patents granted in Scotland from 26th
May to 9th September 1826, - 403
List of Plates, - - - - - 404

INDEX, - - - . -- 7 405

THE
EDINBURGH NEW

PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kiut, M. P. Doctor
of Natural History, &c. &c.*

Se Kiint was born at Hanau, on the 17th September
1797. His father, John Henry Kiihl, was president of the pro-
vincial court of judicature, an office which he still continues to
discharge. His mother, Maria Judith Walther, who died at an
advanced age, was the daughter of Frederick William Walther,
who was Councillor of State at Hanover.

Kiihl, who was by nature endowed with an excellent genius,
was, from his earliest years, so fond of the study of natural his-
tory, that he usually devoted to it all his spare hours after the
ordinary labours of the school had been performed. He hap-
pened to be born at a time and in a country which were parti-
cularly favourable to the cultivation of his genius; for no one
will deny that the discoveries, by which many parts of natural
history have of late years been elucidated, are in no small de-
gree to be attributed to the naturalists on the Mayne.

In the number of these were many friends of his father, such
as Leisler, Meyer, Gertner, and De Leonhard. The two for-
mer introduced him to the study of geology, Geertner to that of
botany, while Leonhard taught him that of mineralogy in ge-
neral. But he was especially indebted to the care of Leisler,

* Prepared from the Memoirs of the Academia Ceesarea of Leopoldino-Carolinz.
APRIL—JULY 1826. A

2 Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kiihl.

who, being without children himself, and knowing Kuhl to be
very fond of the study of natural history, and possessed of great
talents, took him into his society, which proved of the greatest
advantage to him. For Leisler was president of the association
which had been formed at Hanau not long before, for the sale
and exchange of objects of natural history, and an opportunity
was thus afforded him of handling and examining these objects.
He himself collected new specimens for the museum in the sur-
rounding country, and transmitted them in a sufficiently finished
condition ; and besides, freed his friend of much of the labour
to which his literary connections subjected him. He met him
daily at those hunting excursions which proved of so much be-
nefit to the ornithology of Europe, accompanied him on these
expeditions, and, in short, was conducted by him into the only
path by which the assiduous investigator of nature can be led to
acquire a true knowledge of the objects of his pursuit. The
consequence was, that Kiihl, while yet a boy, was much better
acquainted with these objects than often falls to the lot of peo-
ple considerably advanced in years. In this manner he obtain-
ed a much more complete knowledge of the natural productions
of the country of Hanau than could have been expected at his
early age; and, at the same time, so improved the natural acu-
men of his mind, that he afterwards detected, in other parts of
the earth, objects which had eluded the observation of many na-
turalists.

_ Without allowing their proper weight to these circumstan-
ces, it will scarcely be credited that Kiihl, when only nineteen
years of age, had already gone over the whole range of minera-
logy under the instruction of Leonhard, examined a great num-
ber of the plants growing in Wetteravia, with the assistance of
Geertner,'and acquired a knowledge of all the quadrupeds, birds
and fishes, of the middle parts of Europe. _ Besides, at this age,
he published, in the Wetterauen Annalen, vol. iv., a paper on
the bats of Germany, in which several species were described for
the first time by himself. After Leisler’s death, which hap-
pened on the 18th November 1813, he undertook the charge of
the zoological department of the institution méntioned above, for
the sale and exchange of natural curiosities. Nor were his
scientific pursuits interrupted by the accession of these new la-

Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kihl. 3
bours; for although he managed nearly the whole business
himself, he so assiduously cultivated them as to be taken notice
of by the most illustrious naturalists of our time.

After having undergone the usual preparatory exercises in
the Latin school of Hanau, he determined to proceed to the Uni-
versity of Heidelberg, with the design of devoting his whole
life to the study of natural history, and the resolution of pa-
tiently submitting to all the inconveniences which, from the
want of sufficient pecuniary resources, he foresaw could not be
avoided, in the pursuit of this science. On this occasion he
writes in the following manner to his friend Bojes: “ What li-
terary profession I shall follow, I do not know. This I know,
however, that, without the study of natural history, I cannot
live. I therefore wish, with all my heart, that whatever situa-
tion I may have in future, it may leave for me a few by-hours,
in which I may indulge in those investigations which are of all
others the most agreeable to me. I do not seem to have been
born for the study of law, which some recommend to me to fol-
low ; and so I imagine my best plan will be to study medicine.
But I should gladly renounce this also, the moment an oppor-
tunity might occur, that I might give myself wholly up to na-
tural history. But if this do not happen, I shall accommodate
myself to circumstances, and study medicine, for physicians are
required all the world over ; and when my studies are finished,
I shall endeavour, if possible, to’ get out to America, or where-
ever fortune may lead.”

He, therefore, in the month of September 1816, had made
up his mind to go to Heidelberg, when Theodore Van Swin-
deren, one of the Groningen professors, becoming acquainted
with him, prevailed upon him to follow him to Groningen.
This arrangement was fortunate for Kiihl ; for although his ge-
nius and assiduity would have led him to eminence, indepen-
dently of Swinderen, yet this object could only have been at-

‘tained by a longer way, and after much time. For with what
difficulties would he have had to struggle, and how many sour-
ces which Holland disclosed would have been lost to him? But
here, under an entirely different sky,—in the midst of other
plants and other animals,—in_ the vicinity of the sea, which he

A®

4 Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kihl.

had long wished to behold, and access furnished to the rich col--
lections of Holland,—he daily saw new objects to excite afresh:
his thirst after knowledge. In short, he there found opportu-
nities of improvement which few other places could better afford.

Difficulties, however, occurred, which presented obstacles to
his departure for Holland; but these were removed by the kind-
ness of Swinderen, who felt much interested in him, and, more-
over, was influenced by the hope that he would prove an ho-
nour to the university of which he himself was a member. At
the end of September 1816, Kiihl arrived at Groningen, and
from this time they pursued their studies together. It happened
that Swinderen had then commenced his lectures on Natural His-
tory, which being on a larger scale, usually occupied four years
in continuance, whereas his ordinary lectures were finished within
a year. Kiihl, therefore, was admitted into the number of his
hearers; nor was he merely a hearer, but also an assistant.
This year, although he attended De la Faille and Bakker on na-
tural philosophy and anatomy, he was chiefly occupied in the
study of natural history, confining himself to the mammalia,
and making choice of a more precise method in treating these dif-
ferent subjects, than is usually followed. With regard to Swin-
deren’s lectures on quadrupeds, this is sufficiently attested by
his prize essay, in which he very ingeniously explained the gra-
dual manner in which the animals of this class pass into each
other. There needs be little wonder, then, if he gained the
gold medal.

Previous to 1816, the year in which he came to Groningen,
the zoological knowledge which he had acquired, included only
indigenous animals, as he had seen but very few exotic ones.
On ae account, however accurately he knew indigenous ani-
mals, and their mode of living, he yet wanted some general pro-
spectus, without which there can be no order in the study. He,
therefore, first of all read Illiger’s Prodromus, which Swinderen
followed in his lectures on quadrupeds and birds. But he did
not confine himself to merely reading it, but at the same time
diligently compared each description with the object itself in the
museum. In this manner, during the first period of his resi-
dence here, he passed five days of the week ; but on Saturday
he made an excursion to this or that village along the coast, in

Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kihl. 5
order to collect fishes or birds. On the winter holidays of this
year he made journeys to Amsterdam, Harlem, and Leyden, in
which he visited Temminck, as well as the elder Voigtius, who
sold him many natural objects, among which were several that
he had never seen before. He also met with other learned men,
such as Brugmans, the Leyden professor, Van Marum, a medi-
cal practitioner at Harlem, and others. He also stayed several
days in the town of Lisste, with Temminck, in order to collect
the animals of that district, and dissect them.

During the Whitsuntide vacation, he made an excursion to
the island of Rottus, where he not only obtained many natural
objects, but also made an agreement with the keeper of the island,
that he should transmit to him whatever might chance to be cast
ashiore upon it. The consequence of these journeys was an a-
bundant supply to almost all the collections in Germany of seals
and rare marine birds.

When he had returned home during the summer vacation of
1817, he acquired a knowledge of many expensive works in the
library of the Society of Wetterau, and, during the same vaca-
tion, he made a trip from Hanau to Heidelberg, where he met
with ‘Tiedemann, a very accomplished and learned man, who fa-
voured him with useful advice regarding his studies, and pre-
sented him with some of his celebrated works. By this time he
had acquired so eminent a name in his own country, that he was
elected a member of the Natural History Society at Marburg, as
well as of that which has been instituted at Hanau, under the
name of the Wetterau Society, for promoting the study of every
department of Natural History. And, in the end of the follow-
ing year, on the 20th December 1818, he was made a member
of the Academia Cexsarea Leopoldino-Carolinz, under the name
of Johnson.

On the 12th August he passed the Rhine, accompanied with a
large party, in which were Leonhard and his family, and return-
ed to Groningen, by Newied, Duisburg, Utrecht, Leyden and
Amsterdam. At Newied he was introduced to Prince Maximi-
lian, lately returned from his journey through Brazil, who re-
ceived him very graciously. In the same manner he was re-
ceived at Utrecht by Professor Freimer. Passing through Ley-
den he so gained upon the regard of Brugmans, that after he

“

6 Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kiihl:

had taken him through the public museum, and shewn him the
collection of natural objects which he possessed, as well as his
splendid library, he frankly offered him twice the salary which he
had at Groningen, if he would remain at Leyden. What an in-
ducement to a young man, inflamed with the desire of know-
ledge! The double salary was less an object of importance with
him ; but how great the difference between the Leyden museum
and that at Groningen, between the Leyden apparatus and
that which the Groningen University at that time possessed! be-
tween Brugman’s library and the one at Groningen! How great
the conflict between the love of knowledge, and the desire of dis-
charging his duty ! But duty prevailed: ‘ I am too much bound
to Swinderen,” he replied, ‘‘ to remain with any other than him,
during my stay in Holland.” So, in the beginning of September,
he returned to Swinderen, like a new gift. He received a gold
medal from the faculty of Groningen as the reward of his indus-
try, and was admitted by the Physical and Chemical Society in-
to the number of its members.

__ In the second year which he spent at Groningen, he attended
the lectures of Driessen on Chemistry and Botany; of Bakker
and Wilkens on vegetable and human anatomy and physiology ;
of Swinderen on the Natural History of Birds, and in this de-
partment, of which he was particularly fond, and which he had
already assiduously cultivated, he was frequently not merely a
hearer, but also an assistant, as Swinderen himself testifies. Be-
sides, he turned his attention to the history of exotic plants
and animals, as well as to comparative anatomy ; while at the
same time he dissected and diligently described the whole of the
indigenous birds and fishes, and defined the coloured figures of
birds published by Buffon *. The discoveries which he made
in dissecting the various kinds of animals, were afterwards pu-
blished in the second volume of ** Additamenta.”

During the long vacation of 1818, he made a journey on foot

through Germany with his friend Van Hasselt. They left Gro-
ningen on the last of June, and already on the third day after
their departure had reached Bremen, thirty-six hours’ journey

* Buffonii et Daubentonii Figurarum Avium coloratarum nomina systematica;
Groninge, 1820.

‘Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kihl. ff
distant from the city of Groningen, where they were kindly re-
ceived by Albers, Treviranus and Mertens. In the museum of
this city, there was a remarkably good zoological collection, and
Albers’s private cabinet was well stored, particularly in compa-
rative anatomy. Kiihl took notes of every thing that he saw.
From Bremen they went to Brunswick by Cella, and there they
visited the Duke’s collection, which is very rich in preparations
of amphibia, both anatomical and osteological, while it is at the
same time well supplied with birds. From thence they set out
without delay for Berlin, where they arrived on the 2d or 3d
of July.

Immediately after their arrival, they visited Lichtenstein,
whom, having known two years before, they found a very ac-
complished man, as well as a very learned zoologist. ‘ He
treated us,” says Kiihl, in a letter to Swinderen, “ as if we had
been his own children ; and whenever we visited the Royal Mu-
seum, or Lichtenstein’s own library, we commonly supped at
his house.”

In this manner they spent some weeks in Berlin, applying to
their studies with the utmost diligence; and the last days of
their stay were further improved to them by the arrival of the
celebrated Temminck. From thence they proceeded to Halle,
where they met Professor Nitzsch, and other naturalists; to
Leipsig, Dresden, and into German Switzerland, and, lastly, to
Jena, being every where received in a friendly manner.

Kiihl also paid a visit to Naumann upon this journey, and
the respect which he had before entertained for this celebrated
ornithologist, was by no means diminished by his personal ac-
quaintance with him. As the time allotted for their excursion,
was now drawing to an end, they spent the remainder of the
vacation in the house of Kiihl’s father, making a short journey
to Heidelberg, where Tiedemann gave them very useful advice,
with regard to the manner in which comparative anatomy should
be treated.

From thence they returned to Groningen, on the 21st of Sep-
tember. In this year Swinderen read his fuller lectures on the
cold-blooded animals, and the three great divisions of the inver-
tebrata, in which he very ingenuously confesses that he was not
less studiously assisted by Kiihl in respect to mental than)

.

8 Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kuhl.

in manual labour. Asan example of his industry and profi-
ciency in this department, we may mention that he described
the Kobelian Collection of Insects, which was purchased at this
time, in such a manner as few collections in Europe have been
described.

It is also due to him to state, that he gave excellent defini-
tions of most of the amphibia depicted in Seba’s Thesaurus, by
which means Swinderen’s copy is rendered of the greatest va-
lue; and Swinderen further states, that, at the request of seve-
ral of the most eminent naturalists, he described many things
relating to this explanation of Seba’s plates, and transmitted
them to them; and it would be of advantage to science, as well
as creditable to our author, that this work were published, since ~
the Index to Buffon and Daubenton is already before the pub-
lic. But it is a matter of much regret, that Kuhl never com-
pleted the plan which he had entered upon, of defining the whole
of Seba’s work; from doing which, as well as from composing
many other excellent works, he was prevented by his journey
to India, and ultimately by his premature and much lamented
death.

We have thus come to another and very important period of
his life, to the time when he prepared for his journey to India;
which happened in the following manner.

Having gone, in his accustomed manner, during the short va-
cation of the Christmas season, to Holland, in order to inspect
the specimens of objects, with which he was only acquainted by
means of descriptions, on account of the limited nature of the
collections at home, he betook himself to Temminck, at Amster-
dam, with the view of defining, along with him, the collection
of fishes which he had either brought home himself in the pre-
ceding summer, or had received, from the Mediterranean. And
being requested by this celebrated naturalist to undertake along
with him the description of his splendid ornithological collection,
he undertook a selection of the Index published by Latham, as
a prodromus of his General Synopsis of Ornithology, a work of
much labour ; by which Kiihl, with the guidance of ‘Temminck,
and the use of his admirable library, indeed made remarkable
progress in the knowledge of exotic species, but which, being
deficient in the lately discovered species, has yielded to the

Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kiihl. g
Planches colorées, which are now published by Temminck and
Laugier.

While Kiihl was thus occupied at Amsterdam, Swinderen
received a letter at Groningen, by which intimation was given
of his being appointed to undertake a journey at the public ex-
pence. A letter was also transmitted to Kihl himself, by the
King’s minister and counsellor for public institutions of teach-
ing works of art, and the colonies, to the following effect:
That his Majesty, from what had been reported to him of his
knowledge in the various departments of natural history, his
love of science, and the ardent desire which he possessed for the
extension of knowledge, had selected him, as a young man, who
might be sent with advantage to one or more of the colonies be-
longing to the state, in order to lay before the learned of his
own country, and of Europe in general, the still hidden treasures
which nature had so largely bestowed upon them.

Nearly at the same time, the minister, thinking it absolutely
necessary, in order to insure the success of the undertaking, that
Kiihl, before setting out, should be well acquainted with the
full progress which science has made in Europe, persuaded the
king to order him to proceed to London and Paris, at the pub-
lic expence. This intelligence produced the most lively emo-
tions in the mind of Kiihl, and, in a letter to Swinderen on this
occasion, he writes as follows :— I was so agitated by the mes-
sage, that I did not know what to do for joy. Much, indeed,
am I indebted to you and Temminck, nor shall I ever forget
the many good offices which you have performed to me. It was
always, indeed, my firm resolution to devote myself entirely to
science, but with how many impediments should I have had to
struggle, had I not been so fortunate as to become acquainted
with you. My residence at Groningen was among the most
agreeable periods of my life, and will always remain so; nor
shall I ever forget the happy days in which I there commenced
my studies.” ;

On the 3d of April, he set out, accompanied by Temminck
and Lichtenstein, for London, where he was kindly received by
all the learned. Almost all of them presented him with speci-
mens, or at least gave him free access to their collections, that

410 Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kid.

he might have an opportunity of drawing or describing what-
ever he deemed of importance. He there entered minutely into
the study of the mammalia, birds and amphibia of New Holland,
the description of the natural history of which, having already
collected much with regard to it at Berlin and Amsterdam, he
had in view to finish the following winter at Paris. He found
a great abundance of these animals in London, as the Linnean
Society was in possession of a very extensive collection from
New Holland, which had not previously been described. In the
course of a few days he described and arranged 200 of these
animals. He also found much useful matter for his mono-
graphs on the genera Falco and Psittacus (the former of which,
however, has not been published); and acquired a knowledge
of all the objects which had been brought home by the last po-
lar expedition.—The Banksian Library, which contains an im-
mense collection of books on natural history, being open to all
who profess that science, was visited by him between the hours
of ten and four ; and, among the sketches made by Forster and
Sir Joseph Banks himself, he found many things of great im-
portance. In this library he also began the compilation of an
Indian Fauna, which he intended to make use of in the colonies
which he was about to visit—Access being given him to Bul-
lock’s Museum, which was then proposed for sale, from ten to
five, he attended during these hours, to acquire a knowledge of
the specimens in that great collection, and describe and name
what was new. With regard to mammalia, this museum pos-
sessed few that were not previously known; but of birds he de-
scribed upwards of 100 new species, and corrected the deserip-
tions of a great many more——He experienced much kindness
from Mr Ayton, the manager of the botanical garden of Kew;
and also met with Decandolle, who was then consulting the her-
baria of Smith and Brown for his great work. In the Banksian
Museum he became acquainted with a gentleman, who having
_ commanded the British army in America, had there collected a
great store’of zoological subjects; and this acquaintance turned
out of much importance to him with regard to the object of his
journey, for this gentleman was enabled, from his own experi-
ence, to furnish our traveller with circumstantial directions in

Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kihl. Ir

respect to the mode of travelling in hot countries, and was of
much assistance to him in procuring the articles necessary for
his journey.
. Before leaving England, Kuhl made an excursion, along with
Laugier and a Breslau student, through the south of England,
visiting Oxford, Windsor, Bath, Bristol, Severn, Southampton,
the Isle of Wight, and Plymouth. Wherever he came to the
sea, he collected natural objects; and many beautiful shells, both:
terrestrial and aquatic, were given by him to the Groningen
Museum, as a memorial of his journey.

During the short time which he spent in Holland, an ho-
nour was conferred upon him which is seldom given to stu-
dents, he having been promoted to the degree of Master of Phi-
losophy and Doctor of Natural History, on the 6th August; as
an acknowledgment for which, he presented to the Museum of
the University four new genera of birds of the rarest kind, Po-
zoporus, Melliphaga, Menura and Aptenodytes.

In the beginning of September, accompanied with his friend
Cremersius, whose loss we have now also to deplore, and with
Van Hasselt, he returned by Brussels, Naumur, (where he
met with Professor Galdius), Aix-la-Chapelle and Newied,
(where he consulted Prince Maximilian with regard to his in-
tended journey) to Hanau, where he remained with his father
for some time, while his friends Cremersius and Van Hasselt
made an excursion through Switzerland.

In the heginning of November he left his father and went to
Strasburg, in order to meet his friends there according to pro-
mise, and continue his journey with them to Paris. The end
which he had in view, in undertaking this journey, was to study
the invertebrate animals a second time, under the direction of
Cuvier and Lamarck; to examine the herbarium made a short.
time before in Java by Leschenault, and hitherto known to few ;
but, above all, by making use of the rich collection of amphibia’
in Paris, to bring more quickly to a conclusion the system of
amphibia which he had been busied in for two years back.

Besides, as he had seen all the collections in Berlin and Lon-.
don, he was anxious to inspect those which yet remained in
abundance in Paris. For which purpose, Kiihl and Van Has-

selt having taken lodgings near the museum of Natural History, :

12 Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kihl.

spent almost the whole day there, in examining all the genera
of invertebrate animals which they found. At the same time,
they read in the evenings at home the works of Cuvier and Sa-
vigny, on the anatomy of these animals, and received various ob-
jects for examination from the former; and, besides, Kiihl oc-
cupied those hours in which Van Hasselt and Cremersius at-
tended the medical lectures and hospital, chiefly in collecting
materials for his work on amphibia, birds, and other animals.

The distinguished Cuvier also, had a literary party on the
Saturday evenings, to which all the learned men residing in
Paris were usually invited, and Kihl and Van Hasselt were
constantly invited to attend. These were also allowed free ac-
cess to Cuvier’s library, and were permitted to work in the same
apartment with him; while orders were at the same time given
to the different keepers of the museum, to open all the cases to
them when required.

But, without doubt, among so many illustrious men, he was
most disposed to pay the tribute of admiration and esteem to the
celebrated Humboldt, a man equally noted for his benevolence,
learning and prudence. Humboldt procured for Kihl and his
friend free access to the Royal Institute, by which they were al-
lowed to attend the sittings and make use of the library; be-
sides, he very kindly offered Kiihl the use of his own library,
and did not think him unworthy of being admitted among the
number of his particular friends. During his residence at Paris,
Kiihl completed his mcnograph on the genus Psittaeus, which
was printed in the tenth volume of the Transactions of the Leo-
poldine Society. |

Leaving Paris on the 26th February 1820, he returned straight
to Hanau, where he laboured with indefatigable diligence in cor-
recting his manuscripts, so as to be able, soon after, to send to the
press, his first volume of “* Additamenta ad Zoologiam et Ana-
tomiam Comparatam.” After reducing all these to order, he
took leave of his father and family, and proceeded to Amster-
dam, in order to make preparations for his journey; this done,
he went to Groningen for the last time, and after staying there
one day, bade adieu to his friends. On the 10th July 1820,
the ship in which he embarked, commanded by Breukcmeyer,
sailed from the Texel.

Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kiihl. 13

When in the Channel, they examined various species of
flexile polypi, and dissected different fishes which do not oc-
cur on the coasts of Holland. They noticed a new genus of
the family of corallines, and found abundant matter for inves-
tigation in the numerous species of flustree and fuci which oc-
curred. Among other remarkable fishes they dissected the fol-
lowing: Scomber Scomber, Conger Conger, and Raja oxy-
ryncha. In the Bay of Biscay, the weather was so bad that
they could not collect any thing. In the Spanish sea they
caught the first Salpae, and among them several new species, as
well as a genus allied to these, to which they gave the name of
Selenosoma.

On the 18th July they anchored at Madeira; and, although
five days only were allowed for their stay on this island, they
examined much of its natural history. They were kindly re-
ceived by the English Governor, and, with his advice and assist-
ance, were enabled not only to examine the shores, but also to
penetrate into the interior of the country. This gentleman,
whom Kihl happened to meet on his journey, being informed of
the object of their voyage, requested him and his companions to
come that same day to his seat, two miles and a-half distant from
the town, and high above the level of the sea. Having rested
here for some hours, they took their departure, and ascended
the mountain named Pico Rufo, and found its height according
to Hasselt’s measurement to be 2500 feet. They collected a
great many plants in these five days, the number of which they
have stated at 224, although this district is not by any means
considered as fertile in vegetable productions. They also in-
quired into the distribution of the plants at different altitudes,
and looked after the geological structure of the island. In the
animal kingdom, the principal productions that occurred were
insects; for this country is very deficient in animals of the
higher orders. They found no mammalia, but Kiihl discovered
a new species of bird, nearly allied to Fringilla coelebs. Be-
sides, they found a great number of amphibia, but all belonging
to two species of lizards, as well as many fishes, but all of six ge-
nera; nor did they meet with any fresh-water fishes.

Leaving Madeira on the 3d August 1820, they entered the
tropical seas, where so many objects often occurred in a single

14 Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kuhl.

day, that they were overwhelmed by their multiplicity. There
occurred in particular a vast multitude of remarkable and
partly new mollusca, echinodermata, and entozoa; and there
they made many important observations, with regard to the
conformation of various fishes, mollusca, and radiaria.

On the 9th of October they made the Cape of Good Hope,
and tarrying there twelve days, explored the mountains or shores
from the first dawn to late in the evening. They carried with
them the skins of various birds prepared for stuffing, and also
preserved a great number entire for the purpose of making
skeletons. They also prepared skeletons of the Veverra genetta
and Chrysochloris capensis. Besides, they collected amphibia,
fishes, mollusca, crustacea, radiaria, and many species of fuci,
in Table Bay and Hout Bay. The number of plants which
they collected at the Cape, they had not determined at their
departure, but they mentioned it as being very great, they
having come there in the proper season. They also prepared
some bundles of bulbous roots, and the seeds of about 200 spe-
cies, for the Botanical Garden at Batavia. But what is par-
ticularly worthy of remark is, that they examined with great
care the structure and stratification,of Table Mountain, and
the other hills which surround Table Bay and Hout Bay, con-
cerning which very erroneous ideas had been entertained.

The Great Indian Ocean, not less than the Atlantic, furnish-
ed them with ample opportunities of scrutinizing animals hither-
to but imperfectly known. They discovered several genera of
the family of naked mollusca, annularia, and tunicata of La-
marck. Bad weather at length forced them upon the Cocoa
Islands, toward the south of Sumatra,—a group, according to
their account, entirely composed of madrepores, and perfectly
similar to those flat islands of the Pacific Ocean, whose origin
has also by Forster been attributed to madrepores.

On account of the multitude of sharp coral rocks, access can
only be had to the bay of these islands in fine weather, and
with very small vessels. Their origin from corals shooting up
from the bottom of the sea, is plainly demonstrated by their
want of mammalia, amphibia, and land-birds, and the scantiness
of their flora, which was found to consist of only four species,
anew grass, an urtica, the cocoa-nut-tree (Cocos nucifera), a

3

Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kihl. 15

wood of which covers the interior of the island, and the T’ourne-
Jortia argentea, which margins the cocoa-wood, with its dark
green foliage. Innumerable bands of aquatic birds inhabit
these desert shores, and so fearless were they, that many of
them were caught by the hands, or killed with sticks. Amid all
this profusion, however, there were but very few different spe-
cies.

They first landed in Java at the Promontory of Banta, and
after being a short time on shore, returned to their ships, load-
ed with corals and mollusca. The labours and inconveniences
of their yoyage were amply compensated by the kindness with
which they were received, and the liberality with which they
were treated, by his Excellency the Governor of the Island.
He permitted them to live at Buitenzorg, in order to become
more readily accustomed to an Indian climate, from the salu-
brity of the air in that place. The first four months they pas-
sed near Buitenzorg without interruption ; for since they daily
found an abundant supply of new objeets for investigation, it
would have been useless to extend their excursions, and seek at
a distance what they could obtain at hand. Not a day passed
without their naming, describing, and drawing some new spe-
cies or genera, or even orders. In this manner they prepared
a Conspectus of the Flora and Fauna of Java, taking care not
to waste their time in delineating what had already been de-
scribed by Reinwardts. On which account they made out an
index of all the drawings which he had made, inspected his
Herbarium, and received many of the names which he had im-
posed. In the course of these four months which they occu-
pied in collecting natural objects, they had done so much, that,
by the 10th of August, they were able to write home to the mi-
nister, ‘* that their labours regarding some of the objects of in-
vestigation in this country were now finished, and that among
these might be enumerated the Cheiroptera, Ophidia, Sauria,
Birds, Fishes, and Mollusca.” At this time they were of opi-
nion, that, with regard to the Buitenzorg Fauna, they were as
well acquainted with the animals of this district, as with those
of any country in Europe. Having made this foundation, they
proposed making a journey to Banta, a less known part of the

island, when the cholera made its appearance, and. frustrated

vA

/

fe

16 Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kihl.

this design. On which account they set about occupying the
following months in ascending the neighbouring mountains, espe-
cially the summit of the mountain Salak, 4550 feet in height,
situated above Buitenzorg towards the east, one of whose sum-
mits had already been ascended by Reinwardt, although a high-
er one toward the west had been left by him, and had conse-
quently been hitherto unattained. They then came upon a
continuous ridge of mountains, extending northwards toward
the sea-shore, and among others ascended the ridge of Munar.
After this they visited the three hot saline springs, situated be-
tween the villages of Rompin and Waru (which are not marked
in our common maps), arising from these calcareous hills, which
seem to have been themselves produced by the deposition of
calcareous matter from the water,—a process which is still daily
taking place. An entirely different vegetation was found in
the vicinity of these springs, and as it was probable no person
had hitherto examined it, they were highly delighted with it.
On the 10th August they returned from the mountain Pange-
rang, 8580 feet in height, forming on one side a continuous
ridge with the mountain Gedé, which they had ascended with
much labour. ‘These summits, together with that of Salak,
situated towards the east, were volcanic. In these pretty ele-
vated and cold regions, they found many retreats of rhinoce-
roses, and the paths which these animals had made, afforded
them considerable facility in ascending the mountains. So great
was the profusion of natural productions in these higher regions,
that, notwithstanding their unremitted attention and industry,
they could~not manage to describe the whole. Amidst al-
most insuperable difficulties, and exhausted with labour, they
at length reached the summit. But after they had got to their
huts in the evening, a violent rain came on, which continued
for three days, and as nothing could resist its impetuosity, they
were miserably affected by the cold, and this the more espe-
cially, as they had been by this time familiarized to a hot cli-
mate.

For the first fourteen days, however, after this excursion,
Kihl enjoyed very good health, on which account they sup-
posed that he had escaped the danger, and rather rejoiced that
they had been subjected to it, as they imagined the worst was

2

Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kiihl. 17
past, and expected to be safe in future from all attacks of the
climate. But soon after Kiihl became affected by a disease
which resisted all treatment, accompanied by inflammation of
liver to such a degree that his life was in danger. He saw from
the first that the disease would prove mortal, but he waited the
approach of death with becoming fortitude. ‘‘ The tranquillity
of mind which he possessed when in good health,” writes Van
Hasselt, his companion, to Swinderen, “ instead of being dimi-
nished by sickness, was rather increased. I have been astonished
at the calmness with which he spoke of his approaching death.
He even gave me some injunctions about things which he wish-
ed to be performed before he died. In fact, I am not less an
admirer of him, now that he is dead, on account of the fortitude
which he displayed, than I was his friend while alive.” After
having laboured four weeks under his disease, he died on the
14th of September 1821, not yet twenty-four years of age.

Kiihl was of an excellent disposition, and the most refined :man-
ners. He was quick of comprehension, acute in discriminating,
and possessed of a most tenacious memory,—qualities of the ut-
most importance to the naturalist, especially as the compass of
science is now so extended, that, without a proper arrangement
of ideas, and a faithful memory, the various objects cannot fail
to be confounded. Nor was his manual dexterity less remark-
able than the acuteness of his intellect: he could in fact do
every thing with his hands that he wished; he stuffed the skins
of animals, dissected them with great neatness, and drew not
less beautifully than accurately, so as occasionally to supply the
place of a painter, on the voyage undertaken to the Island of
Java, in delineating anatomical subjects.

‘To these qualities Kiih] added the greatest industry. With
him every moment of time was employed: when in his room he
was either reading or examining natural objects ; when walking,
or upon a journey, he was collecting animals, plants, and mine-
rals, and thinking upon their qualities and properties. He
deemed it base to enjoy repose longer than was necessary, He
often sat up at his studies till midnight ; and when Swinderen
shewed him his bed-room on his arrival, the first thing-he did,
was to see whether a bell might be hung above his bed, that the

APRIL—JULY 1826. B

18 Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kithi.

watch might waken him every morning at four, by pulling at
the door, in such a manner, however, as not to disturb the rest
of the family. A man possessed of so much genius and assidui-
ty could not therefore fail to acquire a vast stock of knowledge.
Nor was his knowledge confined to natural history alone, but
also extended to political history, both ancient and modern-
He was also so well versed in geography and all other attain-
ments requisite in a well educated man, that, even at the time
when he came to Groningen, the most accomplished student, on
hearing him converse on general subjects of literature, acknow-
ledged with one voice, that, in the course of their studies, they
had met with no young person equal to him. And to this ge-
nius and this mdustry were added an ardent mind, which
prompted him to great undertakings, a constancy which sus-
tained his efforts, and a devotion to science which made him
prefer it to all other objects.

It has already been observed, that natural history was his fa-
vourite pursuit; and there are none or at least very few ex-
amples, in any other department of science, in which so much
keen investigation is displayed, so many dangers so fearlessly
confronted, and so many privations borne with fortitude, as we
see evinced in the character and conduct of the disciples of na-
ture.

All these essential good qualities were combined in Kiuhl.
Besides the other virtues with which he was adorned, he pos-
sessed a remarkable moderation in regard to food. On his jour-
neys he required nothing more to allay hunger and thirst than
dry bread with water and milk, provided he could attain the
object to which all his labours were directed,—the extension of
his knowledge. To accomplish this he left his father, his coun-
try, and friends ; in its pursuit exposing himself to the dangers
to which a long sea voyage, change of climate, untrodden paths,
savage men and wild animals exposed him ; and all these he un-
derwent without the prospect of any great reward, at least with-
out the hope that these labours would be repaid by greater ad-
vantages than his accomplishments and celebrity had already ac-
quired for him in Europe. Certain it is, that it was neither
by the hope of riches, the most general stimulus to exertion, nor
the honourable and truly royal liberality with which he was

Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kiihi. 19

equipped for his journey, but by the mere love of natural history,
that he was actuated,—a truly sublime affection, which made
him spare no labour in collecting new objects of investigation.

When he was last at Hanau, anticipating the difficulties
which he had to encounter, he thus wrote to Swinderen: “ I
have determined to make a journey to the eastern countries,
and go I shall, if there be no other way, even in the capacity of
a barber.” Such was the love of Kiihl for his profession.

But Kiihl had also other properties, which, however becoming
in his person, were especially adapted for the department of
science on which he had fixed his affections. Besides his other
virtues, he was distinguished by an ingenuous mind. Truth,
obedience, modesty, and a grateful remembrance of benefits, were
among the ornaments of his mind. He willingly accommodated
himself to the manners of his friends; but, when persuaded
that he was better acquainted with a scientific subject under dis-
cussion, he defended his opinion with warmth, although with
modesty, nor yielded rashly to the determination of others. His
filial piety, and the affection which he bore to his brothers and
sisters, were highly exemplary ; and it is to be mentioned to his
honour, that he would receive nothing from his father, although
it would gladly have been given him, lest he should diminish
the portions of his brothers and sisters.

Kiihl’s greatest merit was to have embraced the whole com-
pass of natural history. For when he came to Groningen in
1816, he already knew a great number of minerals, both orye-
tognostically and geologically, the whole of the plants indige-
nous to the fertile district of Wetterau, and all the mammalia,
birds, and fishes of the middle parts of Europe. He chiefly
studied exotic plants in the Botanical Garden at Groningen, as
well as in the other gardens which he saw on his journeys; and
investigated the foreign vertebrated animals in the Groningen
Museum, and in those of Berlin, Paris, London, &c., while he
principally studied the invertebrate animals at Paris. ‘ I hope,”
says he, in a letter to Swinderen while in Java, “ that when I
return to Europe, I shall not be accused of cultivating one de-
partment only of science, as my aim is not merely to treat those
parts well of which I was fondest when at home, but T am also
bent upon mastering all the other branches.

BR

20 Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kiihi.

Another merit of Kiihl’s was, that, besides the study of ‘na-
tural history in the more limited sense, he paid attention to ana-
tomy also, and to physiology, or rather biology. Although
the study of physiology was of all others that which he prefer-
red, he was yet free of a fault into which many naturalists fall,
who, on account of the main object of their science, which they
take to be the determination of the general laws of nature, de-
spise the aids of less elevated but subsidiary studies; whence
it necessarily follows, that they always fall short of their object.
But Kiihl did better; he set about both kinds of study with
equal diligence, and in this respect is the only naturalist who
can be compared with Pallas.

Tiedemann, the celebrated anatomist of Heidelberg, when
he met with Kihl on his journey to Paris, said, that “ a more
accomplished naturalist never before travelled ;” and Temminck
writes thus to one of his friends, ‘‘ Science, by the death of
Kihl, has lost another Linnzus.”

But even these were not Kihl’s only merits, but rather the
beginning and foundation of greater excellence ; for he not only
knew what others had done, but contributed as long as he lived |
to the improvement of science. Without insisting much upon
his Annotations, not yet published, his Fauna of New Holland
and India, or his Monograph on the genus Falco, besides the
discoveriés which he made in Java, and which, as they have not
yet been made public, cannot be judged of, we shall confine our-
selves here to the advantages which he has conferred upon science
by his publications.

With regard to Mammalia, he drew up a general conspectus
of this class, in the essay mentioned above, for which he gained
the gold medal. In his monograph on the Simia, a work which
seems to be the most complete in regard to the number of spe-
cies of any upon the subject, he has described 111 species, and
among these several new ones, first defined by himself, as well
as many others which had hitherto been merely named. In his
monograph on the Bats of Germany, he made known three new
species, and rectified many errors connected with the specific
distinctions. In his Zoologize Auctaria, he has proposed a new
genus, Saccophorus (the Mus bursarius of Shaw), and made
known various new species of mammalia; se that before he left

Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kihl. 21

Europe he had already increased the list of mammalia by many
new ones, to which he would without doubt have added many
more in Java.

- But of all the departments of natural history, Ornithology
was that which he most enriched by his discoveries, most of
which he made along with the celebrated Temminck. His in-
dex to the coloured plates of Buffon, which Swinderen publish-
ed with his consent, is also of much advantage to ornithology.
This work of Buffon, which comprehends the whole range of the
birds known in his time, is much superior to most of the works
on the same subject, and will always remain so; but of what
importance would these figures be without systematic names ?
This deficiency, then, was supplied by Kiihl. Besides, he wrote
a monograph on the genus Psittacus, in which he included 200
species, a considerable number of them being first characterised
by himself, or distinguished and named with the assistance of
Temminck. Moreover, he described in his Auctaria a new ge-
nus discovered by himself, to which he gave the name of Ptilo-
norynchus, and wrote a monograph on the difficult genus Pro-
cellaria. Lastly, during his journey, as well as in Java itself,
he made many other interesting discoveries in this department,
of which, however, we are as yet only acquainted with a small
part.

With regard to the Amphibia, he has the merit of having
added many names to Seba’s figures in his Thesaurus, by which
he has much facilitated a reference to that work. Many of his
observations on Seba’s figures are also contained in the additions
already mentioned. We there also find critical remarks on
Daudin’s work on serpents, and very useful annotations regard-
ing the number of the abdominal and caudal scuta of serpents,
of which much use is now deservedly made for the purpose of
specific distinction. Had it been his fate to have returned from
India, he would assuredly have described the new species of
amphibia which he had discovered, according to Merrem’s me-
thod. With respect to invertebrate animals, he did not publish
any of his discoveries previous to his Indian journey. What-
ever, therefore, was found by him subsequently, was common to
him and his companion Van Hasselt. In regard to compara-
tive anatomy, Kiihl made most of his observations along with

22 Biographical Memoir of the late Henry Kihl.

Van Hasselt, and their papers on this subject are consequently
common. These papers, indeed, chiefly treated of the whole
first four classes of vertebrate animals; but we may mention
one in particular as worthy of praise, which contains a disputa-
tion regarding the hearts of various animals. In them, as well
as in the other writings of Kihl, many new facts are detailed.
On their voyage to Java, although they paid most attention to
the dissection of invertebrate animals, yet, by their industry,
they also extended the anatomy of the vertebrate ones.

In regard to the vegetable kingdom, they paid particular at-
tention to the laws of the distribution of plants over the surface
of the earth, in respect to which they instituted many and very
diligent investigations in the Island of Madeira, at the Cape of
Good Hope, and in Java.

In mineralogy and geology we are indebted to them for an
account of the geological structure of Madeira, for a better view
of the South Cape of Africa, as well as remarks upon the Co-
coa Islands, and, lastly, for various communications illustrative
of the colony of Buitenzorg in Java.

The printed works of Kihl are the following :

1. Die Deutschen Fledermiuse (in the Annals of the Society of Wetterau).
Frankfort, 1819.

2. Responsio ad queestionem, ab ordine disciplina thematicarum et phy-
sicarum propositam : Cum, licet naturze corpora varia modo inter se dif-
ferunt, ex hucusque cognitis observationibus tamen constare videatur,
ita comparatam esse rerum naturam, ut lento quasi passu ab una specie
ad alteram progrediatur, atque sic continuam quasi catenam efficiat, ex
variis quidem annulis, intime tamen junctis compositam, hzec catena, in
Mammalium classe demonstranda queritur. (Annals of the Groningen
Academy, 1816, 1817. Groningen, 1818.)

3. Conspectus Psittacorum, cum specierum definitionibus novarum, descrip-
tionibus, synonymis, &c. (Nova Acta Physico-Medica Acad. Czes. Leop.
Car. Nat. Curios. vol. x. part 1. p. 1,-104. Bonn, 1820).

4. Beitrage zur Zoologie. Frankfort, 1820. 4to.

5. Beitrage zur vergleichenden Anatomie von Dr Van Hasselt u. Dr Kihl.
Frankfort, 1820. 4to.

6. Buffonii et Daubentonii Figurarum Avium coloratarum nomina systemati-
ca. Groningen, 1820. Fol.

( 2)

Sketches of owr, Information as to Rail-Roads. By the Rev.
James Apamson, Cupar-Fife. (Communicated by the
Author *). ;

Se we can anticipate with any confidence the performance
of an engine, we must know what part of its moving power is
employed in the support of its own functions, independent of
that expended on the object of its effort. Our knowledge of this
subject is, I fear, very deficient with regard to most kinds of
machinery, because the sort of effect which they are employed
to produce, renders it difficult to estimate the power wasted up-
on it. It is to be hoped, that its great importance will secure
greater attention to it, since the comparative advantage of many
different forms of machinery can be determined only by the dis-
covery of the comparative amount of power necessary to com-
municate motion through them. It is not easy to devise means
for obtaining this object even in machinery much under our
controul, and we ought, therefore, to feel grateful to Mr
Wood for having opened up to us some novel sources of informa-
tion, likely to be productive of considerable certainty on the sub-
ject. The locomotive engine is a peculiarly manageable thing,
since all its parts may easily be put in motion, without employ-
ing its ordinary ing power, and the effort required to put
them in motion es easily ascertainable. Of this advantage
Mr Wood has taught us to avail ourselves, and though we do
not find in the detail of his experiments the means of settling the
question completely to our satisfaction, we can anticipate import-
ant consequences from the prosecution of the method he has
pointed out. What we have chiefly to regret is, the small num-
ber of the experiments which are of use in this inquiry.

It is evident, that, if the engine were allowed to descend an
inclined plane, having the steam restrained from acting upon the
pistons, we could, from the observed time of its descent, estimate
the retardation by the movement of all its parts, were all put
in motion by the revolution of the wheels : and, besides, there are

* We trust Mr Adamson will continue his valuable sketches: they do him
credit as a natural philosopher, and their style of execution is worthy of imi-
tationeEDIT,

24. Mr Adamson on Rail-Roads.

some of those parts which we could detach ; and thus, by the ef-
fect of those which remained, judge of the proportionate influ-
ence of each of them. Mr Wood has narrated an experiment
made for the purposes of ascertaining the total friction of an un-
loaded engine ; and from the additional retardation caused by it,
when attached to waggons descending an inclined plane, he esti-
mates the friction of its joints, axles and pistons, to be no more
than 213 lb. Now, the resistance, by the friction at the axles
of the wheels, could not, according to the lowest estimate in the
table of experiments or friction, have been less than 100 Ib;
so that only 113 Ib. remain as the retarding force of the pistons,
and other parts of the machinery.

Another method of estimating this retardation, is afforded by
the experiments with wheels of different sizes. It was found,
that, by applying to the same engine wheels of different diame-
ters, different results were produced by the same expenditure of
motive force in the same time. The retardation being equivalent
to a constant pressure acting through unequal spaces, must have
required, to overcome it, an expenditure of force in proportion
to these spaces, which are as the diameters of the wheels. The
resistance opposed by the rubbing parts would, therefore, when
3 feet wheels were exchanged for 4 feet wheels, be diminished
in the proportion of 4:3; or the observed increase of effect from
the same pressive power, must have arisen from the annihilation
of one-fourth of the friction, by the addition of one-third to the
diameter of the wheels. The increase of effect appears to have
been equivalent to a force of 146 Ib. *; and, therefore the total
friction of the engine with 3 feet wheels amounted to 584
Ib, If from this we deduct the 100 lb., which will represent
the constant resistance at the axles of the wheels arising from
the weight of the engine, we shall have 484 Ib. as the measure
of the resistance from friction, in all the other parts of the en-
gine. The measure of this retarding force in the former case,
when the engine was unloaded, was 113 lb. These two num-
bers cannot yet express the ratio according to which the friction
increases as the load is augmented, for the friction created by

* This is greater than Mr Wood's estimate, and is found by taking the

oun part of the additional load the engine carried with the same fuel... -

Mr Adamson on Razl-Roads. °5

the motion of the piston and piston-rod within the cylinder, can-
not be affected by the load. Let ¢ represent this constant quan-
tity: then the remainders 484-c and 113-c may be assumed to
have to each other the ratio of the pressures, to which the mo-
ving parts of the machinery, exclusive of the pistons, have been
subjected. When the engine was unloaded, this pressure could
arise only from ‘the resistance of the piston. Now, if J repre-
sent the length of the stroke, and d the diameter of the wheel,
then, the constant resistance ¢ will be to the pressure upon the
piston, which would counteract it, in the ratio of ]:_314164,
which is the ratio of the spaces passed over by the piston and
the engine. When the engine is loaded and working with a pres-
sure of 50 lb. per square inch of the pistons of two nine-inch
cylinders, the whole pressure on the pistons will be 6367 Ib.
which, when diminished in the ratio of 1: #14+*¢ , will be the
pressure producing friction in the other partsof the engine; if d=3
and 7=— 2, its numerical value will be 2702 lb. - Part of this is
absorbed by the constant resistance c; and, therefore, 2702-c will
represent the effective load or pressure producing resistance in
the rubbing parts of the engine when loaded. Hence, as the re-
sistances are in the ratio of the pressures, we have 484-c : 113-c
= 2702-c: c and c= 98.3 nearly ; therefore the resistances from
friction when the engine was loaded will be 385.7 and when un-
loaded 14.7. «

The steam pressure required to overcome the friction of the
pistons in the cylinders will be therefore, 98.3 x 5-14164 — 93]
Ib. This result is remarkable, as it is very far below the theo-
retical value of this kind of resistance: since there will be pro-
bably about 100 square inches of rubbing surface in each cylin-
der, the resistance is not quite 1} lb. per square inch of rubbing
surface *.

The resistance created by the friction of the whole machi-
nery, may be expressed as a multiple of either the pressure. of
the steam on the piston, or of the load attached to the engine ;
and if the numerical values of the quantities in question were to

* It would be interesting to know what pressure will render oiled hemp,
or such substances as are used in packing the piston, impervious tosteam. The
experiment could be easily made, by exposing the substances (compressed be-
tween drilled plates) to the pressure of steam of different elasticities.

26 Mr Adamson on Rail-Roads.

be depended on, we should be able to tell exactly either the
steam power and weight of the engine necessary to carry a given
load, or determine correctly the load which any given steam
power could overcome. We are perhaps most in doubt respect-
ing the relation between the weight of an engine and its power,
or between the size of the boiler and the force of the steam which
it can be made to afford. As there is a certain velocity of the
piston which produces a maximum of effect, it is clear that
this velocity alone should be preserved as much as possible, and
the velocity of the load should be determined by the machinery,
independent of that of the piston. Each engine ought, in fact,
to be constructed for one determined velocity ; and as the dimi-
nution of the engine’s power by its friction, increases as its weight
increases, it will be less expensive to have light engines and high
yelocities. None of those, as yet in use have been intended to ~
travel faster than 6 miles per hour. The highest velocity which
I have witnessed was about twice this ; but then the force of the
steam was lost on account of the excessive velocity of the piston,
—there was no load to be overcome except the friction of the
engine ; and even this was diminished by the engine-man assist-
ing to open and shut the valves. The experiments by Mr
Wood, from which an estimate has been drawn of the trayel-
ling engine’s work, cannot by any means give too favourable a
measure of it : for the progressive effort of the engine, or that
part of its power exerted on the load, must, on account of the
undulation of the road, have varied in the ratio of 1 : 8, and there
must have been a corresponding variation in the rate of the pis-
ton. Such inequalities in the load, and in the velocity of the
machinery, are a disadvantage attending the application of steam
power to rail-roads in every form, except when a dead level can
be secured. The greatest irregularities would be found, when
a fixed engine was made to work over a considerable extent of
country, if such a thing were possible. But the applicability of
this method of using the steam-engine must be reduced far with-
in the limits which Mr Tredgold assigns to it. The risk of in-
terruption, in the traffic of a whole line, by the failure of one en-
gine, is almost decisive against the system ; and, besides this oc-
casional inconvenience, there would be the constant one of being

Mr Adamson on Rail-Roads. 27

obliged to have at one time, on a long line of road, no more
than that quantity of goods which the ropes or chains were cal-
culated to bear, while no other power could be employed on the
same line to remedy its failure or add to its capabilities. The
great and continual expence of renewing the exposed parts of
the machinery, in addition to these inconveniences, ought to be a
good reason for preferring even very expensive excavations to
this method of avoiding them.

We could bring the fixed engine and the locomotive engine
more directly into comparison, if we could tell exactly the loss
of effect incident to each, in moving a given weight over a cer-
tain space. Whenever the friction of the rope or chain and its
rollers becomes the same proportional part of the load, as the loco-
motive engine’s friction is of its load, we may consider this waste
of power as equal. Mr Wood’s experiments on inclined planes
afford us the means of approximating to a decision on this point,
though we must regret that the instances of the kind required
are too few, and too little varied, to lead us to certainty. If we
compare Nos. 14. and 15. of these experiments, we find that
the friction of a rope of a certain length, is represented in these
two cases by the numbers 239 tb. and 250 tb., of which the dif-
ference is 11 Ib. Now, this rope was, at the upper end of the
plane, bent round a large fixed pulley or friction-wheel, the re-
sistance to the revolution of which, independent of the friction
produced by its own weight, we may assume as increasing in
proportion to the tension of the rope; but from the manner in
which the rope acts on the other friction rollers, the retardation
caused by them may safely be assumed as constant. By exam-
ining the details of the experiments, we find that the tension of
the rope, in the 15th experiment, was greater than it was in
the 14th, in the proportion of 1+ mm : 1. This determines
what fractional part of the friction of the large wheel, the dif-
ference of 11 tb. will amount to; and we will thus have
11 x 5.27, or 58 Tb. as the resistance presented by the large
wheel with the lighter load. The friction of the wheel caused
by its own weight, will, by Mr Wood’s rules, amount to 14 tb.,
and thus 72 tb will be the total friction of this part of the ma-
chinery ; if this be subtracted from the total resistance of the

28 Mr Adamson on Rail-Roads.

rope, rollers, &c. it will have 147 tb. as the friction of the rope,
and the smaller rollers on which it rests. This is at the rate of
362 tb. per mile, and equal to about one-fifth of the strain to
which the rope was exposed ; and therefore the utmost strain to
which, from this example, a similar rope ought to be exposed,
is the friction of 5 miles of rope of the same thickness, resting
on the same proportion of rollers of the same weight. If we
make m represent the distance at which the expenditure of
power in overcoming the friction of the rope by the fixed en-
gine is equal to that expended by the locomotive engines, in
moving themselves, and let ¢ represent the strain upon the rope,
or power of the fixed engine, independent of its own friction,

will be, in this case, the resistance of the rope of the fixed

engine, and will represent the friction of the locomotive engines ;
and, assuming that their friction is half the power available to
move the load, or one-third of the power of the engine, then
2 =53 hence m = 12, the distance in miles. As the un-
certain amount of the friction of the fixed engine and its rope-
roll has not {been taken into account, we may perhaps con-
clude, that the moving of goods by means of a rope of a greater
length than 13 miles, will always be more expensive than their
conveyance by locomotive engines, when there is no ascent on
the line. To find the more general formula for an ascent, we
must make the gravitating force of the load and of the rope to
become elements in the equation. Now, as the weight of the
rope per mile is nearly three times the strain to which it is sub-
jected, making sin 7 to represent the inclination, 3 ¢ sin é will be

the gravitating force of the rope; hence m’ x (; + 3¢ sin i)
will represent the whole loss of force incident to the fixed en-
gine, from the weight and friction of the rope. Now, as = t is
the progressive effort or adhesion of the locomotive engines,
25 x = t will be their weight; and the loss of power incident to
them, which is to be equal to that lost by the fixed engines, ac-

cording to the foregoing deductions, will be 5 (1 + 50 sin i);

Mr Adamson on Rail-Roads. 29

hence,
; ». & 1+ 50 sini
™ > BS T-pde sina

which is the same equation as before, when sini = 0, When
sini = 7;, then m’ = 3.125; in which case, the power of the
locomotive engine ceases, and the resistance of the rope becomes
equal to the whole strain placed upon it. This must be consi-
dered as, on those conditions, the limit of the length of a stage
between two fixed engines, and since a chain of short links, of
the same strength as a rope, would be heavier, and would re-
quire heavier rollers, but would not acquire so great an excess
of strength, to compensate for its wasting, the substitution of it
would probably make no great change on the results.

It appears, then, that if a line of road were worked by fixed
engines, the number must be very great; and though certainly
the expenditure of power, on a given conveyance, may be ren-
dered less than is required by locomotive engines, provided the
distances between the stations be less than those determined by
the preceding rules, yet, when we consider the many inconve-
niences to which the employment of them subjects us, we must
conclude that they should be resorted to only when other means
are inapplicable. They possess no peculiar advantages, as to
safety, to counterbalance those defects ; any danger arising from
liability in the carriages to be overturned, or from swiftness of
motion, should the machinery be suddenly stopped, will be the
same in both cases, or will be increased by the employment of
fixed engines. Carriages containing any persons, or any pro-
perty easily injured, may be kept at a safe distance from a
travelling engine, so as to be unendangered by its casualties,
and easily brought to rest, before reaching it ; but would be ex-
posed to a dangerous concussion by a pause in the machinery
of the fixed engine. The locomotive engines must certainly be
high pressure-engines, but, from their size and treatment, are far
more likely to be deficient in the power of generating steam, than
able to spare any for explosions. There are circumstances, also,
which render the employment of the high pressure-engine less
dangerous in this form than in other cases. The distance at
which it may be made to act, will render injury very impro-
bable to all, except those in immediate attendance on it; and the

30 Mr Adamson on Rail-Roads.

slight oscillatory motions, to which the machine must always be
liable, may be employed to keep the safety-valves from becom-
ing fastened or rusted in their sockets.

For this purpose, it is only necessary to detach the valve from
the lever, upon which the principal compressing weight is hung,
and giving it the shape of a ball resting in a socket, to attach to
it a considerable weight, hanging like a pendulum inside the
boiler. This interior weight may also be so disposed as to give
intimation of over-feeding with water, as the fluid, when it
reaches the weight, will buoy it up, and help to open the valve.
The method of conveying the heat through the boiler in a longi-
tudinal tube, completely surrounded by the water, appears best
fitted for deriving from the fuel all the advantage it can afford.
A cylindrical tube has hitherto been used in the locomotive en-
gine ; but there are other forms which would expose more sur-
face to the action of the flame, with equal security against the
pressure within. Probably this pressure may even be convert-
ed into the means of safety. If the tube were elliptical, and
on that account ready to yield in one direction sooner than ano-
ther, this yielding may be employed to pull open a valve, and
allow the steam to escape, when the pressure approaches to any
dangerous intensity. The whole apparatus of the engine is sus-
ceptible of numberless different forms; and it is not too much
to expect, that the mechanical knowledge and ingenuity of our
countrymen will lead them to many more perfect than those yet in
use. As far as I know, none has yet worked so advantageously
as those constructed according to the patent of Messrs Stephen-
son and Losh, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and employed at the col-
leries of Killingworth and Hetton, in that neighbourhood.

The estimates of the expence of the employment of steam
power upon rail-roads, do not seem in its favour, when com-
pared with horses moving at the velocity most favourable to
them, provided the cost of coals continues to bear the same ratio
to the expence of supporting horses as it does at present in those
districts of the kingdom where such constructions are likely to be
advantageous. Where coals are 10s. per ton, the total expence
per annum of a locomotive engine, including allowance for wear
and tear, and interest on its value, will be L.330; the work
done will, if or eas by their performance at Killingworth, be

Mr Adamson on Rail-Roads. 31

126,000 tons conveyed one mile in $12 days. The performance
at the Hetton colliery, during the same period, amounted to
198,000 tons conveyed one mile. The difference arises from the
greater regularity of the line in the latter case. The effect, in
the one case, is equal to somewhat more than that of three
horses; and, in the other, somewhat more than four. The ex-
pence of neither of which, including that of their attendance, is
likely to amount to the annual cost of the locomotive engine.
But as the velocity in those cases is not much above the ordinary
rate at which a horse travels, this may be looked upon as far
under the rate of performance they are capable of attaining to.
For few of the items composing the whole expence, are increased
by increasing the speed of the engine, while its performance must
increase in the rate of the velocity ; so that a rate of speed may
be found at which conveyance by them, will be cheaper than by
horses moving at the velocity most favourable for their action.
But the great advantage of steam-power lies in the economy
with which quickness of motion may be produced. According to
Mr Wood's estimate, an engine, which, at the velocity of two
miles per hour, performs the work of four horses, will, at the
rate of six miles per hour, perform the work of twelve horses.
The increase of expence consequent on the increase of velocity,
has not yet, I imagine, been correctly ascertained. It is evident,
however, that it cannot approach to the ratio of the performances
at the higher and lower velocity. It is well understood, that
goods can be conveyed at a slow rate on a canal much cheaper
than by any other method; and that as the motion is made
quicker, the superiority of the canal vanishes ; but in comparing
them with rail-roads, the rate which produces equal effects with
the same power has been stated at different values, generally,
however, lying between three and four miles per hour, and vary-
ing with the shape of the tracts and size of the canal ; for all ve-
locities beyond this, the advantage of the rail-road augments in
a high ratio. The system of water conveyance we must look
upon as nearly perfect; and the other as yet offering many
chances of improvement; and from its applicability in some of
its many forms to all imaginable situations, and its success in
those wherein it has been attempted, we must esteem it eminent-
ly worthy of having its properties more accurately investigated.

82 Mr W. E. Cormack on the Natural History and

On the Natural History and Economical Uses of the Cod, Ca-
pelin, Cuttle-Fish, and Seal, as they occur on the Banks of
Newfoundland, and the Coasts of that Island and Labrador*.

- Communicated in a Letter to Professor Jamrson, by W. E.
Cormack, Esq. +

Or the fishes of the British North American Seas, the most
abundant is, at the same time, the most important to man.
The cod (Gadus Morhua) here holds dominion over all the
habitable parts of the ocean,—from the outer edges of the great
banks of Newfoundland, which are more than 300 miles from
land, and more than 100 fathoms deep, to the verges of every
creek and cove of the bounding coasts: it even ascends into the
fresh-water.

To support such a mass of living beings, the ocean sends her
periodical masses of other living beings ; and these, in the eco-
nomy of nature, are next in importance, and, of necessity, in
abundance in these seas. Nature furnishes two successive tribes
of animals as food for one tribe; and for the three together, this
busiest part of the ocean seems to exist.

The Cod.—The cod is accompanied at one season by shoals
of myriads of the capelin (Salmo arcticus), and at another by
equal hosts of that molluscous animal the cuttle-fish (Sepia Lo-
ligo), called in Newfoundland the Squid. The three animals
are migratory ; and man, who stations himself on the shores for
their combined destruction, conducts his movements according
to their migrations. By art, he captures annually more than two
hundred millions of the cod with the capelin, and one hundred
millions with the cuttle-fish. On the coast of Labrador, and
in the north part of Newfoundland, the cod is so abundant, that
it is hauled on shore with lines in vast quantities. Thus, by
these three means, and the use of herrings and shell-fish for bait,

* Read before the Wernerian Natural History Society, 14th January 1826,

+ The interesting details in this communication, are the result of the au-
thor’s inquiries and observations in Newfoundland. Mr Cormack, who is an ac-
tive and intelligent Newfoundland merchant, has already distinguished himself,
by being the first European who succeeded in crossing Newfoundland ; of which
achievment an account, with a map of the route, was published in the 10th vo-
lume of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, p. 56, et seqg.—Ep,

3

Economical Uses of the Cod at Newfoundland. 38

along the southern shores of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, there
is caught in the British North American Seas, upwards of four
hundred millions of cod annually.

There appear to be four varieties or kinds of the cod in these
seas ; but their history has not been sufficiently attended to, to
determine their relations to each other as species or variety.
The first is the ank-cod, found on the great bank, many miles
from land; the second is the shore-cod, caught im the bays
around the shores, and in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence; the
third is the ved-cod (Gadus callarias), resembling the rock-cod
or red-ware codling of Scotland, caught near the shores ; the
fourth and most remarkable, is what may be called the Sea/-
headed-cod, from its head resembling that of a sealordog. The
haddock (Gadus Aglefinus ), of a large size, is also met with
among the proper cod. All the kinds approach towards one size,
and are caught and dried promiscuously by the fishermen. The
bank-cod differs from the other varieties in his place of resort,
which is almost always on the banks, at a distance from land ; he
is also larger and stronger, with larger scales and spots ; his body
is of a lighter colour throughout, with the spots more generally
diffused, and more distinctly marked ; his flesh, too, is firmer.
The shore-cod resembles most the cod in a healthy state on the:
coasts of Britain, and is that of which the greatest quantity is
caught, owing to its being most conveniently taken: the back
is of a dusky brown colour; the belly, silvery or yellowish, and
the spots in general not remarkably distinct. The red cod is,
probably, larger than our rock-cod, and is not numerous. The
seal-headed cod, is of the same colour and size as the shore-cod,
and its head is, in like manner, covered with skin; and it is com-
paratively rare. The young cod, tom-cod, or podley, swarms
in summer in all the harbours and shallow-waters.

There are some other differences in the cod, which may part-
ly arise from difference of latitude and of coasts where they are
found. ‘Thus, the farther north, the less oil is obtained from
them, their livers being smaller; and the bank-cod yields the
least oil of any.

The cod is sometimes caught six feet in length; but there are
accounts of its having been taken larger. All the kinds of cod
obey the same general laws of migration. They shift according

APRIL—JULY 1826. c

54 Mr W. E. Cormack on the Natural History and

to the changes of temperature in their element, arising from the
seasons, and with the supplies of food which invariably accom-
pany these changes. ‘The bank-cod seems to be the most sta-
tionary.

As we advance northward from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence,
the migrations of the cod assume a more decided character,
and it strikes in in greater abundance. This holds as far
north as fishing-posts have yet been established on the coast
of Labrador. The same applies to the migrations and abun-
dance of the other fishes inhabiting these seas, more especially
of those connected with the cod, and they arise together from
the same general causes. In the Gulf of Saint Lawrence,
Lat. 45° 48°, particularly along the shores of Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, Canada, and the adjacent islands, where shell-fish
are more abundant than farther to the north, and where,
perhaps, in consequence, more other fishes remain during the
winter, the herring * arrives in spring, about the same time that
it arrives on the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador, in
April and May, when the cod, in consequence, becomes proba-
bly equally abundant at all places; but afterwards, worlds of
food arrive on the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador; first
the capelin, over the shores of both these countries, and then,
again, the cuttle-fish, around the shores of Newfoundland ; they
never failing to bring in with them their hosts of cod, and to re-
tain them at these shores during the summer. Neither the cape-
lin, nor any equivalent, ever appears at the countries farther
south, although the cuttle-fish visits, and sometimes in consider-
able quantities, the east coast of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton ;
Hence the pre-eminence of Newfoundland and Labrador as a
fishing-station, over every other part of the northern hemisphere.

At Labrador, and in the north part of Newfoundland, where
the length of the summer is not more than six weeks or two
months, the hook and line are often laid aside for the seine; for
it is necessary that enough of cod should be taken within the
first two or three weeks, otherwise the remainder of the warm
weather would not be sufficient to dry it. Hence the cod-fishery,

* The Alewife or Gaspereau visits the coasts of the countries just named, No-
va Scotia, &c., but is never met with at Newfoundland, nor farther north,

Economical Uses of the Cod at Newfoundland. 35

according to the present mode of curing, which is, with the ex-
ception of a very trifling proportion, by drying the fish in the
sun, cannot be carried on farther north than a certain latitude.

The fishery of Newfoundland commences in June, as soon as
the capelin appears on the coast, and ends about the beginning
of September, when the cuttle-fish begins to move off from the
shores. The capelin is the bait used during the first month or
six weeks, and after that the cuttle-fish.

When bait is scarce, considerable numbers of cod are caught
by jigging ; the jiggers being an artificial bait, with hooks af-
fixed.

The process of curing the cod requires about a month in
favourable weather.

Of the four hundred millions and upwards of cod that are
taken annually out of the British North American Seas, about
one hundred millions, or upwards of sixty thousand tons, are ex-
ported in a dried state by the British, to the warm countries of
Europe and America: Of the remainder, a part equal to double
that of the British is taken away by the Americans,—a part by
the French,—and a part is consumed in the countries themselves.

It is from the livers of the cod-fish, that the cod-oil of com-
merce is made. ‘These are exposed in casks, and sometimes in
vats, to the sun, and the heat in all these countries is sufficient
to render them into oil*. There is a falling off, some years, in
the average quantity of oil obtained from the cod throughout
the British fisheries ; but as the French have the exclusive pri-
vilege of fishing at those parts of the island where the different
kinds of fish abound most, it is probable that the quantity of
oil in proportion to the quantity of fish caught, including all
the fisheries, in any one year may not vary much,

As the sun withdraws from the north, the temperature of the
surface-water decreases ; its vivifying principle vanishes, and it
is no longer inviting to the free inhabitants of the deep. The
cuttle-fish begins to retire, and with it man ends his warfare with
the cod. All feel the warning, and begin to retire to the strong-
holds in their respective elements, leaving the field of their in-

* There ought to be obtained from all the cod caught, twenty-five thousand
tons of oil, about five to six thousand tons of which are exported by the British,
chiefly to Britain: ,

.o

Cw

36 Mr W. E. Cormack on the Natural History and

dustry and summer rejoicing, where air, earth, and water, had

met in harmony together, soon to become the conflicting scene
of an arctic winter.

Of the Capelin.—The value of this delicate and interesting
little fish may be estimated, when it is known to constitute the
bait with which more than half the cod caught in these seas are
taken. The capelin arrives on the coasts of these countries to
spawn about the end of June, and departs about the end of
July and beginning of August. It arrives at Labrador about
a month Jater, and remains from two to four months. Its num-
bers are often truly wonderful. Immediately on its arrival, it
pushes its dense shoals into the small bays and creeks, as if to
shun the jaws of the millions of its devouring enemies, the cod,
and many other fishes which had followed it from the deep, and
which remain arrayed at a little distance, impatient for its de-
struction, These massive clouds of capelin are sometimes more
than fifty miles long, and many miles broad. Their spawn is
sometimes thrown up along the beaches, forming masses of con-
siderable thickness, most of which is carried back into the sea
by a succeeding tide or two.

The capelin is six or seven inches in length; although the
males sometimes occur nearly twice the ordinary size. It is
caught for bait, in nets constructed of different forms for the
purpose. It possesses some peculiar quality, which unfits it to be
cured for domestic use like the herring, and is, therefore, mere-
ly dried in the sun. Whether the migration of the capelin is
‘to and from the north sea, or limited to the adjacent deep-
waters, does not appear to be yet well ascertained, notwithstand-
ing that its appearance and disappearance at all parts of these
coasts are watched, as important events, by every fisherman. On
the great scale, it is as regular and certain in its appearance and
disappearance, as the herring is on the coasts of Europe. It
generally appears some days earlier at the south-east parts of
Newfoundland, than at the neighbouring parts of the island far-
ther to the north ; and from its leading in the bank-cod to these
places (as in 1825), it would seem to have come in from the
Great Bank. There is little doubt that it is on the banks at
certain seasons, as is shewn not merely by the circumstance of

Economical Uses of the Capelin and Cuttle-Fish. 37

its appearing to have led in the cod from thence towards the
shores, but by the fact, that, very early in spring, and some
weeks before it appears every where at the shores, the cod on the
banks take it very readily as a bait salted, when, at the same
time, the cod at the shore will not take it in that state. It is
well known, that the cod will take readily as a bait, on the great
scale, that only which is its common food at the time; and, in
the present case, as soon as the capelin arrives at the shores, the
bank-cod, which we infer to have followed it from the banks,
not only continue to take it salted *, but the shore-cod which re-
fused it before, now take it fresh and salted promiscuously +.

The Cuttle-Fish.— About the beginning of August, the
throngs of capelin which had enlivened the shores, give way to
throngs of the cuttle-fish. This animal seems to succeed the
other, as if to supply immediately provision to the cod. It is
of equal importance in Newfoundland as the capelin, as it is
the bait with which the other half of the cod here is caught.

The cuttle-fish does not appear at Labrador in quantities the
same as at Newfoundland ;—from which it might be inferred
that it migrates only to and from the adjacent deep waters.

The common size of this animal is from 6 to 10 inches in
length ; but it has been met with of colossal size. During vio-
lent gales of wind, hundreds of tons of them are often thrown
up together in beds on the flat beaches, the decay of which
spreads an intolerable effluvium around. It begins to retire from
the coast in September. It is made no use of except for bait ;
and as it maintains itself in deeper water than the capelin, in-
stead of nets being used to take it, it is jigged; a jigger being
a number of hooks radiating from a fixed centre, made for the
purpose. The cod is in best condition after having fed on it.

When shoals of the cuttle-fish and of the capelin come in
contact, the latter always retreat, and from the wounds they

* The capelin are salted the preceding year purposely, to fish for the cod on
the banks earlier in the ensuing spring than the cod nearer the shore can be
caught; that is before the capelin has struck in.

+ The capelin is also sometimes taken in the month of April, by the seal-
ing vessels, among the ice on the banks, more than 200 miles from the land; and
then it is found also in the stomachs of the seals ;—no doubt on its migration at
that time from the deeps over the banks towards the const,

88 Mr W. E. Cormack on the Natural History and

carry with them, are sufferers in an attack: These animals dart
backwards and forwards with a quickness which the capelin
cannot escape.

The cuttle-fish is supposed to impart the crimson colour which
the sea exhibits in various parts here, during the latter part of
summer. ‘The water of the harbour of St John’s, two miles in
extent, sometimes exhibits the phenomenon.

It may be unnecessary to say that the migrations of the cod,
of the capelin, and of the cuttle-fish, are only once a year *.

Of the Seals.—Newfoundland, owing to its projecting into
the Atlantic eastward from Labrador, intercepts many of the
immense fields and islands of ice, which, in the spring, move
south from the Arctic Sea. These fields of ice, in their origi-
nal formation, present, at their edges, a sufficient barrier against
the inroads of the ocean; and they are so extensive, that their
interior parts, with the openings or lakes interspersed, notwith-
standing the rage of elements around, remain serene and un-
broken: Here are the chosen transitory abodes of millions of
seals,—here these animals enjoy months of peace and security,
to bring forth and nurture their young. Such fields collect
on the coasts of Newfoundland, and, as it were, offer to the in-
habitants the treasures they bring: The island is periodically
surrounded by them for many leagues in all directions,—the in-
habitants within the dazzling bulwark being as impotent to-
wards the rest of the world, as the rest of the world is towards
them.

The all-efficient sun, gradually returning, liberates the fields
of ice from the shores to which they had for a time become at-
tached, and enables man again to expose himself with impunity
in his own element.

In the month of March, upwards of 300 vessels, fitted out
for the seal-fishery, are extricated from the icy harbours on the
east coast of Newfoundland ;—the fields are now all in motion,
and the vessels plunge directly into the edges of such as appear

* The cuttle-fish occurs in abundance in many of our estuaries and coasts,
but has hitherto been considered as of no value. Now that it is known to
form an excellent. bait for cod, and even for other fishing, it is not to be
doubted that it will in future, in this country, be used with equal advantage
and profit as a bait for the capture of our cod, ling, &c.—Ep.

Economical Uses of the Seal, at Newfoundland. 39

to have seals on them;—the crews, armed with heavy firelocks
and bludgeons, there Jand, and, in the course of a few weeks,
destroy nearly 300,000 of these animals for their fat and skins.
The skins, with the fat which surrounds the body, are taken off
together, and the scalped carcases left on the ice. When the
vessels are loaded with these scalps, or otherwise, when the ice
is scattered and dissolved by the advancing spring, which it al-
ways is, except the islands, before the middle of May, they re-
turn to their respective ports; the fat is then separated from
the skins, and exposed in vats to the heat of the sun, where,
in from three to five weeks, it is rendered into the seal-oil cf com-
merce*. The field-ice extends, with interruptions, more than
200 miles off the land, but the vessels in general have not to go
so far to look for the seals: The fields are even met with at
sea continuous in a northerly and southerly direction for that
extent, at that distance from land.

As these fields of ice are not formed at Newfoundland, and
only partially formed at Labrador, the herds of seals which are
found on them, when they appear at these places, must have
come from the sea farther north, where the main body of the
ice is formed, viz. from the Greenland Sea, and that in the vi-
cinity of Davis’ Straits. The Greenland winter, it would ap-
pear, is too severe for these animals, and when it sets in, they
accompany the field-ice, which winds and currents carry south-
ward, and remain on it until it is scattered and dissolved in the
ensuing spring, in about Lat. 43° N., or about 200 miles south
of Newfoundland. Old and young of these animals being then
deserted in the ocean by their birth-place, nature points out to
them the course to their favourite icy haunts, and thither their
herds hurry over the deep to pass an arctic summer. Winter
returns, and with it commences again their annual migration
from latitude to latitude.

There are five different kinds of seals found on the field-ice
at Newfoundland, all known in the Greenland seas. ‘The three
best known of which are, lst, The Harp ( Phoca groenlandica ),
the one-year old of which is called the Bedlimmer; 2d, The
Hood or Hooded Seal ( Phoca leonina, ); and, 3d, The Square-
i ok ee oo ee a RR: | wa

* From 3000 to 4000 tons of seal-oil, according to the success of the fish-
ery, is made annually. ‘The seal-fishery is prosecuted by the British only.

40 Mr W. E. Cormack on the Natural History and

fipper. The other two kinds are the Blue Seal, so called from
its colour, which is as large as the Hooded Seal; and the Jar
Seal, so named from its form resembling that of a jar, thick at
the shoulders, and tapering off suddenly towards the tail; head
small, body 4 or 5 feet long, the fur spotted, and it keeps more
in the water than the other ice-seals. These all differ from
the shore or harbour-seal ( Phoca vitulina ) of these coasts. The
ice-seals are alike migratory, and promiscuously gregarious ; they
differ much in size, and the flesh of them all is very unpalateable,
unless to an acquired taste, more particularly that of the old
ones, differing in this respect from the flesh of the shore-seal,
some parts of which are very good. It remains to be pro-
ved, that some of the alleged differences in the ice-seals do not
arise from age. Although the ice-seals, which are sometimes
met with in herds of many leagues in extent on the ice, seem
to have no ordinary means of subsistence, yet the hand of un-
erring Providence maintains both old and young excessively
fat. The seal-hunters often find fresh capelin and other ani-
mal substances in their stomachs.

Notwithstanding the apparently immense annual destruction
by man among the cod in these seas for more than two centu-
ries, it does not appear that their numbers are at all diminished,
or that their migrations are in any way affected: Nor is it likely
that they ever will be, if we may judge from the migratory fishes
of Europe that have been persecuted for many more centuries,
between the North Cape and the South of England.

It is not so, however, with those animals which man can pur-
sue in his own element ;—thus, the walrus and the penguin,
once abundant, may be said now to have entirely disappeared
from the Gulf of St Laurence.

As the persecution of the seals in the field-ice increases, which
it has, every year since it commenced, it will be interesting to
observe, at some future day not far distant, the effect on their
numbers. It is not much more than thirty years since any
vessels ventured out among the ice at sea, purposely equipped
and manned for their destruction. "

The cod, the capelin, and the cuttle-fish, in their natural
connection, and the seal, or rather the cod and the seal, consti-

+

Economical Uses of the Cod, Capelin, Cuttle-Fish, &c. 41

‘tute the political value of Newfoundland and Labrador, and
render these otherwise desolate and inhospitable regions the scene
of rivalry of British, French, and American national enter-
prise and industry *. The day is not far distant when vessels
will be fitted out direct from Britain for the seal-fishery at
Newfoundland.

Description of a New Reflecting Telescope, denominated the
Aérial Reflector. By Tuomas Dicx, Esq. Author of the
Christian Philosopher, &e. Communicated by the Author.

"Tue invention of the Reflecting Telescope was an important
improvement on the long and unwieldy refractors, which were
in use among astronomers towards the close of the 17th century.
With a Newtonian reflector, only six feet long, celestial objects
may be viewed with as high a magnifying power, and with equal
distinctness, as with a common refracting telescope of 120 feet
in length. By means of these instruments, the late Dr Her-
schel: made those brilliant discoveries which have extended our
views of the solar system, and of the grandeur of the universe,
and which have rendered his name immortal in the annals of as-
tronomy. It was not a little singular, however, that more than
half a century elapsed, after the construction of this instrument
was suggested by Gregory and Newton, before any reflecting
telescope of a size calculated for celestial observation was actual-
ly constructed. In the year 1663, Mr James Gregory of Aber-
deen published his account of the construction of that form of
the reflecting telescope, which bears his name, in a treatise en-
titled ** Optica promota ;” and in the year 1672, Sir Isaac New-
ton constructed two small reflecting telescopes, about six inches

* The herring, mackerel, and whale, are in abundance at Newfoundland,
and comparatively allowed to pass unmolested. The herring varies in size,
from small to several pounds weight. The whale is of three or four kinds,
and the fishery of it is prosecuted only by one enterprizing English mercan-
tile house at the south part of the island; the whales have been taken up-
wards of 70 feet in length, vielding from six to eight tons of oil. The salmon
abounds in all the rivers, and is taken in large quantities. The dog-fish

sometimes occurs with the “eT, numbers.
q

42 Mr Dick’s Description of a new Reflecting Telescope,

in length, of a form somewhat different from that proposed by
Gregory, which he presented to the Royal Society: But we
hear no more about the construction of reflectors, till the year
1723, when Mr Hadley published, in No. 376 of the Philosophi-
cal Transactions, an account of a large Newtonian reflector,
which he had just then constructed, and which left no room to
fear that this invention would remain any longer in obscurity.
The large speculum of this instrument was 623 inches focal dis-
tance, and 5! inches diameter, was furnished with magnifying
powers of from 190 to 230 times, and equalled in performance,
the famous aérial telescope of Huygens of 123 feet in length *.
Since this period, the reflecting telescope has been in general
use among astronomers in most countries of Europe, and has
received numerous improvements, under the direction of Short,
Mudge, Edwards and Herschel, the last of whom constructed
reflectors of 7, 10, 20, and even 40 feet in focal length, which
far surpassed in brightness and magnifying power, all the instru-

ments of this description, which had previously been attempted. .

Having constructed and made a variety of experiments on
small Gregorian reflectors, I was generally disappointed in my
expectations of the effects produced by their performance; and
had always recourse to achromatic telescopes, both in terres-
trial and celestial observations, where brightness, distinctness and
accuracy, were required. This might be owing, in part, toade-
ficiency in the figure and polish of the specula I made use of
in these instruments ; but in all the Gregorian telescopes I have
had occasion to use, there is a certain degree of dinginess and
obscurity, which renders their performance less pleasant, and
far inferior to that of good achromatic refractors. About four
years ago, anold speculum, 27 inches in focal distance, very im-
perfectly polished, having accidentally come into my possession,
and feeling no inclination to fit it up in the Gregorian form, I
formed the resolution of throwing aside the small speculum, and
attempting the front view, notwithstanding the uniform asser-
tion of opticians, that such an attempt in instruments of a small
size is impracticable. I had some grounds for expecting suc-

* A particular description of this telescope, with the machinery for moving it,
illustrated with an engraving, may be seen in Reid and Gray’s “ Abridgment of
the Phil. Transactions,” vol. vi. part i. p. 147.

«

denominated the Aérial Reflector. 43

cess in this attempt, from several experiments I had previously
made, particularly from some modifications I had made in the
construction of astronomical eye-pieces, which have a tendency
to correct the aberration of the rays of light, when they proceed
somewhat obliquely from a lens or speculum.

In the first instance, I placed the speculum at the one end of
a tube, of the form of a segment of a cone, the end next the eye
being somewhat wider than that at which the speculum was fix-
ed, and its length about an inch shorter than the focal distance of
the mirror. A small tube for receiving the different eye-pieces was
fixed in the inside of the large tube, at the end opposite to the
speculum, and connected with an apparatus, by which it’could oc-
casionally be moved either in a vertical or a horizontal direction.
With the instrument fitted up in this manner, I obtained
some very pleasant and interesting views of the moon, and of
terrestrial objects. But finding that one side of the tube inter-
cepted a considerable portion of light from the object, I deter-
mined to throw aside the tube altogether, and to fit up the in-
strument on a different plan. A short mahogany tube, about
three inches long, was prepared, to serve as a socket for holding
the speculum. To the side of this tube an arm was attached,
about the length of the focal distance of the mirror, at the ex-
tremity of which a brass tube, for receiving the eye-pieces, was
fixed, connected with screws and sockets, by which it might be
raised or depressed, and turned to the right hand or to the left,
and with adjusting apparatus, by which it might be brought
nearer to or farther from the speculum.

Plate I. Fig. 1. Exhibits a general representation of.the in-
strument in profile. AB is the short tube which holds the spe-
culum ; CD the arm which carries the eye-tubes, which consists
of two distinct pieces of mahogany ; the part D being capable
of sliding along the under side of C, through the brass sockets
EF. To the under part of the socket F is attached a brass
nut, with a female serew, in which the male screw a4, acts, by
applying the hand to the knob c, which serves for adjusting the
i ment to distinct vision. G is the brass tube which receives
re on It is supported by a strong brass wire de, which
passes through a nut connected with another strong wire, which
passes through the arm D. By means of the nut f, this tube

44 Mr Dick’s Description of a New Reflecting Telescope,

may be elevated or depressed, and firmly fixed in its proper posi-
tion; and by the nut g, it may be brought nearer to, or farther
from, the arm D. By the same apparatus, it is also rendered
capable of being moved either in avertical or a horizontal direc-
tion: but when it is once adjusted to its proper position, it must
be firmly fixed, and requires no farther attention. The eye-piece
represented in this figure, is the one used for terrestrial objects,
which consists of the tubes belonging to a small achromatic tele-
scope. When an astronomical eye-piece is used, the length of
the instrument extends only to the point I. In looking through
this telescope, the right eye is applied at the point H, and the
observer’s head is understood to be uncovered. For those who
use only the left eye, the arm would require to be placed on the
opposite side of the tube, or the tube, along with the arm, be
made to turn round 180 degrees.

Fig. 2. Represents a front or rather an oblique view of the
instrument, in which the position of the speculum may be seen.
All the specula which I have fitted up in this form, having been
originally intended for Gregorian reflectors, have holes in their
centres. The eye-piece is, therefore, directed to a point nearly
equidistant from the hole to the exterior edge of the speculum,
that is, to the point a. In one of these instruments fitted up
with a four feet speculum, the line of vision is directed to the
point &, on the opposite side of the speculum ; but, in this case,
the eye-tube is removed farther from the arm, than in the for-
mer case. The hole in the centre of the speculum is obviously
a defect in this construction of a reflecting telescope, as it pre-
vents us from obtaining the full advantage of the rays, which
fall near the centre of the mirror; yet, the performance of the
instruments, even with this disadvantage, 1s superior to what we
should previously have been led to expect.

The principal nicety in the construction of this instrument,
consists in the adjustment and proper direction of the eye-tube.
There is only one position, in which vision will be perfectly dis-
tinct. It must neither be too high nor too low,—it must be fix-
ed at a certain distance from the arm,—and must be directed
to a certain point of the speculum. This position must be ulti-
mately determined by experiment, when viewing terrestrial ob-
jects. A person unacquainted with this construction of the te-

denominated the Aérial Reflector. 45

lescope, would, perhaps, find it difficult, in the first instance, to
make this adjustment; but, were it at any time deranged,
through accident or otherwise, I can easily make the adjustment
a-new, in the course of five or six minutes.

In pointing this telescope to the object intended to be viewed, the
eye is applied at K (fig. 1.), and looking along the arm, towards
the eye-piece, till it nearly coincide with the object, it will, in
most cases, be readily found. In this way I can easily point this
instrument to Jupiter or Saturn, or to any of the other planets
visible to the naked eye, even when a power of 170 or 180 times
is applied. When high magnifying powers, however, are used,
it is expedient to fix, on the upper part of the short tube in
which the speculum rests, a finder, such as that which is used in
Newtonian telescopes. When the moon is the object intended
to be viewed, she may be instantly found by moving the instru-
ment till her reflected image be seen from the eye-end of the te-
lescope on the face of the mirror.

I have fitted up five or six instruments of the above descrip-
tion, with specula of 8, 16, 27, 35, and 49 inches focal distance.
One of these having a speculum eight inches focus, and two in-
ches diameter, with a terrestrial eye-piece, magnifying about 24
times, forms an excellent parlour telescope, for viewing land ob-
jects, and exhibits them in a brilliant and novel aspect. When
compared with a small Gregorian, of the same size and magnify-
ing power, the quantity of light upon the object appears nearly
doubled, and the image is equally distinct. It represents ob-
jects in their natural colours, without that dingy and yellowish
tinge which appears when looking through a Gregorian. Ano-
ther of these instruments, having a speculum of 27 inches focal
distauce, and an astronomical eye-piece, producing a magnifying
power of about 100 times, serves as an excellent astronomical te-
lescope. By this instrument the belts and satellites of Jupiter,
the ring of Saturn, and the mountains and cavities of the Moon,
may be contemplated with great ease and distinctness. With a
magnifying power of 40 times, terrestrial objects appear extreme-
ly bright and well defined. Another of these instruments is a-
bout 4 feet long. The speculum which belongs to it is a very
old one : when it came into my possession, it was so completely
tarnished, as scarcely to reflect a ray of light. After it was clean.

46 Mr Dick’s Description of a New Reflecting Telescope,

ed, it appeared to be scarcely half-polished, and its surface is
variegated with yellowish stains, which cannot be erazed. Were
it fitted up upon the Gregorian plan, it would, I presume, be of
very little use, unless when a very small magnifying power was
applied. Yet, in its present form, it bears, with great distinct-
ness, a magnifying power of |'70 times, and is superior in its per-
formance to a 4 feet achromatic refractor, with a similar magni-
fying power. It exhibits very distinct and interesting views of
the diversities of shade, and of the mountains, vales, caverns,
and other inequalities of the moon’s surface. The smallest in-
strument I have fitted up on this plan is one whose speculum is
only 53 inches focal distance, and 13 inches diameter. With a
magnifying power of about 15 times, it shows land objects with
great distinetness and brilliancy. But I would deem it inexpe-
dient to fit up any instrument of this description, with specula
of a shorter focal distance than 10 or 12 inches.

The following are some of the properties and advantages pe-
culiar to this construction of the reflecting telescope.

1. It is extremely simple, and may be fitted up at a compara-
tively small expence. Instead of large and expensive brass
tubes, such as are used in the Gregorian and Newtonian con-
struction, little more is required than a short mahogany tube,
2 or 3 inches long, to serve as a socket for the speculum, with
an arm about the focal length of the mirror. The expence of
small specula, either plain or concave, is saved, together with
the numerous screws, springs, &c. for centring the two specu-
la, and placing the small mirror parallel to the large one. The
only adjustment requisite in this construction, is that of the eye-
tube to the speculum; and, by means of the simple apparatus
already described, it can be effected in the course of a few mi-
nutes. Almost the whole expence of the instrument consists in
the price of the speculum and the eye-pieces. The expence of
fitting up the four feet speculum, alluded to above, including
mahogany tube and arm, brass sockets, screws, eye-tube, brass
joint, and a cast-iron stand, painted and varnished, did not
amount to L.1, 7s. A Gregorian of the same size would have
required a brass tube at least 43 feet in length, which would
cost four or five guineas, besides the apparatus connected with
the small speculum, and the additional expence connected with

2

denominated the Aérial Reflector. 47

the fitting up of the joint and stand requisite for supporting and
steadying so unwieldy an instrument. While the one instru-
ment would require two persons to carry it from one room to
another, and would occupy a considerable portion of an ordinary
apartment, the other can be moved, with the utmost ease, to any
moderate distance, and the space it occupies is scarcely known.

2. It is more convenient for viewing celestial objects at a_
high altitude than any other telescope-——When we look through
a Gregorian reflector, or an achromatic telescope of 4 or 5
feet in length, to an object elevated: 50° or 60° above the ho-
rizon, the body requires to be placed in an uneasy and dis-
torted position, and the eye is somewhat strained, while the ob-
servation is continued. But, when observing similar objects
by the Aérial Reflector, we can either stand perfectly erect,
or sit on a chair, with the same ease as we sit at a desk when
reading a book or writing a letter. In this way, the sur-
face of the moon, or of any of the planets, may be contemplated
for an hour or two, without the least weariness or fatigue. A
delineation of the lunar surface may be taken by this instrument,
with more ease and accuracy than with any other telescope, as
the observer can sketch the outline of the object by one eye, on
a tablet placed a little below the eye-piece, while the other eye is
looking at the object. For the purpose of accommodating the
instrument to a sitting or a standing posture, I caused a small
table to be constructed, capable of being elevated or depressed
at pleasure, on which the stand of the telescope is placed. When
the telescope is 4 or 5 feet long, and the object at a very high
elevation, the instrument may be placed on the floor of the apart-
ment, and the observer will stand in an erect position.

3. This instrument is considerably shorter than a Gregorian
telescope, whose large mirror is of the same focal length. When
an astronomical eye-piece is used, the whole length of the instru-
ment is nothing more than the focal length of the speculum.
But a Gregorian, whose large speculum is 4 feet focus, will ex.
ceed 5 feet in length, including the eye-piece.

4. The * aérial reflector” far excels the Gregorian in bright-
ness. ‘he want of light in Gregorians is owing to the second
reflection from the small mirror; for, it has been fully proved by
experiment, that, about the one-half of the rays of light which

HF

48 Mr Dick’s Description of a New Reflecting Telescope,
fall upon a reflecting surface, is lost by a second reflection. The
image of the object may also be presumed to be more correct, as
it is not liable to any distortion by being reflected from another
speculum.

5. There is less tremor in these telescopes than in Gregorian
reflectors. One cause, among others, I presume, of the tremors
_ which affect Gregorians, is the formation of a second image at a
great distance from the first, besides that which arises from the
elastic tremor of the small speculum, when carried by an arm
supported only at one end. But, as the image formed by the
speculum, in the aérial telescope, is viewed directly, without be-
ing exposed to any subsequent reflection, it is not so liable to
the tremors which are so frequently experienced in other reflect-
ing telescopes. Notwithstanding the length of the arm of the
four feet telescope above mentioned, a celestial object appears re-
markably steady, when passing across the field of view, especial-
ly when it is at a moderate degree of altitude; and it is easily
kept in the field by a gentle motion applied to the arm of the
instrument.

The specula used in all the instruments to which I have alluded
aboye, are far from being good, being of a yellowish colour, and
some of them scarcely half polished. They have likewise large
holes in their centre, as they were originally intended for Grego-
rian telescopes. Were they fitted up in the Gregorian form,
they would be of little use, unless with small degrees of magni-
fying power. Yet, with all these imperfections, they exhibit the
object with more brightness and accuracy than the generality of
reflectors ; and therefore I have no doubt that, were instruments
of this construction fitted up with specula of the best figure and
polish, they would equal, if not surpass in brilliancy and distinct-
ness, the general run of achromatic telescopes.

In prosecuting my experiments jn relation to these instru-
ments, I wished to ascertain what effect might be produced by
using a part of a speculum instead of the whole. For this pur-
pose, I cut a speculum, three feet in focal length, through the
center, so as to divide it into two equal parts, and fitted up each
part as a distinct telescope; so that I obtained two telescopes
from one speculum. In this case, I found that each half of the
speculum performed as well as the whole speculum had done

2

*

=“. °°

.

denominated the Aérial Reflector. 49

before; at least there appeared to be no sensible diminution in
the brightness of the object, and the image was equally accurate
and distinct ; so that, if economy were a particular object aimed
at in the construction of these instruments, two good telescopes
might be obtained from one speculum. [I have also “some
reason to believe, that instruments of this kind might be
fitted up with glass specula. My opinion on this point, how-
_ ever, is not quite decisive, owing to the want of glass speculit
a proper figure and focal distance, on which to try the experi-
ments. With a glass speculum, however, about 11 inches focal
distance, and whose figure was obviously somewhat incorrect, I
have seen distant objects tolerably distinct and well-defined, with
magnifying powers of from 12 to 20 times.

From the experiments I have made in reference to these in-
struments, it is demonstrable, that a tube is not necessary in the
construction of a reflecting telescope, whether it be used for
viewing celestial or terrestrial objects ; and, therefore, were a re-
flecting telescope of 50 or 60 feet in length to be constructed, it
might be fitted up at a comparatively small expence, after the
charge of casting, grinding, and polishing the speculum is de-
frayed. The largest instrument of this description which has
hitherto been constructed is the 40 feet reflector of Dr Herschel.
This complicated and most unwieldy instrument has a tube of
rolled or sheet iron 39 feet 4 inches in length, and 4 feet 10 inches
in diameter, which weighs several thousands of pounds; and it
has been computed that a wooden tube, for the same purpose,
would have exceeded this in weight by at least 3000 pounds.
Now, I conceive, that such enormous tubes in instruments of
such dimensions, are altogether unnecessary. Nothing more is
requisite than a short tube for holding the speculum. Connect-
ed with one side of this tube (or with both sides were it found
necessary), two strong bars of wood, projecting a few feet be-
yond the speculum end of the tube, and extending in front as
far as the focal length of the mirror, and connected by cross bars
of wood, iron, or brass, would be quite sufficient for a support
to the eye-piece, and for directing the motion of the instrument.
A telescope of 40 or 50 fect in length, constructed on this plan,
would not require one-fifth of the expence, nor one-fourth of the
apparatus and mechanical power for moving it to any required

APRIL—JuLY 1826. — D
fen

50 = Mr Dick’s Description of a New Reflecting Telescope,

position, which were found necessary in the construction of Dr
Herschel’s large reflecting Biker *, With regard to telescopes
of smaller poesia as sf om 5 to 15 feet focal length, with the
exception of the expence of the specula and eye-pieces; they
might be fitted up for a sum not greater than from 2 to 5 or 6
guineas.
Were any person to attempt the construction of these tele-
! in the mean time, it is not likely he would succeed, with-
out more rhinute directions than I have yet given. The astro-
nomical eye-pieces used in the aérial telescope, have a particular
modification, which is essentially requisite to distinctness of vi-
sion; and, therefore, were any one to try the experiment with a
common astronomical eye-piece, he would most probably feel
disappointed in the performance of the instrument. A descrip-
tion of the peculiarity of the eye-piece to which I allude, with
other particulars in relation to these instruments, I deem it ex-
pedient, for certain reasons, to postpone to a future opportu-
nity. :

I have sometimes used these instruments for the purpose a
viewing perspective prints, which they exhibit im a beautiful and
interesting manner. If a coloured perspective be placed at one
end of a large room, and strongly illuminated with two candles,
and one of those reflectors, furnished with a small magnifying
power, placed at the opposite end of the room, the representation
of a street or a landscape will be seen in its true perspective,
and will appear even more pleasant and interesting than when
viewed through the common optical diagonal machine. If an
inverting eye-piece be used, which is most eligible in this expe-
riment, the print, of course, must be placed in an inverted posi-
tion.

That reflecting telescopes of the description now stated are
original in their construction, appears from the uniform language
of optical writers, some of whom have pronounced such attempts
to be altogether impracticable. Dr Brewster, one of the latest

* The idea heresuggested will perhaps be more readily appreciated, by an in-
specticn of Plate I. Fig. 3, where A is the short tube, BC and DE the two large
bars or arms, connected with cross bars, for the purpose of securing strength
and steadiness. At F andG, behind the speculum, weights might be applied,
if necessary, for counterbalancing the lever-power of the long arm.

%

Edin? new Phil. Journ. 7. Si

PLATE tI.

Wit livars se

Lublished WA Black Bidinkuryh (820.

a ’ J a4 sono PA 9 a
+’ iq ) reas 4 mL

i

denominated the Aérial Reflector. 51

and most respectable writers on this subject, in the Edinburgh
Encyclopedia, art. Optics, and in the last edition of his Appendix
to “ Ferguson’s Lectures,” has the following remarks :—* If we
could dispense with the use of the small specula in telescopes of
moderate length, by inclining the great speculum, and using an
oblique, and consequently a distorted reflector, as proposed first
by La Maire, we should consider the Newtonian telescope as
perfect ; and, on a large scale, or when the instrument exceeds
20 feet; it has undoubtedly this character, as nothing can be
more simple than to magnify, by a single eye-glass, the image
formed by a single speculum. As the front view is quite im-
practicable, and indeed has never been attempted in instruments
of a small size, it becomes of great practical consequence to re-
move, as much as possible, the evils which arise from the use of
a small speculum,” &c.

The instruments now described have effectuated the desirable
object alluded to by this distinguished philosopher ; and the mode
of construction is neither that of Dr Herschel’s front view, nor
does it coincide with that proposed by La Maire, which appears
to have been a mere hint that was never realized in the construc-
tion of reflecting telescopes of a small size. The simplicity of
the construction of these instruments, and the excellence of their
performance, have been much admired by several scientific gen-
tlemen, and others to whom they have been exhibited; and so
much am I convinced of their utility, that I have dismantled
every other Gregorian telescope I had in my possession, and
fitted it up in the form now described; and I seldom use any
other telescope either in terrestrial or celestial observations. As
it is distinguished from every other telescope, in being used
without a tube, I have chosen to denominate it “* The Aérial
Reflector *.”

Pertn, April 1826.

* A caveat has been lodged at the patent office, in the view of taking out
a patent for this construction of the reflecting teleseope. A brief notice of it
was published, about three years since, in the Appendix to a work entitled,
“ The Christian Philosopher.’

2 ng

52 Mr H. H. Blackadder on the Combustion of

On the Combustion of Alcoholic Fluids, Oils, &c. in Lamps, with
observations on the Colour and Constitution of Flame*. By
Henry Home Brackxapnper, Esq. F. R.S. E. Communi-
eated by the Author.

1.—Of Lamps without Wicks.

A porous or filamentous substance, that has the property of
raising fluids by capillary attraction, has hitherto been consider-
ed an essential part of a lamp fér burning oils or alcoholic fluids ;
and this part of the lamp, termed the wick, has been made of
various vegetable and mineral substances, such as cotton, lint,
moss, asbestus, mica, smal] wires, &c. All combustible fluids,
however, that are commonly employed for producing light or
heat, may be burned with advantage in a lamp, without making
use of any wick. For this purpose, it is only requisite to have
a burner in the form of a tube, and made of a substance that is
incombustible, and a slow conductor of heat; and, perhaps, it
would scarcely be anticipated how well glass and other slow con-
ductors are adapted for burners of this description, or how easily
such a lamp may be constructed. In their construction provi-
sion must be made for a constant supply of fluid to the burner,
without the influence of capillary attraction ; and this is effected
by having the burner so placed, as to be lower than the reser-
voir, the supply being regulated by a stop-cock or valve, or by
duly proportioning the size of the connecting tube. Lamps of
this description may be made of almost any form, and of almost
any solid material; it being only essential, as already stated,
that the burner be a tube made of an incombustible and slow
conducting substance. For alcoholic fluids, the length of the
burner does not necessarily exceed an inch ; and for oils, it may
be reduced to the half or the fourth of that length. In Plate I.
Fig. 5. is represented a convenient and easily constructed lamp for
the combustion of alcoholic fluids. It consistsof a small glass globe,

* The first part of this paper is an extract from a paper read before the Royal
Society, Ist May 1826. On that occasion, some of the facts noticed in the se-
cond part were cursorily adyerted to.

Alcoholic Fluids, Oils, &c. in Lamps. 53

and a bent glass-tube, supported on ametallic stand or frame. The
tube is of the size used for thermometers ; its interior diameter
being about one-fortieth of an inch. It is passed through an elastic
piece of cork, which is cemented into the lower part of the glass-
globe, and surrounded by a collar of metal: in this way the tube
may be readily slid up or down, without allowing any of the
fluid to escape between it and the cork. When the extremity
of the tube is above the surface of the fluid, none of the latter
can escape through it; and when the lamp is to be used, the
tube is drawn down, as represented in Fig. 5.; the degree
of its depression being regulated by the size of the flame that is
wished to be produced. When a low flame is required, the ho-
rizontal part of the tube is cemented to a low flat stand; and
when the lamp is to be lighted, the fluid is made to flow, by
drawing up the reservoir, instead of, as in the former case, draw-
ing down the tube. For occasional purposes, a tube bent, so as
to form a syphon, and passed through a cork in the neck of a
phial containing the fluid, constitutes a very convenient lamp.
When, with a lamp of any form, it is wished to produce a large
flame, it is only necessary to increase the number of the burners ;
and in this way the degree of heat can be regulated at pleasure,
and with great accuracy. ‘The advantages, &c. resulting from
the combustion of alcoholic fluids in a lamp without a wick, will
afterwards be considered.

