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EDINBURGH NEW

PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

—

THE
EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL,

EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE

PROGRESSIVE DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS

enn,

IN THE A =)
SCIENCES AND THE ARTS. =.

x rt ae er

CONDUCTED BY - a

ROBERT JAMESON,

REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, LECTURER ON MINERALOGY, AND KEEPER OF
THE MUSEUM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH 5

Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh ; Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy ; of the
Royal Society of Sciences of Denmark ; of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin ; of the Royal Academy of
Naples ; of the Geological Society of France; Honorary Member of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta ; Fellow of
the Royal Linnean, and of the Geological Societies of London ; of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and
of the Cambridge Philosophical Society ; of the Antiquarian, Wernerian Natural History, Royal Medical, Royal
Physieal, and Horticultural Societies of Edinburgh ; of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland ; of
the Antiquarian and Literary Society of Perth ; of the Statistical Society of Glasgow ; of the Royal Dublin
Society ; of the York, Bristol, Cambrian, Whitby, Northern, and Cork Institutions ; of the Natural History So-
ciety of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle ; of the Imperial Pharmaceutical Society of Petersburgh ; of
the Natural History Society of Wetterau ; of the Mineralogical Society of Jena ; of the Royal Mineralogical So-
ciety of Dresden ; of the Natural History Society of Paris ; of the Philomathic Society of Paris ; of the Natural
History Society of Calvados ; of the Senkenberg Society of Natural History ; of the Society of Natural Sciences
and Medicine of Heidelberg ; Honorary Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York ; of
the New York Historical Society ; of the American Antiquarian Society ; of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia ; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York ; of the Natural History Society of Montreal ; of
the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts ; of the Geological
Society of Pennsylvania ; of the Boston Society of Natural History of the United States ; of the South African
Institution of the Cape of Good Hope ; Honorary Member of the Statistical Society of France ; Member of the
Entomological Society of Stettin, &c. &e. &e.

OCTOBER 1844 .... APRIL 1845.

VOL. XXXVIII.
TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY.

EDINBURGH :

ADAM & CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH:
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN & LONGMANS, LONDON.

1845.

PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH.

CONTENTS.

PAGE
Arr, I. On the Original Population of America, and the
modes of access from the Old to the New Con-
tinent, with Preliminary Observations on the
recently published Travels in North America,
of Prince Maximilian of Wied. By Lieut.-
Colonel Cuartes Hamitton Smiru. Commu-
nicated by the Author, : . 1
IL. On the Biluchi Tribes inhabiting Sindh, in the
Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. By
Captain T. Postans. Communicated by the
Ethnological Society. Concluded from Vol.
xxxvii. p. 402, : 20
III. On the Mismanagement of Stable-Dung Ree
especially as regards exposure to Rain. Ry
Joun Davy, M.D., F.R.S. Lond. and Edin.
Communicated by the Author, . d 38
IV. On the Occurrence of Mannite in the Laminaria
saccharina and other Sea-weeds ; also in Mush-
rooms, : 41
V. On the Mammalia of the bse of pa pevaden.
Banff, and Kincardine. By Witi1am Mac-
Gitirvray, A.M., LL.D., Professor of Natural
History in Marischal College and University,
Aberdeen. Communicated by the Author.
Concluded from Vol. xxxvii., p. 392, : 43
VI. On the Phenomena of Evaporation, the Forma-
tion, and Suspension of Clouds, &. By G. A.
Rowe.i, Esq. of Oxford. Communicated by
the Author, . . : : 50

ii

CONTENTS.

Art. VII. On the Utility of Contour Lines on Plans. By

Captain VeETCH, feel ae i With a
Plate,

VIII. Remarks on the eeere and reer of the

IX.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

XV.

Moveable-Derrick Crane, improved and intro-
duced into general use by WiLL1AM WIGHTMAN,
Contractor, in the year 1837; but more parti-
cularly as applicable in the Construction of
Bridges, Piers, Breakwaters, and Naval Archi-
tecture. Communicated to Ed. New Phil. Jour-
nal by the Royal Scottish a of Arts. With
a Plate,

Abstract of a Paper relative to Soring of Water.
By Rozert Were Fox,

. Account of a Cheap and Portable Self Registering

Tide-Gauge, invented by Joun Woop, Esq. of
Port-Glasgow, and which has been two years in
use. With examples of the work done by it. By
Joun Scott Russet, Esq., F.R.S.E., F.R.S.S.A.
Communicated by the Royal Scottish Society
of Arts. With a Plate, :

Researches on the Situation of Zones without
Rain, and of Deserts. By M. J. Fourner, Pro-
fessor in the Faculty of Sciences of Lyons. Con-
cluded from Vol. xxxvii., p. 375,

An Account of Electrical Experiments. By Mr
R. Avis, Liverpool. Communicated by the
Author, F . :

On Fireproof Warehouses. By Witiiam Farr-
BAIRN, Esq., Civil-Engineer,

On Fluorine in Recent and Fossil Bones, and the
sources from whence it is derived. By J. Mip-
DLETON, Esq.,

Contributions towards Establishing the General
Character of the Fossil Plants of the genus Si-
gillaria. By Wiii1am Kine, Esq., Curator of
the Museum of the Natural History Society of
Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-upon-
Tyne. With Two Plates. Communicated by

PAGE

57

62

66

fa

76

97

101

116

al a,

CONTENTS. ili

PAGE
the Author. Concluded from page 75, Vol.
XXXVil., : 119

ArtT.XVI. Report of a Remarkable ead of the
Aurora Borealis below the Clouds. By the
Rev. James Farquuarson, LL.D., F.R.S., Mi-
nister of the Parish of Alford, ; 3 135

XVII. On a Species of Teredo found in Cork-floats, on
the Coast of Aberdeenshire. By Wittiam
MacGituivray, A.M., LL.D., Professor of Na-
tural History in Marischal College and Univer-

sity. Communicated by the Author, , 138
XVIII. An Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of
the Aboriginal Race of America. By Samvuet
GeorcE Morton, M.D., Author of Crania Ame-

ricana, Crania Hgyptiaca, &c., : 141
1. Physical Characteristics, } 5 : 142
2. Moral Traits, : ; : : 146
3. Intellectual Faculties, ; F : 149
4. Maritime Enterprise, : : : 155
5. Manner of Interment, : 160

XIX. Observations on the Comet in the Whale, made at
the Observatory of Hamburg. By M. Rumxer.
Communicated by Sir T. Makdougall Brisbane,
Bart., President of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh, ‘ : : : ‘ 174
‘XX. Screntiric INTELLIGENCE :—

GEOLOGY.

1. Remarks on Fossil Birds. By Mr Paul Gervaes.
2. On Gigantic extinct Mammalia in Australia.
By Prof. Owen. 3. On the influence of Fucoidal
Plants upon the formations of the Earth; on Me-
tamorphism in general, and particularly the Me-
tamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate. By
Prof. G. Forchhammer. 4. On the Fossil Fishes
of the London Clay. By M. Agassiz. 5. On the
Toadstone or Amygdaloid of Derbyshire. By J.
Alsop. 6, Our supposed inexhaustible Stores of
Coal. 7. Eruption of Boiling Water from the ex-
tinct volcano of Solfatara. 8. Temperature of the
Mediterranean. 9. On Polarization of Light in
reference to the Light of the Sun, . : 175

iv CONTENTS.

PAGE
MINERALOGY.
10. Discovery of Niobium, a new Metal. 11. Dau-
brée on the Occurrence of Axinite in a fossiliferous
Rock in the Vosges, 4 5 5 181
CHEMISTRY.
12. Experiments of Brown and Knox. 13. On the
Occurrence of Xanthic Oxidein Guano. 14. Heat
from Solid Carbonic Acid, : : 182
ZOOLOGY.
15. Professor E. Forbes’s Bathymetrical Researches.
16. Guyon on the Cagots of the Pyrenees. 17.
Coral Fishery. 18. Goadby’s Method of Prepar-
ing Animal Substances, i : ; 184
XXI. New Publications, F : , 186

XXII. List of Patents for Inventions granted for Scot-
land from 24th September to 20th December
1844, inclusive, : : : : 188

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Art. I. On the Life and Writings of Commandant
Emile Le Puillon de Boblaye. By M. Rozer, 193

II. Comparative Remarks on the Recent and Fossil
Mollusca of the South of Italy, and more par-

3 ticularly of Sicily. By Dr ‘A. Purziprt, 202
I. Comparative number of the Mollusca of the pre-
sent epoch, and of the Tertiary Period, ; 203
II. Relative numbers of the Extinct and ots
Species, : s 5 204
III. Physiognomy of the Mollusca of the Tertiary
Period and of the present day, 3 210

IV. What is the proportion of the Living and Ex-
tinct Species at the individual localities? Have
all the latter a like age? Can subdivisions be
established in the Tertiary formation of South-
ern Italy; and if so, what are they? . Ae PAY

III. On admitting the Back-Light, in Portable Dio-
ramas, upon different parts of a Picture at
different times; on using Light from Oil,

&c. By Georce Tait, Esq., F.R.S.S.A.
Communicated by the Royal Scottish Society
of Arts, ; : : : - 214

IV. Description of the Great Chimney at St Rollox,
Glasgow, and of the Climbing- Machine used
in examining and repairing a Rent in that
Chimney at the height of 280 feet. By Lewis
D. B. Gorpon, Esq., Professor of Civil-En-
gineering in the University of Glasgow, and

Art. VY.

Wi.

War,

VILE

IX.

XI.

XII.

CONTENTS.

Laurence Hitt Junior, Esq., F.R.S.S.A.,
Civil-Engineer. With a Plate. Communi-
cated by the Royal Scottish Society of Arts,

On a Method of rendering Baily’s Compensa-
tion Pendulum insensible to Hygrometric
Influence. By Mr Rosert Bryson, F.R.S.E.,
Watchmaker, Edinburgh. Communicated by
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts,

An Account of some Experiments tending to
illustrate the Formation of Guano. By Joun
Davy, M.D., F.R.SS. Lond. & Ed., Inspec-
tor-General of Army Hospitals, L.R. Com-
municated by the Author,

On the Heights of Mountains, &c., in Norway,
I. Heights in the different Amts,
II. Height of the Snow-Line,
III. Limit of the Birch Tree,
IV. Limit of the Scotch Fir,
V. Limit of the Spruce Fir, : °

On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible
compared with the Discoveries of the Modern
Sciences. By Marven DE SERRES,

On Earthquakes and Extraordinary Movements
of the Sea; and on remarkable Lunar Perio-
dicities in Earthquakes, Oscillations of the
Sea, and Great Atmospherical Changes. ss)
Ricuarp Epmonps Jun., Esq.,

. On the Constitution of the Ichthyolites of

Stromness. By Anprew Fremine, A.M.,
M.D. Communicated by the Author,

On the Determination of Heights by the Boil-
ing Point of Water. By James D. Foxrszs,
Esq., F.R.S., Sec. R.S. Ed., Corresponding
Member of the Institute of France, and Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh. With Two Plates,

Remarks on the Cirripedia, with Descriptions

of several Species found adhering to Vessels
from Ichaboe, on the West Coast of Southern

PAGE

216

220

226

232
234
238
238
238
239

239

271

280

286

Arr. XIII.

XIV.

b.A'

XVI.

VIE:

XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

XXII.

CONTENTS.

Africa. By Wint1am MacGiriivray, A.M.,
LL.D., Professor of Natural History in
Marischal College and University, Aberdeen.
Communicated by the Author,
On the Intellectual Character of the ind:
maux. By Ricuarp Kine, M.D. Commu-
nicated by the Ethnological Society.

Ninth Letter on Glaciers; addressed to Profes-
sor Jameson. Remarks on the Recent Ob-
servations made on the Glacier of the Aar
(in 1844), by direction of M. Agassiz. By
Professor Forses, F.R.S., Corresponding
Member of the Institute of France. Com-
municated by the Author, 3

Note on the Crystallization of recon ae of
Lime. By Joun Davy, M.D., F.R.S., Lond.
and Edin. Communicated by the wade:

On the Origin of Quartz and Metalliferous
Veins. By Professor Gustav Biscuor, of
Bonn,

Proceedings of the reat Society of Edin-
burgh. (Continued from Vol. XXXVI., p.
198.) :

Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History
Society, é : ‘
Abstract of Meteorological Observations for
1844, made at Applegarth Manse, Dumfries-
shire. By the Rev. Wm. Dunzar, D.D. (Con-
tinued from Vol. XXXVI., p. 380),

Mean State of the Barometer and Thermometer -

at Canaan Cottage, near Edinburgh. By A.
Anviz, Esq. 1844, , : -
The Meteorology of Whitehaven. Remarks on

the Weather, &c., of 1844,

ScrentiFic INTELLIGENCE :—
GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
1. Geognostical Structure of Magerée. 2. Geog-
nosy of Nordkyn in Finmark. 3. Supposed
Organic Remains of Kaafjord in Norway. 4.

lil

PAGE

294

306

332

342

344

354

374

375

377

377

iv CONTENTS.

New Proof of the Cantal being a crater of Sou-
levement. 5. On the Cause of the Colours in
Precious Opal. By Sir David Brewster. 6. On
Crystals in the cavities of Topaz, which are
dissolved by heat, and re-crystallize on cooling.
By Sir David Brewster,

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
7. Distribution of Plants on Mount Canigou, Hast-

ern Pyrenees. 8. On solid Vegetable Oils.
9. On the Ibis, : h : :

Art. XXIII. New Publications,

XXIV. List of Patents for LiivelhiiMe granted for
Scotland from 24th January to 20th
March 1845, inclusive, : E

INDEX,

Errata in Mr King’s paper on the Genus Sigillaria, in the last Number.

Page 131, line 6 from the top, for Endogens read Cryptogams.
» » line 12 from the top, dele of this class.
ss 182, line 5 from the top, for Monocotyledons vead plants.

» 134, line 2 from the bottom, for Kenilworth read Killingworth.

PAGE

383

386
389

392
397

—_—-

Ts
‘
@

THE

EDINBURGH NEW

PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

On the Original Population of America, and the modes of access
from the Old to the New Continent, with Preliminary Ob-
servations on the recently published Travels in North America,
of Prince Maximilian of Wied.* By Lieut.-Colonel CHARLES
Haron Surra. Communicated by the Author.

Books of travels in North America, the Atlantic States,
the interior, the Canadas, and Texas, have been of late so
superabundant in our language, that to offer some remarks
on one that does not appear to have been reviewed, although
it was published some months ago, might be taken for an
absolute work of supererogation. In the original, it is true,
the language is German ; but both French and English ver-
sions were brought out, we believe, at the same time, with the
approbation of the author, Prince Maximilian of Wied, who
formerly gave the scientific public an interesting account of
his travels in Brazil, and is so well known for careful and
extensive researches in natural history. The work before us
(we refer chiefly to the German edition, the most complete of
the three) differs somewhat from the English version, by
having all the philological researches, and the zoological

* Reise in das innere Nord America in den Jahren 1832 bis 1834, von
Mawimilian Prinz eu Wied. 2 vols. imp. 4to, with Atlas of Plates. Co-
blenz. Travels in the interior of North America, by Maximilian Prince
of Wied. London: Ackermann, 1843.

VOL. XXXVIIL NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1645. A

2 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith

descriptions without restriction or omission; the more im-
portant to science, because none other will be published by
the author in a separate form ; since the greater part of his
valuable collections have unfortunately perished by fire, in
their passage by steam down the rivers of the United States,
and, consequently, could not again be referred to.

We do not know how far, in the translations, the notion of
adapting a foreign work, to what is called the national taste,
has been extended, but in a general point of view, a scien-
tific publication, necessarily intended for the learned and stu-
dious, should be, we think, translated with great caution,
even though it hath appeared in the form of a journal. In
England and America, the native writers of travels have
often indulged, each adverting to the land of his own birth,
in national self-complacencies and national reflections, but
little creditable to their tastes, and calculated to increase
more than abate the evils they profess to denounce. The
work before us contains no evidence of a similar tendency,
and in this sense may want the salt of malevolence: it is of
quite a different mould, though the illustrious traveller, fa-
miliar with the courts of sovereigns, and well acquainted
with the habits of many nations, might easily have indulged
in that kind of remark which recommends itself so strongly
to the curiosity of common readers ; but he never descends
into comment on the habits of private life, or domestic fa-
milies ; never holds up with triumphant complacency his own
nationality, but, solelyand enthusiastically bent on the pursuit
of Natural History, self is not made prominent in any form.
There are no smart repartees, no claims to the character of
being a first-rate shot, no unheard-of hardships endured,
although, for several months, his whole party were obliged
to live entirely in the Indian fashion; and there is scarce
mention of any danger having been incurred. Seeking new
facts in the wildernesses of the far west, as he had previously
done in the tropical regions of Brazil, not so much with that
thrist for notoriety, which besets so many public men, that
his name might be celebrated in the halls of science, as to
follow the impulses of a nature which continues to draw him
mightily to the abstractions of research, as they formerly

on the Original Population of America. 3

did at Paris, during the period when the allied armies were
all in a tumult of politics, ceremonies, and parades, and he ap-
peared daily in his Prussian Hussar uniform, with note-book
in hand, at the lectures of Cuvier, the only military student,
although at that time he had already accomplished his visit
to South America, and was advantageously known for his
scientific addenda to the zoology of that region. The thirst
for extending his knowledge in natural history is still so
ardent. that we believe, if the Prince were not withheld by a
somewhat advanced life, he would, even now, quit his peace-
ful study to undertake a scientific tour in Australia, reap a
new harvest of facts and objects to deposit in his valuable
zoological museum, or share them, with his usual liberality,
with other collections of a similar nature, both public and
private.

The contents of the museum at Neuwied are always acces-
sible to the scientific, and even to the merely curious travel-
ler ; and the liberality which is ever ready to communicate
information on the natural sciences, is only equalled by the
unostentatious urbanity of the giver, and the interest he
takes in the pursuits of his fellow-labourers in the same re-
searches. But the quality of a book, it may be said, should
not be estimated by the private worth of the author; and
being destitute of the marvellous, or the piquancy of social
comparisons, can excite but small interest with the generality
of readers; and it may be asked, what is its prominent cha-
racter ? To this this we may reply, in a single word, namely,
truth! NVeracity unembellished by more colouring than what
is necessary for the acquisition of a clear perception of the
matter, is the pervading aim of every sentence. It is the
spell that binds the author’s observations on the general
character of the social condition of man in the United States :
he sees dispassionately from an elevated point of view, mark-
ing “ the great result of unchecked industry, and a vigorous
system of commerce, as the causes of that giant progress
everywhere observable ; exciting the astonishment of a tra-
veller from Europe, when he meets at every step new
and extensive cities, with numerous public buildings, and
great institutions of all kinds. They rise up so rapidly, that

4 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith

maps, comparatively of recent publication, become almost
useless, by reason of the new names of places and towns
which have sprung up into reality within a few years ; while
the influx of colonists penetrates more and more into the in-
terior, and is not likely to be checked but by the sterility of
the higher plateaux of the north-western prairies.” This
piercing glance into coming events, though so recently writ-
ten, dates, nevertheless, before the new direction which the
expansion of settlements has taken, and is now rapidly tak-
ing, into Texas, a state torn from its Spanish allegiance,
which popular or party clamour appears anxious to incorpo-
rate with the other provinces of the Federal Union, not with-
out an ulterior view to Mexico. Indeed, to the initiated, the
scheme had its commencement so far back as 1816. It is
again illustrated by the still more recent Oregon question,
urged on with an intemperance of zeal that would be amus-
ing, if it were not for the reflection, that, among public men,
external injustice and violence is only offensive when com-
mitted by a stranger or an enemy, and that the principle of
national honesty is disregarded even more in republics than
in monarchies ; because there is no responsibility for conse-
quences in the former, though there may be some in the
latter.

Thus the grasping selfishness of civilized nations disposes
of the earth’s surface according to the dictates of ambition,
without the least regard to the claims and rights of the mdi-
genous tribes to whom they send traders to demoralize them ;
then come missionaries, as if it were to prepare them for re-
moval ; for, notwithstanding their high calling, they cannot
arrest the fatal results of gunpowder, ardent spirits, and new
diseases spread among them : nay, it would appear that some
undetected law in nature blights the vitality of the children
of the wilderness ; since every care cannot prevent the gra-
dual extinction of the natives from the moment civilized man
becomes a permanent dweller among them. The humane
and the pious cannot but reflect earnestly upon these too
common results of their most benevolent exertions : and we
mention these reflections not without despondency ; for in
more than one region have we been eye-witnesses to their

on the Original Population of America. 5

operation. Meanwhile, in America, that portion of the ab-
original race which still exists undevoured by the mild pro-
cesses of the civilized encroacher, and which, as it will not
bow to servitude, must submit to extermination, is fast be-
coming (that is, in the exact proportion of its decrease) the
theme of romantic story ; and when the last tribe shall have
been effaced, the stoical virtues of the red warrior shall ob-
tain full credit with the “ pale faces” of the Caucasian stock,
and rise into more deserved, because more real, grandeur
than the Titans, the Pelasgi, or the Scythians of the poetical
Kast.

As it was not to describe the Anglo-Americans that the
Prince undertook his voyage, but to become acquainted, by
personal research, with the natural productions of North Ame-
rica, its mineral and vegetable riches, its zoology, and, above
all, its fast vanishing indigenous nations, it is in relation to
these aboriginal tribes that the work before us is particularly
valuable, being written from notes dating, in point of time, two
or three years before the travels of the benevolent Catlin,
whose narrative, when speaking of those nations which were
observed by the Prince, notices the same chiefs and braves ;
and they mutually illustrate each other. Where the more
extensive and varied intercourse of the American author
among the whole range of Red tribes occasionally rectifies a
slight mistake, the German diary, particularly where the re-
marks bear upon the natural history, origin, and languages, of
this race, develops a more profound knowledge of the zoolo-
gical condition of the questions at issue, a greater and more
varied historical research, and the power of comparing the
different dialects, extinct and spoken, of that part of the
Western Continent. A previous personal study of the native
clans of Brazil afforded another signal advantage for compa-
rison ; and the facility which the Prince possessed of com-
municating with such authorities as Humboldt, Blumenbach,
and many other celebrated investigators of Germany, both in
the physiology and linguistics of America, give the more
weight to his opinions, and make them all the more accepta-
ble, because they are not offered in the form of peremptory
conclusions.

6 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith

It is, indeed, evident in the context of the expressed infer-
ences, that identity with the Malay race, or an exclusive
Mongolic extraction, is far from bemg a fact admissible
without very considerable qualification: but there is a ten-
dency in philosophical researches, as well as in fashion, to fol-
low in the wake of certain favoured opinions, where given
reasonings are for a time admitted to be conclusive, and re-
ceive all the support of dogmatic authority, until they are
undermined by time, or suddenly overthrown by the disclosure
of some new undeniable fact. The original population of
the Western Continent, perhaps above all other speculative
crotchets, has been, and occasionally continues to be, a theme
of this kind, particularly among that class of day-dreamers
who neither understand physiology, nor think it important to
investigate and compare the languages of those regions.
Among the more ancient writers, several did not scruple to
make and overcome all sorts of difficulties ; they embarked
in the strangest fancies, and, even in more recent times, there
have been authors who were able to dwell with satisfaction on
the discovery of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, or the Welsh
followers of Madoc, who, according to their fancies, were the
progenitors of the whole or of a part of the present indige-
nous race. But though, perhaps, neither of the above asser-
tions is entirely erroneous, there is evidence in every direc-
tion of the probability that men of different stocks had reached
the Western World at very different times and from different
quarters. We think His Highness might have gone further
in his admissions, and at once have allowed the considerable

admixture of a Caucasian element in the races of America,

whether the progenitors of that stock reached their destina-
tion by a western course from Europe, from some submerged
Atlantis, or whether a Guanche tribe went by successive
stages from Africa, and within the certain course westward
of the trade-winds and currents, or a people proceeded by an
eastern route from the South Sea Islands, the Aleuthian
chain, or from the mouth of the river Amur, whither a Cau-
casian tribe appears to have lost its way among the chains
of the Kuan-Lun and Thien-chan mountains at a most remote
period of human existence.

—_—

on the Original Population of America. 7

We know so little of the primeval world; of the first dis-
tribution of man ; of the question whether all historical record

“of the west be not exclusively applicable to the Caucasic or

bearded stock ; and of a diluvian destruction, which, if it be
admitted to have affected the whole earth, would still not
substantiate that it was total, by submerging every moun-
tain-ridge, and include the absolute destruction of the whole
human race, with the sole exception of the Arkite family.
We know nothing of the original conditions of existence of
the Mongolic and Ethiopian stocks, nor when nor how they
acquired their distinctive characters; excepting that when
the first mentioned can be traced in history it is already as
strongly marked as at present, and still more the second,
which is found pictured on the oldest monuments of Egypt,
dating, according to the best authorities, nearly as far back
as the age of Abraham, that is, according to the common
chronology, to within the fourth century after the Deluge ;
we see that it is delineated in features, hair, and colour, with
all the attributes of the present negroes. We can scarcely
deny that at that time India and China, probably also Bac-
tria, were also densely peopled and already ruled by consi-
derable monarchies, though the civilizations of Etruria, of
Asia Minor, Syria, and Greece, were, for ages after, still
small independent communities, rising out of the patriarchal
form, and not yet united into nations by conquest,—always a
result of time. Still less is known of those ages where, by
our present discoveries, we find that there was in some un-
known region an advanced civilization, since it left evidence
of a progressive science which was again followed by ages of
darkness, to revive and perish again or reappear in other
quarters, till the contemplation would appear like the phan-
toms of a dream, if evidence far stronger than historical as-
sertions were not found in ruins of man’s handiwork in parts
of the world of all others the most unlooked-for. Such, for
example, is the ruined city or cities—for more than one
is reported to exist in the same vicinity—built of huge
squared blocks of stone, and in surface extending to dimen-
sions that must have required a vast population, though
they be now sunk below the level of the sea, and are situ-

8 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith

ated on small islands of the volcanic range in the Chinese
seas, known by the name of the Carolines. This range
is still subject to the action of all the phenomena attend-
dant upon subterranean fire, and the parts above water, in
many places, seem to indicate that a great surface of the
earth has sunk into the sea, leaving only summits above
water, or that these summits, with the ruins upon them, are
gradually returning to the surface; but that once a more
numerous people existed here than could find subsistence on
the present surfaces, and was in possession of certain arts
of civilized life, is beyond dispute. Here, then, we have the
counterpart of our western Atlantis, and perhaps the founda-
tion of that Zepangri which Marco Polo had heard of in the
East. In Japan, according to Dr Syburg, wrought jewellery
has been found under conditions which must refer it to a
people and age totally unknown; and in the Chinese seas,
near the Island Formosa, a peculiar green porcelain, that
cannot now be manufactured, is fished up, unless the trade
is an imposture, which may ever be suspected where that
crafty people is concerned.

Again, there are the Parallellitha of Tinian, the rock idols
of Christmas Island and of Pitcairn’s, where no human foot
was supposed to have trodden till the mutineers of the
Bounty landed, and found, in these sculptured remains, un-
equivocal proof that a people had anteriorly lived upon that
rock, and had perished or had departed. On the west coast
of America, no structures of the class usually denominated
cromlechs have yet been noticed; but they exist on the
north-eastern side of that continent, in Newfoundland, and
in several places of the United States, to a distance in the
interior, precluding all probability that at any time they
were set up by the Scandinavian adventurers who visited
Greenland, and, it would seem, from later information, ex-
plored the coast southward as far as Brazil, where, it is’
asserted, a Runic inscription has been discovered ; or there
was a far greater number of tempest-driven adventurers
from the west of Europe than Scandinavian Sagas knew of,
not lost at sea, but cast upon the east coast of the new
world, and absorbed in its population. There exist beyond

on the Original Population of America. 9

the Alleghanies well-defined traces of ancient fortified cities
or camps; great sepulchral tumuli, the work of unknown
nations; for nearly all traditionary knowledge among the
different tribes now existing in these localities accounts for
their arrival from the north-west or the north, at periods
apparently not exceeding seven or eight centuries’ distance
from the present time, excepting with a few, who have puerile
legends, ascribing their descent from beavers, elks, rabbits,
trout, and even from a species of moth and snail. That
these are not more aboriginal than the rest, is proved by the
languages they speak being mere dialects of those who
acknowledge an immigration, and by the general physical
similarity of their persons.

From California to Chili there are, however, far more
numerous remains of departed nations, not wholly admissible
as the work of Toltecs, of Astecs, Anahyuacans, or of Peru-
vians. From the shores of the Pacific eastward, a system
of civilization had waxed and waned more than once, not
entirely self-created, and in some places not without western
elements, but, in the main, worked out into a homogeneous
character ,exclusively its own. The pyramids of Cholula,
near Mexico.—which bear more affinity to the Morais of the
Friendly and Society Islands than any other work of the
kind—might, indeed, be the consequences of human reason
under similar circumstances adopting similar ideas, if they
did not also stand as landmarks of a marine route, since we
find them connected with Indo-China, by similar works in
Java, &c. But ina later class of buildings, temples, palaces,
and the ruins of great cities in Yucatan, &c., there are bas-
relief figures of gods, heroes, attendants, and captives, remark-
able for their lengthened proportions, aquiline noses, and flat-
tened occiputs, of which we find living types only among the
lofty tribes of northern Indians, although in the antique bury-
ing-places of Peru there are numerous instances of skulls
similarly flattened at the back, but with totally distinct cranial
characters. The aquiline-faced race was, therefore, at some
anterior period, possessed of civilization and power in tropi-
cal America, sufficient not only to leave its physical charac-
teristics impressed on ideal personages, but even to serve as

10 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith

types for the fashions of remote and distinct nations. Why
should these not be the tall Allegwi tribes, anciently driven
southward by the Lene Lenapes, who, many ages ago, came,
according to their own traditions, from the west, far beyond
the Missisippi, and made themselves masters of the country ?
Nevertheless, even these appear to be copies, as will be
pointed out in the sequel.

Reverting to the oscillations of social life and emigration,
it may next be remarked, that all the South Sea Islands,
when first discovered, were found to be in possession of
domestic poultry, indigenous only in Asia and Australasia.
It is said that the same species was discovered by the first
Spaniards, among the Aurocanos of the coast of Chili; and
Cortez, in his letters, addressed to the Emperor Charles V.,
casually observes, when first he visited the markets of
Mexico, that poultry and onions were abundantly sold in
them. Had he referred to turkeys, grouse, or other galli-
nacea of America, he would most likely have been somewhat
more explicit, because they would have afforded the interest
of novelty, which the first-named birds soon after excited in
Spain. He mentions, in another place, fields of Indian corn
(Zea Mais), by the name of mayz, making it, therefore, dis-
tinct from the Tritica of the Old World. The objection that
might be raised, that if poultry had really been introduced
before the time of Columbus, the species would have been
found wild in all the congenial latitudes, may be answered
with the fact, that, although three centuries have elapsed
since the arrival of the Spaniards, none are yet found wild
in any part of the country, while the Guinea and pea-fowls
brought so late as the seventeenth century, are abundant in
the woods of the Great West India Islands, and in parts of
South America.

In the works of art at Palenque, representations have been
found, bearing strong analogy to the scriptural records in
Genesis ; and even the cross is sculptured between two high-
nosed heroes. Again there are rocks carved with diagrams
of similar design near Boston (at Dighton, on the banks of
the Taunton), in many places of Guiana, and near Ekaterin-
enburg in Siberia. We find the ears perforated, and the

on the Original Population of America. AL

septum nasi bored through, to bear a rod of bone (by sailors
termed a spritsail yard), both in the South Sea Islands and
on the east coast of Asia; from Nootka Sound in America to
beyond the equator. Several weapons of the Malays are of
a similar fashion to those of South America. Peter Martyr,
who wrote his decades from papers of the first discoverers,
and during their lives, relates that Oaseo Nunez found a
colony of negroes at Quaraqua in the Gulf of Darien. There
are others of Papua appearance on the west side in Cali-
fornia. About Nootka, a white coloured skin would efface
the radical distinction of the Red Men; and the Caribs of the
West Indies, from our personal knowledge, are, if any re-
main, ochry, like Arookas, and not nearly so red as Spanish
and French seamen exposed to the sun.

Finally, there exist in both Americas linguistic formule,
which Balbi refers to a Semitic and even Hebrew affinity,
and many words in the Carib tongue, particularly among
the trading, vagrant, and fighting, Accawas, have a striking
resemblance to the languages of ancient Syria and Carthage.
Of the diversity of origin existing among the so-called abo-
riginal inhabitants, there are the Arookas or Arowaks, in
the south, whom we have ourselves heard the Caribs declare
to be a distinct race from every other in northern South
America, and to have come up from the south, possibly an
ancient offset of the heroic Araukanos, apparently themselves
belonging to the Oceanian stock of New Zealand, mixed
Semitic Malays, from time immemorial the seamen of the
South. The Wapisians of Guiana may be a stray sept of
the destroyed high-nosed tribes of ancient Mexico, and, in
that case, remotely allied to the Cherokees, who are affirmed
to be of the same Allegwi stock; and, in North America, we
see no reason why a people of Celtic origin should not have
reached the western continent, since their monuments can
be traced upon it, and we find a well-marked chain of these
same structures on the old continent, from the river Indus
eastward through southern India to Macao in China, and the
island of Loochoo; and from the same river westward
through Persia, Armenia, Asia Minor, Epirus, and the Tyrol
on the north, and along the coast of Africa, on the south side

12 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith

the Mediterranean, then following the west coasts of Spain
~ and France to Great Britain, and through western Germany
into Norway, where the Scandinavians appear to have con-
tinued to raise similar monuments after the Cymbers of the
north had been expelled.

It is not necessary to adduce the numerous instances of
Oceanian natives being scattered by the monsoons to im-
mense distances from their homes, with and without women.
The fact is sufficiently proved, since constant voyages of our
commercial and military navies traverse the Pacific, and
often meet with examples of the kind. The truth is esta-
blished still more positively by the similarity of aspect,
languages, and manners, of the greater part of the islanders
over the whole surface of Polynesia; and the practicability
of frequent escape from destruction, is indicated by means
of the numerous coral islands where the wanderers find
temporary shelter. A strong instance of another kind is
recorded in the case of a Japanese junk, which, having been
blown out of its course, was allowed to float at random for
eight months, until an English brig, seeing its wreck-like
aspeet, sent a boat on board, within forty-eight hours’ sail
of the coast of California, and took seven persons out of her,
being all that survived of forty, who composed the original
company. They were brought safe to the Sandwich Islands,
in order to be restored to their native country by the first
vessel that might sail for the Chinese seas.

On the Atlantic, the Norwegian discoveries have already
been mentioned. Columbus, in his second voyage, found
the sternpost of a vessel on shore at Guadaloupe. In-
stances have occurred, likewise, of vessels parting their
anchors at Teneriffe (one in 1731), being driven with a part
of the crews on board, to Trinidad in tropical America,
Another was taken in possession by the people of a British
ship, not far from Caraccas, and carried into La Guira.
The Black Caribs of St Vincents were a race of Negroes
found on that island; but their early history, so far as it
relates the circumstance that they are descended from re-
volted Africans on board a slave-ship, which was stranded
near the island, is by no means a fact so well authenti-

on the Original Population of America. 13

cated, as it is inferred from general reasoning. Both the
facility of reaching tropical America from the Atlantic, and
the general credulity or ignorance on the subject, was, we
remember, well illustrated by a fact which occurred about
the year 1798. An American merchant, with a black boy,
arrived in a ship’s gig, provided with water and food, and
containing some valuable merchandize, at Paramaribo, in
the colony of Surinam. The account he gave of himself
was, that he came a passenger from the East Indies in a
British ship ; and having purchased the boat in the proper
latitude for reaching the West Indies, had embarked with
his servant, and run before the trade-wind, intending to
make Barbadoes ; but indifferent steering in a small boat—
unsteadiness for taking observations—sleep, and probably
eurrents—had, it appeared, carried him so far south as to
make the mainland of South America. He was disbelieved,
and detained until the truth of his narrative was fully esta-
blished. Thus, within the trade-winds, an open boat may
run with safety, and within a determinable time, from
Africa to America. Indeed, it was an open boat which
brought the first intelligence of De Gama’s safe arrival in
India—having gone the whole distance across the Indian
Ocean—round the Cape of Good Hope to Lisbon. Of the
vessels of Columbus which he used to discover America, only
one was completely decked.

What the trade-winds effect constantly on the Atlantic,
the monsoons produce alternately on the Pacifie,—the effect
of which we have already mentioned; but as a further
proof in what manner European vessels may have formerly
wandered, and the crews, been saved in unknown lands, may
be mentioned a Venetian ship, about the last quarter of the
fifteenth century, bound to Bordeaux, losing its rudder after
passing Gibraltar, and beating about during the whole
winter, till it was wrecked on the coast of Norway, where
the crew was ultimately saved and sent to Copenhagen.
Had this vessel’s head been cast to the south instead of to
the north, after she had lost her rudder, it is evident that
her drift way would have led to the trade-winds, and thence
the currents affecting her course, and a permanent favour-

14 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith

able wind must infallibly have driven her to some shore in
the West Indies or tropical America. There existed, be-
sides, already in that age, a vague notion of land to the
westward. <A chart existed in the library of St Mark at
Venice, representing the west coast of Europe and Africa
with islands scattered on the Atlantic Ocean, terminating
in the west with one of great extent, denominated Antilia,
and another, only partially introduced, bearing west from
Cape Finisterra, and not so eastward as Antilia, with the
name of Isola de Laman Fatanaxio. The chart is ascribed
to the Venetian hydrographer, Andrea Bianco, and dated
1436. Now, although this document might be a forgery of
the Venetian government; to colour some claim to a share
in one or other of the Indies, after they were both dis-
covered ; still we have the certainty, that, already in 1493,
the Spaniards applied the name Antilia to Hispaniola and
Cuba, as recorded by Peter Martyr; and if the name be
what Hofmann asserts, derived from Ante insula, it would
prove that there was an opinion extant of a continent be-
yond it; which, moreover, is vaguely asserted to have been
known to Biscayan fishing ships and whalers, driven far to
the west from their then usual stations on the coast of Ire-
land. With us the wonder that such a fact should have
been so long left disputable would be the greater, if it were
not known to what extent the industrial sciences were con-
demned by the scholastic learned, until the news arrived
from both the Indies that gold was abundant beyond sea, and
the subsequent interest of Spain to cast discredit on all prior
knowledge of a western world.

Dicuil, the Irish monk, who wrote in the time of Charle-
magne, might be mentioned here, as an instance of geo-
graphical information existing in his time, which was after-
wards overlooked or denied; for he incidentally notices
Iceland, then already inhabited by British families, though
the discovery is accorded, at a later period, to a Northman
navigator. See his work, De Mensura Orbis.

But for want of space many facts and arguments to illus-
trate the questions under consideration might be added.
What has been said appears sufficient to establish the con-

on the Original Population of America. 15

clusion, that, although no ships which had actually visited
the natives of America (always excepting the Scandinavians)
were known to have returned, still, among many that
perished, some must have reached the New World at dif-
ferent periods, and from different directions, sufficient to
account for all the phenomena of languages, traditions, arts,
and physical characteristics, found therein ; but not, there-
fore, bearing proofs that any credible records existed of a
former intercourse, or that either Jews or Welshmen, or
rather Phoenicians and Celts, were sufficiently numerous to
be nationally distinguishable at subsequent periods. Al-
though there was a received tradition among the Mexican
and several other nations, of a people superior to themselves
dwelling beyond sea, which, they believed, was destined to
visit the West at some future period, this legend, or popu-
lar rumour, cannot have been else than an obscure record
of a remote event, anciently brought by a Carthaginian,
Celtic, Greek, or Roman ship, or by more than one of them,
but certainly from Europe, or at least from nations belonging
to the European system of civilization.

On the west side of America, the evidence appears in fa-
vour of a more frequent and varied intercourse. Towards
the southern coast, and in the interior, Malay characteristics
are obvious, and in the north whole tribes must have passed,
using their seal-skin coracles, or crossing on the winter ice
from the more desolate east of Asia, at Behring’s Straits,
scarce forty miles asunder, and beset with islands, to a com-
paratively fertile and wooded region, such as the north-west
coast of America offers. The form of the native boats is
nearly alike round the whole arctic circle; and in the na-
tional habits of Laplanders, Karakasses, Tongusians, Tschut-
ski, Samoyeds, and Ostiaks, there are traits which seem to
have had permanent influence even far in the south of Ame-
rica, as if a very early stem of population had proceeded
southward along the west coast, and a second at a later pe-
riod had been encountered and partially checked by races of
different origin and irreconcileable temperaments, perhaps
the nigh-nosed heroic people already noticed. Several tribes,
and among others the Toltecs, asserted that they came in a

16 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith

boat to Colhuacan. As a proof that the skin coracles will
convey human beings through the most turbulent seas, men-
tion may be made of one stranded on the west of Holland in
the sixteenth century, with its tenant still securely girt with-
in the seal-skin opening, but dead, probably from privation ;
and that the Greenlanders were considered as belonging to
the same arctic stock by the first Northmen who visited their
country, is indicated by the common name of Skrelings (that
is Eskimaux) which they gave to both. More to the south,
at the bay of St Francisco, the Californian tribes are almost
black, as if they were descended from a mixed race of Mon-
golic Papuas, akin to the Formosans and other black Poly-
nesians.

All the nations of the west coast had anciently a solar
worship, in common with the Asiatic Karakasses and other
Siberian tribes ; they had also a mythical record of the De-
luge, some with, and others without, fears for the safety of
the moon when assailed by the celestial dragon, which is
common to Negroes, Malays, Chinese, and many South Sea
Islanders, who make noises and draw their knives during the
moments of an eclipse. It is only another version of the
Ark endangered by the overwhelming waters, transferred to
the heavenly bodies. In Mexican idols and pictures, and in
bas-reliefs of Yucatan and Peru, the same event is repre-
sented in the form of a woman being swallowed by the great
serpent ; a counterpart of ancient pagan Mythi of Western
Asia and Europe, and occurring also in an ivory carving
executed in Ceylon. But what unites the American arkite
legends from north to south, is a bas-relief upon a box of
Peruvian workmanship, dating before the middle of the six-
teenth century, and representing the hero of the Deluge, who
in the north is denominated « Young Chippewa:” with his
bow in hand he is seen riding the ark, or the aboriginal elk—
parent of human nature,—and the sun shining over its palm-
ated head. The elk is winged, and, though four-footed, the
body terminates in a fish’s tail with a serpent standing upon
the back, and the turtle dove or the raven (for they are often
confounded in pagan mythologies), flies out before the rider,
while diluvian sea-monsters, Boa or Python serpents, and

2
2

on the Original Population of America. 17

Howler monkeys, Pumas, Alligators, and the Electrical Eel,
the principal zoological objects of America, are distinctly
traced around. On other faces of the box are a Gothic pa-
lace, probably the first Spanish edifice raised at Cusco, also
a circus, and a European hog; but the two end compart-
ments represent a solar worship with the planetary system,
and the dragon within the rays of the sun in the centre, and
the other a lunar mythus, with the goddess of nature in the
form of woman within the moon’s horns, both having Peruvian
Yneas or high priests on each side, and shewing that the na-
tional worship was not yet forsaken by the artist who made
it.* The light thus thrown upon a Peruvian mythological
representation, by means of a North American legend, is one
of many proofs of the nomadic character of the ancient popu-
lation, and that they have had their periods of swarming as
well as the ancient nations of Asia. The time of duration
when these great movements in the human families took
place in both countries, synchronise sufficiently to warrant a
conclusion of their cause being the same. It may be sur-
mised that they were the effect of some law in nature, which
on some occasions affects man, as others in many known in-
stances influence the brute creation; but concerning which
we, as yet, know nothing more than that the successful pas-
sions of warriors and conquerors are not sufficient to pro-
duce similar continuous results. They may be the sign, but
cannot be the cause.

To our general conclusion, that the population of America
consists in a partial mixture of human beings from different
stocks and quarters, the objection that all the tribes have
more or less characteristics which connect them with the
Mongolic, is of little weight, when we consider that by far
the greater proportion of the existing races are known to
have proceeded from the north-west angle of North America,
and are, therefore, in all likelihood, of the beardless or Mon-
golic variety, and, as all the nations of the American conti-
nent have practised the admission of grown men in their

* This box is now, we believe, in the British Museum.
VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. B

18 Lieutenant-Colonel Hamilton Smith

families, the adoption of male children and the abduction of
females, that their blood is mixed in all, and necessarily the
most predominant in the whole population. There exist,
nevertheless, from the Arctic circle to Terra del Fuego,
practices having no counterpart that we know of in any
other region of the world, and affording proofs of antiquity
as remote as the oldest works of art, and the most ancient
skeletons of man in those regions, can suggest. From
them it might be inferred, that once the vast territory of the
Western World had been in possession of a variety of man
distinct from the three great stocks of the Old Continent,
unless we can understand it to be of that swarthy unde-
fined race of Asiatic antiquity, the Flatheads, Kakasiah,
Nimrecs, and Dombuks of Persia, primeval enemies of the
Iranian race, vanquished by the Huscheng and Tahmuras ;
and the same as the Preeadamites of La Peyrere, whose
treatise, derived from oriental sources, caused so much com-
motion and so many victorious refutations in the seventeenth
century. The skulls of these antique Americans present pe-
culiarities not quite satisfactorily explained by physiologists,
being extremely elongated, and the facial angle depressed,
leaving scarcely any forehead. Now, although this mon-
strosity may be produced in a great measure by artificial
means, the heads of infants, considered to belong to the same
race, so young as to have still all the sutures open, have the
forehead depressed, the temples enlarged, but no evident
sign of similar pressure at the back, where the occipital bone
is distinctly separated into an upper and a lower portion,
each of greater size than the single bone of Caucasians of
the same age, and the facial bones are already exceedingly
solid, with an elevated ridge round each of the orbits. Whe-
ther these are precisely the same as the Aturian crania of
Blumenbach, we shall not decide, but remark only upon the
controversial statements we have seen on the subject, that
the diversity of opinion, in a great measure, arose from the
inspection of another set of Peruvian, and even Titicaca
skulls, whereof the forehead is but little depressed, but the
occiput is vertical, and obliquely contracted, from evident
early contact with a hard substance behind. We have seen

on the Original Population of America. 19

and made drawings of several of both these forms of head,
and the second mentioned appear to be incomplete attempts
to rival the first by artificial means. Now, this occurs like-
wise in the aquiline-featured bas-reliefs of Yucatan, and
among some tribes of the north, tending to an unlikely con-
jecture that men of a higher order of conformation should
have endeavoured to distort themselves to the imitation of a
more brutal race, and made that the type of its divinities and
heroes.

We stop here without adverting to the relative cubical
capacity of the skulls, and have indulged so far in this some-
what unphilosophical field of observations, only because they
may perhaps tend to enlarge the inquiries of those who shall
again embark in the same research, by pointing out objects
and arguments which, albeit well known, we have never seen
brought together in juxtaposition. They will be found to
have reference to many points of the observations which
the travels before us contain, relating to the native tribes of
the Missouri and other parts of the United States; and al-
though, among the alleged facts here produced, some may
possibly be denied, or rest upon insufficient authority for im-
plicit credence, there still remains such a mass of evidence
to support our general inference, that we contend plural
sources of the aboriginal population to be undeniable ; and,
had it been possible to advert, in a notice like the present, to
the innumerable coincidences of opinions and traditions be-
tween the native tribes and those of very distinct and re-
motely separated races in other parts of the world, the ulti-
mate conclusion would have been greatly corroborated.

We do not regret to have left ourselves so little space for
reverting to the travels of the Prince, because the scientific
questions they were chiefly intended to clear up do not well
admit of extracts, and the occasional opinions on species an-
nounced in the work, which may differ from those of British
travellers in more northern regions, deserve that sober con-
sideration and confidence which the well-known skill and im-
partial temper of the illustrious German deserve ; particu-
larly as on many points he could consult our old and valued
friends, Say, Le Sueur, and Maclure, who were then resi-

20 Captain Postans on the Bitichi Tribes inhabiting Sindh,

dents at New Harmony, and have left names which will ever
be respected by all students in the natural sciences. -Speak-
ing of these gentlemen, who, we believe, to be now all num-
bered with the dead, another name of one departed, whose
talents were of service to the Prince, should not be passed
unnoticed by us, who long reckoned him among our most in-
timate friends, as a steady, enlightened, and public-spirited
man,—we mean, Colonel William Thorn, K. H., one who dis-
tinguished himself in the wars of India under Lord Lake,
shared in the daring enterprises of Major-General Sir Robert
Gillespie, to whom he was Brigade-Major, and ultimately be-
came Lieutenant-Colonel of the 23d Light Dragoons. He
was author of Campaigns in India and in Java, and of a Life
of General Gillespie. To the scientific ability of this officer
is due the beautiful map, marking the Prince’s travels up
the Missouri to the rocky mountains, and his various excur-
sions in the United States. Finally, of the plates composing
the magnificient atlas, and the smaller illustrations in the
two volumes, amounting in all to forty-eight, besides vig-
nettes, we have only to say, that they are by the hand of
Karl Bodmer, an artist who accompanied Prince Maximilian,
and whose talents are at once attested by the portraits of
natives and the landscape scenery, which we believe to be
unrivalled in any book of travels yet published.

On the Bilucht Tribes inhabiting Sindh, in the Lower Valley of
the Indus and Cutchi. By Captain T. PostTans.

(Concluded from Vol. xxxvii. p. 402.)

The style of living, as seen among the Sindhian Biltchis,
is totally devoid of the little comfort even adopted by the in-
habitants of India. Each district wherein they are located,
possesses a small capital or head-quarters of the chief, which
is only distinguished by the presence of a small mud fortifica-
tion, from the usual reed and mud-built hovels comprising the
Bilachi villages all over the country, which have an appear-
ance of dirt and discomfort, unlike anything to be seen in the

in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. 21

least important even of our Indian districts. Their fields, in
many parts of Sindh and Cutchi, have a small mud tower in
their centre, whence the possessor with his retainers guards
his produce from the predatory attacks of his neighbours ; and
a striking proof is thus afforded of a rude and unsettled state
of society. In their houses (if they can be so termed) and
persons, the Bilichis are filthy in the extreme, and appear to
be totally regardless of all beyond the mere every-day wants
of an animal existence. It is no uncommon thing to see whole
families sharing the shed, or, as it is called, Marri, which,
composed simply of the reeds growing on the banks of the
river, or the dried stalks of the Juwari, gives an inadequate
shelter from the intolerably scorching sun of Sindh to them-
selves, their cattle, and horses, a charpdi, or rude cot made of
the Minj grass of the country, being the only furniture. Yet
there is no cause for this apparent misery, since many of them
inhabited a fertile country, and possessed some of its richest
portions, but the lazy and indolent habits with which they
were embued, forbode their turning any attention to the im-
provement of their condition. Their food is principally com-
posed of Juwari flour cakes, curds, and sour milk (the country
being particularly rich in kine), and animal food, when they
ean obtain it. They prefer goats flesh to mutton for its
strong flavour, and use spiritous liquors when attainable.
The costume of the Bilichis in Sindh had undergone consider-
able alterations during the last dynasty, and differed greatly
from that still adopted by the mountaineers and wild tribes
of the desert. The turban gave way to a curiously-shaped
cap, which appears to have been a bad imitation of a Persian
head-dress, which looked much like an inverted hat, offering
no protection whatever to the face, though the crown extended
somewhat beyond the summit. This is composed of the most
gaudily-coloured cotton stuffs (or silks with the chiefs), and
looked upon as an indispensable ornament. They affect ex-
eeedingly wide Turkish drawers, which are closely buttoned
at, and fall over the ancle. The surcoat is of white thin cot-
ton, or mixed woollen and cotton in winter, and the waist is
ornamented with an enormous roll of silk or cotton cloth of
bright colours, the chiefs adopting the langhi, a beautiful de-

22 Captain Postans on the Bilicht Tribes inhabiting Sindh,

scription of half silk and cotton manufacture, for which Tattah
was once so famous, and which was coveted at the most bril-
liant courts of India. Over this is buckled a strap of broad
deer-skin leather, with numerous appendages of all the pouches
and paraphernalia required for the matchlock, highly orna-
mented with metal studs (gold and silver with the chiefs), and
bright embroidery. The sword is an indispensable article of
costume, and never abandoned. ‘These people are passion-
ately fond of arms, and are lavish in their expenditure to
procure them. The Amirs sent emissaries, even as far as
Constantinople, to obtain sword blades and matchlock barrels,
though very beautiful ones were manufactured in the country.
The shield, composed generally of rhinoceros horn, is large
and flat, and usually suspended between the shoulders. The
people dye their garments generally with indigo, and thus are
enabled to wear them until they literally drop off, though the
Cutchi tribes do not even take this precaution, and wear their
flowing robes until they become literally black with grease
and dirt. In person the Bildchis may be considered as a fine
race of men, and are decidedly handsome. ‘Those living in
the hotter climate of the plains have somewhat deteriorated
from the unusually large size and muscular strength for
Asiatics peculiar to the mountaineers, but they are still a
portly people. Amongst all classes corpulence is considered a
great mark of beauty, and is encouraged to a ridiculous ex-
tent. Nasir Khan, the late head of the Hyderabad family,
though only in the very prime of life, and a strikingly hand-
some fair complexioned man, was so unwieldy with obesity,
that it was with difficulty he could walk across his hall of
audience, and on rising, or attempting to rise, from his seat,
was obliged to be assisted by his courtiers. The author has
observed some extraordinary and frequent instances of longe-
vity amongst the Biltchis located in Upper Sindh and Cutchi,
far beyond what is usually seen in India, which with the large
size and stature of this people united, warrant the conclusion,
that the dry soils and climate, notwithstanding a degree of
heat which is at times unequalled, is rather congenial than
otherwise to the human constitution, certainly more so than
the swampy banks of the river ; yet the deadly simams of the

ee es ee

in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cuichi. 23

Upper Sindh and Cutchi countries are certain death to all but
a Bilich, who, without any hesitation, exposes himself fear-
lessly to them, at a period when he tells you the very crows
even are obliged to leave the country. For eight months in
the year Cutchi is, however, a fine climate, and for five as
cold as the most fastidious need require. The author, speak-
ing from experience, would prefer Shikarpore, with a good
protection from the sun, to any climate in Sindh, though the
range of the thermometer there is 115° to 120° in the shade
from May to August. The Sindhian Bilachis are of very dark
complexion, with fine oval contours of countenance, aquiline
nose, and large expressive eyes. Unlike Mahomedans gene-
rally, they cultivate the growth of the hair on the head as
well as the beard. In Sindh, the former is confined under
the cap by a knot and comb, being thrown back from the fore-
head ; but in Cutchi and the mountains, it is allowed to fall
in wild luxuriance over the shoulders, and is often twisted in
with the folds of the turban, imparting a peculiarly wild and
savage appearance. A slight sketch of one or two of these
figures would tend better to elucidate their appearance than
an inadequate description. The hair is dyed black when it
becomes grey, and holy characters use the henna plant to in-
duce a red tinge to the beard and hair. The costume of the
women is simply a pair of full drawers, confined by a string
at the waist, and a loose shirt over them, reaching to the
knees, and open at the bosom. Over the head is thrown a
loose cloth. Their condition is that of perfect slavery, doing
the whole of the hard work and drudgery for their lazy lords,
who, occupied in the unceasing amusement of smoking or talk-
ing in groups, pass their time away. The Biluchi women are
hard featured and plain, bearing in their manner and coun-
tenances strong proofs of the degradation to which they are
exposed.

The Jutts do all the laborious work of the cultivation ; for
though the Bilachis possessed the land, they considered them-
selves, like the military class in India, above such menial oc-
cupations. ‘This people profess the Mahomedan religion, and
are, for the most part, of the Suni faith, though the chiefs
were of the Sheah persuasion ; totally ignorant, however, of

24 Captain Postans on the Piliichi Tribes inhabiting Sindh,

any beyond the mere outward forms of their profession, they
leave the whole to Scynds, Pirs, and other holy men, who
are well paid, and encouraged to settle amongst them ; so
great is their reverence for these sacred characters, that
they find a safe conduct at all times for themselves, and
those whom they choose to protect, even through the most
murderous clans, and in localities where no other stranger
dare venture to trust himself; and are always employed as
mediators to settle quarrels. If a Biltch have the promise
of a Scynd, he considers himself safe; but he knows full
well the little value of that of his deadly enemy. Of course,
under such circumstances, many claim the prophetic descent,
who are little entitled to it; and, indeed, most of these men
in Sindh and Bilichistan are as ignorant as all around them,
though, such is their enthusiasm, that many learn the sacred
volume by rote, without being able to translate a single
word, and thus acquire the title so much coveted of
“ Hafiz,” or remembrancer. For the Koran they hold a su-
perstitious reverence, commensurate with their ignorance of
its contents; and a Bildchi falls on his knees when the sacred
volume is produced: he would not dare even to touch it ; but
when he takes an oath, the book is put upon his head by the
priest or scynd. Each tribe has its spiritual pastor, and a
great portion of Sindhian cultivated territory was held in
enam or gift by these men. A great authority, on Sindhian
matters, has said (Mr Crow), “ that the Sindhian has no li-
berality but in feeding lazy Scynds—no zeal but in propa-
gating the faith—no spirit but in celebrating the edes or
festivals,—and no taste but in ornamenting old tombs :”’ this
is certainly true of the Bilachis. Reputed holy and rapacious
mendicants flourish amongst them whilst living, and their
tombs become places of pilgrimage after death. In their
fanatical zeal, they carry proselytism to the extent of often
forcibly circumcising Hindiés; and those of the latter, who
held the principal offices as revenue collectors under the late
Bilachi government, were invariably obliged to adopt the
beard and full costume of the Mahomedan. The exactions
of holy mendicants in Sindh are a real source of evil to the
country ; and so great are their numbers, and so distinct is

in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. 25

their classification, that they would provide materials for a
chapter by themselves ;—some even carry their effrontery so
far as to travel mounted and fully armed. Such a vagrant
character is not likely to go away empty-handed !

The arms of the Bilichis are the matchlock, sword, and
shield, in the use of which they are very expert, though they
pride themselves particularly, and trust implicitly, to the
sword. Their country is considered famous for its breed of
horses; and though these are large and powerful animals,
their paces, of a fast walk and shuffling amble, are intolerable
to a European; they themselves, however, invariably use
mules, or a small description of pony, called in the country
a jaba, very useful, and wonderfully enduring animals. The
marauding clans ride only mares, to prevent the noise which
horses make when together. The distances these little in-
significant-looking animals will carry a heavy armed man,
are incredible ; and some of their chapaos or forays prove in-
contestably that no breed of horse, except, perhaps, the
Turkoman, could beat them at this kind of work; yet are
they kept half-starved, and, to all appearance, quite unfit for
exertion. The author recollects, on one occasion, having to
ride a distance of forty miles express, and had, therefore, a
relay of three horses to do the distance: he was accompanied
by a Bilachi guide, mounted as described, who laughed
heartily at the quantity of horses required to do what he per-
formed with one sorry looking brute, riding in advance the
whole way, his steed shewing no symptoms of distress at the
journey’s end. On another occasion, a party of Hindostan
horsemen, in pursuit of a predatory band, disabled twenty-
eight horses, and left three dead on the field, in vainly at-
tempting to catch these Biltchis. As the Bilich, in his
boasted character of soldier and robber, is so intimately con-
nected with his steed, this digression may be excused. The
chiefs ride well-trained camels of the Mekran and Malwah
breeds, but principally the former, which are much prized.
One of the great propensities of the Sindhian Bilichis, is
their immoderate love of field sports. The chiefs, it is true,
set the example, by making them the all-absorbing occupa-
_ tions of their lives, appropriating extensive and valuable por-

26 Captain Postans on the Bilicht Tribes inhabiting Sindh,

tions of territory to preserves; but throughout the whole of
Sindh, the poorest Biltch, if he can muster a pair of hawks,
or a dog or two to assist him in his chace, will be seen pur-
suing it. This is not so much the case beyond the river,
where it is not easy to find game. Sindh swarms with every
description, and hence, probably, the inducement. ‘They
have no idea of firing at winged game, but knock it down
with blunted arrows; and this they will do with great pre-
cision,

The courts of the Sindh Amirs, at Hyderabad and Khy-
aptr, furnished striking characteristics of Bilichi manners,
and were certainly peculiar. At the former resided the heads
of the family, who, as is well known, divided the sovereignty
of the lower Indus between them, and ruled conjointly under
a singular participation of power. The leading features of a
rude and semibarbarous state of society, were here exempli-
fied ; the public durbars, or councils of the state, were attend-
ed by a heterogeneous mob of Biltchis, (chiefs and wild re-
tainers,) Persians, Affghans, Seikhs, Rajpits, and adventurers
from every part of the East; and although the greatest
respect, even to devotion, was intended by the biltchis to
their lords, yet their manner of shewing it was little in ac-
cordance with our notions of etiquette or propriety,—they
spoke in the loudest tone, and by their uncouth manners and
gestures, would appear to a stranger to be anything but obe-
dient followers. Knowing no respect of persons outwardly,
the lowest Bilach would unhesitatingly beard even the Amirs
themselves in open durbar ; and as a brother, and by caste an
equal, he could not be denied any vivd voce representations
which he might have to make. In a corner of the same hall
of audience, where the most important affairs were probably
discussed, a group of nautch women would add to the din and
noise by their inharmonious yelling; and, taken altogether,
it was quite impossible to find anything in the East—where
generally a ruler or chief is surrounded by so much studied
etiquette—half so barbarous as a Sindh durbar. That of
Khyrptl, in Upper Sindh, was much more primitive, and
therefore barbarous, than the Hyderabad court. Yet the ef-
fect of such a combination of savage and armed groups was

in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. 27

highly picturesque, and decidedly interesting. Strikingly
contrasted with the rude and totally unpolished manners of
their retainers, were the conduct and bearing of the Amirs
themselves ; for they were decidedly as courteous, and indeed
gentlemanlike in this respect, as all around them was to the
contrary. How they obtained this distinction, it is difficult
to understand ; for they are scarcely a whit more enlightened
than any other of their Bilachi brethren,—having adopted a
system of living excluded from the world and countries about
them, which kept them centuries behind even the scanty
civilization of their neighbours. Yet certain it is, and all who
have had the opportunities of seeing much of them will cor-
roborate it, that the Amirs, particularly of Lower Sindh, were
individually and collectively, gentlemanly and polished men
in their intercourse and familiar style. Nasir Khan, the late
head, was particularly so, and could, indeed, render himself
quite fascinating by his very agreeable deportment. The
same may be said of his late elder brother and his nephews,
the sons of Hair Mahmud. A Biltchi welcome to court, has
been described by the author in his work on Sindh, (see page
200 to 205,) and it was illustrative of the rude virtue of hos-
pitality which this people certainly possess. The Bilichi
forces, when assembled, were principally remunerated by
supplies of food, and a very small proportion of pay. A cer-
tain number of these rude troops were always on duty at the
capital; for so distrustful and jealous were the Amirs of each
other, that they took especial care to be well attended. The
wild uncouth figures encountered in the bazar, and even the
royal residence of Hyderabad, were composed of these guards.
A Bilich army, when assembled, was not easily dispersed ;
and the chief’s authority became subservient to the general
feeling, and they were borne along by it. Some striking in-
stances of the absence of any control over their savage troops
by the Amirs, have been repeatedly given of late years,

The wild and marauding tribes of Bilachis who inha-
bit the desert tracts and rocky hills of Cutchi, are not to be
confounded with their brethren who dwell in Sindh ;—little
claim as the latter have to any but a barbarous title, they are

yet far advanced when compared to the former; and, more-

28 Captain Postans on the Bilichi Tribes inhabiting Sindh,

over, do not so completely merit the titles of murderers and
robbers, which have not undeservedly been applied to hordes,
who lived by plunder and relentless cruelty—at deadly feud
with each, and the scourge of the cultivated and peopled
country in their vicinity. Some of these tribes are again dis-
tinct in this particular from those in the neighbourhood of
Kelat, or the mountaineers. Two or three of the former, of
whom the author had personal experience whilst in Sindh,
deserve particular notice, as they afford examples of a reck-
less bloodthirsty propensity, and irreclaimable love of a law-
less life, which none of the other tribes so markedly possess.
A strong proof of this was afforded in the deadly animosity
they shewed to a clan claiming holy extraction, and therefore
highly esteemed ; the Kyhiris, who styled themselves Sheikhs,
but who were driven from their possessions, and treated with
every imaginable cruelty by the tribes now to be mentioned,
though with all others their sacred stock procured for them
the highest respect, and they lived amongst them peaceably
and were protected. These are the Diimkis, Jekranis, and
Birdis ;—though thus mentioned together, it must not be
concluded that they were partners in their vocation; on the
contrary, the Bdrdis owned no connection with the other
two, who offered almost a single instance of any two Bilachi
tribes combining continually for a definite object, and that
was plunder, effected often by the most violent and cruel
means. The Diimkis and Jekranis inhabit the western bor-
ders of Cutchi, at the foot of the hills, (commonly known as
the Muru hills, from the tribe inhabiting them,) and sepa-
rated from Sindh by a broad belt of complete desert. Cutchi,
or as it is better known by its title of Cutch Gunderva, is
that portion of territory extending from the desert to the
point north and west of Shilialpi, where the inundations of
the rivers cease to influence cultivation. to the mountains
which separate the valley of the Indus from the higher coun-
try of Bilachistan and Affghanistan. The partial fertility
afforded by mountain streams on the western side of Cutchi,
and the effects of rain in fair seasons, causes it to be held as
the granary of the Brahie and higher Bilich country; but it
is in various parts inhabited by the wildest of the Bilachi

tn the Lower Valiey of the Indus and Cutchi. 29

tribes, particularly in its eastern confines, where a dry climate
and scanty supply of water from wells, hardly furnish the
means of raising forage for cattle; and where (but for
the fact of Sindh possessing interminable extents of uncul-
tivated land capable of any amount of fertility), the Bila-
chis might plead necessity for the lawless life they lead.
Under a redoubtable leader, it was found on our first entry
into Sindh, and during the march of our armies, that
these clans, though comparatively few in number, were
powerful in a wild and desert country, which was habitable
solely by themselves, scarcely affording more than forage for
their horses, to do immense mischief. They had from time
immemorial laid the Sindhian frontier completely at their dis-
posal, and held the high road to Sandahar through the Bolan,
quite at their mercy ; the traders purchased safety for their
Kuffllars at exorbitant exactions, and in short, completely
unmolested, these robbers ruled supreme; they were all horse-
men, and had for chiefs and leaders well approved and long-
tried warriors. In campaigning against these hordes, and
reducing them to obedience, much was seen of them, and they
presented the appearance of wildness and ferocity to a degree
unequalled in our Eastern experience. The inhabitants of
Sindh, when the leaders were captured and brought in, would
scarcely believe it possible, with all our power, that we could
reduce such (to them) impracticable enemies. In person, these
tribes differed much from those seen in Sindh, being larger in
bulk and stature, and much more ferocious in aspect. Their
costume was composed of the coarsest materials, large and
flowing ; the turban a piece of loose dirty cloth twisted round
the head, and interwoven with the long shaggy hair which
hung in masses over the neck and shoulders. At all times
fully armed and accoutred, and mounted on his'singular-looking
jaba, the Dimki, or Jekrani warrior, or rather robber, formed
a fitting subject for a study. The chapaos or forays of these
tribes are services of danger, and made, as they often are, to
an extreme distance from their own line of country. If,
through fatigue or other accident, any individuals should fall,
they deservedly receive little mercy at the hands of the inha-
- bitants. Each Bilachi carries a supply of grain and water

30 Captain Postans on the Biliichi tribes inhabiting Sindh,

with him, the latter by means of a small skin slung under his
horse’s belly. Hardy, and innured to a trying climate, horses
and men will undergo an almost incredible degree of fatigue
and exertion in these raids, of which they are passionately fond.
Neither age nor sex are spared to accomplish their pillaging
purposes, and on these occasions they often kidnap children,
who they bring up as slaves. When itis known that achapao
of Bilachis is out, or has been seen in the desert, the whole
cultivated country is in a state of alarm, for, like a flight of
locusts, it is impossible to say where the descent may occur.
It was found totally impossible to impress these people with
any sense of their being culpable in the lawless life they led ;
they owned without the slightest hesitation, and rather, in-
deed, with a sense of merit, that they were born and nurtured
in robbery and murder, and considered them lawful and honor-
able vocations. One miscreant, who, for his awful catalogue
of crimes, was particularly denounced, and considered fully
deserving of extreme punishment, exultingly shewed his sword,
a murderous weapon, and declared that he counted one hun-
dred lives to the blade. At a distance of thirty leagues from
the Damki and Jekrani haunts, the poor inhabitants trembled
for their safety, for no police existed to protect them. Strange
to say, the leader of these very men was an old chief, far above
his countrymen in sagacity and experience, with a great degree
of dignity in his manner; and Bigar Khan, for so he was called,
was a far superior man to any real Biltichi whom the author
has met with. Though living in this uncontrolled way, these
tribes nominally owned the authority of the Khan of Kelat,
though of course they paid no tribute beyond military service
when required. The Amirs of Sindh were so afraid of them,
that they gave them good lands within their own territories.
The Birdis, an exceedingly troublesome and restless tribe,
inhabitated a tract of rich country to the north and east of
Shikanpur, and, before our arrival in Sindh, were almost
as annoying as the two clans before mentioned; but being
at deadly feud with all about them, they were more confined
in their operations. The author recollects a striking instance
of the exiraordinary state of society amongst these people,
which may be quoted. On one occasion, having to transact

<a >

in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. 31

business with a party of Bardis, some twenty of the tribe were
seated around him, and it was suggested by a spectator that
not a single individual of the party would be found with a
whole skin, or without wounds over some part of his body.
The examination was made, turbans were removed, and chests
and arms bared; the result was, that every man was more or
less desperately seamed with sword cuts; skulls indented, and
awful scars. the results of fearful wounds, more or less disfigured
each individual. As the party was accidentally assembled, they
offered a pretty fair specimen of the peaceadle habits of Bilt-
chis. The Sindhian authorities, whenever they had the good
luck to catch a notorious delinquent, (which was seldom.)
mutilated him or them by cutting off the left hand; for the
Bilichi men never deprived a Bilichi of life ; and many does
the author know so situated, yet still managing, with his Khu-
assan mare, and right hand at liberty, to be capable of setting
a whole district in a state of perfect misery and commotion!
The experiment was tried by the British authorities, of re-
claiming these tribes by holding out inducements to peaceable
occupations, but in vain; for as the Asiatics happily express
it, the “ass on which the prophet* rode was still an ass”—the
robber was a robber to the last. The Bilichis, as wellas the
Mekrains, are found in India, serving in the capacity of mer-
cenaries; and the author heard of a colony of them settled in
the neighbourhood of Aurungabad, in the centre of the Deckan,
where they had originally emigrated in the above capacity.
They do not, however, hold so high a title as the Arabs as
military hirelings—the latter being some of the most deter-
mined enemies we have had to encounter.

It would be uninteresting to describe in detail all of the
tribes ; but we may mention the really powerful clan of Murris,
who inhabit the rocky defiles and valleys of the Murri hills. This
division holds a very high reputation for bravery and indepen-
dence, and it was proved by us that they fully merited it; for
on its being considered necessary to occupy their country, we
were brought into hostility with them, and they behaved with
true gallantry, and shewed a high-minded and generous sense

* Our Saviour.

32 Captain Postans on the Bilichi Tribes inhabiting Sindh,

of honour and good faith, which was little to be expected from
what we had seen of their neighbours. The occupation of this
stronghold, its gallant and almost unparalleled defence by a
mere handful of our men, the fierce battle of Nuftisk, which
cost us an awful sacrifice of valuable lives, were the prelude to
scenes, wherein the most extraordinary and striking proofs
were given by the Murri Biltchis, of their being a high-
minded set of men; actuated by principles which all must
honour, even in more civilized communities, and lastly beget-
ting, from deadly hostility, that mutual confidence, and indeed
admiration, which springs from just appreciation of good quali-
ties. (Interesting details of these may be seen in the United
Service Gazette for March, and subsequently.) Inhabiting
the same range of hills are the Bigtis. Neither these nor the
Murris were actively predatory, though they allowed the
Damkis and Jekranis the shelter afforded by the strong hilly
country they inhabited. The Murris commanded the lower
portion of the Bolan pass, disputing the domain over this ter-
rific defile with the Kakurs and Khusacks ; and beyond these
again, westward, the Muzaris and Kulpurs. These two latter
were troublesome subjects of the Punjaub government, and
as restless and predatory as all about them; but they were
kept in admirable order by the governor of Multan, who occa-
sionally dispatched large forces against them. The Muzaris
are at deadly feud with the Burdis, alternate devastating forays
being made by both.

The Biltchis, particularly the wild tribes of Cutchi, enter-
tain Bards, or as the Rajputs call the same class of people,
Bhats ; in Sindh the Livis are a kind of gipsy vagabond tribe,
who make this their vocation. The songs are often composed
on the warlike deeds or records of forays, or chapaos; the
music, if so it can be called, is rude in the extreme; the
opening of each stanza being given by a loud cry, as of a per-
son in intense pain, or under great grief, and the voice is
gradually lowered until the conclusion of the stanza; it is
accompanied by a rude guitar. Thus amused, a group of these
wild men will sit for a whole night smoking and dozing,
their greatest idea of happiness being the “ dolce far niente”
of the Italian, or the Kheif of the Turk. With the Cutchi

7

tn the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cuichi. 33

tribes, the women appear to hold a higher rank than in
Sindh ;—here they are said to be admitted to council, and in
warfare share the dangers with their husbands or relatives.
On several occasions, these heroines presented their own bo-
dies as shields to protect individuals from the fire of our
troops.

As the Mahomedan laws with regard to marriage, plurality
of wives, &c., are generally adhered to by these tribes, it may
be unnecessary to revert to them.

The Brahias, who form the large body of the mountaineers
and pastoral people in and around Kelat, are a distinct race
from the Bilachis, and have been so accurately and minutely
described by Sir W. Pottinger and Mr Masson, that these
authors must be consulted for all information on this people,
who preserve implicitly a primitive, simple, and patriarchal
style of living, and whose character as inoffensive and in-
dustrious, is far superior to that of their neighbours the
Bilichis.

In speaking of the character of the Bilaichis, our remarks
should be tempered with due consideration for the circum-
stances which have conduced to form it; living in a state of
semibarbarism, and separated from all civilizing and amelior-
ating influences by their somewhat isolated position, they have
retained only some of the ruder virtues, and have ingrafted,
on these, many propensities which may be denounced as
vices. But first, of their better qualities, we may allude to
their hospitality, good temper, sociability, good faith when
pledged, courage, and patience of endurance. Hospitality is
peculiar, I believe, to nomade people, and it is a prominent
feature amongst the Bilichis. The kind welcome given to
the wayfarer or stranger, is very marked and pleasing. In
all, the true patriarchal mode is adopted, as seen with the
Arabs to the present day, of giving the stranger the tenderest
of the flock, and the best the hut or tent affords. Amongst
the chiefs and rulers, it was carried to a great excess; and on
any arrival of a man of rank at their courts or strongholds,
he was not only entertained himself, but all his retainers
- were feasted to their hearts’ content, and all their wants pro-
VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. c

34 Captain Postans on the Bilticht Tribes inhabiting Sindh,

vided for, for any length of time he or they chose to sojourn
asaguest. The first study of a Biltch, from the highest to
the lowest, was this display of kindly feeling. On arrival,
tired or wayworn at a Biltchi village, the author has often
thrown himself in a cot, and, to his surprise, has suddenly
found himself surrounded by a party of these wild men, who
began to chafe and knead his limbs, and continued to do so
for hours, to dispel lassitude and fatigue; vying with each
other, at the same time, in supplying his wants, or appeasing
hunger or thirst with the best of their simple food or bever-
age. Not to receive such civilities is the height of rudeness,
and, on the other hand, to eat of his salt and dip your hand
into his dish, is the signal for claiming him as a brother ;—in
short, all who have travelled through their countries have
been forcibly impressed with this very pleasing trait of Bilt-
chi character.