A lamp for burning oils, for the purpose of illumination, is
constructed on the same principle as that for burning alcoholic
fluids. The reservoir may be made of metal, or of plain, cut,
or coloured glass, so as to produce a beautiful effect. And a
fine green, red, or yellow colour, can easily be communicated to
spermaceti oil, producing the same effect as coloured glass. The
form represented, Fig. 6., which may be modified according to
taste, having additional branches, &c, may, perhaps, be found
as suitable as any other. One that contains from one to two
ounces of oil, and whose burner is not larger than an ordinary
bugle bead, burns for eight or ten hours ; and will enable most
persons to read or write. A lamp of this description has conti-
nued burning three days and a half, or eighty-four hours, with-
out having been touched ; and the small conical crust, which
formed on the burner, did not amount to two grains, though the

54 Mr H. H. Blackadder on the Combustion of

oil was of the inferior quality that is sold under the name of
whale oil. When a greater degree of illumination is required,
the number of burners, and capacity of the reservoir, must be
increased in proportion. It will be found, that a lamp of this
description is as readily lighted as a candle, or lamp with a
wick ; and the burner may be such as to produce a flame that is
a mere luminous point in a dark apartment, or only a blue speck,
that is invisible at a short distance; or such as to give a flame
similar to that of an argand lamp with a wick. This last may
be effected, either by two short and wide tubes, having an ar-
rangement similar to the metallic wick-holder of an argand lamp,
or by means of small short tubes, placed nearly in contact, and
in the form of a circle.

A convenient small hand-lamp, for occasional purposes, and
either for burning oil or alcoholic fluids, is made, by fixing a
long tube in the mouth of a small bag, formed of caoutchoue, or
other impervious substance ; the burner being supplied by the
pressure of the hand.

When a thin narrow collar of metal is attached to the mouth
of a burner, so as to project in the form of a small cup, the re-
semblance of the flame then produced, to that of a gas-lamp, is
so complete as readily to deceive those who are not aware of the
presence of oil. If the collar be made of impure silver, and the
lamp has not recently been used, the flame, when first lighted,
has a green colour; but this adventitious colour disappears in
the course of a few seconds, when the metal acquires a red heat.
In the practical line this modification of the wickless lamp is par-
ticularly deserving of attention.

Various attempts were made to take advantage of the capillary
attraction of tubes, for maintaining a constant supply of oil to
the burner, which at first proved unsuccessful ; and the want of
success was attributed to the well known fact, that, however high
a fluid may rise in a tube, by capillary attraction, it will in no
instance rise, so as to flow from its upper orifice. This, how-
ever, was found to be incorrect ; for a small perforated disk of
mica, having a small tube cemented into the perforation at its
centre, will constitute a burner of this description. When such
a burner is placed, so as to float on the surface of oil, the oil
rises by capillary attraction, and fills the tube. If a lighted

Alcoholic Fluids, Oils, &c. in Lamps. 55

match be now applied, the oil in the upper part of the tube eva-
porates and produces a flame, fresh portions of oil rise to fill the
empty space, and thus combustion is maintained. With such
a burner there is no shadow ; the reflected image of the flame
being seen directly under the true flame. From a number of
such burners, in an appropriate glass-vessel, the illumination is
brilliant ; and the floating disks are observed to be in continual
motion, as if alternately attracting and repelling each other; which
proceeds from the film of oil immediately under the mica be-
coming expanded by heat. Though such burners, when pro-
perly constructed, will maintain combustion for many hours,
if the flame is by any means extinguished, they almost in-
stantly sink to the bottom. ‘This results from the structure of
the mica, and the expansion of the oil by heat. Mica is com-
posed of thin plates, which admit oil into their interstices; and
the oil thus admitted, with that on the under surface of the mica,
is expanded by the heat of the flame. When the flame is extin-
guished the oil cools, and then the mica, being specifically heavier
than the oil, necessarily sinks.

_A burner, similar to the one above described, but more appli-
cable to ordinary purposes, seems to merit description, as it may
be readily constructed, and will be found admirably adapted for
anight lamp. In this form, a small light concave shell, or a
light concave glass, resembling in miniature that of a watch, or
a small disk of card paper, made concave by pressure, and coat-
ed with a solution of gum, is used instead of the mica. A small
hole is made in the centre, and a piece of sound cork, about the
size of a pea, is cemented on the convex side, and over the per-
foration. A small perforation is then made through the cork,
and a rather wide and thin bugle bead is stuck firmly into it,
from the concave side of the shell. The only use of the cork is
to fix the burner, so as to admit of its being readily adjusted or
replaced. When the shell floats on the oil, the upper extremity
of the burner should be nearly on a level with the surface of the
fluid ; and if the burner be properly fixed in the cork, the shell,
glass, or concave piece of paper, will not sink when the flame is
extinguished. The quantity of pale rape seed oil (which, in
every respect, is the best) that is consumed by a single burner,
amounts to about three-fourths of an ounce in twelve hours,

56 Mr H. H. Blackadder on the Combustion of

and the consumption is so regular and uniform, that, when a
lamp is constructed in the form of a floating syphon, it is found
to measure time with great accuracy.

Tallow, and other solid combustibles, of a similar nature, may
also be burned without a wick. In such cases, it is only neces-
sary to melt a small quantity of the solid substance, with the
end of a hot wire or rod of glass ; or to introduce a little oil into
a hollow, previous to introducing the floating burner. After-
wards, the heat of the flame is sufficient to keep up a supply of
fluid.

It is well known, that volatile oils, such as turpentine, give
out so much carbon in the form of soot, during their combus-
tion, as to prevent their being hitherto burned in a lamp, for the
purpose of illumination. ‘Turpentine, however, may be burned
in a lamp, so as not only to give out no carbon in the form of
soot, but to afford a beautiful white light, which, im splendour,
far exceeds that given out by the fixed oils :—this was exhibit-
ed on asmall scale, by means of a small experimental glass lamp.
All the fixed oils are rendered empyreumatic, previous to
combustion ; and the same change is necessary in the ease of
turpentine, but, from its volatile nature, is less readily produced.
From the extreme whiteness and splendour of the flame of
turpentine, there is reason to expect, that it may yet be ap-
plied to valuable purposes. The preceding details have been
entered into, with the view of facilitating investigation, and
were, to a certain extent, necessary to the next part of the sub-

ject.

2.—Of the Colour of Flame.

Previous to entering on the subject of the colour of flame, it
is necessary to attend to what, for the sake of distinction, may
be termed its structure. Exterior to the central cone of gas or
vapour, that is, in the proper flame, there are parts which ean
readily be distinguished, and which distinctly differ from each
other. One part may be changed, or a part may be made to
disappear, while the others remain unaffected. By means of a
prism, the light of any flame may be shewn to be composed of
several colours :—that, however, is a separate investigation, and
which is left to those who are conversant in the branch of sci-

Alcoholic Fluids, Oils, &c. in Lamps. 57

ence to which it properly belongs ; the structure of a flame has
reference to what is cognizable by the naked aye.

When combustibles that are compounds of hydrogen are
burned, so as to produce a blue flame, without the assistance of
a blowpipe, or any similar contrivance, the flame appears in its
most simple form, and two parts are to be distinguished. The
one appears immediately exterior to the cone of gas or vapour,
and, as seen on each side of the flame, has the appearance of a
bright blue line, extending fram the base to the apex of the
cone. It must be unnecessary to explain how this part of the
flame is only to be distinguished at the sides, though it sur-
rounds the whole of the cone. Exterior to this narrow blue line,
is an attenuated portion of an opaline or misty blue colour,
which extends about the tenth of an inch, more or less, beyond
the blue line, and whose exterior surface is ill defined, resem-
blingabrush. This exterior portion surrounds the whole flame ;
and though its presence might not, in every instance, be suspect-
ed at certain parts of the flame, it surrounds the whole of white
flames, when these are properly adjusted.

When the substances formerly mentioned are burned, so as
to extricate white light, the white portion appears interior to
the narrow blue line, but the former never extends to the base
of the flame, and the latter can only be traced to a short dis-
tance on the exterior of the white portion.

On examining the flame of a properly adjusted candle, the
blue line exterior to the white light is observed to disappear op-
posite to the apex of the transparent cone surrounding the wick,
or at that part where the white light is extricated with great
effulgence *. The same thing takes place with the exterior at-
tenuated opaline brush, which is not readily distinguished above
the middle height of the flame, where the white light becomes in-
tense. In this instance, the attenuated blue flame seems to be ren-
dered invisible by the intensity of the white light. If,even infoggy
weather, with an overcast sky, a blue and white flame of diluted

* Ina blue and white spirit-flame, the bright blue lines are seen extending on
the exterior of the white portion ; and between their upper extremities is a broad
arch or belt of a dark blue colour, which surrounds the upper part of the white
portion, and is observed occasionally to couceal or darken its apex. See Fig. 7.
in which this flame is represented in outline.

58 Mr H. H. Blackadder on the Combustion of

alcohol be brought to the window, the flame becomes wholly in-
visible, not a vestige even of the white portion is to be discerned ;
so that any one ignorant of its presence, would almost inevita-
bly meet with an accident, or might be induced to lay hold of
the burner. ‘This simple experiment will render the existence
of an invisible, though intensely hot flame, sufficiently intelli-
gible. The surface of the flame of a candle, where the com-
bustion is most intense, is the hottest. Where the combustion
is most intense, the flame has a,pale blue colour, and when this
colour comes to be contrasted with intense whiteness, it is too
weak to make a sensible impression on the retina. By means of
opaque skreens, the attenuated brush may be seen extending all
over the flame ; but its presence may also be detected, by ad
ing its colour in a way afterwards to be ‘described.

The colour of the light that is extricated in a flame, depends,
Ist, On the mode of combustion; or, 2d, On the presence of
some foreign body or extraneous ingredient. 1. When alcohol
or rectified spirit, having a specific gravity of about 835, is
burned in a Jamp without a wick, and with a half inch flame,
or when it is burned on a flat surface of glass, the flame is alto-
gether of a blue colour. Again, when in burning the same
fluid with the glass-burner, the flame is enlarged to an inch, or
an inch and a half in length, a considerable quantity of white
light is extricated. Lastly, When the extremity of the glass-
burner is brought to a red-heat, or thereby, by holding it in the
edge of a blue spirit flame, portions of the alcohol are succes-
sively exploded as they come into contact with the heated ex-
tremity of the burner, and then much yellow light is extricated.
We have thus blue, white, and yellow light extricated during
the combustion of the same fluid, and depending wholly on the
mode of combustion.

Oil may also be burned so as to give out either a blue, a blue
and white, or a blue and yellow flame. When oil is burned in
a lamp without a wick, so as to give a large flame, the light ex-
tricated is blue, with a great proportion of white. But, if the
stop-cock be cautiously turned, the white light diminishes, and
at length there is only a blue flame. By again increasing the
flow of oil, a spot of yellow light appears in the centre of the
blue ; and by still farther increasing the supply, the white,

Alcoholic Fluids, Oils, &c. in Lamps. 59

that is the usual yellowish white, flame reappears. On the same
principle, a wine-glass full of oil may be made to exhibit either
a blue flame, covering the whole surface of the oil, or a flame of
a blue and white colour.

When diluted alcohol, vulgarly termed ardent or proof spi-
rit, is burned in a lamp without a wick, the colour of the flame
is blue, or blue and white, similar to the flame of alcohol former-
ly described. In this case, a simple distillation and combustion
goes forward; the whole of the water being separated as cold,
or nearly as cold, as before its passage through the flame; and
the burner only acquires a perceptible increase of temperature.
The flame has a fine conical form, and the combustion proceeds
without any buzzing noise. Hence the advantage of a lamp
without a wick for burning diluted alcohol, such as the whisky
of the shops. When that fluid is burned in the usual way with
a wick, there is, with other disadvantages and peculiarities to
be mentioned, this great inconvenience, that if, after the com-—
bustion has continued a short time, the flame be extinguished,
it cannot be relighted without renewing the wick. Besides, by
using a glass burner, there is derived all the advantage of a spi-
rit-lamp without the expence ; and ardent spirits can readily be
had in situations where alcohol cannot be procured.

When diluted alcohol is burned with a wick, the flame is not
blue and white, as when a slow conducting tubular burner is
made use of; on the contrary, much yellow light is given out;
the white disappears, and a portion at the base has a blue co-
lour. "The form of the flame is much less regular ; it has a dis-
agreeable flickering motion, and the combustion is accompanied
by a constant whizzing or buzzing noise. But, with all this diffe-
rence of effect resulting from the mode of combustion, the wick
undergoes no change, being in no degree carbonized by the
flame. In this case there is a cotemporaneous vaporization and
combustion of the alcoholic part of the fluid; but the watery
part is not separated as in the lamp without a wick. Part of
the water is converted into steam, and part of it remains in the
wick ; which last circumstance prevents the relighting of the
lamp, after a short continuance of combustion, as formerly men-
tioned. Though the wick remains uninjured by the flame, it
always becomes hot ; and hence not only alcoholic vapour, but

60 Mr H. H. Blackadder on the Combustion of

likewise steam, is generated, and discharged into the interior of
the flame. After the diluted alcohol in the reservoir has been
consumed, the quantity of water remaining in the wick is not
equal to that contained in the original fluid, as may readily be
determined, by ascertaining the specific gravity of the alcoholic
fluid that is employed. It thus appears, that, in the interior
of the yellow flame of diluted alcohol, there is present a certain
admixture of steam, which does not exist in the blue coloured
flame of the same fluid; and when steam is generated, much
heat is necessarily consumed ; but it does not follow that the
presence of steam is the cause of the yellow colour. Alcohol of
the strength formerly mentioned, and that which is considerably
stronger, may be burned, so as to give out yellow light; and
alcohol that cannot be made, in one way or another, to extricate
yellow light during its combustion, has not been procured for
experiment. ;

It would appear that, though some attention has been paid to
the noting of such substances as give out particular kinds of co-
loured light, when subjected to a high temperature, or when dis-
solved in the fluid which supports combustion, but little atten-
tion has hitherto been paid to the coloured light of a flame, with
the view of ascertaining the mode of its production, That this
and the other substance gives a yellow or green flame, and that
the quantity of yellow light may be increased by particular
means, has been ascertained ; but on what the extrication of yel-
low light depends, or what particular process goes forward du-
ring its production, remains to be investigated. ‘The following
short extracts from a publication of modern date, and by a gen-
tleman distinguished in the ranks of science, will be found in-
teresting :—‘ After numerous experiments, attended with much
trouble and disappointment, I found that almost all bodies in
which the combustion was imperfect, such as paper, linen, cot-
ton, &c. gave a light in which the homogeneous yellow rays pre-
dominated ; that the quantity of yellow light increased with the
humidity of these bodies; and that a great proportion of the
same light was generated, when various flames were urged me-
chanically by a blowpipe or a pair of bellows. As the yellow
rays seemed to be the product of imperfect combustion, I con-
ceived that alcohol, diluted with water, would produce them in
greater abundance than when it was in a state of purity ; and,

Alcoholic Fluids, Oils, §c. in Lamps. 61

upon making the experiment, I found it succeed beyond my
most sanguine expectations."—‘ I found that the discharge of
yellow light depended greatly on the nature of the wick, and
onthe rapidity with which the fluid was converted into va-
pour.” A piece of sponge, having a rough surface, was found
to constitute the best wick, and for converting the alcohol ra-
pidly into vapour, the heat of the wick-holder was increased by
a spirit-lamp; or red hot wire gauze was brought into contact
with the surface of the sponge *.

By these extracts, we are given to understand, that, when al-
cohol, “ in its purity,” is burned, it gives a yellow flame; but
that, when alcohol, diluted with water, is burned, yellow light is
given out in greater abundance ; and the conclusion seems to be,
that, as moisture increases the quantity of yellow light during
the combustion of cotton, paper, &c. so water added to alcohol
has the same effect ; and that, on such occasions, the water acts
by causing, or by increasing the disposition to ‘“* imperfect com-
bustion.” Admitting, however, that these views were established,
such questions as the following immediately present themselves :
What is imperfect combustion? Is the presence of water essen-
tial or only accessary? &c. This is a subject that might en-
gage the attention of some one of the many expert chemists of
the present day: there is certainly no want of interest, and
much precise information is still wanting. | The few facts that
have been, or that may be, brought forward on the present oc-
casion, are submitted as a contribution, with the hope that they
may tend to promote investigation.

The blue flame of diluted alcohol has, as formerly stated, a re-
gular form ; is steady as that of a well-adjusted candle, and the
combustion proceeds in silence; but, when burned with a wick, or
otherwise, so as to give a yellow light, the flame is very un-
steady, and the combustion is always accompanied with noise.
Whether this noise proceeds, in every instance, from actual ex-
plosions, may be uncertain ; but it is certain that when diluted
alcohol is exploded, by throwing it into a red hot fire, or by
other means, a profusion of yellow light is extricated ; and, when

* See Description of a Monochromatic Lamp, by David Brewster, LL. D.
&c. &e. published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin., 1822.
3

62 Mr H. 1. Blackadder on the Combustion of

it is burned with a wick, there is a constant buzzing noise, with
an appearance as if this noise was produced by an infinity of mi-
nute explosions at that part of the flame where the narrow blue
line appears. It is particularly to be observed, however, that
this part of the flame remains unchanged, and that it is the ex-
terior brush flame that is changed from a pale misty-blue to a
mat-yellow colour. The blue flame of alcoholic fluids may be
made to swell out or expand, by touching the fluid as it issues
from the burner, with a hot wire, and without, in any degree,
altering the colour of the flame ; and, in this case, there is simply
an increase of the distillation. But, with the same wire, or with
a rod of glass, the mouth of the burner may be so touched as to
produce a discharge of small particles of the fluid, similar to that
which takes place on other occasions, when a very hot piece of
metal is introduced into a vessel containing water. These mi-
nute particles are impelled against the inner surface of the flame,
seem to explode, and then produce the dull-yellow colour of the
exterior brush flame. When a wick of cotton, or of sponge, is
used, it acts the part of the hot wire; and the rougher its sur-
face, and the nearer it approaches to the inner surface of the
flame, without being carbonized, the more copious is the dis-
charge of the particles, and consequently of the yellow light.
This may be farther illustrated as follows :—Let a small ball of
cotton thread be attached to the end of a glass tube, and moisten
the ball with alcohol. When the latter is made to burn, yellow
light is extricated ; but if the ball be now made to turn rapidly
on its own centre, the quantity of yellow light will be increased
an hundred-fold. In this case, two causes operate ; the flame is —
brought closer to the ball, producing a greater discharge of mi-
nute particles ; and, at the same time, the alcohol is expelled by
the rotatory motion in a thick shower into the flame.

Steam issuing forcibly from a small orifice will answer the pur-
pose of a blowpipe ; and, even when it is condensed into a white
vapour, it has no effect in changing the blue colour of a spirit-
flame. But if a small vessel of water be placed under the burn-
er, and a hot rod of metal be introduced, so as to discharge par-
ticles of the water on the exterior surface of the flame, yellow
light is extricated. Some of the coloured light is, in this case, ap-
parently produced by small solid particles from the surface of the

Alcoholic Fluids, Oils, &c. in Lamps. — 63

metal, bright sparks being observed ; but rods of different metals
produce similar effects; and when numerous minute particles of
cold or boiling water are made, by mechanical means, to impinge
on the exterior surface of the flame, the blue colour is not there-
by affected. A perfectly clean rod of glass, however, has the
same effect as rods of metal, only no sparks are observed; and
hence particles of the water of wells, thus elicited, cause the ex-
trication of yellow light ; but pure water, that is, the pure com-
pound of hydrogen and oxygen, has not been procured for ex-
periment. When the particles of alcoholic fluids, or of water,
impinge on the interior or exterior surface of the flame, there is
doubtless an absorption of heat ; but the mere absorption of heat
cannot produce the observed effects, as appears by an experi-
ment already noticed. If we approach a blue spirit flame, to
another of the same colour, no change is produced; but, if a
flame of that colour be brought near to a yellow spirit flame, so
that the gaseous products of the latter may come into contact
with the former, the blue flame acquires a yellow colour. Hence
the products or substances emitted from a yellow flame are diffe-
rent from those of a blue flame ; and as steam, as formerly stated,
does not change the colour of a blue flame, we are led to trace
the extrication of yellow light to some other cause.

It is known that carbonic oxide gas, in a certain state, and
likewise light hydro-carburet gas, give out yellow light during
their combustion. If a splinter of wood (and various other ve-
getable substances may be used) be lighted, and in a few se-
conds again extinguished, the white vapour or smoke that issues
from it gives a fine yellow colour to blue flame. If the carbo-
nized extremity of the wood be brought into contact, or only
near to the flame, there is a profuse extrication of yellow light
from the exterior or brush flame; and if the extremity of the
carbonized wood be held quite above the flame, there is a co-
pious discharge of yellow light, similar to that of the brush
flame, but which might, with more accuracy, be termed lumi-
nous vapour than a flame. In all these cases, it is possible that
a minute quantity of aqueous vapour may be present ; but if,
after the wood has been lighted, and the flame extinguished, the
combustion of the carbonized portion be allowed to proceed, un-
til an attenuated, extremely light, and spider-web-like substance
alone remains, the minutest particle of this substance, when

64 Mr H. H. Blackadder on the Combustion of

brought to the margin of the blue flame, produces a discharge
of light of a fine yellow colour; and, in this case, no moisture
can be present. In this way a beautiful flame, of a yellow co-
lour from the base to the apex, may be produced, and which is
altogether free of any unsteady or flickering motion.

When a piece of wood that has been carbonized in a spirit
flame, and completely extinguished, is brought under a blue
flame, a very slight motion given to the wood will be followed
by an extrication of yellow light; and by rubbing two such
pieces of wood, the one upon the other, under the flame, the
whole of the latter will acquire a yellow colour. Scraping the
carbonised wood with a knife produces a similar effect ; but, in
this case, larger particles are also separated, which give out
light of a brilliant yellow colour, and much better suited for
the purpose of illumination, than the dull mat yellow of di-
luted alcohol, or that produced by the smoke, &e. of carbonized
wood above described. or, in both these cases, the light is si-
milar, and proceeds from a modification of the same part of the
flame. By means of carbonized wood, &c. the exterior attenu-
ated brush-flame of a candle or lamp may be rendered visible all
over the flame, a yellow colour being communicated to it. It
may be remarked, that there is reason to believerthat pure carbon
would not produce the effects above described; but that has
not been procured for experiment. If, when a blowpipe is
used with a candle, the wick be cut short, so that the stream of
air may pass through the white part of the flame, the jet has
a fine blue colour: when the jet has a red or reddish-yellow
colour, it will be found that particles of the carbonized portion
of the wick, or of soot, are carried off by the current of air
from the blowpipe; and whether a blowpipe or bellows be
used, the yellow light is similarly produced in all cases in which
the combustion is supported by solid carbonaceous substances.

When a wire or rod of glass is introduced into a blue flame,
yellow light is commonly extricated,and this always proceeds from
some foreign substance on the surface of these bodies, such as con-
densed smoke, dust, &c. ; it is almost impossible to handle glass or
unpolished metals, particularly when the hands are hot, without
leaving condensed perspiration on their surfaces. An oppor-
tunity occurred last summer, of pointing out this cireum-
stance to Dr Brewster, to whom had been exhibited, and with —

Alcoholic Fluids, Oils, &c. in Lamps. 65

whom were repeatedly discussed all these experiments on colour-
ed flame, &c. It was stated by him, that glass or mica introduced
into a blue flame, produced yellow light ; but it was immediate-
ly shewn, that when a glass-rod was brought to a white heat,
and thereby perfectly cleaned, previous to its being introduced,
when cold, into a blue spirit flame, no change of colour was pro-
duced ; and that the yellow light proceeded from some foulness
of the glass. Apparently clean glass and wire kept for a length
of time exposed in a room with a fire, have been observed to
change the colour of blue flame. But as soon as the glass or
wire is made red-hot, the yellow light disappears, and cannot be
made to reappear without a renewal of the combustible substance
on their surface; and hence a monochromatic lamp giving a yel-
low light, cannot be constructed by a coil of wire in the centre
of a blue flame.

Various salts, such as the muriate of barytes, the muriate of
soda, &c. are well known to give a yellow colour to flame; and
it has been supposed, that the yellow light was produced by the
water of crystallization ; but in this case, it would be difficult to
imagine why the sulphate of alumina and potass, and other salts,
should produce no change on blue flame, and that the muriate of
lime should give it a beautiful crimson colour. The water of
crystallization may be accessary to the production of coloured
light; but it does not seem evident that it is the primary cause.
By means of the blue flame of diluted alcohol, and the muriate
of soda, a steady flame, extricating yellow light, may easily be
kept up. An opportunity occurred about a year ago, of show-
ing to the gentleman formerly mentioned the following simple
experiment. A narrow slip of paper, or of thin soft muslin,
well soaked in a solution of the muriate of soda, was rolled on a
short and rather wide glass-tube; and the roll was retained and
defended by another wider tube passed over it. This, as a collar,
was placed on the glass-burner of a lamp for burning alcoholic
fluids, and when the lamp was lighted, the collar was brought
up so as to bring the circular edge of the paper into contact with
the base of the blue flame; and in this way a steady conical
yellow flame was produced. A collar, consisting of several rolls
of a particular kind of paper was preferred for experiment, the
roll being easily raised between the tubes by the hand, after the

APRIL—JULY 1826. E

66 Mr Arnott’s Jour to the South of France

manner of the circular wick of an argand lamp. A monochro-
matic lamp, made exactly after this method, has lately been ex-
hibited, the blue flame being produced from condensed oil-gas.
In this instance, the flame was extremely unsteady, having the
appearance of the feather-shaped flame produced by a blowpipe ;
and it is well known, that an unsteady wavering light is extreme-
ly unfavourable to distinct vision.

Other experiments and observations relating to flame are ne-
cessarily delayed for want of room.

Tour to the South of France and the Pyrenees, in 1825. By
G. A. Watker Arnott, Esq. A.M. F.L.S. & R.S E:
&c. Ina Letter to Professor JamzEson.

Sir,

You have kindly signified to me a request that I should de-
vote a few hours of my time to the giving a short account of
my late excursion abroad. 'This to me is no very easy matter,
having kept no regular diary, and but few notes that may amuse
you or the readers of your Journal. Such notes, however, as
I did keep, aided with Cassini’s map of France reduced by
Donnet, may enable me to give you at least an outline of my
short tour ; and I shall employ the very words of my notes as
often as possible.

It is scarcely necessary to enter upon my journey from London
to Paris : that ground is travelled over by so many at the present
day, that nothing can be said that almost every one does not know.
None, however, but those who have crossed from Dover to Calais
can believe in the shortness and pleasure of the sail. In days of
yore I do not know how many hours, or even days, were de-
voted to this perilous passage; but, at present, three or four
hours is only requisite in those blessed inventions ycleped Steam-
boats. The sailors, too, are surely more expert than formerly,
or AXolus has more mercy, as we never hear now of a Tom
Pipes thrusting his body through the deck to take the com-
mand of the vessel, when captain and all have given over every
thing for lost. Nor do we feel that any one now thinks of ta-
king the precaution (still, however, recommended by the sapient

and the Pyrenees, in 1825. 67

translators of Ebel’s Guide through Switzerland *) of laying in
a store of provisions, of benefit, not to the traveller, but to the
steward. At Calais our passports are taken from us, and a pro-
visionary one given as far as Paris. This, if not attended with
inconvenience, is at least attended with a small expence ; and I
have never been able to find out any good reason for it. If a
person goes any where else than to Paris, he is allowed to retain
the passport he received in London, and is charged nothing ;
so that one going first to any town in the north of France,
there gets a visa for Paris, and the passport is not changed.

I arrived in Paris on the evening of the 12th February, ha-
ving been inclosed thirty-six hours in the Exploitation generale
des Messageries Royales, “ the general blowing-up of the royal
post-houses,”—a species of vehicle which, though much impro-
ved since my short residence in France in 1821, may still be
rendered much more comfortable. This is throughout denomi-
nated a “ Diligence,” but ought to receive rather the appella-
tion of “ Paresseux,” or the Sloth; but I ought not to com-
plain. The distance is 32} posts, or 1623 English miles ; so
that we had travelled at the enormous rate of 44 miles an hour.
But is it possible to make the French “‘ Paresseux” comfortable ?
I fear not. This English term has no corresponding one in the
French language. The French emigrés, as I am informed,
had acquired, by their long residence in England, some indis-
tinct ideas of English comfort, and actually went so far, after
their return home, as to use the English word with a French
twang. This, however, was never countenanced by the French
Academy, none of the members having the least conception of
what was meant ; and I now believe the word is dropt for ever.
I have often been asked for an explanation of comfort, but I
have always found, that the present nature and habits of the
people rendered it impossible for them to enter into my feel-
ings.

Of a month’s residence in Paris, and of my motives for being
there, I need not trouble you with any notice. It was the sea-
son of the Carnival—all was gaiety. On Tuesday, 15th Fe-

* “The passage is seldom more than twelve hours, and sometimes less
than three ; only a small stock of provisions is therefore necessary.”
E2

68 Mr Arnott’s Tour to the South of France

bruary, I had occasion to be much in the streets. ‘ The whole
of to-day I every where encountered the masqueraders of the
carnival. One says the English are attached to raree-shows and
wonders; but all is nothing to what I have to-day witnessed.
Every one here turned out, some in carriages or cabriolets, others
on foot, others on horseback,—all to look on a few fools with masks
on their faces and tawdry clothes on their backs. There was nei-
ther spirit nor character in their costumes ; their caps being prin-
cipally of two sorts,—one like a fool’s cap, the other like a turban.
They did nothing, said nothing, but paraded the streets and
boulevards in open landaus and carriages. To me all in cos-
tume appeared to be of the lower classes, mixed with a few
hired troops of rope-dancers. Yet so important a business is
the Carnival, that the king of these fools was introduced on
Sunday last to his Majesty King Charles X. ; and was yesterday
again introduced into the Court of the Tuilleries. One almost
expected to hear them cry out “ Vivent les rois.” All this
mummery has no doubt meaning, but—I am no Roman Ca~
tholic.”
* * % * *

«¢ The French may talk of politeness, but, in some respects
they are entirely devoid of it. The military hold the civilians
(as our own East India nabobs, who, to say the best of them,
sell their services for money, do the merchants at Madras and
Calcutta) quite beneath them ; and farther, those who can ride
on horseback, in carriages, cabriolets or jfiacres, seem to consi-
der those on foot as the very canaille. This spirit pervades
even the drivers of these vehicles: the streets are narrow, and
if one is not somewhat nimble, he is sure to be run down. To-
day I was squeezed into a shop-door to avoid a cabriolet trund-
ling along at six or eight miles an hour ; and had I not taken re-
fuge, the brutality or incivility of the driver would not have al-
lowed him to rein up his horse. The last time I was in Paris,
a horse patrole came galloping through a street crowded with
people, and a porter close to where I was, who could not get
quickly out of the way with the load he carried, was literally
rode down; and although a few sacres were bestowed on the
gens d’armes, and cries to stop bawled out, he never deigned to
look over his shoulder, laughing, I have no doubt, at the noble

and the Pyrenees, in 1825. 69

exploit of trampling under his horse’s feet a foot-passenger. A
Frenchman is more polite in many things than the English, but
in much he falls far behind us.”

When I left England, my intention was, after getting through
the private business that called me to Paris, to set off direct to
Switzerland, and there spend the summer. When, however, at
Paris, I received so many requests from my valued friend Mr
Bentham to pay him a few days’ visit at Montpellier, that I was
induced to accede to his wishes until the season was sufficiently
advanced for a Swiss tour. You know that natural history is
one of the branches to which I have long paid attention ; in-
deed, I have to thank yourself for that taste, having acquired
it when attending your classes eight or ten years ago. One
branch of natural history leads to another, and if I have now
given up mineralogy, and attended chiefly to botany, it is not
that I dislike the former, but find it rather a too weighty and
bulky study, while plants are much more portable. The kind-
ness of Baron B. Delessert, in throwing open to me his rich her-
barium, gave me an opportunity of studying attentively the col-
lection of Palisot de Beauvois, now in his possession, and enabled
me to make out what many of his hitherto doubtful species of
mosses are. A notice of these may be of little interest to some,
while to others it may be useful. I shall, therefore, here mark
a few of the most important.

Bartramia subintegrifolia.....is Bartramia gracilis.

Bryum gymnostomoides....... is not in Beauvois’ herbarium, and may be there-
fore rejected as a doubtful species. It is pos-
sibly Weissia Templetoni.

Cecalyphum cylindraceum....is, I think, a variety of his Cecalyphum perichetia-
le: both belong to Dicranum, and approach close-

ly to D. calycinum.
longirostratum..is Dicranum Schraderi in a young state.

BOKEIID isscscscccccs is Dicranum flagellare.
Dicranum dichotomum......... is Thysanomitrion nivale.
phascoideum.. ...... is Grimmia pagiopodon.
Striatum......secvseee is a Trichostomum,
Fissidens dubius............+000+ is Dicranum adiantioides var.
Fontinalis squamosa............. The fruit is in a bad state, so that I am doubt-

ful whether this belongs to F. squamosa, or
should be united with F. disticha Sprengel,
and form a distinct species.

Gymnostomum dilatatum......

splachnoideum are only Gymnostomum pyriforme.

70 Mr Arnott’s Tour to the. South of France

Hedwigia nervosa. ......sesseeees is Grimmia apocarpa var. It is the G. stricta of
Turner, as Beauvois himself had long ago dis-
covered and marked in his herbarium.
Hypnum arbuscula............4.- This is a Hookeria. It resembles exceedingly
Hookeria rotulata, but is much larger, being
about 3 or 4 inches in height. I should be
unwilling to separate the two, however, as
Beauvois’ plant has not yet been found in fruit.

een COMER UME. « aree sts is H. murale.
——— gnaphalium........... is Bartramia tomentosa.
———— longiflorum.......,...is H..straminewm. But there is another plant in
Beauvois’ herbarium under this name; it is
HI. fluitans.
——— magellanicum........ is Hookeria magellanica N.
——$— —— SIPHO.. 0... seeceeeeeees is H. riparium.
————. stoloniferum.......... is H. aitenuatum, or Leskea attenuata Hedw. ;
Mnium palmifolium.............is Dicranum semicompletum.
PUPCUNIM. occ pes acaeeepee is Bryum carneum.
Orthotrichum americanum.....is O. Hutchinsie.
heterophyllum..is O. diaphanum.
Siete DFCVIEE ii daK. 69 This is a mistake of the printer. In Beauvois’

herbarium it is Jeve, and the plant is the
same with the Schlotheimia torta of Schw.

Pilotrichum biductulosum..... is Daltonia polytrichoides N.
denticulatum...,...is Jungermannia Thouarsit Hook.
—————— serrulatum......... is probably a Neckera. There is no fruit, and

it resembles somewhat Hookeria Langsdorfii.

Polytrichum elatum..........

remotifolium.. + appear to be only P. commune.

subpilosum....

Splachnum pusillum.............. This, of which Beauvois is ignorant of the loca-
lity, comes from Norway. It was sent to
Jussieu by Vahl, and was properly named by
him Spl. vasculosum.

Trichostomum obtusifolium....is 7. aciculare.

My partiality for botanical science was indeed no small rea-
son for my visit to the south of France; and although the
month of March had only commenced, yet I had the prospect of
seeing wild the Mibora verna and Hutchinsia petrea (two plants
although occurring in England, yet very scarce), with the Va-
lantia cruciata, Andryale nemausensis, Astragalus incanus,
Taraxacum levigatum, Erodium Romanum, and some other
midi de la France plants, which Mr Bentham wrote to me had
long been in full bloom.

25th March, Lyons.— I left Paris on Tuesday morning

ee ee

and the Pyrenees, in 1825. 7h

{the 22d) at half-past 5 o'clock, and got to Fountainbleau about
1 to breakfast ; proceeding to Montargis to dinner, about half-
past 7,—the travelling most provokingly slow. During the
night I was awakened from sleep by a tremendous row be-
tween the rest of the passengers and the postilion, who had been
coolly walking his horses for a league or two, whilst he on foot
was enjoying the fineness of the night. Got on to Pouilly to
breakfast. Between Neuvy and Pouilly I saw, for the first time
this year in France (so backward I suppose is the spring), a wild
flower in blossom: it was Helleborus fitidus. This was the
first decided vine country we had come to, but here all the ri-
sing grounds were closely planted with that shrub, Between
Pouilly and La Charité I observed also, for the first time since
leaving Paris, bullocks commonly used for ploughing and draw-
ing loaded carts; but all these—the wild flowers, the vines, and
use of bullocks—became more common as we got towards Lyons.
The bullocks are yoked quite in the Roman fashion : a beam of
wood is fixed across the brows of each pair of oxen, and is tied
to their horns; and to the centre of this beam, between the
two animals, is attached the extremity of the pole of the cart.

* We arrived at Lyons last night about 12 o'clock. The
road down Mount Tarare is very beautiful, and in many re-
spects resembles Glen Farg in Perthshire ; but the descent is
much more rapid. Lyons is the richest town in France, and is
famous for its silk manufactures, and on that account the inha-
bitants hate the English, and take every opportunity of cheat-
ing them. An English Jew is an upright man in comparison
with the Lyonais. Moreover, the most respectable houses think
it a kind of duty to charge the English two or three prices. An
English gentleman whom I met to-day at the table d’héte informs
me, that even the bankers do not refrain from this system. He
wished to pay in some money at Lyons, and get their bill on
Paris: a banker at Liverpool would give one on London, pay-
able at sight; but here, when my informer first called, they
told him they would not give a bill for less than ten days. This
he refused ; but when he resolved to accept these terms, and
called again, they saw he was anxious, and they raised the term
to fourteen days. Again he called, and they raised it to twenty ;
and the last time he went to them, they told him they would

72 Mr Arnott’s Tour to the South of France

not do it under a month. One of the first places to which Buo-
naparte proceeded on his escape from Elba, was to Lyons; and
a great proportion of the inhabitants are still Buonapartists in
their hearts.”

27th March.—“ Left Lyons yesterday morning at 5 o'clock.
Mules now began to be more generally used for drawing loads.
At Vienne (where died Pope Pius VI.) the country becomes
finer: both hills and dales were now covered with vines, and
the almond trees began to show forth their blossoms. The en-
virons abound in Roman relics. A little below this is a remark-
able ancient monument: it is a huge pyramid on four high
supports or arches ; but, what is singular, the base of the py-
ramid is plain, not arched, and, with the large flag-stones
which constitute it, seems ready to fall upon one’s head.—
Many plants now begin to make their appearance; indeed the
difference between the vegetation of Paris, and that to the south
of Lyons, is very great: the crops are here far above the ground,
and the lambs were already several weeks old. On a hill to the
south of Vienne that we walked up, I saw the Buwus semper-
virens, the common box, in flower. I collected some of the
Grimmia africana (Dicranum pulvinatum 6, Hedw.): this has
a hemispherical operculum, and is certainly to be distinguished
from the Grimmia pulvinata. By some, the south of France
plant is considered as different from that of the Cape of Good
Hope; but I can detect no difference, although I carefully
examined the latter in the herbarium of Mr Burchell at Ful-
ham. It appears, although unnoticed till met with at the
Cape by Thunberg, to be even more common in the region of
the olives in France, and probably also in Spain and Italy, than
at the Cape. The hill on which we were was of puddingstone,
and is quarried for gravel to the roads: the mine is carried in
nearly a horizontal direction, pillars being left of the material
to prevent the roof falling in. The hills still continue along the
west side of the Rhone.”

“«“ Péage de Roussillon. St Vallon—The hills now begin
to get small, and are covered with vines: they are terraced, and
seem of a red gravelly rock. Céte-roti, and several other of the
fine Rhone wines are produced in the neighbourhood of St Val-
lon, below which the yiew gets more beautiful as we arrive at

and the Pyrenees, in 1825. 73

an elbow of the Rhone. The beauty of the landscape continues
to Tain, immediately below which, on the left hand, is the Her-
mitage, famous for the wine of that name. Opposite to Tain,
on the other side of the river, is the pretty village, or rather
town, of Tournon. Formerly the only communication between
these two was by a boat pulled across in a manner somewhat si-
milar to what I have seen in Scotland: A rope is suspended be-
tween the two abutments as a guide, while a small rope attached
to the boat slides, by means of a ring on the larger, to prevent
the bark being swept away by the force of the stream. In
Scotland, I believe, they generally push over the boat by rest-
ing the hands on the guide-rope; while at the Bac de Tain,
and other Bacs or ferries in this part of France, they have a
small contrivance to pull it over. There is now so great a com-
munication between the towns of Tain and Tournon, that a
handsome chain-bridge has been commenced, and is expected
to be finished in the course of the season *.

“We now proceeded towards the river Isere. The Hiron-
delle diligences are the chief ones opposed to those of the Mes-
sageries Royales in France. ‘There is one between Paris and
Lyons, and a corresponding one between Lyons and Marseilles.
This last left Lyons an hour before our diligence the Paresseux ;
but by stopping shorter time at breakfast, and by overdriving,
we had made up to our antagonist at Tain. As the first ar-
rived at the ferry or Bac d’Isére must get first over, we had a
competition, for the first time I ever saw such a thing in France :
still the Swallow kept a-head, and never gave us an opportuni-
ty to lay salt on its tail; but, driving near the pier, their pos-
tilion thought that we would not attempt any farther struggle,
and stopped; but he reckoned wrong, for, at the instant, we
doubled our pace, and in a second drew up before the other,
leaving him to launch against us not a few of those tremendous
oaths with which the mouth of a French postboy is peculiarly
well stored. I was rascal enough myself to enjoy the fun, and
even tipped the postilion a piece of silver for his good deeds,
and promising another should he prevent the Swallow flying

past us.”

* This bridge was nearly completed when I returned this way on the 19th
September.

74 Mr Arnott’s Tour to the South of France

We crossed and got to Vallence, close to which is a great ar-
tillery arsenal. Leaving Vallence, the moon shone clear, and
illuminating the Rhone at the intervals we could see the river.
There was none besides another gentleman and myself in the
coach, and, stretched at full length on the seat, I enjoyed the
night extremely. It was so mild that we kept down both the
windows; and although only in the end of March, I found it
much warmer to sleep here, than I have experienced on some
of the Scottish mountains, under a tent, in the month of Au-
gust.

‘‘ This morning the sun rose upon us about 6 o'clock, shining
on the old fortress of Donzére. The scene is now much changed
from that of yesterday : we have now entered the ‘¢ Region des
Oliviers,” the ‘“‘ Region mediterrannée,” or, as it is also called,
the “« Midi de la France.” 'The mulberry trees now cover the
plain; low hills are at each side in the distance, studded with
white houses, which probably appeared more beautiful as the
sun was shining on them so very obliquely. Towards Pierre-
Late, the mountains again appear on the left; and just before
entering this wretched village, there is a very singular, and ap-
parently isolated rock of great height, almost close to the road,
and which resembled, on a small scale, our.own Dunbarton
rock. Passing Mondragon, it is on the left side rocky and
hilly ; the olive trees now commence, and flank the hills like
the beeches on a Highland mountain.

“« Mornas.—I walked on while they changed horses. My eyes
were now beginning to get confused with looking on plants that
I had never seen wild before, growing out of all the dry dusty
walls that I passed. I had neither, however, time for gather-
ing them, nor means for drying them; and it was of the less
consequence, as I expected to meet with them all at Avig-
non or Montpellier. On entering Orange, we passed the an-
cient triumphal arch of Marius. On leaving the town, we.
saw large and apparently barren plains, covered with cail-
loux, or round hard stones: all the soil seemed of a plumpud-
dingstone nature, and by the dissolution and sinking of the ar-
gillaceous cement, the cailloux are finally loosened, and lie on
the surface. There was nothing on these plains but a few mul-
berry trees, which, however, I am told do well, if the soil is

ana the Pyrenees, in 1825. 15

loosened about their roots, with a pioche or mattock, twice or
thrice a-year, to allow the scanty rain that falls, or the water
used in irrigation, to penetrate to their fibres. A less stony
and more argillaceous soil continues to Avignon, and appears
to be well adapted to the vines: these between Paris and Ly-
ons must be supported by stakes, but here they have enormous
roots, and short arborescent stems, and require no supports.”

I arrived at Avignon between 2 and 3 o'clock, and found
that my friend Mr Bentham had come here from Montpellier
to meet me. We went together to M. Requien’s. This gentle-
man, inter alia, directs the public garden at Avignon, but, be-
sides being a good and active botanist, attends also to other
parts of natural history. His library of botanical works is the
best in the south of France, and his herbarium is exceedingly
rich in European, but particularly in French plants. His libe-
rality as a botanist is also very different from what one often
meets with. He seems to have even more desire to give than
to receive,—and he has the power of giving. Upwards of a
month’s excursion made to a distance every summer for these
some years past, has enabled him to lay up a stock of much
that may give pleasure to the botanist. Switzerland, the Gre-
noble Alps, Iles Hieres, Piedmont, Marseilles, Toulon, Nar-
bonne, and lately Corsica, have all been examined by him. Be-
sides, his residence at Avignon, in the heart of one of the rich-
est parts of France for plants, was sufficient itself to furnish
him with ample provision for his friends.

30th March.—“ Requien having made up a party to-day for
Vaucluse, we set off from Avignon at 6 o'clock, in a calache
and cabriolet. It is about twenty or twenty-three miles dis-
tant. The rocks are very steep, and encircle the fountain, so
that the water has no egress in the dry seasons, when the foun-
tain is low, but by percolating the rocks; it consequently is for
some distance lost, but again appears a little below in a large
_ stream. Farther down some other streams gush out of the
rocks on both sides; so that, in the course of one or two hun-
dred yards, a large, deep, and wide river, the Sorgues, is
formed ; but this, again, is soon afterwards made to split into
eight or ten branches, each of which serves, in their course, to
turn mills, or irrigate the fields during the droughts of sum-

2

76 Mr Arnott’s Tour to the South of France

mer *. ‘To-day the fountain was uncommonly low, and all the
stones which are covered by the water when high, were now ab-
solutely green with the Hedwigia aquatica and Cinelidotus fon-
tinaloides, but of which the former was the more abundant.
We were so fortunate as to observe here during the short time
we remained, Tortula chloronatos (T. membranifolia Hook-),
Grimmia africana, Clypeola Jonthlaspi, Hutchinsia petrea,
Thymus vulgaris (or garden thyme), Vallantia cruciata, Hes-
peris laciniata, and Asplenium glandulosum Loisl. (called by
some A. Petrarche, and by others A. Vallisclause). Of the
two last we gathered only one or two specimens; they are very
scarce, and if not taken care of may be soon entirely eradicated.

The Targionia hypophylla actually grows here, though, if the
notes I have be correct, Sir J. E. Smith seems to think there is

* It may be interesting to some to have Sir J. Smith’s observations on
this scene. They are contained in his “ Tour to the Continent,” a book I
regret I had not carried with me.

“ Nov. 30.—Nothing about Avignon could interest us so much as the fa-
mous fountain of Vaucluse, consecrated to immortality by the sweet muse of
Petrarch, and now rivalling in celebrity the Castalian font, which it excels in
beauty and magnificence. We arrived on its brink about 3 o’clock in a bright
afternoon, when the ‘glowing refulgence of the declining sun on the rocky
scenery around, increased, by contrast, the charms of the sequestered vale, at
whose extremity the fountain is situated.

“ It was now in great perfection, rather fuller than usual. The water,
though clear as crystal, appears green as it runs, from the depth of the chan-
nel. This fountain is, in fact, a considerable river, arising from an unfathom-
ably rocky basin of a circular form, at the foot of a stupendous perpendicular,
or rather impending rock. A few yards from its source, the stream falls, in
the most majestic and picturesque manner, over fragments of rock, and then
forms a rapid river, winding through the vale, whose sides, for some distance,
rise suddenly to an immense height from its banks, and then gradually ex-
pand into an open plain. The village (Dr Smith might have called it mise-
rable) of Vaucluse is built on some of the most accessible parts of these pre-
cipices, and many of its houses overhang’the river. The only approach to
the fountain is by a single path along the bank opposite to the town.

‘“‘ Although it may seem approaching to impiety to visit this place with
any other thoughts than that of Laura and her sublime lover, whose elo-
quence I almost adore, and to whose refinement I do all possible reverence ; -
yet I cannot but remark, that its beauties are in themselves sufficient to ren-
der it one of the most interesting spots in the world. A naturalist or painter,
as well as a poet, might spend many days here most delightfully. The
neighbouring scenery wants only a little more wood.”

and the Pyrenees, in 1825. 17

some mistake *. As to the Hedwigia aquatica, few botanists
would credit me should I say I gathered none of it ; but fewer
still will believe that I was at the pains to fill all my pockets,
and my hat as full as possible. While thus engaged, one of
our companions came up, and assured me I had taken “ bien
assez pour tous les botanists en Europe.” ‘ Voila dont pour
lAmerique,” was all I had time to answer, while I proceeded
in my labours. There is certainly something very delightful
in finding in quantities any thing one has been long eager to
lay hold of. At the fountain, or rather in the river below the
fountain, I was highly satisfied to have clear demonstration that
the Hypnum Vallisclause was only H. filicinum in an injured
state. I had long suspected such to be the case, from my exa-
minations of both in the herbarium. At the edge of the river
I found the H. filicnum abundantly, and in fruit; while in
the deeper part of the river, I detected the H. vallisclause
without fructification. By a careful examination I, however,
at length found, in a place where the water was shallow, a few
specimens so completely between the two species, that now
none I should think can doubt of their identity. Of the same
specimen, the lower part was the H. vallisclause, while the
upper part, which was out of the water, was in fruit, and be-
longed as certainly to H. filicinum.

** On the road out from Avignon in the morning, we had .
observed fields as yellow with the Crepis nemausensis, as
they are white in England with the Bellis perennis or daisy.
Abundance of Erodium romanum was every where by the way
side; while some garriques, or waste lands, were as well stocked
with Genista scorpius and Quercus coccifer, as some fields in
Scotland with the Ulex europaeus or furze.

** Had time permitted us I should have been delighted to
have gone over the mountains some leagues farther than Vau-
cluse to Mont Ventoux, a mountain of considerable clevation

(6650 feet English), and on which there are some very remark-

* I had been led into an error. Dr Smith’s words, I find, are, “ Here,
too, we found something much resembling Targionia, but which proved only
Marchantia hemispherica, with its flowers budding. It is, however, the Aito-
nia rupestris of Forster (Rupinia lichenoides of Linn. Supp.), as I can prove
from original specimens. Messrs Broussonet and Sibthorp assured me they
found the true Targionia in this place.”

78 Dr Grant on a New Zoophyte

able plants. The season was not, however, sufficiently ad-
vanced, the mountain being still covered with snow, and, besides,
it would have required at least a day or two. We, therefore,
returned to Avignon in the evening.”

(To be continued. )

Notice of a New Zoophyte (Clhona celata, Gr.) from the
Frith of Forth. By R. E. Grant, M.D. F.R.S.E. F.L.S.
M.W.S. &e. Communicated by the Author.

Wer frequently find on the shore the decayed shells of the
common oyster, (Ostrea edulis, Lam.) entirely perforated on
both sides with small round holes, about half a line in diameter.
These holes do not pass in a straight line through the substance
of the shells, but open on both sides into chambers, which have
been somehow excavated in the interior of each valve: they have
probably been perforated by some marine worms, in order to
feed on the animal matter connecting the layers of the shell, and
to obtain a safe abode, as we generally observe a variety of these
animals come from the interior, when such shells are kept a few
days in a vessel of sea-water. When these perforated shells are
first brought up by the dredges from the oyster-beds of the Frith
of Forth, I have almost always found the holes on their surface,
and the excavated chambers between the layers, filled with a soft
yellow organised matter, which appears not to have been de-
scribed by naturalists, but whose singular properties entitle it to
a minute examination. This yellow fleshy substance occupies
the perforated shells of the living oyster, as well as the detached
valves of the dead animal; but, in the living oyster, as the per-
forations are only seen on the outside, and neyer pass through
the innermost layer, there is always a thin layer of shell between
the yellow substance and the living animal. On the death of
the oyster, and separation of its valves, the inner layer soon be-
comes likewise perforated, and the yellow matter is then seen
projecting through the holes on both sides of the shell at the
same time. By removing successively the outer layers, we easily
discover that the internal excavations communicate freely with
each other, and with the apertures on the surface, and that all

from the Firth of Forth. 79

the pulpy matter which fills them, and projects through the su-
perficial openings, is connected within so as to form one conti-
nuous fleshy mass pervading the whole shell. This yellow fleshy
substance forms a distinct and well marked zoophyte, which I
have termed Cliona celata, and 1 have not yet found this ani-
mal in any other situation than that above described.

The Cliona in the living state consists of a soft, fleshy granu-
lar and distinctly irritable substance, of a greenish yellow colour,
traversed like many other zoophytes, with minute and regularly
formed spicula. Its form depends on that of the cavities which
it fills; it insinuates itself into their minutest ramifications, and
adheres so closely to their smooth parietes, that it cannot be se-
parated without tearing. The parts of the Cliona which pro-
ject through the holes on the surface of the shell are tubular ;
and on removing the outer layers of the shell, we can perceive
several empty canals winding and ramifying from these tubular
papilla, through the body of the zoophyte. During the months
of March and April, when these observations were made, nume-
rous small yellow ova were seen in the vicinity of the canals,
agreeing much in their form, colour, size and mode of distribu-
tion with those of the Spongia papillaris and Spongia panicea,
which were then nearly in the same stage of advancement. The
projecting tubular papillae possess a complicated structure, and
a high degree of contractile power, and exhibit a singular series
of appearances, when the zoophyte is attentively examined while
at rest in pure sea-water. When under water, the papilla are
seen projecting from the apertures of the shell, sometimes to the
length of a line and a half; they present a wide circular opening
in their centre, and a rapid current of water issues constantly
from them, conveying occasional flocculi of a grey membrana-~
ceous matter. But on being touched with a needle, or with-
drawn from the water, the opening gradually closes, the current
ceases, and the whole papilla continuing slowly to contract, is
withdrawn completely within the aperture of the shell. The pa-
pill, viewed in their contracted state, present a smooth, rounded,
shut extremity ; but when they begin to advance beyond the sur-
face of the shell, their extremity becomes flat and slightly di-
lated, assumes a villous appearance, with open fissures, radiating
from the centre to the margin of the papillee, and at length a mi-

80 Dr Grant on a New Zoophyte

nute circular opening is perceived in the centre of the villous
surface. The papilla advances from the shell, and its central
opening enlarges in proportion to the healthy state of the zoo-
phyte, and the purity and stillness of the water; its flat downy
radiated surface gradually diminishes by the widening of the
central opening, till only thin margins are left around the orifice,
and the current is again seen to play briskly from it. In recent
specimens of the Cliona dredged from an oyster-bed near the
shore at Prestonpans, and examined under the most favourable
circumstances on the coast, I have twice observed polypi of ex-
traordinary minuteness and delicacy placed around the margin of
the orifice, and which, kept in constant motion, adyancing and
withdrawing themselves into the substance of the papilla, while
the current flowed from its central opening. The pelypi were
perfectly invisible-to the naked eye in an ordinary light and po-
sition; but by suspending the Cliona in a crystal jar with clear
water, and placing it between the eye and a candle, or the sun,
they were seen like filaments of silk or asbestus constantly rising
and sinking on the margin of the papilla. On cutting off a pa-
pilla, and placing it under the microscope in sea-water, the polypi
continued their motions, and were seen to consist of a long, slen-
der, transparent, cylindrical, tubular fleshy body, at the farther ex-
tremity of which were placed about eight short broad tentacula,
slightly dilated at their free ends, which were constantly inflett-
ing and extending themselves irregularly, while the polypi ad-
vanced or retreated. In two entire and fresh specimens, the
polypi continued visible and in motion for more than twenty-four
hours in a jar of water at Prestonpans ; but I have not yet suc-
ceeded in perceiving them in any of the numerous specimens
which I have preserved alive in the water procured from New-
haven. The spicula of the Cliona celata are siliceous, and have
a very close resemblance to those of the great Spongie patere,
or Neptune’s cups of the Indian ocean, many splendid specimens
of which are preserved in the Museum of the University ; when
procured separate, by removing the animal matter with the blow-
pipe, or with nitric acid, we observe them to be long, slender,
cylindrical, tubular, slightly curved, shut at both ends, a little
fusiform in the middle, acutely pointed at one end, and termi-
nated by a small hollow round head at the other. They are

3

Srom the Firth of Forth. 81

about the fourth of a line in length, and appear through the mi-
croscope as minute curved pins spread irregularly through the
whole fleshy substance of the animal : they do not impede the irri-
tability of that substance, as, on tearing off a portion of it par-
tially from the shell, we observe it slowly contract its dimensions,
and a portion of it entirely detached, soon becomes contracted
and more hard to the feel.

This zoophyte, though one of the least attractive in its exter-
nal appearance, and one of the most common inhabitants of our
coast, presents to the comparative anatomist a new and very in-
teresting combination of properties ; it is closely allied to the AL
cyonium by its contractile fleshy texture, and by its distinct though
microscopic pelypi; and it is allied to the Sponge by its siliceous
tubular spicula, ramified internal canals, tubular papillae, regu-
Jar currents, and the distribution of its ova. It differs, however,
from the Alcyonium, in not presenting a free surface, covered
with a coriaceous integument, marked with stellate pores for the
lodgment of distinct polypi; and it differs from the Sponge in
the obvious contractility of its papilla and general texture, in its
possessing distinct polypi, and in its surface not being free, and
covered with open angular pores. It constitutes a distinct genus,
forming a connecting link between the Alcyonium and the Sponge,
and throws much light on the nature of the latter zoophyte. I
have termed this genus Cliona, (from ~As#, claudo), from its
most obvious and remarkable property of retracting and shutting
the papillae when irritated ; and the above described species, the
only one I have met with, is named celata, from its concealed
and secure habitation within the substance of oyster-shells. It
has an extensive distribution in the Frith of Forth, occurring
abundantly in the oyster-beds at Prestonpans, off Inchkeith, and
in the Roads. I have only found it in the shell of the common
oyster, and it may be questioned whether the sharp siliceous spi-
cula, and constant currents of its papilla, do not exert some in-
fluence in forming or enlarging the habitation of this zoophyte.

arritr—JuLy 1826. r

( 82)

Geological Observations,—1. On Alluvial Rocks: 2. On For
mations: 3. On the Changes that appear to have taken
place during the different periods of the Earth's formation
on the Climate of our Globe, and in the nature and the phy-
sical and the geographical distribution of its Animals and
Plants. By A. Bour’, M. D. Member of the Wernerian
Society, &e. Communicated by the Author.

I.—Ow AttuvraL Rocks.
1. Old Alluvium, syn. Diluyium.

Tus series of alluvial deposits, in the regular succession,
immediately follows the newest tertiary rocks. We do not be-
lieve that it is always distinctly separated from the modern al-
luvium, although Cuvier, Professor Buckland ‘and others, main-
tain that such is the case. When a distinct separation takes place,
it only occurs accidentally here and there. On the contrary, there
is in general a transition from the one to the other, as in all the
preceding formations; so that the two would seem to be nothing
else than the product of the same and still existing causes, al-
though the effects of these causes would appear to have dimi-
nished from the older to the more recent epochs. When both
alluvia are well separated, it indicates that the causes to which
the old alluvium has owed its existence had suddenly ceased to
operate. Thus, in a great basin, it would be thought that the
water has rapidly subsided by a rupture or debacle, &e.

In this deposit we find remains of vegetables still existing ;
also of marine, fluviatile, and terrestrial shells, of species still
living; likewise remains of extinct and living quadrupeds, but
no human bones. :

Old Deposttes of the Sea.

Accumulations of sand, rolled stones, and decayed vegetables, along the coast,
more or less elevated above the present level of the sea, at high-water,
(Britain).

Banks of sand and shelly marl, with bones and remains of marine animals,
(East coast of England, Forth, Clyde, Norway, Oyster Bank near Ro-
chelle, and at the mouth of the Gironde, Boston in the United States).

Sandy calcareous matter deposited by the sea, in holes and fissures in

calcareous rocks of the Mediterranean ; compact limestone, with
still existing marine shells (Nice), Mediterranean of M. Risso.

Dr Boueé’s Geological Observations. 83

Sandy calcareous breccia, with bones of animals not all still existing in
the country, and sonietimes with marine and terrestrial shells still
existing there, (Nice, Corsica, Cette, Gibraltar, Cerigo, Dalmatia).

’ Banks of corallines or madrepores above the level of the sea, (Island of
Lamlash).
Traces of Pholades at different heights on the rocks of the sea-shore, and
much above high-water mark, (near Nice).
Some sandy submarine banks produced by currents (Newfoundland Bank).

Old Deposits of Lakes and Rivers, along their sides or at their mouths, and much
above the present level of their waters.

Accumulations of sand, rolled stones, and decayed vegetables, on platforms,
or often in the form of éerraces, (Glen Roy, Lake of Geneva); some
conglomerate clay-marl, with carbonized vegetables, (along the Missi-
sippi).

Lake or river marl, with indurated calcareous nodules, bones of large
animals, in part extinct, and fluviatile and terrestrial shells, of which
the species exist, but are often not frequent in the country, (Garonne,
Rhine, Danube, north of Germany, great plain of Eastern Hungary).

Old Deposits of Caleareous Tufa ; spring and lake deposits of different epochs,
with bones of terrestrial animals not existing in the country, or of which
the species or even the genus is lost (Pyrmont, Southern Hartz); also
with lacustrine and terrestrial shells which still exist, but of which the
species is not always frequent in the country, (Baden in Austria).

Caleareous Breccia, with bones, in the interior of the Continent, (Romagnagno
in the country of Verona, and Concud in Arragonia, Perigord, Adelsberg
in Carniola, Mixtnitz near Berneck in Styria, Belenyesh in Eastern
Hungary, Gailenreuth).

Deposits of Bones of Animals (partly of extinct species), in clay or calcareous
tufa, in holes and caverns, frequent in limestone rocks.

Old Turf, sometimes under old calcareous tufa (Pyrmont), with pyrites and
selenite ; sometimes accidentally beneath the present level of the sea, or
actually under the water of the sea, (Pomerania).

Accumulated matter, produced by the falling in or falling down of mineral masses
at a remote period, accidents produced by earthquakes, erosion of water,
or watery infiltration, (in all hilly countries).

A part of the vegetable mould, especially on the elevated parts of the earth, pro-
duced by the decomposition of rocks, and vegetable and animal matter.

2. Modern Alluvium, syn. Alluvium.

In this deposit we find only remains of existing animals and
vegetables ; and here also human bones and products of the arts

are met with.
KF ”

oo

$4 Dr Boué’s Geological Observations.

Modern Deposits of the Sea, very little higher than the highest tide.

Aecumulations of sand and rolled stones, and decayed veyetables, (Dunes ia
Gascony, Scotland).

Masses of Sand, sometimes calcareous, and cemented by a calcareous infil-
tration (Messina), with marine shells and human bones (Guadaloupe).

- €oral and Madrepore Reefs, still forming (South Sea).

Traces of Pholades, in the columns of the temple of Serapis-

Sand-banks forming under the sea.

Modern Deposits of Lakes and Rivers, on their sides, or at their mouths, and rising
very liltle higher than the highest tides.
Accumulations of sand, rolled stones, and decayed vegetables.

Mud mixed with vegetable and animal matiers. f

of Carbonate of Soda, in some lakes of Egypt, the Barbary
Deposits States, and centre of Africa.

of Common Salt, in some lakes of Russia.

Modern Deposits of Calcareous Tufa, still forming in small lakes (Roman States,
Transylvania), or from springs (Alps); pisolites, with fluviatile and ter-
restrial shells, and bones of animals (Valley of the Gave du Pau).

Modern Turf deposits, still going on, and containing human panes and pro-
ducts of art (Scotland, Mecklenburg).
Matters accumulated by the falling in or down of rocky masses or earth (Rigy,
between Deva and Dobra in Transylvania).
Moraine of the glaciers, (Switzerland, Savoy).

Saline products, forming in mines, caverns, and on the soil, in many countries
(Hungary, Asia); for example, saltpetre, nitrate of lime, sulphate of lime,
? sulphur.

Deposits of Mineral Waters, ferruginous, saline, or hot ; for example bog irom-
ore (Scotland, Mecklenburg).
Sulphur, pulverulent or crystallised (Baden in Austria).
Vegetable Mould, still forming.

II.—On ForMatTIons.

From the want of extensive geognostical knowledge, observers
have sometimes been unable to distinguish properly the local
from the general formations ; formations, also, have been unne-
cessarily multiplied, and some have even fancied that new ones
occurred in every country. At other times, geologists have
fallen into the opposite extreme, and unnecessarily reduced the
chief formations. Not having always a clear idea of the mode
of formation of modern and ancient mineral masses, they have

- often separated the deposits of one country from those of ano-
ther, because they have not agreed in all their characters. Is it

Dr Boue’s Geological Observations. $5

not natural to suppose that an arenaceous or calcareous forma-
tion should present differences in different countries, or on
the opposite sides of a basin, or in the intermediate pomts be-
tween the two sides of a basin. If these deposits are the
products of sea and river alluvium, it is evident that the nature
of the debris will vary according to the localities, and that their
quantity will be more or less great ; which would also partly be
the case, should these rocks be attributed to a chemical precipi-
tation. If the observed deposits are nothing else than the re-
anains of marine animals, or similar productions, taken up and
arranged by the sea-water, the same bed will present, in diffe-
rent localities, varieties not only in the nature of the rock, but
also im the fossils; for marine animals are not the same at
different depths of the sea, at different distances from the coast,
or under different zones, or in different places of the world ; and
their debris must also be variously arranged or grouped toge-
ther by the sea, according to the unequal motions and bottom
of the ocean. For farther elucidations of this subject, I may
refer the reader to the late excellent Memoir of M. C. Prevost.
On the other hand, there are mineral masses, which are gene-
rally distributed, as sandstones, &c.; while others are much
more local, as all unstratified rocks, also limestones, gypsum,
salt, and coal. The unstratified rocks seem to have given rise
to certain deposits in the countries where these rocks have ap-
peared ; thus the granite rocks are accompanied with certain
conglomerates, the serpentines are near certain sandstones, the
porphyries occur in the neighbourhood of the coal-formation,
and of various floetz sandstones, the basalts are associated with
deposits of lignite and arenaceous rocks, &c. It should not
then excite surprise to find differences in the beds of the same
formation in different countries. In this manner, the transition,
or fleetz sandstones of a country, which contain no unstratified
rocks, will differ a little from those of another country, in which
these igneous, or unstratified rocks, are present. It is acknow-
ledged that limestone rocks are not equally distributed over the
earth’s surface, but that they have been formed in particular lo-
calities, as in basins, sinuosities of a basin, or along submarine
rocky chains. The gypsum and salt also evidently belong to

the local deposits, if their mixed igneous and aqueous origin be
3

86 Dr Boué’s Geological Observations.

admitted. Lastly, the combustible deposits must be placed in
the same order, as facts shew that they are nothing else than
vegetable and animal matters, which have been carried away
from the continent by rivers, debacles, or the sea, and which
have been buried under certain conglomerated rocks.

In conformity with these views, it will be perceived how er-
roneous it would be to search, for instance, in the middle of a
very large basin, for the coal, lignite, gypsum or salt, which are
found accidentally at its margins. We will not entirely deny
the success of such researches; but we may affirm, that the
probability of the existence of such extensive deposits, always
diminishes in the ratio of the magnitude of the basin. In an
extensive basin, which might shew coal or salt at its margins,
we ought not to be surprised to find here and there, instead of
these inflammable or saline bodies, arenaceous matters, with
little or no coal or salt.

These preliminary observations have seemed to me to be es-
pecially necessary, with the view of enabling us to classify with
accuracy the deposits of a great part of the Alps, the Appe-
nines, the Carpathians, and the Pyrenees. ‘The three first
chains present, in my tables, a great arenaceous or marly depo-
sit, which is pretty similar to the greywacke, and which would
seem to occupy the place of more than one of the arenaceous
floetz formations of other countries, or which, perhaps, is an equi-
valent for the whole of these flcetz formations, up to the Jura
limestone. This new fact would be explained, according to my
ideas, by the total absence of porphyries in these great chains ;
for in every other part where these igneous rocks have appeared,
they have given to the ancient floetz deposits their peculiar and
ordinary characters ; and some parts, even of the Alps, and of
Hungary and Transylvania (as the Southern Tyrol, the coun-
try round Funfkirchen and Zalathna), afford us very striking
examples of this general law.*

These remarks also give rise to general geognostical views
regarding the floetz formations. It would seem, that, from too
great a desire to examine the details, geologists have lost sight
of the general facts presented by this class of deposits. With-

* See my Memoir on Germany, in the Journal de Physique, 1822.

Dr Boue’s Geological Observations. 37

out sufficient examination, they have united under the names of
ancient and recent transition class, an immense quantity of beds,
containing numerous alternations of sandstone and limestone
rocks; and have, on the other hand, subdivided, to a great
degree, much smaller masses of deposits, because they abounded
more in fossil shells, or were more easily studied. I ask, if
there really exist in the fleetz period, more than two great essen-
tial and universal formations; of which the one would be emi-
nently calcareous, and would contain the chalk and the Jura
limestone, and the other generally arenaceous, and containing
all the older floetz sandstones posterior to the Jura limestone ?

I confess I am inclined to this arrangement. I see in the
flcetz formations the arenaceous deposits decreasing from below
upwards, and the limestone from above downwards. I find be-
tween the chalk and the Jura limestone, or even in this latter
(England, Dalmatia, France), nothing else than very small are-
naceous masses, which even do not occur generally. On the
other hand, in the older arenaceous deposits, I see only acci-
dentally two limestone masses, of which the lowest is nowhere very
thick, and of very partial distribution, and of which the other also
does not seem to have the general extent of the Jura limestone.
Lastly, this latter limestone shows, how extensive one’s observa-
tions must have been, before we could decide whether a particu-
lar deposit is universal, or entitled to rank as a formation ; for
the different divisions recognised here and there in that lime-
stoné, do not exist every where; some of these divisions are
sometimes represented by very different rocks, and even that
which seems the most important, the lias, is wanting in the
whole of the south-eastern part of Europe, as in the Appenines,
the Alps, Austria, and Hungary.

Whatever other opinions may yet be formed on the subjects
in question, these are the ideas which seem to have been em-
braced by many eminent geologists, who are accustomed to con-
sult nature with the hammer in their hand, and not through the
medium of books. I may also remark, that, so carly as 1816,
Professor Jameson was not far from these ideas, with which
every known fact in geological geography is in accordance.
Nevertheless, I believe it of importance to retain all the existing
subdivisions, and even to endeavour to establish still more, in

88 Dr Boue’s Geological Observations.

order to enable us to comprehend more easily the whole details
of the complicated structure of the earth’s crust.

III. On the changes that appear to have taken place during
the different periods of the Earth's formation, in the cli-
mate of our globe, and in the nature, and the physical
and geographical distribution of its animals and plants.

If we attend to the changes produced on the earth by volca-
noes, rivers, the ocean, the atmosphere, and various chemical
agencies, we shall obtain very simple theoretical ideas, which will
enable us to explain the formation of the groups of rocks of
which the crust of the earth is composed, by well known physi-
cal and chemical facts. The Tabular View of Rocks, given in
volume 13th of The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, shews
the causes of the changes that have taken place in the tempera-
ture of the surface of the globe, and, m consequence of it, in
the three kingdoms of nature, and it resolves in a very natural
manner the greatest geological problem, for it assigns the rea-
sons for the formation of the various zones in latitude, longitude,
and height, for the establishment of different climates on the
earth, for the successive changes in the various creations of the
three kingdoms, and for the particular distribution of the re-
mains of the ancient or lost creations. All these problems seem
to be resolved, by admitting, at a former period, a much greater
activity in the chemical actions which are still the source of pre-
sently existing volcanoes. This first proposition is founded on
a series of facts, stated in my Tabular View of Rocks, from
which it appears that the igneous action decreases in a contrary
ratio to the Neptunian, from the ancient to the modern periods.
If these chemical subterraneous operations have gradually dimi-
nished from ancient to modern times, less volcanic matter has
been formed, and smaller tracts of countries have been volea-
nized or subjected to the igneous action and change; and as the
high temperature of these volcanic products must have elevated
the temperature of the atmosphere, it is clear, that, in propor-
tion as the formation of these volcanic masses became less con-
siderable, the heat of the atmosphere and surface of the earth
also diminished. Volcanic actions are generally accompanied by
fissures, by fallings in and risings up of tracts of country. These

Dr Boué’s Geological Observations. 89

effects must also have been produced formerly as now ; but their
causes being then infinitely greater than at present, the changes
operated must also have been proportionally much more consider-
able. This, also, seems to explain to us the rising up of certain
strata, or certain parts of continents, as well as the successive sink-
ing of the level of the sea, or its inclosure within its present limits.
It is obvious that a consequence resulting from this is, that, in
the earlier states of the globe, the seas and continents were chan-
ging more rapidly than in the more modern; that the tempera-
ture of the earth also was decreasing more rapidly: but, at the
same time, in consequence of this decreasing heat, the evapora-
tion must have diminished ; the rays of the sun, in a less moist
atmosphere, must have become less hot; the rains must have
decreased in quantity, and the atmospheric meteors must have
generally become less considerable; the streams of water must
have gradually lost their original greatness, as well as their de-
structive energy; and the inclined planes along which they
flowed must have diminished, or increased, according to local
circumstances. On the other hand, the countries from which
the sea was retiring, or those which had been raised up, must
have lost a part of their temperature. It is also to be conelud-
ed, that the diminution of the temperature was not equally the
same over the whole surface of the globe, but that it took place
in proportion to the extent of the volcanic masses, to the degree
of their cooling, to that of the retreat of the sea, and to the po-
sition of the different parts of the earth, compared with their
level above the sea, with their removal from the sea, and with
their position in reference to the sun. The last propositions
shew, first, the probability that there have always been parts on
the earth warmer than the others; and explain, besides, how the
zones of temperature have been established in latitude, longi-
tude and height, and also, according to local circumstances, the
various climates of the whole earth. It is known that every
zone, and nearly every climate that is more or less general, has
its peculiar animals and vegetables ; or, at least, it is a fact, that
the distribution of animals and vegetables is most materially in-
fluenced by the division of the surface of the earth into. zones,
and into countries or climates. Is it not natural to search in the
successive establishment of these different zones and climates,

90 Dr Boue’s Geological Observations.

the cause of the differences observed, not only between the pre-
sent vegetable and animal creations, and those similar creations
which are buried in the earth, but also of those known varia-
tions in these last creations? Geology has shewn, that the far-
ther we penetrate into the crust of the earth, the more simplicity
do we observe in the vegetable and animal productions, and the
more uniformity must the surface of the earth formerly have
presented in its creations. This can only be a consequence of
the greater equality of temperature which took place formerly
over the whole terrestrial surface, for the assigned causes had
then converted into warm zones those which are now cold or
temperate; and they perhaps ‘gave the torrid zone a tempera-
ture much higher than it now possesses, while, at the same time,
certain parts of this zone could only have the temperature of the
other zones by various circumstances not understood. As the
zones and climates gradually became established, the vegetables
and animals became diversified ; the vegetables of certain parts
of the earth also presently became extinct, because they no
longer found the climate which they required; and, according
to their distribution at that period, and to the temperature ne-
cessary for their existence, some are no longer found upon the
earth, others have degenerated, and some genera, or even per-
haps some species, requiring a pretty high temperature, still live
within the tropics. The animals which were not possessed of the
faculty of locomotion, must have experienced the same fate as
plants; but those species which could move, must have em-
ployed the means thus afforded them to travel, when it became
necessary, into climates which were favourable to their existence.
Some, suddenly brought into cold climates, in consequence of
volcanic elevations, or the retreat of the sea, must have perished
entirely, or must have remained in life only near the equator ;
others would soon have nowhere found the climate adapted for
them, and their races would have become extinct; while, at the.
same time, others would have descended, first, from the hills
into the valleys and flat country, and, afterwards, they would
no longer have been able to emigrate, when the temperature
would already have been too cold for them in these last locali-
ties.

Dr Boué’s Geological Observations. 91

These ideas afford a clear explanation of those mixtures of ve-
getables and animals of the temperate and torrid zone, that seem
at first unintelligible; they also afford us the key to those centres
of creation which have been perceived on the globe, and account
for the intimate relations which seem to be established between
the geological structure of the earth’s crust, and the geographi-
cal distribution of plants and animals, and particularly the acci-
dental isolated state of some of them. ‘The fossil conchologist
will conclude, a priori, from these propositions, that the more
we approach the poles from the equator, the more will the fossil
remains be similar or analogous in genera or species, to those at
present existing between the tropics. The more recent the for-
mations are, the more hope may we have of still finding the ana-
logous, or even identical, species of their fossils. But, on the
contrary, the more ancient the deposit is, the less reason will we
have to expect to find identical, or even analogous, species in the
sea or fresh water of the torrid zone; for this zone perhaps no
longer presents all the circumstances necessary for the exis-
tence of such beings, notwithstanding the actual heat of that
part of the earth. Lastly, the more recent the formations ob-
served in different continents, or in a particular continent, are,
the more must their fossils differ from one continent to another,
or rather from one zone to another, and also, at the same time,
from one basin toanother. But the fossils of these various coun-
tries will always be in the same relation with respect to the num-
ber of the analogous or similar species, with the animals still
living in these various localities. These last propositions, de-
duced a priori, are conformable to experience, and have been,
and will still probably be, ably elucidated by Baron de Ferussac.

Thus far does geology conduct us. We see with some pride
on our side, a Ferussac (see his Geological Ideas on ‘Tertiary
Basins, in the Journal de Physique, and his article on the Geo-
graphical Distribution of the Mollusca in the Dictionnaire Clas-
sique (Histoire Naturelle, 1825), a Humboldt, (see his Nou-
velle Recherches sur Ja Distribution des Vegetaux, in the Diec-
tionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, and his Discours sur les Vol-
cans), a Fourier, (Memoires sur la Chaleur Terrestre), a Von
Buch, (see his beautiful Memoirs on ‘Trap Porphyries, and those
on the Tyrol and Germany, in Leonard's Taschenbuch, 1824),

3

92 Baron Von Buch’s Observations

a Crichton, (Memoir on the Climates of the Globe, in the An-
nals of Philosophy, February and March 1825), and a Dau-
beny. Geology certainly enables us to perceive an uninterrupted
series of igneous and neptunian phenomena ; that science alone
cannot yet explain all the details of these in a satisfactory man-
ner; but she expects additional light from the progress of che-
mistry, natural philosophy, and astronomy ; and then only will
it be allowed to the philosopher to elevate himself to ideas of

pure geogony.

Observations on the Climate of the Canary Islands. By Baron
Leopotp Von Bucn *.

Aiiiowe the many important additions made to the physical
knowledge of the earth by the travels of Humboldt, and one of
the most distinguished in its consequences, is the determination of
the temperature under the tropics. For, before this was known,
it was not easy to determine in how far the formulas which
should express the distribution of temperature at the earth’s sur-
face, were consistent with observation. Inquired into in tempe-
rate and northern climates, the result of observation was always
affected by disturbing causes, and the object of the investigation,
which was to ascertain and give a distinct view of the anomalies,
could only be unsatisfactorily and imperfectly attained.

Having now, however, obtained nearer information concern-
ing the degrees of temperature in the neighbourhood of the equa-
tor, at the level of the sea, a series of observations are still re-
quired to connect it with those made beyond the 50th degree of
latitude ; but it is remarkable enough that there are none from
which the temperature of the intermediate 40 degrees might be
ascertained, with the exception of those conducted in Madeira
by Dr Heberden in 1750, which it would be desirable to ex-
change with others more recent, and, on that account, probably
more accurate.

Hence, it is presumed the observations instituted by the able
naturalist Don Francisco Escolar, at Santa Cruz in Teneriffe,

* Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Berlin, &c.

on the Climate of the Canary Islands. 93

from May 1808 to August 1810, will meet with a favourable
reception. However much they still leave undetermined, such
as they are, they fill up an important gap in our knowledge
of the distribution of temperature, and, it may well be affirmed,
cannot be dispensed with in the formation of a scientific meteor-
ology.

I have reckoned the observations of Don Francisco, which he
has had the goodness to communicate to me, by decades. Taking
the mean of these, I reduced the whole to a tabular form *.

Don Francisco had provided himself with good English in-
struments, which were placed in the shade, in an open gallery,
remote from reflection. In this respect, his observations are ful-
ly deserving of credit. The time of observation was at sunrise,
and at midday, or somewhat later. Hence, it might be thought,
that, in this way, the extreme heat would never be observed ;
that the medium would consequently be too low. This impres-
sion would be strengthened by the remarkable fact, that the tem-
perature at midday exceeds that at sunrise, on an average,
only by 1.16 of Reaumur, (2.61 Fahr.) But Monsieur Thi-
bant de Chanvallon, (Voyage a la Martinique, 1763), has long ago
shewn, that, in islands in warm climates, the extreme heat never
falls later than one o'clock, or, what very rarely happens, half
past one, but is frequently found to be soon after eleven, and
very generally at midday ; the elevation of the temperature, by
the culmination of the sun, being probably prevented by the
sea-breeze, which has now reached its greatest strength. Now,
however much the small difference of temperature at the hours
of observation might cause an error or unfayourable posi-
tion of the instruments to be suspected, this singular phenome-
non is, nevertheless, fully confirmed by the observations of He-
berden, 60 years earlier, at Funchal in Madeira. For, besides
the mean monthly temperature, he gives also the extremes in
each month; and the mean difference of these, in the course of
four years, amounts to not more than 2.91 of Reaumur, (6.55
Fahr.) It is therefore very probable, that the difference of the
medium temperature may only be half so great. There is no
plain at Santa Cruz any more than at Funchal, the mountains

* This will be found in the Scientific Intelligence of this Number.

94 Baron Von Buch’s Observations

ascending, in part very abruptly, at no great distance. Hence
there is, during the night, no perfect radiation of heat to the
open sky, and the diminution is inconsiderable. Around Lagu-
na, on the contrary, which is elevated 1588 Parisian feet above
the sea, there is a plain, about half a German square mile in ex-
tent, and there the nights are sensibly cold; so much that, in
winter, it is no way rare for ice to be formed, though only of the
thickness of a knife. Yet it never snows in Laguna ; the fall of
temperature is peculiar only to the ground, since it is not in the
atmosphere, but arises from the radiation of heat, which is not
again reflected from the clear sky, and at places not far from
Laguna, though at the same level, would probably not occur.

On these grounds, I do not think that any thing ought ei-
ther to be added to, or subtracted from, the observations of Don
Francisco; and am of opinion, that they may be regarded as
giving a fair view of the climate of Santa Cruz.

The mean temperature for each month is as follows :

Fahr.
January, - 63.84
February, - 64.29
March, - 67.17
April, - 67.32
May, - 72.12
June, - 73.89
July, “ (7.27
August, - 78.89
September, - 73
October, - 74.66
November, - 70.43
December, - 65,82

Mean, 71.09

These are, it must be allowed, very high temperatures. The
mean heat of January, the coldest month, is as great as that of
the whole year in the southern parts of Italy; but from the
range of temperature in the several months, it is evident that
the sun here no longer passes through the zenith. There is no
twofold elevation and depression of the temperature, as in all
places under the tropics ; but as is almost universal in the tem-
perate regions, the greatest depression is in January, the great-

on the Climate of the Canary Islands. 95

est elevation a month after the summer solstice. The Canary
Islands, also, no longer experience any thing resembling tropi-
cal rains; or such as, in the language of seamen, are said to fol-
low the sun, and set in when he has reached the zenith. The
rains of these climates first make their appearance when the
temperature in winter sinks perceptibly, and has become consi-
derably lower than that of the equatorial regions. The cause
of the rains, then, appears to be nothing else than that which
produces them in all countries towards the pole; the cooling of
the warm south-west winds coming from the tropics and lower
latitudes. But since these winds, by the temperature of the har-
vest months in the Canary islands, are not immediately cooled
down to the pomt where the condensation of vapour takes place ;
the reason is obvious, why the rains should here begin much
later than in Spain and Italy, and still more so than in France
and Germany. Rain does not often fall on the coast, before the
beginning of November, nor later than the end of March. In
Italy, the rainy season lasts from the first half of October till
the middle of April.

On the other hand, the summer of the Canary Islands iden-
tifies the climate with that of the tropics; so that, in these lati-
tudes, both zones pass into each other. For, from April toOctober
the north east trade-wind blows without intermission, just as it
does all the way down to the Mexican Gulf. ‘The trade-wind in
summer always stretches farther north, till at last it reaches the
coasts of Portugal. In like manner, it recedes back towards the
equator, in proportion as the sun advances southward, and the
temperature falls. But how far do they proceed? Do even
the south-west winds, if only for a few weeks in December and
January, descend on the Cape-Verd Islands? And is this po-
sition, on the boundaries as it were, of the tropical and winter
rains, which proves so beneficial and fertilizing to their respec-
tive countries, perhaps the cause why these unfortunate islands,
in the midst of the ocean, frequently, for many years together,
are never blessed with a single drop of rain ?

The invariableness of the trade-wind during summer is such,
that it interrupts, like an insurmountable barrier, all communica-
tion at this season, in the direction of south-west to north-east.
In two days, one can conveniently reach Teneriffe from Madeira ;

96 Baron Von Buch’s Observations on

but no one will easily be induced to go from Teneriffe to Cana-
ry or Madeira, for he would run the risk of consuming a whole
month in the attempt. Few people on the globe live more soli-
tary than the inhabitants of Ferro. Only one day is required
to go thither from Teneriffe ; but the return, which can only
be effected by the help of strong and unusually far spreading
land-winds, is so insecure and dangerous, that people only make
this voyage when it is absolutely necessary. Generally, eight or
ten days are calculated upon ; but it may happen that three, four,
or five weeks, will be required.

The mamer in which this north-easterly trade-wind 1s, to-_
wards winter, supplanted by that from the south-west, is very
singular, as well as instructive, and of the greatestimportance to
the science of meteorology. These winds do not previously
prevail in the south, and then advance towards the north, as,
from their direction, might at first be imagined ; but, as has been
before remarked, they appear sooner on the Portuguese coast
than in Madeira, and there earlier than in Teneriffe and Canary ;
as if, from the north, they descend gradua!ly from the upper
regions, where they were at all times, even during summer,
when the north-east trade-wind blew at the level of the sea with
the greatest violence. It was conjectured long ago, that there
might be, in the upper regions of the atmosphere, a current run-
ning in an opposite direction to that below ; and on this suppo-
sition was founded the generally received theory of the trade-
winds, viz. that which ascribes their origin to the rarification of |
the air at the equator, and the rushing in of the colder air from
the north and south, which, having at first a course from north-
east to south-west, is at last entirely converted into an easterly ;
because in lower latitudes, the rotatory motion is greater than
in those from whence it proceeded. But this returning current
was, till of late years, only a conjecture. In 1812, a great volca-
nic eruption took place in St Vincent’s. To the eastward lies
the Island of Barbadoes, at no great distance, but. so decidedly
separated by the easterly trade-wind, that it could only be reach-
ed by making a circuit of many hundred miles. This east wind
brings to Barbadoes no rain and no clouds, All of a sudden,
however, dark clouds appeared over the island,and the ashes from
the voleano in St Vincent's fell in great abundance, to the great

on the Climate of the Canary Islands. 97

astonishment would they have seen mountains in motion, than
such matters brought to them through the air from the west.
But, by this striking occurrence, the returning current in the
upper regions was proved, and with it the theory of the trade-
winds, for which we are indebted to Hadly (Phil. Trans. vol. xvi.
p- 151.), was become something more than conjecture. With
not less certainty can this current be daily observed in the Ca-
nary Islands; for the Peak of Teneriffe is high enough to reach
it even in the middle of summer. There is scarcely any account
of a journey to the top of the Peak, in which mention is not
made of the violent west-wind blowing there. Humboldt as-
cended it on the 21st of June; and, when arrived at the brink
of the crater, the raging west-wind scarcely allowed him to stand
on his feet, (Relat. i. 132.) Had such a wind blown at this
season at Santa Cruz, or at Orotava, people would have been as
much alarmed by the circumstance as they were in Barbadoes
by the clouds of ashes. I found a similar, though somewhat
less powerful, west-wind at the summit of the Peak on the 19th
of May ; and. George Glass, an attentive and accurate observer,
who, as a seaman, had for many years carefully explored the winds
of these islands, says in his work, which still contains much valu-
able information, that strong west-winds always blow upon the
heights of these islands, when those from the north-east prevail
below, ** which,” he adds, * takes place, as I believe, in all parts
of the world in which there are trade-winds.” “ I venture not,”
he farther adds, ‘‘ to explain this circumstanee, but it certainly
is so on the Peak of Teneriffe, and on the heights of some others
of these islands,” (History of the Canary Islands, p. 251.)
Glass knew the islands too well not to speak here from his own
experience.

These winds descend gradually upon the mountains from
the high regions of the atmosphere, as is evidently seen from the
clouds, which, after October, cover the top of the Peak from the
south, and which appear always lower till they rest on the
range of mountains, more than 6000 feet high, between Oro-
tava and the southern coast, and there break out into dreadful
thunder-storms. After that, perhaps, a week may pass, or more,
before they are felt on the sea-coast. There they continue ta

APRIL—JULY 1826. G

98 Baron Von Buch’s Observations

prevail for months. Rain now falls in the declivity of the moun-
tains, and the Peak is covered with snow.

Have we not, then, reason to believe that the west-wind,
which, on the passage in summer from Teneriffe to England, is
sought for inthe neighbourhood or in the latitude of the Azores,
and is also generally found there; have we not reason to be-
lieve, that the almost constantly prevailing west and south-west
winds, which cause the voyage from New York or Philadelphia
to England, to be called down (bergab), and from England
back, up (bergauf), as well as that which blows at the top of the
Peak, are the upper equatorial current, which has here descend-
ed to skim the surface of the ocean ? It would then follow, that
the equatorial air of the upper regions does not reach the pole,
at least along the Atlantic ocean; and that the polar air must
be subject to other movements, dependent on the temperature of
the neighbouring countries of the temperate zone; and thus
new causes would be ascertained for modifying the laws which
regulate the distribution of temperature. How much for the
clearing up of this point is not a series of meteorological obser-
vations from one of the Azores to be wished ! How much, also,
with this view, the narrative of a journey to the Peak of the
Azores !

Glass details some other phenomena, which appear to me to
be important, in order fully to comprehend the true course of
these currents, one above the other. All experienced seamen
hold it as a rule, that continents in the warmer climates at all
times attract fixed winds, probably because the air being more
rarified over the land, ascends, and must be replaced by the
trade-wind. Thus the Canary Islands feel the influence of the
neighbourhood of Africa. The north-east wind is always more
diverted towards the coast, the nearer the islands are to it. Near
the land the wind is almost directly north, or N. by E.; at
Lancerote and Fortaventura, N. N. E.; at Canary, N. E.; at
Teneriffe, N. E. by E.; and at Palma, a little more to the east,
and thus continues along the Atlantic. These winds are so
completely intercepted by the higher islands, Canary, Teneriffe,
and Palma, that, when they are blowing violently on the north-
east side, there is a perfect calm on the one opposite. Of this
appearance there is a striking account given in the manuscript

on the Climate of the Canary Islands. 99

of Mons. Borda’s voyage, which has been communicated to me
by the Bureau of Marine at Paris. Borda had given orders to
Mons. Chastenest to sail round the island of Canary, who sailed
accordingly with a strong north-east wind from Sardina to the
Punta delAldea. Having got round this point, however, he
found himself all of a sudden involved in such a calm, that he
required two days to reach the Punta Descojada, only about a
league distant. He took four days more to double the Punta
@Arganeguin, the southernmost part of the island. Then, on
_the following day, he advanced slowly to Cape Tanifet ; but no
sooner had he weathered this, than the north-east wind came
against him with such violence that he was obliged to take in the
greater part of the sails. Now, the line from Punta Aldea to
Cape Tanifet lies as exactly at right angles to the direction of
north-east, as if artificially laid down.

Glass investigates how far this interruption extends out to
sea, and fixes it at from 20 to 25 leagues for Canary, 15 for
Teneriffe, 10 for Gomera, and 30 for Palma. He asserts that
he had visited and ascertained all these calm projections, and
that they are very dangerous to ships, because the high waves
break upon the quiet water of these unruffled spaces, as upon a
shelving shore, and occasion a very hazardous and foaming
surf. These distances are so very considerable as to justify the
belief that these winds do not proceed parallel to the earth, still
less that they have their course downwards; but that they as-
cend gradually, or, what is the same, towards. low latitudes oc-
cupy greater spaces. It were scarcely accountable, on any
other supposition, why they should not sooner unite again be-
hind the islands.

Barometrical observations do indeed seem to indicate a parti-
cular accumulation of the atmosphere over the Canary Islands ;
at least the appearances the barometer presents are, in this re-
spect, very deserving of attention, and more careful examination,

From the 21st July till the 10th August, I daily observed
the barometer at Las Palmas in Grand Canary, and found it re-
duced to the freezing point.

At Ta.m. 28 inches 2882
ll 28 —— 3.0217

4r.u. 28 —— 2.524
li—— 28 —— 27445

100 Baron Von Buch’s Observations

The mean of these is 28. 2.791, or adding, for 30 feet above
the sea, 28 inches 3’”.09 lines.

This is very considerable, and is fully ienteenal by the obser-
vations of Don Francisco Escolar, at Santa Cruz. The mean of
the extremes, for three years, reduced to the freezing point, and
to the level of the sea, is 28 inches 2’’.441 lines. And if these
monthly extremes be not fallacious, the pressure of the air in
summer, when the north-east and westerly winds are placed above
each, appears, in fact, to be greater than in the winter months,
when the south-west alone prevails. For the mean of the four
months, May, June, July and August, is 28 inches 3.173 lines.
The mean height from September to April 28, 2.017 ; the diffe-
rence of which is 1.156 lines.

How very different is this from the state of the barometer in
countries at the equator! How very different from what it is
found to be in England, Ireland and Norway! Seven days’ ob-
servations in May, at Puerto Orotava, gave the height of the
barometer, at the level of the sea, at 28°1.79. Seven days’ ob-
servations at the same place, in September and October, gave
28°2..38. And, lastly, three days’ at Lancerote, 28°3.8.

When to this is added, that the naturalists who have ascend-
ed the Peak with barometers, have never marked them low at
the level of the sea, Lamanon 28°.3’”, at Santa Cruz, Cordier
even 28 inches, 5’’.6 at Puerto Orotava, on the 17th of April,
(Journal de Physique, lvii. 57.), a somewhat greater height of
the atmosphere, over these islands, becomes almost probable.

When the west wind of the upper regions descends obliquely
in autumn, and thereby reaches the surface sooner in northern
than in more southern parts, it must, long before it reach the
latter, have completely interrupted the course of the north wind ;
and hence it is, that, at this season, places particularly exposed
to the trade wind are left in a perfect calm. Is the course of
local winds prevented by the nature of the environs? The heat
being no longer carried off, will increase considerably, till again
reduced, by regular winds. In this way I would explain the
very singular, and, as I believe, unprecedented phenomenon,
that at Las Palmas in Grand Canary, the greatest heat does not
occur in July or August, but in the middle of October ; and so
singular is it, that, till September, the heat, as compared with

on the Climate of the Canary Islands. 101

the other islands, rises only slowly, but now ascends rapidly, and
reaches such a height as is only found in the warmest tropical
climates. The fact is indisputably established, by the observa-
tions of Dr Bandini de Gatti in Las Palmas, made for ten years,
with good and properly placed thermometers, which he commu-
nicated to me, and from which I have reckoned the decades for
three years. It is to be regretted that M. Bandini observed only
at midday, and thus the true mean temperature cannot be ob-
tained. In order, however, to bring it in some respect near the
truth, I have applied the difference between the mean and mid-
day temperature, as obtained from Don Francisco’s observations,
to those of Bandini; the difference, however, must certainly be
greater in Las Palmas. The result is as follows.

Las Palmas in Grand Canary.

neh. de amnbels

i in pr
January l.tol0,| 6381 | 62.19 |i July 1. to 10.
10. to 20. | 63.77 | 62.15 10. to 20.
*to3l. | 63.25 | 61.63 20. to 31.

63.61 61.99

64.51 63.54
64.49 | 63.52
65.05 | 64.06

64.68 | 63.71
65.66 | 64.44

65.75 | 64.53
66.49 | 65.28

65.97 | 64.75

67.12 | 66.06
67.75 | 66.44
67.68 | 66.40

67.52 | 66.30

68.85 67.55 November 1.
69.75 68.45 10.
69.90 68.67 20.

69.53 | 68.22 . 71.96

70.65 | 69.19 ||December 1. , 5 64.44
71.60 70.14 10. ji 5 62.87
72.09 70.63 20. - 3. 62.69

71.45 69.99

102 Baron Von Buch’s Observations

Were we to form a curve from these data, it is at once evi-
dent, that all the warmth, from the end of August to the end of
November, will seem not to belong to it, but to flow from quite
a distinct source. The epinion of the inhabitants fully coincides
with the indications of the instruments, that the heat in the mid-
dle of summer is not to be compared with that towards the mid-
dle and the end of October. The products of nature also con-
firm these results. Las Palmas has not been improperly named
from the palm tree; for there is, at this day, a wood of date
palms, extending along the valley, whose fruit ripens well; which,
however, is not the case with the few scattered trees at Santa
Cruz, or at Oratava, in Teneriffe. The Euphorbia balsamifera,
which requires much heat, and which, at Oratava and Santa
Cruz, scarcely appears above ground, is found in this neigh-
bourhood, on heights of 800 feet ; and it is in no way unusual
to see bushes of it from ten to twelve feet high. The Placoma
pendula, very rare near Santa Cruz, grows equally large. A
multitude of East and West India trees also adorn the gardens
of Canary, which are not seen in Teneriffe: Poinciana pulcher-
rima, of extraordinary beauty and size; Bixa orellana; Tama-
rind trees, as large as our limes, and a noble alley of large trees
of the Carica papaya, surrounds the inner court of the Hospital
of St Lazarus, which obviously succeed here better than the few
found scattered on the north coast of Teneriffe. Wherefore this
singular circumstance is well deserving the attention of those
who inquire into the laws for the distribution of temperature at
the earth’s surface, and the other meteorological phenomena
therewith connected.

Such irregularities and traces of loca] variation are not met
with in the curve of Santa Cruz. Hence, I think, it may safe-
ly be employed in the investigation of the decrease of heat in the
various latitudes which lie in equal longitudes of temperature.
I have, therefore, attempted to place several well ascertained
curves over each other, which seem to admit of being referred
to similar, or slightly modified laws, and inserted the observa-
tions themselves in the accompanying table. It contains the
temperatures of Cumana, Santa Cruz, Funchal, Kendal, in the
north-west of England ; Séndmor, near Drontheim, in Norway ;
and, lastly, several months, accurately ascertained from twelve

on the Climate of the Canary Islands. 1038

years observations in 78° of latitude ; for which we are indebted
to the indefatigable, learned, and bold Greenland navigator
William Scoresby of Whitby in Yorkshire.

Havannah, on the contrary, and Cairo, form, on the table,
two curves, which belong to quite different meteorological longi-
tudes, running parallel on each side of the Atlantic. The in-
fluence of the winter is considerable on both. In Havannah,
just under the tropic, the thermometer sinks in winter almost to
the freezing point, at the level of the sea, (Humboldt). On the
other hand, the summer in Cairo ascends so very considerably
above that of the Canaries, which lie still farther south, that it
is quite evident the decrease of temperature is pot here subject
to the same laws.

When the above mentioned temperatures of the Atlantic
zone are calculated by the known formula of Mayer, according
to which the temperatures decrease as the quadrant of the sine
of latitude, multiplied by an arbitrary co-efficient, it will be found,
that the respective results are by no means exact which Hum-
boldt has already remarked in his excellent treatise on isothermal
lines; one of the richest sources for the meteorological know-
ledge of the earth’s surface. (Mem. d’Arcueil, iii. 481). But it
results at once from such calculations, in what latitudes the tem-
perature decreases more rapidly, and where more slowly, than
is consistent with the fundamental law ; and we are thereby led
to investigate and ascertain the interfering and modifying fac-
tors. Thus, the mean temperature of the pole, as obtained from
a comparison of the observations of Santa Cruz and at Kendal,
is 4°.9 of Reaumur, (20°.98 Fahr.) that of the equator 28°.2
(95°.45 Fahr.) The first is not so far from the truth as the
latter ; for Scoresby has shewn that the medium temperature of
the polar sea is several degrees under the freezing point. He,
indeed supposes the mean temperature of the 78th degree of lati-
tude to be 6°.7of Reaumur'(16°.93 Fahr.); but this is probably too
low, and rests on the untenable supposition that the polar curve
would have a similar progression with that of Stockholm. But
this place is too remote from the sea. It would be more cor-
rect to suppose the curve similar to that of the Norwegian coast,
and, were it determined by the data, furnished by M. Strom of

104 Baron Von Buch’s Observations, &c.

Séndmér, the mean temperature would be 5°.4 (19°.85 Fahr.)
which may perhaps approach very near to that of the pole.

From the observations at Kendal and Séndmér, on the con-
trary, we obtain the mean temperature of 17°.8 of Reaumur,
(72.05 Fahr.) for the equator, and + 0°.5 (33°.12 Fahr.) for
the pole ; results which should be mutually at greater distances
from each other. . It is hence evident that the decrease of tem-
perature in the Northern Atlantic is much less than the general
rule requires. Some new principle of heat, modifying the re-
sults, must here have interposed ; and what is that else than the
upper equatorial current, which, between America and Europe,
descends to the surface of the ocean, and distributing its. heat,
mounts upwards towards the pole!

Havannah,

Lat. 23°8
Teneriffe.
Funchal,
Madeira.

S
5

i
3
a

Cumana.

————— ee

° o

January, - 80.35 64.49
February, - | 80.51

March, - 81.95

April, - 83.84

May, . 84.54

June, = 83.10

July, - 83.28

August, : 81.50

September, - _

October, - —_—

November, - |83.21

December, - 80.80

Mean Fahr. .20 | 72. f 11 | 41.593) 19.86

On the Wombat of F'uinvers. By Dr Knox, F.R.S.E. M.W.S.
Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology, Fellow of the Royal
College of Surgeons in Edinburgh, and Conservator of the
Museum *. (Communicated by the Author.) -

r +5
LT HE genus Phascolome was established by M. St Hilaire for
the reception of certain animals brought from New Holland by

* Read before the Wernerian Society 14th January 1826,

Dr Knox on the Wombat of Flinders. 105

the French ships of discovery, which circumnavigated the world
during the reign of the late Emperor. Of two or more speci-
mens, one was landed alive, so that M. St Hilaire had an op-
portunity of observing some of the habits of this very curious
class of animals. His memoirs on the natural history of the
Phascolome will be found in an early number of the Annales de
Museum ; the anatomical descriptions were drawn up by Baron
Cuvier, and have been long submitted to the public in the
** Anatomie Comparée.”