These people have an amazing stock of good temper mixed
with their ignorance, almost amounting to stupidity. A Bi-
lach can readily understand and enter into a joke, and, like
the Arab of Egypt, it is the best means of effecting a purpose
with him. He may be thus brought to meet your views
when other plans would probably fail; when excited, how-
ever, he is fierce and savage enough for any deed of blood or
violence. The Bilfichis are sociable even to an extent un-
known amongst Asiatics generally, as evinced in their ordi-
nary salutations, and the great delight they take in forming
parties for the sole purpose of smoking, talking, singing, or
drinking together. They accost each other with a curious
string of inquiries, not only after the health of the individual
addressed, but those of his family, and the welfare of his house
generally; the Salaam uleikim, is only a prelude to the usual
chunqgo, hullah? kliiar? sullah?* &c., which, when con-
cluded by one party, must be taken up by the other. In a
large assembly, as for instance a burbar, these inquiries and
rejoinders occupied a considerable space of time, and even
after these, if, during the interview, the stranger’s eye caught
that of an acquaintance, he would join his hand, and demand

* Are you well, happy, comfortable?

*

if ‘ome.

in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. 35

inquiringly and earnestly, “ Koosh 2?” Are you well, or happy ?
The Bilichis embrace a friend by laying the head alternately
on each shoulder; and being, as before deseribed, a portly
race, the ceremony was trying in so sultry a climate, for each
individual of a party exacted this ceremony. In all this, how-
ever, there was, beyond the mere ceremonies which in the
East are a regular portion of education, and as indispensable
as any other occupation of life, a great deal of sociable and
kindly feeling, and, from the most polished to the rudest of
the race, formed a marked feature of character. The author
could quote some personal anecdotes of this, but they are
perhaps unnecessary. When a Biltich has plighted his
faith to the performance of any particular act, as of safe-
conduct or protection (except in cases where a strong enemy.
may come within his power), he is generally to be relied upon,
at least as far as his influence may extend. The traders found
this in traversing their country; for though they paid a cer-
tain amount for the service performed, yet completely at the
mercy of their escort with highly valuable consignments, they
could only look for safety to this principle ; and, indeed, acting
upon it, the commerce of those countries was carried on to a
certain extent flourishingly, whilst we ourselves, in attempt-
ing to alter it, and protect the merchant, were the most for-
midable enemies to the latter, and almost ruined his voca-
tion. }

The Bilachi is brave when occasion calls for the display of
bravery, as late and many previous events have testified ; and
when, with his rude arms and total ignorance of any other
principle, than that the best swordsman and strongest man is
the best soldier, he meets a disciplined force and falls at the
muzzles of our guns or points of our bayonets, we must, in jus-
tice to himas well as his gallant opposers, pronounce him a war-
rior worthy of our steel. Reverting here to some of his bad
points, we may attach his courage with cruelty ; and certainly
amongst some of the wilder tribes, this accusation may fairly
be supported, though it is doubtful if it will stand against the
whole body. The late Amirs were particularly distinguished
for a total absence of this vice, and, though their power was

_ absolute, they seldom or never punished with death any of their

36 Captain Postans on the Bihichi Tribes inhabiting Sindh,

subjects, and it may be doubted if, except amongst the deter-
minedly lawless tribes, the Bilichis generally are obnoxious to
this accusation. With hordes who exist by plunder, the
result must be sanguinary and ferocious habits, but though
the whole of the Bilichi tribes have been pronounced, and
are more or less knavish and prone to thieving, there are
only a few who follow robbery as a regular profession ; and
these have acquired for the mass, at least those who have
suffered more or less from their violence, a really worse char-
acter, in this respect, than they deserve. A high authority
(Captain M‘Murdo) has said, that this thieving propensity is
so inherent in the Bilachis, that in Sindh, chiefs and men,
otherwise in no way impelled to do so, will, for the mere love
of the thing, take the road and turn highwaymen. Pride
commensurate with a state of barbarous ignorance, is a lead-
ing feature in the Biltchis, and they are mean and avaricious.
Bigoted in proportion to their want of knowledge of all be-
yond the mere forms of their religion, they treat with studied
intolerance all Kafirs or unbelievers; and the miserable Hindt,
who to suit his own purposes of traffic and gain, has located
himself amongst them, is at all times prepared for violence
prompted by fanaticism and degradation, the result of his
creed; but this, and more, he is contented to bear to effect
his object (not only with Bilichis, but even Turkomans), and,
curiously enough, one vice counteracting another, in many
parts of Sindh the Hindtis have become not only wealthy, but
so influential, as to be able at times to resist oppression by a
sort of tacit opposition, which is very effective. Thus,.in any
extraordinary act of oppression, threatened or committed on
any of their body individually, the Hindas of Shillinpur would
shut up their shops and abandon the city. All trade was
thus at a complete stand-still, and the revenue ceased alto-
gether; they thus soon obtained their own terms with their
avaricious rulers. The state of the Hindis in these countries,
however, is by no means so bad as that of the Copts in Egypt,
or the Jews occupying nearly the same relative position in
Mahomedan countries generally. Captain M‘Murdo’s sum-
mary of Sindhian character may be applied, to a certain ex-
tent, to the Bilichis situated between Mickran and Hindus-

in the Lower Valley of the Indus and Cutchi. 37

tan; they seem to have acquired the vices both of the barba-
rity on the one side, and the civilization on the other, without
the virtues of either.

The Biltichis are addicted to the use of spiritous liquors,
and the intoxicating seed of the hemp plant, or Bang. They
do not, however, carry these to the effect of downright ine-
briety, but induce a certain degree of stupidity, which may
be analogous to that so much coveted by the opium eater.
The pipe, with both sexes, is scarcely ever from the mouth.
They are, as may be supposed, indolent and lazy, leaving la-
bour of every kind to the Jutts, and other working classes.

The language of the Bilachis is different from that of
their neighbours, whether Sindhs, Brahiis, or Affghans ; and,
in sound, assimilates to bad Persian; so that, as observed by
Sir H. Pottinger, it is possible to catch the meaning occa-
sionally by a knowledge of the latter tongue. It is not writ-
ten, however, and is considered altogether so barbarous even
in these barbarous countries, that the Bilfichi is said to have
learnt it of his goats when he was a shepherd in the moun-
tains. A vocabulary and grammar was formed by Lieut. Leed,
a highly intelligent officer, which exists in the records of the
Company.

Having thus concluded the few observations which he has
to offer on the Bilachis, as seen by him in the course of a
residence of 3} years, divided between Upper Sindh and in
the Cutchi districts,—he only trusts they may be found of
some trifling interest, though he does not presume for a mo-
ment to place his rough notes in conjunction with the records
of those higher authorities whom he has quoted, and who
should be consulted by all anxious to obtain a more intimate
acquaintance with a people, over a great number of whom we
now wield a direct sway, and whose interests may therefore
be said to be in our keeping. Though the Biltchi has been
considered an implacable enemy, the author would remark,
as the result of his experience, that if the interests of these
people were duly cared for, and sufficient inducements, with a
conciliatory manner adopted, there is no reason, he thinks, to
doubt, but they would duly appreciate a change which might
thus be effected in their condition. But this is a subject

38 Dr Davy on the Mismanagement of Stable-Dung Manure.

scarcely admitting of inquiry here; and it only remains to
observe, that with all their faults, he looks back with many
pleasing recollections to opportunities he enjoyed in Sindh,
for seeing much of a wild but interesting people.

On the Mismanagement of Stable-Dung Manure, especially as
regards Exposure to Rain. By Joun Davy, M.D., F-.RS.
Lond. and Edin. Communicated by the Author.

Whilst, at a vast expense, the farmer is importing bones
from the shores of the Black Sea, nitrate of soda from South
America, guano from the coast of Peru and from the African
coast, he is, in too many instances, negligent of the manure
that his stable and stalls supply.

This negligence has been pointed out, and emphatically
dwelt on, by every recent writer of authority on agriculture.
As regards exposure to rain, and the injurious effects of it
on the kind of manure just alluded to, examples of it, in this
part of England (Westmoreland), where an unusual quantity
of rain falls, are of every-day occurrence, and almost every-
where to be met with: the instances of neglect constitute
the rule; of care and attention, the rare exception to the
rule. The farm-steadings here are commonly on declivities ;
the dung-heap is usually placed on a declivity, often by the
side of a road, and, in consequence, after every shower of
rain, the water that runs off, percolating through the ma-
nure, robs it of some of its most valuable ingredients, espe-
cially its soluble salts, and soluble animal and vegetable
matter, tending to starve the fields and pollute the roads. I
have had the curiosity to collect portions of such drainage,
and subject them to examination ; and I now propose to give
the results, as they shew, in a very marked manner, the in-
jurious effect, and how great is the loss to the farmer in con-
sequence.

The first portion collected was from a heap of stable-dung,
fresh from the stable just before a heavy fall of rain, the ac-
companiment of a thunder-storm, nearly an inch falling in
three hours. The water which ran from the dung-heap was

Dr Davy on the Mismanagement of Stable-Dung Manure. 39

of the colour of a weak infusion of coffee, of sp. gr. 1002, to
pure water as 1000. With the peculiar smell of stable-dung,
it had a just perceptible smell of ammonia, which was ren-
dered more distinct by the addition of lime. Under the mi-
croscope, it was found to contain, besides a fine granular
matter, and many minute vegetable fibres and scales, par-
ticles resembling grains of pollen, and two or three different
kinds of animalcules. Evaporated to dryness, it yielded 2.6
per 1000 of brown matter, which partially deliquesced on
exposure to a moist atmosphere ; emitted a very faint smell
of ammonia when mixed with lime, indicating that, in the
process of evaporation, most of the ammoniacal salt had been
expelled, and was therefore carbonate of ammonia; and when
incinerated afforded as much as 51.6 per cent. of grey ash—
48.4 per cent. of the extract having been destroyed by the
fire, which may be considered as animal and vegetable mat-
ter. The ash was found to contain the sulphuric, phosphoric,
and carbonic acids, and chlorine, with potash, soda, lime, and
magnesia, chiefly in the form, it may be inferred, of carbo-
nate of potash, phosphate of lime, sulphate of lime, sulphate
of magnesia, and common salt. The proportional quantity
of the sulphate of lime was large, as was also that of the
fixed alkaline salts, whilst that of the phosphate of lime and
the magnesian salt was small.

The next specimen examined was from a much larger and
older dung-heap, after a fall of 1.12 inch of rain in about
twelve hours. The fluid was of a darker brown than the
preceding, very similar in its appearance under the micro-
scope, of higher sp. gr., viz., 1008, and yet less rich in am-
moniacal salts, for when mixed with lime, it gave only a
very faint smell of ammonia; and its extract obtained by
evaporation, when mixed with lime, had no smell of the vo-
latile alkali. It yielded, on evaporation, 10.4 per 1000 solid
matter, similar generally to that obtained from the first por-
tion in its qualities, abounding, in like manner, in salts, and
those of the same description.

The third specimen collected for examination was from the
same dung-heap, after a fall of 2.79 inches of rain in twenty-
four hours. It differed so little from the preceding, that it

40 Dr Davy on the Mismanagement of Stable-Dung Manure.

is not necessary to describe it particularly. As might have
been expected, it was more dilute, its sp. gr. being 1004.
The last specimen I shall notice was one procured from the
same dung-heap, after four days of dry weather following
the heavy rain last mentioned. It was oozing out slowly in
small quantity ; was of a dark-brown hue, nearly transpa-
rent, and almost destitute of smell. Under the micro-
scope, it exhibited a few particles and fibres, a very few mi-
nute crystals, without any animalcules. I had expected to
have found it a concentrated infusion of the dung-heap, and,
as such, of high specific gravity; but it was otherwise: its
specific gravity exceeded very little that of the preceding,
and was less than that of the second portion, being only
1005, leading to the conclusion that the manure was nearly
exhausted of its soluble matter. The weather during the
four days without rain, was comparatively cold for the sea-
son (it was in September), with a northerly wind—the ther-
mometer, even by day, below 58°, and at night once or twice
approaching the freezing point. This low temperature must
have checked or put a stop to fermentation, which, in its
turn, might have prevented the further formation of soluble
matter. The infusion mixed with lime indicated the presence
of ammoniacal salts ; it emitted a pretty strong smell of am-
monia ; and, judging from the effects of other re-agents, its
composition was very similar to that of the preceding por-
tions ; it probably contained a larger proportion of vegetable
matter, humus and humic acid, than the earlier drainings ;
it gave a very copious precipitate with the acetate of lead.
The bearing and application of these results hardly re-
quire to be pointed out. As the drainage of the dung-heap
exposed to rain contains some of the best—the chief ingre-
dients of active manure (excepting always the insoluble phos-
phates), it follows, that the more the dung is exposed—the
more it is subjected to the washing and percolation of rain-
water—the greater must be its loss, the poorer and more ex-
hausted it must become ; and that shelter from rain is essen-
tial as a prevention; such a shelter as can only be well se-
cured by a shed, under which the manure, if too dry, may be
watered with the liquid that may have run from it, received

On the occurrence of Mannite in Laminaria Saccharina. 41

inte a tank; and be subjected to such treatment, from ad-
mixture or otherwise, as has been found by experience likely
to render it more efficient. These results, moreover, I need
hardly remark, are perfectly in accordance with the expe-
rience of intelligent farmers, in many instances on record, of
the extraordinary fertilizing effects of irrigation with waters
—the washings and drainage of the farm-yard and dung-heap.

THE Oaks, AMBLESIDE,
Oct. 12. 1844.

On the Occurrence of Mannite in the Laminaria saccharina
and other Sea-weeds ; also in Mushrooms.

It appears, from the experiments of Dr John Stenhouse, as con-
tained in the Philosophical Magazine for October 1844, that the
Laminaria saccharina contains 12.15 per cent. of Mannite.

Mannite may be easily distinguished from cane-sugar by the fol-
lowing test :—If a little strong sulphuric acid is poured upon the
mannite, and a gentle heat is applied, the mannite dissolves without
being in the least discoloured, and gives a transparent solution. If
the heat is much increased the liquid becomes of a deep-brown colour,
but does not lose its transparency. When cane-sugar, on the con-
trary, is gently heated with sulphuric acid, it is, as is well known,
immediately charred with evolution of sulphurous acid gas. From
grape-sugar mannite may be likewise easily distinguished. If man-
nite is boiled with a strong solution of potash or soda, it dissolves
without any change of colour; while grape-sugar, when similarly
treated, acquires a deep-brown colour, When heated with a solu-
tion of potash and some sulphate of copper, mannite completely pre-
vents the precipitation of the oxide of copper; while grape-sugar
causes the immediate precipitation of the red oxide of copper.

Besides mannite, the Laminaria saccharina, in common with most
of the other sea-weed, contains a great deal of peculiar mucilage,
which, when dried, has a deep-reddish colour. It differs, however,
from ordinary gum ; for, when digested with nitric acid, it yields
oxalic, but neither mucic nor saccharic acids. I intend subjecting this
substance to more minute examination.

Laminaria digitata. —Besides the L. saccharina, I have also exa-
mined some of the other sea-weeds for mannite, and among others the
L. digitata or common tangle. The aqueous solution of this sea-
weed is also reddish-brown, and when evaporated, it yields a similar
mucilage with the L. saccharina, but in much smaller quantity.
The L. digitata also contains a considerable quantity of mannite,

42 On the occurrence of Mannite in Laminaria Saccharina.

though I should think scarcely half as much as what exists in the
L. saccharina.

Halydris siliquosa.—The next sea-weed examined was the Haly-
dris siliquosa. With hot water it forms a very dark-coloured solu-
tion, of a bitter and slightly astringent taste. The quantity of man-
nite contained in it is very great, amounting, I should think, to be-
tween 5 and 6 per cent. As already mentioned, mannite forms a
great part of the white incrustations which appear on the surface of
this sea-weed when dried.

Alaria esculenta.—This beautiful sea-weed, which is by no means
uncommon on the coasts of Scotland, where, as its name imports, it
often serves as an article of food, also contains mannite in consider-
able abundance.

Rhodomenia palmata.—Rhodomenia palmata, or common dulse,
contains a good deal of a sweet-tasted greenish-coloured mucilage.
It also yields a considerable quantity of mannite, amounting pro-
bably to 2 or 3 per cent.

Fucus vesiculosus.—The Fucus vesiculosus, the most common,
perhaps, of British algae, contains, I should think, from 1 to 2 per
cent. of mannite; and the Fucus nodosus, also a very common sea-
weed, likewise yields a small but very appreciable quantity of the
same principle,

Fucus serratus.—T his sea-weed also contains a considerable quan-
tity of mannite, less, perhaps, than the L. digitata, but more than
the Rhodomenia palmata. The mannite which the Fucus serratus
yields is much freer from colouring matter than that from any of
the other algae, being nearly colourless from the first.

I could not detect any mannite in the Ulva latissima or Laver.
The experiment was made on a very small scale, and will be repeated
on the first opportunity. The Laver contains a good deal of a sweet-
tasted green-coloured mucilage, similar to that of the Rhodomenia
palmata.

As mannite has occurred in eight out of nine of the sea-weeds
which I have happened to examine, it probably exists in larger or
smaller quantity in most sea-weeds, in which it appears to replace
the cane and grape sugar, so abundant in many of our land plants.
It is evident, also, that mannite occurs much more plentifully in
nature than has been hitherto imagined. The following is a list of
the algae just described, arranged in order according to the quantity
of mannite which they severally contain :—

1. Laminaria saccharina. 5. Alaria esculenta.

2. Halydris siliquosa. 6. Rhodomenia palmata.
3. Laminaria digitata. 7. Fucus vesiculosus.

4, Fucus serratus. 8. Fucus nodosus.

The quantity of mannite in the L, saccharina is such that I think

On the Mammalia of Aberdeenshire. 43

mannite might be more economically procured from this sea-weed
than from the usual source—manna.*

On the Mammalia of the Counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kin-
cardine. By WiLLIAM MACGILLIVRAY, A.M., LL.D., Pro-
fessor of Natural History in Marischal College and Uni-
versity, Aberdeen. (Communicated by the Author.)

(Continued from vol. xxxvii., p. 392.)

2. Sorex rusticus. Sorex tetragonurus has the head broader and more
convex, and the muzzle proportionally narrower; the feet rather more
slender ; and the tail proportionally shorter, and more slender. In both,
the tail is unequally four-sided, the lower side being broader than the
rest; but in Sorex rusticus I have never seen the hairs so worn as they
often are in the other.

The following are the measurements of three individuals :—

MALE. FEMALE. FEMALE,

In. 1: In. 1. fn, TC
Entire length, . 4 5 4 6 4 3
Length of head, Ay +O i tO
Length of tail, “ads sate it Sng | sid Lap
Length of forefoot, . . . 0 3} 0 4: 0 4
Length of hind foot, . 0 52 0 64 On'7
Skull in length, 0 9
Skull in breadth, 0 44

The habits of this species or variety are, in all respects, so far
as can be known, the same as those of the other. It is more com-
mon in fields and by fences than Sorex tetragonurus, which is the
kind usually found with us in wilder and more bushy places, as well
as in woods. Our Highland fox, compared with that of the Low-
lands, presents exactly similar differences. It is not distinguished
by our rustics from the other, both being Thraw Mice.

Sorex araneus, Flem. Brit. Anim., 5.

Sorex araneus, Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim., 17.

Sorex rusticus, Jen. Ann. Nat. Hist., i. 423.

8. Sorex ciliatus. Grey-breasted Water Shrew.

Black above, blackish-grey beneath, throat reddish-brown ; a tuft of
white hairs on the inner lobe of the ears ; feet ciliated; tail as long as
the body, not including the head, square, compressed toward the end,
ciliated beneath, with a ridge of stiffish hairs, which gradually elongate,
and form a pointed tip ; upper canine tooth elongated, decurved in the
fourth of a circle, obtuse, with a prominent basal lobe; lower canine
tooth direct, depressed, slightly ascending at the end, with a faint sub-
basal lobe ; teeth tipped with brownish-red.

* MM. Knop and Schnederman have detected mannite in the mush-
- room named Agaricus piperatus ; other chemists have found the mannite
in Cantharellus esculentus and Clavellaria coralloides,—EDI1'.

44 Professor MacGillivray on the Mammalia of the

This species, which is considerably larger than Sorex fodiens, from
which it differs also in colour, may yet be described in almost the same
terms. The body is subcylindrical, rather full; the head oblong-coni-
cal, one-third of the length, excluding the tail, which is of the same
length as the body, excluding the head; the snout long, tapering, de-
pressed, projecting far beyond the jaws, emarginate at the tip, grooved
beneath ; the ears short, rounded, with an internal upper rounded lobe,
and another at the lower part ; the eyes very small; the feet short, ra-
ther strong; the anterior, with the first toe a little shorter than the
fifth, the rest nearly equal, but the third longest ; the sole bare, with six
tubercles; the claws slender, compressed, slightly arched, acute; the
hind feet longer, with the first toe much shorter than the fifth, the rest
much longer, the second shorter than the third and fourth, which are
about equal; the sole bare, with six tubercles, the claws stouter than
those of the fore feet; the tarsi and toes are all ciliated with stiffish
hairs ; the tail is square at the base, gradually compressed at the end,
scaly, and covered with short, adpressed hairs, ciliated beneath with a
ridge of stiffish oblique hairs, gradually becoming longer, and forming a
point, the organ suggesting the idea of an oar.

The snout is black above, dusky flesh-coloured beneath; the eyes
black ; the fur, which is soft, close, and velvety, like that of a mole, is,
on the upper parts, black, with the hairs bluish at the base ; on the lower
parts black, mixed with grey, and tinged with brown; the throat and
lower lip reddish-brown ; the long spreading bristles on the snout are
black ; a tuft of whitish hairs from the upper anterior lobe of the ear;
the feet dusky, the marginal hairs tinged with brown, as are those of
the tail.

Canine teeth }, anterior molar 4, molar 4 = $ = 80.

In the upper jaw, the canine tooth bilobate, with the basal lobe com-
pressed, obtuse, the terminal lobe much elongated, obliquely compres-
sed, decurved in the fourth of a circle, obtuse, but thin-edged at the
end, curved inward, the two almost meeting near the tip. First small
molar tooth anteriorly conical, obtuse, larger than the basal lobe of the
canine, and projecting beyond its level; the second similar, but consi-
derably less, and retiring ; the third still smaller, and more retiring, but
similar; the fourth, minute. The first grinder large, with two anterior
external conical, rather acute, prominences ; the second larger, and a
thin-edged ridge behind, terminating in a slight prominence in contact
with the next tooth; a little behind the anterior lobe, internally, is a
small lobe, and, nearly in a line with these two, an internal less-elevated
lobe, running out behind. The second grinder with three external lobes,
two internal terminating the transverse grooves between the outer lobes,
and two inner lobes or oblique protuberances within. The third grinder
with three external, nearly equal, lobes, two internal lobes terminating
the grooves, and two obtuse protuberances within. The fourth grinder
very small, transverse, with the crown irregularly concave, and two
small prominences, the one anterior and external, the other posterior
and thin.

In the lower jaw, the canine tooth nearly horizontal, slender, ob-
liquely compressed, thin-edged, with a slight lobe or festoon near the
base, the tip a little ascending, obtuse, but thin-edged. First small
molar tooth compressed, thin-edged, with an anterior elevated, obtuse,
thin lobe; second compressed, thin-edged, with an anterior elevated,
obtuse, thin lobe. First grinder largest, with an anterior, two external,
and two internal points; the first external point largest, the second
similar. The second and third are much smaller, but similar.

The teeth are white, but with the tips brownish-red ; the outermost

Counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kincardine. 45

processes of the first two grinders not tipped with that colour, nor any
of those of the last, the red being chiefly confined to the inner processes
in the upper grinders, and to the outer in the lower.

FEMALE.
Lee Ae
Entire length, . 6 2
Length of head, 5 al
Wremagnot ete s se Sie hs fae toy a
Length of fore foot,. . . .. O 5%
Length ofhind foot, ... . 010
Skull in length, St ids Spee ETE
Skull in breadth, . 0 53

It does not appear that much difference exists between Sorex ciliatus
and Sorex fodiens, the teeth being the same in number, as well as in
form, with some slight differences only in the proportional size of their
lobes. The present species, however, is somewhat larger, and differ-
ently coloured.

The individual described above, a female, had ten teats. It was
found dead in a wood near the Old Bridge of Don, on the 30th of
May 1841, by Mr John MacGillivray.

It inhabits woods and thickets with long herbage, banks, meadows,
and the sides of rills, ditches, and pools. It swims and dives with
ease, runs with considerable speed, burrows in moss and earth, and
forms runs or galleries among the herbage. Opportunities of ob-
serving its habits have not, however, occurred to me in this dis-
trict.

Sorex ciliatus, Sowerby, Brit. Miscell., pl. 49.

Sorex remifer. Yarrell, Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist., v. 598.

Sorex remifer. Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim., 18.

Oared shrew. Sorex remifer. Bell, Brit. Quadr., 119.

3. Sorex fodiens. White-breasted Water Shrew.

Black above, silvery-white beneath, the colours abruptly defined on
the sides ; a large triangular patch of black between the thighs and tail ;
a tuft of white hairs on the inner lobe of the ears (often also a white
spot behind each eye); tail about as long as the body, square at the
base, compressed toward the end, ciliated beneath with a ridge of stiffish
hairs, which form a pointed tip; upper canine tooth elongated, decurved
in the fourth of a circle, obtuse, with a prominent basal lobe; lower
canine tooth direct, depressed, slightly ascending at the end, with a

long, slightly-elevated festoon in-its basal half; teeth tipped with brown-

ish-red ; young black above, greyish-white beneath ; tail rather longer
than the body.

This species varies so much in size and colour, as to render it expe-
dient to describe it in its different stages.

The body is subeylindrical, full; the head oblongo-conical, one-third
of the length, excluding the tail, which is a little shorter than the body,
excluding the head; the snout long, tapering, depressed, projecting far
beyond the jaws, distinctly emarginate at the tip, grooved beneath; the
ears are very short, rounded, with an internal upper thin, rounded lobe,
capable of closing it like a valve, and a very small lobe at the base ante-
riorly ; the eyes very small; the limbs very short, rather strong; the
feet rather broad, but the toes slender; the anterior foot, with the first

46 Professor MacGillivray on the Mammalia of the

toe, shorter than the fifth, the second much longer, but shorter than the
third, which scarcely exceeds the fourth; the sole bare, rugose, with
six tubercles ; the claws slightly arched, compressed, acute; the hind feet
longer, with the first toe much shorter than the fifth, the rest much
longer, the second shorter than the third and fourth, which are equal ;
the sole bare, with six dusky tubercles; the claws rather more slender
than those of the fore feet ; the tarsi and toes are beautifully fringed with
long, close, stiffish, decurved hairs; the tail is square at the base, gra-
dually compressed beyond the first third of its length, higher in that
space than in the basal region, and of nearly uniform breadth, tapering
only when viewed from above or beneath, scaly, and covered with ad-
pressed hairs, gradually decurved on the sides, and beneath ciliated with
a ridge of stiffish oblique hairs, gradually becoming longer, and forming
a point at the tip.

The bare tip of the snout black, dusky beneath ; but the lips flesh-
coloured ; the eyes black. The fur, which is close, soft, and velvety, like
that of a mole, with extremely slender sparse hairs projecting beyond
the general level, is, on all the upper parts, black, with the hairs bluish
at the base ; immediately above, and a little behind each eye, is a small
oblong white spot; and on the upper lobe of the ear is a tuft of white
hairs. The lower parts are silvery-white, the two colours distinctly de-
fined along the sides; but between the tail and the interfemoral space
is a triangular patch of black, partly, however, intermixed with white
hairs. The legs dusky externally ; the feet pale-grey above, becoming
white on the toes; their bare parts beneath dusky flesh-colour, with the
tubercles dusky; the ciliary hairs white, but on the outer side in part
dusky ; the tail black, the hairs of the median ridge silvery-white.

Canine teeth +, anterior molar 4, molar 4 = 3 = 80.

In the upper jaw, the canine tooth bilobate, with the basal lobe small
and compressed, the terminal lobe much elongated, obliquely compres-
sed, decurved in the fourth of a circle, obtuse, but thin-edged at the end,
curved inward, the two almost meeting near the tip. First small molar
tooth anteriorly conical, obtuse, but thin, and curved inward ; second
and third, similar, gradually smaller; fourth, minute, but similar. First
grinder large, with two anterior external conical, obtuse, prominences ;
the second larger, and a thin-edged ridge behind, terminating in a slight
prominence, a little behind the anterior lobe internally is a small lobe,
and nearly in a line with these two, an internal less elevated lobe, run-
ning out behind. The second grinder with three external lobes, two
internal, terminating the transverse grooves between the outer lobes,
and two inner lobes or oblique protuberances within. The third grinder
with three external nearly equal lobes, two internal lobes terminating
the grooves, and two obtuse protuberances within. Fourth grinder very.
small, transverse, with the crown irregularly concave, and two small
prominences, the one anterior and external, the other posterior and thin.

In the lower jaw, the canine tooth nearly horizontal, slender, obliquely
compressed, thin-edged, with an elongated slightly elevated festoon, the
tip a little ascending, obtuse, but thin-edged. The first false molar com-
pressed, thin-edged, with an anterior elevated, obtuse, thin lobe; the
second a little larger, similar, but with a second small lobe. The first
grinder largest, with an anterior, two external, and twointernal points,
the first external point largest; the second grinder similar; the third
much smaller, but similar.

The teeth are white, but with the tips brownish-red, that colour being
chiefly confined to the inner processes in the upper grinders, and to the
outer in the lower.

The individual from which the above description is taken is an adult
male, in perfect pile. It was caught at Knockleith, in Auchterless, and

ee

Counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kincardine. 47

brought to me by my pupil Mr Charles Barclay, on the 7th November
1843.

Another adult individual, a female, sent from near Turriff, by my
pupil Miss Murray, in October of the same year, may now be described,
as shewing the difference produced by abrasion of the pile, which was
much worn, with the ciliz of the feet and tail quite short and stiff. In
the teeth and general characters it exactly resembled the above. The
long hairs projecting from the pile nearly all worn off. The fur on all
the upper parts black, with the hairs bluish at the base, on the lower
parts greyish-white, with a faint tinge of brown on the abdomen; all the
hairs above and below greyish-blue at the base. On the throat, at the
distance of an inch from the tip of the snout, is a round greyish-blue
spot, seeming black by contrast, a quarter of an inch in diameter ; at the
coming off of the fore-legs, two similar small spots; and a triangular
patch of the same between the tail and the interfemoral space; the tail
brownish-black, a little paler beneath. These differences appear to de-
pend upon abrasion or decay of the fur. There is a tuft of white on
each ear, but no white near the eyes. The number of teats is ten.

The dimensions of the two individuals are here given, tegether with
those of another female and a young male.

MALE. FEMALE. FEMALE. YOUNG MALE.

In. 1. In. 1. In. 1. In. 1.
Entire length, 5 4 5 6 5 8 5 0
Length of head, bul kod 1 2 1 0
Length of tail, . 2 2 2:0 m3 2 2
Length of fore-foot, 0 5 0 52 O Sf 0 4}
Length of hind-foot, . 0 8h 0 84 0 8& 0 73
Skull in length, 0113 =r 0 114 0 10
Skull in breadth, OS “ 0 5} 0 43

A young male, in perfect pile, caught near Collieston, in September
1845, differs in its proportions. In the old male the body is longer than
in the young; and in the old female the body is proportionally longer,
and the tail relatively and positively shorter; whereas in the young the
tail is longer than in either, in proportion to the size of the body. These
circumstances are observed in other Shrews, as well as in Mice.

The body subcylindrical, rather full; the head oblong, conical, one-
third of the length, excluding the tail, which is a little longer than the
body, excluding the head; the snout long, tapering, considerably de-
pressed, emarginate at the tip, grooved beneath. The ears are very
short, rounded, internally lobed. The eyes, limbs, and tail, as in the
adult. The fur is close, soft, and rather velvety but not so dense or fine
as in the adult. On the upper parts it is brownish-black, on the lower
greyish-white, the two colours blended on the sides. The long spreading
bristles on the snout are black. A tuft of white hairs from the upper ante-
rior lobe of the ear. The feet dusky, the marginal hairs grey; the hairs
of the tail brownish-black, those forming the ridge beneath whitish ; the
claws greyish-white. The teeth, as already described, white, with the
tips brownish-red, except the basal lobe of the upper canine tooth.

This beautiful and lively little creature resides in the neighbour-
hood of brooks and ditches, where it burrows in the ground, and fre-
quently betakes itself to the water, where it swims and dives with
great expertness. It is also met with in fields, often at a great dis-
tance from water. Its food consists of insects and worms; and it
appears to be very voracious, like the mole, which it resembles in
its restless and irritable temperament. The young individual de-

48 Professor MacGillivray on the Mammalia of the

scribed above, was caught alive by me near a brook on the coast of
Slains, On being set free in the manse, it shewed great activity,
screamed when annoyed, attempted to bite the finger, and tore vo-
raciously at a piece of flesh put into the glass with it; but not hav-
ing been comfortably lodged at night, died next day. Although the
species is not uncommon with us, its habits render it difficult to be
watched, or even found.

Adults exhibit great differences in size, and even in colour; the
latter circumstance, however, depending greatly upon the age of the
fur. When recent, it is deep black, minutely intermixed with a
little grey, or even sometimes here and there whitish hairs; on the
lower parts white, which, viewed from before, is glossy and almost
pure, but, seen otherwise, is dull, and tinged with grey. When the
fur is old and worn, it is more tinged with bluish-grey both above
and beneath. ‘The bluish spot on the throat is perhaps the result of
abrasion, and on cutting the tips of the hairs on any of the lower
parts, the same appearance is produced. Sometimes there is a longi-
tudinal band of dark-grey or blackish, along the middle of the belly,
as in an individual found by Dr Irvine, in September 1844.

The adults, then, immediately after moulting, are deep brownish-
black above, white beneath, with a tinge of grey, the bases of the
hairs being bluish-grey’; the two colours abruptly defined on the sides;
the ears with white tufts, and in some individuals a small white tuft
over each eye.

When the fur is old, worn, and weathered, it has changed to
brown, the white is more grey, and sometimes tinged with brown or
red, from the soil,

The young are at first dull brownish-black above, dull-grey be-
neath. Toward the end of autumn, when the pile has been renewed,
they are very dark brownish-black above, pale-grey or greyish-white,
with a tinge of yellowish-brown, beneath, the two colours not de-
cidedly defined on the sides, and no white tufts on the ears.

Sorex fodiens, Gmel. Syst. Nat., i. 118.

Sorex fodiens, Flem. Brit. Anim., 8.

Sorex fodiens, Jen. Brit. Vert. Anim., 18; Ann. Nat. Hist., i.

425.
Sorex fodiens, Bell, Brit. Quad., 115.

Fam. TALPINA. Six incisors above, eight below, closely set; upper
canine teeth large, compressed, pointed: molar teeth seven above, all
pointed, the posterior three broad, with several points, six below, simi-
larly pointed. Anterior limbs very short, robust, with the foot very
broad, the claws large, depressed; posterior limbs short, moderately
strong, with compressed, curved, acute claws. Body cylindrical, with
fine velvety pile; tail very short.

Gen, TALPA. Head depressed, elongated, pointed, snout mobile ;
eyes minute ; no external ears; teeth forty-four.

1. Talpa europea. Common Mole.

Middle upper incisors a third longer than the lateral, and nearly twice

se a

Counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kincardine. 49

as broad ; eyelids open ; fur greyish black, somewhat tinged with brown
beneath.

The mole of Aberdeenshire is the same as that of the south of Scot-
land, as well as of England. In all the prepared skulls and recent spe-
cimens of British moles that I have examined, the incisor teeth of the
upper jaw are unequal in size, the outermost tooth on each side being a
third shorter than the innermost or central, and not generally much more
than half its breadth. Now, the characters of “upper incisors nearly
equal,” has been assumed as the peculiar distinction between Talpa cu-
ropea and Talpa ceca, which latter has been characterized as having the
middle incisors larger than the outer. But Talpa ceca is said to have
the eyes covered by the skin, which is not the case with ours. Were
the descriptions of authors correct, our mole would be different from
either ; but, as it is, I have reason to think, after an extended compari-
son, that our Scottish and English mole is nothing else than Talpa euro-
pzea, or, at least, what has been described as such by all British writers.

Although I have prepared a very minute description of the animal, as
it occurs with us, I therefore do not think it necessary, on the present
occasion, to enter into details respecting the teeth, which are,

Incisors 3, canine teeth 3, anterior molars 4, molars 3=3}4=22—44.

The fur, or pile, is uniform, very fine, soft, without long hairs, unless
on the tail, and a few short and very delicate bristles on the snout. The
general colour is blackish-grey, viewed against the pile bluish-grey and
glossy, the lower parts paler, the lower jaw reddish-brown, the fore-
neck and fore part of the thorax, and sometimes the shoulders, slightly
tinged with the same colour; the hairs of the tail black. The snout
flesh-coloured, inclining to pink; the bare parts of the feet pale flesh-
coloured, as are the claws. Eyes blackish-grey.

In a male and a female, the cesophagus in length 23, 24 inches; the
stomach yery large, with very thin parietes, and internally villous, of
an oblong form, much curved, in its greatest diameter 22, 23, in breadth
13, 1}, its outer curve 54, 5; the esophagus enters about the middle,
and the pyloric end gradually tapers into the intestine, which measures
in length 71, 61, and varies from three-twelfths to one-twelfth in diame-
ter; the colon not enlarged, nor is there any ccecum.

The young are from three to five. In an individual killed on the 31st
of May, I found three fetuses, about half size. It appears that several
broods are reared in the season, for young ones have been found in
autumn.

The mole changes its fur in May and June. The new pile is at first
remarkably glossy, and on the thorax more tinged with brown than
afterwards. One obtained on the 30th May 1843, had completed its
moult; another procured alive on the 3d of June, had only begun to
shed its pile. With us there is little variation in the tints of the fur ;
although shades of black or grey may be met with, and a white or
eream-coloured individual is sometimes seen,

MALE. FEMALE. FEMALE.

In, im, I, in; J.
Entire length, .-. . . . 7 6 6 10 6 5
Length of head, cee Bali 1 8 1 8
Length of tail, . aaa eect: (() 011 iil
Length of forefoot, . . . 0 9 0 104 0 9
Length of hind foot, . 0 9 Q 9% 0 82

It is generally distributed with us, being, as usual, most abundant
VOL. XXXVII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. D

50 Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation.

in the more fertile lands, but also occurring in barren pastures, and
even in the more elevated valleys, although few are met with beyond
the limits of cultivation. The mole frequently bears the name of
moddiwarp or moddiwort.

The Carnivora come next; but as among them there are species
which require a rather lengthened description, it seems expedient to
reserve them and the Rodentia, among which is a new species, for
another occasion.

On the Phenomena of Evaporation, the Formation, and Sus-
pension of Clouds, §c. By G. A. ROWELL, Esq. of Oxford.
Communicated by the Author.

THE phenomena of evaporation, the formation and sus-
pension of clouds, &c., are so varied, that it is generally
allowed that no theory hitherto proposed will explain the
subject satisfactorily, and it is difficult to find authors agree-
ing to the same explanation. The theory adopted by the
writer on this subject in the Encyclopedia Britannica (that
water is taken up in solution in the air), is generally given
up ; for although it explains evaporation in air very well, it
does not explain the cause of evaporation in vacuo, or ac-
count for the formation and suspension of clouds, or how
clouds obtain their electricity.

The theory proposed by the late eminent philosopher, Dr
Dalton, that evaporation is caused by the absorption of caloric
by water, is adopted by Mr Howard and other leading meteor-
ologists, but this theory also fails in a similar way; one ob-_
jection is, that ice and snow will evaporate when surrounded
by air below the freezing temperature ; now, as ice is water
deprived of its 140 degrees of heat of fluidity, from what
source can it derive its caloric to convert it into vapour,
when surrounded by a freezing atmosphere ?

Again, the great heights at which clouds are sometimes
seen, tell against the theory, as the following will shew the
enormous expansion of vapour necessary to render it buoyant,
and, at the same time, the great reduction of temperature at
such heights.

Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation. 51

. Temperature . -, | Expansion of Water
Heights. arAGe Density of Air. to Float.

Level of the sea,..... + 60° i 860
0°7943 1083
0°6309 1363
0:5011 1716
0:3981 2160
0:3163 2719

Expansion of steam at 212° is 1800 times.

Five miles is far above the usual height of clouds, but we
have undoubted authority that clouds are sometimes seen at
that height. But even at three miles high, the expansion
of vapour to float must be 1716 times (very near the expan-
sion of steam from boiling water), and the temperature re-
duced to 23° below the freezing point. This, I believe, will
be sufficient proof that the ascent and suspension of vapour,
at such heights, must be caused by some agent, which is un-
influenced by heat or cold.

The hypothesis I offer on the subject is, that when ex-
panded by heat, the increase of the surface of particles of
water giving them a greater capacity for electricity, they
are buoyed up into the air by their coating of electricity ;
that if condensed near the earth’s surface, the extra-quan-
tity of electricity is withdrawn, and the vapour falls as dew,
&e. ; but if it rises out of the electrical attraction of the earth,
and is then condensed, the electricity being insulated, forms
an atmosphere around each particle of vapour, which sur-
charge of electricity not only suspends the vapour by its
lightness, but also repels the neighbouring particles of va-
pour, and prevents the formation of rain; and on the re-
moval (by any cause) of the electricity inclosing the vapour-
ous particles, the repulsion* is removed, and the particles
attract each other, and form rain.

* In using the term repulsion, IJ mean that the particles repel each
other to the extent of their electrical coating, and no farther : that bodies

52 Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation.

Before I endeavour to explain the various phenomena in
question, by this hypothesis, I would direct attention to some
of the acknowledged properties of electricity, namely: it
has no weight, occupies space, and is dependent on the surface
rather than the bulk of bodies ; and also to the rapid increase
of the surface of bodies, in proportion to their bulk, as their
bulk diminishes ; thus, adopting the ;,15> part of an inch as
the diameter of a particle of vapour, and the 3}; part of an
inch as the diameter of a drop of rain, it would take 8,000,000
particles of vapour to form one drop of rain ; but the surface
of the rain drop would only equal that of 40,000 particles of
vapour, therefore, the surface and consequent capacity of
each particle of the vapour for electricity, is 200 times greater
than that of the rain-drop, bulk for bulk; and as we have no
means of judging what is the real diameter of a particle of
water, it is probable that it is much smaller than the diame-
ter I have adopted, and, therefore, has a much greater capa-
city for electricity, proportionate to its bulk.

Thus it will be seen, that if electricity coats the surface of
bodies, there must be some point at which the surface of a
body would be so great in proportion to its bulk, that this
coating of imponderable matter would render it buoyant.

I will now endeavour, as briefly as possible, to explain the
phenomena by this hypothesis.

As heat expands the particles of water, it increases their
capacity for electricity; therefore, all other circumstances
being alike, the greater the heat the greater the evaporation.

Evaporation must depend on the surface exposed, and not

similarly electrified (either positively or negatively) recede from each
other to considerable distances, I believe, may be attributed to the in-
fluence of surrounding objects; thus, if a globe be charged, it will at-
tract, and be attracted, in all directions ; now, if the globe be so fragile,
as that this attraction is sufficient to separate it into minute fragments,
these having no attraction for each other, would be attracted apart by
surrounding objects, and not dispersed through any repulsion amongst
themselves. My views may be wrong, but I cannot otherwise account
for the collection of particles of vapour into clouds, especially when
highly charged, as in thunder-storms.

Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation. 53

on the volume of water, as only the particles on the surface
of the water can obtain their coating of electricity.

Wind increases evaporation by assisting the particles of
vapour to separate from the body of water, thus enabling the
particles to obtain their full coating of electricity, which they
cannot have while resting on the surface of the water.

Evaporation from ice is owing to the coldness and dryness
of the air separating the minute particles at the surface,
when obtaining their coating of electricity, they are rendered
sufficiently buoyant to be carried off by a brisk wind.

Evaporation from ice, snow, or even water, at very low
temperatures, is trifling except during windy weather.

Evaporation in vacuo (¢. e. under an exhausted receiver)
is from the weight of the atmosphere being taken off, when
the particles ef water are buoyed up one upon another by
their electrical coatings.*

* The following extracts from the Philosophical Magazine, January
1842, will shew the agency of electricity in evaporation :—

*« The following experiment was made to prove that evaporation
would not go on so freely from an insulated vessel as from an uninsu~
lated one :—

“In a warm room, over an oyen in daily use, I suspended, by silk
threads, two shallow vessels, eight inches and a half in diameter, con-
taining eight ounces of water each ; a small copper wire was hung from
one vessel to the earth to take off the insulation, both vessels being simi-
larly suspended in every other respect. After being suspended 26 hours,
the insulated vessel had lost 2 oz. 11 dwts. and 15 grains ; and the other
vessel, 3 oz. 6 dwts.; shewing an excess of evaporation from the non-in-
sulated one of 14 dwts. 9 grains.

“ J have tried similar experiments with water placed in the rays of the
sun, and, on all occasions, the evaporation has been greatest from non-
insulated vessels. There is a difficulty in obtaining correct calculations
from the above experiments, as it is scarcely possible to keep up com-
plete insulation from electricity ; and the vessel of water must have its
proportion of electricity when placed in an insulating situation, which
will assist the evaporation for some time ; but I believe, if complete in-
sulation could be obtained, and a vessel left without any electricity,
that no evaporation would go on at moderate temperatures.”

It has long been well known that evaporation is increased by water
being charged with electricity: this increase was attributed to the par-
ticles of water being repelled from the surface, as any light substance is

54 Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation.

Vapour, when raised, if condensed near the earth, is then
surcharged by the contraction of its surface, and, being at-
tracted to the condensing substance, forms dew; or, if the
surcharge escapes to the earth, the vapour is rendered scarcely
buoyant, and causes fogs, &c.

When vapour rises to a distance from the earth, and is
then condensed, the surcharge of electricity still buoys it up,
and, forming an electrical atmosphere round each particle,
prevents the formation of clouds or rain until this surcharge
escapes ; and the more the vapour is expanded on its first
rising, the greater will be its charge of electricity, and it
will rise to a corresponding height.

The vapour in the region of the clouds is generally, or at
all times, condensed, but invisible, from its being so dif-
fused: the breath of animals is condensed and visible, in
cold weather, close to the mouth, but invisible at a short
distance off, where it is more condensed, but more diffused ;
and the deep blue of the sky at great elevations, as described
by Saussure, Humboldt, and others, makes it probable that
the light colour of the sky at lower latitudes is owing to the
condensed vapour floating in the air.

The formation of clouds is, in general, not owing to the
sudden condensation of the vapour, but from the escape of
its electricity, thus allowing the particles to be brought
nearer by the attraction of aggregation ; and a still further
escape of the electricity enables such attraction to overcome
the electrical repulsion of the particles, and form rain.

Mountains and high hills cause rain, by conducting the
electricity from the clouds and vapour, and not as condensers
of vapour.

Rain is also caused by the air between the earth and
clouds becoming charged with vapour, and thus conducting
the electricity from the vapour above.

from a charged conductor ; but the fact that insulation retards evapora-
tion, shews that electricity is a necessary agent.

The electricity of steam also supports this theory. See Article on the
subject in last vol., p. 347.

ei ie a ee

Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation. 55

Extensive fires, voleanoes, &c., cause rain from the smoke
and vapour bringing the air into a conducting state.

Pressure is another cause of rain; thus, if a cloud be
forming, the accumulation of vapour is from every side, but
chiefly above, and clouds are, at times, of great depth ; now,
every particle of vapour, on joining the cloud, would have its
extra-charge of electricity over the particles of the cloud
instantly dispersed through the whole mass, and would take
its level in the atmosphere according to its density ; now, as
all the particles in the cloud are of the same density, those
particles of vapour which are above the mean line of density
would press downwards, and those below that line would re-
act on those above ; and although the electrical repulsion of
the particles be sufficient to prevent rain at the edges and
thinnest part of the cloud,the pressure at the greatest depths
of the cloud may be sufficient to overcome the repulsion, and
form rain.

The concussion caused by a flash of lightning from such a
cloud (that is, with its particles pressed nearly into contact)
will easily explain the cause of the heavy dash of rain which
follows the flash of lightning.

Rain caused by pressure will often take place at much
greater elevations than that caused simply by the gradual
escape of the electricity of the vapour, which will account for
the formation of hail: thus, a cloud is wafted from a warm
to a colder region, and although the cold may be sufficient
to freeze all the particles of vapour at the exterior of the
cloud, the radiation of heat would be prevented from the cen-
tral part, where the vapour would remain unfrozen. Rain,
formed in the middle of such a mass of vapour, would increase
in size in falling through the lower part of the cloud; it
would be instantly frozen on leaving the cloud, and the drop,
formed under such circumstances, being large, would not
only remain frozen in falling through the warmer strata of
air to the earth, but would also increase in size by attracting
to itself other vapour ; but the rain or snow falling from the
thinner parts of the cloud being in smaller drops, if frozen
in the higher regions, would be melted in falling through the

56 Mr Rowell on the Phenomena of Evaporation. -

warmer air; thus, as is often the case, there is heavy hail
and rain falling at the same time from the same cloud.
The successive flashes of lightning from the same cloud
may be caused by the electricity being pressed out of the
cloud when the electric fluid accumulated on the surface
would strike off either to the earth or neighbouring clouds:
or it may be caused by the formation of rain ; thus, it takes
8,000,000 particles of vapour to form one drop of rain, but
the capacity for electricity of the rain-drop is only equal
to that of 40,000 particles of vapour; therefore, on the for-
mation of every drop of rain, the electricity of 7,960,000 par-
ticles of vapour must be dispersed through the remaining
vapour, and thus increase the electrical charge of the cloud.
The same reasoning will account for the dispersion of
clouds after rain; for if the electricity does not, by some
means, escape from the cloud in so great a proportion as the
accumulation goes on through the formation of rain, the
electricity must increase so as to stop the formation of rain ;
and may disperse the cloud altogether, through the in-
creased repulsion of the particles of vapour.
The sinking in the barometer previous to and during rain,
I ascribe to the rapid escape of electricity from the invisible
vapour or clouds, thus causing a partial vacuum in the re-
gions of the clouds, and the air, from its elasticity, rising to
fill the vacuum, decreases the pressure on the mercury.
Storms, in most cases, I believe, are from similar causes :
the enormous and rapid escape of electricity from clouds
during heavy rains, causes a rarefaction of the air in the
clouds ; the air between the clouds and the earth rushes up-
wards to fill the rarefied space, and the air at the earth’s
surface rushes in from all points to gain its equilibrium ; and
when the excessive rains, which take place at times in tro-
pical climates, are borne in mind, I think the causes explained
will be sufficient to account for the most terrific storm.

ues > he

PARE, ©.

Lidin! NewLhil. Jour Vol. 38, p.57.

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On the Utility of Contour Lines on Plans. By Captain
VetTcu, Royal Engineers.* With a plate.

The Commissioners are desirous of being informed by
you what scale and description of survey you consider, from
practical experience, to be the most eligible for house and
street drainage, and sewerage, and for the regulation of new
buildings, or for other public purposes to which a compre-
hensive survey would be applicable ?—The best and most
appropriate scale for the several purposes required, I con-
sider to be 88 feet to one inch, or one mile to 60 inches. This
will be adequate to shew the position of the sewers, water-
pipes, and gas-pipes, and would serve the purposes of valu-
ation, and of setting out improvements. The valuation map
of Leeds was constructed upon a scale of 198 feet to an inch,
but it proved too small for several purposes, and was after-
wards, at some expense, enlarged to a scale of 99 feet to an
inch, or double the original size ; but the effect of plotting to
a smaller scale, and enlarging afterwards, has the effect of
magnifying any inaccuracies ; whereas if the plan be plotted
in the first instance toa large scale, and afterwards reduced,
any little inaccuracy will be diminished, or disappear. The
Ordnance plans of Dublin and Windsor are on a scale of 88
feet to one inch, and the advantages of that scale for LARGE
TOWNS, have become very apparent to me. ‘To the plan of
the site of the town, I would propose to add the cropping out
lines of the different strata, as it appears to me important
to mark the soils which are retentive or absorbent, as clay
and gravel. I would propose on the plan to trace the water-
shed lines, and also the contour lines, or lines of equal alti-
tudes, say at every three or four feet of elevation.

Will you describe more particularly, for the information of
non-professional men, the uses of contour lines on surveys ?
—The ground plan of a town shews the exact dimensions
and relative distances of spaces, but it gives no knowledge

_ * Extracted from Captain Vetch’s Evidence, taken before the Parlia-
mentary Commissioners of Inquiry into the state of Large Towns and
Populous Districts.

58 Captain Vetch on the Utility of Contour Lines on Plans.

of their absolute heights above a fixed common point or
datum, or the relative height between any two sites, on the
plan; but when the horizontal plan exhibits these contour
lines, drawn, say at every four feet, and marked 0, 4, 8, 12, 16,
feet, &c. (Plate I.), we see at one glance all the places situated
at these respective elevations above datum, and know their
relative heights to each other, and with a little practice, the
eye will be able to intercalate (within one foot or less) the in-
termediate heights between the contour lines; and to facilitate
this operation, vertical distances of four feet between the
contour lines will prove most advantageous, as most readily
admitting of subdividing. The contour lines on the Ordnance
plan of Windsor are drawn at every four feet of altitude, and
on the low flat ground subject to inundation at every two feet.

The engineer or other person who therefore consults such
a map for practical purposes, obtains a correct notion of the
height of every part, on the plan, and the declivities or
slopes ; and for engineering purposes a knowledge of the
heights is equally necessary with a knowledge of the dis-
tances ; and if the plans do nct afford him that information,
he must commence a number of levellings, to shew what is
practicable, and what is not. These levellings occupy much
time, expense, and delay in making, and at last only give
the engineer the means of judging between the two or three
or more lines which he has levelled, while the contour lines
enable him to judge of every possible line he may wish to
examine or compare.

By means of contour lines, in any street, or lane, or build-
ing site, the direction of the fall of the ground is known at
sight ; and the amount of that fall, in proportion to the dis-
tance, may be ascertained between any two points situated
on the contour lines. Thus the fall from a to 4 on the diagram
is known, by the contour lines, to be eight feet ; and the dis-
tance measured on the plan being 400 feet, the slope would
be one foot in 50. An engineer can, therefore, see, without
any trial levels, the undulations and descent of each street
from one contour line to another, and he knows the amount
of cutting or filling, to reduce the street to a level or a re-
gular incline. He knows also what descent the kennels and

ee

Captain Vetch on the Utility of Contour Lines on Plans. 59

sewers may have, and how they must join each other, with-
out wasting time and money on a number of trial levels. If
the town is situated on the banks of a river, and if the floods
of the river rise, say four feet above datum, he will perceive
at once the extent of such floods, as shewn by the tinted
ground on the diagram, enclosed within the contour lines
marked with the number (4) or 4 feet ; and the engineer then
knows over what extent to provide for such floods, in laying
out roads, streets, or drains, &c.

If new streets are to be laid out, the engineer will per-
ceive at once, from such a plan, the declivity and aspect of
the building ground, and the best line of drainage adapted
for them.

The contour lines being drawn on the map, and identified
by corresponding marks on the buildings, serve as a record
and reference for all past and future purposes. It is true
that if no contour plan exists, the engineer may get what
he wants by having recourse to extensive levellings for each
particular object; but this expense is generally lost for any
future object, or for any other occasion, and thus the same
trouble and expense may have to be incurred frequently for
levelling the same piece of ground; but having the whole
extent of the town and district before him on a contour plan,
the engineer can study his subject to better advantage, and
observe how improvements can be best and most economi-
cally effected. In waiting for trials of level, time is lost,
and the Engineer is always loth to employ more time and
money on these than can be helped, and he concludes with-
out having the case sufficiently before him.

When levels are executed piece-meal, and at various times,
each engineer selects his own datum, and confusion and
mistakes are thence likely to occur; so that no cautious en-
gineer would trust to any previous work, but would level up
to some fixed point, however distant ; but even if otherwise,
he might not choose to risk his reputation on the previous
levellings of others, of whose qualification he could not judge.
But if the levels or contours were executed by the Ordnance
Survey, his confidence would be complete.

If contour plans and marks were made under the authority

60 Captain Vetch on the Utility of Contour Lines on Plans.

of Government, the facilities and economy afforded by such
a previous work would be manifest, and cannot be too highly
appreciated, both for the saving of time and money, and for
insuring accurate judgment and execution in the works of
improvement; and I have no doubt that were such going
forward to any extent, the expense of the Ordnance levels
and contours would be saved in three years, in the mere em-
ployment of surveyors, independent of the errors and ex-
penses that might be entailed by less general and accurate
views of the field to be operated on; but, having served for
any particular purpose and occasion, the Ordnance contours
and levels would be ready for use again and again, and one
datum would be established, to which all altitudes would be
referred. For the purpose of applying the liquid manure to
irrigation, the contour lines would be essential; and at Leeds
they would prove particularly serviceable for that purpose,
and also for the extension of the buildings, and for the
drainage on the low flat part of the town south of the river.

By referring to the diagram plan already noticed, the ad-
vantages of contour lines will be more readily perceived.
The contour lines are there drawn at every four feet of alti-
tude, above a fixed datum, and have a slight shade on their
under side, the more readily to point out the direction of the
fall of the ground; and this in some cases is essential, as
otherwise it would be difficult to distinguish at sight between
an isolated hill and isolated hollow.

From such a contour plan a section may be procured in
any direction in a few minutes. Suppose a section is required
of the ground between the points A and B, we have merely
to draw the line A B on the plan, and a corresponding line
A’ B’ on section, and under the last to draw a number of
parallel lines at equidistances of four feet, to whatever ver-
tical scale we think most appropriate. On the diagram plan
the scale is 400 feet to an inch, and the horizontal scale on
the section is the same, but the vertical scale, to render the
subject more distinct, is 40 feet to one inch.* The next opera-

* The original diagram has been reduced, which accounts for an ap-
parent discrepancy in the plate.—EDI?.

Captain Vetch on the Utility of Contour Lines cn Plans. 61

tion is to apply the straight edge of a slip of paper on the
line A B (on the plan) and to mark off on the first all the in-
tersections of contour and other lines; this done, the slip of
paper is next applied to the section lines A’ B’, to which the
marks of intersection are transferred ; and from these marks
so transferred, perpendicular lines are drawn to the line
A'B, and the intersection of these last with the parallel
lines of the section already drawn, as mentioned above, give
the various heights on the section, and nothing further is re-
quired than to join these points with lines, to give the out-
line or profile of the ground, and all this may be done a
hundred miles from the spot; but if no such contour map
existed, the engineer would have to send a surveyor with
instruments to level over the ground, and considerable delay
and expense must be incurred.

Again, suppose that it is wanted to lay down a new line
of road from C to D, without recourse to a section, the con-
tour lines would shew that the dotted line CD would be
very direct, and would give the most gentle ascents and
descents, and if it be required to know the amount of these,
and the quantity of cutting and filling to reduce the line of
a regular surface, and above the influence of floods, we have
only to repeat, in regard to a section on the line C D, what
has been said in respect to that on the line A B, from which
will be shewn the cuttings and embankments necessary for
our purpose ; the space between the dotted line, and the line
of surface indicating the extent of each.

If the contour lines on a plan give such facilities for lay-
ing out common roads, these advantages will be still greater,
in respect to laying out railways, canals, embankments, and
water-conduits.

What do you consider would be the expense of laying
down these contour lines !—In conjunction (or rather prior
in order) to the contouring, levellings will have to be made
to determine with great accuracy the positive heights of a
number of points within the town, as has been done by the
Ordnance Survey in several towns, and while that process

is going on, the contour lines can be added at little addi-

tional expense. Thus at Leeds, over a space ‘containing

62 Mr Wightman on the Advantages of the

about 120,000 inhabitants, it was estimated that 80 miles of
levellings would be required to establish a sufficient number
of permanent bench marks in the town, and it was further
estimated that these 80 miles of levelling would cost L.200,
and the addition of the contour lines L.50; and, reckoning
the number of houses at 26,666, the expense would be 2}.
per house.

Remarks on the Advantages and Economy of the Moveable-
Derrick Crane, improved and introduced into general use by
WILLIAM WIGHTMAN, Contractor, in the year 1837; but
more particularly as applicable in the Construction of Bridges,
Piers, Breakwaters, and Naval Architecture. Communi-
cated to Ed. New Phil. Journal by the Royal Scottish
Society of Arts.* With a Plate.

It is well known, that, previous to the year 1837, no other
crane was generally known or used in the construction of
public works, but the common, or, what might be appropri-
ately called, the gibbet-crane. . These differed sometimes a
little in form and arrangement of their machinery, but never
so much as to alter their principle.

The small figure at A, fig. 3, Plate IT., will give a good idea of
their general structure, and that which was most in use. They
were, however, even in their most approved form, always un-
wieldy, top-heavy, and difficult and dangerous in fixing up or
taking down; so much so, that more accidents occurred from
these frequent operations, than from performing their proper
work. It will also be easily observed, that their capabilities
for lifting or depositing stone, or other material, in the con-
struction of works, soon become exhausted, from the point of
suspension being immoveable to or from the fulcrum, and
performing only one circle of a radius equal to the length of
the cross-beam.

This great defect could, in some measure, be remedied a

* Read before the Society on 12th April 1844.

—- Ae) 4

Edin! New Fh Jeuviod

Vol XXXVI P62
MM” Wightman y
ff mproved Movable Derrick Crane

Fig! . & of an inch to theFoot
Fig’2. 2 of an cho theFool

e

yy 4 oop

Aa a da gaPhs i |
Seale of Feel

SLeiths Lithog” Edin’

Moveable-Derrick Crane. 63

little, by applying a tackle-fall to the material in suspension,
and dragging it by main force from the perpendicular to the
place required, or as near to it as could possibly be effected.

From this and the other defects, it will be admitted, that
the gibbet-crane was a very imperfect machine for lifting
and conveying heavy masses of building, or other material,
to or from their ever-varying positions ; and required to be
taken down and removed, in most cases, every other day,—
thereby incurring great expense and loss of time.

By a reference to the small figure of the improved move-
able-derrick crane, fig. 3, B (C D being a cross section of a
part of Granton Pier), the inefficiency of the common or gib-
bet crane for executing such work. profitably, compared with
the moveable-derrick crane, will be quite obvious; and
shews that some other machine was desirable, possessing
greater economy and despatch for depositing the blocks of
stone over the whole range of these immense slopes.

On entering with my partners into the contract with His
Grace the Duke of Buccleuch for the erection of Granton
Pier, the deficiency of the common crane called my attention
to various schemes for a remedy, which at last resulted in
the construction of the improved moveable-derrick crane, a
working model of which is now before you. (Plate IL, figs. 1
and 2.)

It may be proper, however, here to state, that, although I
never had then either seen or heard of anything of the kind, a
crane having a moveable-jib, but with very different and more
complicated machinery than mine, was used by Mr Steven-
son at the Bell-Rock Lighthouse, upwards of thirty years
since: the defects of which, as well as the improvements ef-
fected by me, were very clearly pointed out in a paper read
before the Society some time since, by Mr James Slight,
F.R.S.S.A., engineer, Edinburgh, containing an exposition of
the strains to which cranes of various forms are subject ;—
for which the honorary medal was awarded to him.

I am sorry to occupy the time of the Society with a mere
_ detail of circumstances ; but I wish to state, as a proof of the
extent of existing prejudices against the introduction of
many useful improvements, that, after I had, at a great ex-

64 Mr Wightman on the Advantages of the

pense, got my first crane built, I consulted with a gentleman
of considerable mechanical knowledge and experience as an
engineer, who, after examining it, strongly advised me to
break it up, without even a trial; and, from my confidence
in his opinion, it was put aside a whole month, before I ven-
tured to put it up for trial.

Its decided superiority, easy management, and its capacity
for forming an almost infinite variety of concentric circles
(so much required in extensive building operations), were, in
a short time, so manifest, that I had applications from seve-
ral most respectable builders, to be allowed the use of the
patterns for sets of castings. From this period my improved
crane began gradually to come into general use; and I may
be permitted to state, that the most of the bridges and via-
ducts on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway were built by
its means. I have seen it most successfully applied to ship-
building, the derrick being no less than 70 feet in length,
and capable of placing a heavy timber plank on any part of
a large ship, besides commanding an extensive range of the
yard for picking up timber.

Fig. 1. is intended to represent the improved moveable-
derrick crane, in its full proportions, as generally used; but
as the mast and derrick may be increased or diminished to
suit circumstances, there can be no fixed rule for the length
of either. I have never used any mast less than 25 feet, or
any derrick more than 55 feet; and where they are used for
any purposes which require them to be frequently removed, I
would recommend that the length of the derrick should not
exceed 40 feet (unless the nature of the work require it), and
that the derrick should never be lowered to a greater angle
from the mast than 65 degrees, as the strain upon the der-
rick-chain and stays of the mast, even at that angle, becomes
very great.

The size of the chain for raising or lowering the derrick
is usually of the best cable iron, three quarters and one six-
teenth of an inch diameter ; and the purchase or lifting chain
of the same iron, but eleven sixteenths of an inch in diameter.
With these, if judiciously stayed, the crane will lift or depo-
sit, anywhere within its range, a weight of 4 tons. One thing’

eee

Moveable- Derrick Crane. 65

ought to be particularly attended to,—never to allow any
workman to guide or shift the machinery without having been
trained a little to its management ; as the most trifling error,
such as neglecting to let down the click of the ratchet-wheel,
when throwing out of gearing the handles, after lowering the
derrick, might be productive of serious consequences ; while,
on the other hand, with a little experience and attention, no-
thing can be more safe.

Fig. 2. exhibits the reverse side of the crane from Fig. 1,
but on a little larger scale.

I will not trespass farther on the Society’s time than merely
to solicit your attention to another useful mode of its appli-
cation, whereby the contractors for Burntisland Low-Water
Pier have been enabled to construct, and carry out seawards,
the whole of the timber stageing for working their diving-
bell.

The saving in time and expense from this method has been
great. The small model is intended to represent one 40 feet
length of stageing with the crane in advance, ready for plac-
ing another 40 feet length out seawards.

I respectfully beg to state, that I believe no printed de-
scription of the improved moveable-derrick crane has ever
yet been given to the public ; and that it is now, with a few
exceptions, unknown in England.

TRINITY CRESCENT, 3d April 1844,

Report by the Committee of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts on
Mr Wightman’s Improved Moveable-Derrick Crane.

June 6. 1844.—The Committee have carefully examined the model,
drawings, and description of this crane, submitted to them by the Society;
and having compared it with other machines of a similar description pre-
viously in use, are satisfied that Mr Wightman has introduced very de-
cided improvements in this highly useful engine.

The use of the moveable-jib, or derrick, is not new ; but it has now, by
these improvements, been reduced to so great a degree of simplicity, as
leaves little farther to be done or wished for, to render its operation
complete ; and by this invention, and particularly by its introduction
in the operations of Granton Pier, from whence its use has been ex-

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. Ki

66 Mr Fox on Springs of Water.

tended to other works of a similar kind, and to bridge-building, and must,
undoubtedly, become yet more generally extended to these and other
engineering works, we think Mr Wightman has rendered an important
service to the useful arts, and deserving, thereby, the particular consi-
* deration of the Society. The model is a very neat and complete appa-
ratus ; and we would recommend the drawings and description to be
printed, to which Mr Wightman will probably add a more detailed
drawing of the machinery.
(Signed) Gro. BucHANAN, Convener.
JAMES SLIGHT.
Wm. GLOVER.

Abstract of a Paper relative to Springs of Water. By
RoBERT WERE FoOx.*

Mr Fox began by referring to an interesting lecture recently read
before the Royal Polytechnic Society, in the course of which it was
suggested that springs of water, especially such as are sometimes
found on the highest ground of any locality, might be caused by the
pressure of vapour, generated by the heat existing at great depths
in the earth.

If it be assumed, he said, that the subterranean temperature in-
creases at the rate of 1° Fahrenheit for every 48 feet of depth,
which he considers to be too high a calculation, and taking the mean
of this climate at 50° ; this rate will give: 160° at 1 mile deep, 270° at
2 miles, 380° at 3 miles, 490° at 4 miles, 930° at 8 miles, and
1370° at 12 miles.

The heat of boiling water occurring at about 13 mile deep; that
producing an expansive force of 2.9 atmospheres at 2 miles; of 50
atmospheres at rather more than 4 miles deep; and Le Roche cal-
culates that the pressure of vapour in contact with water, would ex- .
ceed 4000 atmospheres at the temperature of 1386° Fahrenheit, and
then be nearly equal to the density of water.

The pressure of a column of water at 60° would, at the rate of
34 feet to an atmosphere, equal

155.34 atmospheres at 1 mile deep,

310.68 tes at 2 miles deep.

466.00 wee at3 we

621.36 oa ath ane
1242.72 ss BEB cn ane
1864.00 - ab 12

* Read before the Royal Polytechnic Society of Cornwall, on the 7th No-
vember 1843.

Mr Fox on Springs of Water. 67

Since the water would be at the temperature of the earth at the
respective depths, and would expand in an increasing ratio as the
temperature increased, it is manifest that considerable deductions
should be made from these pressures, but to what extent cannot be
stated. ‘The forces of water pressure and steam would, on these
data, probably equal each other at rather more than 9 miles deep,
and the density of the steam be about four times that of water. It
is not to be supposed that water can exist, as such, below the zone
at which it would become converted into steam, if it reach it at all;
although it is possible that the steam may go much deeper; but as
its elastic force cannot materially exceed that of the uppermost steam,
it must be continually lessening in density as it descends into more
heated parts of the earth.

Mr Fox referred to the results of observations in mines, which he
had published from time to time, and which, on being tabulated,*
seemed to indicate that the heat does not augment in regular progres-
sion in descending into the earth, but that it increases in a less ratio
than this. Thus, starting from 50°, the mean of this climate, the
temperature was : 60° at the mean depth of 59 fathoms, being an in-
crease of 1° in 35.4 feet; 70° at a further depth of 73 fathoms,
being an increase of 1° in 43.8 feet; 80° at a still further depth of
107 fathoms, being an increase of 1° in 60.4 feet.—Temperature
80° at the depth of 239 fathoms.

The temperature at given depths has been found to differ much
in different localities: a fact not to be wondered at, when we take
into account the greater or less facilities afforded by the cracks in
the rocks for the circulation of water from greater depths, as well as
lesser ones.

If the increase of subterranean heat should continue to be in a
diminishing ratio much farther down than has yet been penetrated,
it would seem useless to conjecture at what depth the water and steam
pressures might balance each other, as that of the former, if present,
would be always increasing with the depth; and then the question
remains as to the source from which it can be derived to supply any
considerable proportion of the existing springs. Mr Fox considers
that the sea-water can have no tendency, from pressure only, to flow
into the earth, except at its deepest parts, and these are generally
very far from land; and that a continued evaporation from it would
tend to accumulate salt in the deep fissures, so as to interrupt the
process. However this may be, there is good reason to believe that
some thermal springs, especially those near voleanoes, may be ejected
by vapour. He thinks it possible that some of these outbursts of water
may be caused by the pressure of the ocean, which, from its greater

* See Mr Fox’s Report on some observations on subterranean temperature—
Report of the British Association for 1840, p. 309.

68 Mr Fox on Springs of Water.

specific gravity, must always tend to raise any spring-water with
which it may be connected, to a higher level than itself. He caleu-
lates that sea-water 4 miles deep, of the mean temperature of 60°
for the whole depth, and specific gravity 1.027, would balance a co-
lumn of spring-water at 200° of temperature, of more than 4 miles
and 1200 feet deep; and 1200 feet of spring-water are equivalent
in weight to-450 feet of granite.

In this calculation he has made a large allowance for impurities in
solution in the spring-water, tothe extent of one-third of the propor-
tion of salt in sea-water, which is at least five times as much as the
average state of water taken from the lowest parts of many of our
deepest mines would require; and he has assumed the column, de-
scending 4 miles deep in the earth, to have a mean temperature
of only 200° ; whereas, according to the first table, the temperature
stands at 490° at that depth, which would give a much higher mean,
and more than he is prepared to admit, for the reasons already given.
There may be a large proportion of sea-water at great depths in the
earth; but a column of this 4 miles deep would be expanded to about
850 fect more, if its temperature were raised from 60° to 200°.

It is not to be supposed, he adds, that such great effects will any
where be seen, because of the vents which the heated water would
find. at lower levels; even at the bottom of the shallow seas these
vents may be sufficient, in most instances, to take off any pressure
tending to raise the fresh-water ashore. It will be readily granted
that salt water may ooze through the deepest beds of the sea, or, in
some parts of these, flow into the earth in greater or less quantities,
according to the greater or less resistance it meets with at its en-
trance, or in its subterranean course. The numerous veins of clay
which intersect the crust of the earth, must present formidable ob-
stacles to its rapid progress ; and it cannot advance under ordinary
circumstances without displacing other water, which can only be
done in proportion as the latter finds means of escape. It is evident
that at the bottom of seas of inferior depth, the balance must be in
favour of the upward pressure, for even if the water be as salt as
that of the ocean, at considerable depths below its bed, its specific
gravity will be diminished by the expansive influence of the subter-
ranean heat, so that it will yield to the superior pressure of the
colder sea, and escape wherever it may find the resistance the least ;
this may, in some instances, be through fissures communicating with
the shore, or under nearly horizontal beds of clay through which it
cannot find an upward vent till it reaches land, and there, under
such circumstances, it might produce springs more or less elevated
above the surface of the sea. The force with which the water in
Artesian wells sometimes gushes up from great depths, shews us
how tenaciously the fluid must be confined down by the superin-
cumbent strata; and the bed of the ocean is also commonly sup-
posed to be for the most part very impermeable to water. Mr Fox

ee

Mr Fox on Springs of Water. 69

conceives it, however, to be highly probable that the greater part of
the compressed water under the bed of the sea, may find different
vents through it, and that there may be salt water jets at the
bottom of the less deep portions of the sea, as well as jets of fresh
water which have been discovered in some parts of it.

The water has been found fresh, or only slightly saline, in parts
of many mines worked far under the sea; and, on the other hand,
Mr Fox has detected common salt in the water of some of our
deeper mines situated many miles from the sea; in some water
taken from the bottom of Poldice copper mine, he found 24 grains
of salt in a pint ; also a considerable proportion in water from the
United Mines, and some of the water in both these mines is at 98°
and 100°, a temperature probably not equalled in any other mine
in Cornwall; both circumstances seem to indicate that it ascended
from a considerable depth. Many mineral springs also contain
much common salt.

Thus it appears that if fresh water in some places penetrates
under the bed of the sea, salt water finds its way in others under
the land; so that there is every reason to believe that they meet
at different depths in the earth, acting and reacting on each other
with more or less effect, according to circumstances. And if
the obstructions be in some places so great as to limit the percolation
even to drops, still there must be a constant tendency to balance the
pressures; and the water will escape, if it should find vents in the
bed of the ocean, where there is a diminished pressure,—it may be
of miles, or only a few fathoms of salt-water. However small the
depth of the latter, it will produce a reaction on the water in the
earth, which may extend to springs ashore, and raise such of them
more or less above the level of the sea as do not find an easier outlet.
Thus sea-water, of between 6 and 7 fathoms deep, might raise fresh-
water 1 foot above its surface, and so in proportion as the depth is
greater; and it may be more than this, if the temperature of the
fresh water should much exceed that of the salt.

But the facilities which the bed of the sea, and very low lands
may, in some parts, afford for the escape of the compressed water,
seem, in Mr Fox’s opinion, to be arguments which are more or less
unfavourable to the adoption of either the sea-water or vapour hy-
pothesis, to explain the cause of springs on high ground. Nor can
such springs as have nearly the same temperature as the climate, be
supposed to depend on any deeply-seated force for the supply of an
essential proportion of the water that flows from them, because they
would then have some of the earth’s heat imparted to them ; al-
though it is not improbable, that such a force may help to sustain
some of them at certain levels.

However this may be, Mr Fox considers that the endosmose pro-
cess which accompanies voltaic action, has its influence on the height
and purity of springs, since it readily causes water to pass through

70 Mr Fox on Springs of Water.

the densest clay, against the force of mechanical pressure; and he
has succeeded in shewing, that subterranean currents of electricity
are capable of producing this effect. The veins of clay in the earth
may, therefore, act an important part in filtering the water chemi-
cally, as well as mechanically, as they undoubtedly do, in supporting
springs at different levels, and in greatly limiting the influx of water
into the mines, which, without them, could not be worked much
under the surface; so that, although they lie hid in the earth, and
comparatively little known, they may be numbered among the adap-
tations designed to meet the wants of man, by an all-wise and bene-
ficent Creator.

Since Mr Fox’s paper was read, he has partly filled one branch
of a U-shaped glass tube with sea-water, and the other branch with
spring-water, the two fluids meeting at the bent part of the tube.
Under these circumstances, they exhibited no tendency to become
mixed ; for, after many days, the original difference in the heights of
the two columns had not perceptibly altered. The case was the same
when water and strong brine were balanced, in like manner, against
each other, although the apparatus was heated as much as 200° for
some time. Neither did a mixture readily take place between fresh-
water and sea-water, in an upr ight glass vessel. In this instance, the
fresh-water was slightly coloured, and carefully poured on the sea-
water, when the line of division appeared to be well defined, and be-
came still more so after the vessel, with its contents, had afoul some
time in water, at rather above 200° Fahr. The heat produced in each
fluid upward and downward currents, which were quite independent of
those in the other, so that their surfaces of contact were undisturbed.*

Hence it appears, that the freshness of springs, at the surface of
the earth, affords no evidence of the non-existence of salt water
under them, at considerable depths: while the presence of common
salt in some springs, the greater specific gravity of sea-water, and
the unbalanced pressure in the deepest parts of the ocean, rather
favour such an assumption.

Mr Fox suggests, that the surfaces of deep rivers will, from the
inferior specific gravity of their waters, have a tendency to be at a
higher level than the sea at their conjunction ; and that, as the fresh-
water flows down to equalize their levels, the sea-water will have a
disposition to pass under the former, to equalize their pressures.

* Tt was found, after two days, that the upper part of the sea-water
had become a little coloured, indicating some tendency, small as it was,
in the fluids to combine, owing, doubtless, te an endosmose action ; for
when heated, ‘wo lines of division appeared, at equal distances from
where the first line was,—above and below it,—and the included fluid
was less highly coloured than the water, the sea-water remaining with-
out colour.

eS Fall a ~ aR ETS an

“Plate JI
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Vol . XXX Vil P. ij
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Wood’s Portable Self-Registering Tide-Gauge. 71

This operation seems to be reversed in the case of the Mediterranean
sea, if, indeed, the inward current at the Straits of Gibraltar has any
relation to the superior saltness of that sea. An under-current mov-
ing outward, would, in that case, be the natural result.

Tf an inland sea should undergo a change in its specific gravity,
owing to alterations of temperature, or in the proportion of its
saline contents, its level would also be changed ; and, therefore,
these considerations should not be overlooked in investigations of the
comparative heights of sea and land, at different periods.

It is, perhaps, worth inquiring, how far the low level of the Cas-
pian Sea may be due to the high specific gravity of its water, which
is said to be very saline, and very deep, and its mean temperature
is probably low. —The Eleventh Annual Report of the Royal Poly-
technic Society.

Mie us) Se eee

Account of a Cheap and Portable Self-Registering Tide-Gauge,
invented by JouN Woob, Esq. of Port-Glasgow, and which
has been two years in use. With examples of the work
done by it. By Joun ScoTr Rossbuu, Esq., F.R.S.E.,
F.R.S.8.4. Communicated by the Royal Scottish Society
of Arts.* With a Plate.

In the course of the tide researches in which I have for some
time been engaged, I have continually felt the want of a
simple, cheap, and portable machine for registering tidal
phenomena; such a one as might be erected and applied,
either temporarily or permanently, without requiring much or
close attention in its use, or nice adjustment for its operation.
If this were attained, I have felt confident that few harbours
of importance would be without a tide-gauge. This is of the
greater importance, owing to the present position and aspect
of our knowledge of the phenomena of the tides ; observations,
continuous, simultaneous, and of considerable period, being
all that is necessary to afford us the means of placing this
complicated subject in a highly respectable position among
the accurate sciences.

Ups oh es Ae Se

* Read before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, Feb. 12. 1844, and
the Silver Medal, value Seven Sovereigns, awarded to Mr Woop, 11th
November 1844.

72 Wood's Portable Self-Registering Tide-Gauge.

In practical engineering, the improvement of rivers and
harbours, and, in marine surveying, the possession of such
an instrument is of no less value than in abstract science.

I have satisfied myself that the machine invented by Mr
Wood possesses, or is capable of achieving, all that is desired
on this head. I therefore think it my duty, through this So-
ciety, to make known the merits and construction of a useful
machine, which has its origin in the pure love of scientific
truth which animates the mind of its accomplished inventor.

Mr Wood’s Self-Registering Tide-Gauge has been at work
in Port-Glasgow for about two years. It has no clock-work,
nor the barrel D. It registers the height of high and low
water for four months without requiring any attention what-
ever. At the end of that time, a new sheet of paper should
be supplied to the machine, the old one removed, and the
pencils repaired. Airey’s HH, or H HH, will last this
period in good order.

On removing the paper, the observer finds a diagram of
the tides, on which are simply, and at once, presented the
curves of geometrical inequality and the diurnal inequality,
&e.

A specimen of the work of the machine is sent herewith.
It contains about three months’ observations.

The whole machine is portable and light, and may easily be
transported. A box less than 18 inches square in the bottom,
and about 12 inches deep, contains it.

A (Plate III.) is the wooden float, about 2 lb. weight, sus-
pended on one side of the wheel WW; and on the other
side is the counterpoise weight B, of 1 lb., givmg a moving
power of 1 lb. each way.

TT is a horizontal travelling bar, carrying the register
pencils H and O. This bar is made to traverse with the rise
and fall of the float, by means of two chains C CC, one end
of these chains being attached to the travelling bar, and the
other end coiled round the axis X of the wheel W W, round
which each chain has one turn and a half when the register
pencil is in its mean position. These chains should have a
small degree of slackness, to be afterwards allowed for on
reckoning the ranges.

Wood’s Portable Self-Registering Tide-Gauge. 1c

X the axis of the wheel W W is to be proportioned so that
its diameter shall be smaller than the diameter of the wheel,
in the same ratio in which it is desired that the scale of the
register shall be smaller than the rise and fall of the tide.

RR and,s ¢ are tworollers; the under one 7 7 is furnished
with the paper rolled round it. A stripe from the side of a
sheet of drawing paper, 40 inches long and 93 inches broad,
is sufficient for this purpose. The upper roller R R has one
end of the paper fixed on it, so as, by revolving, to roll the
paper gradually on itself, the roller 7 x being steadied by the
presence of a small spring.

SS is a large copper ratchet wheel, detained by the copper
pall p p, the under surface of which is serrated in a similar
way to the wheel with numerous small teeth, and is pressed
to the wheel by a small spring; thus the roller R R is de-
tained in any position to which it has been moved.

Motion is given to the roller once in each tide about half
ebb. This is effected in the following manner :—One tooth
of the ratchet wheel is moved each tide by the ratchet ¢ ¢ at-
tached to a vertical bar moving up and down on two guide
pins. This bar is loaded to drop with its own weight, and a
loaded lever L L raises it once each tide.

The lever L L receives motion from the axle of W W once
in each tide, as follows :—The chain C C winds upon the axle
X as the tide rises, and is of such a length as to be quite
slack at low water,and to become tight at half tide: the lever
is then raised, and the ratchet bar falls about one tooth and
a-half, so as to be quite free of the wheel. The lever con-
tinues to rise till high water, and in falling, at about half ebb,
once more raises the ratchet bar, and by it turns the roller
RR through one tooth, a stop preventing any further motion.
As the tide ebbs further, the lever chain becomes slack, and
does not again come into operation until the middle of the
following tide.

Behind the travelling bar T T, which carries the Register
pencil, is a fixed bar F F, carrying another pencil G, adjust-
able in position so as to describe, when once adjusted, a datum
line on the paper, to represent any fixed height that may
be referred to as a standard for the height of the tides, and

a

74 Wood's Portable Self-Registering Tide-Gauge.

from which the true height of the tides may be measured on
the paper.

The scale of the register is given on the stand. But it will
be prudent in all cases to determine the scale by experiment
on the machine when it has actually been adjusted for use.
This will be done by moving the float up and down through a
given height, and measuring the line described by the register
pencil.

To prevent the machine from suffering injury, there is a
stop apparatus attached, of the following kind. A pall is fixed
on the stand of the machine, and attached to a chain, which
is wound round the axle X; this chain is of such a length
as to allow the wheel to travel to its greatest range, either
way, without interruption ; but should any cause tend to carry
the wheel farther, the chain draws up the pall to act on a
stop V, on the edge of the wheel; and so farther motion in
that direction is prevented.

The machine here described was made at Port-Glasgow,
under the superintendence of Mr Wood; and I believe the
cost of such a machine, with all its appendages, enclosed in a
suitable box, does pot exceed forty or fifty shillings sterling.

There are ropes round the large wheel W W in the model ;
but a simple brass chain might be substituted with advantage,
to avoid the expansion of the rope, on that side of the wheel
where the float is attached.

A plummet is hung at one end of the stand, and a screw at
each corner serves for setting the machine level; the ropes
getting deranged when this is not attended to.

‘Mr Wood also further proposes, in those eases where it

might not be inconvenient, to connect the machine with a

clock, having a cylinder DD, shewn in the plate, attached to
the register already described, so as to give a ¢éme-register
as well as a height-register.

For this purpose the travelling-bar T T merely carries an
additional pencil O called the Time-pencil, which will traverse
horizontally as the tide rises and falls. The axis of cylin-
der DD is placed below the time-pencil, and parallel to the
trayelling-bar. The cylinder revolves once in twenty-four

title ea, ial

Wood’s Portable Self-Registering Tide-Gauge. 75

hours, and is marked by divisions to astronomical time, and
revolves so that the point of the pencil is always at true time
on the eylinder, while its transverse motion indicates the
height of the tide at the corresponding time, and thus de-
scribes on the cylinder the form of the tide-wave at that
place. The morning tides will thus cover one-half of the
cylinder in a fortnight, and the evening tides will cover the

other half.

By a simple contrivance, it is proposed to move this cylin-
der at the end of each fortnight along its axis, so as to serve
as long as may be required, without changing the paper.

Motion is given to the cylinder by connecting it with the
wheels of the clock.

January 22. 1844.

Report by a Committee of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts on a
Self-Registering Tide-Gauge, by John Wood, Esq., of Port
Glasgow.

The Committee having carefully examined this gauge, are of opinion
that it is a simple and very ingenious invention, and well deserving of
the favourable attention of the Society. It exhibits distinctly the rise
and fall of the tides every day, by means of a pencil traversing back-
wards and forwards on a sheet of paper, and tracing out a straight line
corresponding in length to the height of the tide ; and the paper being
wrapped round a cylinder, which advances a step forward in rotation
each tide, a series of tides are thus represented by parallel lines, in a
manner so as to shew very strikingly, and by regular curves, the differ-
ent variations of the tide from day to day, and from month to month ;
and all these curious results are obtained by the single motion of a wheel
and axle, with chains or cords, which communicate the motion in a sim-
ple manner, from the axle of the wheel to the traversing pencil contin-
uously, and to the cylinder containing the paper at the interval of each
tide. From the testimony of Mr Scott Russell, by whom the descrip-
tion of the gauge has been drawn up, it appears that the machine is
capable of thus registering the height of high and low water for four
months together, without requiring any attention whatever; and at the
end of that time it is only necessary to supply a new sheet of paper, and
repair the pencils, to enable it to go on for four months longer. We
have no doubt, from the specimen of work accompanying the gauge, that
this machine is capable of acting with great regularity and precision ;
and though not perhaps adapted to the minuter accuracy required by

76 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the

many local investigations in navigable rivers, yet from its portability and
economy, and facility of erection in different places, we are satisfied it
is calculated, with little expense or attention, on the part of the observ-
ers, to lead to results of the most valuable description, in elucidating the
theory and phenomena of the tides.
Gro. BUCHANAN, Convener.
ALEXANDER BRYSON.
WILLIAM GALBRAITH.
EDINBURGH, 1Oth June 1844.

Researches on the Situation of Zones without Rain, and of
Deserts. By M. J. Fournet, Professor in the Faculty of
Sciences of Lyons.

(Concluded from vol. xxxvii., p. 375.)

From the straits of Magellan to the isthmus of Panama,
the oceanic coast runs very nearly from south to north, and
forms a low plain, which, in general, presents slightly arti-
culated mountainous undulations only at the approach of the
chain of the Andes. It is especially between Arequipa and
Truxillo that this plain is narrowest, and hence results, pro-
bably, the great humidity observable around Lima, compared
with the country situated a little to the north or to the south
of that place, a humidity whose characters we shall after-
wards explain. At present let us see in what manner the
principal facts exhibited by this region are connected.

-Valparaiso (lat, 33° 7’ south) is situated in the sub-tropical
zone of winter rains of the southern hemisphere (May to
‘September). These rains become more and more rare to-
-wards Cobija, in the tropic of Capricorn, where they begin to
‘be entirely awanting; a state of matters which continues,
more or less, as far as Guayaquil, in 2° of south lat.: there
they are abundant during the months of winter, and cease
in the middle of May; so that that place is situated in the
zone of inter-tropical rains of the southern hemisphere ; but,
leaving the Gulf of Guayaquil, in the forests of Choco and
Esmeraldas, the arrangement rapidly changes, so that to the
droughts of Tumbez and of Payta succeed a constant humi-
dity and daily rains.

Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 77

Lastly, from 5° north to California, rains and fine weather,
the seasons of suns and of clouds, again succeed each other
very regularly, but in a manner the reverse of Guayaquil ;
so that the zone of hemi-annual rains so violently stifled
in the southern hemisphere, between those of droughts
and of perpetual rains, again acquires all its preponder-
ance.

The distribution of the vegetation is, moreover, in perfect
harmony with this succession of zones. Thus, around Con-
ception, there are great forests ; to this vigorous vegetation,
succeeds, near Valparaiso, gloomy brushwood and spare pas-
ture, excepting on the flanks of the mountains towards San-
tiago, which are, from time to time, carpeted with verdure ;
every thing indicates a languishing soil, owing to the want of
humidity. At Coquimbo the evil increases ; the brushwood
disappears, and only a few herbs are visible. From this
point as far as Guayaquil, over more than an extent of 1600
miles, several vast solitudes are met with without verdure,
whose moving sands, scarcely covering the subjacent rock,
present a frightful aridity. Thus, from Coquimbo to Copiapo,
over a space of a hundred leagues, there are neither towns
nor villages, and only a few farm houses. We then come to
the desiertos of Atacama, where the mules frequently perish
from want of grass and of water; thence, beyond Lima, and
to the north of Truxillo, occur the destertos of Picera and of
Sechura. These plains, however, are here and there inter-
sected by rivers coming from the Cordilleras ; some of them
are only intermitting, whether from morning to evening, or
from one season to another: they fertilize their valleys, and,
in some measure, produce oases, among the number of which
are those of Arica, of Coquimbo, of Quillota, famous for the
quantity of corn they yearly produce ; and, lastly, that of
Lambaryeque, where there are extensive forests. In the
neighbouring districts, where the water cannot be conve-
niently conducted for the irrigation of the soil, as, for ex-
ample, around Pisco, the vine is cultivated by planting the
stocks in holes, having a depth of four or five feet, because
there is there sufficient humidity for their growth. But these
facts, derived from remote causes, do not, in any degree, in-

78 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the

validate the generality of the distribution of deserts on the
Peruvian coasts ; these only cease with a return of the rains
towards the impassable forests of Choco, to which succeeds
the inter-tropical richness of the isthmus of Panama, and of
the coast of Mexico, succeeded, in its turn, by beautiful
cacti, and other fine plants of the rocks of California; after
which, near the mouth of the Rio-Colorado, there occurs a
European flora, developed under the influence of a tempera-
ture comparable to that of Valencia and of Italy.

The sub-tropical rainless zone presents, on the Peruvian
coast, an immense development in length, as it comprehends
about 20° of latitude—an anomaly which, according to
Dampier, also extends into the sea for a distance of two or
three hundred leagues. This exceptional phenomenon seems
to depend on various causes. In the frst place, this coast
is subjected to the almost permanent influence of the south-
west and south (Peruvian mistral) winds, which being essen-
tially cold, because they come from the South Pole, are not
capable of carrying with them a large proportion of watery
vapour from the sea which they traverse ; and, moreover, they
pass from an icy temperature into warmer and warmer zones,
so that they cannot precipitate their humidity.

In the second place, this coast is washed by a marine cur-
rent, which, proceeding from the South Pole towards the
equator, brings with it a large quantity of cold water, and is,
consequently, incapable of producing an abundant evapora-
tion. This fact is likewise demonstrated by the observations
of M. Duperrey, who found that at the port of Lima the tem-
peratures of the sea are lower than those of the land, con-
trary to what takes place in 12° of south latitude, where
there is generally little difference between them.

The immediate neighbourhood of the Andes must also pro-
duce during the day ascending breezes, whose action corres-
ponding to that of the ordinary south-west winds, rapidly
collects vapours from their summits, thus producing the
variable climates of Cusco, of Puno, and of La Paz.

Lastly, The clouds driven to the opposite side by the south-
east trade-wind, or by the north-east wind which most fre-
quently prevails there, discharge themselves on the Cordil-

Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 79

leras, so that they can no longer cause rain to descend on
the plains of Peru, whereas the heights are exposed almost
every day to alternations of serene and cloudy weather, and
to frequent storms.

These causes will doubtless appear sufficient to explain
the extension of absolute droughts; but it presents in the
details a peculiarity worthy of attention. Although it may be
said in a general manner that it never rains at Lima, or at
least that there are never rains of large drops, we must, never-
theless, remark, that, during a great portion of the year, the
serene atmosphere loses its transparency, becomes troubled,
and is covered by a singular vapour, known to the inhabi-
tants under the name of garrua, garroua, or garruva, denomi-
nations which are also applicable to mild rains of short dura-
tion, as well as to the very small rains which occur in 33° N.,
between California and the Galapagos Islands. Whatever
may be the different acceptations of this term, the vapours
of the garrua of Limaare so thick, that the sun seen through
them with the naked eye assumes the appearance of the
moon’s disc. They commence in the morning, and extend
over the plains in the form of refreshing fogs, which disap-
pear soon after mid-day, and are followed by heavy dews
which are precipitated during the night. At other times,
and especially during the winter season, they rise like clouds
to the height of the mountains of the coast, which they
moisten sufficiently to allow of vegetation in places not much
exposed to the heat of the sun; lastly, they become con-
verted into more or less violent rains on the flanks of the
Cordilleras, at a distance of fifteen or twenty leagues inland,
where it becomes possible to obtain harvests. These rains
prevail there from December till May, that is to say, during
the epoch of the sun’s passing the zenith of that hemisphere,
so that they coincide with those which present themselves
generally between the tropic of Capricorn and the equator,
and the phenomena have their normal arrangement, which
is the reverse of the seasons of Valparaiso and of Cobija.

This local effect of the garrua of Lima may be explained,
as we have already stated, by the greater proximity of the
Cordilleras, which there produce a remarkable freshness,

80 Professor Fournet’s [esearches on the

especially when compared to the intense heat felt in the bay
of All Saints, situated nearly in the same latitude, but at a
distance from the high mountains of the Atlantic coasts of
Brazil. This freshness, considered in a more general man-
ner, seems, moreover, to be one of the causes of the removal
of the zone of droughts towards the equator, so that it ac-
quires an essentially inter-tropical development, contrary to
what takes place in Africa and in Old California. By gene-
ralizing still farther this indication, we may even say, that
in all this aqueous hemisphere, which is colder than the
other, the whole of the trade-winds, of the isothermal lines,
and of the pluvial zones, tend to approach the North Pole, in
such a manner, that the axis of the nearly perpetual rains is
not exactly at the equator, but encroaches slightly to the
north.

If we penetrate from the coast into the interior of the con-
tinent, we cannot expect to find deserts on a surface so greatly
varied, nor on the flank of the Andes ; but it may neverthe-
less be of some interest to investigate the distribution of
rains over a portion of that region; and in doing this, we
shall take advantage of the results obtained by Bouguer and
Sobreviala, combined with those for which we have to thank
the kindness of MM. D’Orbigny and Auguste de Saint Hi-
laire.

The clouds collected together by the north-east winds re-
main, so to speak, stationary on a portion of the eastern
flanks of the Andes, at an altitude of nearly 10,000 feet,
where they cireumscribe the zone of ligneous vegetation ;
but during the heaviest rains of the rainy season, they be-
come more elevated, and attain a height of 13,000 feet, and
give rise to rains, which are distributed in the following
manner :—

From Quito (lat. 0° 25’ S.) to Huanuco and Xeuxa (lat. 10’
to 12’ §.), the rains which, towards the equator, are pro-
longed more or less during five or six months, from Novem-
ber to May, become gradually rarer, so that, at the latter
points, the air is dry during the months of December, January,
and February; the climate likewise becomes agreeable, but
it is accompanied by a want of pastures in the mountains.

4

Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 81

To this region rapidly succeed the great elevations and the
variable climate of Cusco and of Arequipa (lat. 13° to 16° S.),
where rains and storms are of daily occurrence. Towards
Chuquisaca and Cochabamba (about latitude 19°), at a height
of nearly 10,000 feet, Mr Pentland was exposed to constant
rains during his excursions, from the month of January to
the 1st of April. Lastly, in the central portion of Chili
(lat. 33° S.), the air again becomes very dry, and the sky is
constantly free from clouds during our winter ; that region,
like Valparaiso and Sant-Yago, being situated in the zone of
summer rains from May to September, a period of the year
which in that hemisphere corresponds to winter.

Descending from these great heights to the lower regions
of the eastern base of the Andes, we find (between lat. 0° and
13° S.) rains which last during the whole year, so that this
band ought to be regarded as forming a lateral appendage to
the perpetual rains of the virgin forests of Rio Negro and of
the Amazon; hence it results, that from one side to the
other, and between the tropic and the equator, we have, ac-
cording to the parallels and the heights, stations at which it
never rains (environs of Lima); others where the rains con-
tinue about three months; and, lastly, where they are of
daily occurrence.

In this central portion of the continent, the vast regions of
La Plata, Buenos Ayres, of Uruguay, and of Paraguay, are
eyerywhere subject to falls of water, which are variable in
their duration, in the epoch of their occurrence, and in their
abundance. Thus, commencing from Patagonia, and on the
Pampas (lat. 35° S.), they take place regularly, but are not
abundant, and they only occur during the months of June,
July, and August, which there constitute the winter. In
Corrientes, and especially at Assumption, in Paraguay (lat.
30° to 25° S.), they are more or less abundant at all seasons.
Lastly, in the warm region, commencing from 20° S. as far as
the line of Moxos and Chiquitos (Brazil), it rains during the
six months comprised between October and March. This
regularity subsists on the plateau of Brazil, in the districts
of St Paul, of Minas Geraes, and of Goyaz, where the rains

VOL, XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. F

82 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the

commence between the middle of September and the middle
of October, and last five months. At Vallarica they are very
heavy in January and February, and they vary according to
the height ; on the banks of the San Francisco they cease in
January. The vegetation follows the progress of these udo-
metric and thermometric variations. The soil of Patagonia
is extremely arid, and is covered with /andes analogous to
those of Gascony ; towards the north, in the Pampas, there
are meadows; still further to the north there are thick forests ;
and, lastly, the rich intertropical vegetation is met with. Ac-
cording to M. d’Orbigny, a portion of these results is to be
attributed to the preponderance of the winds, which on that
side of the Andes have a north and north-east direction, the
reverse of their direction on the oceanic coast. We have still
to examine the cause of this opposite parallelism of the at-
mospheric currents of the two slopes of the Andes.

On the Atlantic coast the distribution of rains is still more
anomalous, as may be seen by the following details, derived
from the observations of Dampier, Frezier, Piron, Vignal,
Martius, Jacquemont, Saint Hilaire, and D’Orbigny.

At Buenos Ayres and Montevideo (lat. 33° S.), the atmo-
spherical variations are considerable ; the same is the case
at Rio Janeiro (lat 23° S.), where there are no fixed epochs
for the rains, although the most violent fall from October to
March, whereas they are inconsiderable in June, July, and
August. It results from this statement that the latter place
may be included in the intertropical climate of the southern
hemisphere ; regarding it, however, as complicated by an ac- .
cidental circumstance which occurs as far as Olinda (lat. 8°
S.). At Bahia (All Saints, lat. 18° S.) the rains fall from
March or April to September, becoming torrential in the
middle of summer, contrary to what should take place in the
intertropical region of that hemisphere. Itis to be remarked,
moreover, that the ordinary south-east winds only prevail on
the east coasts during the rainy seasons, between March and
September, after which they are replaced during the droughts
by north-east winds, thus giving rise to a sort of monsoon.
There is nothing less constant than the periodical return of
the land and sea breezes; the sea breezes often prevail at

Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 83

Rio Janeiro for several days in succession, and are followed
by perfect calms; the land breezes only blow in steady, fine
weather, and the smallest atmospheric disturbances are suffi-
cient to put an end to them; lastly, a vast number of local
winds occur during the day, often in very violent gusts, at the
mouth of all the creeks, and near all the projecting capes of
the bay. Now, it is to be observed, that the sierra of Espin-
haco commands all that part of the coast; its vicinity, there-
fore, individualises in some measure its meteorology, and it
is thus that this local exception, by which the first navigators
were so much struck, is explained, if not altogether removed.
But between Cape Blanco and Cape de Norte, at the extre-
mity of the Cordillera of the Guyanas, is situated the open-
ing of the basin of the Amazon, opposite to which the general
laws follow their course ; that is to say, the rains prevail in
winter from October till April, conformably to what takes
place in the whole of the intertropical region of the southern
hemisphere, and these are followed by the equatorial rains of
Guyana, at seasons more distinctly marked than they are at
Choco and on the banks of the Rio Negro ; four annual epochs
being distinguished, two of droughts, and two of rains.

The numerous details into which we have entered, indicat-
ing for this eastern portion of the South American continent
encroachments analogous to those which have been pointed
out in the North American continent, render the existence
of deserts, properly so called, altogether impossible. If de-
serts were formed according to the same laws which regulate
those of Africa, or of the western coasts of the New World,
we ought to find traces of them in the latitudes of Paraguay ;
but rains are abundant there. It is necessary to ascend the
ridge of the Andes between 15° and 5° S. lat., in the parallels
of Pisco and of Payta, to find the less considerable rains of
Huanuco, and of Xeuxa; then we have, at the line of sepa-
ration of the waters of the Amazon and of the Paraguay, the
famous Campos Pariecys, a vast sandy plateau, almost devoid
of vegetation, and which may be compared to the Chamo or
Gobi of Mongolia ; lastly, still further to the east, the basins
of San Francisco, the provinces of Goyaz, of Pernambuco,
and of Bahiaqui, exhibit here and there in their Sertwos, hills

84 Professor Fournet’s Researches ov the

of moving sand mixed with cultivation, and this whole series
indicates not a state of absolute aridity, but simply the facility
with which the savannahs may assume the physiognomy of
deserts.

To recapitulate ; the New World may be regarded as divided
by the Andes into two systems, characterised by their con-
figuration, as well as by their meteorology. The western
portion is very narrow, but of a simple structure; whereas
the other is broad, deeply articulated, and irregularly ele-
vated ; the first presents all the great phenomena which may
be considered as the immediate results of the solar influence
on the second: they tend to become effaced in the series of
partial causes, and especially in the effects of the superposi-
tion of periodical rains. The most important consequence
of this irregularity is the annihilation of absolute deserts,
and it is thus that an extreme uniformity of surface, which,
at the first glance, would seem to be an element of prosperity,
from the facility it affords for communication, becomes, on
the contrary, one of the most formidable obstacles which na-
ture interposes to civilization.

By shewing that an absolute want of rain is necessary to
constitute the absolute aridity of a desert,—that the latter is
nothing else but the reflection of a dry atmosphere,—we have
only answered one part of the question. We see, indeed,
that the cause of which we are in search is essentially to be
sought for in the atmosphere ; but we have not explained
why it does not rain between the two intertropical and sub-

tropical zones ; we must, therefore, enter into some details -

on this subject.

The intertropical rains commence at each place at the time
the sun reaches its greatest altitude, because then, under the
influence of ascending columns of air, the breezes of the
trade-winds become uncertain; and for them there are sub-
stituted calms interrupted by the winds which blow from the
heteronymous pole. There is thus produced, at that time,
an unequal distribution of heat, the result of which is the
condensation of the aqueous vapour dissolved in the air.

The hiemal rains take place, on the other hand, in the
corresponding zone whenever, in consequence of the increased

Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 85

distance of the sun, the atmospheric refrigeration arrives at
a certain point.

This being the case, we can easily understand that be-
tween these two inverse regions, and at places to which the
sun approaches most nearly, that is to say, towards the tro-
pic, there may be a persistence of heat sufficient to maintain
in solution the vapours transported by the influence of the
trade-winds, so that there will be an absence of rains,
and a simultaneous production of deserts, at least, if orogra-
phical causes do not produce local coolings, or if special
winds, by their alternate play, do not give rise to disturb-
ances in the normal arrangement. Examples in support of
this are sufficiently numerous ; and if we endeavour to ap-
ply to Asia data resulting from the phenomena of Africa and
America, we shall immediately find that that continent can-
not contain deserts, properly so called, or, at all events, ab-
solute deserts, such as the Sahara.

A meridian passing along the eastern coast of Africa, in
some measure divides the globe into two hemispheres: the
one, the western, in which the trade-winds prevail, and the
other, the eastern or Asiatic, forming the domain of the mon-
soons; but these latter, from what has been said of the coast
of Brazil, do not appear to be capable of producing perma-
nent droughts, for such can only be the result of the uni-
formity of the trade-winds.

As, however, a series of deserts is generally indicated in
that part of the world, it is of consequence to define them
properly, in order that they may be reduced to their just
value.

The distribution of these deserts may be considered in two
points of view. According to the one, they would commence
opposite the Sahara, and would be prolonged in a straight
line towards the east, following the tropic of Cancer, over a
part of Arabia, of Syria, of Persia, and of India, where they
would be interrupted by the edges of the plateau of the Dec-
can. Over this extent of country, in which they are almost
contiguous to one another, they would only be interrupted for
a short space by the Red Sea, by the Persian Gulf, or by the
mountains of Kurdistan and of Persian India, and their total

86 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the

length, from the Atlantic to India, would be about 2100
leagues; that is to say, about a fourth of the terrestrial cir-
cumference under the tropic.

According to the other method of viewing the facts, their
axis from Arabia, as far as Chinese Mongolia, where there
is the Schamoon-Gobi, would be parallel to the coast of the
Indo-Chinese seas, and would run from north-west to south-
east, like the axis of the great soulevement of Central Asia.
In this case, we must add to the length already given, the
five hundred leagues attributed to the Gobi; lat. 47° N.
would be reached, and the deserts would penetrate consider-
ably into the temperate zone, which, in that part of Asia, is
subject to much more violent climates than Europe,—a cir-
cumstance essential to be remarked in the discussion of the
facts presented to us by these different places.

In the whole of Syria and Arabia, the deserts comprised
between Aleppo, Bassora, Rostak, Mecca, and Damascus, ap-
pear, at the first glance, to expand from the heights of Ye-
men, of Hadramaout, and of Mahra, or from the 16th to the
36th degree N., and the dryness of that surface is well
known; but we can divide it into two portions, the one
northern and the other southern, separated by the Nedsjed,
a varied oasis covered with pastures, watered by springs, and
inhabited by numerous ‘tribes, to which succeed, on the one
hand, the country of Bahrein, rich in dates and wine, and on
the other, the district of Lahsa (/’ Aisa), watered by a river
which falls into the Persian Gulf, and which is only a tor-
rent liable to be dried up during the summer.

The northern portion, known under the name of Barria, or
of Bar-Abad, and which may be designated by the collective
name of the Syro-Arabian desert, receives, especially towards
the northern limit, more or less abundant rains in winter,
during the months of December and January. These rains
cause the existence of a particular Flora, and various tribes oc-
cupy the savannahs, which are surrounded by naked and arid
tracts. It would be incorrect, therefore, to consider this as
a desert, or mer-sans-eau, properly so called, although it
sometimes happens that an entire year passes without rain,
even in the Nedsjed, where famines are thus produced. It

Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 87

results from this, that absolute dryness is hardly to be found,
except towards the southern extremity of the Arabian penin-
sula, comprised between the 14th and 23d degrees N.

The latter is commanded, towards the coast of the Gulf of
Aden and the Sea of Oman, by the mountains of Hadramaout,
whose heights do not exceed from 5000 to 5700 feet, and
from which are derived, on the one hand, the branch of Ye-
men, running along the Red Sea, and on the other, the branch
which, starting from Mahra, turns abruptly towards the en-
trance of the Persian Gulf, and follows, on the coast of Bat-
na, a south-east and north-west direction, between Ras-al-
Had and Ras-Muskadom (lat. 22° 23’ to 26° 25’ N.). This
chain has still, according to the measurements of Lieutenant
Wellsted, a height of 3000 or 3500 feet, and all these eleva-
tions are such as must necessarily give rise to the formation
of rains. The mountains of Hadramaout are also well wa-
tered ; and between the latter and those of Yemen, the plains
of Beled-el-Djol, which are sometimes fertile and sometimes
arid, present streams which preserve their water during the
whole year, in consequence of the rains of the neighbouring
mountains. The Nedsjeran receives heavy rains, which fall
without interruption during the months of December, Ja-
nuary, and February, while the heights of Yemen, some of
whose summits receive snow every year, are, on the con-
trary, fertilized by regular rains corresponding to the summer
monsoon, and which commence about the middle of June and
end in September; this season is called Mattar-el-Kharif.
There is also another, which continues from the month of
February till April, and which receives the name of Mattar-
el-Seif ; the more distinctly it is characterised, the more abun-
dant is the harvest. These rains do not, however, present
that continuity which exists between the tropics, for the sky
is rarely clouded during twenty-four hours in succession, and
the remainder of the year passes without the smallest cloud
being visible for months together.

At the foot of these rainy heights, there is met with, on
the narrow band of coast of the Red Sea, the sandy Tehama,
which contains so little fertile soil; and where the rains are
so little abundant, that the inhabitants, with the exception

88 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the

of those who devote themselves to commerce, are all poor;
and this region extends over the south-western portion of the
peninsula, as far as the dry, treeless, stony plains of the
environs of Aden. It must not, however, be concluded that
there is an absolute absence of rain, for the two seasons of
Kharif and Seif are distinctly marked at Hez; we know,
moreover, that at Mocha the south-west winds, which pre-
vail from April to August, bring with them some rains dur-
ing the squalls and gusts. Their rarity in this region seems
to be caused by the attraction of the clouds to the neigh-
bouring mountains ; for on the Tehama there are whole days
during which the sky is constantly serene, while it is raining
without intermission on the heights.

The phenomena in question are reproduced, but in an in-
verse order, on the eastern coast of Arabia, where rains pre-
vail on the fertile mountains of Oman during the winter mon-
soon. As in the Nedsjeran, and, probably, as in the whole
interior of the peninsula, this season, which lasts from the
commencement of November to the middle of February, has
received the name of Schitt, and the rains are then suffi-
ciently abundant to produce impetuous torrents; while, at
the foot of the mountains, at Mascat as in the Tehama, there
are hardly seven or eight falls of rain in the course of the
year.

It must be evident, therefore, that true deserts are to be
sought for neither on the eastern nor the western side of
Arabia; and the same may be said of the southern coast,
where rains fall in the months of February, March, and
April, during one of the derangements caused by the mon-
soons, periods which are always critical, owing to the tem-
pests to which they give rise. Where, then, shall we seek
for the deserts? On the vast coast plateau of Mahra? but
nomadic tribes traverse it in all directions ; steppes are,
therefore, distinctly characterized: there thus only remains
for us the central portion of southern Arabia, forming
what is termed the Great Desert of Ahkof, and comprised
between Nedsjed, Yemen, and Oman; but this is a ferra
incognita, in regard to which we possess no other informa-
tion but the emphatic recitals of the Arabs, to whom the

Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 89

words plains and deserts are nearly synonymous, and ac-
cording to whom, this plateau was formerly a terrestrial pa-
radise, inhabited by impious giants named Aadites, who were
exterminated by a deluge of sand ; but this mythological tra-
dition, or a similar one, is to be met with in all the sandy
portions of Asia, where, nevertheless, there are characteris-
tic rains ; so that it is of no value in the question.

Before quitting this region, it is proper to observe, that
the inverse pluvial arrangement of the two coasts of Arabia
exists also in India, round the chain of the Ghauts. There
we find alternately the coast of Malabar, like the western
coast of the Yemen, watered, during the prevalence of the
south-west and south-east winds ; while the coast of Coro-
mandel, like that of Oman, is subject to the rains of the
north-east winds of winter; and if we wish to generalize
still further, we find on the western coast of the Red Sea
the island of Dahalac, and the chain of the Mokattam, inun-
dated by the winter rains, although the monsoons there de-
viate slightly from north-west to south-east, in consequence
of the position of that basin.

Persia, which is essentially continental, presents to us a
structure and a geographical position, quite different from
those of the Arabian peninsula; its south-eastern portion,
which alone we have to consider, touches to the south the
Indian Sea, while to the west, the Persian Gulf slightly en-
croaches on it. It constitutes a plateau, having a height of 2200
feet towards its centre, around Yezde and the lake of Zareh;
but commanded, at its circumference, to the north by the
prolongation of the Elbrouz and of the Paropamisus, whose
known altitudes are at least 2600 feet ; to the west, by the
region of Teheran, of Ispahan, and of Schiraz, rising to a
height of from 3800 to 4400 feet ; to the south, by the litto-
ral and imposing terrace of Beloochistan ; and, lastly, to the
east, by the considerable heights of Affghanistan, which,
near Candahar, Kwettah, and Khelat, attain successively the
heights of 3400, 5500, and 5700 feet. Lastly, we must notice
its being placed entirely to the north of the tropic, which, of
itself, would be sufficient to make us presume with certainty
that deserts without water must be excluded from it.

90 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the

Nevertheless, five principal deserts have been enumerated
by authors, of which the one separating Khorassan from the
Irac-Adjemi, termed the Great Salt Desert, or Kuwir, is, of
itself, said to be upwards of 300 miles in length, and 170
miles in breadth; their whole amount, forming ;3; of the su-
perficies of the country, is comprised between 25° and 36°
N., from Beloochistan as far as the chain of Elbrouz; the
latter, which separates the plateau of Iran from the vast hol-
low of Touran, does not constitute an absolute limit towards
the north, for moving sands displace rivers between the
Caspian Sea and the Lake of Aral. But, without occupy-
ing ourselves with this sort of appendage of the steppes of
Kirghise or of Ischim, let us confine our investigations to the
southern portion of the region.

On the plateau of Iran, there are, first of all, the deserts
of Khorassan and of Naubendam, above which, it may be said,
that during the summer no cloud is to be seen; the dews
are so slight, that paper is not moistened during the night,
and polished iron is not at all rusted. Vast plains, in the
midst of which is included the oasis of Yezd (é. e. light), the
last refuge of the worshippers of fire, present only a dry sur-
face, covered with a crust of salt, which cracks under the
feet, and nourishes saline plants. But whatever may be the
dryness of that region, there is no absence of rain ; for at
Ispahan (lat. 32° 40’ N.), where the winter commences in No-
vember and continues until March, there are falls of rain so
abundant, that the earth is penetrated by it to a depth of
more than a yard; and there are, moreover, four or five
pretty considerable falls of snow. The most violent rains
occur in March and April; they are accompanied by hail ;
and, at that epoch, strong winds announce the return of the
droughts.

In the same latitude, the mountains of Khorassan are
covered with a thick coating of snow during the winter, while
rain inundates the subjacent plains ; so that the whole of this
zone presents the same conditions as the Syro-Arabian desert,
of which it forms the prolongation towards the east ; but it,
at the same time, exhibits a greater intensity of cold.

We have next the desert of Kerman, situated to the SE. of

Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 91

Yezd, and likewise covered with salt and sand, in the centre
of which is placed the oasis of Khubis, a real garden of fruit
trees; besides, the whole of Kerman is rich in all sorts of
vegetable productions, which flourish wherever irrigations can
be established.

In Farsistan, which is in the immediate neighbourhood of
the Persian Gulf, the herbage is renewed between January
and May, after the rains, and the agreeable and fertile plain
of Schiraz (Lat. 29° 52’), is subjected to the same conditions.
The mountains which surround it are also frequently enveloped
in clouds ; and the melting of the snow, which takes place in
spring, gives rise occasionally to disastrous floods.

Further to the south, between 26° and 27° N., in Laristan,
on the shores of the Persian Gulf, the heats become greater ;
and it is there that the maritime strip of land is met with,
whose high temperature has caused it to receive the name of
Kermasir. Bender-Abassi and the island of Ormus are
both notorious for their intolerable climate, their malaria,
their saline soil, and the deficiency of trees and plants; but
it is there that the town of Laar is placed, in a plain sur-
rounded by a belt of hills ; and whose soil, although sandy,
is covered with palms and orange trees. It is provided with
cisterns and reservoirs, in which a drinkable water is col-
lected, after the winter rains have sufficiently removed the
salt from the soil. It is there also, between Schiraz and
Laar, that the plain of Dadiran is situated, which, traversed
by a river abounding in fish, and possessing a more moderate
temperature, serves as a refuge for Europeans, exhausted by
the local heats of Ormus. There is thus, in the whole of this
region, rather an excess of heat than an absolute want of
rain; although it sometimes happens that there is no rain at
certain points during two or three consecutive years, a circum-
stance which takes place more especially in Bender-Abassi.

Positive data regarding the rainy reason are awanting as
to a portion of Kohistan, and of the varied interior of Beloo-
chistan ; nevertheless, if, on the one hand, we know that
Pottinger, during a journey of five days, between Sarawan
and Kullugan, did not find anything else but hills and downs
of moving sand, destitute of vegetation, it must, on the other

92 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the

hand, be added, that Toun, one of the towns of that region,
is situated in a district rich in corn; and that, in the parts
of Beloochistan where water is not awanting, the soil pro-
duces fine forests, various grains, dates, almonds, sugar,
cotton, and indigo, a variety of cultivation which necessarily
infers falls of rain. We know, moreover, that rivers of the
second order are lost in the sands, or are dried up during the
summer, of which the heats are excessive at certain points ;
so that we must necessarily admit the existence of hiemal
rains. Regarding the north and the east of Beloochistan,
more precise data establish the fact, that the seasons are
regulated nearly as in Europe, with the exception of the
summers being warmer and the winters less rigorous; al-
though it must be remarked, that snow falls at Khelat, near
Sarassan. The territory of Candahar is the most fertile
possible. Lastly, on the maritime shore, the monsoons give
rise to a rainy season, whose result is the termination of the
heats which commence in March and last till October. There
is, therefore, no surface of any extent in the whole region,
which can be compared to the African Sahara.

The chains of Salomon and of Brahu (Brahnick) separate
Beloochistan and Affghanistan from the low country of the
Indus, which flanks their eastern side. There Scinde is
situated, the resemblance of which to Egypt has struck
more than one traveller. Its*level plain, watered by a fine
river which fertilizes its banks, is bounded to the right
by a mass of steril mountains, which are rendered inhos-
pitable by their soil and their climate; to the left, an im-
mense desert of upwards of 600 miles in length, extends from
Attock to the district of Cutch, situated on the gulf of the
same name, and it sends off branches to the western regions.
It is thus, that the opening which separates the mountains
of Salomon and Brahu, Candahar and Scinde, is occupied by
a naked plain, whose sterility is sufficiently indicated by its
name of Detschi-bi-doulet or desert of poverty, plateau with-
out prosperity. But although these countries are covered
with hills of sand, although they recall all the horrors of the
Arabian deserts, and although they even checked the auda-
city of Alexander, it does not follow that they are absolutely

Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 93

devoid of rain and all vegetation. Thus, the savannahs are
pretty numerous in the northern districts, and marshes and
jungles fringe the banks of the river. On the road from
Ruderpour to Almorah, prickly reeds and resinous trees are
met with; in Scinde there are springs and melons: the inhabi-
tants of Beykanir, to the south of Djeypour, have every-
where cisterns to supply the deficiency occasioned bythe aridity
of their soil ; lastly, to the east, Delhi, Agra, and the mountain-
ous country of Khotak, are distinguished in a more positive
manner by their periodical rains, commencing with storms
at the end of May, especially abundant in July and August,
and then becoming less abundant in September ; and it is to
be remarked, that these regions, situated in the same lati-
tudes, are moreover extratropical, extending from 23° to
34° N., being in this respect similar to Affghanistan, Beloo-
chistan, and Persia. As to the remainder of intertropical
India, interposed as it is between seas and alpine mountains,
it cannot, of course, present any thing else but a climate
composed of alternations of droughts and violent rains ; thus
fogs, heavy falls of rain, and violent showers of large hail-
stones are more dreadful in that country than anywhere
else.

There now remains no other great desert in Asia but the
Sehama, which, situated between 30° and 47° N., does not
necessarily come under our consideration. However, as it is
generally included along with the tracts already mentioned,
we think it right to enter into some details on the subject.

Its height in the eastern portion, between Zakil-Dak and
Olon Bainchen, hardly exceeds 3650 feet, according to the
measurement of Bunge, and its mean altitude is not more than
2500 feet ; while to the west of the lake of Lob, its height is
scarcely 1200 feet. But this plain is traversed from east to
west by the two great systems of mountains of Kouenloun
and Thian-Chan, which tend to modify its temperature ; it is
divided, moreover, into two halves, an eastern and a west-
ern, bya less barren narrow tract of country, The following
- is the manner in which the climates, the soils, and the vegeta-
tions vary, from east to west, over a great portion of this enor-

94 Professor Fournet’s Researches on the

mous surface :—The kingdom of Kachgar, on the eastern side
of the chain of Bolor, contains much sand, and but little land
suitable for cultivation ; but the latter produces hemp, grapes,
corn, and rice. The climate is temperate, and winds and
rains occur regularly, although the latter are so little abun-
dant as to be sometimes entirely awanting, and it becomes ne-
cessary to have recourse to irrigations for agricultural pur-
poses. The same is the case between Yar-Kand, Khotan,
and the lake of Lob, nearly in the same latitude as Lisbon:
snow is rare, and the sandy portions only present here and
there a herbaceous vegetation, in the midst of which are to
be seen some stunted thickets, some wild apricot trees, and
false acacias. Lastly, towards the eastern extremity, near
Erghi, the plain is covered with reeds and plants identical
with those growing on the shores of the Caspian sea. It
must be added, that, in the centre of the Gobi, a series of
lakes is met with, in which rivers of considerable size lose
themselves ; and that the sands which occur in this tract of
country are considered by the Mongols as the remains of an
inland sea, although its importance must not be exaggerated,
inasmuch as a portion of the surface is rocky. Among the
lakes alluded to, the most important are: to the north, those
of Baba-Kul, Bastu-Noor, Barkul, and Turgut ; to the west,
those of Lop-Noor, Gash-Noor, and Chas-So ; and to the east,
those of Tabsun-Noor, Siao-Serteng, and Kharra: still fur-
ther to the east the country becomes essentially sandy, con-
tains no river, and approaches the Sahara in character. On the
northern side of the chain of Thian-Chan, between Ourocontsi
and Illi, there are rains, and near Ouromtsi, the snow which
falls during the winter covers the surface to a depth of ten
feet, and is of course still more abundant in the chain itself.

A Chinese work, obtained by Humboldt, states, that
around Tourfan (lat. 43° 30’, the same as that of Montpellier
and Narbonne), “the heat is excessive in summer. A para-
sol of fire covers the vault of heaven, and burning winds tra-
verse the circumference of the country. On the sandy moun-
tain, which extends to the south-east like a girdle, neither
plants nor trees are to be seen; in winter, there are neither

Situation of Zones without Rain, and of Deserts. 95

extreme colds nor great falls of snow: the fertile and well
watered soil produces wheat, lint, sweet melons, water me-
lons, and grapes ; but to the south, nothing is to be seen but
gobi, or plains of sand, on which asses and wild horses are
found in herds of tens and hundreds.”

This great concavity, however, may in fact be compared
less to an absolute desert than to a steppe, differing, in re-
spect of its southern position, from the Russian and Siberian
steppes : storms occur on its borders in June and July, and
snow falls in winter ; sometimes even the vegetation of the
middle sandy portion, after being destroyed by the prolonged
suspension of rains, is developed with vigour when they again
abound ; so that in all this we can only see the tendency
which the savannahs of all parts of the world have to pass
into the state of deserts.

Opposite Asia we find only one great island, New Holland,
placed in the same parallels as Arabia and Hindostan ; but
its interior being as yet unknown, the absence of rivers, and
the dryness of the winds over the whole extent of its coasts,
are the only probabilities which can be offered in support of
the absence of great masses of water in the central portions.
For the rest, the climate is variable.

The following are the chief results which may be deduced
from the consideration of this subject, viz. :—

1st, That we must distinguish, in reference to tropical
rains, two great atmospheric divisions ; the one subjected to
the trade-winds, and the other to the monsoons.

2d, That the latter does not admit of absolute deserts, be-
cause the alternate play of the monsoons always gives rise
to rains.

3d, That, nevertheless, the effects of tropical heat, favoured
by some accessory causes, such as certain breezes, a naturally
poor soil, and the absence of springs and of rivers, may there
produce small local deserts, or at least a great general aridity
(Tehama, Ormus, Beloochistan, Scinde, and Gobi).

4th, That in the division subject to the trade-winds, the
low lands of uniform structure, and situated between the
zones of the intertropical rains and of the subtropical rains,
do not receive any rain, and are, consequently, characterized

96 Researches on the Situation of Zones without Rain, &e.

by an absolute dryness (Sahara, Agoa, Lower California,
and the Peruvian coast).

5th, That a great elevation of the surface, in the form of a
plateau, may produce the approximation of the two regions of
estival and hiemal rains in such a manner that they mani-
fest themselves consecutively in one and the same country
(the northern portion of the Mexican plateau).

6th, Lastly, that a great irregularity of the surface may
completely disturb the normal arrangement, by causing rains
out of the usual season, even between the tropics (the coast
of Brazil, New Orleans, &c., &c.).

Before concluding this memoir, it may be useful to explain
more particularly the meaning of some expressions we have
employed, or that are made use of by the inhabitants of coun-
tries more or less resembling deserts.

The words savannahs and pampas are employed, the one in
the south of South America, the other in the south of North
America, to designate slightly undulating and for the most
part grassy plains. They are great prairies ; but the pampas
correspond more exactly to dry savannahs, and for wet sa-
vannahs there is an equivalent term, viz., Canadas. The
steppes of the Russians, the yai/a of the Persians, in a like
manner, designate flat plains which are dry and at the same
time grassy ; and the Wanos of the north of South America,
as well as the karroo of southern Africa, only differ from
them by being liable to become more completely arid in the
seasons of the droughts.

The gobi or cobi of the Mongols are sandy deserts ; but
the term is applied generally, in northern Asia, to all steppes
devoid of water, while the name of Khangai is given to the
portions which are watered, and are covered with vegetation.
The cha-mo of the Chinese is, properly speaking, the sea of
sand, a true lande; but this expression is not applied to the
portion beyond Hami, so that the preceding distinctions are
sufficient to shew that the words cobi and cha-mo, taken in
a collective sense by geographers, ought not to be applied to
all the space ordinarily designated in this manner, because
its different portions have received different names, accord-
ing to their characters.

6

a

Mr R. Adie’s Account of Electrical Experiments. 97

In northern Africa, the terms Sade/ and Sahara are also ap-
plied to great flat spaces, whose distinction depends on their
constituent elements, which are sandy and moving in the for-
mer, and pebbly or stony (as in the plain of the Crau in the
south of France), in the latter. Nevertheless, the meaning of
these expressions varies: thus the sahel is also a district swept
by the wind, or the shore of the sea; and the sahara, a place
exposed to the sun: lastly, the sahara is used to designate a
desert where nothing grows, or, on the contrary, a desert
with pastures. Some epithets are likewise employed to ex-
press local peculiarities ; thus sahara-bila-ma, and sahara-ul-
aski, mean the desert without water, and the complete desert.
As to more circumscribed spaces, if their nakedness is com-
plete, they receive the name of ozacad ; if they present some
dry herbs, they are termed azgar ; and, lastly, if a moderate
temperature prevails, they are designated by the name of
hair.

A plateau is expressed among the Persians by the name
of pesichi-refi, and among the Arabians by that of dacca;
lastly, in northern Africa, mountainous and rugged regions,
entirely bare, or with valleys covered by vegetation, receive
the name of harusch ; the garrigues of Languedoc sometimes
convey an idea of their nature.*

An Account of Electrical Experiments. By Mr R. ADIn,
Liverpool. (Communicated by the Author.)

In the following experiments my object is, through them, to give
evidence to shew, that the arrangement commonly called the water
battery, depends for its action on the formation of a metallic oxide ;
that this oxide is formed from the oxygen of our atmosphere, and
not from decomposed water; that the action of the battery ceases
when the atmosphere is shut off from it; and that the electro-
motive force of the currents derived from the water battery, and
from the ordinary acid battery, are nearly the same, although in

* From the Annales de Chimie et de Physique for May and June 1844.
VOL. XXXVIIL NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. G

98 Mr R. Adie’s Account of Electrical Experiments.

the latter, water is abundantly decomposed, to supply oxygen for
the composition of a metallic oxide.

Pure water free from air, or air perfectly dry, are well known not
to act on the oxidizable metals zine and iron at ordinary tempera-
tures. It is also well known that water, as soon as it absorbs a
small quantity of air, immediately begins to oxidize them. In order
to ascertain if this was the case when these metals were combined
with platina, silver, and copper, after the usual manner of galvanic
pairs, I prepared various couple’ and placed them in glass tubes,
filled with recently boiled pure water, and hermetically sealed. These
remained for weeks without shewing any oxidation. One tube con-
tained 6 zinc and copper couples, and there was no trace of action.
A tube was next filled with recently boiled salt and water, and a
silver and iron couple; still no change: yet a similar couple placed
in distilled water within an hour from the time of its distillation,
but which had not been boiled previous to filling like the other tubes,
for the first six hours gave distinct evidence of the composition of an
oxide. A silver and iron couple was then placed in a tube filled
half with water, half with air; for the first week there was an abun-
dant deposit of the hydrated peroxide of iron, then the dusky green
protoxide began to form. After three weeks the tube was opened
under water, when there appeared to be about one-sixth of the air
absorbed. Had any water been decomposed by this couple, the evolved
hydrogen would have produced a pressure in the sealed tube. A
copper and iron couple was placed in a well-stoppered phial, and
the fitness of the phial for the experiment tested, by filling it with
pure boiled water to see that there was no action; it was then open-
ed under recently boiled water, and half filled with pure nitrogen ;
this shewed no change. A similar experiment was performed with
oxygen, which immediately commenced the rapid formation of the
hydrated peroxide of iron. In all these experiments the oxidation
was strictly limited by the supply of oxygen in the tubes, and when
great care was taken to exclude it there was no action, not even
when the tubes were exposed for several days to a bright sun.

The development of an electrical current, when measured by the
deposit from the oxidizable metal, was in the above experiments
entirely dependent on the presence of the oxygen of the atmosphere,
but I felt desirous of proving this by the measurement of the elec-
trical current itself. A small zinc and platina couple was connected
with the galvanometer, and two phials prepared, one containing re-
cently collected rain-water, the other, the same water well boiled,
and the air excluded while cooling. On dipping the couple into the
unboiled rain-water, the galvanometer indicated three and a half
degrees ; then performing the same experiment with the boiled water
the deflection was only from half a degree to a degree.

The next experiment was to prepare a battery which could be

Mr R. Adie’s Account of Electrical Experiments. 99

hermetically sealed and opened to the air at pleasure. The annexed
figure represents a cell constructed with this view :

A piece of ordinary glass test tube.

A long capillary point.

A piece of pure silver wire bent in two or three folds before
insertion, to give surface, then fused air-tight into the end
of the glass tube.

D. A similar piece of iron wire.

amb

When the tube AA is filled with pure water, and sealed at B,
there is a slight oxidation shewn through the first twelve hours,
caused by the air absorbed in filling; for this form requires two or
three heatings before it is filled. A voltameter with sheathed cop-
per poles* and filled with acidulated water, shewed this action when
connected with the wires C and D; the bells of hydrogen were seen
slowly to rise one by one: after twelve hours no gas could be seen,
it continued perfectly inactive for some time. ‘The orifice B was
opened, and within twelve hours there was a steady current decom-
posing water. As I considered this as the test experiment, I wished
to have the electrical force in excess, for which a four-cell battery
was constructed, each cell exactly like the one above; these were
connected as a four pair series, and a small sheathed glass platina
pole voltameter attached. When first made I could, with a magni-
fier, detect the slow formation of beads of gas which rose at inter-
vals of several minutes each, In twelve hours this action disappear-
ed, and the battery remained perfectly inactive for some time; the
atmosphere was admitted by the capillary points, and in six hours
the voltameter shewed the passage of a current. The effect increased
for nearly two days, when there was, considering the size of the
plates, a rapid decomposition in the voltameter ; the orifices were
now closed. By this time the water in the cells had absorbed a quan-
tity of air, which kept the battery in action for six days after the
supply from the atmosphere was shut off; but when its oxygen was
exhausted the current disappeared, and the battery was again inac-
tive. While experimenting with these cells I constantly experienced

* See Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol, xxxv. p. 902,

100 Mr R. Adie’s Account of Electrical Experiments.

a feeling of surprise from the close resemblance their action bore
to the respiration of the lower classes of animals. In this arrange-
ment of inorganic matter an electrical current is as much dependent
on a supply of air for its maintenance, as the lives of plants or ani-
mals are. Still, it should be borne in mind that, beyond the simple
fact noticed, there is no further evidence of parallelism.

Three pairs of the water battery are sufficient to decompose aci-
dulated water with platina poles, and one pair serves to do so with
copper poles. The battery excited by diluted sulphuric acid also
requires three pairs to decompose water. Professor Grove has
shewn that twenty-six pairs of his composition of water battery are
necessary to perform the same decomposition, while three pairs
acting only by their oxidation of zinc, are equally effective. Tak-
ing these things into consideration, it appears to me, that for the
great source of the galvanic current we must look to the composition
of a metallic oxide, for which the presence of water is essential,
although it is not always decomposed.

On turning over in my mind the action of water on a galvanic
couple, and comparing it with the gas battery, I was led to expect
that if the most oxidizable metal of the former arrangement be
removed, and its place supplied with one of the hydrogen tubes of
Professor Grove’s battery, that the principle of the action would be
unchanged. In lieu of the composition of the oxide of zinc, on the
zine plate, there should be the formation of water on the platina
plate ; the hydrogen being drawn from that contained in the tube,
and the oxygen from the supply absorbed by the water from the
atmosphere. A trial proved this view to be correct; the slip of
platina in the hydrogen gas was the generating metal to a plate of
either copper, silver, or platina, immersed in water holding oxygen
in solution. I found the size of the conducting plate to possess
much influence over the action; a large plate of silverfoil gave
more electricity than a slip of platina corresponding in size to the
generating plate. Pieces of copper of large dimensions are too apt
to give opposite currents.

When the above experiment shewed that the oxygen tube of the
gas battery could be dispensed with, I wished to try its value as a
sustaining arrangement. For this purpose it is necessary to cement
inside the hydrogen tube a piece of zinc, unconnected with the pla-
tina; then as the gas is consumed the acidulated water rises till it
comes in contact with the zinc, when a fresh supply of hydrogen is
obtained. A tube so prepared placed over a shallow vessel con-
taining a piece of silverfoil for a conducting plate, gave an endur-
ing action; and the electrical current derived from this single pair
of composition of water plates, freely decomposed the argent cyanide
of potassium. To avoid the sulphate of zinc being dissolved in the
fluid in the battery cell, I have used an inverted U tube where the
hydrogen is generated in a separate vessel; but the first method

a

Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 101

answers sufficiently for an experiment. The water can be easily
changed without stopping the action, and it is simpler in its parts.

Through Mr Crosse’s experiments the sustaining power of the
water battery is well known. Those in the present communication
shew the necessity of supplying this battery with water containing
as much dissolved oxygen as possible. There are many situations
in the vicinity of surface streams, or of mill-dams, where the requi-
site water is at command; and it is only there that the value of the
water battery, for telegraphic or metallurgic purposes, can be fairly
ascertained.

I have stated above that strong brine did not at all act on iron
when the atmosphere was thoroughly excluded. This fact may by
many be thought sufficient to prove that the salt and water battery
does not differ from the pure water battery in the principle of its
action. But as I wished to take as little as possible on trust, I
repeated all the chief experiments given, substituting sea water, or
brine, in the place of fresh water. It is unnecessary to go into these
repetitions, as they all confirm the first results detailed above: and
the proof has since been rendered still more satisfactory, by placing
a small zinc and silver couple under the receiver of an air-pump,
with wires passing through a shell-lac top to connect to the galvan-
ometer. Such a battery, whether excited by distilled water or by
sea water, soon loses its action when the air has been well exhaust-
ed by the air-pump: to do so requires 36 hours. As soon as the
air is readmitted, a slight deflection of the galvanometer is imme-
diately observed, but the rise in action is very slow, so long as the
receiver is kept over the vessel holding the water. When the water
battery is first subjected to a diminution of pressure, the air rises
rapidly through the water, which keeps the latter in a state of con-
tinual motion. This, like shaking by mechanical means, very often
produces an increase in the action, which, however, is only of a
temporary nature; for as the water loses its air, the deflection of the
needles of the galvanometer sinks rapidly.

The carbonic acid dissolved in water exposed to the atmosphere,
can have little, or perhaps no effect in these experiments; for when
water, sparkling with the rapid escape of this gas, is used to excite
a zinc and silver couple, the action is not quite equal to the result
produced by rain or sea water.

On Fireproof Warehouses. By WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Esq.,
Civil-Engineer.

The serious nature of the late fires at Liverpool, Man-
chester, and other large towns, has induced an inquiry into
the causes of these disasters, with a view to avert their pro-

102 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses.

gress, and to adopt measures for the better security of pro-
perty, and the prevention of a calamity so injurious to the
public as well as individual interests. In no other descrip-
tion of building have the effects of fire been so severely felt,
nor have the provisions necessary for its suppression been
so disregarded, as in warehouses used for the stowage of
commercial produce in maritime towns.

In the manufacturing districts the same apathy has not
prevailed ; for, in most places, fireproof buildings have been
introduced, and, notwithstanding their complete success, it
is surprising that the same system has not been adopted in
the construction of warehouses and other buildings appro-
priated to the reception of merchandise. When we consider
the extent and immense value of property contained in these
edifices, it can scarcely be conceived that such a state of
things should exist ; and, more particularly, amongst a body
of men the most active and intelligent in Europe. Such,
however, is the case ; and we have only to enumerate a few
examples to shew, that a disregard of consequences, or a
culpable ignorance of existing improvements, has pervaded
the mercantile community for a number of years. This
should not be, as the buildings in which the manufactures of
cotton, flax, silk, and wool, are carried on, are, with few ex-
ceptions, almost entirely fireproof; and upwards of thirty
years have elapsed since iron beams, iron columns, and
brick arches, were first introduced in the construction of
factories, as a security against fire. These facts ought not
to have escaped the observation of the British merchant;
and yet, in the face of so many examples, with one single
exception,* it is only within the last few months that a non-
combustible material has been used in the construction of
the immense magazines of Liverpool. In other parts of the
empire the same laxity of application exists, but the effort
so happily made at the port of Liverpool, will, it is hoped,
extend itself to the metropolis and every sea-port in the
kingdom. For these objects, and for the guidance of those

* Messrs Jevons constructed a fireproof warehouse on the New Quay
ten years ago.

Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 103

who may feel disposed to adopt measures for saving a large
rate of insurance, and for the further protection of their pro-
perty, I would respectfully submit the following observations
for consideration :—

On the subject of fireproof structures we have few ex-
amples in the ages of antiquity ; and provided we except the
monuments of the early Egyptians, and some of the public
edifices of the Greeks and Romans, there are but few in-
stances of buildings so erected as to afford any security
against the ravages of fire. During the middle ages, some
of the Gothic churches and cathedrals were constructed
almost entirely of stone ;* and, with these exceptions, there
appears no evidence of an existing knowledge as to the be-
nefits arising from the use of an entirely fireproof structure.
Probably a want of cast-iron, and the consequent ignorance
of its use, was an insurmountable barrier to the develop-
ment of the fireproof system ; but, in the present age, these
difficulties do not exist, and to neglect the means thus so
liberally supplied for the protection of life and property,
would augur a want of discernment incompatible with the
spirit and enterprise of the age. Latterly, the extension of
commerce, and the great value of property which is daily
consigned to the keeping of individuals and companies, have
produced a different feeling ; and, viewing the present en-
gagements of merchants, with the amount of transfer from
one hand to another, it is no longer matter of surprise that
measures, calculated for the better security of property,
should be imperatively called for, and that in every instance
where it is exposed to risk.

The general character of warehouses has, for ages, been
the same; the roofs and floors invariably being constructed
of timber, with strong girders and wooden props ; and these
have, in most cases, been so injudiciously placed as to cause
considerable injury to the structure on every occasion when
great weights have to be supported. On referring to the
greater number of these erections, it will be found that the

Wt) 2 ee ee rr

* The cathedral of Milan is constructed entirely of marble and glass.

104 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses.

props which support the floors have their ends placed im-
mediately under the main beam ; and these being successively
supported upon each other, with the main beam intervening,
the result is, that the fibres of the girders are thus com-
pletely crushed, particularly in the lower floors, by the su-
perincumbent weight, and, in many cases, the beams are
almost squeezed in two from the immense pressure to which
they are subjected. Even in this imperfect construction, the
necessary precaution of wooden caps has not, in all cases,
been adopted ; and until the introduction of iron columns,
with heads and bases covering a large surface of the beam,
the timbers were, in many instances, seriously injured.

The use of iron columns, although an improvement upon
the old system of building, is, nevertheless, no security
against fire, and it is obvious that no guarantee can be given
so long as the structure is chiefly composed of timber, and
the openings imperfectly closed by wooden doors and shut-
ters. From this it is evident that, in order to give perfect
security, warehouses must be constructed upon different
principles, which may be enumerated as follows, viz. :—

1. The whole of the building to be composed of non-com-
bustible materials, such as iron, stone, or bricks.

2. In order to prevent fire, whether arising from accident
or spontaneous combustion, every opening or crevice com-
municating with the external atmosphere to be closed.

3. An isolated stone or iron staircase (well protected on
every side by brick or stone walls) to be attached to every
story, and the staircase to be furnished with a line of water
pipes communicating with the mains in the street, and as-
cending to the top of the building.

4. In a range of stores, the different warehouses to be
divided by strong partition walls, in no case less than 18
inches thick, and no more openings to be made than are ab-
solutely necessary for the admission of goods and light.

5. That the iron columns, beams, and brick arches, be of
strength sufficient not only to support a continuous dead
pressure, but to resist the force of impact to which they are
subject by the falling of heavy goods upon the floors.

Lastly, That in order to prevent accident from intense

Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 105

heat melting the columns, in the event of fire, in any of the
rooms, a current of cold air be introduced into the hollow of
the columns from an arched tunnel under the floors.

Adopting the foregoing divisions of the subject, it will be
requisite to consider them separately.

First, The whole of the building to be composed of non-
combustible material, such as iron, stone, or brick.

In the choice of material, much will depend upon locality,
and the cheapness at which it can be obtained. In this
country the best fireproof buildings are generally composed
of brick or stone, with iron beams and columns properly
framed and held together by rods built into the walls, and
brick arches for the floors: these arches are supported by
and spring from the lower flanges of each beam, and are
thus extended in succession on each floor from one end of
the building to the other. These arches may be formed
either in a longitudinal direction in the line of the building,
or transversely, as circumstances may admit. The floors
are generally laid with stone flags or tiles upon the arches,
after they are properly levelled and filled up at the haunches
with a concrete of lime, sand, and ashes. The flags or tiles,
being well and solidly bedded in mortar, form a durable and
excellent floor. In buildings for particular objects, it is some-
times necessary to have wooden floors, and, where found
necessary, the boards are generally nailed in the usual way
to sleepers embedded in the lime-concrete as before de-
scribed, or, what is probably better, with a pavement of wooden
blocks.

This description of building, when properly constructed
and surmounted by an iron roof, is perfectly impervious to
the action of fire; and provided due regard be paid to the
selection of a careful superintendent, both owners and occu-
pants may rest satisfied as to the safety of the property.

Secondly, In order to prevent fire, whether arising from
accident or spontaneous combustion, every opening or cre-
vice communicating with the external atmosphere to be
closed.

These are points which should never be neglected in fire-
proof buildings. In warehouses, in particular, it is of vital

106 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses.

importance ; because in rooms or floors where combustible
material is stored, nothing tends so much to the security of
the building and its contents as a power to shut out and
prevent the admission of air. For this purpose an iron or
stone staircase, surrounded by brick or stone walls, and
communicating with the different floors by iron doors, should
always be attached. This staircase should be easy of ap-
proach from without, with a covered opening at the top, and
windows at each landing, in order to effect free ventilation,
and a ready communication with every part of the building.
Warehouses constructed upon this principle will effect almost
perfect security, and, in the event of fire, will enable persons
not only to approach the locality, but, in case of the casual
admission of atmospheric air, the room might be shut up and
the flames smothered till an effectual remedy was at hand.
For these objects I would strongly recommend the iron
doors, frames, and shutters, as constructed and used by
Messrs Samuel and James Holme, of Liverpool, to be fixed
in every room. These doors are made of double sheet-iron
plates, rivetted to a skeleton frame, with a stratum of air
between, which, acting as a non-conductor, is admirably
adapted to the purpose for which they are intended.

Thirdly, An isolated stone or iron staircase, well protected
on every side by brick or stone walls, to be attached to every
story, and the staircase to be furnished with a line of water
pipes communicating with the main in the street, and ascen-
ding to the top of the building.

Under the second division we have already treated of the
staircase, and the necessity which exists for having it per-
fectly distinct from other parts of the building: exclusive of
this separation, it will be found still more secure by having
a copious supply of water always at command. That supply
should not only exist in the street mains, but should commu-
nicate with every landing by a brass cock and hose, till it
terminates in a cistern with a valve on the top of the roof.
This cistern should be of such capacity as would insure a suf-
ficient supply of water in case of accident to the pipes in the
street. The pipes, leather hose, and the requisite discharge
of cocks, screw-keys, &c., should be kept in good repair, and

—

Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 107

the hose and screw-keys hung up at every landing ready for
use. These precautions will give additional security to par-
ties bonding goods, as also to the owner of the property in
which they are deposited. In addition to the above, it will
be advisable that all the cocks, hose, and serew-keys be made
of one size, and the same as those used by the Fire Brigade
of the town. Before closing this part of the subject, I would
observe, that an exceedingly simple and ingenious apparatus
for extinguishing fire has been adopted by Joseph Jones, Esq.,
of Wallshaw, near Oldham. It consists of a thin copper
globe, of nine inches diameter, perforated full of small holes,
and suspended from the ceiling of the different rooms, either
in a mill or a warehouse. Each rose is (in case of need) sup-
plied with water by lines of pipes communicating with the
mains in the street. In this form Mr Jones is not only in a
position to discharge a food of water into each separate room,
but from the peculiar shape of the rose, he is enabled (with
a pressure of 200 feet acting upon the apertures) to disperse
+t to a distance of upwards of 40 feet in very direction. This
ig a certain and effectual method for extinguishing fire, and
‘might easily be adopted in almost any important structure in
large towns, where a supply of water and the necessary pres-
sure can be obtained. Another important feature of this ap-
plication is the facility and rapidity with which fires can be
extinguished. The cocks are all on the outside of the build-
ing, and being carefully locked up and marked with numbers
corresponding with the different rooms, there is less risk of
delay and confusion when an accident occurs.

Fourthly, In a range of stores, the different warehouses
to be divided by strong partition walls, and no more openings
to be made than are absolutely necessary for the admission
of goods and light.

These precautions become more apparent in every case
where large piles of buildings are erected contiguous to each
other, and where risk from fire is incurred in the communi-
cation of one part of the building with another. The Metro-
politan Building Act has provided against accidents of this
kind, by the insertion of a clause wherein these precautions
are insisted upon, and by the introduction of partition walls,

108 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses.

which divide the houses, the utmost security is afforded to
that description of property. In contiguous buildings, these
partitions have their full value; and it not unfrequently oc-
curs that the property on each side has been saved from con-
flagration when a centre building has been completely de-
stroyed : hence the necessity of complete separation in every
case where the buildings are contiguous. In the construc-
tion of warehouses these precautions are the more important,
from the increased value of the property therein deposited,
and the greater risk to which, in some particular cases, they
are subject. All warehouses should, therefore, be carefully
separated from each other ; and in forming the partition walls,
it might be a great improvement to have an open space of
two inches up the middle, with proper binders, for the pur-
pose of ventilation—as air, being a non-conductor, would, in
case of fire, prevent the walls from being overheated, and af-
ford a free communication with the atmosphere by the
ascending current of air. They should also be built to some
height above the roof, in order to prevent the possibility of
communication with the adjoining stories, and to effect a
complete separation of the different compartments into which
they are divided.*

To render the different flats or rooms of warehouses se-
cure, it is a desideratum to have as few openings in them as
possible. The plan adopted in those of Mr Brancker’s, in
Dublin-street, Liverpool, appears to be not only well calcu-
lated for the admission and transmission of goods on each
side, but having no more windows than are absolutely neces-
sary for the admission of sufficient light to effect the deposi-
tion and removal of merchandise, they are exceedingly well
adapted for the double purpose of convenience and security.
In every situation, the iron doors and iron window shutters
already described should be used.