The Regne Animale of Baron Cuvier notices certain other
marsupial animals, somewhat resembling the Phascolome of St
Hilaire, yet sufficiently different to constitute distinct genera :
these are, the Koala, the Phalanger, and the Perameles. Of these,
the first, or Koala, seems to have been established by naturalists
without sufficient authority. It resembles, it is true, very close-
ly the animal I am about to describe, under the name of the
Wombat of Flinders; but we shall afterwards find, that, if the
character given in the Regne Animale be correct, they cannot
be considered as belonging to the same species.

But previous to the arrival of Peron and his associates in
Europe, and consequently to the description and dissection of
M. St Hilaire and the Baron Cuvier, Mr Bass, a British sur-
geon, companion of the great but unfortunate Flinders, had
discovered and described, under the name of Wombat, an ani-
mal of Australia, differing essentially from the Phascolome,
and even in certain respects from the Koala, so as evidently to
constitute a distinct species. A certain degree of vagueness,
however, in the observations of Captain Flinders and of Mr
Bass (who at the time were deeply interested in more important
discoveries), led Baron Cuvier to suppose that there might exist
some error,—some erroneous combination of two different de-
scriptions ; and, consequently, that the Wombat described by
Captain Flinders might not have a real and distinct existence ;
but, should this not be the case, he observes, the animal de-
scribed by Bass and Flinders would form a subgenus apart, and
ought to be arranged with or near the Perameles.

Illiger, whose acuteness in the classification of objects apper-
taining to natural history was avowedly great, suspected this

106 Dr Knox on the Wombat of Flinders.

Wombat, described by Mr Bass, to differ from the Phascolome
of Peron, and he gave to it the name of Amblotis, the bestow-
ing of new names being with him, as with many naturalists of the
present day, an object of much greater importance than the dis-
covery of new species.

I am not acquainted with all the sources whence M. Illiger
may have derived his information, relative to this species of ani-
mal,—probably from the voyage of Collins,—from. a very im-
perfect notice on the subject contained in the Mem. de lAcade-
mie Imperiale des Sciences de St Petersbourg, t.i. p. 444.—
and from the very excellent compilation of M. Desmarest.

The Wombat of Bass is distinctly enough described by that
bold navigator, with the exception of the teeth. He says *, that
“‘ the opening of the mouth is small: it contains five long grass-
cutting teeth in the front of each jaw, like those of the kanga-
roo; within them is a vacancy for an inch or more; then ap-
pear two small canine teeth, of equal height with and so much
similar to eight molares, situated behind, as scarcely to be dis- ~
tinguishable from them. The whole number in both jaws
amount to twenty-four.” It is not improbable that this account
of the teeth may prove incorrect. Notwithstanding, I am in-
clined, from various circumstances, to view the Wombat de-
scribed by Mr Bass as different from that I have called the
Wombat of Flinders, of the natural history of which I shall
now offer a brief history to the Society.

It is far from being improbable, that the animal described by
Captain Flinders was really the Phascolome of naturalists ; for
that great navigator says, in the Introduction to his * Voyage
to Terra Australis,” that there are two sorts or species of the
Wombat, one inhabiting the islands, which burrows like the
badger, and does not quit its retreat till dark : another species
of this animal has been discovered in New South Wales, which .
lives in the tops of trees, and in manners bears much resemblance
to the sloth.

Whether I am right in supposing that the description given
more in detail by Mr Bass, really applies to the Phascolome of

* Collins’s New South Wales, vol. ii p. 155.

Dr Knox on the Wombat of Flinders. 107

St Hilaire, or to the animal, the skeleton of which is now before
us, and which we shall call the Wombat of Flinders, is perhaps
a matter of little moment, since both species are undoubtedly
alluded to in the writings of Flinders.

In June 1808, Sir E. Home published in the Philosophical
Transactions “ an account of some peculiarities in the anatomi-
cal structure of the Wombat,” which contains many very va-
luable and original observations, and, as we shall presently find,
is the only account of the internal anatomy of the Wombat that
has as yet been submitted to the public. To explain this as-
sertion, it will be necessary to premise the circumstances which
led to the discovery, that the Wombat of Flinders *, and the
Phascolome of Peron, however they might appertain to the same
genus, do yet constitute two distinct species.

Sir Thomas Brisbane, Governor-General of Australasia, ha-
ving transmitted to this country a specimen of an animal much
resembling the Wombat, an opportunity was thus offered me of
dissecting this animal; and here I may be permitted to state,
that, on this, as on all other occasions, my pursuits in compara-
tive anatomy have been forwarded to the utmost by Professor
Jameson, to-whose kindness I owe the success I have experienced
in anatomical investigation.

The first step I took before proceeding to the dissection of
the species of Wombat put at my disposal, was the comparing
of the external characters, in as far as they could be made out,
with the descriptions of Cuvier and of Desmarest. The result
of this comparison was, that the animal under examination dif-
fered essentially from the Phascolome of Peron, with which it
had been confounded by anatomists and naturalists of high re-
putation. Nor could it be made to agree with another genus,
the Koala (Cuv.) a marsupial animal described briefly in the
* Regne Animale +.”

Let us now proceed to examine the sources whence those er-
rors have arisen, by means of which the internal anatomy of the

* Called so by me in honour of that truly great man.

+ The engraving of the Koala, as given in the 4th volume of the Regne
Animale, has no resemblance in form to the animal dissected by me.

108 Dr Knox on the Wombat of Flinders.

Wombat of Flinders has been thought applicable to the Pha-
scolome of St Hilaire; that is, to an animal of a very different
nature, and belonging to a distinct genus, and endeavour, as
far as the very limited opportunities as yet permit, to rectify
them.

I.

The only account hitherto published of the animal to
which I have given the name of the Wombat of Flinders, is
that by Sir E. Home, already quoted. This great anatomist
has described some of the habits of the animal (for it was
brought to him alive by Mr Brown), and several peculiarities
in its internal structure; but, by an error inexplicable to me,
he fancied that the Wombat he described was the same as the
Phascolome of Peron, the internal anatomy of which had al-
ready been accurately given by the Baron Cuvier; and this has
led to a confusion which can scarcely be imagined, but by those
who may have had to unravel the anatomy of two distinct spe-
cies of animals, given partially by different observers, who both
fancied they were describing one and the same animal.

The external form of the Wombat, observes Sir E. Home,
has been described by M. Geoffroy in the 2d volume of the
Annales du Museum, and several parts of its internal structure
have been taken notice of by M. Cuvier in his Legons d Anato-
mie Comparée; but in order to shew, that to suppose this is a
great error, and to prove satisfactorily to the Society, that the
great French anatomist never dissected an individual of the spe-
cies which Sir E. Home speaks of in the memoir alluded to,
I have only to call the attention of the Society to the following
circumstances :

The Phascolome of Peron, Cuvier, and St Hilaire, has two
long incisive teeth in each jaw; ten molar teeth, but no canine
teeth. The Wombat of Flinders has, on the contrary, six in-
cisive, two canine, and ten molar. ;

The peculiarities which Sir E. Home supposes to have es-
caped the observation of MM. Cuvier and St Hilaire, are three
in number, and they comprise all the observations which Sir FE.
Home has thought fit to offer on the subject.

Dr Knox on the Wombat of Flinders. 109

1. There is no patella. 2 The stomach of the Wombat re-
sembles that of the beaver,—a remarkable gland or assemblage
of glands, resembling the glandular crop in birds, being found
in the smaller curvature of the stomach, but nearer the cardiac
than the pyloric orifice. 3. The prostate gland exists, and is
very distinct.

Now, I am not surprised that these peculiarities should have
escaped the French anatomists and naturalists; for it may easi-
ly be shewn from their own writings, that, notwithstanding the
assertions of Sir E. Home, they never saw the Wombat of
Flinders, which in the above account he has partially described ;
they described the Phascolome, and not the Wombat.

Having verified in the specimen before me the peculiarities
just spoken of, and ascertained the cause of error, I became
anxious to add as many new facts as possible to the three dis-
covered by Sir E. Home; but the specimen was not a little
unfavourable for anatomical investigation.

Feet. In.

The total length of the animal is - - . ile
Length of the small intestings, from the pylorus to their ter-

mination in the large intestines, - - - Fee

Length of the large ditto (caecum not included), - 10 8

Length of the caecum, - : - . . 6 5

We have seen that the Phascolome or Wombat of Peron has
a short and wide cecum, and an appendix vermiformis; the
cecum of the Wombat of Flinders is 6 feet 5 inches long, ta-
pering gradually to a point ; there is not a vestige of an appen-
dix vermiformis. 'The toes of the anterior extremities are di-
vided into two groups, the thumb and index constituting one,
and the remaining three toes the other. ‘The great toe of the
posterior extremity is really a very strong and opposable thumb ;
the two adjoining toes are very weak, and united to the inser-
tion of the nail. I presume that it will now scarcely be believed
by any one that these animals belong to the same species.

The Wombat of Flinders constitutes the link connecting the
Marsupial animals with the Rodentia. It must precede that of
Peron in a systematic arrangement, if we regard the nature of
the teeth; but the intimate form and structure of its intestinal
canal places it in the closest relation with the Beaver, and with
the class Rodentia.

110 Dr Knox on the Wombat of Flinders.

Li

The natives of New Holland give the name of Wombat or
Womback to several animals which seem to differ essentially
from each other, and to constitute distinct species, of which
some inhabit the mountains, and others the islands. They use,
therefore, the term Wombat generically, and they add to it other
terms, expressive, I presume, of some particular quality, or
conveying a notion of species as distinct from genus. It is in
this way that they seem to use the term Koala, which very er-
roneously has been employed to designate a particular genus of
an animal distinct from the Wombat, and entitled to precede it
in systems of natural history. As it might be asserted, that,
under the head Koala, the animal I have described as the Wom-
bat of Flinders, is sufficiently characterised, and, if not identical
therewith, must be merely a variety of the Koala, as it has been
termed, I shall.here offer my objections to such an inference.

It is probable that European writers became first acquainted
with the term Koala through the medium of a communication
transmitted by Colonel Paterson, Lieutenant-Governor of New
South Wales, to Sir E. Home, nearly twenty years ago. Co-
lonel Paterson observes, that the species of Wombat which the
natives call the Koala Wombat, inhabits the forest of New Hol-
land, about fifty or sixty miles to the south-west of Port Jack-
son, and was first brought to Port Jackson in August 1803.
From this time, the term Koala came to be considered as a dis-
tinct genus, and we find it figuring in systems of natural his-
tory as a subdivision of the marsupial animals. The distinct and
precise manner in which Baron Cuvier notices the Koala, would
lead one to suppose that he had examined a specimen ; for he has
not only given the generic character of the animal, but also an
engraving, which bears but little resemblance to the Wom-
bat of Flinders. The characters of the Koala, as given in the
Regne Animal, are, two long incisive teeth in the lower jaw,
without any canine teeth, and in the upper jaw two long inci-
sive teeth, with some smaller ones at the sides, and two smaller
canine. He moreover adds, that the posterior extremities wants
the thumb. On the other hand, the excellent naturalist M. Des-
marest describes the Koala as having, incisiv. g.. fausses canines

Dr Knox on the Wombat of Flinders. lll

=, molaires =*. A little farther on, he says, that there are
four small teeth intermediate between the incisives and the up-
per molar teeth; and he asserts, contrary to the statement of
Baron Cuvier, that the thumb on the posterior extremities is
very large. M. De Blainville, whose extreme accuracy as an
anatomist and naturalist I am well acquainted with, gives a
third description, differing considerably from the two already
spoken of.

With these conflicting statements before us, I may venture to
question the existence of the Koala, as now described in books of
history, however nearly it may seem to approach the animal called
by me the Wombat of Flinders. Perhaps it may be permitted
me to propose the abolition of the term Koala, and restore the
names employed by the natives of New Holland. The classifi-
cation, then, of these very extraordinary animals would be as
follows * :

Genus WOMBAT.
Phascolarctos of De Blainville—Koala, Cuv. +

« *- . 2 nk 18
Charact.—Incisiv. $. Canin. =. Molar. =3, = 4

The two upper middle incisives much longer than the others ;
the lower incis. like those of the kangaroo.

Ears large and pointed, with the conch directed forward.
Five-toed; toes of the anterior extremity divided into two
groups ; thumb and index, and the other three together. Thumb
on the posterior extremities large, separated without any nail ;
the two following toes smaller, and re-united as far as the nails.

I. Sp. Womsar of Flinders.
Phascolarctos of De Blainyille—Koala of Cuvier and Desmarest.

For the anatomy and natural history, see Sir E. Home in
Phil. Trans. 1808, and the foregoing paper.

* The arrangement here proposed is nearly the same as that employed by
M. Desmarest in his “ Tableau methodique des Mammiferes,” published in 1804.
He describes the Wombat as having 6 incisors in each jaw, two canine, and
16 molar teeth; the only species being the Wombatus fossor. I am not at all
certain to what animal the above description is applicable, if not to some spe-
cies of the Wombat entirely unknown to me.

+ Baron Cuvier has not given any authority for the establishment of the
Koala as a distinct genus. ~

112 Mr Ritchie on an Atr-pump without Artificial Valves.

II. Puascotome ( Geoff: )
Wombat of Bass.—Didelphis, Shaw. —Phascolome, St Hilaire,
Cuvier.
For the anatomy and natural history, see Anatomie Comparée,
and the Annales du Museum.

On an Air-Pump without Artificial Valves. By Witi1am
Rircuie, A- M., Rector of Tain Academy. (Communicated
by the Author.)

Ix the common construction of the air-pump, the valves are
very liable to be deranged, the repairing of which is attended
with much trouble and expence. In the following construction
no such derangement can possibly take place, which must of it-
self give this air-pump a decided advantage.

The machine consists of a barrel shut at the lower end, and
having a small aperture at C, forming a free communication
with the receiver, F. (Plate I. fig. 8.) The piston D is solid, and
stuffed in the usual way. The piston rod works in a small stuf-
fing box at A, so as to render it completely air-tight. There is
asmall aperture at E in the top of the barrel, to allow the air to
make its escape, when the piston is raised. This air-pump may
be worked in the usual way, or by the method of continued mo-
tion. In commencing the exhaustion of the receiver, the piston
is supposed to be below the small aperture at C. The piston is
then raised, and the air which occupied the barrel is forced out
through the aperture at E. The point of one of the fingers is
applied to the perforation, in the same manner as in playing the
German flute. The air easily passes by the finger, which, when
the piston begins to descend, shuts the opening, and completely
prevents the entrance of the external air. The piston is again
forced down below the opening C, the air in the receiver rushes
into the barrel, and is again expelled by the ascending piston.

Since the air in the receiver has no valve to open by its elas-
ticity, it is obvious that there is no limit to the degree of exhaus-
tion, as in the common construction.

( 113 )

Table exhibiting the Highest and Lowest Degrees of Tempera-
ture, with the State of the Weather, of New Brunswick in
North America, as observed on the coast, and at a distance
of about fifty miles from the sea, from October 1. 1818 to
September 30. 1820. By AtexanpeR Boye, M.D. Fel-
low of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, and
Surgeon to his Majesty’s Forces. Communicated by Dr
Duncan jun.

Station and Dates. — Winds. Weather.

1 Be E. SE. \ Fine, frost towards end.

N. W. E. NE. |Cloudy, showers, snow.

SW. W. Fine, serene sky.

15|NW. SE. NE. |Clear, snow.

13|N. NW. Clear, much snow, high wind. -

18|N. W. Clear, fine, snow.

S. SW. Mild, fog, rain, no snow, unusual.
14|NW. SE. Clear, much snow.

S. Much fog, rain, mild, snow gone.
4INW. NE. S. Clear, much snow.

15|N. NW. NE. | | High wind, clear, much snow.
Very variable. |Mild by day, and frost at night.

Do. Mild, rain, fog.
S.SW. NW. Fog, clear towards end.
SW. W. Fine, dry.
N. E. S. Sultry, cloudy, showers.
S. W. E. Cloudy, rain, thunder.

NW. W. E. SE.) Fine, sultry, snow towards end.
SW. W. NW. |Much rain, cloudy, frost.
S.SW.SE.E.NW | Much rain, snow, clear, frost.
N. NW. SE. Much rain, dry, and pleasant.
6|NW. W. S. SE.| Rain, sleet &snowevery day, mild
5)W. N. W. Pleasant.

NNW. NE. Clear, much snow.
17; W. NW. Clear, snow.
19|INW. NNE. Clear, mild towards end.
15)W. NW. NE. |Clear, cloudy, snow.
NNE. Much snow, rain, high wind.
3INW. NE. Clear, much snow.
E. SE. NW. W.|Fine.
WwW. SW. Dry, serene.
NE. SE. 8. SW.| Mild, rain and fog, frost.
SE. W. Pog, rain.
8. SE. N. SW. |Heavy rain, thunder.
SW. S. Fine, cloudy.
S. SW. Very fine, showers, thunder.
SW. S. Serene, dry.
W.S. SW. Dry, dews at night.
: Fine, rain, high wind.
W. SW. NW. Fine, dew, fog, frost.
SW. S. NE. Dry, serene, fog.

APRIL—JULY 1826. H

( 14 )

Notices regarding Fiery pee seen during’ the Day. By
J. H. Serres, Sub-prefect of Embrun *.

«acti HansTEEN relates, that while he was observing
the polar star, on the 13th August 1825, at a quarter past 11
in the morning, he saw, passing in the field of his telescope, a
luminous point, the light of which was brighter than that of
the star. Its apparent motion was upwards, it was slow and
somewhat sinuous. He imagined it to be a falling star.

Mr Dick of Perth, in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,
is of opinion, that the phenomenon observed by Professor Han-
steen, was not a falling star, but some bird placed at a great dis-
tance, the convex surface of which reflected the solar light in
the direction of the axis of the telescope. Without denying that
the light reflected very obliquely from the feathers of a bird, is
capable of producing an effect similar to that described by Pro-
fessor Hansteen, I am yet of opinion that the explanation ought
not to be generalized. While observing the sun at the repeat-
ing circle, I have frequently perceived, even through the colour-
ed glass adapted to the eye-piece, large luminous points, which
traversed the field of the telescope. They appeared too well de-
fined not to admit them to be distant, and subtended too large
angles to imagine them birds. I have sometimes thought that
these points shewed themselves more frequently at the periods of
the year when great quantities of spiders’ webs are carried by
the winds into our atmosphere. The phenomenon certainly merits
investigation. Why, in fact, should there not be falling stars
during the day as well as at night ? Who can affirm, if these me-
teors are produced on the extreme limits of our atmosphere, that
the presence of the sun does not favour their formation? I leave
to the reader to decide if there be not some analogy between the
phenomena of which we speak, and that described, in a letter ad-
dressed to the President of the Academy of Sciences, by the sub-—
prefect of Embrun, dated the 5th October 1820.

«‘ Chance has made me the spectator of a phenomenon which I
imagine to be new, and which I have deemed interesting for na-
tural philosophy and astronomy. Under this twofold relation,
I have been induced to make it known to you. The following,

* From the Annales de Chimie, October 1825.

J. Hs Serres on Fiery Meteors seen during the Day. 115

Mr President, is the fact such as I have seen it: On the 7th of
last month, about a quarter after four in the evening, after hay-
ing, with all other people, observed the eclipse of the sun, I
took a fancy to have a walk in the fields. On crossing the town,
I saw at first, in one of its public places, a pretty numerous
group of individuals of every age and sex, who had their eyes
fixed in the direction of the sun. Among this group, I remark-
ed only a young student of law, named Cezanne, but still pre-
occupied with the eclipse, I passed without remarking that, in
the position in which this young ‘man was, as well as the persons
who were with him, they could not perceive the sun, which left me
in the belief that they were all looking at the eclipse, as I had
myself been doing.

Further on I met another group, having their eyes, in like man-
ner, turned towards the sun; but as, at this time, I noticed that
the individuals, composing this group, were in a street, and com-
pletely in the shade, I understood that they were looking at
something else than the occultation of the sun, and then it came
into my head to question the Sieur Thommé, a veterinary artist,
who was among them, in order to know from him the object that
fixed his attention. He replied to me, “* We are looking at the
stars which are detaching themselves from the sun.” ‘* What say
you?” * Yes, sir; but look yourself, that will be the shortest way.”
I looked, and saw, in fact, not stars, but balls of fire, of a dia-
meter equal to that of the largest stars, which were projected,
in various directions, from the upper hemisphere of the sun, with
an incalculable velocity, and although this velocity of projection
appeared the same in all, yet they did not all attain the same
distance.

These globes were projected at unequal and pretty short in-
tervals. Several were often projected at once, but always di-
verging from one another. Some of them described a right line,
and were extinguished in the distance; some described a para-
bolic line, and were in like manner extinguished ; others again,
after having removed to a certain distance in a direct line, re-
trograded upon the same line, and seemed to enter still luminous
into the sun’s dise. ‘The ground of this magnificent picture was
a sky-blue, somewhat tinged with brown.

This, Mr President, is what I saw, and what I attest, as well

H 2

116 J. H. Serres on Fiery Meteors seen during the Day.

as a very great number of other people of the town, who would
attest it if required. I forgot to mention, that, at the moment
of my observation, I was placed at the corner of a house which
prevented me from seeing the sun, and that my visual ray, pas-
sing by the roof of the house, terminated at a point not far dis-
tant from the edge of the planet. The eclipse was then on its
decline.

You will easily comprehend what must have been my astonish-
ment at the sight of so majestic and imposing a spectacle, and
one so new to me. It will suffice to say, that it was impossible
for me to keep my eyes off it until it ceased, which happened
gradually in proportion as the eclipse wore off, and the solar
rays resumed their ordinary lustre. The same happened to the
persons present. One of them added, at the moment when I
left the group, that ‘ the sun projected most stars at the time
when he was palest ;” “ le soleil lancait plus d’etoiles, alors qu'il
etait plus pale.” These were his words.

Having recovered from the astonishment into which I was
thrown by this wonderful phenomenon, I inquired of the two
observing individuals whom I had distinguished in the two
groups of spectators spoken off, how they had been led to no-
tice the phenomenon. ‘The Sieur Thommé replied, that, on
coming from his stable, a woman cried out, ‘* Come here, M.
Thommeé, come and see the flames of fire that are issuing from
the sun.” That, at this invitation, having approached, he saw,
for the first time in his life, what he had put me in a condition
of seeing myself; and the young Cézanne told me, it was chil-
dren of ten or twelve years of age that had noticed it first, and
who, wondering at the sight, called out, “‘ Come and see, come
and see now !” and that thus was formed the group by which
I had passed a little after; that he had said nothing to me, be-
cause he had conjectured that the phenomenon, which at that
moment excited his admiration, must have been known to me.
I have the honour, &c. J. H. Serres.

P. S.—Since this letter was written, I have learnt from M.
Fouré, Engineer of Bridges and Highways, of this residence,
that this public functionary also had occasion to observe the phe-
nomenon, which he will attest if required.”

( 117 )
Picture of Vegetation on the Surface of the Globe.

Tue Creator of the universe has not confined himself to deco-
rating our world with all the luxury of a brilliant vegetation ; he
has varied it in every locality ; diversified its forms to infinity
in their general arrangement, in their comparative size, in the
correspondence or contrast of al] their parts. Elegance of form,
richness of colouring, delicacy of perfume, are the seducing cha-
racters under which those varied and numerous flowers, the
lovely children of spring, disclose themselves to the eyes of man.
What, then, is that Omnipotence which covers the barren rock
with vegetation, peoples deserts, carries vegetation to the very
bottom of rivers, and even to the depths of the sea? What
sublime pencil has designed these rich decorations of the abode
of man? Who could refuse te own in this the invisible hand of
the Creator ?

All are admitted to the enjoyment of this spectacle ; but it is
he only who has been enlightened by observation that can enjoy
it to its full extent, or comprehend its beautiful order. In the
midst of apparent confusion, he will perceive that plants have
not been thrown at random over the surface of the globe, but
that each has its peculiar place, that it could not be in any other,
that the beauty and variety of the landscape would disappear
were each portion of it not covered with its own peculiar orna-
ments; that the plants of the shores would be misplaced upon
the heights, while those of the mountains, descending from the
icy summit of their vast amphitheatre, would no longer produce
the same effect in our level plains; that they would lose their
native graces, as well as the delicacy of their perfumes, or the
variety of their colours, as has happened to the greater number
of such of them as have been rendered objects of cultivation.
How inferior the interest which the most brilliant flowers of our
parterres excite, compared with that which they would inspire,
were we to meet with them in their native abode? Nor are the
systematic order, and the air of finery which we give them, in
any degree equivalent to the loveliness of that disorder which
reigns in their distribution in the midst of the fields, scattered
in the woods, or dispersed among the meadows.

In reality, vegetation is not equally brilliant throughout.

118 = Picture of Vegetation on the Surface of the Globe.

With regard to the place which she has to embellish, she as-
sumes the character of adaptation which associates best with the
aspect of the locality. Gay and smiling upon the banks “of
streams, elegant and graceful im the valleys, rich and majestic in
the great plains, she is no longer the same when she mounts the
burning rock, or when she struggles upon the Alps with the
snow and ice. Thus, in this admirable distribution of vegetables
upon the surface of the earth, no place has been forgotten ; all
its parts, if we except the sand of the desert, have been invested
with the clothing which best suits them. Twenty, thirty leagues,
or more, of plain, in the same country, and with the same ex-
posure, would produce throughout nearly the same vegetables ;
but if this plain be intersected by forests, furrowed by valleys,
bristled by rocks and mountains, watered by springs ; if the soil
is variable, if it is humid or dry, composed of peat, or of a
chalky nature, the mass of vegetation will equally vary with
each change of situation and of temperature.

If the localities of the same country present very different
plants, this effect is still more striking, in proportion as we ad-
vance from south to north, from east to west, and especially
when we pass from one continent to another; whether we tra-
verse the burning regions of Africa, the vast countries of Asia,
or the numerous islands of America. In the greater number of
these countries, the vegetation is so abundant, so varied in its
forms, so different from that with which we are acquainted, that
often we could scarcely give credit to travellers, were not their
relations confirmed by the possession of the objects of which they
speak ; although, in our possession, they are isolated, mutilated,
and altered. Itisim their native place that we must observe
them, to form an idea of the richness and of the beautiful order
which nature has established, in ali her productions. Let us
listen, upon this subject, to one of our most celebrated travellers
Baron Humboldt.

“It is,” says he, in his 7'ableawa de la Nature, “ under the
ardent sun of the torrid zone, that the most majestic forms of
vegetation are developed. In place of those lichens and thick
mosses, which, amid the hoarfrosts of the north, invest the bark
of trees; beneath the tropics, on the contrary, the odorous va-
ailla, and the cymbidia, ammate the trunk of the acagou (ana-

Picture of Vegetation on the Surface of the Globe. 119

cardium) and gigantic fig. The fresh verdure of the leaves of
the pothos contrasts with the flowers of the orchideae, so varied
in their colours; the bauhinese, the climbing grenadille, and
banisteriz, with gold yellow flowers, interlace themselves around
the trunks of the trees of the forests ; delicate flowers spring from
the roots of the theobroma, as well as from the thick and rough
bark of the calabash-tree (crescentia) and gustavia. Amid this
abundance of flowers and fruits, this richness of vegetation, and
this confusion of climbing plants, the naturalist is often at a loss
to determine to what stem the leaves and flowers belong. A
single tree, adorned with paullinia, bignonia, and dendrobie,
forms a group of vegetables, which, if separated from one an-
other, would cover a considerable space.

“‘ In the torrid zone, the plants are more abundant in juices,
of a fresher verdure, and clothed with larger and more shining
leaves, than in the northern climates. The vegetables which
live in society, and which render the plains of Europe so mono- —
tonous, are almost entirely wanting in the equatorial regions.
Trees, twice the height of our oaks, are clothed with flowers as
large and beautiful as our lilies. On the umbrageous banks of
the river of Madalena, in South America, we find a climbing
aristolochia (A. cordifiora, Kunth), whose flowers are four feet
in circumference.

** The prodigious height to which, under the tropics, not only
isolated mountains, but even entire countries rise, and the cold
temperature of this elevation, procure for the inhabitants of the
torrid zone, an extraordinary spectacle. Besides the groups of
palms and bananas, they have also around them vegetable forms
which seem to belong only to the regions of the north. Cy-
presses, figs, and oaks, barberries and alders, which approach very
near to ours, cover the mountainous districts of the south of
Mexico, as well as the chain of the Andes, under the equator.

** In these regions, nature permits man to see, without leaving
his native soil, all the forms of vegetables diffused over the sur-
face of the earth; and the vault of Heaven, uncurtained as it
were from one pole to the other, does not conceal from bis view
a single one of those resplendent orbs with which it is studded.
These natural enjoyments, and a multitude of others, are denied
to the northern nations. Many constellations, and many forms

120 Picture of Vegetation on the Surfiwe of the Globe.

of vegetables, especially the more beautiful, those of the palms
and bananas, the arborescent graminez and ferns, as well as the
mimosas, the foliage of which is so delicately divided, remain
for ever unknown to them. The sickly individuals which our
hot-houses contain, can present but a feeble image of the majes-
ty of vegetation in the torrid zone.

‘* He who can embrace the whole of nature at one glance, with-
out dwelling upon local phenomena, sees how, from the pole to
the equator, in proportion as the vivifying heat increases, orga-
nic power and life also increase in a corresponding degree; but
in the course of this increase, particular beauties are reserved
for each zone ; for the tropical climates, the diversity of forms
and pre-eminent size of vegetables; for the climates of the north,
the pleasing prospect of meadows, and the periodical revelling of
nature upon the return of the first breezes of spring. Besides
the advantages which are peculiar to it, each zone has also a
character of its own. If, in every organized individual, we re-
cognize a determinate physiognomy, in like manner we can dis-
tinguish a certain natural physiognomy, which belongs exclu-
sively to each zone. Similar species of plants, such as pines and_
oaks, equally crown the mountains of Sweden and those of the
most southern part of Mexico; and yet, notwithstanding this
correspondence of forms, and this similarity of partiai outlines,
the general picture of these countries presents an entirely diffe-
rent character.

** The size and the development of organs in plants, depend
upon the climate which favours them. In the impossibility of
presenting a complete picture of the plants of America, we shall
venture to trace the characters of the most prominent groups,
commencing with the palms. They have, of all vegetables, the
loftiest and most noble form, and to it the prize of beauty has
been adjudged by all. Their tall, slender, and channelled
stems, sometimes furnished with prickles, are terminated by a
shining foliage, which is sometimes pinnate, and sometimes
fan-shaped. Their smooth trunk often attains a height of
124 feet. The size and beauty of palms diminish in proportion
as they retire from the equator to approach the temperate zones.
A striking character, and one which very agreeably varies its
aspect, is the direction of the leayes. The very dense leaflets

Picture of Vegetation on the Surface of the Globe. 121

of the date and cocoa trees, produce beautiful reflections of light
from the upper surface of the leaves, of a brighter green in the
cocoa, duller, and, as it were, mingled with grey in the date.
What difference of aspect between the pendent leaves of the
bovira palm of the Orinoco, even between those of the date or
the cocoa, and the branches of the jagna and pirigao, which
point toward the heaven. Nature has been prodigal ofher beauties
to the jagna palm, which crowns the granitic rocks of the cata-
racts of Atures and Maypures. heir slender and smooth stems
attain a height of 160 or 170 feet; so that, according to the ex-
pression of Bernardin de Saint Pierre, they rise in the form of a
portico above the forests. Their aerial cyme contrasts in a sur-
prising manner with the dense foliage of the cetba trees, with
the forests of laurels and melastomata which surround it. In
the palms with palmated leaves, the tufted foliage is often placed
upon a bed of withered leaves, which gives to these vegetables a
melancholy character.

* In all parts of the world, the form of the palms is associated
with that of the dananas. heir stem less elevated, but more
succulent, is almost herbaceous, and crowned with leaves of a
thin and loose structure, with nerves delicate and shining like
silk. The groves of bananas are the ornaments of the humid
districts. From their fruit is derived the subsistence of all the in-
habitants of the tropics; they have accompanied man from the
infancy of civilization. If the vast and monotonous fields which
are covered by the cereal plants, diffused by cultivation in the
northern countries of the earth, afford little embellishment to the
aspect of nature, the inhabitant of the tropics, on the contrary,
in establishing himself, multiplies, by his banana plantations, one
of the most noble and magnificent of the forms of vegetation.

* The delicately pinnated leaves of the mimosa, acacia, eledit-
sia, tamarinds, &c., have a form which the vegetables peculi-
arly affect between the tropics. It occurs, however, beyond the
limits of the torrid zone; for these plants are not wanting in the
United States of America, where vegetation is more varied and
more vigorous than in Europe, although in a similar latitude.
The deep blue of the sky of the torrid zone, as perceived
through their delicately pinnated foliage, has an extremely pic-
turesque effect.

122 Picture of Vegetation on the Surface of the Globe. —

*« The cactuses are almost exclusively peculiar to America.
Their form is sometimes spherical, sometimes articulate; some-
times it rises like the pipes of an organ, into long channelled co-
lumns. This group forms in its exterior the most’ striking con-
trast with that of the liliacez and bananas; it belongs to those
plants which Bernardin de St Pierre has so happily named the
Vegetable Springs of the Desert. In the parched plains of
South America, the animals, tormented by thirst, look out for
the melocactus, a spherical plant, half concealed in the sand, en-
veloped in formidable prickles, and whose interior abounds in
refreshing juices. The stems of the columnar cactus rise to the
height of thirty feet, and form a sort of candelabra; their phy-
siognomy has a striking affinity to that of some African Eu-
phorbiz.

** While the cactuses form vases dispersed through leafless de-
serts, and the orchideze, under the torrid zone, animate the fis-
sures of the wildest rocks, and the trunks of trees blackened by
excess of heat, the form of the vanille is brought into notice, by
their pale-green leaves, filled with juice, and their variegated
flowers, so singular in structure. These flowers resemble a
winged insect, or the small bird which feeds upon the perfume
of the nectaries. A whole life would not suffice an artist to
paint all those magnificent orchideze which adorn the deeply
furrowed valleys of the Andes of Peru.

“ The Caswarinaceee, which occur only in India, and the
islands of the great ocean, are denuded of leaves, like the greater
part of the cacti: they are trees whose branches are jointed like
the stems of equisetum. We find, however, traces of this type in
other parts of the world. The pines, the thuyz, and cypresses,
belong to a northern form, which is of rare occurrence in the
torrid zone. Their continual and always fresh verdure, enlivens
the landscape saddened by winter, and announces at the same
time to the nations bordering upon the poles, that even when the
earth is covered with snow and frost, the internal life of plants,
like the fire of Prometheus, is never extinguished upon our
planet.

“‘ The mosses and lichens in our northern climates, the aroidee

under the tropics, are parasites as well as the orchidea, and clothe
1

Picture of Vegetation on the Surface of the Globe. 123

the trunks of trees as they grow up. They have fleshy and her-
baceous stems, sagittate, digitate, or elongated leaves, but always
with very large veins. The flowers are inclosed in sheaths.
These vegetables belong rather to the New Continent than to
the Old. The caladiwm and pothos inhabit only the torrid
zone.

* With this form of the aroidez, is connected that of the dianas,
of a remarkable vigour in the warmest countries of South Ame-
rica, such as the paullinee, banisterie, bignonia, &c. Our
trailing hop and vines, may give an idea of the elegance of forms
of this group. On the banks of the Orinoco, the leafless branches
of the bauhinie are often forty feet in length; sometimes they
fall perpendicularly from the elevated cymes of the acajous ;
sometimes they are diagonally extended from one tree to ano-
ther, like the cordage of a ship. The stiff form of the bluish-
coloured aloes, contrasts with the pliant shoots of the lianas of a
fresh and light-green tint. Their stems, when they have any,
are, for the greater part, without divisions, having approximated
knots, bent wpon themselves like serpents, and crowned at their
summit with succulent fleshy leaves, terminated by along point,
and dispersed in dense rays. The aloes, which have a tall stem,
do not form groups like the vegetables which love to live in so-
ciety; they grow isolated in arid plains, and, by this cireum-
stance, give to the tropical regions a peculiar character of melan-
choly. A sad stiffness and immobility characterize the forms of
the aloes; a cheerful slimness and mobile suppleness distinguish
the graminez, and, in particular, the physiognomy of those of
them which are arborescent. The bamboo thickets of both In-
dies form uwmbrageous alleys. The smooth stem, often recur-
ved and floating, of the graminez of the tropics, surpasses in
height that of our alders and oaks.

*“ The form of the ferns is not less ennobled than that of the
gramine in the warm countries of the earth. The arborescent
ferns, often thirty-five feet in height, resemble palms, but their
trunk is less slender, shorter, and very rugged. Their fo-
liage, more delicate, and of a looser contexture, is transparent,
and slightly dentate upon the edges. These gigantic ferns are
almost exclusively indigenous to the torrid zone; but they pre-

124 Professor Brandes on Falling Stars.

fer to extreme heat a less ardent climate. Depression of tem-
perature being a consequence of elevation of the soil, we may
consider as the principal abode of these ferns, the mountains,
which rise to a height of from 2000 to 3000 feet above the level
of the sea. The tall-stemmed ferns accompany, in south Ame-
rica, that beneficent tree whose bark prevents fever. The pre-
sence of tliese two vegetables, indicates the happy region where
the mildness of spring continually reigns.”

(To be continued. )

On Falling Stars. In a Letter from Professor BRANvEs of
Breslau, to Professor J AMESON.

Sir,

Tue phenomena known by the name of Falling Stars, have
for some time past attracted the attention of naturalists: I
therefore hope that you will read with interest a small work on
the subject, which I have the honour of transmitting to you,
(entitled, ‘‘ Beobachtungen iiber die Sternschnuppen,”—Leip-
zig, 1825.)

I am exceedingly anxious that there should be observers of
these phenomena in your country also, and you will therefore
pardon me for requesting you to insert a short notice of the re-
sults of our observations in your Journal.

Those which seem to me the most worthy of attention; may
be expressed in few words.

1. Although falling stars move in ail directions, in respect of
the vertical, yet those which fall, that is to say which approach
the earth, are more numerous than those which recede from it;
and it might therefore be concluded, that they are subjected to
the earth’s attraction, during the short period of their appear-
ance.

2. Falling Stars move in almost every direction, in respect of
azimuth, yet those whose course is directed toward the south-
west, are much more numerous than those that follow the opposite
direction.

Our observations furnish us with the direction of the paths of
34 of these meteors, and it would seem from calculation, that

Professor Brandes on Falling: Stars. 125

the greatest number had a motion almost exactly the opposite
of the earth’s motion in its orbit. I calculated, therefore, for
the observed times of the appearances of the meteors, the azi-
muth of the direction of the earth’s motion, and, by taking the
mean of the results, I found the direction exactly opposite of that
of the earth’s motion to be 481° to the west of the meridian.
Beginning from this point, I divided the whole horizon into 8
equal parts, so that the azimuth 483° from south to west would
be the middle of the first octant. Then, for every octant, I
found the courses of the 34 meteors to be as in Fig. 4. Plate I.

1st, 9 directly opposite to the earth’s motion ;

2d, 0 coinciding with the earth’s motion ;

3d, 7 and 4 in the two octants adjacent to the first.
4th, 3 and 2 in the two octants adjacent to the second.
5th, 6 and 3 in the two octants which are in the middle.

It seems to me, therefore, that falling stars disclose to us the
earth’s motion; and although they have doubtless a proper mo-
tion, yet the greater part of their celerity is only apparent, and
arises from the proper motion of the earth, which passes near
them in its course round the sun.

If this be true, might it not be desirable that the result
should be confirmed by a great number of observations? But
I shall not trouble you with my reasonings on the subject.
Have the goodness to communicate these observations to such
of your countrymen as feel an interest in meteorology. I trust
you will pardon me for troubling you with this letter. TI am,
Sir, Ke. BranDEs.

BreEsiLau IN SILESIA, \
3d April 1826.

On the Management of the Water-Melon and the Cucumber m
Russia. By Wit11am Howson, M. D. Lecturer on Ma-
teria Medica and Botany. (Communicated by the Author.)

jt PE kinds of water-melon, or arbouse, are cultivated
in surprising quantities in the southern parts of the Russian
Empire, from the Don to the Ural; and particularly along the

126 Dr Howison on the Management of the

Banks of the Volga. heir cultivation requires but. little
trouble. They thrive in the open air, only to the 52d degree
of north latitude. The melon gardens, from their size, might
rather be called fields ; they are inclosed with a slight fence, just
sufficient to keep off cattle, and are divided into long beds, be-
tween which, in the oriental style, little canals are cut in the
soil for watering the plants. For this purpose, the gardens are
always laid out contiguous to a pool, or to a streamlet of run-
ning water. The melon comes early forward, and is, with lit-
tle pains, brought to a large size. They are treated with little
more care than the most common field fruits; and yet, in every
plantation of them, melons are to be found weighing thirty
pounds, and which, in point of succulence, and mild flavour,
cannot be excelled. The plant sends out a very luxuriant crop
of dark green coloured fresh looking leaves, and also long juicy
pale coloured shoots, or tendrils, of considerable thickness, which
extend to a great distance, creeping along the surface of the soil.
The fruit is of a rich, dark green, variegated colour, sometimes
spotted, of an oval shape, and grows to a large size. When ripe,
and cut into, it appears pure white, of a spongy looking structure,
and contains at the heart large dark coloured seeds, surrounded
with a pale pink tint, colouring the pulpy substance on which
they are contained, and gradually losing itself in the white.
When eaten, it is remarkably juicy, resembling cold spring wa-
ter, and is well adapted as a refrigerant for allaying thirst, and
other disagreeable effects of a warm climate. It may be used
either raw, with powdered sugar, or ginger, or salted in the
same manner as the cucumber. The water-melon also possesses
the advantages of keeping in its fresh state for a considerable
period ; and, from the firmness of its texture, it will bear without
injury remov al to a great distance.

Water-melons, although they are annually sent to the great
towns of St Petersburg and Moscow, in abundance, and at a
cheap rate, from the southern parts of the empire, are also
brought to maturity by forcing under glass frames, in consider-
able quantity, at an early period of the season, in the northern
parts of Russia, but chiefly in the neighbourhood of the princi-
pal towns. What is principally necessary during their cultiva-
tion in this manner, is to take particular care not to injure the .

Water-Melon and the Cucumber in Russia. 127

very strong and creeping shoots, which the plant sends out du-
ring its progress, as already described, but either to raise the
frames, and allow them to spread out into an adjoining one, or to
keep them, by bending, entirely within its own, which, in that
case, would require to be long and roomy. The former way I
would prefer. It is to neglecting this, that the gardeners in
Russia attribute the general failure in the cultivation of the
water-melon in Great Britain. If the shoots are, in any way
_ checked, or injured, during their growth, the plant is observed to
suffer considerably, and the future progress of the fruit towards
maturity is either interrupted or totally destroyed. Attention
to this circumstance, is of much more consequence than heat, as
is satisfactorily and daily proved in the northern parts of Rus-
sia. _ It is also well known, that the water-melon plant, propa-
gated by artificial heat, produced by glass frames, will flourish
and the fruit reach its full size, at the same temperature at
which any of the common species of melon will do. My friend,
Mr Booker, has them every season growing in great perfec-
tion among other melons, in his garden at Cronstadt ; and mere-
ly from paying attention to this, Mr Cole has the same at the
_ Taurida Palace-Garden near St Petersburg. As the plants
are remarkably strong and luxuriant, and send out very large
and bushy shoots, one plant is quite sufficient to fill a large
sized glass-frame.

Water-melons are known to be ripe, not by the smell but by
the peculiar sensation which they communicate when struck, a
knowledge of which can only be acquired by experience. If they
are allowed to remain adhering to the plant, until the seeds shake
within them, they will be found good for nothing, excepting fu-
ture propagation from the seed. When the extremely tough
skin, covering the water-melon, is removed, and they are cut
into slices, they may be eaten in the raw state with salt, in the
manner of celery. The arbouse, when eaten in quantity, I am
told, acts as a diuretic; and when in Russia, I was informed by
a physician of a remarkable case of obstinate 'gonorrhoea being
cured by it.

The Cucumber.

Cucumbers are made use of in large quantities by the native
Russians, and by foreigners settled in the country ; both during

128 Dr Howison on the Management of the

the summer, in their fresh state, and during the winter, when
artificially preserved. The plant is cuitivated in great profu-
sion in the fields, wholly in the open air, during the short but
warm summer of Russia. In general, it is planted in long rows.
along with cabbage ; a cabbage and cucumber plant alternately
constituting the rows. It is also to be met with in abundance
in the gardens of the better class of peasantry throughout the
interior. In the gardens of the higher orders, an early crop is
sometimes raised under glazed frames. Glass is remarkably
cheap in Russia, as it pays little or no duty.

The Russian cucumber differs in some respects from that
which is common in Britain. The leaf and plant are consider-
ably smaller, and contracted ; the first, when it has attained its
full growth, is short, thick, containing a large proportion. of
juice and pulpy matter ; and, from these last mentioned qualities,
is much better adapted for salting (the only mode in which the
cucumber is preserved during the winter throughout Russia),
than the common cucumber of this country. It may be unne-
cessary for me to mention here, that the cucumber plant re-
quires a rich soil, or ground well dunged, for its cultivation.
The Russians of all classes pay particular attention to this, co-
vering the root of each plant with a small heap of horse or cow
dung. For winter use, the cucumber is preserved in salt, as al-
ready noticed ; and prepared in that way, it forms an excellent
cooling article of food, which is used in great quantities. . Be-
fore these are eaten, their green outer skin is removed by the
knife; when the pulp is found remarkably juicy, and pleasant
to the taste. The liquid which is charged with the salt, and
with the soluble portion of the vegetable matter, and which fills
the cask in which the cucumbers are preserved, is not unpleasant
to the taste; and is used by the native Russians as a gentle
cooling laxative in fever, about a tumbler to a dose. A cask of
Russian pickled cucumbers was procured last winter by a dis-
tinguished member of the Horticultural Society in this city ; and
the cucumbers were much admired for bemg well preserved and
of fine flavour.

As the seed of the Russian cucumber has found its way into
Britain, and has been cultivated in Scotland with success,
I shall subjoin here a very accurate receipt for the preparation

,

Water-Melon and the Cucumber in Russia. 129

and salting of cucumbers. ‘This was procured for me by the
kindness of Mrs Dr Crichton, from one of the most experienced
cucumber salters in St Petersburg; and I am not without
hopes, that it may form a useful and salutary addition to our
British cookery. “ Take 1000 cucumbers, weigh out 7 lb. Eng-
lish of salt, which has been previously well purified, and dried.
Mix the salt well with a quantity of cold soft water, sufficient to co-
ver the cucumbers, 500 of which may be put into one small light
made cask. Have ready plenty of the following leaves, which
have been gathered when the weather was dry; oak leaves,
black-currant leaves, cherry leaves, dill leaves and heads: mix
them well together, and place a layer of them at the bottom of
the cask ; then a layer of cucumbers, and thus alternately until
the cask be completely filled: then pour on the salt and water
till it rise to the brim, and close the cask tightly. Some people
add a small bottle of vinegar, and a very small bit of garlick to
each cask.” In two or three months the cucumbers are fit for
use. They are brought to table entire, floating among the juice
and leaves which cover them while in the cask. In Russia, they
seldom appear at table until the month of November or De-
cember, when the winter has completely set in, as they must re-
main in the cask for two or three months, in order that the salt
and water may have sufficient time to act upon the vegetable
matter of the cucumber, and of the various species of leaves em-
ployed in their preparation. However some prefer them, from
the time they are first subjected to the salt, until it has complete-
ly penetrated them; when they are said to be half salted, and
known by a correspondent appellation in the Russian language.
A Russian will often eat several cucumbers salted in the above
mentioned manner during a meal, and no bad effect is ever
known to arise from their use.

Whether the cucumber of this country would answer for
salting in the above mentioned manner, I have not yet put to
experiment. ‘The objection, as appears to me, would be, its
containing much fibrous matter, and too little pulp and juice.
Although they possess our common variety of cucumber in
great abundance in Russia, I never met with it salted.

While visiting the hot-houses of the Taurida Palace garden,
St Petersburg, under the direction of Mr Cole, a native of this

APRIL—JULY 1826. I

130 Dr Knox on a rudimentary Spur in the

country, intelligent and experienced in the art of Horticulture,
I saw the branches of a number of cucumber plants, both
of the Russian kind, and of that common to Britain, tied up to
wooden rafters or palings in the manner of vines. The plants
treated in this way appeared to be remarkably strong, and the
fruit was very large.

Notice respecting the Presence of a Rudimentary Spur in the
Female Echidna of New Holland.* By R. Kxox, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., M.W.S., Conservator of the Museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons. Communicated by the Author.

In the beginning of the year 1823, Professor Jameson put
into my hands a specimen of the duck-billed animal of New
Holland, the male Ornithorynchus paradoxus. It had been sent
to him by the governor of Australasia, the Honourable Sir
Thomas Brisbane; and, aware that I was continually engaged
in anatomical inquiries, he requested me to dissect this para-
doxical animal, and to lay the results before the Wernerian
Society. At that time the only accounts in existence relative
to the anatomy of the spur, a remarkable appendage found in
the male of the Ornithorynchus and Echidna, were, 1st, An ac-
count of the spur, drawn up by a distinguished English anato-
mist, and published in the Philosophical Transactions, describ-
ing the organ to be solid, and to be an instrument of prehen-
sion; 2d, A statement made by Rudolphi, in a German jour-
nal, affirming the spur to be solid ; 3d, A notice by Sir John
Jamison, in the Linnean Transactions, describing the poison-
ous nature of wounds, inflicted by this spur of the Ornithoryn-
chus ; lastly, A short memoir by that most distinguished anato-
mist M. De Blainville, demonstrating the tubular structure of
the spur, and tracing its anatomy as far as the base, or insertion
of the spur, into the heel, beyond which the state of the speci-
men in his possession did not permit him to go.

The discovery of a large poison-gland, situated over the hip-
joint, which discovery I had the honour to submit to the Wer-

“ Read before the Wernerian Natural History Society, 27th May 1826

Female Echidna of New Holland. 131

nerian Society a short time after the dissections were completed,
rendered it extremely probable, that the functions heretofore as-
signed to the spur were purely hypothetical, and that this was
really a very formidable instrument of offence and defence, be-
longing to the male of these different species of animals; but
the original opinion relative to the functions of the spur was
not to be given up so easily; and accordingly we find, that Sir
Everard Home, the original promulgator of the doctrine, still
defends the opinion in a very ingenious manner. He observes,
in the third volume of his Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,
that contrivances of this kind are not uncommon: his words are
as follows :—‘ In the toad and frog, the fore-legs of the male
are applied round the belly of the female for that purpose. In
the shark there are regular holders, as will be shewn. In the
earth-worm it is effected by suction, as will be explained. In
the Dytiscus marginalis, an insect that copulates under water,
there is an apparatus mentioned in the seventh lecture, more
nearly allied than any other to the present apparatus; on the
thigh of the male, there are suckers which attach the animal to
the female. Having ascertained that a secretion is emitted
through the spur, and the parts being so minute as to require glas-
ses of considerable power, I got Mr Bauer to examine the socket
of the female ; and, after overcoming considerable difficulties, the
parts being very much corrugated, and yet retaining their elas-
ticity, he made out the form of this socket, which corresponds
exactly in shape with the spur itself, so that, when completely
introduced, it must be so grasped, that the male would not be
able to withdraw it, when the coitus was over ; in this respect re-
sembling the effect of suction. The male, it would appear, at
least this is the best conjecture I can make by reasoning from
analogy, there being no facts to guide us, by throwing some of
the secretion of the gland of the thigh into the socket, dilates it,
and releases the spur. The liquor injected being acrimonious,
will also irritate the female, and make her use efforts to escape.
This is exactly similar to what is performed in the cupping-
glass apparatus by muscular action, to let in the air.”

A single fact, however, respecting the anatomy of the female
echidna, renders this very ingenious theory almost inadmis-

sible: for the opportunity of making this discovery, we are
12

132 Mr Don’s Observations on Philadelphew and Granatew,

again indebted to the kindness and attention of Sir Thomas
Brisbane, who some time ago transmitted to Professor Jameson,
for the Royal Museum of the University, a female echidna,
which was put into my hands for examination. On the heels of
the female echidna, exactly in the situation of the spur in the
male, there is found what I shall venture to call a rudimentary
spur, similar in many respects to that of the male, which it in
some measure represents in miniature. It is placed in the bot-
tom of a little cavity, not quite deep enough to conceal it from
view : its base may be about half the size of the male spur, but
it suddenly tapers to a point, so that altogether it may not be
much larger than a fourth, or probably a fifth part of a full
grown male spur. It is of the same horny texture, and seems
altogether quite analogous with that of the male.

The physiological. anatomist can have no difficulty in com-
prehending that this organ must bear to the male spur the
same relation that the human male breast does to the female.
In the one case we have an organ fully developed, and capable
of performing its functions, in the other a rudimentary and im-
perfect organ. The rest of the poison apparatus found in the
male, and first described by me in the Wernerian Transactions
(vol. v. p. 1.) seem to be wanting in the female.

Observations on Philadelphea and Granatece, two new Families
of Plants. By Mr Davip Don, Libr. L. S. Corresponding
Member of the Wernerian Society, &c. (Communicated by
the Author.)

or the genera which I now propose to separate as
distinct Natural Families, have been cultivated in our gardens
from almost time immemorial, yet no plants have been less un-
derstood in regard to their botanical characters, or to the station
they ought to occupy in the Natural System; affording a
striking confirmation of the justness of a common remark, and
which applies equally well in botany, that what we have daily
before our eyes we most frequently overlook as unworthy our
regard. The genera Philadelphus and Punica, which form the
subject of this paper, constitute two very natural groups. ‘They

two new Families of Plants. 133

have been placed by the illustrious Jussieu among the Myrta-
cea, and I am not aware that any one has questioned the pro-
priety of this classification. That they can neither be grouped
with the Myrtacea, nor with any other family hitherto esta-
blished, I trust I shall be enabled satisfactorily to shew in the
sequel. It may be proper here to observe, that the whole of the
Myrtaceae, require a thorough revision, as at present they com-
prise plants which have but little general affinity. The true
Myrtacee are distinguished by their perfectly entire leaves, fur-
nished with numerous pellucid dots, which, when bruised, emit a
camphoriferous or spicy scent, and by the seeds being destitute
of albumen, although Geertner has attributed a fleshy albumen
to the seeds of Baeckia. This I found, however, to be quite er-
roneous, Geertner having evidently mistaken the embryo for the
albumen ; for in the seeds of several species of Backia, which I
carefully examined, I was unable to trace the least vestige of
this substance. Whether it is present in the seeds of Imbrica-
ria (the Jungia of Geertner), I have not had an opportunity of
determining ; but, if it is really present, as Gzertner affirms, it
would alone be sufficient to remove the genus from the Myrta-
cew, as in those families in all of whose genera its presence is
not uniformly constant, traces of it may still in general be de-
tected in all of them, on a careful examination. Before I pro-

ceed farther, I shall add a description of the Philadelphea.

PHILADELPHE.
Genus MyrtTacearum, Juss.

Calyx turbinatus, limbo 4-fido (raro 5-fido), persistens. Petala
4 (rard 5), calycinis laciniis alterna, in #stivatione convoluto-im-
bricata. Stamina 20-A0, duplici serie disposita, fauci calycine in-
serta. Styli 4, raro 5, inferné sepius coaliti. Stigmata longa,
divaricata, obtusa, latere interiore puberula, nunc spiraliter torta.
Capsula semi-infera, sublignosa, 4- (rard 5-) locularis, polysper-
ma, apice quadrifariam loculicido-dehiscens. Semina scobiformia,
subulata, levia, angulis placente tetragone cumulatim adnata,
arillo laxo membranaceo, ad umbilicum foramine fimbria lacerata
aperto, nucleo seminis triplo longiore instructa: festa tenuissima,
membranacea, nucleum arcté vestiens: albumen ovoideum, carno--
sum, album. Embryo inversus, lacteus, feré albuminis longitudi-
ne: cotyledones ovales, obtuse, planiuscule : radicula teretiuscula,
cotyledonibus plurimiim longior, supera, recta, obtusa.

Frutices (Europe, Asia, et Americw, temporatis communes) erect,
decidui. Folia opposita, nervosa, dentata, impunctata. Flores op-
posité axillares, terminales, subracemosi, albi.

154 Mr Don’s Observations on Philadelpheaw and Granatee,

It will be seen by the above description, in how few charac-
ters this family agrees with Myrtacee, which differ not only in
their simple style, in the absence of albumen, and in having the
leaves perfectly entire, evergreen, with pellucid dots, but in
their seeds being destitute of an arillus, in the structure and po-
sition of their.embryo. In the mean time, I am disposed to
place this family near to Saaifragew, as they agree in the zsti-
vation of the corolla, in the petals alternating with the laciniz
of the calyx, in the half-inferior ovarium, in the plurality of
styles, in the presence of albumen, and in the structure of their
anthers ; and they correspond well with Hydrangea in habit, in
their opposite, toothed leaves, and in the structure of their buds
and young shoots.

I shall now proceed to give the characters of the second fa-
mily, which I have denominated Granatee, and conelude with
remarks on it.

GRANATEA.
Genus Myrracearum, Juss.

Calyx tubulosus, crassus : limbo erecto, 5-10-lobo, persistente. Pe-
tala 5, rarius plura, lobis calycinis alterna, obovato-rotundata, ca-
duca. Stamina indefinite numerosa, fauci incrassate calycis in-
serta. Anthere feré orbiculate, peltate, biloculares, duplici ri-
ma longitudinaliter dehiscentes. Ovarium tubo calycis accretum,
apice liberum, multiloculare. Stylus brevis, crassus, teres. Stig-
ma indivisum, capitatum. Bacca pomiformis, limbo tubuloso den-
tato calycino, nunc contracto, coronata: cortea crassissimus, extus
euticula levi rubicundé punctata lucida vestitus, intus spongio-
so-carnosus, albus, dein, matura bacca, fissurf irregulariter rum-
pens. Placenta cortici bacce substantia simillima, at magis car-
nosa et succulenta, baccam omnino replens, in loculis numerosis
polyspermis inzqualibus reticulatim atque interrupte excavata.
Dissepimenta vera nulla: spuria tamen adsunt, que e substantia
placente orta, valdé sunt fragilia, et crassitie varia. Semina cre-
bra, excavationibus placentz passim inserta, ebovato-cuneato, an-
gulata, baceata! ¢esta membranacea, pellucida, pulpam aquosam
involvens : putamen osseum, angulatum: albumen nullum. Em-
bryo cavitati putaminis conformis, rectus, lacteus: cotyledones fo.
liaceze, carnose, orbiculato-cordate, spiraliter convolute: radicula
teres, recta ecrassiuscula, infera, basi obtusa, cotyledonibus duplo
brevior, vaga.

Frutices (Africe borealis) decidui, erecti, ramosissimi, inermes v. spi-
nosi. Folia exstipulata, petiolata, integerrima, impunctata, inodo-
ra, opposita v. rarvis lerna aut sparsa. Flores magni, laterales,
solitarti, sessiles, punicei, pulcherrimi. Bacca magna, ampullacco-

two new Families of Plants. 135

spherica, extus sanguineo-rubra, nilida, Semina pulpd sanguinea,
grati acidi eduli.

The real structure of the fruit of the pomegyanate appears to
have been overlooked by all authors * I have consulted on the
subject, and even the distinguished Geertner has fallen into er-
ror both in bis description and figure. It is in reality a fleshy
receptacle, formed by the tube of the calyx into a unilocular
berry, filled with a spongy placenta, which is hollowed out into a
number of irregular cells, in which the seeds are placed ; the
dissepiments being nothing more than thin portions of the pla-
centa. If we could conceive the fruit of Rosa to be filled up
with an interrupted pulpy matter, it would be exactly of the
same structure as the pomegranate. he affinities of Granatee
are yet to be ascertained. In the structure of the embryo, it
agrees well with the true Malvaceae, and with Pomacee in its
flowers ; but the total absence of stipules, together with the pre-
sence of some important characters, lead me to suspect that the
comparison is merely analogical, and that it has no real affinity
with either of these families.

Account of a rare Fish (Scicena Aquila) found in the Shetland
Seas+. By P. Netix, Esq. F. R. S. E., F. L.S., & Sec. W. S.;
(Communicated by the Author.)

So long ago as the autumn of the year 1820, I received from
my friend Mr Robert Strong of Leith, a specimen of a large and
very uncommon fish, belonging to the Spinous class, and of the
order Thoracici, which had been sent to him from Shetland,
along with a cargo of the dried fish of that country, The spe-
cimen had been split and cured much in the way practised by
the Shetland fishers on the cod, ling and tusk, which they send
to market. ‘The head, however, remained attached to the body,
and was pretty entire. All the fins likewise remained, but were

* I must except, however, the learned Dr F. Nees von Esenbeck, whose
views respecting the structure of the fruit of Punica appear to coincide en-
tirely with mine.—Vide Nova Acta Acad. Cas. Nat. Cur. tom. }1. p. 110, et seq.

+ Read before the Wernerian Natural History Society, 27th May 1826.

136 Mr Neill’s Account of a rare Fish

more or less mutilated. Although the muscular parts had been
thoroughly salted, and were in general well preserved, yet the
heat of the summer had rendered the fatter portions soft, and
somewhat rancid; and a good deal of oil exuded from these
parts. The flesh, where free of the oil, tasted not unlike ling ;
where tainted with the oil, it had the flavour of herring. Many
large scales had already dropt, as evinced by the scars left ; and
in attempting to dry the skin, the greater part of the remainder
of the body-scales fell away, those upon the head and opercula
only continuing firmly attached. An attempt to make a pre-
paration of the fish not having succeeded, and it having been
seen by Professor Jameson, Dr Fleming, and other naturalists,
I did not think of troubling the Society with any account of it.
As, however, it is an animal not well understood, and has not
yet been admitted into the British Fauna, it has been suggested
to me that some notice of it should be put upon record.

I shall therefore, first, state the general characters and dimen-
sions, from notes taken in August 1820, when the specimen
came into my hands; then give some particulars regarding the
capture of the fish, and its appearance when fresh, from infor-
mation derived from Shetland; and, lastly, I shall briefly ad-
vert to the principal ichthyological writers who have described
and classified the animal,

1. The total length of the fish, in a straight line, from the
tip of the snout to the extremity of the tail, was 5 feet 4 inches.
The depth of the body, in a straight line taken opposite to the
centre of the first dorsal fin (the fin being included, but not in
its expanded state), was 1 foot and 3 inch. The depth, in a
straight line taken in front of the anal fin, was 9} inches; and
the depth at the lower end of the second dorsal fin was 4% inches.

The head was large in proportion to the body. The length,
in a straight line, from the tip of the snout to the posterior ex-
tremity of the operculum or gill-cover, was 1 foot 4 inches near-
ly ; the depth, in a straight line, taken at the centre of the oper-
cula, was 10 inches. ‘The circumference at the centre of the
opercula, the sides of the head being laid loosely together, was
2 feet 4 inches.

When the dried sides of the body were laid loosely together,
the circumference, at the centre of the first dorsal fin, was about

Sound in the Shetland Seas. 137

3 feet; but had the animal been entire, this measurement must
necessarily have been several inches more. ‘The circumference
at the base of the second dorsal fin was about 1 foot. At the
lower end of this second dorsal fin, the back was flattened on the
upper surface; and the breadth of this flattened part was nearly
2 inches.

The dimensions as to length and circumference now given,
will convey some general idea of théltapering of the body.

There was a distinct lateral line, situate somewhat nearer the
ridge of the back than of the belly. This line commenced two
or three inches back from the gill-cover, and extended, nearly
in a straight line, to the middle of the tail, where it terminated,
in forming a strong central scaly ray in that organ.

The eye remained in the socket, but was completely dried up
and shrunk. It evidently must have been, proportionally, of
large size. The orbit was oval, with the longest diameter point-
ing upwards: in this direction its length was 1 inch; its
breadth being 12 inch. There was a crescent-shaped opening
in front of the orbit, capable of admitting a small pea; and still
in front of this opening was a small round pore, having a slight-
ly elevated ring around its edge, of a yellowish-brown colour.

The jaws could not be laid together, owing to the rigidity
they had acquired in drying; but they were evidently nearly
equal ; and each was furnished with a row of small slightly hook.
ed teeth, and an indistinct interior row of still smaller straight
teeth.

The scales on the upper part of the back and _ sides were
large ; some of those which first fell off being about 3 inches in
circumference. ‘These large scales were of an irregular trape-
zoidal form, and so deeply imbricated that only about a third
part of each scale was exposed while it remained in situ; the
covered part was divided into three compartments, having radii
or slight grooves diverging in three directions. These large scales
had a thin pellucid membranous covering, like an epidermis;
and when they had been immersed for a short time in water they
became somewhat opalescent. The scales on the opercula, and
all about the head, were in general much smaller, varying from
an inch to half an inch in circumference, or even less. They
likewise were of trapezoidal forms, but often approaching to
squares: these small scales were grouped very closely together,

138 Mr Neill’s Account of a Rare Fish

and so firmly fixed that it required some force to detach them.
All the scales were set on obliquely to the axis of the body of
the fish; but this obliquity was particularly remarkable in the
large body-scales.

The body, while still covered with the scales, was in general
of a lead colour, somewhat darker above the lateral line; the
head, however, was of a fine silvery hue.

Fins.—The first dorsal fin was situate in a distinct sulcus or
groove, within which the animal had evidently possessed the
power of retracting this fin at pleasure. The length of this fin
was about 10 inches; but as it had dried in its retracted state,
it was impossible to count the rays——The second or longest dor-
sal fin arose immediately behind the first, and was also placed
in a kind of groove ; but this groove was shallow, and its mar-
gins were less distinct, being compressed and covered with small
scales. The length of this fin was 1 foot 103 inches; and 26
rays could be numbered.—The pectoral fins were each 9 inches
in length, with 14 or 15 rays. The ventral fin was 7 inches,
with 6 rays; and the anal fin also 7 inches, with 9 rays—The
caudal fin consisted of 16 branched rays, with the central scaly
ray, already mentioned as the termination of the lateral line.
The breadth of this organ, at the broadest part, and when not
stretched, was 9 inches. In form it was nearly rectangular, or
only very slightly rounded at the extremity, and on the upper
and under edges.

2. Having communicated to Mr Strong some queries relative
to the capture of the fish,—the appearance of the scales and fins
when it was alive or newly dead,—the contents of the stomach,
—the structure of the sound or swimming-bladder, &c.—he
obligingly transmitted them to Mr Laurence Sinclair, his cor-
respondent in the islands; and the following particulars I ex-
tract from a letter from that gentleman, dated North Roe, 2d
April 1821 :— Answers to Mr Neill’s inquiries respecting the
Zetland fish—The fish was caught off Uyea, on the north-west
coast of Northmavine, in November 1819. It was first seen
from the land at Uyea, in contention with a seal, or rather en-
deavouring to escape. Some men went off in a boat, and took it
without any difficulty, as it was then so exhausted as scarcely

Sound in the Shetland Seas. 139

to be able to swim, No hurt appeared on it, except the mark
of a bite over the gip (gape). It recovered a little in the boat,
and was brought on shore alive. It made a buzzing sort of
noise in the boat. It had a long struggle with the seal, as the
men who took it first saw it from a hill at a distance, and a good
deal of time elapsed before they reached the shore, put off their
boat, and arrived at the spot where it was.’ Its fins were of a
beautiful dark red colour, and infftled in the same manner as
the fishermen rethark the fins of the ling to be, when they are
emigrating. The skin was coloured like mother-of-pearl, with
very large scales on it. Its flesh had a whitish painted appear-
ance, and was very soft. There was very little in the stomach,
and the contents did not exhibit any strange particular. No per-
son here remembers to have seen any fish of the kind. When
it was brought to me, I had it put in salt pickle ; in which it re-
mained till summer, and consequently its beautiful appearance
was by that time much impaired.” No particular attention had
been paid to the swimming-bladder ; and, of course, no remark-
able structure was observed in that organ.

3. The description above given of the dried fish, and the par-
ticulars now detailed regarding its appearance when fresh, leave
not a doubt that our fish is the species of Scicena called by the
French Maigre, or Aigle-de-mer, and excellently described by
Baron Cuvier in the first volume of the new series of the ** Mé-
moires du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle,” 1815. So far as the
descriptions are parallel, or can be compared, they completely
agree *.

In the dried fish, indeed, the fins were destitute of colour, ex-
cept that a tinge of red was perceptible at the base of the rays
of the first dorsal, when moistened and raised out of the sulcus.
This loss of colour was not to be wondered at, considering that
the bright colours of fishes are generally fugacious, and that this
individual had been first pickled and then dried. Cuvier men-

* Anaccurate drawing was made by Mr P. Syme, painter to the Wernerian
Society ; but as figures of the fish have long ago been published, and a correct
outline has been given by Baron Cuvier in the work above mentioned, it
seems unnecessary to engrave it.

140 Mr Neill’s Account of a Rare Fish

tions that the first dorsal, the pectorals, and the ventral are red;
the others reddish-brown: And Mr Sinclair notices, that, in the
fresh fish, the “ fins were of a beautiful dark red colour.” It is
also remarkable that Mr Sinclair reports, that the fish ‘ made
a buzzing sort of noise in the boat ;” and that Cuvier mentions
the “* mugissement ” of the maigre as being louder than that of
the gurnard, and adds, that some of the French fishermen (like
the Shetlanders) described it as a “ bourdonnement sourd.”

Much confusion has prevailed among ichthyological writers
regarding this species of Scizna. Baron Cuvier remarks, that it
was well known to the older naturalists, and was described and
figured by several of them. Belon, Rondelet, and Salvien, all
take notice of it. Willughby, so clear and accurate whenever
he describes from actual observation, had not met with any spe-
cimen ; and both he and Ray, therefore, speak of the Scizena in
a confused way. The work of Willughby, it is farther remark-
ed by Cuvier, served as the foundation for that of Artedi; who,
in his turn, was copied by Linnzus. In his Systema, Linneeus
confounded, under the title of Sctena wmbra, two species ;—the
corb of Rondelet, or Scizena nigra of Bloch,—and the maigre or
aigle-de-mer of the French, which is our fish. His Scizena um-
bra has black fins instead of red, (being those of the corb or
Scizena nigra); while the rest of his description is applicable to
our fish. In this way a good species came to be discarded, for
a long time, from the systems of ichthyology. The maigre, it
seems, was formerly a well known and much esteemed fish in the
French market, but had disappeared for a long course of years.
In the year 1813, however, the fishermen of Dieppe took several
specimens of the maigre, and gave it, from tradition, the name
of aigle. The late M. Noel de la Moriniere (distinguished for
his accurate researches regarding the French fisheries) transmit-
ted a description to the Count de La Cepede, who, in the Sup-
plement to his great work on Fishes, noticed the species ‘under
the title of Chetlodiptere aigle ;—not a fortunate one, as the
mouth does not in reality exhibit the essential character of his
genus Cheilodipterus.

From Dr Cloquet’s notice in the “ Dictionnaire des Sciences
naturelles,” art. Cheilodiptere, it would appear, that Baron
Cuvier at first adopted the name of Scizna Aquila for this spe-
cies. In his paper in the ** Memoires du Museum,” he adopts

Sound in the Shetland Seas. 141

the trivial name Umbra : but the former seems decidedly prefer-
able ; for the latter would certainly tend to perpetuate the con-
fusion introduced by the mistake of Linnzeus.

It may be added, that M. Risso, in his Ichthyology, gives a
figure and description of our fish, as a new species of Perca (a
genus to which it is nearly allied), calling it P. Vanloo, after a
painter at Nice.

On the Transparency of Space. By Dr OxzeErs of Bremen. *

Eirakerinebe and smallness in space are relative ideas: we can
imagine beings to whom a grain of sand would be as large as the
whole terrestrial globe is to us, just as we can represent to our-
selves an order of things, in which bodies, surpassing in magni-
tude the planets and the sun, would be what the grain of sand
is tous. From this very circumstance, it is natural to man to
judge of greatness or smallness by means of a scale, the imme-
diate or mediate basis of which is found in the dimensions of his
own body, or of the bodies which surround him, and which he
compares with his own. It is only by the aid of such a proce-
dure, that man can estimate magnitudes, and it is thus easily
understood why he must consider with astonishment the im-
mense proportions of those regions of the universe which gra-
dually unveil themselves to his eye, armed with the instruments
of art. The distance of the sun from the earth is so great, that,
to render it capable of being conceived, it has been attempted to
calculate the time that a cannon ball would take in traversing
this vast space. But every fixed star is a sun, and the nearest
of these stars is at so great a distance from us, that the distance
of our globe from the sun dwindles almost into nothing beside
it. An innumerable multitude of similar stars, of very different
sizes, shew themselves to our unarmed view, from the brilliant
Sirius, to the stars of sixth or seventh magnitude ; the presence
of which is scarcely detected by the most penetrating eye in the
clearest night. Without doubt, a great number of these small
stars appear to us inferior to the others in size, because in fact they
are so; but the greater part look so small, only on account of their

* Bibliotheque Universelle, February 1826.

142 Dr Olbers on the Transparency of Space.

great distance ; and thus we perceive, with the naked eye, stars
which are probably twelve or fifteen times more remote than
those of the first magnitude. The more perfect our instruments
are, the more stars do we count in the heavens, and the more do
we discover of small ones, so that, although it may be difficult
to imagine, our reason must conceive distances and spaces so
vast, that Herschel, armed with his gigantic telescopes, might
place in them bodies 1500 or several thousands of times more
distant from us than Sirius or Arcturus.

But has the keen search of Herschel penetrated to the limits
of the universe ? or, Has he only sensibly approached them ? Who
could think it? Is not space infinite? Can boundaries be as-
signed to it? Can it be supposed that creating Omnipotence
has left void those interminable regions? Let us hear what the
celebrated Kant says on this subject; ‘+ Where will creation
cease ?” says he; ‘“* We immediately see that, to remain in rela-
tion with the power of the infinite Being, it ought to have no-
limit. We do not approach nearer the infinity of the creative
power of God, when we extend the space in which it is mani-
fested into a sphere engendered by the radius of the Milky Way,
than when we confine it to a globe an inch in diameter. What-
ever is finite, whatever has limits, and a determinate relation to
an unity, is equally distant from infinity. It would, therefore,
be equally absurd to restrict the divinity to an infinitely small
part of his creative energy, as to suppose that this measureless
power could remain eternally in a state of imaction. Is it not
more rational, or, to speak more correctly, is it not necessary, to
look upon creation as a representation of that power which can-
not be estimated by any scale? According to this view, the field
of the manifestation of the divine perfections is as infinite as
these perfections themselves. Eternity does not suffice to ren-
der testimony of the supreme being, if it is not connected with
the infinity of space.”

So reasoned Kant. It is therefore probable, that not only
the portion of space which our eye has penetrated with the aid
of instruments, or may yet penetrate, but infinite space itself, is
sprinkled over with suns, each accompanied with its train of pla-
nets and comets. I say, that this is very probable, for our li-

Dr Olbers on the Transparency of Space. 148

mited reason is unable to procure for us any certainty on the
subject. Other regions of space may contain other creations
than suns, planets, comets and light ; creations of which we can
have no idea. Halley has laboured to produce a proof of the
innumerable multitude of suns. “ If their number were not in-
finite,” says he, “ there would be found in the space which they
occupy, a point which would be the centre of gravity of the ge-
neral system, and towards which all the bodies of the universe
would necessarily be precipitated, with a continually increasing
motion. It is only because the universe is infinite, that every
thing remains in equilibrium.” Halley seems to have only had
gravitation in view here, and ne says nothing of the power of
projection. However, the very motion which appears to be pro-
per to these stars, would tend to demonstrate that they are ani-
mated with a power of projection. This itself would suffice to
shew the insufficiency of the reasoning employed by Halley,
against whom there are besides many other charges.

However, it remains not the less probable, that the beauti-
ful order which we observe extending as far as our faculty of
sight can penetrate, reigns equally through all space; and we
have only to search if there exist other reasons in nature to
induce us to abandon this opinion. Here a very important ob-
jection presents itself. If there really be suns in the whole of
space, and to infinity, and if they are placed at equal distances
from each other, or grouped into systems like that of the Milky
Way, their number must be infinite, and the whole vault of hea-
ven should appear as bright as the sun; for every line which
may be supposed to emanate from our eye towards the sky,
would necessarily meet a fixed star, and thus every point of the
sky would bring to us a ray of sideral, or which is the same
thing, of solar light.

There is no need of saying that observation contradicts such
a deduction. Halley denies this consequence of the infinite
number of fixed stars, but for reasons which are altogether er-
roneous. He evidently confounds the apparent magnitudes
with the real magnitudes; and it is only thus that he can ad-
vance that the number of the fixed stars increases, it is true, as
the square of their distances, but that the intervals which sepa-
rate them increase as the double of this square. This is an

144 Dr Olbers on the Transparency of Space.

error. Supposing the stars uniformly diffused over the sky ; if
we represent by unity the radius of the sphere formed by the
mean distance of the stars of the first magnitude from our sun
by 3, the mean diameter of these stars, and by n, their number
at this distance; the portion of the celestial vault which they

nx?
4
from the sun equal to 2, the apparent diameter of the stars will

will occupy to our eyes, will be equal to Ata distance

be we but their number will be 4: they will thus also oc-

2
cupy a space 3 “te upon thesphere. Thus at distances 1, 2,3, 4,

5, ... m, the stars will always cover the same portion of the celes-

‘al 1 h wero? nxo? nwo?
tial vault; t espace —4—+ 4 — mq

will become in-

s ; : : D)
finitely great, when m will become so itself, since Ai how-

ever small this quantity may be, remains always an infinite mag-
nitude. Consequently, not only will the whole celestial vault
be covered with stars, but they will, moreover, be placed one be-
hind another, in infinite series, mutually covering each other.
It is evident that the same conclusions will be obtained, on sup-
posing the stars not only uniformly diffused in space, but dis-
tributed in systems, separated from each other by great inter-
vals.

Fortunately for us, nature has disposed things otherwise ;
fortunately each point of the celestial vault does not send to the
earth a light like that of the sun. I say nothing of the bright-
ness and heat that would result from such an arrangement; for
then, whatever would have been that brightness and that heat,
the Omnipotent would have put our globe and its whole organ-
ism in a condition to resist them. I would only speak of the
state of imperfection in which our astronomical knowledge must
then have remained. We would know nothing of the fixed
stars ; we should scarcely be able to discover our own sun, by
means of its spots; the moon and planets would only be distin-
guished as more or less obscure disks, detached from a shining

ground of a solar brightness.
1

Dr Olbers on the Transparency of Space. 145

But because the celestial vault has not, in all its points, the
lustre of the sun, must we reject the infinity of the stellar sys-
tem? Must we restrict this system to a confined portion of li-
mitless space? By no means. In the reasoning, by means of
which we arrived at the inference of the infinite number of the
stars, we have supposed that space was absolutely transparent,
or that the light composed of parallel rays was not impaired, as
it removed to a distance from the bodies from which it ema-
nated. Now, not only is this absolute transparency of space not
demonstrated, but, moreover, it is altogether improbable. What
though the planets, bodies possessed of great density, experience
no sensible resistance in their courses, there is nothing that can
oblige us to consider the space in which they move as perfectly
void. What may be presumed on the subject of comets and
their tails, would rather tend to make us suppose the existence
of something material in the regions which they traverse. The
very matter of the tails of comets, which gradually dissipates,
and that of the zodiacal light, necessarily have their abode in
this space; and, besides, supposing it absolutely void, the rays
of light, in crossing, might and must intercept each other. This
latter point may not only be demonstrated a priori, by the hy-
potheses of Newton and Huygens, regarding the nature of
light, but may also be experimentally confirmed by the compa-
rison of the telescopes of Cassegrain and Gregory, and the re-
lative density before and behind the focus of a spherical mir-
ror *.

Space is not, therefore, absolutely transparent. But the
slightest defect in its transparency is sufficient to annihilate that
consequence of the infinite number of the fixed stars, so con-
trary to observation, namely, that the whole heaven should

.* Philosophical Transactions for 1813 and 1814. In the calculation of the re-
lative density of the light before and behind the focus of a concave mirror, Captain
Kater appears not to have reflected, that the focus cannot be considered as a phy-
sical point, but that it is only the place of the image of the sun, or of the flame of
acandle. This consideration ought to introduce some corrections into the calcu-
lations, but it does not affect the result that the light undergoes a loss in passing
through the focus. It would be desirable that these interesting experiments,
which perhaps might be directed in a manner better adapted to the object in view,
were repeated with great care.

APRIL—JULY 1826. K

146 Dr Olbers on the T'ransparency of Space.

blaze upon us with solar brightness. If we suppose, for ex-
ample, that the degree of transparency be such, that of 800 rays
which emanate from Sirius, 799 attain the distance at which we
are placed from that planet, this would suffice, and more than
suffice, to make us see the system of fixed stars such as we ac-
tually see it.

Since rays proceed in all directions from every point of the
surface of luminous bodies, we may represent to ourselves this
light as composed of cylindrical fasciculi, themselves formed of
parallel rays. The lustre of the radiating bodies will be pro-
portional to the density of the light in these fasciculi. Accord-
ing to the law of the diminution of the light which traverses
homogeneous substances, not entirely transparent, the diminu-
tion of the density of this light for each infinitely small degree
of its progress, is proportional to this very density. Let y,
then, be the density of light at the distance a from the radiating
body ; for every space d # which it traverses in its passage from
the body, it undergoes a diminution d y, and we haved y = —
ay da, or integrating, log y= const —az. The constant
quantity will be determined by remarking, that y = A, for ex-
ample, when a =o; and we shall thus obtain the equation.
Log A= —aa; or log 2. is abanup logarithm, a, the measure
of the defect of the transparency of space ; ss the subtangent

of the logarithmic curve, of which the decreasing ordinates mea-
sure the diminution of brightness which the luminous object
undergoes when its distance increases. Besides, in the calcula-
tion, we may employ for log 4 the artificial logarithm, keep-

ing in mind, that then a, multiplied by 0.43429448, is the

measure of the opacity.
Let us now find what will be the value of a, on the supposi-
tion (entirely arbitrary) that the light of a star, placed at the

distance of Sirius, becomes weakened in the proportion of ae

in coming to us. Let 7 be the distance of Sirius,

Dr Olbers on the Transparency of Space. 147

Log 799 — 2.9025467793
Log 800 = 2.9030899870

a = 0.0005432077
Therefore log a = 6. 7349604 — 10.
It is easy, again, to calculate the diminution of brightness of
stars for more considerable distances.
Let us now suppose the lustre A of a star, such as our sun,
but placed at the distance of Sirius, which we took a little ago
for unity, itself equal to 1; the lustre of this star will be,

z'5 at a distance equal to 84.23 times that of Sirius.

s 178.40
ca 285.16
is 408.41
is 554.13

Wesee, therefore, that, at the extreme distances at which our
armed eye can still distinguish isolated stars, the lustre is di-
minished by one-half. The absolute brightness of stars may
establish between them differences equally remarkable and still
greater.

The lustre must not be confounded with the intensity of the
light.

This intensity is the lustre multiplied by the apparent mag-
nitude : it is directly proportional to the lustre, and, inversely,
the square of the distance. Thus, a star 554 times more distant
from us than Sirius, has still the half of the lustre, but only
sroooth of the luminous intensity of that star.

The lustre diminishes considerably at greater distances. At
a distance equal to 1842.9 times that of Sirius, it is only 7,th
of the lustre of that star; at the distance of 3681.8 it is not
more than y},; and at that of 5522.7, it is ;y'5;, and so in
proportion.

At what distance would the light of a fixed star still have the
lustre of the full moon, supposing this lustre to be x5 y555 of
that of the sun? As we have, then *,

* Here i= = 550006 is substituted in the equation, log A a a oF

log « = log( log )- log a.
K2

148. Dr Olbers on the T'ransparency of Space.

Log an = — 5.4771213
The logarithm of which is — 0.7885524
Log a= 6.7349604 — 10
Log xz = 4,0035920
x = 10083.05

It is therefore at a distance equal to 10000 times that of Sirius.
Thus, a certain quantity of stars situated at this distance would
require to be accumulated close to one another, before, in a clear
and moonless night, our most perfect telescopes could render
this group visible as a pale nebulosity.

Our atmosphere, illuminated by the full moon, has not even
cam Of its lustre, and this light suffices to render invisible to
the naked eye all the stars which are under the fourth or fifth
magnitudes. The following calculation shews at what distance
the stars have still a lustre equal to that of the ground of the
sky, in a night illuminated by the full moon.

We have then,

Log (300000 x 90000) = 10.4313638
The log of which is = 1.0183410
= 6.7349604—10

Log x= 4.2833806
Therefore «= 19203.5
Let us still calculate the lustre of a star, which is placed at
30,000 times the distance of Sirius; then
Log x = 4,4771213
Log a = 6,7349604—10

Log aa = 1.2120817
The number of which is 16.29602

Therefore log A = — 16.29602

The number of which is 1977100000 millions, and expresses
how many times the absolute lustre of the star is weakened at this
distance. To forma conception of this relation the more easily,

’ it may be remarked, that the lustre then preserved by the star.

Dr Olbers on the Transparency of Space. 149
is 6500 millions of times weaker than that of the full moon, or
732250 times weaker than that of the celestial vault in a clear
night, lightened by the full moon. Now, this last shade may
be considered as perfectly dark.

We may therefore admit, that, with the degree of non-trans-
parency, which we have supposed to exist in space, the stars,
which are 30000 times farther from us than Sirius, do not con-
tribute to light the celestial vault. The ground of the sky
would therefore appear to us black, had not our own atmos-
phere, lightened only by the stars, itself a feeble lustre, which suf-
fices to colour this ground of a bluish tint.

A circumstance which proves that the ground of the sky ~

would be entirely black, did we not see it through our atmos-
phere, which is lighted by the glimmer of the stars, exists in
what we observe regarding the planet Venus. The portion of
its disk, which is not lighted by the sun, is sometimes distin-
guished from the sky by a peculiar or phosphorescent light,
but never as being darker than the ground which it covers.
The same is also remarked in the planet Mars, when it is not
light all over. Those who have had occasion to observe the
‘starry sky on high mountains, have seen that it was dark, and
even absolutely black, although the greatest part of our atmos-
phere was still interposed.

I do not know if I am deceived, but it has often seemed to
me, that, among the small stars, of the same luminous intensity
(the intensity is the lustre multiplied by the apparent magni-
tude), some had a mobile and scintillating light, others a tran-
quil light. If this be not an illusion, I would be induced to
think that the former are smaller and nearer, the others larger and
more distant, in such a manner that the light of these latter,
weakened by the defect of transparency in space, has no longer
the density necessary for sparkling.

The supposition that the light, independently of its divergence,
is weakened ,§5 in coming from Sirius to us, is entirely arbi-
trary. My object was to demonstrate that this loss, and even
a still less at these enormous distances, was sufficient to render
the appearance of the heavens such as we observe it, although
the stars should yet exist in infinite number in space. It
is not without reflection that I have assigned this degree of

150 Dr Olbers on the Transparency of Space.

opacity to space, and I do not imagine it to be very wide of the
truth.

It is therefore with equal wisdom and goodness, that creative
Omnipotence has given to space a high degree of translucidity,
without, however, rendering this translucidity perfect, and that
it has thus limited the range of our vision to a determinate part
of this space. In consequence of this arrangement, we are pla-
ced in a condition to acquire some knowledge of the structure
and arrangement of the universe, of which we should scarcely
know any thing, had the most distant suns sent us a light which
underwent no diminution.— Bibliotheque Universelle, Feb. 1826.

Observations on the Spontaneous Motions of the Ova of the
Campanularia dichotoma, Gorgonia verrucosa, Caryophyllea
calycularis, Spongia panicea, Sp. papillaris, cristata, tomen-
tosa, and Plumularia falcata. By Rozert E. Grant, M. D.
F.R.S.E., F. L.S., M. W.S., &c *. (Communicated by the
Author.)

Tuar acute and indefatigable zoologist Mr Ellis, first ob-
served in 1755 the spontaneous motions exhibited by the ova of
the Campanularia dichotomaLam., ( Sertularia dichotoma Lin. ),
for some time after their separation from the parent. Although
this interesting fact is one of the most important and best esta-
blished which has yet been discovered, connected with the gene-
ration of zoophytes, and one of very general occurrence in these
animals, it has attracted so little attention for half a century
past, that we find not the slightest allusion to it in the writings
of Lamarck, Lamouroux, Cuvier, or almost any other modern
zoologist. When in company with Dr Schlosser and Mr Ehret,
on the coast of Sussex, Mr Ellis examined the Campanularia
dichotoma alive, and found several vesicles on it, some of which
contained ova attached to an umbilical cord. This cord was dis-
tinctly seen through the transparent coats of the vesicle, to take
its origin from the fleshy central part of the stem. ‘‘ In other
vesicles (he observes) we discovered these ova beginning to exhi-

ee ees eee) ee ae eee eee eee

* Read before the Wernerian Natural History Society, 27th May 1826.

Dr Grant on the Ova of Zoophytes. 151

bit signs of life ; they appeared to us to be evidently young living
polypi, which extended ina circular order, the tentacula proceed-
ing from their head, as in other polypi. While examining them,
some of the ova, after detaching themselves, fell to the bottom
of the glass of water in which we had placed them ; they then
began to move and stretch themselves out like fresh water po-
lypi;” (Ellis, Hist. Nat. des Cor., p. 116). This statement of
Mr Ellis, though not altogether correct in its detail, is satisfac-
tory as to the motions of the ova which he saw escape from the
vesicles. As this species of Campanularia occurs abundantly
on Leith rocks, and, at this time (May) presents the ova in a
state of maturity, I have examined their singular motions under
the microscope, in presence of some friends conversant with the
structure of these animals. The moving ova which Mr Ellis
observed, were not, as he supposed, the same with the polypi-
like bodies ‘he has represented (Pl. xxxvii. Fig. 3. B, B, B,)
hanging from the mouths of the vesicles, but were ova which
had fallen from these polypi-like bodies. The polypi-like bo-
dies, viewed under the microscope, are found to be thin, trans-
parent, motionless capsules, containing each three distinct ova,
and presenting at their free extremities several stiff, straight, di-
verging pointed processes, which Mr Ellis mistook for the ten-
tacula of a young polypus; and was thus led to believe, that
the polypus is the first formed part of a young zoophyte, which
I have found by experiment to be contrary to fact. This mode
of generation in Sertularia, by the detachment of numerous
capsules, containing ova enveloped ina viscid matter, was known
to Cavolini, who, forty years ago, detected the fallacy of Mr
Ellis’s statement regarding the polypi-like bodies, and suspected
that the true ova contained in these exterior capsules, would be
found to exhibit the same kind of motions which he had ob-
served in the ova of other zoophytes ; but he did not succeed
in obtaining the ova after their expulsion from the capsules, so
as to verify or refute his conjecture. As I had already observed
through the transparent vesicles of the Plumuluria falcata the
motions, and even the cilia, of the ova contained in them, I
placed one of the polypi-like capsules hanging by umbilical
cords, from the vesicles of the Camp. dichotoma entire under the
microscope, and I could distinctly perceive the vortex-like cur-

152 Dr Grant on the spontancous Motions of

rents along the surface of the contained ova, and that particu-
lar vibrating zone immediately around them, which we always
observe along a ciliated surface, when the cilize are in too rapid
motion to be distinctly seen. On allowing the three ova to es-
cape into the water of the watch-glass, by tearing open the cap-
sule with two needles, they immediately began to glide to and
fro along the bottom, and I could now perceive the ciliz vibrat-
ing on their surface as they moved forward. The ova of this
minute zoophyte are very numerous, amounting to twenty or
thirty in each vesicle, which is probably the reason of the poly-
pi-like capsules, to allow so many ova sufficient space to deve-
lope themselves on the outside of the vesicles. I have never ob-
served more than two ova ina vesicle of the Plumularia, falcata,
and they have space to arrive at full maturity within that vesi-
cle. The ova of the Camp. dichotoma are very minute, regularly
formed oval bodies of a semiopaque milk-white colour ; the ciliz
distributed over their surface, propel them only in one direction ;
their motions and general appearance, like those of other ova,
are so peculiar, that they are easily distinguished from animal-
cules, by any person who has once examined the mature vesicles
of a zoophyte. The ci/iz on the surface of these and other ova
are minute filaments, which may be compared to the small hairs
covering the human body ; they do not add to the internal or-
ganization of the ovum, nor render it as complex as that of the
adult animal which possesses highly organized polypi; they are
organs which exist in the adult zoophyte, and in the simplest
known forms of animal matter, the motions of the simplest gela-
tinous animalcules being performed by them; and they are ne-
cessary to prevent the ova from falling by their own gravity like
the seeds of plants, to be buried in the ever-moving sands,
Cavolini prosecuted for two successive years, 1784-5, his re-
searches into the structure and economy of the Gorgonia verru-
cosa Lam., particularly with reference to the spontaneous mo-
tions and the development of its ova; and his observations on
this animal form a model of patient and scientific inquiry, which
has no equal in the history of zoophytology. He examined the
position of the ovaria at the base of each polypus, watched the
manner in which the ova were discharged through eight small
oviducts, opening between the bases of the eight tentacula, and

the Ova of Zoophytes. . 153

has given enlarged representations of the forms which the ova
assumed while swimming to and fro, and of their appearance
when laid open. He observed, that the ova were all somewhat
egg-shaped ; that they passed through the oviduct with their ta-
pering end pointed forward ; and that, as soon as discharged,
they turned up their rounded thick extremity, and continued to
swim about with that extremity always forward (Cavolini,
Abhand. uber Pflanzen-thiere, p. 48). On cutting off a small
portion of the outer covering from the base of a polypus, he
generally observed five ova of a flesh-red colour, like those he
saw passing out through the oviducts. In the month of June,
he observed the polypi of the Gorgonia in the act of discharging
their ova; a portion of this zoophyte, only six inches high, dis-
charged ninety ovain the space of an hour. ‘The ova first
mounted in a spiral direction to the surface of the water, then
swam in a horizontal direction to the margin, without changing
their forms. Under the microscope, he repeatedly observed the
ovum change its lengthened form to that of a sphere, and when
the microscope was perfectly steady, he was surprised to see the
ovum bound off with rapidity from the place where it lay, and
keep itself in a constant quick motion as long as he watched
it (Abh. p. 48). “ On looking again at the vessel in which
the Gorgonia lay (he says) I found that all the ova had ar-
ranged themselves round the margin, with their rounded thick
ends applied to the sides of the vessel, like a swarm of wood-lice
on a branch; and when I pushed them off with a needle, they
changed their forms in an extraordinary manner, while they con-
tinued to swim about in all directions.”

In the Caryophyllia calycularis Lam. (Madrepora calycula-
ris Lin.), Cavolini observed that the ova were, like those of the
Gorgonia, in a state of maturity in spring, and were discharged,
in the same manner, through small distinct openings between
each of the tentacula. They were seen through the transparent
sides of the polypi to occupy a similar situation at their base ;
they had the same ovoidal shape, but were of a darker red co-
lour than those of the gorgonia, and somewhat larger. They
exhibited the same singular phenomena; they glided about in
the water ; swam to the surface; changed their forms, in a va-
riety of ways, on the slightest irritation; and, when torn under

154 Dr Grant on the Spontaneous Motions of

the microscope, they exhibited the same granular structure
(Cav. Abhand. p. 50.) The detailed account which Cavolini
has given of the spontaneous motions of the ova in these two
zoophytes, agrees so remarkably with what I have observed in
other genera, that I have not the least doubt that they are pro-
duced in the same manner, by the rapid vibration of minute cz-
lie distributed over their surface ; and that the ciliz have
escaped his observation, and that of Mr Ellis (in the Campanu-
laria) only from their not employing the high magnifying
powers necessary to render them distinct.

In a memoir on the Structure and Functions of the Sponge,
read to the Wernerian Society, in March 1825, I described the
singular motions which I had observed in the ova of the Spongia
paniceaLam., Sp. papillaris, cristata, tomentosa, between the time
of their expulsion from the fecal orifices, and that of their perma-
nently fixing themselves to develope on the surface of watch-glass-
es, and represented the appearance of the cilize which I had disco-
vered by the aid of the microscope, vibrating on the surface of the
ova as they moved about in the water, and even for a short time
after they had fixed themselves (see Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. xiii. p.
382.) The details connected with the formation and detachment
of these ova, their structure at the time of expulsion, and the
changes they undergo during the fixing and developing of their
bodies, are reserved for the continuation of my memoir on that
animal ; but, with reference to their spontaneous motions, I may
here observe, that they are all somewhat egg-shaped, the cilize
eover every part of their surface, excepting their posterior ta-
pering extremity, where I have never distinctly perceived them.
In swimming, they always carry their broadest extremity for-
ward. They have a granular structure, and a rough surface,
like the ova of the gorgonia ; but spicula are distinctly discerni-
ble in those of the Spongia panicea, at the time of their expul-
sion. They do not change their forms, while swimming, like
the ova of many other zoophytes, but glide along with a regular
and smooth motion. After remaining some time in the water,
they generally come to the surface, and collect round the mar-
gin. When one of them is placed in a drop of water, under the
microscope, we often see the motions of the cilie gradually
cease, and become again suddenly revived, without the ovum

the Ova of Zoophytes. 155

undergoing the least change of form ; on cutting an ovum of the
Sp. papillaris transversely through the middle, its anterior half
continued the motions of its ciliz for 24 hours. The form of
the ovum, and its general appearance, vary with the species, and
are as easily distinguishable as those of the adult. Having now
examined these ova during two successive years, and having
varied my experiments in every possible manner, I consider
the spontaneous motions of the ova in the above species as suffi-
ciently established by direct observation, and by the analogy of
other zoophytes.

The observations which I have lately made on the ova of the
Plumularia falcata Lam., have not been less satisfactory than
those so often repeated on the ova of the sponge. I have taken
the mature ova from the vesicles of the plumularia, and examined
their spontaneous motions, under the microscope, in the presence
of experienced naturalists ; and I now present to the Wernerian
Society eight of these ova growing and branching on the side of
a glass vessel, after their having remained three weeks in that
situation. This species is very common in the deeper parts of
the Frith of Forth ; its vesicles are very numerous, and its ova
are in full maturity at the beginning of May. The ova are
large, of a light brown colour, semi-opaque, nearly spherical,
composed of minute transparent granules, ciliated on the surface,
and distinctly irritable. There are only two ova in each vesicle ;
so that they do not require any external capsules, like those of
the campanularia, to allow them sufficient space to come to ma-
turity. On placing an entire vesicle, with its two ova, under
the microscope, we perceive, through the transparent sides, the
cilia vibrating on the surface of the contained ova, and the cur-
rents produced in the fluid within by their motion. When we
open the vesicle with two needles, in a drop of sea-water, the ova
glide to and fro through the water, at first slowly, but afterwards
more quickly, and their cilia propel them with the same part
always forward. ‘They are highly irritable, and frequently con-
tract their bodies so as to exhibit those singular changes of form
spoken of by Cavolini. These contractions are particularly ob-
served when they come in contact with a hair, a filament of con-
ferva, a grain of sand, or any minute object ; and they are like-
wise frequent and remarkable at the time when the ovum is bu-

156 On Noises accompanying the Aurora Borealis.

sied in attaching its body permanently to the surface of the glass.
After they have fixed, they become flat and circular, and the
more opaque parts of the ova assume a radiated appearance ; so
that they now appear, even to the naked eye, like so many mi-
nute grey coloured stars, having the interstices between the rays
filled with a colourless transparent matter, which seems to harden
into horn. The grey matter swells in the centre, where the
rays meet, and rises perpendicularly upwards, surrounded by the
transparent horny matter, so as to form the trunk of the future
zoophyte. The rays first formed are obviously the fleshy een-
tral substance of the roots, and the portion of that substance
which grows perpendicularly upwards, forms the fleshy central
part of the stem. As early as I could observe the stem, it was
open at the top; and, when it bifurcated to form two branches,
both were open at their extremities, but the fleshy central mat-
ter had nowhere developed itself as yet into the form of a poly-
pus. Polypi, therefore, are not the first formed parts of this
zoophyte, but are organs which appear long after the formation
of the root and stem, as the leaves and flowers of a plant.

From these observations it appears that the somamed ova of
many zoophytes, when newly detached from the parent, have the
power of buoying themselves up in the water, by the rapid mo-
tions of ciliz placed on their surface, till they are carried by the
waves, or by their own spontaneous efforts, to a place favour-
able for their growth, where they fix their body in the particu-
lar position best suited for the future development of its: parts.
How far this law is general with zoophytes, must be determined
by future observation.

On the Noises that sometimes accompany the Aurora Borealis.

Has NG, many years ago, both in this country and in the Shet-
land Islands, heard very distinctly noises proceeding from the po-
lar lights, we have always given full credit to the statements of
those observers who have published accounts of this fact. It is
true, that late observers, particularly our friends and former pupils

On Noises accompanying the Aurora Borealis. 157

Scoresby * and Richardson +, never heard such noises, although
they have seen many polar lights. But their observations were
made during a minimum period of this meteoric phenomenon,
while those striking mstances of which accounts are published,
occurred during a period when the energy of the polar lights
was great, or in a maximum state. Muschenbroek says, that
the Greenland fishers, in his time, assured him that they had
frequently heard noises proceeding from the aurora borealis.
Mr Nairne is confident that he has heard a hissing and whizzing
noise when the polar lights were very bright; and Mr Cavallo
affirms that he more than once heard a crackling noise from po-
lar lights. Giesecke, who resided so long in West or Old Green-
land, says, “ The Polar lights sometimes appear very low, and
then they are much agitated, and a crashing and crackling
sound is heard, like that of an electric spark, or the falling of
hail.” Professor Parrot of Dorpat, describes a magnificent po-
lar light he witnessed, on 22d October 1804, from which a
crackling and rustling noise proceeded. We learn from the in-
habitants, says Captain Brooke, in his interesting travels through
Norway, with respect to the polar or northern lights, that they
had frequently heard the noise that sometimes attends them,
which they describe like that of a rushing wind. At Hammer-
fest, they said they were violent, and descended so low that it
would appear almost possible to touch them. In a letter from
Mr Ramm, of Tonset in Norway, addressed to Professor Han-
steen, and published in the Magazin fur Naturwidenskaberne,
Christiana 1825, st. 1., we are told that he several times heard a
quick whispering noise, simultaneously with the motion of the
beams of the polar lights. In the same journal Professor Han-
steen remarks, ‘“* The polar regions being, in reality, the na-
tive country of the polar light, we ought to be peculiarly inte-
rested in obtaining any additional information on the natural
history of this remarkable phenomenon ; and we have so many
certain accounts of the noise attending it, that the negative ex-
perience of southern nations cannot be brought in opposition to

* Arctic Regions and Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery.