It will be observed, that the security afforded by the iron
doors and shutters will be of no use, unless they be closed
and fastened every night before the warehouse is shut up.

* The Liverpool Building Act has now rendered it compulsory that
parapet walls shall be built up 5 feet above the gutters.

Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Varehouses. 109

Fifthly, That the iron coloumns, beams and brick arches,
be of strength sufficient not only to support a continuous dead
pressure, but to resist the force of impact to which they may
be subject, by the falling of heavy goods upon the floors.

This is one of the most important considerations connected
with the security and construction of warehouses ; and in or-
der to remove every doubt as to the stability of such a struc-
ture, I must refer to my highly-talented and respected friend,
Eaton Hodgkinson, Esq., F.R.S., one of the first authorities
in this or any other country on the strength of materials.
To that gentleman the public are indebted for a series of
theoretical and practical experiments on the strength of
beams and pillars, of the utmost value to architects, builders,
and engineers. Any person choosing to make himself ac-
quainted with the principles of Mr Hodgkinson’s experi-
ments, and the results deduced therefrom, will find no diffi-
culty in constructing beams and columns of the strongest
form, and at the same time insuring the proportional and re-
quisite strength, accompanied with a great saving in mate-
rial in all parts of the structure. On this part of the subject
it will be necessary to observe, first, on the structure of
beams, that until the publication of Mr Hodgkinson’s expe-
riments, practical men were almost entirely without rule, or
any satisfactory theory on which to found their calculations
on the form and distribution of the material. Now the sub-
ject is well understood, not only as regards the strength
which is wanted, but also the best and strongest form for re-
sisting the different strains to which they are subjected. In
warehouses containing goods, these strains are more varied
than in factories. In the former, the floors are often loaded
to a great extent with solid dense material ; at other times
with light bales ; and the lower floors are frequently piled
with casks containing mineral substances, which produce not
only a great amount of dead pressure upon the beams, but
incur the risk of some of the heavier weights falling from
some height upon the floor, and thus endangering the secu-
rity of the structure by the fracture of the beam. These ac-
cidents are probably not frequent, but they should be guarded
against ; and the beams, arches, and columns should not only

110 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses.

be calculated to resist the greatest load when operated upon
by a dead weight, but the effects of impact produced by a
body falling through a given space upon the floor. These
calculations should apply to the two first floors of every
warehouse, as the heavier description of goods are almost in-
variably deposited in the lower stories.

Mr Hodgkinson, in searching experimentally for the strong-
est section, found that the old practice of making beams with
equal ribs—such as recommended by former writers—ex-
ceedingly defective ; he proved a proportional between the
top and bottom flanges, and the strain being less towards
the ends of the flanges, it was reduced to the parabolic form,
in order to give equal strengths throughout the whole length
of the beams. This was an important discovery, and as
warehouse and factory beams are intended to be equally
strong in every part, and to sustain the load uniformly dis-
tributed, it is necessary to adopt the parabola in the form of
the ribs, and to mark their relative properties with the body
of the beam, and with each other. In discussing these pro-
portions, Mr Hodgkinson demonstrates the curvature of the
ribs as follows :—

«« Suppose the bottom ribs to be formed of two equal pa-
rabolas, the vertex of one of them, A C B, being at C;

i Noss eee, 06 ign Nob bere
. ae

ad Cc

when by the nature of the curve, any ordinate dc is as
Ac x Be; the strength of the bottom rib, therefore, and
consequently that of the beam at that place, will be as this
rectangle. It is shewn, too, by writers on the strength of
materials, that the rectangle A ¢ x Bc is the proportion of
strength which a beam ought to have to bear equally the
same weight every where, or a weight laid uniformly over
i:

From this it would appear that the forms laid down by
Mr Hodgkinson were rightly devised, and a great saving,

Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. i

not less than 3-10ths, effected in the quantity of material
used.

Having pointed out the strongest form of beams as applied
to fireproof buildings, it will be necessary in this place to
refer to their strength, and to inquire into the nature of the
strains to which they are subject. It has already been
stated, that iron beams in warehouses have two distinct
forces to contend against, that of direct pressure and the
force of impact; with the former there is no difficulty, but
the latter involves a proposition on which mathematicians
are not agreed. For practical purposes we may, however,
suppose a case, such as a large cask of molasses, or box of
heavy mineral substance, equal to one ton = 2240 lbs,, fall-
ing from a height of six feet upon the floor. Now, according
to the laws of gravity, a body falling from a state of rest
acquires an increase of velocity, in a second of time, equal
to 32 feet, and during that period falls through a space of
16 feet: this accelerated velocity is as the square roots of
the distances, and a falling body having acquired a velocity
of 8 feet in the first foot of its descent, and 6 feet being the
height from which a weight of one ton is supposed to fall,

We have J 6 = 2.449 x 8 = 19.592 for the velocity in a
descent of 6 feet.

Then, 19.592 x 2240 = 43,886 lbs., or nearly 20 tons, as
the momentum with which the body impinges on the floor.
In the present state of our knowledge, this momentum can-
not probably be taken as the measure of the force of impact,
but we may fairly estimate the latter as exceeding that of
momentum ; and having these forces to resist, it will be ne-
cessary to guard against them, and to make the beams,
columns, and arches in the lower floors, of such strength as
will resist the blow, and neutralize its effect upon the floor.

Although the iron beams and arches of a fireproof floor
may be sufficiently elastic to resist an impinging force, such
as above described, it is still advisable to adopt other pre-
cautions, such as the bedding of timber along the top of the
arches,* or to form the two lower floors entirely of wooden

* Since the above was written, I have been informed that the Act of

112 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses.

boards (three-inch plank), securely nailed to sleepers em-
bedded in concrete: this plan would give additional security,
by the transmission of the impinging force over a larger
surface; and, under these circumstances, the concussion
would be made, in the first instance, on a soft elastic sub-
stance, before it could act upon the more rigid materials of
iron beams and brick arches.

In order, however, to remove all doubts as to security, it
will be advisable to have stronger iron beams and columns
in the two lower floors; and having computed these strengths,
they will probably be found nearly correct in the ratio of 12
to9. If, on this data, we take the breaking weight of a beam,
as suitable to the upper stories of a warehouse, at 22 tons,
those of the lower stories would require to be 29.32, or near-
ly 30 tons; and the columns, although less liable to fracture,
will, nevertheless, be greatly improved by the introduction
of a proportionate thickness of metal.

Having, to the best of our ability, established the fact of
perfect security in the use of iron beams and arches, the
next point of inquiry will be as to the strength and propor-
tion of the columns ; but before treating of this part of the
subject, it may be proper to advert to the tie-rods, which are
built into the walls and arches, and should unite the walls
and girders as a species of net work. These tie-rods are of
great value, as they resist the strain of the arches, which,
acting through their line of tension, not only secure the walls

from being thrust out, but also retain the beams in the posi-

tion best adapted to sustain the load. The usual practice in
these districts is to leave five lines of $-square rods in a
width of 30 feet ; two lines are imbedded in the wall, and the
remaining three built into the arches. This is considered a
perfectly secure building ; but it must be borne in mind that
cotton mills are not subjected to heavy loads, and instead of
five tie-rods of -inch square, a warehouse should have seven
lines of rods, each 14-inch square. This will give a sectional

Parliament for the regulation of fireproof buildings does not admit of any
timber whatever. In such case, I would advise the beams so to be made

one-half stronger.

o

a

2

Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 118

area of about 11 inches in 30 feet, which, taken at 25 tons to
the square inch, will give a resisting tensile force of 275
tons. In factories, the resisting powers of the tie-rods sel-
dom exceed 100 to 110 tons, which is under 4 tons to the
foot, whereas the resisting forces in warehouses should not
be le*s than from 9 to 10 tons to the square foot.

In the construction of fireproof buildings, it is not only
necessary to secure the ends of the beams by extension rods
embedded in the walls, but the arch-plates, or ‘‘ Skewbacks,”
at each end should also be built into the wall; and this
plate, as well as the ends of the beams, slightly raised above
the level of the column, in order to allow for the settling of
the walls, which invariably takes place as the weight in-
creases in their ascent.

For the strongest form and best position of columns sup-
porting heavy weights, we must again refer to Mr Hodgkin-
son as the very first authority. In his valuable treatise on
the strength of pillars of cast-iron and other materials, pub-
lished in the Philosophical Transactions, Part I1., for 1840,
and for which he received the gold medal of the Royal
Society, will be found some of the most interesting and most
useful experiments yet given to the publie.

From these researches it will be necessary to make some
extracts, in order to ascertain the laws connecting the
strength of cast-iron pillars with their dimensions, and to
determine the best and strongest form adapted to the sup-
port of heavy weights. The first experiments were made
upon solid uniform pillars, mostly cylindrical, with their
ends rounded, in order that the force might pass through
the axis; the next were of the same dimensions, with flat
ends at right angles ; and others again with one end rounded,
and the other flat to the axis. They were broken at various
lengths, from five feet to one inch (some with dises turned
flat), and form a series of most interesting results. The
pillars with discs gave a small increase of strength above
those with flat ends, but the approach to equality between
the strength of pillars with discs, and those of the same

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. H

114 Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses.

diameter, and half the length, with ends rounded, was nearly
alike.

The conclusion, as Mr Hodgkinson observes, is, therefore,
“ that a long uniform cast-iron pillar, with its ends firmly
fixed (whether by means of discs or otherwise), has the same
power to resist breaking as a pillar of the same diameter and
half the length, with the ends rounded, or turned, so that the
force would pass through the axis.”

Mr Hodgkinson, in the first experiments, gave the strength
of cast-iron pillars, with both their ends rounded, and both
flat ; subsequently he experimented upon those with one end
rounded and the other flat, and in some cases with dises,
and their results being placed between those from the pillars,
with round and flat ends, gave the strength in a constant
ratio, as under :-—

Pillars. Breaking Weight in Ibs,

Both ends rounded, . . | 143 | 3017 7009 7009 | 16493

Oneend roundedandoneflat,, 256 | 6278 | 13499 | 13565 | 13557
Both ends flat,. . . . 487 | 9007 | 20310 | 22475 | ——

« The pillars in each vertical column in this abstract are
of the same length and diameter ; the strengths, therefore,
in three different cases, reading downwards, are as 1, 2, 3
nearly, the middle being in arithmetical mean between the
other two.”

Mr Hodgkinson, therefore, found, by other experiments
upon timber, wrought iron, steel, &c., that those, as well as
every other sort and description of material, followed (as re-
gards their strengths) the same laws, and that the strength
of a pillar with one end round and the other flat is always
an arithmetical mean between the strength of pillars of the
same dimensions with both ends rounded and both flat.

These are facts which should on no account be mistaken
in the construction of fireproof buildings ; and it will be well

Mr Fairbairn on Fireproof Warehouses. 115

to impress them forcibly upon the public mind, that the prin-
ciple is the same, however much they may vary in their ratio
of strength.

In treating of the strength of columns, I have endeavoured
to establish principles which are not generally known, but
which are proved to be fixed and determined laws affecting
the increase or diminution of strength according as the ends
are made round or flat.

In order, therefore, to avoid error in the construction of
buildings adapted for the support of heavy weights, it will be
of some value to know, that the strength of pillars can be in-
creased according as their ends are shaped, in the numerical
ratio of 1, 2, 3.

Having investigated the subject at some length, it may be
necessary, before closing the report, to advert to a circum-
stance which appears to excite alarm, and increase the fears
of individuals, respecting the safety of iron beams and brick
arches as a perfectly fireproof structure. It has been alleged,
that in case of fire in any of the lower rooms in a warehouse,
that the intense heat generated by rapid combustion might
melt the iron columns, and bring the whole edifice to the
ground.* This is a possible, but a very improbable case, as
an event of this kind could never happen provided the pre-
cautions enforced and inculcated in this inquiry be duly and
properly observed. It is true that negligence of construction
on one hand, and want of care in the management on the
other, might entail risk and loss to an enormous extent ; but

* There is only one instance which has come to my knowledge of a
fireproof building being injured by the melting of the columns, and that
was at the works of Messrs Sharp, Roberts, and Co., in Manchester,
where the pillars were fixed between the boilers of the steam-engine,
and having a large quantity of wood piled round them on the top of the
boiler, for the purpose of drying, the heat became so intense as to cause
them to bend, and ultimately break. In this case, the front of the
boiler-house was open, with a thorough draft direct across the building,
which generated a most intense heat, and caused the whole room to act
as a reverberating furnace. Viewing the subject in this light, it cannot
be considered analogous to a warehouse efficiently secured against the
admission of atmospheric air,

116 Mr Middleton on Fluorine in Recent and Fossil Bones.

it is no argument to say, that a warehouse built like a funnel,
and provided with all the elements of conflagration, is attend-
ed with risk, when it is well known that a perfectly secure
and perfectly sound fireproof building can be erected free
from all the perils above enumerated.

In my own mind, there is not the shadow of a doubt as to
the security of such a structure; and I do not hesitate to
assert, that a well-built and properly arranged fireproof
warehouse can not only be constructed, but may be made to
entail upon the commercial and manufacturing communities
of this country an important and lasting benefit.

Wma. FAIRBAIRN.*
MANCHESTER, June 3. I844.

On Fluorine in Recent and Fossil Bones, and the sources from
whence it is derived. By J. MIDDLETON, Esq.t

Having been for some time past engaged in investigations,
not yet matured, on the absolute and relative quantities of
fluorine in fossil bones, I was readily led to inquire into its
presence, or otherwise, in recent bones. The high authority
of Berzelius had indeed satisfied me on this subject; and I
might not have felt a motive to examination for myself, had
I not lately heard the fact doubted and disputed before the
Chemical Society, and elsewhere, with an earnestness which
could only proceed from conviction. The readiness with which
the authorities of the University College acceded to my re-
quest for materials, as well for this as for my more labo-
rious investigations, left me no difficulty, and deserves my
best acknowledgments.

I easily obtained conclusive evidence of the presence of
fluorine in the following portions of the human skeleton, the

* From a printed Report “ On the Construction of Fireproof Build-
ings ;’’ communicated to us by the Author.

t Communicated to the Philosophical Magazine by the Chemical So-
ciety, having been read May 6, 1844. On the subject of this paper, see
the author’s previous one, p. 285, and also Dr Daubeny’s, p. 288, of pre-
ceding volume of this Journal.

—

Mr Middleton on Fluorine in Recent and Fossil Bones. 117

bones operated upon being from the dissecting room :—the
occiput, the vertebree, the humerus, the femur, the teeth, the
femur of a foetus of 63 months.

I examined also the arm, including the scapula, of a foetus
of 33 months, but could obtain no evidence of the presence of
fluorine in it; a result which, considering the small quantity
of osseous matter involved, was perhaps to have been looked
for.

I determined also the presence of fluorine in the entoster-
nal bones of the sternum of a recent tortoise.

Any one who may continue to entertain doubt on this sub-
ject, and whose object is the recognition and discovery of truth,
may readily convince himself by using the means employed by
me. I broke a portion of the bones to be examined into small
fragments, and subjected them to the action of concentrated
sulphuric acid, in a platinum crucible, covered, as is usual in
such operations, by a plate of glass, endued with an etched
coating of wax. I applied the flame of a spirit lamp from
time to time, so moderating the heat as to sustain action of
the acid upon the materials without projection upward of the
substances against the glass. I prevent the melting of the
wax by keeping a muslin rag, moist with alcohol, upon its
upper surface. The time occupied by each experiment was
between five and ten minutes.

Through these and other investigations above alluded to,
I have ascertained the presence of fluorine in the organic re-
mains of Carnivora, Herbivora, Reptilia, Pisces, as also in
the recent bones of Men and Reptiles. The increase of fluo-
rine in fossil bones is apparently greater in proportion to the
remoteness of the period at which they lived, where the cha-
racter of entombment is similar. These facts, taken con-
jointly, seemed to me to need, for their explanation, a more
general source of fluorine than has been heretofore, I believe,
supposed. It occurred to me, that ordinary water might be
the vehicle ; and if so, the presence of fluorine in recent bones
would not only be accounted for, but also its accumulation
in fossil bones, being filtered from the moisture circulating in
the earth’s crust. In order to ascertain whether facts would
be found to sustain this view, I examined the following sub-

118 Mr Middleton on Fluorine in Recent and Fossil Bones.

stances :—First, A deposit, chiefly of sulphate of lime, from
as it appeared, a chloride of calcium vat, and found it to con-
tain fluorine, though in small quantity. As it was suggested
to me, however, that glass retorts, used for the distillation
of hydrochloric acid has been known to be thereby corroded,
I did not attach much weight to the result, although I drew
encouragement from it.

Second, A deposit, formed in a wooden conduit pipe in a
coal mine, procured for me by my friend Dr Falconer, and
found it to contain a still greater proportion of fluorine than
the former. :

Third, A stalactitie deposit, said to have been formed in
an aqueduct in France. It was of a pure white colour, and
made up of very thin and scaly concentric layers, being at
the same time very incompact ; it contained no fluorine.

Fourth, A stalactitic deposit from a cave in old red sand-
stone, furnished to me by Mr Arnott, to whom, for this and
for other assistance in my investigations, I am much indebted.
This I found to contain fluoride of calcium to the extent of
about 9 per cent. The stalactite consisted chiefly of car-
bonate of lime.

Fifth, The crust formed on the inside of a. kettle used for
the boiling of water. This I found to afford faint but distinct
proof of the presence of fluorine.

Lastly, A fragment of a vein of sulphate of barytes, found
in the sandstone above mentioned. This also contained fluo-
rine, though in much less proportion than the stalactite of the
fourth experiment.

The above are the only substances, sufficiently diverse in
their origin, which I have had an opportunity of examining ;
and the facts I have elicited from them seem to confirm the
justness of my theory of the prime sources of fluorine in
bones. It follows, as a necessary corollary, that it exists in
most, if not all vegetables, though perhaps in minuteness of
quantity, that may enable it often to elude detection —( Philo-
sophical Magazine. Third Series, Vol. xxy., No. 166, p. 260.)

( 119 )

Contributions towards Establishing the General Character of
the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. By WILLIAM
Kine, Esq., Curator of the Museum of the Natural His-
tory Society of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-
upon-Tyne. With Two Plates. (Communicated by the
Author.)

(Concluded from page 75, vol. xxxvii.)

The most weighty objections that may be urged against Stgmaria
being the root of Sigillaria, have been advanced by Brongniart; they
consist of the presence of a pith in the former, and of the spiral arrange-
ment of its fibrils. But the last character, it would appear, is often seen
in aquatic plants; and as regards the first it has been observed in the
roots of several Zamias.* Coming from so distinguished a botanist, the
correctness of these statements cannot, for a moment, be doubted; per-
haps, however, it is but anticipating the like expression of others, if I
signify my regret at Bronguiart not having named the plants which are
furnished with spirally arranged fibrils.t
. But, admitting that no existing plant possesses fibrils which are dis-
posed in a spiral manner, it surely cannot be supposed, that any one
acquainted with the anomalies of organization which paleontology is
continually revealing, cam look upon the fact involved in this admission
as in the least invalidating the conclusion at which we have arrived.

Having brought our description of the external characters of Stigmaria
to a close, our next object will be, to give an account of its internal
structure; but as the histology of one or two plants of the carbonifer-
ous epoch is calculated to clear up some dubious points in this struc-
ture, it is, perhaps, the best plan to take them first into consideration.
The plants here alluded to, are Lepidodendron and Anabathra pulcher-
rima,

The details which Witham, Lindley, Hutton, and Brongniart, have
severally published, in elucidation of the anatomy of Lepidodendron, ren-
der a lengthy description of this character unnecessary.

Proceeding from the periphery to the centre, the stem of Lepidoden-
dron may, in brief terms, be stated to consist of, first, a thin cuticle;

* Vide Brongniart’s Observations on the Internal Structure of Sigillaria elegans.

+ Some arguments were inserted here in my MS., to shew, that in Stigmaria
there are combined the form of a true radix, and the spiral arrangement of the
Jibrils of a rhizome: this notion is now abandoned. It was also my intention
to have entered somewhat into detail respecting the superficial characters of this
‘fossil; but this has been deferred for the present.

120 Contributions towards Establishing the General Character

second, a double parenchymous zone; third, a hollow vascular cylinder ;
and fourth, a pith. It has been customary to consider the axis or pith
as eccentrically situated, but from certain reasons which have been
given in a former part of these contributions, 1 am disposed to think
that this was not a character of the plant when living : the central situa-
tion of the pith will therefore be assumed in the following description.

The cuticle, according to some sections, orignally published by Wi-
tham, Lindley, and Hutton, is thin, and consists of a form of prosenchy-
mous tissue, being elongated longitudinally, and arranged in a radial man-
ner transversely.

In a section of Lepidodendron, an inch and three-eighths in diameter,
the outer part of the double parenchymous zone is a quarter of an inch
in thickness: it is composed of a tissue which bears a close resemblance
to the parenchyma of the petiole of the Spread-Eagle Fern, (Pteris agui-
lina.) The cells are large, so much so, as to be observed by a common
magnifier: on the transverse section they are either round or polygonal,
in the last form; the sides of the figure are in general equal. On the lon-
gitudinal section the cells are somewhat elongated: they in general taper
off rather suddenly at both ends, so as to terminate in an obtuse cone,
and they display a tendency to arrange themselves in linear series. The
inner part of the zone is about half as broad again as the outer one; judg-
ing from some which are here and there displayed, its constituent cells
appear to be much smaller and more delicate than the last: they are
somewhat of the same form on the transverse section ; but on the longi-
tudinal one they are quadrangular, and they run decidedly in linear
series. The tissue of this part is very rarely preserved; its character
has therefore not been made out so satisfactorily as could be desired.
Brongniart, in his restoration of the double zone, represents its cells of
the same form longitudinally as they are transversely, which certainly is
not the case in any of my sections.

The hollow vascular cylinder, which is a little less than an eighth of an
inch in thickness, is composed of polygonal tubes, having no order in
their arrangement, except that which pertains to difference in diameter.
These tubes have the whole of their walls transversely marked with fine
lines or bars, similar to thosewhich characterise the vessels of the medul-
lary sheath of Sigillaria elegans: those which are situated on the inner
part of the cylinder are as large again in diameter as the cells composing
the outer part of the double zone; but they become gradually smaller
in the outward direction, until within a short distance of the outer side
of the cylinder, and there they become, all on a sudden, considerably
reduced. Inno part does the vascular cylinder exhibit the least appear-
ance of lateral openings.

From the outside of the vascular cylinder, and at certain points, arise
a number of cords which pass into the leaves: they are made up of the
smallest sized vessels. The outer part of the double zone is furnished
with a number of openings, which serve as passages for these leaf cords;

———

a a Se

of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. 121

they have an oval form, are an eighth of an inch in length, in the longi-
tudinal direction of the stem, and are disposed in a spiral order ; they
are now vacant, but there is little doubt of their having been originally
filled with prolongations of the delicate cellular tissue which formed the
inner part of the zone. The leaf cords occupy the inferior part of the
vascular passages.

The pith, according to Brongniart, is composed of largish fusiform cells.

It is unnecessary to discuss in this paper the situation which Lepido-
dendron holds in the vegetable kingdom: all that is required for our
present purpose is, to bear in mind the very singular characters of its
medullary sheath or vascular cylinder, which is rather large, and with-
out any openings by which the tissue of the pith could communicate
with that of the double zone. It must also be attended to, that this plant
possesses no ligneous tissue, arranged in a radial manner, as we have
seen in Sigillaria elegans.

Let us, in the next place, consider that remarkable fossil which Mr
Witham was the first to make known, under the name of Anabathra
pulcherrima,

At the time when Anabathra was described, few botanists had attended
to the minute differences in vegetable tissue, which form so conspicuous
a feature in the phytological works of the present day: hence a few
errors have been committed in drawing up the description which has
been published of this fossil. Some of these errors have been rectified
by M. Brongniart in his ‘‘ Observations on the Internal Structure of
Sigillaria elegans ;” but as there are others which this gentleman had not
the means of correcting, I have been induced to enter into the following
description more minutely than would have been otherwise necessary.
It requires also to be stated, that, with the view of enabling me to become
acquainted with the internal structure of fossil plants in general, Mr
Witham has, in the most handsome manner, placed in my hands the
whole of his invaluable collection of sections, among which there is an
instructive suite of Anabathras. To this gentleman, for so marked an
act of kindness, there is certainly due from me an expression of very
deep obligation.

Before commencing to describe the tissues of Anabathra, it is neces-
sary to make a slight reference to the state in which Mr Witham’s
specimen existed, when first discovered. It was invested with an ir-
regular coat of mineral matter, in which were observed numerous small
portions of vegetable tissue, intermixed with what appear to be twigs.
Mr Witham has represented this coat, charged with its vegetable frag-
ments, in Plate VIII., figure 7, of his ‘‘ Internal Structure of Fossil
Plants.” The matrix, as it ought rather to be called, was in immediate
contact with the tissue of what, we shall presently see, is the ligneous
zone of the fossil, a circumstance which prevents us coming to any con-
clusion as to the thickness of its bark; for instance, whether it was

122 Contributions towards Establishing the General Character

thin, like that of most of the Conifers, or thick, as is the case with the
Sigillarias, the Cycases, and the Cactuses. Mr Witham, in his descrip-
tion, says, that the specimen when complete, was a tapering body, several
inches in length, rounded at the extremity, and resembling the termin-
ation of a stem or branch. In another part itis stated that the specimen,
divested of its envelope, was compressed, so as to have one diameter
about a half greater than the other. ‘‘ At the lower part the large dia-
meter was upwards of two inches; and at the extremity one diameter
is about half an inch, the other nearly a fourth.”’* I may observe, that
the sections at present before me answer to these and the intermediate
sizes. If we were certain that Anabathra possessed a thick bark, there is
something in the description just quoted which would induce one to sup-
pose that this fossil was a short fleshy plant, resembling some of the
Cactuses. Let it be understood, however, that I am far from thinking
that this was the case. Mr Witham states, that the specimen presented
the appearance of natural joints, at the distance of about two inches,
and that its surface was slightly striated in the longitudinal direction.
I mention these circumstances merely to give it as my opinion, that the
striated appearance was caused by the very elongated tubes of the lig-
neous zone, and that the joints were simply transverse cracks.

A very singular result has been brought about by mineralization, in
Mr Witham’s specimen. A large portion of the radiated tissue has
been destroyed: what remains is contained in a narrow marginal strip,
and in numerous isolated pea-shaped bodies imbedded in a crystalline
matrix, and situated inwardly to the latter. The reader is therefore
requested to fill up in imagination all the vacant spaces which are repre-
sented in figs. 2 and 3, of Plate IV., with the same kind of tissue as that
which forms the marginal strip and the isolated bodies. To aid this, a
transverse restoration of the vascular and the ligneous system is given in
figure 1, which is a little above the natural size.

Anabathra pulcherrima is undoubtedly a Dicotyledonous plant. It
possesses a broad ligneous zone (a, fig. 1. Plate IV.),—a large medullary
sheath in the shape of a hollow cylinder (+),—and, apparently a large
pith (c).

The ligneous tissue consists of very elongated tubes, which are oc-
easionally quadrilateral, but generally hexagonal: they are arranged in
radiating series, and are remarkably regular in diameter, throughout the
thickness of the zone, till within the precincts of the vascular cylinder,
where they become considerably reduced. The apertures caused by
sectionising these tubes, are distinctly seen with a common magnifier.
Their length appears to be considerable, since a longitudinal section near-
ly half an inch long shews none of the tubes with both terminations (vide
figs. 3 and 4.) The whole of their walls are marked with fine transverse

* Witham on the “ Internal Structure of Fossil Vegetables,” pp- 39 and 40,

» 45> ie he

of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. 123

lines or bars, which, in general, are parallel to each other, but occasion-
ally they divide, as is represented in fig. 5. All the tubes have their walls
of a uniform thickness, so that Anabathra displays no appearance of the
concentric rings which are found in the wood of ordinary exogenous
trees. The ligneous zone appears to have been intersected by numer-
ous narrow medullary rays, judging from the interspaces which are mark-
ed d in figures 2 and 4.

The vascular cylinder is composed of elongated tubes, which, on the
transverse section, are irregularly angular, and somewhat variable in
their proportion. Those of the greatest diameter are a little larger
than the tubes composing the marginal strip of the ligneous zone,
and they constitute the inner four-fifths of the cylinder; while the
smallest, into which the others gradually pass, occupy the remaining
or outer portion. At the margin of the cylinder, the vessels have be-
come so diminished in size, as to resemble the small ligneous tubes
which immediately circumscribe them ; occasionally a small vessel is
to be seen among the larger ones. With the exception of their being
placed somewhat according to size, as just stated, the tubes of the me-
dullary sheath possess no order in their arrangement. The tissue of this
part appears to be shorter than that of the ligneous zone, as there are
several terminations displayed on a longitudinal section (vide , fig. 3) ;
but I am strongly inclined to believe that the shortness is more apparent
than real: it ought rather to be said, that the tubes, in their longitudinal
direction, are very flexuous, and twisted around each other. This cireum-
stance, by causing a longitudinal section to display certain of the tubes
obliquely cut, and others deviating from each side of the plane of the
section, it is conceived, would produce the appearance as if these cuts
and deviations were so many terminations.* The walls of the tubes are
marked with transverse lines or bars, which differ somewhat from those
on the ligneous tissue, inasmuch as they are closer to each other, and
they are often seen coming in contact, which gives them an anastomosed
appearance (vide fig. 6, Plate IV.). In none of the large vascular tubes
are the lines so disposed as to form a spiral, either broken or continu-
ous: probably this is the case in the smallest but the section, is not suf-
ficiently thin to allow of its being seen. The vascular cylinder is in close
contact with the ligneous zone; and in no part does it display the least
appearance of openings or medullary rays.

The pith appears to have been composed of fusiform cells, analogous
to those which Brongniart describes as belonging to the corresponding
part of Lepidodendron. It may be doubted, however, that what I have
considered as forming a portion of the pith of Anabathra, did, in reality,

* May not the shortness of the vessels composing the medullary sheath and the
leaf cords of Sigillaria elegans, be more apparent than real, and the appearance be
produced as suggested in the text ?

124 Contributions towards Establishing the General Character

belong to this part, since it is simply a portion of fusiform tissue crossing
the centre of one of the transverse sections.

Reverting to the ligneous tissue, and adverting to the longitudinal sec-
tion represented in figure 4, plate IV., which is at right angles to the me-
dullary rays, and through the marginal strip, our attention must now be
directed to those large openings (e) which form so prominent a feature.
There are only two represented, owing to a greater number requiring
more space than could be allowed for the figure: it consequently re-
quires to be stated that they are arranged in a spiral manner. Mr
Witham described these openings as containing the medullary rays,
which is not the case, because what has been probably taken for cellu-
lar tissue, is, in reality, a bundle of small vessels (/), similar to those
which occupy the outer part of the medullary sheath. Although the
longitudinal sections do not exhibit any of these bundles springing from
the vascular cylinder, their proximity to this part, in some transverse
sections (see fig. 2), together with the fact just stated, leave no room to
doubt as to their having constituted the leaf cords of the plant. Ac-
cording to Mr Morris, it would appear that Dr Brown had ascertained
this point some time since.* Owing to one of the openings or vascular
passages having been intersected in a portion of its course through the
ligneous zone, as shewn in the longitudinal section parallel to the me-
dullary rays, which is represented in figure 3, Plate IV., we have dis-
played in a very instructive manner, a leaf cord or vascular bundle (/)
traversing at right angles the ligneous tissue: a similar bundle is ex-
hibited in the transverse section, fig. 2. These two sections prove that
the leaf cords curve but very slightly in their passage through the lig-
neous zone, as they proceed horizontally for a considerable distance.
From the passages being in part vacant (vide fig. 4), it may reasonably
be supposed that the cords were accompanied in their course with a por-
tion of cellular tissue.

We may now be permitted to say a few words on the comparative
anatomy of Anabathra. No one can escape being struck with the simi-
larity which this plant possesses in some points of its structure to Sigil-
daria and Lepidodendron. The width of the ligneous zone is certainly
greater in Anabathra than in Sigillaria, but there scarcely appears to
be a shade of difference in the character of its constituent tissue in
either plant; while between Lepidodendron and Anabathra there is in
their vascular cylinder the closest resemblance. It is, therefore, clear
that these three plants are nearly related to each other.

The resemblance between Anabathra and Lepidodendron in their vas-
cular cylinder, has induced Brongniart to hazard a question to the effect
~—May the latter not be the young branch, and the former the stem, of

* Transactions of the Geological Society, 2d series, vol. v., description of
Plate XXXVIUII.

ee es

el ees

~~, ‘a>

of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. 125

one and the same plant? ‘‘ The hypothesis involved in this question,”
says its author, ‘‘ appears, however, to have little probability in its favour,
in consequence of there being none of the prolongations on the outer
part of the vascular cylinder of Anabathra which are visible on the cor-
responding part of Lepidodendron.” The prolongations here alluded to,
are those portions of the leaf cords which are on the point of curving off
from the cylinder, to the margin of which they give a sinuous appear-
ance. Mr Witham’s transverse sections of Anabathra certainly do not
shew any sinuosities. Brongniart’s objection is, therefore, so far a valid
one ; but it seems to me that, before Lepidodendron can be considered as
the branch of Anabathra, there is required to be known an example of
a Dicotyledonous tree having young branches without any radially ar-
ranged ligneous tissue.

Sigillaria elegans possesses in its anatomy a peculiarity of considerable
interest, in a physiological point of view: it is furnished with a medul-
lary sheath, which, there is strong reason to believe, existed, to a certain
degree, independently of the ligneous zone. But whatever doubt might
stand in the way of such a peculiarity possessing itself of our entire con-
yiction, so far as Sigiliaria is concerned, it is clearly demonstrated by
what is observable in Lepidodendron and Anabathra, inasmuch as, in the
former, the vascular cylinder has performed its function without the pre-
sence of the ligneous zone of the latter: add to this, that, in Anabathra,
although these two parts are in immediate contact with each other, the
differences which have been pointed out in their respective tissues, further
prove that they represent independent systems. It will now be seen on
what grounds the distinction has been made in this paper between the
vascular and the ligneous part of the fossils which have been mentioned.

With the materials which we now possess connected with the internal
structure of co-existing forms, it will readily be admitted, that we are
better prepared to commence our proposed examination of the histology
of Stigmaria.

Lindley and Hutton were the first to make us acquainted with the
anatomy of this fossil, and, subsequently, Brongniart and Morris have
each contributed towards elucidating it.

A transverse section of a Stigmaria having its tissue preserved, usually
exhibits the appearances shewn in figure 1, Plate V. The letter d refers
to a broad zone filled with mineral matter which has replaced the original
(cellular) tissue of the plant: the wedge-shaped bundles marked a 8, are
composed of very elongated hexagonal or quadrilateral tubes, whose walls
are marked with transverse lines or bars, in general parallel to each other,
but occasionally approximating at certain points, so as to produce a re-
ticulated appearance (Brongniart): these tubes are arranged in lines
radiating from the centre of the fossil : ¢ refers to spaces which separate
the bundles from each other ; they are now filled with the same mineral
substance as that of the outer zone, but there is no doubt of their having
been originally occupied with cellular tissue: the part marked ¢ is also

126 Contributions towards Establishing the General Character

filled with mineral matter. Such is a brief outline of the internal struc-
ture of Stigmaria. Ona general comparison with some recent plants,
especially the Cactuses, this fossil does not offer much disparity. In
these we have a similar broad zone (the bark), a similar hollow cylinder
of wedge-shaped bundles (the wood), and a similar central part (the
pith) ; but these are all the points of agreement, as the ligneous system
of the Cactuses does not consist of a uniform tissue, nor are the walls of
this tissue marked with lines, as in Stigmaria (Brongniart). Sigillaria
elegans, too, somewhat resembles this plant in the general aspect ofa trans-
verse section. The characters of the tissues in both, it will be seen, are in
agreement, but Stigmaria is entirely divested of the circle of apparently
isolated bundles which lies within the ligneous eylinder of Sigillaria,

Fragments of Stigmaria are often found having the same outline as
that of the specimen which has been figured: like this, they have their
pith, bark, and radiating interspaces, occupied with mineral matter ; but
instead of there being any remains of tissue in the wedge-shaped bundles
of the cylinder, there are nothing but vacant spaces. The difference
between these two kinds of specimens has evidently been caused in the
following manner: in the kind first described, the soft cellular tissue
composing the pith, the bark, and the radiating interspaces or plates, as
they may be more conveniently termed, rotted out, simultaneously with
its being replaced by mechanically induced mineral matter in the shape
of mud, which hardened soon after its deposition ; on the contrary, the
tissue of the cylinder, owing to its firmer texture, resisted decomposition :
it remained fixed in its original place by means of the outer zone, the cen-
tral part, and the radiating plates, and, through some cause or other, the
whole of the tubes and their delicate markings became mineralised, or
electrotyped as it were; and thus we have preserved one of the most in-
teresting objects of microscopic investigation. The other specimens were
subject to the same changes up to a certain point—to the consolidation of
the mechanical deposit ; but after this had taken place, instead of the
tubes becoming electrotyped, they rotted out like the cellular tissue ; nor
was their place afterwards filled up with any mineral matter, either
chemical or mechanical: hence the vacant spaces which now remain.

It is fortunate that we have the remains of Stigmaria in the state last
described, since they enable us to investigate a doubtful point in the
internal structure of this fossil.

Brongniart, in his explanation of the sections illustrative of Stigmaria,
which are added to his “Observations on the Internal Structure of
Sigillaria elegans,” speaks of the radiating plates or “spaces,” as ‘ cor-
responding to the great medullary rays.” Lindley and Hutton, in the
« Fossil Flora,” (Vol. iii. p. 48), write to the same effect. Let us for
a moment stop to inquire into the nature of medullary rays. According
to Professor Lindley, ‘‘ they are composed of muriform cellular tissue,
often not consisting of more than a single layer of cellules ; but sometimes,
as in Aristolochias, the number of layers is very considerable.” ‘‘ No vas-

of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. 127

cular tissue is ever found in the medullary rays, unless those curious
plates described by Griffith in the wood of Phytocrene gigantea, in which
vessels exist, should prove to belong to the medullary system.”* Should
botanists agree to restrict the term medullary ray to those vertical plates
of cellular tissue which intersect the ligneous cylinder, and which are
unaccompanied with vascular tissue, the radiating plates of Stigmaria
cannot be so termed, as they inclose the vascular cords which pass into
the external appendages.

By making longitudinal divisions through the cylinder of those speci-
mens of Stigmaria which do not possess
any tissue, we discover that the radiating Fig. 1.
plates are about half an inch in length in A
_ the longitudinal direction of the fossil ; )
that they are placed rather obliquely, and V
disposed in a nearly spiral manner ; and
that they thin off at one end to a fine
edge, while the opposite one is divided, or
rather grooved, along its entire horizontal
extent. Ihave endeavoured to represent the form of a plate, and a
groove in the annexed figures :—t

Referring to Brongniart’s section of Stigmaria, we learn that the cylinder
is intersected by a number of oval-shaped spaces, each of which in-
closes the vascular bundle or cord belonging to one of the external ap-
pendages or fibrils.t| Mr Morris’ figure, representing an oblique section
of the same part at right angles to the radiating plates, shews similar
oval-shaped spaces inclosing a cord.§ Now, if in imagination we de-
stroy the whole of the tissue, and fill up the oval-shaped spaces of these
figures with mineral matter, we produce a number of radiating plates,
with a groove precisely like those which have been figured. This brief
notice is perhaps sufficient to shew that the radiating plates were origi-

* Introduction to Botany. 3d edit. p. 92.

t Fig. 2 represents a side view of a plate having one of the divisions removed,
to shew that the groove deepens as we pass from
the inner (a), to the outer side (6). Figure 1 re-
presents a longitudinal section of another plate cor-
responding to the dotted line in figure 2.

} “ Observations,” &c., Plate V., figs. 2, 6, and 7.
In the annexed figure, which is a reduced copy of fi-
gure 6, one of the spaces (a) surrounded with tu-
bular tissue, (4) is represented as well as the bundle
(c.)

§ Geological Transactions, 2d series, vol. 5, Plate
XXXVIII. fig. 3, a.

128 Contributions towards Esiablishing the General Character

nally spaces, which, in addition to a large portion of cellular tissue, con-
tained the vessels that passed into the external appendages; the term
medullary ray is, therefore, inapplicable to them, and asa substitute that
of vascular passage is proposed.*

In none of the longitudinal sections which have been published of
Stigmaria are the fibril cords represented passing through the entire
thickness of the cylinder, as the groove of the radiating plates indicates.
I was in hopes of procuring some sections exhibiting this character, but I
have not yet succeeded : nevertheless, a compressed specimen in my col-
lection, containing an impression of the cylinder, is of considerable value
in the absence of such sections: the tissue has disappeared, but the
impression remains, which is so complete that the arrangement of the
tubes is clearly exhibited. Most of the tubes run perpendicularly up the
cylinder, as represented by a, bin fig. 2, Plate V., but occasionally they
are seen curving away from the place originally occupied by the pith c,
in the manner shewnat f. There can be no doubt that the curving tubes
constitute the fibril cords of this specimen.

In connection with these cords two or three questions arise, which re-
quire a little of our attention. What do they originate from ? Do they
strike off from the tissue of which the principal part of the eylinder is
composed ? or do they belong to an independent system, as is the case
with their analogues in Anabathra? From his description of the figures
which represent the internal structure of Stigmaria, it may be supposed
that Brongniart adopts the view involved in our second question ; for, in
speaking of the fibril or vascular cords, it is stated that they separate
themselves from the tissue of the cylinder. Notwithstanding the weight
of this opinion, coming, as it does, from so eminent an authority, I may
be pardoned hazarding one that is totally different, to the effect, that the
-cords belong to a system distinct from the tissue which forms the prin-
cipal part of the cylinder. There can be no great objection, it is pre-
sumed, to take as granted that Stigmaria is the root of Sigillaria. Now
the sections which have been published of the last plant clearly shew that
its circle of apparently isolated bundles is distinct from the enclosing
cylinder ; and it is equally obvious that the former constitutes the me-
dullary sheath, and the latter the ligneous system. If a distinction of
this kind exists in the stem, why, it may be asked, ought not the
same distinction to prevail in the root? Again, the leaf cords of
Sigillaria, as admitted by Brongniart, evidently spring from the medul-
lary sheath, and not from the radiated cylinder,—why then may not
the fibril cords of Stigmaria be independent of the radiated cylinder
which they traverse? But it may be urged that this fossil does not shew

* The short tabular description given by Brongniart of the anatomy of Sem-
pervivum, (“ Observations,” p. 438), induces me to think that the name here used
will not be objected to ; since it is stated that the plant is “ without medullary
rays, but offers some spaces for the passage of the vascular bundles of the leaves.”

2

a), ee a

of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigilaria. 129

any distinct medullary sheath as in Sigillaria. This is granted, but there
seems to be no difficulty in the way of the vessels of such a sheath
being so mixed with the tissue of the ligneous cylinder, that is, on its
inner side, and consequently falling into the radial arrangement of the
latter, as to loose all appearance of individuality, or, in other words, be
prevented shewing themselves under a distinctive form. This I strongly
suspect is the case with the vessels of the vascular system of Stigmaria :
the fact of the fibril cords having originated on the inner side of the
cylinder, as shewn by the groove of the radiating plates, forms, in my
opinion, a strong argument in fayour of this supposition.* And it seems
to be further supported by three transverse sections of this fossil at pre-
sent before me, in each of which the vessels are somewhat irregularly
arranged on the inner side of the wedge-shaped bundles: in fact, there
is displayed the same want of regularity in the radial arrangement as
characterises the tissues situated on the inner side of the ligneous zone of
some Conifers, that is, where the spiral vessels are mixed with the disci-
gerous tubes. t

From what has now been stated, the following general character of
the histology of Stigmaria is proposed ; and, with the view of aiding our
description, an enlarged restoration of the’cylinder,'exhibiting its consti-
tuent parts, is given in fig. 3, Plate V.

The tissues of Stigmaria are of three kinds,—vascular, ligneous, and
parenchymous,

The vascular tissue enters into the composition of the inner part (7)
of the cylinder ;{ the ligneous composes the remaining portion, b; and
the parenchymous forms those parts of the fossil which have been pre-
viously named the “ broad zone” and the “ centre” (c and d, fig. 1, Plate
Y.): the two former parts represent the medullary sheath and the wood
—the vascular and the ligneous system ;. while the two latter represent
the pith and the bark—the parenchymous system. The tissue of the
ligneous system consists of very enlongated tubes, which, on the trans-
verse section, are arranged in lines radiating from the pith, while in the
longitudinal sense, they follow an oblique undulating course: their walls

* The width of the cords in fig. 2, Plate V., appears to militate against their
having originated on the inner side of the cylinder; but it may be observed,
that the cords were probably made up, as is usually the case in other plants, of
a mixture of vascular and woody tissue. In this case, the vascular tissue may
have occupied but a small portion of the inner side of a cord.

t Perhaps the longitudinal section of Stigmaria represented in the “ Fossil
Flora,” (Vol. iii., Plate 166, fig. 2), will throw some light on this point. It is
much to be desired that a more detailed account of this section were published,

} The line on the inner side of the cylinder in the restoration is merely given
to indicate the situation of the vascular tissue.

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. UXXV.—JAN. 1845. I

130 Contributions towards Establishing the General Character

are marked with transverse bars or lines which frequently run parallel
to each other, but occasionally they anastomose so as to form reticu-
lations. The tissue of the vascular system, on a general view, resembles
the ligneous—consisting of transversely-barred elongated tubes. The vas-
cular and the ligneous tissue are intermixed, which causes the former to
follow to a certain extent the radial arrangement of the latter. The ligneo-
vascular cylinder, as it may appropriately be termed, is furnished with a
number of oblique spirally arranged oval-shaped spaces (¢), which com-
municate with the pith on the one hand, and with the bark on the other,
and which are principally occupied with cellular tissue.* From the yas-
cular portion of the cylinder, numerous bundles (/) strike off, and pass
through the cylinder, by means of the spaces, into the external appen-
dages. Besides the vascular passages, as the oval-shaped spaces may be
termed, the ligneo-vascular cylinder is intersected by a small number of
thin cellular plates, which are clearly medullary rays (Brongniart).

If the general character just given should ultimately prove to be cor-
rect, it will follow that the principal difference between Sigillaria and
Stigmaria is, not in the absence of the medullary sheath in the latter, as
Brongniart supposes, but simply in the vessels of this sheath being inter-
mixed with those which compose the ligneous system.

The remaining portion of these contributions will be devoted to a
consideration of the place which Sigillaria occupies in the vegetable
kingdom.

Previously to his discovery of its internal structure, Brongniart main-
tained that Sigil/aria proximated to the tree ferns: this view, it is well
known, was founded on external characters. The discovery alluded to,
however, brought about a complete change in his opinion, so that he is
now in favour of Sigillaria being allied to the Cycadeous Gymnosperms.
The resemblance between the markings on its ligneous tissue and those
which characterise certain of the vessels of Zamia integrifolia, and the si-
milarity existing between the cylinder, as regards relativeness of size to
other parts, of both plants, are considered as strongly in favour of the
last opinion, From the strong presumptive evidences which have al-
ready been adduced, in support of certain forms of Newropteris haying
constituted the foliage of Sigillaria, it would appear, however, that the
earlier view of Brongniart ought not to be so hastily rejected. Most of
the arguments which have been advanced in the ‘‘ Végétaux Fossiles” in
support of the view that Sigillaria is allied to the tree-ferns, are, in my
opinion, as effective as ever, notwithstanding the cycadeous affinities
of its internal structure, and the counter arguments which have been
advanced by the authors of the ‘‘ Fossil Flora.” We will now pause

* Owing to these openings or spaces, it is easy to conceive, that, if the vascu-
lar tissue were separated from the ligneous, the medullary sheath would be in
the form of a netted cylinder.

of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. 131

for a while to consider a point in the anatomy of this genus. It possesses
a medullary sheath, in the shape of a circle of apparently isolated bundles,
situated inwardly, but in proximity to the ligneous zone: the bundles
are composed of elongated tubes, which, in their markings, are interme-
diate to the true spiral vessels of Exogens, and the scalariform tissue of
certain Endogens, such as Ferns. A medullary sheath of this kind ap-
pears to be unknown amongst either recent or fossil plants, not even
excepting the Zamias, to which Sigillaria possesses some affinity.

The Monocotyledons, such as Palms, possess a number of apparently
isolated bundles, which are generally very numerous, and disposed
without much order throughout the diameter of the stem. The only
plants of this class in which the bundles are less numerous, and more
regularly distributed, are Ferns. These may be deferred for the present,
as they will have to be referred to in another place.

None of the longitudinal sections which Brongniart has given of
Sigillaria elegans afford us an insight as to the longitudinal arrangement of
the bundles of the medullary sheath. Now, in order to obtain this, we
are compelled to examine the corresponding part of some allied plants :
for example, the Coniferous Gymnosperms, and the Vascular Crypto-
gams.*

By dividing in the longitudinal sense a young shoot of any ordinary
Conifer, and extracting the pith, the woody cylinder is made to exhibit
its inner side, which, by using a common magnifier, will be seen to be
furnished with a number of very elongated oval-shaped openings, which
are caused by the fibres being separated into bundles, alternately dis-
uniting and approximating ; in fact, the inside of the cylinder has the
appearance of net-work with very elongated meshes: and if the tissue
of the entire cylinder be submitted to the microscope, it will be seen
that there are two kinds, namely, spiral vessels and discigerous tubes,
and that the latter form the whole of the cylinder, with the exception of
its inner side, which principally consists of the former: it will also be
seen that the openings or meshes are filled with parenchyma, and that
they afford a passage for the bundles of fibrous tissue, which pass into
the leaves. From these facts we have ascertained what is well known in
the anatomy ofa Conifer, that the few inwardly situated spiral vessels con-
stitute the medullary sheath, while the more numerous discigerous tubes
form the ligneous system ; but we have also learnt that the meshes are
the same as the vascular passages of Stigmaria and Anabathra, and that
the medullary sheath is in the form of a netted cylinder. As regards
the meshes, they need only be alluded to, because of their shewing that
what has hitherto been considered a singular character in the first of

ne ict 8
* My inability to procure any portion of an American Zamia must be ace

cepted as the reason why the Coniferous section of the Gymnosperms has only
been examined.

132 Contributions towards Establishing the General Character

these fossils, is common to a large division of the vegetable kingdom ;
and as respects the netted form of the vascular cylinder, it will presently
be seen that we have become possessed of a means that will aid us in
our present investigations.

Let us now examine those Monocotyledons in which the bundles are
less numerous than usual, and more regularly arranged than ordinary.
A transverse section of the axis of a Fern, whether creeping or arbor-
escent, exposes a number of apparently isolated bundles arranged in a
circle, and imbedded in a mass of cellular tissue, (vide fig. 4, a, Plate V.)
These bundles are composed of what are generally termed scalariform
vessels, and of a fibrous form of parenchyma which envelops the
former in the manner of a slieath. As these bundles are in connexion
with the leaves, and are evidently analogous in function to those which
form the medullary sheath of exogenous plants, they may be safely con-
sidered as constituting the vascular system. :

For a considerable time I was at a loss to know the exact longitudinal
arrangement of the vascular bundles in the stem of a tree-fern. After
many attempts to procure a specimen sufficiently long for the purpose,
and after consulting a number of botanical works, I was on the point of
relinquishing the inquiry, possessed of no other information than that in-
cidently given by Brongniart, to-wit, that ‘‘the bundles anastomose at cer-
tain distances,” (‘‘ Observations”) when it occurred to me that Aspidium
Filix Mas might afford all the information that was desired. This led me
ta dissect the rhizome of the fern just named. By this means, I ascertained
that although the bundles appear to be isolated on the transverse section,
as represented in fig. 4, Plate V., they are in reality all connected with
each other at regular distances in the longitudinal sense, so as to form
a netted cylinder, remarkably regular in its meshes. Fig. 5, Plate V.,
represents a portion of this cylinder rather enlarged, which I succeeded
in clearing of its matrix of cellular tissue, after exhausting somewhat
more than an ordinary degree of patience. As previously stated, I have
not been able to study the longitudinal arrangement of the bundles of
the trunk of a tree-fern; but I have little or no doubt that it is the
same as in Aspidium Filix Mas. Probably in some arborescent forms of
rapid growth, the meshes are narrower, more irregular, and very much
elongated, which will cause the vascular cylinder to have very little of
a latticed appearance. !

Reflecting on the fact of which we have just come in possession, that
the bundles of the vascular system of Ferns and Conifers are connected
with each other at certain points, so as to form a netted cylinder, more
or less decided, it seems but fair to infer, that the apparently isolated
bundles composing the medullary sheath of Sigil/aria elegans are simi-
larly connected; and, owing to their regularity on the transverse sec-
tion, it may also be inferred, that they form a similarly constructed
cylinder. It is diffieult to conceive any objection to snch a conclusion.

"7

OO

<_<...

of the Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria. 153

The researches of Brongniart shew, that of all existing plants the Ferns
approach the nearest to Sigil/aria, as regards the markings on the walls
of the tubular tissue. Our own researches as to the foliage of this fossil, it
will be remembered, carried us close up to the same plants. Associating
these results with the conclusion we arrived at in the last paragraph, it
seems to be a legitimate inference—allowing for certain modifications
consequent on the union, that we have in this fossil the vascular system of a
Fern, united to the radially arranged ligneous zone of certain Cycases.
The gemus Sigillaria may, therefore, be concluded to be intermediate to
the highest vascular Cryptogams, and the Cycadeous Gymnosperms.

It is very much to be regretted, that, as yet, we possess No positive
evidence regarding the fructification of Sigillaria: it is only required to
have some knowledge on this point to enable us to decide whether this
fossil proximated more to the Ferns than to the Zamias.

With reference to the habit of Sigil/aria, various considerations war-
rant the belief that it was essentially aquatic. The loose spongy na-
ture of the soil in which this plant grew is clearly shewn by its mas-
sive root-branches extending to such enormous distances, and its in-
numerable fibrils spreading out in so regular a manner. Its possessing
organs so characterised, and its growing in such a soil, clearly com-
bine to prove that Sigil/aria not only lived in situations extremely lia-
ble to inundations, but that it had powerful floods or freshets to con-
tend against.

If, in imagination, the reader will delineate a channelled stem of any
height between twelve and a hundred feet,*—crowned with a pendant
fern-like foliage,—furnished with wide-spreading thickly fibrilled roots,
—and growing in some densely wooded swamp or “‘ bottom” of an an-
cient Mississippi, I am strongly persuaded that he will have formed a to-
lerably close restoration of a Sigillaria vegetating in its true habitat.
* * * * * T trust that at some future period it will be in my power
either to modify this restoration, or render it more complete.t

* Since the first part of these “ Contributions” was published, I have learned
that Mr Richard C. Taylor, formerly of this country, has discovered some stems
of Sigillaria in the Schuylkill coal-field, which cannot have been less than a
hundred feet in height. Vide “Celebration of the Hundredth Anniversary”
of the American Philosophical Society, p. 149-150.

+ Mr Binney, who, it will be remembered, announced, at the Cork Meeting of
the British Association, his discovery of a specimen of Sigillaria with roots
which agree with Stigmaria, has subsequently published an interesting account
on the same subject in the London Philosophical Magazine, (March 1844). It
is singular,—and perhaps some will even lay hold of the circumstance, as being
rather against the view which Mr Binney and myself advocate,—that in those
specimens which exhibit a stem attached toa well developed root, although there
can be no doubt as to the latter being Stigmaria, yet it is not so clear that the

134 Fossil Plants of the genus Sigillaria.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
PLATE I., VOL. 36, p. 21.

Fig. 1. Diagram representing a transverse section of Sigillaria elegans, copied
from Brongniart; a, a, a, the bark ; b, the ligneous cylinder; ¢c, the medullary
sheath ; c, bundles of tissue supposed to pass from the medullary sheath into the
leaves ; d, the pith.

Fig. 2. Outline of the surface of a portion of the stem of one of the North
Biddick Sigillarias, preserved in the Newcastle Museum; a, the ribs; 6, the
furrows.

Figs. 3, 4, and 5, represent the mode in which five different appearances may
be produced by one specimen of Siyiilaria.

Fig. 6. Portion of a rib of Sigillwria, shewing the leaf scar a, the vascular
sears 6, and the remains of the axillary bud c.

PLATE IV., VOL. 36, p. 290.

Fig. 1. Cuticle of the larch, representing the ribbed appearance produced by
the elongation and the arrangement of the leaf bases a.

Figs. 2, 3, (PLATE Y,). and 4, exhibit the direction of the spiral in different
specimens of Lepidodendron.

Fig. 2 a. Lozenge of Lepidodendron, shewing the axillary bud a.

Fig. 5. Portion of the cuticle of Abies Webbiana, which shews the way in
which the ribs of Sigillaria have been produced. J am indebted to Mr Thorn-
hill, the Librarian of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle, for
the beautifully correct drawings from which this and the adjoining figure were
copied, besides several suggestions in Botany, which have been of considerable
advantage to me in drawing up these “ Contributions.”

Pate V, VOL. 36, p. 290.

Fig. 6. Portion of a Sigillaria shewing the direction of the spiral, and the
way in which the ribs have been produced.

Fig. 7. Veining of the leaflets of Otopteris pectiniformis.

Fig. 8. Veining of the leaflets of Palwozamia pecten.

Fig. 9. Veining of the leaflets of Pecopteris nervosa ?

Puate IV., Vou. 38.

Fig. 1. Transverse section of the vascular cylinder and the ligneous zone of
Anabathra pulcherrima, divested of the bark, as seen by a low magnifier ; a, lig-
neous zone; b, vascular cylinder; ¢, part occupied by the pith ; 7, leaf cords.

Fig. 2. Transverse «ection of the same parts very much magnified ; a, tissue of
the ligneous zone ; , tissue of the vascular cylinder ; ¢, space occupied by the
pith; d, medullary rays; /, leaf cords.

former is Sigillaria : the No. 3 specimen is evidently in this predicament ; it is
the case with the one found in Kenilworth pit, and it appears to be the same with
one of the Dixonfold fossils.

PLATE IV. Edin” New Pal. Jour: Vol. 38, pp LF4-

AC. Mitchell, So

7 New Phil. Jour: Fol. 3S, pLF4.

Edin

PAAR OVs

Fig

-”

ra

On the Aurora Borealis below the Clouds. 135

Fig. 3. The same parts on the longitudinal section parallel to the medullary
rays. The letters have the same reference as in the last figure. In consequence
of there not being sufficient room in the plate, the median part of the two last
sections is not represented ; its tissue is in pea-shaped bundles.

Fig. 4. Tubes of the ligneous zone, on the longitudinal section, parallel to the
bark; d, sections of medullary rays ; e, vascular passages ; f, leaf cords.

Fig. 5. Portion ofa ligneous tube, exposing the lines or bars with which its
walls are furnished, still more magnified.

Fig. 6 exhibits the form and arrangement of the bars which characterise the
walls of the vascular tubes.

PLATE V., VOL. 38.

Fig. 1. Transverse section of Stigmaria; a b, the ligneo-vascular axis ; c, the
pith; d, the bark ; ¢, the vascular passages.

Fig. 2. Impression of the tissues composing the ligneo-vascular axis of Stig-
maria; f, fibril cords intersecting the axis a 6; c, the pith.

Fig. 3. Restoration of the ligneo-vascular axis of Stigmaria enlarged; a re-
presents the position of the vascular part relatively to the ligneous portion 6;
¢, the pith; e, the vascular passages; /, the fibril cords.

Fig. 4. Transverse section of the rhizome of ‘Aspidium Filix Mas, shewing the
circular arrangement of the bundles of-the vascular system.

Fig. 5. Enlarged longitudinal view of a portion of the netted cylinder or
vascular system of Aspidium Filia Mas. '

Report of a Remarkable Appearance of the Aurora Borealis
below the Clouds. By the Rev. JAMES FARQUHARSON,
LL.D., F.R.S., Minister of the Parish of Alford.

Alford, February 24.1842.—Saw, at 11 P.M., a remarkable
aurora borealis between the observer and lofty stratus clouds.
The density of the clouds, the great brilliancy of the meteor,
its considerable continuance, its renewed display, and the
extent of space it occupied, left no doubt of the reality of the
phenomenon.

After a day, during which the whole heavens had been
mostly shrouded by a uniform cloud, with a gentle wind at
NW., the sky, after sunset, became partially clear, and the
thermometer descended to 34°, with calm; barometer 28-89
_inches. At 11 P.M. a very brilliant display of pencils of
aurora (streamers) was seen at W. by S., in a limited space
about 10° broad, and 15° or 20° high, a little above the visi-
ble horizon; and a separated display of the same, much

136 Dr Farquharson on the Appearance of the

wider, and of nearly the same height, but not quite so bril-
liant, in another limited space, at NW. It was instantly
seen that, in both spaces, the bright meteor was between the
eye and lofty stratus clouds. These clouds extended in long
parallel belts, some of them 10° or 15° broad, some broader,
with narrow intervals of clear sky between them, in a
direction from NW. to SE. This arrangement was clearly
seen in all the western part of the sky, although there exist-
ed under these clouds thinner fleecy irregular ones, which
here and there obscured it for short distances. These lower
irregular clouds prevailed more in the eastern part of the sky ;
but there, also, the arrangement of the belts of stratus was
recognised through their intervals. One of the irregular
thin clouds lay over the moon, then nearly south, and nearly
at full; and its consistency was such as to obscure the dark
spaces on her disc, although not its circular outline. The
lofty stratus clouds were, in some parts at least, of much
denser consistency, as was proved by their totally obscuring
some very brilliant falling stars, which passed behind them,
as will be afterwards described.

The exhibition of pencils of aurora at the W. by S. space
was of unusual brilliancy, and the corruscations incessant, as
they brightened up, and faded, and suddenly disappeared,
and were renewed, successively. The colour at the lower
extremity was a lively minium red, but only for a short way
up; the upper part being of the common greenish-yellow.
They crossed, angularly, the lofty cloud nearest to the
western horizon, which was narrow, and were clearly seen
upon its face, and stretching their extremities into the clear
sky on each side of it. Even the feeblest of them maintain-
ed its continuity, and its peculiar tinge of colour, over both
the thinner edges and denser middle part of the stratus.
About five minutes after it was first seen, this aurora became
extinct; but in the course of three or four minutes was sud-
denly renewed, with a slight shift to the southward, in as
great or even greater brilliancy. In the mean time, the
aurora at the NW. space exhibited like appearances and
colours ; red at the lower extremities of the brilliant pencils,
and greenish-yellow upwards. The space here occupied by

Aurora Borealis below the Clouds. LSé

the pencils or streamers was much broader, and the lights
less condensed into one place, disappearing in some com-
partments, and extending to others alternately. They play-
ed over several belts of the stratus clouds, and intervening
clear spaces of sky; and were seen, without diminution of
lustre or change of tinge, on the face of the former. <At
poth sides of this space, there were some of the thin irregu-
lar lower clouds, behind which some of the pencils passed
sometimes at one or other of their extremities, sometimes at
their middle part. In such cases, their continuity instantly
disappeared ; for although the light of the more brilliant ones
shone through these clouds, it was only in a white nebulous
form, without any parallelism of rays, as seen in the pencils
when not so obscure.

About twenty minutes after the aurora was first seen,
dense clouds with curled edges were rather thickly formed
over both the spaces occupied by it, of larger extent than
they were; and although the observations were continued
till half-past 12 o’clock, the meteor was not again seen in
the same spaces; but about a quarter to 12 o’clock, a com-
paratively small space of bright nebulous aurora, without de-
fined pencils, was seen very near the horizon, at WNW.
That too disappeared ; and in the mean time, the clouds in
all parts of the sky, by degrees, dissolved ; the lofty stratus
ones more slowly than the others. At half-past 12 o’clock
only a few remained at the SE., when the observations were
discontinued.

During the continuance of the aurora, two bright shooting
stars descended above the space at NW., in paths parallel to
the streamers ; that is, to the dipping needle. They were of
slow motion, and became invisible when passing over the
belts of stratus clouds, but emerged again after passing
them. Ata quarter to 12 o’clock, a shooting star as large
as Venus, at her greatest elongation, shot from near the
zenith, a little to the eastward of the magnetic meridian, and
descended in a path parallel to that circle, disappearing
while passing behind some stratus clouds, but not quite,
while doing so, behind some low irregular ones that lay in
its course. Its motion was slow, and fitfully interrupted.

138 Professor MacGillivray on a Species of Teredo

February 25.—Clear sky in the morning. Unusually
abundant spicule of hoar-frost over all the ground, and
whitening the hills to their summits, like a shower of snow.
Register thermometer through the night at 29°.—(Philosophi-
cal Transactions of the Royat Society, London, for the year
1842, part i. p. 87.)

On a Species of Teredo found in Cork-floats, on the Coast of
Aberdeenshire. By WILLIAM MACGILLIVRAY, A.M., LL.D.,
Professor of Natural History in Marischal College and
University. (Communicated by the Author.)

On the eastern coasts of the middle division of Scotland,
timber perforated by Teredines is so very seldom met with,
that, after a diligent search continued for many months, I
had almost despaired of obtaining any species of these very
interesting animals, when, in September 1844, having had
the pleasure of making acquaintance with Lieutenant
Paterson, of the Coast Guard, at Slains, I was informed
by him, in answer to my inquiries, that he had found a
spar on the rocks there which was full of them in the
living state, and which he had used to repair a fence near
his house. The species which had perforated this piece of
wood, of large size, the holes being sufficient to admit
Helix hortensis, I find to be different from Teredo navalis,

as described by Deshayes and others; but not having been ~

able to detect its palmules, I refrain at present from saying
anything further respecting it. Previous to this time, how-
ever, in March 1843, after a storm, having found on the
sands near Don mouth, a piece of a cork net-float. having a
small specimen of Lepas sulcata upon it, I was agreeably
surprised, several months after, when a little boy, who had
been looking at it, shewed mea small white tube, which I
found to be that of a Teredo. On cutting up the cork I met
with several others, in some of which the shell was found
entire. Unfortunately, however, the palmules, of the im-
portance of which I was not then aware, were not. detected,
so that an imperfect description only could have been given.
In November 1844, I renewed the search, and after a strong

found on the Coast of Aberdeenshire. 139

gale of easterly wind, continued for several days, found, on
the beach near Aberdeen, several pieces of cork, on examin-
ing which I detected a great number of small live Teredines.
The animals being minute, it was difficult at first to observe
all their parts, but by cutting up the cork, this was at length
in some measure accomplished.

The largest perforations are an inch and a quarter in
length, scarcely a twelfth of an inch in diameter at the inner
or larger end, slowly narrowing toward the other or outer
end, which communicates with the exterior by a circular
aperture resembling the puncture of a small insect pin. The
holes are tortuous, as usual, and appear to have been formed
by circular movements, as their surface presents alternate
Shallow grooves and slight ridges, not spiral, but annular.
The calcareous lining of the cavity thus formed is a scarcely
perceptible film, transparent, hyaline white, very minutely
uneven, or bullato-rugose, on the inner surface, evanescent
at the larger end, but generally of considerable thickness,
and white at the outer. Sometimes, however, it is distinct,
and white, although very thin.

The animal fills the tube entirely, presenting the appear-
ance of a subcylindrical, bluish-white, semi-transparent
worm. At the anterior extremity, which is abrupt, are seen
the circular convex extremity of the foot, and above it
the transverse aperture of the mouth, furnished with slen-
der, adherent labial palpi. The bivalve shell, situated
there, forms a circular hoop, as usual. At the posterior ex-
tremity of the mantle or envelope, are two lateral palmules,
placed at the commencement of the two separated, unequal,
retractile siphons, and, by meeting, capable of closing the
cavity, when the siphons are drawnin. The viscera, par-
tially visible through the mantle, occupy more than a third
of the whole length; and beyond them are continued the
narrow, elongated, coherent branchiz.

The shell, of two very thin, diaphanous, white valves, forms
a kind of ring, broad on one side, on the back of the animal,
abruptly narrowed at the middle, and tapering to the other
side, where they meet by a rounded point. They are in con-
tact above, or on the back, at the hinge, which resembles that

140 Ona Species of Teredo found in Aberdeenshire.

of a pholas, but without accessory piece. Each valve is semi-
circularly curved, and, as in the other species, may be de-
scribed by comparing it to a valve of Pholas crispata, ex-
tremely shortened in its antero-posterior direction, and
lengthened from the umbo to the ventral portion, which runs
out into a narrow process. Although very minute, its mark-
ings are very distinct, and extremely beautiful. From a
rounded glossy supra-umbonal prominence, having an ante-
rior faint plait, the frontal margin, directed forwards and
laterally, is a little concave, and divergent ; the anterior out-
line forms an acute angle with it, proceeding directly back-
wards, and is then directed downwards at aright angle. The
dorsal margin, at first concave, rises into a prominence, and
then forms a very thin-edged rounded, reflexed lobe, beyond
which the outline is directed downwards and forwards to the
anterior point of union of the valves. Viewed from before,
the ring thus formed is sub-rhomboidal, with a sinus above,
formed by the separation of the frontal margins, and oc-
cupied by a strong transverse muscle. Seen from behind,
it is roundish-ovate, narrowed above. On each valve ex-
ternally, from behind the umbo to the ventral margin, is a
distinct convex ridge, accompanied by a’shallow groove ; ante-
rior to which, on the angular upper and anterior part, are
about twenty-five strize or lamellz, parallel to the lower mar-
gin of this part, and continued behind into much finer lines,
occupying the very narrow space between the ridge and the
anterior margin. Behind the ridge, the valves are faintly
striated parallel to the margin. In fact, in this, as in all the
other species known to me, all the striz are so arranged, as
they are also in the Pholades. The interior is glossy, and
presents under each umbo a very long, arcuate, linear pro-
cess, considerably flattened, resembling a fine bristle, and ex-
tending nearly to half the diameter of the ring. The palmules
are large, very broadly pyriform, subobcordate, very thin,
concave, tapering rapidly into a styliform pedicle, and having
on their inner face a longitudinal ridge, not medial, continu-
ous with the pedicle.

The species of Teredo are very inadequately described by

On the Aboriginal Race of America. 141

most authors; and it is probable that several species are
confounded under one name. It is unnecessary to compare
this species with any of those hitherto described, as none of
them appear to approximate closely to it; nor, if they did,
would it be practicable to compare them intelligibly without
describing them anew. I have to add, that in one specimen
I found a spicular dissepiment at the small end of the tube
between the siphons. The minute species now brought into
notice may be characterized thus :

Teredo subericola. Cork-boring Teredo.

Minute, about an inch and a quarter in length, scarcely a
twelfth of an inch in diameter ; with the valves hyaline-white,
thin, very fragile, anteriorly rectangularly sinuate, posteriorly
with a rounded reflexed lobe, inferiorly tapering into a very
narrow, linear-oblong, obtuse process ; the infra-umbonal
tooth filiform, arcuate ; the palmules broadly obcordato-pyri-
form, concave, with a submedial ridge, and tapering into a
styliform pedicle.

An Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of the Aborigi-
nal Race of America. By SAMUEL GEORGE Morton, M.D.,
Author of Crania Americana, Crania Aigyptiaca, &e.

Ethnography,—the analysis and classification of the races
of men,*—is essentially a modern science. At atime when
Nature in her other departments, had been investigated with
equal zeal and success, this alone remained comparatively
neglected ; and of the various authors who have attempted
its exposition during the past and present centuries, too
many have been content with closet theories, in which facts
are perverted to sustain some baseless conjecture. Hence,
it has been aptly remarked, that Asia is the country of fables,
Africa of monsters, and America of systems, to those who
_ prefer hypothesis to truth.

* Ethnography may be divided into three branches—1. Physical or
Organic Ethnography ; 2. Philological Ethnography; and, 3. Historical
Ethnography.

142 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

The intellectual genius of antiquity justly excites our ad-
miration and homage ; but in vain we search its records for
the physical traits of some of the most celebrated nations of
past time. It is even yet gravely disputed whether the an-
cient Egyptians belonged to the Caucasian race or to the Ne-
gro; and was it not for the light which now dawns upon us
from their monuments and their tombs, this question might
remain for ever undecided. The present age, however, is
marked by a noble zeal for these inquiries, which are daily
making man more conversant with the organic structure, the
mental character, and the national affinities, of the various
and widely scattered tribes of the human family.

Among these, the aboriginal inhabitants of America claim
our especial attention. This vast theatre has been thronged,
from immemorial time, by numberless tribes which lived only
to destroy, and be in turn destroyed, without leaving a trace
of their sojourn on the face of the earth. Contrasted with
these were a few civilized communities, whose monuments
awaken our surprise without unfolding their history; and he
who would unravel their mysteries may be compared, in the
language of the poets, to a man standing by the stream of
time, and striving to rescue from its waters the wrecked and
shattered fragments which float onward to oblivion.

It is not my present intention even to enumerate the many
theories which have been advanced in reference to the origin
of the American nations; although I may, in the sequel, in-
quire whether their genealogy can be traced to the Polyne-
sians or Mongolians, Hindoos, Jews, or Egyptians. Nor shall
I attempt to analyse the views of certain philosophers who
imagine that they have found not only a variety of races, but
several species of men, among the aborigines of this continent.
It is chiefly my intention to produce a few of the more strik-
ingly characteristic traits of these people, to sustain the posi-
tion that all the American nations, excepting the Esquimaux,
are of one race, and that this race is peculiar, and distinct
from all others.

1. Physical Characteristics. It is an adage among travel-
lers that he who has seen one tribe of Indians, has seen all,

Aboriginal Race of America. 145

so much do the individuals of this race resemble each other,
notwithstanding their immense geographical distribution, and
those differences of climate which embrace the extremes of
heat and cold. The half-clad Fuegian, shrinking from his
dreary winter, has the same characteristic lineaments, though
in an exaggerated degree, as the Indians of the tropical
plains ; and these again resemble the tribes which inhabit
the region west of the Rocky Mountains, those of the great
valley of the Mississippi, and those again which skirt the
Esquimaux on the north. All possess alike the long, lank,
black hair, the brown or cinnamon-coloured skin, the heavy
brow, the dull and sleepy eye, the full and compressed lips,
and the salient but dilated nose. These traits, moreover, are
equally common to the savage and civilized nations ; whether
they inhabit the margins of rivers and feed on fish, or rove
the forest and subsist on the spoils of the chase.

It cannot be questioned that physical diversities do occur,
equally singular and inexplicable, as seen in different shades
of colour, varying from a fair tint to a complexion almost
black ; and this, too, under circumstances in which climate can
have little or no influence. So, also, in reference to stature,
the differences are remarkable in entire tribes which, more-
over, are geographically proximate to each other. These
facts, however, are mere exceptions to a general rule, and do
not alter the peculiar physiognomy of the Indian, which is as
undeviatingly characteristic as that of the Negro; for whe-
ther we see him in the athletic Charib or the stunted Chayma,
in the dark Californian or the fair Borroa, he is an Indian
still, and cannot be mistaken for a being of any other race.

The same conformity of organization is not less obvious in
the osteological structure of these people, as seen in the
squared or rounded head, the flattened or vertical occiput, the
high cheek-bones, the ponderous maxille, the large quadran-
gular orbits, and the low receding forehead. I have had op-
portunity to compare nearly four hundred crania, derived
- from tribes inhabiting almost every region of both Americas,
and have been astonished to find how the preceding charac-
ters, in greater or less degree, pervade them all.

This remark is equally applicable to the ancient and mo-

144 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

dern nations of our continent ; for the oldest skulls from the
Peruvian cemeteries, the tombs of Mexico and the mounds of
our own country, are of the same type as the heads of the
most savage existing tribes. Their physical organization
proves the origin of one to have been equally the origin of
all. The various civilized nations are to this day represented
by their lineal descendants who inhabit their ancestral seats,
and differ in no exterior respect from the wild and unculti-
vated Indians ; at the same time, in evidence of their lineage,
Clavigero, and other historians inform us, that the Mexicans
and Peruvians yet possess a latent mental superiority which
has not been subdued by three centuries of despotism. And
again, with respect to the royal personages and other privi-
leged classes, there is indubitable evidence that they were of
the same native stock, and presented no distinctive attributes
excepting those of a social or political character.

The observations of Molina and Humboldt are sometimes
quoted in disproof of this pervading uniformity of physical
characters. Molina says that the difference between an in-
habitant of Chili and a Peruvian is not less than between an
Italian and a German; to which Humboldt adds, that the
American race contains nations whose features differ as essen-
tially from one another as those of the Circassians, Moors, and
Persians. But all these people are of one and the same race,
and readily recognised as such, notwithstanding their differ-
ences of feature and complexion ;* and the American nations
present a precisely parallel case.

I was at one time inclined to the opinion that the ancient
Peruvians, who inhabited the islands and confines of the
Lake Titicaca, presented a congenital form of the head en-
tirely different from that which characterizes the great Ame-
rican race ; nor could I at first bring myself to believe that
their wonderfully narrow and elongated crania, resulted solely
from artificial compression applied to the rounded head of the
Indian. That such, however, is the fact has been indisputa-
bly proved by the recent investigations of M. D’Orbigny.

* A portion of the Moorish population of Africa is a very mixed race
of Arabs, Berbers, Negroes, &c.

Aboriginal Race of America. 145

This distinguished naturalist passed many months on the
table-land of the Andes which embraces the region of these
extraordinary people, and examined the desiccated remains
of hundreds of individuals in the tombs where they have lain
for centuries. M. D’Orbigny remarked, that while many of
the heads were deformed in the manner to which we have
adverted, others differed in nothing from the usual conforma-
tion. It was also observed that the flattened skulls were uni-
formly those of men, while those of the women remained
unaltered ; and, again, that the most elongated heads were
preserved in the largest and finest tombs, shewing that this
cranial deformity was a mark of distinction. But to do away
with any remaining doubt on this subject, M. D’Orbigny as-
certained that the descendants of these ancient Peruvians yet
inhabit the land of their ancestors, and bear the name of
AYMARAS, which may have been their primitive designation ;
and lastly, the modern Aymaras resemble the common Qui-
chua or Peruvian Indians in every thing that relates to physi-
cal conformation, not even excepting the head, which, how-
ever, they have ceased to mould artificially.

Submitted to the same anatomical test, the reputed giant
and dwarf races of America prove to be the mere inventions
of ignorance or imposition. A careful inspection of the re-
mains of both, has fully satisfied me that the asserted gigan-
tic form of some nations has been a hasty inference on the
part of unpractised observers; while the so-called pygmies
of the valley of the Mississippi were mere children, who, for
reasons not wholly understood, were buried apart from the
adult people of their tribe. .

Thus it is that the American Indian, from the southern
extremity of the continent to the northern limit of his range,
is the same exterior man. With somewhat variable stature
and complexion, his distinctive features, though variously mo-
dified, are never effaced; and he stands isolated from the
rest of mankind, identified at a glance in every locality, and
under every variety of cireumstance ; and even his desiccated
remains which have withstood the destroying hand of time,
preserve the primeval type of his race, excepting only when
art has interposed to pervert it.

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845, K

146 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

2. Moral Traits. These are, perhaps, as strongly marked
as the physical characteristics of which we have just spoken ;
but they have been so often the subject of analysis as to
claim only a passing notice on the present occasion. Among
the most prominent of this series of mental operations is a
sleepless caution, an untiring vigilance, which presides over
every action and masks every motive. The Indian says
nothing and does nothing without its influence: it enables
him to deceive others without being himself suspected ; it
causes that proverbial taciturnity among strangers which
changes to garrulity among the people of his own tribe; and
it is the basis of that invincible firmness which teaches him
to contend unrepiningly with every adverse circumstance,
and even with death in its most hideous forms.

The love of war is so general, so characteristic, that it
scarcely calls for a comment or an illustration. One nation
is in almost perpetual hostility with another, tribe against
tribe, man against man; and with this ruling passion are
linked a merciless revenge, and an unsparing destructiveness.
The Chickasaws have been known to make a stealthy march
of six hundred miles from their own hunting grounds, for the
sole purpose of destroying an encampment of their enemies.
The small island of Nantucket, which contains but a few
square miles of barren sand, was inhabited at the advent of
the European colonies by two Indian tribes, who sometimes
engaged in hot and deadly feud with each other. But what
is yet more remarkable, the miserable natives of Terra de}
Fuego, whose common privations have linked them for a time
in peace and fellowship, become suddenly excited by the
same inherent ferocity, and exerted their puny efforts for
mutual destruction. Of the destructive propensity of the
Indian, which has long become a proverb, it is almost un-
necessary to speak ; but we may advert to a forcible example
from the narrative of the traveller Hearne, who accompanied
a trading party of northern Indians on a long journey ; dur-
ing which he declares that they killed every living creature
that came within their reach; nor could they even pass a
bird’s nest without slaying the young or destroying the eggs.

That philosophic traveller, Dr Von Martius, gives a

Aboriginal Race of America. 147

graphic view of the present state of natural and civil rights
among the American aborigines. Their sub-division, he
remarks, into an almost countless multitude of greater and
smaller groups, and their entire exclusion and excommuni-
cation with regard to each other, strike the eye of the ob-
server like the fragments of a vast ruin, to which the his-
tory of the other nations of the earth furnishes no analogy.
“This disruption of all the bands by which society was
anciently held together, accompanied by a Babylonish con-
fusion of tongues, the rude right of force, the never ending
tacit warfare of all against all, springing from that very
disrupture,—appear to me the most essential, and, as far as
history is concerned, the most significant points in the civil
condition of the aboriginal population of America.”

It may be said that these features of the Indian character
are common to all mankind in the savage state. This is gene-
rally true ; but in the American race they exist in a degree
which will fairly challenge a comparison with similar traits
in any existing people; and if we consider also their habitual
indolence and improvidence, their indifference to private pro-
perty, and the vague simplicity of their religious observances,
—which, for the most part, are devoid of the specicus aid of
idolatry,—we must admit them to possess a peculiar and ec-
centric moral constitution.

If we turn now to the demi-civilized nations, we find the
dawn of refinement coupled with those barbarous usages
which characterize the Indian in his savage state. We see
the Mexicans, like the later Romans, encouraging the most
bloody and cruel rites, and these, too, in the name of religion,
in order to inculcate hatred of their enemies, familiarity with
danger, and contempt of death; and the moral effect of this
system is manifest in their valorous, though unsuccessful,
resistance to their Spanish conquerors.

Among the Peruvians, however, the case was different.
The inhabitants had been subjugated to the Incas by a com-
‘bined moral and physical influence. The Inca family were
looked upon as beings of divine origin. They assumed to be
the messengers of heaven, bearing rewards for the good, and
punishment for the disobedient, conjoined with the arts of

148 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

peace and various social institutions. History bears ample
testimony that these specious pretences were employed first
to captivate the fancy and then to enslave the man. The
familiar adage that “ knowledge is power,” was as well un-
derstood by them as by us; learning was artfully restricted
toa privileged class ; and the genius of the few soon controlled
the energies of the many. Thus the policy of the Incas in-
culeated in their subjects an abject obedience which knew no
limit. They endeavoured to eradicate the feeling of indivi-
duality ; or, in other words, to unite the minds of the plebeian
multitude in a common will, which was that of their master.
Thus when Pizarro made his first attack on the defenceless
Peruvians in the presence of their Inca, the latter was borne
in a throne on the shoulders of four men; and we are told by
Herrera that while the Spaniards spared the sovereign, they
aimed their deadly blows at his bearers, who, however,
never shrunk from their sacred trust; for when one of their
number fell, another immediately took his place; and the
historian declares that if the whole day had been spent in
killing them, others would still have come forward to the
passive support of their master. In fact, what has been
called the paternal government of the Incas was strictly
such ; for their subjects were children, who neither thought
nor acted except at the dictation of another. Thus it was
that a people whose moral impulses are known to have dif-
fered in little or nothing from those of the barbarous tribes,
were reduced, partly by persuasion, partly by force, to a
state of effeminate vassalage not unlike that of the modern
Hindoos. Like the latter, too, they made good soldiers in
their native wars, not from any principle of valour, but from
the sentiment of passive obedience to their superiors; and
hence, when they saw their monarch bound and imprisoned
by the Spaniards, their conventional courage at once forsook
them ; and we behold the singular spectacle of an entire
nation prostrated at a blow, like a strong man whose energies
yield to a seemingly trivial but rankling wound.

After the Inca power was destroyed, however, the dormant
spirit of the people was again aroused in all the moral yehe-
mence of their race, and the gentle and unoffending Peruvian

Aboriginal Race of America. 149

became transformed into the wily and merciless savage.
Every one is familiar with the sequel. Resistance was too
late to be availing, and the fetters to which they had con-
fidingly submitted were soon rivetted for ever.

As we have already observed, the Incas depressed the
moral energies of their subjects in order to secure their own
power. This they effected by inculcating the arts of peace,
prohibiting human sacrifices, and in a great measure avoiding
capital punishments ; and blood was seldom spilt excepting
on the subjugation of warlike and refractory tribes. In these
instances, however, the native ferocity of their race broke
forth even in the bosom of the Incas; for we are told by
Garcilaso, the descendant and apologist of the Peruvian kings,
that some of their wars were absolutely exterminating; and
among other examples he mentions that of the Inca Yupanqui
against the province of Collao, in which whole districts were
so completely depopulated, that they had subsequently to
be colonized from other parts of the empire: and in another
instance the same unsparing despot destroyed twenty thou-
sand Caranques, whose bodies he ordered to be thrown into an
adjacent lake, which yet bears the name of the Sea of Blood.
In like manner, when Atahualpa contested the dominion with
Guascar, he caused the latter, together with thirty of his
brothers, to be put to death in cold blood, that nothing might
impede his progress to the throne.

We have thus endeavoured to shew, that the same moral
traits characterize all the aboriginal nations of this continent,
from the humanized Peruvian to the rudest savage of the
Brazilian forest.

_ 8. Intellectual Faculties.—lt has often been remarked, that
the intellectual faculties are distributed with surprising equa-
lity among individuals of the same race who have been simi-
larly educated, and subjected to the same moral and other in-
fluences: yet even among these, as in the physical man, we
_ see the strong and the weak, with numberless intermediate
gradations. ‘This equality is infinitely more obvious in sa-
vage than in civilized communities, simply, because in the
former the condition of life is more equal; whence it hap-

150 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

pens that in contrast to a single master mind, the plebeiaw
multitude are content to live and die in their primitive igno-
rance and inferiority.

This truth is obvious at every step of the present investi-
gation ; for of the numberless hordes which have inhabited
the American continent, a fractional portion only has left any
trace of refinement. I venture here to repeat my matured
conviction, that, as a race, they are decidedly inferior to the
Mongolian stock. They are not only averse to the restraints
of education, but seem for the most part incapable of a con-
tinued process of reasoning on abstract subjects. Their minds
Seize with avidity on simple truths, while they reject what-
ever requires investigation or analysis. Their proximity for
more than two centuries to European communities, has
searcely effected an appreciable change in their manner of
life; and as to their social condition, they are probably in
most respects the same as at the primitive epoch of their
existence. They have made no improvement in the construc-
tion of their dwellings, except when directed by Europeans
who have become domiciliated among them ; for the Indian
cabin or the Indian tent, from Terra del Fuego to the river
St Lawrence, is, perhaps, the humblest contrivance ever de-
vised by man to screen himself from the elements. Nor is
their mechanical ingenuity more conspicuous in the construc-
tion of their boats ; for these, as we shall endeavour to shew
in the sequel, have rarely been improved beyond the first
rude conception. Their imitative faculty is of a very humble
grade, nor have they any predilection for the arts or sciences.
The long annals of missionary labour and private benefac-
tion, present few exceptions to this cheerless picture, which
is sustained by the testimony of nearly all practical observers.
Even in those instances in which the Indians have received
the benefits of education, and remained for years in civilized
society, they lose little or none of the innate love of their na-
tional usages, which they almost invariably resume when left
to choose for themselves.

Such is the intellectual poverty of the barbarous tribes ;
but contrasted with these, like an oasis in the desert, are the
demi-civilized nations of the new world; a people whose at-

Aboriginal Race of America. 151

tainments in the arts and sciences are a riddle in the history
of the human mind. The Peruvians in the south, the Mexi-
cans in the north, and the Muyscas of Bogota between the
two, formed these contemporary centres of civilization, each
independent of the other, and each equally skirted by wild
and savage hordes. The mind dwells with surprise and ad-
miration on their Cyclopean structures, which often rival those
of Egypt in magnitude ;—on their temples, which embrace
almost every principle in architecture, except the arch alone ;
and on their statues and bas-reliefs, which, notwithstanding
some conventional imperfections, are far above the rudimen-
tary state of the arts.

I have elsewhere ventured to designate these demi-civilized
nations by the collective name of the TOLTECAN FAMILy ; for
although the Mexican annals date their civilization from a
period long antecedent to the appearance of the Toltecas, yet
the latter seem to have cultivated the arts and sciences to a
degree unknown to their predecessors. Besides, the various
nations which at different times invaded and possessed them-
selves of Mexico, were characterized by the same fundamen-
tal language and the same physical traits, together with a
strong analogy in their social institutions ; and as the appear-
ance of the Incas in Peru was nearly simultaneous with the
dispersion of the Toltecas, in the year 1050 of our era, there
is reasonable ground for the conjecture that the Mexicans
and Peruvians were branches of the same Toltecan stock.
We have alluded to a civilization antecedent to the appear-
ance of the Incas, and which had already passed away when
they assumed the government of the country. There are tra-
ditional and monumental evidences of this fact, which can
leave no doubt on the mind, although of its date we can form
no just conception. It may have even preceded the Christian
era, nor do we know of any positive reasons to the contrary.
Chronology may be called the crutch of history ; but with all
its imperfections it would be invaluable here, where no clue
remains to unravel those mysterious records which excite our

research, but constantly elude our scrutiny. We may be per-
mitted, however, to repeat what is all-important to the pre-

152 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

sent inquiry, that these ancient Peruvians were the progeni-
tors of the existing Aymara tribes of Peru, while these last
are identified in every particular with the people of the great
Inca race. All the monuments which these various nations
have left behind them, over a space of three thousand miles,
go also to prove a common origin, because, notwithstanding
some minor differences, certain leading features pervade and
characterize them all.

Whether the hive of the civilized nations was, as some sup-
pose, in the fabled region of Aztlan in the north, or whether,
as the learned Cabrera has endeavoured to shew, their native
seats were in Chiapas and Guatimala, we may not stop to
inquire ; but to them, and to them alone, we trace the mono-
lithic gateways of Peru, the sculptures of Bogota, the ruined
temples and pyramids of Mexico, and the mounds and forti-
fications of the valley of the Mississippi.

Such was the Toltecan Family; and it will now be in-
quired how it happens that so great a disparity should have
existed in the intellectual character of the American nations,
if they are all derived from a common stock, or, in other
words, belong to the same race! How are we to reconcile
the civilization of the one with the barbarism of the other?
It is this question which has so much puzzled the philosophers
of the past three centuries, and led them, in the face of facts,
to insist on a plurality of races. We grant the seeming
anomaly ; but however much it is opposed to general rule, it
is not without ample analogies among the people of the old
world. No stronger example need be adduced than that
which presents itself in the great Arabian family ; for the
Saracens who established their kingdom in Spain, whose his-
tory is replete with romance and refinement, whose colleges
were the centres of genius and learning for several centuries,
and whose arts and sciences have been blended with those of
every subsequent age ;—these very Saracens belong not only
to the same race, but to the same family with the Bedouins
of the desert ; those intractable barbarians who scorn all re-
straints which are not imposed by their own chief, and whose
immemorial laws forbid them to sow corn, to plant fruit-trees,

eo, Tt tS.

Aboriginal Race of America. 153

or to build houses, in order that nothing may conflict with
those roving and predatory habits which have continued un-
altered through a period of three thousand years.

Other examples perhaps not less forcible, might be adduced
in the families of the Mongolian race ; but without extending
the comparison, or attempting to investigate this singular in-
tellectual disparity, we shall, for the present at least, con-
tent ourselves with the facts as we find them. It is import-
ant, however, to remark, that these civilized states do not
stand isolated from their barbarous neighbours ; on the con-
trary, they merge gradually into each other, so that some
nations are with difficulty classed with either division, and
rather form an intermediate link between the two. Such are
the Araucanians, whose language and customs, and even
whose arts, prove their direct affiliation with the Peruvians,
although they far surpass the latter in sagacity and courage,
at the same time that their social institutions present many
features of intractable barbarism. So also the Aztec rulers
of Mexico at the period of the Spanish invasion, exhibit, with
their bloody sacrifices and multiform idolatry, a strong con-
trast to the gentler spirit of the Toltecas who preceded them,
and whose arts and ingenuity they had usurped. Still later
in this intermediate series were the Natchez tribes of the
Mississippi, who retained some traces of the refinement of
their Mexican progenitors, mingled with many of the rudest
traits of savage life. It is thus that we can yet trace all the
gradations, link by link, which connect these extremes to-
gether ; shewing that although the civilization of these nations
is fast becoming obsolete, although their arts and sciences
have passed away with a former generation, still the people
remain in all other respects unchanged, although a variety of
causes has long been urging them onward to deep degrada-
tion and rapid extinction. Strange as these intellectual re-
volutions may seem, we venture to assert, that, all circum-
stances considered, they are not greater than those which
have taken place between the ancient and modern Greeks.
If we had not incontestible evidence to prove the fact, who
would believe that the ancestors of the Greeks of the present
day were the very people who gave glory to the age of Pericles!

154 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

It may still be insisted that the religion and the arts of
the American nations point to Asia and Egypt; but it is ob-
vious, as Humboldt and others have remarked, that these re-
semblances may have arisen from similar wants and impulses,
acting on nations in many respects similarly circumstanced.
* Tt would indeed be not only singular but wonderful and un-
accountable,” observes Dr Caldwell, “if tribes and nations
of men, possessed of similar attributes of mind and body, re-
siding in similar climates and situations, influenced by simi-
lar states of society, and obliged to support themselves by
similar means, in similar pursuits,—it would form a problem
altogether inexplicable, if nations thus situated did not con-
tract habits and usages, and, instinctively, modes of life and
action, possessing towards each other many striking resem-
blances.” Here, also, we may draw an illustration from the
old world ; for, notwithstanding the comparative proximity
of the Hindoos and Egyptians, and the evident analogies in
their architecture, mythology, and social institutions, there is
now no reason to believe them cognate nations ; and the re-
semblances to which we have adverted have probably arisen
from mutual intercourse, independent of lineal affiliation,
And so with the nations of America. The casual appearance
of ship-wrecked strangers would satisfactorily explain any
sameness in the arts and usages of the one and the other, as
well as those words which are often quoted in evidence of a
common origin of language, but which are so few in number
as to be readily accounted for on the foregoing principle.

The entire number of common words is said to be one
hundred and four between the American languages and those
of Asia and Australia ; forty-three with those of Europe ; and
forty with those of Africa, making a total of one hundred and
eighty-seven words. But taking into account the mere coin-
cidence by which some of these analogies may be reasonably
explained, I would inquire, in the language of an ingenious
author, whether these facts are sufficient to prove a connexion
between four hundred dialects of America and the various
languages of the old world ?

Even so late as the year 1833, a Japanese junk was wrecked
on the north-west coast of America, and several of the crew

iets

Aboriginal Race of America. 155

escaped unhurt to the shore; and I have myself seen some
porcelain vessels which were saved on that occasion. Such
casualties may have occurred in the early periods of American
history ; and it requires no effort of the imagination to con-
ceive the influence these persons might have exerted, in va-
rious respects, had they been introduced to the ancient courts
of Peru and Mexico. They might have contributed some-
thing to extend, or at least to modify, the arts and sciences
of the people among whom they were thrown, and have
added a few words to the national language.

I am informed by my friend Mr Townsend, who passed
several months among the tribes of the Columbia river, that
the Indians there have already adopted from the Canadian
traders several French words, which they use with as much
freedom as if they belonged to their own vocabulary.

It follows, of course, from the preceding remarks, that we
consider the American race to present the two extremes of
intellectual character ; the one capable of a certain degree of
civilization and refinement, independent of extraneous aids ;
the other exhibiting an abasement which puts all mental cul-
ture at defiance. The one composed, as it were, of a hand-
ful of people, whose superiority and consequent acquisitions
have made them the prey of covetous destroyers; the other
a vast multitude of savage tribes, whose very barbarism is
working their destruction from within and without. The
links that connect them partake of the fate of the extremes
themselves ; and extinction appears to be the unhappy, but
fast approaching, doom of them all.

4. Maritime Enterprise.—One of the most characteristic
traits of all civilized and many barbarous communities, is the
progress of maritime adventure. The Caucasian nations of
every age present a striking illustration of this fact: their
sails are spread on every ocean, and the fabled voyage of the
Argonauts is but a type of their achievements from remote
_ antiquity to the present time. Hence their undisputed do-
minion of the sea, and their successful colonization of every
quarter of the globe. The Mongolians and Malays, though
active and predatory, and proverbially aquati¢ in their habits,

156 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

are deficient in that mechanical invention which depends on
a knowledge of mathematical principles ; while they seem
also incapable of those mental combinations which are re-
quisite to a perfect acquaintance with naval tactics. The
Negro, whose observant and imitative powers enable him to
acquire with ease the details of seamanship, readily becomes
a mariner, but rarely a commander; and history is silent on
the nautical prowess of his race. Far behind all these is the
man of America. Savage or civilized, the sea for him has
had few charms, and his navigation has been almost exclu-
sively restricted to lakes and rivers. A canoe excavated from
a single log, was the principal vessel in use in the new world
at the period of its discovery. Even the predatory Charibs,
who were originally derived from the forests of Guayana,
possessed no other boat than this simple contrivance, in which
they seldom ventured out of sight of land; and never ex-
cepting in the tranquil periods of the tropical seas, when they
sailed from shore to shore, the terror of the feebler natives of
the surrounding islands. The canoes of the Arouaes of Cuba
were not more ingeniously contrived than those of the ruder
Charibs ; which is the more surprising, since their island was
the centre of a great archipelago, and their local position,
therefore, in all respects calculated to develope any latent
nautical propensities. "When Cortez approached, in his ships,
the Mexican harbour of Tobasco, he was astonished to find,
even there, the sea-port, as it were, of a mighty empire, the
same primitive model in the many vessels that skimmed the
sea before him. Let us follow this conqueror to the imperial
city itself, surrounded by lakes, and possessed of warlike de-
fences superior to those of any other American people. The
Spanish commander, foreseeing that to possess the lake would
be to hold the keys of the city, had fifteen brigantines built
at Tlascala; and these being subsequently taken to pieces,
were borne on men’s shoulders to the lake of Mexico, and
there re-constructed and launched. The war thus commenced
as a naval contest; and the Spanish historians, while they
eulogize the valour of the Mexicans, are constrained to admit
the utter futility of their aquatic defences: for although the
subjects of Montezuma, knowing and anticipating the nature

ee ee ee a

Aboriginal Race of America. 157

of the attack, came forth from the city in several thousand
boats, these were so feebly constructed, and managed with
so little dexterity, that in a few hours they were all destroyed,
dispersed, or taken by the enemy.

Turning from the Mexicans, we naturally look to the Pe-
ruvians for some further advances in nautical skill; but al-
though their country was comparatively a narrow strip of
land, with an extended frontier on the ocean, we find even
here the same primitive vessels and the same timid naviga-
tors. Itis indeed questionable whether they ever designedly
lost sight of land; nor does it appear that they made the sea
subservient to their conquests. These were uniformly prose-
cuted by land, excepting perhaps those of the Incas, in their
efforts to subdue the fierce islanders of Titicaca; but even
the partial pen of Garcilaso limits all these inventions to log
canoes and rafts of reeds; nor does it appear that the inge-
nuity of these people, so abundantly displayed on many other
occasions, had ever added an improvement to the primeval
germ of navigation.

Nor are those tribes which depend almost wholly on fish
for their daily subsistence, much better provided than the
others. The Chenouks and other nations on the western
coast of America, have boats hewn with comparative inge-
nuity from a single plank, and compared to a butcher’s tray ;
but in these frail vessels they keep cautiously within sight of
land, and never venture on the water unless the weather is
favourable to their enterprize. It is to be observed, however,
that when the Indians are compelled to carry their boats
across portages from river to river, they construct them of
birch bark, and with a degree of ingenuity and adaptation
much above their usual resources. Thus, boats that would
carry nine men do not weigh over sixty pounds, and are there-
fore conveyed with ease to considerable distances. This is
almost the only deviation from the log canoe, and is equally
characteristic; for it is common among the interior Indians
_ of both North and South America, and was noticed by De
Solis in the Mexican provinces.

Inferior in these respects to the other tribes are the Fue-
gians; a people whom perpetual exposure and privation, and

158 Dr Morton on the Distinetive Characteristics of the

the influence of an inhospitable climate, have reduced to a
feeble intelligence,—the moral childhood of their race. Not
even the stimulus of necessity has been able to excite that
ingenuity which would so amply provide for all their wants ;
and they starve amid the abundant stores of the ocean, because
they possess no adequate means for obtaining them. The
Falkland and Malouine islands, in but fifty degrees of South
latitude, South Georgia, New South Shetland, and some
smaller islands in nearly the same parallel, were, at their dis-
covery, entirely uninhabited; nor is there any evidence of
their ever having been visited by any American tribe. Yet
they possess seals and other marine animals in vast numbers,
and in these and all other respects appear to be not less pro-
ductive than the region inhabited by the Esquimaux.

It is generally supposed that nautical enterprize results from
the necessity of the case, in nations proximate to or sur-
rounded by the sea. We have seen, however, that the natives
of the islands of the Gulf of Mexico were exceptions to the
rule; and we find another not less remarkable in the archi-
pelago of Chiloe, on the coast of Chili. These islands are
seen from the shore, and have a large Indian population,
which depends for subsistence on fish taken from the sur-
rounding ocean; yet even so late as the close of the past
century, after more than two hundred years of communica-
tion with the Spaniards, their boats appear not to have been
the least improved from their original model. The padre
Gonzalez de Agueros, who resided many years among these
islanders, describes their canoes as composed of five or six
boards, narrowed at the ends, and lashed tegether with cords,
the seams being filled with moss. They have sails, but neither
keel nor deck; and in these frail and primitive vessels the
inhabitants commit themselves to a tempestuous sea in search
of their daily food. The same miserable vessels are found in
exclusive use in the yet more southern archipelago of Guai-
tecas, in which a sparse population is distributed over eight
hundred islands, and depends solely on the sea for subsistence.
The mechanical ingenuity of these people, therefore, is not
greater than that of the, other Indians; but, from constant
practice with their wretched bos, they have acquired a dex-

Aboriginal Race of America. 159

terity in the use of them unknown to any other tribe, and in
some instances, under the direction of the Spaniards, have
become comparatively good mariners.

De Azara mentions a curious fact in illustration of the pre-
sent inquiry. He declares that when his countrymen disco-
vered the Rio de la Plata, they found its shores inhabited by
two distinct Indian nations, the Charruas on the north, and
the Patagonians on the south ; yet, strange to say, these rest-
less people had never communicated with each other for war
or for peace, for good or for evil, because they had neither
boats nor canoes in which to cross the river.

The Indian is not defective in courage, even on the water ;
but he lacks invention to construct better vessels, and tact to
manage them. When he has been compelled to defend him-
self in his frail canoe, he has done so with the indomitable
spirit of his race; yet, with all his love of war and strata-
gem, I cannot find any account of a naval combat in which
Europeans have borne no part.

The Payaguas Indians at one period took revenge on the
Spaniards by infesting the rivers of Paraguay, in canoes
which they managed with much adroitness ; and, darting from
their lurking places, they intercepted the trading vessels
going to and from Buenos Ayres, robbing them of their goods,
and destroying their crews without mercy. Such was their
Success in these river piracies, that it required years of war
and stratagem on the part of the Spaniards to subdue them.

The only example of a naval contest that I have met with,
is described by Dobrizhoffer to have taken place between the
so-called Mamalukes of St Paulo, in Brazil, and their ene-
mies, the Guaranies. The former were a banditti derived
from the intermarriage of the dregs of Europeans of all
nations with the surrounding Indians ; and, assisted by two
thousand of their native allies, they came forth to battle in
three hundred boats. The Guaranies, on the other hand, had
five ships armed with cannon. But it is obvious, from this
_ Statement, that European vessels and European tactics gave
the battle all its importance. It took place on the river
Mborore, in Paraguay ; but, after all, both parties finding
themselves out of their element on the water, at length aban--

160 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

doned their vessels by mutual agreement, aud fought to des-
peration on shore.

It is said of the inhabitants of New Holland, that their only
substitute for a boat is a short and solid log, on which they
place themselves astride, and thus venture upon the water.
Even this, the humblest of all human contrivances, was in

use among the Indians of the Bay of Honduras, who had .

learned to balance themselves so dexterously standing upon
a log, as to be able in this position to pursue their customary
occupation of fishing in the adjacent sea.

In fine, his long contact with European arts, has furnished
the Indians with no additional means of contending with the
watery element; and his log canoe and boat of birch-bark,
are precisely the same as at the landing of Columbus.

5. Manner of Interment—Veneration for the dead is a
sentiment natural to man, whether civilized or savage: but
the manner of expressing it, and of performing the rites of
sepulture, differ widely in different nations. No offence ex-
cites greater exasperation in the breast of the Indian than
the violation of the graves of his people; and he has even
been known to disinter the bones of his ancestors, and bear
them with him to a great distance, when circumstancees have
compelled him to make a permanent change of residence.

But the manner of inhumation is so different from,that
practised by the rest of mankind, and at the same time so
prevalent among the American nations, as to constitute
another means of identifying them as parts of a single and
peculiar race. This practice consists in burying the dead
in the sétting posture ; the legs being flexed against the ab-
domen, the arms also bent, and the chin supported on the
palms of the hand. The natives of Patagonia, Brazil, and
Guayana—the insular and other Charibs—the Florida
tribes—the great chain of Lenapé nations—the inhabitants
of both sides of the Rocky Mountains—and those also of
Canada and the vast Northwestern region,—all conform,
with occasional exceptions, to this conventional rite. So
also with the demi-civilized communities from the most dis-
tant epochs; for the ancient Peruvians, to whom we have

= to 250,1._ rr, & poet

Aboriginal Race of America. 161

already so frequently referred, possessed this singular
usage, as is verified by their numberless remains in the se-
pulchres of Titicaca. They did not, however, bury their
dead, but placed them on the floors of their tombs, seated,
and sewed up in sacks. The later Peruvians of the Inca
race followed the same custom, sometimes inhuming the
body, at others placing it in a tower above ground. Gar-
cilaso de la Vega informs us, that, in the year 1560, he saw
five embalmed bodies of the royal family, all of whom were
seated in the Indian manner, with their hands crossed upon
the breast, and their heads bent forward. So also the
Mexicans from the most ancient time had adopted the same
usage, which was equally the privilege of the king and his
people. The most remarkable exception to the practice in
question, is that in which the body is dissected before inter-
ment—the bones alone being deposited in the earth. This
extraordinary rite has prevailed among various tribes from
the southern to the northern extremity of their range, in
Patagonia, Brazil, Florida, and Missouri, and indeed in
many intervening localities; but even in these instances,
the bones are often retained in their relative position by
preserving the ligaments, and then interred in the attitude
of a person seated. An example, among very many others,
is recorded by the Baron Humboldt, in his visit to a
cavern-cemetery of the Atures Indians, at the sources of
the Orinoco; wherein he found hundreds of skeletons pre-
served each in a separate basket, the bones being held
together by their natural connections, and the whole disposed
in the conventional posture of which we are speaking.

Iam well aware that this practice has been noticed by
some navigators among the Polynesian Islands; the in-
stances, however, appear so few as rather to form excep-
tions to the rule, like those of the Nassamones of northern
Africa: but I have sought for it in vain among the conti-
nental Asiatics, who, if they ever possessed it, would have
yet preserved it among some at least of their numberless
tribes.

After this rapid view of the principal leading character-

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXV.—JAN. 1845. L

162 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

istics of the American race, let us now briefly inquire
whether they denote an exotie origin; or whether there is
not internal evidence that this race is as strictly aboriginal
to America as the Mongolian is to Asia, or the Negro to
Africa.

And, first, we turn to the Mongolian race, which, by a
somewhat general consent, is admitted to include the Polar
nations, and among them the Esquimaux of our continent. it
is a very prevalent opinion that the latter people, who obvi-
ously belong to the Polar family of Asia, pass insensibly into
the American race, and thus form the connecting link be-
tween the two. But without repeating what has already been
said in reference to the Indian, we may briefly advert, for
the purpose of comparison, to the widely different character-
istics of the Esquimaux. These people are remarkable for a
large and rather elongated head, which is low in front and
projecting behind ; the great width and flatness of the face
is noted by all travellers ; their eyes are small and black,
the mouth small and round, and the nose is so diminutive
and depressed, that, on looking at a skull in profile, the nasal
bones are hardly visible. Their complexion, moreover, is
comparatively fair, and there is a tendency throughout life
to fulness and obesity. The traveller Hearne, while in com-
pany with a ‘tribe of northern Indians, mentions a circum-
stance which is at least curious, because it shews the light in
which the Esquimaux are regarded by their proximate neigh-
bours on the south. He was the unwilling witness of a pre-
meditated and unprovoked massacre of an entire encampment
of Esquimaux, men, women, and children ; and i+ is curious to
remark that the aggressors apologised for their cruelty not
only on the plea of an ancient feud, but by asserting that their
unoffending victims were a people of different nature and
origin from themselves, even in respect to sexual conforma-
tion.

The moral character of the Esquimaux differs from that of
the Indian chiefly in the absence of the courage, cunning,
cruelty, and improvidence so habitual in the Red man, who,
in-turn, is inferior in mechanical ingenuity, and, above all,

—-

Aboriginal Race of America. 163

in aquatic exercises. The Esquimaux, notwithstanding the
intense cold of his climate, has been called an amphibious
animal, so readily and equally does he adapt himself to the
land or water. His boat is an evidence of mechanical skill;
and the adroit manner in which he manages it is a pro-
verb among mariners. The women are not less expert and
enterprising than the men: each possesses a boat of pecu-
liar and distinctive construction; and Crantz informs us,
that children of the tender age of seven or eight years com-
mence the unassisted management of their own little
vessels.

How strongly do these and other traits which might be
enumerated, contrast with those of the Indian, and enforce
an ethnographic dissimilarity which is confirmed at every step
of the investigation !

Some writers, however, think they detect in the Fuegian
a being whose similar physical condition has produced in
him all the characteristics of the Esquimaux ; but we confi-
dently assert that the latter is vastly superior both in his
exterior organization and mental aptitude. In truth the
two may be readily contrasted but not easily compared.
The Fuegian bears a coarse but striking resemblance to the
race to which he belongs, and every feature of his character
assists in fixing his identity. The extremes of cold, with
their many attending privations, by brutifying the features
and distorting the expression of the face, reduce man to a
mere caricature, a repulsive perversion of his original type.
Compare the Mongols of Central Asia and China with the
Polar nations of Siberia. Compare also the Hottentot with
the contiguous black tribes on the north—the Tasmanian
negro with the proper New Hollander,—and lastly, the
wretched Fuegian with the Indian beyond the Magellanic
strait; and we find in every instance how much more the
man of a cold and inhospitable clime is degraded, physically
and intellectually, than his more fortunate but affiliated
- neighbour. The operation of these perverting causes through
successive ages of time, has obscured but not obliterated those
lineaments which, however modified, point to an aboriginal .
stock.

164 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

Without attempting to enter the fathomless depths of
philology, I am bound to advert to the opinion of Mr Gal-
latin, that all the nations from Cape Horn to the Arctic
Ocean, have languages which possess “a distinct character
common to all, and apparently differing from those of the
other continent with which we are acquainted ;” an analogy,
moreover, which is not of an indefinite kind, but consists,
for the most part, in peculiar conjugational modes of modi-
fying the verbs by the insertion of syllables. It has been
insisted by some writers that this analogy proves the cog-
nate relation of the Esquimaux and Indians. This, however,
is a mere postulate ; for, from the evidence already adduced
in respect to the ethnographic difference between these
people, we have a right to infer that the resemblance in
their respective languages has not been derived by the
greater from the lesser source,—not by the Americans
from the Esquimaux, but the reverse: for the Asiatics hay-
ing arrived at various and distant periods, and in small par-
ties, would naturally, if not unavoidably, adopt more or
less of the language of the people among whom they set-
tled, until their own dialects finally merged in those of the
Chepewyan and other Indians who bound them on the
south.

The Esquimaux, it may be remarked, at the present time
extend much further south, and are much more numerous on
the western than on the eastern coast of America, being
found as low down as Mount St Elias ; south of which, con-
trary to what is observed on the opposite side of the conti-
nent, they become more or less blended with the Indian tribes,
and have imparted to the latter some portion of their me-
chanical ingenuity. This difference in the extent and in-
fluence of the western and eastern Esquimaux, is explained by
the proximity of the former to Asia; and a redundant popu-
lation has even forced some of them back to the parent hive,
whither they have carried a dialect derived from the cog-
nate tribes of America. Such are the Tsutchchi, who thus
form a link between the Polar nations of the two conti-
nents.

It is a common opinion, also, that America has been peopled

f

Aboriginal Race of America. 165

by the proper Mongols of Central and Eastern Asia; and
volumes have been written on supposed affinities, physical,
moral, and intellectual, to sustain this hypothesis. We have
already glanced at the Mongolian features, as seen, though
rudely and extravagantly developed, in the Polar nations ; but
there are some characters so prevalent as to pervade all the
ramifications of the great Mongolian stock, from the repul-
sive Calmuck to the polished and more delicately featured
Chinese. These are the small, depressed, and seemingly
broken nose ; the oblique position of the eye, which is drawn
up at the external angle; the great width between the cheek
bones, which are not only high, but expanded laterally ; the
arched and linear eyebrow; and, lastly, the complexion,
which is invariably some shade of yellow or olive, and almost
equally distant from the fair tint of the European and the
red hue of the Indian. Without attempting a detailed com-
parison, we may briefly observe that the Mongolian, in his
various localities, is distinguished for his imitative powers
and mechanical ingenuity, and for a certain degree of nauti-
eal skill, in which, as we have suggested, he holds a place
next to the nations of the Caucasian race. In fine, we are
constrained to believe that there is no more resemblance be-
tween the Indian and Mongol, in respect to arts, architecture,
mental features and social usages, than exists between any
other two distinct races of mankind. Mr Ranking has writ-
ten an elaborate treatise to prove that the Mongols, led by
a descendant of Genghis Khan, conquered Peru and Mexico
in the thirteenth century ; but in the whole range of English
literature there cannot be found a work more replete with
distorted facts and illogical reasoning. The author begins
by the singular assertion that ‘‘ when Cuzco was founded by
Manco Capac, none of the civilization introduced by the
Peruvians and Mexicans was in existence ;” thus overlook-
ing the cultivated tribes who preceded the Inca family, and
disregarding also the various demi-civilized nations which
_ successively followed each other in Mexico, before that coun-
try fell under the rule of the Aztecs.* Mr Ranking intro-

* Crania Americana, p. 96.

165 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

duces the Mongols in large ships, with all the appliances of
war, not even excepting ejyephants ; and in order that the
Tartar general may correspond to Manco Capac, he is made
to enter Peru by the Lake Titicaca, upwards of an hundred
miles from the sea. Such statements may seem too absurd
for sober discussion ; but they are not more so than various
other subterfuges which have been resorted to in explana-
tion of the precise manner in which the New World has
been peopled from the Old.

But there is not a shadow of evidence that the Mongols
ever reached America in ships excepting by mere accident ;
and, therefore, their number must have always been too
small, and too badly provided, to have dreamt of conquest
in a country which has had a population of millions from im-
memorial time.

There is a third view of this question which remains to be
noticed ; for, allowing that the Esquimaux and the cognate
Polar nations are not the progenitors of the American race ;
and admitting also that the Mongols of Central Asia could
never have arrived in any requisite number by a direct
voyage from one continent to the other, yet it is supposed
by many learned men that these Mongols could have reached
America by slow journeys from their own distant country,
and that their hieroglyphic charts delineate many of the in-
cidents of this protracted migration ; but there is no positive
evidence in regard to direction and localities, although these,
by a very general consent, are placed in the north and north-
west. Cabrera, on the contrary, after the most patient re-
search, aided by unusual facilities for investigation, traces
the primal seat of the civilized nations of America to South-
ern Mexico, where the ruined cities of Copan, Uxmal, and
Palenque, point to an epoch seemingly much more remote
than any antiquities contained in or near the present metro-
polis of that country.

If we conventionally adopt the more prevalent opinion, and
trace the Aztecs back to California or the Strait, we have,
after all, but a vague tradition of a handful of persons who,
for all we know to the contrary, may have been as indigenous

ee ee ey ee eee

= + St aoe

Aboriginal Race of America. 167

to America as any people in it. The aborigines of this con-
tinent have always been of nomadic and migratory habits ; a
fact which is amply illustrated in the traditional history of
Mexico itself. So also with the barbarous tribes; for the
Lenapé, the Florida Indians, the Iroquois, the insular Cha-
ribs, and many others, were intruding nations, who, driven
by want, or impelled by an innate and restless activity, had
deserted their own possessions to seize upon others which
did not belong to them. These nations, like their more
polished neighbours, were in the constant practice of record-
ing the events of their battles and hunting excursions by
hieroglyphic symbols, made, according to circumstances, on
trees, skins, or rocks; and this rude but expressive language
of signs has been justly regarded as the origin of the picture
writing of the Mexicans. “ The difference between them,”
observes Dr Coates, “ does not appear greater than must
necessarily exist between ignorant warriors and hunters in
a simple form of society, and those of the members of a com-
plicated state possessed of property, and even, as described
by Clavigero, of a species of science and literature.”’

This gradation of the ruder into the more perfect art of
hieroglyphic writing, not only affords an additional argument
for the unity of origin of the American nations, but also con-
stitutes another proof of the distinctness of their race; for
this picture-writing, even in its most elaborate forms, bears
no other than the most general resemblance to any exotic
hieroglyphics, nor, indeed, has areal equivalent been detected
between them. We may, therefore, be permitted to repeat
our conviction that the annals of the Mexicans bear no in-
disputable evidence of immigration from Asia; but, on the
other hand, that they are susceptible of as many different
interpretations as there are theories to be supported.

It is remarked by Dr Coates, that the Mongolian theory,
which we are now considering, is dbjectionable on account
of its vastness. “ To derive the population of the whole of
_ the American continent from the north-western angle, re-
quires the supposition of a continued chain of colonies during
a long succession of ages, acquiring and using an immense

168 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

diversity of languages, and pursuing each other along the
huge ridge of the great American Andes, from Prince Wil-
liam’s Sound in the far north, to the extremity of Terra del
Fuego, a distance of one hundred and fifteen degrees of lati-
tude, or of eight thousand miles. This long succession of
occurrences is absolutely necessary to the theory, which is
thus liable to the difficulty of requiring two extensive hypo-
theses at once. Several hundred colonies must be imagined
to have issued from the same point all completely isolated,
as their languages abundantly shew, unconnected by peace-
ful intercourse, but urging each other, by war and the de-
struction of the game, throughout a third part of the cireum-
ference of the globe.

“The traces of such a series of human waves would be
naturally looked for in a tendency to advance population in
the north, from which they emanated, and where the pres-
sure must have been greatest, and the colonization of longest
duration. Nothing like this is observed: the population of
South America, and of Darien, Guatimala, and Mexico, being
much greater in proportion than that of any country farther
north. The marks of civilization, too—one of the most im-
portant proofs of long residence in a fixed: spot—are all, as
in the older world, in favour of the tropical climates.” *

We may further inquire, how it happens that during the
lapse of more than three hundred years since the discovery
of America, there has not been an authenticated immigra-
tion from Asia? The long and desolating wars which have
driven whole nations from the central to the northern parts
of that continent, have not supplied a single colony to the
New World. Nay, if such colonization had occurred within
a thousand or two thousand years, would we not now possess
more indubitable evidences of it in language, customs, and
the arts ?

We propose, in the next place, to make a very few observa-
tions in reference to the idea that America has been peopled

* On the Origin of the Indian Population of America. By B. H.
Coates, M.D. 1834.

Aboriginal Race of America. 169

by the Mauay race, which, in the ordinary classification, in-
cludes the Malays proper of the Indian Archipelago, and the
Polynesians in all their numberless localities. These people,
however, have so much of the Mongolian character, that
nearly the same objections arise to both. The head of the
Malay proper is more like that of the Indian, because it not
unfrequently presents something of the vertical form of the
occiput ; and the transverse diameter, as measured between
the parietal bones, is also remarkably large. But excepting
in these respects, the osteological development concides with
that of the Mongolian; while the category of objections
which we have just urged against the latter people is equally
valid in respect to the whole Malay race. For, independently
of differences of organization, how great is the disparity in
their arts and social institutions! So great indeed, that, to
account for it, Dr Lang, one of the most ingenious supporters
of the theory, insists on an intellectual degeneracy consequent
to change of climate and circumstances. “ It is an easy and
natural process,” says he, “for man to degenerate in the
scale of civilization, as the Asiatics have evidently done in
travelling to the northward and eastward. He has only to
move forward a few hundred miles into the wilderness, and
settle himself at a distance from all civilized men, and the
process will advance with almost incredible celerity. For
whether he comes in contact with savages or not, in the dark
recesses of the forest his offspring will speedily arrive at a
state of complete barbarism.”

We confess our difficulty in imagining how the Polynesians,
themselves a barbarous people, though possessing some of the
attributes of civilized life, should become savages in the tro-
pical regions of America, wherein the climate must be as
congenial to their constitutions as their own, and the various
other external circumstances are calculated to foster rather
than to depress the energies of a naturally active and intel-
ligent people. But the general prevalence of easterly winds
is adverse to the colonization of America from the islands of
the Pacific ; for the nearest of these islands is one thousand
eight hundred miles from the American coast ; and when we

170 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characteristics of the

reflect on the many difficulties which the mere distance
opposes to navigation in small vessels, and the absolute ne-
cessity for food and water for a long period of time, we feel
compelled to believe that America has received very feeble
accessions to its population from the Polynesian islands.
Such voyages, if admitted, could only have been accidental ;
for it is not to be supposed that these islanders would have
attempted remote discoveries on the vast Pacific ocean in the
very face of the trade winds ; and a successful issue is among
the least probable of human events.

Even admitting that the Polynesians have accomplished all
that the theory requires, how does it happen that, on reach-
ing the continent of America, they should all at once have
relinquished their intuitive fondness for the water, forgotten
the construction of their boats, and become the most timid
and helpless navigators in the world ?

A comparison of languages, moreover, gives no support to
the Polynesian hypothesis; for all the zeal and ingenuity
which have been devoted to this inquiry, have tended only
to disclose a complete philological disparity.

The theories to which we have thus briefly adverted, would
each derive the whole American population from a single
source; but various others have been hazarded of a much
more complex nature, by which the Indian nations are referred
toa plurality of races, not even excepting the Caucasian. For
example, the Peruvians, Muyscas, and Mexicans, are, by some
advocates of this system, supposed to be Malays or Poly-
nesians, while all the savage tribes are referred to the Mon-
golians ; whence the civilization of the one and the barbarism
of the other. But we insist that the origin of these great
divisions must have been the same, because all their ethno-
graphic characters, not excepting the construction of their
numberless languages, go to enforce an identity of race.

Another doctrine which has had many disciples (among
whom was the late Lord Kingsborough, author of Mexican
Antiquities), teaches that the whole American population is
descended from the Jews, through the Ten lost Tribes which
were carried away by Salmanazer, King of Assyria. Here

Aboriginal Race of America. 171

again the differences of physical organization should set this
question at rest for ever ; but independently of these, can we
suppose that a people so tenacious as the Jews of their litera-
ture, language, and religion, would not have preserved a soli-
tary, unequivocal memorial of either among the multitudinous
tribes of this continent, if any direct affiliation had ever ex-
isted between them? In short, we coincide in opinion with
a facetious author, who sums up all the evidence of the case
with the conclusion, that “the Jewish theory cannot be true,
for the simple reason that it is impossible.”’

We feel assured that the same objection bears not less
strongly on every other hypothesis which deduces any por-
tion of the American nations from a Caucasian source. In
order to solve the problem of the origin of the monuments of
America, independently of any agency of the aboriginal race,
an opinion has been advanced that they are the work of a
branch of the great Cyclopean family of the old world, known
by the various designations of the Shepherd Kings of Egypt,
the Anakim of Syria, the Oscans of Etruria, and the Pelas-
gians of Greece. These wandering masons, as they are also
called, are supposed to have passed from Asia into America at
a very early epoch of history, and to have built those more
ancient monuments which are attributed to the Toltecan
nation. This view, supported as it is by some striking re-

- semblances, and especially in architectural decoration, leaves

various important difficulties entirely unexplained ; it neces-
sarily pre-supposes a great influx of foreigners to account for
such numerous and gigantic remains of human ingenuity and
effort, at the same time that no trace of this exotic family
can be detected in the existing Indian population. They
and their arts are equally eradicated ; and we can, at most,
only conceive of the presence of these migratory strangers in
small and isolated groups, which might have modified the
arts of an antecedent civilization, while they themselves were
too few in number to transmit their lineaments to any abori-
ginal community.

Closely allied to this theory, is that of our ingenious country-
man, Mr Delafield, who derives the demi-civilized nations

172 Dr Morton on the Distinctive Characters of the

of America from ‘“ the Cuthites who built the monuments of
Egypt and Indostan.” He supposes them to have traversed
all Asia to reach Behring’s strait, and thus to have entered
America at its northwest angle, whence they made their way,
by slow journeys, to the central regions of the continent. Our
objections to this theory will be found in what has been
already stated ; and we may merely add, that the route by
which the author conducts his pilgrim adventurers appears
to constitute the least plausible portion of his theory. Mr
Delafield supposes the barbarous tribes to be of a different
stock, and refers them to the Mongolians of Asia; thus
adopting the idea of a plurality of races.

We shall lastly notice an imaginative classification which
separates the aborigines of America into four species of men,
exclusive of the Esquimaux. This curious but unphilosophi-
cal hypothesis has been advanced by M. Bory de St Vincent,
a French naturalist of distinction, who considers the civilized
nations to be cognate with the Malays, and designates them
by the collective name of the Neptunian species ; while to
his three remaining species,—the Columbian, the American,
and the Patagonian, he assigns certain vague geographical
limits, without establishing any distinctive characteristics of
the people themselves. The system is so devoid of founda-
tion in nature, so fanciful in all its details, as hardly to merit
a serious analysis ; and we have introduced it on the present
oceasion to illustrate the extravagance and the poverty of
some of the hypotheses which have been resorted to in ex-
planation of the problem before us.

Once for all I repeat my conviction, that the study of phy-
sical conformation alone excludes every branch of the Cau-
casian race from any obvious participation in the peopling of
this continent. If the Egyptians, Hindoos, Pheenicians, or
Gauls, have ever, by accident or design, planted colonies in
America, these must have been, sooner or later, dispersed and
lost in the waves of a vast indigenous population. Such we
know to have been the fact with the Northmen, whose re-
peated, though very partial, settlements in the present New
England States, from the tenth to the thirteenth centuries,

Aboriginal Race of America. 173

are now matter of history; yet, in the country itself they
have not left a single indisputable trace of their sojourn.

In fine, our own conclusion, long ago deduced from a pa-
tient examination of the facts thus briefly and inadequately
stated, is, that the American race is essentially separate and
peculiar, whether we regard it in its physical, its moral, or its
intellectual relations. To us there are no direct or obvious
links between the people of the old world and the new; for
even admitting the seeming analogies to which we have al-
luded, these are so few in number, and evidently so casual, as
not to invalidate the main position; and even should it be
hereafter shewn, that the arts, sciences, and religion of Ame-
rica can be traced to an exotic source, I maintain that the
organic characters of the people themselves, through all their
endless ramifications of tribes and nations, prove them to
belong to one and the same race, and that this race is dis-
tinct from all others.

This idea may, at first view, seem incompatible with the
history of man, as recorded in the Sacred Writings. Such,
however, is not the fact. Where others can see nothing but
chance, we can perceive a wise and obvious design, displayed
in the original adaptation of the several races of men to those
varied circumstances of climate and locality which, while
congenial to the one, are destructive to the other. The evi-
dences of history and the Egyptian monuments go to prove
that these races were as distinctly stamped three thousand
five hundred years ago as they are now; and, in fact, that
they are coeval with the primitive dispersion of our species.*

[We regret that want of space prevented us inserting in
this Number the Appendix to Dr Morton’s truly excellent
Memoir.—EDITor. |

* I cannot omit the present oceasion to express my admiration of the
recent discoveries of Mr Stephens among the ruined cities of Central
America and Yucatan. The spirit, ability, and success, which charac-
_ terize these investigations, are an honour to that gentleman and to his
country ; and they will, probably, tend more than the labours of any
other person to unravel the mysteries of American Archeology. Similar
in design to these are the researches of my distinguished friend the Che-
valier Friedrichthal, the result of whose labours, though not yet given
to the world, are replete with facts of the utmost importance to the pre-
sent inquiry.

as Wi aah

Observations on the Comet in the Whale, made at the Observa-
tory of Hamburg. By M. RuMKER. Communicated by

Sir T. Makdougall Brisbane, Bart., President of the Royal

Society of Edinburgh.

Mean Time at |Apparent Aphelion| Apparent Declina-
1844. Hamburg. of the Comet, | tion of the Comet.
h. m. Ss. ° m? “ ° ‘ a“
Sept. 12.}13 8 49.3 | 9 18 23.5 |14 23 46.9
138 13 38.9 | 9 18 31.1 |}14 23 26.0 | Merid.
LOP NO! saat! OM oly S000 13 sos, O0LG
9 49 56.3 |13 386 46.4 |10 32 58.0
10 23 47.9114 4 363/10 3 34.4
12° 52.37.02 | 14. 16. 564. Merid.
10 44 42.0 /14 31 0.1 9 34 54.0
12 50 25.7 |14 33 7.3] 9 382 22.2 | Merid.
11 44. 0.8 |15 20 39:4) 8 38 10:0
12 45 47.9") 05 21 35.5, \\.8 (36.37.97 | Mierds
12 35 38.1 |16 45 6 48 46.4 | Merid.
93 s6e7 |e 19 6 20.6
1 38) 480717 54 5 4.2
12 24 32.3 |17 55 5 47.6 | Merid.
8.110 35 245 118 9 18.8] 4 9.3
4 LOOMS? Soh lS trzen 28cm ie: 44.3
b mOewoee 7Su LL Siistiu2oe9 seo
TONS: 130 2d | Nowoo ole
3 32 52.4 | Merid.
9 45 19.1119 2 42.8) 3 12 34.0
2) PaO Saline: oy LOOM
9 50: 12379 226s Son |e aoe dg,
9 58 11:9|19> 36° 58:9 | 2° 76 29%6
8.54 521 119" 567591 1 25 24.9
it 50 "5.8 ;208 7° 34.1)" 1."'2 “40/571 Wome
8 42 45.7 |20 15 53.7) 0 45 18.0
11 46 47.6 QO 42 22.6 | Merid.
8 47 45.9 |20 24 49.0 | 0 25 29.2
11 48 26.2 |20 25 40.38} O 23 10.5 | Merid.

SPAR IND Kc ewe

(IB) ate

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

GEOLOGY. a

1. Remarks on Fossil Birds. By Mr Paul Gervaes.—Ornitholites, or
the fossil indications of the ancient existence of birds, are of four prin-
cipal kinds: bones, eggs, feathers, and impressions left by the feet
when walking over deposits still soft.

The only known impressions have been remarked in the new red sand-
stone of Connecticut, by Mr Hitchcock, who has given them the name of
Ornithichnites ; but the signification of these impressions has not yet
been pointed out in a sufficiently scientific manner,

The feathers and eggs of birds have been hitherto met with only in
the tertiary formations of Europe, and in small numbers; the former in
France and Italy, the latter in Auvergne,

The fossil bones of birds cannot lead us, in every case, to the precise
determination of the species to which they belong. Pretty often we can
only ascertain the Linnzan genus from them ; in other cases, they indi-
cate only the family, order, or even the class merely. A very small
number only can be determined specifically ; and these species are the
only ones which ought to be named according to the principles of the
Linnean nomenclature.

The fossil bones of birds, the species of which cannot with certainty
be recognised, may take the collective name of Osteornis, and a qualify-
ing term added to the latter will indicate, by approximation, the nature
of the birds which these remains lead us to conjecture; but without
which, geologists ought nevertheless to introduce them as so many esta-
blished species into their systematic catalogues. M. Adolphe Brongniart
has, for a long time, advantageously followed a similar mode of nomen-
clature in his skilful researches relating to fossil vegetables.

It is at present impossible to indicate with precision at what period
the class of birds began to exist on the terrestrial globe, the ornitholite
formations having, as yet, been very imperfectly examined, compared
with those of the other vertebrate animals.

The present state of the science, however, shews that reptiles are not,
as is still often asserted, the most highly organized vertebrates which
existed in the secondary period, since birds were their contemporaries
during that epoch.

Without taking into account the ornithichnites of the new red sand-
stones, we possess well established ornitholites of the secondary forma-
tions. ‘They have been found in Tilgate Forest, in the neocomian for-
mations of Glaris, and near Maidstone. We owe the determination of
them to Messrs Mantell, Meyer, and Owen. According to the prin-
ciples of nomenclature proposed above, by taking into account the affi-
nities which have been asigned to them, we may name these, Osteornis
ardeaceus, scolopacinus and diomideus.

The ornitholites of the tertiary formations are more numerous, and
principally belong to fresh-water deposits. France possesses two very
rich deposits of them in the gypsum of Paris, and in the marls and lime-
stones of Auvergne.

176 Scientific Intelligence—Geology.

Those of the gypsum of the neighbourhood of Paris have been princi-
pally studied by G. Cuvier. They consist of :—

Three birds of prey belonging to the genera Halicvtus, Buteo, and
Stria.

A gallinaceous bird of the subgenus Coturnix,

Three long-legged birds of the genera Ibis, Scolopaw and Pelidna.

Likewise two palmipedes of the genus Pelicanus,

Judging from the figures Cuvier gives of them, others are certainly
passerine birds ; and his wading-bird allied to the Ibis, is an extinct spe-
cies of Curlew, which may be named Numenius gypsorum.

M. Duyal has found in the diluvium of the environs of Paris, near the
barrier of Italy, a cubitus which I consider as belonging to a gallina-
ceous bird of the genus Phasianus. It is from the same place where
bones of the badger, elephant, hippopotamus, and marmot, &c. are ob-
tained.

MM. Constant Prevost, and Desnoyers, have procured in a deposit
observed by them at Montmorency, and which has afforded them re-
mains of Spermophilus, Cricetus, and Lagomys, some bones of birds
which they regard as approaching to those of the common water-rail,

In Auvergne, the most curious ornitholites hitherto discovered are those
of a wader of the genus Phonicopterus, which it has been hitherto impos-
sible to distinguish from the Flamingo still living in the south of Europe,
and which ornithologists name P. ruber. And yet these bones are mingled
with those of the rhinoceros, hyenodon, and other extinct species of the
mammifera,

M. Jourdan, professor in the faculty of Lyons, has collected, among
other ornitholites of Auvergne communicated to me, a portion of a pel-
vis, also from the tertiary formations, and which indicates a bird very
nearly connected with Mergus, if it does not really belong to that genus.
The fragment of a tarsus, from the collection of M. Bravard, comes from
Arde, likewise in Auvergne ; it belongs to a spurred gallinaceous bird,
highly develeped, is pretty likethat of the domestic cock, but appearing to
come from a different species. An entire tarsus from the same collection
has been found at Coude; it appears to me to belong to a kind of per-
dix or a small tetrao. As with the first mentioned tarsus, it belongs to
a less ancient period than the Flamingo. In the work I am about to
publish, I point out many other ornitholites of Auvergne, and in like
manner, indicate those which have been collected in various other parts
of France. Some of these are diluvial, and others the species of which
can be determined as having their living representatives in the existing
Fauna; such are Corrus pica, Perdix cinerea, Perdix coturnix, Anas
olor, Anas anser. A portion of my work is devoted to the tertiary or
diluvian ornitholites found in other countries of Europe ; they are prin-
cipally from England, Belgium, Germany, and Sardinia.

The remains of fossil birds which have been collected in countries
foreign to Europe, are still more curious, and I may mention the princi-
pal facts in their history.

The Gryphus antiquitatis, Schubert, is from Behring Straits, It
belongs to the family of vultures,

It is likewise to the vultures, and the gallino-gralli of the genus
Kamichi, that we must refer the Dodo (Didus ineptus), the race of which
has been destroyed in the Isle of France for about two centuries, and

Scientific Intelligence—G eology. 177

some bones of which, incrusted with stalactites, have been discovered in
the island of Rodriguez, and described by G. Cuvier and M. de Blainville.

The megatherian deposits of South America, have furnished M. Lund
with thirty-three species of birds, some still belonging to that part of
the world, others extinct, but all pertaining to American genera. The
new collections made by M. Claussen, enable us to add to the list given
by M. Lund, a Cathartes larger than the existing species, a Strix, a Ca-
primulgus, a genus allied to Dicholophus, and a Psittacus.

A concluding paragraph of this work is devoted to the species of
Cursores allied to the Cassowaries, which M, Owen has made known to
the public under the name of Dinornis, the bones of which, described
with so much care by this naturalist, have been found in New Zealand.*

2. On Gigantic extinct Mammalia in Australia; By Prof. Owen.—
The author observes that the first information respecting the extinct
Fauna of Australia, was derived from Major Mitchell’s researches in the.
ossiferous caves of Wellington Valley. All the remains there discovered,
with one exception, indicated the existence of only marsupial animals, of
extinct species, differing chiefly in being larger than any now living.
The specimen, which thus differed from the rest, was the fragment of a
lower jaw, with molar teeth, and the socket of a siugle incisor ; it most
nearly resembled the wombat, and had been named Diprotodon by Mr
Owen. Since that period (1835), Sir Thomas Mitchell, Count Strelitzky,
and other gentlemen, have obtained colleetions of bones from caves on
the Darling Downs, west of Morton Bay, and other localities at a dis-
tance from Wellington Valley. From an examination of these, Mr
Owen has determined the former existence in Australia of a mastodon,
nearly allied to the M. angustidens, remains of which are so abundant
in Europe, and also allied to the M. Andium of North and South
America; and he observes that the fact of the wide distribution of re-
mains of the mastodon in Europe, Asia, and America, prepared him to
receive, with less surprise, the unequivocal evidence of its existence in
Australia also. Mr Owen then proceeded to the consideration of the
fossil remains of the marsupialia, a class of animals to which, with the
exception of small rodentia, such as rats and mice, all the indigenous
quadrupeds of Australia belonged. With regard to the Diprotodon before
mentioned, much additional evidence had been required to establish the
marsupial character of a quadruped as large as a rhinoceros ; and amongst
the remains lately obtained in the bed of the Condamine river, at Mor-
ton Bay, was a specimen consisting of the anterior part of the lower jaw,
with the base of a tusk, and a portion of the molar teeth, the tusk being
identical with one from Wellington Valley. This specimen shews that
the animal possessed large incisive tusks, combined with molar teeth,
like those of the kangaroo, characterized by two transverse ridges; the
marsupial character of these remains was also indicated by the bend-
ing in of the angle of the jaw. Mr Owen referred to a second gigantic
type of extinct marsupials ; but observed that further evidence relative
to the marsupial character of these great quadrupeds was most desirable,

From examination, he concluded that the great extinct herbivorous

| AHERN OPE Srarce Mee ALO per RE RRP OR
* From l'Institut. No. 557, p. 293.
VOL. XXXVIII. NO. UXXV.—JAN. 1845. M

178 Scientific Intelligence—Geology.

marsupials did not exhibit the peculiar disproportion of the extremities
characteristic of the kangaroos, but were possessed of legs of nearly equal
length like the wombat. The species of marsupial quadrupeds already
known to inhabit Australia, form, as Cuvier observed, a small chain
of animals, representing the quadrupeds of America and Europe, which
was now rendered more complete by the discovery of extinet genera re-
presenting the pachydermata, and equal to the medium bulk those ani-
mals now attain.— Association Report in Atheneum, No. 886, p. 956.

3. On the influence of Fucotdal Plants upon the formations of the
Earth ; on Metamorphism in general, and particularly the Metamor-
phosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate. By Prof. G. Forchhammer.
—lIt was remarked by the Professor, at a meeting of the British Associa-
tion, that geologists had occupied themselves by extensive observations on
the beds of sand and clay which have been carried into the ocean, but few
have paid any attention to the soluble salts which are removed from the
dry lands by the action of rain. Thus large quantities of potash and
lime are constantly being carried into the ocean. The conditions of
marine vegetation were next examined, and the analysis given of a great
many fucoidal plants, all of which contained an exceedingly large amount
of potash, often as much as five, and in some cases eight, per cent. Sea-
water is found to contain but little of this alkali; it must, therefore, be
concluded that the plants of the ocean have the power of separating the
potash readily. Of magnesia, about one per cent. of the weight of the
dried plant was generally found in the ashes. This chemical constitu-
tion of the ashes of the fucus tribe, explains several great phenomena in
the general nature of life; and it was suggested that, by returning the
sea-weed to the land, in the state of manure, we should be restoring to
it the potash of which it had been deprived. The memoir then entered
extensively into the question of metamorphism, and gave an examination
of the clay of the Scandinavian district. It was then shewn that the
formation of beds, where fucoidal plants have grown, had a considerable
influence on their structure and composition, as they would derive many
of their constituents from them. It was conjectured that the conditions
of the alum slate of Scandinavia were thus modified, As this paper will
be printed entire in the Reports of the Association, we give but a short
abstract.

Prof. Liebig made some remarks on the necessity of alkaline bases
for plants, and on the remarkable facts brought forward by Prof. Forch-
hammer, that whilst sea-water contained, in 1000 grains, only 1 grain
of potash, so large a portion should be found in the fucoidal plants. Mr
Lyell observed, that the attention of chemists being turned to these great
geological questions, he anticipated important results to science. He
had visited the district, and confirmed the statement given.— Atheneum,
No. 886, p. 955.

4. On the Fossil Fishes of the London Clay. By M. Agassiz,—The
group of fish peculiar to the London clay, whose remains are particu-
larly abundant in the Isle of Sheppy, do not exhibit those strange forms
which distinguish most of the fish of the more ancient formations ; but
every thing reminds us of the fish living in the present seas. The ex-
amination of these remains is attended, however, with difficulty, on
account of the state in which the specimens are found, imbedded in hard

Scientific Intelligence—Geology. 179

clay, which has replaced the soft parts of the fish, and as they belong
chiefly to the cyecloid and ctenoid orders, with soft scales, which are
generally of small size, and easily detached and broken, the erania are
the only portions usually preserved entire. In the classes of reptiles or
mammalia, the peculiarities presented by the cranium point out, with
certainty, the relations of the animal to which it belonged; but nothing
is so variable as the shape of the bones which make up the skeleton of
a fish’s head, and the multitude of processes and depressions serving
for the attachment of muscles, gives to this part such a diversity, that the
ichthyologist must often despair of being able to refer these fossil crania
to their proper types; especially as they are often incomplete, wanting
the jaws, the bones of the face, and the opereular and branchial apparatus,
leaving only the bony inclosure of the brain. The author gives a de-
tailed anatomical description of the various families. He then insti-
tutes a comparison between the species found at Sheppy, and those
now existing on the English coast, and concludes, that although
their general character is somewhat different, yet their distribution has
taken place according to the same laws. The forty-four species of fish,
whose osseous remains are found at Sheppy, are referred to thirty-seven
genera, nearly all of them unknown in the present seas ; and, excepting the
gadoids, or cod tribe, their recent representatives are mostly confined to
southern seas. The important evidence to be derived from a compari-
son of the scales of these species with those of existing list:, remains to
be obtained, and is attended with difficulty, as it requires the aid of the
microscope.—Athenwum, No. 886, p. 956.

5. On the Toadstone or Amygdaloid of Derbyshire. By J. Alsop.—
Mr Alsop, at the York meeting of the British Association, observed, that
many mining operations had been recently made in Derbyshire, with the
view of finding a continuation of the veins beneath the beds of toad-
stone,—experiments which are yery difficult, owing to the thickness of
the toadstone, and uncertain in their results, on account of the varying
character and productiveness of the strata and veins. In the section of:
Crich Cliff, a bed of clay, about a foot thick, becomes, within a short dis-
tance, fourteen fathoms thick, and contains large and hard nodules of

'toadstone ; and the thick bed of toadstone sunk through at one shaft,

diminishes to a foot or two in thickness at the other. In the Worksworth
district, the “ Great clay,” containing blocks of toadstone, is clearly prov-
ed to be the same as that at Crich, by the three beds of clay below each ;
of these, the first, or “twenty fathom” clay, is unproductive; the second,
or “ bearing clay,” is seventeen fathoms lower ; and the third clay, which
is five fathoms lower still, is remarkably undulating. These “ three
clays” are also recognisable at the Snitterton mines ; but here, what was
a thin bed of clay at Crich and Worksworth, becomes a bed of toadstone
about twelve fathoms thick, The second toadstone at Snitterton is simi-
lar to the one at Crich and the great clay at Worksworth, and the lime-
stone resting upon it is similar in its character; there is also, appa-
rently, another toadstone bearing the same relation to the second as the
twenty fathom clay at the other places; it is seen at the section of Bon-
sall, where the three clays, and two beds of toadstone beneath them, are
well known.—Athenwum, No. 887, p. 976.

6. Our supposed inexhaustible Stores of Coal.—The opinion, that
our stores of coal are all but inexhaustible, rests wholly on assumed data,

180 Scientific Intelligence—G eology.

and not upon any accurate and detailed statistical accounts, such as alone
could warrant a confident opinion. This question will, ere long, become
a subject of serious concern, unless some measures are taken to found
our calculations on a solid basis. It is an easy matter to assume that a
considerable thickness of available coal extends over hundreds of square
miles ; but the different opinions formed by men of the highest respecta-
bility and talent, strongly prove how meagre and unsatisfactory are the
only data on which their estimates are founded. It is not, however, the
mere quantity of coal that is to be considered; especial regard must be
had to its quality, depth, thickness, extent, and position, Many of the
inferior seams can only be worked in conjunction with those which, by
their superior quality, repay the expense of workingt hem at depths vary-
ing from 300 to 600 yards; and it may readily be conceived that infe-
rior coal only could not be profitably raised from pits equal in depth to three
or four times the height of St Paul’s cathedral, unless the price of such
inferior coal was raised to more than the present price of the best coal,
It is the additional expense, and consequent additional difficulty, of com-
peting with other countries, that is the vital question to be considered, It
is not the exhaustion of mines, but the period at which they can be pro-
fitably worked, that merits earnest and immediate attention; and it is
with especial reference to this that the value and increasing necessity for
mining plans is so strongly apparent. If these inferior seams are not
worked now, in conjunction with the better seams, they will, in all pro-
bability, be wholly lost; and, to a certainty, they must be so, if no per-
manent registration is adopted to show what were the former circum-
stances of each mine.—7', Sopwith, on the National Importance of pre-
serving Mining Records.

7. Eruption of Boiling- Water from the extinct Volcano of Solfatara.
—From Naples, we lcarn, that the famous extinct voleano of Solfatara,
near Puzzuoli, the last eruption of which took place in 1198, and which,
in 1507, according to the writers of the time, threw up immense quanti-
ties of boilins water, has, for a few days preceding the date of the com-
munication, repeated that phenomena, the same having been preceded by
an emission of hot sulphureous vapour. The thermal water ejected is
thrown from the eastern portion of the crater at intervals, and in the
form of jets, from 15 to 20 feet in height.— Atheneum, No. 892, p. 1100.

8. Temperature of the Mediterranean.—M. Aimé has addressed to the
Academy of Sciences of Paris some observations on the temperature of
the Mediterranean Sea, of which the following, according to him, are the
results :—

1. Near the shores of the Mediterranean, the temperature at the sur-
face of the sea is notably higher than at a distance from land during the
day, and sometimes lower during the night. Near the shores of the
ocean, the temperature at the surface of the sea is lower than at a dis-
tance from land,

2: The mean temperature of the year at the surface is nearly the same
as that of the air.

3. The diurnal variation of the temperature ceases to be sensible at
16 or 18 yards, and the annual variation at 300 or 400 yards.

4. In the morning, after a clear and calm night, the temperaturaof
the surface is colder than that of the layers situated some yards below it.

Scientific Intelligence— Mineralogy. 181

5. The minimum temperature of the deep waters of the Mediterranean
is equal to the mean of the winter temperatures at the surface. This low
temperature of the bottom is not, therefore, induced by the entrance of
the waters of the ocean, but rather by the precipitation of the upper
strata during the winter.*

9. On Polarization of Light in reference to the Light of the Sun. Paris
Academy of Sciences, Oct. 14. M. Arago made some remarks on the
polarization of light, in reference to whether the light, produced by a
solid incandescent body, proceeds from the surface or the interior. The
state of polarization presented by the light, says M. Arago, proves that
it proceeds from the interior of a solid body; an inflamed gas, on the
contrary, gives no kind of refraction. Hence, it may be assumed, that the
luminous portion of the sun isa gas. The light given out by a solid
body comes partly from its interior, and is not the same which illumi-
nates it.

MINERALOGY.

10. Discovery of Niobium, a New Metal.—In a valuable paper on
the composition of Tantalite, just published in Poggendorff’s Annals,
Professor Henry Rose of Berlin announces his discovery of a new metal,
which he terms Niobium, from Niobe the daughter of Tantalus,—a
name given to indicate its resemblance to Tantalum. He detected its
oxide, which he designates Niobic acid, and which differs in many re-
spects from Tantalic acid, in the Tantalite of Bodenmais in Bavaria.
Assuming a similar atomic composition for Tantalic acid and Niobic
acid, the atomic weight of Niobium is greater than that of Tantalum.
The Niobic acid does not exist in the Tantalite of Finland.