+ * Remarks on the Aurora Borealis” in Franklin and Richardson's Jour-
ney to the Shores of the Polar Sea.

158 On Noises accompanying the Aurora Borealis.

our positive knowledge. Unfortunately, we live, since the be-
ginning of this century, in one of the great pauses of this phe-
nomenon ; so that the present generation knows but little of it
from personal observation. It would, therefore, be very agree-
able to receive, from older people, observations of this kind,
made in their youth, when the aurora borealis shewed itself in
its full splendour. It can be proved mathematically, that the
rays of the northern lights ascend from the surface of the earth,
in a direction inclining towards the’ south (an inclination which,
with us, forms an angle of about 73°.) If, then, this light oe-
eupies the whole northern sky, rising more than 17° above the
zenith, the rays must proceed from under the feet of the ob-
server, although they do not receive their reflecting power till
they have reached a considerable elevation, perhaps beyond our
atmosphere. It is therefore conceivable, why we should fre-
quently hear a noise attending the northern lights, when the in-
habitants of southern countries, who see these phenomena at a
distance of many hundred miles, hear no report whatever.
Wargentin, in the fifteenth volume of the T’ransactions of the
Swedish Academy, says, that Dr Gisler and Mr Hellant, who
had resided for some time in the north of Sweden, made, at the
request of the Academy, a report of their observations on the
aurora borealis.”

The following extract is given by Hansteen from Dr Gisler’s
account :—‘“ The most remarkable circumstance attending the
northern lights is, that, although they seem to be very high in
the air, perhaps higher than our common clouds, there are yet
convincing proofs that they are connected with the atmosphere,
and often descend so low in it, that, at times, they seem to touch
the earth itself; and, on the highest mountains, they produce an
effect like a wind round the face of the traveller.” He also says,
that he himself, as well as other credible persons, ‘* had often
heard the rushing of them, just as if a strong wind had been
blowing (although there was a perfect calm all the time), or like
the whizzing heard in the decomposition of certain bodies during
a chemical process.” It also seemed to him, that he noticed ¢ a
smell of smoke or burnt salt.”—* I must yet add,” says Gisler,
‘«* that people who had travelled in Norway, informed me they
have sometimes been overtaken, on the top of mountains, by a

1

On Noises accompanying the Aurora Borealis. 159

thin fog, very similar to northern lights, and which set the air in
motion: they called it Sildebleket (Hiring’s Lighting), and
said that it was attended by a piercing cold, and impeded respi-
ration.” Dr Gisler also asserts that he often heard ‘ of a whi-
tish-grey cold fog, of a greenish tinge, which, though at did not
prevent the mountains from being. seen, yet somewhat obscured
the sky, rising from the earth, and changing itself at last into an
aurora; at least, such a fog was frequently the forerunner of this
phenomenon.” 'To these observations, Professor Hansteen adds,
that Captain Abrahamson, in the 7'ransactions of the Scandina-
vian Literary Society, has given an account of several observa-
tions of noises that were heard along with the northern lights.
The Professor concludes with the observation, that he himself
knows several persons that have heard the same sounds, and ex-
presses his surprise that a fact so well established should be called
in question; and relates, with some sharpness, a conversation he
had on this subject with an Englishman, who remarked that the
Norwegian tales of noises from polar lights were akin to the
ghost stories of this country ;—every one, he said, had heard of
ghosts, but no person had ever seen one.

On the presence of Iodine in the Mineral Spring of Bonning-
ton, near Leith, By Evwarp Turner, M.D. F.R.S.E.
&e. Ina Letter to Professor JamEson.

Dear Sir,

I HAVE the pleasure to inform you that the Bonnington mi-
neral water which you lately sent me for examination, contains
Iodine in addition to the other substances hitherto discovered
in it. The iodine was first detected by my pupil Mr W. Cop-
land, to whom I gave the water for analysis, with directions to
examine it for the presence of that substance; and I have since
found it myself in several portions of the same water purpose-
ly brought at different times from the spring, so that it may be
regarded as a regular constituent. The iodine may be readily
detected by the following method :—Evaporate a pint of the
water to dryness; take up the soluble parts in a drachm or two
of a diluted solution of starch, quite cold, and add a few drops

160 Dr Turner on Lodine in the Mineral Spring of Bonnington.

of concentrated sulphuric acid; the characteristic blue colour
will then make its appearance. I prefer the use of sulphu-
ric to nitric acid or chlorine for decomposing the hydrio-
dic acid; for it effects that object with certainty, and does not
decompose the iodide of starch, or prevent its formations as the
two last are apt to do.

The greater part of the iron in the Bonnington water is un-
der the form of the carbonate of iron, which is held in solution
by free carbonic acid. It also contains the muriatic and sul-
phurie acids, in combination with lime, magnesia, and soda, the
last of which is the predominating base. Potash is also present,
and forms the hydriodate of potash with the hydriodic acid... Its
quantity, however, is more than sufficient for saturating that
acid; for the residual salts still contain it, after the hydriodate
of potash has been removed by alcohol.

I have examined portions of water from the springs of Har:
rowgate, Moffat, and Pitcaithly, but could discover in them no
trace of iodine. I remain, dear Sir, yours most faithfully,

Epwarp TuRNER.

eee
Addition by the Ep1ror.

Since the discovery of Iodine in some marine plants by Cur-
tois, it has been found by Kriiger and Fuchs in small quantity
in the salt-springs of Sulzer and Halle; more lately in minute
quantity in the salt-springs of Rosenheim by Vogel of Munich,
and by Professor Liebig in the salt-springs of Datineield An-
gelini and Cantu haye detected this curious substance,in some
mineral waters in Italy; and Vogel, as far as we know, was.the
first who ascertained its presence in the mineral waters of Ger-
many. Being informed that the mineral waters of Heilbrunn,
in the circle of Isar, in Bavaria, were used by the inhabitants as
a specific against diseases in the glandular system, especially the
goitre, Vogel was led to suspect the presence of iodine, which, he
soon detected by means of the usual.re-agents.. The iodine was
in the state of hydriodate of soda.

We take this opportunity of recommending the analysis a the
mineral waters of this country to the attention of naturalists ;
and we do this in the conviction, that a knowledge of the con-

Intelligence from the Land Arctic Expedition. 161

tents of mineral and other waters is intimately connected, not
only with many important changes perpetually taking place in
the solid strata of the globe, but also with the chemical compo-
sition of mountain rocks, and of the materials of their beds and
veins. The gazeous matters associated with natural waters, are
also worthy of the attention of the naturalist; the more espe-
cially, as they are often connected with those aériform substan-
ces which are perpetually rising through the fissures and strata-
seams of rocks. These aériform emanations from rocks, are an-
nounced by the sulphureous, empyreumatic, acid or other odours,
perceived over the outgoing and in the body of the fissures ;
also, by their sometimes extinguishing lights, when placed in or
over fissures ; in other cases, by the emanating air taking fire.

Intelligence from the Land Arctic Expedition, under Captain
Franklin and Dr Richardson.

In the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, we gave an account of
the early progress of the Land Arctic Expedition, under Cap-
tain Franklin and Dr Richardson. The following contains an in-
teresting statement of its progress, up to September last, which
is the latest information from the travellers.

** We have travelled incessantly since we left Lake Superior.
We overtook our boats, which, with their crews, left England in
June 1824, eight months before us, about half way to this place,
or four or five days march to the southward of Mathye Portage.
We embarked in them at Chepewyn, on the 20th July, and ar-
rived in Mackenzie’s River on the 31st. At Fort Normans, Dr
Richardson separated from the rest of the party. Captain
Franklin and Mr Kendale went down the river to the sea in one
boat, whilst Dr Richardson brought the others and their car-
goes up Bear Lake River, which falls into the Mackenzie a few
miles below Fort Normans. Franklin made a prosperous voy-
age, and on the 16th of August, exactly six months from the
day he sailed from Liverpool, had an extensive view from the
summit of Garry's Island, of the open sea, clear of ice, with
many black whales, belugas, and seals, playing about. ‘lhe

APRIL—JuLY 1826, L

162 Intelligence from the Land Arctic Expedition.

water at Whale Island is, as Mackenzie states in his chart, fresh,
but a few miles from Garry’s Island, which is 30 miles to
seaward, and out of sight of the other, it changes its colour and
taste. The mighty volume of waters which rolls down the: Mae-
kenzie, carries shoals of sand and a brackish stream a long way
out. Captain Franklin did not join Dr Richardson and _ his
party before the 5th September last, at Port Franklin, in Bear
Lake, the navigation up the river being tedious, from the
strength of the current. The Sharpeyes or Quarrellers of Mac-
kenzie, who inhabit the lower parts of the river, resemble the
Esquimaux a good deal in their manners and language, and that
part of the tribe who live nearest the sea, were partially under-
stood by our Esquimaux interpreter. The Esquimaux being
at this season inland hunting the rein deer, were not seen, but
the Sharpeyes have promised to give them notice of our intend-
ed voyage next year. Every thing at present promises success to
our future operations. The boats sent out from England an-
swer admirably, and we are well provided with stores for the
voyage. During Captain Franklin’s absence, Dr Richardson
surveyed this lake, which is about 150 miles long, extending
from Lat. 65° 10’ Long. 123° 32’, where Fort Franklin is built,
to Lat. 67° Long. 119°, within 70 miles of the nearest bend of
the Coppermine River, and about 85 miles from its mouth.
Garry’s Island lies in Lat. 69° 29’ Long. 135° 42’, about 450
miles from the mouth of the Coppermine, and about 600 from
Icy Cape, distances which may easily be accomplished, even du-
ring the short period that the arctic sea is navigable for boats,
if no greater obstacles occur than were visible from the mouth of
Mackenzie’s River. A canoe is to be deposited at the North
Eastern arm of this lake, by which the eastern party will save
200 miles of land journey on their return.—But a very cursory
view of the rocks was taken in the voyage down the river, as was
to be expected from the rapidity with which the party travelled.
The oldest rocks met with were in the portions of the Rocky
Mountains which skirt the river, and which are composed of
transition limestone. From that there is a very complete series of
formations down to the new red sandstone, exposed in various
parts. The rocks of the coal formation are particularly interest-
ing, from the strong resemblance the organic remains found in

Intelligence from the Land Arctic Expedition. 163

the sandstone slate, and bituminous shale, have to those seen in
England. They met with several /epidodendra, compressed
like the English ones, also impressions of ferns and reeds. They
had not, however, found any beds of coal belonging to this forma-
tion, but large deposits of a new bituminous wood-coal, mixed
with layers of mineral pitch. This is found in various parts of
the river, and on Garry’s Island, at its mouth, sometimes depo-
sited on the fixed rocks, but never, as far as could be ascertained,
under any of them. It is generally associated with a rich earthy
loam, and seems to derive its origin from great deposits of tim-
ber, compressed under alluvial, or, to speak in a newer language,
diluvial matters, and impregnated with the bitumen, exuding in
immense quantities from the carboniferous limestone, which ex-
ists in enormous masses in this country, constituting whole dis-
tricts and ridges of mountains. The shells and corallines of the
limestone are very fine and perfect. The fibrous structure, and,
indeed, the shape of the trees, may still be clearly traced in the
coal. From the twisted state of the woody layers, I suspect that
a great portion of the coal has been formed from roots, or from
trees that have grown in a climate equally severe with this; the
resemblance being very perfect to the wood of the spruce-fir,
which grows in the surrounding country.”

Additional Information.

We have read another letter, dated Fort Franklin, from which
the following is extracted :

“ Fort Franklin, Great Bear Lake,
** My Dear Frienp, September 6. 1825.

‘© Here I am once more housed for the winter.

* Hebrum prospiciens, et nive candidam
Thracem, ac pede barbaro
Lustratam Rhodopen.’

After six months of constant travelling, our winter residence

is pleasantly situated on the banks of a lake 150 miles long, deep
L2

164 Intelligence from the Land Arctic Expedition.

and abounding in fish, its shores well wooded, considering the
high latitude, and frequented by moose deer, musk oxen, and
rein deer. We have abundant stores for next year’s voyage, but
our party is large, and we depend on the fishery and_ chase for
support during the winter, yet hope to fare well. In our ex-
cursion of three weeks along the lake, which I made since my
arrival, I obtained a boat-load of excellent venison, and our nets
have occasionally given us_50 or 60 trout in a-day, weighing each
from 20 lb. to 50 |b., besides 200 to 300 of a smaller fish called
fresh-water herrings. Notwithstanding all these comforts, the
wiser part of us live in some fear ; for any sudden amelioration
of the climate, produced by the approach of a comet to the earth,
or any other of the commotions amongst the heavenly orbs dread-
ed by astronomers, might cause us to be swept into the lake, as,
our fort being built on-an iceberg, a thaw might prove fatal to its
stability. The ground, although it produces trees of consider-
able size, is constantly frozen ; the mud with which our house is
plastered was dug out by the aid of fires last month, and
now, at the close of the summer, the excavation under our hall-
floor, which we intended to convert into a cellar, has been work-
ed only to the depth of three feet, its walls of clay being frozen .
as firm, and harder, thana rock. I hope, however, we shall es-
cape such a catastrophe, as Moore, in his almanack, says nothing
about it; unless, indeed he means to give us a hint, when he says’
‘ About this time, before or after, certain northern powers will
make some stir in the waters.’

‘«¢ T have had no fly-fishing for want of proper tackle. The
gigantic trout of this lake would disdain such a mosquito as we
were wont to fish with, and I see no pleasure in bobbing for
them with a cod hook and cable. One of the monsters might
take a fancy to drag the fisherman to his sublacustrine abodes.

Captain Franklin and Mr Kendall have been to the sea, which
they found in Lat. 69° 29’, quite clear of ice, on the 16th of
August. Mackenzie was very near it in his voyage down the
river, which bears his name, but did not reach the salt water, by
about thirty miles. They left letters for Captain Parry and his of-
ficers from their friends in England, buried at the foot of a pole,
on which they suspended a flag. ‘They returned only yesterday,

Intelligence from the Land Arctic Expedition. 165

aud the dispatch, by which I send this, sets out to-morrow with
intelligence of their proceedings to Government.

“ Mr or at all events Mrs H. will rejoice to hear that we have
a Highland piper, and a crew of hardy and hearty sons of the
mist, who foot it every night’ after the labours of the day to
the sound of their native music. We lack only a little of the
mountain dew to invigorate the dance. For my part I think
water a more wholesome beverage; but there is a great deal in
the name, and prejudices are difficult to be overcome.”

In a letter from Captain Franklin to a friend in London, and
published in the Courier Newspaper, is the following state-
ment.

** I do most heartily congratulate you on the prospect we
had from Garry’s Island, of a perfectly open sea, without a par-
ticle of ice, as it is another step gained in confirmation of your
much contested hypothesis. We saw nothing to stop the ships,
but, on the contrary, every thing around us strengthened my
hope of their effecting the passage. The Indians, indeed, have
a report, that, between the Mackenzie and Copper Mine River,
there is a point which stretches far to the north, which is gene-
rally surrounded with ice. If this be true, the ships may per-
haps be checked in their progress for a time; but I think they
will not be altogether stopt, providing they have been enabled
to get to the main shore, to the eastward of Regent’s Inlet. No
Indian, however, with whom I had spoken in my recent visit to
the sea, can speak of this point, or of the obstruction, from
his own observation ; and the report seems, like many others cur-
rent among them, to have passed from generation to generation,
which at the first had but little ground to stand upon,” _

Franklin has thus, in our opinion, succeeded in realising, to
a certain extent, the views of the learned and distinguished Se-
cretary Barrow. We ardently hope and trust, that the honour
of effecting the North-west Passage, will not be allowed to pass
from us, and that Captain Parry will be again dispatched to
finish this grand nautical enterprise. The Congress of the
United States are, we are informed, at this moment consider-
ing a proposal laid before them for the discovery of the North.

166 Dr Grant on the Structure 4

west Passage, which, from the known activity of that body, may
be agreed too, and thus, in all probability, we shall hear of the
American flag traversing the Polar Sea, and doubling Icy Cape.
The Americans, by this achievement, would secure to them-
selves and deservedly, a splendid name in the annals of geogra-
phical discovery,—a name that ought to be ours, and which
would add another and enduring laurel to the wreath of glory
which surrounds the maritime honour of this nation.

Remarks on the Structure of some Calcareous Sponges. By
Rozert E. Grant, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L. S., M. W-.S.,
&c. Communicated by the Author.

Tur Spongia compressa Fabr. Gmel. Lamouroux, (S.,fo-
liacea, Montagu), affords a good example of a species in which
the axis is composed entirely of calcareous spicula. This is a
small white tubular compressed species, generally about an inch
in length; it hangs from the under surface of rocks by a thick
short peduncle ; it is entirely hollow, and opens by one or more
marginal apertures at its pendent extremity ; its parietes are of
equal thickness throughout, nearly as thin as writing paper, and
every where pierced with minute openings, which are visible to
the naked eye on the external and internal surface, and its cur-
rents are distinctly visible, both those passing in through the
pores, and those issuing from the large pendent orifices. It is
a hardy species, growing in very exposed situations, and in cold
climates. Fabricius observed it on the coast of Greenland, Pro-
fessor Jameson and Dr Fleming on the shores of the Shetland
Islands, Montagu on the coast of Devonshire, and I have found
it very abundant in the Frith of Forth. They hang like small
white leaves from the surface of rocks, at low-water mark,
being always in a collapsed state, and their opposite sides in
contact during the retreat of the tide ; but, when suspended for
a short time in pure sea water, their parietes separate, and they
become like small distended bags pouring forth a continued and
obvious current. The pores pass through their parietes in a
direction a little oblique, from below upwards, and the margins

of some Calcareous Sponges. 167

of the fecal orifices are surrounded with the projecting extremi-
ties of minute shining spicula. To the naked eye their external
surface appears even and villous, and on tearing them open,
their internal surface appears more compact, and the termina-
tions of the pores are wider. On tearing a portion of this
sponge into minute fragments, and examining them under the
microscope, we find, in place of the horny tubular fibres of the
S. communis, which Mr Ellis has compared to fine filaments of
catgut, the whole axis composed of slender, shining, transparent
spicula of regular and constant forms. Two forms of spicula
are observed in this species, the one is tri-radiate, consisting of
three rays of the same form and size, united at one point, and
forming equal angles by their union; the rays are thickest at
their point of divergence, and taper slightly to near their free
extremities, where they are brought suddenly toa point. The
rays of the tri-radiate spiculum are hollow within, shut at their
free extremities, and have no superficial openings; but their in-
ternal cavities communicate freely at their point of junction, and
form there a small central reservoir. These spicula vary much
in size in the same individual, but their general length is about
the sixth of a line, from the extremity of one ray to the extre-
mity of another; and I have not observed any difference in
their magnitude taken from specimens, one of which was ten
times the size of the other. ‘The other spiculum of the com-
pressa is the clavate, which is broadest and rounded at one end,
from which it tapers regularly to a point at the other; it is
quite straight for two-thirds of its length from the pointed end,
but the remaining thick part is bent so as to describe the fourth
part of a circle. This spiculum is distinctly tubular, and shut
at both extremities. The very small straight spicula, which we
always observe along with these two, appear to be only broken
rays of minute tri-radiate spicula. ‘These spicula consist of car-
bonate of lime, and exhibit no trace of phosphate of lime, on
employing the usual agents to detect its presence. When we
examine with the microscope the arrangement of these spicula
in the compressa, we observe two rays of the tri-radiate spicula
contribute to form the polygonal pores, while the third ray
serves to defend and maintain a space between the pores for the
lodgment of the soft parts and ova of this animal; the curved

168 Dr Grant on the Structure

ends of the clavate spicula hang over and converge around the
entrances of the pores, and seem to have a relation to that func-.
tion. As these tubular spicula have no external opening, they
cannot be the cells of polypi, or contribute in any way to pro-
duce the currents of this sponge.
The Spongia nivea, Gr. is a small sessile flat spreading
species, of a pure white colour, which I have only found on the
under surface of sheltered rocks at Prestonpans Bay, during the
ebb of stream-tides: it is not very uncommon there; it appears
like patches of mineral agaric, or rock-milk, on the roofs of
small caves, is about two lines in thickness, spreads to the ex-
tent of one or two inches in diameter, and is smooth on the sur-
face. Its pores are just visible to the naked eye, and its fecal
orifices are regularly and beautifully constructed ; there is a
gentle rise of the surface to the margins of the fecal orifices, the
margins are quite circular, and have thin transparent termina-
tions ; the orifices are never produced so far as to form distinct
papillz, and their currents are directed perpendicularly down-
wards, in the natural position of the animal. When the nivea
is checked in its growth, and prevented from spreading by the
crowding of other animals around it, its surface becomes waved,
and in many places presents elevated sharp ridges, which allow a
greater space for the distribution of the pores. (See specimens
in the Museum of the University, S. nivea, Gr.) The axis of
this sponge is composed almost entirely of large tri-radiate spi-
cula, some of which are more than half a line in length, and
thick in proportion ; their forms are seen by the naked eye.
These triradiate spicula occur of different sizes, to the minute-
ness of the fiftieth of a line in length, their rays taper regu~
larly from their place of junction to their sharp-pointed extre-
mities, their internal cavities are very distinctly seen in the large
spicula.. The second form of spiculum in the S. névea is the
most remarkable, though the rarest; it consists of a straight
line, with two opposite lateral projections in its middle, which
are generally a little curved. When these lateral processes are
large and straight, it becomes a regular quadriradiate spiculum,
but they are generally much shorter than the other two rays ;
and when they are placed near one extremity of the spiculum,
it appears under the microscope like a small dagger with a

of some Calcareous Sponges. 169

handle. The quadriradiate spicula are generally very minute,
and in number about one to a hundred of the triradiate. The
third kind of spiculum in this species, is a very minute straight
equally thick spiculum, obtuse at both ends, and generally about
the fiftieth of a line in length ; this form is very abundant, and
may possibly be derived from the broken rays of very small tri-
radiate spicula, as in the compressa. These three kinds of spi-
eula are likewise calcareous, and dissolve with rapid efferves-
cence on being touched with diluted nitric acid. On looking
closely into the surface of the S. nivea, with a single lens, we
perceive that the large triradiate spicula lie parallel with the
surface, and contribute to form and protect the pores.

In a portion of the Spongia complicata of Montagu, sent me,
along with fragments of nearly thirty other species of British
sponges, by the Rev. Dr Fleming of Flisk, who has collected
and studied the British zoophytes for upwards of twenty years,
I observe the axis to consist entirely of very minute triradiate
spicula, which dissolve rapidly with effervescence, when touched
with nitric acid. Dr Fleming mentions this species as an inha-
bitant of the Frith of Forth, and considers it a variety of the
S. botryoides of most authors. The triradiate spiculum not
only occurs alone, and very small, in this species, but is quite
peculiar and very imperfect in its form; the rays are very
short and disproportionally thick ; they often diverge at unequal
angles, and, on viewing the spiculum sideways, they are seldom
found to lie in the same plain. This sponge has a white colour,
like the other calcareous species, and, when dry, the spicula on
its surface have the same shining silvery lustre. The triradiate
spicula of the S. botryoides were figured and described by Mr
Ellis, and have been mentioned by most writers since his time.
Montagu and Lamouroux have very judiciously introduced the
forms of the spicula into their definitions of this species ; and in
order to distinguish them from the triradiate spicula of the
S. complicata, Montagu mentions that they are more than four
times as large as those of the latter sponge. From having inva-
riably found the triradiate spiculum present, either alone or com-
bined with other forms, in calcareous sponges, I have no doubt
that the true S. botryoides, if distinct from §. complicata, will
be found to have a calcareous axis. A portion of another

170 Dr Grant on the Structure of some Calcareous Sponges.

species, presented me by Dr Fleming, under the name of
S. pulverulenta, presents two kinds of spicula, both of which
effervesce and dissolve quickly in nitric acid; one of: these
forms is a triradiate spiculum with long and very slender rays
diverging at equal angles; the other is a very long straight
needle-shaped spiculum, pointed acutely at one end, and ob-
tuse at the other. This calcareous species agrees with the
others in its white colour, and the silvery lustre of its spicula,
when dry. The Spongia coronata is the most minute and the
most perfectly constructed of all the calcareous sponges I have
yet met with. It has two kinds of spicula, the one triradiate,
and the other needle-shaped, both of which dissolve quickly
with effervescence in diluted acids. The triradiate spicula are
more equal in size than in the other species, and are models of
this form for their symmetry and proportions; the rays are
straight, slender, and diverge equally; they are cylindrical,
transparent, and acutely pointed. The needle-shaped spicula are
about twice as long as the triradiate, slender, transparent, cylin-
drical, rounded at one end, and pointed acutely at the other.
This sponge is almost microscopic ; several entire specimens of
it, presented me by Dr Fleming, are not half a line in length;
they agree with the others in their colour, and the lustre of
their spicula. The long needle-shaped spicula cover the whole
surface, like filaments of white silk, and are obviously destined
to defend the pores and the fecal orifice, which is proportionably
large. On removing these projecting needle-shaped spicula
from the surface, which may be compared with the clavate spi-
cula of the 8. compressa, we observe that the triradiate spicula
are entirely devoted to the formation of the pores and passages
leading into this animated tube.

There are thus at least six well marked species of British
sponge, in which the spicula consist entirely of carbonate of lime,
which forms an important character of distinction between these
species, and those containing a horny or a siliceous axis, and
shows an approximation in this obscure genus to the more
solid polypiferous corals, which, so far as I know, has hitherto
escaped notice.

( 171 +)

List of Rare Plants which have Flowered in the Royal Botanic
Garden, Edinburgh, during the last three months ; with

Descriptions of several New Plants.

Professor GRAHAM.

Arum triphyllum (a) zebrinum.
Bot. Mag. t. 950.
Baptisia nepalensis.
Hook. Exot. Fl. t. 131.
Caprifolium pubescens.

Conospermum tenuifolium.

Never having seen the C. tenuifolium
of Brown, I have referred our plant
to that species with some hesita-
tion, as it seems to agree with the
essential character.

Conospermum acinacifolium.

Spec. Cuar.—C. acinacifolium ; laci-
niis perianthii acutis, tubum vix x-
quantibus; foliis aveniis, lineari-aci-
naciformibus, mucronatis, basi at-
tenuatis ; corymbis laxis.

Descrirrion.—Shrub erect. Leaves
scattered, narrow, long (2-3 inches),
harsh, slightly hollowed on one side,
rounded on the other, bent towards
one edge, occasionally tortile, es-
pecially in the upper part of the
branches, mucronate, veinless, mid-
dle rib indistinct. Corymbs axil-
lary, collected near the top of the
branches, subdivided in their up-
per half. Flowers white, sessile in
the axil of a pointed, blue, pubes-
cent bractea; perianth pubescent
on the outer side, especially of the
tube, ents of the lower lip
somewhat spreading, the central
rather the smallest ; stigma applied
to the upper lip of the perianth,
above the stamens; style club-
sha passing in front of the cen-
tral stamens, bent at the base of
the lower lip; germen silky ; pappus
silky, unequal.

When the upper and lower lips of
the patiadieh are drawn asunder, or
when the style is touched at the
joint, it starts forward, and lies
along the lower lip of the perianth,
i teral eo at the same
time rating, and exposing those
in whe cir This eset city of
the style, attended with the same

Communicated by

June 10. 1826.

separation of the anthers, I have
also observed in the C. tenuifolium.
The flowers of both are perfumed
like hawthorn blossom, but those of
the C. acinacifolium by much the
most powerfully. The seeds both
of this species and the last were
received from Mr Fraser from New
Holland under the name of C. erec-
tum, a name which I have thought
could scarcely be retained in this
genus. The plants have been kept
in the greenhouse.

Dryandra formosa.

Epidendrum ellipticum.

Hook. Exot. Flor. t. 207.

Spec. Cuar.—E. ellipticum ; foliis al-
ternis, subellipticis, succulentis ;

edunculis terminalibus, elongatis ;
bello perianthio zequali, tripar-

tito, fimbriato, lobo intermedio mi-
nore, lineari.

Description.—Roots long, round,
fleshy, many pushed downwards
from the origin of the branch, green
above, yellow below the soil. Stem
jointed, branched. Branches simple,
round, slightly flexuose, green,
spotted with dull brown. aves
alternate, distichous, spreading, va-
rying on different branches from
ovato-elliptical and slightly concave
above to elliptico-linear and near-
ly flat, occasionally slightly notch-
ed at the apex, fleshy, very ob-
scurely marked with numerous mi-
nute parallel nerves, green, occa-
sionally faintly spotted like the
stem, arising from the joints by
very thin sheaths, which enclose
the stem, and are in some branches
as long as its joints, in others much
shorter ; for about a foot at the up-
per part of the branch, and gene-
rally for a little way at the bottom,
there are sheaths only, which are
there pointed, persisting, whitish,
and withered, brown and striated
in their upper part. Inflorescence
a crowded, short, terminal spike.
Rachis toothed, and gradually elon.

72 Dr Graham’s List of Rare Plants.

gated during the flowering. Flowers
spreading, continue many days ex-
panded, each having a small, point-
ed, marcescent bractea. Perianth
rose-coloured, obscurely veined, 3
outer segments rather the largest,
obovato-lanceolate, entire, pointed,
2 inner lanceolate, slightly serru-
lated towards the apex. Labellum
erect, 5-toothed in front, two teeth
being ina line on each side, and one
above and between the upper pair,
which are the largest, 3-cleft, seg-
ments spreading, fimbriated, 2 late-
ral ones by much the longest, semi-
circular, central segment linear, and
nearly entire on its sides, all deep
rose-colour when expanding, but
afterwards, especially the lateral
segments, which have a few small
dots of deep rose-colour, becoming
very pale. Anther-case conical, pale
yellowish-green, occasionally red-
dish at its base. Pollen-masses 4,
yellow, oblong, remain attached to
the hollow at the top of the column,
after the case is removed; four fi-
laments, of greater length than
them, and deeper yellow, arise
from their lower ends, are in con-
tact, reflected along the pollen-
masses, and connected to each other
at their extremities. Germen an
inch long, furrowed, enlarging up-
wards, pink.

The mode of growth of this plant is
curious, and analogous to that of
other genera among the Orchidez.
A bud forms immediately above a
Joint, from this one or more flower-
ing branches push, and from the
origin of these many roots arise ;
branches with roots in like manner
proceed from these, and others from
these again, each after flowering
appearing gradually to decay. Per-
haps the plant, therefore, would be
more correctly described as having
a simple stem, the only portion
possessing in activity the powers
of life being what for convenience
I have calleda branch, This mode
of propagation occurs chiefly at the
lowest joints, or immediately below
the flower. The species certainly
approaches nearly to the E. elonga-
tum, Bot. Mag. t.611. and the flower
greatly resembles it, but is distin-
guished by the form and size of the
central lobe of the labellum, and

the form of the leaves, which are
never pointed, as well as by their
more fleshy texture.

I am indebted for the plant to M.

Harris at Rio de Janeiro, and to
Captain Graham of H. M. Packet
Service, who brought it to Europe
in 1824. It has been kept in the
stove, and grows freely among
pieces of bark.

Eucrosia bicolor.
The specimen in the Botanic Garden

differed from the plant figured in
the Bot. Mag. t. 2490. in havin
the involucre of many nearly equ
segments, the corolla of nearly an
uniform red-orange colour; in there
being six flowers in the umbel; in
its much more vigorous growth ;
in the filaments being united for a
very little way only; and in the leaf
appearing along with the flower.
I cannot doubt, however, that the
species is the same. A figure from
our specimen is given in Hooker’s
Exotic Flora, t. 209. from the ac-
curate pencil of Dr Greville: A
second plant which flowered with
us, resembled this in all respects,
excepting in the involucre, which
had 3 large undulated segments,
and several smaller; in the appear-
ance of two leaves at a time; and
in the occurrence of several small
abortive flowers which expanded
before the others.

The collection at the Garden is in-

debted for these plants to P. Neill,
Esq. who received them from Mr
Jameson, surgeon, Chili.

Grevillea pubescens.
Spec. Cuar.—G. pubescens; foliis el-

liptico-linearibus integerrimis mu-
cronatis, pediceilis recurvis, floribus
superioribus preecocioribus, stylo ©
pubescenti.

Descript.— Branches erect, round,

pubescent. Leaves scattered, el-
liptico-linear, entire, when young
revolute at the edges, mucronate,
pubescent, pubescence harsh on the
upper surface, softer beneath, mid-
rib distinct, veins obscure. Flowers
in abrupt, terminal, secund ra-
cemes. Pedicels ascending, straight,
(4 inch long). Perianth pale yel-
low, tomentose immediately above
the nectarium, becoming brown in
withering, its segments remaining

Dr Graham's List of Rare Plants.

united. Germen nearly ee sub-
sessile, green; style rat onger
and much stouter than the pedicel,
oblique, pubescent, flat in front, of
‘nearly the same colour as the pe-
rianth ; stigma oblique, flat, with a
projecting point in the centre, shin-
ing, green.
The seeds were sent by Mr Fraser
from New Holland in 1824; the
lants were raised last year, and
Roum already flowered freely in
the greenhouse. The species be-
longs to Section B. Prycuocarpa
of Brown, Linn. Soc. Trans. vol. x.
p- 172. and so nearly agrees with
the description of G. arenaria, that
T should faaye hesitated in consi-
dering it distinct, had it not been
for the recollection of Mr Mac-
nab, the excellent Curator of the
Royal Botanic Garden, who as-
sured me that it was different from
the plant which he once knew at
Kew under that name,—an obser-
vation the truth of which has since
been confirmed by Dr Hooker, from
a comparison with a specimen of G.
arenaria in his possession. The
early period at which this shrub
flowers, after being raised from
seed, suggested the specific name
of precor ; but Dr Hooker having
sent to the engraver, under the
name of G. pubescens, a aor
kindly supplied by Dr Greville,
have adopted this designation.

Habenaria fimbriata.

This very splendid species, along with
many other rare American plants,
I had the honour to receive from
the Countess of Dalhousie, before
her return to Canada last autumn;
and magnificent specimens 2 feet
high, are now in flower in a cold
frame.

Heliophila arabioides.

Laurus Cassia.

Lobelia crispa.

Spec. Cuar.—JL. crispa; spica ter-
minali, foliosa, foliis crispis, den-
tato-serratis, sessilibus, superiori-
bus linearibus, acuminatis, inferi-
oribus lanceolato-spathulatis.

Descrirt.—Root fibrous (annual ?).
Stem erect (5 feet high), generally
simple, angled, proper uice milky.
Leaves scattered, e, sub-am-

173

plexicaul, veined, indistinctly pu-
bescent, deeply tooth-serrated, ser-
ratures occasionally toothed, up
leaves linear, pointed, gradually di-
minishing to the extremity of the
spike, crisped; lower leaves lan-
ceolato-spathulate, and less crisp-
ed. Spike very long. Flowers so-
litary, in the axils of the brac-
tewe. Peduncles equal in length
to the germen. Calyx segments
pointed, nearly as long as the tube
of the corolla, ciliated, serrated, at
first reflexed, afterwards spread-
ing at right angles, persisting,
and becoming larger. Corolla mar-
cescent, limb lilac, faux and tube
white, 2 upper segments small,
linear, pointed, reflexed, 3 lower
larger, obovate, acuminate, spread.
ing, the central lobe rather the
smallest ; ube bent down, straight,
nearly cylindrical, wheu beginnin
to fade, cleft in its whole ienbrth
above, and from its base nearly to
the faux on each side. Filaments
flat, unconnected, hairy on their
outer surface, white, with a slight
tinge of purple on the outside.
Anthers connected throughout, deep
purple, hard. Pollen yellow. Ger-
men green, partly superior, obovate,
bilocular. Style compressed, thick-
ening upwards. Stigma oblique,
cleft transversely, pubescent round
its base, segments revolute. Seeds
very numerous, receptacle latge,
and attached to the centre of the
dissepiments.
Native of Mexico. Has been culti-
vated in the stove, but suffers from
eat heat. Seeds were received
oth from Lord Napier and Mr
Mair in 1825.

Magnolia conspicua.

Flowered well against the open wall in
asheltered situation towards the end
of March, and its fine large flowers
bore without injury continued and
very cold weather.

Maxillaria aromatica.

Gen. Crar.—Bot. Reg. fol. 897.

Spec. Cuar.—M. aromatica; bulbo
ovato compresso, foliis numerosis
wequitantibus, scapis radicalibus,
unifloris, labello semicylindraceo,
lobo medio majore denticulato, la-
bello interno integerrimo angus-
tiori.

174 Dr Graham's List of Rare Plants.

DeEscriPTION.—Roots fleshy, cylin- The flowers are perfumed very like

drical. Bulb ovate, much com-
pressed, green, with two indistinct
rounded angles on each side. Leaves
numerous, equitant, lanceolate, acu-
minate, bright green and shining,
rising from the base of the old bulb,
and before any distinct bulb is
formed at their origin. Scapes se-
veral from the base of the bulb,
slender, round, jointed, having a
marcescent brown sheath at each
joint. Flowers solitary. Perianth,
3 outer segments spreading, green-
ish-yellow, acuminate, pubescent
on the inside near the base, espe-
cially the upper one, which is lan-
ceolate, the others ovate, dilated
downwards, covering laterally the
rounded base of the lip, but scarce-
ly involute, and here quite uncon-
nected with each other; 2 inner
segments lanceolate, pointed, re-
flected at the apex, entire. Lip
semicylindrical, fleshy (as is the
whole perianth, though ina smaller
degree), pubescent within, parallel
with the column, and loosely arti-
culated with its elongated base ; la-
teral lobes small, their upper edges
somewhat involute, their apices
turned a little down; middle lobe
nearly as long as the inner seg-
ments of the perianth, reflexed,
rounded at its apex, and edged with
minute teeth, attenuated at the
base, inserted into the back of a
broader internal lobe, which is
quite entire, reflected at the mar-
gin, and ascends in a point at
each side, so as nearly to touch
the lateral lobes towards their ex-
tremities ; labellum and inner seg-
ments of perianth orange-yellow,
sprinkled on the inside with red
dots. Column linear, pubescent in
front, especially towards the top,
beaked above the stigma. Anther
terminal; pollen-masses 2, yellow,
rounded, scarcely flattened, each
furrowed in the outer side, attach-
ed by very short partial pedicels
to the summit of a flat white com-
mon pedicel, which is rather longer
than the pollen-masses, and is re-
flected under the anther-case from
the beak of the column, to which
it is attached by a round flat scale ;
anther-case blunt. Germen 6-fur-
rowed.

to Cinnamon, from which circum-
stance I have taken the trivial
name.

This very pretty parasite is a native
of Mexico, where the bulbs were
fereneed by Lord Napier, and ob-
igingly communicated to the Royal
Botanic Garden at Edinburgh in
1825.

Medeola virginica.
Has flowered very freely and in large
quantity in a cold frame.

Phlox nivalis.

Pogonia ophioglossoides.

This plant. having been presented in
large quantity by the Countess of
Dalhousie, forms a turf, and flowers
most freely in a cold frame.

Pyrola umbellata.
Protea melaleuca.
Puschkinia scilloides.

Pyrethrum diversifolium.

Stem herbaceous, pale green, and co-
vered with lax hairs which decrease
upwards, leading shoot erect, many
others arising in a circle from its
base, diverging, branching, and ex-
ceeding the leading shoot in height.
Leaves linear, ciliated, but other-
wise less pubescent than the stem,
pinnatifid in more than the upper
half, piunz incised; nearly the
lower half entire, ovate, semi-am-
plexicaul; pinnatifid portion gra-
dually diminishes upwards, and is
entirely awanting in several of the
uppermost leaves, which are quite
entire, ovate and acuminate. Fow-
ers terminal. Calyx semi-globular,
imbricated in two rows, the scales
of equal length, at their edges, and
especially at their rounded extre-
mities, membranaceous, trans
rent, colourless (though reddish in
the bud), every where else, like
every part of the plant, except the
flower, pale green; membranous
terminations spread upon the back
of the ray. Florets of the Ray spread-
ing, at length revolute, entire at
the apex, pointed, white, tinged
with red along the centre of the
outside while in bud. Disk round-
ed, yellow, florets funnel-shaped,
tube nearly half as long as the limb;

Dr Graham’s List of Rare Plants. 175

limb divided toa third of its length
into five equal, acute nts.
Filaments inserted at the throat of
the tube. Seeds an , angles
blunt. Pappus simple, placed ob-
Hanely on the top of the seed,
whichismore than double itsle
Style rather longer than the limb
in the tubular florets, and project-
ing nearly as much beyond the tube
the ligulated florets. Stigma cleft,
nts projecting, converging.
Style and stigma awanting in
many of the florets. The florets of
the ray seem also generally barren,
and in them the ie is a.
and the segments diverging. Re-
ceptacle pitted, hispid, and having
a few long soft hairs. The {seeds
were received from Mr Fraser,
New Holland.

Renealmia grandiflora.

Sweet’s British Flower Garden, t.64.
Stylidium adnatum.
graminzfolium.
Viola hederacea.

Roots branching. Stem very ahort
(4 inch), tapering, leafy, agar |
many very long, filiform, join
stolons, joints sending down a per-
spi branched root, and form-

crowns from which other sto-
lons proceed. Leaves petiolate,
kidney-shaped, at first cucullate,
afterwards convex on their up-
per surface, nerved, smooth, but
not shining, crenate or sinuato-
dentate, (1-14 inch broad). Pe-
tioles (2-4 inches long) grooved, and
having a ridge in the centre of the
groove. Stipules generally two be-
tween the joints of the stolons, lan-

ceolate, acuminate, toothed. Pe.
duncies axillary, erect, having one
indistinct groove, generally longer
than the petioles, procumbent, and
somewhat rolled when in fruit.
Bractee 2, slender, awl-shaped,
nearly opposite, placed in the
middle of the Abe a 8 Calyx
persisting, leaflets awl-shaped, with
very short spurs. Corolla inodo-
rous, resupinate, lowest petal the
largest, ovate, concave, emarginate,
blue and beautifully veined, white
at the apex, green at the base, 2
side petals nearly linear, twisted,
pubescent on the upper and lower
half of the inner surface, blue from
the base to the middle on the inside,
nearly to the apex without, vein-
ed; upper petals spathulate, re-
flected, blue to near the middle in
front, almost to the apex behind.
Anthers nearly sessile, large, mem.
branous appendage pointed (cleft?)
brown. Pollen yellow. Germen
obovate. Seeds numerous, obovate,
attached to the centre of the valves,
black when ripe. Style white, bent
at its base, filiform. Stigma white,
tapering from the style, cleft, near-
ly straight.

The seeds of this plant were sent by

Mr Fraser, colonial botanist at
Sydney, New Holland, in 1824,
and first raised last season. We
were not told in what part of the
country the plant is native. It
has been cultivated in the stove,
but is injured by great heat, and is
doing well in a cool frame, and no
doubt will thrive in the green.
house. It produces abundance of
stolons as well as seeds.

Celestial Phenomena from July 1. to October 1. 1826, caleu-
lated for the Meridian of Edinburgh, Mean Time. By Mr
_GrorceE Innes, Aberdeen.

The times are inserted according to the Civil reckoning, the day beginning at midnight.
—The Conjunctions of the Moon with the Stars are given in Right Ascension.

JULY. AUGUST.
D H. i D He oy oa
1 211052 f6)jAB 1 8 35 34 = Q very near 2/*
2 6 52 34 d)2xB 1 % greatest elong.
3. 02123 gj): 3 19 14 22 @ New Moon.
3 161040 4)ts 4 153746 d)oNQ
4. 23230 d)h 5 03328 ¢yprQ
6. 7 27 38 @ New Moon 5 22 32 50 dg )®
6 104154 d)% 6 1024 6 )7
Fo di SF B2)-50. OD ke BS 6 1810 7 do)?
7 123913 dg )2aas 8 222954 d)al
ql gpoeg SE Oo! Op g 8 23 920 d)im
8. 17 59 40 dDzrAHK 9 17.0 - 9 very near 6 TY
9 174340 4¢)y7x 10. 18 630 _ ) First Quarter.
9. 211631 “Em.I. sat. 7/ ll. TG ay MR BES OS
12. 13 16 53 ) First Quarter. | 11. 7 34 10 Ops =
12 175711 gpyim 11 12 7 2° Syke
14 94513 J)¢s 11 165722 gjplem
15 14729 ¢g)pxx 11 165846 f¢)y2eMm
15 44 —~ §)H 12 225153 =) p Oph.
15 615 23° Syn = 13. 1952 9 S)lef
15 1059 0 gylem 13 202748 djp2ef
15 11 020 g¢jy2em 14 215730 ¢)pjpdft
16 16 950 ¢ )p Oph. 15 63320 ¢)H
17 650 - ¢9aeQ 16 1440 4)ysn
17 12 36.17... dg: Diet 17 24 - Qnearz
17 Wii = 6 )2ef 17 AJ 5 21 © Full Moon.
is 14-325 pg pdt 23. 175141 @enters TP
19 01630 4d)H 24. 11.11.35 “Apap
19. 7.510 © Full Moon 25. 14 58 34 ( Last Quarter.
19. 163949 d)sKn 26. 161625 d)y)st
23. 112816 G@enters 2 27. 81836 d)ets
25. 740 - ¢ §aQN 28. 62540 <d)h
26. 20 56 52 ( Last Quarter 28 7 54 46 d)r
28. 3241. dpe r 30. 1410 -). Int awe
29. 1433 48 =6 ) 2x B 31: 32414 d)lag
30. 8 535 dj) t& 31 43418 d)2aqp
30. 235757 d)ts
31. 165442 d)h
31. 231856 dg)»

* At the true time of conjunction of Venus and Jupiter on the Ist day of
August, their geocentric longitude will be 164° 53’ 24”; their elongation 36° 22/
54”; the geocentric latitude of Venus 1° 7’ 24”,6 ; and of Jupiter 1° 5’ 49”,2, both
north; logarithm of the distance of Venus from the earth 0,0858477 ; and of
Jupiter, 0,7940647. This will be an interesting phenomenon, as, owing to the
effect of Venus’s parallax in latitude, she will probably be in contact with Jupiter.

~J
.

Sees

SSF SS 2 ies

Celestial Phenomena from July 1. to Oct. 1. 1826.

3 -
52 30
5 29 10
2 25 30
4 47 20
5 24 49
56 50
54 42
26 48
15 10
16 34
053 6
10 30
29 35
4 13 43

1 27 51
2” 4 0

Times of the Planets passing the Meridian.

Mercury.

By,
12 39
12 58
13 18
13 32
13 43
13 49

Mercury. |

mt;
13 51
13 48
13 39
13 23
13 1
12 29

Mercury.

Sa
11 41
bh,.17
10 55
10 50
10 55
ll 4

SEPTEMBER.

D. Bo npiv,
SDR ee ery se
5). ll. 11 24 40

~ @ New Moon 12. 7 39 27
dg) ȴ 16. 5 39 16
Gd )a lh 18. 850 -
d p im 21. 10 5 -
d De 23. 0 8 29
Sg )xx 23. 1419 10
g)ax 23. 1623 -
dg )plsem 24. 9 11 30
gd Dp26M 24. 16 21 23
dg )y™ 25. 18 43 46
o)ea 27. 13 4 8
( First Quarter. | 27. 14 15 10
d ) p Oph. 27. 1859 14
% greatest elong. | 30. 19 32 13
dDlet 30. 22 410
d)2ef 30. 22 48 15

Venus.

Ae
14 8
14 12
14 16
14 19
14 23
14 25

Venus.
H.
14
14

28
30
14 31
14 32
14 33
14 35

Venus.

a!
14 36
14 37
14 38
14 36
14 42
14 43

APRIL—JULY 1826.

JULY.

Mars.

39
27
13
59
47
35

AUGUST.

Mars.

: H.
18 21
18 13
18 3
17 54
17 46
17 39

SEPTEMBER.

14 15
14 4
13 43
13 27
13 11

‘
14 28

Jupiter.

Jupiter.

Jupiter.

‘

12 49
12 37
12 20
12 4
lL 50
1] 34

Saturn.

ll

10 4

10
10
10

9

Saturn.

Saturn.

‘
27

i4
56
38
21

177

yVvwy
wB

oc
=
7
=
8
f=]

QAABOAK
; ee
«=

ovA%
0 “"s
OXe

OAKKAAWKWAO
wwYYVy yyy PY
& > R q

av 0 4, > — Oi, lL il

Georgian,

mr oo OO

to om

Georgian.

Georgian.

BM a5
20 47
20 31
20 10
19 50
19 31
19 12

E° TT)
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Feb. 6. 1926 — L neue was read a Notice respecting the
late severe cold in Inverness-shire and Aberdeen, as communi-
cated to Dr Brewster in Two Letters from J. P. Grant, Esq.
M. P., and George Fairholme, Esq.

Feb. 20.—Mr Bald read a Notice on a Fine Sand found near
Allea fit for making Flint Glass. There was also read a Letter
from Professsr Moll of Utrecht to Dr Brewster, ona New Island
in the Pacific.

March 6.—A paper by Dr Brewster was read, on the Re-
fractive Power and other properties of the Two New Fluids in
Minerals.

March 20.—A paper by Mr Stark was read, on Two Spe-
cies of Pholas found on the Coast in the Neighbourhood of
Edinburgh. And Dr Knox read a paper on the Size of the
Teeth of the Shark.

April 3.—There was read a paper on a Singular Phenomenon
in Vision, by Mr Thomas Smith, Surgeon, Kingussie. And
a Notice by Dr Brewster was read on the Advantages of making
Simultaneous Meteorological Observations in different parts of
the Kingdom, on one or more days of every year.

April 17.—There was read a Description of a New Register
Thermometer, without any Index, by H. H. Blackadder, Esq.

May 1.—Mr H. H. Blackadder read a paper, entitled, Ob-
servations on the colour and constitution of Flame. (This paper
is printed in the present Number, p. 52 et seg.) At the same
meeting, Dr Brewster exhibited to the Society a new Monochro-
matic Lamp. And a new Safety Gas-burner, invented by Mr
W. Warden, was also exhibited.

- The Society adjourned till December.

Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society.

1826, Feb. 11 22 E ane geek JAMESON communicated a note
of low temperatures, observed by Mr Grant, at his seat of Ro-
thiemurchus, in the Highlands of Scotland, during the late se-
vere frost of January; the lowest being 6° below 0, and this
extreme cold continuing for several hours.

Proceedings of the Wernerian Society. 179

The Professor also gave an account of the occurrence of phos-
phate of lime, in balls or concretions, in the bituminous shale of
the coal formation.

Dr R. E. Grant then read a paper on the structure and na-
ture of the Spongilla friabilis, and exhibited recent specimens
from the rocks and stakes on the east side of Lochend, near
Edinburgh. (This paper is printed in the Edinburgh Philo-
sophical Journal, vol. xiv. p. 113, et seq.)

There was exhibited to the meeting a collection of magnificent
specimens of doubly refracting spar from Iceland, the property
of Mr Witham, and collected, last summer, by Mr Rose and
Mr Brown, from a great vein, about fourteen feet wide, travers-
ing trap-rock of the nature of amygdaloid.

Feb. 25.—The Secretary read Mr William Scott’s Observa-
tions on the Climate of Shetland, &c., and laid before the meet-
ing a Meteorological Journal, kept at Unst, by Mr Scott. He
likewise read a notice, communicated by Mr Trevelyan, relative
to the numerous teeth of the rhinoceros lately discovered in the
cave near Kent's Hole, and also regarding the teeth of an un-
known quadruped found in the same cave.

Professor Jameson then read the first part of a paper, enti-
tled, “* Remarks tending to explain the Geological Theory of
the Earth.”

March 1\.—Professor Jameson read the concluding part of
the Observations on the Theory of the Earth.

The Secretary read an extract of a letter from Prof. Buckland
of Oxford to Mr Jameson, regarding the lately discovered cave
near Torquay, which has been considered as an antediluvian
hyena’s den, Specimens of the bones, supposed to have been
gnawed by the hyenas, were exhibited ; and several members
gave it as their opinion, that these bones had been gnawed by
some quadruped ; while others remarked, that, in some cases,
the erosion in the middle of a bone was so great, that it must
have snapped through, had such erosion been produced by for-
cible gnawing.

The President exhibited to the meeting several large flower-
buds of the Rafflesia Arnoldi of Sumatra, with a coloured
engraving representing the flower when fully expanded. It was
mentioned by Mr Arnott, that Mr R. Brown had lately pro-

m2

180 Procecdings of the Wernerian Society.

cured some seeds of this remarkable plant, in a state fit for the
examination of their structure, though not for germination. (It
has been hitherto supposed to belong, along “i Cytinus and
Nepenthes, to the natural order Cytinex.)

Dr R. E. Grant then opened a small mummy-case in presence
of the Society: the case was brought from a catacomb in Upper
Egypt, and had one end pieica into the resemblance of the
head of a cat. A few bones only remained ; and Dr Grant was
of opinion that they might be those of a small domestic cat.

March 25.—There was read a paper by the Rev. Dr Fle-
ming of Flisk, entitled, ‘‘ The Geological Deluge, as interpreted
by Baron Cuvier and Professor Buckland, shewn to be incon-
sistent with the testimony of Moses and the phenomena of na-
ture.” (Printed in the Edin. Phil. Journ. vol. xiv. p. 205. et
seq.)

Professor Jameson exhibited and gave a general account of
several gigantic specimens of the vase-shaped sponge, common-
ly known by the name of Paterae or Neptune’s cups ; these splen-
did specimens having been brought from the neighbourhood of
the Mauritius.

A very excellent stuffed specimen of the Crocodile of the
Nile, 123 feet long, was also shewn to the meeting.

April 8.—There was read a notice of a shower of young
herrings, which fell on the coast of Argyleshire, contaied in a
letter from the Rev. Colin Smith of Appin to Professor Jame-
son. (Printed in the present number of this Journal, p. 186.)

Dr Grant then read an account of a new zoophyte from the
Frith of Forth, forming a genus which connects Spongia and
Alcyonium, and which he proposed to call Cliona; the species —
found on old oyster-shells in our frith being Cliona celata of Dr
Grant. (Printed in the present Number, p. 78.)

Mr Stark exhibited four drawers, containing a very complete
and beautiful suite of the numerous varieties of Ortrea opercu-
laris found in the Frith of Forth. And Mr Bald gave an inte-
resting account of the great coal-field of South Wales, and laid
before the meeting several very uncommon specimens of coal,
ironstone, Welch-rock (a sort of micaceous sandstone-flag), and
ore of titanium.

At this meeting, the following new members were admitted :

Proceedings of the Wernerian Society. 18]

RESIDENT.

John Geddes, Esq. mining-engineer, Edinburgh.
George Lees, Esq. teacher of mathematics to the Military Academy.

_

NON-RESIDENT. b

Geo. Edw. Frere, Esq. of the Clydach Ironworks, Brecknockshire.

Thomas Buchanan, Esq. Hull, author of ** Acoustic Surgery.”

Joseph Carne, Esq. Cornwall, author of ** Mineralogy of Cornwall.”

Geo, Cuming Scott, Esq. master of the Anglo-Mexican Mint at Guanaxato.
H. Stirling, Esq. Captain in the Hon. East India Company’s service.

FOREIGN.

M. Adrien de Jussieu, Paris.

M. John Roeper of Gottingen.

M. Achille Richard, Paris.

April 22.—The Secretary read a memoir on the arrange-
ment and nomenclature of Univalve Shells, and on the structure
of the animals, by Charles Collier, Esq. Staff-surgeon, Ceylon.
He also read the introductory part, and gave a general account,
of an elaborate and learned monograph of the genus Allium,
comprehending 133 species, by Mr George Don, A. L. S.—
Professor Jameson then read a communication on the Snakes of
Southern Africa, by Dr Andrew Smith, assistant-surgeon 98th
Regiment, and superintendant of the South African Museum.

May 27.—The Secretary read an Account of a rare fish, the
Scizna Aquila, taken in the Shetland Seas. (This is printed
in the present number, p. 135. et seq.)

Dr Knox read a Notice respecting the presence of a rudi-
mentary spur in the female Echidna of New Holland. (Print-
ed in the present number, p. 130.)

Dr Grant read an Account of the motions of the ova of
Campanularia dichotoma, Gorgonia verrucosa, Caryophyllea ca-
lycularis, Spongia panicea, papillaris, cristata, and of Plumu-
laria falcata ; and stated, that, in all these zoophytes, the mo-
tions seem to be produced by cilize distributed over their sur-
face. (This paper is likewise printed in the present number,
p. 150. et seq.)

There was read at the same meeting an Account, illustrated
by coloured drawings, of the Holothuria tubulosa, by Dr Col-
lier, staff-surgeon.—The Society then adjourned for the season.

( 182 )

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

1. Lieutenant Drummond on the means of facilitating the
Observations of Distant Stations on Geodesical Operations.—
There was lately read to the Royal Society of London, a paper
on the means of facilitating the observations of Distant Stations
in geodesical operations, by a highly accomplished engineer, our
friend and former pupil, Lieutenant T. Drummond, Royal En-
gineers. A committee of the House of Commons having re-
commended to his Majesty’s Government, in 1824, the accom-
plishment of a new survey of Ireland, the author was entrusted
by Lieutenant-Colonel Colby with the contrivance of means for
obviating the delay which usually occurs, in connecting the sta-
tions in triangulation in this country, from the frequently unfa-
vourable state of the weather not permitting the ordinary sig-
nals to be seen from distant stations. To remove this inconve-
mience, as far as day observations were concerned, Lieutenant
Drummond had recourse, in preliminary trials, to ¢in-plates, as
substitutes for regular heliostats; and the advantages derived,
from applying, even m this rough way, the principle of reflee-
tion, as suggested by Professor Gauss, led to the invention of an
mstrument described in the paper, which was used with much
benefit last season in the survey of Ireland. It was also desira~
ble to have some method of connecting the stations during the
night. For this purpose, Bengal and white lights had formerly
been employed by General Roy, but the use of them had given
way to that of Argand lamps, their light bemg concentrated, and
reflected towards the observers, by a parabolic mirror. These,
however, had been found to answer but imperfectly ; and Colo-
nel Colby and Captain Kater, when connecting the meridians of
Greenwich and Paris, in 1821, with MM. Matthieu and Ara-
go, employed the light of an Argand lamp, with four concen-
tric wicks, concentrated by a lens. This apparatus, however,
was found to be, in many respects, objectionable; and the para~

Scientific Intelligence.—Natural Philosophy. 183

bolic reflector still appeared to be the most eligible means of con-
centrating the light. With the view of obtaining a powerful light,
Lieutenant Drummond first tried various pyrotechnical prepara-
tions, and afterwards the combustion of phosphorus in oxygen
gas; but he found, in all these, that the light was ill defined,
and otherwise unsuited to the object in view. He then had re-
course to the light emitted by some of the earths and metallic ox-
ides, when ignited by the flame of alcohol, urged by oxygen gas.
Taking the light of the brightest part of the flame of an Argand
lamp as unity, and effecting the comparison by the method of
shadows, he found the hight given out by quicklime, when under
this treatment, to be equal to 37; that emitted by zircon, 31 ;
and that by magnesia, 16. The best kind of lime for the purpose,
is chalk-lime, which admits of being turned readily into small
balls, having a stem, and to which the regularity and truth of
surface can be given, which are essential to the production of
the well-defined image, necessary for the perfect use of the con-
trivance in geodesical operations. This lime, when the experi-
ment is most successful, emits a light exceeding 83 times that of
the brightest part of the flame of an argand lamp. In the fo-
eus of the parabolic reflector, at the distance of 40 feet, it is al-
most too dazzling to look at. From the perfect success which
attended the employment of this mode of illumination, on one
occasion in Ireland last year, it is expected that it will enable
the officers to complete the connection of distant stations with
celerity, and in the most satisfactory manner. Various applica-
tions of it are contemplated ; among others, the connection of
the meridian of the Edinburgh Observatory with that of Dub-
lin, taking Benlomond as an intermediate station.

METEOROLOGY.

2, Deception occasioned by Fog.—* When at San Blas, a port
at the entrance of the Gulf of California, in January 1824, I
had occasion, in company with several of the officers of the ship
in which I then served, to visit the town of Sepic, situated about
fifty miles inland. The first eighteen or twenty miles of our
journey was over a low, swampy, flat, covered thickly with trees,
so as to obstruct the view in every direction. Afterwards, we
began to ascend the mountainous tract that terminates the low

184 - Scientific Inteligence-—Meteorology.

land stretching along the coast. On reaching the top of the
nearest ridge, which was clear of trees, we stopped to look around
us, and, to our astonishment, we perceived, as we thought, the
sea lashing the base of the hill on which we stood. As we had
calculated on having accomplished upwards of one-third of our
journey, we were bewildered at this unexpected circumstance,
and so convinced were some of my companions, that it was the
sea they saw stretched out before them, that they insisted our
guide had mistaken the road, and led us along the beach, instead
of taking a direction directly inland. The line of the horizon
appeared distinctly marked, and the vapour seemed to roll on
the beach like the gentle motions of the waves, when slightly
urged by light and variable winds. Indeed, so striking was the
deception, that it was not before I had examined the phenome-
non steadily, for some time, and refiected on the impossibility
of the sea being so near, from the direction we had taken at the
outset of our journey, that I became convinced of the whole
being an illusion, caused by the reflection of the sun’s rays, from
a dense mist that hovered over the plain we had passed ; but our
guide (an English resident at San Blas) had great difficulty in
convincing one or two of my companions, that their eyes had de-
ceived them, and that the ocean they were observing was an
ocean of vapour instead of water. A heavy rain had fallen the
evening before, and the moisture, suddenly converted into va-
pour, by the powerful action of a tropical sun, we conjectured
to be the cause of this remarkable appearance. The vapour ap-
peared to hover close over the tops of the trees ; as, on observing
it steadily for some time, we saw one or two of the taller trees
breaking through it, having the appearance of distant islands in
the ocean.”

3. Apparent nearness of Objects—* The deception of distance
in these plains is even more remarkable than it is upon water,
there are so few objects wherewith to measure space, that the eye
is bewildered, and quite put to fault. I remember, upon look-
ing from the caravanserai at Moschacoor, from whence points
in the vicinity of the next stage (Soo) are to be seen, I should
have judged a small water reservoir on the road to be but two

miles distance ; it was twelve in reality: and a small knob upon
the Shoulder of a hill somewhat further, (four miles I should

Scientific Intelligence —Meteorology. 185
have said,) turned out to be twenty. On leaving the caravan-
serai at Muxood-beggee, we clearly discerned the walls of Ko-
maishah, elevated by refraction ; and though the real distance
was full twenty-five miles, it did not appear to be five : instances
even more remarkable, particularly when looking from a height,
might be quoted. This deception has a more unpleasant effect
than can be conceived ; for the weariness of the body and mind,
harassed by the dull unvarying scene, is exasperated by prolonged
disappointment ; as the same objects, never altering in size or
propinquity, seem to the jaded traveller to recede rather than
advance, as he slowly winds along."—Fraser’s Travels.

4. Mirage in Persia.—‘ The wonderful effects of the mirage,
and the phenomena it produces, have frequently been the theme
of admiration with travellers ; but it is almost impossible to con-
ceive the extent to which these prevail upon the wide and level
plains of these countries, when the air, in a state of rapid undu-
lation, causes every object near the surface to tremble into forms
as uncertain and evanescent as the eddies that produce them.
A distant mountain, in the space of a minute, will assume, first,
perhaps, the form of a lofty peak ; this, after rising to what ap-
pears a prodigious elevation, will thicken at the top, and spread
into that of a large mushroom, with a slénder stalk ; the top will
then split into several spires, and then all will join into a solid
table shape. This is extremely puzzling to a surveyor, who de-
pends upon the peaks of mountains as objects from which to form
his triangles; for he may be thrown many degrees out of the
true line, by trusting to an observation under such circumstances.
In other instances, a mud-bank, furrowed by the rain, will ex-
hibit the appearance of a magnificent city, with columns, domes,
minarets, and pyramids, all of which flit as you approach ; till,
to your utter confusion, they dwindle into a heap of earth, per-
haps not ten feet high. Numberless have been the mistakes
made of asses with boys on them, for elephants and giants, or
well mounted troops of cavalry ; sheep and goats for camels and
dromedaries ; and the smallest bushes for fine forest-trees. There
is sometimes great beauty, and much that is amusing, in the va-
riety of phenomena produced, but they not unfrequently involve
the weary traveller in great disappointment,”—Fraser’s Travels.

186 Scientific Intelliigence.—Meteorology.

5. Shower of Fishes in Argyleshire.—* The rare occurrence
of such falls renders them so remarkable, as to be remembered
after long intervals of time, and even after every circumstance
connected with them is forgotten. When any phenomenon is
not considered in its relation to any particular cause, few will
attend to its possible relations to preceding events; and fewer
still will esteem it of such importance as to treasure up the ob- .
servations which they might have happened to make, even al-
though these might be of great importance, in illustrating the
nature and causes of the circumstance observed.

It is thus, that, though the testimony of many has enabled
me to ascertain, that a shower of herring-fry fell in Lorn, about
the year 1796, yet I have not met with any who could inform
me of the particulars concerning it.

In the same district, and near the same place, on a small emi-
nence above Melford House, a shower of herring fell in 1821,
in every respect so large and good, that the tenants by whom
they were found were induced to send some of them to their
Jandlord, then residing in Edinburgh. In regard to the state
of the weather, I could learn no more than that it was exceed-
ingly boisterous; while the hill on which they were found is
exposed to the south-west wind, which blows along Loch Mel-
ford, an arm of the sea in which herrings are frequently found ;
and, as far as I know, the only one in this quarter in which the
fly is commonly and successfully used in fishing them.

In the month of March 1817, strong gales of wind from the
north were experienced in Appin. Upon the evening of the
second day of their continuance, rain fell.in abundance; and
next day being very warm and sultry, some children observed a
large quantity of herring-fry scattered over a moss a little to the
north-east of the ferry of Shien. There might have been about
three barrels or more of these, and measuring from 1} to 3
inches in length. Now, the place in which they were found is
only about 300 yards north of Lochcreran, an arm of the sea
running east and west, from which severals supposed the fry
must have been raised. ‘The wind, however, being from the
north, renders this a seeming impossibility; and it may, per-
haps, be more safely concluded, that they must have been eject-

Scientific Intelligence.—Meteorology. 187

ed from the Linnhe Loch, another arm of the sea, extending
south-west and north-east, about three miles north of the place
in which they were found. A range of moorland, about 300
feet above the level of the sea, intervenes; but it is easier to
suppose the cause which originally elevated these fry to be so
powerful as to carry them this height and distance, than that
they should obtain a course contrary to the general body of the
air. They exhibited no appearance of being bruised by the fall,
nor was there any thing which could induce them to believe that
water had fallen at the same time.”——Letter Rev. Colin Smith
of Appin to the Editor.

6. Shower of Herring in Galloway. — “ Macchirmore, or
the Head of the Macchirs *, for indeed there is not much white
ground above it, pertains to Dunbar of Macchirmore. It is
situate upon the east side of the river of Cree, one mile distant
to the south from the town of Monnygaffe ; and here is the first
ford of the water of Cree, except that betwixt Kirkmabreck and
Wigton, of which more hereafter. This ford is five miles, or
thereby, in recta linea, to the northward distant from Wigton.
In the moors of this parish of Monnygaffe, not many years since,
at a place called La Spraig, not far distant from the water of
Munnach, but sixteen miles distant from the sea, there fell a
shower of herring, which were seen by creditable persons, who
related the story to me. Some of the said herring were, as I
am informed, taken to the Earl of Galloway’s house, and shown
to him.”—Andrew Symson’s Large Description of Galloway,
1684. Edinb, 1823, p. 31.

7. Shower of Herrings in Kinross-shire—Myr Arnot informs
me, that, about a year ago, a shower of herrings fell near Loch
Leven; it came in the direction of the Frith of Forth, and the
herring are conjectured to have been blown out of the water of
the Frith, and carried by the wind across Fifeshire, to the place
where they were found, in the vicinity of Loch Leven.

8. Shower of Shells in Ireland. —“ 1 send you another in-
stance of a shower of shells, which fell at Monastereen, in the

* Macharmor is not “* the Head of the Macchirs,”’ but the Great Machar, or
level arable district. The Head of the Machars would be Ceann-a-Mhachair.—E prt.

188 Scientific Intelligence.— Meteorology.

county of Kildare, a few days ago. At this time the tides were
remarkably high, and the sea exhibited marks of unusual dis-
turbance. I regret that I can send one only of these shells.”

9. Colours of Lightning.—The colours of lightning that ac-
companies thunder high in the atmosphere, are yellowish white,
sometimes reddish, seldom pale green; but in low thunder, the
lightning is bluish or pale violet—Kastner.

10. Meteoric Stones.—Earthy meteoric stones are com-~
pact and grey coloured, and either contain, besides finely disse-
minated native iron, no other constituent parts, as in those of En-
sisheim, Aigle, Lissa, &c.; or they are composed of diffe-
rent mineral substances, arranged in granular concretions, as
is the case with the meteoric stones of Stannern and Juvenas.
The meteoric stone of Juvenas, according to Mitscherlich, is a
granular, crumbly, compound of augite (which also occurs erys-
tallized in cavities of the mass), labradorite (Labrador fel-
spar), a yellow foliated mineral, and a metallic mineral, re-
sembling magnetic pyrites. 'The resemblance of this meteoric
stone to the greenstone (dolerite) of the Meissner Hill in Ger-
many, is very striking; and fict less so to some varieties of
greenstone from Hammersfiord in Iceland. That the white mi-
neral in the meteoric stone is not common felspar, is proved by
the re-entering angles formed by the cleavages in the twin-
crystals.

CHEMISTRY.

ll. Effects of Mineral Substances on Animals——From the
experiments of Professor Gmelin of Tiibingen on the action of
mineral substances on animals, it results, |. That mineral sub-
stances, very nearly allied to each other, as baryte and stron-
tian, are yet very different in the effects they produce on the
animal body. 2. That, of the different metals injected into the
vascular system, three only occasioned coagulation of the blood,
viz. muriates of barytes, uranium, aud palladium ; which three
metals differ very much in their chemical constitution. 3. That,
when chromate of potash is introduced, under the skin, in-
to the cellular substance, it affects the bronchial system, occa~
sioning increased secretion of mucus, and also inflammation of

Scientific Intelligence.—Chemistry. 189

the conjunctiva. 4. That the oxide of osmium occasions more
speedy vomiting than any other metal. 5. That sulphate of man-
ganese injected into the vascular system, occasions a powerful ac-
tion of the liver, causes inflammation of that organ, and increases
very much the secretion of the gall, so that the larger vessels
become of a yellow colour.

12. Salts assume different primitive forms, according to the
menstruum in which they crystallise.—We are informed, that a
German chemist, Dr Wdllner, has found that one and the same
salt assumes different fundamental or primitive forms, accord-
ing to the nature of the liquor in which the crystals are formed.
In illustration of this statement, he says, that, when a small
portion of solution of sulphate of iron is poured into a solution
of alum, and the whole allowed to crystallise, the sulphate
of iron assumes the octahedral form of the alum, although these
octahedral crystals contain scarcely a ¢race of alum.

13. Compound for preserving Substances from Humidity.—
When a mixture of one part of oil and two parts of resin is
forced, by the application of a high temperature, to penetrate
porous substances, as building-stones, plaster, &c., it renders
- them perfectly impermeable to moisture.

14. Inconveniences of the pressure apparatus for Cooking.—
In the military establishment of Carlsruhe, the alimentary sub-
stances are cooked in vessels composed of tinned iron, in which
the temperature can be augmented by pressure. M. Geiger has
detected in all the substances so prepared a small quantity of tin
and lead, which varies according to the nature of the substance
cooked, and the time it has remained in the apparatus. He
thinks that the continual presence of these metals in the food ta-
ken by the same persons, although they may exist in but very
small proportions, must prove hurtful to their health.

15. Carbonate of Magnesia.—According to Bischof 1363
parts of water dissolve 1 part of carbonate of magnesia, which
is a larger portion than stated by Dr Fyfe, who found that it re-
quired 2632 parts of water to dissolve 1 part of carbonate of
magnesia.

16. Changes that take place in the texture of different solid
substances in the course of time-—Common barley-sugar when

190 Scientific Intelligence. —Chemistry.

fresh made is transparent, and exhibits no particular structure ;
but if kept for some time it loses its transparency, and, by a
change of the arrangement of its particles, its structure gradu-
ally changes from compact into stellular radiated. 'This case is
analogous to changes we have observed in minerals, which, al-
though solid, and without any particular structure, in the course
of time acquire a particular structure, such as the fibrous, radia-
ted, or foliated.

17. Constituent parts of Magnesian Limestones from the vi-
cinity of Jedburgh, as ascertained by Mr William Copland.

Carbonate of Lime, - 45 50 53
Carbonate of Magnesia, - 33 35 15
Carbonate of Iron, . 16 8 27
Alumina, - - 6 7 5

es

100 100 100

18. Analysis of a Powder which is sold in Paris under the
name of Colour, and used in giving trinket gold the colour of
fine gold.—Cupidity and ignorance have often issued in com-
merce, under different names, a multitude of more or less noxi-
ous substances, to which extraordinary properties have been at-
tributed ; and the credulous public, having no suspicion of the
dangerous qualities which these substances often possess in a
very high degree, and according to which they exert a specific
agency, are frequently exposed to the most serious accidents.
Secret preparations of this kind cannot be too well made known,
nor can too much publicity be given to their composition, and
the analysis that may be made of them, the knowledge of the re-
sults of which maybe so eminently useful to society. The powder
which the trinket-manufacturers used to apply for the purpose of
colouring gold, was composed of marine salt, nitrate of potash,
and alum ; but, for some time back, another substance has been
vended, the composition of which is different. This powder is
of a dirty white colour, having a tinge of red, its taste is salt,
and like that of common sea-salt, but it leaves a disagreeable
metallic taste in the mouth; and it sensibly attracts moisture
from the air. Its analysis has furnished the following results.

Twenty grammes of it have yielded,
J

Scientific Intelligence —Chemistry. 191
Of pure White Oxide of Arsenic, 2.135

Alum with a base of Potash, 4.190

Marine Salt, - - . 13.560

Oxide of Iron and Argil, - 0.115
20 gr.

If this powder be really used for colouring gold, as I have
been assured, the oxide of arsenic, I should think, can have no
effect in that way.—M. J. L. Casaseca.

Note by M. D’ Arcet.—I have several times had occasion to
examine the saline composition known under the name of colour,
which is employed by the toymen for giving to trinket gold the
beautiful yellow colour of fine gold. The following is the re-
~ sult of my analysis in round numbers :

Saltpetre, 40

Alum, 25
Sea-salt, 35
100

I was not aware that any change had*been made in the com-
position of this mixture. If the powder examined by M. Casa-
seca be now used for colouring gold, it can only have been
adopted of late, and since fashion has introduced the taste, and
rendered necessary the employment of variously coloured alloys
of gold with silver, copper, iron, antimony and platina. M.
Casaseca’s observations appear to me to be very important, and
will, without doubt, induce authorities to adopt measures of ad-
ministration for obliging the persons who prepare, vend, or em-
ploy the new composition in question, to employ all the neces-
sary precautions against the danger arising from the use of a
mixture containing so much oxide of arsenic.—Annales de
Chimie et de Physique, Mar. 1826.

MINERALOGY.

19. Gay-Lussite——A new mineral, under this name, is de-
scribed, and its analysis given in the Annales de Chimie and de
Physique for March 1826. It is a hydrated bicarbonate of lime
and soda, the following being its constituent parts: carbonate
of lime 32.85 ; carbonate of soda 34.76; water 32.29—100.00 ;
analysed by J. B. Boussingault. It occurs in crystals dissemina-

192 Scientific Intelligence.—M ineralog y.

ted through a bed of clay, which covers the natural carbonate
of soda, called wrao, at Lagunilla, a small Indian village to the
south-east of the town of Merida in Spanish America.

20. Titanium, ageneral ingredientin Felspars and Serpentines.
—Peschier, in Ann. de Chem. and de Phys. March 1826, finds, by
experiments, 1st, That Titanium isa constant constituent part of
felspars and serpentines ; 2d, That serpentines, like felspars, con-
tain an alkaline principle. . And he adds, that his researches de-
monstrate that the greater number of primitive mountain rocks
contain titanium, and that the metal is more generally distributed
in nature than is commonly supposed. The glassy félspar Pe-
schier finds to contain both potash and soda.

Q1. Fluids in Cavities of Minerals.—Many beautiful specimens,
of amber, containing cavities more or less filled with water and
air, are drawn and described in Sendelio’s Historia Succinorum.
Sokolow, we are informed, on breaking a rock crystal in
which a fluid was inclosed, heard an explosive noise, and re-
marked that the hand-towel in which the specimen was held
when breaking it, appeared in several places as if acted on by an
acid. (Communicated to Leonhard by Von Struve).

GEOLOGY.

22. Contested passage in Tacitus —In Tacitus Ann. Lib. xiii.
c. 57., it is said, * Sed civitas Juhonum socia nobis, malo impro-
viso afflicta est ; nam ignes, terra editi, villas, arva passim corripie-
bant,” &c. This passage some consider as an historical proof of.
voleanic eruptions on the Rhine and in the Eifel,—an opinion not
in the least probable. We are disposed, with Nees von Esen-
beck and others, to refer the whole to some muir or heath burn-
ing that had taken place near Cologne.

23. Hills formed by Springs.——The wells of Moses, near to
Suez, afford, according to Monge, the remarkable appearance of
hills formed by springs. The eight wells of this watering place
all occur on the summits of small conical hillocks, having erater-
shaped hollows at top, forming basins, in which the water collects,
and from which it flows downwards in natural ravines. The
highest of these hillocks rises 40 feet above the surrounding
country. In it the spring has long ceased to flow. The other.

Scientific Intelligence —Geology. 193
seven springs shew how these elevations are gradually formed.
In other countries, especially in Iceland, Trinidad, Kamtschatka,
&e. appearances of the same description, but on a iarge scale,
occur. The quantity of matter during the course of even one
year, brought from the interior of the earth, and deposited on
its surface, by the agency of springs, is truly enormous. What
must be the quantity during the course of a few centuries ?

24. On the manner in which Ammoniacal Salts are formed in
Volcanoes.—It is well known, that muriate and sulphate of ammo-
nia are met with incrusting and intermixed with volcanic rocks,
thus shewing that, in these situations, they are of volcanic
origin. Some geologists have been puzzled for an explanation of
the mode of formation of these salts. The following, founded on
Mr Faraday’s experiments, may be considered as sufficiently plau-
sible. The hot lava, which analysis shews to contain alkaline hy-
drate and also iron, coming in contact with water, a decomposi-
tion takes place; the nascent hydrogen of the water unites with
the azote of the atmospherical air, and thus ammonia is formed,
and this alkali meeting with muriatic and sulphuric vapours, com-
bines, and forms muriate and sulphate of ammonia.

ZOOLOGY.

25. Whale killed in the River St Laurence, 600 miles from
the Sea.—** The steam-boat Lady Sherbroke, arrived on Friday
from Quebec ; the passengers on board reported, that they had
been followed to within a few miles of this city, by a large sea
monster. Some supposed it to be the famous sea-serpent, while
others believed it a whale or grampus; however, all concurred
that it was a fish of a very large kind, stating the length to be
from thirty-five to eighty feet. In the evening of Friday, the
monster rose alongside of the steam ferry-boat, which plies from
the Cross (two miles below the city), to Long Guile, and ap-
peared to be nearly the length of the boat. On Saturday morn-
ing, two enterprising captains, Brush and Seymour, with a crew
of eight men, went down in the long boat belonging wo the steam-
boat. About three miles below Montreal, they had the satisfac-
tion to see the fish rise and blow. They immediately pulled for
his tract, and soon came alongside, when the harpooner fixed
the dart into him.—Now a scene took place, which surprised

APRIL—JULY 1826. N

194 Scientific Intelligence.— Zoology.

those who had collected on shore. The current running with
great rapidity, it is not common to seea boat propelled up stream
with any swiftness ; but the whale, for so we must now call him,
darted with the boat in tow, up the current, at the rate of ten or
twelve miles an hour. The whale, perhaps not wishing to ap-
proach too near the city, soon tacked about, and stood down for
Long Point, and remained towing the boat, until near 12 o'clock,
going where he pleased, and drawing the boat much faster than
those in her were accustomed to travel even by steam. Finally,
the harpoon gave way, and the whale for the present made his
escape. The party, however, are determined to make a second
trial to-morrow, when they will be better supplied with proper
instruments. Hundreds were assembled on the shore to witness
the attack and chase, and certainly it was a novel one to see a
whale 600 miles up from the sea-board. Much credit is due to
Captains Brush and Seymour for the promptness and energy em-
ployed on this occasion. Captain Bunker, of your city, who
commands the Malsham steam-boat, will be up to-morrow, and
by him we may hear something farther.—Montreal is about 120
miles above the termination of the tides, and about 300 miles
from salt water.—T'he Whale caught. On Sunday last a great num-
ber of boats were very early on the alert below Grant’s island,
watching the motions of the whale. He was repeatedly seen very
near the boats, but not sufficiently to allow them an opportuni-
ty of striking him. At about 9 or 10 o'clock, the steam-boat
Laprairie, with several persons on board, came down the cur-
rent, and it is thought, by those who were present, frightened
him, and occasioned his running up the river, passing several
boats, until, from some cause, he was induced to slacken his pro-
gress, and to drop backward down the river, until he struck
the boat navigated by Captain Brush, Mr Young, and some
other persons. Mr Young then seized the opportunity and
thrust a harpoon with main force into his body, directly behind
the first fin. Never was a thrust more effectual. Mr Young,
as it were, stood over him when the wound was made. He im-
mediately veered about, and went down the stream with great
rapidity. Shortly after he turned and proceeded up the current
St Marie, and taking the southern channel through which the

Scientific Intelligence.— Zoology. 195

Laprairie steam-boats are navigated, he dashed about in the
breakers opposite the town for nearly two hours. The movye-
ments of the boat could be plainly seen from the harbour ; and
we seldom ever beheld a concourse of people equal to that
which crowded the embankments. The whale then proceeded
further up the river, and would in all probability have visited
Laprairie had not the shallowness of the water prevented. Du-
ring all this time the persons in the boat were enabled to wound
him with lances continually. At last, exhausted and unable to
resist the stream, he again took the direction towards the foot
of the current, and continued his course to Bocherville Islands,
where he was killed and sunk in three fathoms water. Yester-
day morning the New Swiftsure towed the carcase to this place ;
and we understand that he will be exhibited this day in a build-
ing constructed for the purpose. We are pleased that Captain
Brush and Mr Young were the successful competitors in this
sport ; as their former exertions and perseverance seemed to en-
title them to be the favourites of Fortune. The dimensions of
this creature are 42 feet 8 inches in length, 6 feet across the
back, and 7 feet through from the back to the belly. He is of
the species called by the whalers Finners.”"—Ewtract of a Letter
Jrom Montreal, dated September 13. 1823.
26. On the Siliceous Spicula of two Zoophytes from Shetland.—
** On examining the siliceous axis of two zoophytes lately present-
ed to me by Dr Fleming, and discovered by him on the coast of
Shetland, I have found that their spicula agree exactly in form
and arrangement with those represented by Donati, as occurring
in the Aleyonium primum Dioscoridis, and Tethya spherica, of
that author. The spicula of both are siliceous, as stated by Pal-
las, who compares them to asbestus and to pumice ; the same was
observed by Montagu, who generally terms such spicula asbes.
tine. In the one of these species, named by Dr Fleming Cydo-
-nium Mulleri, we observe the interior composed of two forms of
spicula; one slender, long, and fusiform; the other thick, and
branched at one end, into three short curved rays; and the outer
covering of the zoophyte is composed of regular minute siliceods
balls, precisely as figured and described by Donati, in the Adley.
pr. Dios., (Donati. mar. Adriat., Pl. 1X). In the other species,
named by Montagu Spongia pilosa, and by Dr Fleming T'ethya

n2

196 Scientific Intelligence.—Zoology.

pilosa, the axis consists solely of radiating fasciculi of slender
fusiform spicula, as very accurately represented by Donati (PIl-
X.), in the 4 ethya spherica. Pallas mentions the former of
these zoophytes as very common and large on the shores of the
Cape of Good Hope; Denati found it common in the Adriatic 5
the latter zoophyte is likewise mentioned by Pallas as not uncom-
mon at.the Cape, and Donati found it adhering to various ma-
rine animals in the Mediterranean. Should these two zoophytes
from Shetland be found to agree in their recent state, with those
described by Donati, to which they have the closest resemblance
in the structure of their dried axis, they will afford new and strik-
ing proofs of the favoured situation of these remote islands, be-
yond the 58th degree of north latitude, for the growth of zoo-
pbytes, most of the largest British species of which are already
known to abound on their indented and rocky shores, (see Wern.
Mem. vol. i. p. 560, et seg.) ; and the occurrence of these two
inhabitants of the Cape of Good Hope and of the Mediterra-
nean, would lead us to suppose, that the temperature of the Shet-
land seas is much influenced by the heated waters of the great gulf
stream from the Equator. Had Donati’s example beenfollowed
by succeeding naturalists, in describing and delineating the forms
and arrangement of the ultimate spicula, particularly in zoo-
phytes, like our present species, which have never exhibited any
trace of polypi, much of the present uncertainty would have
been removed from the natural history of the species, and much
more light would now have been thrown on the nature of these
mysterious beings.”——Communication from Dr Grant.

27. Histoire Naturelle des Mammiferes.—Of this work, con-
ducted by Geoffroy St Hilaire and Frederic Cuvier, we have
lately been favoured by a perusal of the first number of a 4to
edition. The folio edition is nearly completed; and when so,
will contain 360 coloured plates, many of which represent objects
not before figured. The great size of this edition, and its ex-
pence, amounting to about L. 35 at Paris, not suiting private in-
dividuals, it has been thought proper to commence a 4to edition
at a reduced price; this, when complete, is calculated to cost
scarcely more than 20 guineas. We have just been favoured by
a perusal of the first number or cahier, Betwixt it and the folio

Scientific Intelligence.—Zoology. 197

edition we believe there is no material difference. The plates
are coloured with the same care, and nothing is suppressed in the
text. One slight difference there is, and we believe it must, by
all, be considered an improvement; the generic characters con-
stitute each a separate article, placed at the head of the descrip-
tions of the species, in place of, as in the folio edition, being em-
bodied in one of the latter. All the figures (well executed in li-
thography) are exact, both in the proportions and colours. The
first number contains the two genera Orang, ( Pithecus Cuv.),
and Gibbon (Hy/lobates Illiger). The species described and
figured are the orang-outang female ( Pithecus satyrus). The
Siamang ( Hylobates syndactylus ), the Wouwou, male and fe-
male (H. agilis ), and the Ounko, male and female (H. Lar. )

28. Cows, Horses and Sheep, fed on Fish in Persia.—The
cows have humps, and resemble those of India; milk, butter
and ghee, are very abundant, and good of their kind. This is the
more remarkable, as the cattle have but little pasture in the
neighbourhood of the town; and it is ccriain, that one chief ar-
ticle of their food is dried fish, a little salted ; the cattle become
very fond of this, which, with pounded date stones, is all they
get to eat for a considerable portion of the year. The natives
assert, that, so far from the milk being spoiled when the cattle
feed on these things, they drink much more water, which in-
creases both the quantity and quality of the produce. Horses
and sheep, as well as cows, are fed on this diet, and thrive equal-
ly well upon it.—Fraser’s T'ravels,

29. Swiftness of Animals.—'Trotting match at Anwell, Berks.

Min. Sec. Min. Sec,
A Horse Three Miles in 13 30 A Mare Three Milesin 12 20 ~(
Do. St10 Do. 12 25
Do, ll 8 Do. 11 59
Do. Ly 12 Do. 12 20
Do. 12 16 Do. 13. 2
One Mile $3 50 One Mile 4 2
Sixteen Miles 63 6 Sixteen Miles 66 8

The horse broke into a gallop in the 2d mile, otherwise the
16 miles would have been done within the hour. The mare
was beat in the 14th mile. The m .tch took place over 3 miles
of ground, each carrying feather weight. |

198 Scientific Intelligence.—Zoology.

30. Foot race on Clapham Common.—The runner, a York-
shire man ; the distance 10 miles ; a mile was measured off ; there
were nine turns, for which 27 seconds were allowed ; and added

to an hour.
Min. Sec. Min. Sec.

Ist Two Miles runin1l 33 4th Two Miles runin 1] 37
2d Ditto, 1t 32 5th Ditto, 11 40
3d Ditto, ll 36

, Total 57 58

Winning by 2 29

60 27

31. Insects.—In the same manner that the cochineal insect is
cultivated in America and elsewhere, the English have set ago-
ing a cultivation of the gall insect, which produces the lac resin
in India. There is another gall insect in China, the Pé-la,
which also procures a fine wax, of which candles are made.—
Journal de Pharmacie, Mar. 1826.

32. Mildew in Barley.—This affection, which is attributed by
M. Decandolle to a fungus, and is considered by many others
as a malady resulting from humidity, is regarded by Mr Mar-
tin Field as the consequence of the puncture of an insect of the
genus Musca, when the seed is yet in a pulpy state. This in-
sect does not deposit eggs in the pulp, nor are larve in fact
found there. Jt is the irritating fluid poured into the puncture
that causes the appearance of this blackish excrescence, and
communicates noxious qualities to it.—Jbid,

33. Taming Rattle-snakes.—Mr Neale, it is said, has sueceed-
ed in America in taming rattle-snakes, by means of music, so as
to prevent them from doing any harm. ‘This author asserts,
that they really possess the power of enchanting animals, or of
rendering them motionless through terror: for he says he has
seen an example even in his garden. The effluvia of these rep-
tiles has nothing nauseous in it.

34. Geckoes used for catching Flies.—In Java, the inhabitants
rid themselves of flies in their apartments by means of geckoes,
a species of lizard, named from their cry toké and gogok, which
continually pursue these insects for the purpose of feeding upon
them.

35. Heart of the Frog used for Poison—The Javanese, it is
said, also employ the heart of the frog named Kadok-kessé, for

>

Cay, NANaie 2 ey ee

ER ae th ae

Nar sare Uh tak cis ee

——

‘ei ai pri “f, Va et “id

whee ae

, & *h
¢ hel \ jee ¥ wy,

J nt Al iy 7aY

4s eae } ;

pat adt! us Pou) A ee

rg ert,
te ;
4 f £ ij
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oA
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Ww ‘ é ¢ ;
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4

Vew Phil. Jour. 7.199.

r

Lain!

PLATE.I.

Scientific Intelligence.— Botany. 199

preparing a poison. The blood of other reptiles is also consi-
dered as venomous, and is used for poisoning daggers or krisses.
It is known that the blood of a frog is employed by the Ameri-
cans for producing variegated feathers in parrots: some of the
feathers are plucked out, and the place where they grew im-
bued with the blood of the reptile, after which there are produ-
ced very beautiful feathers of various colours—Journal de
Pharmacie, Mar. 1826.

36. Marabous.—The beautiful feathers so much in request for
ornaments, under the name of Marabous, belong to the tailof cer-
tain storks, the Ciconia Marabou. These birds are tamed and
kept in large flocks in Bengal, and the islands of the great Indian
Archipelago, and afford so extensive an article of commerce,
that many of the natives subsist by it. The plumes of Ciconia
Argala in Africa, and those of some other species, are inferior
in beauty, and less esteemed.

_ 87. Irish Elk.— Many facts prove that the quadruped popu-
lation of Great Britain, Ireland, and even of some of the neigh-
bouring large islands, was, geologically considered, at a compa-
ratively recent period, very different from what it is at present.
But these changes do not appear to have been confined to quadru-
peds alone ; for particular species of birds, formerly inhabitants of
this country, have ge and their fossil remains, we doubt
not, will be found i newer clays, marls, and calcareous
tuffas and sinters. These alterations in our native quadru-
peds and birds, must, we maintain, have been accompanied by
similar changes in the lower classes of animals, and the time is
not distant when we shall have enumerated, as occurring in the
newer ajluvial deposites, fossil amphibia, fossil fishes, and nu-
merous fossil avertebral species, formerly inhabitants of the land
and waters of our European empire. It is indeed probable,
that not a century passes which is not marked in this country
by the loss of some species, not only of animals, but also of
plants, and the acquisition of others. An extended view of
this subject affords a series of historico-geological facts, that lead
to many beautiful views in regard to the history of those changes
that have taken place, and are still going on, among the ani-
mals and vegetables, and also in the climate, of the earth. The
most striking of our recently lost quadrupeds is unquestionably

200 Scientific Intelligence.—Botany.

the Jrish Elk, the fossil remains of which are found in alluvial
deposites of comparatively modern date. . Many years ago,
skulls and single bones of this gigantic and elegant species were
collected and described by naturalists, but it is not more than
four or five years since nearly perfect fossil skeletons were met
with. Of these, two only have been preserved, the one depo-
sited in the Royal Museum of the University of Edinburgh,
the other in the collection of the College of Surgeons in Dublin.
As the specimen in the Edinburgh Museum was for a time the
only one in any collection, we had a drawing and engraving
made from it, and of which a copy is given in the present num-
ber of the Journal (Plate II.) It is 6 feet high, 9 feet long, and
in height, to the top of the mght horn, 9 feet 73 inches. Re-
mains of this deer have been met with not only in England,
Ireland, and the Isle of Man, but also in France, Germany,
and Italy ; and in all these countries in similar geognostic si-
tuations,—thus shewing that the species, in all probability,
lived about the same time in Britain, Ireland, and the Conti-
nent of Europe.

BOTANY.

38. Pluvial Trees.—In the old accounts of travellers in Ame-
rica, related also by Thévet in his Cosmography, mention is
made of a tree which attracted the vapours of the atmosphere,
and resolved them into rain among the parched deserts. . These
accounts were regarded as fabulous. In Brazil there has been
found of late a tree, the young branches of which exude drops
of water, which fall almost like rain. This tree, to which Lean-
der has given the name of Cubea pluviosa, is referred by M.

Decandolle to the genus Ca@salpinia, belonging to the family of ~

Leguminose, in his Prodromus, vol. ii. p. 483. Other vegeta-
bles also, such as Calamus rotang, and the climbing lianas, the
vine, and other sarmentaceous plants, afford drops of water in
abundance, at the period of the sap, especially when they are
cut.

39. Sensitive Tree —The genus Casalpinia, which furnishes
the dyewoods of Pernambucca and Sappan, also presents a spe-
cies, the leaves of which are nearly as sensible to contact, as the
sensitive plants of Malabar; it is the Carsalpinia mimosoides of
Lamarck.

ca

Scientific Intelligence— Botany. 201

40. Poisoning of Plants.—Vegetables are susceptible of losing
their contractile faculty, from the action of the distilled water
of rose-laurel, as Carradori observed : Thus, the distilled water,
or still more the volatile oil of rose-laurel, destroys the whole
power of contraction possessed by the capsules of Momordica
Elaterium, and Balsamina hortensis. M. Marcet of Geneva,
on applying an aqueous solution of opium to sensitive plants
and others, observed that it also destroyed the action of vegeta-
ble life. Whence Carradori concludes, that plants have con-
tractile muscular fibres, and M. Marcet imagines, that vegeta-
bles possess something analogous to a nervous system, since the
first of these poisons operates upon the contractility, and the se-
cond upon the sensibility, in animals as in vegetables. 4

41. Leguminose.—By this time, perhaps, the second volume of
the Prodromus Systematis universalis Regni veyetabilis is in
the hands of most botanists in Europe; but few, we believe,
will find it an easy task to study it. The arrangement, although
founded on the principles developed by Brown our countryman,
and Brown in Germany, becomes extremely embarrassing to the
student who has not carefully perused these, and other memoirs
on this difficult order. To obviate these difficulties, and to ex-
plain the various reasons which induced him to change so many
of the hitherto almost universally received genera, Prof. De Can-
dolle is engaged at present in publishing a separate work * on the
subject; we allude to the Memoires sur la famille des Legumi-
neuses. ‘These memoirs were originally read before the Society
of Natural History of Geneva, and were intended to be inserted
in the Memoires du Mus. @ Hist. Naturelle. Their great ex-
tent, and the number of plates (when complete, there will be
seventy plates and fourteen memoirs, forming a volume of about
500 pages quarto), prevented such being carried into effect,—
fortunately for the botanists who do not find it convenient to
take that voluminous and expensive work. We have only yet
had a perusal of the six first memoirs. The first is on the ge-
neral characters of the Leguminose, taken from their organs of

* Published by Belin, Rue des Mathurins, S. I. No. 14. Paris.

202 Scientific Intelligence.— Botany.

vegetation * and fructification. On both of these, Decandolle has
presented us with an account of all that has been discovered by
others, or by himself. The following is a concise view of what
he has said on the first pomt; and, it must be recollected, that,
without the aid of his plates, it is impossible to enter into any
details. ‘The roots are nearly all fibrous and branched, but, in
some annuals, simple; sometimes they are tuberous, and sub-
ject to three different modifications. The stems are exceedingly
varied, from a tender annual to a tree of sixty feet high; but
the branches are usually either longitudinally striated or angled.
The leaves seem to present very striking differences. The first
leaves, or lobes of the cotyledons, are either opposite or alter-
nate; but, in maturity, the leaves of nearly all the species of
the family are alternate. As to their composition, they are either,
(J.) simply pinnated, without an odd one; (2.) simply pinnated,
with an odd one; (3.) palmated; (4.) twice or thrice pinnated,
which have very rarely an odd leaflet. That the number of times
the pinnation takes place is irregular, Decandolle happily illus-
trates in Plate I. by the genus Gleditsia. M. Decandolle denies
that the Leguminose have simple leaves, but he enumerates six
different ways by which a leaf really compound may be taken at
first sight for asimple leaf. It has been long known, that what
many take for a simple leaf in this family, is only a dilated petiole,
or what Decandolle calls a phyllodium. 'The hairs and glands
on the Leguminosz present few variations ; but the spines very
many.—On what regards the fructification, we must refer to the
book itself, Of the disposition of the flowers, the soldering of
the sepals and petals, their regularity or irregularity, the com-
binations or number of the stamina, we can give no short ac-
count; nor shall we enter upon the proofs brought forward that
the Leguminose, when they have only one carpell, have so
only by abortion of some others. The second memoir is on the
germination of this family. This memoir is full of interest, and
tends to shew that the germination ought to be closely attended
to in the classification of these plants ; and we are even furnished
es a a
is This term, as far as we know, has no other more precise English term ;
it refers to all the parts of a plant, except those concerned with the flowers

and fruit.
A

Scientific Intelligence.— Botany. 208

by the author with an arrangement which might be derived solely
from the germination; in some cases it is artificial, but for the
most part natural. The comparison of the Leguminos with the
families with which they are allied, occupies the third memoir.
Their relation with the Terebinthaceze and Rosacee are fully
pointed out; but although we have no wish to unite them with
either of these two families, it scarcely appears to us that any de-
finite characters are yet pointed out, which can be at all of service
to the student of the artificial method. We believe, however,
that this will be again taken up in a future memoir. The fourth
memoir is on the mutual relations of the Leguminosz, and their
subdivisions. The fifth memoir contains a review of the tribe
called Sophoreze, while the sixth is devoted to that of the Lo-
tex. These two last, to many, are the most interesting that
have yet appeared: each genus is passed under review: the
characters of the new or little known genera are developed ; and
if the old ones are divided, or the species changed to others, the
reasons are entered upon. We understand that, in the subse-
quent memoirs, other tribes will be treated in a similar manner,

ARTS.

42. On the liability of English Silks and Cottons to become
Jaded ; and on the superiority of the Silks of France, and the
Cottons of India in that respect.—TVhe cause why English silks
or satins do not retain their colour or whiteness, so long as those
of French manufacture, cannot reasonably be attributed to the
change of climate, as, in that case, it should equally affect both.
Silks or satins of French manufacture will be found as fit for
use, after a period of twelve or fifteen months, as when first’ im-
ported; while those manufactured in England, will have so
completely changed, as to be rendered useless for any article of
dress. ‘The white will have assumed an unsightly yellow tinge,
and the coloured will be found to have faded considerably. It
is probable, that the fault originates, in a great measure, from
the method used in extracting the varnish or gum from the raw
silk: and, perhaps, also from some slight inattention in the pro-
cess of bleaching it afterwards. It can scarcely be thought
that so delicate an article as silk, must not suffer, more or less,

204 Scientific Intelligence.—Arts.

from exposure to the action of sulphurous acid gas, or immersion
in acid, according to the degree of strength or purity of the sub-
stance used, as well as from the length of time the article is sub-
mitted to the action of the gas or acid. The silks manufactu-
red at Madras, are all of an imperfect white, but last much
longer than English or French. The coloured silks are searce-
ly inferior, and stand as well as the best of European manufac-
ture. The scarlet, purple, orange, and other silk shawls, from
Bangalore, are really beautiful, and the colours permanently fix-
ed. It is also worthy of remark, that the English long-cloths,
muslins, jaconnets, &c. never retain their original whiteness for
any length of time, but assume a yellow tinge, which they do
not recover by any process of washing. Some pieces, after a
few washings, are full of small holes; and it is an incontestible
fact, that one piece of good northward 86 Penijum, will wear
out three pieces of the best English long-cloth. No chemical
process is used for giving their cloth an artificial whiteness:
they are delivered from the loom dirty and brown, and when re-
turned from the washerman are as white as snow. The ad-
vantages which the English cloths possess, are, that they are
much cheaper, and have the threads of a more even texture, and
more regular. If some more attention were paid to the mode
of bleaching, there is no doubt, then, that they would be of
much greater consideration, and in more request than they are
at present. The mode in which the bales of cotton for exporta-
tion are usually packed, may also in some measure account for
the evils above mentioned. Itis the general custom to com-
press a considerable quantity of cotton into a very small com-
pass. ‘This is effected by means of strong, massive iron frames,
and powerful screws of the same metal, so that the cotton is
found to be almost a solid mass. Although much space may
be thus saved on ship-board, it is probable the cotton must be
in some way injured. If this be really the case, the natives have
decidedly a very material and obvious advantage in the manu-
facture of cloths.—Abridged from a communication in Gills Re-

pository.

Scientific Intelligence —Commerce. 205
COMMERCE.