11. Da:brée on the Occurrence of Asinite in w fossiliferous Rock iv
the Vosges.—Hitherto axinite does not appear to have been observed in
any fossiliferous rock; and it may therefore not be uninteresting to
mention, in some detail, the mode of oceurrence of this substance, as
lately observed by me at Rothau, in the Vosges ; and I am the more in-
duced to do this, because we have here a new example of the manner in
which igneous rocks can alter stratified formations ; not only by their
heat, but also by the introduction of new elements. Near the village of
Rothau, in the valley of the Bruche, the transition formation is tra-
versed by a blackish, very fine grained rock, in which hornblende is dis-
seminated in small crystals. This rock, for which we may provisionally
retain the name of trap, forms a hill, termed the le petit Donon de Ro-
thaw. The transition formation of the locality consists principally of a
very hard petrosiliceous rock, and, at a little distance from the trap, it
contains numerous organic remains, and more particularly the Calomo-
pore spongites of Goldfuss, and Flustra. Nodules of lamellar limestone
are met with, where these remains of madrepores are accumulated, and
it is precisely at the same points that epidote, hornblende, and quartz in
a crystalline state, make their appearance. This association may lead us
_ to believe, that the carbonate of lime of this rock is of madreporie ori-
gin, and further, that the epidete and hornblende were formed at the

* I'rom l'Institut, No, 658, p. 298.

182 Scientific Intelligence—Chemistry.

expense of this limestone, and only where it existed. It is remarkable
that the siliceous rock contains various organie forms, which are per-
fectly preserved; thus there are impressions of Calomopora spongites,
which are remarkably distinct, and which are surrounded by a mixture
of epidote, hornblende, quartz, and lamellar limestone; it thus appears
that the crystallization of the quartz, of these silicates, and of the lime-
stone, was effected without there being fusion in the mass. Besides
these animal remains, there are other cavities of indistinet form, which
are lined with brilliant erystals of acicular hornblende, of epidote, and
of quartz, and which, from the similarity of their size to the first, may
be supposed to be also madreporie impressions, but to have had their
outlines altered more or less by erystallization. It was in one of these
cavities that I found small crystals of axinite, presenting the planes de-
nominated 7 and s by Hatiy. The characteristic reactions of this sub-
stance leave no doubt as to its nature. Before the blowpipe, it swells
and melts into a blackish enamel, and, with a mixture of fluor-spar and
bisulphate of potass, it communicates an intense green colour to the
flame. The same mineral is also found in erystalline masses, and mixed
with the four other substances indicated above. If tourmaline was not
very rare in the neighbouring granitic mountain group of the Champ
. dw Feu, it would be possible that the debris of that mineral had been
mechanically disseminated in the slates at the time of their deposition,
and that, by the infiuence of heat, the axinite was produced from ele-
ments pre-existing in the rock, as frequently takes place with respect to
epidote, hornblende, or garnet. This, however, is not the case here;
and it is much more probable that the boracie acid was conveyed into
the transition beds, in consequence of the eruption of the trap-rock. The
metalliferous masses of the S.E. of Norway, situated at the very contact
of the transition formation with hornblendice rock, or with granite, also
sometimes contain axinite, which was there formed at the same time as
the metalliferous combinations, probably by a process analogous to that
to which the axinite of Rothau owes its origin. The same may probably
also be true regarding the stanniferous slate of Botallack in Cornwall,
which contains, besides the oxide of tin, shorl, axinite, garnet, and horn-
plende. The introduction of boracic acid, whichcontributed tothe formation
of the axinite at Rothau, and in the metalliferous repositories of the en-
virons in Christiania, has doubtless some analogy with the emanations of
boracie acid, which, in Tuscany, abound in the vicinity of serpentine, or
with the boracic acid evolved from the erater of Vulcano in the Lipari
islands.*

CHEMISTRY.

12. Experiments of Brown and Know.—In_ reference to the experi-
ments of Brown as to the conversion of paracyanogen into silicon, which
have been refuted on all sides, Knox has performed experiments on the
simple nature of nitrogen. For this purpose. he employed ammonia-

* Communicated to the Academy of Sciences, by Mons. A. Daubree ; Comptes
Rendus, tom. xvili., p. 870,

"1

Scientific Intelligence—Chemistry. 183

nitruret of potassium, heated with iron filings, in an iron crucible. From
twenty grains of ammonia-nitruret of potassium, and the same quantity
of iron, he states, that he obtained silicon, which, when fused with car-
bonate of potash, afforded 1.55 grains of silica. According to this ex-
periment, therefore, nitrogen consists of silicon and hydrogen, or of these
substances combined with oxygen. Statements of this description cannot
be read without astonishment; but all surprise vanishes when we direct
our attention to the continuation of the investigation. The experimenter
prepared siliciuret of potassium by heating silica with potassium ; he
then passed a current of dry muriatic acid gas over it, and obtained a
mixture of one volume of nitrogen and four volumes of hydrogen. Who-
ever prepares siliciuret of potassium in this manner, can also produce any
gas he pleases.— Berzelius’ Jahres-Bericht, 1844.

13. On the occurrence of Xanthic Oxide in Gwano.—Magnus has
announced that Unger has discovered in his laboratory, in guano, the
substance which Marcet has named Xanthic Oxide. This body, so in-
teresting to physiologists and chemists, has been hitherto met with only
twice in pathological secretions of the kidneys. The most extensive
researches regarding it we owe to Liebig and Wohler, occasioned by
their labours on the nature of uric acid. They have given it the name
of xanthine; but these chemists possessed only a very minute quantity
of it, obtained from a stone which previously served, in part, for the
investigation of Stromeyer.

Xanthie oxide is obtained from guano, by dissolving the latter in muri-
atic acid, and precipitating the solution by an alkali. Caustic potass elimi-
nates, from the precipitate, a small quantity of it, which is not always the
same in amount. By the aid of a stream of carbonic acid gas, or by
the addition of sal-ammoniac, we extract the xanthic oxide from its so-
lution in potass, from which it separates in proportion as the ammonia
disengages. The pulverulent and yellowish substance obtained, possesses
all the properties which Liebig and Wohler have attributed to xanthic
oxide, and differs from it only in being soluble in muriatic acid, as is
apparent from its mode of preparation. But Unger has found that
xanthic oxide forms not only with muriatic acid, but also with various
other acids, crystallized compounds, which are soluble in water, and
which he will afterwards fully describe.

It thus appears that guano, a substance in itself already so remarkable,
and which promises the same happy results for the agriculture of Europe,
as it seems to have yielded in very ancient times for that of South Ame-
rica, promises likewise a rich harvest of interesting facts to science.

The small proportion in which the xanthic oxide is found in guano,
does not allow us to suppose that this substance is produced by slow
decomposition. The inequality with which this body is found diffused
among the guano, renders it very probable that it is a pathological product
which was voided along with the excrements of birds, unless we consent
to admit that it is there as the normal ejectment of certain birds. At all
events, it would be of the greatest interest to become acquainted with these
species of birds, which probably are still living.*

* From Poggendorff’s Annalen., 1844, No. 5, p. 158.

184 Scientific Intelligence—Zoology.

14. Heat from Solid Carbonic Acid.—There is a remarkable reaction
between solid carbonic acid and the caustic alkalies. If a small piece of
solid carbonic acid be wrapped in cotton, with a little pulverized caustic
potash, and the whole be pressed between the fingers, so much heat is
evolved as to make it uncomfortable to hold. This is the most remark-
able illustration of heat from chemical union. One of the agents em-
ployed is the coldest substance in nature with whieh we are acquainted,
that which we select to shew the effects of extreme refrigeration. The
other is at the natural temperature. Both, moreover, are in the dry or
solid state. Yet their union or simple contact produces heat sufficient,
at least, to inflame phosphorus. This reaction is noticed, as it suggests
some striking experiments. It has very possibly been observed by others,
though it is not referred to in various works on the subject Ww. F.
Cuannine, Boston, May 2, 1843, American Journal of Science and Arts,
Vol. xlvi. No. 1. p. 215.

ZOOLOGY.

15. Professor E. Forbes's Bathymetrical Rese rches.—The secretary
then read part of a letter from Professor Loven of Stockholm on the
subject of Professor E. Forbes’s bathymetrieal researches. After re-
marking on the close correspondence between his own researches and
those of Professor Forbes, he says—‘‘ As to the regions, the Littoral
and Laminarian are very well defined every where, and their charac-
teristic species do not spread very far out of them. The same is the
ease with the region of Florideous Algw, which is most developed
nearer to the open sea. But it is not so with the regions from 15 to
100 fathoms. Here is, at the same time, the greatest number of
species, and the greatest variety of their local assemblages; and it ap-
pears to me that their distribution is regulated, not only by depths,
currents, &e., but by the nature of the bottom itself, the mixture of
clay, mud, pebbles, &c. Thus, for instance, the same species of Am-
phidesma, Nucula, Natica, Eulima, Dentalium, &c., which are cha-
racteristic of a certain muddy ground of 15 to 20 fathoms, are found
together at 80 to 100 fathoms. Hence it appears, that the species in
this region have generally a wider \ertical range than the Littoral,
Laminarian, and, perhaps, as great as the Deep Sea coral. The last
named region is with us characterised in the south by Oculina ramea
and Terebratula, and in the north by Astrophyton, Cidaris, Spatangus
purpureus of an immense size,—all living between Gorgonie and the
gigantic Alcyoniwm arborewm, which continues as far down as any
fisherman’s line can be sunk. As to the point where animal life
ceases, it must be somewhere; but with us it is unknown. As vege-
tution ceases at a line far above the deepest regions of animal life, of
course the zoophagous mollusca are altogether predominant in those
parts, while the phytophagous are more peculiar to the upper regions.
The observation of Professor Forbes, that British species are found in
the Mediterranean, but only at greater depths, corresponds exactly with
what has occurred to me. In Bohnslau (between Gottenburg and
Norway), we find at 80 fathoms, species which, in Finmark, may be
readily collected at 20; and. on the last-named coast, some species even

Scientific Intelligence—Zoology. 185

ascend into the littoral region, which, with us here in the south, keep
within 10 to 11 fathoms.—Brit. Assoc. Report ; Atheneum, No. 886,
po ooy.

16. Guyon on the Cagots of the Pyrenees.—M. Guyon has sent to the
Academy of Sciences six new drawings of heads of the cagots of the Py-
renees, in order to justify the opinion he formerly expressed, that an
anatomical character of the cagots appears to consist in the form of the
ear, which is rounded, and without alobe. He again called attention to
another opinion expressed by him, that the cagots belong to a race of
lofty stature, and perfectly similar in form; and that the goitre and cre-
tinism, with which many of the cagots are affected, are entirely owing to
the nature of the localities they inhabit. Accordingly, of the six subjects
whose ears were represented by him, two were affected with goitre, and
one with cretinism.*

17. Coral Fishery.—The Moniteur Algerien gives the following ac-
count of the coral fishery at La Calle, from the 1st of April to the 30th
September 1844. The total number of boats employed was 170, of which
only one was French. The others were—124 Neapolitan, 40 Tuscan,
4 Sardinian, and 1 Tunisian. The crew of the whole amounted to 1700
men. The total value of the coral taken is estimated at 1,355,750 frs. ;
the duties on which, from all the boats employed, except the French,
which paid no duty, were 179,073 frs. The average gross earnings of
the boats employed in the fishery amounted to 7975 frs.; but deducting
the duty, and the expenses of the fishery for wages, wear and tear, &c.,
the average nett profit for each is estimated at 1367 frs. 60 cents.
The nett profits of the French boats, no duty having been paid, are
given at 2535 frs.— Atheneum, No. 892, p. 1100.

18. Goadby’s Method of Preparing Animal Substances.—Mr Goadby
exhibited before the British Association a series of preparations of animal
bodies, preserved in glass cases, according to a method of his own sug-
gestion. Many gentlemen having complained that they had not suc-
ceeded in preparing animal substances in the way which he recommended,
he was desirous of stating fully the plans which he pursued. The follow-
ing were the formule for all the solutions he used :—

Ai is
Bay-salt, . ; - - c 4 : : 4 oz.
Alum, . : E é : - Z 2 oz.
Corrosive sublimate, : . - : > 2 grains.
Water, . - ° : : , - : 1 quart.
A 2.
Bay-salt, . r ; ’ - é 3 : 4 oz.
Alum, ; A . A “ i ; F 2 oz.
Corrosive sublimate, P E F : ‘ 4 grains.
Water, . 4 : ; 4 : ; - 2 quarts.

* From l'Institut, No. 559, py: 307.

186 New Publications.

B.
Bay-salt, . : : : ’ ; 2 i $b.
Corrosive sublimate, F i 3 f 5 2 grains.
Water, . : ‘ : ‘ ‘ ‘ 1 quart.
BB.
Bay-salt, . : : : 5 : ‘ ; $ Ib.
Arsenious acid (or white oxide of arsenic), 2 20 grains.
Boiling water, ; : : : ‘ ‘ 1 quart.
Cc
Bay-salt, . é 4 A : ; ‘ Z 4 Ib.
Arsenious acid, : x . P 5 ‘ 20 grains.
Corrosive sublimate, : ‘ : ’ : 2 grains.
Boiling Water, ’ . : : : : 1 quart.

The first, A 1, was the ordinary solution he used. A 2, where there
was a tendency to mouldiness, and the animal texture was tender, as,
although salt preserved animal matters, it sometimes destroyed the tissue.
B was used in cases where animals contained carbonate of lime, as, in
these cases, alum produced decomposition. For old preparations, arsenic
was substituted for corrosive sublimate, as in BB, but where there was a
tendency to too much softening, the corrosive sublimate should be added
as in C.

Prof. Owen stated that these solutions were better than alcohol for the
preservation of nervous matter. In the course of his remarks he called
attention to the dissections of the invertebrate amimals, made by Mr
Goadby, many of which are at present in the Museum of the College of
Surgeons.

NEW PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

1. Review of a System of Mineralogy by James D. Dana. These
pages contains a full, and, on the whole, a judicious critique of the au-
thor’s valuable System of Mineralogy, a work noticed in a former num-
ber of this Journal.

2. Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. 1 vol., pp. 390.
John Churchill, London. Although we do not agree with the ingenious
author of this interesting volume in several of his speculations, yet we
can safely recommend it to the attention of our readers, who will per-
ccive, from the subjoined table of Contents, that the subjects discussed are
of an attractivz nature.

Contents.—The Bodies of Space—Their arrangement and formation
—Constituent materials of the Earth, and of the other Bodies of Space
—The Earth formed—Era of the Primary Rocks—Commencement of
Organic Life—Sea Plants, Corals, &c.—Era of the old Red Sandstone
—Fishes abundant—Secondary Rocks—Era of the Carboniferous For-
mation—Land formed—Commencement of Land Plants—Era of the

New Publications. 187

new Red Sandstone—Terrestrial Zoology commences with Reptiles—
First traces of Birds—Era of the Oolite—Commencement of Mammalia
—Era of the Cretaceous Formation—Era of the Tertiary Formation—
Mammalia abundant—Era of the Superficial formations—Commence-
ment of present species—General considerations respecting the origin of
the Animated Tribes—Particular considerations respecting the origin of
the Animated Tribes—Hypothesis of the Development of the Vegetable
and Animal Kingdoms—Macleay’s system of Animated Nature—This
system considered in connection with the Progress of Organic Creation,
and as indicating the natural states of Man—Karly history of Mankind
—WMental Constitution of Animals.—Purpose, and general condition_of,
the Animated Creation—Note conclusory.

3. On Landed Property, and the Economy of Estates ; comprehend-
ing the relation of Landlord and Tenant, and the principles and forms of
Leases; Farm-Buildings, Enclosures, Drains, Embankments, Roads,
and other rural works; Minerais and Woods. By David Low, Esq.,
F.R.S.E., &e. 1 vol., pp. 680. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
London, 1844. We consider this as an invaluable work for landowners,
tenants, and all who are ntrusted with the management of estates ; and
we feel satisfied that it will add not a little to the high reputation of tts
author, Besides the portions of the treatise devoted more immediately
to Rural Economy, there is a lucid and important section on Mineral
Property, and more especially on the working of metals, coal, limestone,
building-stones, dc. There is also an interesting and comprehensive
chapter on woods, including both the culture of forest-trees, and the ge-
neral management of wood-land.

4, Reports on the First, Second, and Third Meetings of the Associa-
tion of American Geologists and Naturalists, at Philadelphia, in 1840
and 1841, and at Boston in 1842 ; embracing its Proceedings and Trans-
actions. Gould, Kendal, and Lincoln. Boston, 1843.

5. Sandhurst College Text-Books,—Astronomy and Geodesy. By
Professor Narrien, F.R.S., &c. 1 vol., pp. 427. Longman, Brown,
Green, and Longmans, Paternoster Row, London. 1845.

6. A History of Crustacea. By Thomas Bell, F.R.S., &c. Part I.
John Van Voorst, 1 Paternoster Row, London. 1844.

7. The Encyclopedia of Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical; pre-
senting a Complete and Extended View of the Present State of Chemical
Science. By James C. Booth, Mem. of the Am. Phil Soc., &c.; and
Martin H. Boye, Mem. of the Am. Phil. Soc. Carey and Hart, Phila-
delphia. Sia numbers of this work have reached us. Judging from the
industry, research, and accuracy of the authors, we anticipate, that,
when finished, it will contribute to the advancement of chemical science,
and find a place in every chemical laboratory and library. The style,
too, in which it is got up is very creditable to the American publishers.

188 List of Patents.

8. Tableau Général des Poissons Fossiles rangés par Terrains. Par
Louis Agassiz. Neuchatel, 1844.

9. Notice sur la Succession des Poissons Fossiles, dans la Série des
Formations Geologiques. Par Louis Agassiz. Neuchatel, 1843.

10. Essai sur la Classification des Poissons. Par Louis Agassiz.
Neuchatel, 1844.

11. Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, up to No. 10 of
the year 1844.

12. Comptes Rendus, up to No. 26 (24 Juin 1844) of the Premier
Semestre, of the year 1844.

13. Silliman’s American Journal of Science and the Arts, up to No. 2
of vol. xlvii. for July, August, and September, 1844.

14. Bibliothéque Universelle de Genéve, up to October 1844; but
September not received.

15. Guide to the Geology of Scotland. By Mr James Nicol. Oliver
and Boyd. Edinburgh, 1844. Pp. 272,12mo. With map and nume-
rous coloured sections. This cheap and generally accurate compilation
will be useful to the travelling geologist in his progress through Scotland.

16. Geology, Introductory, Descriptive, and Practical. By Professor
Ansted of King’s College, London. 2 vols. 8vo. John Van Voorst.
London, 1844. Professor Ansted’s beautifully <llustrated and interest-
ing work affords the best view of English Geology hitherto produced. On
this ground we recommend it to the particular a tention of Geologists.

17. Studien des Gottingischen Vereins Bergminnischer Freunde.
Von Joh. Friedr. Ludw. Hausmann. Fiinften Bandes Zweites Heft.
8vo, 1844.

18. Ueber eine Lageranliche Basaltische Ausfiillung am Ochsenberge
unweit Dransfeldt. Von J. Fr. L. Hausmann.

19. On some Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium and Giraffe from the
Sewalik Hills in North India. By H. Faleoner, M.D., F.G.S., and
Captain P. T. Cautley of the Bengal Artillery, F.G.S.

20. On the Glacier Question.— Quelques Remarques sur les Discussions
qu’ont Suscitées les Rescherches de cette Année (1841); and Bulletin
de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchatel.

21. Sur la Dispersion du Terrain Erratique entre le Jura et les Alps,
dans la Suisse Occidentale et en Savoie. Par Arnold Guyot, Docteur
et Professeur.

List of Patents granted for Scotland from 24th September to
20th December 1844.

_ 1. To Perer Roruwett Jackson, of Strawberry Hill, near Manches-
ter, in the county of Lancaster, engineer, “‘ certain improvements in the

ee

List of Patents. 189

construction and manufacture of wheels, cylinders, hoops, and rollers,
and in the machinery or apparatus connected therewith, and also im-
provements in steam-valves.’”’—24th September 1844,

2. To Witton George Turner, of Gateshead, in the county of Durham,
doctor in philosophy, “‘ an improved mode of directing the passage of,
and otherwise dealing with, the noxious vapours and other matters aris-
ing from chemical works in certain cases.’’"—25th September 1844.

3. To Tuomas Foxter, of the firm of William Collier and Co., of Man-
chester, in the county of Lancaster, engineer, “ certain improvements in
machinery, tools or apparatus for turning, boring, and cutting metals and
other substances.””—30th September 1844.

4. To Henry Oriver Rosinson, of No. 12, Old Jewry, in the city of
London, engineer, “‘ certain improvements in steam machinery and ap-
paratus for the manufacture and refining of sugar.”—-Ist October 1844.

5, To Pryce Bucntey Wittrames, of Llegodig, in the county of Mont-
gomery, North Wales, “ certain improvements in the manufacture of ar-
tificial stone.”’—9th October 1844.

6, To Jean Bapriste Paut Cuappe, of Manchester, in the county of
Lancaster, spinner and doubler, “‘ certain improvements in machinery or
apparatus for spinning and doubling cotton and other fibrous substances,”
—%th October 1844,

7. To Jacoz Samupa, of the Southwark Iron Works, engineer, and
Josrru D’Acuitar Samupa, of the same place, engineer, “ certain im-
provements in the manufacture and arrangement of parts and apparatus
for the construction and working of atmospheric railways.”—10th Octo-
ber 1844.

8. To Wittiam Crarke, of Nottingham, lace manufacturer, “‘ improve-
ments in machinery for manufacturing ornamented bobbin net or twist
lace.’’—15th October. 1844.

9. To Witt1am Cormack, of York Street, Commercial Road, in the
county of Middlesex, manufacturing chemist, “ a new or improved method
or plan for purifying coal-gas,””—15th October 1844.

10. To Vice-Admiral Sir Granam Even Hamonp, Baronet, K.C.B., of
Norton Lodge, Yarmouth, Isle of Wight, being a communication from
his son Commander Anprew Snare Hamonp, R.N., now commanding
Her Majesty’s steam sloop of war Salamander, stationed in the Pacific,

improvements in the mode of fastening on and reefing paddle-wheel
float-boards, or paddles.”—15th October 1844.

11. To Grorce Avaustus Koiimann, of the German Chapel, St James’s
Palace, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, “ certain improvements in
railways and locomotive and other carriages.’”—16th October 1844.

190 List of Patents.

12. To Wiii1am Henry Rircutie, of Lincoln’s Inn, in the county of
Middlesex, gentleman, being a communication from abroad, ‘ improve-
ments in obtaining copper from ores.’’—17th October 1844.

13. To Ricuarp Roserrs, of the Globe Works, Manchester, in the
county of Lancaster, engineer, ‘‘ certain improvements in machinery or
apparatus for the preparation of cotton wool and flax, and also for
spinning and doubling cotton, silk, wool and other fibrous substances.”
—19th October 1844.

14. To Joun Grieve, of Portobello, in the county of Edinburgh, Scot-
land, engineer, ‘‘ certain improvements in the production and use of
steam, applicable to steam-engines.’’—21st October 1844.

15. To Rosert Hazarp, of Clifton, near the city of Bristol, confec-
tioner, ‘‘ improvements in baths.” — 21st October 1844.

16. To Pierre ArManp LE ComTe pre Fonrarnemoreatu, of the English
and Foreign Patent Office, 1 Skinner’s Place, Sise Lane, in the city of
London, being a communication from abroad, “ for a new mode of con-
structing barometers and other pneumatic instruments.’””—22d October
1844,

17. To Joun Henry Rent, of Moscow Road, in the county of Middle-

sex, surgeon, ‘“‘ improvements in the manufacture of starch and farinaceous
food.’’—22d October 1844.

18: To Isatan Davies, of Birmingham, in the county of Warwick, en-
gineer, ‘“‘ certain improvements in steam-engines, part of which improve-
ments are applicable to impelling wheel-carriages.’””—26th October 1844.

19. To Freperickx Steiner, of Hyndburn Cottage, near Accrington, in
the county of Lancaster, turkey-red dyer, ‘‘ a new colouring matter to be
used in dyeing certain colours on cotton, woollen, silk, and linen fabrics.”
—30th October 1844.

20. To Moses Poots, of the Patent Office, London, gentleman, being a
communication from abroad, ‘‘ improvements in machinery for emptying
privies and cess-pools.’’— 30th October 1844.

21. To Tuomas Brown Jorpan, of Cottage Road, Pimlico, in the county
of Middlesex, mathematical divider, “ improvements in the manufacture
of blocks, or surfaces for surface printing, embossing, and moulding.” —
11th November 1844.

22. 'To Grorce Frrcusson Witson, of Belmont, Vauxhall, in the county
of Surry, gentleman ; Grorce Gwynne, of Princes Street, Cavendish
Square, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman; and James Pixzans
Wixtson, of Belmont aforesaid, gentleman, ‘‘ improvements in treating
fatty and oily matters, and in the manufacture of candles and night
lights.”,—11th November 1844.

23. To James Pitsrow of Tottenham, in the county of Middlesex, civil

J oe ia ome. Oty >. «

h
‘

List of Patents. 191

engineer, ‘ certain improvements in propelling carriages on railways
and common roads, and vessels on rivers and canals.’’—13th November
1844.

24. To Sir Grorce Stevart Mackenzre of Coul, in the county of Ross,
Baronet, ‘‘an improvement or improvements in the manufacture of
paper, more particularly for the purposes of writing and copying writings,
and machinery for effecting the same; also the manufacture of a fluid
or fluids, to be used with the improved paper in the manner of ink.’’—
15th November 1844.

25. To Witt1am Bepineton Junior, of Birmingham, in the county of
Warwick, manufacturer, ‘‘ improvements in the construction of furnaces.”’
—18th November 1844,

26. To Joun Dearman Duyniciirr, of the town and county of the town
of Nottingham, lace manufacturer, Witt1am Crorts, of New Lenton, in
the county of Nottingham, lace manufacturer, and Joun Woopuouse Bac-
LEY, of New Radford, in the county of Nottingham, mechanic, ‘‘ certain
improvements in the manufacture of lace and other weavings.”—18th
November 1844.

27. To Fretix Moreau, of Ghent, in the kingdom of Belgium, engineer,
** improvements in the manufacture of corks, and other similar articles
made of cork-wood or other materials, and the application of certain of
the refuse matters to various useful purposes for which they have never
heretofore been employed.—19th November 1844.

28. To Joun Groom, of Oldham, in the county of Lancaster, mechanic,
“certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for preparing, slub-
bing and roving, cotton, wool-and other fibrous materials.’-—22d Novem-
ber 1844.

29. To Jostas CuristorHer Gampie, of St Helens, in the county of
Lancaster, manufacturing chemist, “‘ improvements in the manufacture of
sulphuric acid.” —25th November 1844.

30. To Witt14M Jounson, of Bury, in the county of Lancaster, agent,
“improvements in machinery or apparatus for preparing cotton, wool,
flax, and other fibrous substances.’”’—25th November 1844.

31. To Esenezer May Dorr, of Ludgate Hill, in the city of London,
gentleman, being a communication from abroad, and partly his own in-
yention, ‘‘improvements in the manufacture of horse-shoe nails,” —25th
November 1844.

32. To Roserr Wittiam Srevier, of Henrietta Street, Cavendish
Square, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, “ certain improvements
in looms for weaving, and in the mode or method of producing plain or
figured goods or fabrics.”’—26th November 1844.

33. To James Nasmyru, of Patricroft, in the county of Lancaster,

192 List of Patents.

civil-engineer, “ certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for
hewing, dressing, splitting, breaking, stamping, crushing, and pressing
stone or other materials.”—27th November 1844.

34. To Davin Avcp, engineer, of Dalmarnock Road, and AnpREw
Autp, engineer, of No. 78 West Street, Tradestown, both in Glasgow,
in the county of Lanark. “‘ an improved method or methods of regulating
the pressure and generation of steam in steam-boilers and generators.’”’—
29th November 1844.

35. To Cuartes Watterson, of the firm of MacGuire, Watterson,
and Co., of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster, soap manufacturers,
“certain improvements in the manufacture of soap.”—9th December
1844.

36. To Louis JosepH Watieranp, of Basing Lane, in the city of
London, merchant, being a communication from abroad, ‘‘ improvements
in dyeing or staining various kinds of fabrics.” 16th December 1844.

37. To AtexanpEeR Turngutt, of No, 48 Russell Square, in the
county of Middlesex, doctor of medicine, ‘‘ a new mode or method of
more expeditious y and effectually tanning hides and skins, and of ex-
tracting and separating the catechnic acid from the tannin acid, in the
catechu or terra japonica used in tanning.’”’—18th December 1844.

38. To Henry Cartwrieut, of the Dean, near Broseley, in the
county of Salop, farmer, “‘ certain improvements in the construction of
paddle-wheels.”—20th December 1844,

THE

EDINBURGH NEW

PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.

On the Life and Writings of Commandant Emile Le Puillon
de Boblaye. By M. Rozxnt.*

Those who become devoted to the study of the sciences,
soon cease to think of themselves, under the influence of that
strong attraction which this pursuit presents to the mind.
Filled with the desire of advancing farther than their prede-
cessors, they steadily follow the road on which they have en-
tered, without being deterred by its length or the difficulties
they encounter at every step: in their eyes, the removal of
one obstacle is only an additional motive for attempting to
overcome another even more formidable. Thus advancing
from one degree of success to another, the man devoted to
science seldom looks to what he has done, but rather to what
yet remains for him to do, in order to accomplish the object
which his genius has assigned to him. But at last bis strength
gives way, disease assails his person, and he expires in the
midst of his vast undertakings, when he imagined that he had
still a long time to live, and when many years were still ne-
cessary to complete what his comprehensive mind had con-
ceived. Such has been the fate of all men of superior mind
whom nature has placed on this earth in order to enlighten
others ; such has been that of the colleague whose prema-
ture loss we now deplore.

* Read to the Geological Society of France, at its meeting on Ist
April 1844.
VOL. XXXVUI. NO. LXXVI.— APRIL 1845 N

194 M. Rozet on the Life and Writings of

EMILE LE PUILLON DE BoBLAYE, Chef d’escadron au corps
royal d’etat-major, Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and
of the Greek order of the Saviour, Member of the Geolo-
gical Society of France, and of many other learned Societies,
was born at Pontivy, in the department of Morbihan, on the
16th November 1792. His father, member of the Chambre des
Comptes of Brittany, died in 1838, being president of the Civil
Tribunal of Pontivy. His mother, a highly educated woman
and of great merit, having undertaken the early education of
her six children, did not fail to inspire them with that filial
and fraternal affection which has its source in the heart of
mothers, and to excite in them a strong taste for study. On
leaving his mother, Emile de Boblaye entered the College of
Pontivy, where his brilliant success soon shewed the strength
and superiority of his intellect, both to his teachers and fel-
low-pupils. From the College of Pontivy he went to that of
Rouen, where he completed the studies required for the Po-
lytechnie School, into which he was admitted in the month of
November 1811, his name being the ninth on the list of
merit.

On the 25th September 1813, he left this celebrated school,
with the brevet of sub-lieutenant in the Imperial corps of
military geographical engineers. He had been six months
in the école d’application of this corps, when severity of cli-
mate, joined to the defection of our allies, after having opened
the gates of France to united Europe, brought under the walls
of Paris the remains of those innumerable legions, before
which our valiant soldiery had shed almost the last drop of
their blood. At this period of mournful recollection, the de-
fence of the Barrizre du. Tréne was entrusted to the batta-
lion of the Polytechnic School, in which there happened to
be one of Boblaye’s brothers. Influenced by his patriotism
as well as by his attachment to this brother, he ran and
placed himself by his side, and shared, by his spirited con-
duct, in the glory which the Polytechnic School acquired in
that memorable defence.

When peace was re-established among the nations of Ku-
rope, and the mutilated remains of our valiant army were
permitted to sheath their swords, the government conceived

Commandant #. le Puillon de Boblaye. 195

the happy idea of employing the geographical engineers in
constructing a great topographical map of France; a map
which might supersede that of Cassini, which was concluded
in the midst of civil discord, and the accuracy of which the
lapse of time and the progress of the sciences had alike tend-
ed to impair. Boblaye was connected with the geodetical
department of this great work; and, along with Colonel
Bonne, he took part in measuring the perpendicular from
Brest to Strasburg, on which both geodetical and astrono-
mical observations were at the same time made, with a view
to determine the general form of our planet.

While engaged in this occupation, which lasted for several
years, our colleague had to spend a long time among the
ancient formations of Brittany, the geognostical relations of
which were, as yet, very imperfectly known. Geographical
engineers are often obliged to remain many successive days
at a signal-post, on the top of a mountain, till the bad wea-
ther cease, or a cloud, which covers another signal, be dis-
persed. In such circumstances Boblaye did not remain in-
active ; his scrutinizing glance, embracing all around him,
when prevented examining the heavens, was busily employed
upon the earth. It is to these circumstances that we are in-
debted, in part, for the numerous geological observations
with which he has enriched science, and which, on his return
to the capital, he communicated to Cuvier, Cordier, Brong-
niart, &c. It was while exploring Brittany that our inti-
macy commenced, and I have often had the advantage of be-
coming acquainted with his beautiful discoveries before those
under whose direction we both studied. Our colleague was
long in coming to a determination to publish his work on this
curious portion of France, although he had amassed a great
quantity of materials. Influenced by his filial love, as well
as by his taste for geology, he often returned to this province ;
and he had examined it in every direction. The first result
of his researches was the discovery of a new ore of iron, the
mining of which soon became a new source of riches for the
country. It was not till the year 1827, that his Lssay on the
Configuration and Geological Constitution of Brittany,* made

* Annales du Museum, t. xv.

196 M. Rozet on the Life and Writings of

its appearance ; a work full of new facts, described with that
clearness, and classified with that judgment, for which our
colleague was distinguished. Geologists were then enabled
to understand the relations which exist between the different
stratified formations of Brittany and the large quantity of
plutonic rocks which have traversed and modified them at
so many points.

Being connected with the topographical operations in the
north of France in the year 1827, Boblaye engaged with great
ardour in the study of the jurassic formation of that coun-
try, when he was seized with brain fever, which brought him
nearly to the grave. Happily, however, the strength of his
constitution enabled him to overcome this attack, and as soon
as he was able to walk, he resumed his favourite studies.
His Memoir on the jurassic formation of the north of France,*
appeared in 1829. He points out, in this treatise, the rela-
tions of the different members of the series with those of
England, to which the attention of all the Continental geolo-
gists was then directed.

In the course of this same year, he was subjected to a
severe affliction. He received an order to set out for Greece,
where a French army had just put a final stop to Ottoman en-
croachments, at a moment when the hopeless condition of
his younger brother, the individual who shared in his attach-
ment to geology, required him not to leave his bedside. He
complied with the order as soon as another Boblaye arrived
to take his place beside the dying youth; and scarcely had
he set foot in the vessel which was to convey him to Greece,
when his brother’s death took place.

The campaign in the Peloponnesus, to a mind so intelli-
gent and active as that of our fellow member, was the occa-
sion of a multitude of researches and important discoveries.
No intellect could remain inactive in such a country ; Ais em-
braced every thing, geodesy, topography, geology, archzolo-
gy, &. &e. Conjointly with his companion Pétier, he began
to make a great trigonometrical survey, in order to lay the
foundations of a general map of the country. While so do-
ing, he soon exposed himself to the influences which produce

* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Mai 1829.

Commandant E. le Puillon de Boblaye. 197

that cruel disease which eventually deprived us of him alto-
gether. From a desire of seeing as much of the country as
possible, he would not submit to follow the convoy which
transported the instruments and baggage. Hastening for-
wards, he arrived alone, very much heated, on the moun-
tains, and immediately began to examine the country with his
telescope. Soon the cold seized him; and this imprudent
act, very often repeated, at last brought upon him a severe
fever. Numerous successive attacks of this kind often ob-
liged him to interrupt his labours. At last the disease made
such progress, that, in the month of August 1830, Boblaye
was compelled to leave the Morea and return to France. It
was now upwards of sixteen years that an individual so dis-
tinguished had been connected with scientific works of high
importance, during which enlightened views and remarkable
memoirs had va indicated his genius, and yet this indi-
vidual had only attained the rank of Captain, so peculiar was
the organization of the body of geographical engineers.
Although he did not remain above sixteen months in
Greece, our colleague brought back with him an enormous
mass of materials. He assisted in the great work published
under the direction of Colonel Bory de Saint Vincent, and
drew up, in connection with M. Virlet, the geological and
mineralogical portion.* M. Boué has said :+—** Our fellow
members, MM. Boblaye and Virlet, cannot be sufficiently re-
warded for the valuable present they have made to science
at the expense of their own health. M. Boblaye introduces
the geological description of Greece by a survey of the re-
cent progress and present state of geology. In this sketch,
we perceive the touch of a skilful geographer and geologist,
who searches for truth above every thing else with the cool-
ness of a mathematician.” We have learned, from the publica-
tion of our colleagues, that Olympus and Pindus are composed
of granite, gneiss, and mica-slate, of tale-slate and granular
limestone ; that Attica, Mount Athos, the Chalcidie Cherso-
nesus, the mountains of Macedonia, and the isle of Thaso with

* Description of Greece, &c.
+ Resumé of the progress of Geology for 1833, p. 346, and following.

198 M. Rozet on the Life and Writings of

its marbles, present also the same rocks ; that a long band of
the jurassic and chalk formations extends along Carniola and
Albania as far as the Gulf of Lepanto ; that the tertiary for-
mation is developed in the Thracian Chersonesus, as also in
the islands of Lemnos, Imbros, Samothrace, and Tenedos: fi-
nally, that numerous traces of recent eruptions are to be seen
in the islands of the gulf of Athens, nearly all of which are
voleanic.

For his geological description, Boblaye drew up a map on
a scale of ss5ie50, reduced from the great map of the Mo-
rea, in six sheets, published by the War Department. This
map, coloured geologically, in concert with M. Virlet, is en-
titled, ‘‘ Map of the Morea and the Cyclades, representing
the principal facts of ancient geography, and also of natural
geography.” It is accompanied by a learned memoir, en-
titled “‘ Geographical researches on the ruins of the Morea.”
This memoir comprehends all the information that resulted
from the labours of the members of the scientific expedition
and the officers employed in constructing the map, respect-
ing the topography of the ruins of the ancient Peloponnesus.
This remarkable work, which would have opened the doors of
the Academy of Inscriptions to our colleague, if he had lived
longer, cost him three years’ researches in the works of anti-
quity and those of the middle ages, and in the writings of
modern travellers. It makes us acquainted with the boun-
daries of every state, and of every province; and furnishes curi-
ous details respecting the towns, and all the ruins which time
and the hands of barbarians have not entirely swept away.

On his return from Greece, Boblaye read to the Society a
memoir entitled, “ Notice respecting the alterations produced
on the calcareous rocks along the shores of Greece by the
action of the sea.’* The new and original observations em-
bodied in this essay, tend to fix the principles by which we
may recognise the traces of ancient sea-beaches in the inte-
rior of countries.

Having been elected secretary to the Geological Society in
1834, he made a very remarkable report on the works of the

* Bulletin of the Geological Society of France, t. i., p. 150; and
Jameson’s Journal.

Commandant E. le Puillon de Boblaye. 199

members during the year 1832 and1833. Atthe extraordinary
meeting at Alencon, in 1837, he presented a geological map

he had marked the heights at which the various formations
come in contact. The map was accompanied by a sheet of
sections, indicating the relative position of these forma-
tions, and the configuration of the surface : it is to be regret-
ted that this work was never published. It was at the close
of the meeting at Alengon, that the celebrated Buckland,
while returning thanks to the officers of the Society, ex-
pressed the esteem which he and his fellow-countrymen en-
tertained for the geological works of Boblaye.

Our fellow-member was employed in arranging the nu-
merous observations which he had made in the department
of Orne, when he received orders to repair to Africa, in order
to triangulate the newly-acquired conquests in the province of
Constantine. There, as in Greece, he engaged with ardour
in the study of natural history, geography, and archeology.
On his return to France, in the beginning of 1839, he an-
nounced to the Society, at its first sitting in February, that a
great portion of the province consisted of the chalk formation,
containing Cadilli and Inocerami, of the same species as those
of the chalk of Valogne ; and that this formation is covered by
a thick deposit of calcareous marl, rich in fossils, which must
belong to the lower portion of the tertiary formation. From
this important fact, he concludes that the tertiary formations
must s’echelonner, with relation to the basin of the Mediter-
ranean, in the same manner in the south as in the north.
A short time after this interesting communication, having
returned to Pontivy, he presented to the Society numerous
specimens of mAcliferous slates, from the Salles of Rohan,
containing, at the same time, mdcles (chiastolites) of consi-
derable size, spirifers, and trilobites, evident proofs of the
metamorphism of these rocks.

Having been appointed member of the Scientific Com-
mission of Algeria, he again went to Africa in August 1839.
In the month of November, in the same year, he accompanied
the Duke of Orleans in the famous expedition of the Portes-
de-Fer. This young prince, whose loss France still deplores,

200 M. Rozet on the Life and Writings of

required to see our colleague only for a short time, in order
to appreciate his high talent, his courage, and the noble
frankness of which he gave him many proofs during this
campaign. Captain Boblaye had reported at head-quarters
that the corps d’armée was keenly engaged with the Ka-
byles, when the Duke of Orleans, who heard the firing, asked
of those around him, ‘‘ What has taken place with the ad-
vanced guard ?”—* Nothing of importance,” his attendants
replied, as they wished to prevent him exposing himself;
“‘ Nothing of importance!” replied Boblaye, “ the enemy is
in force, and there is hot work, your Highness!” The
Duke started instantly at the gallop, and fought like the rest.
Our colleague was appreciated by this prince, not only as a
soldier, but still more as a savant. He often spoke to him
of geology and archeology. The beautiful escarpments of the
Atlas mountains, the masses of marine shells accumulated
at a great many different places, the remains of Roman roads,
the ruins of cities, the forts and triumphal arches erected by
the ancient masters of Africa, elevated his youthful and bril-
liant imagination. He often asked Boblaye for information,
and requested him to give his opinion respecting so many
wonders ; and the profound knowledge which our fellow-mem-
ber evinced in his replies, obtained for him the esteem and
friendship of his Highness, who, on his return from this
glorious campaign, presented him with a snuff-box orna-
mented with his cipher. On the 28th February 1840, he was
appointed chef d’escadron d’etat-major, after being twenty-
four years in the rank of officer.

Commandant Boblaye returned to France at the close of
1839, and, fatigued with the wandering life he had hitherto
led, thought of enjoying repose. He married on the 10th
February 1840, but was soon obliged to tear himself from
his new affections, as the topographical section of the African
army had need of a skilful and courageous chief. On the
6th March he again left Paris, and recrossed the Mediter-
ranean.

In the two preceding campaigns, the health of the command-
ant, already impaired by the fevers of Greece, had suffered se-
yere shocks. The fatigues of that upon which he now entered

Commandant E. le Puillon de Boblaye. 201

soon developed in him a scorbutic complaint, which obliged
him to return to Europe for proper treatment. Believing
himself cured, he resumed his labours on the map of France,
at which he continued, as head of the Topographical Section,
till 1842. At this period, the veneration which his fellow-
countrymen entertained for his family, the esteem which his
extensive knowledge had procured for him, and the confi-
dence which his frank and loyal character had inspired,
caused him to be elected, by a large majority, deputy for the
arrondissement of Pontivy, his native town.

From that moment a new series of ideas took possession
of his mind, and he abandoned geology. Having accepted
a political trust, he thought that all his time was due to
his country : what time was left from examining projected
laws, the labours of the committees appointed by the Cham-
ber, and attending to the necessities and wants of his con-
stituents, he devoted to the study of the national finances.
In 1843, he published a curious and important synoptical
table of the revenues, expenses, debt, and public credit in
France. This table was to be followed by others, all the
materials for which were already collected.

But the terrible attacks his health had sustained since
1827, had produced a great change on his vigorous constitu-
tion. The activity of his mind, and his love for study, pre-
vented him from perceiving the progress of his disease and
yielding to the advice of his friends, who recommended rest.
Last year, wishing to finish a great geological map of Brit-
tany, long since commenced, he set out for that province,
and took part in the military evolutions of the camp of Plé-
lan, near Rennes. He there fatigued himself too much, and
returned to Paris extremely unwell. The germs of the dis-
ease he had contracted in the Ardennes, in Greece, and in
Africa, soon developed themselves with such virulence, that
it was impossible for his physicians to arrest its progress.

Boblaye bore the pain of this dreadful disease with a for-
titude which never for a moment gaye way. He saw the
approach of death with tranquillity and resignation, and
breathed his last on the 4th December 1843, solely occupied
with those he left behind him, his wife and young child. On

202 Dr A. Philippi on the Recent and Fossil Mollusca of the

the 6th, his brother, chef d’escadron d’artillerie, who was pre-
sent at the time of his death, his numerous friends, his col-
leagues of the Chamber of Deputies, of the Geological So-
ciety, of the Philomathie Society, and his brother officers,
assembled to convey his mortal remains to their final resting
place, which was by the side of his younger brother, who died
in 1829.
Sit illis terra levis !

Twice had our fellow-member enjoyed the honour of being
on the list of candidates for admission into the Geological
Section of the Academy of Sciences, and he had the prospect
of being elected at the next vacancy.

There were found in his portfolio many unpublished notes
on his travels in Greece, Africa, and the interior of France,
on the public finances, and, finally, the first part of a great
work on the Roman roads in Gaul. Death overtook him in
the midst of his labours, at a period when, as with so many
other men of genius, knowing that there remained for him
much to do, he believed that he had still a long time to live.

Comparative Remarks on the Recent and Fossil Mollusca of the
South of Italy, and more particularly of Sicily. By Dr A.
PHILIPPI.

In comparing the Molluscous Fauna of the Sicilian Seas*
with the Mollusca which, during the tertiary period, were
contained in the seas out of which a large portion of Sicily
and Calabria was elevated, the following are the principal
questions that present themselves :—Ils¢, Were the seas at
the time of the tertiary period generally richer or poorer in
mollusea than they are at present? 2d, How many of the
species living at the present day existed at that time, and
survived the catastrophes which separate the tertiary period

* As connected with this subject we would refer our readers to an in-
teresting Memoir by Dr Philippi, on the Molluscous Animals of South
Italy, compared with those of other regions ; translated in the first num-
ber of the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society—a periodical to
which we wish all success.—ED.

South of Italy, and more particularly of Sicily. 208

from our own epoch ? and how many species were destroyed by
these catastrophes ? 3d, Do the species which are common to
both periods present differences with reference to their relative
abundance, or to their size and other characters, which, al-
though in themselves considerable, are still not of sufficient
importance to justify a specific separation ? 4th, What are
the relations of the individual localities which afford fossils ?
Are they all of the same age ? and can subdivisions be esta-
plished in the tertiary formation of Southern Italy! dé,
What are the relations of the tertiary formation of Southern
Italy to other tertiary formations ?

I am not in possession of sufficient data to answer the last
question satisfactorily, but my investigations have led me to
the following results respecting the four preceding queries.

I. Comparative number of the Mollusca of the present epoch,
and of the Tertiary Period.

In the tertiary beds of Southern Italy, it is almost exclu-
sively marine shells which are met with, and, of course, no
remains of naked mollusca are found. If we subtract the lat-
ter as well as the land and fresh water mollusca from the
total number of living mollusca which have been observed,
there remain—

188 Marine Bivalves,

10 Brachiopoda,

11 Pteropoda,
313 Conchiferous Marine Gasteropoda,
15 Cirrhipeda,

In all 537 Mollusca which could occur in a fossil state.
The number of fossil mollusca hitherto found amounts to—

231 Marine Bivalves,
13 Brachiopoda,
5 Pteropoda,
322 Conchiferous Marine Gasteropoda,
5 Cirrhipeda.

576

It thus appears that, at the time of the Tertiary period, the
sea was but a little richer in mollusca than it is at present.

204 Dr A. Philippi on the Recent and Fossil Mollusea of the

It must be granted that future investigations will probably
add a larger number to the list of fossils than to that of liv-
ing species ; but, on the other hand, it is to be remembered
that the tertiary period lasted a much longer time, and that,
during its continuance, species became extinct and new ones
were added. It is therefore extremely probable that, dur-
ing the tertiary period, the sea was neither poorer nor richer
in mollusca than it is at present.*

The relative numbers belonging to the principal orders
were somewhat different from what they are at present ; thus

we have—
During the ter- At the pre-
tiary period. sent epoch.

Marine Bivalves, . ; 3 z ; 0.40 0.35
Brachiopoda, z Z ; : : 0.024 0.02
Pteropoda, . : : : 0.01 0.02
Conchiferous Marine Gasteropoda, ; 0.56 0.58
Cirrhipeda, . d : : é F 0.01 0.03

The Bivalves and Brachiopoda, therefore, predominated
more at a former period than they do at present, and the
Gasteropoda and Cirrhipeda are now more numerous than
they were formerly. Hence, I think, we may conclude that,
at the time of the Tertiary period, there were fewer coasts in
existence, and that the submarine land, which is now con-
verted into dry land, then consisted chiefly of shallows.

II. Relative numbers of the extinct and living species.

Of the 537 marine mollusca which could occur in the fossil
state, I have not met with the following 169 (not quite a
third part) among the Tertiary petrifactions of Southern
Italy :—

BIVALVES.
Clavagella balanorum, Scac. Teredo Bruguieri, D. Ch.
angulata, Ph, palmulata, D. Ch.
Teredo navalis, Z. Pholas candida, LZ.

* If we were to adopt this principle as the basis of our calculations,
and to divide the whole geological series only into the tertiary, chalk,
Jura, old secondary, and transition formations, the number of fossil spe-
cies would amount to at least five times as many as that of the living ;
and if, on a moderate calculation, we were to reckon the latter at 8000,
the former would amount to about 40,000 species !

South of Italy, and more particularly of Sicily. 205

Solen legumen, LZ.
Panopzea Aldroyandi, Men.
Scrobicularia piperata, Gm.
Cottardi, Pay.
Erycina ovata, Pi.
Bornia seminulum, Ph.
Solenomya mediterranea, Lam.
Corbula revoluta, Broc.
Pandora flexuosa, Sow.
Thracia ovalis, Ph.
fabula, Ph.
Galeomma Turtoni, Sow.
Venerupis decussata, Ph.
Tellina fabula, Gm.
Coste, Ph.
baltica, L.
Lucina? bipartita, Ph.
Scacchia elliptica, Scac.
ovata, Ph.
Venus geographica, G.
leeta, Poli.
aurea, Mat,
Beudanti, Pay.
nitens, Ph. and Se.

Cardium seabrum, Ph.

paryum, Ph,

Area seabra, Poli.

imbricata, Poli.

Pectunculus lineatus, Ph.

Modiola costulata, Fiss.

Pinna truncata, Ph.

rudis, L.
pectinata, L.
muricata, Pol,
marginata, Lam.
vitrea, Gm.

Lima inflata, Lam.

Pecten sulcatus, Lam.
Teste, Bivon.
gibbus, Lai.

Spondylus aculeatus, Ohemn.

Anomia aspera, Ph.

scabrella, Ph,
pectiniformis, Pol.
elegans, Ph,
margaritacea, Ph.
aculeata, Mont.

BRACHIOPODA.

Orthis lunifera, PA.
neapolitana, Se.

Orthis anomioides, Ph. and Se,
Thecidea mediterranea, Riss.

PTEROPODA.

Hyalea gibbosa, Rang.
vaginella, Cantr.
Cleodora cuspidata, Q. and G.

Cleodora striata, Rang.
acicula, Rang.
zonata, D. Ch.

GASTEROPODA.

Chiton pulchellus, Ph.
Polii, Ph.
Rissoi, Pay.
levis, Penn.
variegatus, Ph.
cajetanus, Poli.

Patella Rouxii, Pay.
cerulea, L.
fragilis, Ph.

Emarginula Huzardi, Pay.

Fissurella rosea, Lam.

Pileopsis militaris, Put.

Thyreus paradoxus, Ph.

Crepidula gibbosa, Dfr.

Bulleea planciana, P/.

Bulla vestita, Ph.

ovulata, Broc.

Bulla Ampulla, Z.
diaphana, Ar, and Mag,

Rissoa, elata, Ph.
violacea, Desm.
similis, Scae.
Auriscalpium, L.
clathrata, Ph,
coronata, Se.
radiata, Ph.
rudis, Ph.
gracilis, Ph,
cingulata, Ph.
tenera. Ph,
subsuleata, Rh.
fulva, Mich.
labiata, Miihi/,
soluta, Ph,

206 Dr A. Philippi on the Recent and Fossil Mollusca of the

Truncatella littorina Desh.
? fusca, Ph,
atomus, Ph.
Chemnitzia scalaris, Ph.
obliquata, Ph.
+ Nerita versicolor, Lam.
Natica marochiensis, Lam.
helicina, Broc.?
Ianthina bicolor, Mke.
nitens, Wke.
patula, Ph.
Sigaretus haliotideus, L.
Vermetus semisurrectus, Biv.
Sealaria pulchella, Bw.
crenata, L.
Delphinula exilissima, Ph.
Solarium discus, Ph.
Trochus granulatus, Born.

Cerithium levigatum, Ph.
Pleurotoma purpureum, Mont.
costulatum, Riss.

multilineolatum, Desh.

pusillum, Seac.
plicatum, Lam.
teniatum, Desh.
Rertrandi, Pay.
levigatum, Ph.
secalinum, Ph.
Lavie, Ph.
Pyrula squamulata, Ph.

+ Santangeli, Mar.
Murex tetrapterus, Bronn.
Tritonium variegatum, Lam.

serobiculator, L.
cutaceum, L.
Chenopus sirresianus, Mich.

dubius, Ph.
pumilio, Ph.
unidentatus, Ph.
villicus, Ph.
leucopheeus, Ph.
Racketti, Pay.
pygmeeus, Ph.
+ carneolus, Lam.
Turbo neritoides, L.
littoreus, L.
obtusatus, L.
muricatus, L.
Scissurella plicata, Ph.
striatula, Ph,

Cassidaria depressa, Ph.
Dolium galea, L.
Buccinum Scacchianum, Ph.
candidissimum, Ph.
Tirei, Vas.
Lefebvrii, Mas.
Terebra aciculata, Lam.
Ovula carnea, L.
+ Cyprea annulus, L.
+ moneta, Z.
erosa, DL.
helvola, Z.
Dentalium rubescens, Desh.

CIRRHIPEDA.

Coronula bissexlobata, Blain.
Anatifa levis, Brg.

striata, Brg.
Pollicipes Scalpellum, L.

Palanus intermedius, Ph.
hemispheericus, Brg.
galeatus, L.

Acasta Spongites, Poli.

Chthamalus glaber, Polt.

Thus, the following mollusca made their appearance in
the sea subsequently to the Tertiary period :—

Of the 188 Marine Bivalves, . é «” 53* or 019
10 Brachiopoda, : : F 4... 0.40

11 Pteropoda, 7 : 3 6... 0.58

313 Conchiferous Marine Gasteropoda, 97 ... 0.31

15 Cirrhipeda, . ; : : 9 ... 0.60

On the other hand, of 576 fossil species of marine shells,
the following 193, or almost exactly 3, no longer occur in
the sea at the present day.

* In the original 35, evidently a typographical error.—ED.

South of Italy, and more particularly of Sicily.

BIVALVES.

Aspergillum, maniculatum, Ph.
Clavagella bacillaris, Desh.
Clavagella sp.
Pholas vibonensis, Ph.
Solen tenuis, P/.
Solecurtus multistriatus, Scac.
Panopea Faujasii, Men,
Bivone, Ph.
Anatina oblonga, Ph.
pusilla, Ph.
Scrobicularia tenuis, PA.
Erycina pusilla, Ph.
angulosa, Bronn.
longicallis, Seac.
similis, Ph.
Corbula crispata, Scac.
costellata, Desh.
Thracia ventricosa, Ph.
elongata, Ph.
Tellina pusilla, Ph.
pleurosticta, Ph.
ovata, Sow.
elliptica, Broc.
strigilata, Ph.
Diplodonta Lupinus, Broc.
Lucina transversa, Bronn.
albella, Lam.
Scacchia inversa, Ph.
Astarte levigata, Miinst.
Cytherea fragilis, Ph.
Venus senilis, Broc.

vetula, Bast.

? miliaris, Ph.
Cardium multicostatum, Broc.
Hippagus acutecostatus, Ph.
Arca mytiloides, Broc.

Breislaki, Bast.
aspera, Ph.
obliqua, Ph.

Arca pectunculoides, Scac.
Pectunculus variabilis, Sow.
auritus, Broc.
minutus, Ph.
pygmeeus, Ph,
Nucula placentina, Lam.
excisa, Ph.
striata, Lam.
pusio, Ph.
glabra, Ph.
cuspidata, Ph.
dilatata. Ph.
pellucida, Ph.
decipiens, Ph.
Chama dissimilis, Broun.
Modiola grandis, Ph.
phaseolina, Ph,
sericea, Bronn.
Mytilus antiquorum, Sow. (?)
Arcinella levis, Ph.
Perna Soldanii, Desh.
Pecten cristatus, Bronn.
Alessii, Ph.
latissimus, Broc.
palmatus, Zam.
scabrellus, Zam.
rimulosus, Ph.
antiquatus, Ph,
fimbriatus, Ph.
pygmeeus, Miinst.
semicostatus, Miinst.
Hinnites leeviusculus, Ph.
Plicatula mytilina, Ph.
Ostrea bellovacina, Lam.
pregrandis, Ph.
longirostris, Zam.
foliosa, Broc.
Anomia striata, Broc.

BRACHIOPODA.

Terebratula grandis, Blum.
bipartita, Broc.
biplicata, Sow.
sphenoidea, Ph.

Terebratula septata, Ph.
euthyra, Ph.
Orthis eusticta, Ph,

GASTEROPODA.

Emarginula decussata, Ph.
Brocchia sinuosa, Broc,
Bulla convoluta, Broc.
levis, Ar. et Mag.
Aplysia? deperdita, Ph.
? grandis,
Melania ? soluta, Ph.

Valvata ? striata, Ph.

Rissoa sculpta, Ph.
reticulata, Ph.
textilis, Ph.
areolata, Ph.
substriata, Ph.
canaliculata, Ph.

207

208 Dr A. Philippi ox the Recent and Fossil Mollusca of the

Eulima Scillz, Scac.
affinis, Ph.
Bulimus, Scac.

Chemnitzia pusilla, Ph.

Terebellum, Ph.

Natica undata, Ph.

tigrina, D/r.

Scalaria trinacria, PA.
plicosa, Ph.
crispa, Lam.

Delphinula nitens, PA.

elegantula, Ph.

Bifrontia ? zancleea, Ph.

Solarium reticulatum, Ph.

pseudoperspectivum, Broc.

Trochus crispus, Kén.
millegranus, Ph.
parvulus, Ph.
bullatus, Ph.
patulus, Broce,
gemmulatus, Ph.
filosus, Ph.
glabratus, Ph.
crispulus, Ph.
evomphalus, Ph.
strigosus, Gi.
suturalis, Ph.
marginulatus, PA.
Ottoi, Ph.
cinctus, Ph.

Scissurella aspera, Ph.

Turritella tornata, Broc.

vermicularis, Broc.
subangulata, Broc.

Cerithium calabrum, Ph.

tricinctum, Broc.

Sceea stenogyra, Ph.

Pleurotoma cataphractum, Broc.

torquatum, Ph,

dimidiatum, Broce.

galeritum, Ph.
pygmeum, Ph.
noduliferum, Ph.

sigmoideum, Bronn.

harpula, Broc.
columne, Scac.
comma, Sow.

Chthamalus gigas.

CIRRHIPEDA.

Pleurotoma imperati, Scac.

decussatum, Ph.
semiplicatum, Bronn,
Tarentini, Ph.
Payraudeaui, Desh,
Maggiori, Ph.
Turricula, Broc.
Renieri, Scac.
carinatum, Biv, ji.

Cancellaria hirta, Broc.

coronata, Scac.

Fusus longiroster, Broc.

clavatus, Broce.
scalaris, Broc.
rudis, Ph.
politus, Ren.

Murex vaginatus, De Cr. et J.

multilamellosus, Ph.

Chenopus pes graculi, Bronn.

desciscens, Ph.

Strombus coronatus, Dr.
Cassidaria striata, Sow.
Purpura cyclopum, Ph,
Buccinum serratum, Broce.

musivum, Broce.
granulatum, Ph.
spinulosum, Ph.
acutecostatum, Ph.
pusillum, Pd.
exile, Ph.

Columbella Greci, Ph.

Mitra cupressina, Broc, i
Voluta rarispina, Lam.

Ancillaria obsoleta, Broc.

Conus Brocchii, Bronn.

demissus, Ph,

Dentalium sexangulum, Gm.

multistriatum, Desh.
sulcatum, Lam.
substriatum, Desh.
tetragonum, Broc.
incertum, Desh.
coarctatum, Lam.
striatum, Lam.
triquetrum, Broc,
ovulum, Ph.

Pollicipes carinatus.

The following, therefore, are the relative numbers of species
of the Tertiary period which are now extinct :—

South of Italy, and more particularly of Sicily. 209

Of the 231 Bivalves, ; P 77
13 Brachiopoda, : P : 7 5, 0.54
5 Pteropoda, 0

322 Conchiferous Gasteropoda, 108 i 0.31
5 Cirrhipeda, : : 2 ,, 0.00
576 194 or 0.33

Among the fossil species there are some which do not now
live in the Mediterranean of Southern Italy, but are known
to exist in other seas, viz. :—

Mya truncata, £. Greenland; in the whole Northern Atlantic
Ocean ; and, according to Brocchi, in Tuscany.
Lutraria solenoides, Lam. On the coasts of France, &c.
Tellina crassa, ZL. In the North Sea.
Lucina columbella, Lam. Senegal.
pennsylvanica, Z. On the coasts of America.
Cyprina islandica, ZL. North Sea; Iceland; Canada.
Cardium hians, Broc. In warm seas; near Algiers.
Lima bullata, Turton. North Sea.
Pecten medius, Lam.? Red Sea.
Ostrea edulis, Z. North Sea.
Patella vulgata, Z. North Sea.
Niso Terebellum, Chemn. Nicobar Islands.
Vermetus intortus, Zam. Antilles.
Trochus strigosus, Gm. On the Coast of Morocco.
Fusus contrarius, Z. North Atlantic Ocean.
Buecinum undatum, L. Do. do.
Terebra fuscata, Broc. Senegal.
Dentalium elephantinum, Z. Indian Sea.
multistriatum, Desh. Indian Sea?
coarctatum, Lam, English Channel.

Thus, of 382 species which are common to the Tertiary
formation and the present period, there are only 20 species
which do not belong to that portion of the Mediterranean
Sea which washes Southern Italy! Hence it may be con-
eluded with great certainty, that at the time of the Ter-
tiary period, the climate could not have been very differ-
ent from what it is at present. But perhaps it may be said
that this conclusion is overturned by the 194 extinct species ;
and that these species belonged either to the newly-discovered

ice-period, or toa warm climate? A hasty glance at the list

already given, is sufficient to shew that neither of these sup-
positions is correct. It is no doubt true that the occurrence

VOL, XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. (a)

210 Dr A. Philippi on the Recent and Fossil Mollusca of the

of Aspergillum maniculatum, Perna Soldanii, Plicatula my-
tilina, Strombus coronatus, Terebra fusca and duplicata, Vo-
luta rarispina, and Ancillaria obsoleta, is at first sight in
favour of a warmer climate, because these genera do not
occur in the seas of the northern temperate zone ; and it
cannot be denied that the species most closely allied to Cytherea
multilamellosa is Cytherea cygnus, which now lives near Can-
ton (not in the Mediterranean, as conjectured by Deshayes).
The number, however, of living and extinct species which
favour the idea of a warmer climate, is extremely inconsider-
able, in comparison to the number of the remaining species ;
and we have, on the other hand, species which are now con-
fined to colder seas, such as Mya truncata, Cyprina islandica,
and Fusus contrarius ; so that we are entitled to regard it
as an incontrovertible fact, that, in Southern Italy, at the time
of the Tertiary period, the climate was neither much warmer
nor much colder, than it is at present. It can hardly be urged
as a valid argument against this view, that simultaneously,
vr at a later period (we shall afterwards see that the palzeon-
tological phenomena admit of no separation of the Tertiary
period, from the Diluvial period, and from the Alluvial period).
Elephants, Rhinoceroses, and Hippopotami, also lived in
Sicily, because these animals, belonging to different species
from those which now live in hot climates, could exist per-
fectly well in the present climate of Sicily.

III. Physiognomy of the Mollusca of the Tertiary Period and
of the present day.

If we consider the relative abundance of the species from
which results what may be termed the Physiognomy of the
molluscous fauna, we find not a few species equally common
at the present day and in the Tertiary period ; but also that
a number of species formerly very abundant, have become
rare or even extinct, and vice versa, a number of species are
now very abundant which were formerly rare or altogether
awanting.* Itmay be remarked, that the very species which

* We regret that want of space prevents us from giving Dr Philippi’s
lists illustrative of this part of the subject, and that the same reason
will oblige us to omit the detailed lists under Sect. IV. of the present
memoir.—EDI1rT.

South of Italy, and more particularly of Sicily, 211

are most abundant at the present day, such as, Venus geo-
graphica, Venus laeta, Poli, Turbo neritoides, L., did not
exist during the Tertiary period.

It may be asserted, generally, that the differences observed
between living and fossil specimens of the same species, are
not greater than those which occur between individuals of
the same species ; nay, it is not at all a rare occurrence, to
find difficulty in determining whether a specimen be fossil or
not. This is the case, for instance, with the specimens oc-
curring in the clay of Abbate, near Palermo, which are washed
out by the sea, and are very often inhabited by hermit-crabs.
These species are frequently in an astonishing state of preser-
vation ; and hence there is a sufficient apology for their being
regarded as recent shells. This seems to have taken place
with those conchologists, who, like Linnzeus, assigned Sicily
asa locality to Dentaliwm elephantinum ; and also with Kiener,
when he included Murex vaginatus among the living species ;
but, in the latter instance, the author is very much to be

blamed for altering the names.

It is, however, remarkable that certain species seem to have
been very much larger in former times than they are at present,
We have striking examples of this fact in Lucina radula,
Lucina fragilis, Cytherea rudis, Poli, Venus radiata, Car-
dium Deshayesii, Cardium papillosum, Mytilus edulis, Pileop-
sis wngarica, Turritella communis, and Turritella triplicata.
I could enlarge this list considerably; but still the ma-
jority of the species agree completely in size; and, what
is very singular, certain species were constantly much smaller
during the Tertiary period than they are at present ; the num-
ber of the latter, however, is comparatively small. As ex-
amples of this circumstance, I would particularly instance
Bulla lignaria, and Terebratula vitrea, which formerly scarcely
attained half the size they now present; and, next to them,
I would mention Corbula nucleus.*

From these facts nothing further can be deduced than that

* In my Enumeratio molluscorum NSiciliw, I have invariably given the
relative sizes of the fossil and living shells, when they differed from each
other.

212 Dr A. Philippi om the Recent and Fossil Mollusca of the

formerly the various circumstances, the localities, the nature
of the sub-marine land, &e., were more favourable for the
development and growth of certain species, but were also less
favourable for the development of a very few species; and
that, speaking generally, these various circumstances were at
that time similar to those of the present day.

IV. What is the proportion of the living and extinct species
at the individual localities 2? Have all the latter a like age?
Can subdivisions be established in the Tertiary formation of
Southern Italy ; and if so, what are they ?

In general, the fossils are chiefly abundant in clay, in marl,
and in shell sand; but it is of no importance for the object of
the present memoir, to describe petrographically the individual
localities, more especially as the same petrifactions occur in
the clay and in the shell sand, and even in the compact lime-
stone, as can be well seen near Palermo. Ina similar man-
ner, it may be remarked, the same recent species occur, at
the present day, on sandy shores, as well as on muddy coasts,
&e. The geognostical phenomena, so far as Sicily is con-
cerned, have been most fully described by my late friend
Frederick Hoffmann, in his “ Geognostische Beobachtungen,
gesammelt auf einer Reise durch Italien und Sicilien.”

I propose soon to give a detailed description of the tertiary
formation of Calabria ; the distribution of that formation is
very distinctly delineated in the map which Von Tschikalschoff
has copied with perfect exactness from original materials
furnished by me. I would refer my readers to that gentle-
man’s ‘ Coup d’oeil sur la constitution geologique des provinces
meridionales du royaume de Naples.”

If we place together all the individual localities of Sicily,
&e., and arrange them according to the proportion which
the extinct species bear to the living, beginning with the lo-
calities which present the largest number of extinct species,
and ending with those which afford the smallest, we shall
evidently exhibit them in the order of their relative ages ;
for the first must, of course, be regarded as the oldest, and
the last as the newest.

‘South of Italy, and more particularly of Italy. 213

Not found in the

Mediterranean. Extinet.
Monasterace, . 2 : 0.77 0.77
Sortino, . ; 4 : 0.53 0.53
Cotrone, Cutre, &c., 4 ‘ 0.46 0.43
Naseti, - F ; : 0.50 0.40
Valley of Lamato, E : 0.37 035
Caltagirone, : : : 0.38 0.30
Interior of Sicily, : . 0.34 0.30
Buccheri, . : : : 0.34 0.30
Caltanissetta, : 3 : 0.34 0.29
Syracuse, : s : 0.25 0.25
Palermo, Z : ;. 0.25 0.23
Gravina, . > : : 0.25 0.22
Pezzo, : : : ; 0.18 0,18
Messina, . j A : 0.17 0.17
Girgenti, . : : : 0.20 0.15
Militello, . ‘ ‘ , 0.15 0.14
Carrubbare, near Reggio, : 0.11 0.11
Monteleone, f 4 : 0.10 0.08
Cefali, near Catania, A : 0.09 0.08
Sciacca, . : : ‘ 0.11 0.06
Tarento, . : : : 0.054 0.054
Nizzeti, near Catania, ' ; 0.06 0.05
Melazzo_ . 3 F ‘ 0.04 0.03
Island of Ischia, . : 3 0.014 0.014
The coast near Monte Nuovo, . 0.01 0.00
Pozzuoli, . : ; 0.00 0.00

We thus see plainly, that the transition from the Tertiary
period to the present time has taken place quite gradually ;
and that no great revolutions have given rise to lines of de-
marcation ; but that, on the contrary, individual species have
gradually become extinct, and others have been added, until
the present fauna has been formed.

We can establish no subdivisions in the Tertiary deposits
of Southern Italy ; for we cannot even fix a limit between the
Tertiary period and the Diluvial period, or the period of the
present day. The division of the Tertiary series into Eocene,
Pliocene, and Miocene, is not applicable to the formations of
Southern Italy, in so far as it is founded on the relative pro-
portions of extinct and living species ; and, as regards other
localities, it may also turn out to be uncertain and arbi-
trary.

Lastly, we may conclude with great certainty, that the Ter-
tiary formations of Southern Italy did not rise from the bot-
tom of the sea at one and the same time, but that they are

214 Mr Tait on the Back-Light in Portable Dioramas.

the result of numerous and repeated elevations which have
even continued to the historical period.*

On admitting the Back-Light, in Portable Dioramas, upon
different parts of a Picture at different times ; on using Light
from Oil, §c. By GeorGE Tart, Esq., F.R.S.S.A. Com-
municated by the Royal Scottish Society of Arts.t

In portable dioramas, which I described in former com-
munications to the Royal Scottish Society of Arts,{ the back-
light was admitted behind the whole of a picture at once. I
have now fitted up some pictures, so as to admit the back-
light upon different parts at different times ; an arrangement
which obviously increases materially the variety of effects
which may be introduced into a picture, when the subject
makes that desirable. It is done simply by means of shut-
ters, behind different parts of the picture, attached to the
stretching-frame, which are moved by wires or cords affixed
to them, passing outwards through the opening by which the
picture is inserted, and adjusted so as to be moved without
noise. That opening may be either at the top or at the side
of the box, as may be preferred. Tissue-paper is used along
with the shutters, when it is necessary, in such a manner as
to produce the effect intended.

In dioramas constructed for internal light (as described in
my last two communications), particularly when shutters are
used as before suggested, it is convenient to have two counter-
poises, just sufficient to prevent the springs from closing the
gas stop-cocks ; which counterpoises can be attached, when
necessary, to the cords for opening the stop-cocks, and by
means of which the flames can be retained, during pleasure,

* From Erichson's Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte: Zehnter Jahrgang,
viertes Heft, p. 348. 1844.

+ Read, and diorama exhibited, before the Royal Scottish Society of
Arts, on 13th January 1845.

t See vol. xxxii., p. 142; vol. xxxiii.. p. 64; vol. xxxiv., p. 275;
vol. xxxv., p. 53; and Transactions of the Society, vol. ii., pp. 127, 162,
215, and 230, ;

Mr Tait on the Back-Light in Portable Dioramas. 215

at any height desired; and the hands may thus be left at
liberty to move any other part of the apparatus.

I may take this opportunity of mentioning, that, instead
of using the front slider of tissue-paper, immediately behind
the pictures, formerly suggested (at N O of the diagram”*), it
is more simple and convenient to attach tissue-paper to the
back of the stretching-frame of any picture for which that is
necessary, in order to produce uniformity of effect by the
back-light, on account of any object, for example the moon,
being made to transmit the light without diffusing it. It
seems better not to use tissue-paper behind a picture, unless
it be necessary, as it intercepts more than a third part of the
light.

If oil, instead of gas, be used for lighting a diorama inter-
nally, there are practical objections, unnecessary to be here
detailed, to lighting the pictures by the direct rays from the
flames. But they may be lighted by means of any substance
which transmits light abundantly, and diffuses it sufficiently
(for example, one or two plies of glass, coarsely ground on
both sides), applied to an opening in a screen in front of
each of the flames, in a line between the flame and the pic-
tures, placed very near the flame, and having the light con-
centrated upon it by a reflector behind, in a continuation of
the same line. The quantity of light admitted upon* that
substance is modified to any extent by a slider or sliders,
properly formed and adjusted, on the side of the opening
next to the flame. Those two surfaces, thus enlightened and
thus darkened, are the sources of the front and the back
light to the pictures, and occupy the places of the gas flames.
But gas is, in all respects, so very much preferable to oil for
lighting a diorama internally, and is now in so general use,
that it seems unnecessary to enter more into detail with
regard to the application of oil to that purpose.

EDINBURGH, December 26, 1844.

* See vol, xxxiv., p. 276.

( 216 )

Description of the Great Chimney at St Rollox, Glasgow, and
of the Climbing- Machine used in examining and repairing a
Rent in that Chimney at the height of 280 feet. By Lrwis
D. B. Gorpon, Esq., Professor of Civil-Engineering in the
University of Glasgow, and LAURENCE Hi. Junior, Esq.,
F.R.S.S.A., Civil-Engineer. With a Plate. Communi-
cated by the Royal Scottish Society of Arts.*

The great chimney at St Rollox, Glasgow, was erected in
order to carry off the muriatic acid, and other gases, escap-
ing in the works, at such a height that, before the gases
could fall, they should be so diluted as to be innocuous.
The peculiar construction of the chimney, viz., a double
cone, was adopted, in order to maintain the heat of the gases
as long as possible; and at the same time the internal form
of the chimney and its dimensions are such, that there should
be a maximum discharge for the same temperature of the
ascending column. The chimney perfectly accomplished this
end; but soon after its erection, the process in which the
muriatic acid is disengaged, was so conducted, that the whole
gas is now collected, condensed, and applied to useful pur-
poses, or run off; and thus the great function of the chim-
ney’s enormous height is no longer brought into use.

It may be mentioned, that 120 tons of coals are consumed
per day in St Rollox works, the whole product of the com-
bustion of which goes up the great chimney, drawn, in some
cases, from a distance through flues 400 yards long. The
chimney was designed with a curved batter, the curve being
the logarithmic curve; but it was not so built, from some
error in setting out the work at its commencement, Mr Gor-
don being at the time absent.

The following are its exact dimensions :—

* Read before the Society, and drawings and model exhibited, by
David Stevenson, Esq., F.R.S.E., V.P.,R.S.S.A., civil-engineer, 9th De-
cember 1844.

Description of the Great Chimney at St Rollox. 217

Total height from foundations, : 447 feet 6 in.
Depth of foundations, 2 : : Gi cote teas
Total height above the surface, 432 feet 6 in.
Diameter at base, . 45 feet.
surface, 40 ...
top, . 18 feet 6 in.

There are used in its construction 1,250,000 bricks of
first quality, weighing 121 lb. per cubic foot, resisting 63
tons’ pressure per superficial foot before cracking, and re-
quiring 110 tons to crush them. The brick-work is 34 bricks
at bottom, and1}attop. The internal flue is 260 feet high,
and is perfectly vertical.

It took six months, in two different seasons, autumn 1841,
and spring 1842, to build it, which was accomplished without
the slightest accident. It was finished in June 1842.

In May 1844, a rent was discovered in one side, about
36 feet long, extending, from a point about 100 feet from the
top, downwards. This rent was affirmed by some to have
been caused by lightning. The rent gradually increased
during June and July, and then a similar rent was discovered
on the opposite side, beginning somewhat lower down than
that first observed, but extending only 45 feet. This created
some apprehension; and, in August, it was determined to
examine the chimney where the rents appeared, and, accord-
ing to the result of this examination, to proceed to measures
of security or of protection. Scaffolding appeared at first
the only means of effecting the desired examination, without
stopping the works. Balloons were afterwards proposed,
but were considered not so likely a means of accomplishing
the end in view, although the celebrated Mr Green, on being
applied to, offered the use of a balloon, and his own personal
superintendence of the ascent. During the erection of the
chimney, in 1841,—while Mr Colthurst, civil-engineer, was
superintending the laying of the foundations, and erection of
the first 80 feet of the great chimney,—an accident occurred
to a chimney of a cotton-factory in the neighbourhood of St
- Rollox, which rendered it highly desirable that some one
should go to the top of the chimney. Scaffolding would have
cost L.20. Mr Colthurst suggested that, by driving staples
into the joints of the brick-work, a man might be able to

218 Description of the Great Chimney at St Rolloz.

climb to the top safely and very cheaply. A man was got
who undertook to carry out the suggestion, and actually
went up the outside of a chimney 112 feet high, threw down
a loose coping-stone from the top, and descended; the
whole job occupying two days. Working upon this sugges-
tion of Mr Colthurst, we contrived the Climbing-Machine, for
examining the rent in the great chimney, at a height of 280
feet from the ground. The drawings are a correct represen-
tation, and shew the details of the machine, in which two
men worked themselves up 280 feet on the chimney in the
course of nine days, including the time occupied in filling up
the rent.

Instead of the AA staples on which the climber set his
foot, and held on by means of a band with a hook to it,
which, passing round his waist, or rather under his arms,
supported him while driving in a new staple at the level of
his head, or nearly so ;—instead of this, in the original, the
new machine is so arranged, that two men working in it,
bore or ‘‘ jump” two holes in the brick-work, to receive two
lewises. The ropes being hooked on to the lewis on each
side, the machine is moved up by means of the ratchets and
pall worked by the men. A movement of about 5 feet is thus
made. The safety-chains are then put on to the pins, or
lewises, besides the hooks of the ropes. The men, thus se-
cure, go to the top stage of the machine, and, working"there,
drive each a new hole to receive a new pair of lewises ;
which being well fixed, the ropes are taken off the first
lewises, and put on to the new pair. While the machine és
in motion, the men were at first dependent on the ropes alone,
but by attaching the vertical racks, which constantly press
outwards against the pins, it was very improbable, or scarcely
possible, that, even should the ropes break, the machine
could fall more than 2 inches before being brought up by the
ratchets catching on the pins.

On gaining the position of the rent, a strong pulley was
fixed in the chimney, through which a rope was passed, ex-
tending to the ground; and to this point an ascent can
very easily be made at any future time. The persons em-
ployed were s/aters by trade, an old and a young man. It was

Description of the Great Chimney at St Rollox. 219

made a principle not to bribe any one to undertake the job.
The men worked at wages of 5s. per day, or little more than
their ordinary wages. They were steady, sober, active men ;
and credit is due to them for the excellent manner in which
they did the work. Mr Gordon or Mr Hill went up with the
machine each day; and, after careful examination and deli-
beration, concluded that the rent is an effect of expansion
from heat. Though the fissure was found in one place to
be 2 inches wide, and its average width to be nearly 1 inch,
yet the nature of it was such, that a rod could not be put
through the fissure to the inside of the chimney. It would
have been very desirable to have got a thermometer into the
interior ; but not having succeeded in getting it through the
fissure, the expedient of driving a hole for the purpose was
not adopted at the time, from its being inconvenient; and
so the opportunity was lost. It may be mentioned, however,
that red-hot matter has been more than once observed pro-
jected in a column from the top of this 432 feet high chim-
ney. The temperature in the chimney, near the top, is pro-
-bably seldom under 600° F.

Description of Climbing Machine. (Plate V1).
‘Fig. 1. is a side view.
... 2. is a back view.
... 3. a plan across the windlass.

The frame, which was as light as possible, consistent with proper
strength, was about 10 feet high, 3 feet deep, and 4 feet wide; the
beams next the stalk projected about 15 inches further at each end.
W is the windlass, worked by the ratchet-handles HH. PP, two pul-
‘lies fixed to windlass, round which the ropes were wound when the
machine was ascending. L L, the lewises, securely fixed into the chim-
ney, and to which the ropes were hooked. The heads of these lewises
were bent at a right angle, so as to overlap the long plates II, by which
means the machine was held close to the chimney. F FF F, four fric-
tion-rollers, to prevent the machine from rubbing against the stalk. SS,
two short chains, which were used for holding up the machine while the
ropes RR were being shifted to a new set of lewises, for another lift.
K K, two long racks, which were hung on pins at O0O.—They worked
into, or against, the two under lewises, and were used in order to pre-
vent the machine from falling, in case any accident should happen to

_the ropes.
By working the handles backwards and forwards, the machine. was
sent up a lift of 5 feet in a few minutes. Two catches (not shewn in
the drawing) worked into the teeth of the windlass wheels, and pre-

220 Mr Bryson on Baily’s Compensation Pendulum.

vented their recoil. When the men were boring the holes for the
lewises in the stalk, they stood on the upper floor or board U; and the
jumpers used to bore the holes were worked through guides fixed to the
frame of the machine. At the end of a day’s work, the lewises were
taken out and used over again in the next day’s ascent. The ascent of
280 feet occupied nearly nine days, including the time spent in repairing
the rent. The men were hoisted to the cage by a windlass on the ground,
the rope from which worked over a large pulley within the machine.

Report of the Committee of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, on
the Climbing-Machine, used at St Rollox by Professor Gordon
and Mr Hill.

The Committee having examined the apparatus employed by Professor
Gordon and Mr Hill for ascending the chimney of St Rollox, and the
accompanying description of it, beg leave to report as follows :—

First, The application of machinery to the ascent of high elevations,
under similar circumstances, so far as the reporters know, is new.

Second, The mechanical arrangements for raising the cradle, and also
for preventing its fall, are simple and well devised.

Third, Its use at St Rollox is the best proof that the reporters can
adduce of the success of its practical application. They have, therefore,
to recommend it to the favourable notice of the Society, and to suggest
that it be printed in the Transactions,

(Signed) DAVID STEVENSON, Convener.
Gro. BucHANAN.

Gro. GLOVER.
EDINBURGH, 21st January 1845.

On a Method of rendering Baily’s Compensation Pendulum in-
sensible to Hygrometric Influence. By Mr ROBERT BRYSON,
F.R.S.E., Watchmaker, Edinburgh. Communicated by
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts.*

The well-known law by which all bodies expand by the in-
erement of heat, and contract by its decrement, is every day
brought under the notice of the watchmaker. To-day the
temperature is high, all his time-keepers are slow ; to-mor-
row it may be frost, and they inevitably gain upon their rate ;
to obviate these inconveniences, many contrivances have been
resorted to under the name of compensation balances and
pendulums.

* Read before the Society, 13th January 1845.

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Sitar New Fil. Jour PLATE VI

Professor Gordon & M Hill's
CLIMBING MACHINE

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Mr Bryson on Baily’s Compensation Pendulum. 221.

George Graham, the inventor of the clock escapement
which bears his name, was the first who succeeded in com-
pensating a pendulum for thermal changes. In December
1721, he attached to a clock a compound pendulum composed
of a single steel-rod, fixed to a stirrup or frame, carrying a
glass jar filled with mercury. The effect from expansion of
the rod downwards was thus counteracted by the increased
length of the column of mercury raising the centre of oscilla-
tion ; thus maintaining the equality of rate in all tempera-
tures.

This elegant invention was no less remarkable in its sim-
plicity than in the fact, that not the slightest improvement
has as yet been made on this, the first, regulator of Graham.

The expense of this most accurate pendulum is, however,
considerable, and many attempts have been made to obtain
a cheaper substitute ; this desideratum has been ably sup-
plied by the late lamented Francis Baily, Secretary of the
Astronomical Society of London.

This pendulum consists of a leaden cylinder attached to arod
of the common pine (Pinus strobus), and is thus described by
the inventor :—“ Take a cylindrical deal-rod of a convenient
size, but not less than 46 inches in length, about 3 of an inch
diameter ; procure a leaden cylinder, with a hole through the
centre which will freely admit the end of the rod, and of such
a length, that when put in the lathe it may be reduced to
the required standard of 14.3 inches, and to the required
weight. It will be more convenient to have this cylinder too
long rather than too short, since we may readily diminish its
length, if, on trial, it should be found to over-compensate the
pendulum.’’*

The following are the respective weights, as given by
Baily, of a leaden cylinder 14.3 inches long, and having a
hole through the centre equal to 3 of an inch diameter.

Diameter of Cylinder. Weight of Cylinder.

1} inches. 6.56 lbs.
1 ee 9.73 ...
ee 47:
Zi ieee 17.80)...
i alae’ 22.70 ...

* These dimensions are on the assumption, that deal expands
1000022685 of its bulk for 1° Fahrenheit, and lead .0000159200.

222 = Mr Bryson on Baily’s Compensation Pendulum.

This eminent astronomer has not taken into account any
influence on his pendulum-rod by hygrometric change, an
effect much more appreciable in a deal-rod pendulum, and,
therefore, detrimental to its usefulness, than the mere ther-
mal effect. The method adopted for the purpose of rendering
the rod insensible to a humid atmosphere, is first to deprive it
of its natural and acquired moisture by baking ; and, secondly,
to prevent its absorption either of air or moisture, by long
immersion in copal varnish. This covering is found to pre-
serve more effectually the wood from such influences than any
hitherto tried. The apparatus employed is very simple and
convenient, as it can perform the operation of baking in less
than an hour. It consists of a piece of clock-work A, giving a
rotatory motion, by means of a spring, to the hollow cylin-
drical tube B, supported by two friction-wheels, on which it
revolves, as seen at the left side of the figure. Cis a flexible
pipe supplying gas to a tube below, marked D D; this tube
is pierced by ten or twelve small apertures, from which the
gas burns and heats the upper tube B, containing the pendu-
lum-rod. This upper tube is also pierced with a series of holes

CNT

LO

for the purpose of permitting the escape of the moisture of
the rod, these apertures being placed between the jets of
gas so as to prevent the heat acting on the contained wood.
Wire-gauze was tried above the gas-tube D D with good effect,
as it caused the complete combustion of the gas, and there
was, consequently, no deposition of carbon on the revolving
tube, which, when deposited to any great extent, robbed it of
much heat. The pendulum-rod, before baking, is to be finish-
ed in all its parts, with screw below and suspending-tube
above. This is a necessary precaution, as if baked before
mounting, moisture would be absorbed at the ends, thus ren-
dering the instrument less perfect. When the rod is finished,
it is to be placed in the revolving tube B, and exposed to
the flame until no moisture can be perceived issuing from the.

Mr Bryson on Baily’s Compensation Pendulum. 223

apertures ; by moving the rod backwards and forwards in
the tube at intervals of a few minutes, it will be regularly
heated throughout its whole length. While hot, it is then
plunged into a tube filled with copal varnish and allowed to
remain during twenty-four hours. When removed, the var-
nish must be slowly evaporated in a warm situation, and,
when dry, is ready for use.

For the purpose of ascertaining how far the process was
successful in rendering the rod insensible to humidity, an un-
baked and unvarnished pendulum was tried, the rod was 3 of
an inch diameter, and had a leaden cylinder 14.3 inches long.
The clock, to which it was attached, was set a-going early
in April 1842, and on the 9th its rate was observed gaining
9 seconds per day. It was placed in the front of the shop in
Princes Street, where it was exposed to a dry atmosphere
during ten days; the mean indication of the hygrometer
(Leslie’s) being 29.3 degrees, the mean daily rate of the clock
being 9”.5 gaining. The pendulum being fixed, the clock was
removed, on the 19th, to a cellar 10 feet below its former
situation, when its rate was observed, in a few days, to have
changed to 6".5 gaining per day, the hygrometer shewing 8
degrees only of dryness ; in this situation it remained during
ten days, its error always observed, as in the first experiment,
at noon. The mean result of these ten days exhibited a gain-
ing rate of 6".1 per day, while the mean indication of the
hygrometer was 9.9 degrees of dryness. Tliese observations
will be more clearly understood by reference to the annexed
tables, which contain the details of the experiments. In the
experiment now under consideration, the pendulum was sup-
posed to be nearly compensated ; no correction is, therefore,
required for the thermal differences shewn in the tables.
The mean range of the barometer, during the period of the
two first experiments, was 0.256 inches, giving a correction,
for difference of density, = — 0’.076 to be applied to the
clock’s rate in the cellar, we have then the rate = 6”.024.
_ This rate will be still further reduced if we correct it for the
difference of height, which, being 10 feet, gives a correction
= — 0’.055 for diminution of gravity, making the corrected
rate of the clock in moist atmosphere = 5’.969 gaining per
day,

It is, therefore, evident that a dry well-seasoned rod un-

224 Mr Bryson on Baily'’s Compensation Pendulum.

baked and unvarnished, will lose on its rate per day 3’.53
by a change in the humidity of the atmosphere, equivalent
to 19°.4 of Leslie’s hygrometer.

The third experiment possesses little interest further than |
verifying the first, and shewing the tendency of the wood to
regain its former condition, when the humid was exchanged
for a drier atmosphere.

We may now contrast with the above the effect produced
by baking and varnishing.

Accordingly, the fourth and fifth experiments exhibit the
rate and the conditions under which it was obtained, after the
rod had been baked, varnished, and properly dried as de-
scribed. In these two experiments we have a mean differ-
ence of 19.6 degrees of the hygrometer, while the barometer
exhibits a mean difference of (328 inches, giving a correc-
tion = + 0”.098 to be applied to the clock’s rate in the cellar,
which makes it = 2’.758, this quantity being corrected, as
before, for diminution of gravity, makes the corrected rate
in.the cellar = 2’.703.

From these observations the change of rate pnciieni by
hygrometric influence, is reduced by this method of treating
the pendulum rod from a variation of 3’.53 to 0’.37 of a second
per day; a quantity which in most time-keepers would be
entirely disregarded. We have, therefore, a pendulum nearly
perfect at a cost very little exceeding those attached to ordi-
nary clocks, and fitted for most general purposes to which
astronomical regulators are usually applied.*

The quantity of moisture thrown out by the baking process
is very considerable, a rod weighing, before heating, 900
grains, lost 130 grains, a second 152 grains, a third 107
grains of moisture. These rods were cut from the library
shelves of the Karl of Stair, fitted up in his house in the
High Street. They must have been in that situation for nearly
two centuries, and would certainly be called well-seasoned ;
yet we see in the great amount thrown out, an affinity for
moisture Doseensed by WBey few solid substances.

* Among many Finis to beitlonien eminent in science, we may
state six were observed by Sir Thomas Brisbane and the late lamented
Professor Henderson, who have both, from an experience of two years,
spoken highly of the performance of this pendulum.

Mr Bryson on Baily’s Compensation Pendulum. 225

lst Experiment. Pendulum-rod unbaked (clock in dry atmosphere).

| ]

Fast. Rate. Hygrom, Ther. | Barom,

1842. oT dh ‘ “ | ° a | In.
April 9. Noon. |0 9.0 | 0 9.0 27.0 54.5 | 30.249
SEL. ae 0185 |0 95 23.0 53.5 30.220
Ei: 0 28.0 |0 95 | 40.0 56.5 | 30.252
£2. 037.5 |0 95 | 31.5 54.0 | 30.200
13. 0 47.0 |0 95 | 33.5 | 55.0. | 30.140
14. 0 57.0 | 0 10.0 25.0 | 53.0: | 30.148
15, 1 7.0 | 0 10:0 26.0 54.0. | 30.231
16. EG) | Ouse 35.0 54.0 | 30.241
ie 1 26.0 |0 9.5-| 27.0 55.0 | 30.198
ES. oases 1 35.5 |0 9.5 | 25.0 53.0 -| 80.118
0 9.5 | 293 | 542 | 30.199

2Qd Experiment. Pendulum-rod unbaked (clock in moist atmosphere).

|,

1842.
April 26. Noon.
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1842.
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VOL. XXXVIII. NO. UXXVI.—APRIL 1845. P

226 Dr Davy on some Experiments tending to illustrate

4th Experiment. Pendulum-rod baked aud varnished (clock in
dry atmosphere).

Fast. Rate. Hygrom. Ther. Barom

1842. : Ve 3 y e In,
May 27. Noon. 2.0 |0 2.0 20.0 57.5 29.682
Steet jee 4:0) 108920 20.0 58.5 29.718
29 6.0 | 0 2.0 17.0 60.0 29.772
0 |0 2.0 30.0 59.0 29.626
0 3.0 31.0 61.0 29.622
0 3.0 | 33.0 58.5 29.944

0 2.3 25.1

5th Experiment. Pendulum-rod baked and varnished (clock in
moist atmosphere).

Hygrom.,

1842.
June 3. Noon.

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An Account of some Experiments tending to illustrate the
Formation of Guano. By Joun Davy, M.D.,F.R.SS. Lond.
& Ed., Inspector-General of Army Hospitals, L.R. Com-
municated by the Author.

From the analysis of guano, both of the South American
and African kind, it appears that this excellent manure con-
sists mainly of insoluble phosphates, and of nitrogenous
compounds,—the one, it may be inferred, derived from the
feces, the other from the urine, of sea-fowl; with this marked
difference, however, in regard to the latter, that the oxalate
of ammonia is more abundant in them than the lithate, of
which, as it is well known, the solid urine of birds is chiefly
composed.

os,

the Formation of Guano. 227

As we know that the sun’s rays have, in many instances,
a remarkable effect as a chemical agent, it occurred to me as
probable, that the oxalic acid found in guano might be pro-
duced from the lithic acid of the urine of birds, in conse-
quence of the agency of the light of the sun, aided by an
accompanying high temperature, such as must prevail in a
tropical climate.

To submit this conjecture to the test of experiment, a por-
tion of the solid urine of the white-headed sea-eagle, slightly
moistened with water, was put into a glass tube, with a cork,
having a small notch in it to allow of the entrance of air,—
and suspended against a southern wall, where it was exposed
to sunshine or strong light the greater part of the day. The
experiment was commenced on the 20th of last March, and
continued till the 3lst of May. During this period of 70 days,
the weather, a great part of the time, was unusually fine
and dry; only 5 inches of rain fell from the 20th of March
to the 30th of April, and only .13 of an inch from the 1st to
the 31st of May; and more than half the time, viz., about
47 days, there was bright sunshine. The range of tempera-
ture at the same time was great, even in the shade, extend-
ing from below the freezing point, which it often was during
the clear nights, to 60° and 65° by day.

The urine of the sea-eagle, the subject of the experiment,
previously examined, was found to consist chiefly of lithate
of ammonia, with a little animal matter, and to be entirely
destitute of oxalic acid. After exposure, it was found, on
examination, to contain a small proportion only of lithic acid,
and a large proportion of oxalic acid in combination with
ammonia. Its resemblance now to guano was remarkable.
It had a strong ammoniacal odour, mixed with the peculiar
odour of guano. Under the microscope, it was found to
abound in prismatic crystals, such as occur in guano, and
which, as they were soluble in water, and yielded, with mu-
riate of lime, a copious precipitate of oxalate of lime, were
evidently crystals of oxalate of ammonia; and, in accordance
with this composition, a portion of them put by have remained
unaltered in their form, after exposure to the air now more
than six months. With the odour of the guano, the lower

228 Dr Davy on some Experiments tending to illustrate

portion of the mass had acquired a brown colour, not unlike
that of guano, and, like its colouring matter, soluble in
water; whilst its upper surface was almost colourless, being
formed chiefly of oxalate of ammonia, nearly pure, in needle
crystals, visible to the naked eye, collected in little stella-
form groups, presenting, even in this circumstance, another
resemblance to guano, in which often light-coloured masses
are met with, composed principally of the same salt.

The next experiments made were of a comparative kind,
with a view to endeavour to determine whether the action
of light is really essential to the conversion; whether the
presence of atmospheric air is essential ; and whether lithic
acid, uncombined with ammonia in its pure state, is capable,
under the influence of light, of being changed into the oxalate
of ammonia.

Accordingly, a portion of the same urine of the sea-eagle,
moistened, was exposed to light as before; another portion
was put by in a dark place; a third was confined over mer-
cury in a glass tube, in which was a measured quantity of
atmospheric air, and so placed as to be well exposed to light
and sunshine ; and, lastly, a portion of lithic acid, moistened,
was similarly exposed, but not confined over mercury.

These experiments were begun on the 7th of last June,
and they were continued until the 15th of October. During
this time, comprising 100 days, there was a much larger
proportion of gloomy weather than during the period of the
first experiment ;—this is pretty correctly indicated by the
number of days in which rain fell, viz. 80, and the total
quantity of rain, viz. 26.05 inches, as measured by the rain-
gauge; and at the same time the atmospheric temperature
was more uniform, with few exceptions, cool by day, and not
cold at night.

The result of the experiment No. 1, namely, that in which
the moistened urine of the sea-eagle was exposed to light,
atmospheric air not being excluded, was similar to that of
the preceding, but less strongly marked.

The result of the 2d experiment, namely, of that in which
the urine, moistened, had been kept excluded from light, was,
too, generally similar: the urine was found to have an am-

the Formation of Guano. 229

moniacal odour, mixed with one slightly putrid, and to con-
tain some oxalate of ammonia, as was shewn both by the
microscope and by chemical examination, but in proportion-
ally less quantity than in that under the influence of light.

In the 3d experiment, that in which the urine was confined
over mercury, in a limited portion of atmospheric air ($ cubic
inch), the volume of the air was little changed, but its com-
position greatly. At the commencement of the experiment,
it consisted, as atmospheric air, of 21 oxygen and 79 azote ;
at the termination, it was found composed of 64 carbonic
acid (so much was absorbed by lime-water), and of 36 azote.
The solid urine had no sensible smell of ammonia; it afforded,
however, indications of the presence of oxalate of ammonia,
but in a very minute quantity, merely a trace, and without
any smell, at least that I could perceive, of the volatile
alkali.

The result of the last experiment, namely, that in which
pure lithic acid in its granular state was exposed to light,
atmospheric air not being excluded, was altogether negative:
its colour was not altered, nor its granular form; it had
acquired no smell of ammonia; and, carefully tested for oxa-
late of ammonia, not a vestige of this salt could be detected.
It may be mentioned, that it was obtained by precipitation
by dilute muriatic acid from a solution of lithate of ammonia
in water.

From the results of these experiments, and considering the
composition of the lithic and oxalic acids, the former con-
taining the elements of the latter, and of ammonia, but with
excess of carbon, may it not be inferred, that though the
light of the sun is not essential to the conversion of the
lithate of ammonia into the oxalate, it promotes and accele-
rates the change; and, further, that the presence of atmo-
spheric air is required for the change, the excess of carbon
uniting with the oxygen, and separating in the form of car-
bonic acid gas? And, in confirmation of this, it may be
mentioned, that though the urine of the sea-eagle alone,
moistened with water, subjected many hours to the tempe-
rature of 212°, yielded no oxalate of ammonia, it afforded a

230 Dr Davy on some Experiments tending to illustrate

notable portion of this salt, when exposed to the same tempe-
rature, mixed with some black oxide of manganese; and, it
may be worthy of remark, that, in this instance too, a brown
soluble matter appeared to be developed.

From the negative results of the experiments in which
lithic acid, moistened, was exposed to light, may it not be
inferred that the presence of some foreign matter, acting as
a leaven, is necessary to excite, and, with oxygen, to effect,
the conversion of the lithate of ammonia into the oxalate ?
In corroboration, I may remark, that on the addition of am-
monia to the lithic acid, converting it into lithate of ammo-
nia, the same negative results were obtained, after exposure
to light, not excluding the access of atmospheric air during
a period of 74 days, namely, from the 15th of October to the
29th of December.

To return to guano.—Comparing the Peruvian with the
African, I have always found, in accordance witb the preced-
ing remark relative to the influence of the sun’s rays, a
larger proportion of lithate of ammonia in the former than
in the latter :—in the latter, indeed, I have never found more
than a trace of this substance, and in many specimens I have
not been able to detect even a trace of it; instead, there has
been a large proportion of the oxalate. May not this be
owing to the different states of atmosphere on the two coasts ;
the one always shrouded by clouds intercepting the direct
rays of the sun, and enfeebling their action; the other com-
monly clear, permitting the sun’s rays to act with full
effect? And may not the short time in which the conversion
of the lithate of ammonia into the oxalate takes place, as
shewn in the first experiment detailed, help to explain the
absence of the lithate even in specimens of guano taken from
the surface, and of recent production? Such a specimen I
lately received, brought from the island of Ichaboe, off the
African coast, described ‘‘ as having been scraped off a rock,
where it was in a thin layer, much exposed to the sun,” in
which I could not detect the smallest quantity of lithate of
ammonia, but abundance of oxalate. The effect of the sun’s
rays in accelerating the conversion of the lithate into the

PS Py

the Formation of Guano. 231

oxalate of ammonia in guano, or in the urine of the sea-eagle,
seems to be like that which it exercises on lithic acid, mois-
tened with nitric acid, in converting it into the purple com-
pound—the test of lithic acid. The change, as is well known,
does not take place at common temperatures—a pretty high
temperature is required to effect it; but I find that, when
exposed to the direct rays of the sun, it is rapidly effected,
and that even when the temperature is kept low, by having
had the platina capsule in which the mixture was made, in
contact with water.

In the experiments in which the urine of the sea-eagle was
exposed to light, moistened, in a limited portion of atmo-
spheric air, I have stated that the volume of azote remaining
at its termination, was 36 only, instead of 79, the proportion
in which it existed at the commencement,—seeming, conse-
quently, to indicate clearly an absorption of azote.

Should such an absorption of azote be proved, by farther
inquiry, to accompany the conversion of the lithate into the
oxalate of ammonia, in the instance of the formation of
guano from the excrements of birds, it will be an interesting
fact in the economy of nature, and may help, with the gene-
ration of nitre, to account for there being no change, as far
as has hitherto been determined by experiments, in the com-
position of the atmosphere ;—the great principles of equili-
brium being, on the part of vegetables, the separation of
carbon, and the evolution of oxygen from carbonic acid gas,
the product of combustion and respiration ;—on the part of
disintegrating rocks, such as contain alkali and lime, and of
the excrements of birds, and probably of animals generally,
undergoing decomposition, the absorption of azote—its sepa-
ration from the atmosphere, to form either nitre or ammonia ;
designed, in their turn, to fertilize the soil, and promote
vegetation.

Tue OAKS, AMBLESIDE,
December 30. 1844.

( 232 )

On the Heights of Mountains, &c., in Norway.

Our geographical works and books of travels are, for the
most part, singularly vague and inaccurate on the subject of
the heights of mountains, mountain-passes, &e., in Norway,
and very incorrect as to the orthography of the names. We
are therefore glad that the means of remedying these de-
fects, so far as the present state of knowledge admits of, are
amply supplied in the Second Part of Keilhau’s Gaea Nor-
vegica, which we have just received. A long chapter of that
important work is devoted to elaborate tables of heights, which
have been carefully prepared from the very best published
and manuscript sources of information,* by Captain A. Vibe,

* As many of the published works and memoirs which have afforded
materials for Captain Vibe’s Tables are entirely unknown in this country,
we subjoin a list of the principal authorities quoted by him :—

Professor B. M. Keilhaw :—Nogle Efterretninger om et hidtil ubekjendt Stykke
af det sondenfjeldske Norge, in Budstikken for 1820, p. 385.

—____—__—_ Reise i Oest og Vest-Finmarken; Christiania, 1831.
Reise i Nordre-Trondhjems-Amt, in Magazin for
Naturvidenskaberne, 2d series, vol. i.

Geognostiske Bem. over Oesterdalen, in Nyt. Maga~
zin f, Naturv., vol. ii., p. 1.
Reise i Lister-og Mandals-Amt i 1839, J. ¢., p.

333,

Reise til den éstlige Deel af Christiansands-Stift
i 1840, in Nyt. Mag. f. Naturv., vol. iii.

communicated to Captain Vibe.

Th. Broch, Captain of the Engineers :—lagttagelser til Hoidebestemmelser, &c.,
in Magazin for Naturv., 2d series, vol. ii., und in Nyt. Mag. f. Naturv.,
vol. i.

Professor C. Smith :—lagttagelser paa en Fjeldreise, 1812, in Top. Stat. Saml.,
part 2, vol. ii.

Lieutenant N. S. Wergeland :—Hoidemaalinger i Aarene, 1841, 2 og 3. MS.

R. Sukrland :—Maalinger paa Reiser til Trondhjem og Nordland i 1841 og
1843, MS,

Leopold Von Buch :—Reise fra Christiania til Bergen, in Top. Stat. Samlin-
ger, vol. i., p. 141.

Reise durch Norwegen und Lappland, Berlin, 1810.
(The heights given by Von Buch seem to be calculated according to Trem-
bley’s formula.)

Measurements made in the years 1841—2-3, and

On the Heights of Mountains in Norway. 233

of the Norwegian Engineers. Numerous determinations of
heights have been made in Norway during the last thirty or
forty years; but still, in a country abounding as it does in
extensive and very inaccessible mountainous districts, much
yet remains to be done in this department ; and thus we find
from Captain Vibe’s Tables, that the precise heights of the
highest summits of Norway, and, therefore, of Scandinavia,
have not been determined with certainty: this, however,
ought not to surprise us, when we remember how recently
Ben-na-muic-dui was ascertained to be the highest point in
Great Britain.

In Captain Vibe’s tables, the heights, which amount to
about 1200 in number, are given in round numbers in Rhenish
feet ; and where two or more good authorities have furnished

Professor C. F. Naumann :—Beitrage zur Kenntniss Norwegens, Leipzig,
1824.

Joh. Aschehoug, clergyman :—Reise til Fredrikshald, 1816. MS.

Everest’s Journey through Norway, &c., 1820,

Professor C. Boeck. og Prof. Keilhau :—Reise i Smaalehnene, 1834. MS.

G. Bohr :—Om lisbrxerne i Justedalen, in the periodical called ‘‘ Blandinger,”
vol. ii.

Lieut.-Ool. W. M. Carpelan :—Et Beség i Fjeldstuen 1823, in Mag. for Na-
turv., Jahrg. 2, vol. i.

—__—__—__—_——— Om en nermere Vei mellem Bergen og Chris-

tiania, in “ Budstikken”’ for 1824, p. 24.

Professor Esmark :—Reise til Trondhjem ; Christiania, 1829 (contains many
errors of the press, &c.).

—_—_——— Bemerkninger paa en Reise til Gousta-Fjeld, in Top.

Stat. Samlinger, 1st series, vol. ii.

C. Fearnley :—Indberetning om en Geognostisk Reise i Guldbrandsdalen,
1841. MS.

Professor C. Hansteen :—Geographiske Bestemmelser af nogle Punkter i Chris-
tianias Omegn, in Magazin for Naturv., 1824, H. iii.

Bemerkninger paa en Reise til Bergen i 1821, in
Budstikken, Jahrg. iii., p. 393.

W. Hisinger :—Anteckningar i Physik och Geognosie, &c., Upsala, 1819.

Tabeller ofver Hojdmatningar i Swerige och Norrige, Stock-

holm, 1829.

OC. H. Langberg, Director of the Mint :—Reise i Bergens Stift, 1834. MS.

P. I. Maschmann :—Hoidemaalinger med Barometer, foretagne i Tellemar-
ken, 1832. MS.

P. A. Schult, Director of Mines :—Nogle maalte Fjeldhdider i det Norden-
fjeldske, in Magaz. f. Naturv., vol. viii., p. 272.

Capt. Vibe’s own Measurements in 1842,

234 On the Heights of Mountains in Norway.

measurements, the mean numbers have been taken. Most
of the measurements were made with the barometer, but some
of the heights were determined geometrically.

The following selection contains the greatest elevations
above the level of the sea in the different mts or districts ;
and also the heights above the level of the sea of some of the
mountain-passes and other interesting localities, as well as of
the snow-line and of the limits of various forest trees. The
Rhenish feet have been converted into English feet, the
Rhenish foot being reckoned = 1.0297 English.

AGERSHUUsS-AMT.

Egeberg, near Christiania, . , ‘ 400
To-Aasen, Nzesodden, near Sey ‘ : 690
Skrebjergene, in Feiringen, ; 2430

Highest part of the road between Wateiaon aod Maridalen, 1310
Mjésen, the largest lake in Norway :—
a. When the water is low, at the end of December, 410
b. When the water is at its mean height, May and June, 430

SMAALEHNENES- AMT.
Linnekleppen, hill between Rakkestad and Oedemark, the

highest point in Smaalehnene, 1050
HEDEMARKENS-AMT.

Sodlen (Stor-Sdlen) in Lille-Elvedalen, Oesterdalen, . 6180
Solen (Solentind) in Reendalen, Oesterdalen, towards the

Femund Lake (conjectural), —. ‘ ' 6180
Tronfjeld in Ténsaet, Oesterdalen, . 5630
Pass between Kakhelledalen and Enunden ‘(chain ef the

Dovre), ' 3700
Plateau of Divine mean height on he same pass, 3600
Lake of Femund, Oesterdalen, ; 2250

Lake of Stub or Shae: on the boundary eee Tonset and
Quikne, and at the water-shed between Agershuus and
Trondhjems-Stift, ; ; 4 2260

CurisTIANS-AMrT.

Nautgardstinden between Sjodalen and Veodalen in the
mountainous district to the south of the Ota-Vand,
Guldbrandsdalen, : 7620

The highest mountain summits of Scandinavia belong +0 the
group of the Jotunfjelde, and, according to Broch, lie
to the south-west of Nautgardstinden, between the Gjen-
din Lake and the valley which bounds Mugnafjeld (Kal-
vaahigda) on the north. Broch estimates their height

On the Heights of Mountains in Norway.

at upwards of 8200 feet above the level of the sea, and
mentions the following names: Steinflybraepiggen, Glit-
tertinden, Svartdalspiggene, and Storhde. In 1841
and 1842 Wergeland determined the height of Glitter-
tinden, in Lom, Guldbrandsdalen, to be about

And with the assistance of a theodolite he estimated approxi-
mately the following heights :—

a. Ymesfjeld (Store-Galdhdpiggen), between the
Leera-Elv and the Visa-Elv, probably the high-
est mountain of the Jétun group, and the highest
summit in Scandinavia, nearly 500 feet ae
than Glittertinden, sagt

b. Highest Skagstolstind from 100 to 200 ee. lower
than Ymesfjeld, that is to say, .

ec. Tykningssuen and Heilstuguhée, 150 feet higher
than Nautgardstinden, therefore

d. Leerhée and Beshoe, the same height as Naut-
gardstinden, therefore :

e. Kjernhultinden, 200 feet aaa thin the last,
therefore

Kalvaahégda or Mumiafad in Valder ,
Snechetten (Dovre chain),
According to Naumann, Skreahig i is not neh igen:
Pass over the Filefjeld,
Summits of the Dovre Chain :—

a. Blaahat,

b. Liltverotind, ;

c, Fogstuhée (Graahée), between Serkind ad Fog-

stuen,

d. Storekuven, on me one side of the valley of

Dovre, ‘ : :
Jerkind, on the Dovre chain,
Highest point of the road between ae kind and Kengiool
(Dovre), :
Ronden, between Etnedalen and Seal, Galdhenmdedilen2—

a. Western Cone,

b. Northern Cone, termed Fee.

(Three peaks to the 8. are about 300 feet higher. )
Gjendin Lake, in Vaage, Guldbrandsdalen,

Buskerups- Amr.
Skogshorn in Hallingdal,
Krogkleven in Hole, Ringeri ise
Town of Kongsberg,

JARLSBERGS AND LAURVIGS-AMT.
Vettakollen in Laurdal, the last mountain of any consider-

235

8100

8550
8400
7770
7620
7820
7180
7600
4060

5350
5350

5690

4890
3140

4110

6400
6930

3250
5660

1230
500

236 On the Heights of Mountains in Norway.

able height met with in eee from Kongsberg to
Laurvig, ; : :

BRATSBERG-AMT.
Gousta-Fijeld in Tellemarken,
Highest point of the road between the Tind Lake and Skjerve
dalen, ;
Rukanfossen, warertell® in Pellamarken - —
a. Highest point of the fall,
b. Perpendicular descent of water, .

NEDEN#S AND RAaBYGDELAGETS-AMT.
Urddalsknuden, highest point of the Ruen mountains in
Hyllestad, 3

Mountain to the east of Varuolon: in Baile

LisTER AND Manpats-AmrT,
Grubbaafjeld in Lister,
Sméilebakken in Gustad:
Figgelandsheien, on the Orte- Vand,

STAVANGER-AMT.
Findalsrinden, NW. from Siredals-Vand, .
Highest point of the road between Vattendal and Suledole
Vand, : : ‘

SonprE-BEercGenuuus-AmtT.
Folgefonden :—

Aga-Nuten, .

Melderskin above Rosendal,

Hundsoira,

Regnenuten, .

Highest spot above J nian at he upper part ae the
Odde-Fjord, :

Sawaklep, one of the highest points to the aprile of
Folgefonden,

Solen-Nuten, portion of Folgefonden opposite Ullerisvang,

Highest point of the road between Reiseter and Jonda-
len (near Saxaklep),
Hallingjokelen, highest mountain in Har danger
Hartoug (Haarteigen, Hartangen) on Hardangerfjeld : —
Base, or Plateau of Hardangerfjeld :
Summit, .
Selheefonden, E, or SE. fae Safjorden i in Hardanger,
Voringsfoss, waterfall in Hardanger :—
HOl, farm-house, near upper part of the fall,

1540

6180
3610

2260
890

4640
3760

3600
2840
2840

2340

4190

4660
4690
5380
5370

5460

4630
4630

4520
5720

4860
5560
4730

2190

——

—

On the Heights of Mountains in Norway.

Height of the fall,
Height of the spot whence a view is obtained, ‘above
the commencement of the fall,
The Jettegryderne or Riesentipfe (Giants’ cauldrons) ¢ on the
mountains above Ousedalen, P ;

Norpre-BerGeNnHuvs-Amr.
Justedals-Breen, glaciers in Indre-Sogn :—
Bersetbreen, lowest limit,
Bjornestegbren, lowest Tien (descending, according to
Naumann, to the bottom of the as ane
Nigaardsbreen, lowest limit,
Glaciers of Lodal and Trangedal,
Skagstélstinderne in Indre-Sogn :—
Middle summit,
Eastern summit (Hur ee),
Glacier of Skagstélsbre in Indre-Sogn,
Suletind, Filefjeld,
Mi peaiue, post-station on ‘Be Filefjeld,

Romspats- Amr.

Romsdalshorn,
Tis- Vand, lake Gon which the Rep- -Ely atés its rise,

SonpRE-TRONDHJEMS- AMT.
Dovre chain :—
a. Kolla, seven English miles, NW. from Jerkind,
b. Nunsfjeld,
c. Rottesdhoe, seven English miles NE. fain Jer-
kind,
d. Pass between Lesss and Ficpaalor. :
Sylfjeld, on the Swedish frontier, between Szelbo and Jemt-
land, highest summit (Syltoppen), ,
Kongsvold, post-station on the Dovre, ‘
Réraas, mining town, ;
Lake of Oeresund, or Aursund, above Bitte

Norpre- TroNDHJEMS- AMT.
Jevsi-Fjeldene in Inderdens-F ogderie,

Norpianps-Amt,
Sulitelma, in the Fogderie of Salten, on the Swedish frontier
(determined by Wahlenberg),
Boundary between Norway and Sweden, mean height be-
: tween boundary stones No. 207 and No. 208,
Vessen, in the Fogderie of Helgeland,

237
480
180

2630

1480

1460
1090
1770

7650
8090
4540
5800
2600

4120
5020

5550
6800

5410
5770

5870
2990
2160
2320

4320

6180

3280

238 On the Heights of Mountains in Norway.

FINMARKENS-AMT.

Bensjortinden in the Fogderie of Senjen and Tromso,
North Cape, island of Mageroe,
Highest point in the island of Tromsé,
Tyvefjeld, near Hammerfest,
Pass from the valley of Malanger through the ravine of Audje-

Vaggie to the Torne bone j 5
Noonskar-fjeld, near Talvig,

HEIGHT OF THE Snow-LINE,

On the high mountain range to the south of the Ota- Vand,
in Guldbrandsdalen, 2 : :

On the Dovre chain,

Lodalskaabe, in Nordre Bergenhuus-Amt, i

Storhougen, between Lyster and Justedal, in Notre Ber-
genhuus-Amt,

Between Jélster and Indviggord't in Nordfjord,

Island of Seiland, north side, Finmarken,

Liuit oF THE Brrew TREE.
Near Héigien, a mountain in Quikne, Oesterdalen,
On the Dovre chain,
On the Filefjeld,
Gousta-Fjeld in Tellemarken,
Hardanger- Ejeld,
Near Réraas, in the neighbourhood of the Langen Lake;
Near the Stwe-See, Sindre-T rondhjems-Amt,
On the north side of Gusli Fjeld in Inderdens Pogderie,
Nordre Trondhjems-Amt, :
Between Jeusden and Inderdal, N. Trondh. =
Between Karasjok and Altenfjord in Finmarken,
Near Lédingen in Salten, Nordlands-Amt,

Limit or THE ScotcH Fir.
Near Finnebustilen, above Grungedal, Tellemarken,
In Brekkedalen, Lom, Guldbrandsdalen
On the Dovre chain (Von Buch, i. p. 202),

(Von Buch speaks of lakes from which the Foldals- Elv
takes its rise as the limit of the Scotch Fir; and if
the Vola Lake be meant, then the height is only
2990 feet).

On the south side of Faxefjeld, Swedish frontier, Oester-

dalen,

Near Oie-Vand in Lister;

In Romsdalen, :

On the Pass of Inderdal, in Taidedoens Fogderie, Nordre:

Trondhjems-Amt,

Near Lippa-jervi, Finmarken, on the frontier of Torneaa
Lapmark, ;

Near Lédingen, Nordlands- eat,

4000
1000

420
1250

1390
3550

4740
5350
5460

5350
4120
2970

3970
3470
3400
3390
3410
3500
2880

2200
1840
1600
1560

3120
2720
3680

2350
2060
2830

1790

1330
690

On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible. 239

Limit OF THE SPRUCE FIR.

In Stavedalen, Sdndre-Ourdal, Valders, : ; 8140
Strandseterkampen in Ringeboe, Guldbrandsdalen, . 2530
Near Foérres-Vand in Tellemarken, 2 j 2450
Gousta Fyjeld, Tellemarken, 3030
On the north side of the mountains hehrcan Geuriditen and
Holden Lake, Inderoens Fogderie, ‘ ; 2000
South side of the same mountains, A 1590
Between Limingen Lake and Joma-Fjeld in n' Nummedals:
Fogderie, Nordre- -Trondhjems-Amt, : t 1770

On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible compared with
the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. By MARCEL DE
SERRES.

The greater part of those who have meditated on the Sacred
Writings, have turned their attention rather to the religious
ideas contained in them, than to the accuracy and importance
of the physical facts exhibited in their pages. Finding in
these books, superior to all others that have been written,
truths essential to the destiny and vocation of man, they did
not think that they ought to seek in them light or informa-
tion respecting the material world, which has been given to
us as a subject for our researches and investigations. They
have thought the less of this, because in the eyes of some of
them such a consideration appeared alike futile and super-
fluous.

To make amends for this oversight, we shall concentrate
our examination on the physical facts contained in the Bible,
and which the sciences have made known to us only a short
time antecedent to the present. This we are the more called
upon to do, because we have here studied the Sacred Writings
only in one point of view, namely, with regard to the positive
notions they give us respecting the whole of creation. We
cannot too often repeat, that, in the examination on which we
are about to enter, we have looked upon Scripture with the —
eye of a natural philosopher, not of a theologian ; the ma-
terial world has alone attracted our regard.

The most important point, relative to the creation, and of
which we have still no knowledge but from the Bible, is the

240 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

distinction which it establishes between the creation of the
universe and its co-ordination. Thus, in the beginning (im
principio), all the matter which compose the earth and
heavens was created ; afterwards, this matter was appro-
priated and formed the stellar and planetary bodies of the
solar system, as well as those of other systems.

We have already shewn elsewhere on what grounds this
interpretation rests; it appears particularly obvious when
we direct our attention not only to the first verse of Genesis,
but to those that follow, particularly the 7th, 8th, 9th, and
10th verses of the first chapter. It is useless, therefore, to
insist longer on this point. We shall merely observe, that
physical facts demonstrate the accuracy of this interpretation.
Undoubtedly the whole of matter had been created at the be-
ginning of things, and probably no new matter is formed.
But it was not co-ordinated nor organised at the origin of
time in its universality ; for every day celestial bodies are
produced, under our own eyes, which are the result of the
condensation of this same matter. It will continue unceas-
ingly to become condensed, and will form stars more or less
complete, as long as any of it remains capable of assuming
new forms and new dispositions.

If such concretions are still preparing and organising
celestial bodies, it is evident such formations indicate to us
that if matter proceeded from nothing at the first, it was not
appropriated till a long while after its creation. This process
is constantly carried on in the ordinary course of things ; far
from being completed, many ages will elapse before it has
reached its limit. It is with reason, therefore, that the
Sacred Writings have distinguished the creation of matter
from its posterior arrangement.

The chaos in which Genesis represents all matter to have
been at the birth of the world (and particularly that which
afterwards formed the earth), is a proof that Scripture rightly
distinguishes creation and co-ordination. This matter, at
first without form and void, from which the globe we inhabit
arose, would appear to have been analogous to those nebulo-
sities, the condensation of which produces, under our own eyes,
new celestial bodies. At every period nature has thence de-

-

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 241

rived the elements with which she has formed the celestial
bodies composing the wonderful assemblage of the universe.
It is likewise from the bosom of these masses of nebulosities,
so abundantly diffused through space, that she draws the
stellar and planetary bodies.

It is a remarkable fact, that the cosmogony given in Ge-
nesis, is the only one that has established this distinction be-
tween the primitive creation of all matter and its co-ordina-
tion. Not long since, our knowledge was not sufficiently ad-
vanced to enable us to appreciate these great differences in
time and in things. Not less than seven thousand years were
necessary to enable us to comprehend the reality of such a
distinction, and to shew that it was founded on the nature of
things. We can now follow step by step these transforma-
tions of nebulous matter, and see it pass through different
states before producing stellar and planetary bodies analogous
to those of the solar system.

This distinction,* established by Scripture, is founded on
two orders of facts entirely independent of each other, and
which, owing to that circumstance, have their weight and
authority increased. The first refers to the transformations
which take place, in space, between nebulosities and the
new stars produced by their condensation. The second has
reference to the space of time necessary for the light of the
most distant nebulosities to reach us. This space is so con-
siderable, that, according to the observation of facts, we must
refer the first emission of this light to about a hundred thou-
sand years before the appearance of man.

* Not only does Genesis distinguish the creation of matter from its
co-ordination, but the same thing is observable in all the other books of
Scripture. Thus we find in Psalm xxxiii., verses 6th, 7th, and 9th, that
« By the word of the Lord were the heavens made ; and all the host of
them by the breath of His mouth. He gathereth the waters of the sea
together as an heap; he layeth up the deep in store-houses. He spake
and it was done; He commanded and it stood fast.” So much for the
spontaneity of creation. With regard to the posterior co-ordination of
the objects created at the beginning of time, we read in Psalm viii.,
verse 3d., ‘‘ When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the
moon and the stars which thou hast ordained.”

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. Q

242 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

If, then, the luminous rays emitted by nebulosities require
so long an interval in order to become visible, the stars which
transmit them to us must have been created before the last
arrangements were made on the surface of our planet. Now,
as these rays require about a hundred thousand years to reach
us, and as the final dispositions made on the earth do not go
back further than seven thousand or seven thousand five
hundred years from the present epoch, the stars to which we
owe this blessing must have been created at the commence-
ment of things, or, to use the expression in Genesis, at the
beginning—in principio. An immense interval must therefore
have intervened between the creation of the celestial bodies
and their co-ordination. This interval is still greater when
we turn our attention, not to the stars of the solar system,
but to those which form no part of it. In fact, the former are
completely terminated ; but it is not so with the others. This
work has, however, commenced at an era separated from ours
by immense periods, and the succession of ages has not suf-
ficed to complete it.

This co-ordination of a matter pre-existing since the origin
of things, cannot be considered as a true creation. The latter
could not take place unless the materials of which the celes-
tial bodies are composed had been derived from nothing by
the power and volition of the Creator. No doubt the conden-
sation of the nebulous matter causes that matter to assume
new forms ; but while acquiring these its nature is not
changed ; it only passes through different states. This ap-
propriation, and these different dispositions, assumed by a
substance already formed, cannot be likened to a real creation.

In this case there is, indeed, a change in the state and form
of the original materials, but there is no new production.
This production, however, would be necessary, in order that
these changes and modifications could properly be regarded
as acts emanating immediately from the creative power.

Matter being once created, secondary causes, under the
direction of Divine Wisdom, would tend to make it assume
determinate forms, and proceed in a regular course. Accord-
ingly, the forces which Nature holds in some degree in re-
serve, in order that they may be brought into action when

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 243

any disturbing cause threatens to interrupt the order and
harmony of created things, she also destines for acts still
more important. Their power, essentially conservative,
brings the newly produced celestial bodies into a firm and
stable condition—a character distinctive of stars arrived at
their perfection.

If the proofs of so many facts, the first knowledge of which
we owe to Moses, are written in indelible characters on the
strata which form the crust of the globe, those of the truth
of the first verse of Genesis are traced in characters of fire
on the celestial vault. It is there that we discover the con-
firmation of it, and perceive its perfect accuracy.

When we turn our attention to the immense assemblage of
nebulosities and stars sparkling in the firmament, the laws
of which the sacred writer has so distinctly perceived, we are
less surprised that he has discerned with the same sagacity
those which regulate and determine their movements. Moses
gives us to understand that the stability of the course of the
celestial bodies depends on their mutual gravitation, and
the extent of the distance which separates them.

It is true that he has not developed the system of attraction
in all its extent; but he has fixed its principles, without
expressing it in a scientific language which could not have
been understood. He leads us at all times to understand
that the law of gravitation regulates the phenomena of the
universe, that it is sufficient for all, and maintains in it both
order and variety. Emanating from Supreme Wisdom, this
law has presided, since the origin of time, over the harmony
of created things, and renders all disorder among them
impossible.

The discovery which enabled Newton to demonstrate that
bodies attract each other in the direct ratio of their mass,
and in the inverse ratio of the square of distance, is the noblest
triumph of the human mind. At the same time this law is
only the reduction of the celestial movements to a mechanical
law, the cause of which remains unknown. Newton did not

_ regard it otherwise, since he has employed the word only

conditionally, as presenting a sensible image of the phenomena
observed, quasi esset attractio.

244 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

If we represent this universal force as depending on some
more general mechanical conception, for example, the exis-
tence of an elastic ether diffused throughout the whole uni-
verse, there would still remain the why of this existence ; the
second why would immediately lead us to another still more
remote ; and the last of all must remain for ever inaccessible,
not only to the efforts of our thoughts, but even of our
imagination.

When Scripture speaks of the earth, it teaches us that
God has laid the foundations of it, and that it shall never be
shaken ; for he has fixed it upon its poles.* It then repre-
sents to usthe terrestrial globe as having passed, in its earliest
ages, through the state of a kind of vapour more subtile than
the most attenuated and finest dust. If it speaks of its form,
it represents its true spheroidal figure, and compares it to an
immense globe or vast sphere.t When it speaks of its
position in space, it represents it as suspended on nothing, or
on a bottomless space. It also correctly describes its di-
mensions and size. {

If it directs our attention to the heavens, it designates them
by their extent, rakiah. Notwithstanding the accuracy of
this interpretation, which represents the immensity of the
celestial spaces, the Greeks. in the Septuagint version, as well
as the Latins, in the Vulgate, have presumed to correct it,

* See Psalm civ., verses 5-9, ‘‘ God laid the foundations of the earth
that it should not be removed for ever. The deep covered it as a gar-
ment ; the waters stood upon the mountains. At His rebuke they fled ;
at the voice of His thunder they hasted away. They went up by the
mountains ; they went down by the valleys unto the place he had founded
for them. He has set a bound that they may not pass over; that they
turn not again to cover the earth.”

i + See Job chapter xxvi., verse 10; Proverbs viii., verse 27 ; Isaiah xl.,
verse 22. [Some of M. Marcel de Serres’s views regarding certain
passages of the Bible, are more fully borne out by Martin Luther’s Ger-
man version than by our English translation.—ED. }

t+ The Hebrew text bears that ‘‘ God has stretched over the void the

vault of heaven, (le septentrion), and suspended the earth on nothing,
(al belimah).” ‘The Greek reads “ KetwaZov yavixi? dive (Job xxvi. 7).

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 245

because they did not perceive the extent of its import, or
because they could not understand it.

The heavens, in the Bible, are the immense, infinite space,
through which the nebulous matter, the universal source of
all the celestial bodies, is diffused. They constitute the
expansum or immensity, and not the frmamentumof St Jerome,
nor the oregéwua of the Alexandrine interpreters, nor, finally,
the eighth heaven of Aristotle and all the ancients, which
they represent as firm, solid, crystalline, and incorruptible.

Moses alone has distinguished the primitive light from
that whose benefits we derive from the sun. He has repre-
sented it. to us as an element independent of this luminary,
and as anterior by three epochs to that when it received its
brilliant atmospheres. This particular in the account of
the creation, was long considered as irreconcilable with phy-
sical facts. The distinction has brought many reproaches
on the author of Genesis: those who uttered them, struck
with the splendour of the great luminary which presides over
the day, could not conceive that other sources of light existed
both for the earth and for the rest of the universe. But the
difficulties which have been felt, as to the accuracy of the
Mosaic narration, have not kept their ground before the dis-
coveries of science. In fact, an immense quantity of light is
produced here below, and developed in an infinite variety of
circumstances, altogether foreign from that we derive from
the sun. Of this nature is the light emitted by volcanic fires ;
also that accumulated on the surface of clouds, which is not
an intermittent, but continuous light. This light, produced
by their phosphorescence, was sufficiently bright, aided espe-
cially by temperature, humidity, and electricity, all of which
were more considerable in the first ages, to make vegetables
grow, before the solar rays had caused their powerful in-
fluence to be felt.

Neither does Moses represent the light as created, as
Biblical commentators have unreasonably supposed ; but he
represents it as bursting forth at the voice of God. The
author of Genesis, therefore, is rather in harmony with the
theory of vibrations or undulations, generally adopted, than

246 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

with the theory of emission, which cannot explain the whole
of the known facts.

In this point of view, the Hebrew lawgiver would have
appeared superior to Newton, if that great genius had not
himself been favourable to the hypothesis of vibrations,
although, for his explanations and calculations, he adopted
the theory of emission. It is in the letter written by him to
Boyle that he has endeavoured to demonstrate that the
vibrations of the ether, determining the phenomena of light,
may furnish an explanation founded on those of weight or
attraction.

The letter in which this great and beautiful conception
appears, has been published by M. Frederick Maurice, in the
Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve. This savant there shews
how simple it is, and conformable to the laws of nature, to
derive the principal and most important phenomena of the
physical world, from the pre-existence of a single fluid emi-
nently elastic and subtile. He shews us how, by means of this
mystical tie, Newton designed to co-ordinate all the move-
ments of the great bodies of the universe, and bring together
the whole physical facts to that first unity which renders
their co-ordination so admirable and wonderful.*

This same natural philosopher leads us to remark, that, in
this reference made by Moses to light, as existing and shining
with all its splendour, before there were any luminous bodies
destined to shed it in a constant manner on the earth, it is
difficult not to perceive a striking proof of the inspiration of
the Book which announces such a fact.

While admitting a light independent of the great lumi-
naries placed by the hand of God in the midst of the celestial
spaces, Scripture does not fail to direct our attention to the
magnificence and splendour of the solar rays. We are in-
formed that man cannot endure their brightness, when the
winds have cleared the sky, and when the north wind causes
the golden sun to shine.

* Newton’s letter to the Royal Society of London, written in 1675,
has been inserted in the History of that Society, published in 1756, by

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 247

When Moses turns his attention to the numerous stars
which impart to night its magnificence and beauty, his
knowledge appears superior to that of the ancient astrono-
mers, who, in their imperfect observations, have classified
only about a thousand.* He, on the contrary, multiplies
them to infinitude, and regards them as innumerable. Thus,
in a single word, he represents to us the immense quantity
of stars which compose the milky way, or which are dissemi-
nated through the celestial spaces. Continuing the examina-
tion, he compares them, as Herschel might have done, to
the grains of sand on the sea-shore. We might not, perhaps,
have seen any thing else in these expressions but a simple
figure, had not Scripture added, “ God has scattered them
with his hand in space like dust,’ and however great their
numbers, “‘ He names them all by their names.’”” When not
speaking of their numbers, but of the order and regularity of
their movements, Scripture compares them to an army advan-
cing to battle. It represents this celestial army as incomparable
for the multitude of its soldiers, and the perfection of its
evolutions. Filled with wonder at the magnificence of the
heavens, the Sacred writer exclaims, in rapture, “ They de-
clare the glory of the Almighty ; and, although without words
and voice, they do not the less proclaim his power and glory.”

However brilliant the stars disseminated through the im-
mensity of space, Scripture never supposes them to be ani-
mated, as the ancients imagined. Neither does it assign to
them any influence over human affairs. It regards them as
bodies called forth out of nothing by the voice of God, as inert
pieces of matter, regulated and submissive, proceeding with
the order, regularity, and unity, of an army advancing to
battle, and executing the decrees of his Supreme Wisdom.

Birch. With regard to that of Newton to Boyle, it has been translated
by Pictet, and may be found in the Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve for
1822. In this letter Newton admits the propagation of light by means
of the vibrations of an ether pre-existing and everywhere diffused.—See
the 21st verse of the xxxvii. chapter of the Book of Job.

* According to Hipparchus, there are not more than 1022 stars in the
heavens ; although the number was a little increased by Ptolemy, they
did not amount, in the eyes of the latter astronomer, to more than 1026.

>

248 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

It is thus that the Bible represents to us Him whose ma-
jesty is above the heavens, and who humbles himself even
when he looks upon the celestial vault. Between the ani-
mated representations which it gives us of this Infinite Being,
whom the universe cannot contain, and those which have
been handed down to us by the greatest geniuses of antiquity,
the distance is so great that no comparison can be instituted.
It is the same with the notions Scripture gives us and what
the ancient theogonies have transmitted respecting God, as
with what regards the material world and its formation.

Scripture is not less exact when it describes the different
constellations. It represents the Pleiades as owing their
lustre to a great number of stars placed close together. It
speaks, on the contrary, of the stars of Orion as remote from
each other, and in some measure, as it were, dispersed through
the celestial vault. In alluding to the brilliant constellation
of the Great Bear, it represents it as composed of an infinite
number of resplendent stars.

It is not only when considered in relation to these great
views, that Scripture appears in harmony with the discoveries
of science ; the fact is even more conspicuous when we regard
the phenomena of the material world in detail. Thus, when
it speaks of the air, it represents it as possessing a certain
weight, and surrounding the earth in moveable layers. In
fact in that admirable song of Solomon’s, where he describes.
the eternity of the Infinite Wisdom, does he not tell us that
it existed when God established the air above the earth, when
he assigned their equilibrium to the waters of the fountains,
and laid the foundations of the earth ¢*

In like manner, Scripture first informed us, ‘ That God
gave to the air its weight (mischkal), and to the waters their
just measure.’ Yet this property of the aériform fluid which
surrounds the earth remained unknown till the time of
Galileo and Torricelli. Atthe most, Aristotle had but a faint
idea of it, just as, at a later period, Seneca had some notion
of its resilience and elasticity.

This weight attributed to the air, has appeared so extra-

——_—__

* Proverbs, viii. 28, 29.

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 249

ordinary to all the interpreters of the Book of Job, where it
is literally stated, that, from not being able to comprehend
it, they have altogether misinterpreted it. All of them have
translated the expression rowach, which properly signifies the
air or the aériform layer which environs the globe, by the
term wind, although they have preserved its true sense to the
word mischkal, that is to say, heaviness or weight.

They have been led to do this, because they were unable
to conceive that the air could be heavy ; and, knowing from
experience that we encounter a certain resistance when moy-
ing against its beds or layers in motion, they have ascribed
weight to it on account of its strength and power. Instead
of following Scripture, and assigning to the air itself a cer-
tain weight, they have referred it to the agitation and im-
petuosity of its moveable strata.

The above interpretation once admitted, all commentators
who have followed the first translators have adopted the same
version, without attempting to ascertain whether it was con-
formable to the true sense of the Hebrew text.

If the old interpreters had understood the true sense of
the 7th verse of the 135th Psalm, they would have found in
it an additional proof of Scripture attributing weight to the
air. The Psalmist there praises God, ‘‘ Because he maketh
lightnings for the rain, and because he causeth the vapours
to ascend from the ends of the earth, and bringeth the winds
out of his treasuries.” The ascent of the aqueous vapours
in the midst of the air, is the consequence of their lightness
being greater than that of the atmospheric strata through
which they pass. Both the one and the other of them are,
therefore, heavy, and the excess of weight is here in favour of
that which, at the first glance, would appear destitute of it.

As they are regarded by Scripture, the aqueous vapours
are the source of clouds, whence the waters descend which
fertilise the fields, or lay them waste when they are too
abundant. They are, therefore, the cause of impetuous rains
and storms, when they afford a free passage to the light-
nings of thunder. Scripture thus recognises their density,
and that of the aériform stratum which affords them access
to the middle of its interstices.

250 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

The Bible thus represents to us the aqueous vapours as
constantly suspended in the air, and nature, by an admirable
system of circulation, as employing these vapours in the pro-
duction of clouds. the source of the rains which fecundate the
earth.* Scripture assigns to the atmosphere and to the upper
waters, that is to say, to the aqueous vapours suspended in
its bosom, an importance which modern science alone has
been able to establish. At least, according to the calculation
of the greatest natural philosophers, the force annually em-
ployed by nature in the formation of clouds, is equal to an
exertion which the whole human species could not accomplish
in less than 200,000 years.t

This ‘‘ separation of the upper waters from the lower
waters,” has taken place by means of the atmosphere, and
not by a solid sphere, as the greater number of the interpre-
ters of Genesis have erroneously supposed. In fact, the
Hebrew word rakiah, which we have rendered by interval or
firmament, is far from having the least relation to anything
firm or indurated. It rather designates a vapoury space,
that is to say, an aériform layer, but by no means a heaven
of metal, as Don Calmet has unreasonably imagined.

The Bible here indicates to us the importance of water in
the formation of the earth. It further informs us that, be-
sides the water diffused through the atmosphere, or which
covers the greater part of the surface of the globe,{ there
exist quantities, not less considerable, in the interior of the
globe. Its solid crust, it is stated, covers a great abyss : from

* See Job, chap. xxvi. 8; xxxvi. 27; xxxvii. 1] and 12; xxxviii.
25 and 27; Ps. Ixxvii. 17 ; Proverbs, viii. 28.

+ The reader may consult on this subject the calculations of Leslie
and Arago. The latter admits that about 800,000,000 of men form
the half of the population of the globe. In the calculation, the result
of which is given above, there would only be the half of that number en-
gaged in the work destined for the formation of clouds (Annuaire du
Bureau des Longitudes, 1835, p. 196).

{ Psalm civ. 25, makes us acquainted with the grandeur of the ocean
in these terms: This great and spacious sea. Zechariah describes its extent
by saying, the Messiah shall reign “ from sea to sea;” that is to say,
throughout the whole earth, Zechariah, ix. 10. See Amos, viii. 12;
Micah, vii. 12: Ps. Ixxii. 8.

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 251

this abyss the waters made a violent eruption at the period
of the Deluge, as at the time of chaos, and the innumerable
ages which had preceded it.*

Thus the Sacred Scriptures, antecedently to modern dis-
coveries, shew us the exterior crust of the earth issuing
from the bosom of the waters, and this same crust enclosing
in its interior an immense quantity of water in a liquid state.t+
These facts have been confirmed by observation and science.
Is it not consistent with common experience, that subter-
ranean waters are almost as abundant as those which flow
on the surface of the earth? The globe would appear to
contain in its interior, rivers, torrents, lakes, and perhaps
even seas. When the Bible speaks of the Deluge, it repre-
sents it as produced by impetuous and violent rains, the
flood-gates of heaven being opened. On the other hand, it
describes the waters enclosed in the bowels of the earth, as
having gushed up to the surface in torrents. They swelled,
at the same time, the exterior waters, which accumulated
and overflowed on every side, according to the energetic ex-
pression of Job. All these causes united produced this ter-
rible catastrophe, which brought destruction on the human
race, and which was followed by their renovation.{ Such
facts are still the cause, not indeed of deluges analogous to
that the violence of which the Bible describes, but of inun-
dations which afflict and desolate the earth at distant and

* See Genesis, vii. 11; Ps. Ixxvii.; civ.

+ According to Ps. cxxxvi. 6, the earth is founded and stretched out
above the waters: Quis firmavit terram super aquas?—“ The Lord has
founded the earth upon the seas, and established it upon the floods,”
Ps. xxiv. 2; “ Les géants gémissent sous les eaua,” Job xxvi. 5. [The
French and German versions of this passage differ from the English
translation—Ep.]| Moses wishes for Joseph, “ the blessings of the
deep that coucheth beneath,” that is to say, abundance of spring water,
Deut. xxxiii. 13.—[Several references are here made by the author to
passages of Scripture, which he regards as corroborating his statements.
These references, probably from typographical errors, are, in many
cases, obviously incorrect, and are therefore omitted.—ED. |

t See Job xxxviii. 8; Genesis vii. 11 (rupti sunt fontes abyssi et cataractes
coeli aperiuntur).

252 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible, -

rare intervals. The waters of the heavens are incapable of
producing them, as they were incapable of causing a cata-
clysm, such as that which occasioned the destruction of man.
In fact, the quantity of aqueous vapour diffused through the
atmosphere is too inconsiderable to produce deluges resem-
bling that of Noah, the extent of which physical facts suffi-
ciently attest.

Scripture does not confine itself to these particulars, in
order to enable us to understand that, besides the great
masses of water spread over the surface of the globe, there
exist others not less considerable in the interior. The earth
is founded and stretched out, it informs us, on the subter-
ranean waters: they are there assembled, as in a mass, in
the most secret places of its depth, whence they at times
escape to impart fertility to the most barren soils.*

Thus, when it describes the riches of the country of
Canaan, to which a wonderful exuberance of vegetation is
promised for the latter times, it represents it not only as
abounding in springs and fountains, but particularly in sub-
terranean waters. It seems thereby to anticipate the pro-
cess of perforation, by means of which the moderns have
succeeded in fertilising the most barren fields and the most
steril countries.

We find, moreover, in the Scriptures, proofs of the extent
of the seas in the early ages; they even contain some suc-
cinct details respecting the animals which inhabited them,
the greater part of which have preceded the species of the
dry and uncovered land. Such facts have required long
spaces of time for their operation. In truth, the numerous
generations buried in the old strata of the globe, and to
which the present existing races have succeeded, must have
lived during periods of greater or less duration, in order to
fulfil the end of their creation. This circumstance of itself
proves that the word tom used in Genesis, and which is
translated day, means rather indeterminate epochs, the dura-
tion of which it is impossible for us to fix.

While enabling us to understand the extent of the seas,

=

* See Ps. xxiv. 2; xxxiii, 7.

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 253

Scripture does not fail to declare to us that God has marked
out their limits, and has fixed their boundaries and barriers,
which they cannot pass over. In its poetical style it ex-
claims, “ Sea, hitherto shalt thou come, and no further ; and
here shall thy proud waves be staid.”’

In other places it points out the depth of the sea, and re-
fers to the greatness of its abysses, maintained by the waters
which issue from the bosom of the clouds. The rains also
quench the parched lands, and cause the grass of the mea-
dow to spring. With regard to the waters, they are some-
times converted into ice, and become hard as a stone: their
solidity thus accidentally gives solidity tothe surface of thesea.

It represents the frost as spread over the earth like salt,

and making the plants rough like the leaves of thistles.
When the cold north wind blows, the water becomes as
crystal. The frost rests on the whole mass of waters, and
renders them like an impenetrable breastplate.
_. When the snow falls on the earth, it extends itself over
it like a multitude of birds of passage lighting upon it in
flocks ; it spreads itself like hosts of locusts descending from
the clouds. The eye admires the brilliancy of its whiteness ;
but the mind is alarmed at the inundations it threatens.
Finally, when the bad weather ceases, the warm and moist
winds become felt, and with them the snow and frost disap-
pear. Thus, throughout, and at every step, Scripture indi-
cates to us the influence of the waters diffused through space,
and their effects on the earth.

The Bible, in order to give us an idea of the influence of
the central heat, does not confine itself to speaking to us of
that which it exercised on the waters of the Deluge ; it gives
us further information, when referring to the interior con-
dition of our planet. In fact, according to it, if the surface
of the earth furnishes to man the elements of his nourish-
ment, beneath the solid crust, “‘ The earth is,’’ nevertheless,
“on fire, and as it were turned up.”* The greater part of

* The Hebrew word thakhethejah, used by Job, chap. xxviii. 5, means
beneath *t. The text runs “ Itis from the earth that bread comes; and
beneath it, it is turned up, and as on fire.”

254 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

its crust, thus inflamed in the interior, is covered with water
on the surface. Above this liquid mass, continents and
mountains, which are its most elevated points, have risen up
to afford an asylum to man, as well as to terrestrial animals
and vegetables.

Who, then, has informed Job that the interior of the
earth was filled with such a burning heat ? Who has taught
him the existence of the central fire, the possibility of which
Buffon had conceived before the hypothesis had become a
demonstrated fact 2? We do not reply to this question, on ac-
count of the point of view under which we have considered
the Sacred Books.

We have reason to be surprised at thus finding in the
Bible physical truths so long misunderstood, or so long un-
known ; namely, the weight of the air and the central fire.
Notwithstanding the existence of this interior heat, the
effects of which it appreciates, Scripture does not fail to ad-
mit the extent and thickness of the solid crust of the globe,
which encloses immense quantities of water concealed in its
depths.

The Sacred Books, it is true, in giving us an idea of these
great facts, has not taught us them in the language of natu-
ral philosophers. Their language is never that of Copernicus,
Newton, Kepler, or Laplace. The reason which has pre-
vented the authors of these admirable books from doing this,
is one of the strongest that can be conceived. If they had
expressed themselves respecting the scenes of nature, not
as these present themselves to our eyes, but according to
the notions which philosophers of a future age might form
of them, they would certainly not have been understood,
even by the most enlightened minds.

Besides, the most advanced language of science is almost
in every instance only the language of appearances. The
visible and material world is, to a greater extent than is
supposed, a scene of illusions and errors. What we call
reality is often a mere figure, having a relation to a more
hidden reality, or to an analysis carried a further length.
Such an expression, in our mouths, has nothing absolute in
it; it is a relative term, which we employ in proportion as

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 255

we believe that we have ascended a new step in the profound
seale of our ignorance.

Above all, it was necessary that Scripture should be intel-
ligible to the most vulgar individuals, as well as to the most
learned. Let us not, therefore be surprised that it expresses
itself according to the habitual and familiar language of
science, and that, with it, it speaks of the stars rising, the
equinoxes retiring, the planets advancing and doubling their
speed, standing still, and moving backwards. We need no
longer be surprised that it speaks of the rising and the set-
ting of the sun, since these modes of expression are sanc-
tioned and adopted by the Annuaire of the bureau of longi-
tudes.

One circumstance may well surprise us, and that is, to find
in the Bible mountains distinguished into two classes, very
nearly in the same manner as they are distinguished by
science into primitive and secondary. Thus, in the 104th
Psalm, a composition of incomparable poetical beauty, the
prophet gives us an idea of the formation of the earth; he
represents it to us as still covered with the waters of the
deep as with a garment. The waters stood above all the
mountains, but many of these eminences became elevated,
and rose above their level; the waters then retired and
fled. New mountains then appeared, and valleys and plains,
the lowest parts of the globe, were formed at their feet.
Two principal epochs, then, must have been in the mind of
the prophet, from the time of the rising up of the heights
which appear on all parts of the globe; these two epochs
correspond to the formation of primitive and secondary
mountains.

Thus the prophet (Proverbs viii. 25) in speaking of the
elevation of mountains and hills, says that these events,
which have singularly modified the relief of the globe, had
their separate eras. Further, in the 97th Psalm, Scripture
represents the mountains to be melting like wax, nearly as
those might have done who had seen the rocks of Auvergne

_ or Cantal in a fluid state, or the basalt of the Giant’s Cause-

way melted like water.
The Bible then represents to us the mass of mountains

256 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

issuing from the bosom of the earth at the voice of God,
and rising above the plains and valleys. It gives us an ac-
count of the process of their elevation, in terms which might
have been used by a poetical geologist. ‘“ The mountains,”’
is the enthusiastic language employed, “ the mountains rise
above the deep, and the valleys sink to the place which thou
hast chosen for them.”