43. Fisheries of Newfoundland and Labrador.—The Ameri-
cans send about 2000 fishing vessels to Labrador alone. Allow
that each vessel takes away 1000 quintals of fish, = 2,000,000
quintals = 100,000 tons; each vessel carries from 12 to 15
men, = 25,000 to 30,000 men ; the number of seamen required
afterwards to carry this fish to the various markets in the two
hemispheres is very considerable. They carry on the fishery
extensively at other parts here-—-The French employ many
thousand men in this fishery at Newfoundland ; and a propor-
tion of seamen to carry part of their fish to markets—The
British: The resident fishermen of Newfoundland are not equal
in number to t!e American fishermen who come to the neigh-
bourhood to fish. About 4000 British seamen are employed to
carry the 60,000 tons of fish to market—W. E. Cormack, Esq.

List of Patents sealed in England from 4th February to 8th

May 1826.

1826,

Feb. 4. To R. Rice, Bowstead Hall, Cumberland, for “a new Condensing
Apparatus, to be used with the apparatus now employed for ma-
king Vinegar.”

7. To J. C. Gamace, Dublin, chemist, for “an Apparatus for the Con-
centration and Crystallisation of Aluminous and other Saline and
Crystallisable Solutions, part of which apparatus may be applied
to the general purposes of evaporation, distillation, inspissation,
and desiccation, and especially to the generation of Steam.”

To W. Mayuew, Union Street, Southwark, and W. Wuire,
Cheapside, hat-manufacturers, for “ an Improvement in the ma-
nufacture of Hats.”

To H. Evans, harbour-master of the port of Holyhead, North
Wales, for “ a method of rendering Ships and other Vessels, whe-
ther sailing or propelled by steam, more safe in cases of danger
by leakage, bilgeing, or letting in water, than as at present con-
structed.”

To B. Coox, Birmingham, brass-founder, for “ Improvements in
making Files of various descriptions.”

11. To W. Warren, Crown Street, Finsbury Square, for “ Improve.
ments in the process of extracting from the Peruvian Bark me-
dicinal substances or properties, known by the name of Quinine

and Cinchonine, and preparing the various salts to which these
substances may serve as a basis.”

206

18.

to
ue

Mar. 4.

14.

April 18.

List of English Patents:

To J. L. Hicerns, Oxford Street, for “ Improvements in the con-
struction of the Masts, Yards, Sails, Rigging of Ships, and smaller
Vessels, and in the Tackle used for working or navigating the
same.”

To B. Newmarcu, Cheltenham, and C. Bonner, Gloucester, bra-
zier, for “ a mechanical invention to be applied for the purpose
of Suspending and Securing Windows, Gates, Doors, Shutters,
Blinds, and other apparatus.”

To J. Water, Luton, Bedfordshire, straw-hat manufacturer, for
“ Improvements in the manufacture of Straw-plait, for making
Bonnets, Hats, and other articles.”

To C. WuitLaw, Bayswater Terrace, Paddington, medical bota-
nist, for “ Improvements in administering Medicines by the
agency of Steam or Vapour.”

To A. Burrum, Bridge Street, hat-manufacturer, for “ Improve-
ments in the process of making or manufacturing and dyeing
Hats.”

. To J. Fraser, Houndsditch, engineer, for “‘ an improved method

of constructing Capstans and Windlasses.”

To B. Newmarcu, Cheltenham, for “ certain inventions to pre-
serve Vessels and other bodies from the dangerous effects of ex-
ternal or internal violence on land or water, and other improve-
ments connected with the same.

To B. Newmarcu, Cheltenham, for ‘‘a Preparation to be used
either in solution or otherwise, for preventing decay in timber or
other substances, arising from dry-rot or other causes.”

To J. Fraser, Houndsditch, engineer, for “ a new and improved
method of distilling and rectifying spirits and strong waters.”

To R. Minexrey, Horsforth, near Leeds, for “* a Method, Ma-
chine, or Apparatus, for conveying persons and goods over or
across rivers or other waters, and over valleys or other places.”

To G. AnpERTON, Chickheaton, Yorkshire, worsted-spinner, for
“* Improvements in the combing or dressing of Wool and waste
Silk.” '

To J. Nevirte, New Walk, Shad Thames, ‘engineer, for “a new
and improved Boiler or Apparatus for generating Steam, with
less expenditure of fuel.”

To N. H. Manic ter, Great Guildford Street, Southwark, chemist,
for “‘ a new Preparation of Fatty Substances, and the application
thereof to the purposes of affording Light.”

To J. Brrirncuam, Norfolk Street, Strand, civil engineer, for “ an
improvement or improvements in the Construction of Cooking
Apparatus.”

To J. Rownornam, Great Surrey Street, Blackfriars Road, hat-
manufacturer, and R. Liroyp, Strand, for “ a certain method of

preparing, uniting, combining, and putting together, certain ma-
terials, substances, or things, for the purpose of being made into

22.

25.

29.

May 2

List of English Patents. 207

hats, caps, bonnets, cloaks, coats, trowsers, and for wearing ap-
parel in general, and various other purposes.”

To W. Woop, Summer-Hill Grove, Northumberland, for “ an
apparatus for destroying the inflammable air in mines.”

To J. P. Gitiespriz, Grosvenor Street, Newington, for “a new
Spring or combination of Springs, for the purpose of forming an
elastic resisting medium.”

To S. Brown, Eagle Lodge, Old Brompton, for “ improvements
on an engine for effecting a vacuum, and thus producing powers
by which water may be raised, and machinery put in motion.”

To F. Hatxrpay, Ham, Surrey, for “ an apparatus for preventing
the inconvenience arising from Smoke in Chimneys.”

- To J. Wirxt1ams, Commercial Road, ironmonger and ships’ fire-

hearth manufacturer, for “ improvements on ships’ hearths, and
apparatus for cooking by steam.”

To W. Cuorce, Strahan Terrace, auctioneer, and R. Grzson,
White Conduit Terrace, builder, Islington, for ‘“* improvements
in machinery for making bricks.”

To C. Kennepy, Virginia Terrace, Great Dover Road, Surrey,
surgeon and apothecary, for “ improvements in the apparatus
used for cupping.”

To J. Goutpine, Cornhill, London, engineer, for “ improvements
in the machines used for carding, stubbing, silvering, roving, or
spinning cotton, waste silk, short stapled hemp and flax, or any
other fibrous materials, or mixture thereof.”

. To A. Burrurn, Javin Street, hat-manufacturer, and J. Mac-

carpy, Cecil Street, Strand, for ‘“‘ improvements in steam-en-
gines.””

To Sir R. Serrixes, Somerset House, for “ improvements in the
construction of Fids, or apparatus for striking topmasts and top-
gallantmasts in ships.”

To W. Fenner, Bushell Rents, Wapping, carpenter, for “ an im-
provement in machinery for curing smoky, and cleansing foul
chimneys.”

To A. ALLARD DE La Court, Great Winchester Street, for “ a
new instrument, and improvements in certain well-known instru-
ments, applicable to the organ of sight.”

To J. ScnaLier, Regent Street, ladies’ shoemaker, for “ improve-
ments in the construction or manufacture of clogs, pattens, or
substitutes for the same.”

. To E. Hearp, St Leonard, Shoreditch, chemist, for “ a certain

new composition to be used for the purpose of washing in sea and
other water.”

( 208 )

List of Patents granted in Scotland from 20th Mareh to 26th |

May 1826.
1826,

Mar. 20. To Wit11am Tuomson and James Tomson, of Fountainbridge
Street, Edinburgh, cabinet-makers and joiners, for an invention
of “a Series of Machines, and certain Implements and Tools ca-
pable of performing cabinet-makers’ work, joiners’ work, and car-
pentry work, and which machines and instruments or tools may
be applied with advantage to various similar purposes.”

21. To Wiiriam Erskine CocnraneE of Regent Street, in the county
of Middlesex, for “ an Improvement in certain Cooking Appa-
ratus.”

May 6. To Samvet Brown of Eagle Lodge, Old Brompton, in the county
of Middlesex, gentleman, for ‘* certain Improvements on his for-
mer patent for an Engine or Instrument for effecting a vacuum,
and thus producing powers -by which waters may be raised and
machinery put in motion.”

To Henry Ricwarpson FansnaweE, of Addle Street, in the-city
of London, silk-embosser, for “ an Improved Apparatus for spin-
ning, doubling, and twisting or throwing silk.”

To Jonun Martineau junior, of the City Road, in the county of
Middlesex, engineer, and Henry WIL11am Sm1TH, of Laurence,
Pountney Place, in the city of London, Esq. for an invention of
“ certain Improvements in the manufacture of Steel.”

9. To Witttam Parr, of Union Place, City Road, in the county of
Middlesex, gentleman, for “‘ an Improvement or Improvements
in the mode of propelling vessels through the water.”

To JosEpH ALEXANDER Tay tor, of Great St Helens, in the city
of London, gentleman, for “ a new Polishing Apparatus for
household purposes.”

20. To Francis Moxinevux, of Stoke Saint Mary, in the county of
Somerset, gentleman, for “ an Improvement in Machinery for
spinning and twisting silk and wool, and for roving, spinning,
and twisting flax, hemp, cotton, and other fibrous substances.”

To ArexanpER Lamp, of Prince’s Street Bank, in the city of
London, and Wiit1aAMm SutTTIL1, of Old Brompton, in the coun-
ty of Middlesex, flax-spinner, for “‘ Improvements in machinery
for preparing, drawing, roving, and spinning flax, hemp, and
waste silk.”

26. To Tuomas Suaw Branpretu of Liverpool, in the county of
Lancaster, Esq. barrister at law, for ‘“‘ an improved mode of con-
structing Wheel Carriages to be used on Rail-roads, or for other
similar purposes.”

To Joseru Eve, of Augustus Georgia, in the United States of
America, now residing in Jewin Street, in the city of London,
engineer, for “‘ an improved Steam-Engine.”

P. Neit1, Printer.

THE

EDINBURGH NEW

PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

Biographical Memoir of the late Curistian Smitu, M. D.
Naturalist to the Congo Expedition. By Baron Lroro.p
Vow Bucu.

Coasterran Situ, son of a wealthy proprietor in the neigh-
bourhood of Dram in Norway, was born on the 17th October
1785. - Under the prudent management of his father, his talents
were early unfolded ; and in his fourteenth year, he was sent to
the school at Kongsberg, which enjoyed a well-merited repu- _
tation. Here he made such progress in his knowledge of the
ancient languages, that, in a short time, he wrote Latin with
almost as much facility as his mother-tongue. As early as 1801,
his father sent him to Copenhagen, where the celebrated Vahl,
soon finding what a proficient might be made of him, became
his counsellor and friend, and determined him to devote himself
exclusively to the study of Botany. The knowledge of Mosses
and Lichens, so abundant in his native country, had especially
attracted his attention, to which he was the more fully deter-
mined, by the discovery of some plants, till then unknown, in
the neighbourhood of his native city, which were given to the
world in the Flora Danica. Not all the advantage he enjoyed
for acquiring practical knowledge as a physician, in the ma-
nagement, from the year 1804, of the Frederick's Hospital in

JULY—ocToBER 1826. o

210 = Biographical Memoir of the late Christian Smith.

Copenhagen, could prevent him from accompanying his friends
Hornemann and Wormskiold on their botanical journey into
Norway. They explored some of the most impervious valleys
im the country, and made a number of new discoveries; and
when, in 1807, the breaking out of the war between Denmark,
England and Sweden, obliged the friends to return to Copen-
hagen, Smith proceeded again into the mountains of Tellemark,
and brought from thence so many unknown mosses and lichens,
that, from that time, he became known to all the botanists of
the north, and his reputation among them was thereby fully
established.

Want of scientific resources brought him back to Copenha-
gen, during the misfortunes of his native country. No sooner,
however, was quiet restored, than he hastened again into the
mountains of the north, and undertook, in 1812, a most arduous
journey through ‘Tellemark and Hallingdal, over the chain of
mountains down to the west coast. These mountains were little
known, even in the country itself. Their height had never been
measured ; their productions never been described ; and little
more was known of them than from the accounts of the fatigues
and dangers to which the peasants of Hardanger were exposed,
when they proceeded with the productions of their valleys over
the range to Kongsberg. Smith, incited im the highest degree,
by the striking and comprehensive views of Humboldt regarding
the geography of plants, which have bad so decided an influence on
the researches of botanists, examined these mountains in the ca-
pacity both of an attentive naturalist who generalizes and com-
bines, and of an experienced botanist, from whose notice the
minutest plant does not escape ; and was thereby enabled to give
a narrative of this journey, which will ever remain one of the
most instructive and remarkable for physical geography *.

In it, he places the mighty influence of the neighbourhood of
the sea in a clear light, and the very remarkable distinction
thence arising, between the climate of the continent and that of
the sea-coast. To the severe winter, on the east side, summer
succeeds, in a few weeks, with continual clear and serene wea-

* Topographisk-statistiske Samlinger, udgiyne Selskabet fur Norges, vel
den Deels 2 det Bind. Christiana, 1817.

Biographical Memoir of the late Christian Smith. 211

ther. The sun of an almost perpetual day calls forth a multi-
tude of leaves and flowers, which would scarcely be expected in
so northern a latitude. On the contrary, on the other side of
the mountains, the sea always open, moderates the severity of
the winter, and the constant winds from the west and south,
coming over the ocean, heighten the temperature of the coasts.
But they cover them, at the same time, with fogs and clouds,
which intercept the genial influence of the sun, and thus permit
to the warmth of summer a short duration, and limited effect.
Smith shews how much this influence manifests itself, in the
productions of vegetation in the different heights at which
trees grow, and the limits of perpetual snow. - For these, in
fact, are much more determined by the warmth of summer than
by the cold of winter; and hence, when their various heights
are ascertained, we gain a pretty accurate knowledge of the
state of the valleys and plains below. Smith first ascended
Goustafield in Tellemark, the highest mountain in the south of
Norway, and: found it 5886 Parisian feet high; and the snow
line he ascertained at about 4740. On the great chain which
separates Tellemark from Hardanger, the snow line did not
reach to 4650 feet ; and on Folge Fonden in Hardanger, which
is almost surrounded by arms of the sea, it had sunk so low as
4036. A great number of annual plants, however, and such as
are able to endure the severity of the winter, but which, at the
same time, so soon as the sap has ascended, require uninterrupt-
ed warmth, to put forth leaves and flowers, is found on the east
side, and wherever the snow line is at a considerable elevation.
Such bushes and plants, on the other hand, and all such as re-
tain their leaves in winter, or at least as shed them late in the
season, but which require no great warmth in summer for their
support, flourish especially in the softer and more uniform climate
of the sea-coast. ‘The former enjoy the climate of the plains of
Russia, the other of the flats of England and Scotland, of which
the appearance of the birch affords a very palpable and striking
example. Vigorous enough to set the severity of a Siberian
winter at defiance, it requires, however, uninterrupted warmth
to put forth its leaves; and when these are unfolded, they are
so tender that the slightest return of frost is hurtful, if not alto-
gether destructive to the growth of the tree. Hence the climate

08

212 Biographical Memoir of the late Christian Smitit.

of the coast is not well suited to it, and the limits of its growth
will sink, on that account, in proportion as the warmth of the
summer is diminished. Smith shews this with the barometer in
bis hand. He found the limits of the birch in 603° north lati-
tude, to be at the height of 3384 Parisian feet. Some miles
farther on, im the direction of the great mountain chain, birches
already disappear at the height of 3325. In descending towards
the sea, over Ulensvang, its limit is found to be 2803. On the
west side of Folge Fonden, it descends to 1837. Lastly, it is
found at only 1776, on the Goennequiting, near Tuse, which
lies within sight of the ocean. Here the birch can only reach
half of its height on the east side. With this warmth of sum-
mer, however, disappear the magnificent forests of pine (abies) :
in the valleys are no longer to be seen the showy flowers of Aco-
nitum Lycoctonum, of Pedicularis sceptrum Carolinum, or of
Pedicularis Oederi, otherwise so common on the eastern side of
‘Norway. ‘There is no longer to be found Andromeda hyp-
noides, Menziesia coerulea, Primula stricta (Horn.), Lychnis
apetala, Viola biflora, Aira subspicata, Carex rotundata, Juncus
areuatus (Vahl), Splachnum serratum, luteum, rubrum, &c.
plants which unite the east side of Norway with Russia and
Siberia. On the other hand, the vegetation of Scotland appears
on the mountains of the west side. These are quite covered.
with the Scots fir (Pinus sylvestris), while the vales in the neigh-
bourhood of the sea are adorned with the beautiful Digitalis
purpurea, which is unknown in other parts of Norway. On the
declivities of the hills, Hieracium aurantiacum spreads its gol-
den flower, aud Gentiana purpurea is of frequent occurrence,
which no one would scarcely have expected to find beyond the
Alps. Bunium bulbocastanum, Anthericum ossifragum, Se-
dum anglicum, Chrysospleniam oppositifolium, Centaurea ni-
gra, Hypericum pulchruin, Erica cinerea, Rosa spinosissima,
Lycopodium inundatum, all plants which would be sought. in
vain where the birch ascends to 3000 feet high, but which are
common in the British Isles, are not unfrequent and often quite
common in the districts on the sea-coast of Norway. Even Ilex
aquifolium and Hedera helix, which cannot survive the winter
in a great part of Germany, thrive excellently on the west coast
of this country,

Biographical Memoir of the late Christian Smith. 218

~ After Smith has unfolded with perspicuity circumstances
equally instructive for the natural history of the globe, as for
the culture of trees and plants in a given climate, he directs his
course to the magnificent glaciers of Justedal in Lat. 612°, and
gives almost a complete description of them. ‘Thence he bent
his way through the vale of Walders, back to his native city of
Dram.

This journey excited attention. The Patriotic Society, con-
vinced of the utility of such undertakings, enabled Smith, in
the following year, 1813, to attempt a similar one ; and he en-
tered on it with pleasure, because the interests of science ap-
peared to be thereby identified with those of his country. Du-
ring the greater part of the summer he perambulated the moun-
tains under 62° of latitude, lying between the valleys of Wal-
ders, Guldbrandsdal, and Romsdal, which, from their height,
extent, and solitariness, had remained so much unknown, even
to the nearest inhabitants, that heretofore they, with the valleys
tliey inclose, could be very imperfectly designed upon the maps.
The Flora of Norway hereby gained many new species which
had not before been observed in this country. In the end of
summer he descended into the imposing valleys of Romsdal,
to occupy himself with the productions of the sea, in the neigh-
bourhood of Molde ; and the advanced period of the season did
not prevent him from twice crossing the chain of the Dovrefield,
as far as the Nomadic Laplanders. Every where, on these
excursions, he collected the inhabitants of the higher valleys, and
taught them the distinguishing marks, value, and properties of
the lichens that cover their mountains. He shewed them the
process how to make a wholesome bread from these lichens,
which is at once nutritious and pleasant to the taste, and per-
suaded them to reject the miserable resource of bread from bark,
which supports a wretched existence at the expence of health.
The end of the year brought him back to Dram.

‘The loss of his father, a short while after his return, put bim
in possession of a small fortune, which, in his opinion, he could
not better employ than by seeking to improve himself by fo-
reign travel, either by the study of nature or intercourse with
the learned. His nomination as Professor of Botany in the
newly instituted University at Christiana, confirmed him in his

214 Biographical Memoir of the late Christian Smith.

purpose; for all the fruits of his journey were henceforth de-
voted to the new botanic garden, which he regarded as his own.
No sooner, therefore, had he landed in England at Yarmouth,
and reached London in July 1814, than he set about procuring
for the garden a well qualified and experienced gardener, and
had the good fortune to find one in the person of a country-
man of his own, who had been trained in the excellent institu-
tion at Kew. This lucky circumstance had a decided influence
on all his later researches, for, after the departure of the gar-
dener, he considered the garden as already arranged, and to it
all his cares were henceforth directed. Convinced that every
thing in Christiana would be carefully attended to, he collected
and purchased whatever he considered in the least adapted to
it; and all the arrangements of English gardens acquired
double value in his eyes, when any part of them seemed to be
applicable to his own. The advanced state of the season, how-
ever, did not permit him to remain long in London. In Au-
gust he went to Edinburgh, and a few days thereafter to the
Highlands of Scotland, to have an opportunity in particular of
examining the mosses peculiar to the country. He visited Loch
Tay, ascended Ben Lawers, surveyed the celebrated Shehallien,
and penetrated as far as Ben Wyvis in Ross-shire, a place but
seldom visited. Then he ascended Ben Nevis, the highest
mountain in Scotland, saw the venerable naturalist Dr Stuart
at Luss, and returned to Edinburgh after an absence of five
weeks. The profound knowledge of cryptogamic plants pos-
sessed by Dr Taylor, called him from hence to Dublin. On
returning he passed through Carlisle, Cumberland, and Wales ;
and, after a short stay by Liverpool and Oxford, arrived in
London in the month of December 1814.

The Congo expedition, after he had fairly resolved to ac-
company it, had filled him with the greatest hopes. These ap-
peared to be the more confirmed the farther it proceeded. Cap-
tain Tuckey was a man of a scientific education, and of great
politeness, whose society afforded him both pleasure and in-
struction. Willingly would the former have granted him a few
days to examine St Jago, one of the Cape Verd Islands, where,
on the 9th April 1816, the ship cast anchor for the first time af-
ter her departure from England, if his instructions, as well as

Biographical Memoir of the late Christian Smith. 213

his own wish, had not made it his duty, to hasten the arrival of
the expedition in the Congo. The little, however, which Smith
saw, in a single day, on the mountains of the island, forms a
considerable addition to our knowledge. In July the ships
reached the mouth of the Congo. Captain Tuckey sailed up
the river as far as was practicable, but even their progress in
boats was soon arrested by rapids; whereupon he determined
to advance along the river by land, with a company of forty
men. The excellence of the climate facilitated the undertaking,
and the vegetation becoming always richer and more beautiful,
inflamed the zeal of the indefatigable botanist. ‘ Every thing
is new,” he wrote in his journal ; ‘ one can only collect and be-
hold ;” and, truly delighted with the river and the mountains,
he was quite confounded when the Captain declared it to be ne-
cessary to return. The hope of obtaining sufficient supplies
either from the negro inhabitants or from the chace, had en-
tirely failed ; the stores they had carried with them did not ad-
mit of their advancing farther: it was even too late to return ;
their provisions no longer sufficed to bring them to the ship’s
anchorage. Want, anxiety, hunger, fatigue, produced at last
a fever, which spread rapidly and consumed their yet remain-
ing strength. Smith sought to maintain himself by liveliness of
spirits. Always cheerful, he imspired others also with courage,
and wished even to animate them by his example. But this he was
no longer able todo. Whenever he had made a few steps he
fell down, and at last could no longer raise himself. He was ob-
liged to be carried, and even in this condition he constantly en-
couraged his remaining companions, always cherishing the best
hopes for them all. In this manner he and Captain Tackey,
with a few attendants, reached, on the 17th September, the
place where the Congo lay at anchor. On the 18th both were
put on board the transport Dorothea, which afforded them
greater convenience. Captain Tuckey died soon after. Smith
was very much depressed, and very weak. On the 21st, the
gardener Lockhart (from the garden at Kew) came to him, and
heard him speak much and long in Norwegian, which he did not
understand. This was considered to arise from the heat of the
fever, and medicines were offered to him. ‘To which he made
answer, very distinctly, in the last words he was heard to ut-

216 Biographical Memoir of the late Christian Smith.
ter, ‘© I have demanded what could be useful to me, and it has’
not been given.”

On the 22d September, a few moments after the Dorothea
had weighed anchor, he died, far from relations and friends,
and attended by no sympathising soul. His remains were sunk
in the river, with the customary ceremonies, at the place which
has been called ** The Tall Trees.”

His collections and journals have been saved and used to ad-
vantage. There could scarcely have been a more splendid mo-
nument erected to the memory of this lamented naturalist, than
the distinguished memoir of Robert Brown, respecting Smith's
collections and observations in Congo. He thereby occupies,
as is remarked also by Brown, an honourable place among the
band of northern naturalists who now encircle the whole of Af-
rica with their discoveries, from Egypt to the coast of Barbary,
through Morocco, Guinea, and the Cape, back again to the
Red Sea. For since Smith, by his discoveries in Congo, has
filled up the gap which formerly separated Guinea from the
Cape, in respect of our knowledge of African plants, the cb-
servations of Hasselquist, Vahl, Schousboe, Afzelius, Tonning,
Isert, Smith, Sparrmann, Thunberg, and Forskaal appear with
increased interest, and, associated with these distinguished na-
turalists, Smith will always be named with peculiar honour and
renown, as one of the martyrs of botanical science *.

Description of the contents of a Tumulus in the Parish of Bur-
ness, Island of Sanday. By W1ii.1am Woop, Esq, Surgeon,
Island of Sanday. (Communicated by Dr Wiii1am Howr-
son).

aw tumulus, like many of the same outward appearance,
was situated on the slope of a gently rising ground, close at the
head of a fresh-water loch, which is commonly dry during the
summer months. It was about a mile from the sea, with rising
grounds intervening. It was nearly circular at the bottom, and
approached gradually to an apex, which appeared as if sunk

ITEM aS ee lO EE Se
_® From Leopold Von Buch’s “* Physicalishe Beschreibung der Cana-
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Ground Plan of Butlding found in a
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Mr Wood's Description of the contents of a Tumulus. 217%

about a foot. It measured eighty-five feet across at the base,
and not much above six feet in height at the highest part, which
was a little removed from the centre, in a northwest direction.
It was covered with short grass. One or two more tumuli are
in the immediate vicinity. The ground around is mostly bar-
ren moor-land.

The cottars in the neighbourhood have, for four or five
years past, been occasionally removing earth and stones from
the edge of the tumulus,—the earth for improving their little
patches of land,—the stones for building and repairing hill
dikes. They have never seen any regular building till this
summer ; nor have they found any thing but what they were in
search of—earth and stones. An old man, indeed, some months
ago, found, a few feet from the edge of the tumulus, a ring of
black earthenware, large enough to go round hisw rist ; it was
finely polished and very hard, according to his account; he
broke it to ascertain its composition, and has since lost it. The
same man also describes a vennel or drain running at right an-
gles with the drain we discovered ; it was on the south-east of
the tumulus. .

The tumulus, I have already hinted, was formed of stones
and earth. The stones were mostly rounded stones from the
sea-shore, and seemed all to have been subjected to the action of
fire ; the earth was black, and in many places mixed with ashes.
After removing many cart-loads of stones and earth, we came
to the building, a ground plan of which I have attempted,
(Pl. III. Fig. 1.), and which I shall now describe as accurate-
ly as I can.

The principal part of the building consisted of one square
apartment, in one end of which there was a fire-place R ; on the
right hand side it communicated with a small cell; a drain aa
commenced nearly at the fire place, and ran in a south-east di-
rection towards the loch ; at the outer extremity of the drain bd
was another small cell.

The dimensions of the principal apartments may be judged
of from the plan. The height of the walls we could not ascertain ;
they were, when we examined them, about three feet high, and did
not appear ever to have been much higher: they were two feet
thick, composed of roughly dressed stones, cemented with clay ;

218 Mr Wood’s Description of the contents of a Tumulus.

in the inside a flat stone, six inches thick, and about three feét
broad, reaching from A to H, stood on edge; it was also ce-
mented to the outer wall with clay. All the walls of the prin-
cipal apartment were thus lined, except at the fire-place. .

A space, the breadth of the drain, between B B, was left,
evidently for a door; there was no appearance of a window in
any part; neither was there any thing like a roof.

The walls at the fire-place were built, like the other walls,
from the ground to the height of a foot and a half; when ano-
ther form of building commenced with large flat stones, without
cement; they were so placed, that the one above overlapped the
one below an inch or two, thus gradually contracting the vent, till
at last, at the height of five feet, only an opening, six or seven
inches wide, was left. The vent had only three sides, or rather a
back wall and two side walls; it was open next the principal
apartment. The fire-place itself was raised a foot from the
floor, built of rough stones which had suffered from strong heat :
they crumbled down on being rubbed between the fingers. At
one side of the fire-place was a large stone K, as if for a table
or seat ; at the other side a small semicircular recess L. The
floor of this apartment was composed of clay, which appears
to have been taken from the loch already mentioned, where it
abounds.

The drain, which commenced near the fire-place, was only
a few inches deep, built with rough stones of various sizes, and
covered with flag-stones level with the floor ; it contamed a con-
siderable quantity of very fetid water Atthe outer end of the
drain there was a small cell (e); it had no communication with
the drain; the sides of it were formed of four flat stones, about
two feet high, set on edge, and not cemented together. The bot-
tom of it was considerably below the level of the drain, and
formed of clay.

The cell Q had one side open to the principal apartment ; it
was lined on all sides, top and bottom, with flag-stones, except
the opening, which measured about two feet six inches both ways;
the depth of this cell from the level of the floor of the principal
apartment to the bottom, was two feet five inches: from the top
of the cell to the bottom four fect eleven inches. Outside of the
flat stones there was a rough wall, built as in the primeipal apart-.

Mr Wood’s Description of the contents of a Tumulus. 219

ment. The flat stone forming the upper half of the back of this
cell, was perforated at its lower edge, with a semicircular aper-
ture (p), thrée inches and a half in diameter, which communi-
cated with a passage about a foot square, covered partly with
a flat stone (O), and partly open. One side of this passage was
formed by a large stone (P) ; the other side was formed by the
wall built at the back of the cell. The semicircular part marked
in the plan with dots, (....000) being in a very ruinous state,
could not be examined accurately, but there has been some
building at this part.

The whole of the inside of the building was filled with black
earth, ashes, burnt roots of heath, and burnt stones; two or
three pieces of straw were found imbedded in lumps of ashes.
An iron nail was found at the fire-place ;—it may have fallen
from the opening at the top of the vent at a more recent period,
but it was imbedded in a solid lump of ashes. Several bones
were found at the fire-place, also imbedded in ashes; among
them were vertebrae, ribs, and leg-bones of domestic animals,
part of the under jaw of a hog, and many teeth. There were
no human bones.

The cell Q was filled to the level of the floor of the principal
apartment with rounded wnburnt stones ; a deer’s horn, and two
leg-bones of some of the lower animals were found, about half
way down among these stones. There was also, in this cell, a
considerable quantity of black, unctuous earth, very wet, and
of a fetid odour. ‘lhe horn was soaked with water, and could
not be lifted entire. Above the level of the floor, this cell was
filled with burnt stones, &c. as in the rest of the building.

Such is the account of what was seen. I do not hazard even a
conjecture as to the use of this relic of antiquity. The building,
I consider to be of an older date than its covering, which ap-
pears to have been thrown over it at a more recent period, but
still ages ago, for some particular purpose, which, with the use
of the building itself, I fear, will for ever remain unknown.

Istanp or Sanvay, ]
27th June 1824. ff

Observations on the Anatomy of the Corallina opuntia, and some
other species of Corallines. By Professor ScHwEIccEr.

Suxce the time of Cavolini no writer has examined the struc:
ture and economy of zoophytes with more attention than Pro-
fessor Schweigger of Konigsberg, (Anatomisch-physiologische
untersuchungen uber Corallen, Berlin 1819.) He has made
himself acquainted with the observations and discoveries of his
predecessors and cotemporaries in every European language ; he
has carefully examined the animals in the living state with the
assistance of the microscope, during his extensive travels, parti-
cularly during his residence on the shores of the Mediterra-
nean ; and he has perused with equal care and minuteness the
collections preserved in the Museums of Great Britain, and of
the Continent, but more especially those of the late Sir J oseph
Banks, and of the Natural History Museum of Paris. The
doubtful nature of corallines he has made a subject of particu-
lar inquiry. ‘These singularly hard organized substances are
regarded as animals by most modern systematic authors, as
Cuvier, Lamarck, Bosc, Lamouroux. ‘The experiments, how-
ever, and microscopical observations of Schweigger on their inter-:
nal organization, add great probability to the opimions former-
ly entertained by Pallas, Spallanzani, Cavolini, and Olivi, who,
from their own observations on living corallines, regarded them
as plants. Schweigger’s observations have been chiefly confined
to the Corallina opuntia, C. rubens, and C. officinalis. On the
6th of October he collected a portion of the C. opuntia Pal. on
the coast of the Mediterranean, between Nice and Villefranche,
growing on rocks from 1 to 3 feet under the surface of the sea ;
the specimens were of a bright green colour, and so very flexi-
ble, that one would have taken them at first sight for alcyonia.
The outermost divisions of the branches were for ‘the most
part very small, transparent, and almost destitute of 'caleareous \
matter ; others had a thin white covering, often confined to par-
ticular places, and were still flexible, though ina less degree.
The lowest portions of the branches appeared the oldest, both
externally and by their calcareous interior, and had the leathery

texture we gencrally observe in specimens of the C. opuntia pre-
4

Prof. Schweigger’s on the Corallina opuntia. 221

served in museums. On dividing the green stalks, a number of
filaments and a bright green parenchymatous substance could
be distinguished with the naked eye. Under the microscope,
the filaments appeared as succulent fibres or soft narrow bands
interwoven and branched irregularly. In the recent state, the
filaments had a great resemblance to the soft fibres of the Alcy-
onium bursa, Linn. (now considered a plant) ; as they became
dry however, particularly in the older branches which had har-
dened by their copious deposit of calcareous matter, the fila-
ments appeared jointed, and this was especially observed in the
latter, on removing the lime by means of mitric acid. In this
state their resemblance to the filaments of conferve: and the ves-
sels of fuci was obvious. The vegetable nature of the Cor.
opuntia, appeared still more distinct in its general structure.
The outer covering appeared under the microscope, uniform
or striated longitudinally, the striae being composed of short ca-
nals or cells ranged above each other in irregular lines. These
lines are undoubtedly mere remains of the cellular texture left
attached to the inner surface on removing the covering. The
structure of the cellular substance distinctly indicates this coral-
line to belong to the vegetable kingdom. The parenchyma is
seen to be composed partly of globular, partly of pentagonal or
hexagonal cells, precisely as we find it in the generality of plants,
but never in animals. The soft filaments above described are
extended between these cells. The younger the branch is, the
more distinct is this structure, the cells in the young state be-
ing soft and green ; but, after the lime is deposited in the cellu-
lar tissue, the cells become almost undistinguishable ; by remo-
ving the lime with acids, however, they are brought again into
view, more or less distinctly, according to the age of the branch.
In young portions we discover a number of minute granules in
the cellular texture between the filaments. They are not perceiv-
ed in older branches; and, even when the lime is removed, they
are still either imperceptible, or are observed in much smaller
quantity than in the former. ‘These granules are obviously not
caleareous, since they do not disappear when the young branch
is immersed in nitric acid. In their general appearance, and
in the circumstance of their collecting principally in the young-
est portions, they exhibit a striking resemblance to the granular

222 Professor Schweigger on the ¢

matter observed in the cellular substance of plants, especially im
the youngest shoots, but which likewise becomes less as the
plants advance in growth.. This species of coralline can be re-
garded therefore only as a marine plant, composed, like many
other plants, of distinct articulations, but which gradually as-
sumes the appearance of a coral by the deposition of lime in its
interior.

The structure of the other corallines is similar to that of the
C. opuntia, excepting that, in proportion as the articulated
parts become smaller, the cells are less numerous, and the coral-
line is found to consist almost entirely of filaments and calca~
reous matter. The Corallina rubens, Lam. was frequently exa-
mined by Schweigger in the Mediterranean, particularly in the
Gulf of Spezzia, where he often collected transparent young
specimens. These are distinctly composed of parallel filaments,
which extend through the joints and digitations without inter-
ruption from one end to the other. The delicacy of these young
plants did not admit of their being divided by a longitudinal
section, which was likewise unnecessary from the branches being
sufficiently transparent when examined singly. No trace of the
cells cf polypi could be detected, nor any resemblance to the
structure of those zoophytes which contain polypi. The whole
plant may be considered as a petrified conferva, having gradual-
ly become consolidated in the course of its growth. ‘The struc-
ture of the Corallina officinalis, which abounds in the Medi-
terranean, is similar to that of the C. rubens, but is more diffi-
cult to examine, as it becomes consolidated more quickly, and
in ahigher degree. Schweigger never found this species trans-
parent, but when he immersed it in acids, and examined it un-
der the microscope, it exhibited the same kind of structure as
the other corallines, though not so distinctly.

The deposition of calcareous matter in the corallines appears
to proceed from the surface inwards. The outer covering is
observed opaque at particular places, as if inerusted, while the
substance within is green throughout, and contains little lime.
The calcareous deposition proceeds more and more towards the
interior, the green colour and cellular structure disappear ; but,
at the commencement of this calcifying process, the vegetable

cellular structure can be quickly and distinctly reproduced by
3

Anatomy of the Corallina opuntia. 223

means of acids. The deposition of lime begins with the very
first appearance of the branches, the minutest stalks of the Cor.
opuntia were found to contain some lime, the quantity of
which increased as the branches grew.

Cavolini observed on the surface of corallines minute fibres
filled with granular bodies, which he took for seeds. They
were likewise seen by Olivi, who thence inferred that they came
chiefly from the joints. It is evident, however, that they are on-
ly filaments of conferva, the ends of which are often covered,
and imbedded in the substance of the coralline, and they fre-
quently remain attached to it, even after the lime has been re-
moved by acids. Lamouroux likewise observed these filaments,
and found them capable of spontaneous motion. The latter ob-
servation reminds us of a similar fact mentioned by Covalini,
who observed the Sertularia,fustigiata, covered with filaments
which possessed spontaneous motion. In specimens of the Cor.
opuntia, which Schweigger had preserved in spirits, he discover-
ed similar filaments, which he had looked for in vain in those
recent from the sea. They appeared under the microscope like
tubes interrupted by small knots. The knots, however, on apply-
ing higher magnifying powers, were found to be tranverse parti-
tions, lying parallel to each other at short distances: the fila-
ments had altogether the appearance of conferve. Should they
be regarded as such, there is nothing remarkable in their
spontaneous motions, since similar motions have often been
seen in confervee, and are described by Vaucher and other wri-
ters. ‘The mere resemblance, however, is not conclusive as to
their being distinct conferva:, since they have likewise the clos-
est resemblance to the filaments within the coralline. They are
probably continuations of the inner substance, like those pro-
jecting from the Cellaria cercoides, upper roots, (/uftwurzeln,
air-roots), appearances presented by confervee ; and the whole
coralline consists of cells and conferva-filaments. Ellis observ-
ed in the substance of corallines minute vesicles which he sup-
posed to be air-vesicles, destined to preserve the coralline erect
in the water. ‘They were likewise seen by Lamouroux ; but as
he frequently observed round bodies in them, he considered
them ovaria. From the foregoing account of the structure of
the corallines, there can scarcely be a doubt that these vesicles

224 Mr Blackadder on the Constitution of Flame.

are only cells which have not been filled with calcareous mat-
ter, and that the supposed ova are the usual granular mat-
ter of the cellular substance.—Communication from Dr Granvt.

On the Constitution of Flame. By H. Home Brackapper,
Esq. F. R. S. E. (Communicated by the Author.)

Even at the present day, the constitution of an ordinary
flame would seer to be but very imperfectly understood ; at
least the following notice, of a very recent date, would naturally
lead to such a conclusion. ‘* It appears, from a series of expe-
riments by Mr Davies of Manchester, that there is considerable
foundation for the opinion of Mr Sym, that the flame of a can-
dle is a conical surface, the interior of which is not luminous, a
section of the flame bemg a luminous ring surrounding an ob-
scure disc *.”. Hence, it would appear, that, within the present
year, it has only been considered as probable, that the flame of
a candle is a cone of gas or vapour in a state of combustion at
its surface ; and a determination of this point may well be con-
sidered the very first step in a scientific investigation of the sub-
ject. Though some may be of opinion that this point does not
require determination, I shall describe a very simple method,
with which I have long been familiar. For this purpose a blow-
pipe is all that is necessary ; and one made of glass, having a
hollow bulb near its distant extremity, is the most suitable.
When the point of the instrument is introduced into the centre
of a spirit flame, and the operation of suction is performed, the
luminous cone is observed to diminish, or contract in proportion
to the degree of suction that is applied ; and by thus extracting
the vapour from the interior of the flame, the latter may readily
be extinguished. In performing this suction, even with a short
tube, the operator is exposed to no risk, farther than that of in-
haling a quantity of alcohol in the state of vapour; and, unless
the operation be unnecessarily prolonged or repeated, this is not
apt to be followed by any sensible effects. When, after suction

* Journal of Science for 1826.

Mr Blackadder on the Constitution of Flame. 225

has been applied, the instrument is removed from the flame, it
is found to contain alcoholic vapour, and which, when lighted,
on being slowly expelled by the breath, gives a blue flame at
the point of the blowpipe. If, instead of performing suction
by the mouth, the tube, inserted in the flame, be connected
with a vessel full of mercury, and the latter be allowed slowly
to escape, any quantity of vapour may be collected from conical
flames. When an accurate analysis is to be made of this va-
pour, it is necessary to fill the tube as well as the vessel with
mercury, and to abstract the air that is mixed with the combus-
tible fluid. It is also to be recollected, that a small quantity of
air always remains between the surface of the mercury, and the
glass vessel. In making use of a blowpipe in the way described,
with the flame of a candle or oil lamp, it is preferable, for rea-
sons that will afterwards appear, to perform the suction by
means of a syringe, or a bag of elastic gum. In this case, a
dense white vapour is observed to fall in a continued stream,
into the hollow bulb of the instrument, the flame at the same
time contracts, and when the extracted vapour is lighted, it
burns with a white flame. When this vapour is in the interior
of the flame, it is kept at a high temperature, aid is then per-
fectly transparent, but the instant its temperature is very slight-
ly reduced, as by touching the upper part of the wick with the
point of a small wire, it acquires a milky whiteness ; and hence,
when falling in a stream from a tube, it is so dense as to resem-
ble an opaque liquid. By means of an Argand lamp, without a
wick, the burner being made of Reaumeur’s porcelain, this va-
pour may be procured pure and in great abundance; but the
following method is more simple, and is abundantly productive.
A glass-vessel, having a wide mouth, and a perforation in its
bottom, is converted into a lamp with a circular wick. ‘The cen-
tral eanal which supports the wick is made of glass-tube, not less
than the eighth of an inch in diameter, and which is left projeet-
ing below the body of the lamp. On lighting a lamp of this de-
scription, air does not rise through the tube ; but, in the course
of a few seconds, masses of dense white vapour are seen falling
down through it, and these are soon followed by a continued
stream, which flows copiously from its lower orifice. On some
occasions it is discharged in the form of beautiful rings, or loop-
JULY—ocToBER 1826. P

226 Mr Blackadder on the Constitution of Flame.

ed curves variously modified, and which proceed from the same
cause as the pulsatory motion of the flame. On approaching 2
flame to this vapour it readily catches fire, and burns with a
white flame, which is in an inverted position. The tube may
be bent so as to give an upright flame, and by having several -
tubes in the form of branches, all on the same level, the lamp
may thus be surrounded with jets of white flame. This va-
pour may also be made to protrude from the tube in a eylin-
drical form, like a white taper, with a flame confined to its up-
per extremity. As the ambient air is usually agitated, this va-
poury taper exhibits singular motions; and as its flame may
be tinged successively with various colours, by slight alterations
or additions at the wick from which the vapour proceeds, it
presents rather an interesting appearance. When a mixture of
volatile oil is used to produce this vapour, it affords an oppor-
tunity of illustrating the theory of certain meteors supported by
M. de Lue and others. Narrow cylindrical masses rise in the
air, and when these are inflamed at one of their extremities,
they burn rapidly, giving the appearance of luminous balls tra-
versing or descending through the air. On introducing the ex-
tremity of the glass-tube into a glass receiver, the vapour falls to
the bottom of the vessel, being, as formerly stated, more like a
milky liquid than a gaseous body ; and any quantity may thus
be collected. White light is extricated when it is exploded
with atmospheric air; but, when agitated with water, until it is
quite transparent, it gives a blue flame. It differs in no res-
pect from the vapour obtained from the centre of the flame in
the way formerly described ; and when the circular wick is pro-
perly adjusted, it appears to consist of carburetted hydrogen,
heavily loaded with oil in the state of vapour; but the wick
may be so arranged as to cause an admixture of carbonic acid
gas, either in very minute quantity, or so great as to render the
vapour incombustible, as it issues from the central tube. When
oil is burned, the white part of the abstracted vapour conden-
ses into an amber coloured oil; and, when tallow is burned, it
is deposited in the form of a white powder, which adheres to
the sides of the vessel, or forms a cake on the surface of water.
The inhalation of this-vapour, even when much diluted, pro-
duces an oppressive headache ; and hence it is not advisable to

Mr Blackadder on the Constitution of Flame. 227

abstract it from the interior of a flame by suction with the
mouth. It has, besides, a very offensive odour.

It has already been stated, that, when the vapour issues in
a full stream, it burns with a white flame similar to that of a
candle. When the flow of vapour is gradually increased from
the smallest quantity that will maintain combustion to the com-
plete evolution of the flame, the appearances that are successive-
ly exhibited are not unworthy of attention.

At first the flame is but slightly convex, and, as viewed
from above, there is an exterior ring of a misty blue colour,
then a very narrow ring of purple, within that a broad ring of a
bright blue colour, and in its centre a circular spot of a sea-
green colour, at times very distinct. The green tinge is evi-
dently produced by the commencing extrication of yellow light,
which, when first perceived, is faint, and has the appearance of
a yellow fluid, in a state of slow ebullition. As the flow of va-
pour increases, the boiling motion becomes more apparent, then
ceases, and as the yellow light rises in a small cone in the cen-
tre, the green either disappears, or, for a short time, forms a
circle around it. If at this stage of the flame, it be viewed
transversely, there is observed a narrow line extending over the
yellow cone, which has a very bright purple colour, and which
seems to correspond to the broad, dark-blue arch that is ob-
served in the flame of alcohol. By directing a momentary
puff of air against the flame of the circular wick, the flame
of the vapour is in the course of a few seconds considerably
modified. -A number of bright yellow lines are seen projecting
from the flame, and which proceed from particles of charcoal,
that have been formed in the circular flame, being mixed with
the descending vapour, and becoming ignited in passing through
the flame at the lower orifice of the glass-tube. As these par-
ticles pass through the bright purple line above described, they
exhibit a beautiful crimson colour. Does the bright purple light
derive its origin from the formation and combustion of cyano-
gen, or is it derived from the carbon, as is observed during the
combustion of diamond in oxygen gas? As the flow of vapour
increases, the flame expands, but it is still of a yellow colour, nor
is the white light extricated, until an interior cone is formed,
whose base is above the blue portion of the flame.

P2

928 Mr Blackadder on the Constitution of Flame.

The flame of a candle differs but little from that of the vas
pour, or that of oi! burned without a wick. For, after the wick
is carbonized, as long as it is completely enveloped by the flame,
and is not in contact with it, it undergoes no particular change.
The charcoal becomes more consolidated, but none of it. seems
to escape, or to be carried off by the vapour ; and hence, on the
present occasion, the wick may be viewed simply as a porous
solid, projecting into the centre of the flame. In such a flame
as that of a candle, the following parts may be distinguished :

1st, A blue portion, which extends from the base to about
the middle of the flame. Its extent may, in most cases, be
traced by the eye, but its height may always be determined by
means of a blowpipe. This may be termed the essential part
of the flame, which may exist without the white light, but with-
out which the latter cannot be produced. It is at least prinei-
pally at this part of the flame that water is formed by the
anion of hydrogen, with the oxygen of the atmosphere.

Qdly, An attenuated opaline brush over the whole exterior
surface of the blue part.of the flame. This brush can readily
be distinguished as high as the middle of the flame, where the
blue portion terminates ; and perhaps, strictly speaking, it does
not extend higher. But, from its apparent termiation to the
apex of the flame, there is a somewhat similar, but extremely
attenuated brush, which has a dusky yellow colour, readily dis-
tinguished in smail flames, but seldom to be observed in large
flames, without the aid of opaque skreens. How this opaline
brush is produced, or in what it differs from the other parts of
the flame, remains perhaps to be determined. From the blue
part of the flame, water is very copiously discharged in the form
of steam. When a polished piece of metal is approached to it,
even at its base, there is a copious and instantaneous deposition
of moisture on its surface. It 1s not improbable, therefore, that
the brush is produced mechanically by the steam as it issues
from the flame ; and this would enable us to account for its be-
coming nearly invisible above the blue portion of the flame of a
candle, and for its presence over the whole surface of a blue
flame, such as that of alcohol.

3dly, A cone of yellowish white light, commencing on the
inner surface, and at a short distance from the base of the blue:
portion. On the inner surface of the blue portion, this cone is

Mr Blackadder on the Constitution of Flame. 226

so attenuated, that, on looking at an object, such as a slip of
paper, through the middle of the lower half of the flame, it is
seen as through glass, or other transparent media. Hence,
when the flame is viewed at a distance, an oval space is obser-
ved around the wick, which has a dusky or non-luminous ap-
pearance ; but, when more closely examined, ]uminous particles
of a yellowish white colour are observed on its interior surface,
and which appear to move rapidly in parallel lines, and from
‘below upwards. This oval space serves to point out the exact
height to which the blue portion of the flame extends, and the part
of the flame which alone contains the white vapour formerly de-
scribed.

4thly, An interior cone of white light, the base of which is
above the upper part of the blue portion. This is the whitest,
most Juminous, and last evolved part of the flame. When the
combustion is moderate, and the wick properly adjusted, the
apex of this cone remains within that of the exterior cone; but
it almost constantly exhibits a disposition to protrude, and then
produces the appearance of a notch or break on each side of the
apex of the flame. Beyond a certain extent, however, it can-
not thus protrude, without interrupting the process of combus-
tion at the upper part of the flame. More or less charcoal is
then discharged, in the form of soot, and which, in becoming
partially ignited, gives out light of a brown or reddish yellow co-
lour; and it may be remarked, that it is the exterior cone that
first and principally exhibits the effects of this interruption.

In the interior of the upper half of the flame, or in that
which, for the sake of distinction might be termed its upper
chamber, there is present a vapour of peculiar properties, and
which is altogether different from that which is found in the
lower chamber, or within the blue portion. When the vapour
referred to is collected, it has a misty appearance from the pre-
sence of minute particles of charcoal, and even remains slightly
obscured, after having been repeatedly agitated with water. No
oil or water is deposited from it, and though it has a suffocating
odour, it is altogether free of the offensive smell proper to the
dense vapour formerly described. It would be desirable to as-
certain the exact chemical nature of this vapour, but such: an
analysis is not unattended with difficulty, and other pursuits of
a professional nature, present too many obstacles to such an jn,

230 Mr Blackadder on the Constitution of' Flame.

vestigation. When a jet of it is projected above the apex,
or on the opaline brush of a blue spirit flame, streaks of reddish
brown light make their appearance, if projected through the
brush, so as to come into contact with the bright blue part of
the flame, light of a golden yellow is extricated ; but, when the
jet is forced into the interior, so as to strike on the inner surface
of the blue flame, the light that is given out is similar to the
yellowish-white light of a candle. 'There cannot be a doubt
that these appearances depend on the presence of minute parti-
cles of charcoal, which are brought to various degrees of igni-
tion in different parts of the flame; but the relation which the
carbon has to the vapour has not been accurately determined.
Between the point of the tube, and the place where the yellow
light is extricated, there is sometimes observed an attenuated
blue flame, and some of the charcoal, is merely in a state of sus-
pension. When projected from a wide orifice at the base of a
blue spirit flame, almost the whole surface of the latter appears
as if spotted with minute spangles of a brilliant golden colour.
In this case, none of the vapour enters at the hase of the flame,
so as to mix with the cone of alcoholic vapour in the interior ;
for, in that case, streaks of yellow light would appear at its apex,
similar to what was stated to take place with the flame of the
white vapour, after a puff of air had been directed against the
circular wick. The vapour, however, may be made to enter at
the base of a spirit flame, by directing a jet from a small orifice
between it and the glass burner. The vapour then rises through
the centre of the cone, and streaks of yellow light appear at its
apex. To produce this effect, the jet must be small, and urged
with considerable force ; and we may therefore conclude, that,
on ordinary occasions, atmospheric air is not mixed with the va-
pour in the interior of a flame. This, however, may be other-
wise and more accurately determined. A flame is extinguished
in the interior of another flame. This may readily be deter-
mined by means of a glass burner: thus, pass the glass burner
of a lamp through a cork in the bottom of a glass or porcelain
vessel, the diameter of which may be one inch, or several inches,
but whose depth does not necessarily exceed the fourth of an
inch. Fill the vessel with alcchol, or strong ardent spirits, and
having lighted the lamp, raise the vessel on the glass burner to
about the fourth of an inch from its orifice, when the alcohol

Mr Blackadder on the Constitution of Flame. 251

will inflame. The flame of the oil that is burned in the lamp
will be extinguished ; but the flame of the alcohol will evaporate
the oil as it issues from the burner, and this vapour, on coming
into contact with the inner surface of the blue flame, will under-
go combustion, giving out much white light. In such a case,
the cone of white light from the combustion of the vapour of
oil, keeps distinct from the white light of the flame of the alco-
holie vapour.

This experiment has been repeated in a variety of ways,
and the result has always been the same; and hence we are ne-
cessarily led to the conclusion, that the vapour in the interior of
a flame is incapable of supporting combustion. It is certain,
however, that some oxygen is always present in that vapour,
for oils and alcoholic fluids always contain some air in a state of
mechanical admixture ; and oxygen is understood to be a consti-
tuent part of all of them. ‘

The apex of a spirit flame is the hottest, or is the part at
which a solid body is raised to the highest temperature; and
partly for this reason, that less heat is carried off by the air
with which the solid body is surrounded, than at the other parts
of the flame—the vapour discharged from the flame bemg
itself at a very high temperature *. The upper part of the flame
of a candle communicates less heat to a solic body than its middle
part, where the blue portion terminates. ‘This seems to pro-
ceed, in some measure, from the deficiency of hydrogen in the
upper and most luminous part of the flame ; and hence, at that
part a blowpipe, the use of which infers a greater supply of air,
has comparatively but a trifling effect.

When the opaque white vapour formerly described is burned,
80 as to produce a white conical flame, the vapour is observed to
project into the interior of the flame like a white wick, tapering to
a small point; hence, of a supposed transverse section of a flame,
the coldest point would be in the centre. Much heat is con-
sumed at the inferior part of a flame ; the burner or wick-hold-
er carries off no inconsiderable quantity, and much is consumed
in converting the combustible body into vapour. It is an old
observation, that a common lamp will burn in air that will ex-

* In the centre of a conical spirit flame, the heat diminishes from the apex to
the mouth of the burner, near which glass acquires what is termed a dark cherry
red,

232 Mr Blackadder on the Constitution of Flame.

tinguish a candle, and from this it might be inferred, that more
heat is consumed in converting tallow into a fluid than is carried
off by the wick-holder of a common lamp; but, in a common
lamp, much of the heat that is abstracted by the metallic wick —
holder, is communicated to the oil in the reservoir. A lamp
without a wick may readily be extinguished by abstracting heat
from the burner.

If a small stream of water, projected from a tube, be direct-
ed through the flame of a candle, the stream being made to pass
immediately above the wick, the form of the flame is thereby
scarcely affected ; white light is defective at the spot where the
water enters and comes out of the flame, and in this much only
is the combustion interrupted. On receiving the water into a
vessel, after it has passed through the flame, a film of tallow is
observed to form on its surface, and which is derived from the
vapour in the interior of the flame; part of which has been car-
ried off and condensed by the water. When the stream is di-
rected through the white part of the flame that is above the oval
space formerly mentioned, the effect produced on the flame is si-
milar ; no tallow, however, is observed on the surface of the wa-
ter; but, instead thereof, a considerable quantity of carbon, in
the form of soot, is deposited. When the water is made to pass
through the flame, near its apex, the combustion is interrupted,
and the top of the flame acquires a brown colour. The same
effect is produced by a solid body, and likewise by a stream of
air ; and hence it might appear, that the interruption of the com-
bustion was simply a consequence of the abstraction of heat ;
but the flame of a spirit-lamp, when propelled on the apex of the
flame of a candle, interrupts the combustion, and giyes the lat-
ter a brown colour, The following facts, illustrative of the ex-
trication of white light, may also be noted, When any solid
body is approached to the flame of a candle, so as to be at the
distance of about three-tenths of an inch from its surface, the
part of the flame that is immediately above, exhibits a sensi-
ble increase of white light; but when the solid body is brought
to within the tenth of an inch of the opaline brush, the space
which formerly presented an increase of white light is now alto-
gether deprived of it, the flame remaining in other respects un-
changed. The space that is deprived of white light has a rela-
tion to the form and size, but to no other property of the solid

Mr Blackadder on the Constitution of Flame. 233

body. The flame of a spirit-lamp, and a stream of cold air,
from a blowpipe, have the same effect as a solid body, in causing
the white light to disappear *. If a solid body, such as the end
of a wire, be passed through the opaline brush, so as to come
into contact with the part of the flame from which the latter
proceeds, there is observed from the point of the wire upwards,
a line, in which the quantity of white light is very distinctly in-
creased ; but on carrying the point of the wire into the interior
of the flame, the line which was in the former instance rendered
more luminous, is now rendered transparent, and is altogether
deprived of white light ; so that on passing the wire quite through
the flame, the latter appears as if mechanically divided into two
parts. By greatly diminishing the force of the current of air,
as it impinges on the lower part of a flame, that part of the lat-
ter, which, in ordinary circumstances, is altogether of a blue co-
lour, becomes nearly as luminous as the rest of the flame. This
may be illustrated, by causing a small current of air to pass in a
transverse direction, and at a small distance, from the base of
the flame, or by bringing the extremity of a small tube near to
it, and applying suction. The same effect is produced by in-
creasing the supply of vapour at the lower part of the flame.
Thus, when a small metallic ball is connected with the orifice of
a burner without a wick, or when a double burner, the one with-
in the other, is used, the usual blue light, at the base of the
flame, is scarcely perceptible. In both these cases an unusual
supply of vapour is produced at the base of the flame.

It was stated on a former occasion, that, when a vessel of wa-
ter was placed under a blue spirit-flame, and a solid body, near-
ly at a red heat, was introduced into it, the small particles of
water that were thus impelled on the exterior surface of the flame
caused an extrication of yellow light. It was also stated, that,
when small particles of water, driven by a simple mechanical im-
pulse, impinge on a blue flame, no yellow light was given out.
Particles of water may be thus discharged, by giving a whirl-
ing motion to a moist body, and in various other ways, with-
out obviously modifying the flame with which they come into

* Hence a lamp, with concentric wicks, as hitherto constructed, is not likely to
afford the degree of illumination that might be expected from the increased sur-
face of flame and consumption of dil, It is better adapted to afford an increase of
heat than of light, t

23-4 Mr Blackadder on the Constitution of Flame.

contact. But, without the assistance of heat, water, and many
other fluids, may be made to impinge on a spirit-flame, so as to
cause the extrication of yellow light. For this purpose, it is on-:
ly necessary to impel the fluid in such a way, that, in eseaping
from the vessel in which it is contained, it shall produce a whiz-
zing noise, similar to that caused by the escape of soda water
and carbonic acid gas, through the pores of a cork ; or to that
produced when a hot body is dropt into water. On sucli occasions
particles are expelled of such a size as renders their explosion
inevitable on coming into contact with the flame ; the larger par-
ticles passing through without suffering more than a slight dimi-
nution of their bulk. Thus, Jet a sinall quantity of water be in-
troduced into the hollow bulb of a glass blowpipe, and on bring-
ing the water to a level with the distant part of the tube, let air
be forced through the instrument, so as to expel water from its
point, with a whizzing noise. Thus expelled, particles of water,
alcohol, sulphuric acid, and many other fluids, cause a blue flame
to give out yellow light. A similar discharge of fluids may be
produced in various other ways, and always with the same effect ;
such as tallow mixed with water, &c. When muriate of soda is
placed in a flame it decrepitates, and the yellow light is brilliant,
in proportion to the violence of the decrepitation. The muriate
of baryta also decrepitates, though in an inferior degree. When
held near the apex of a spirit-flame, it gives out white fumes, and
these fumes give a yellow colour to flame. The presence of a li-
quid, such as water, is necessary to the formation of the fumes,
which seem to be simply particles of the salt, in a state of minute
division. It would be desirable to ascertain the effect of these
salts on the flame of a combustible, into the composition of which
hydrogen does not enter, and whose combustion is net supported
by oxygen.

When a perfectly clean rod of glass is broken in a spirit-flame,
yellow light is given out; and the same effect is produced by
grinding together the ends of two rods in the immediate vicinity
of the flame. Two pieces of pumice stone, that have been pre-
viously brought to a white heat, also cause the extrication of yel-
low light, when struck or ground close to a spirit-flame. Many
other incombustible bodies produce a similar effect ; and in such
ceases the origin of the coloured light is very obvious.

The gaseous oxide of carbon, during its combustion, gives out

Mr Blackadder on the Constitution of Flame. 235

but a very faint light, which is of a blue colour ; but when parti-
cles of carbon are presented in such a form that they can become
ignited, the colour of the light that is given out during their ig-
nition, seems to depend on the existing temperature and the sup-
ply of oxygen; it is red, yellow, or white. At a certain tempe-
rature the charcoal that is deposited from a flame seems to unite
with oxygen, without the extrication of light. Thus, if the end
of a rod of glass, that has been blackened in the flame of a can-
dle, be introduced into the centre of a spirit-flame, the charcoal
becomes red, without undergoing any farther change; but, on
withdrawing the rod from the flame, the charcoal, after becom-
ing black, is observed to disappear from the surface of the glass,
exactly in the same way that condensed aqueous vapour disap-
pears in dry air from a polished surface *. If the rod be made
to pass quickly through the air the charcoal becomes ignited ;
but more of it is not consumed than is observed to disappear when
ignition is not thus produced. The yellow light that is extricat-
ed, when solid vegetable or animal substances are brought into
contact with a blue flame, is doubtless produced by the ignition
of minute particles of charcoal. The yellow light given out when
alcoholic fluids are burned with a wick, or when minute particles
of various fluids are made to impinge on a blue spirit-flame, has,
I have reason to believe, a similar origin.—

After the preceding part of this paper was written, a first op-
portunity was had of perusing the highly interesting papers on
Combustion, by Sir H. Davy, published about ten years ago, in
the Transactions of the Royal Society of London. In these pa-
pers the researches of that celebrated chemist are stated to be
unfinished, but whether he has since that period prosecuted the
subject, I have not had the means of ascertaining. Perhaps, with-
out being guilty of presumption, it may be asked, Is the evi-
dence hitherto adduced, in support of the following opinions con-
clusive ?

« The flame of combustible bodies, in all cases, must be con-
sidered as the combustion of an explosive mixture of inflamma-
ble gas, or vapour, and air ; for it cannot be regarded as a mere

* If it were merely carried off by the current of heated air, it might be expect-
ed to be similarly carried off when in the centre of a spirit flame, for the velocity
of the’vapour is fully equal to that of the upward current of air caused by heat

eManating fromthe glass rod,

236 Dr Biichner’s Hypothesis, &c.

combustion at the surface of contact of the inflammable matter ;
and the fact is proved, by holding a taper or a piece of burning
phosphorus, within a large flame made by the combustion of al-
cohol ; the flame of the candle, or of the phosphorus, will appear
in the centre of the flame, proving that there is oxygen even in
its interior part.

‘“‘ The form of the flame is conical, because the greatest heat
is in the centre of the explosive mixture.

‘* The heat diminishes towards the top of the flame, because
in this part the quantity of oxygen is least.

‘© When the wick increases to a considerable size from collect-
ing charcoal, it cools the flame by radiation, and prevents a pro-
per quantity of air from mixing with its central part ; in conse-
quence, the charcoal thrown off from the top of the flame is only
red hot, and the greater part of it escapes unconsumed.”

Hypothesis regarding Magnetism. By Dr Bucunen.

Tue following hypothesis is proposed in the first volume of
Dr Biichner’s Elements of Chemistry, at present in the press ;
it has been inserted by the author in a German Scientific Jour-
nal, (Archiv fur die gesammte Naturlehre, 1825, No. 12.)
However bold it may be, it appears to us, that, with regard to
the subject to which it applies, nothing should be absolutely re-
jected. ‘The new analogies which it is the object here to ex-
plain, open a field entirely free to the imagination of natural
philosophers.

‘“‘ There are still,” says Dr Biichner, “ so many obscure things
in the phenomena of magnetism, that it would be rash to pre-
sent any explanation of these phenomena, otherwise than as a
mere hypothesis. We may admit as demonstrated, that the mag-
netic influences are as extensive in their operation as light, ca-
loric, and electricity, but that they are in a state of reciprocal
neutralization, which prevents their being made sensible. There
is but a small number of bodies which have the property of
breaking this state of equilibrium, and manifesting north and
south polarities. Among. these we distinguish the loadstone,
iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, &e. To what is this remarkable pro-
perty owing? Is it to a peculiar crystallisation of :these bodies,

%

Dr Biichner’s Hypothesis regarding Magnetism. 237
or rather to some defect of equilibrium in their chemical consti-
tution? Of this we are ignorant. It seems to me, that it may
be admitted, that, as light emanates from the sun toward the
earth, magnetism in return emanates from the earth toward the
sun, in a state of neutralization in the equatorial zone, which
receives the greatest quantity of light, and in a state of polariza-
tion toward the poles of the globe, which receive the least of it.
It cannot be refused to admit, that light, caloric, electricity and
magnetism, are in a certain mutual relation of causality : the ques-
tion is merely, what is this relation? The following hypothesis
appears to me the most simple and most natural.

*« The planets receive from the sun light and electricity m the
neutral state; they decompose these principles, and reproduce,
in their turn, caloric, and the two polarised electric principles.
But caloric dilates bodies, and breaks im them the equilibrium
of their cohesion, and of their chemical constitution. Then ca-
lorie itself undergoes a modification, which is stiil enigmatieal to
us, in virtue of which it is transformed into magnetism. All
ponderable bodies are conductors of magnetism, for which they
appear to have little affinity. Organised and living bodies, such
as our own, are sensible to light and heat ; but we want a sense
for the magnetism with which we are constantly surrounded and
penetrated: hence the difficulty of understanding this agent
aright. If we inhabited the sun, perhaps, in place of a sense
for perceiving light, we should possess a sense for perceiving
magnetism.

‘** In the present hypothesis, magnetism would not emanate
from the earth only, but also from all bodies in the universe that
are illuminated by the sun. We may consider as proofs of these
magnetic emanations; 1st, The magnetic currents which are
established in the conducting wire of an electro-chemical appa-
ratus, or in a thermo-magnetic metal ; for the earth itself, con-
sidered in this point of view, is nothing else than a great thermo-
magnetic apparatus ; and, 2dly, the circumstance that, in the most
elevated regions of the earth’s atmosphere which man has hither-
to been able to attain, the magnetic needle remains as strongly
] eros at the very surface of the globe.

** Further, if we reason according to the ordinary laws of na-
_ ture, we canuot regard it as probable that the planets, placed as
- they are right opposite to the sun, act an entirely passive part.

aaa a

238 Dr Biichner’s Hypothesis regarding Magnetism.

We see every where in the universe mutual changes taking place;
why should the sun, on its part, be always giving, and never re-
ceiving any thing in compensation? If it were so, notwithstand-
ing the magnitude of its mass, the productive power of light
which it possesses would necessarily diminish, after a lapse of
some thousands of years, while the earth and the other planets
would be supersaturated with light and heat. Now, this is what
we do not see happening. It appears to me much more pro-
bable, that there must prevail, with respect to this, in the plane-
tary system, a continued order and a periodical return. The
sun might be considered as the heart of this system ; a common
principle would emanate from this centre under the form of light,
and would flow toward the planets, as the arterial blood flows to-
ward the extremities ; it would there be successively transformed
into caloric, electricity and magnetism. In this latter state, it
would flow back toward the sun, as the venous blood flows back
toward the heart, to be reconverted into a state of light, by a mo-
dification the inverse of the first. Perhaps mathematicians might
even seek the cause of the laws which regulate the motions of
the celestial bodies, in this alternate transportation of light to-
ward the planets, and of magnetism toward the sun. We see
motion result from analogous currents in the rotatory electro-
magnetic apparatus.” —B2bl. Universelle.

On the Construction of Meteorological Instruments, so as to as-
certain their indications, during absence, at any given instant,
or at successive intervals of time. With a Plate.

Evarty last summer a paper, by Mr H. H. Blackadder, was
read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in which was de-
scribed the mode of constructing meteorological instruments so
as to determine their indications, during absence, at any given
instant, or at successive intervals of time. One instrument, of

this construction, was exhibited, whic teal toad t in np use

for upwards of a og a hich had oe
fect satisfaction. ‘ae ae consisting of several therm
meters or atmizo h a. was at the same time exhibi- _
ted, nearly complete andy means of which, with three in-

°F

On the Construction of Meteorological Instruments. 239

spections in the course of the day, the atmospheric temperature,
and (on the principle of the late celebrated Dr Hutton) its hu-
midity, for every hour of the day and night, could be readily
and exactly determined. For a particular account of this new
mode of constructing a meteorological apparatus, the reader is
referred to the last volume of the Transactions of the Royal So-
ciety. The present notice is chiefly confined to ‘an explana-
tion of the figures, Plate IV., where certain forms of ‘construc-
tion are represented, and which will render the practical appli-
cation of the principle easily apprehended.

The possession of a single thermometer, constructed on this
principle, renders the keeping of an accurate thermometrical re-
gister a comparatively easy task, as the observer is freed from
the irksome necessity of being always at home and disengaged
at certain fixed hours. This freedom, be it also observed, is at-
tainable at a very trifling expence ; and at a very small addi-
tional expence, two thermometers and hygrometers may be thus
constructed, and by means of these, an accurate and valuable
register may be kept with very little inconvenience. In compa-
rison with the usual method, it would be found an agreeable
amusement rather than a labour, tolerable to very few, and easy
to none.

Explanation of Plate IV.

Fig. 1. Represents an apparatus applicable to various pur-
poses, and, among others, that of ascertaining the tempe-
rature, or the temperature and humidity, of the atmosphere
every successive hour of the day and night. For this purpose,
only three inspections in the course of the day are requisite ;
for example, at 7 a. m., 4 p. m. and 11 rv. m.

a, Seven thermometers suspended on rollers or hinges ; four are
in one row in front, and are represented in their vertical po-
sition ; the other three are suspended about an inch and a-half
behind these, and are seen in their horizontal position.

These thermometers are, on the present occasion, supposed to be
made with old, colourless, and carefully filtrated spirit, that
has been deprived of air. The index may be very minute,
and, consequently, the bulb small, which last is an important
consideration. The tube should admit of the spirit rising to
about 140° Fahrenheit, though it may be unnecessary to di-
vide the scale much above 100+.

240

b,

C;

d,

On the Construction of Meteorological Instruments.

b, Seven valves, four of which are shut, and threeopen. They
exclude rain, snow, &c. and confine the heat in seven short
tubes, which receive the bulbs of the instruments, when these
are in their horizontal position.

A glass frame or screen for protecting the bulbs of the instru-
ments when in the vertical position. The wooden frame of
the apparatus is varnished, so as to be completely water-proof.
A lamp giving out no smoke or soot.

e, A chimney.
The temperature of the instruments, when they have received

a

their horizontal position, may be kept above that of the at-
mosphere in various ways; as by causing water, or ardent
spirits and sulphuric acid, to distil slowly from separate re-
servoirs, and through capillary tubes, on the bulbs of the in-
struments. An index may even be fixed to its place at any
given instant by means of a magnet, and an artificial supply
of heat be thus dispensed with ; but, in general, a lamp will
be found most convenient. On many occasions, however, even
a lamp is unnecessary, provided the air of a moderately warm
room has free access into the vapour chamber, A, fig. 2.; par-
ticularly if the communication be such as to favour a constant
circulation of air.

J, An index for marking the hour or time at which the regis-

tering commences after each inspection. The outer circle is
divided into seven equal parts, and is fixed to the wooden
frame. The inner circle slides on the outer, and is divided into
twenty-four parts, corresponding with the twelve hours of the
day and night. If, for example, it is wished, at 9 4. m., to as-
certain the temperature each hour, for seven hours in succes-
sion, the index is made to point to 7 on the outer circle, and
10 a.m. on the inner circle is brought opposite to 1 on the
outer circle.

The axis of the index projects so as_to admit of its being connect-

Fig.

ed with a small time-piece or table-clock, by means of a small
rod which may be removed at pleasure. When the appara-
tus is fixed on the outside of a window, the small rod passes
through a perforation in the frame of the window, the time-
piece being placed on a table within the room, and the two
may be thus adjusted in less than half a minute.

2. represents the interior mechanism of the apparatus.

a, A eylinder, around which, at equal distances, and in two spi-

ral lines, are seven projecting pins. The index /f, fig. 1. is

Fig.

On the Construction of Meteorological Instruments. 241
fixed on the axle of this cylinder.

_b&. Seven levers moving on a common wire at c, each supported

by a small spring d.
e, e, Small catches for retaining the instruments in an upright
or inclined position.

f, Awire, represented by a dotted line to g, which keeps the

valve 4, fig. 1., shut when the instrument is vertical, and al-
lows it to open when the instrument is moving to a horizontal
position. There is one such wire for each instrument.

h, The vapour chamber, which is an oblong tin-box, connected
in front with the lamp d, fig. 1., and at the other extremity
with a narrow bent tube m, which terminates in the chimney
e, fig. 1. The vapour chamber is at some distance from the
wooden frame, and the space between them is filled with cot-
ton or powdered charcoal.

n,n, Are thin metallic tubes which project into the vapour
chamber, and are shut at their under extremities.

p; p, p, Are small bent levers, which, by means of short springs,
elevate the valves b, 6, when these are freed by the wires ff.

3. Represents a section of a small apparatus which may be
carried in the pocket.

a, The frame or case.

b, Two slips of metal bearing each a thermometer and atmi-
zomic-hygrometer, with a separate scale for each.

c, A lever kept in its place by the spring d, and sabinthinig b in
a vertical position by means of a catch.

e, A revolving cylinder, with two projecting pins for depressing
the levers. When the apparatus is used, the cylinder is put

in motion by means of a pocket time-piece.

J, The vapour chamber.

g, A glass-vessel containing rain or distilled water, and which
»may be raised or lowered on the upright stem h.

i, A small glass-tube, having attached to its under extremity a
soft hair pencil, through which the water, in the glass-vessel,
slowly distils, so as to keep the bulbs of the atmizomic hy-
grometers constantly moist. There may be a separate tube
for each instrument, or one tube may terminate in two or
more branches, each mounted with its brush. The tube slides
up or down through a cork in the glass-vessel, so as to regu-
late or stop the flow of water.

JULY—ocToBER 1826, e

242 On the Construction of Meteorological Instruments,

When a thermometer is converted inte an atmizomie hygrome-
ter, it has been the practice to cover the bulb of the instrument with
soft cambric or silk, for the purpose of extending the nfvisture over
its surface. But though this contrivance certainly answers the
purpose, it is attended with considerable inconvenience ; for if rain
or distilled water is not used, the -cloth soon becomes loaded with
calcareous and other earthy matter deposited from the water * ;
and even when the purest water is used, the instrument soon be-
comes loaded with all kinds of dust, lime, soot, &c. When the bulb
has become thus incrusted, it is desirable, if not requisite, to renew
the bibulous covering ; a troublesome operation, which cannot be
effected without considerable risk ef breaking the instrument ; and
which is particularly objectionable in the case of slender, and ex-
tremely fragile air thermometers.

This bibulous covering may be got rid of, by having the bulb of
the instrument made rough by means of fine emery, with or without
the aid of fluoric acid ; and by keeping up a constant supply of al-
kalized water, by means of a capillary glass tube, fitted with a soft
hair pencil, and connected with a suitable reservoir.

It would seem, however, that an imperfection attaches to the dif-
ferential hygrometer, which does not appear to have been particularly
adverted to by writers on meteorology. It has been admitted, that
moisture is deposited from the atmosphere on glass at a time when
the former is not saturated with aqueous vapour. Hence when a
differential thermometer is used as a hygrometer, and when, as has
hitherto been the case, the naked bulb of the instrument is left free-
ly exposed to the air, it cannot be ascertained, in the evening for ex-
ample, whether the air is or is not saturated, for moisture will be de-
posited (as it appears) on the naked bulb before the air is saturated ;
and when the naked bulb: has moisture condensed on its surface,
the instrument no longer acts as a hygrometer. Perhaps this im-
perfection might be remedied by keeping the surface of the naked
bulb coated with a thin layer of a fixed oil that freezes at a low tem-
perature ; but this would render it a very complicated instrument.

*The deposition, from the water in this city, seems to be much more
copious now than it was some years ago.

( 243)

~ Some mechanical Inquiries regarding the Formation of the
Tails of Comets. By Dr Leumayn of Berlin *.

eee attempts have been made to explain the formation
of the tails of comets. The extraordinary aspect of those bo-
dies, by exciting the imagination of natural philosophers, has
often drawn them into hypotheses which have run wide of all
the known laws of nature. I propose to inquire here, if the
form of the tails of comets, and their changes, may not be ex-
plained by means of known powers and mechanical laws only, in
the same manner as the flux and reflux of the sea are explained
by means of gravitation alone.

Comets do not differ essentially from planets, with respect to
their motions, but the eccentricity of the orbit which they de-
scribe is much more considerable than that of the orbit of the
planets, so that their course is accomplished in a curve, which
differs little from a parabola or a hyperbola. The planets on
which we can observe spots, turn at the same time upon their axis
as the earth does. The satellites in their motion always present,
like the moon, one and the same side to the planet round which
they move, the time of their rotation being the same as that
of their circulation round the planet. That this agreement is
not an effect of chance, but must have resulted, ia the case of
our moon, from the circumstance that its mass is larger toward
the hemisphere which it presents to us +, is what has been plain-
ly demonstrated by the celebrated La Place, in his Mecanique
Celeste (L. V. Pl 2.)t.

If we return to the comets, we shall see that two cases may
present themselves, with respect to their revolution round an
axis. This revolution is performed, either like that of the planets,
in such a manner as that they present all the parts of their sur-
face in succession to the sun, or, like that of the satellites, in
such a manner as that they always turn the same hemisphere
toward that star. It is demonstrated upon mechanical princi-

* Astronom. Jahrbuch, Berlin, 1826 ; and Biblioth Universelle, Mars 1826,

+ In consequence of the earth’s attraction, and of the circumstance that the
mass of the moon must have been originally fluid.

} It being understood that, at the commencement, the times of these two mo-
tions did not differ in any considerable quantity. This explanation is originally

due to La Grange.
Q 2

244. Dr Lehmanit’s Inquiries regarding

ples, that no third case can exist. Now, it is easy to see, that a
comet which should turn round its axis, in the first of these
ways, could not have a tail ;. for, if we suppose that some parts
of the atmosphere of the comet’ were upon the point of extend-
ing, over a larger space of the side opposite the sun, than of any
other side, they would be immediately displaced by the rotatory
motion, since they must possess this motion in common with the
nucleus. It may therefore be admitted, that, before a comet
can have a tail, it must necessarily always present the same side
to the sun. Knowing that some comets shew no trace of a tail,
while others acquire one near their perihelion, we may consider
it as established, that the former turn in the manner of planets,
and the others in the manner of satellites. But if a comet al-
ways present the same side to the sun, it can only be, because
it has a greater mass ‘on the side which it thus presents, than
on the opposite side, as La Place has demonstrated with respect
to the mosn. = Tts centre of gravity will therefore be: found: be-
tween the centre of figure of the nucleus and the sun, and nothing
prevents us from supposing this centre of gravity near the sur-
face of the nucleus.

The accelerating forces, to which each particle of the atmos-
phere of a comet will be subjected, are the following, 1st, The
power of expansion ; 2dly, The gravitation toward the sun ;
3dly, The gravitation toward the nucleus; 4¢thly, The attrac-
tion of all the other particles of the atmosphere. |

The fourth of these powers is so feeble, that, in our inquiry,
it may be considered as an infinitely smal} quantity, on account
of the extreme rarity of such an atmosphere. ‘The same might
almost be said of the gravitation toward the nucleus ; for this nu-
cleus has soa, little density, that even when it is in proximity toa
planet, it exercises no appreciable attraction upon it. This is a
circumstance which may be verified by the comet of 1770,
which approached the earth to a distance only seven times great-
er than that of the moon, without producing any sensible action
upon it. However, the parts of a cometary atmosphere, which
are near the nucleus, are so situated, that we cannot neglect the
attraction which this nucleus exercises upon them. ‘There re-
main, therefore, three powers acting upon this atmosphere ; the
power of expansion, the gravitation toward the sun, and the gra-
vitation toward the nucleus. Let us decompose cach of these

the Formation of the Tails of Coinets. 245

forces into two others, and of which one is parallel to the radius
vector ; there are, then, six forces, of which we have only to con-
sider the three that act in the direction of the radius vector. We
shall consider the nucleus as a solid body, such as the atmosphere
which surrounds it cannot penetrate, and that the densest part of
this atmosphere rests upon its surface.

If we consider the parts of the atmosphere situated on the side
opposite the sun, it is plain, that being somewhat more distant
from the sun than the nucleus, they will be attracted by the sun
with less power than the nucleus itself. The component of the
attraction exercised by the nucleus upon the atmosphere will
therefore be diminished by the attraction of the mass of the sun.
While this diminution will remain insensible, on account of the
too great distance of the comet from the sun, the gravitation of
the particles of the atmosphere toward the nucleus will be in
equilibrium with the power of expansion ; in the same manner
as the expansive power of the earth’s atmosphere reniains in equi-
librium with its weight, so long as the air is tranquil. But, in
proportion as the comet approaches the sun, this diminution will
become more and more sensible ; the component of the power of
expansion, directed according to the radius vector, will gain
more and more upon the component of the gravitation toward
the nucleus, in the same direction; it will therefore remove
from the nucleus the parts of the atmosphere, situated on the
side opposite the direction, and will form a tail.

The tail which will be formed in this manner, will always
elongate more, and will always increase with more rapidity, be-
cause several causes acting in the same direction unite to accele-
rate this increase, In the first place, every motion once im-
pressed, will continue of itself in one direction, and with a con-
tinued celerity. Secondly, if the comet approach the sun, the
diminution of intensity of the gravitation toward the nucleus be-
comes on this very account always more sensible. In the third
place, when even a particle of the atmosphere is in motion, for
the purpose of removing from the nucleus, the difference which
there is between the distances of the sun from the nucleus and
the particle, goes on continually increasing, and consequently it
is the same with the difference between the gravitation of the nu-

246 Dr Lehmann’s Jnguiries regarding

cleus and the particle towards the sun. Thus, in all cases, the
particle will remove from the nucleus with an increasing rapi-
dity on the side opposite the sun. In conformity with this, we
often see the tail attaining an astonishing length in a short time,
while at first sight it might seem that the difference which ori-
ginally exists between the distance of the nucleus and that of
the particle from the sun, compared with this very distance, is
too small a quantity for the diminution that must result from it
in the gravitation ever having an appreciable influence, or being
capable of determining the formation ofa tail. But this forma-
tion depends essentially upon the circumstance that, according
to my supposition, the comet always presents the same side of
the sun. Its extension to a length of several millions of miles
will then be possible, because all the causes which tend to aug-
ment this length, act without interruption in the same direction.
If, on the contrary, the comet should turn on its axis like the
planets, the enormous increase of its tail from the causes which
I have just exposed, could not take place.

How does it now happen that the tail decreases after the pas-
sage to the perihelion ? It is not difficult to reply to this ques-
tion, by means of the principles already laid down. When the
comet approaches the sun, two causes concur to retard the
growth of its tail. The first resides in the law of aérostatics,
which determines that the power of expansion diminishes with
the density. The tail will not therefore increase so quickly as
it would have done, had the power of expansion remained the
same. The other cause is connected with the circumstance
that we cannot see objects which transmit too little light to our
eyes. There results from this, that we can no longer distinguish
the extreme parts of the tail, when itas much extended and con-
sequently highly rarified, because a diminution of lustre is ne-
cessarily connected with this rarefaction of an atmosphere Jamin-
ous in itself. For these two reasons, the tail will seem to us
to be shorter, and to increase more slowly. It is very difficult
to distinguish the limits of the atmosphere of a comet, or its
last layers: ‘They escape our view, on account of their extreme
rarity, the passage to vacuity being effected in a manner entire-
ly imperceptible. ‘There follows from this that the tail of a co-
met may appear so much the shorter that we employ a greater

the Formation of the Tails of Comets. 24-7

magnifying power for observing it, because this magnifier de-
minishes the intensity of the light.

So long as the comet approaches the sun, and also when it be-
gins to retire from it, the causes which contribute to clongate
the tail will gain much upon those which tend to shorten it;
and the greatest length will take place immediately after the
perihelion. But when, after the perihelion, the comet begins to
retire from the sun a sufficient space, the latter causes will begin
in their turn to gain upen the first. The gravitation towards
the nucleus will always be less surpassed by the power of expan-
sion, which will itself have become smaller and smaller, from
the rarefaction of the atmosphere. There will thus be a period
at which these two powers will be mutually balanced, and at
which, in consequence, the power will vanish, in virtue of which
the particles of the atmosphere were propelled from the nucleus
on the side opposite the sun. After this there will immediately
rise a contrary power, which will draw them towards the nucleus.
However, in virtue of the law of inertia, the tail will still grow,
but with a slower progress; after a certain time it will be sta-
tionary, and at length it will rapidly diminish, so as to form a
new and condensed atmosphere. As thisatmospherecannot entire-
ly disappear, the growth of the tail will diminish more and more,
ull the period when the comet will be sufficiently removed from
the sun for its atmosphere to return to the same state of con-
densation which it possessed at the commencement of the phases
which we have described.

Hitherto we have only considered the parts of the atmosphere
of a comet which are situated on the side farthest from the sun.
We might, bya perfectly similar mode of reasoning, conclude with
respect to those which are on the side next the sun, that they
ought to retire from the nucleus and stretch toward the sun, as
the others extended in the contrary direction. There is no es-
sential difference between the two regions of the comet : It must
form as long a tail on the one side as on the other. Why,
then, do we only see one on the hemisphere farthest from the sun ?
Because the centre of gravity of the nucleus does not coincide
with its centre of form, but is situated much nearer the surface
of the hemisphere turned toward the sun,

It is demonstrated by calculation, that the centre of gravity be

248 Dr Lehmann on the Tails of Comets.

ing so placed, the diminution of gravitation is much smaller in
the parts of the atmosphere turned toward the sun, than in those
which are on the opposite side ; the tail must, therefore, be much
shorter in this region than in the other. And as the centre of
gravity may be supposed extremely near the surface of the
nucleus, as has been said above, it may be conceived that here
the dilatation of the atmosphere no longer forms a tail, but only
a nebulosity.

Lastly, the tail is ordinarily inflected, so as to turn its conca-
vity toward the side from whence the comet comes, and to have
the plane of its curvature coinciding with that of the orbit of the
star. The reason is this,—the particles of the tail cannot follow
the circulating motion round the sun, with the same rapidity
as the nucleus, because to the same linear velocity correspond
angular velocities, so much the smaller in proportion to the great-
ness of the distance from the sun. The radius will be tangent
to the curve of the tail in the vicinity of the nucleus, because
there the angular velocity of the particles of which it is compos-
ed does not differ from that of the nucleus. It is easy also to
comprehend, that the tail will appear so much the more strongly
inflected, the larger it is; a result of our hypothesis that agrees
with observation.

According to what has been said above, the formation and
change of the tails of comets may be considered as a sort of flux
and reflux of the atmosphere of their bodies, perfectly similar to
the tides which are caused by the moon in our ocean, and per-
haps even in our atmosphere.

On the Snakes of Southern Africa. By ANDREW Surrn, M. D.
M. W. S. Assistant-Surgeon 98th Regiment, and Superinten-
dent of the South African Museum *. Communicated by the
Author.

In no branch of natural history is the want of accurate and
perspicuous description more felt than in Ophiology. “Such im-
perfections have unquestionably tended to retard the advance-
ment of the science, to create diffidence and doubt in the mind
of the inquirer, and to keep back communications on the sub-

* Read before the Wernerian Society, 22d April 1826,

Dr Smith on the Snakes of Southern Africa. 249

ject, from a fear of. unnecessary repetition or a chance of plagia-
rism,

As authors have hitherto, in general, been satisfied with hav-
ing dead, distorted, and variously altered specimens for the de-
scription of species, in that way the confusion complained of
most probably arose; and if so, the only method calculated to
remove it, would be a series of accurate observations made up-
on living snakes. As considerable difficulties must necessarily
be overcome before that can be generally effected, and as but
few individuals, comparatively speaking, can enjoy the means of
carrying on such inquiries, it therefore becomes the duty of all
interested in the subject, to lose no opportunity of forwarding
such a desirable object ; and, under this impression, I have taken
minute descriptions, from living examples, of the species actu-
ally contained in the South African Museum, of which the an-
nexed are abridgments.

Such of them as have been ascertained, beyond doubt, to be
already known, are designated by the established names; but
where no descriptions have been found in Shaw or Lacepede
(the only authors I have on the subject), answering exactly to
the appearances which have been observed, I have given them
names myself; and, in one of those instances, have selected, as
a specific distinction, the name of the noble individual who
procured it, and to whom natural history is indebted for
the institution of the South African Museum, where the speci-
men is now deposited, viz. Lord Charles Somerset, governor of
the Cape of Good Hope.

The descriptions, though concise, and by no means complete,
have been proved to be sufficiently explicit to enable individuals
to distinguish, with certainty and facility, the different species,
which is all I aim at on the present occasion ; reserving the more
ample details, as well as the accurate representations which T ac-
tually possess, for a work expressly on the subject. With re-
gard to number 5, I have considered it as a species of the ge-
nus Naia, more, however, from its manners than from its natural
appearances. In relation to the former, they are exactly like
those of number 4, or the Naia capensis, and so completely
different from those of the vipers, that I have placed it, though
devoid of the loose skin on the neck, with the former, at least
till such time as an opportunity occurs of ascertaining, by ana-

250 Dr Smith on the Snakes of Southern Africa.

tomical examination, its proper genus. If examples of all sorts
of snakes could be procured alive, and kept so for some consi-
derable time, many excellent specific characters, as well as va-
luable generic distinctions, would doubtless be obtained, and
classifications, which have hitherto been formed upon insufficient
data, might certainly be fixed upon clear and lasting principles.
Indeed so convinced am I of that being practicable, that I have,
for some time past, been forming a collection of live snakes ; and,
from experience, I find that the more their natural dispositions
and appearances are remarked, the more perceptible is the in-
sufficiency of our present divisions, and the want of reform.

To attempt the latter, however, with any prospect of success,
would require, previously, great observation and extensive expe-
rience, both of which must be the work of time; and therefore,
by waiting for them, other persons might notice what we ought
to do at least in relation to our own colonies. ‘Therefore, to
prevent that happening to the Cape of Good Hope, I propose,
im successive papers, to give short sketches of the different spe-
cies of the serpent tribe which are actually contained in our in-
fant museum, dividing them, for the time being, according to
the most popular classification at present in use.

VIPERA.
a. With orbiculo-cordate Head, and Fangs.
1. Virera inflatd. Burchell.
Puff-- Adder of the Inhabitants.

Ground colour above, varying from brown to brownish-yellow or dirty yel-
low, and variegated throughout by transverse curved or ziz-zag bands of
black, and bright yellow or cream-colour. The bright yellow or cream-
colour, which ever of them it happens to be, is generally found immediate-
ly behind the black ones, and the same colour is invariably observed mark-
ing more or less of other scales in various situations. The lateral portions
of the black bands are mostly somewhat semicircular with their curvatures
backwards ; the central parts again acutely angular or arrow-shaped, with
their points nearly in the middle of the back, and directed towards the
tail. ‘The bands on the anterior and middle parts of the body are for the
most part continuous, though marked by such a serpentine course, but
near the tail they become much less distinct, and are often either com-
pletely interrupted or lost. 'Towards the middle as well as more forwards,
they have three distinct curvatures or angles, one on each side, being ge-
nerally semicircular, and the third on the middle of the back mostly acute
and angular. Desides those three portions, some of the bands have at
their extremities also a black bletch on each side, which in some in-
stances are connected to them, but in the majority are separate. The

Dr Smith on the Snakes of Southern Africa. 251

ound colour of the tail is generally darker than that of the body, and more
fistinctly intersected by several narrow regular and continuous yellow bands,
which extend round the greater part of its circumference. Colour below,
as well as on the inferior parts of the sides, bright yellow, some of the
scuta and squamz, however, variously marked towards their extremities
by black spots. Head much depressed and mottled above by black, yel-
low, and brown. Generally posterior to each eye, just over the place
where the jaws’ dilate behind, there is a large blackish blotch, with a yel-
low centre, and also before and between the eyes is usually observed a
transverse black band, dotted more or less with yellow. ‘The eyes are
situated well forward and high up on the head, the nostrils are large, and
Saris close to the edges of the upper lip. The scales with which the
ead is covered, as well as those on the body, are ovate, imbricate and

carinated: The nose and lateral parts before the eyes are covered with irre-
gular flattened, granular-likebodies. Body diminishes suddenly and consider-
ably in size at the commencement of the tail, which is slender for the size of
the make, and measures about 4th of the whole length, which is usually from
three feet to three and a half. The neck is considerably narrower than
either the body or the head. Its motion is moderately quick, its disposi-
tion fiery, and its bite frequently, though not invariably, fatal. Scuta
somewhere about 139, squamz generally about 22.

The colouring of this snake is very peculiar, and Burchell’s *
remark, that it is not easy to convey an idea of it by mere des-
cription, is very just.

2. VirERA armata.
Horned Snake of the Inhabitants.

Ground colour above, ash-grey, bluish-grey, or greyish-green, with irregular
rows of irregular brown spots, that have their edges considerably darker
in general than their centres. In most specimens, two distinct rows are
observed along the middle of the back, but in some there is only one, and
then the spots are considerably larger, and extend right across the imagi-
nary dorsal line. Along each side again, is another row of spots, but of a
much smaller size than those just described, and between them and the
scuta is a slight mottling of blackish-blue dots, ziz-zag streaks, or waving
lines. Colour below a shining pearly white, with in many instances a
slight tinge of red. Head depressed, and like the body covered with cari-
nated s. Eyes prominent, placed well forward ; and each guarded a-
bove by three or more short, erect and prickly pointed bodies, which have
obtained for it the name it bears amongst the colonists. Neck consider-
ably smaller than the head or body, and the latter diminishes much in
thickness at the vent. The tail is slender, pointed, and about 4th of the
length, which is seldom more than fourteen or fifteen inches. Greatest
thickness rarely more than that of a man’s thumb, unless when enraged,
at which time, it can, in common with most vipers, increase its dimensions
very considerably. Scuta generally about 120, and squame about 26.

The motion of this snake is but slow, its disposition is fierce,
and its bite I have found invariably occasion death, when in-

flicted on young animals, though not always when practised on
old ones of the same species.

* Travels in Southern Africa, vol. i.

R52 Dr Smith on the Snakes of Southern Africa.

Me With ice eal Me Head and Fangs.
VIPERA montana.
Berg-Adder of the Inhabitants.

Ground colour, a dirty brownish black, the intensity of which varies in dif-
ferent specimens. Along the back there are two rows of large, black semi-
lunar spots, having their convexities directed towards each other, and their
margins surrounded by a narrow edging of dirty white. Below those, on
each side, is another row of similarly shaped and coloured spots, but of a
smaller size, and having their convexities pointing downwards. These are
separated from the centre rows by two white longitudinal lines, which are,
for the most part, continuous, though here and there occasionally inter-
rupted. The two lateral rows are not well seen on the sides of the neck,
but the two central ones extend distinctly forwards, along the upper sur-
face of the head, as far as the eyes; though, in the latter situation, the
spots are of an oblong, instead of a semilunar shape. Between the side
rows and the abdomen the colour is variegated, black, and dirty white; the
scuta themselves are of the latter hue, and mottled with black or blackish
blue; indeed, in many examples, the latter is the prevailing colour. Head
somewhat quadrangular, with its posterior extremity a good deal broader
than the neck, and, like the body, covered above by ovate and carinated
scales. Eyes moderately large, and placed well forward. Nostrils close to
the tip of the nose. Thickness, as in the two preceding species, dimi-
nishes rapidly about the anus. Tail slender, pointed, and about th of the
whole length of the snake, which is generally between sixteen and twenty
inches. Greatest circumference seldom more than that of a man’s thumb.
Scuta generally about 132. Squamz about 20. Motion rather slow ; dis-
position ferocious, and bite poisonous; though not invariably fatal.

The above approaches so close in its characters to the Colu-
ber Atropos of Shaw *, L’Atropos of Lacepede+, that I feel
disposed to view it as the same snake.

It is commonly found amongst short grass, in dry mountain-
ous situations, all over Southern Africa.

Variety.

Ground-colour cinereous, with four rows of spots, similarly arranged and
shaped as in the sort just described, but their colour, instead .of being
black, is reddish-brown, with lighter centres,

NAIA.
a, With loose Skin on the sides of the Neck, and Fangs.

Nata capensis.
Ringhals Slang of the Inhabitants.

Above, black and dirty white, the colours disposed in alternate waving trans-
verse bands. ‘The black is the prevailing or sole colour towards the head,

* General Zoology, vol. iii. part 2. p. 404.
+ Histoire Naturelle des Serpens, tom. ii. fol. 134. 4to. Paris, 1729.

Dr Smith on the Snakes of Southern Africa. 255°

and it is not till nearly two inches from that part that the white is dis-
tinctly seen. Towards the tail, as well as on it, the regular disposition of
the two colours is most clearly marked, and the bands are most directly
transverse. Below, the general colour is black, with the scuta, that are
more than a few inches behind the chin, white at their extremities. Be-
tween those that are thus marked and the head, the space is a deep shining
jet black, except at two points, where some plates throughout are nearly
white, and thereby give rise to two broad transverse light-coloured bands.
Tail slender, tapering, terminated by a shining horny point, and not quite
4th of the whole wena of the reptile, which is generally from two feet six
to three feet. Head depressed, narrow before, a little dilated behind, and
somewhat broader than the neck; covered above by plates, of which the
nasal or most anterior one is triangular, its apex extending upwards and
backwards, whilst its base is directed downwards, to form the anterior por-
tion of the upper lip. Eyes prominent, nostrils large, and opening back-
wards. Body broad and flattish, with a loose fold of skin on each side of
the neck, which it can extend at pleasure, and form into small wing-like
or thin membranous processes, like what is done by the Coluber Naia of
Linneus. Seales carinated, with those of the two lowermost rows larger
than any of the others. Greatest circumference about the middle of the
body, and that is seldom more than three or three inches and a-half. Scuta
usually about 130. Squamze about 43.

The motion of this snake is very rapid, its disposition is very
fierce, often almost apparently courting opposition, and its bite,
in all the instances in which I have tried it, has soon occasioned

death.
It delights in warm sandy situations, and is found pretty ge-
nerally diffused over the whole of Southern Africa.

b. Without any loose Skin on the Neck, but with Fangs.
5. NALA Somerseita.
Nacht Slang or Night Snake of the Inhabitants.

Ground colour above, a brick red or orange colour, and intersected by twenty-
four or twenty-five black rings, which are generally of greatest breadth
about the centre of the back, or under the belly. ‘The one next to the
head is by much the largest, and above has a pointed extension in front,
which runs a short way along the crown of the head. At some distance
before this ring, on the hinder part of the head, an irregular black spot is
observed on each side; and from the upper lip of one side, to the same
place on the opposite, directly cutting the eyes, extends a narrow trans-
verse black band. Many of the black rings on the body have above an inter-
rupted edging of yellowish white. Colour below a dirty reddish-white,
more or less hoe tinged here and there with yellow. Head depressed,
inclined to ovate, and its sides slightly dilated behind, thereby giving to it
a little superiority in point of breadth over the neck. Above it is covered
by large plates, the foremost of which, or the nasal one, is considerably
Baer above the others, and triangular, with its apex extending upwards
and backwards, whilst its base, which is slightly arched, is downwards, and
forms the anterior part of the upper lip. The thickness of the body is
pretty nearly the same throughout, and does not exceed that of a man's
thumb. It increases but little behind the neck, yet it diminishes consider-
ably and rather abruptly about the vent. ‘Tail thickish along its whole
length, terminated by a horny point, and measuring about ,', of the whole

a

254 Dr Smith on the Snakes of Southern Africa.

length of the snake, which is usually about two feet two or three inches.
Scales smooth and slightly imbricate, towards neck and tail inclined to ovate,
but, about the middle of the body, a little disposed to an orbicular shaper
Scuta about 159, squamz 20. Motion rather quick; disposition ex-
tremely fierce ; and bite often mortal.

This sort of snake is but rarely met with here ; indeed the pre-
sent is the first I have seen, though for the last four years I
have been endeavouring to procure one. The inhabitants assert

that it only moves about during the night, and thereby account
for its being so seldom found.

ELAPS.
a. With Fangs.
6. Ears punctatus.
Kousseband or Garter-Snake of the Inhabitants.

Ground colour, a deep jet-black, variously marked by minute white dots and
blotches. Along the centre of the back the spots are largest, and of irre-
gular forms, some being roundish, and others triangular, oblong or waved.
On each side of this central row is a zig-zag line of white dots, which
forms more or less frequent connections with the spots of the central row
just mentioned. Immediately under this second row, is a third also of
white dots, nearly straight, and extending distinctly from the head to the
tail. Colour below black and white, disposed in alternate transverse nar-
row lines, which, under the tail, appear in a double series. Head small,
somewhat ovate, roundish in front, and covered above by plates, the colour
of which are black, with an interrupted whitish line running along the
middle of the crown, and the sides slightly spotted with yellowish-white.
Mouth small. Neck not less than the head; nor is any part of the body
larger than the neck; so that the whole is therefore nearly of the same
thickness, except the tail, which tapers gently to a fine slender point, and
measures about one-eighth of the length of the whole, which, in the speci-
men described (the onfy one I have seen), was about nine inches, and no-
where thicker than a common quill. Scales smooth, slightly ovate, and
scarcely, if at all, imbricate. Scuta 183, squame 38.

This is a rare species of snake at the Cape; its motion is
quick ; its appearance beautiful; and its bite highly venomous ;
having in several instances occasioned death while it continued
alive in my possession. Other snakes besides this, which are
either remarkable for their beauty, or the variety of their colours,
when of a small size, are generally considered by the inhabitants
as a Kousseband.

( To be continued. )

( 205 )

Picture of Vegetation on the Surface of the Globe-—Continued
from page 124. |

Arrer having viewed with M. de Humboldt, the rich ve-
getation of the most beautiful countries of America, if we now
transport ourselves to the wild and desert shores of New Holland,
with Billardiere, Brown and Peron, we shall find, in the little
that is known of this vast continent, vegetables entirely different,
although in the same degree of latitude. Those which have
been collected, approach more to the plants of the Old Continent ;
those destined for the nourishment of man are here as rare as
they are common in America. These countries are scarcely in-
habited, and the men who live in them have but barely en-
tered upon the confines of civilization, so powerful is the influ-
ence of useful vegetables over the multiplication and develop-
ment of the human race. In calling the attention of the’ reader
to the works published upon the plants of New Holland, by
Messrs de la Billardiere and Brown, I shall here confine myself
to the more interesting parts of M. Peron’s description of the
vegetation of Van Dieman’s Land.

“ Itis a very singular spectacle,” says this naturalist, ‘ which
those profound forests present, the ancient offspring of nature
and time, where the stroke of the axe is never heard to resound,
where vegetation, becoming every day richer in its proper pro-
ductions, can exercise itself without restraint, and every where
extend its developments without obstruction ; and when, at the
extremity of the globe, such forests exclusively present them-
selves formed of trees unknown to Europe, of vegetables singu-
lav in their organization, and in their varied products, the in-
terest becomes more lively and interesting. Here, there con-
tinually reign a mysterious shade, a great coolness, a penetrating
humidity; here crumble with age those powerful trees from
which have sprung forth so many vigorous shoots; their old
trunks now decomposed by the united action of time and mois-
ture, are covered over with parasitic mosses and lichens.
Their interior swarms with cold reptiles, with numerous legions
of insects; they obstruct all the avenues of the forests ; they
cross each other in a thousand different directions ; every where
they form an obstacle to progression, and multiply difficulties
and dangers around the traveller; sometimes they form by

256 Picture of Vegetation on the Surface of the Globe.

their heaps natural dikes of twenty-five or thirty feet in height;
in other cases they have fallen across the beds of torrents, or the
depths of valleys, forming in this manner so many natural bridges
which cannot be made use of but with fear.

To this picture of disorder and ruin, to these scenes of death
and destruction, nature, so to speak, opposes with benevolence
all that her creative power can present of the beautiful and im-
posing. On all hands we see pressed to the surface of the soil
those lovely mimosa, those superb metrosideroses, those correa,
but of late unknown in Europe, and which already gladden our
groves. From the shores of the ocean to the summits of the
loftiest mountains of the interior, are to be seen the mighty en-
calyptuses, those gigantic monarchs of the southern forests,
many of which are not less than from a hundred and sixty to a
hundred and eighty feet in height, and from twenty-five to thirty
or thiry-six feet in circumference. The Banksiz of different spe-
cies, the protce, the embothria, the leptospermata, are developed as
a charming border around the edge of the woods. Elsewhere
the caswarine are seen, so remarkable for their beauty, so valu-
able for their solidity, distinguished by the rich colouring of
their berries. The elegant exocarpus projects in a hundred ‘dif-
ferent places its luxuriant branches, sprouting ferth in neglected
beauty like those of the cypress. Farther on appear the wan-
thorree, whose solitary stem rises to a height of twelve or fifteen,
above a scaly and stunted stock, from which an odorous
resin oozes abundantly. In some places are to be seen the
cycases, whose nuts, enveloped in a scarlet epidermis, are so per-
fidiously poisonous ; every where are produced charming tufts of
melaleuca, thesium, conchiwm, and erodia, all equally interesting
from the gracefulness of their port, or the beautiful verdure of
their foliage, or the singularity of their corolla and fruit. In
the midst of so many unknown objects, the mind is astonished,
and cannot but admire that inconceivable fecundity of nature,
which furnishes to so many different climates productions so pe-
culiar, and always so rich and so beautiful.”

The happy climate of India is, perhaps, of all others, that on
which nature has bestowed, with the greatest profusion, all the
luxury of vegetation. Inhabited by people who have long at-
tained a high degree of civilization, its vegetable productions

Picture of Vegetation on the Surface of the Globe. 257

seem to have equally emerged from their original wildness. All
present the most elegant forms, and appear to reflect, by the vi-
vacity of their colours, those floods of light which the star of day
continually pours upon their corollas. Those beautiful countries
are perfumed by the most precious spices, embellished by the su-
perb family of the liliaceae; scarcely is there one of the plants
observed in Europe to be seen. There grow those vegetables
which furnish commerce with those: gums and odorous resins
which are imported by us at so high a price; those medicinal
plants, which, for so long a time, have only been known by their
productions, and by unmeaning denominations. It is here that
we learn to what shrubs, and to what plants, are to be referred the
campeachy-wood, the snake-wood, the nux vomica, the cassias,
the myrobolans, the tamarind, the curcuma, galamba, ginger,
cardamom, zedoary, dragon’s-blood, &c. In the fields and in
the plains, there vegetate an immense quantity of beautiful plants,
some of which constitute the riches of our gardens ; the cleroden-
dra, justicia, achyranthi, cerberi, pontederia, eranthema, glo-
riose, crotones, acalyphe, &c.

In this general picture of vegetation, we would not forget an-
other corner of the world, where nature seems to delight to shew
her munificence, in the infinite number of species belonging te
the same genera,—to genera, whose types, for the most part, al-
ready exist in Europe ;, to mingle them with other genera pecu-
liar to the climate, and of which some have been remarked among
the plants of America. Such does the Cape of Good Hope pre-
sent itself to the eye of the naturalist, who visits it for the first
time; he is struck with astonishment at the sight of those moun-
tainous rocks, coyered with succulent plants, aloés, mesembryan-
thema, stapelie, crassule, tetragonia, &c. If he penetrate into
the forests, they are no longer those of Europe or of America ;
he sees them all shining with that golden and silvery lustre, dif-
fused over the leaves of the numerous protee. Let him traverse
vast plains, he can scarcely count the numberless species of
heaths, borbonia, bleria, penwa, &e. The thickets and woods
are composed of a multitude of shrubs little known, of beautiful
phylica, passerine, myrsinites, tarconanthi, anthosperma, roy-
ene, halleria, &e. While in the fields grow in rivalry, the nu-
merous gerania, ixia, gladioli, lobelia, hemanthi, selagines, ste-

JULY—ocToBER 1826. R

258 Picture of Vegetation

vias, everlasting-flowers, &c. ; several of which now shine in our
parterres, or form the ornaments of our hot-houses. The spe-
cies alone which we possess are so numerous, that we can scarcely
believe them to be the productions of a single locality. We count
several hundreds of heaths, gerania, Xc.

To form a comprehension of the work of nature, we must
observe it in those countries where the ground, abandoned to its
natural productions, has not yet been turned up by the hand of
man. Wherever this has established its power, it has subjected
to his empire all that might contribute to his well-being, or em-
bellish his abode ; the animals have become slaves ; rich harvests
and vast meadows have replaced the wildnesses of nature ; ancient
forests have fallen under the axe, and the ground, despoiled of
its original productions, no longer presents to the eye of the ob-
server, but a vast garden created by human industry. The tree
of the mountains has descended into the plains, and the exotic
plant, more useful or more agreeable, has chased from its native
soil the plant which is noxious, or of no utility to man. It is
therefore only at a distance from great societies in foreign coun-
tries, in lands untouched by man, that vegetation can be studied
in its natural state, understood in its modifications, development,
and progress.

There still, however, exist countries in Europe which the pow-
er of man has not entirely subjected ; but it is only among the
proud rocks, and upon the summits of the Alps, that they are to
be looked for. There mountains piled upon mountains, rising
above the clouds, form so many gardens, each furnished with a
vegetation of its own, the character of which changes at-each
degree of elevation. There, in proportion as we rise, we find
succeeding each other the temperatures of various climates, from
that of the tropics to that of the poles, as well as several of the
vegetables peculiar to each of these climates.

At the foot of these mountains, and in the lower valleys, ve-
getate the plants of the plains, and a part of those of the
southern countries of Europe. Forests of oaks occupy the
first platform; they rise, but not without losing a proportional
degree of their strength and beauty, to a height of about
eight hundred toises, the extreme limit of their ‘habitation.
The beech shews itself equally, but the oak- has ceased to

on the Surface of the Globe. ) 259

grow more than a hundred fathoms beneath the highest limit of
this plant. In the zone which succeeds these trees, more ex-
posed to the impetuosity of the winds, would present too much
scope for their action, in the large cyme and broad leaves
which they possess. The pine, the yew, the fir, furnished with
a finely divided foliage, raise securely toward the regions of
perpetual snow their rebust and branchless trunks. The ac-
tion of the winds no longer meeting the same resistance, is di-
vided and loses its force among their short and slender leaves.
These trees, however, do not attain a greater elevation than
a thousand toises; above this, woods of crategus, and birch,
and tufts of hazel and willow, among which the rhododendrons
flourish, brave the cold and the tempests, to the height of twelve
hundred toises. Beyond this, appear, but with a much lower
stature, a multitude of beautiful and elegant shrubs, daphnes,
passerine, globularie, creeping willows, and some ligneous cis-
tuses.

Further on, to the region of snow, scarcely any more woody
vegetables are found, if we except some dwarf birches, some
stunted willows, scarcely a few inches long. A short beautiful
and tufted sward springs every summer from beneath the
snowy mountains, and is covered with a multitude of pretty
little flowers with rosaceous petals, naked peduncles, and viva-
cious roots: this is the peculiar place of the numerous saxifra-
ges, elegant primule, gentians, ranunculi, and a profusion of
other diminutive plants. The frightful nakedness of the poles
reigns upon the summits of these mountains loaded with per-
petual ice; if there still remain some traces of vegetation, they
only exist in a few lichens, which here, as elsewhere, endeavour,
but in vain, to lay the foundations of vegetation.

Thus the traveller, having arrived on these mountains, at
the region of ice, has experienced, in the course of a few hours,
the different degrees of temperature which reign in each cli-
mate from the tropics to the poles; he may have observed a
portion of the plants which grow from about the 45th degree
of latitude to the 70th, that is to say along a meridian of about
eight hundred leagues, a phenomenon which exists in all
high mountains, of both the Old and the New Continent, with
some modifications peculiar to the localities.

R2

260 . Picture of Vegetation

The observations made by M. Humboldt, in the equinoctial
regions, and upon the highest mountains of our globe, furnish
us with a proof of this. ‘The same order occurs there in the
gradation of species, but only above the height of five hundred
toises. The species, to be sure, are not the same as in Europe,
but ‘they have the same character of aspect, size, and consis-
tence. The burning zone which occupies the lower space from
the level of the sea to this height, enjoying a temperature un-
known to Europe, is inhabited by vegetables peculiar to this
chmate ; this, as‘we have seen above, is the country of palms,
bananas, amomums, tree ferns, &c. It is only, therefore, at the
height of five hundred toises, that, upon the mountains of the.
torrid zone, the climate commences which corresponds to the
base of the Alps, proceeding from the level of the sea, and it carr
only be here that the zone of plants corresponding te those of
Europe can commence.

Such is the spectacle of vegetation, always varied, and inces-
santly renewed, that presents itself to the view of man; a spec-
tacle rich in its composition, admirable in its contrasts, sublime
in its harmony, and which, to produce it, has only required of
nature to submit the forms to the influence of different temypera-
tures, of temperatures I repeat, and not of climates. It isa very
essential effect to remark, that the production of vegetable spe-
cies is much more dependent upon the action of heat or cold, of
dryness or humidity, than upon the difference of climates; we
may meet, and in fact do pretty frequently meet, the same spe-
cies in very different latitudes, in which, however, from local cir-
cumstances, the same degree of temperature prevails. It is thus
that we find upon the high mountains of the South of Europe,
plants of Sweden, Norway, and even those of Lapland and Spitz-
bergen. 'Tournefort made the same observation in Asia minor,
upon Mount Ararat. At the foot of the mountain are found
the plants of Armenia ; in proportion as we rise, those of Italy
and the south of France, then those of Sweden, and toward the:
summit the plants of, Lapland. It is by means equally simple,
that nature has removed from the surface of the globe that mo-
notonous uniformity which the plants would produce, were they
every where the same ; but, subjected to the influence of the at-
mosphere, what varied forms do they present to our admiration !

\

on the Surface of the Globe, 261

A temperature constantly humid and warm, such as that of
the equinoctial countries, maintained by the rays of a burning
sun, and the emanations of a soil watered by the vicinity of
large rivers and lakes, gives to vegetation that vigour which as-
tonishes in those magnificent vegetables peculiar to those cli-
mates. Another form of plants is seen in those countries which
are exposed to the alternations of cold and warm seasons ; it is
more equal upon the sea-coasts, where the temperature is less va-
riable ; but the plants assume another aspect upon the high moun-
tains, where dry and cold winds frequently blow ; they vary lit-
tle in the fresh-waters, or in those of the sea; being there placed
in a medium less subject to the inclemencies of the atmosphere.
The intensity and duration of the light, the long and humid
nights, occasion as many different modifications in the vegetable
forms, Nature has also so fixed the station of plants, that the
dwarf and creeping willows never descend from the summit of
their mountains to associate with the osier willows, upon the
banks of our brooks ; and the primule, which decorate the green
swards of the Alps, cannot mingle with those of our meadows.
From these considerations has arisen the idea of a botanical
geography, in which the plants are distributed by groups, which
have each their determinate height, their climate, and their li-
mits. Several naturalists have directed their attention to this
sort of observations, but no one has carried them so far as M.
de Humboldt, who has published memoirs of great interest up-
on this subject. From the observations of this learned traveller,
and those partly made before him, we see the cruciform plants
and the umbelliferae disappear, almost entirely, in the plains of
the torrid zone; while this zone is the abode of palms, tree-
ferns, gigantic gramineze, and parasitic orchidese. In the tem-
perate zones grow abundantly the malvacez, the labiate, the
composite and caryophyllea, which are very rare under the
equator. The conifer, and a great number of amentaceous
trees, belong to the boreal regions. There are other families
which recur, in almost all the countries of the globe, such as the
gramineze and the cyperaces, but under different forms, accord-
ing to the temperatures. Some of them nearly rival the palms
in size, such as the bamboos, &c.; others form but a short and
tufted sward. My limits not permitting me to enter farther in-

262 Mr Mantell’s Remarks on the Strata

to detail on this interesting subject, I refer the reader to the
learned dissertations of Linnzeus, the Stationes et Colonize Plan-
tarum, to the Tentamen Historie Geographice Vegetabilium of
Professor Strohmeyer, and particularly to the Memoirs of Mes-
sieurs de Humboldt and Ramond *.

Remarks on the Geological Position of the Strata of Tilgate Fo-
rest in Sussex. By GipEon MantTELt, Esq. F. R.S., &c.
In a Letter to Professor JamEson.

a dcpoe appeared in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for
April, ‘ Observations on the Position of the Fossil Megalosau-
rus, and Didelphis or Opossum at Stonesfield,” in which the
writer alludes to the strata of Tilgate Forest; and remarking on
the extraordinary nature of their organic remains, very summa-
rily concludes, that doubts may be raised regarding the geolo-
gical position, both of the limestone schist of Stonesfield, and the
sandstone of Tilgate Forest. I shall leave to the abler pen of
Dr Buckland, the defence of the assumed situation of the Stones-
field slate, and confine my observations to the consideration of
the writer’s conjecture, that the Tilgate strata should be ranked
as tertiary, and not as secondary, deposits ;—a conjecture no one
could, for a moment, entertain, who had examined the strata of
the south-eastern part of England with any degree of attention.
The only argument brought forward in support of an opi-
nion so entirely opposed to that held by persons who have de-
voted considerable time and labour to the subject, is, that “ the
strata which contains the organic bodies do not appear clearly
covered by those of the formations which are said to be more re-
cent.” If such an argument be considered valid, the progress
of geology must be slow indeed. In other branches of natural
history induction and analogy are frequently admitted to supply
the place of actual observation; and I cannot understand why
the same privilege should not be extended to geology. In the
present instance, however, it is unnecessary; and I am willing
the question shall be decided by demonstration only. That the
strata of Tilgate Forest are not actually covered by the newer

* Poiret’s Legons De Flore, Paris 1825.

of Tilgate Forest in Sussew. 263

deposits in those localities that are most accessible to the geolo-
gist, is certain; but their emergence from beneath the weald
clay, the superincumbent formation, is so obvious, as to leave
not the shadow of a doubt that they were originally entirely
covered by the clay, and that their present approach to the sur-
face is owing to the operation of that uplifting power, whose ef-
fects are strikingly manifest throughout the whole of the south-
eastern part of England. The annexed section of the strata
from Brighton (on the coast of Sussex) to Tilgate Forest, is made,
not from theory, but from actual observation, and will, I trust,
satisfy the writer of the “ Observations,” of the correctness of
my remarks.

t
Frigito South Downs Tilgate gach

Hasting Sa Delerne: tiorr

If the section were continued on to London, the several for-
mations would re-appear, but in an ascending series (vide Phil-
lips and Conybeare’s sections). The attention of geologists was
first directed to the remarkable nature of the fossils of the strata
of Tilgate Forest, by my work on the Geology of Sussex, in
1822; and although, at that period, the geological position of
those deposits was not determined, yet I had not the slightest
doubt that they were situated beneath the weald clay. The only
question was, whether they should be ranked with the purbeck,
or the iron sand ; their emergence from beneath the more recent
formations was too manifest to be questioned (vide Illustrations
of the Geology of Sussex, p. 57). Subsequent observations con-
vinced me, that the strata of Tilgate Forest, instead of being li-
mited, as I had at first supposed, to a small district, were co-ex-
tensive with the iron-sand, and might be traced through Sussex
to the coast at Hastings; and a paper, describing the result of
my researches, was read before the Geological Society of Lon-
don, in the same year (1822).

The writer of the observations states, ‘‘ that there are nume-
rous considerations that might lead us to consider the two depo-
sits (viz. the Stonesfield slate and Tilgate limestone) as having
been formed at a period which would be much newer than that

264 Mr Mantell’s Remarks on the Strata

of the oolitic formations ; in short, that they are tertiary, and not
secondary deposits.” What the considerations may be that can
lead to such a conclusion I cannot possibly conceive, and_ shall
not therefore occupy the valuable pages of this Journal with use-
less conjectures; but as my sole object, in these remarks, is the
establishment of what I conceive to be the truth, I shall feel
obliged, if the writer still entertains a doubt on the subject, by
the statement of his objections to what I have advanced.

In the present infancy of geology, if a person discover, in cer-
tain formations, remains of animals and vegetables, of classes or
orders, which, according to received theories, we might not ex-
pect could be found in such deposits, we ought not, on that ac-
count only, to doubt the accuracy of his investigations, or the
truth of his assertions.

In the comparative list of the organic remains of Stonesfield
and Tilgate, inserted in the Memoir on the Megalosaurus, it
was the object of Dr Buckland to mark their general resem-
blance only. It may not, therefore, be uninteresting to give a more
extended catalogue, since the difference, as well as resemblance
of the fossils of the two deposits, will thus be placed in a more
striking point of view.

Organic Remains of
The Limestone Schist of Stonesfield and The Sandstone of Tilgate Forest.
Megalosaurus, teeth, vertebrae, and Megalosaurus—teeth, vertebrae, and

other bones. : other bones.

Crocodile. Crocodile—teeth, vertebrze, &c. teeth
more obtuse and large than those of
Stonesfield.

Plesiosaurus. Plesiosaurus—teeth and vertebree ;
species unknown.

Didelphis. Iquanodon — teeth, vertebra, and

Ely tra of insects. other bones; hitherto not found else-
where.

Birds—tibiz, and other bones. Birds—tibie somewhat resembling
those of Stonesfield.

Whale ? ? Whale ?? the supposed humeri are
probably of Plesiosauri.

Balista—species of. Balistee—spines of.

Turtles—scales and bones; species un- Turtles—3 genera ; a fresh-water, ma-
certain. rine, and terrestrial ?

of Tilgate Forest in Sussex. 265

Teeth of Squali or Sharks. Tricuspid teeth, longitudinally striat-
__ ed; differ entirely from those of the
and from those of the recent
; I have examined.
teeth of Spari and Anarhicas lupus ?
‘small rounded teeth, very nume-
rous. Bony palates—unknown.
Bones of unknown animals.
Shells—Trigonie, Belemnite, Ostree, Shells of the genera Unio, Mactra,

Teeth of Spari and Anarhicas lupus ?

Peetenita, Patella, (marine ). Paludina, Cyrena, (fresh-water ).
Ferns and reeds—not of the same spe- Ferns—4 species ; reeds.

cies as those of Tilgate. Pe )
Wood ? lignite, charcoal. Wood ? lignite, charcoal.
Fuci, alge. Gigantic plants of the Palm tribe;

(Endogenites erosa).
Arborescent ferns—(Blathraria Lyel-

lii).
Carpolithi. Carpolithi—not the same as Stones-
: field.
Quartz-pebbles. Quartz-pebbles and boulders.

A glance at the above lists will shew, that, although the gene-
ral resemblance of the organic contents of the two deposits is
striking, yet they actually agree but in few particulars. The
Stonesfield beds partake more of the character of a marine, and
those of 'Tilgate of a fresh-water formation. The prevalence in
the latter, of large terrestrial vegetables, of which the genera, at
all analogous (Cycas, Dicksonia, &c.), now exist in tropical re-
gions only ; and the absence of marine shells, particularly of Be-
lemnites and ammonites, and also of zoophytes, seem to prove,
that the Hastings Sands (the name now given to the series of
sands and clays between the purbeck and the weald clay, and of
which the Tilgate strata form a part) have been deposited under
circumstances materially different from those which operated in the
formation of the Stonesfield slate. But, as a work on the Fos-
sils of Tilgate Forest will shortly appear, it is unnecessary to ex-
tend these remarks ; and I will only add, that, should the writer
of the “* Observations,” or any one interested in the subject, vi-
sit this part of England, he shall have free access to my cabinet ;
and it will give me pleasure to afford him every facility for an
actual examination of the strata of Tilgate Forest.

CastLe Prace, Lewes, Sussex,
August 2. 1826.

cee.2 |

( 266 )

Description of a Design for"a Rotatory Steam-Engine. By
Mr James Wait ith a Plate. Communicated by
the Author. : oe a

Arnie completing my design, I feel a degree of diffidence in
submitting it to public notice. Nearly two hundred years have
past away since the first attempt to produce a rotatory motion
in the first instance by steam, such a period of time having in-
volved itself betwixt the original and the present ; and the men
of genius, both in our own country and abroad, that have la-
boured to effect this object, and the universal failure of all their
designs, when compared with the present perfect state of the
Reciprocating Engine, has absolutely marked the name of Ro-
tatory in Steam-engines as something like a wild scheme, and
left us but little Ha that we shall ever be able to wipe that
stain away.

Those who are well acquainted with the principles of steam,
and the different schemes that have been devised for a rotatory
steam-engine, are aware, that the friction occasioned from an
unequal pressure of steam on the revolving cylinder, has been
the great obstacle which stood in the way of success. That
such difficulties no longer exist, can be plainly shown in my de-
sign. First, let it be understood that the engine consists of one
large outside cylinder, divided by plates into three divisions ;
the mid division being in length equal to the other two. In
each of these divisions, smaller cylinders are concentrically
placed, called the revolving cylinders; the difference betwixt
the inside diameter of the outer cylinder, and the outside dia-
meters of the inner ones, forms the steam-passage. Let A,
Plate V. Fig. 1. represent one of the revolving cylinders ;
then B, B, will be the steam-passage: if the steam from the
boiler enter by the steam-pipe s, and pass downwards, it will
get into the steam-passage B, B, through the valve f, act on
the piston-plate P, which is fast to the revolving cylinder, and
force it round; when it has nearly made a revolution, the qua-
drants on the piston-plate will come in contact with the valve,
but not before the piston-plate has passed the passage C, lead-
ing to the condenser; consequently the pressure is removed

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Mr White’s Design for a Rotatory Steam-Engine. 267

from the valve. A fly-wheel being supposed to be attached to
the engine, will continue the motion, cause the quadrants on
the piston-plate to open the valve, and allow the piston-plate to
pass. It has now made a complete revolution. When the
valve f begins to open, it shuts the steam off, consequently
there is no expence of steam when the power has to be perform-
ed by the fly-wheel. The re-shutting of the valve is also per-
formed by steam, from the small lever on the spindle of the
valve connected with the piston, working in the small steam cy-
linder T: when the valve begins to open, it will raise the pis-
ton in the cylinder T; but as soon as the piston-plate P has
passed the valve, the steam acting on the piston of the small cy-
linder T, will force it down again, and shut the valve. Thus
may we consider it ready for a second revolution. Before ex-
plaining further, let us suppose that the engine only consisted
of one steam-passage, in place of three, and let it be that which
I have already described: when the piston-plate P has only
made a half revolution, it is evident that the steam would then be
entirely on the under-side of the revolving cylinder A, and force
it up against that side where there is no steam, and cause such
a degree of friction on its bearings, that the force on the piston-
plate would be little more than sufficient to turn the revolving
cylinder round. 'To overcome this great obstacle, I have di-
vided the fouter cylinder into three divisions, shown in Plate V.
Fig. 2. by the division plates marked a, 2, &c. These plates
do not revolve. The first division contains the cylinder A, be-
ing that which I have already described as having made a re-
volution ; the mid division, the cylinder E, and the third divi-
sion the cylinder D. ‘The two end divisions containing the cylin-
ders A and D, are in every respect similar to one another, and
the valves f, f, are on the same spindle. The mid division con-
taining the cylinder E is in principle exactly similar to the other
two, and only has this difference, that it is equal in length to
both.

Fig. 1. Let the steam be admitted by the steam-pipe s, and
pass downwards through the two end valves f, f; at the same
time it will pass upwards, through the pipe W, over the outer
cylinder, and through the mid valve V, act upon the piston-
plate F of the mid division, shewn in Fig. 2. and equalize the

~

268 Mr Arnott’s Tour to the South of France

pressure from the under-side. The revolving cylinder will thus
be forced round by an equal pressure of steam on all sides, to
effect ;,ths of a revolution; leaving about ,1;th to the accele-
rated force of the fly-wheel, at which period no steam is expend-
ed.

Fig. 2. H, shews the flange to connect the steam-pipe W
leading to the mid division; 7, 7, &c. brass rings fitted on the
ends of the cylinders, in such a manner as to make them steam-
tight against the division-plates 2, a2, &c.; and R the shaft of
the revolving cylinders.

In cases where a fly-wheel must be dispensed with, the pis-
ton-plates can be so placed on the revolving cylinders as the
mid one would be in action, when the end ones pass the valves,
and the end ones in action when the mid one passes ; but in this
case the pressure on the revolving cylinders would not be ex-

actly fair.

Lonpon,
7. Pratt Street, Lambeth,
27th July 1826.

Tour to the South of France and the Pyrenees, in 1825. By
G. A. Watker Arnott, Esq. A.M. F.L.S. & R.S.E. &c.
In a Letter to Professor Jameson. (Continued from p. 78.)

On the 1st of April Mr Bentham and I left Avignon behind
us at 4.a.mM. We arrived at Lafoux at half-past.7. This is a
small village on the other side of the river Gard, from and op-
posite to the town of Remoulins. It is the La Fourche of Sir
James Smith; and I had been much prejudiced against this
place by some remarks I remembered to have been made by that
author in his Tour on the Continent. I was, however, agreeably
disappointed. . Instead of a dirty and comfortless inn, we found
one remarkable for its neatness and cleanness. Many changes
and many improvements have, however, every where taken
place during the last forty years. Towards 9, we sallied forth
to see the famous Pont de Gard, which is about two miles
higher up the river. This remarkable bridge, or rather aque-
duct, consisting of three series of arches, one above the other,

and the Pyrenees, in 1825. 269

is thrown over a very deep valley, and served in ancient
times to convey water from a hill in the neighbourhood to
the town of Nismes. But this astonishing piece of Roman
architecture has been so often and so well described, that it
were folly in me to say a word more on the subject, than that
at present it is so very entire that we walked from the one
end to the other, within the aqueduct itself. The covering in
some places is broken; but we found httle difficulty in return-
ing on the top. On the centre roof-stone was a long Latin in-
scription ; but we had neither time nor patience to attempt to
decypher it.

Within the aqueduct, and on the roof, we observed many cu-
rious little plants. Indeed, it, like the steps of St Peter’s at
Rome, may well be said to produce a Flora sufficient to gratify
one who had come from a northern climate. Amongst others
were Hutchinsia petrea, Linaria rubifolia, Helianthemum ra-
cemosum 8, Duval, Valantia muralis, Ceterach officinale, Polyc-
nemum arvense, Tortula chloronotos, Brid. Grimmia africana,
Xe.

We botanized in the neighbourhood, where we met with se-
veral of what botanists call good plants. Iris pumila, both the
yellow and blue varieties, Ophrys aranifera, Valeriana tuberosa,
Tulipa clusiana (1 doubt much that this should rank as a spe-
cies), Orchis robertiana (of which only one plant was found
by us), Globularia alyssum and Thapsia villosa (but not in
flower), were all here. The Grimmia africana covered the
rocks, while T'ortula gracilis was abundant. We had been in-
formed that a peculiar species of Cyclamen grew here, as well
as at Capouladon, in the neighbourhood of Montpellier, and we
sought for it long, but without success. Of the Jris pumila,
some make two species, I think erroneously, although it is pro-
bable that, as garden varieties, they may keep tolerably con-
stant. On the rocks opposite to Lafoux is T'argionia hypo-
phylla, and behind the inn was a field covered with Holostea
umbellata, a plant nearly as scarce in the south of France as
in Scotland.

Having done ample vapeliers to a dinner that we had ordered
to be ready by our return, we left Lafoux at 6, and got to
Nismes at 9 o'clock. ‘The amphitheatre and maison carrée,

270 Mr Arnott’s Tour to the South of France

both splendid remains of Roman magnificence, are sure to give
high pleasure to all who see them.

The materials for building both these at Nismes, and the
Pont de Gard, must have been brought from a considerable dis-
tance (probably to the south), at least no stones can possibly be
procured at this day any where in the neighbourhood, of so du-
rable a nature.

Leaving Nismes at 11 Pp. m. we arrived at Montpellier at half-
past 6 the next morning, and in a few hours set off for the
Chateau de Restincliéres, the seat of Sir S. Bentham.

When I left Paris, it was my intention to remain only a fort-
night at Montpellier, and then to proceed to Switzerland. But
I was induced to alter my plans, and to go to the Pyrenees in
the summer, by the persuasions of my friend Mr Bentham, and
of two other gentlemen MM. Regnier and Audibert, who were
to accompany us for six weeks.

_ A northern botanist had no leisure to feel ennui in the
south of France, such is the variety of almost new objects that
meets his eye. A few hours were devoted before breakfast to
the gathering of specimens, which, in the heat of the day, we
laid out to be pressed and dried, or changed the paper of such
as were in progress. By this I was enabled to collect, not only
for myself, but for such British and foreign botanists as might
desire the productions of Montpellier, without going to look for
them. But we were not contented with what we found on Sir
S. Bentham’s property, one of the richest in wild plants in the
neighbourhood of Montpellier. We sometimes, with M. Delile,
Professor of Botany, and M. Duval, the author of the mono-
eraphs on the Annonacee and the genus Solanum, made more
distant excursions. One of these took place a few days after
my arrival.

“ 7th April—We set off on Tuesday (the 5th) at 5 in the
morning for the Pie St Loup, an arid rocky hill of considerable
elevation, about sixteen or twenty miles north of Montpellier.
There is an old chateau on the right, to which we directed: our
steps, for the purpose of procuring there the Arabis verna, It
was not in flower, but we found a few of Orobanche epithymum
(O. rubra, Sm.) ; and on the other side of the hill we met with
Draba muralis, and several other interesting plants. We now

and the Pyrenees, in 1825. 271

skirted along the north side of the hill towards the west, until
we arrived at a wood, in which we expected to procure the Pe-
onia peregrina. A fortnight ago it had been in bud ; but in bud
it still was, and we were consequently disappointed. We had,
however, another object more worthy of search ; and we now be-
gan to make inquiries after a place called La Roque, or Roquette.
No one of the few we encountered could, however, give us that
information. At last we met one who told us that there was a vil-
lage called La Roque some leagues to the north: of that we were
aware, but it could not be our La Roque. The plant we sought
for was the Brassica humilis, a plant closely allied to B. repanda,
the Sisymbrium monense of Villars, and resembling somewhat
our own Brassica monensis, but much smaller, growing at a dis-
tance from the sea, and in a hot climate. It had been diseo-
vered by De Candolle, when Professor at Montpellier, and has
hitherto been found no where else. Indeed, it is doubtful if the
station be known to any one but De Candolle. He thus indi-
cates the locality: “ Planities argillosa pone montem Lupi, in
pagos Londres et La Roque.” Londres was soon found; but
as for La Roque, alas! | We searched diligently over several
plains all the way to Londres, but without success, and then
giving up the pursuit, we returned to St Martin by some mea-
dows. No sooner did we arrive at this village, where we were
to pass the night, than we discovered that we had been wander-
ing nearly all the afternoon in part of the individual “ planities
argillosa” we were in quest of. La Roquette (not La Roque),
we found to be an old castle, and a very conspicuous one, too,
with a few farm-houses about it, and this the peasants we
had met with were in the habit of calling merely the Cas-
tello, and did not know that it possessed the denomination of
di Roquetta. Had we known, we might have examined the
plain with more attention, but, on account of its great extent,
it is not likely we should have been successful. I had, however,
no reason to be dissatisfied: much that I saw was new to me,
at least in the wild state. MM. Delile and Duval met us in
the evening. St Martin is a dirty village; and as for the au-
berge, it certainly had not cleanliness to recommend it.

** Yesterday morning we started at 5 o'clock for the Capou-
ladon, Here grows the same species of Cyclamen that we had

272 Mr Arnott’s Tour to the South of France

endeavoured to fall in with at the Pont de Gard.. Bentham
and Delile had seen it in bud about a fortnight ago, and we
hoped to get it in full flower. After a fatiguing walk up hill
and down hill for three hours and a half, in which time the sun
had broke forth with all his power, we came to the Capouladon.
I deserved some recompence, for never did I suffer so by the
heat. We proceeded at the rate of full four miles an hour;
but this gave no more inconvenience to my companions, than
it would to me in a Highland glen with my gun in my hand in
the month of August. We arrived at the Capouladon, and found
the Cyclamen still en bouton, apparently not more advanced than
it was a fortnight ago.

“ From the Capouladon, we descended by a romantic ravine
(I say romantic, but there was no stream, no not even a drop
of water to moisten the parched valley), for a mile or two, un-
til we arrived on the banks of the Herault. On the banks of
this river we met with Lycopodium denticulatwm (a species per-
haps too much allied to L. helveticum), and Hepatica triloba:
on some rocks Globularia alyssum and Coronilla glauca. We
returned to St Martin in the evening by a small hill called
Agasse. This is the patois name for the Acer Monspeliensis,
which is very abundant on this hill. Owing to the elevation of
most of the ground we had passed, the vegetation was not so
much advanced as at Montpellier.

«* To-day Delile and Duval set off for Montpellier, and we
for Restencliéres. We botanized by the way, and got some good
plants. Leucodon sciuroides and Pterogonium Smithii were
in a fine state of fructification. In one valley, Erica arborea,
with its handsome white blossoms, and which deserves as good
a place in our gardens as the Cape heaths, was abundant, as _
well as the Erica scoparia. Lavandula stechas, scarcely yet in
flower, covered the side of a hill. On the rocks here was also
Lichen mamillaris of Gouan, a species which can be only con-
founded with Lecidea candida. It does not appear to have
be taken up by Acharius or any other lichenologist, nor is it
noticed in Steudel’s Nomenclator Botanicus *.

* I have since ascertained it to be L. tumidu/us, Smith, Linn. Trans. ; but
Sir James himself has since united it in English Botany, t. 1138. to Lichen
(Lecidea) candidys. 1 almost think there are good marks of distinction.

3

and the Pyrenees, in 1825. 273

* Through all the districts I have passed during these three
days, I observed that the prevailing large plants on the waste
lands are Genista scorpius, Cistus monspeliensis, and Lavandula
spica, interspersed with Quercus ilex and cocciféra, Rosmarinus
officinalis (the Rosemary), Buaus sempervirens (the Box-tree),
&e. Of these, the Genista scorpius holds the place of the Ulex
Europeus or Furze in Scotland: the Lavandwa spica* they
have in place of our Calluna erica, or heather ; and as for the
Quercus ilex and coccifera, they would, if not cropped by the
sheep, cover the grounds like the Quercus sessiliflorus in the
Highlands of Scotland. Upon the-whole, the country here is
far from beautiful: the whole, with the exception of a few scat-
tered valleys, consisting of waste lands or Garriques. These
wastes consist of little but small sharp-cornered hard stones,
of a grey colour, which in some places ages scarcely moulder
down: the consequence is, that there is but little soil, and
that little is immediately seized upon by the wild plants.
Nor is it possible to cultivate these garriques; remove the
surface stones, and you only find more ; besides, the heavy
October rains wash down the finest mould into the valleys,
leaving the hilly parts absolutely destitute of covering. Cale-
donia’s hills are celebrated for being bare and barren ; but they
must give up the point when Languedoc contests it. On ac-

* The plant found at Montpellier, and throughout Provence, is the true
L. spica; that usually cultivated in our gardens isa more mountainous species,
being the L. vera of De Candolle. Between these two and the L. pyrenaica
there exists great confusion among authors. The chief character pointed
out by De Candolle is the shape of the bracteze being linear in L. spica, and
broadly cordato-acuminate in the other two; and even in these, the shape is
not precisely the same, though not so strikingly different as to afford a good
specific character. De Candolle, however, founds upon it. One of the nerves
of the calyx in all the species expands at the apex into a small foliaceous ap-
pendage, which closes the orifice of the calyx before the appearance of the co-
rolla. ‘The shape of that part, although the character be extremely minute,
affords, as my friend the Baron Gingins de Lassarey at Berne has clearly
shewn me, the best specific difference. Baron Gingins, the celebrated au-
thor of the article Violariea in De Candolle’s Prodromus, is about to publish a
monograph on the Lavandula. Among other remarkable discoveries, he has
found that the simple and pinnated leaved species present two very different
structures in the embryo of the seed, which promises fair not only to separate
the latter generically from the former, but, should a natural classification of
the Labiate demand it, to remove them to a different part of the order.

JULY—ocToBER 1826. $

274 Mr Arnott’s Tour to the South of France

count of the paucity of soil, it will readily be supposed that
there is no pasture for the larger cattle: indeed, there is scarce-
ly a dozen cows in the country. Sheep-milk is chiefly in use,
but that cannot always be had, as in summer even the sheep
must be sent some days’ journey to the north, to the mountains
of the Cevennes. How different is even poor Scotland, where
every hill has a valley watered by a rivulet. Here there are no
such things as springs; no such things as streamlets: we find
either extreme aridity or a large river. The Lez (a river which
flows past Montpellier) commences close to Sir S. Bentham’s
house. Where it issues from the rock, it is as large as a good-
sized mill-dam; and indeed, before it is allowed to narrow into
a river, it is obliged to act ona mill. It resembles Vaucluse,
but seems much larger, although the surrounding rocks being
by no means so elevated, or on so grand a scale as the other,
prevents its being considered so romantic. Though scarcely
known, except to the natives of the country, I consider it one
of the most remarkable objects I have observed about Mont-
pellier. It deserves well a passing traveller’s attention. The ri-
vers here generally decrease in volume as they flow outwards, thus
reversing the laws followed by nature in more northern climates.
There seem three principal causes: the quantity taken off for
nrigation; the want of after supply, on account of the absence
of springs or feeding streamlets; and the great evaporation to
which the river is subject. Hence, however improbable, there
is no impossibility in the circumstance of the African Niger
spreading out into a large surface, and being then evaporated.

** Besides the Castello di Roquetta, we saw a considerable
number of other forts on the north side of the Pic de Loup.
Every small hill was provided with one; but they are all now
in a state of ruin. ‘These served as strongholds to the different
families during the Languedoc wars. But now that all danger
is past, that private a have ceased, and that these castellos
have gone to decay, it is astonishing to see the same desire still
prevail here of building even their farm-houses on as elevated
a situation as they can choose. What are their motives for so
doing it is difficult to conceive. They are farther from water,
and more exposed to the sun ; for the all-destroying Revolu-
tion cleared this country of every tree. Is it to enjoy a view

and the Pyrenees, in 1825. Q75

of the Mediterranean? or, as one of my friends jocularly said,
Are they afraid of an inundation ?”
. (To be continued. )

On the Changes which the Laws of Mortality have undergone
in Europe within the last Half Century, or from 1775 to
1825. By M. Benotston pE CHaTEauNEvr.*

1. Tue physical circumistances amid which man is placed,
the passions which animate him, and the political revolutions by
which he is agitated, influence his organization, alter and mo-
dify it. The inhabitant of the north, free and happy, is not
born, does not propagate, and dies not, like the suffering, un-
happy, and enslaved inhabitant of the south ; and the calcula-
tions, whose object is to determine the chances of his life, no
longer afford the same results, when it is spent in affluence and
independence, as they do when it is passed in poverty and ‘ser-
vitude.

2. These numerical results, therefore, whenever they can be
obtained, become the truest expression of the degree of well-
being, which he owes to his institutions. They furnish, says a
celebrated English writer, Mr Malthus, more instruction re-
garding the internal economy of a people, than the most accu-
rate observations of the traveller.

3. In the last century, several philosophers occupied them-
selves in investigating the laws of mortality, and the probabili-
ties of the duration of life, at all the periods by which its course
is divided. According to their calculations, the following facts
have been considered as sufficiently established ;

4. In a growing generation, the half died in the first ten
years of existence, and even sooner.

5. Three-fourths had. perished before fifty years, and four-
fifths at sixty ; or, in other words, of a hundred individuals,
fifteen only arrived at this age.

* Read to the Royal Academy of Science on the 30th January 1826.

276 M. Chateauneuf on the Changes of the

6. From eighty to a hundred years, none remained : a whole
generation had run its course.

7. The general proportion of deaths was determined to be
as one to thirty-two*, and that of births as one to twenty-eight.

3. It was reckoned that there was one marriage in a hun-
dred and ten, or a, hundred and fifteen individuals, and that
the degree of fecundity was pretty accurately represented by
four children for each couple, although, at the same time, this,
as well as all the other relations, was liable to vary according to
the places. In Spain and Italy, there were only two children
from each marriage; in France and Russia four; from six to
eight in Germany, and from eight to eleven in Sweden.

9. All these facts were deduced from the calculations of Nec-
ker, Moheau, and the Pommelles, in France; those of Short
and Price, in England; of Sussmilch in Germany, and of Far-
gentin in Sweden.

10. Such then, about the year 1780, were the principal laws
to which a more or less perfect state of society, a more or less
active industry, and more or less limited means ‘of existence,
subjected the course of human life in Europe.

11. Since then facts have increased, and at the same time
have become more accurate ; great political changes have taken
place; civilization and the arts of industry have advanced with
rapidity ; and science demands that we examine what may have
been their influence upon human life.

12. We have seen what were its laws half a century ago:
with the old state let us compare the present.

We have already said that the inquiries into this subject
were now facilitated by the possession of more numerous and
more extensive documents. Of these documents we shall take
the official accounts inserted in the different periodical collec-
tions, which have continued to publish them with care for seve-
ral years. We shall cite especially of these collections, the Bul-

* M. Crome divides the nations, with reference to this circumstance, into
three classes. The mortality is 1 in 30 in the rich and populous nations; 1 in
32 in those which are less so; and, lastly, 1 in 36 in poor nations, where the
population languishes or decreases. ‘The number 32 is precisely the exact
mean of these three proportions; its extreme terms are 22 in Holland, and
58 in Russia.

en ee

Laws of Mortality in Europe in the last Half Century. 277

letin Universel des Sciences, by Baron Ferussac, and the An-
nales des Voyages et de la Geographie, by Messrs Eyries and
Malte-Brun, &c.

13. At the period in which we write, 1825, of a certain num-
ber of children born in Europe, there dies, in the first ten
years, a little more than a third (38.3 in 100), in place of the
half (49.9) which formerly died.

14. From birth to fifty years, three-fourths of a generation
(74.2) were found to be extinct. At present, the proportion of
dead to living, in the same period of time, is not more than
three-twentieths, or sixty-six.

_ 15. Lastly, twenty-three persons in a hundred now arrive
at sixty, in place of eighteen who attained that age half a cen-
tury ago.

16. These proportions are mean terms; taken separately
they become still more favourable. Thus in France, the pro-
portion of those who survive at sixty years is 24.3 in the hun-
dred, while formerly it did not exceed fifteen (14.7).

These results, sufficiently remarkable of themselves, give rise
to others which are not less so.

17. From the 40th degree of latitude to the 65th, that is to
say, upon a line which extends from Lisbon to Stockholm, em-
bracing an extent of about a thousand leagues, and in a popula-
tion of sixty-five millions of individuals, which is comprehended
by Portugal, the kingdom of Naples, France, England, Prus-
sia, Denmark, and Sweden, the proportion of deaths is 1 in
40.3; that of births 1 in 30.1; that of marriages 1 in 123.3 ;
and the fecundity, four children by each marriage.

18. On comparing these relations with those of the last cen-
tury, we are struck with the difference which exists in the actual
mortality of early life at these two periods, a difference which
is not less than that between 88 and 150.

19. This difference would itself suffice to attest the happy
effects of vaccination, to which they are partly owing; but it
also proves a great amelioration with respect to the cares be-
stowed on childhood; and those cares themselves indicate a
greater prosperity and an improved condition in families. If
we now reflect that it was especially in the lower classes that the
mortality of children was enormous, we may conclude, that if

278 M. Chateauneuf on the Changes of the

these classes lose fewer at the present day, it is because they are
in a better state for taking care of them, and bringing them up.*

20. Nor is it less evident also, that if these same causes, as
well as some others, had not extended their influence beyond
the years of childhood, they would only have had the melan-
chely advantage of delivering over to death a greater number
of victims in the stages which follow. The contrary, however,
takes place, and at the present day more individuals attain the
fiftieth and sixtieth year than formerly. The action of these
preserving causes of childhood must therefore continue to ope-
rate upon the grown up person during the remaining part of
his career; and these preserving causes are in our eyes, to
sum them up into one which contains them all, an improved
state of society, a more diffused civilization, from whence results
a more happy and easy existence.

21. Along with the fact of the diminution of the number of
deaths, we have to place a second, which equally results from
the comparison of the true epochs, namely that of the diminu-
tion of marriages. They were formerly in the proportion of
oné in a hundred and ten individuals ; they are now in that of
one to a hundred and twenty-three. This, which is a mean
term, is even too high for some countries. In France, where,
according to the calculations of Necker, there was one marriage
in a hundred and eleven individuals, there is only reckoned one
in a hundred and thirty-five.

22. The natural consequence of the diminution of marriages
is that of births. This diminution is always proportional to the
increase of the population; for while the proportion of mar-
riages to it has fallen from a hundred and ten to a hundred and
twenty-three, and that of births from twenty-eight to thirty, it
is yet remarked that the one and the other are augmented in a
certain degree.

* Mr Glenny, who has been much occupied in England with statistics,
considered with relation to insurance societies, thinks, that since the time of
Dr Price, the public health is improved in children, and very little in grown
up persons. He estimates, that in the course of the last twenty-five years,
the mean term of the duration of the life of children has been increased a
fiftieth part.—British Review, Number for November 1825, p. 168.

Laws of Mortality in Europe in the last Half Century. 279

23. The fecundity would appear to have remained the same.
In the present century, as in the last, the numerical expression
which represents it is always four children for each marriage.
But this proportion is undoubtedly not the true one, since we
are obliged to include among the births that of the illegiti-
mate children, from the defect of proper distinctions in the ac-
counts of births, especially in foreign countries. In France, the
exact proportion of births to marriages is 3.9.

24. The marriages, as well as births, have diminished in
Europe within~these fifty years, and yet the population is seen
to increase. This apparent contradiction is explained by ano-
ther fact, the very great diminution of the proportion of deaths.
There was formerly one death in thirty-two individuals: there 1s
at present one in 40.3. ‘This diminution of the mortality bears
chiefly upon the earlier stages of life. There are, on the one
hand, more newly-born individuals that survive, and on the
other more adults that grow old.

25. The necessary result of this latter state of things, is the
prolongation of the middle period of life, which appears in fact
to extend beyond the limits within which it was formerly con-
fined.

26. The simultaneous diminution of the marriages and deaths
in Europe at the present day, confirms Mr Malthus’ observation,
that whenever the deaths are numerous, the marriages are so
also; for then the vacuities must be filled up, and there is room
for every body; and that, on the contrary, whenever there are
few deaths, there are also few marriages. The reason of this
in fact, is, that from the moment when the augmentation of in-
dividuals begins to fill all the paths of life, and to obstruct all
its courses, the means of existence become more and more scarce
and uncertain. People must then be much restrained from
gratifying the desire of marrying, and having a family, by the
difficulty which is foreseen of providing for them. Thus, al-
though it may appear paradoxical, it is not the less true, that
there comes a period when population forms an obstacle to po-
pulation, and industry arrests industry.

27. From all that has been stated, it would appear that the
following conclusions may be drawn :

280 M. Chateauneuf on the Changes of the

28. 'The laws of mortality, such as they were established fifty
years ago by the philosophers who were then engaged in their
investigation, appear since that period to have undergone the
following modifications :

Mortality of the Different Ages.

Old State. New State.

From birth to the age of 10, 50 in 100 38.3 in 100
nae Rei OM JT 94a so 66.0
yee SVBU ftp bag. 28 17.0
Proportion of deaths, - 1: 32.2 1: 40.3
. births, ss 1 : 27.7 1: 30.1
spiel, “+ -) o)) Makriages, 1; 110.4 1: 123.3
Fecundity, - - - 4.0 4.0

29. This table, without doubt, contains errors, owing to the
incorrectness of several of the accounts given. There is a
means, however, of remedying this defect, which would be,
that in each country where the laws of its population, and the
numbers which express them, are well known, while they are
cnly known through the medium of printing, which too often
alters them, some person accustomed to calculations of this de-
scription, or even learned societies, would publish accounts si-
milar to those which we have given. From these various ele-
ments, a general and accurate mean might then be obtained.

It is with this view that we have published the present note,
and that we join to it the state of the population of France
in particular, such as it was at the time of Necker in 1780, and
such as it is at the present day in 1825, according to the Annuaire
du Bureau des Longitudes for the year 1826.

Old State in 10 years. New State in 7 years.
Population. Population.

24,800,000 inhabitants. 30,400,000 inhabitants.
Deaths, - - 818.490 ; 261.230
Births, - he ee 957.970
Marriages, - - 213.770 224.570

Natural Children, 20.480 (;',) 65.760 (,'x).

Laws of Mortality in Europe in the last Half Century. 281

Mortality at Different Ages.
Old State in 10 years. New State in 7 years.

From birth to the age of 10, 50.9 in 100 43.8 in 100
we ee. ae Te os 67.5
; . 60, 81.0 =e - 75.6
Proportion of deaths, 1: 30.2 1: 39.9
err.) | bixths, 1 : 25.7 1: 31.7
+ + + +» + marriages, 1: 111.3 1: 135.3
Fecundity, - - 4.4 3.9

Now, if we bring in connexion with these new laws of morta-
lity, the political changes which have taken place in Europe
within these forty years, and especially in France, we shall per-
haps be correct, while at the same time it will afford us plea-
sure, in thinking that good institutions and well regulated go-
vernments alone have this happy privilege, that, under their pa-
ternal influence, human life is preserved and prolonged, while
it is consumed, and is quickly extinguished, by injustice and
oppression.

We had concluded this note, when M. Dureau de la Malle,
who is at this moment employed in very extensive researches
regarding the ancient population of Italy, communicated to us
the following result :

His numerous readings have satisfied him, that the senate
first, and afterwards the Roman emperors, did not neglect i in
their administration, any of the statistical accounts which seve-
ral modern states collect at the present day, with so much pains
and accuracy. He has even been enabled, by means of the
various documents furnished by the digeste and the Roman
laws, to reproduce the complete tables of the requisitions which
the censors addressed to the citizens, and it is found that they
entered into details in this respect, much more extended than
ours, regarding the sexes, ages, professions, the different kinds
of cultivation, the number of slaves, &c.

But what is more interesting still, M. Dureau has discovered
in the Pandects the calculations of the probability of life for all
ages, and he has thus obtained proof that the mean duration of
life in Italy was thirty years in the reign of Alexander Severus,
toward the end of the third century ; and it is known that this
was also nearly its duration fifty years ago (twenty-eight years.)

282 M. Brongniart’s Observations on some

We leave to M. Dureau himself the task of presenting this
fact in his work, surrounded by all the considerations which at-
tach to it, and which will reduce it to the place which it ought
to occupy in science. But the fact itself, which at once con-
nects what is with what has been, by making to disappear an
interval of two thousand years, and which refers to so early a
period the first recognitions of the laws of human life, appeared
to us so curious and so interesting, that we gladly availed our-
selves of M. Dureau’s permission to attach it to our note, and

publish it.

Observations on some Fossil Vegetables of the Coal Formation,
and on their relations to living Vegetables. By M. Ap.
Broneniarr.

Tue study of fossil organic bodies is so much the more diffi-
cult, in proportion to the obscurity in which the structure of the
living beings which they resemble is still involved. Numerous
collections of comparative anatomy have become necessary for
the determination of the isolated bones that are found buried
im the strata of the globe. Without such collections, it would
have been impossible to fix the families to which those animals
of former times are to be referred, to determine their genera,
and to limit their species, with accuracy. With reference to fos-
sil botany, we are still entirely deficient in collections of this de-
scription. A few specimens brought home by travellers, often
without the precise species being satisfactorily determined, are
scarcely sufficient to afford an idea of the parts of vegetables
which cannot be preserved in herbaria. The deficiency of ob-
jects of comparison is so much the more detrimental to the pro-
gress of this part of natural history, that, as the fossil vegetables
of the old formations appear to be almost all referrible to the
great arborescent monocotyledonous vegetables, at present con-
fined to the warmest parts of the globe, the examination of the
plants which grow in our own country can throw but little light
upon the structure of the trees which composed those ancient
forests. If there be added to this the changes which compres-
‘sion, and the other phenomena which have accompanied

Fossil Vegetables of the Coal Formation. 283

the destruction of these vegetables, have produced upon them,
an idea will be obtained of the difficulties to be experienced in
the attempt to determine detached portions of plants so modi-
fied. All these circumstances will serve as so many excuses for
errors, and numerous observations become necessary for rectify-
ing them.

It is thus, that, from errors too gross to be mentioned, all those
large trees which accompany the coal strata, have in a general
view been considered as stems of palms. Perhaps even, under
this name, it has only been intended to indicate their place a-
mong the Monocotyledones, a class in which the arborescent ve-
getables are rare, and belonging almost exclusively to this fami-
ly of palms. A closer examination has shewn, that these large ve-
getables of the coal formation possess characters which announce
very different structures, and which have given rise to their
being divided into several genera ; such are the stems to which
have been applied the names of Calamites, Sigillarize, Clathrariz,
Syringodendra, Stigmarie, Sagenarie or Lepidodendra. On
comparing them with the different vegetables at present exist-
ing, it has been found that none of them could be referred to
the family of palms, or to the arborescent vegetables of the neigh-
bouring families, such as the Asparagese, Pandanacez, Liliacese,
&c. Numerous and important characters, on the contrary, have
appeared to me to bring the Calamites in relation with the
Equiseta ; to associate the Sigillarize and Clathrariz, which per-
haps should only form two sections of the same genus of ferns ;
to refer the Sagenariz or Lepidodendra of Sternberg to the Ly-
copodiacez ; and, lastly, to indicate in the Stigmariz a consider-
able affinity to the stems of some Aroidese. With regard to the
Syringodendra, their position in the vegetable kingdom has been
hitherto the subject of conjectures supported by proofs more or
less probable, but always refuted. They have thus been succes-
sively transported from the family of Palms to that of Cactacer,
from the latter to that of Euphorbiacese, &c., without its appear-
ing possible to admit any of these affinities. Not finding any
thing, therefore, among the vegetables which exist at the present
day to which they presented any affinity, I had considered them
as remains of a genus entirely different from all those with which
we are acquainted. New observations, however, made in the

284 M. Brongniart’s Observations on some

very places which contain these vegetable remains, allow me
now to do away with this error, and will shew how much one is
exposed, in this sort of study, to the danger of subdividing unne-
cessarily, by considering as distinct species the different portions
of the same plant.

The genus of fossil plants to which Count Sternberg has given
the name of Syringodendron, contains stems, the surface of which
is covered with numerous parallel, and very regular, convex
ribs. On the middle of the ribs are placed in quincunx order,
simple or double lines, or rounded impressions, which are always,
however, very small, and never have the form of a disk or
shield, as in the genus Sigillaria. This character alone would
distinguish these two genera, but it would further appear of
great importance, inasmuch as it announces a great difference in
the form of the organs, whose insertion is indicated by these im-
pressions. In the Sigillaria, the disks have been regarded, with
reason, as the marks left upon the bark by the base of their pe-
tioles, after the fall of the leaves. . The form of the base of these
petioles, and the disposition of the vessels which have traversed it,
render it almost certain that these plants have belonged to the
family of ferns. The form of the impressions of the Syringo-
dendra, indicates, on the contrary, small organs, often in pairs,
in which the traces of spines, like those of the cactuses, fleshy
Euphorbie, &c. have been supposed to be recognised. This_
character has been deemed sufficient by several naturalists to in-
duce them to admit the analogy. <A perfect similarity of form in
the Syringodendra and Sigillarize, and their existence in the same
strata of the globe, might have impressed an idea, if not of their
identity, at least of their mutual resemblance; yet these two
genera have been admitted as distinct by all modern authors.
Direct observation, however, comes to prove, that they are only
two parts of one and the same plant; that the genus Syringo-
dendron must be erased from the list of plants ; ‘and, in a word,
that the alleged species of this genus are nothing else than Si-
gillarie deprived of their outer bark. Several specimens collect-
ed in the mines of Valenciennes, Mons, and Charleroi, evidently
prove this identity ; they are either Sigillaria or Syringodendra,
according as the carbonized bark which envelopes the stony

Fossil Vegetables of the Coal Formation. 285

nucleus of which these stems is almost entirely composed, is still
preserved, or has fallen off. It is in fact a character peculiar to
the fossil stems of the coal deposits, to be transformed or rather
entirely replaced, by an inorganic substance, deposited in the way
of sediment, often very coarse, and retaining no traces of the in-
ternal organisation of the stem; while around this nucleus there
occurs a layer, more or less thick, of very friable lamellar char-
coal, which has exactly preserved the form of the surface of the
vegetable. According as this cortical layer has a thickness more
or less great, and more or less equal, the central nucleus, when
it is deprived of it, preserves more or less accurately the form
of the external surface of the vegetable. In the Stigmariz, the
Sagenariz, the Calamites, and some Sigillariae, this bark forms
an extremely thin layer, a sort of epidermis, which leaves to the
stony nucleus the same form which the surface of the vege-
table itself presented. In the greater number of the Sigillarize,
on the contrary, this bark, which has a thickness of from one to
two lines, does not preserve internally the form which it had on
the outside ; the disk produced by the entire base of the petiole
no longer exists. The vessels alone which traversed it still leave
a mark internally, and produce those narrow, and often puneti-
form, impressions which were observed on the Syringodendra.
This character still furnishes an additional reason for considering
their genus as allied to the tree ferns. In the small number of
stems of these plants which we have had an opportunity of ob-
serving, and particularly in those of the old continent, there is
observed a perfectly distinct bark, or rather external layer, of an
organisation very different from the bark of dicotyledonous ve-
getables. This bark appears to detach itself from the substance
which occupies the centre of the stem, and then forms a sort of
hollow cylinder, of a very dense substance, the external surface
of which presents, with much accuracy, the form of the bases of
the petioles, while the inner surface presents only the passage of
the vessels. Let us suppose this woody cylinder to be filled up
with an earthy substance, and the bark afterwards converted in-
to charcoal, stems will be obtained, having a nearly perfect: re-
semblance to the Sigillariz ; if, again, the carbonaceous bark be
removed, the earthy nucleus will represent, with but slight dif-
ferences, the Syringodendra.

286 M. Brongniart’s Observations on some

If all the proofs which we have adduced establish almost with
certainty the resemblance of these immense stems to the stems
of the arborescent ferns, a very remarkable character distin.
guishes, if not all the Sigillariz, at least some of them, from our
presently existing arborescent ferns. All the tree ferns known
present a perfectly simple stem, similar in its general form.to
that of the palms, cycases, &c., but commonly broader toward
the base: a character which is not observed in the stems of the
greater number of arborescent monocotyledones, and which is
equally observed in the fossils of the genus Sigillaria. ..All the
specimens of these fossils which I had hitherto observed in col-
lections were perfectly simple, and this character appeared to be
common to all the species of the genus. In conjunction with
several others it had served to distinguish this genus from the
Sagenariz, the stem of which is commonly dichotomous. This
difference would tend to confirm the analogy of the former of
these genera with the ferns, and of the latter with the Lycopo-
dia. I was therefore very much astonished on seeing, im the
collection of M. de Derschau, engineer of mines of the Grand
Duchy of the Lower Rhine, a stem which was indicated by all
these characters to belong to the Sigillarize, and which was. yet
twice divided into two. Three specimens of the same species pres
sented this character more or less completely. Having myself
descended into one of the coal mines of the neighbourhood
of Essen (the mine of Kunzwerk), I was enabled to satisfy
myself on the spot regarding this remarkable. organization.
The almost vertical roof of one of the beds of coal, in. which the
gallery had been wrought, presented an immense quantity of
impressions of vegetables of different species. After having
seen with astonishment, among the remains of this ancient fo-
rest, stems of Sagenarize of nearly two feet diameter rising per-
pendicularly from the bottom of the gallery, dividing once or
twice, and presently losing themselves in the rocks which cover-
ed this gallery, without its being possible to judge whether
their length was proportional to their diameter; after having
endeavoured in vain to trace several of these stems, which were
interwoven in all directions, I at length came upon a stem of
Sigillaria, the position of which enabled me to trace it in almost
its whole extent. This stem lay parallel to the bottom of the

4

Fossil Vegetables of the Coal Formation. 287

gallery, almost at the height of the observer's eye; towards its
base, it was about a foot in diameter, and appeared broken and
not naturally terminated ; it was, like all the stems deposited in
the direction of the strata, compressed to such a degree as to be
entirely flat. On following this stem in the gallery, I was as-
tonished to see that it attamed, without interruption, a length of
more than forty feet ; its diameter diminished insensibly, so that
it was not more than six inches at its upper extremity ; but this
extremity, instead of terminating suddenly, was divided into
two branches, each of about four inches diameter, which sepa-
rated from each other, and were prolonged a few inches, when
they were interrupted by a fracture in the rock. I was not
able to trace beyond this point with certainty ; but it is never-
theless well proved that these stems, after attaining a great height,
finish, if not always, at least in some cases, with becoming fur-
cated, and probably dividing several times by dichotomy, It
is to this latter division of the stem that we must attribute the
rare occurrence of specimens presenting examples of it. On the
contrary, the great extent of the simple part of the stem of these
vegetables, must render the specimens of these portions of stems
very common in the rubbish extracted from mines. In the Sa-
genariz, on the contrary, where the stem appears to divide at a
small distance from the base, and te ramify a great number of
times, examples of these dichotomous divisions are of more fre-
quent occurrence.

After having properly established the mode of division of
the stems which compose the genus Sigillaria, there remains for
us to determine, if, notwithstanding this dichotomous form, they
ought still to rank among the ferns, or if this character be suf-
ficient to separate them from these plants, among which no ex~
ample of the kind of structure in question is now observable.

The mode of division of the stem does not appear to me tor
form a character of sufficient importance to induce a separation
of vegetables which have so many other characters common. We
see these two modes of structure united in the most natural fami-
lies of monocotyledonous plants; and there is nothing in the
organization of the tree-ferns that appears to militate against
the possibility of their having united, like these families, plants
with simple stems, and others with branched ones. Supposing

288 M. Brongniart on some Fossil Vegetables.

that, among the palms, the doum, a palm with dichotomous
stem, so common in Egypt, had been destroyed by some revo-
lution of the globe, all the botanists would consider a simple
stem as a general character of the plants of this family, and
perhaps would hesitate to assign a place in this group toa
plant, the organization of which would appear to separate it
from all the other species known. We are not acquainted with
any circumstance that would induce us to believe that the
family of ferns, the arborescent species of which are still so im-
perfectly known, does not contain plants with stems thus divid-
ed. The characters deduced from the form and disposition of
the bases of the petioles, and from the disposition of the
vessels in these petioles, characters which are only observed
among the ferns, appear to us of much greater importance, and
decide in our opinion the place which these vegetables ought to
occupy. )

All the families of phanerogamous monocotyledonous plants
which contain arborescent species, present these two forms of
stem. It is therefore probable, that when the equinoctial zone
shall be better known to us, cycases, zamize and ferns with
dichotomous stems, will be discovered, as we already know dra-
con, yuccee,and palms, which present this organization. Per-
haps, also, these vegetables, so remarkable for their form, their
magnitude, and we may even say their elegance, have ceased to
exist at the surface of the earth, and their remains will serve to
perfect our ideas regarding several families of plants, of which
the present vegetation of our globe no longer presents but im-
perfect fragments, in the same manner as the ancient world
has already served to fill up several voids of the animal king-
dom.

Explanation of Plate VI.

Fig. 1. Sigillaria Hippocrepis. Ad. B.

Sigillaria with flattened ribs, eight lines broad ; bark smooth ex-
ternally, striated internally ; cicatrices semi-elliptical, truncated
beneath, or in the form of a horse’s shoe, marked with three vas-
cular fasciculi above ; internal cicatrices simple, oval.

Found in the coal mine of Mons.
3

PLATE .V1. Fdin'’ new Phil Jour Vol./

— a
— ee SS =
— a : =

—
a

= SS
=

Published hy A. Black FdintI& 26. WH Livare.ce

M. A. Brongniart on some Fossil Vegetables. 289

Fig. 2. Sigillaria reniformis. Ad. B.

Sigillaria with flattened ribs, about 15 lines broad ; bark thick,
smooth externally, striated internally, cicatrices small, from three
to four lines broad, reniform, notched above and marked with
three vascular fasciculi ; internal cicatrices oval, large, double.

Gathered in the coal-mines of Mons.

Fig. 3, 4. Sigillaria elongata. Ad. B.

Sigillaria with convex angular ribs ; bark pretty thick, smooth ex«
ternally, striated internally ; cicatrices oblong, truncated at the
two extremities, marked with three vascular fasciculi above,
the cicatrices are close together, and the interval between them
is rugose and transversely striated.

Var. a. minor. Ribs from five to six lines broad ; inner cicatrices
rounded. (fig. 3).

Var. 8. major. Ribs from eight to ten lines broad; inner cica<
trices elongated, linear. (fig. 4).

Occurs in the coal-mines of Charleroi.

Fig. 5. Sigillaria mamillaris. Ad. B.

_ Sigillaria with ribs alternately narrowed, from four to five lines
broad, forming lamelle which support narrow cicatrices, trun-
cated above, widened and rounded beneath, marked toward
their upper edge with three vascular fasciculi. Bark very thin,
striated transversely beneath the cicatrices, smooth internally ;
internal cicatrix rounded.

Occurs in the coal-mines of Charleroi.

Obs. The three first species differ essentially from all those figured
by M. Sternberg, Schlotheim, Rhode, &c. ; the last species pretty
much resembles Sternberg’s Lepidodendron alveolare ; but it is
distinguished from it by its cicatrices being wider set, and its
bark striated in the interval of the cicatrices—Annales des Sci-
ences Naturelles, Jan. 1825, p. 23.

Professor P. Prevost, upon the Magnetical Influence of
the Sun.

NN exesous observations made at different periods, appear to
attest that the southern hemisphere is colder than the northern.
This fact is explained by the theory of radiating caloric, and is

JULY—ocTOBER 1826. T

290 Professor P. Prevost upon the

not capable of being accounted for by any other. The follow-
ing is a brief account of the state in which the discussion on this
subject stands at present.

The southern winter is longer than the northern, and the sum-
mer proportionally shorter. But this circumstance mtroduces
no difference in the quantities of solar irradiation, which either
hemisphere experiences in the course of a season of the same
name. It isdemonstrated that, in the elliptical orbit, the differ-
ence of the distance from the sun exactly compensates the effect
of the duration of the corresponding seasons of the two hemi-
_ spheres; the quantity of rays received by the earth is constantly
the same for the same number cf degrees traversed upon the
ecliptic; in other terms, the quantity of heat which the earth
receives from the sun is proportional to the true anomaly. From
one equinox to the other, the earth therefore receives the same
quantity of solar rays. Thus, for a season of the same name,
summer for example, each of the two hemispheres similarly si-
tuated with relation to the sun, receives precisely the same se-
mestral light, measured by 180° of the ecliptic. If, therefore,
one of the two hemispheres is more heated by solar irradiation
than the other, this cannot depend upon the quantity of rays
which it receives. It only remains to be seen whether it might
not depend upon the different manner in which the distribution
of this same quantity is operated. But if all this quantity be
considered as fixed, and in some measure stored up in the bosom
of the earth, it is of no consequence although there should be
some inequality in the form of its distribution. It may there-
fore be said in general, that the unequal temperature of the two
hemispheres does not depend immediately upon the heat which
they receive from the sun.

But it is known that all the rays received in this way do not re-
main imprisoned in the terrestrial globe. A part of them ema-
nates by means of radiation, and loses itself in space: If, accord-
ing to the general theory of radiation, regard be had to the dif-
ferent distribution of solar heat in the two hemispheres of the
earth, if, for example, confining ourselves to the summer (the
influence of which is entirely predominant), we consider the ef-
fect which the length of the northern summer has upon the ra-

Magnetical Influence of the Sun. 291

diation, we find that the southern hemisphere is more cooled, and
that there remains to the northern (deduction made of the radia-
tion) a superiority of heat. This is the result of a train of rea-
soning which will be found in the treatise on radiating caloric,
sect. 285, to which I can only refer here.

These truths which I have laboured to establish, in two es-
says published in 1792 and 1809, would have been sufficiently
confirmed by the experiments of M. de la Roche, and by those
of MM. Dulong and Petit, could it be admitted that what takes
place in very high temperatures is applicable to lower degrees.
But I cannot at present attend to this remark, nor to several
others which refer to heat, having another object in view.

What has been demonstrated of the heat which has emanated
from the sun, easily applies to every other emanation from that
body. Accordingly, in 1792, I made application of it to a fluid
which I was disposed to refer to this origin. Proceeding on
the supposition, now very generally received, of two magnetic
fluids, I thought that the magnetism of the terrestrial globe
might come from the abundance in excess of one of them upon
one of our hemispheres. Then, viewing it as probable that such
a fluid emanates from the sun, or that in some manner or other
the solar emanation affects the magnetism, I proposed to examine
if the abundance in excess of this fluid upon our hemisphere
might not be attributed to the same cause which produces an
excess of heat in it. I remarked, lastly, that, if these supposi-
tions were verified, we might hope to detect, between the mag-
netic variations and the known motions of the earth’s exis, rela-
tions that it would be useful to observe.

These reflections have been suggested to me by experiments
which seem to indicate the emission of one of the magnetic ele-
ments by the sun, namely, those upon the influence of the violet
ray first made by Mr Morechini, and afterwards repeated and
varied by Mrs Somerville.—Bibliotheque Universelle, May
1826.

r2@

( 292 Jj

On the Reaction of Sulphate of Magnesia and Bicarbonate of
Soda. By M. Piancue.

Ir is known that the bicarbonate of soda and the sulphate of
magnesia, in a state of aqueous solution, exercise no reciprocal
action in the cold, and that it is only when a certain quantity of
carbonic acid has been disengaged by heat, or, in other words,
when the alkaline bicarbonate has passed into the state of sub-
carbonate, that the sulphuric acid prevails over the soda, and
leaves the magnesia to the carbonic acid. But I have nowhere
seen it mentioned that the two salts mixed together, ina dry
state, and in the form of powder, react upon each other. This
must at least be the case with regard to their immediate and in-
stantaneous mixture, since in this state they dissolve in water
without affecting its transparency, and consequently witheut any
decomposition taking place, or at least any apparent decomposi-
tion. Presuming upon this property of the two salts, a physi-
cian prescribed several years ago to M. de Sommariva, a mixture
of powdered sulphate of magnesia, and saturated carbonate of
soda. He gave alternately either this mixture alone, or bicar-
bonate of soda. Being charged with the preparation of both
these medicines, for a journey of three months, which M. de
Sommariva made annually to Italy, I always had the precaution
of placing the mixture, in a very dry state, and divided into par-
cels in tin canisters, to preserve it from humidity. I used the
same precaution with regard to the carbonate of soda. I obsery-
ed that the sulphate of magnesia was free of hydrochlorate.
During three years M. de S., a man very careful of his health,

and besides a good observer, never perceived that cold water be-
came turbid Be a he dissolved the two salts together in it; but
in 1822, having been obliged to prolong his journey beyond the
usual time, he laid up a store for a year. Toward the end of
the fifth month, M. de S. remarked that the same water which
he ordinarily used became slightly milky, and that the change,
which he rightly attributed, though without being able to ex-
plain the cause, to the alteration of the powder, went on increas-
ing as the time advanced. At length, by the seventh month,

Observations on the Nature and Importance of Geology. 293

the precipitate which formed in the water became so consider-
able, that M. de S. deemed it proper to intermit the use of the
powder, and sent for some more, promising to inform me on
his return from Italy, of what, according to his expression,
had happened. M. de S. returned at the end of six months,
and sent me back the powder in question, which I submitted
to the following experiments.

1st, This powder put into a quantity of cold water, double
that which is necessary for dissolving the two salts, rendered it
milky.

2. Dissolved in a large quantity of water, it deposited a white
powder, which, on being washed several times and dried, was
found to be subcarbonate of magnesia. .

The liquor in which this deposit was formed was limpid after
being filtered, and was not rendered turbid, either cold or hot,
by the soluble alkaline subcarbonates. All the acids stronger
than the carbonic disengaged this latter from it. Lastly, when
suitably evaporated, sulphate and carbonate of soda were obtain-
ed, part of the latter of which was in the form of subcarbonate.
To explain here the presence of the carbonate of soda, it requires
to be known that the quantity of bicarbonate mixed with the
sulphate of magnesia, was more than sufficient to decompose
this latter salt.

There results from this observation, that the sufficiently pro-
longed contact of sulphate of magnesia and bicarbonate of soda in
a dry state, determines a chemical action similar to that which
the concurrence of water and heat would produce, affording a
new example of the inaccuracy of the old chemical axiom: Cor-
pora non agunt nisi soluta—Journal de Pharmacie, March
1826.

Observations on the Nature and Importance of Geology.

A CELEBRATED school of philosophy among the ancients, main-
tained that there was only one virtue. With as much, nay even
more, propriety, it might be maintained, that there is only one
science, at least one physical science. The various departments

294 Observations on the Nature and Importance of Geology.

of this science are so framed, as, in some measure, to accommo-
date the incommensurability of nature to our capacity ; and by
connecting things that are homogeneous, they enable us to take
a survey of natural phenomena; but, while we are occupied with
a single department, we become sensible of its dependence on
others, and are frequently at a loss to assign to each its —
province.

Of all the departments of physical science, geclogy is the most
intimately connected with other branches, and stands in need of
their assistance, or assists them more frequently than any other.
This mutual relation, which contributes, in no small degree, to
bestow a peculiar charm on geology, has, at the same — a
tendency to render it a difficult study.

When speaking of Geology, it must be understood to compre-
hend Oryctognosy as its foundation; the latter gives us a know-
ledge of the characters, the former of their combination. Who-
ever is in danger of mistaking one character for another, will
never learn to read accurately ; and he who continually devotes
his attention to nothing but the characters, may, indeed, owing
to the difficulty of recognising them, be very profitably engaged,
but he will be frustrated as to the ultimate and most essential
object of their study.

The terrestrial globe, whose structure, so far as it 1s exposed
to our view, is the proper object of geognostic investigation, is
the extensive workshop wherein the powers of nature, with which
natural philosophy and chemistry are engaged, have operated,
and are still operating. It is not therefore matter of surprise,
though these two sciences have both a kindred affinity for geo-
logy, to which the latter is indeed so closely related, that geo-
logy may be considered as practical chemistry. In addition to
this, geology has, with other departments of science, many points
of contact, from which it may be allowable to select a single ex-
ample.

Geometry, guided by simple principles, formed regular bo-
dies from limited plane surfaces, and determined their peculiar
properties, without foreseeing that models of them would be
found in nature herself; but since observation has brought us
acquainted with the regular figures of mineral bodies, they ex-

Observations on the Nature and Importance of Geology. 295

hibit in relation to this science one of the most important appli-
cations, as well as one of the most unerring standards, by which
they are distinguished.

When the geometer, by his measurements, proves that the fi-
gure of our earth may, like that of other planets, be determined
by its revolutions, and hence draws conclusions regarding its ori-
ginal state of fluidity, we find, that the phenomena of geology
lead to the same result. When he weighs its mass in a balance,
whose arm is the semidiameter of the sun’s orbit, we are unable
to confirm his statement by immediate observation; but we ob-
tain, in this way, a basis on which we can, in some measure, rest
our conclusions regarding the internal structure of the earth.

If we contemplate its surface, with all its inequalities, it is geo-
logy alone that can give us a distinct representation of them. All
local descriptions, not springing from this source, either leave be-
hind them indistinct and erroneous conceptions, or are entire-
ly fanciful. This surface being the habitation of our species,
its figure and its changes must, therefore, be closely connected
with the history of the human race ; and though the most im-
portant of those changes may be far anterior to their origin, and
to the period of history, we may yet, in more than one geognos-
tic fact, find suggestions and disclosures, which cannot be unac-
ceptable to the historical investigator. These facts concur with
historical testimony, in representing the elevated platforms of
Asia as the cradle of the human race, and in explaining their dif-
fusion from that centre; and the traditions of deluges, found
among all the nations of antiquity, are corroborated by the still
existing traces of those violent events.

The monuments concealed in the bosom of the earth, and ex-
tending to the whole organic creation, are still more instructive.
Between the dead and the living there yawns a chasm, indeed,
which we can never overleap ; but if any thing can lift the veil
that hangs over the origin and progress of the organic world, it
must be those remains of it, for the knowledge of which we are
indebted to geology. So far as we have examined the crust of
the earth, we have discovered in its structure and materials no
transition from simple to compound. The order of time has
established no relation, according to which the strata of simple

296 Observations on the Nature and Importance of Geology.

rocks of the earliest formations are the simplest, while the
newer are more and more compound; on the contrary, the
oldest appear to be the most compound. In complete opposi-
tion to this, the organic world, in each of its two principal divi-
sions, exhibits a series of formations from simple to compound ;
the simplest being the oldest. Thus we observe animal life
commencing minfusory animals, without any discernible organs.
Simple digestive organs are first visible in the polypi; in the
echinodermata the organ of respiration first appears ; in insects
a system of nerves and muscles; in crustaceous animals circula-
tion ; and in the last two, simple organs of sense make their
appearance. At the same time, generation preserves the pe-
culiar character of organic beings; and after having accom-
plished its purpose, by mere division and dissolution, the particu-
lar generative organs develop themselves in distinct sexes. With
the avertebral animals are conjoined the series of the vertebral,
in which every system appears more perfect, and more close-
ly connected. New organs of sense are unfolded, and the
brain becomes the centre of feeling, perception and life, till
in man it attains the highest state of perfection, and endows him
with consciousness and rationality. Long ago, celebrated natu-
ralists, relying upon these observations, attempted, with more or
less success, to arrange the species of animals, sometimes accord-
ing to a scale of gradation, and sometimes according to a reticu-
lated form, without giving any distinct account of the meaning
of such an arrangement. Should it, like the piling up of a col-
lection of books, merely serve for a more convenient survey of
innumerable creatures, without any reference to their origin ? Or,
do they intend, by means of such an arrangement, to express the
design that hovered in the mind of Omnipotence, before he cal-
led these creatures into being? Or, have they originated in the
way in which they appear in the scale of gradation, as if the
hand of the Creator, like that of a human artist, perhaps, must
first be exercised on simple formations, before it was capable of
producing such as were compound ?

Upon these questions, whose answer might contain no less
than a key to the profoundest secrets of nature, Mr Lamarck,
one of the most sagacious naturalists of our day, has expressed

Observations on the Nature and Importance of Geology. 297

himself in the most unambiguous manner. He admits, on the
one hand, the existence of the simplest infusory animals; on
the other, the existence of the simplest worms, by means of
spontaneous generation, that is, by an aggregation process of
animal elements; and maintains, that all other animals, by the
operation of external circumstances, are evolved from these in
a double series, and in a gradual manner. On that account,
the scale of gradation, according to which he arranges the ani-
mal kingdom, is, at the same time, the history of their origin ;
and the discovery of this truly natural method, the most im-
portant problem of the natural philosopher. Although it should
not be forgotten, that this meritorious philosopher, more in con-
formity with his own hypothesis than is permitted in the pro-
vince of physical science, has resigned himself to the influence
of imagination, and attempted explanations, which, from the
present state of our knowledge, we are incapable of giving, we
nevertheless feel ourselves drawn towards it, and these notions
of the progressive formation of the organic world, must be
found more worthy of its first Great Author than the limited
conceptions that we commonly entertain.

Geology can alone inform us, how far this successive course
of development may have been followed by nature. When all
the races of animals, whose remains are contained in the crust
of the earth, have been better ascertained than at present, and
their situations better known, when we have discovered at what
period of the earth’s formation any species of animals makes its
appearance for the first time, we shall then be able to draw con-
clusions, more or less accurate, concerning the order of succes-
sion. The doctrine of petrifactions, even in its present imper-
fect condition, furnishes us with accounts that seem in favour of
Mr Lamarck’s hypothesis. We, in fact, meet with the more
perfect classes of animals, only in the more recent beds of rocks,
and the most perfect, those closely allied to our own species, only
in the most recent ; beneath them occur granivorous, before car-
nivorous, animals ; and human remains, are found only in allu-
vial soil, in calcareous tuff, and in limestone conglomerates.

Geology does not inform us merely of the origin of animal
species, but also of their destruction. Out of the vast number

3

298 Observations on the Nature and Importance of Geology.

of animal remains, but few belong to species now living, and
these only, in the most recent rock-formations ; by far the great-
er number of their primitive structures are lost, and the older
the beds of rock in which they make their appearance, so much
the more do they deviate in their formation from the species now
in existence. May this destruction, as is commonly received,
have been the.result of violent accidents, and destructive revo-
lutions of the earth ; or does it not rather indicate a great law of
nature, which cannot be discovered by reason of its remote an-
tiquity ? Within the narrow circle of vision in which the organic
world manifests itself to our observation, we observe individuals
only going to destruction, and in opposition to that, great pre-
parations making for the preservation of the species. But if all
living perish, may no point of duration have been fixed for the
species ; or do we not rather, in these signs of a former world,
discover a proof, that, from a change in the media in which or-
ganic creatures lived, and from powerful causes operating upon
them, their power of propagation may be weakened, and at
length become perfectly extinct ? Is the continual decrease, then,
which we observe among some species, a consequence of the va-
rious modes of destruction they experience from the hand of
man, or may it not rather be produced by natural circumstan-
ces, and be a sign of the approaching old age of the species?
The distinction of species is undoubtedly one of the founda-
tions of natural history, and her character is the propagation of
similar forms. But are these forms as immutable as some dis-
tinguished naturalists maintain ; or do not our domestic animals
and our cultivated or artificial plants prove the contrary? If
these, by change of situation, of climate, of nourishment, and
by every other circumstance that operates upon them, can change
their relations, it is probable that many fossil species to which
no originals can be found, may not be extinct, but have gra-
dually passed into others, As there are periodical movements
of the heavenly bodies, that is, movements that are visible only
after hundreds of years, so these are undoubtedly periodical
changes in the organic world. If these have required intervals
of time that are antecedent to all historical traditions, and to the
duration even of the human race, the monuments concealed in

Observations on the Nature and Importance of Geology. 299

the bosom of the earth can alone reveal them. We indeed ob-
serve that the Ibis, which was worshipped in ancient Egypt, and
preserved as a mummy, is still the same in modern Egypt ; but
what are the few thousand years to which the mummy refers,
in comparison with the age of the world, as its history is related
by geology.

Geology likewise supplies us with instructive disclosures re-
garding the distribution of organic beings. If we, in all the
regions and climates of the world, meet with a striking unifor-
mity in the structure of the earth, we also, on the contrary, ob-
serve plants and animals of a most varied character scattered
over its surface. As there are among the dicotyledons, that is,
among the more perfect plants, no species, which are at the
same time indigenous to the hot climates of the old and new
world, so both halves of the globe in the same zone possess mam-
miferous animals, birds, reptiles, and insects peculiar to each.
Species common to both are found only among the inferior gra-
dations of organization, and species of a higher order are found
only in those high northern latitudes, where the continents were
undoubtedly at one time conjoined. From the combined re-
sults. of organic geography, and the doctrine of petrifactions, it
will at once follow, whether the ancient population of the ter-
restrial globe was distributed according to the same laws as at
present. Even now, many of the petrifactions of cold climates,
whose species and families are produced only in hot countries,
indicate a great change in the temperature of their former si-
tuations, and phenomena, like that of the rhinoceros found on
the shore of the Wilhui, and of the mammoth at the mouth of
the Lena, are likewise indications of sudden changes in those
places. Along with the distribution of species, we also acquire
a knowledge of the distribution of individuals, and of their
modes of life, from their fossil remains, because these remains,
like living creatures, appear to us sometimes single, and dis-
persed at other times in numerous bodies, and closely crowded
together.

The doctrine of petrifactions contains also the history of the or-
ganic world, as natural history contains its description. Like the
coins, inseriptions, and works of art, which make us acquainted

300 Observations on the Nature and Importance of Geology.

with the varied destiny of our own species, these monuments have
been buried in the earth, and, by that means, have been secured
against destruction. The Siberian and Chinese popular tradi-
tions of the mammoth living in the interior of the earth, are at
least figuratively correct ; and, in conjunction with the remains of
a former world, bear evidence of an earlier state of things.
The remains of all plants and classes of animals, whose struc-
ture permitted it, have been preserved in great abundance ;
and, although the distinction of species not unfrequently con-
fronts us with unsurmountable obstacles, a knowledge of them
must lead to important results; at least, if we admit that the
various forms have been evolved from a primitive model, and
that the species have arisen from an original generic form. But
to perform what may be expected from it, the doctrine of petri-
factions should keep pace with the improvement of botanical
and zoological methods, and renounce names and distinctions
which have no longer any meaning.

Independent also of this connection between the imorganic
and the organic world, between geology, botany, and zoology,
it is surely no unprofitable occupation for a rational being, to in-
quire what this earth upon which we live consists of, how it is
constructed, what changes it may have suffered, and what it
may still be destined to undergo. Whoever is still unsatisfied,
whoever estimates the value of science, not by intellectual de-
sires but by practical advantage, ought to recollect that there
are few of the arts of life to which geology is not more or less
applicable. It is one of the foundations of agriculture, which
cannot flourish without a knowledge of the soil: it instructs us
in the course and operation of water, whether we wish to pre-
vent it from doing injury, or to turn it to advantage ; it enables
us to search out materials for our habitations and furniture, and
the art of working mines, with which geology originated, and
which in return yields its most valuable productions. We hence
conceive that the study of geology brings us in continual con-
tact with the most exalted scenes of nature, with all that can
captivate our imagination, and fill our souls with vast concep.
tions, and thus explains the interest that is daily more and more
excited by it, and which warrants the most sanguine expecta-
tions of its future progress. ‘

Observations on the Nature and Importance of Geology. 301

Geology has shared the fate of all experimental sciences.
Its first steps, for the most part directed by necessity, consisted
of loose and superficial observations on those phenomena more
immediately presented to our attention. But, as it is a peculiar
prerogative of our nature to entertain a desire of tracing back
causes, and explaining operations, theories of the earth were
early indulged in; and these, although often absurd, were not
without their use. Afterwards it was considered presumptuous,
from those fragments of the earth’s crust which we had looked
upon rather than examined, to draw conclusions as to the forma-
tion of the earth, and to relate its history, as if we had been co-
eval with the events; and that true geology must be a collec-
tion, arrangement, and comparison of facts, and its theories on-
ly general observations. ‘This view being generally admitted,
geology may be said to have passed from the condition ef child-
hood, and assumed its station among the sciences.

These theories are essentially different from those of other
branches of physical science. When the natural philosopher
makes mention of two electric fluids, or of a luminous matter,
he is perfectly well aware that the causes of electrical or lumi-
nous phenomena might be different from what he imagines; yet
these modes of expression are most convenient for producing unity
and connection among the facts that have come under his observa-
tion. Geological theories are, on the contrary, of a purely histori-
cal character. Whether granite be a production of fire or water,
is a matter of indifference in the explanation of its origin, if we
are incapable of producing it either in the one way or the other ;
but whoever tells us that the present crust of the earth was
once in a state of fusion, and that, upon cooling, it became a so-
lid. mass, exhibits an event which, lke the heroic exploit of
a Curtius or a Cleelia, should be received only upon the most
indisputable testimony. Geological theories are, therefore, more
exclusive than physical ; hence a reason why geologists have al-
ways been more at variance than natural philosophers.

It is therefore the duty of the geologist to proceed cautious-
ly with his conclusions. In return for that he is sufficiently in-
demnified by the nature of his study, which bears in the most
distinguished manner the peculiar character of all physical
science.

302 On Female Pheasants assuming the Male Plumage.

Geology obtains its materials from mineralogical geography,
whose general results it selects and combines, in the same manner
as state policy does with the results of civil geography. The
advancement of the one, therefore, depends on the progress of the
other ; and although it may be advantageous to science, from
time to time, to exhibit a correct view of its progressive advance-
ment, as it is profitable for the traveller to stop sometimes and take
a retrospective view of the country he has passed, geology has
nevertheless to expect improvement principally from a patient
and laborious investigation of single districts. There are but
few who, by a glance, can determine general relations and throw
light upon science, as there are but few travellers who are qua-
lified to give any instructive information concerning the social
condition of a country: On the contrary, any one provided with
the necessary knowledge, may, by an accurate and detailed exa-
mination of a district, contribute, if not general views, facts that
serve as a foundation for the great geological edifice. And, any
one who reflects how much time and perseverance are necessary
for examining the geognostic character of even a limited district,
especially if its interior is not laid open by mines and natural
sections, will agree with us, that this investigation, like that of
the character and customs of a people, must chiefly be the work
of an inhabitant.

On Female Pheasants assuming the Male Plumage. By M.
IstporE Grorrroy St HILaire.

P HEASANTS sometimes occur in the woods, as well as in a state
of domestication, which, from the dulness of their colours, while
at the same time they possess the male plumage, were leng con-
sidered as males in a diseased state, or with their feathers soiled
and tarnished ; but it has been ascertained that they are hen
birds with the plumage of males; and, in fact, Vicq d’Azyr
and Mauduit, from the inspection of the sexual organs in such
birds, have placed this curious fact beyond the reach of doubt.
Mauduit, in his account of it, in the Encylopedie Methodique,
4

On Female Pheasants assuming the Male Plumage. 303

has confined himself to the change of plumage solely, adding only
the fact that the ovarium was extremely small in all such birds as
had been dissected by himself or Vieq d’Azyr; and since his
time no person has paid attention to the interesting physiological
phenomenon in question, which has only been barely mentioned
in a very few works on ornithology. Having lately had an op-
portunity of observing the change of plumage in female phea-
sants to a greater extent than has hitherto been done, I consider
my observations not without interest, as they will enable me to
shew that the transition in question, which Mauduit only saw
produced in a partial manner, may be effected in the most com-
plete.

My observations were made upon females of the Silver Phea-
sant ( Phasianus nycthemerus ), the Collared Pheasant (Ph. tor-
quatus ), and the Common Pheasant (Ph. colchicus ).

Change of plumage in the Common Pheasant.—A. female
pheasant that had been reared in the phaisanderie of the mu-
seum, ceased to lay at the age of five years, and the change of
plumage began to become apparent about the same period. It
manifested itself first upon the belly, which assumed a more yel-
low tint, and upon the neck, which became brighter in its co-
lours ; and soon after the whole body participated in the change.
The following year the feathers acquired still more of the lustre
and brilliancy of those of the male; and in that state it might
with propriety be said, that the bird in question was like a male
with dull and tarnished plumage. In the third year after the
commencement of the change, it became almost impossible to dis-
tinguish it from a male, the resemblance was so great, although
still not altogether complete.

Such was the state of the plumage of this female at the age
of eight years; it ate well, and enjoyed good health, and there
was every reason to hope that next season would see it clothed
in the perfect plumage of the male, but an unexpected accident
deprived it of life.

It had always lived, like the other hen pheasants, with the
males, but ever after its plumage began to change, it became an
object of indifference to them; it neither sought nor avoided

304 On Female Pheasants assuming the Male Plumage.

them itself, and thus became like one of themselves both in ap-
pearance and manners.

At the time of its death it so resembled a male, that people
accustomed to see, and even to take charge of pheasants, were
deceived by its colours, and believed it to be a male. Never-
theless the plumage, as has been said, was not complete.

Change of Plumage in the Silver Pheasant.—A female of
this species was brought up in company with a male, at the
country seat of an old friend of my family, M. Montand, a no-
tary at Paris; but in its old age it was given to the museum.
It was eight or ten years old before it began to change its plu-
mage. Another remarkable circumstance is, that it had ceased
to lay, three or four years before the change began to become ap-
parent. In the other pheasant, on the contrary, the age was
only five years when the change commenced, and it continued to
lay up to this period. The transition to the male colours was
first announced by the appearance of white feathers among the
regular brownish ones. The following year the change was still
more decidedly marked ; but it was not until the third year that
it could truly be said to have taken place. The fourth year
the resemblance became complete; the tail and the crest being
even elongated as much as they are seen to be in the males, and
at the same time appearing with more vivid colours. This is a
circumstance that ought to be taken notice of, as we see not on-
ly the colour of the feathers changing, but also their natural
proportions. The fifth year the resemblance was complete, and
the bird represented a male adorned with the most brilliant li-
very.

The male was still living at the period when the change be-
gan to make its appearance, and had not become indifferent to
the female, no doubt because she was his only companion ; but
she, on the contrary, shunned him, appearing sometimes troubled
at his presence. However, the male happening to die, she ap-
peared to become dull in her solitariness, for which reason she
was immediately given to the Museum, where she was kept for
some time. But the infirmities of age announced the approach
of death, and from a desire to preserve the plumage in all its
beauty, it was determined to kill her, before it should fade. At

On Female Pheasants assuming the Male Plumage. 305

the time of her death, she was thirteen or fourteen years old,
and it was then four years and six months since the change had
commenced. The plumage was exactly similar to that of the
male bird in its best state, as may still be seen in the specimen,
which is deposited in the Museum.

The sexual organs were also preserved : On dissecting them
there were found, beside the ovarium, which still remained, two
small bodies which appeared to be vestiges of the last eggs that
had escaped from the ovarian sac. The aduterum (or horns of
the uterus) was very distinct, and of an ovoidal form. The pre-
sence of the ovarium is an important fact, from the observations
on this subject made by Vicq-d’Azyr and Manduit.

The feathers shed during the years that preceded the last
moult, have also been preserved through the care of the first
possessors of the bird; and it is to this circumstance, as well as
the accounts with which they have obligingly furnished me, that
I owe the knowledge of a great part of the details which I have
given.

Change of Plumage in the Collared Pheasant.—The female
of the collared pheasant of which we have here to speak, was
brought up, like the preceding, near Paris, by a private person,
and it was, like it, also given to the museum in its old age. The
accounts furnished by the giver make it appear that it had laid
several times while in his possession. However, as the change
of the plumage was at the time of its delivery much advanced,
and as it then presented more of the external appearance of
a male than of a female, it was thought expedient, when its
death took place some time after, to determine its true sex by
the dissection of the genital organs.

The colours were in fact very like those Of a male, as may still
be seen in the galleries of the Museum, where its spoil is depo-
sited. However, the upper coverts of the tail and wings were
red, like the rest of the body, the collar less marked, and the
belly much blacker than the male, so that it was still far from
having that complete and perfect resemblance of which we gave
an example in the silver pheasant. Nor would we have spoken
here of this female, which besides we did not see alive, and whose

JuLY—ocroser 1826, u

306 On Female Pheasants assuming the Male Plumage.

development we cannct therefore follow, had it not presented a
great degree of interest under another point of view. The spur,
a part peculiar to the male, was present in it, and was even near-
ly as large as it usually is in ordinary males.

We therefore see that the spur itself is not so much the ex-
clusive property of the males in pheasants, that it may not
equally exist in certain females, and thus, a hen-pheasant may
not only become invested with the precise plumage of the male,
in a certain period of time, but it may even assume all its other
external characters, the narrowness of the red membrane sur-
rounding the eye remainimg the only indication of its true sex.

General Remarks.—It is not a very uncommon thing to see
the spur anomalously developed in females of species, the males
of which are furnished with that organ, and particularly in the
common domestic fowl; but in this case; besides being commonly
of smaller size than in the male, it almost constantly bears the
character of an anomalous, and, as it were, diseased organ. Thus,
the two spurs in hens are commonly very unequal in size; and
it even sometimes happens, that, while one leg has a spur, the
other has none. Hence it happens, that the sole inspection of
the spur in a female resembling the male in possessing that
organ, may of itself lead to a knowledge of its true sex, with-
out having reference to any other character.

The pheasant being reduced to a state of domesticity, like the
‘common fowl, and approaching it closely in its organization, it
were easy to foresee that it would turn out the same in this re-
spect; and of the accuracy of this analogical conjecture, we
have seen.a proof in the collared pheasant. Its spurs differ in
form from those of the male; the left is much larger than the
other, but it is slender, and, as it were, embossed over its whole
surface.

Be this as it may, the possibility of a complete change taking
place in the plumage of one species, an important fact not
hitherto observed by any ornithologist, being perfectly establish-
ed, ought we to conclude that it is equally possible in other spe-
cies, whether of the genus phasianus, or of any other? In my
opinion, it would be using a very unnecessary reserve, not to
admit this possibility with regard to the species of the same
genus, in which the change in question has been seen to be pro-

On Female Pheasants assuming the Male Plumage. 307

duced entirely, or even only partially, such as the common phea-
sant, the collared pheasant, and the golden pheasant. Taking

analogy for our guide, we might even be tempted to give a much

greater degree of generality to these conclusions ; and there are
in reality several facts that seem to favour such an opinion.
Thus, several travellers have made recitals which can only be
properly explained, upon the supposition that they have spoken
of females with male plumage. M. Dufresne, who has charge
of the zoological laboratory of the museum, assures me, that the
females of the cotinga become similar to their males as they
grow old. M. Florent Prevost has seen the change of plumage
begin in several female chaffinches; and the same observation
has also been made with regard to the female of the rouge-
queue, and of that of our starling. Lastly, I might remark,
that similar facts are observed even in animals of very different
organization, and in the human species itself. Thus, in many
women, after the cessation of the menses, the chin and upper
lips become furnished with a true beard, a phenomenon, the re-
lation of which, with the development of the plumage of our hen
pheasant, cannot be denied.

It would, however, be wrong, notwithstanding these remark-
able analogies, to make a general fact of this phenomenon; for
there are species of birds in which it would appear never to be
observed. Thus, although a great number of peacocks are kept
in the menagerie of the museum, where they are always allowed
to die a natural death, and where many females must conse-
quently have died of old age, no such change has ever been ob-
served, as that which I have related to have taken place, more
or less, completely in three individuals of different species of
pheasant, and which has been also seen in many others. It is to
be observed that the peacock, although thus differing from the
pheasant in this respect, is not only of the same order with it,
but also of a genus very closely allied, which renders the case
more striking.

We remark further, that the young male pheasant, and the
female pheasant, when she begins to grow old, are both ina
similar condition with respect to the point in question, Both
have the same plumage; both will at length complete the
change ; and it were natural to think that it will be brought

uu

308 On Female Pheasants assuming the Male Plumage.

about in the same manner, with the sole difference of a greater
celerity in the one case than in the other, so that the young male
will make the same progress in a certain number of months, that
the female requires a certain number of years to accomplish.
This, however, is not the case; and it will be sufficient to com-
pare the descriptions of young males given by ornithologists,
with the details which I have presented with regard to old
females, to perceive that in either case the change is brought
about in a different manner; and, in fact, it can never be
said of an old female pheasant in which the change has com-
menced, that it has the plumage of a young male pheasant of
any particular age. Be this as it may, the observations of Man-
dius has already demonstrated, that female pheasants, when
they grow old, resemble males,—that the change of the plumage
is produced in a gradual manner, advancing more and more as
the animal grows older,—and that the ovary diminishes in size,
and even disappears, in several of these females with male plu-
mage. It might be presumed, that those in which the ovary
had disappeared, were those in which the change is most com-
plete ; but this is not the case, since that organ is not found in
females which resembled males but incompletely, while I found
it existing in one in which the resemblance was perfect.

To these results, the observations which I have related, add
the following facts: that the change of plumage commences
much sooner in some females than in others; that it may only
shew itself several years after the bird has ceased to lay, al-
though it must depend, more or less directly, upon this pheno-
menon, with which it may also coincide as to time; that it is
commonly in the fourth year that the change is complete ; that
then the female has not only the colours, but also the brilliancy,
of the male, which it resembles even in the ornamental appen-
dages of its plumage; that it may even acquire spurs like the
male ; that the transition from the dull colours to the glowing
tints of the adult male, is effected in a very different manner in
the young male, and in the adult female, although ultimately
the result is the same; Jastly, that the change of plumage of
old females is not absolutely a general fact, and that it is not
even certain, because it has been observed in one genus of a
family ; that it occurs in the other genera of the same family,

On Female Pheasants assuming the Male Plumage. 309

although, on the other hand, several groups separated, at great
distances from each other, appear to present examples of this re-
markable phenomenon.

Note by the Editor.

THE interesting fact of female birds assuming the plumage of the male,

was, in modern times, first attended to by the celebrated J. Hunter, who, in
.a memoir on this subject in the Philosophical Transactions of London, de-

scribes a hen pheasant and pea-hen which had in old age assumed the male
plumage. MrG.St Hilaire inthe preceding memoir says, that of the many
pea-hens in the menagerie in Paris, no instance occurred of the pea-hen as-
suming the male plumage,—a fact which shews such a change is rarely met
with in the peacock. In the Museum of this University there is a fine spe-
cimen of the pea-hen with the male plumage; presented to the Museum by
the Duchess of Buccleuch. In the note accompanying the gift it is said the
change was effected during the course of a few years. The following descrip-
tion will convey an idea of the degree of change experienced in this indivi-
dual :—The head and neck have assumed the same green and blue tints which
characterise the male, the breast and belly also have the same deep colour.
As in the male, the primaries are pale brown, and a patch upon the wing
bright green. ‘The dorsal feathers, however, are still more or less mottled
with grey; and the green which they have partially assumed is lighter than
in the male, and not blended with the coppery hue which in his plumage ex-
tends from the middle of the back to the rump. The rump feathers are
elongated, some of them the length of 18 inches, but the train formed by
them is scanty, and the ocellar spots are neither so large nor so varied as in
the male. The ordinary tubercles on the tarsi of the female have been deve-
loped into thick regular conical spurs, about half the length of those of the
male. In short, the change is so much advanced, that after another moult it
would probably have been complete. .

In the Museum of the University there is a specimen of the female phea-
sant with the male plumage, presented some years ago by Dr Hope. The
only differences which the plumage of this individual exhibits, when con-
trasted with the male bird, are the following: Ist, The tail feathers are
shorter than those of an adult male, although considerably longer than those
of an ordinary female ; 2d, The lustre of the colours in general is not quite
so vivid as in the male, especially on the back of the wings. There is no ap-
pearance of spurs.

Sometimes the same sort of apparent change of sex is observed among do-
mestic poultry. Mr Neill at Canonmills had a black hen, of what is called
the French breed, which, in her twelfth year, ceased to lay eggs, and gradu-
ally assumed somewhat the appearance, and to a considerable degree the man-
ners, of the cock. ‘The principal change of plumage consisted in the tuft on

810 On Female Pheasants assuming the Male Plumage.

the head becoming thinner, and shewing some upright stray feathers, and in
a single elongated feather projecting from the tail. The spurs were larger
than usual in hens, but these had probably been increasing for some years.
The change of manner of the bird was quite remarkable: she strutted about
in an overbearing way, with a firm pace, and raised tail. She formed a party
among the fowls, which she led separate from the cock ; and she roosted apart
from him. She became very voracious; and when food was set down, (losing
all resemblance, in this instance, to the generous male), she beat off the other
hens: when, in these cases, she came in contact with the cock, she stared at
him, but without making any attack. She soon became very fat, and died
within a few months, seemingly of over fatness. Her cry was altered, but
had little resemblance to the crowing of the cock ; less, indeed, than is some-
times noticed in young hens.

In a valuable paper, by Dr Butter of Plymouth, in the third volume of
the Memoirs of the Wernerian Society, there are many interesting facts on
this subject, and from which we extract the following table:

Table of such birds-as have, in advanced life, assumed the plumage of the male, with
the names of those authors who have noticed the fact.

Orp. 4. GALtin -£.—Domestic Birds.

Gen. 1. Pavo, Pea-hen, - - - - - - « Hunter.

2. Meleagris, Turkey, - - - - - Bechstein.

3. Phasianus colchicus, Pheasant, common, = - - - Hunter.

— pictus, golden, - - Biumenbach.

gallus, Fowl, domestic, Aristotle, Tucker, Butter.

4. Tetrao Perdix, Partridge, - oy ae Montagu.

5. Columba, Pigeon, = - - - ” - Tiedemann,
Orv. 5.—GRraLL&,— Waders. s

2d Family, Prepirostres, Gen. 1. Otis, Bustard, * + Tiedemann.
3d Cultrirostres, 3d Tribe, Gen. 4. Platalea, Pelican
of America, <- - - - - . - - Catesby.

Orn. 6.—PALMIPEDA.—Web-fcoled,

4th Family, Lamellirostres, soft skin on the beak.
Gen. 1. Anas, Duck, (Common and Wild), - ~~ - - Tiedemann.

( 311.)

1. Caventou on the Chemical Properties of Starch, and the
various Amylaceous Substances of Commerce. 2. ENGEL-
Hart on the Colouring Principle of the Blood. 3. On Arsenic,
its Oxides, and Sulphurets; by M. Gutizourt. 4. Pre-
paration of Chloride of Lime. 5. On the Detection of Ar-
senic. 6, On Cafeine. 7. Analysis of the Root of the Bryonia
alba. 8. General Treussart on the Preparation of Hydrau-
lic Cements. 9. On a New Method of Purifying Crystals ;
by M. Roxziner. 10. Repetition of the Comparison of the
Rate of the Mercurial and Spirit, Thermometer.

1. Caventou on the Chemical Properties of Starch, and the
various Amylaceous Substances found in Commerce.

In order to determine the relative nature of the different kinds
of amylaceous substances, such as Salep, Sago, Tapioca, and
Arrow-root, M. Caventou found it necessary to revise the chemi-
cal examination of pure fecula or starch; and the result is, that,
besides adding some interesting facts on the chemical properties
of that principle, he has been able to account satisfactorily for the
differences which it exhibits in its various natural states.
Chemists, he says, have too generally considered the action of
warm-water on starch as one of simple solution or gelatinization,
although they are perfectly aware that its properties are mate-
rially changed. In its unmodified state, it is insoluble in cold
water ; but water at a temperature between 140° and 160° Fahr.
converts it into a transparent gelatinous mass, which is common-
ly regarded as a hydrate of fecula. It is essentially different
from the true hydrates, however, because its former properties
cannot be restored by the abstraction of the water; and in par-
ticular, it is rendered more or less soluble in that fluid, and can-
not in any way recover its insolubility. This change is the
effect of heat; for it may be equally brought about by expo-
sing dry starch to heat; but in that case a higher tempera-
ture is required, namely, a little above 212°, or under the point
at which decomposition takes place. It then acquires a red-
dish colour, smells like baked bread, and forms with cold water
a paste just like that procured at once in the humid way, by

312 Caventou on the Chemical Properties of Starch.

the action of hot water. In paste, therefore, the fecula is not
merely hydrated, but is essentially modified. In this state, it
still possesses the characteristic and well known property of
forming a blue compound with iodine. It seems to be quite the
same as the amidine of M. de Saussure; who imagined, how-
ever, that the principle he procured was the result of putrefac-
tion. It was not, according to Caventou, the result of putrefac-
tion, but was formed in consequence of the action of hot water
on the undeccmposed part of the fecula.

When amidine is boiled long in water, it loses its property of
striking a blue colour with iodine, causes a purple tint instead,
and has become much more soluble. The same change of pro-
perties may be effected by mere heat, namely by a higher de-
gree of torrefaction than that required to form amidine; or it
may likewise be very readily effected by boiling starch in water
acidulated with a twelfth part of sulphuric acid. In this state,
it has not so great an affinity for iodine, as in the state of ami-
dine ; for if a little paste be mixed with the purple compound,
the colour becomes immediately blue.

When starch or amidine is boiled still Jonger, it becomes still
more soluble ; and iodine does not cause any change of colour on
it at all. Most of these facts, particularly the property pos-
sessed by heat, of rendering dry fecula soluble, more or less, in
cold water, have been familiar to chemists since the researches
of Vauquelin and Bouillon-la~-Grange; but the merit of ta-
king a connected view of the whole changes induced by heat
and water, and of associating those caused by heat alone with
those caused by boiling water, seems to belong to Caventou.
He might have stated more distinctly, however, than he has
done, where our former knowledge ended, and his discoveries
begin.

Of the substances in commerce usually considered as amylace-
ous, Salep, according to the analysis of Caventou, ought not to
be accounted such. It yields a considerable quantity of matter
to cold water ; and the properties of this portion, both when dis-
solved and when dried by evaporation, are almost precisely the
same with those of gwm. The residue, after the action of cold
water, is a tremulous, jelly-like mass, which, when treated with
boiling water, enlarges in volume, but imparts only a small quan-

Caventou on the Chemical Properties of Starch. 318

tity of matter to the water. This solution is turned blue on the
addition of iodine, and in a few hours the ioduret of fecula falls
down. Hence, salep contains fécwla, but only in very minute pro-
portion. The jelly-like mass, remaining after the action of boil-
ing water, is of course insoluble in that fluid under any circum-
stances; it is very soluble in ‘hydrochloric acid, and yields ox-
alic acid when treated with nitric acid. It is therefore the princi-
ple discovered by Bucholz, and known by the name of Bassorine.
This analysis shews that salep is not an amylaceous matter, but
is closely allied to gum tragacanth, which, according to Bucholz,
consists almost entirely of gum and bassorine.

Sago when treated with successive portions of cold water, and
then with boiling water, is almost entirely dissolved, and appears
therefore to be homogeneous. Cold water takes up a large
quantity of it, and forms a transparent mucilaginous fluid, which
becomes intensely blue on the addition of iodine. As fecula, in
its characteristic state, is insoluble in water, and asno other sub-
stance strikes a blue colour with iodine, Caventou infers, that sago
is modified fecula, the modification consisting in the amylaceous
substance, (which, according to the process followed in the West
Indies for procuring it, must be insoluble in water, and therefore
true fecula), being converted by drying or roasting into amidine.

Tapioca when treated with cold water, rapidly yields a por-
tion to it, and, after several successive macerations, it is entirely
dissolved, without the aid of heat. All these fluids of macera-
tion strike a strong blue colour with iodine. ‘Tapioca, therefore,
is closely allied in nature to sago, and, like it, is fecula modified
by roasting, or amidine.

Arrow-root must be dried without heat; for, like the fecula of
wheat and the potato, it is insoluble in cold water, with the ex-
ception of a mere trace of gummy matter, which it parts with ;
and it forms a paste when heated in water to near the boiling
point.

Several remarks are added to this paper of Caventou, on the
opinions of another French experimenter, M. Raspail ; who be-
lieves he has discovered, by microscopical observations, that the
grains of fecula are composed of a membranous cyst filled with
gum. Cavyentou considers this notion to be visionary.—Annales

de Chimie et de Physique, Avril 1826.

314 Engelhart on the

2. On the colouring principle of the Blood.

In 1825, the medical faculty of Gottingen decided thew
prize-question on the Nature of the Colouring Principle of the
Blood, in favour of the thesis of Dr Frederick Engelhart. His
experiments are very interesting, and establish satisfactorily
some disputed points with regard to the composition of the blood;
but we cannot go altogether along with him in considering that
he has determined the colouring principle to consist of a com-
pound of iron.

Two doctrines prevail at present among chemists and physi-
ologists as to the cause of the colour of the blood. The oldest
opinion is that it depends on iron ; and this opinion is believed to
derive support particularly from the late analytic inquiries of
Berzelius, who found a notable quantity of iron in the co-
louring particles, namely about 0.5 per cent. Others main-
tain the doctrine first proposed by Dr Wells, that the colour
is owing to a peculiar arrangement of the animal principles, in-
dependently of the presence of iron; and their opinion receives
confirmation from the unsuccessful attempts of Vauquelin and
Brande to detect iron in the quantity in which it is represented
by Berzelius to exist.

These contradictory statements and ideas being held in view,
Dr Engelhart proceeded to ascertain, in the first place, the cha-
racters of the pure colouring matter of the blood, and, secondly,
the relation which the three great principles of the blood bear to
one another, as to the quantity of iron they contain. 1. A preli-
minary object of investigation under the first head, was to separate
the colouring matter in a state of purity. This he succeeded
in doing by a new and very simple process; but, although the
colouring particles certainly appear to be procured by his me-
thod in a state of perfect purity, it is equally certain that this
object is not gained without some change being wrought upon
their properties. He first separated them by the method of
Berzelius, in which state, however, they are still mixed with a
little serum. Having found that serum when much diluted is
not coagulated by heat, while, as Berzelius formerly showed,
the colouring particles are coagulated even in a very diluted so- ©
lution, he dissolved the impure particles in about fifty parts of
water, and then raised the temperature a little above 150° PF.

Colouring Principle of the Blood. 315

Greyish-brown flocculi were thus separated; and a muddy
colourless fluid remained, in which phosphoric acid and corro-
sive sublimate demonstrated the presence of serum. The pre-
cipitate, when collected on a filter and well washed, and half
dried, recovers its red colour, particularly when viewed by
transmitted light. When entirely dry it appears black, but when
a thin slice is held between the eye and the light, the colour is
garnet red. In this state it is hard, not easily broken, and has
a shining fracture. It consists of the colouring particles in a
state of perfect purity, but modified by heat.

In this state, the colouring matter of the blood is insoluble in
hot or cold water, or in ether, and yields only a little fatty matter
toalcohol. Sulphuric, hydrochloric and phosphatic acids dissolve
apart, and form brownish-red solutions; nitric acid also dissolves
a part, but the solution is muddy, and the residue is likewise al-
tered in colour ; phosphoric acid has no effect any more than on
the colouring matter in its ordinary impure unmodified condi-
tion; acetic, citric, oxalic, and tartaric acids dissolve a little
with the aid of heat. The alkalis, with the aid of gentle heat,
dissolve it rapidly and completely, and form deep blood-red solu-
tions, which yield greyish brown flocculi when neutralized; the
carbonated alkalies have little effect.

The colouring particles, when not modified by the foregoing
process, but simply separated from the serum as much as possi-
ble by Berzelius’s method, are variously acted on by the gases.
Agitation in air makes them scarlet-red ; and this change is pro-
duced even after arterial blood has become dark by standing in
repose, nay, even also after it has begun to decay. In hydro-
gen, carbonic acid, nitrogen, nitrous oxide, olefiant, or sulphu-
retted hydrogen gas, the colour, on the contrary, becomes dark-
er, if it is changed at all. A stream of nitric oxide transmitted
through a diluted solution in water, makes it brown, and subse-
quently causes gelatinization. Sulphuretted hydrogen, in the
same way, makes it olive-green; sulphurous acid, brown; and
chlorine first makes it brown, then dirty green, next grey, and
lastly white; and a flocculent colourless precipitate falls down,
leaving a colourless fluid.

2. These observations conclude the first part of the inquiry.
The next part relates to the presence of iron in the colouring

316 Engelhart on the

matter and other principles. If, as Berzelius says, iron exists
in the colouring particles in notable quantity, and not any where
else, Dr Engelhart conceives the presumption to be, that it is the
foundation of the red colour of the blood. If, on the other hand,
as Brande and Vauquelin insist, there is much less iron in the
- colouring particles than Berzelius maintains, and not more than
in the fibrine and serum, the colour cannot be owing to the pre-
sence of that metal.

Yhe pure modified colouring matter, when charred in a cru-
cible, had a metallic lustre, and was attracted by the magnet ;
and when the charred matter was incinerated, it acquired a yel-
low colour, was almost entirely soluble in hydrochloric acid,
and then exhibited, with the ordinary re-agents, all the characters
of the hydrochlorate of iron.

The pure serum and fibrine, when dried and charred, had
not a metallic lustre, and were not attracted by the magnet ;
and, when incinerated, gave a white powder, which, although
soluble in hydrochloric acid, evidently did not contain a trace of
iron. The only kind of blood which can be used for these ex-
periments is human blood, or that of the horse; the blood of
the sow, sheep, ox, or turkey, does not yield a serum free from
colouring particles. If care be taken to avoid that fallacy,
therefore, it is found that iron exists in the colouring particles
only.

Chemists have hitherto succeeded in detecting iron in the
blood, only by the process of incineration. But Dr Engelhart
has at length discovered a method of separating it in the humid
way ; and the result of his analysis gives the same proportion
as that formerly determined by Berzelius. His method is, by
transmitting a stream of chlorine through a solution of the un-
modified particles, or through water containing the purer modi-
fied colouring matter in suspension. It has been already stated,
that, in this way, a white precipitate and colourless fluid are
procured. The fluid after being filtered evidently contains
iron in the state of a peroxide *. Two methods were em-
ployed for discovering its quantity. In one process, he threw

* Care was taken that particles of iron did not pass over with the chlorine,—
supposing even that that was possible,

Colouring Principle of the Blood. 317

down the oxide with ammonia, redissolved it in hydrochloric
acid, and threw it down again with carbonate of soda. In the
other process he first threw it down with hydrosulphuret of po-
tass, then dissolved it in nitric acid, and threw it down again
with carbonate of soda. The precipitate, when dried, weighed,
in one case, 4 ;%55, and in the other , ;°755 of the pure colour-
ing matter employed ; a result which accords very nearly with
that of Berzelius.

It is unnecessary to mention that serum and fibrine treated
in the same way did not yield any iron. But it is an interest-
ing fact, which the author thinks will apply to most of the ani-
mal fluids and soft solids, and consequently facilitate *their ana-
lysis, that chlorine separates all the fiaed principles from the in-
soluble animal matter which it throws down ; for the precipitate
is entirely dissipated by incineration.

The paper concludes with some arguments from his experi-
ments, in support of the opinion, that the colour of the blood is
owing to iron. The amount of them is, that iron is an essential
part of the colouring particles, while theother principles, the serum
and fibrin, which are colourless, but resemble the colouring
particles very closely in other respects, contain no iron ; and that
this metal, in all its known combinations, is coloured when oxida-
ted, has a great tendency to assume tints of red, and in some com-
pounds (such as the sulpho-cyanate, and a variety of silicious ore)
has almost exactly the colour of the blood. This exposition
may constitute a presumptive argument, but nothing more.
For, in the first place, it is not yet proved that the iron in the
blood is oxidated, still less that it exists in the form of a per-
oxide, in which state alone it imparts a red tint to compounds
into whose composition it enters ; and, secondly, granting that it
is peroxidated, there is no analogous fact to authorise the belief,
that so minute a proportion as a 200th part of oxide of iron can
give to a compound so deep a tint as that possessed by the
blood.—Kastner’s Archiv fiir die gesammte Naturlehre, De-
cember 1825.

8. On Arsenic, its Oxides, and Sulphurets, by M. Guinowrr.

M. Guibourt of Paris has lately endeavoured to settle some
of the disputed points in the physical and chemical history of
3

318 Guibourt on Arsenic,

arsenic and its compounds; and has succeeded in explainmg so
far some of the anomalies and discrepancies which the investiga-
tions of previous experimenters have presented.

According to Bergmann, the specific gravity of metallic arse-
nic, when melted, is 8.308, but in its native state only 5.763. M.
Guibourt found, that small portions of the latter had a specific
gravity of 5.789; but larger fragments, in consequence of the
interstices between the conglomerated crystals, did not exceed
4.166. He failed in several attempts to fuse it under pressure,
and was deterred from repeating them by a formidable explosion.
But he found the weight of several fragments, which were agglu-
tinated by heat, to be 5.959.

The owide of arsenic, though it has been examined by many
able chemists, still presents some obscurities in regard both to
its physical and its chemical properties. Guibourt has found,
that the discrepancies among former experimenters may be partly
reconciled by a difference in property which exists between the
oxide in its transparent, fresh-prepared state, and in that more
common opaque form, which it assumes after being long kept.
Transparent specimens, he finds, have a specific gravity of
3.7385 ; the opaque varieties are somewhat lighter, being 3.695.
He has never been able to observe any specimen with the high
specific gravity of 5.0 assigned by Bergmann. His results agree
with those of our countryman Dr Ure, who found the specific
gravity to vary from 3.728 to 3.730. Very opposite statements
have been made with respect to its solubility. The most accu-
rate, however, have been generally considered to be those of
Klaproth ; who found that a hundred parts of water dissolve a
quarter of a part at a mean temperature, 7.77 parts at the boil-
ing temperature, and retain 3 of these on cooling. Guibourt finds,
that the transparent oxide is less soluble than the opaque va-
riety. Of the former 100 parts of temperate water dissolve
nearly one part; and 100 parts of boiling water take up 9.68
parts, and retain 1% on cooling. Of the opaque variety 100
parts of water dissolve 1} at a mean temperature, 11.47 at the
boiling temperature, and retain 2.9 on cooling. Chemists are
as little agreed regarding the effects of its solutions on vegetable
colour. Guibourt has remarked, that the transparent variety
reddens litmus faintly, but that the opaque variety restores its

its Oxides and Sulphurets. 319

colour to blue, when previously reddened by an acid*. 'The cause
of these differences has not been examined with sufficient care,
and Guibourt leaves it unsettled. He says it takes place in
consequence of the contact of the air; but the accuracy of this
opinion may be questioned. He has remarked, that it is brought
about very rapidly by treating the transparent variety with am-
monia ; but he draws no conclusions from the fact.

As to the compounds of sulphur with arsenic, the latest mi-
nute researches, those of Berzelius and of Laugier, seemed to
show, that, contrary to the opinion of Proust, the native and ar-
tificial sulphurets differ in no essential particular from one ano-
ther, and that none of them contain oxigen. Whence does it
happen, then, says Guibourt, that, according to the observations
of Hoffmann, and the late experiments of Renault, the native
sulphurets, orpiment and realgar, as well as the sulphuret pro-
cured by transmitting sulphuretted hydrogen through a solu-
tion of oxide of arsenic, are not poisonous, while the sublimed
orpiment, and even the artificial realgar, prepared by melting
together metallic arsenic and an excess of sulphur, are exceed-
ingly deleterious? It depends, he says, on the artificial sulphu-
rets always containing some oxide of arsenic intermingled. The
artificial realgar contains 14 per cent.; the artificial orpiment so
much as 40 per cent. This last fact we can confirm by our own
experience ; in fact, we have seen fine tetrahedral pyramids of
the oxide on the inside of the cakes sometimes sold in the shops.
M. Guibourt is wrong, however, in supposing that the native sul-
phurets are not poisonous. Renault, it is true, found them
to be much inferior to the oxide and other soluble compounds
of arsenic, in their effects on the animal system. But instances
are to be found in the Acta Germanica, of poisoning with real-
gar, and M. Pelletan informed him, after the composition of his
paper, that he had known an instance of poisoning with natural
orpiment. In consequence of the opinion expressed by Guibourt,
Professor Orfila has related, in an ulterior number of the Journal
de Chimie Médicale, some experiments he has made expressly with
the native sulphurets, and with that procured by transmitting sul-
phuretted hydrogen through a solution of the oxide; and it ap-

* Our experience is at variance with that of the author; a solution of the
opaque oxide faintly reddens litmus, and restores reddened litmus very imper-
fectly.

320 Preparation of Chloride of Lime.
pears, thatallof them, when introduced into the stomach, or applied
to wounds, in the quantity of forty or sixty grains, kill dogs in
two, three, or six days, and cause the same symptoms as the
oxide.—Journal de Chimie Médicale, Fevrier, Mars et Avril
1826.

4. Preparation of Chloride of Lime.

This substance, it is well known, was recommended not long
ago by M. Labarraque, a pharmacien of Paris, for destroying
the odour of putrefying animal and vegetable matters, and the
exhalations in apartments crowded with the sick; and it has
been found to answer his expectations so completely, that the
French Government have given every possible publicity to the
process, and have advised its introduction into all hospitals and
lazarettos. The mode of preparing it is well enough known to che-
mists; but as several experimenters have not procured the effects
assigned by the discoverer, and by the official persons appointed to
inquire into the accuracy of his statements, and as for this and other
obvious reasons, it is a preparation liable to considerable va-
riety, M. Labarraque has published the following process for
making it of uniform strength and composition. To prepare
the dry chloride for store, he recommends that a twentieth part
of muriate of soda be mixed with the quicklime, after it is com-
pletely slaked, and that the mixture be put into deep earthen
pots, and the gas transmitted through it from a retort contain-
ing the usual ingredients, in the proportion of 576 parts of mu-
riate of soda, and 448 of oxide of manganese. The quantity of
acid required to decompose this quantity is 576 parts, diluted
with 448 of water; and the acid is to be introduced into the re-
tort in successive portions, by means of the double bent tube.
To prepare the solution, which may be more convenient for hos-
pitals and other places where it is used daily, he recommends a
pound and a half of slaked lime to be mixed with forty pounds
of water, containing half a pound of muriate of soda in solution.
The tube from the retort is to be plunged nearly to the bottom
of the vessel which contains the milk of lime; and the mixture
is to be stirred with a wooden agitator til] it is saturated. In
this state it is too strong for use; and may be diluted according
to the purpose to which it is to be applied *. In this country

* Journal de Chimie Médicale, Avril 1826.

Detection of Arsenic. 321

the trouble of preparation may be saved by those who can pro-
cure the chloride of lime, as prepared by our chemical manufac-
turers, particularly by Mr Tennant of Glasgow, who has suc-
ceeded in saturating the lime completely, so as to form a true
bi-chloride.

5. On the Detection of Arsenic.

In the number of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,
vol. xi. p. 389, we gave an account of a paper by Dr Christison
of this University, showing the insufficiency of the existing
processes for detecting small quantities of arsenic in mixed ani-
mal and vegetable fluids, and pointing out a new method, by
which so small a quantity as a quarter of a grain might be pro-
cured in its metallic state from the most complex mixtures.
The second volume of the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions of
Edinburgh, published a few months ago, contains another paper
by the same gentleman on the chemical and symptomatological
evidence of poisoning with arsenic; and from this it appears
that he has applied the proposed process to two medico-legal
cases, one of suicide, the other of murder ; that he was success-
ful in both instances ; and that the process is one even of much
greater delicacy than was alleged in his original paper on the
subject. In one case, a portion of the contents of the stomach,
in which the first inspectors had failed to detect the poison, was
transmitted by order of the authorities from a distant part of
the country, and arsenic was discovered to the amount of a ¢wen-
tieth part of a grain. In the other case, which Dr Christison him-
selfexamined soon after interment, about a fifteenth partof a grain
was detected in the contents and texture together of the stomach,

For detecting the precise nature of the metallic crust, when
its quantity is too minute for its physical characters to be un-
equivocally ascertained, the author has added a very elegant
test, which was suggested to him by Dr Turner, lecturer on
chemistry here. It consists in chasing the crust up and down
the tube by heat till it is all oxidated ; when it assumes the ap-
pearance of sparkling crystals, which may be ascertained, by a
microscope of four powers, to be octaédres. His process now con-
sists, therefore, in presenting the same portion of the poison

JULY—ocTOBER 1826. x

322 On the detection of Arsenic.

successively in the form of sulphuret, metal, and oxide; and
he discards the fluid tests for liquid mixtures entirely, except
as trial tests. Both he himself and Dr Turner have satisfied
themselves, that the physical characters of the metal and oxide,
when successively formed in a small tube by reduction and sub-
sequent oxidation, may be determined accurately with a hun-
dredth part of a grain. This isa degree of delicacy which,
considering that decisive evidence is required, is not equalled
even by the liquid tests.

In the Annals of Philosophy for last July, Dr Christison has
replied to some comments which Mr Phillips had made not
long before on his paper. As Mr Phillips’ criticisms referred
only to a defence of his process for decolorizing coloured ar-
senical fluids by animal charcoal, and Dr Christison states, in
his reply, that he considers the necessity of that process to be
completely superseded by the equal, if not superior delicacy,
and universal applicability, of his own, it is unnecessary: to say
any thing farther of the dispute, than that Mr Phillips’ process
certainly appears liable to material fallacies, although Dr Chris-
tison, from misunderstanding his directions, had somewhat ex-
ageerated one of them.

The Journal de Pharmacie for last April likewise contains
some comments on Dr Christison’s paper by M. Dublanc of
Paris. It is evident that the writer has wholly misunderstood
the character of the paper he criticises, and is utterly ignorant
both of the grounds on which Dr Christison objects to the pro-
cesses of Rose, Rapp and Orfila, and of the circumstances on
which is founded the proof of the delicacy and universal appli-
cability of his own. Nor indeed is this to be wondered at, as
M. Dublanc has consulted, not the original paper, but some
garbled extract in a German Journal.

6. On Cafeine.

In 1821, M. Robiquet of Paris published an elaborate analy-
sis of the coffee-bean, in which he announced the existence of a
new vegetable principle of a crystalline nature. This principle,
which was denominated Caféine, has been since examined by M.
Pelletier, and M. Garot. Both of these experimenters have con-
firmed completely the researches of Robiquet, regarding the cha~ _

On Cafeine. 323

racters of the principle, and the method of preparing it. M.
Garot, however, has recommended a new process for procuring
it, which consists in exhausting the unburnt bean, by successive
infusions in boiling water ; throwing down a quantity of colour-
ing and fatty matter from the filtered infusions, by the acetate of
lead ; removing the excess of lead by a stream of sulphuretted
hydrogen ; saturating the free acid with ammonia ; and evaporat-
ing the remaining liquid with a gentle heat. Long silky crys-
tals are thus procured, which are the cafeine in a state of impu-
rity, and which may be got quite pure, by a second solution and
erystallisation. The researches of Pelletier were directed chiefly
to determine whether this principle is of an alkaline nature ; be-
cause certain circumstances had led him to imagine, that its dis-
coverer was mistaken in denying to it alkaline properties. The
result has been, that M. Robiquet’s views are substantiated ; for
cafeine dissolves in acids without neutralising them, crystallises
in a state of purity from the diluted acids, and does not affect the
vegetable colours. It must therefore be arranged with the class
of principles, of which narcotine, one of the principles of opium,
is the most remarkable and best known.

The most interesting fact contained in the researches of Pelle-
tier regards the composition of eafeine. It contains the largest
quantity of azote of all the vegetable principles hitherto ana-
lysed; and contains more than even any animal principle, urea
and uric acid excepted. It is composed of 46.51 carbon, 27.14
oxigen, 4.81 hydrogen, and 21.54 azote. Although so highly
azotised, it is, like urea and uric acid, by no means prone to pu-
trefaction,—a fact which accords with a general law pointed out
by Robiquet, that azotised principles of the organic kingdoms,
although, in general, very liable to decay, are not so, if they are
erystallised.—Journal de Pharmacie, Avril 1826.

7. Analysis of the Root of the Bryonia alba.

The root of the bryony possesses properties in relation to the
animal economy, which renders it an object of some interest to
the chemist. It is one of the most powerful of the vegetable
acrids,—of that order of poisons whose prominent character is the
power of producing diffuse inflammation, to whatever tissue they
are applied. Accordingly, it has been examined by several che-

x2

324 Analysis of the Root of the Bryonia alba.

mists, namely, by Vauquelin, Brandes, and Feirnhaber ; but the
most complete analysis hitherto made, is one by M. Dulong of
Astafort, related in the Journal de Pharmacie. He has found
it to consist of a large quantity of fecula, a small quantity of
fatty matter, resin, and vegetable albumen; some gum, a consi-
derable proportion of submalate of lime, a little carbonate of
lime, some other salts in minute quantity, and a bitter matter,
possessing peculiar chemical properties, and endowed with all
the poisonous qualities of the root.

This bitter principle is contained in the juice, so that the fe-
cula may be separated from it entirely by the usual process.
The fecula, when properly washed, possesses all the properties
of that procured from the different kinds of grains ; and, conse-
quently, as the quantity is large, and the roots are of enormous
size, compared to the stem (being often a foot long, and three or
four inches in diameter), M. Dulong thinks that the extraction
of the fecula may be made a subject of profit, at least in years
of scarcity. The bitter principle is solid, soft, and a little vis-
cous, “excessively bitter, soluble in water and in alcohol, but
quite insoluble in sulphuric ether; and its solutions have no ac-
tion on the vegetable colours. Its aqueous solution is precipi-
tated by infusion of galls, subacetate of lead, proto-nitrate of
mercury, nitrate of silver, and hydrochlorate of gold. Acetate
of lead, nitrate of lead, proto-hydrochlorate of tin, and tartar
emetic, have no effect on it. The acids dissolve, and alter it,
rendering it insoluble in water. The concentrated sulphuric
acid forms with it a rich green, nitric acid a golden-yellow, and
hydrochloric acid a reddish-brown fluid ; and the affusion of
water throws down precipitates possessing the colour of each solu-
tion. In its general properties M. Dulong considers it as closely
allied to the cologuintine, a resinoid matter, which is procured
from another of the same order of poisons, the colocynth, and
which, like the bitter principle of bryony, concentrates in itself
the whole qualities of the raw material—Journal de Pharmacie,
Mars 1826.

7. General Treussart on the preparation of Hydraulic Cements.

General Treussart, referring to some observations published
at St Petersburg in 1822 by M. Raucourt, and to some experi-

Treussart on Hydraulic Cements. 325

‘ments of his own, related in a late number of the Memorial de
TOfficier de Génie, states, that he has since then established an
important fact, which he had previously been led by Raucourt’s
remarks to anticipate, with regard to the preparation of artificial
»pozzolan mortar, or hydraulic cement; namely, that the access
-of air, during the calcination of the argillaceous cement, is of
great consequence to the tenacity of the mortar, and the quick-
ness with which it hardens. He first refers to his former expe-
-riments (which we have not yet seen) as proving, that, contrary
to what is generally supposed, neither the oxide of iron, nor that
of manganese, nor magnesia, can communicate to hme the pro-
perty of hardening under water. He then observes, that, on
calcining an argillaceous earth, procured near Frankfort (and
consisting of silica and alumina, a 66th part of magnesia, and a
trace of iron), and mixing it with half its weight of lime to form
a mortar, he found, that, if it had been calcined under free ex-
posure to the air, it hardened under water in two or three days,
and at the end of a year required a weight varying from 390
to 530 pounds to break it; while, if the clay had been calcined
out of reach of the air, the mortar took thirty days to harden,
and broke with a weight of 40 or 50 pounds. Analogous re-
sults were obtained with a clay from Holzheim, near Strasburg ;
and in this instance he also found that it was useful to mix a
50th part of lime with it before calcination. It is not easy to
account for these differences ; but the General himself is dispos-
ed to ascribe them to the absorption of oxigen by the alumina.
In proof of this, he mentions, that the same difference is observ-
ed, if, instead of impure clay and lime, the purest alumina, and
the lime of white marble, be employed. The alumina, when
calcined under a current of air, makes a mortar which hardens
sooner, and is much stronger than when the calcination is con-
ducted in a close furnace. Another fact in support of his con-
jecture is, that alumina, when calcined in the air, dissolves
more easily in sulphuric acid. The results of his latest in-
vestigations are, that the clay to be chosen for the best hy-
draulic mortars should contain a little lime; that it should be
calcined under exposure to a current of air, contrived according
to the nature of the furnace ; that, after being reduced to a fine
powder, it should be mixed with paste of lime in the proportion
of one of the atter to two, or two and a-half, of the former ;

$26 Robinet on Purifying Crystals.

that the mortar should be kept for ten or twelve hours before it
is used, in order to acquire a certain degree of consistence ; and
that it may be perfectly relied on, if, by a prelimiary trial, it is
found to harden in three or four days; his experience having
invariably shewn that the mortars which harden soonest, are also
the most tenacious.—Annales de Chimié et de Physique, Mars
1826,

9. On a New Method of Purifying Crystals ; by M. Ro-
BINET.

Every practical chemist knows how difficult it often is, parti-
cularly in the analysis of organic substances, to clear away from
crystalline products the mother water, and other heterogeneous
matters, which collect in their interstices. When the crystals
are very fine, and still more when they are soluble in the ordi-

nary menstruums, it is sometimes impossible to clear them, al-
though perfectly pure, by any other method than repeated
crystallization and digestion with animal charcoal ; both of
which processes are troublesome, and occasion considerable loss.
M. Robinet has proposed a new and very simple method, which
was suggested to him, in consequence of observing that, when a
parcel of crystals came into contact with the mouth of the pi-
pette during the act of suction, they were instantly and perfectly
cleaned. The process depends on the transmission of a current
of air through the crystals. He has suggested various forms of
apparatus for the purpose. The simplest consists of a double-
mouthed bottle, with a funnel in one mouth, and a bent tube in
the other ; the lower opening of the funnel being obstructed by
a ball of cotton-wool, and the crystals placed above the cotton,
On sucking the air through the crystals by a bent tube, they are
cleaned in a few seconds; and, if necessary, the operation may
be repeated after previously introducing a little water into the
funnel. A convenient way of constructing the apparatus so as
to work of itself, is to make the second tube reach the bottom
of the bottle with one limb, and with the other a vessel of wa-
ter situated on a lower leyel. The whole bottle and tube being
filled with water, the funnel is to be introduced, and the water
then allowed to run off by the syphon. On the large scale a
more suitable apparatus will be a tube from a steam-boiler, by
which the bottle may be filled with steam from time to time,

Comparison of the Mercurial and Spirit Thermometer. 327

The steam communication being shut off, and the steam in the
bottle condensed, the stream of air will immediately carry
through with it the whole of the mother water from the most
silky crystals—Journal de Chimie Medicale, Fevrier 1826.

10. Repetition of the Comparison of the Rate of the Mercurial
and Spirit Thermometer.

Dr Wildt of Hanover has made a new set of experiments for
ascertaining the real indications of the spirit thermometer,
chiefly with a view to the employment of that instrument in the
Register Thermometer of Rutherford. His results, which are
stated below, do not differ materially from those of Deluc. The
observations are made at intervals of five degrees of Réaumur’s

scale.

Mercury. Spirit. Mercury. Spirit.
eSB.» « © » =u S& dO a. a 8s es pe ee
Woe se sl ROLE 2B es) a 0) ROOe
oe ee BaD SOE hi. )RINEO
BO. ie 0 Ge ie «2082 BK) ot lias one 3038
BE: « /ayrye) oj» » AT8O | oman. oF. |
et ie it in LATS Re RR pea
| eee 50. . .' e = 45.60
Re at eee eee OB) eo te ODT
ee OO tie, 2 othe Uae
Bel eres dks 210 BO Of = 5 intice soit ald
TNR i a | ee
et) ce 6. eos 3. Ae OD a a Ns ee
oss es) TRO SOs te £80.00
(Kastner's Archiv fiir die Gesammte Naturlehre, December
1825.)

Description of the Ciconia Ardgala, or Adjutant Bird. By
J. Apam, M. D*.

Aone the many extraordinary and striking objects in na.
tural history which present themselves to a stranger on his ar-
rival in Bengal, perhaps none has been more generally remark-

* This interesting memoir, by my former pupil and very intelligent friend
Dr Adam, is extracted from the Ist volume of the Transactions of the Medi-
cal and Physical Society of Calcutta, which has just reached this country. Tt
is a work highly creditable to the Calcutta Society.

328 Dr Adam on the Ciconia Argala, or Adjutant Bird.

ed upon, and at the same time less studied, than the subject of
the following description. We are all familiar with the appear-
ance of the Adjutant bird, and know something of its habits:
its astonishing voracity, for instance, is a frequent topic of con-
versation ; and the singular orange-coloured bag depending from
the neck, while it gives a peculiarity to its expression that can-
not fail to attract attention, has also furnished abundant matter
of speculation as to the purposes which it serves in the economy
of the animal. Of these, however, we are yet entirely ignorant ;
nor does it appear that we are much better informed regarding
its general internal structure.

Adjutant Bird, Gigantic Stork, Ciconia Argala, Hurgeela.
—One of the largest of the storks, whose general character is
formed by his great size, enormous bill, bare head and neck,
long limbs, and, above all, by a peculiar solemnity in his gait
and general demeanour, that renders the appearance of the bird
extremely striking and interesting. He measures from the
crown of the head to the foot five feet two inches, and his other
dimensions are proportionably great: across the body, from the
tip of one wing to that of the other, seven feet ; length of body,
from junction of the neck to the vent, two feet; breadth one ;
bill in length, sixteen inches; at its broadest part two inches;
legs two feet and a half. General colour of plumage, black or
slate-blue ; a few of the small feathers surrounding the lower
part of the neck, white, and those of the belly and the under
part of the wings; the larger wing-coverts blackish or bluish
grey; all the others slate-blue, as mentioned. Tail short; bill
strong, horny, almost bony, sharp at the edges, broad at the
base, straight and tapering towards the pot; inferior man-
dible composed of two sides, joined by a membrane not capable
of much dilatation; nostrils, a slit at the base of the bill, which
is common to both, and passes directly through; head the size
of the base of the bill, by which it appears in a great measure
to be formed, and the one merely a continuation of the other ;
head bare (excepting a little soft long hair at the back part),
and scurfy ; iris white. The bareness of the head, and white
iris, combined with the other peculiarities, gives this bird an un-
commonly grave aspect; and in his whole expression, but par-
ticularly that of the eye, he resembles very much a kindred

ate

Dr Adam on the Ciconia Argala, or Adjutant Bird. 329

giant among quadrupeds, the elephant. Legs long and strong ;
breadth at the largest diameter three inches six tenths. Feet
walkers composed of three toes before, and one behind, the
outermost having five joints, the second four, the third three, and
the posterior two; claws short, strong, blunt; the colour of the
neck, and bag depending from it, a bright orange (Dutch
orange, Werner). The bag, which constitutes one of the prin-
cipal characters of this bird, is not directly connected with the
gullet nor the trachea, but enters by a small aperture into the
left side of the pharynx or mouth, and is evidently not intended
as a receptacle for food. It is composed of two coats, an inner
membranous one, and the outer orange-coloured skin: within
this bag nothing is found but air and saliva. The gullet is
ample, and folded into many longitudinal plicze, increasing in
number and size as they approach the cardiac orifice. The sto-
mach is very large, compared with the size of the other viscera,
and fills up the whole of the abdomen from the ribs to the vent ;
it is seen immediately on laying open the cavity, in the shape of
an urinal, and covered with a fatty membrane. The stomach
consists of two parts, which, from their structure, appear to per-
form separate functions. The upper portion is of a glandular
structure; the lower muscular. 'The former is small, compared
with the latter, very narrow, and of an oblong figure. Inte-
riorly it is furnished with a glandular apparatus, similar to what
I have observed in some other fowls: a small contraction marks
the division between these two, and from this line the structure
becomes very different, feeling harder to the finger, and con-
sisting of muscle and tendon of great thickness at some points.
The tendon is in the centre of the flattened circle, and the
muscle sweeps all round the margin. ‘The stomach in the spe-
cimen was distended with earth, hair, and bones. The gut is a
narrow tube of considerable length, lying immediately behind
the stomach, and occupying but a small part of the general ca-
vity. The liver of a dirty brick colour, palish, and different
from those of other fowls which I have hitherto examined ;
heart of a proportional size, and very firm.

The specimen from which this description was taken, was
killed by me on the banks of the Hoogly, and appeared to be
a full grown male bird.

330 Dr Adam on the Ciconia Argala, or Adjutant Bird.
Having had greater opportunities of observing the habits of
this bird since the foregoing description was drawn up, I shall
here add a few remarks, which, it is hoped, may throw light on
some of the peculiarities alluded to. In the first place, the
orange-coloured bag forming so prominent an appendage of the
neck, dissection reveals to us, contains merely air and saliva;
and the latter, in all the instances which I have examined,
has been so trifling in quantity, that its presence could only be
regarded as accidental, having accumulated in all probability in —
that situation from the mere effect of gravity, after lubricating
the pharynx and mouth. Besides, the structure of the bag does
not resemble that of a secreting organ. It is also quite evident,
from the smallness of the aperture communicating with the
mouth, that it cannot serve as a receptacle for food, at least of
such massive and solid materials as we know constitute the food
of the Adjutant bird. In what, then, it may be asked, consists
its use? If it perform any function, I should conceive it to act
merely as an air-vessel, to be employed as occasion required, ei-
ther in sustaining the bird in his elevated aérial flights, or en-
abling him to be more daring in the water in the search after
his prey. At first sight, such an apparatus may appear super-
fluous; but on an attentive consideration of the subject, we shall
be disposed, I think, to regard it in the light rather of a wise
provision of nature, adapted to the peculiar cireumstances of the
bird. In order to explain this, it will be necessary to bear in
mind, that the Hurgeela, though domesticated in a great mea-
sure among ourselves, is originally an inhabitant of the forest and
marsh, whither these birds yet resort annually, for the purpose of
breeding, and rearing their young. Their periodical disappear-
ance during the hot and dry months, it may be presumed, has
this object in view; and there can be little doubt in that season
they retire to the depths of the Sundurbunds, where they con-
gregate (quare build in trees?) like their congener, the Heron, in
more temperate regions. ‘Their natural food in that situation,
consisting of reptiles and amphibia of every description, they must
be necessitated, in quest of it, to enter the jeels (lakes) and
marshes, while, from the structure of their limbs, they are not
endowed with the capacity of swimming; and their bulky and
ponderous beak must operate greatly to their disadvantage as

Dr Adam on the Ciconia Argala, or Adjutant Bird. 381

waders, compared with many other individuals of the same
tribe. To overcome these difficulties, then, may not the bird
have the power of distending the bag with air, so as to counter-
act the weight of its enormous bill, and thus be enabled to pro-
cure food, in situations where it would otherwise be unattain-
able? Ina communication lately received from a friend, this
view of the subject appears to be confirmed by what he himself
was an eye-witness of. An Adjutant bird was observed seek-
ing its prey in a large piece of water, and wading till it reached
to so great a distance from the shore, that it attracted his atten-
tion, as he conceived the depth at that spot to exceed the per-
pendicular dimensions of the limbs and body united. He had
the curiosity to inquire into the fact, and ascertained that the
bird had actually advanced into the water beyond its depth.
The conclusion which he drew from the circumstance was simi-
lar to what I have now proposed, namely, that the bag had
acted as an air-vessel, and supported the bird where, without
such assistance, it must have unavoidably been submerged and
perished.

The other idea, that this appendage may perform a similar
office in the ethereal element, naturally suggests itself, when we
consider the anatomical structure of the parts, and compare it
with the extraordinary elevation to which these birds are known
to soar, and the great length of time they frequently remain on
wing in the higher regions of the atmosphere. When the dense
vapours of the rainy months are dispersed, and the sun has again
burst forth with undiminished fervor on our Indian plains, then
the Adjutant bird is observed to avoid the meridian heat by taking
his elevated flight, and rising gradually in the atmosphere, till
he appears a mere speck in the distance, or attains a height that
conceals him entirely from the view. In the month of Oc-
tober, when not a cloud obscures the vault of the heavens, it is
a beautiful spectacle to observe hundreds of these gigantic birds
(now diminished to the size of swallows) performing their grace-
ful evolutions, and wheeling majestically at a vast elevation
from the earth. The painter, looking at the face of nature,
would behold the scene as merely characteristic of a tropical cli-
mate; while the philosopher, who views every object with refe-
rence to an ultimate purpose, cannot but admire its adaptation

332 Dr Adam on the Ciconia Argala, or Adjutant Bird.

to the peculiar economy of the animal, and regard the phenome-
non as a concord in the grand harmony of creation. The food
of the Adjutant bird being wholly of an animal nature, its diges-
tion and assimilation must obviously augment the internal tempe-
rature, and therefore render its frame less capable of enduring
heat from without. To obviate the effects arising from this sus-
ceptibility, nature, then, has bestowed on him the instinct of as-
cending to amore rarefied and congenial medium ; and that he is
enabled to remain there, it would seem not improbable, is chiefly
owing to the agency of this organ. Even with the aid of a glass,
we cannot perceive whether the bag is distended during the time
the bird is soaring in the atmosphere, and so prove the corre-
spondence of the fact with the theory; but as it seems remark-
able that so heavy a bird should continue long poised in ‘* mid
air” without some provision of the kind, it cannot be deemed
unreasonable, I think, if we infer that such may be supplied by
the appendage now under consideration.

As to any other peculiarities of structure which may have
been noticed in the description, they receive a ready explana-
tion from the well known habits of the bird. The vast capacity
of gullet, furnished by the numerous longitudinal plice, extend-
ing from the pharynx to the cardia, and the enormous size and
powers of the stomach, are in perfect unison with his extraor-
dinary voracity. To relate instances of this would be to repeat
an often times told tale. In India they are of every day’s oc-
currence, arid would scarcely be credited by those who have not
had an opportunity of witnessing them. A leg of mutton, or a
litter of live kittens swallowed whole, prove equally acceptable
to his all-devouring maw; and earth, bones, and hair (as the
above dissection shewed), form a mixed mass, from which he
appears indiscriminately to draw his subsistence.

On the Theory of the Air-Thermometer. By Mr Henry
MEIKLE. Communicated by the Author.

eta notions have been at different. times advanced re-
garding the rate of expansi9n in solids and liquids as a measure
4

Mr Meikle on the Theory of the Air-Thermometer. 333

of temperature; but it has more generally been admitted, par-
ticularly of late, that the expansions of gaseous bodies under a
constant pressure follow the true law of the influx of heat. In
proof of the latter opinion, it has been alleged, that, when a solid
is expanded by heat, its cohesion, being greater at lower tempe-
ratures, resists the expanding power so much the more; and
therefore, in the lower parts of the scale, the increments of vo-
lume produced by equal additions of heat are smaller than at
higher temperatures ; or, in other words, that the expansion of
solids proceeds at an accelerated rate, whilst the increase of heat
is uniform. Something of the same kind, though in an inferior
degree, is said to take place in liquids ; but gaseous bodies be-
ing supposed to have no cohesion between their particles, are
accounted free to obey the true law of temperature.

With this species of argument I am by no means satisfied,
because I really cannot pretend to see the force or meaning of
it; nor do I think we are likely soon to arrive at any certain
conclusion, by reasoning on principles which are less known per-
haps than the thing to be proved. Does analogy not rather
render it probable, that the particles of gases attract each other
with forces varying inversely as the squares of their distances ?
Many other objections, and reasonable ones, too, might be pro-
posed, to which no solid answer can be given. Such, however,
serve to shew on what a slippery foundation a very general opi-
nion may sometimes rest,—an opinion, in the present instance,
with which many speculations must either stand or fall. In-
deed, if authorities are allowed to have any weight in settling a
disputed point, then I believe by far the greater number of the
more enlightened are not only favourable to the common theory
of the air-thermometer, but scarcely entertain a doubt on the
subject.

It must, however, be admitted, that conjectures or opinions,
though supported by numerous and respectable authorities, are
not to be compared with experimental evidence, or with conclu-
sions deduced from such evidence by sound reasoning. I have,
therefore, with the view of approaching a little nearer to cer-
tainty in a point which is any thing but settled, been induced
to attempt an investigation of the theory of the air-thermometer
on its own principles, divested as much as possible of hypothe-

334 Mr Meikle on the Theory of

tical assumptions. How far I have succeeded will appear from
a careful perusal of what follows.

For this purpose, I shall set out from the same principles as
M. Poisson does in his Memoir on the Caloric of Gases and
Vapours * ; but it is only for a short way that I can go in with
the doctrines which that able mathematician endeavours there
to establish ; because, as will shortly appear, his data soon be-
come both redundant and imeonsistent, though not till he has
investigated the law which connects the density and pressure
with the temperature by the common scale in a mass of air,
when its quantity of heat is constant. ‘This law exactly agrees
with that which our learned countryman Mr Ivory has obtamed
by a different process; so that no doubt need remain on this
part of the subject, so far as mathematical reasoning is concerned.
But it is not necessary that I should be first in possession of this
law, to establish the law which connects the variations of vo-
lume under a constant pressure, with the variations of heat,
though indeed they are so intimately connected, that either of
them may be deduced from the other. :

The experiments of MM. Gay Lussac and Welter are en-
titled to a considerable degree of confidence, and from these it
appears, that the specific heat of air under a constant volume,
is to its specific heat under a constant pressure, in a ratio sen-
sibly constant, viz. that of 1 to 1.375, nearly agreeing with
1.3544 deduced from the experiments of MM. Desormes and
Clement. Adopting this, no objection can be made to M. Pois-
son’s reasoning till he gets past his equations (5). But imme-
diately thereafter, in attempting to prosecute the subject, and
supposing his data exhausted, M. Poisson, after the example of
the Marquis Laplace, adopts the well known hypothesis already
noticed, that the expansions of air under a constant pressure are
proportional to the increments of heat; and it is curious that
neither of these distinguished philosophers were aware that this
hypothesis was both unnecessary and directly at variance with
the above mentioned constant ratio of the specific heats. The

* Annales de Chim. et de Phys. xxiii. 337.; Phil. Mag. 1xii. 328.
+ Journal de Physique, |xxxix. 331. The following investigation, so far
as regards the law of temperature, has nothing to do with the value of this

ratio.
3

the Air- Thermometer. 335

consequence is, that all the subsequent part of that memoir con-
nected with the hypothesis is erroneous.

Let ¢ be the temperature of a mass of air, ¢ its density, and
p the pressure. Then, from known principles,

poe gS RES) eee eee eee ee (A).
a being the expansion for 1°, and } another constant.

When the quantity of heat in a body varies, it is evident that
the variations of temperature on the common scale must be, ca-
teris paribus, inversely as the specific heat. From the above
equation making p and ¢ respectively to vary with ¢, whilst the
other is constant, we have

dt= 1+at
Sp

_ 1+at
dp, and dé = — oe de.

Also when the quantity of heat changes in the mass of air,
let this change be denoted by q; then the specific heat will be

proportional to 4. Hence the specific heat of air under a con-

d
stant volume will be to that under a constant pressure as
dq
ie -pi— de'§ YR
whence
dq “4 —
+ = 0.
at dp" ** de

Now, supposing k constant, we have by integrating

q=B (J, log p —log ¢) +C;
and if, whilst g = 0, we reckon the pressure and density to be-
come each equal unit at the same instant, then C = 0; hence

1
q=B (; log p — log ¢) apa dibeadiotepel (B).

To determine the proper form of this integral, M. Poisson
deemed it necessary to assume an additional hypothesis; but in
that assumption both he and M. Laplace have deceived them-
selves. The value they give to q is

1
IL k
A+B(Ct) f-' =A +

* It must be observed, that, though the indications of an air-thermometer
be here used, no stress is laid on the theory of that instrument.

336 Mr Meikle on the Theory of

where A and B are two arbitrary constants. Hence, when

dg=o, dq « dp; but, by hypothesis, dg « dé « dp, or
p « 1, which is absurd. Indeed as we shall soon see, (B) is
the only form, which constructed geometrically, can agree with
the forementioned law connecting p, ¢ and t when g=o; and
which will make the specific heats independent of the actual den-
sity or pressure, as their constant ratio requires them to be.
When, in equation (B), ¢ = 1, g varies as log p, that is, when
the heat varies equably, the pressure under a constant volume
varies in geometrical progression. If p be constant, the varia-

tions of g are as those of — log g, or of + log se that is.as the
g

variations in the logarithm of the volume. Hence, when the
quantity of heat varies in arithmetical progression, the volume
under a constant pressure varies in geometrical. progression, or the
real temperatures are as the logarithms of those on the common
scale of an air-thermometer, reckoning from —448°F, or —266°.7
cent., and placing the new zero at — 447° F. or at — 265°.7
cent. The absolute zero might thus correspond with the ‘first
two of these numbers, or with minus infinity, by the new scale ;
but this is a point which I do not pretend to decide.

' The divisions on the scale ought therefore to form a geome-
trical progression, increasing with the temperature, instead of
being, as at present, equal parts.

When g=2 p= e* see een ees eoceeees (C).

Let + be the temperature when p and ¢ are each equal unit ;
then, if these vary while g =o, we have from equation (A),

l+ar+ai ba ,
Pb (lal) = pS = aarp, ony (Dy? ©
The change of temperature, by the common scale, produced by
the change of density from unit being 2.

Equations (C) and (D) are equiv “ihe to M. Poisson's s oe
tions (5); or to Mr Ivory’s equations (D), Phd. Mag.) Ixvi. 9.
They form the law which connects the pressure and. density- to-
gether, or with the temperature on the common scale, when the
heat in the air is constant.

But the relations of the different quantities may be more
clearly exhibited by means of a geometrical diagram. This
will appear whilst I proceed with the construction, illustrating
it, at the same time, by a sort of example.

the Air- Thermometer. 337

BA
B ree!
A
On the common scale of an air-thermometer, let the straight
line AB = RMISS, From B draw BCD at right angles to

AB, making BC to BD as the specific her* of air under a constant
‘ volume is to its specific heat under a constant pressure, or as 1
to k. - Through C and D describe two rectangular hyperbolas
having A for their centre, and AB for an asymptote.

Let s—r, the temperature of a mass of air, be increased r

degrees, or from Bto E: Then AE = sk Draw EG pa-

rallel to BD, and meeting the curves in F and G; hence
EF : EG: :1:k, and so of every such parallel. If this in-
crease of temperature take place under a constant volume, the
additional heat may be represented by the area BCFE, but if
under a constant pressure, by area BDGE. For in the hyper-
bola, as is well known, the variations of the area are as those of
the logarithms of the abscissa. Suppose the temperature to
have increased under a constant pressure, and then let the yo-
lume of air be instantly reduced to its former magnitude, the
temperature by this operation will be farther augmented i de-
grees, or from E to H, making area HIFE = CDGF. For
the heat at first added now brings the temperature to the same
pitch, as if it had been added to the original volume all the
while invariable.

By the property of the hyperbola, the area BCFE represents
log 4 Hence also area HIFE = CDGF = (k —1) log +
= and therefore = +

JULY—ocTopeER 1826. Y

= log

338 Mr Meikle on the Theory of

AH = Ms and the compres-

But NMA et

sion has evidently increased the density in the ratio of unit to
AE

ABS Hence
“ guaties aes as in equation (D).

AE | a AH
AB = area BCIH = log AB’

and the compression has augmented the pressure in the ratio of

Again, area BDGE = k log

unit to Se =p. Hence
p=e*, as in equation (Cj.

In the hyperbola, as already hinted, the areas vary arithme-
tically, whilst the abscissee vary geometrically. But the varia-
tions of the area represent variations of heat, and the varia
tions of the abscissa represent the corresponding variations of
volume under a constant pressure, or of pressure under a con-
stant volume. So that, besides agreeing with the other con-
clusions, this construction exactly represents the former result,
that the real temperatures are as the logarithms of those on the
common scale, reckoning from — 448° F., or — 266°.7 cent. ;
and placing the new zero at — 447° F., or at — 265°.7 cent.

The law of temperature now given, stands on a much surer
foundation than any other that has been proposed, and affords
ample ground for questioning the present graduation of our
thermometers. Were DG a straight line parallel to AB, as the
ordinary graduation supposes, then, whatever CI might be, it
is evident, that, unless in a few particular cases, very little
change of temperature could be produced by a change of den-
sity ; because there would not then be that inexhaustible source
of both heat and cold which experiment proves, and which a
line differing much from the hyperbola could not supply. In-
dependently therefore, of more elaborate proof, this considera-
tion alone ought to overturn the common theory. | This law al-
so gives some countenance to the notion, that the quantity of
heat in bodies is infinite, compared with all the change that we
can effect on it. But it ill agrees with the opinion of MM. Du-
long and Petit, that the absolute zero on the common scale may

the Atr- Thermometer 339

be infinitely remote, and yet the quantity of heat finite. In-
deed, this opinion is itself a contradiction in terms, with re-
gard to the heat in a thermometer, considered as measuring its
own heat.

Mr Dalton supposed that mercury expands as the squares of
the true temperatures, reckoned from its freezing point; and
that, relatively to the degrees of this scale, taken in arithmeti-
cal progression, the expansions of the gases proceed in geome-
trical progression. But the researches of M. Gay Lussac, Dr
Ure, and of MM. Dulong and Petit, have proved fatal to this
hypothetical law of temperature, and have shewn, that mercury
and the gases observe the same law through a great range, only
at length diverging very slowly. So that after Mr Dalton’s er-
roneous progression in the expansion of air relatively to the mer-
curial thermometer is corrected, the relation between his scale
and that expansion is curiously metamorphosed. _ It is thus evi-
dent, that his scale bears a totally different relation to the com-
mon mercurial thermometer from that of the law I have inyes-
tigated: the latter only differing about half the quantity that
Mr Dalton’s does from the old scale, between the freezing and
boiling points of water; especially since Mr Dalton’s scale, as
actually constructed, differs less from the old one than his theory
strictly allows. The more scientific part of chemistry certainly
owes much to Mr Dalton; but though his law of temperature
had happened to be that of nature, it was still to be considered
unknown, and entitled to no confidence, so long as nothing sa-
tisfactory was advanced in its behalf.

The specific heat of a given weight of air, is ceteris paribus
independent of its density or pressure.

For, in the former figure, let the temperature of this air cor-
respond to the point E, and let EF x 1° and EG x 1° be re-
spectively the specific heats under a constant volume and con-
stant pressure; suppose the air now to be condensed till its tem-
perature rise to H; then HI x 1°, which is less than EF x 1°,
will be its specific heat under a constant volume relatively to
the common scale *; but whilst the temperature sinks to E,

* It is obvious that the specific heat of air, relatively to the true scale,
must be independent of the temperature.

x¥ 2

340 Mr Meikle on the Theory of

still, under the same reduced volume, the specific heat will just
regain its former value EF x 1°; and the same may be proved
of EG x 1°. ;

What a difference between this simple result and the com-
plex conclusions which a gratuitous hypothesis has enabled the
Marquis Laplace to state in his Mécanigue Céleste, and M. Pois-
son to copy from him, as already quoted! And yet, had they
used a diagram even with straight lines, as their hypothe-
sis required, they might have obtained precisely the same result
as I have got. For inconsistent data sometimes produce a cor-
rect result. This, however, only happens when opposite errors
destroy each other, or when part of the data is allowed to lie
dormant.

The specific heat of steam is very likely independent of its
density ; and if so, ought it not, under a constant volume, to be
equal that of water ? And if the specific heats of equal volumes
of elastic fluids, as analogy would almost lead us to suppose, be
the same under equal pressures and temperatures, the specific
heat of air would be -625 under a constant volume, and ‘833
under a constant pressure; about three times the common esti-
mate, which is very uncertain. But this is merely thrown out as
a conjecture.

M. Poisson’s memoir being nearly related to the foregoing
inquiry, I have, for the better pointing out the errors into which
that illustrious author has fallen, kept closer to his method than
was otherwise necessary. It must now be sufficiently evi-
dent, that his hypothesis, so often mentioned, was both super-
fluous and at variance with his other principles. In the same
memoir, M. Poisson acknowledges that his theory of the ex-
pansive force of steam is far from accounting for the economy
of heat, which experiment indicates in the use of high pressure
engines. This furnishes a farther proof in favour of the law
we have investigated ; for, according to it, when the tempera-
ture is elevated, the force even of air having its density con-
stant, increases in an enormously higher ratio than the quantity
of heat does, viz. in geometrical progression, whilst the heat in-
creases in arithmetical progression. ‘Thus, calling the heat unit,
which doubles the force when the density is constant, we shall
have the following two series : : :

the Air-Thermometer. 341

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &e.

2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, &e.
the upper being the additional heat, and the lower the ratio in
which the force is augmented. But all this is on the supposi-
tion that the density does not increase with the temperature ;
whereas the density of steam in a state of saturation, augments
in a ratio almost as much above the second of these series, as
that exceeds the first. Now the temperature of all elastic fluids
is increased by condensation ; that is, the same weight of steam,
at a given temperature, contains less heat as its density is greater.
These arguments, I presume, would more than account for the
saving of heat which experiment indicates; and, for this rea-
son, they are the more satisfactory, because high pressure en-
gines work under many disadvantages, the greater excess of
their temperature above that of the ambient air subjects them
the more to its cooling influence.

From what we have seen above, it is extremely probable that
the absolute quantity of heat in bodies is very great. This con-
sideration may assist in accounting for the heat which becomes
sensible in the case of friction, of chemical combinations, elec-
trical phenomena, combustion, respiration, and in many of the
other operations which take place in the economy of nature.

The chief points discussed in this brief essay. are highly im-
portant in the doctrine of heat; and when once it is known that
they admit of such proof, I expect to see them investigated dif-
ferently, and no doubt with improvements.

Observations on the Structure of some Silicious Sponges. By
R. E. Grant, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., M. W.S., Honorary
Member of the Northern Institution, &e. Communicated by
the Author.

T HE existence of silicious spicula in sponges, and in other
genera of zoophytes, has been long known. Pallas sixty years
ago described the Aleyonium aurantium, Alcyonium cotoneum,
and Aleyonium asbestinum, as composed of minute asbestine
needles, which he compares in hardness to pumice (El. Zooph.
p- 344, 357, 360.) Ellis seventy years ago, Gmelin, Lamou-

342 Dr Grant's Observations on the

roux, have described the hard glassy needles composing the
axis of the Gorgonia briareus, an animal which possesses re-
markably large eight-tentaculated polypi (Sol. & Ell. Cor.
p: 93.) Montagu has described these rigid asbestine or pumice-
like spicula in three of his species of British Sponges, Spongia
penicillus, S. verrucosa, and JS. pilosa (Wern. Mem. vol. ii. p. 93.
et seg.) ; and the same hard glassy asbestine or silicious needles:
have since been observed in different species of T'ethya, Cydo-
nium, Spongilla, Cliona, and in a great variety of marine
sponges. The extreme hardness of these spicula, however, is
the only character mentioned by preceding authors as indicating
silica to be their component earth. Not only the hardness of
these spicula, and their power of resisting heat, but also. their
regular forms, their sharp points, and even their mode of ar-
rangement in several sponges, were known to our countryman
Ellis, who has described the spicula of the Spongia tomentosa,
and represented their mode of grouping round the pores (Cor.
Pl. xvi. fig. D.), and mentions, that when they are burnt and
rubbed on the human skin, they pierce it, and excite an itching
pain. The regular forms of the spicula of several sponges have
been represented in the plates of Ellis, Cordiner, Lamouroux,
and they have been noticed by most writers, as Ellis, Gmelin,
Montagu, Lamouroux, and Lamarck, in their descriptions of
certain species. Donati had shown the example so early as
1750, by describing and representing the forms of the spicula,
and their mode of arrangement in other zoophytes (Storia Nat.
Mar. dell’ Adriat.) ; the useful example of Donati has been
rarely followed, but its advantages in the study of polymorphous
zoophytes will probably one day be more highly appreciated
from the constancy and preciseness of the character it affords.
The sponges in which I have found the spicula to consist of
silica, I have termed silictous sponges, to mark them as a sepa-
rate group, distinct from the horny and calcareous species al-
ready described. The spicula of silicious sponges are generally
smaller and simpler in their forms than the calcareous. They
can be more easily examined as the connecting animal matter
enveloping them can be completely removed by the blowpipe,
or by concentrated acids, without injuring their symmetrical
forms, and they can thus be quickly obtained isolated for mi-

Structure of some Silicious Sponges. 348

eroscopical examination, on plates of glass, or between thir
scales of mica, where they may be preserved for any period.
The Spongia papillaris of Pallas, Gmelin, Montagu, and
Lamouroux, which is by far the most abundant species of this
animal inhabiting the British shores, affords a good illustration
not only of the silicious axis, but of that peculiar simple form
of spiculum, which I have considered as the first or most ele-
mentary in marine sponges. This species is mentioned by Pal-
las, as an inhabitant of the coast of America. Montagu found it
common on the coast of Devonshire, and I have found it abun-
dant on several parts of the east and west coasts of Scotland, on
the north coast of Ireland, and on the shores of Bute, Islay,
Iona, Staffa, Skye and Arran ; but I have nowhere met with it so
large and abundant as on the south side of the Frith of Forth,
where it seems to enjoy its natural climate. It is generally
seen at low-water mark, spreading on the sides of rocks as a
thick soft spongy covering, of a yellow or green colour, with
numerous conical tubular papilla projecting irregularly from its
surface ; its prominent papillze are all terminated by wide fecal
orifices, with thin translucent margins, sometimes quite circular,
and sometimes presenting a very irregular broken outline. It
eecurs in portions, from half an inch to an inch thick, and from
a few inches to more than a foot in breadth; sometimes it ap-
pears as a single isolated papilla, growing on the side of a rock,
or on the root of afucus. Its surface is sometimes very smooth,
sometimes slightly corrugated and uneven, and is every where
covered with very minute regularly formed pores, visible to the
naked eye, which give the surface the appearance of the finest
gauze. The papillaris not only has a great range of colour
from bright yellow, through the intermediate shades, to dark
sea-green, but it likewise presents the greatest variety of surface
of any of the spreading species met with in the Frith of Forth ;
and, I have no doubt, that some of these varieties of outward
form, have been described and represented as distinct species.
The papilla, though generally very irregular in their distribu-
tion, not unfrequently unite from their proximity, so as to form
elevated ridges ; and when these ridges happen to lie in a straight
and parallel direction, they give the surface a crested appearance,
as represented by Mr Ellis, (Phil. Trans. y. 55, Pl. Il, Fig. G.)

344 Dr Grant’s Observations on the

At other times, we observe the papille so slightly and gradually
raised, as to produce only an undulated smooth surface ;_ this is
frequently the case where it is much exposed to the direct force
of the waves or currents, or where it envelopes the roots and
stems of marine plants. Itis more probable that these varieties
of form depend on situation, or other accidental circumstances,
than that they are perpetuated by generation ; for we sometimes
find these different kinds of surface on the same. specimen.
Where the papilla has a regular conical form, the margins of its
fecal orifice are circular, thin and translucent, but in the ridged
portions the fecal orifices are often very wide, with abrupt ire-
gular broken margins; when we look down into one of these wide
orifices, we distinctly perceive, on every side, the terminations of
the internal canals, which unite and widen as they approach the
orifice, and open at such an angle, as to throw their currents
nearly in the direction of the main stream. ‘This part of the
anatomy is beautifully exhibited, by cutting a living papilla per-
pendicularly into several sections. The ova, in this species, be-
gin to appear in the deeper parts of its substance between the
canals, near the end of February; they are in full maturity in
May, and not a trace of them is discernible in its texture at the
endof June. The surface of the papillaris is often quite green,
although its whole texture within is filled with ova of a. lively
yellow colour ; and sometimes we find a specimen, some parts of
which are yellow, and others green, although the whole interior
is equally filled with ova. In dried specimens of the papillaris
the internal texture may be rendered as soft as the finest down,
and of a pure white colour, by careful and repeated maceration
in hot water ; in this condition, the part covering the whole outer
surface appears like a thin white calcareous crust, lying loosely
over the downy texture, and everywhere closely perforated with
regular minute angular pores, which are now rendered more dis-
tinct, by the removal of their soft parts, and by the contraction
of the loose fasciculi which surround them — This thin white shin-
ing porous covering contains no lime, but appears to have been
sometimes taken by authors for a calcareous crust, both in sponges
and in other allied genera.

When a very thin portion, cut from the surface of the recent
papillaris, is viewed on a plate of glass under the microscope; we

Structure of some Silicious Sponges. 345

observe the whole texture to consist of polygonal pores systema-
tically, though somewhat rudely, constructed of loose fasciculi of
minute transparent, colourless, pointed, and slightly curved,

needles, entirely imbedded in a viscid yellowish translucent mat-
ter ; and we cannot fail to be convinced, on the slightest inspec-
tion, that the form, size, composition, and arrangement of these
needles have a perfect relation to the function they fulfil of form-
ing and defending these passages, and that the spicula could not
possibly have been pushed into this dense systematic order round
the pores, by worms, insects or animalcules piercing and traver-
sing the soft surface, nor have we the least acquaintance with
any inhabitant of the ocean, capable of secreting such singular
crystalline bodies, and of piling them up into so complicated'a
fabric for the protection and development of its ova. We shall
see further proofs of this in the anatomy of the soft parts of this
animal. By allowing a portion of this sponge to remain a few
hours in a watch glass with nitric, sulphuric, or muriatic acid,’
the soft connecting matter dissolves, and the spicula fall sepa-
rate to the bottom, without having suffered any change in their
size, form, or appearance. If we rub these spicula with a wooden
or glass rod against the bottom of the watch glass, after pouring
off the acid, and washing them with water, we feel distinctly,
that they are of a hard quartzy nature, and that they cut the
bottom of the glass; with a lens we can perceive the minute
streaks they produce, when they are rubbed on the surface of
smooth glass. At a red beat the spicula suffer no change, but
when they are kept at a white heat for a few minutes by the
blowpipe, they become semiopaque and white, and some of them
are observed to dilate and burst. When the spicula have been
simply dried, we can perceive by the microscope a distinct cayi-
ty within them, extending their whole length, and completely
shut at both extremities; probably some fluid matter within that
cavity prevents it from being so distinctly seen in the recent
spicula. ‘To try in a more satisfactory manner the silicious:na-
ture of these spicula, I removed the animal matter by means, of
the blowpipe from a portion of the papillaris, and formed the
remaining dried axis into a paste, with three or four times its

bulk of pure potassa.. On exposing this mixture of spicula and

potassa, on a tin plate for a minute or two to the flame of a can-

346 Dr Grant’s Observations on the

dle, a white brittle dry crust was produced, which was entirely
soluble in {water ; on examining the aqueous solution of this
crust, under the microscope, I found that the silicious spicula
had been fused by the aid of the alkali, and had entirely disap-
peared. I have now preserved the spicula of this sponge for
more than twenty months immersed in. nitric, sulphuric, and
muriatic acids, and they have suffered no change in their hard-
ness, size, transparency or symmetry ; they still scratch glass,
and retain their sharpest pots unblunted. From the spicula
suffering a diminution of their transparency, by the action of
heat, it is probable that they possess some animal matter in their
composition, which, however, would be very difficult to demon-
strate. Mr Children is said to have detected animal matter in
the silicious spicula of some species of Tethya, (An. of Phil.,
vol. ix. p. 431), but his experiments have not yet been made
known. I have not had an opportunity of trying their solubih-
ty in fluoric acid, and have relied on the above chemical charac-
ters, in examining the silicious spicula of marine sponges. The
spicula of the Spongia papillaris very much resemble those of
the Spongilla friabilis ; they are slightly curved, thickest in the
middle, from which they taper gradually to a sharp point at each
end, they are of one form though of very different sizes, their length
ranges from the tenth to the fifteenth of a jine, and their diame-
ter from the sixth to the tenth of that of a human hair. They have
a vitreous lustre, their texture appears quite homogeneous, and
their internal cavity occupies scarcely a third of thew diameter:
They exhibit neither joints, fibres, nor granular bodies in their
substance, nor any kind of motion of themselves, or within their
cavity, and appear incapable of contributing to produce the
eurrents of this animal, both from their arrangement round the
pores and canals, and from their internal cavity being complete-
ly shut at both ends. A number of these spicula lying im the
same direction, and close to each other, forma fasciculus, the fas-
ciculi which lie parallel to the surface, and form the strong
walls of the pores, may be called the bounding fusciculi of the
pores, to distinguish them from certain others, which project from
the margin over the entrances of the pores, and are termed the
defending fasciculi of the pores. Both bounding and defending
fasciculi are seen also in the course of the canals, and the

Structure of some Silicious Sponges. 347

bounding fasciculi near the pores are observed to afford attach-
ment to a very delicate apparatus calculated for the further de-
fence of these passages from foreign: bodies, and for assisting in
the production of the currents. To avoid erroneous hypotheses
in searching into the nature of this perplexing substance, it will
be of some advantage to notice every minute piece of structure
which may illustrate its mode of existence, explain its functions
or help to distinguish the species, and it will be proper here,
as inother parts of anatomy, to adopt a technical language for
parts that are of constant occurrence, and important in the
economy of the animal. Although the spiculum of this sponge
agrees with that of the spongilla friabilis in being curved, and
pointed at both ends, it differs from the latter in being thickest
in the middle, and a little less in size. This double pointed
fusiform curved spiculum is met with in several other sponges,
and always occurs unaccompanied with any other form but its own
modifications, so that it affords a determinate and easy means of
subdividing the great tribe of silicious sponges into lesser groups.
We observe this first form of spiculum likewise in the Spongia
urens or tomentosa, cristata, coalita, oculata, prolifera, dichoto-
ma, palmata, &c., but in the four last branched species it is
very minute and imbedded in a tough ligamentous matter,
which, in the dried state, assumes a faint resemblance to the horny
tubular fibres of the S. communis. It would appear from ex-
amination of some tropical species, that the transition from
the silicious to the horny axis takes place by the spicula. be-
coming more and more minute, and their enveloping matter
more tough and fibrous.

The second remarkable form of silicious spiculum met with
in marine sponges, is that which presents only one pointed ex-
tremity, while the opposite end is either simply rounded, or is
dilated into a distinct spherical head, like that of a common pin.
In the species already frequently mentioned in this memoir, un-
der the name of Spongia panicea, and which agrees with the
characters given of that species by Lamouroux, ( Hist. des
Polyp. p. 29.) in forming irregular spreading masses more: than
an inch thick, and presenting in the dried state a white cellular
texture, like hard bread, with a flat and very porous surface,
we have the most familiar and distinct example of the one-
pointed spiculum. The spicula of the panicea are silicious,

348 _. Dr Grant’s Observations on the

straight, thick, short, cylindrical, pointed rather obtusely and
suddenly at one extremity, and rounded, but not swelled at the
other ; they are of various thickness, but of one form and length,
they are fused by the aid of potassa, resist heat and acids, scratch
glass, &c. In specimens of the panicea which I brought this
summer from the Island of Staffa, the spicula have the same
characters as in those which abound in the Frith of Forth;
and the same form of spiculum is met with in the Spongia pa-
rasitica of Montagu. In the large Spongia patera of the In-
dian seas, many specimens of which have been lately brought
to Europe, and six of which are preserved in the Museum of
our University, measuring from two to four feet in height, the
spicula are silicious, long, thick, cylindrical, slightly curved,
pointed at one end, and in place of being simply rounded or
truncated at the opposite end, like those of the panicea, we ob-
serve them all headed like pins with a distinct sphere or round
bead on one extremity, which has twice the diameter of the rest
of the spiculum. I have elsewhere shown that this one-pointed,
curved, headed spiculum, occurs in the Cliona celata, a zoophyte
possessing polypi and very distinct irritability, (see p. 80), so
that it would be highly interesting to examine whether the cup-
like sponges, found so abundantly near Sincapore, do not ma-
nifest likewise some signs of contractility in the living state.

A third distinct form of spiculum, met with in silicious spon-
ges, is where one of the sharp points is lost, and the whole
spiculum appears to be composed of a series of round transpa-
rent beads, diminishing in size from one extremity to the other.
This remarkable form I have yet observed only in one species,
a thick, branched, tubular, yellowish brown, rough, wiry sponge
from the Indian seas, from the zoological collection of a zealous
young naturalist Mr John Coldstream of Leith. The bran-
ches are about 11 inch in diameter, cylindrical, dichotomous,
tubular, of a hard and yery tough texture, and marked on
the outside with distinct open round pores, which pass direct-
ly through the thick parietes, and open into the internal tu-
bular cavity by somewhat larger orifices. These tubular branch-
es are of course open at their free extremities for the exit
of the currents; their openings are cylindrical, wide, and
with rounded margins. The remarkable notched spicula are
seen with the naked eye projecting on every, side perpen-

Structure of some Silicious Sponges. 349
dicularly from the margins to the centre of the pores, in
which position they are fixed by a tough and almost horny sub-
stance enveloping their bases. Notwithstanding, the regular
n otched or jointed appearance on the outer surface of these spi-
cula, we perceive with the microscope that they are formed of one
piece, and have a distinct continuous cavity within, shut at both
ends, like every other cavity observed in marme spicula. They
are comparatively strong spicula, from their thickness and short-
ness, and are acutely pointed at one end. 'The connecting mat-
ter enveloping their thick ends, resolves itself by maceration into
bundles of delicate ligamentous threads ; but this appearance is
never to be trusted in sponges which have once been allowed to
dry, as parts then become hard and fibrous, which we observe in
the living state to consist of a soft homogeneous pulp. This
third form of spiculum is so very distinct from the two preced-
ing, that it is probably not confined to this one species of zoo-
phyte, but may be found, like the other two forms, to belong to
an extensive series, yet unknown, however, to naturalists, and
concealed like the present species in the depths of the southern
hemisphere.
A fourth form of silicious spiculum is seen in the long slen-
der asbestine filaments, composing the axis of the Spongia ven-
tilabrum, Linn. When a portion of this fan-shaped sponge of
the British, Norwegian and American coasts is kept for some -
minutes at a white heat by the blowpipe, to remove the animal
matter, and is then plunged into strong nitric acid, it be-
comes easy to reduce it by the pressure of a glass rod, into its
component spicula, which we feel by the pressure as well as by
their resisting the acid, to be of a silicious nature. They are
neither pointed at their extremities nor notched on the surface,
but consist of smooth, long, uniformly thick, transparent, waved
rods, obtuse at both ends. Those forming the so-named woody
veins of this species, lie close and parallel to each other in dense
fasciculi, which are disposed in a longitudinal direction from the
base to the apex of the sponge. And the spicula which form
the loose porous surface, have one end inserted into the dense
central fasciculi of the woody veins, while their opposite end
projects outwards at right angles to these fasciculi. ‘The waved
direction of the remarkably long silicious filaments of this spénge

$50 Dr Grant's Observations on the

is a necessary result of the kind of basket-work they are em-
ployed to construct. The same form of spiculum is met with in
the Spongia hispida and 5S. fruticosa Mont. ; but in the fruti-
cos@ itis very short.

These general forms of silicious spicula are yar ‘eal modifi-
ed in different species of sponge, though they are regular and
constant im the same; and there may be many other general
forms which have not fallen within my limited observation, or
belonging to species yet undiscovered. As the slender vitreous
spiculum, acutely acuminated at both ends, is the form met
with in the simplest and most irregular of the marine sponges,
and also in the fresh-water sponge, a simpler and older zoophyte
than any of the marine species (see Ed. Phil. Journ. vol. xiv.
p- 283), this spiculum may be considered as the first or simplest
in the silicious sponges. It is easy to observe, however, in these
sponges, that only one of the acuminated points of the spicula is
employed in the defence of the pores and canals, while the other
sharp point is fixed and imbedded in the tender substance of
the animal, which it is apt to pierce and tear on the slightest
motion. The second form of spiculum, therefore, where the
unnecessary and probably hurtful imbedded point has been re-
moved, either by being simply struck off, as in the S. panicea,
or by being still further softened by the addition of an enlarged
spherical head, as in the JS. patera, seems much better adapted
for insertion into the soft texture of this animal, or for defending
its pores and canals, and probably was of later formation than
the preceding form. Itis found im some tropical species, and
in the Cliona, an animal already possessed of distinct irritability.
The numerous inequalities of the waved surface and the round
extremity of the third form or jointed spiculum must add to the
safety and strength of its attachment to the soft parts ; and the
shortness and thickness of this spiculum peculiarly fit it for ward-
ing off the assaults of extraneous bodies from the pores of this ani-
mal, for which office it seems to be allotted im the specimen before
me. It may be supposed, that, at the time of its formation, ani-
malcules of a larger magnitude swarmed in the heated ocean; and
this stronger mechanical protection of the pores seems to have been
the more necessary, as no animals had yet been formed which
could contract and shut their superficial pores by a vital effort like

2

Structure of some Silicious Sponges. 351
the Cliona, Aleyonium, Lobularia, &c. It is interesting to ob-
serve, that the earthy matter of the skeleton of these earliest in-
habitants of the ocean, is the same with what we know to have
paved the bottom of the vast abyss at the remotest periods we can
reach of the earth’s history, whether we imagine the silica of the
primitive rocks formed by the oxidation of the solid surface, or
precipitated from the superincumbent fluid. ‘The appearance of
many of their crystalline silicious pointed spicula is the same
with that of the slender hexaedral acuminated prisms which si-
lica naturally assumes in the crystallized state ; and. the: silicious
crystals formed by nature contain cavities and fluids like those
formed by organic life. The laws, therefore, which regulate
the forms of the simplest silicious spicula composing the skeleton
of the marine sponge, do not appear to differ much from those
which regulate the forms of brute matter.

Notice of a Voyage of Research. Ina Letter from Captain
Basit Hatt, R. N., to Professor Jameson.

In answer to your questions as to what would be the most
useful objects of inquiry, were a voyage undertaken for the ex-
press purpose of research, I beg leave to offer you the following
remarks,—the result of a good deal of reflection on the subject,
and of some personal experience of those points in the —
tion most important in practice.

Voyages of discovery, as they were formerly called, seem now
at an end; since all, or very nearly all, the navigable parts, of
the earth have been pretty well explored. Much, however, re-
mains to be done, in order to complete the work commenced
by former voyagers, in a manner suitable to the greatly improy:
ed means, and the still more enlightened ideas, of the day.

It may assist your apprehension of the subject, to class the
different objects of inquiry under distinct heads, that their im-
portance may be examined separately.

First, To make observations having direct and immediate

a

352 Captain Hall’s Notice of a Voyage of Research.

utility in the practice of Navigation, and the advance-
ment of Geographical Science.

Secondly, To institute experiments, and series of obser-
vations, calculated to improve the Theory of Naviga-
tion, by furnishing mathematicians with data for the
correction of Nautical and Astronomical Tables.

Thirdly, To ascertain the resources, Nautical and Commer-
cial, of remote countries.

Fourthly, To make observations of a scientific nature, in

places distant from England, and under circumstances
of situation and climate which are not to be obtained at
home; and which, independently of their own local va-
hue, would in many cases enhance the importance and
utility of observations already made; while, at the
same time, the field of new knowledge would be ex-
tended and enclosed, if I may use such an expression,
and that of prejudice and error contracted.

Fifthly, To attend to that class of topics called Popular,
having less in view any precise object of utility, than
the rational amusement and information of persons who
have no means of investigating such subjects for them-
selves,

The desideratum which is unquestionably of most importance
in practical navigation, is the exact measurement of the Diffe-
rence of longitude between place and place, especially between
those headlands and harbours generally used as points of depar-
ture by ships starting, or which are looked out for as land-marks
on their return voyage. It is not necessary this should be done
with that rigorous precision used in trigonometrical surveys.
The well-being of navigation, however, certainly requires that
this element should be determined within much smaller limits
than those which at present bound our information. Without
such knowledge, indeed, much of the utility of improving nau-
tical instruments and tables is essentially lost. It may assist
your imagination to consider, that the evil of loosely settled
longitudes, is quite as great in practice, as if the geographical
positions of the places on the earth’s surface were supposed

to be actually shifted about from time to time. No skill, it must
4

Captain Hall’s Notice of a Voyage of Research. 353

be obvious to the least informed person, can obviate the perplex-
ing dilemma into which sailors are thrown by: tables of longi-
tude, which vary amongst themselves. All the requisite accu-
racy, /it is satisfactory to know, might be attaimed, and some
day will be attained, by the judicious employment of chronome-
ters, and other instruments now in the hands of every seaman.
difference measured from the meridian of Greenwich, though
not so material for the immediate or daily purposes of the na-
vigator, is not. without its share of importance in a geographi-
cal, as well as a nautical, point of view, and is one branch of the
inquiry which would employ much of the attention of an offi-
cer sent upon.this service. Collaterally it would become an ob-
ject of peculiar interest to ascertain which one, of all the numerous
methods for solying this problem, is the most applicable to prac-
tice, in a given time ; and to determine with what degree of pre-
cision it can be obtained by the means at present in use. These
points are far from being settled in the way they ought to be,
either in the purely nautical case, where a ship is out of sight of
land, or on shore, at stations where the sailor may have it in
his power to erect a temporary observatory.

Under this head, therefore, would fall a series of experiments
on the respective value of the various instruments in the hands
of travellers, as well as of seamen. ‘This is the more necessary,
as there is at present a considerable difference of opinion amongst
practical men, which leads to. inconvenience, and ill-bestowed
expence, and after all the object is not attained.

The difficulty of the longitude problem, or, to speak more
correctly, the degree of care requisite in its determination, for
there is no other difliculty in the matter, have, perhaps, by
giving it an undue importanee, thrown some other equally es-
sential poiats too much out of sight, though in every tespect
of as much consequence in practice. This remark applies mote
particularly to, the latitudes, and to the variation of the compass
in different parts of the world. It often happens, absurdly
enough, that, while much Jabour and. discussion are bestowed
upon a single mile, or half a mile of longitude, the neglected
latitude is not determined within twice the amount, merely be-
cause it is more easily obtained. With the variation of the

JULY—ocTOBER 1826. z

354° Captain Hall’s Notice of a Voyage of Research.

compass it is still worse: Yet it is obviously of the greatest.
importance, when steering for any port, especially at night, to
know what reliance is to be placed on so fickle a guide as
the compass—a guide, it may be remarked, whose tendency at
every moment is to deceive—who never tells the same story twice
—and who is drawn out of his path by a thousand attractions,
which, if not duly watched and counteracted, render his. ser-
vices; like those of a drowsy pilot, the very means of our destruc-
tion.

This subject has only very recently been attended to in this
hemisphere, scarcely at all in the other. It is, however, a ques-
tion of such vital importance to navigation, that the experiments
suggested by Professor Barlow, and since so ably followed up by
Captain Parry and Lieutenant Foster during the recent expe-
dition, should be carefully repeated in the south, and the prac-
tical efficacy of the correcting plate invented by the eminent
philosopher alluded to, practically examined in remote places,
and under various circumstances. We shall thus learn the full
extent of this beautiful discovery, which removes the most dis-
tracting source of erroneous reckoning that has ever annoyed
the navigator.

The phenomena of the winds, though less readily made the
subject of observation than the points already alluded to, ought
to be investigated in a manner they have never yet been. At
first sight, the winds appear less under the influence of known
laws than any other element with which the navigator has to
concern himself. But experience seems to show, that it is
otherwise, since a practised sailor, in a dull sailing ship, will ge-
nerally make a better passage than one who is not experienced,
though in a faster sailing vessel. In almost every part of the’
globe, the prevalent winds are found te be more or less under
the influence of laws capable of being distinctly stated, but
which have not as yet been recorded in such a manner as to
be intelligible, and practically useful to the seaman. On the
other hand, it has happened that theoretical men, by not taking
into account local causes, of which, from want of actual ex-
perience, or any correct accounts, they could have no just
knowledge, have rather contributed to embarrass than to re-
lieve the navigator. Even the well-beaten track, where the
trade-winds prevail, is imperfectly and often erroneously de-

Captain Hall’s Notice of a Voyage of Research. 355.
scribed in most books of navigation; and with respect to the
winds in high latitudes, nothing accurate is recorded ; or if re-
corded, is not put into that shape which is best suited to the
comprehension of sailors. The whole of this apparently complex
subject might perhaps be treated in a manner applicable to
practice, thereby rendering almost all extensive voyages more
expeditious and certain.

The mysterious subject of currents, though it may not differ
essentially in its nature from that of the winds, differs materially
from it in practical operation. Not one current in ten marked
on our charts has any existence; and the chief office of these
investigations would be the negative but useful one of removing
such misstatements entirely. There can be no doubt, at all
events, that the much-talked of current in the east of the At-
lantic is imaginary, and that a belief of its existence arose en-
tirely from the local attraction of the needle: it vanishes entire-
ly the instant Professor Barlow’s correcting plate is affixed to
the steering-compass, and returns again whenever the plate is re-

moved.
It may not be uninteresting to state how this curious effect

is produced. The local attraction, which is the technical name
given to the influence which the iron distributed over the hull
exerts upon the needle of the compass, has, in most ships, the
effect of drawing its north end forward, or towards the head of
the vessel. In the southern hemisphere the reverse takes
place. To shew how this produces an apparent current,
let it be supposed that a ship steers from the British Channel
towards Madeira on a SW. course, by compass, and that the
navigator, guided by the best documents in his possession, al-
lows two points westerly variation, it is clear he will suppose
that his course made good is SSW. But, owing to the local
attraction, the north end of the needle has been drawn, we shall
suppose, half a point more to the westward, so that in strictness
the variation allowed ought to have been 24 points instead of 2.
Thus, the course made good has in fact been S. by W. 4 W.
instead of SSW.; and the difference of longitude between the
dead reckoning and that shewn by chronometers, he natu-
rally ascribes to a current setting to the eastward, towards the
Straits of Gibraltar. On the return, that is to say, when he is
~ steering by compass NE., and when, by making the same al-
z2

356 Captain Hall's Notice of a Voyage of Research.
lowance of 2 points westerly variation, he conceives his course
made good to be NNE. while in fact it is } point more to the
eastward, in consequence of the north end of the needle being
drawn, as formerly, towards the ship’s head, the effect of which
would of course now be to diminish the westerly variation, just
as much as the same cause acting in the opposite direction had
augmented the variation, when the vessel’s head was directed to
the SW. Therefore, in this case, namely, with the vessel’s head
to the NE., the real course would be 4 point more to the east-
ward than the navigator would allow for; and he would, as be-
fore, naturally ascribe the difference between his position by
dead reckoning, and that by his chronometer, to a current set-
ting to the eastward. I have never read or heard of any cur-
rent setting towards the Straits of Gibraltar from the Atlantic
which this theory would not fully explain. Certainly, however,
an exact account of such undoubted currents as the Gulf Stream
along the coast of North America, and that off the Cape of Good
Hope, would be useful and interesting. Captain Sabine’s re-
searches in this respect have already given us some valuable in-
formation as to currents near the Equator.

A very useful branch of this class of subjects would be the
measurement of the perpendicular rise and fall of the tides in
harbours much frequented by shipping, and also the direction
of the stream ; both practical points of considerable moment, but
which in most cases are known only to the pilots and fishermen
of the spot, although there is no reason why it should not be
known to strangers.

These seem the principal points under the first head of in-
quiry; but there are many others to which an officer having
such objects constantly and exclusively in view, would of course
direct his attention.

NAUTICAL SCIENCE.

Under this topic might be classed observations, such as those
recently made by Lieutenant Foster at Port Bowen, on atmo-
spherical refraction, the dip of the needle, and the diurnal va-
riation of the magnet. Astronomical observations on the op-
positions of the planets, occultations of the fixed stars by the
moon, under favourable circumstances, and various other celes-
tial phenomena, might be made to good purpose. Correspon-

Captain Hall’s Notice of a Voyage of Research. 357
dent observations of Jupiter’s satellites, and particularly corre.
spondent observations of moon culminating stars, as well as
of eclipses, would be very serviceable to the cause of nautical as-
tronomy. It is desirable also to ascertain how far the method
of occultations can be practised at sea, and to what magnitude
of stars it may be useful to carry the computations in the nau-
tical almanack. Men of science who have turned their atten-
tion to these pursuits, would probably furnish the commander
of such an expedition with many hints for inquiry, which can-
not be suggested by a practical man. There have as yet been
no regular and systematic trials made at sea of the relative me-
rits of the various instruments contrived for measuring the
moon’s distance from the sun and stars. Practical men are di-
vided between the sextant, Troughton’s circle, and the repeat-
ing circle, and much needless expence is often incurred by per-
sons who can ill afford such outlay. The readiest, as well as
the most exact methods of making lunar observations and chro-
nometers mutually assist one another, have never yet been pro-
perly stated.

NAUTICAL SUPPLIES.

A wide field for the diligence of any officer so employed, is
presented under this section, and, if duly explored, could not fail
to prove highly beneficial to the country. The peculiar resources
of the distant parts of the globe are extremely little known;
indeed up to a recent period, it was of no great importance that
they should be so. Now, however, that the trade of the eastern
seas and of South America is thrown open, and that with China
and Japan will soon undoubtedly follow, it becomes of the first
consequence that our traders should have some further knowledge
of the resources of ports far from home, independently of all ob-
jects merely commercial. A ship may be dismasted in the middle
of her voyage, or spring a leak, or run short of provisions ;—her
crew may become sickly ;—she may lose her anchors and cables,
or split her sails; and it may become essential to the very ex-
istence of the whole enterprize, that some re-equipment should
‘take place. But it is quite possible, that, under such circum-
stances, the master of the ship may be entirely ignorant in what
direction he ought to proceed ; he may, and in fact very often
does, make the most ruinous mistakes. The remedy for this

858 Captain Hall’s Notice of a Voyage of Research.

evil, which is of perpetual recurrence, lies in having distinct ac-
counts properly arranged and methodised of the resources of
all the chief ports of the world. It signifies nothing to tell
the seaman or shipowner that there have been already hun-
dreds of voyages written, and that the requisite information is
somewhere upon record ; for, although this may be true, still it
is not to be had in a shape which seamen can avail themselves of.
Either the circumstances under which those voyages have been
written are materially altered, as in the case of all the South Sea
Islands, New Holland, and South America, or the information
is scattered over long works, written with no such views, and,
like the nautical observations which most voyages contain, en-
tangled with narratives, or other extraneous matter, from which
it is impossible to free them, or turn them to account at the
moment of need.

These remarks apply particularly to the necessities of trading
ships; but it would be of use also to ascertain the resources
suitable to King’s ships in the same places, in the event of war.

Much vexatious delay is often caused abroad by the igno-
rance of traders as to the local regulations of the different ports ;
and it has sometimes happened, that unpleasant discussions have
arisen even between the government of those places and the cap-
tains of his Majesty’s ships, on points respecting which no pre-
vious diligence on their part could have given them information.
Actual] inquiries, regularly instituted on the spot, and for this
express purpose, are the only means of obtaining the local know-
ledge which would prevent these embarrassments. Every one at
all acquainted with remote foreign stations, knows how conti-
nually such difficulties are produced by ignorance of what is

customary.

GENERAL SCIENCE.

In considering the scientific observations which might be
made on such a voyage, those for determining the length of the
seconds pendulum occupy the first place. The figure of the
earth is a question which at present occupies much of the at-
tention of the scientific world; and this method of determining
the point is one which might be pursued with great advantage
during the progress of these inquiries, without essentially imter-

fering with the more practical and useful objects already ad-

Captain Hall's Notice of a Voyage of Research. 359
verted to. The ingenious contrivances of Captain Kater, have
-already been shewn to be available in the hands of seamen, and
“we know also, that the time requisite for the performance of
_ these interesting experiments is not great.

There have already been a considerable number of such ob-
-servations made by different observers, and with different in-
struments. But the nature of the experiment is such, that this
circumstance, which in most other similar matters add to the
value of the work as a whole, in this case are not quite so
satisfactory ; for the experiments with the invariable pendulum
are so strictly comparative in their nature, that, in order to de-
,duce any valuable conclusions from them, they ought to-be used
by the same observer under similar circumstances, but in very
different situations ; so that the object in view, the determination
of the unequal figure of the earth, might be the sole cause of dif-
ference in the result. It would be highly desirable, therefore, to
ascertain the length of the pendulum at stations both near to
and remote from the equator, in the southern hemisphere, where
the question is fully of as much importance as in this.

To investigate by actual trial the effect of local density, or that
which is caused by the nature of the ground at the station, on the
vibrations of a pendulum, has been considered a most interest-
ing desideratum. To accomplish this, however, it is essential
that the same instruments be used, swung at a series of stations,
lying not in different latitudes, as in the first case alluded to,
but along the same parallel, where, according to theory, the
number of vibrations of the same pendulum, after allowance for
temperature has been made, ought to be alike ; and consequent-
ly the amount by which they should be ascertained to differ,
would express the effect of this disturbing cause. Once ascer-
tained, this would become a valuable element in the reductions,
and would be applicable generally to every previous or subse-
quent experiment on the length of the pendulum.

The measurement of the height of mountains, by means of
the barometer, in conjunction with levelling and trigonometri-
cal operations, and in different climates, such, for example, as
Teneriffe and Terra del Fuego, might, if done with care, fur-
nish useful data in a very interesting branch of geographical
inquiry. In a similar spirit, the sea might be fathomed, and
water brought up from great depths,—the height and velocity

3860 Captain Hall’s Notice of a Voyage of Research.

of waves ascertained,—meteorological tables framed in different
climates,—hygrometers and other instruments tried,—mineralo-
gical, zoological and botanical collections of natural history, might
also be made, without deviating from the path which an atten-
tion to the more useful objects of the voyage would prescribe.
The ingenious and valuable theories of Mr Daniell on the con-
stitution of the atmosphere, suggest many curious investiga-
tions to the voyager who should have leisure to follow them
up.
Fifth Head, General Information.

It is difficult to say to what extent a popular account of the
state of manners, domestic and political, might be rendered in-
teresting or useful, if made to embrace so extensive a voyage as ~
that here contemplated. But it can scarcely be doubted, that,
in these days of curiosity and research, a simple statement of
the characteristic traits of the inhabitants at the principal sta-
tions on the different coasts of the world, would not be deemed
an unimportant addition to our knowledge. It would be cu-
rious, for example, to point out the operation of the causes
which have been in action in the South Sea Islands since the
days of Cook ; and, generally speaking, to mark the effect of our
attempts to civilise and convert the ruder inhabitants of the
globe.

It may be remarked, that there are already several detached
expeditions sent by this country to different parts of the world.
But their objects are all more or less particular, and, though
highly useful in themselves, cannot either, jointly or singly, be
expected to furnish the results contemplated here, the essential
value of which lies in their being part of one connected series,
performed by one course of service, and by means of a uniform
set of instruments and the same observers. Indeed, it may pos-
sibly be true, that to give the detached surveys alluded to their
full utility, their particular results ought to be connected by
some such general plan as that which is here described.

It is difficult to say precisely what would be the best route to
follow, but the following sketch includes most of the places, the
geographical situation of which it seems desirable to ascertain
more precisely than is at present known, while, at the same time,
it takes in those stations at which the pendulum might be swung,

Captain Hall's Notice of a Voyage of Research. 862

and other scientific observations made, without interfering with
the primary object of useful and practical investigation.

The first part of the voyage might include Madeira, Tene-
riffe, one of the Cape de Verds, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Monte
Video, Buenos Ayres. The next would include the Falkland
Islands, where there is a harbour exactly in the correspondent
latitude of that of London; Cape Horn, where there is a secure
port almost in the opposite latitude to that of Leith Port, and
consequently affording stations well suited for swinging the
pendulum, in order to have, as nearly as possible, similar obser-
vations in the southern as in the northern hemispheres; thence
to the coasts of Chili, Peru, and Colombia, as far as the Equa-
tor, and also to the Gallapagos Islands. The third division
would sweep the Pacific as far as New Holland, including the
various groups of Islands in that interesting region. The next
would take in various stations amongst the Islands of the East-
tern Archipelago, lying between New South Wales and China.
The fifth division would include the Straits of Malacca, the
Presidencies of India, Ceylon, the Mauritius, and the Cape.
The last would take in St Helena, Ascension, the West Indies,
Bermuda, Charlestown, the Azores, and England.

With the exception of one or two, there is none of these
places where it would not be useful to the practical seaman to
be well acquainted with all, or most, of the points mentioned in
the foregoing sketch. Some of the names of the places mentioned,
however, have been introduced for the purpose of completing the
important series of pendulum experiments, having the effect of
local density for their object, and keeping in view the necessity
of seleeting stations along the same parallels of latitude, but
differing as much as possible in the nature of the ground. The
following may be stated as two parallels singularly well suited
to establish the point in question.

NortTuHERN SERIES.

324 Ansular, volcanic.
324 | Do. calcareous.
5; Continent, allu-

$24 | vial.
jDo. Sandy desert.

Charlestown,

Mogadore, coast ac
of Africa, } 324

362 Captain Hall’s Notice of a Voyage of Research.

SouTHERN SERIES.

Names. Latitude. Nature of the Ground.

River Plate, 34} |Continent, alluvial.

Valparaiso, 334 Do. primitive,
Juan Fernandez, | 333 |Insular, volcanic.
New South Wales,| 33? |Continent, sandstone.
Cape, - 334 Do. __ granite.

There are other parallels in higher latitudes, where, if it were
necessary, these experiments might be repeated, but none which
offers such conveniencies as the above.

It will readily be admitted by practical men, that such an ar-
duous course of service could only be properly executed by an
officer whose sole duty it should be to devote his time and thoughts
to its accomplishment. He would require to be supported by
numerous and able assistants, and be left in a great measure to
the exercise of his own discretion as to the details of the voyage,
such as the ports he should touch at, and the periods of his stay
at each. As it is well known that the ordinary course of naval
duties on foreign stations, occupies the whole of the commanding
officer’s time, it would be essential to the success of any such
voyage as this, that the commander should be left quite free, as
far as the nature of the service would allow, from all extraneous
duties unconnected with these objects. In war this is impossi-
ble,—in peace it is easy; and this is the only time, therefore,
that such an enterprise can be thought of.

On Achmite, Hyalosiderite and Trachylyte. By Professor
Breiruaurt of Freyberg.

I. Achmite.

; 5 AS MitscHERtIcH, in Schweigger’s Journal of Che-
mistry, describes the Achmite, a Norwegian mineral, as a new
species. On reading his account, I was immediately struck with
the resemblance of this mineral to Augite. I soon had an op-
portunity of examining a small suite of this mineral, in the col-
lection of Heyer in Dresden, and was convinced that Achmite
was a mere variety of Augite. I could not find those differences

-Professor Breithaupt on Achmite, and Hyalosiderite. 363
in the magnitude of the lateral edges mentioned by Mitscherlich.
The inclinations of both lateral cleavages, I found to be essen-
tially the same as those which the latest measurements give of
Augite. The specific gravity = 3.3820. It differs from Augite
in being rather softer, much more easily frangible, and in having
much less lustre on the compact fracture. It comes nearest in
these characters to the Hedenbergite of Berzelius, which is also
but a variety of Augite. These appearances alone are sufficient
to shew, that the mineral is no more in a fresh condition, on the
contrary, has undergone some change. In this way, we can ex-
plain the difference in chemical composition observed in Augite,
but not of that change by which out of Augite green earth is
formed. As Professor Mitscherlich states the specific gravity
at 3 2, it is probable that the specimens he examined were more
decayed than those I employed. It is also possible that the po-
sition of the planes of crystallization may have been altered by
decomposition.

Il. Hyalosiderite.

Professor Walchner has given a very accurate mineralogical
description, and also a chemical analysis of this mineral in
Schweigger’s New Journal, b. ix. h. 1. s. 63-80. Its locality is
that remarkable conical hill, named Kaiserstuhl, in Baden,
which is composed of members of the secondary trap series. At
first sight, it might pass for a new mineral; but Professor Walch-
ner communicated to me his doubts as to its being a new species,
and remarked, that it was probably only a variety of Olivine. On
examining some specimens, I found that it bore the same relation
to Chrysolite that Achmite does to Augite, viz. having an inferior
hardness, and very low lustre in the compact fractured surface.
Measurement proved, that the Hyalosiderite is a variety of Chry-
solite, but in a state of partial decomposition. This decomposed
condition, explains the difference in chemical composition from
Chrysolite. Itis worthy of remark, that, when a mineral is altered
by weathering, that the open cleavages remained but little af-
fected. ‘This is most striking with the felspar family, as in Or-
thoklase, which, when so much decomposed as to be easily pressed
into a kind of porcelain earth between the fingers, yet retains its
most obvious cleavages. But it is without lustre in the direction
of the compact fracture. M. Kiihn, inspector of the Royal Por-

364 Professor Breithaupt on Hyalosiderite and T'rachylyte.

celain Manufacture at Meissen, has, with an economical view,
undertaken a chemical examination of the Orthoclases, from Aueé
near Schneeberg. He finds, that, in those varieties which are the
least decomposed, there is a smaller quantity of potash and more
alumina, than in the fresh or unaltered varieties ; while the more
completely dee¢omposed afford no potash, but more alumina.
These examples, we think, are sufficient to prove, that a mineral
can only be considered as a new species, when it possesses essen-
tial differences from all known species, and can be examined in a
fresh state. It also leads to erroneous views as to composition, if
the mineral is examined, not in a fresh, but in a decomposed con-
dition.

Ill. Trachylyte, probably a New Mineral Species.

1. Characters of Trachylyte-—Colours velvet, brownish and
greenish black; occurs massive and in plates; lustre vitreous,
sometimes inclining to resinous; fracture generally small con-
choidal, seldom uneven ; no trace of cleavage ; fragments sharp
edged; opaque; streak dark ash grey ; easily frangible; hard-
ness = 8.5. (between orthoclase and quartz) specific gravity
= 2.50 to 2.54.

2. Observations.—It resembles Obsidian more than any other
mineral, but is distinguished from it by streak, greater specific
gravity, &c. and certainly by its chemical composition. Both
minerals appear members of the same genus. In colour, lustre,
and fracture, the Trachylyts approaches very near to Gadolinite.
Its appearance before the blowpipe is remarkable ; it melts in-
stantaneously with intumescence, into a brown and sometimes
vesicular slag. Hence its name, which refers to its rapid melt-
ing.

Hitherto this mineral has only been found at Siisebiihl, be-
tween Dransfeld and Géttingen, where it occurs in small massive
and plate formed masses, imbedded in basalt and wacke. It
has been confounded with conchoidal Augite *; but true con-
choidal Augite is sufficiently distinguished from it, by specific
gravity, which, in that of the Rhén, is 3.474, not to mention
that it always exhibits traces of a cleavage in the direction of a
primary rhombic prism.

* Hausmann’s Handbuch der Mineralogie, s. 690.

i el

( 365 )~

The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, occasioned by Volca-
nic Agency.

Tue destruction of the five cities on the borders of the Lake
Asphaltites or Dead Sea, can be attributed, I conceive, to no-
thing else than a volcanic eruption, judging both from the descrip-
tion given by Moses of the manner in which it took place *, and
from the present aspect of the country itself.

I presume it is unnecessary to urge, that the reason assigned.
in Holy Writ for the destruction of the cities alluded to, does not
exclude the operation of natural causes in bringing it about, and
that there can be no greater impropriety in supposing a volcano
to have executed the will of the Deity against the cities of So-
dom and Gomorrah, than it would be to imagine, if such an
idea were on other grounds admissible, that the sea might have
been the instrument in the hands of the same Being for effecting
the general destruction of the human race in the case of the de-
luge.

Whether indeed we chuse to suppose the fire which laid
waste these places, to have originated from above or from below,
the employment of secondary causes seems equally implied; and
if it be urged, that the words of Genesis denote that it proceeded
from the former quarter, it may, I think, be replied, that a voleanic
eruption seen from a distance might be naturally mistaken for
a shower of stones, and that we cannot expect from the sacred
historian in the case before us, any greater insight into the real
nature of such phenomena, than we attribute to him in the ana-

* The following are the words of Scripture: Gen. chap. xix.

* 24. Then the Lord rained upon Sodom and Gomorrah brimstone and fire
out of heaven.

* 25. And he overthrew these cities, and all the plain, and all the inhabi-
tants of these cities, and that which grew upon the ground.

“ 26. And he (Abraham) looked toward Sodom and Gomorrah, and toward
all the land of the plain, and behold, and lo, the smoke of the country went up
as the smoke of the furnace.”

In Deut. chap. xxix. ver. 23. the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea is described
as a country, “the land of which is brimstone, and salt, and burning, which is
not sown nor beareth, nor has any grass growing therein.”

366 The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.

logous instance, in which the sun is said to have stood still at the
command of Joshua. .

That the individuals, who witnessed the destruction of ieee
places might have been impressed with this notion, will be more
readily believed, when we reflect, that in most eruptions the greater
part of the mischief occasioned proceeds from the matters eject-
ed, which are often perceived only to fall from above ; and those,
who recollect the description given by the younger Pliny of that.
from Vesuvius, will admit, that a person who had fled from , the
neighbourhood of that volcano, as Lot is stated to have done
from the one near the Dead Sea, at the commencement of the:
eruption, would probably have formed the same idea of what
was taking place; for it appears from the Roman writer, that it
was long before he was enabled, even at Misenum, to determine,
in the midst of the general obscurity, that the cloud of unusual
appearance, which was the precursor of the volcanic phenomena,’
proceeded from the mountain itself.

When Livy mentions the shower of stones, which, according
to common report, fell from heaven on Mount Albano, there can
be little doubt, that the phenomenon that gave rise to such an
idea was of an analogous description, and we shall see hereafter,
that the volcanic action, of which there are such decided evi-
dences in Phrygia, was attributed by some to heavenly meteors.

As, therefore, we have no authority for supposing Moses.a
natural historian, or for imagining that he possessed a know-
ledge of physics beyond that of the age in which he lived, we
may venture to apply to his narrative of the destruction of these -
cities the same remark which Strabo has made respecting the
indications of igneous action, presented by the country round
Laodicea : “ vx evrcyor uae toovtay rabwy Thy TomuTay yoga sxmenceyrece
cebgoms, arr marroy vo yuysvous mug0s.”

Volney’s description of the present state of this country fully
coincides with this view.

The south of Syria, (he remarks) that is, the hollow through
which the Jordan flows, is a country of volcanoes ; the bitumi-
nous and sulphureous sources of the lake Asphaltites, the lava,
the pumice stones thrown upon its banks, and the hot-baths of
Tabaria, demonstate, that this valley has been the seat of a sub-
terraneous fire, which is not yet extinguished.

occasioned by Volcanic Agency. 367.

Clouds of smoke are often observed to issue from the lake,
and new crevices to be formed upon its banks. If conjectures
in such cases were not too liable to error, we might suspect, that
the whole valley has been formed only by a violent sinking of a
country which formerly poured the Jordan into the Mediterra-
nean. It appears certain, at least, that the catastrophe of five
cities destroyed by fire, must have been occasioned by the erup-
tion of a volcano then burning. Strabo expressly says, ‘ that
the tradition of the inhabitants of the country (that is of the
Jews themselves) was, that formerly the valley of the lake was
peopled by thirteen flourishing cities, and that they were swal-
lowed up by a volcano.” This account seems to be confirmed
by the quantities of ruins still found by travellers on the west-
ern border. :

“ The eruptions. themselves have ceased long since, but the
effects, which usually succeed them, still continue to be felt at
intervals in this country. The coast in general is subject to
earthquakes, and history notices several, which have changed
the face of Antioch, Laodicea, Tripoli, Berytus, Tyre, and Si-
don. In our time, in the year 1759, there happened one which
caused the greatest ravages. It is said to have destroyed, in
the valley of Balbec, upwards of twenty thousand persons; a
loss which has never been repaired. For three months the
shock of it terrified the inhabitants of Lebanon so much, as to
make them abandon their houses, and dwell under tents.”

In addition to these remarks of Volney’s, a recent traveller,
Mr Legh, states, that, on the south-east side of the Dead Sea,
on the right of the road that leads to Karrac, red and brown
hornstone porphyry, in the latter of which the felspar is much
decomposed, syenite, breccia, and a heavy black amygdaloid,
containing white specks, apparently of zeolite, are the prevailing
rocks. Not far from Shubac, (near the spot marked in D’An-
ville’s map, Patriarchatus Hierosolymitanus), where there were
formerly copper mines, he observed portions of scorie. Near the
fortress of Shubao, on the left, are two volcanic craters ; on the
right, one.

The Roman road on the same side is formed of pieces of lava.
Masses of volcanic rock also occur in the valley of Ellasar,

868 The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.

The chemical properties of the waters of the Dead Sea, rather
lend countenance to the volganic origin of the surrounding
country, as they contain scarcely any thing except muriatic
salts, Dr Marcet’s analysis giving in 100 parts of the water

Muriate oflime,. . . . 3.920
Muriate of magnesia, . . 10.246
Muriate of soda, . . . . 10.360
Sulphate oflime,. . . . 0.054

24.580

Now, we not only know that muriatic acid is commonly ex-
haled from volcanoes in a state of activity, but that muriatic
salts are also frequent products of their eruption.

The other substances met with are no less corroborative of
the cause assigned. Great quantities of asphaltum appear
floating on the surface of the sea, and are driven by the winds
to the east and west bank, where they remain fixed. Ancient
writers inform us, that the neighbouring inhabitants went out in
boats to collect this substance, and that it constituted a con-
siderable branch of commerce. On the south-west bank are
hot springs and deep gullies, dangerous to the traveller, were
not their position indicated by small pyramidic edifices on the
sides. Sulphur and bitumen are also met with on the moun-
tains round.

On the shore of the Jake Mr Maundrel found a kind of
bituminous stone, which I infer from his description to be
analogous to that of Ragusa in Sicily, noticed in my memoir on
the Geology of that island.* ‘ Itis a black sort of pebble, which
being held to the flame of a candle, soon burns, and yields a smoke
of a most intolerable stench, It has this property, that it loses a
part of its weight, but not of its bulk, by burning. ‘The hills
bordering on the lake are said to abound with this sort of sul-
phureous (bituminous?) stone. I saw pieces of it, adds our
author, at the convent of St John in the wilderness, two feet
square. ‘They were carved in basso relievo, and polished to so
high a lustre as black marble is capable of, and were designed
for the ornament of the new church in the convent.”

* I have since received a specimen of this stone, which turns out to be pre-
cisely similar to that of Ragusa.

The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. 369

It would appear, that, even antecedently to the eruption men-
tioned in Scripture, bitumen pits abounded in the plain of Sid-
dim. Thus, in the account of the battle between the kings of
Sodom and Gomorrah, and some of the neighbouring princes
(Gen. ch. xiv), it is said,—And the Vale of Siddim was full of
slime-pits, which a learned friend assures me ought to be trans-
lated, fountains of bitumen.

Mr Henderson, in his Travels in Iceland, will have it, that
phenomena similar to those of the geysers of Iceland, existed
likewise in this neighbourhood. The word Siddim, he says, is
derived from a Hebrew root, signifying ‘“ to gush out,” which
is the identical meaning of the Icelandic word geyser ; and it is
remarkable, that there exists in Iceland a valley called Geysa-
dal, which signifies the Valley of Geysers, and consequently
corresponds with the “ Valley of Siddim.” The latter, therefore,
he thinks should be translated the Valley of the Gushing Moun-
tains.

Mr Henderson further believes, that Sheddim, the object of
the idolatrous worship of the Israelites, (Deut. xxxii. 17.
Psalms cvi. 37) translated in our version “ devils,” were boil-
ing springs derived from volcanoes ; and I may add, as some lit-
tle corroboration of this opinion, that somewhat similar phenome-
na at the Lucus Palicorum in Sicily, were the objects among
the Greeks of peculiar and equally sanguinary superstition.

Mr Henderson thinks, that it was in imitation of these na-
tural fountains, that Solomon caused to be constructed a num-
ber of jetting fountains (as he translates the passage), of which
we read in Ecclesiasticus, cap. xi. vill. My ignorance of the
Hebrew language precludes me from forming any opinions as to
the probability of these conjectures; but the existence of hot.
springs in the valley, at a much later period than that to which
he refers, is fully established. .

But besides this voleanic eruption, which brought about the
destruction of these cities, it would appear that the very plain
itself in which they stood was obliterated, and that a lake was
formed in its stead. This is collected, not only from the appa-
rent non-existence of the valley in which these cities were placed,
but likewise from the express words of Scripture, where, ‘in
speaking of the wars which took place between the Kings of

JULY—OCTOBER 1826. Aa

~

370 The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.

Sodom and Gomorrah, and certain adjoiing tribes, it is added
that the latter assembled in the Valley of Siddim which is the
Salt, (%. e. the Dead) Sea. It is therefore supposed that the lake
itself occupies the site of this once fertile valley; and in order
to account for the change, Volney and others have imagined,
that the destruction of the cities was followed by a tremendous
earthquake, which sunk the whole country considerably below
its former level.

But the sinking of a valley, besides that it is quite an unprece-
dented phenomenon in the extent assumed, would hardly ae-
count for the obliteration of the ancient bed of the Jordan, a
river which, though now absorbed in the Dead Sea, from
whence it is carried off by the mere influence of evaporation,
must, before that lake existed, have continued its course either
to the Red Sea or the Mediterranean.

Now, if the Dead Sea had been formed by the cause assign-
ed, the waters I conceive would still continue to have discharg-
ed themselves by their old channel, unless, indeed, the subsi-
dence had been very considerable; and then the course of the
Jordan, just north of the Dead Sea, would have presented,
what I believe no traveller, ancient or modern, has remarked, a
succession of rapids and cataracts, proportionate te the greatness
of the descent.

That the Jordan really did discharge its waters at one period
into the Red Sea, is rendered extremely probable, by the late in-
teresting researches of Mr Burckhardt, who has been the first to
discover the existence of a great longitudinal valley, extending,
in nearly a straight line south-west, from the Dead Sea as far as
Akaba, at the extremity of the eastern branch of the Red Sea,
and continuous with that in which the Jordan flows from its
origin in the mountains near Damascus. It was probably
through this very valley that the trade between J erusalem and
the Red Sea was in former times carried on. The caravans,
loaded at Ezengeber with the treasures of Ophir, might, after a
march of six or seven days, deposit their loads in the warehouses
of Solomon.

This important discovery seems to place it beyond question,
that if there ever was a time at which the Jordan was not re-
ceived into a lake, which presented a surface considerable enough
to carry off its waters by evaporation, the latter would haye

The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. 371

been discharged by this valley into the Red Sea, and hence
every theory of the origin of the lake Asphaltitis must be re-
garded as imperfect, which does not account for the obliteration
of this channel.

For my own part were I to offer a conjecture on the subject,
I should suppose, that the same volcano which overwhelmed,
with its ejected materials, the cities of the plain, threw out at
the same time a current of lava sufficiently considerable to stop
the course of the Jordan, the waters of which, unable to over-
come this barrier, accumulated in the plain of Siddim until they
converted it into the present lake. Ido not know that any tra-
veller has observed what is the ordinary depth of the Dead Sea;
but if we only imagine a current of lava, like that which, in
1667, proceeded from Etna, and flowed into the sea above
Catania, to have descended at right angles to the bed of the
River Jordan, the lake need not be supposed very shallow.

Nor need we be startled at the magnitude of the effect that
we find to have resulted from a cause which, comparatively
speaking, appears so insignificant ; for, if the little rivulet, that
flows at the foot of the Puy de la Vache in Auvergne, was ade-
quate to produce the lake of Aidat, there seems no dispropor-
tion, in attributing to a river of the size of Jordan, to say no-
thing of the other streams, nowise inconsiderable, which must
have been affected by the same cause, the formation of a piece
of water, which, according to the best authorities, is, after all, not
more than twenty-four leagues in length, by six or seven in
breadth.

That the volcanic eruption which destroyed the cities of the
Pentrapolis, was accompanied by the flowing of a stream of lava,
may be inferred, I think, from the very words of Scripture.
Thus when Eliphaz reminds Job of this catastrophe, he makes use
of the following expressions, according to Henderson's transla-
tion of the passage :

‘* Hast thou observed the ancient tract
That was trodden by wicked mortals ?
Who were arrested on a sudden ;
Whose foundation is a molten flood.

Who said to God, depart from us,
What can Shaddai do to us ?

372 The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrak.

Though he had filled their houses with wealth,

(Far from me be the counsel of the wicked)

The righteous beheld and rejoiced,

The innocent laughed them to scorn ;

Surely their substance was carried away,

And their riches devoured by fire.”

Job, Xxii. 15-20.

The same fact, Mr Henderson thinks, is implied in the descrip-
tion of the circumstances connected with Lot’s escape.

“¢ Why was he prohibited from lingering in any part of the
low land, if not because he would be there exposed to the pesti-
lential volcanic effluvia and to the lava ? . And what. reason can.
be assigned for his obtaining leave to stop in Zoar, but its lying.
at some distance from the spot where the lava began to act, as
likewise on an elevation whence he could survey the approach.
ing ruin ; and retire before the stream reached that place? We
accordingly find, that however desirous he was to stay there at:
first, he quitted it before night, for a still more elevated and
safe retreat ;—“ And. Lot went up out of Zoar, and dwelt m
the mountain, for he feared to dwell in Zoar.”—Gen. xix. 30.

How natural is the incrustation of his wife on this hypothesis !
Remaining in a lower part of the valley, and looking with a wist-
ful eye towards Sodom, she was surrounded, ere she was aware,
by the lava, which, rising and swelling, at length reached her, .
and (whilst. the volcanic effluvia deprived her of life) incrusted
her where she stood, so that being, as it were, embalmed by the
salso-bituminous mass, she became a conspicuous beacon, and
admonitory example to future generations. The power of this
asphaltic substance in preserving from corruption is eyident,
from its being employed by the Egyptians for embalming their
mummies.” oe el

“‘ She is said to have been converted into a pillar of sadé, on
account of the quantity of that substance which appeared, on
the crust; and its abundance in those countries is notorious,
both from sacred and profane history ; so much so, that the lake
which now fills the caverns made by the earthquake, has, among
other names, that of the Salt Sea.”

I know not what opinion may be entertained with regard to
this explanation of the disaster that awaited Lot’s wife, but it
will at least be allowed, that the eruption of a stream of lava,

The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. 373

which might have interfered with the course of the river Jor-
dan, is not only in itself a probable circumstance, but one that
derives some support from the sacred writings themselves.

Much, however, it is confessed, remains to be explored, be-
fore this or any other theory can be finally adopted; and it is
to be hoped, that the first individual who has spirit and resolu-
tion enough to venture into these inhospitable regions, will pay
attention to the physical structure of the country.

He should, in particular, search the rocks which bound the
Dead Sea, in order to discover, if possible, the crater of the vol-
cano which was in a state of eruption at the period alluded to;
he should ascertain, whether there are any proofs of that sink-
ing of the ground, which, notwithstanding Volney’s authority, I
have regarded as so problematical ; whether traces of the ancient
bed of the river can be discovered south of the lake, or of a bar-
rier of lava stretching across it ; nor should he omit to examine,
whether the vestiges of these devoted cities have been sub-
merged, as some have stated, beneath the waters, or are buried,
like Pompeii, under heaps of the ejected materials.—Fr0m Dr
Daubeny’s lately published work on Volcanoes.

Notice on Oil in the Human Blood, by Dr Avam; and.on the
effects of the Bite of the Ceylon Leech, by Joun Tytixr,
Esq. Assistant-Surgeon, Garrison of Monghyr.

Oil in Human Blood.

Tur following brief notice may prove interesting, as it re-
lates to a peculiarity in the human subject, which I have not
hitherto met with; nor do I remember to have read of a similar
occurrence in medical writings. ‘The hody of Serjeant Macdo-
nald was sent from the garrison to the general hospital, for in-
spection ; as*certain circumstances had created a suspicion re-
garding the manner of his death. He had gone to bed in the
barrack-room apparently in good health, and was found in the
morning lying dead on his couch. He had had a quarrel, it
was stated, the preceding evening, with some of his comrades,
and, it was currently surmised, had met with his death by vio-

374 Dr Adam on Oil in the Human Blood.

lence through their means. Under this impression, the body
was directed to be examined with great care, and a report made
of the appearances on dissection.

The subject was rather corpulent, and, from incipient putre-
faction, much swelling and discoloration existed about the head
and neck. On removing the scull-cap, some blood, which esca-
ped from a sinus wounded in the dissection, was observed to
present a singular oily appearance on its surface. When mi-
nutely examined, this was found to proceed from an oil swim-
ming about in the fluid, in the form of small globules. In con-
sistence it resembled olive-oil ; but in colour approached more
to that of amber, or of hot-drawn castor-oil. In the substance
of the brain, slight indications of congestion presented them-
selves, but no decided inflammatory appearance. The abdo-
men was opened, and the blood in the cava ascendens found to
contain the same oily matter in great abundance, as was also
the case with the femoral, and other vessels of the lower extre-
mity ; and it evidently pervaded the whole venous system. In
proportion to the mass of blood, it existed in considerable quan-
tity, and might be collected by means of a spoon, with great
ease. A quantity of the oil thus procured, with some adherent
blood, was set aside for analysis; but putrefaction speedily
taking place, prevented the examination. No visible disease
existed in any of the viscera, whether of the thorax or abdo-
men. It was afterwards ascertained that this man had been in-
toxicated the night previous to his decease ; but he was in ge-
neral of sober habits, and enjoyed a perfectly sound and healthy

frame.*

* Since the above notice was presented to the Calcutta Medical and Phy-
sical Society, I have observed in the Edinburgh Philosophical and Medical
Journals, that a similar oil is described as having been found in the blood of
the living subject, by Dr S. Trail of Liverpool. The oil in these instances
was combined with the serum in the form of an emulsion ; and it is not im-
probable, that during life the same union existed in the case now detailed.
Putrefaction, however, having commenced before the body was opened, we
had no opportunity of witnessing the natural appearance of the fluid, or of as-
certaining the relations which its elementary parts may have borne to each
other. Judging from its appearance, I should say it was much more abun-
dant than the proportion stated by Dr Trail in his cases. The blood, too,

Mr Tytler on the Bite of the Ceylon Leech. 8375

On the Bite of the Ceylon Leech.

Though an invalid station does not generally afford opportu-
nities of seeing disease in a great variety of forms, yet it pos-
sessés one advantage not always obtainable in places where me-
dical practice is more extensive ; I mean that of seeitg the last
stage and termination of maladies that have been very long pro-
tracted, and on which a variety of plans of treatment have from
time to time been tried. To the above observations I have
been led, by having an opportunity at this place of seeing some
cases of men who have been bitten by poisonous leeches in the
island of Ceylon ; and as the nature of the wounds inflicted by
those animals is not, I believe, very well known, perhaps the So-
ciety may be a little interested by hearing the history of their
cases, as far as can be gathered from their own statement, and
an account of their present condition.

Bhawani Deen, sipahee, three years ago, when sleeping on
the ground in the kingdom of Candy, was bitten by a leech, just
behind the inner ankle of the right foot. When he awoke, the
animal was gone, but blood continued to flow for some time.
He describes the leeches there as being about four inches long,
slender and black, and living in stony places and among trees ;
from which habitations they issue in great numbers, when a
shower of rain falls. In about two months, the wound skinned
over ; but in its place a tumour arose, filled with pus. This was
opened by his surgeon, and the matter discharged. The orifice
degenerated into a foul unhealthy ulcer, on account of which
it was finally necessary to send him to this place Monghyr. I
saw him first in last August: the ulcer was then open, since
which it has gradually healed ; but there is a considerable loss
of substance; the skin all around is drawn in and puckered,
and has lost its black colour, that is, no doubt, by the loss of

was of a thicker consistence, and considerably darker colour than usual; and
the oil which was swimming on the surface, as stated above, could with ease
be separated from the general mass. It may be worthy of remark, that on
the evening this notice was made to the Society, a member then present, Mr
Veterinary-Surgeon Hodgson, stated, that he had more than once observed a
similar oil in the blood of the horse; but although his attention was parti-
cularly attracted to the circumstance at the time, he was totally at a loss to
account for it.—T. A.

376 Mr Tytler on the Bite of the Ceylon Leech.

the rete mucosum. The muscles of the leg, particularly the
gastrocnemii, are so much wasted, as to render him a complete
cripple, and he walks only by the help of a staff.

Meer Wilaet Alee, drummer, was bitten in the same coun-
try, and about the same time, in the outer ankle of the left foot.
He describes the leeches as the former patient, excepting differ-
ing as to their size, which by this man’s account is not above
two inches. On seeing the leech on his foot, he tore it off, and
flung it away ; and to this circumstance he ascribes the peculiar
malignity of the wound he received. A small ulcer appeared,
which in hospital was speedily cured; but as soon as he return-
ed to duty, again broke out. He was again cured in hospital,
and again the ulcer reappeared on his discharge; and this was
repeated several times. Three times the surgeon cut out the edge
of the ulcer all around its circumference, with a view, no doubt,
of removing the diseased or infected parts: but not the least be-
nefit resulted from the operation. ‘The ulcer is now exceedingly
foul, with a great destruction of substance, and a constant and
copious discharge of sanies. On the upperpart of the foot, its
size and shape is like that of two rupees laid lengthways; and
it has eaten into the sole, and made there an indentation of a-
bout two inches long, and one broad, very deep and foul. This
man is of course totally a cripple. He states it to be the gene-
ral belief, that if these leeches, upon fixing on a part, are allow-
ed to gorge themselves, and come off of their own accord, their
bite is harmless; but that if rudely torn off, they leave their
teeth in the wound, and the above mischievous consequences en-
sue. Supposing this account of the effects of disturbing these
animals to be true, is the above account of its cause also to be
admitted, or may it be allowed to conjecture, that those leeches
have, like snakes, two sets of teeth, one of which they employ as
instruments in receiving their food, and the other as weapons of
injury, when they find themselves attacked ?

Kesri Sing, sipahee, was bitten on the7upper part of the great
toe. His description of the leech exactly agrees with that of the
last patient. Ulceration took place, which healed, and was suc-
ceeded by a tumour containing pus. On being opened, this de-
generated into a sloughing ulcer, out of which came a large por-
tion of the extensor tendon of the toe. The ulcer is at length

Mr Frembly on the Temperature of the Sea.

377

healed ; but a very large cicatrix remains, and the patient has as
yet by no means recovered the perfect use of his foot.

Thus we see three men perfectly hale in other respects, ren-
dered totally useless by this accident. It would be very satisfac-
tory, could some correct information be got about the reptiles
which possess the power of causing so much mischief, and the best
means of preventing or alleviating the consequences of their bite.
—Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society of Calcutta.

A Series of Observations on the Temperature of the Sea at
the Mouth of the Thames, in the year 1824. By Mr J.
Fremsty, R. N. Communicated by the Author.

Place of
Observation.

Aldborough|Apr. 28.
Bay,

29.
30.

May 1.

2

Hollesley
Bay,
Harwich 4.
Harbour,

5.

6.

12,

0 Pp. M.

8
10

11

a) = [—)

0

ooo eoccceo

eoocooc oocoeoeso

0

Treg of Air and
u

tface. State of the
urface.

44.0 |— 4.5}ruffled,
44.0 |— 3.5}do.

45.0 |— 7.0}ruffled,
45.0 |— 6.5|do.
45.0 |— 10.9|rough,
46.0 |— 4.0/ruffled,
46.0 |— 6.0}do.

46.0 |—- 7.0)ruffled,
46.0 |— 9.0}do.
46.0 |— 10.0} do.

48.0 |— 9.0/do.
46.0 |— 4.0}rough,
47.0 |— 7.0|ruffled,
48.0 |— 6.0}do.
47.0 |— 3.0/do
47.0 |— 4.0}ruffled,
47.0 |— 2.0}do.
49.0 |+ 0.75\do
47.0 |— 1.0\do
50.0 |+ 5.5/rough,
50.0 |+ 3.0/do.
51.0 |+ 5.0/do.
51.0 |+ 7.5/\do.
50.0 |+ 1.0} ruffled,
51.0 |— 5.0/ ruffled,
61.5 |+ 4.5) ruffled,
52.0 0.0) do.

50.5 |+ 6.5\do.

State Winds,
of the | Direction and
Tide. Force.

4 flood,|SSW. fresh.

2 flood, do.

4 flood,|S. fresh.

do. ted EDs

H.W. |... strong.

4 flood,|... fresh.

# do. do.
flood,| SSW. fresh.
flood,| ... » do.

H. W. |SSE. do.

Z ebb, } ..-. do.

4 flood,| SSW strong

} flood,|SSW. fresh.
# ebb, do.
} flood, do.

378 Mr Frembly’s Observations on the Temperature

Temperature of Air and
al “ye Time of Surface. State of the
hases Surface.

Place of )
Observation. |. pepe Observation.

Harwich |May13.| 8 51.0 |+ 3.0}ruffled,

Harbour, 2 49.5 |— 1.5}rough,
Hollesley 52.0 |— 10.0|calm,
Bay,

Outside of
Shipwash S.
Hollesley |June 1.

Bay,

Harwich
Harbour,

ooo. oco9fO06lUSCUOC OOS esooo ooFPo co so so oolUwOlO

_—

Si

—_

Zo CARS
S at)

o.8'2c65'6

cosoo se ossosoo OOF

1.0\v. rough,
5.0}rough,
1.0} do.

Hollesley
Bay,

x ft ee ti od

0.5|rough,
1.0|v. rough,

Outside of

IO HO STOR HO OM
=3

Shottley
Ferry,

of the Sea at the Mouth of the Thames. 379

Z
g

-_
eooooo.6U6UcSmlU OO

ve

oS SheRNOS © ob
eS)

—
—]

Noon,
8
5
9
8

0.5 eo NE. oo

occ coo >

Zz
5

—

1.0}v. rough,|NE. stro
— 15.0}calm, . calm. "es

eS

a

So
esc ecF eos esses ecco

z=
oo esom osToa

~
—]

* Two dangerous shoals about 15 and 20 miles SSE. 4 E. from Orfordness.
+ At the depth of 17 fathoms the temperature was found to be the same as at the surface.
+ At the depth of 16 fathoms, the temperature was found to be the same as at the surface.

( 380 )

Observations made during a Visit to Madeira, and a Residence
im the Canary Islands. By Baron LEorotp Von Bucu.

W acy my intelligent and amiable friend, the distinguished
botanist Christian Smith of Drammen in Norway, and I were de-
tained in London in the winter of 1814, the similarity of our pur-
suits soon produced a close intimacy between us. We met frequent-
ly, and visited many places together. Every thing we saw and
heard, and, perhaps, my friend’s peculiar susceptibility also, were
continually transporting our imaginations to the splendid pheno-
mena of nature in warmer climates; and we witnessed with the
liveliest emotions the great facility with which people were waft-
ed from this immense port to every quarter of the globe. Our
desire, therefore, became so engrossing, that we believed it to be
only fulfilling our duty, when we endeavoured to profit by such
an opportunity of acquiring some knowledge, however small, of
tropical vegetation. While continually occupied with these
thoughts, the William and Mary, a ship lying in the Thames,
and quite prepared for setting out on her voyage, finally fixed
our almost settled resolution. We resolved to visit the Canary
Islands.

The ship was ready to sail, and we were prepared to accom-
pany her as early as February, that we might not miss the de-
licious winter of these happy islands. But the ratification of
peace with America, which would cause the American’ priva-
teers to abandon the coast, being still unconcluded, the vessel,
to our mortification, was detained in the harbour. We embark-
ed at Spithead, near Portsmouth, on 31st March 1815. Con-
trary winds, and a search of the press for the seamen on board,
obliged us to remain some days longer in Yarmouth in the Isle
of Wight. On 8th April, we at length left the Channel, gained
the main ocean without difficulty or hardship, discovered the
island Porto Santo on 20th, and on the 21st landed at Funchal
in Madeira.

Captivated by the powerful fascination of every object around
him, Smith was no longer inactive. Ina fit of transport, he
rushed towards the Cactus bushes which covered the rocks in
the most fantastic forms, to ascertain whether it was reality or

Baron Von Buch’s Observations on Madeira. 381

deception : he leaped walls to reach the woods of Donax, whose
summits the breezes waved gently and delightfully over the
vines that grew among them. As he ran_ enthusiastically
from flower to flower, it was scarcely possible to prevail upon
him to enter the town. On an elevated situation, appeared a
lawn of lofty trees, of Justicia, Melia Azederach, and Datura ar-
borea, completely covered with gorgeous and gigantic flowers,
that loaded the air with perfumes. The large leaves of the Ba-
nana were waving over the walls, and the splendid palm trees
rose high above the houses. The singular shape of the Dragon
tree, the all-pervading fragrance of the blossoms, and the mas-
sive leaves of the Orange trees, attracted us involuntarily to the
gardens. Here the Coffee trees form hedges and copses, en-
closing large beds, in which Ananas without number are culti-
vated in the open air. Mimosas, Encalyptus, Melaleuca, Pro-
tea, Mamea, Clitoria and Eugenia, all plants of which we ob-
serve only mere fragments in our hot-houses, are here elevated
to tall and stately trees, displaying their far glittering blossoms
in the most delightful climate upon earth.

** How shall I relate to you,” said Smith, in a letter to his
friends in Norway, ‘* how shall I express what I have seen and
felt—how can I convey to you an idea of the variety and singu-
larity of these forms, of the beauty and brilliancy of these co-
lours, and the general glorious aspect of nature with which I
am surrounded! We have climbed the declivity of the moun-
tains that environ the lovely Funchal ;—we have at length seat-
ed ourselves on the margin of a rivulet which leaps from fall to
fall through bushes of rosemary, jessamine, laurel and myrtle.
The town, with its fortifications, its churchs, its gardens, and
its vessels in the road-stead, are lying at our feet. Groves of
chesnut and pine trees are stretched above us, among which
are scattered flowers of spartium and lavender. The vast
number of Canary birds among the branches are filling the air
with their warblings; and the snow, sometimes appearing through
the clouds that wrap the summits of the mountains, is the only
object that can recall my native land.”

Every step was instructive, every plant between the stones of
the pavement a new discovery. The light-hearted children of
the neighbourhood collected, and accompanied the industrious

4

$82 Baron Von Buch’s Observations on Madeira

botanist, leaping with joyous agility amongst the rocks. They
brought flowers to him from every quarter ; they gathered toge-
ther in close groups, waited silently and attentively to learn if the
flowers would excite his attention. As soon as they were deposi-
ted in the boxes, a general shout of joy arose, and the group
bounded back, with a thousand leaps, to cull new flowers among
the rocks. From the opposite declivity, the abodes of hospitality
glittered through the close foliage of the encircling vines; the
waving bananas formed the roof of the porch ; a foaming stream
rushed among the banana roots, and lost itself among the large
leaves of the Colocasia, that adorned the declivity with their
lively verdure. A young woman with her distaff in her hand,
sat upon a bank among the bananas: her husband stood before
her with his guitar, to anticipate her wishes with tunes and
songs, after the finished labours of the day; and the neighbours
were collected, to encourage the song and the sport with their
applause.

The Island of Madeira was still the same as in former years,
when it was described by Camoens the poet :

Nam’d from her woods, with fragrant bowers adorn’d,
From fair Madeira’s purple coast we turn’d.
Cyprus’ and Paphos’s vales, the smiling loves
Might leave with joy, for fair Madeira’s groves ;
A shore so flowery, and so sweet an air,
Venus might build her dearest temple there.
Mickie, Lusiad, B. v.

We remained only twelve days on this charming island. It
was the rainy season, and, on account of the rains, many a day
passed which we would have gladly devoted to the prosecution
of our pursuits. The mountains half-way down were conti-
nually involved in clouds; and on the higher parts of them,
the snows were not yet dissolved. We nevertheless resolved to
ascend as high as possible, to obtain a survey, however super-
ficial, of the decrease of vegetation on the heights.

We left Funchal on the 16th April at day-break, and soon
reached the magnificent church of Senhora de Monte, which
commands one of the most beautiful prospects in the world, and
from a great distance serves as a land-mark to direct ships into
the harbour. According to the barometer, its height is 1774
French feet above the sea. The gardens are ati: to the

and the Canary Islands. 383

same height, but there were no more African forms, no more
Palms, no arborescent Euphorbias, no more Agavas or Cacalia
Kleinii; and the Opuntia that rose highest was already left be-
hind at the elevation of 1005 feet.

After another hour’s continual climbing, we reached the great-
est height of the rocks in the immediate vicinity of Funchal ; it
is a stone visible from below, and 2435 feet above the sea. Im-
mediately behind this height, we entered a thick grove of splen-
did Lawrus Indica, whose wood almost rivals the beauty of ma-
hogany. Among them stood lofty trees of Lawrus nobilis the
laurel of the poets, and of Laurus Til (fotens ), one of the lar-
gest trees of the island, which no axe touches or wounds with
impunity. The stench emitted by the wood is so violent, that
it compels the woodman to take to flight ; so that a tree can be
felled only in a number of days, and after long intervals. If it
is not touched or injured, its ample foliage and its wide spread
branches, render it a real ornament of the woods. We observed
also arborescent heaths, Erica scopana and Erica arborea. The
road to St Anna, upon the north side of the island, and from
that to the top of the mountains, is here separated by a water-
fall. This point, by the barometer, was 3251 feet high. The
fog now appearing, covered every surrounding object, and we
were obliged to continue our journey enveloped in thick mist.
It was still possible, however, at least, at first to see so far be-
fore us, as in some measure to trace the direction of the road.
At one o’clock we attained an elevation of 4162 feet, and at a
little distance we discovered through the fog a mountain valley
adorned with bushes ; it was the Val Ganana. We entered, and
found, to our no small astonishment, that it was an entire wood
of billberries in blossom ( Vaccinium arctystaphyllos ), small trees
from 16 to 20 feet high, which we were obliged to examine minute-
ly, before we could be satisfied that they were not the common
billberry of our woods ( Vacciniwm myrtillus ), grown to an un-
usual size. Not far from the height stood the last majestic laurel,
an ancient tree, covered with moss, and completely distorted. It
stood at the height of 4769 feet. In the opposite valley, we came
up to several trees of Erica arborea, which were 6 feet in circum-
ference, and more than $0 feet high. After half an hour's walk
towards the west, there appeared, beneath a little crag opposite

384 Baron Von Buch’s Observations on Madeira, &c.

a precipice facing towards the north, a magnificent spring, as
copious as a rivulet, and rushing violently. It was carefully in-
closed with a wall. Its temperature was 5°.75 R. (7°.25. C.,
45°. F.) The top of it, and likewise of the whole surrounding
declivity, was in no place covered with snow. The spring had
the temperature of the interior, and reminded us of the tempe-
rature of northern climates. Vacciniwm arctystaphyllos creeped
up the declivity upon the north side, but did not reach the sum-
mit ; and, in our farther progress towards the height, it was no
longer visible. The rocks above the spring rose to the height
of 4849 feet above the sea,

The fog was now so dense, that we could not see a few
steps before us. Even in this darkness, however, we ven-
tured to climb still higher; for, being placed upon a sharp
ridge, with vast and precipitous sides, we were in little danger,
as long as it continued, of wandering in a wrong direction.
When we reached the first continued snow, the barometer shew-
ed an elevation of 5148 feet. The ridge now turned suddenly
from its former westerly direction, and ran from north to south,
forming a large projecting bastion, surrounded with horrible
and inaccessible precipices. The snow lay far down on the
declivity. The highest peak was now not far distant, for even
amidst this darkness it was distinguished by the pyramid of
stones erected upon it, and which rose through the surrounding
snow. The barometer was fixed on this pyramid, and carefully
observed ; and the height of the peak, which is called Cima de
Tourigas, was, by this mode of measurement, found to be 5484
French feet.

(To be Continued.)

( 385)

List of Rare Plants which have Flowered in the Royal Botanic
Garden, Edinburgh, during the last three months ; with

Descriptions of several New Plants.

Dr GraHam.

Asclepias tuberosa.
Flowered in the open border in front
of one of the stoves.

Banksia semula.

This plant is at present flowering
very freely in the greenhouse. The
young branches and leaves are co-
vered with a rusty pubescence.

Callicarpa cana.

The yellow anthers, and the decur-
rent leaves with branching veins,
of the plant figured in Bot. Mag.
t. 2107., make it doubtful whether
our t is the same; but I think
it safest at present to consider them
so, as in other respects they seem
extremely alike. I add, however,
the character and description of
our specimen.

C. cana; foliis petiolatis, lanceolatis
acuminatis, dentatis, basi cuneatis,
integerrimis, preecipue supra ner-
vos, subtus, ramisque tomentosis ;
eymis axillaribus, petiolos exce-
dentibus.

Descript.—Shrub erect, stem round,
grey. Branches decussating, sub-
erect, young shoots covered with a
dense, short, soft tomentum. Buds
small, pointed, tomentose. Leaves
opposite, petioled, spreading, deci-
duous, about three pairs near the
extremity of the branch remain
longer than the rest, lanceolate,
acuminate, 4-5 inches long, 2-24
broad, bluntly toothed, entire, and
somewhat wedgeshaped at the base,
in no degree decurrent on the pe-
tiole, wrinkled, tomentose, espe-
cially on the back, green above,
white on the back; primary veins
little branched, and, as well as the
middle rib, woolly on both sides,
and prominent behind. Petiole 4
inch long, stout, flat above, densely
tomentose. Cymes axillary, situ-
ated near the extremities of the
shoots, on peduncles equal in length
to the petiole, dichotomous, diva-

JULY—OocTOBER 1826.

Communicated by

10th September 1826.

ricated. Bracteas small,awl-shaped.
Calyx 4-toothed, tomentose, green,
persisting, teeth pointed. Corolla
deciduous, twice the length of the
calyx, 4-cleft, segments rounded.
Stamens 4; filaments twice the
length of the corolla, inserted into
the back of the roundish, flat, bi-
locular anther; pollen whitish. Pis-
til single ; germen globular, green ;
style filiform, swelling under the
stigma, longer than the filaments ;
stigma flat, obscurely bilobular.

All the parts of the flower, except
the germen and pollen, lilac. _To-
mentum every where upon the plant
cream-coloured, except on the back
of the leaf, where it is nearly white :
on the cyme it becomes lighter up-
wards to the flowers.

The plant was raised from seed sent
by Dr Wallich from India in 1823,
and marked “* Nepaul” It has
been kept in the stove.

Campanula dichotoma.
grandiflora.

Capparis spinosa, Caper bush.
In the open border, in front of one of
the stoves.

Commelina cyanea.

Draba alpina , silicule pilose.

Br. Supplement to Appendix of Cap-
tain Parry’s First Voyage. The
seeds of this and several other arc-
tic plants were given to me by Mr
Fisher, after. Captain Parry’s Se-
cond Voyage. Some of the plants
could not be preserved after they
had genet but this is fully
established.

Glycine mollis.

Iris verna.

Sweet’s Brit. Fl]. Garden, t. 68.

Ixora incarnata.

Lobelia corymbosa,

L. corymbosa; caule fruticuloso; fo-
Bb

386

liis sparsis, lanceolato-spathulatis,
inciso-serratis, concavis, decurren-
tibns ; corymbis (demum spicis)
axillaribus terminalibusque versus
fines ramuolrum congestis.

Descript.—Root perennial, fibrous.
Stem somewhat angular, procum-
bent, brown, branched. Branches
scattered, spreading, green. Leaves
lanceolato-spathulate, inciso-ser-
rated, concave, smooth, obscurely
veined, decurrent, serratures acute.
Flowers small, fetid, numerous, in
flattish corymbs, afterwards elon-
gated into ovato-cylindrical spikes,
which are axillary and terminal,
and collected at the extremities of
the branches. Pedicelsin the axils
of small, pointed, green bracteas,
and equal to them in length. Calyx
5-parted, segments equal, pointed,
at first applied to the tube of the
corolla, esvwraits spreading. Co-
rolla white or pale pink, with two
rows of deep reddish-purple spots
on the inside of the limb at its
base, marcescent; limb 5-parted,
segments pointed, and slightly bent
back, three middle segments near-
ly parallel, the two lateral ones
spreading ; ¢ube cleft to the base, as
long as the segments of the calyx.
Filaments as long as the tube of the
corolla, nearly colourless. Tube of
anthers dark leaden-coloured, half
the length of the filaments, with
two spreading awns at the apex;
style purple, as long as the stamens;
stigma very small.

The specific name I have adopted,
was suggested by Dr Hooker, and
is that under which, it is believed,
he will presently figure the plant
in his excellent Exotic Flora, a
work which has certainly no equal
among those in course of publica-
tion in Britain.

Lonicera flexuosa.

Lotus decumbens.

Sm. Engl. Flor.—L. minor, Bishop,
in Edin. Phil. Journal, Jan. 1826.
This plant we had from Mr Bishop
himself, and I cannot hesitate in

Dr Graham's List of Rare Plants.

considering it the L. decumbens of
Smith. ‘

Magnolia grandiflora.

Flowered freely on the open wall.

Martynia proboscidea.

The seeds were brought from Mexico
by Mr Mair, and the plant is ripen-
ing fruit.

Musa sapientum.
Nelumbium speciosum.
Nicotiana vinczeflora.

Nymphzea alba, var. canadensis.

This is easily distinguished from the
European plant by the longer di-
visions of the stigma, by the very
unequal calyx; by the outer petals
being green on the outside; and
by the rounded overlapping lobes
of the leaves.

A Nuphar from Canada also flowered
in the pond this season. It seem.
ed certainly new; but no memo-
randa having been taken at the
time, little can be said except that
the flowers very nearly resembled
the WN. advena, while the habit of
the plant was that of the N. lutea;
the leaves are not raised above the
surface of the water.

Both these plants were presented to
the Botanic Garden by the Coun-
tess of Dalhousie, and both flower-
ed in July.

Persoonia lanceolata.
Polygala affinis.
Pycnostachys coerulea.
Ruellia strepens.
Spatalla bracteata.
Stachys angustifolia.
Thunbergia alata.
angulata.
Valeriana alliarifolia.
Yucca filamentosa.
Zephyranthes rosea.

In the last Number of this Journal, two species of Conosper-
mum were erroneously stated to have been sent by Mr. Fraser

from New South Wales.

We owe the possession of them to

the often experienced liberality of Mr Aiton.»

( 887 )

Celestial Phenomena from October 1. 1826 to January 1. 1827,
caleulated for the Meridian of Edinburgh, Mean Time. By
Mr Georce Innes, Aberdeen.

The

times are inserted
—The Conjunctions of the

to the Civil reckoning, the day beginning at midnight.
oon with the Stars are given in

ight Ascension.
OCTOBER. NOVEMRER.

D. H. 3% D. : Sea ey
lL 15 626 @ New Moon. 1. 642 - d)x=x
2 13229 d)e 1. 95757 ¢g)ax
2 14950 yim lL 142925 g)ylem
4 195714 S)xx lL 143044 og p2eM
4. 235643 4)9 1. 165816 g)»M
5. 0255 d)ax 2 1845 5 ¢ )pOph
5. 5 123 g)ylsem 3. 54453 46)
5. 5244 gy2em 3 145510 g)let
ys 3 are ee 3 152938 <<)2uet
6 101611 6 )p Oph. 4. 162% 3 jdt
hee 8° le ae 5 0262 ¢)H
eT Oo big ft 5 192618 s¢)sK
7. 745 7 S)2et 6 41226 Im.IL. sat. 7
7 Wwe g¢9em 6. 165616 _ ) First Quarter
& 65648 462926m 7 63250 ¢¢H
8. 6 44 29 ) First Quarter. | 7. 23 16 . ® very near # Ty
8 86892836 dg)jdt 14. 520 —- Im. sat. 7
& . 173857 ¢)H 14. 154052 © Full Moon
9-13 1054 6 PBK 16. 133047. g)sB
12 §©=©233720 Inkfd OY 17 4810 BF DEY
13. & greatest elong. | 18. 6 6 56 d)+r
14. 122830 ¢QamM © 18. 75618 g¢)h
15 § 4454 4 gat 20. 827 - 4 gA Oph.
15. 211848 © Full Moon. | 21. 51615 d)lag
20. 71022 g)st 21. 63053 d)2ag5
20. 23 32 - dD) 22. 17 33 24 ( Last Quarter.
21. 24940 4) 22, 184654 G©enters f
22. 314 8° SD)h 2. 132026 4¢)7
22. 5 733. Im.L sat. 7/ 2. M1845 ¢ )aty
23. 2 424 GYUnty 26. 115538 =f )ity
23. 221938 © enters TIL 28. % greatest elong
24. 22027 ( Last Quarter.| 28. 17 816 S¢)xx
m4. 2441 d)lag 28% 212235 gpa
24. 21659 d¢)2agn 29. 113242 #@ New Moon
25. 92030 429A Oph. ae ae oe.
28.° 1829 7° d)Yx 30. $3543 Im. IL. sat. 7/
30. 0 22 30 6 Da ly 30. 5 37 46 d ) p Oph.
30. 05939, dpi 30. 224850 4 )e
30. 23612 ¢4Y 31. 11626 g)luwf
31. 0 5052 @ New Moon. | 31. 14951 dg)2u ft
31. 202830 g)¥ 31. 5 742 Em. IIL sat. 7

Bb

388 Celestial Phenomena from Oct. 1. 1826 to Jan. 1. 1827.

PPI © & Dy

—

—
mst OQ tO & oes
—_
or

DECEMBER.

D. H.

Ld DR 23. 3
6) H 23. 4
dod )Dsby 23. 4
dé 23. 20
) First Quarter. | 23. 20
Im. I. sat. 2/ 24. 5
Im. II. sat. 2/ 24. Pa |
Im. III. sat. 2/ | 26. 3
ah 26. 8
© Full Moon. 26. 12
d)E 8 26. 12
Im. I. sat. 2/ 26. 18
d Dh 27. 12
Lm) eRe a 27. 17
56 @S 28. - 10
d )leo 28. 22
6 ).2a 29. 13
( Last Quarter. | 30. 0
© enters 4 30. 5
Im. IV. sat. 2/ 30. 14

57
16

Im. I. sat. 2/
Em. IV. sat. 2/

O. 0. @% OO OOOO
Pew yVyyvyryyYY

“5

Times of the Planets passing the Meridian.

DECEMBER.
Venus Mars. Jupiter.
H. H. AoA,
14.2 16 8 7 58
13 46 16 6 7 465
13. 20 15 58 7 27
12 54 15 55 7 6
12 22 15 52 6 52
1l 48 15 46 6 35

Celestial Phenomena from Oct. 1. 1826 to Jan.1. 1827. 389

On the 14th of bab Sage = there will be an Eclipse of the os which
will be partly visible :

D- Shy 48
The Eclipse begins, Nov. 14. 13 47 33
Beginning of total darkness, - 14 55 18
Moon rises totally eclipsed, - 15 36 32
Ecliptic opposition, - - 15 40 54
Middle of the eclipse, - - 15 43 8
End of total darkness, - - 16 30 57
End of the eclipse, - - 17 38 42

Digits eclipsed, 17° 25’ 50” from the north side of the Earth’s shadow.

On the 29th of November there will be an Eclipse of the Sun, which will be
visible if the weather prove favourable. A complete calculation of the Lunar
Elements, using the Tables of Damoiseau, and the Solar Elements as obtained
by using the Solar Tables of Delambre, with the results of the principal steps
of a calculation for Edinburgh, was published in the Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal for April 1826. The following are the final results, as inserted in
that number :

Mean Time. ee Time.
D. mm: 5 OKS
The Eclipse begins, Nov. 29. 9 33 59,9 9 “45 32.4
Greatest obscuration, - 10 37 37,7 10 49 9,9
Visible conjunction, - 10 38 45,0 10 50 17,2
End of the eclipse, eiule - 1143 9,5 11 54 40,9

Digits eclipsed 6° 58’ 10”,4, on the north part of the Sun’s disc. The Moon
will enter the Sun’s disc on the west limb, at 37° 56’ 11” from his zenith,
in reference to the horizon.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

ASTRONOMY.

1. The Moon and its Inhabitants.—Olbers considers it as
very probable that the moon is inhabited by rational creatures,
and that its surface is more or less covered with a vegetation not
very dissimilar to that of our own earth. Gruithuisen maintains,
that he has discovered, by means of his telescope, great artificial
works in the moon, erected by the Lunarians; and very lately,
another observer maintains, from actual observation, that great
edifices do exist in the moon. Noggerath, the geologist, does
not deny the accuracy of the descriptions published by Gruit-
huisen, but maintains that all these appearance are owing to

390 Scientific Intelligence.—Astronomy.

vast whin-dikes or trap veins rising above the general Junar sur-
face. Gruithuisen, in a conversation with the great astronomer
Gauss, after describing the regular figures he had discovered in
the moon, spoke of the possibility of a correspondence with the
inhabitants of the moon. He brought, he says, to Gauss’s re-
collection, the idea he had communicated many years ago to
Zimmerman. Gaus answered, that the plan of erecting a geo-
metrical figure on the plains of Siberia corresponded with his
opinion, because, according to his view, a correspondence with
the inhabitants of the moon could only be begun by means of
such mathematical contemplations and ideas, which we and they
must have in common. The vast circular hollows in the moon
have been by some considered as evidences of volcanic action,
but they differ so much in form and structure from volcanic
craters, that many are now of opinion, and with reasotlj that
they are vast circular valleys. ae carom

METEOROLOGY.

2. Transmission of Sound.—‘ The extreme facility with
svhich sounds are heard at a considerable distance, in severely
cold weather, has often been a subject of remark 3 but/a-circum-
stance occurred at Port Bowen, which deserves to be noticed,
as affording a sort of measure of this facility. Lieutenant Fos-
ter having occasion to send a man from the Observatory to the
opposite shore of the harbour, a measured distance of 6696 feet,
or about one statute mile and two-teuths, in order to fix a meri-
dian mark, had placed a person half way between to repeat his
directions ; but he found, on trial, that this precaution was un-
necessary, as he could, without difficulty, keep up a conversa-
tion with the man at the distant station."—Parry.

3. Showers of Blood in Britain —In the Historian of Llane-
aram and the Saxon Chronicle, it is said, ** It rained blood in Bri-
tain and Ireland, that butter and milk became ruddy, and the
moon became red.” These rains fell in the reign of Prince
Egfrid, in 684. ; ’

4. Bitsberg Meteoric Stone.—According to Stronteyer, it con-
tains, iron 81.8 ; nickel 11.9; cobalt 1.0; manganese 0.2; sul-
phur 5.1 = 100.0. Stromeyer had not examined it for chrome,
but intended to do so,

Scientific Intelligence. —Meteorology. 391

5. Morichini on Magnetism.—It results from the experi-
ments of this distinguished philosopher, that there very proba-
bly exists a magnetic power in light, particularly in the exterior
edge of the violet ray; and also, that this power is to be ascrib-
ed more to the chemical or deoxydising rays, than to the violet
ray itself. If this newly discovered property of light shall be
confirmed by the experiments of others, we must not, as some
are disposed to do, abandon the idea of the earth’s magnetism.
The earth, as Morichini remarks, will absorb the magnetic fluid
of the solar rays, as it absorbs heat and light. Iron will bear
the same relation to the magnetic fluid, as pyrophorus to caloric
and phosphorus, by isolation, to light. ;

6. Luminous Meteor—Envixzsurcu. On Sunday, August
27th, about nine o'clock in the evening, a meteor shot over this
city, in a direction from SW. to NE., which was visible for a
few seconds, and brightly illuminated the sky in its track. It
resembled a great sky-rocket.—Fatkirx. Sunday last was
marked for the sudden rise which the thermometer expe-
rienced, rendering the atmosphere so sultry that we were re-
minded of the late great heats, and which was not diminished
by the peals of distant thunder that continued to grumble du-
ring the afternoon. Ata quarter to nine o’clock in the even-
ing, one of the grandest celestial phenomena that has occur-
red in the memory of the oldest person was exhibited. The
air was quite calm; but there was a heaviness which indicated a
surcharge of electric matter. A vivid glare of light, tinging
every object with a pale blue colour, suddenly blazed forth in
the heavens, rendering the minutest object visible as at noon-
day. The eyes of every person in the street were instantly di-
rected to the east, where a most sublime sight met their gaze.
A large bedy of fire, in shape like a jargonelle pear, and appa-
rently of the size of a bee-hive, was moving in a direction from
SW. to NE. with a rushing noise, something similar to that of
a rocket. It left behind ita very long train, not of sparks, but
fluid-like, and of the most resplendent prismatic colours. It con-
tinued visible for nearly fifteen seconds, having gone over a
space of about forty-five degrees, and descended apparently so
low that it actually seemed to approaeh within a hundred feet of
the earth. Having assumed a deep crimson tint, it was extin.

392 Scientific Intelligence.— Meteorology.

guished without any explosion, several pieces of red matter, like
cinders, falling perpendicularly downwards, which were evident-
ly the burnt remains of the nucleus.—St Anprew’s.» On Sun-
day evening last, at about a quarter before nine, there was seen
in this city (St Andrew’s), a highly luminous meteor to the
south-east of the city. When it was first observed, it had the
appearance of a comet of transcendent brightness, having a nu-
cleus of about half a degree in diameter. It appeared to shoot
forth in a direction from SW. to NE. over a circular path of
about 35°, and gradually diminishing in magnitude, until it/fi-
nally disappeared. What was perhaps most remarkable in this
meteor was, that in its orbit it did not present an unbroken vo-
lume of light, but appeared to throw out bright sparks in all di-
rections, resembling, in some degree, a sky-rocket. The same
appearance was observed at Cupar at the same time.—BripLine-
ton. Sunday evening 27th, about nine o'clock, a luminous
meteor of dazzling brilliancy was seen at Bridlington, for several
seconds, in a NNE. direction; in disappearing, which might be
compared to bursting, it presented bright sparklings of a reddish
yellow colour. The night was beautifully clear and serene.

7. Remarkable Rainbow.—On the 18th May of this year,
1826, at six o'clock p. m., lightning appeared in the eastern
part of the heavens, and a little rain fell. There, where it was
darkest, I, and many of the inhabitants of Lengsfeldt in Eise-
nach, observed a very remarkable rainbow. We saw not only,
as is commonly the case, the feebly coloured interior rainbow,
and the darker coloured exterior rainbow, with all their transi-
tion of colours, but among these also the following threefold
repetition of them in the following order :—Most exterior rain-
bow, violet, blue, green, yellow, and red; under a dark layer,
and below these with diminished intensity of colour, first the
common interior bow, with red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
violet; then the following three ; purple, orange, green, violet ;
purple, orange, green, violet ; purple, orange, and finally a dull
green arched stripe.—Karsten Archiv.

CHEMISTRY.

8. Chemical Action of Diffused Silica.—The clay and pul-
verised flints are combined for the use of the potter, by being

Scientific Inteligence.—Chemistry. 393

first separately diffused in water to the consistence of thick
cream, and, when mixed in due proportion, are reduced to a
proper consistence by evaporation. During this process, if the
evaporation be not rapid and immediate, or if the ingredients
are left to act on each other, even for twenty-four hours, the
flinty particles unite into sandy grains, and this mass becomes
unfit for the manufacturer. In this case there is apparently a
chemical action.

9. Chloride of Lime as an Antiseptic. — The chloride of
lime is remarkable for its antiseptic powers: thus, if an animal
body, already offensive owing to putrefaction, is drenched in an
aqueous solution of this salt, the smell entirely disappears; fur-
ther, if fresh flesh is drenched in it soon, that is in a few days,
it becomes converted into a mummy-like whitish substance, and
does not give out any unpleasant smell; hence it has been re-
commended to use chloride of lime, in preference to all other
substances, in the embalming of bodies.

10. Ammoniac in Alder Water.—Mr Gleetsmann has detected
ammonia in the aque distillate Sambuci. In a former Num-
ber we mentioned the occurrence of ammonia in Chenopodium
fxetidum, Viola odorata, the flower of Stapelia, &c. &e.

11. Acids and Salts of Soil—-Dr C. Sprengel, private
teacher of chemistry and economics in Gottingen, has published
in Karsten’s Archiv, a long memoir on the characters of vege-
table soil; on the peculiar acid it contains, especially when in
the state of peat, and on the various natural combinations of
this acid of soil, met with in soils of different descriptions.

GEOLOGY.

12. Quader Sandstone belongs to the Greensand.—Hausmann
and Von Schlotheim have ascertained that the quader sandstone
of Pirna, Quedlenburg, Blankenburg, &c. belongs to the green-
sand formation, and is essentially different from the sandstone
with coal on the Weser, which is a lias sandstone.

13. Structure of the Swiss Alps.—From the foot of the Ce-.
vennes, by Marseilles, Gap, Grenoble, Geneva and Bex, similar
and very simple geognostical relations occur. The lowest rock
is blackish marly limestone, which, from its fossils, and other
characters, appears to be a lias limestone; to this succeeds a

394 Scientific Intelligence.—Geology.

white, compact, often oolitic limestone, which is Jura limestone,
and is often covered with clay, sandstone, marl, &c. that belong
to the quader sandstone and green sandstone. The valleys are
often filled with Molasse. The Swiss Alps are, in all probabili-
ty, similarly constructed. The dark transition limestone, with
its subordinate beds of gypsum, belong to the lias formation ;
the true alpine limestone to the Jura limestone; the green sand
and quader sandstone form the highest ridges of the calcareous
alps, as on the Mount Saleve, Diablerets, &c. It seems proble-
matical if true transition limestone occurs in this part of the Alps.
If the view now given be correct, says Kefferstein, the calcare-
ous alps and the Jura exhibit the same geognostical structure
and composition, and probably were at one time connected to-
gether (as is the case at present in the south of France), forming
an extensive plateau, which, at a period not very remote, suf-
fered violent elevations and depressions, by which the green
sand, for example, was raised to the height of 10,000 or 12,000
feet. These changes, which have given the present form to the
Alps, may have taken place during or after the deposition of
the chalk formation.

14. Apatite in Secondary Greenstone.—The Greenstone of
Salisbury Crags, in our vicinity, contains crystals of Apatite.
The well known secondary greenstone of the Blaue Kuppe, near
Eschwege, in Germany, has also been found to contain, along
with crystals of magnetic iron ore, crystals of apatite or phos-
phate of lime.

MINERALOGY.

15. Sulphate of Strontian and Sulphate of Barytes confound-
ed.—Several writers have mentioned sulphate of strontian as
occurring in-veins and cavities in different places, where. only
sulphate of barytes is met with. ‘l’o those who may not be wil-
ling to use the mineralogical characters for‘ distinguishing them,
the following ‘chemical properties will answer: Every combina-
tion of strontian colours the flame of the blowpipe purplish-red,
—every combination of barytes yellowish-green. ‘The caustic or
hepatic smell before the blowpipe, determines the kind of acid
which existedin combination with the earth before the experi-
ment. —

16. Telluric Bismuth—Berzelius has analysed a mineral, of

Scientific Intelligence — Mineralogy. 395
a silver white colour, broad foliated fracture, and shining me-
tallic lustre, from Riddarhytta, and found it to be a telluric bis-
muth. It occurs in the mine of Bastniis.—Poggendorff Jour-
nal.
17. Vesuvian of Mussa.—According to Dr Kobell, in Kiirt-
ner’s Archiv. b. vii. heft. 4., the Vesuvian of Mussa contains
Silica 34.848; Alumina 21.933; Lime 33.609; and Oxydule of
Iron 5.400 = 97.790.—Vesuvian of Montzoni, Silica 37.644;
Alumina 16.688; Lime 38.240; Oxydule of Iron 6.420 =
98.972. Rather more than 1 per cent of phosphoric acid was
found in these Vesuvians ; but whether it was a regular or acci-
dental part, was not determined.

18. Garnet.—Kobell in Kiarsten’s Archiv, b. v., ina Me-
moir on Garnet, maintains, that cinnamon-stone, the Hessonite
of Haiiy, is a variety of garnet, and is disposed to consider Hel-
vin also as a variety of garnet. ‘The hyacinth-red, and orange-
red garnets of Piedmont, he says, are crystallised varieties of
cinnamon-stone.

19. Natural Alum.—Professor Breithaupt has met with na~
tural alum crystallized in regular octahedrons, in a slaty-clay,
near to Wetzelstein in Germany.—Karsten, Archiv, b. vii. h. i.
s. 115.

ZOOLOGY.

20. Entomology.—The Highlands of Scotland are rich in
insects. Last summer, Mr John Curtis, the editor of British
Entomology, made a six weeks tour in Scotland ; and among
the Lepidoptera alone he added to his cabinet, which already
contained 1200 British species, thirty species that were new to
him, and no fewer than thirteen of these non-descript. At the
base of Shehallien he found the rare Biston trepidaria.

21. Mastodon found in Bahama.—In a collection of objects
of natural history, lately sent from Bahama to Professor Jame-
son, there is a fossil grinder of a mastodon, the first instance we
recollect of the remains of that genus having been found in that
quarter. |

22. Mammoth at Hudson's Bay—Professor Jameson has in.
his possession a fine fossil grinder of the mammoth, which was
found on the shore of Hudson’s Bay, by the then Chief of. that
country, William Auld, Esq.

396 _ Scientific Intelligence. —Z oology.

23. Whale-Fishery at Van Dieman’s Land.—Whales had
very frequently been seen in the estuary of the Derwent and in
the bays adjacent, and one or two had been occasionally killed ;,
but the first attempt to make their capture a regular branch of
trade, took place n May 1824. Mr Kelly, an enterprizing re-
sident at Hobart Town, resolved to employ a colonial built
schooner in this undertaking. She was only fifteen tons bur-
then, was manned with twenty-two hands, and had five whale-
boats attached, furnished with the requisite implements. With
this little vessel, in the short space of thirteen days, Mr Kelly
contrived to capture five whales, the blubber of which yielded
forty-five tons of pure black oil. As soon as a whale was kil-
led, the schooner was run up to the carcase, and the flensing
commenced; when the blubber was stowed into the casks, the
vessel (being tolerably well loaded with the produce of one siza-
ble whale) was immediately steered for the harbour, from which
she was seldom more than eight or ten miles distant, frequently
not more than four or five. The cargo being discharged, the
schooner was again at her post in the offing within a few hours.

24. Fossil Insects.—Fossil insects occur in amber and in
some other minerals. Those met with in amber vary much in
species, according to locality. The amber of Sicily contains dif-
ferent Coleoptera, that of the Baltic sea contains many Diptera
and Neuroptera. 'The following genera have been found in
amber: Platypus, Aractoceros, Gryllus, Mantis, larve of but-
terflies; Phryganea, Ephemera, Perea, Formica, Evania, Ti-
pula, Bibio, Empis, Scolopendra, Chironomus, and many Arach-
nidea. Of fossil insects in other substances, Parkinson men-
tions larvee of Libellule in limestone, and some Melolonthe an&
Polistes have been found in slate.

BOTANY. .

25. Nardus or Spikenard.—From a species of Nardus, which
grows in vast abundance all over the Malivah in India, Dr, Max-
well, in the Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society
of Calcutta, which has just reached Europe, informs us, there
is extracted a highly pungent essential oil, which he, strongly
recommends to be used in the way of friction in rheumatism,
because he has found it very efficacious in greatly alleviating, or
entirely removing, that disease. Dr Wallich says, this plant, the

Scientific Intell gence.— Botany. 397

nardus or spikenard of the ancients, is either the Andropogon
Ivarancura of Dr Blane, or the Andropogon Martini of Rox-
burgh : its characters shew it to be different from Andropogon
schenanthus, Fl. In. Dr Wallich adds, “* Over and above the
three species of Andropogon, (viz. Schcenanthus, Ivarancura and
Martini,) which are considered as the spikenard of the ancients.
I beg to observe, that Valeriana Johomouri, (Vide FI. Ind.
vol. i. p. 265.), is also taken to be a sort of spikenard. Now,
two more distinct things do not exist than those two genera;
and the root of the Valeriana Johomouri is very little inferior in
fragrance to our common valerian, (Val. offic.) which smells abo-
minably.

26. On the Oshac, or Gum Ammoniac Plont.—Captain Hart
of the 5th Battalion Native Regiment, Bombay, gives the
following information as to this interesting plant, im vol. i.
of the Transactions. of the Medical and Physical Society of
Calcutta. ‘ It having been intimated to me, while at Bu-
shire, by the President, Captain Bruce, that the plant which
produces the gum ammoniac, called by the Persians Oshac,
would be acceptable to botanists, as it was but imperfectly
known, I procured the accompanying piece of stem, leaf and
flower, and took a drawing of one of the finest plants. Its
height was 7 feet 2 inches, and the circumference of the lower
part of the stem 4 inches. It grows principally in the plain be-
tween Yorde-Kaust and Kumisha, in the province of Nauk,
without cultivation. ‘The gum is so abundant, that, upon the
slightest puncture being made, it instantly oozes forth, even at
the ends of the leaves. When the plant has attained perfection,
innumerable beetles pierce it in all directions ; it soon becomes
dry ; it is then picked off, and sent via Bushire to India, and
various parts of the world, and is an article of considerable ex-
port. I am of opinion that it might be cultivated with success
in many parts of Kattywar, and the experiment might be worth
the attention of Government. ‘The gum might easily be pro-
cured by artificial means, which would answer the purpose
equally well.”

27. The bark of the stem of the Pomegranate, a specific in
cure of Tania or Tape Worm.—P. Breton, Esq. says, “ I
have repeatedly put to the test of trial, in cases of tenia, with
uniform success, the dried bark of the stem of the pomegranate

2

398 Scientific Intelligence —Anthropology.

shrub, both in decoction and in powder, without exciting any
other sensations than those which arise from the exhibition of
the fresh bark of the root of the plant. I have also ascertained,
by frequent trials, that the virtues of the bark may be preser-
ved several years; a circumstance favourable to its transmission
to Europe. Some bark of the stem, which I have had upwards
of four years packed in a deal box, I have recently tried in se-
veral cases of tenia with perfect success; so that I have no he-
sitation whatever in recommending this drug, not only as a safe,
but as a perfectly certain remedy for the expulsion of tenia.
This drug is equally efficacious in expelling from the lower ani-
mals, (especially dogs) tania, to which they are very subject in
this country. To full grown dogs may be given the same dose
as that taken by adults. The powder mixed with butter or
minced meat, is as good a form as any ; some dogs will of them-
selves eat it when prepared in this manner. The powder may
also be given in balls, or the decoction may be substituted with
equal effect. We are indebted, it seems, for our knowledge of
this invaluable remedy for the tape worm to a mussulman fa-
keer, named Azim Shah, who, in 1804, having relieved, in a
few hours, Mr Robert Home of Calcutta of a tenia, which mea-
sured 36 feet in length, was prevailed on by a reward of two
gold mohars, to disclose the secret."-— Transactions of the Medi-
cal and Physical Society of Calcutta, vol. i.

ANTHROPOLOGY.
28. Account of a singularly small Child, by T. E. Baxer,
Esq. of Buxar.—The child is the daughter of a Mrs Green, the
wife of the riding-master of the 5th Native Cavalry, and is now
with the mother,: living at this station with Mr Edwards, an
overseer to the Honourable Company’s depot; it has been seen
by Mr Surgeon Gibb, the superintendant of the stud; by
Thompson, the civil surgeon of Arrah, by Captain J. Macken-
zie, and other residents at the station. The mother was coming
by water from Agra, and was confined near Bandah, when she
thought herself about six months and a half gone with child,
and attributed her premature confinement to having over-exerted
herself in removing some boxes, &c. On this day (May 24th)
the child is one month and twenty days old; it weighs exactly
one pound and thirteen ounces, and is fourteen inches in length.

3

Scientific Intelligence— Anthropology. 399
The following are the dimensions of the principal parts of the

body :— sia
Circumference of the head (longest diameter), Mik oak. Mie
Ditto ditto (shortest diameter), - - - - eae
Ditto of the chest, . - - . 5 Key
Ditto of the body, . 8

Ditto of the thigh, midway atwrnens the knee = the hip-joint, 2.6

Ditto of the fore-arm, midway between the wrist and elbow, - 1.7
I much regret the weight and dimensions of the child were not
taken when it was first born, for the mother informs me it has
grown considerably since that time. At first it would not take
to the breast, but it now sucks very well. The bones of the
head are rather loose, and the anterior and posterior fontanels
are large in proportion to the size of the head.—7T'ransactions
of the Medical and Physical Society of Calcutta, vol. i.

MENSURATION.

29. Tables for converting Scotch Land Measure into Impe-
rial Land Measure, and for finding the Rent, Produce, or Va-
lue of an English Acre, having given that of a Scots Acre*.—
Before the act for ascertaining and establishing uniformity of
weights and measures was passed, there was no certain rule for
determining the proportion of the Scots to the English acre, on
account of the want of agreement among surveyors as to the
exact length of the Scotch ell. Now, however, the length of
the ell has been ascertained by a careful and scientific measure-
ment, and the result as well as the proportion of the Scots to
the English acre declared by a Jury appointed by the Sheriff-
depute of the county of Edinburgh. Their verdict, which is
dated 4th February 1826, finds, that the standard Scots ell, at
the temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit, contains 37.0598 Impe-
rial standard inches; and, consequently, that the Scots chain
contains 74.1196 Imperial standard feet, and that the English
or Imperial acre has to the Scots acre the proportion of 1 to
1.26118345. From these data, the two following concise Tables
have been constructed. The first serves to convert any number
of Scots acres, roods, falls, and ells, into Imperial acres and the
decimal fraction of an acre; and by the second, having given

* Mr Elgen of Aberdeen sent us for insertion in the Journal interesting

| Tables of the same general nature with those here given. These Tables were

examined by ap eminent mathematician, who constructed those now pub)ish-
ed, which he considers more convenient.

400 Scientific Intelligence.—Mensuration.

the rent or value of the produce of one, or any number of Scots
acres, the rent or value of the produce of the same number of
imperial acres may be found. Their construction is sufficiently
obvious, and their application must.be manifest from the ex-
amples which follow them.

Table for converting Scots Acres, Roods, &c, into Tonpertnd Acres.

Imperial Imperial
Acre. Acre.

ey
&
yy

-007882
-015765
-023647
-03153
-03941
-04729
-05518
-06306
-07094

1.26118345 -31530
2.52236690 -63059
3.78355035 -94589

5.04473380
6.30591725
7.56710070
8.82828415
10.08946760
11.35065105

Cosa uk WD
Caonaor Oh =
Conanrkwhyoe

Table for finding the Rent Produce of an Imperial Acre, having given
those of a Scotch Acre.

Rent, Produce, &c. || Rent, Produce, &c. |} Rent, Produce, &c.

Imperial

£

79291
1.58581
2.37872
3.17162
3.96453
4.75744
5.59034
6.34325
7.135615
7.92906

who em bb

SCE oONaurRwWhr*

4
5
6
7
8
9
0

—!

—
RSOOoOnNnowrhwnd es

_—

Examp te of use of Table I.—Convert | Exampre of use of Table II.—A Scots

3258 Scots Acres 2 R. 31 F. 28 E. Acre was sold for £82: 12:9;
into Imperial Acres : hence find the value of an Impe-
Imperial Acres. rial Acre ?
3000 3783.55035 Pe prs
200 252.23669 at a
“50 Scots Acres = 63.05917 4) Pounds = 1.5858
8 10.08947 10 } char 3965
2 Roods = 63059 7 w rm
* \ Falls ~ aes CORE it Fat 3
20 00438 Value of Imp. A. = £ 65.5238
8 } Ells a 00175 = £65:10:5;35

Imperial Acres, 4109.81675
= 4109 A. 3 R. 10 P. 20.6 Y.

It may be useful to surveyors to know, that the exact length of the Im-
perial Chain has been laid down on the parapet in front of the Edinburgh
University buildings.

Scientific Intelligence.—Notices of New Books. 40}

NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS.

29. Daubeny on Volcanoes.—Tuis truly excellent work has
afforded us during its perusal, much unmixed pleasure and de-
light. We have nothing equal to it on volcanoes in the English
language. 'The excellence of its ‘arrangement, the accuracy of
its details, the extensive array of facts by which it is distin-
guished, the general judiciousness of Dr Daubeny’s conclusions,
all concur in rendering it a most valuable addition to the geo-
logical literature of Great Britain. Dr Daubeny is already
advantageously known to the public by his excellent memoirs
in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. His work on Volca-
noes gives him high rank among the geologists of this country,
and, we trust, is but the precursor of other geological achieve-
ments.

30. Lothian’s County Atlas of Scotland.-—This work, which is
now in progress of publication, in quarto size, we consider de-
serving of public encouragement, on account of its general ac-
curacy, neatness of engraving, convenient form, and cheapness.
We shall notice it again when completed.

31. Dr Fyfeé’s Manual of Chemistry.—This work, in one
volume of moderate size, and illustrated with numerous, very
useful, wooden cuts, we recommend to the student of chemistry,
from its accuracy, perspicuity, and the practical details with
which it abounds. We have not met with any English work
which contains in the same space more useful matter than the
Manual of Dr Fyfe. The wooden cuts, also, give a character
of utility to the work, which will be most particularly felt and
prized by the student of chemistry, for whose use alone this
work has been written.

32. Captain Parry's New Work.—Of this work, just publish-
ed in London, no copies have as yet reached Edinburgh, so that
we are deprived of an opportunity of noticing it.

JULY—ocTOBER 1826. ce

402 List of English Patents.

List of Patents granted in England from 26th May to 9th Sep-
tember 1826.

1826.

May 8. L. Zacnarian jun. of Portsea, pawnbroker, for a combination of ma-
terials to be used as fuel.

23. D. Dunn, King’s Row, Pentonville, manufacturer of essence of cof-
fee and spices, for improvements upon the screw press used in
the pressing of paper, books, tobacco, or bale goods, and in the
expressing of oil, extracts, or tinctures, and for various other
purposes, in which great pressure is required.

T. Hucuers, Newbury, Berks, miller, for improvements in the me-
thod of restoring foul or smutty wheat, and rendering the same
fit for use.

I. MortnEvx, Stoke Saint Mary, Somersetshire, for an improvement
in machinery for spinning and twisting silk and wool, and for
roving, spinning, and twisting flax, hemp, cotton, and other fi-
brous substances.

T. P. Brrr, Strand, coach-maker, for improvements in wheel-carriages.

J. Parker, Knightsbridge, iron and wire-fence manufacturer, for im-
provements to park or other gates.

D. P. Devurprouce, Leicester Square, for an apparatus to cool wort,
and also for the purpose of condensing the steam arising from
stills during the process of distillation.

May 23. W. H. Gress, Castle Court, Lawrence Lane, warehouseman, and A.
Dixon, Huddersfield, manufacturer, for a new kind of piece
goods formed by a combination of threads of two or more colours,
the manner of combining and displaying such colours in such
piece goods constituting the novelty thereof:

J. Smitu, Tiverton, Devonshire, lace manufacturer, for an improve-
ment on the stocking-frame.

J. Loacu, Birmingham, brass-founder, for a self-acting sash-fastener,
which fastening is applicable to other purposes.

R. Siace, Kilnhurst Forge, near Doncaster, steel manufacturer, for
an improvement in the manufacture of springs chiefly applicable
to carriages.

L. J. Marir, Marquis de Combis, Liecester Square, for improve-
ments in the construction of rotatory steam-engines, and the ap-
paratus connected therewith.

J. B. Fernanpez, Norfolk Street, Strand, for improvements in the
construction of blinds or shades for windows, or other

R. Micxienam, Furnival’s Inn, civil engineer and architect, for im-
provements in engines, moved by the pressure, elasticity, or ex-
pansion of steam gas or air, by which a great saving in fuel will
be effected.

H. R. Fansuaw, Addle Street, silk embossor, for an improved wind-
ing machine.

J. Ham, Holton Street, Bristol, vinegar-maker, for an improved pro-
cess for promoting the action of acetic acid on metallic bodies.

June 13. To T. J. Knowrys, Trinity College, Oxford, for “* a new Manu-
facture of Ornamental Metal.”

22. To T. Haranan, York Street, Dublin, Lieutenant in the Royal
Navy, for ‘“* Machinery or Apparatus for working Ordnance.”

July 4. To L. Ausrey, Two Waters, Herts, engineer, for “‘ an Improve-

ment or Improvements in the Web or Wire for making Paper.”

To J. Poors, Sheffield, shop-keeper, for ‘“‘ Improvements in the
Steam-engine Boilers, or Steam-generators, applicable also to the
evaporation of other fluids.”

List of English Patents. 403

1826.

July 4. ToD. Freeman, Wakefield, sadler, for “ Improvements in mea-
suring for, and making Collars for horses and other cattle.”

To P. Groves, Liverpool Street, for “‘ Improvements in manufac-
turing or making White Lead.”

To R. Wonnam, Wigmore Street, Cavendish Square, pianoforte
maker, for Improvements on Pianofortes.”

10. To P. Groves, Liverpool Street, for “ Improvements in making
Paint or Pigment, for preparing or combining a substance or ma-
terial with oil, turpentine, and other ingredients.”

14. To B. Lowe, Birmingham, gilt toy manufacturer, for ‘‘ Improve-
ments in useful and ornamental Dressing-pins.”

To J. Guy and J. Harrison, Workington, Cumberland, straw-
hat manufacturer, for “ an Improved method of preparing straw
and , to be used in the manufacture of Hats and Bonnets.”

14. To J. P. De 1a Fovs, George Street, Hanover Square, dentist,
and W. Lirtiewart, Saint Mary Axe, mathematical instru-
ment maker, for “an Improvement in securing or mooring ships
and other floating bodies, and Apparatus for performing the

”
To E. Baytirre, Kendall, Westmoreland, worsted-spinner, for
'“ Improvements in the Machinery used for the operations of
drawing, roving, and spinning of sheep and lambs’ wool.”

To J. L. Hicerns, Oxford Street, for “‘ Improvements in the con-
struction of Cat-blocks and Fish-hooks, and in the application
thereof.”

24. To J. Barron, Birmingham, brassfounder and venetian blind-
ape’ for a “ Combination of Machinery for feeding fire with
uel.”

To W. Jounsron, Caroline Street, Bedford Square, jeweller, for
“ Improvements on Ink-holders.”

To W. Rosrnson, Craven Street, Strand, for a “ New method of
propelling Vessels by steam.”

To W. Parsons, Dock Yard, Portsmouth, naval architect, for
“ Improvements in Building Ships, which are calculated to lessen
the dangerous effects of internal or external violence.”

Aug. 1. To W. Davipson, Glasgow, surgeon and druggist, for “* Processes
for bleaching or whitening of Bees’wax, Myrtle-wax and Animal
Tallow.”

To T. J. Knowrys, Trinity College, Oxford, and W. Dvressury,
Bousal, Derbyshire, collar manufacturer, for “‘ Improvements in
Tanning.”

List of Patents granted in Scotland from 26th May to 9th Sep-
tember 1826.

1826.

June 12. To Ricnuarnp Mer Rarxes of London Wall, in the city of Lon-
don, Esq., for an invention communicated to him by a foreigner
re siding abroad, for “ a Method of applying Steam without pres-
sure to Pans, Boilers, Coppers, Stills, Pipes, and Machinery, in
order to vena transmit, and regulate various temperatures of
heat in the several processes of Boiling, Distilling, Evaporating,
Inspissating, Drying and Warming, and also to produce Power.”

17. To Tuomas . pm Kwownys of Trinity College, Oxford, Esq. for
an Invention communicated to him by a foreigner residing
oO “ of a new Manufacture of Ornamental Metal or Me.
ta ”

404

1826.
June 26.

29.

July 12.

21.

Aug. 7.

Plate I.

II.
III.

. Illustrative of Mr J. White’s Description of a design for a Ro-

- Fossil Plants, illustrative of M. Ad. Brongniart’s paper on

List of Scotch Patents.

To Francis Hatiiway of Ham, in the county of Surrey, Esq.,
for ‘‘ certain Improvements on Machinery to be operated upon
by Steam.”

To Wir11am Txomson, Cabinetmaker and Joiner, residing in
Fountainbridge Street, Edinburgh, and Malcolm Muir of the
Glasgow Veneer Saw Mills, for “ certain Machines and 1m-
provements on Machines and Instruments or Tools applicable to
the performance of Cabinetmaker’s Work, Joiner’s Work, Car-
penter’s Work, and to other similar purposes.”

To Louis Jos—EpH Marie, Marquis de Cambis, a native of France,
but now residing in Leicester Square, in the parish of St Martin
in the Fields, and county of Middlesex, for an Invention commu-
nicated to him by a foreigner residing abroad, “ of certain im-
provements in the construction of Rotatory Steam Engines, and
in the Apparatus connected therewith.”

To Henry AntTHONy Koymans of Warnford Court, Throgmor-
ton Street, in the city of London, Merchant, for an Invention
communicated to him by a foreigner residing abroad, “ of cer-
tain Improvements in the construction and use of Apparatus and
Works for Inland Navigation.”

To Mosks Pootse of the Patent Office, Lincoln’s Inn, in the coun-
ty of Middlesex, gentleman, for an invention communicated to
him by a foreigner residing abroad, ‘“ of certain improvements in
the Machines used for carding, slubbing, slivering, roving, or
spinning wool, cotton, waste silk, short stapled hemp and flax, or
any other fibrous materials, or mixtures thereof.”

To Joun Guy and Jacos Harrison, both of the parish of Work-
ington, in the county of Cumberland, straw hat manufacturers,
for “‘ an improved method of Preparing Straw and Grass to be
used in the manufacture of Hats and Bonnets.”

To Francis Haturiay of Ham, in the county of Surrey, Esq.,
for * certain Improvements in Engines or Machinery to be actu-
ated by Steam, which Improvementsin Machinery with or with-
out the aid of Steam, are applicable to the raising or forcing of
water.”

To the said Francis Hatyrpay for “ an Apparatus or Machinery
for preventing the inconvenience arising from Smoke in Chim-
neys, which he denominates a Wind Guard.”

LIST OF PLATES.

Fig. 1, 2, 3, illustrative of Mr Dick’s Description of a new Reflect-

ing Telescope, - - - - Page 41
Fig. 4, illustrative of Prof. Brandes’ Remarks on Falling Stars, 124
Fig. 5, 6, 7. illustrative of Mr H. H. Blackadder’s Remarks

on the Combustion of Alcoholic Fluids, Oils, &c. in Lamps, 52
Illustrative of Professor Jameson’s remarks on the Irish Elk, 199
Fig. 1. illustrative of Mr Wood’s description of a Tumulus in

the Island of Sanday, . - - - 216
Fig. 2. Geological representation of the Stratification near to

the Cape of Good Hope. We hope in a future Number to

accompany it with a detailed description by the author, Dr

And. Smith, Superintendant of the South African Museum.

. Illustrative of Mr H. H. Blackadder’s paper on the Constru-

tion of Meteorological Instruments, 238

tatory Steam-Engine, 266

Fossil Vegetables of the coal Formation,

INDEX.

Acu™ire, a variety of augite, 362.

Adam, Dr J., his description of Ciconia ardgala, 327.

his notice respecting oil found in human blood, 373.

Adamson, Rev. James, his sketches of our information regarding rail-roads, 23.

Air-pump, Mr W. Ritchie’s account of one without artificial valves, 112.

Air-thermometer, Mr H. Meikle’s remarks on the theory of the, 332.

Alps, structure of the Swiss, 396.

Alum, natural, found in Germany, 395.

Ammouia in alder water, 393.

Ammoniacal salts, the manner in which they are formed in volcanoes, 193.

Apparent nearness of objects, 184.

Anthropology, notices in, 392.

Apatite in secondary greenstone, 394.

Arnott, G. A. Walker, Esq., his account of a tour to the south of France and
the Pyrenees, 66, 268.

Arsenic, notice respecting Dr Christison’s new mode of detecting it, 321.

M. Guibourt’s remarks on, 317.

Arts, notices in the, 203.

Arctic Land Expedition, notice regarding it, 161.

Astronomy, notices in, 389.

Aurora-borealis, Prof. Jameson on the noises that sometimes accompany it, 156.

Benoiston de Chateauneuf, M., his remarks on the changes in the laws of
mortality, within the last half century, 275.

Biographical memoir of Henry Kiihl, 1.

= Of Dr Christian Smith, 209. :

Blackadder, Henry Home, Esq., his remarks on the combustion of alcoholic
fluids, oils, &c. in lamps, 52.—observations on flame, 224.

Botany, notices in, 200, 396.

Boué, Dr A, his geological observations, 78.

Boyle, Dr, his meteorological observations made at New Brunswick, 113.

Brandes, Professor, his remarks on falling stars, 124.

Breithaupt, Prof., his remarks on achmite, hyalosiderite and_trachylyte, 362.

Brongniart, M. Ad., on some fossil vegetables of the coal formation, 282.

Bryonia alba, analysis of its root, 323.

Buch, Baron Von, his observations on the climate of the Canary Islands, 92.—
observations made during a visit to Madeira, 380.

Buchner, Dr, his hypothesis regarding magnetism, 236.

Cafeine, notice respecting, 322.

Canary Islands, Baron Von Buch’s observations on the climate of the, 92.

Carbonate of magnesia, notice regarding its solubility, 189.

Caventou, on the chemical properties of starch, 311.

Celestial phenomena from July 1. to October 1. 1826, 176.—from October 1.
1826, to January 1, 387.

Cements, General 'Treussart on the preparation of hydraulic, 324.

Chemistry, notices in, 188,.392.

Child, Mr T. E. Baker’s account of a singularly small, 398.

Christison, Dr, notice respecting his new mode of detecting arsenic, 321.

Chloride of lime, remarks on its preparation, 320.—its antiseptic powers, 393.

Ciconia ardgala, Dr Adam’s description of, 327.

Cliona celata, Dr Grant's description of, 78.

Cod-fishery at Newfoundland, Mr W. Cormack’s account of the, 32, 205.

Colour, —, of a powder so named, 190.

Comets, Dr Lehmann's inquiries regarding the formation of their tails, 243.

406 INDEX.

Cooking, inconvenience of the pressure apparatus for, 189.

Combustion of alcoholic fluids, oil, &c. in lamps, Mr H. H. Blackadder’s ob-
servations on the, 52.

Commerce, notices in, 205.

Cormack, W. E., Esq., his account of the cod, capelin, cuttle-fish and seal, as
they occur at Newfoundland, 32.

Corallines, Prof. Schweigger on the anatomy of several species of, 220.

Crystals, M. Robinet’s new method of purifying, 326.

Cormack, Mr W. E., on the fisheries of Newfoundland and Labrador, 205.

Deception occasioned by fog, 183.

Dick, Thomas, Esq., his description of a new reflecting telescope, 41.

Don, Mr David, his observations on Philadelpheze and Granateze, 132.

Drummond, Lieut., his remarks on the means of facilitating the observations
of distant stations in geodesical operations, 182.

Echidna, Dr Knox on the presence of'a rudimentary spur in the female, 130.

Engelhart on the colouring principle of the blood, 312.

English silks and cottons inferior in respect to durability to those of France
and India, 203.

Expedition, Arctic Land, notice regarding Franklin’s, 161.

Falling stars, Professor Brandes on, 124.

Fiery meteors, M. Serre’s notice regarding, 114.

Fish used in Persia for feeding cattle, 197.

Fisheries of Newfoundland and Labrador, Mr Cormack on the, 32, 205.
Fishes, Reverend Mr Smith’s account of a shower of, 186.

Flame, Mr H. H. Blackadder on the colour and constitution of, 52, 224.
Fluids in the cavities of minerals, 192.

Foot race on Chapham Common, 198.

France, Mr Arnott’s tour in the South of, 66.

Frembly. Mr J., his observations on the temperature of the sea at the mouth

of the Thames, 377.

Garnet, cinnamonstone a variety of, 395.

Gaylussite, notice regarding it, 192.

Geckoes used for catching ilies, 198.

Geological observations, D. A. Boue’s, 78.

Geology, observations on its nature and importance, 293.

— notices in, 192, 393.

Graham, Dr, his list and descriptions of rare plants flowering in the Edinburgh
Botanic Garden, 171, 385.

Grant, Dr R. E., his description of a new species of zoophyte, 78.—observa-
tions on the structure of some calcareous sponges, 166.—on the structure
of some silicious sponges, 341.—on the silicious spicula of two zoophytes
195.—on the spontaneous motion of the ova of zoophytes, 150.

Gum-ammoniac plant, 397.

Juibourt, M. on arsenic, 317.

Hall, Captain Basil, his notices respecting a voyage of research, 351.

Herrings account of a shower of, in Kinrosshire, 187.

Hills formed by springs, 192.

Histoire Naturelle des Mammiferes, notice regarding, 196.

Howison, Dr W., his account of the management of the water melon and
cucumber in Russia, 125.

Humidity, compound for preserving substances from, 189.

Hyalosiderite, a variety of chrysolite, 363.

Insects, abundant in the Highlands of Scotland, 395.—cultivation of certain,
198.—found in amber, 390.

Inness, Mr George, his calculations of Celestial Phenomena, from July to
October 1826, 196.—from October to January 1827, 387.

Iodine, Mr Turner on its presence in the mineral spring of Bonnington, 159.

Irish elk, Professor Jameson’s notice respecting it, 199.

INDEX. 407

Jameson, Professor, his remarks on the noises that sometimes accompany the
aurora borealis, 156.—notice respecting the Irish Elk, 199.

Knox, Dr R., his account of the Wombat of Flanders, 104.—notice regarding
the presence of a rudimentary spur in the female echidna, 130.
Kuhl, Henry, biographical memoir of, 1.

Lead found in a meteoric stone, 391.
Leech, Ceylon, Mr Tytler’s remarks on its bite, 375.

minosze, notice respecting a work of De Candolle’s on the, 201.
Lehmann, Dr, his inquiries regarding the formation of the tails of comets, 243.
Lightning, remarks on the colours of, 188.
Lot’s wife, conjecture regarding her conversion into salt, 365

Madeira, Baron Von Buch’s observations made during a visit to, 380.

Magnesian limestones, constituents of certain, 190.

Magnetical influence of the sun, Prof. P. Prevost’s remarks on the, 289.

Magnetism in light, 391.

Dr Buchner’s hypothesis regarding, 236.

Mantell, Gideon, Esq., his remarks on the geological position of the strata of
Tilgate Forest, 262.

Marabous, notice regarding, 199.

Mammoth found at Hudson’s Bay, 395.

Mastodon found in Bahama, 395.

Meikle, Mr H., his remarks on the theory of the air thermometer, 332.

Meteoric stone of Bitsberg, 390.—lead found in one, 391.

—~— —— stones, notice respecting their structure, 188.

Meteorological instruments capable of disclosing their indications at any given
instant, 239.

Meteorology, notices in, 183, 390.

Meteors, luminous, seen at Edinburgh, Falkirk, St Andrew’s, Bridlington, 391.

Mildew in barley, 198.

Mineralogy, notices in, 191, 394.

Mineral substances, their effects on animals, 188.

Mirage in Persia, 185.

Moon and its inhabitants, conjectures respecting the, 389.

Mortality, Mr Bonoiston de Chateauneuf, his account of the changes under-
gone during the last half century, by the laws of, 275.

Natural Philosophy, notices in, 182.

Neill, P. Esq., his account of a rare fish found in the Shetland Seas, 135.
New Brunswick, Dr Boyle’s meteorological observations made at, 113.
Newfoundland, Mr Cormack’s account of the fisheries of, 32.

New Books, notices regarding, 393.

Observations of distant stations in geodesical operations, Lieutenant Drum-
mond on the means of facilitating the, 182.

Oil in the human blood, 373.

Olbers, Dr, his remarks on the transparency of space, 141.

Ova of certain zoophytes, Dr Grant on the spontaneous motions of the, 150.

Patents sealed in England, 205, 401.—granted in Scotland, 208, 103.

Pheasants, M. J. G. St Hilaire, on the change of plumage in female, 302.

Philadelphez and Granates, Mr D. Don’s observations on, 132.

Plants, Dr Graham’s lists and descriptions of rare ones flowering in the Edin-
burgh Botanic Garden, 171, 385.

Poison, heart of the frog used for, 198.

Poisoning of plants, 201.

Pluvial trees, 200.

Prevost, Prof. P., his remarks upon the magnetical influence of the sun, 289.

Quadersandstein belongs to the green sand, 393.

Rail-roads, Rev. W. Adamson’s sketches of our information regarding, 23.
Rain, coloured, 385.

408 INDEX.

Rattlesnakes tamed by music, 198.
Ritchie, Mr W., his account of an air-pump without artificial valves, 112.
Royal Society of Edinburgh, account of its proceedings, 178.

Salts, notice regarding their assumption of different primitive forms, 189.

Schweigger, Prof., on the anatomy of Corallina opuntia, and other species, 220.

Scizena aquila, Mr Neill’s account of the, 135.

Serres, M. J. H., his notice regarding fiery meteors seen during the day, 114.

Sensitive tree, 200.

Shells, shower of, 187.

Shower of fishes in Argyleshire, 187.

of herrings in Galloway, 187.

of Shells in Ireland, 187.

Silica, chemical action of diffused, 392.

Smith, Christian, M. D., biographical memoir of, 209.

Dr Andrew, his description of the snakes of Southern Africa, 248.

Snakes, Dr A. Smith’s description of those of Southern Africa, 248.

Sodom and Gomorrah, conjectures regarding the physical causes of the de-
struction of, 365.

Soil, acids and salts found in, 393.

Solid substances, changes produced in their texture, 189.

Sound, transmission of, 390.

Space, Dr Olbers on the transparency of, 141.

Spicula, Dr Grant on those of two zoophytes from Shetland, 195.

Spikenard, essential oil extracted from it, useful in rheumatism, 396.

Sponges, Dr Grant on the structure of calcareous,166.—of siliceous, 341.

Springs, hills formed by, 192.

Steam-engine, Mr J. White’s description of a design for a rotatory, 266.

St Hilaire, M. J. G., on female pheasants assuming the male plumage, 302.

Sulphate of strontian and sulphate of barytes confounded, 394.

Swiftness of animals, 197.

Tacitus, contested passage in, 192.

Telescope, Mr Dick’s description of a new reflecting, 41.

Telluric Bismuth, 394.

Temperature of the sea at the mouth of the Thames, Mr Frembly’s observa-
tions on the, 377.

Thermometers, Dr Wildt on the rate of the mercurial and spirit, 327.

Tenia, cured by pomegranate bark, 397.

Tilgate Forest, Mr Mantell on the geological position of the strata of, 262.

Titanium, a general ingredient in felspars and serpentines, 192.

Tour to the south of France and the Pyrenees, Mr Arnott’s, 66.

Trachylyte, description of, 362.

Tumulus, Mr Wood’s description of the contents of a, 216.

Tumer, Dr, on the presence of iodine in the mineral spring of Bonnington, 159.

Tytler, Mr J., his remarks on the bite of the Ceylon leech, 375.

Vegetation at the surface of the globe, M. Poiret’s picture of, 117, 251.
Vegetables, fossil, M. Ad. Brongniart’s observations on some, 282.
Vesuvian of Mussa, its analysis, 395.

Water-melon and Russian cucumber, Dr Howison’s account of, 125.
Wernerian Natural History Society, proceedings of the, 178.

Whale, account of one killed in the St Lawrence, 198.

fishery at Van Dieman’s Land, 396.

White, Mr James, his description of a design for a rotatory steam-engine, 266.
Wombat of Flinders, Dr Knox’s account of the, 104.

Wood, W. Esq., his description of the contents of a tumulus in Sanday, 216.

Zoology, notices in, 193, 395.

P. NEILL, . Printer.

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