Reference is even made to the force by which they have
been elevated ; it is represented as proportionate to the ele-
vation to which these eminences have been raised, being most
powerful when employed in elevating the mountains properly
so called, and weaker when its efforts were limited to the
raising of the hills above the valleys. In its figurative style,
it compares the elevation of the former to the skipping of
rams, and that of the second to the leaping of lambs.*

The earth is thus represented as being soft as clay, at the
time of these great events. It is then described as having
assumed a new face, and having adorned itself with a new
garment,t a sort of allusion to the sedimentary deposits
with which the superficial crust became covered.

When Scripture speaks of the electric fluid, it represents
it to us as resounding throughout the whole space of the
heavens, and causing its lightnings to shine even to the
remotest parts of the earth. After their light the thunder
roars, and its rolling sound is heard. The noise of the thun-
der, it says, announces that the wrath of God is about to
fall on all that aspires to elevate itself. Scarcely has the
sound been heard, when the bolt has already struck. Thus
God breaks forth in the voice of his thunder; he who works
such great and mighty wonders, traces his path in the thun-
der, and regulates the course of the tempests.

Such is the idea which it gives us of this phenomenon, the
rapidity of which is even greater than that of light. In fact,
according to Mr Becquerel’s experiments on the rapidity of

* See Job. xxviii, 4; Psalm xc. 2; xevii.5; civ. 6, 8,9; exliv. 5
Proverbs viii. 25 ; Ezekiel xlvii.; Zechariah xiv. 4, 8.
+t See Job xxxviii. 14.

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 257

electricity, this fluid traversed ninety thousand leagues in a
~ second. Its velocity is therefore greater than that of light,
which is only at the rate of eighty thousand leagues in the
same space of time.

The electric fluid not only exhibits the greatest velocity,
but it enters in considerable quantity into the composition
of the molecules of bodies. This quantity is indeed so im-
mense, that the imagination is startled at it. The elements
of a simple molecule of water appear to contain eight hun-
dred thousand charges of an electric battery of eight jars
two decimeters (about 8 inches) in height and six (about 2
feet) in circumference, obtained by thirty revolutions of a
powerful electrical machine. If the quantity of electricity
accumulated in the elements of a gramme (about 15} grains)
of water, happened to be suddenly set free in the middle of
any building, the building would instantly be blown in pieces.

This power, compared with which steam is as nothing,
whether we consider it as an extremely subtile matter, or
rather as the result of a vibratory movement impressed on
the ether, is only employed by nature in maintaining the
combinations and molecular constitution of bodies. We
ought not, therefore, to be surprised at the importance which
Scripture assigns to thunder and lightning, which is one of
the not least curious of its effects. There are few natural
phenomena in which electricity does not act a part, and which
are not more or less dependent upon it. How can it be
otherwise, since each material molecule appears to be en-
dowed not only with a certain quantity of heat and light, but
also with electricity ?

Genesis is not less exact when it calls our attention to
the living beings which, by turns, have animated and em-
bellished the surface of the earth. It delineates their suc-
cession, it teaches us that they have appeared in distinct
generations, and in direct relation to the complexity of
their organization. We are surprised to find such a law
written in the Bible, a law equally to be traced in indelible
_ characters in the bowels of the globe. This fact, clearly
expressed in a Book which has existed from so old a date,

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. R

258 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

has, notwithstanding, been known to us only for half a cen-
tury. To the general idea thus connected by Moses with
the appearance of living beings, this great legislator adds
details, the accuracy of which is not less evident in our opi-
nion, although assertions to the contrary have been made by
many illustrious naturalists. According to him, terrestrial
vegetables preceded the animals which inhabit the dry and
uncovered land. In this particular, chemistry confirms the
assertion of the sacred writer ; but geological observations
seem to be opposed to it. Accordingly, certain modern na-
tural philosophers, far from admitting it as real and satis-
factory, have regarded it as a manifest error. The question
is to determine whether these observations are as conclusive
as they are supposed to be, and if, according to the nature of
things, vegetables must not have appeared before animals.

The researches by means of which it has been supposed
possible to prove that vegetables have not preceded beings
endowed with motion, are far from authorising the inference
wished to be deduced from them. In fact, while terrestrial
vegetables appear in great numbers in the transition forma-
tions, this is far from being the case with animals. Only a
few individuals of the lower classes of the animal kingdom
have been discovered in them; up to the present time the
number does not exceed six species at most. And yet the
most active researches have been made in all parts of the
world to discover a greater number. But even although
these beings had been observed in the same terrestrial strata,
this would not have been a proof that they lived simulta-
neously. We are unacquainted with the time which may
have been necessary for the precipitation of these ancient
strata, as well as for their consolidation. Hence plants, al-
though anterior to such or such species of animal, may have
been embedded along with it in the same order of deposit,
the latter having required more or less considerable intervals
of time for its formation.

There is, therefore, more or less uncertainty with regard
to the simultaneity of the period of the appearance of vege-
tables and animals, if we suppose that both were interred
in formations of the same age. It is far from being demon-

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 259

strated that terrestrial plants are not found in strata more
ancient than those in which we discover animal species.
Geological facts do not, therefore, contradict the progression
indicated by the author of Genesis, in regard to the appear-
ance of different living beings. - This assertion of Moses is a
geological consequence of high importance, confirmed by the
observation of facts, as has been remarked by one of the
greatest natural philosophers of our day.*

This consequence is, moreover, a rigorous, because it was
a necessary one. ‘Terrestrial animals derive their food from
vegetables, even such of them as subsist on living prey. By
devouring herbivorous species, they, in fact, support them-
selves by means of the herbaceous matter which these latter
had assimilated and converted into their own substance. If,
then, the herbivorous must have existed before the carni-
vorous races, to which they were to serve as food, both the
one and the other must have been preceded by the plants
which were to afford them the means of growth and develop-
ment. By a consequence of the same kind, we may admit
that omnivorous animals must have appeared last among liv-
ing beings.

This conclusion, at which we arrive by a process of simple
reasoning, is confirmed by observing the strata of the globe.
It is remarkable to find this fact recorded in Genesis, written
at least 3500 years ago. This book admits, in like manner,
the gradual appearance of vegetables. It makes them com-
mence with the least complicated species, to which succeed
herbs, then shrubs, and finally trees. Posterior to all ani-
mals the sacred writer places the arrival of man, who crowns
and terminates the great work of Creation.

Naturalists who have occupied themselves with this ques-
tion, have not examined it with the view of justifying the
author of Genesis; and this very consideration gives their
opinion greater weight, for it has been forced on their minds
by positive experience.

It is to this part of the subject that Herschel’s beautiful
thought is more particularly applicable. Struck with the

* M, Dumas.

260 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

relations which the sciences are every day contracting with
revelation, he says; “that all human discoveries seem to
be made only for the purpose of confirming more strongly
the truths come from on high, and contained in,the Sacred
Writings.” This illustrious astronomer has seen in this agree-
ment the most valuable triumph and most noble conquest of
intelligence.

This scientific fact may be regarded even in a still more im-
portant light. It indicates that the author of Genesis has had
just reason to look upon man as the last that appeared of living
beings, and to regard him as the limit and completion of the
creation. If plants have preceded herbivorous animals, be-
cause the latter must derive from these all that serves them
for nourishment, herbivorous animals must, in like manner,
have appeared before the carnivorous species. In truth,
without the herbivorous races, the carnivora must have died
of hunger. For similar reasons the omnivorous, or such races
as live both on vegetables and animals, must have made their
appearance at a later period. Accordingly man, who is om-
nivorous par eacellence, must have appeared last among living
beings, since he requires the presence of all kinds of nourish-
ment.

On the other hand, when Scripture speaks of the creation
of plants, it makes them vegetate and develop themselves
before the appearance of the sun, and under conditions of
light, heat, and humidity, different from those under which
vegetables now flourish. It has thus disclosed to us, thou-
sands of years ago, an order of things which the fossil bo-
tanist has found to exist with great exactness, and which
he has endeavoured to explain by causes different from
those whose action is now felt.* Scripture, therefore. has
admitted, with reason, that the germination of vegetables
commenced before the sun had received the power of shed-
ding his light on the earth ; it is thus by motives not less
legitimate, and not less real, that it makes plants appear

* See Genesis i. 11 and 12; and our memoir on the Fossil Plants of
the Coal Formation of the Polar regions, Bibl. Univ., July 1834.

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 261

before animals, which they were destined to supply with
nourishment. But let us consider whether Scripture has had
equal reason for proclaiming the recent appearance of the
human species as compared with other living species.

What we have already observed, is in some measure a proof
that the arrival of man on the earth must have been posterior
to that of the greater part of animals, whether vertebrate
or invertebrate. Not many serious difficulties can be formed
on this point. The examination of fossiliferous strata proves
that the remains of our species do not begin to shew them-
selves till we come amongst diluvial deposits, which are the
most recent of those belonging to geological eras. Man has,
therefore, formed part of the new generations which have
appeared on the surface of the earth; also the greater part
of those with which he has been cotemporary have still
their representatives among the living races.

But man may be recent, even the newest of beings, and
yet the date of his appearance may go so far back as the
7500 years which Scripture assigns to him. Is it necessary
to suppose with Scripture, that the last arrangement on the
surface of the globe is more recent than the last and terrible
catastrophe which laid it waste, a catastrophe followed by
the renewal of the human race? Would it be reasonable
for all ages, all people, and, in particular, our modern schools,
to set themselves in opposition to a date which assigns so
youthful an age to our haughty race? Assuredly not; geo-
logical investigations, the researches of history, and the study
of monuments, all concur in demonstrating not only the re-
cent date of man’s appearance, but particularly that of his
renovation.

Here, therefore, Scripture is exact and within the limits
of truth. The term it assigns to the cradle of humanity, al-
though not very remote from that in which civilization has
arrived at a degree of remarkable splendour, is still sufficient
to explain and comprehend the various phases of it. We
may include in these 7500 years all that authentic historical
- traditions have told us respecting the progress of man in the
path of civilization.

The Bible has, in like manner, acknowledged the unity of

262 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

the human species. This truth, for a long time disputed,
has been regarded in our own times both by the most illus-
trious physiologists aud most able anatomists as fully esta-
blished. The intimate acquaintance of both these classes of
observers with the proofs which demonstrate it, give the
greatest authority to their opinion.

At some future period, not very remote, this question
will probably cease to be open to any dispute. In fact, the
black men who, by losing ground and going backwards in
the path of civilization, have lost, in a great measure, the
beauty of their primitive type, are now returning to the
blessings of intelligence, and have established themselves
as nations. They shew a tendency to remount to the point
from which they receded : as the consequence of their pro-
gress in knowledge, and the improvement of their mental
faculties, they will soon recover the type which they had
lost. The development of their brain, the necessary conse-
quence of the exercise of their minds, will make them acquire
new forms; and soon they will cease to be distinguishable from
the white race from which they sprung. With the advance
of their intelligence, their language will become purer ; their
manners will undergo a corresponding improvement; and
these men, not long since so debased, both in moral and phy-
sical qualities, will become the most manifest proof of the
unity of the human species, as proclaimed by the first and
most ancient historian.

This primitive unity must necessarily imply a uniformity
in the language of mankind, or in the manner of making
themselves understood, and communicating their thoughts to
each other. The Bible intimates this; and we can go back
with it to the precise period when the confusion of languages
took place among the nations. A superficial study of the
idioms of the primeval races has appeared, at first view, not
very favourable to the idea of their having a common origin ;
but a more profound examination has shewn in what manner
all the languages spoken came gradually to differ from each
other. (See note at the end of this article.)

It is not less deserving of attention that the Bible is the
first book in which we find notions of classification, analo-

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 263

gous to those which naturalists employ in the study of the
different natural bodies. In the 11th chapter of Leviticus, in
particular, we find a sketch of a method of distinguishing
pure animals from impure, the latter of which the Hebrews
were forbidden to eat. God allowed the children of Israel
to eat animals which ruminated and had the feet cloven ; but
they were interdicted from using others. Swine, and even
camels, were included in the interdict; the former because
they did not ruminate, the latter because they had not their
feet divided like oxen and sheep.

Birds of prey were also, according to Scripture, impure
animals, which the Hebrews were not permitted to use
for food. They were allowed to make use only of long
legged species (Gralle, Linn.), and those whose feet were
adapted for swimming. They might employ for food all the
marine and fresh-water fishes provided with scales and fins ;
but they were not to eat such as were destitute of these ap-
pendages. In this ordination there can be no doubt that a
great degree of wisdom is shewn; for the animals we now
use for food belong to pure species ; while, with the excep-
tion of the hog, those which Moses regards as impure are, in
general, ill-fitted for human consumption. But what is most
important to be remarked is, that in this arrangement there
can be traced the basis of a natural classification, which is
still adopted in the most common systems.

Scripture is not less precise when it turns its attention to
the objects of detail relating to living beings. It is, in par-
ticular, in delineating the manners of animals, that these
writings exhibit an accuracy and conciseness which the
greatest naturalists have not surpassed. Its descriptions are —
so faithful and so precise, that they cannot be mistaken.
Thus it represents to us the lioness couched in her cave,
watching with a restless eye the prey about to pass, and
waiting with the utmost anxiety on her young whelps. When
she perceives the prey, we are told how she darts forth with
the rapidity of the eagle, carrying her victim in her mouth to
appease the hunger of her young ones. Very different from
the young lions, the young ravens wander about from one
place to another, oppressed by hunger; they call with loud

264 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

noise on their mother, who finds her greatest delight in sup-
plying them with food.

It indicates to us, in like manner, the time of gestation
and delivery of the hinds and wild goats. These animals are
represented as bowing themselves when they bring forth,
and uttering sorrowful cries. The wild ass is spoken of as
being singularly fierce, incapable of being subdued, and
answering not to the voice of him who calls himself its mas-
ter; free, and ranging the mountains as his pasture ; his
abode is in solitude, and his retreat the desert.

Man, it tells us, cannot subdue the oryx ; he cannot force
it to remain even for a single night in a stable ; still less can
he make it submit to the yoke, to open the furrows and har-
row the fertile valleys. Notwithstanding his power, the
strength of man is incapable of making this untameable ani-
mal assist him in his labours. He cannot make use of it to
carry his harvests, or to gather them into his barns.*

The delineations of the manners of these animals are ex-
tremely true, and are expressed with remarkable conciseness.
Such is the case with those the Bible gives us respecting the
habits of the ostrich, a bird which it represents as void of
affection for its young, which are in its eyes as if they
were not its own. Forgetting her offspring, the ostrich

* See Job xxxix. 1 to 11. We shall make only a single observation
on these verses: it relates to the animal which the Hebrews called Reem,
perhaps the oryx of the Greeks, spoken of by Martial and Oppian. This
species appears to be the same as the Oryx antilope of naturalists ; it is
about the size of a stag, and its horns are slender, from two to three feet
long. This antelope, or oryx of Elian, lives in large herds in the interior
of Africa, and throughout the whole of Arabia.

M. Rosenmuller, as well as Bochart, has translated the Hebrew term
Reem by oryx, with so much the more reason, because the notion of the
unicorn has been formed from some individuals which had lost one of
their horns. This circumstance is the more probable, since the oryx
presents this peculiarity, as well as the algazel and leucoryx antelopes :
all of these animals frequently become unicorn.

However this may be, the details which Scripture gives us respect-
ing the animal which it calls Reem, agree perfectly with the Oryx anti-
lope. See our Observations on the Unicorn of the ancients (Mem. de la
Soctété Linn, de Bordeaux, )

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 265

leaves her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust.
A foolish and thoughtless mother, she cares not what may
become of them ; forgetting that the foot may crush them, or
that they may be destroyed by the cruel jaws of the tigers
of the desert. But when it is the proper time, she raises her
wings into the air ; trusting to the strength of her legs, she
scorneth the horse and his rider.*

The description of the horse is not less faithful: the Bible
represents it to us as full of strength and vigour, and bound-
ing like a grasshopper. His neck is adorned with a flowing
mane, and he paweth the earth with his foot. He leaps for-
ward with pride, and goeth forth to meet the armed men.
His breathing scatters terror; he mocketh at fear, neither
turneth he back from the sword. When the quiver rattleth
against him, the glittering spear and the shield, he swallow-
eth the ground with fierceness and rage. If he hears the
sound of the trumpet, he exclaims, Let us advance ; he smell-
eth the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains and the
shouting.}

At the command of the Eternal, Scripture states, the
hawk darts into the air, and extends her wings towards the
south. At His voice, the eagle rises to the clouds, and places
her nest on the top of the mountains. This bird inhabits the
hollows of the rock, and dwells in the most inaccessible cliffs
of the crag. From these elevated heights the eagle watches
her prey ; her piercing eyes discover it afar off. When she
has seized it, she carries it to her young, who drink its blood.
Under the guidance of their mother, the young eaglets soon
descend to the places where the carcass lies. Images of
death, these birds bear, in some degree, its livery on their
plumage.

* See Job xxxix.13 to18. The description of the ostrich in the Book
of Job is remarkable for its extreme truthfulness, as may be seen by per-
using the passage referred to. It is singular to see in so ancient a book
this habit of ostriches noticed, of raising their wings into the air when
they wish to run before the wind. They know, by instinct, that their

_wings, under such circumstances, will act as sails or oars,

t See Job xxxix. 19 to 25. This description of the horse is superior
to all others that have since been written.

t See Job xxxix. 26 to 30. The Hebrew word nescher (eagle) is de-

266 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

Scripture often makes mention of the migrations under-
taken by so many animals, particularly birds and fishes. It
often compares the rapidity of birds of passage, as they cross
the seas, to the speed of vessels using their large sails as if
they were huge wings. It shews to us the extensive jour-
neys performed by these light inhabitants of the air, their
immense numbers, their fatigues, the consequence of their
lengthened flight, and the promptitude with which they alight
when they reach the end of their journey. Everything, in
the delineation of the manners of these birds of passage, is
rapid and animated as the movements themselves of the be-
ings which people the aérial ocean.*

We have enumerated some of the principal physical facts
contained in the Bible; we have endeavoured to shew the
relations they bear to those with which science has re-
cently made us acquainted It seems that nothing now re-
mains for us to ascertain. There is, however, one essen-
tial point of which we have omitted to speak, and with this
we shall terminate our researches. The Book of Wisdom,
after having said that the almighty hand of God made
the world out of nothing, adds, that he disposed all things
by number, weight, and measure. By this we are led to un-
derstand, that we ought to consider natural bodies under
three aspects ; that is to say, under that of their extent, their

rived from the verb schour, which properly signifies to contemplate. The
authors of the Bible were not ignorant that the eagle could fix its eyes
on the sun. The prophets had also correctly observed that when the
eagle moults he loses almost all his feathers (Micah i. 16). Scripture is
not less correct, when it speaks of the manners of animals. See, for
example, Proverbs xxx. 25 to 28; Isaiah xxxiv. 14 and 15. The Pro-
verbs contain details not less curious on inanimate bodies. Ezekiel (iii.
9, and x. 1) had remarked, that the diamond was the hardest of stones,
as the sapphire was one of the most brilliant. Zechariah, likewise,
when wishing to describe the impenitence of the Hebrews, says that they
have hardened their heart like the diamond (vii. 12). This prophet was
also acquainted with the mode of trying gold and purifying silver (xiii.
9). The 28th chapter of Job contains interesting details on the metals
and precious stones.

* See Isaiah xlvi. 11; lx. 8; Hosea xi. 11; Joel ii. 25; also the
Psalms.

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 267

weight, and the number of atoms or molecules which com-
pose them. Perhaps it was thus meant to specify the prin-
cipal modes of regarding bodies, or the principal branches of
natural science. Physics would, in this way, be represented
by measure, the mathematical sciences by number, and che-
mistry by weight.

Scripture describes, in a few words, the principal proper-
ties of bodies, and how we may sum up their different appear-
ances and different characters. Thus God asks Job where
he was when He laid the foundations of the earth, and when
He established the measures thereof? where he was when He
enclosed the sea with barriers, when it broke forth as a child
which comes from the womb of its mother? or when, enve-
loping the clouds as with a garment, He surrounded it with
darkness like the swaddling-bands of infancy? Has man
ever known the paths of light, or the place of darkness 2

The details into which we have entered seem to prove, with
some degree of evidence, that the physical truths most essen-
tial to the knowledge of the material world, are almost all
indicated in the first books of the Bible. They are never, in-
deed, fully developed, because Moses and his successors were
not called upon to write scientific treatises. While speaking
of God, and the works which proclaim his power, they have,
as if in spite of themselves, allowed some gleams of their
superior knowledge to break through. Their object, and
almost their sole object, has been to point out their duties to
the people they were called upon to direct, and, particularly,
to fill their minds with the fear of the Lord. It was sufficient
to unveil to them the principal facts of this visible world, to
convince them of the wisdom of the Most High. so clearly
imprinted on the works he has produced. Explaining them,
accordingly, with an admirable conciseness, the greater part
of these facts have escaped the notice of the first interpreters
of Scripture, who, from inability to comprehend them, have
not given to the Sacred Books all the importance they now
possess in our eyes. Their errors, altogether involuntary,
~ are so much the less to be wondered at, since the Bible con-
tains particulars for which we cannot yet assign a reason in
the present state of our knowledge. The constant progress

268 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible,

of human science will soon render them intelligible. This is
not the least of the advantages of the sciences, nor the least
valuable inheritance we can leave to our descendants. They
will not forget, more than we, that Scripture is a treasure
open to all; and that it is the only book from which those
that borrow run no risk of being accused of plagiarism. The
ideas which they may draw from it have already belonged to
millions of intelligences ; but if they extend them, if they
understand them better than their predecessors, they will
so much the more belong to them, since they shall have
been the first to perceive them.

Note-—We read, in Genesis, xi. 1. Erat autem terra labii unius
et sermonum eorumdem, which may be translated thus :—‘* There was
then upon the earth only one language and one speech.”” The unity of
the primeval language is perhaps more difficult to establish than that of
the human species. In fact, we are without the most essential data for
solving the question. We shall, therefore, confine ourselves to a few
observations.

Tf all the varieties or different races of men are derived from one stock,
it follows, almost as a necessary consequence, that this must also have
been the case with their language, however diversified it may be. Now,
it is almost demonstrated that the White race is the most ancient. We
ought, therefore, to find among the idioms used by this race this pre-
eminently primitive language—the mother of all the rest.

The proof of the primitive unity of language is to be found, not only
in the unity of the human species, but also in the confusion of languages
which took place at the building of the tower of Babel. If confusion
took place then, it could not have existed before.

The history of the human race informs us, that at its origin there was
only one speech (wnus sermo.) But it is difficult for us now to go back
to that primitive stock, from which have sprung the various idioms which
the different nations of the earth employ to express their ideas. All
that is proved by the study of their characters, structure, and construc-
tion, is, that the most diverse among them have a family air and resem-
blance, which reveals a common crigin.*

If we assert the contrary, we shall be forced to establish as many
human races as there are idioms without analogy or mutual connection ;
that is it say, we should have to establish hundreds. This consequence
would not be very philosophical ; it would oblige us, at least, to multiply
the races almost in the inverse ratio of the number of individuals who
formed part of them. In fact, the smallest tribes, and the most subdi-
vided of savage nations, often present the most notable and strongly

* The knowledge of this primitive language is of no consequence to Scripture ;
it only interests philosophers. The Bible, accordingly, contains no details in
regard to it.

compared with the Discoveries of the Modern Sciences. 269

marked differences in their languages. As the consequence of this state
of things, the interior of Africa, or the unexplored regions of Australia,
would contain a greater number of races than the whole of Europe or
Asia. The same thing would hold true of America, where, however, it
appears to be demonstrated, that the numerous languages of the natives
are derived from a common stock, these having been subjected to the laws
of other families of spoken languages.

The most recent researches on the construction of different idioms,
seem to have rendered it probable, that, after the violent separation of
the human species, they formed themselves into groups, or, if the term be
preferred, into families. These groups daily tend to approach each other,
and thus more and more indicate their paternity and mutual affinities,
They thus present the best proof of their first and single point of de-
parture ; they divide the human species into certain great characteristic
families, the subsequent divisions of which come within the domain of
history. These analogies and relations will become more and more ap-
parent, in proportion as the philosophical study of nations, and the know-
ledge of their diverse idioms, acquire greater certainty and fuller develop-
ment.

The languages which form the Semitic branch, in which may be in-
cluded Hebrew, Chaldee, Phenician, Syriac, Abyssinian, and Arabian,
have been long recognised as haying a common origin, and composing a
great family.

The same thing may be said of the Chinese and Indo-Chinese lan-
guages, which compose a single group, in which all the monosyllabic lan-
guages of the east may be included,

With regard to the idioms known under the name of Indo-European,
they compose a great family, including the Sanscrit or ancient and
sacred language of India; the ancient and modern Persian, which was
at first considered to be a Tartar dialect ; the Teutonic, with its diverse
dialects, such as the Slavonic, Greek, and Latin, with its numerous deriva-
tives. The Celtic dialects, which, according to Prichard, have the closest
relation to the Indo-European languages, must be arranged in this group.

Although the Sanscrit may appear, at first sight, to be a mother lan-
guage, and to have only remote analogies with those which are some-
what modern, we arrive at another conclusion when we compare, with
some attention, the Sanscrit and the Greek, for example. This examination
is found to prove that numerous relations exist between these two idioms,
which would at first appear to have nothing in common. Some curious
details on this point will be found in a notice placed at the head of Bur-
nouf’s Greek Grammar.* Similar analogies are observable between the
Sanscrit, the Persian, and all the old and new dialects of the north; as is
also found to be the case between the first of these languages and the
Hebrew. We shall find the proof of this assertion in the excellent
German work published by Bopp. ‘This skilful philologist has there
compared all these languages with the Sanscrit. Now, as the Greek also
appears to be derived frou it, judging from the great number of words
common to the two idioms, it will follow, that all are derived from one
and the same language,

* See page 10 of the 37th Edition. Paris, 1842.

270 On the Physical Facts contained in the Bible.

The same thing would appear to be the case with the most ancient lan-
guages, such as the Hebrew, the Chaldee, the Phenician, the Syriac, the
Abyssinian, and the Arabic; among which may be included the Egyptian,
the affinity of which to the Hebrew is not less manifest. The analogies
of all these idioms are so numerous, that, according to M. Cellérier, a
great number of modes of speech and foreign terms of expression, prin-
cipally Arabian, are to be found in the Book of Job. He assures us that
he has counted eighty-five words in that book which are not to be met
with in any other of the Old Testament books. He has also noticed in
it twelve Syriac expressions, eighteen Chaldean, and fifty-three Arabian.
This observation, however, applies only to the poetical part; the pro-
logue and epilogue are written in Mosaic Hebrew, and in the ordinary
narrative style. (Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 494.)

The Latin, which, like the Greek, has a close relationship to the San-
scrit, is evidently a derivative and secondary idiom. The greater part
of those of Europe, such as the Italian, Spanish, English, and French,
are derived from it. At least, they exhibit such striking resemblances
and such numerous agreements, that it is easy to recognise in them the
traces of the language from which they have been derived.

It is difficult, therefore, in the actual state of things, to go back to
the primitive stock from which all spoken languages have sprung. All
that can be done, is to recognise affinities, more or less strongly marked
between them, and to detect, as it were, distinct groups or families. Not-
withstanding the great differences observable between certain idioms, we
conclude, after an attentive examination, by discovering in them certain
characters which reveal a common origin, and a primary and single
stock.

The exertions of the most illustrious philologists of our times, have
been directed to this important point in the history of language. Their
researches on the signs, the structure, and construction of the numerous
idioms which mankind have employed to communicate their thoughts,
have proved, beyond a doubt, that these constitute distinct groups and
many great families. Yet, they have found in them, considered collec-
tively, too close analogies, and too obvious affinities, to admit of regard-
ing them otherwise than as all derived from a single and primitive stock,
or a mother language.

This appears so much the more probable, when we consider that we
often discover stronger resemblances between the idioms spoken by nations
situate at great distances from each other, than between those used by
neighbouring tribes. This occurs at times, even between nations who
have no historical connection, and who, accordingly, can afford us no
reason for affinities existing between their respective languages. Kla-
proth, in his Asiatic Memoirs,* has mentioned numerous examples of these
singular resemblances,

If, as the most eminent scientific individuals have supposed, the origin
of language depends on the faculty given to man to express his thoughts
by means of words and particular characters, this faculty must be inde-
finite. It would, in fact, appear to be so. This circumstance may per-
mit us to conceive the numerous alterations and modifications which lan-
guage has undergone ; modifications of such a nature that often the words

* Paris 1824, tome i. p. 214.

Ee

On Earthquakes and Movements of the Sea. 271

of one idiom belong to one class, and its grammar to another. Even a
new language sometimes results from this, differing from that whence it
is derived, and further distinguished from it by the adoption of new
grammatical forms altogether peculiar to itself.*

On Earthquakes and Extraordinary Movements of the Sea ;
and on remarkable Lunar Periodicities in Earthquakes,
Oscillations of the Sea, and Great Atmospherical Changes.
By RicHArD EpMmonps, Jun., Esq.t+

Mr Edmonds, in the former paper, after having noticed
the earthquakes and extraordinary agitations of the sea
which had previously occurred in Cornwall, described the
oscillation of the 5th of July 1843, which he witnessed in
Mount’s-bay :-—

“ Tarrivedat Portleven, onthe north-eastern part of the bay,
an hour after its commencement, and found the inhabitants,
in a state of excitement, observing the sea, which, in the infe-
rior of the harbour, was moving up and down in a most un-
accountable manner, whilst at the mouth it was as smooth
as usual. The énner basin of the harbour is about 150 yards
long, lying N. and S.; the ouw/er part is double that length,
and lies W.S.W., opening like the mouth of a bell. The
agitation extended about 300 yards from the northern shore
of the harbour, but not the least disturbance could be seen
in the outer part for a hundred yards within the pier-head.
The sea rushed inwards from the middle of the outer har-
bour along the western arm, rising about four feet, and re-
tired by the eastern arm, occupying between ten and fifteen
minutes in the circuit. After a pause of eight or ten min-
utes, it rushed in and out again in the same manner, and so

* From the Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve, No. 106, 1844, pp. 321-
356.

+ The two papers included in the above title, and from which we
have extracted the more interesting portions, were read before the
Royal Geographical Society of Cornwall, on the 13th October 1843,
and 20th September 1844, and are printed in the Society’s Transac-
tions.—Kp,

272 Mr Richard Edmonds on Earthquakes.

continued, but with gradually decreasing violence, until low-
water. A fisherman came in to the harbour in his boat an hour
after the commencement of the agitation ; and, from the calm-
ness of the sea at the pier head, had no suspicion that there
was any run within the pier, until some persons on shore
called to him that it was dangerous to land ; and presently,
as he entered the inner basin, one of the influxes carried his
boat along with great impetuosity for a hundred yards to-
wards the northern shore, and, retiring, left it dry on the
beach.”

The phenomenon is likewise described as it occurred in
other parts of the bay, after which the writer observes :—

«Tt is remarkable that, in the recent disturbance in this
bay, the agitation of the sea was apparently confined to a
short distance from the shore, and at Portleven did not ex-
tend even to the pier-head. With a view to account for this,
let us suppose that an upward shock takes place at the bot-
tom of the sea, a few leagues from our coast, and that a
shoal with one of its sides perpendicular to our shore is
thereby made to vibrate. The shock thus communicated to
the water will be transmitted with a velocity much greater
than that with which sound travels through air, and may
cause the water along the shore to rush up the beach in the
same manner as a smart blow at one end of a line of marbles
causes the marble at the opposite end to fly off, whilst all
the others remain stationary. When this body of water
falls back to the stationary or less disturbed part of the sea,
it will, by the reaction, be driven a second time up the beach ;
and thus the fluxes and refluxes, like the motion of a pendu-
lum, may continue for a long time, although originated by a
single shock.

Agitations beginning with an influx may be thus accounted
for ; but they generally commence with an efflux, which may be
produced by the inclined plane descending from the coast be-
ing made to vibrate by a shock upwards: the effect of
which would be to drive a considerable body of water sea-
ward.

The irregularity which often attends these oscillations
may arise from a subsequent shock interfering with the

oO

ee Re eee eee ee ee es

Nee al

and Extraordinary Movements of the Sea. 273

effects of a preceding one, or from the inequalities of the
submarine ground, or from the influence of strong tides.

Another of these extraordinary movements was observed
at Penzance on the evening of the 30th of October (1843),
the tide being nearly two hours flood, the sea smooth, and
the wind blowing strong from the north-east, with rain.
Three persons, who had watched the movement from the
pier-head for three-quarters of an hour, informed me, that
about five o’clock the sea suddenly rushed into the harbour,
coming round the pier-head from the south-west, and causing
a rise in the water of about five feet; it then rushed back
in the same line. This occurred three times successively
in about forty minutes. A small vessel which lay aground
in the pier was suddenly floated and carried out several
yards, directly against the wind, and immediately borne in
again by the succeeding influx ; after which, having been
secured by a hawser, she was left aground on her side, and
then again floated, twice within half-an-hour.

On the same evening a similar flux and reflux occurred
at Plymouth, the velocity of which was estimated by the
master of a vessel then lying there, at eight knots an hour.”

Mr Edmonds, in his latter paper, states, “that the oscilla-
tion on the 5th of July 1843, which was observed at Penzance
pier about half an hour before noon, was not confined to
Mount’s-bay, but occurred also at Scilly,* Falmouth, Ply-
mouth, Bristol, along the eastern coast of Scotland, and at
the Orkneys.

In Falmouth, as Mr Hunt informed me, it was observed
between one and two P.M., along the shore between Falmouth
quay and Penryn. At Plymouth it was noticed about eleven
A.M.; at Bristol about two P.M.; at Dunbar a little after six
p.M.; at North Berwick between one and two P.M., and twice
afterwards on the same day; at Arbroath at five P.M.; at

* A gentleman of St Mary’s, Scilly, informs me that the sea there was
‘at ‘‘an unusual height,” and “ at a short distance from the most southern
_ part of the island, was much agitated, as if some violent force from be-
neath were lifting the body of water above, while the surrounding water
was perfectly calm and smooth.”

VOL. XXXVI. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845, 8

274 Mr Richard Edmonds on Earthquakes

the Orkneys on the following day at three A.M.; and at the
Shetland Isles at ten A.M.

It was observed again, on the 6th and 7th, at Arbroath
and other places on the east coast of Scotland, and at the
Shetland Isles. On the 8th, at ten A.M., it occurred near
Tynemouth, on the coast of Northumberland.

The storm which passed over Britain on the 5th of July
1843, was one “ which for severity and extent has been rarely
equalled.”* In Mount’s-bay it commenced with a sudden
gale from the south, between two and three P.M., at which
time the oscillation of the sea had not subsided. A violent
thunder storm was experienced in Gloucester at three P.M. ;
at Sheffield and Liverpool between five and six P.M.; at York,
Dumfries, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Arbroath, at seven P.M.,
during the oscillation at the last of these places; at Aber-
deen at eight P.M.; at Kinnaird’s Head at nine P.M.; and in
the same night at the Orkneys, where the agitation of the
sea was observed at three o’clock the following morning.

The agitations of the sea on the 5th of July 1843, were
very similar to those on the day of the great earthquake of
1755. On each occasion the atmosphere was in a most re-
markable condition,—manifested in 1843 by the depressed
state of the barometer and violent thunder storms ; and in
1755 by the extraordinary height} of the barometer and the
unusually calm and fine weather. And as the agitations ge-
nerally of 1755 and 18438 arrived at different places at times
corresponding in some degree to their respective distances
from a supposed point,t they might all have resulted from
local submarine shocks occurring progressively as the highly
electrified state of the earth or air spread itself from some
centre. That certain sea-ports were passed over without

* Mr Milne, Edinburgh Royal Society Transactions, vol. xv. p. 622.
From this paper I have derived most of the preceding particulars re-
lative to the phenomena of the 5th of July.

+ Higher than for three years before in Cornwall.—Borlase’s Nat.
Hist. of Cornwall, p. 53.

{ Mr Milne, Jameson’s Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, October
1841, pp. 263-269.

and Extraordinary Movements of the Sea. 275

experiencing any agitations,*—that others experienced them
at periods widely differing from the general rate of progress,
—some having taken place in 1755 even half an hour before
the great earthquake,—are circumstances, mutatis mutandis,
common also in thunder storms. Shocks of earthquakes,
when they occur in non-voleanic districts, have been consi-
dered by many as the effects of electrical discharges from
the atmosphere into the earth,t or from the earth into the at-
mosphere.t But whether, during earthquakes, the electricity
usually passes from the air into the earth, or from the earth
into the air,—or whether it may not sometimes pass between
two differently electrified portions of the earth, as lightning
often does between two differently electrified portions of the
atmosphere, are points which I believe have not yet been as-
certained by observation.

On a former occasion§ I explained how an oscillation of
the sea might be produced by a simple submarine shock or
vibration, without any explosion, or the displacement of any
portion of the bed of the sea. These submarine shocks must
doubtless often happen without any indication of their occur-
rence, except the subsequent agitations of the sea. And
shocks are often felt at low levels without being per-
ceived at higher elevations, as was the case with the
shock on 30th December 1832, which does not appear to
have been felt anywhere in Cornwall except Hayle, on a
spot only a few feet above the sea. Humboldt,|| too, states
that in Chili, Peru, and Terra Firma, the shocks follow the
line of the shore, which is the lowest part of the land, and
extend but little inwards; he also says that “ sometimes in
the same rock the superior strata form invincible obstacles
to the propagation of the motion,—thus in the mines of
Saxony we have seen workmen hasten up affrightened by
oscillations which where not felt at the surface.”

But in 1755, on the day of the great earthquake, shocks

* Mr Milne, Edinburgh Royal Society Transactions, vol. xv. p. 615.
+t Rees’ Cyclopsedia.—Earthquake.

t Jameson’s Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, October 1841, p. 309.
§ Cornwall Geol. Trans., 1843, p. 117.

|| Personal Narrative, vol. ii. pp. 222, 224,

276 Mr Richard Edmonds on Earthquakes

were actually felt in this island, and the waters of our ponds
agitated, at the very time when some of the oscillations of the
sea were taking place ; which seems almost to establish the
fact, that such oscillations are produced by local submarine
shocks. I may also mention that in 1788, the sea at Dunbar
suddenly receded a foot and a half on the day that a shock
was experienced in the Isle of Man.* So also a shock was
felt in Perthshire on the 10th of March 1842, and on the fol-
lowing day a disturbance of the sea (the effect, probably, of
another shock) took place in the western isles of Scotland :
and it has been observed in Perthshire that “ shocks seldom
oceur single,”—but “come very frequently in groups.’’}

Mr Milne, however, thinks that the oscillations of 1843
may have been produced “ partly by the mechanical pressure
of the wind in the storm,—blowing first in one direction, and
thereafter in an opposite direction,—and partly by the sud-
den diminution of atmospheric pressure accompanying its
progress,” t without the intervention of submarine shocks :
and he brings forward numerous examples to shew that such
agitations are usually preceded or attended by violent storms
or other proofs of great atmospheric disturbance: but these
examples are quite as favourable to my hypothesis as to his
own ; for they are equally applicable to earthquakes which
have often occurred during storms and hurricanes.§ The
first earthquake which Humboldt felt at Cumana was
during a severe thunder storm. “At the moment of the
strongest electric explosion there were two considerable
shocks of an earthquake.”|| And the excessive minima of
the barometer which have been observed during oscillations
of the sea have been also observed at the times of earth-
quakes :—thus Humboldt, on a certain occasion, observed

* Jameson’s Edinburgh Philosophcal Journal, July 1841, p. 108.

t Ibid., October 1841, p. 286.

t In Cornwall and Devon the fall of one inchin the barometer corre-
sponds with the rise of sixteen inches in the level of the sea, and vice
versa.—Hdin. R.S. Trans., vol. xv. pp. 635-637.

§ Jameson’s Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 1841, pp. 294-297.

|| Personal Narrative, vol. iii. p. 316.

a ae

<9 *s

and Extraordinary Movements of the Sea. 277

that “‘ the mereury was precisely at its minimum height at the
moment of the third and last shock.”’* On the 10th of No-
vember 1782, when Loch Rannoch was violently agitated, the
barometer in Scotland sunk to within one-tenth of the bottom
of the scale (probably 27.1 inches.) During the extraordi-
nary depression of the barometer throughout Europe on the
25th of December 1821, a slight shock of an earthquake was
felt at Mayence.t

Mr Milne has collected eighteen instances during the
last hundred years, to prove the connection between great
disturbances of the atmosphere and extraordinary oscillations
of the sea. I have endeavoured to prove that the interme-
diate links of this connection are submarine shocks. I now
proceed to shew that such disturbances in the air, earth, and
sea, are probably often occasioned by the action of the moon.

I cannot better introduce the subject than by the following
passage from Humboldt. “On the 5th November 1799,
exactly at the same hour as the preceding day (when the
earthquake already noticed took place during a severe thun-
der-storm) there was (on the 4th) a violent gust of wind at-
tended by thunder and a few drops of rain. No shock was
felt. The wind and storm returned for five or six days, at
the same hour, almost at the same minute. The inhabitants
of Cumana, and of many other places between the tropics,
have long ago made the observation, that those atmospheri-
eal changes which appear the most accidental, follow, for
whole weeks, a certain type with astonishing regularity. The
same phenomenon exists in summer under the temperate
zone ; nor has it escaped the sagacity of astronomers, who often
see clouds form in a serene sky, during three or four days
together, at the same part of the firmament, take the same
direction, and dissolve at the same height,—sometimes be-
fore, sometimes after, the passage of a star over the meri-
dian ; consequently within a few minutes of the same point
of apparent time. M. Arago and I paid great attention to

* Personal Narrative, vol. iii. p. 319.
+ Jameson’s Edinburgh Phil. Journal, Oct. 1841, pp. 295, 296.

278 Mr Richard Edmonds on Earthquakes

this phenomenon m the years 1809 and 1810, at the observa-
tory of Paris.”

Here is an example of so/ar periodicity in the recurrence
of storms and great atmospherical changes, coincident with
which, on one occasion, was an earthquake. The following
are examples of /unar periodicities in the recurrence of storms
and great atmospherical changes, coincident with which, on
many occasions, were earthquakes, or extraordinary oscilla-
tions of the sea.

The first series of lunar periodicity begins with the 23d
of October 1841, and consists of seven remarkable days, con-
nected with one another by periods of four lunations each.
The 1st, 2d, 5th, and 6th, of these days were remarkable
for earthquakes in Scotland, Cornwall, and Guadaloupe ; the
3d, for being the hottest day of the hottest June since 1826 ;
the 4th, for the extraordinary maximum of the barometer ;
and the 7th, for an eruption of Vesuvius.

The next series of periods, of four lunations each, begins
with the 11th of November 1842, and consists of six days ;
on the Ist of which was an unusual depression of the baro-
meter; on the 2d, an earthquake at Manchester; on the 3d
and 4th, oscillations of the sea ; on the 5th and 6th, most un-
usual disturbances of the atmosphere.*

* Two other such remarkable days (says Mr Edmonds, ina manuscript
note) are to be added to this series. The four lunations immediately
succeeding the great thunder-storm of 23d June 1844, terminated on the
18th of October, when the town of Buffalo on Lake Erie was almost de-
stroyed by a hurricane. The maximum of the thermometer on that day
at Chiswick was only 56°, less by 3° than it had been for several months
before ; and the barometer there on the 16th, was at a minimum of 28.940,
lower than it had been since the 26th of February in that year.

The next period of four lunations expired on the 14th of February in
the present year, when the state of the atmosphere was almost precisely
the same at Penzance as on the 26th day of February 1844, three times
four lunations previously. On each occasion, the weather was very
squally with heavy showers of rain or hail, and the barometer for a day
or two before remarkably ranging. On the 12th of February this year,
the barometer at Penzance had risen rapidly to a maximum of 30.44,
higher, I believe, than it had been for several months before ; and the
thermometer at Blackheath on the same day was 33° below the freezing

and Extraordinary Movements of the Sea. 279

Each of the above thirteen days was either that of the
moon's first quarter, or the day before or after it, except the
9th of October 1842, which was the second day before it.”

Heve follow four tables of lunar periodicities, and also
an account of some earthquakes in Cornwall. The paper
concludes with the following paragraph :—‘ It has been seen
that earthquakes, oscillations of the sea, great atmospheri-
cal changes, and electrical phenomena, are closely connected
with each ot) er: and I have endeavoured to shew that they
may all result principally from the action of the moon. In
support of this hypothesis, I have noticed two oscillations
of the sea at and after the great earthquake of 1755, and two
others at and after the great earthquake of 1761, the inter-
val in each case being four lunations. I have also, in Table
I., noticed eleven other such intervals,—six following each
other in one series. and five in another. Each of the thirteen
days forming these two series was remarkable for an earth-
quake, oscillation of the sea, or some very unusual state of
the atmosphere, except on one occasion, when, however, an
eruption of Vesuvius took place. In the same Table are
many other similarly remarkable days, forming series of
periods of single lunations, or of half or quarter lunations.
All the remarkable days in Tables I. and IV., as well as those
in the last two pages, connected with the earthquakes in Corn-
wall, occurred at or near the moon’s quarters, and generally at
or near her first quarters. But the remarkable days in Tables
Il. and III. did not happen near any of the four quarters, yet
are, nevertheless, connected with each other by single luna-
tions ; so that the phenomena which occurred on these days
were apparently as much influenced by the action of the moon
as those which happened at or near her quarters.”

point, and when placed on snow 44° below that point. This great maxi-
mum of the barometer, and this most extraordinary minimum of the
thermometer, occurred on the morning of the 12th, which is almost ex-
actly four lunations after the great minimum of the barometer at Chis-
wick, on the 16th of October last.—PmNnzANCE, March 1. 1845.

(230.0

On the Constitution of the Ichthyohtes of Stromness. Bs
ANDREW FLEMING, A.M., M.D. Communicated by the
Author.

In the month of August 1840, I enjoyed an opportunity,
through the kindness of Robert Stevenson, Esq., Civil-En-
gineer, of visiting Stromness, in Orkney, and the quarries
which have been opened in the Bituminous Schists of its
neighbourhood. These schists have acquired considerable
notoriety from the abundance of organic remains, chiefly be-
longing to the class of fishes, distributed throughout their
beds.

The first attempt to determine the specific differences of
these organisms was made by Messrs Sedgwick and Mur--
chison, in their important paper, ‘“‘ On the Structure and Re-
lations of the Deposits contained between the Primary Rocks,
and the Oolitic Series in the North of Scotland,” inserted in
the Transactions of the Geological Society of London, second
series, vol. iii, Part I, p. 125. Subsequently, and aided
by the industry of several collectors, M. Agassiz has been
able, satisfactorily, to determine the characters of a consi-
derable number of species, several of which he has figured
in his invaluable work on Fossil Fishes. My attention hav-
ing been chiefly directed to the mineral state of the organisms,
I shall confine the following remarks to this bearing of the
subject.

The schists themselves, which include these organic re-
mains, may be considered as thin slaty sandstones, in which
the strata vary from a thickness less than a line to upwards
of a foot. Even in the thickest strata, the facility of split-
ting into subordinate slabs, indicates the predominance of the
slaty structure. In the portions where the strata are thickest,
the rock is coarser, or more arenaceous, than in the thinner
slaty strata, where the constituent sand is finer, and the clay
more abundant. ‘The structural character of the whole for-
mation gives unequivocal indications of its deposition hav-
ing taken place in comparatively still water, the coarser and
finer varieties marking the limits of the disturbing causes.

mates

see

amas C28

“=

PD eae

——

—
“ie

Constitution of the Ichthyolites of Stromness. 281

The organic remains chiefly occupy the upper surfaces of
the different layers. This circumstance would seem to indi-
cate that the cause of the death of the fish which furnished
these organisms, coexisted with, or may have depended upon,
the cause of the succession of the deposits ; yet these changes
or alternations must have occurred through a very long pe-
riod, and exercised their influence over an extended district.

These Ichthyolites when observed scattered over the surface
of a stratum, exhibit the appearance of detached portions of
coal. In many cases no trace of the fins can be perceived,
even the individuality of their scales and bones has disap-
peared, and an imperfect outline is all that can lead the mind
to refer the patches in question to an organic origin. At-
tracted by this singular feature of these remains, so imper-
fectly preserved as to form and structure, I was induced to
examine more narrowly their actual state, for the purpose of
ascertaining if any peculiarity in their composition or charac-
ter could furnish any illustration. In making the attempt,
however, considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining
portions of these altered organisms, sufficiently detached
from the surrounding matrix. In the greater number of
specimens, there is little difficulty in perceiving the existence
of the matter of the surrounding stratum, more or less in-
corporated with the organisms, a circumstance which must
influence, to some extent, the analytical results.

In the paper by Messrs Sedgwick and Murchison, the
authors state, page 141,—‘* By chemical analysis, which
was kindly undertaken by Mr Herschel, it appears, as might
be expected, that the ichthyolites differ from each other
considerably in composition. One of them gave the follow-
ing result :—

“ Silex, , é d . 68.1
Alumine, E : < - iD
Protoxide of Iron, P 3 p 10.5
Carbonate of Lime and Magnesia, , 14.2

100.0

“ The proportion of magnesia is very small. The blue
matter of the fish is phosphate of iron, and the whole stone

»

282 Dr Andrew Fleming on the

contains phosphoric acid, in the proportion of } per cent.,
and a little carbonaceous and bituminous matter. The iron
being a protoxide, the fresh fracture is black ; but, by ab-
sorbing oxygen, it becomes yellow, and the phosphate passes
into a perphosphate, becoming blue. Thus the fish are
visibly marked with blue streaks on a yellow ground.”

The small quantity of ‘“ carbonaceous and bituminous
matter” referred to in the preceding analysis, seemed to in-
dicate that the organism, though probably of the same
species (for those which I principally examined, likewise
appeared referrible to Dipéterus, although the Cocosteus was
also among the number of the most completely mineralized
remains), had been subjected to peculiar influences. I
could not, indeed, avoid suspecting that, even in the most
thoroughly altered organisms of Stromness, the original
animal matter had not been removed to so great an extent.
Under this impression, the most completely mineralized
portions were selected as the subjects of experiment, and
they exhibited the following external characters :—

Colour, jet black, with a shining resinous lustre ; in some
cases inclining to vitreous; fracture more or less con-
choidal ; hardness = 3 of Mohs’s scale, sp. gr. = 1.517;
the powder is of a brownish-black tint.

The general appearance of the mass bears a closer resem-
blance to cherry-coal than to any of the other varieties of
that important mineral, and may, with some degree of pro-
priety, be denominated animal cherrycoal, in contradistinc-
tion to that which occurs in beds in the coal formation, and
appears to be of vegetable origin.

When a small piece of the coal was heated in the open
air, on platinum foil, it took fire, and burnt with a white
flame, leaving a considerable residue of a light-grey ash.
The coal in powder, when heated in a glass tube over a
spirit-lamp, evolved copious white fumes ; and a yellow oil of
a strongly bituminous odour was sublimed, which concreted
on cooling. Litmus paper, moistened, and held in the tube,
indicated an acid reaction. Being desirous to ascertain if
any nitrogenized matter was contained in the coal, another
portion of the powder was heated with a strong solution of

Constitution of the Ichthyolites of Stromness. 283

potash, but no ammonia could, by the ordinary means, be de-
tected.

Having thus ascertained the presence of a large quantity
of bituminous matter in the coal, a portion of the surround-
ing rock was subjected to similar treatment, and, with like
results, the bituminous matter, in the specimens examined,
amounting to 18 per cent.

After ignition, the remaining ash dissolved with effer-
vescence in diluted hydrochloric acid, with the exception
of a portion of siliceous matter. Ammonia added to the
acid solution, caused a copious gelatinous precipitate, pre-
senting all the characters of phosphate of lime. Oxide of
iron was present in minute quantity, probably in combina-
tion with sulphur, as traces of sulphuric acid were detected,
when the ash was boiled with nitromuriatic acid. Chlorine
could not be found. Carbonate of lime occurred in consider-
able quantity, and magnesia was also detected. Soda and
potash were sought for, but without success.

A careful examination was instituted, in order, if possible,
to detect the presence of fluorine, which is so constantly met
with in fossil organic remains. Indeed, until of late, the
researches of Rees, Girardin, and Pressier of Rouen, and
others, seemed to indicate that the occurrence of fluorine
was characteristic of fossils, and that it was not to be found
at all as a normal ingredient of recent bones, as stated by
Berzelius. More recently, however, the results of the ana-
lysis of that celebrated Swedish chemist have been verified
by the investigations of Dr Daubeny and Mr Middleton.

On submitting a portion of the powdered coal to the action
of a gentle heat, along with sulphuric acid, in a platinum
crucible, covered with a plate of glass, coated on its lower
surface with a thin layer of wax, in which lines were drawn
with a pointed piece of wood, and kept cool by damp cloths,
no traces of fluorine could be detected, the glass being left
quite uncorroded. Having failed in this way, the powder
was then ignited, as recommended by Dr Daubeny, in his
- most valuable paper in the Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxv.
No. 164; the ash dissolved in muriatic acid, the phosphates,
(along with the fluates, if any were present), thrown down by

284 Dr Andrew Fleming on the

ammonia, and the precipitate, after being thoroughly washed
and dried, submitted as before to the action of sulphuric acid,
in a platinum crucible, covered with a plate of glass prepared
in the manner above described. No heat was applied, the
temperature being raised sufficiently high by the chemical ac-
tion, and the glass plate was left on the crucible for six hours.
On removing it, at the end of that period, distinct marks
of the corrosion of the glass were observed, leaving no doubts
as to the presence of fluorine in the substance under exami-
nation. I may here state, that, in this way, I have detected
fluorine, with the greatest facility, in fossil bones from the
rock of Gibraltar, in sharks’ teeth from the London clay, and
in a portion of a fossil bone from Tilgate forest. In two
specimens of recent human bones, the one a femur, and the
other an os ilium, fluorine was detected in the phosphates
obtained in the way before mentioned.

The chief constituents, therefore, of these crusts of coaly
matter are, phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, and bitu-
minous matter.

A qualitative analysis having thus been executed, it was
thought desirable that the proportion of the different con-
stituents should be ascertained ; and for this purpose a care-
fully selected specimen was pounded, which, after drying
over a water bath, weighed 9.2 grs. This was ignited for
some time in a platinum crucible, and was found to have lost
4.32 grs. of bituminous matter. The ash was then treated
with weak muriatic acid, which dissolved all, except a por-
tion of silica (sand), which, when separated by filtration,
washed and ignited, weighed 1.206. The phosphate of lime,
precipitated by ammonia from the acid solution, weighed
1.998 grs. The lime was thrown down as oxalate, and,
after careful ignition in the usual way, amounted to 1.208
gers. of carbonate of lime. To the remaining liquid, when
reduced by concentration to a small bulk, phosphate of am-
monia was added, and the precipitated magnesia, after igni-
tion, weighed .594 grs. as phosphate, which corresponds to
450 grs. of carbonate of magnesia.

We have thus in a hundred parts :—

Constitution of the Ichthyolites of Stromness. 285

Bituminous matter, : 46.956
Siliceous matter (sand), nae a ee ae sul |

13.108
phuret of iron,
Phosphate of denies with tines ‘of duste of er oe 21.717
Carbonate of lime, i } : 3 F 13.130
Carbonate of magnesia, : : J ; 4.891
Loss, : é . ; ; : é .198
100.

It is obvious, from the above analysis, that the greater
portion of the original constituents of the organism had re-
mained in connection with it; while it is equally evident that
numerous transpositions have subsequently taken place among
the ingredients of the mass, by which the limits of the sepa-
rate parts have been obliterated. The same forces, however,
which have annihilated all distinction between the surfaces of
the scales, the viscera, and the bones, and even modified their
constitutent parts, do not appear to have exerted any in-
fluence on the surrounding matrix ; for the line of demarca-
tion between the surface of the organism and the rock, is
usually well marked in the cross fracture, although the
adhesion is generally strong. There is, no doubt, a consi-
derable amount of bituminous matter, forming an obvious
ingredient in these schists; yet it would be rash to infer
that it derived its origin directly either from the maceration
of the ichthyolites, or their vaporized contents. The state of
the beds at the period of their formation, and, perhaps, for
a long time afterwards, appears to have been favourable for
the mutual action of the different parts of the organism
disposed for change, but not, by any means, for the abstrac-
tion or dispersion of the greater part of the more changeable
ingredients. Instead, therefore, of the resultant consisting
entirely of the earthy ingredients of the organism, as pro-
bably would have been the case had maceration prevailed to
any great extent, or of these conjoined with the carbon, if
igneous influence had been exerted, we have presented in the
mass, not merely the original earthy salts, but the animal
matter in a bituminous form, and the whole constituting a

- singularly homogeneous coal. But the subject is too obscure

to warrant farther speculation.
ABERDEEN, March 3. 1845.

( 286 )

On the Determination of Heights by the Boiling Point of
Water. By James D. Forsus, Esq., F.R.S., Sec.
R.S. Ed., Corresponding Member of the Institute of
France, and Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. With Two Plates.*

It was observed by Fahrenheit, that the boiling point of
water depends on the height of the barometer, the pressure
of the air hindering the conversion of water into steam by a
resistance which must be overcome by an increase of heat.
Deluct and De Saussuref contrived apparatuses for making
the observation in the open air, and at great heights, and
appear to have contemplated the substitution of the ther-
mometer for the barometer upon occasion. They, as well as
Dr Horsley,§ Sir George Schuckburgh,|| and Mr Cavendish,¥
seem to have regarded the question as one which concerned
the fixity of the point used in graduating thermometers, and
its requisite corrections, rather than as applicable to baro-
metric purposes generally. Several of them have given em-
pirical tables for correcting the boiling point within the
limits of the usual barometric variations, but one only, M.
Deluc, has given a formula for connecting the indications of
the barometer with the boiling point of water throughout
the range which the barometer has been observed to vary
on the earth’s surface. This is the on/y formula immediately
deduced from direct observations of the boiling point; and
having been verified by De Saussure at a height greater than
the limits for which it was constructed, and having else-
where been declared by him to be so accurate as to super-
sede farther experiment on the subject, it might have been
expected to be generally adopted, or at least known. We
find, however, that though it has been occasionally copied
into the formal articles of Encyclopedias, as a correction in

* From Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xv.,

part iii.
+ Modificationsde l’ Atmosphere, tome ii. + Voyages, secs. 1275, 2011.
§ Phil. Trans. vol. Ixiv. || Ibid., vol. Ixix.

q Ibid., vol. Ixvii. p. 816.

On the Determination of Heights, Sc. 287

graduating thermometers, observers who have used the boil-
ing point for the determination of heights, have always pre-
ferred the ordinary tables which give the elasticity of steam
in terms of its temperature, determined from experiments
of quite a different kind from the boiling of water.

Dr Dalton, indeed, has given a table from observation
under the air-pump of the boiling point ;* and that table
shews a manifest deviation from the elasticities and tempe-
ratures of vapour determined by himself, and now generally
accepted as the most accurate below 212°. In boiling, the
temperature requires to be higher, under a given pressure,
than the temperature of steam which has the same tension.
Thus, comparing Dalton’s two tables—

z ibe Tension of é
Temperature, ae eri Vapour. Difference.
212 30°0 30°0
200 22°38 23°64
190 18°6 19°00
15:2

it is exactly at the part of the scale where the difference is
most practically important that it is most conspicuous,
namely, between 190° and 212°. The method of observa-
tion used by Dr Dalton, does not admit of any great accu-
racy in observing the boiling points, and the numbers he
has given are evidently only approximate. Still, from ob-
servations made under naturally low pressures (the only ones
worthy of much confidence in this case), I have found the
same nonconformity of the theoretical tension of steam and
the atmospheric pressure.

In 1817, Archdeacon Wollaston described a thermometer
destined particularly for the purpose of determining heights. t

* Meteorological Essays, 2d edit. p. 127.
+ Phil. Trans, vol, cxx. p. 183,

288 Professor Forbes on the Determination of Heights

But he seems not to have been aware of the progress which
the subject had already made in the hands of Deluc and De
Saussure. The latter used a thermometer indicating 7>5>
of a degree of Reaumur. Wollaston’s instrument, though a
neat laboratory one, has almost every fault which a travel-
ling instrument can have, excepting only its small dimen-
sions, to which everything is sacrificed. It is apt to break,
and still more apt to be deranged, the contrivance for ex-
tending the scale being excessively incommodious ; finally,
it is impossible to use it in windy weather, and its indica-
tions are in an arbitrary scale. Nor was the method of cal-
culating the heights more happy. At first he contented
himself with assuming the progression of height to be pro-
portional to the fall of the boiling point, near 212°;* but
he afterwardst extended his calculation from Dr Ure’s table
of tensions of vapour, expressly stating, that he had used
the proportionality of 1° of Fahrenheit to 0-589 inches of the
barometer, or 530 feet, merely as an approximation for small
heights. ash 8

A reference in. Boué’s’ Guide du Geologue Voyageur, di-
rected me to a paper by Mr Prinsep, in the Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal for April 1833. I hoped there to
have found a table of boiling temperatures observed at great
heights in India. But it only contains a modification of
Tredgold’s Formula of the Elasticities of Steam adapted to
the measurement of heights by the thermometer, and no ori-
ginal observations.

During a late journey in Switzerland (in 1842), I made
several observations on the boiling point of water at great
heights. Having long since abandoned Wollaston’s ther-
mometrical barometer, as practically useless, I was led to
resume the method, in consequence of a very ingenious and
compact apparatus for chemical or culinary purposes having
been shewn to me the preceding winter, by Mr Stevenson,
instrument maker, under the name of a Russian furnace, and
which was, I believe, introduced into the country from Russia
by Dr Samuel Brown. It consists of a very thin cylindrical

a ee ee a

* Phil., Trans. p. 192. + Ibid., vol. ex. p. 295.

Vol AXXVIILp.289.

PLATE VII.

Edin’ NewPhil. Jour.

by the Boiling Point of Water. 289

copper-pan for holding water, Fig. 1, plate VII., with three
moveable wite-legs. The bottom is flat, so that the flame
of a spirit-lamp plays fully upon it. This lamp or furnace
consists of two parts, a flat dish or saucer, Fig. 3, containing
a little alcohol, which is set on fire, and then covered by the
double dome-shaped vessel, Fig. 4, also of thin copper, with
an air-tight plug a, by which a certain quantity of spirit of
wine is introduced, and the lower part communicating with
a bent tube or nozzle 6, by which alcohol in ebullition is
violently projected by the pressure of its own vapour, when
heated by the flame in the saucer. The jet of burning spirit
thus thrown up like a volcanic explosion through the aperture
of the dome, has such force as to resist the blast of a hurri-
cane, and plays right upon the bottom of the cylindric boiler

‘or pan. Two fluid ounces of spirit of wine will thus boil
above a pint of water in still air in four minutes; and I have
frequently first melted snow, and then brought it to boil to
the amount of a pint, with little more alcohol, but, of course,
in a longer time.

The furnace and boiling apparatus, together with a reser-
voir of alcohol, packs into the copper-pan, and that into a
cylindrical leather case 4 inches high, and 6 in diameter.
The thermometer, Fig. 2, is carried separately. It is 15
inches long and the degrees measure ;3, inch, which is quite
sufficient in practice. Parallax is avoided, by having the
scale repeated on each side of the tube on two pieces of copper
not in the same plane.

Fig. 5 represents the spirit measure, Fig. 6 a reservoir for
spirits, Fig. 7 a water measure or cup, Fig. 8 a handle which
opens all the plugs, and serves also for lifting the lamp and
pan when heated.

I immediately saw the value of the apparatus for deter-
mining the boiling point, and directed Mr Adie to adapt a
thermometer to it, graduated from 185° to 214° of Fahrenheit’s
scale, divided to 10ths of a degree, the divisions admitting
an estimation to 100ths. I am well assured, however, that
in no circumstances, even the most favourable, is the observa-
tion true to less than ,\; of a degree. But this quantity
corresponds to only 25 feet of elevation. and is therefore,

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. 3

290 Professor Forbes on the Determination of Heights

accurate enough for most purposes. The minute subdivisions
of Deluc’s, De Saussure’s, and Wollaston’s instruments, are
quite unavailing, as I have found by using the instrument of
the latter with every precaution.

My barometer having been broken in the course of my
journeys, I was glad to have recourse to the boiling point as
a means of estimating (only roughly as I expected) some
remarkable elevations not before measured. In several cases
I had the advantage of comparing my thermometric boiling
point with a barometer, and lately I resolved to discuss these
observations empirically, without reference to any theory or
tables, or previous observations.

I first projected the barometric pressures in terms of the
corresponding thermometric observations. These were the
following :—

Barometer re-
duced toEnglish

inches, and to
32°

BorLine Point.

August Tacul 200°-10 23'154

Tacul 200°°6 23°358
St Bernard 199°:08 22674
Prarayon 201°°58 23°893
M. | Col Collon 195°-15 20°77

<u 29,11 A.M. | Gressony 204-20 25148
September 5, mM. |, Martigny 210°-12 28°489

I obtained a curve, which resembled a flattish logarithmic,
the barometric numbers appearing to be in geometrical pro-
gression, whilst the temperatures varied uniformly. This
recalled to me an idea which I had entertained some years
ago, that the boiling point would be found to vary simply
with the height, to which I was led from knowing Deluc’s
formula; but the idea had since escaped me, or been post-
poned to other occupations. Now, however, I projected the
simple elevations of the points of observation (derived from
the barometric pressures from the common tables for com-
puting heights uncorrected for the temperature), in terms
of the boiling points, as in Plate VIII, and I was gratified
to find, that a straight line passed almost quite through the
whole of them, shewing that the temperature of the boiling

es MIP L

mie)

L : 3 al a = ? a i se io ae ee =i ; if _
ae MYPT of L2f\ 222) 9 ORG ; . |
ata

Se ee ee ee ee Se ae coarse

¥
Xi Va
aa?
Dad
'

by the Boiling Point of Water. 291

point varies in a simple arithmetical proportion with the height,
namely, 549°5 feet for every degree of Fahrenheit; so that
the calculation of height becomes one of simple arithmetic,
without the use of logarithms, or of any table whatsoever.

When [ had ascertained this fact, I looked back to Deluc’s
formula, and found my conjecture entirely confirmed. Its
form is

alogp+C=h,

h being the ‘height of a thermometer plunged in boiling
water under a pressure p; a and C constants. But the first
side of this equation is the very form which gives elevations
in terms of the barometric pressure. Hence the boiling
temperature varies as the height. In other words, the
pressure varies in a geometrical ratio, when the temperature
of boiling water varies uniformly ; but the pressure varies
geometrically when the heights above the sea vary uniformly ;
hence the heights vary uniformly with the boiling tempera-
tures. Sable

It is very singular that: so elegant and simple a result
should have escaped every writer on the subject (so far as
I know) ; even Deluc himself, who proposed the logarithmic
law, and Wollaston, who unawares adopted the true law as
a first approximation, and then took a wrong one.*

It is not to be supposed that the coincidence appears
close, because the observations are not accurate enough to
test it. Of seven observations between 195° and 210°, no
one differs 80 feet of elevation from the mean line,—a

* He says,—‘‘ Having occasion last summer of visiting Caernarvon,
which would afford an opportunity of trying the instrument on the
known height of Snowdon, and being aware that in 3550 feet the varia-
tions of the boiling temperature were not to be considered uniform, as they
might in small elevations, on which alone I had before tried the experi-
ment, I wished to provide myself previously with a table for making the
necessary correction, and from Dr Ure’s paper was supplied with data
for calculation.”—Phil. Trans. 1820, p. 295. The table given from Ure’s
law of tensions gives a gradually increasing number of feet, correspond-
ing to every degree that the thermometer falls.

Since this paper was first printed, I find that Sir John Leslie has re-
marked the Arithmetical Law in his article, ‘‘ Barometrical Measure-
ments,” in the Encyclopedia Britannica.

292 Professor Forbes on the Determination of Heights

quantity corresponding to ,°, of a degree, an amount which
cannot be considered as being beyond the possible errors of
observations; and the small errors - are well distributed
throughout. On the contrary, when the tensions of vapour,
from Dalton’s Table, are projected beside them, as in the
dotted curve of the figure, not only do they lie wholly above
the line, but these tensions cannot be represented (when
treated as representing barometric heights) as a straight
line at all. They have a manifest curvature convex up-
wards. In short, as is well known, the tensions of steam
cannot be represented by a geometrical progression in terms
of the temperature; but when water boils in the free air,
the pressures are then exactly in geometrical progression.

I never saw any ground for believing that the two laws
must be the same. Our theory of vapours is not sufficiently
perfect to admit of our drawing any such conclusion. In-
deed I cannot help thinking that the influence of the pres-
sure of the air upon the elasticity of nascent steam, is a fact
not easily reconciled with Dalton’s theory of the pressure
of elastic fluids. It is one thing to ascertain the elasticity
of steam of maximum density, which water of a given tem-
perature can yield, and it is another to ascertain under what
pressure of air water wil] yield steam of a given tempera-
ture. In practice I have observed the temperature of the
boiling water, and not of the steam. The construction of
the apparatus required this. But by moving the furnace to
a side, so as to prevent the flame from disengaging the steam
immediately under the thermometer, I have found the indica-
tions as steady as I believe can be got in any other way. The
mass of the water and also of the thermometer favours this.

But I had a farther test of the exactness of the arithme-
tical progression above established, and that as severe as
could be proposed. It was to compare De Saussure’s obser-
vations on Mont Blane, and the pressure there observed, with
the result of my formula. But first, it was necessary to
correct the zero point of his instrument, and to render it
comparable to mine. De Saussure’s boiling point, 80° of
Reaumur, or 212° of Fahrenheit, was adjusted at 27 French
inches, or 28.777 English.

a

lay:

by the Boiling Point of Water. 293

At that pressure my thermometer (Adie) shews 210.58 F.
De Saussure’s stood, therefore, 1°.42 F. higher than mine.
Now, on the top of Mont Blanc, the barometer stood at
17.133 English inches.

The boiling temperature by De Saussure
was, é ; ; F : 187°.234 Fahr.
Reduced to Adie, . ! 185°.814 —
But the boiling point of Adie’s tibiae!
meter, with the barometer at 30 inches, is 212°.62

Subtract, ; , : 185°.81
At Mont Blane, below boiling point at
30 inches, . : 26°.4 1
By Galbraith’s Tables, . 30. 000 jens = 29228 feet
17.1388 — = 14593

Height uncorrected for temperature, 14635
Now, by the proportion found empirically above,

Height uncorrected for temperature = 26.71 x 549.5 =
14677 feet,—a coincidence really surprising.

I have already stated, that De Saussure found Deluc’s
formula to conform accurately to his observation on Mont
Blane. It may therefore be concluded, that Deluc’s formula
and mine agree closely. In fact, if we take its conversion
into English measures, as given by Dr Horsley,*

ausGu00 log z — 92.804,
which gives the boiling point, in degrees of Fahrenheit,
reckoned from 32°, z being the height of the barometer in
tenths of an English inch, we find that this gives
544.7 English feet of ascent for 1° Fahr.

Practically, I consider it sufficient to find the difference of
height, in feet, between two stations, to multiply the differ-
ence of the boiling points by 550, and then correct as in
barometric observations for the temperature of the air.

If the barometer at one station is to be compared with the
boiling point at another, the simplest way is to find what

elevation the barometer expresses, compared to an imaginary

* Phil. Trans., vol. Ixiv., p. 226.

294 Professor MacGillivray om the Cirripedia.

station, where the barometer stands at 30 inches, the boiling
point at 212°. Then the height of the station, where the
thermometer has been observed, above the imaginary station,
is found by the preceding rule.

For example : The corrected boiling point on the Cold’ Erin
between Evolena and Zermatt, in the Vallais, on the 19th
August 1842, was 191°.93, the external thermometer 34°.,
the barometer (English) at Geneva was 28.73, and the tem-
perature 72, required the height.

Then, by Galbraith’s table, for 30 inches, . 29228 feet
28,73 — : 28098
Difference, ; ; ; 1130

Consequently, supposing the atmospheric temperature 32’,
the barometer stood at 30 inches, at a level 1130 feet below
Geneva. The boiling point at the upper station was 20°.07
below 212°. The Col d’Erin was, therefore, 20.07 x 549.5
= 11028 feet above that imaginary station, or 9898 feet
above Geneva. Corrected for temperature, this gives 10377 ;
and Geneva being 1343 feet above the sea, the height of the
Col d’Erin is 11720 feet.

This is purposely given as a complex case ; but let us sup-
pose that the boiling point, at the level of the sea, is assumed
to be 212°, then the approximate height of the Col d’Erin is
549.5 x 20°.07 = 11028 feet ; and supposing the mean tem-
perature of the column 54°, the height will be 11586 feet
above the sea.

Remarks on the Cirripedia, with Descriptions of several Species
found adhering to Vessels from Ichaboe, on the West Coast
of Southern Africa. By WILLIAM MACGILLIVRAY, A.M.,
LL.D., Professor of Natural History in Marischal College
and University, Aberdeen. (Communicated by the Author.)

A considerable degree of interest has always been attached to the
Cirripedal animals, not only on account of the widely extended,
though preposterous belief of their being the eggs of geese, but also
because of their peculiar structure and habits, the rapidity with
which they grow, and especially the metamorphoses which they have

oe

Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 295

been found, first by Mr Thompson, and subsequently by Burmeister,
Wagner, and Audouin, to undergo in their earlier stages. In the
part of Scotland in which I am at present located, the pedunculate
species, of which only one, Scalpellum vulgare, appears to be truly
indigenous, are of so rare occurrence, that the recent arrival of the
multitudes which crowded the uncoppered submersed portions of the
hulls of some vessels with guano from Ichaboe, could not fail to
afford great pleasure. These animals, now clearly shewn to belong
to the great type of the Entomozoa, and to approximate to certain
Crustacea, have not, I think, been well described by any of the ex-
cellent naturalists who have written upon them in our country; and
therefore I have thought, that a full description of those so fortu-
nately brought under notice may be not without use, if not to the
present race of compilers, at least to their successors, and to those
younger zoologists who may not have equal opportunities of observ-
ing them.

The six vessels on which the cirripedia to be described were
found, had been absent from seven to nine months ; in which time
they had traversed the Atlantic Ocvan, by the Azores and Brazil,
to near the Cape of Good Hope ; and, after remaining several weeks
at Ichaboe, a small islet, not far from Cabo Negro, on the west coast
of Southern Africa, and in lat. 15° 26’ S., had returned by St Helena
and the Cape Verd Islands. None of the species are peculiar to
Ichaboe, where, on the contrary, they seemed less healthy than they
had previously been. They began to be observable at about the end
of the first fortnight of the voyage out, and became sickly on the
homeward route, to the north of the Azores. When the vessels
arrived at Aberdeen, they were all dead, although on two they were
perfectly fresh and plump. It is probable, however, that in summer
they would have been alive; and that their death was caused by the
severe frost which then prevailed, as they were mostly liable to occa-
sional emersion.

It may be unnecessary to remind the expert zoologist, but it is pro-
per to intimate to those readers who have not made this class of ani-
mals a special study, that the cirripedia, all of which that I have
examined, agree with each other more closely in their structure than
the members of any other class of the great type to which they be-
long, are distinguished by the following characters.

Their body is soft, enveloped in a membranaceous integument,
incurved, and placed with the back beneath, and the hind part above.
It is enclosed in a thin mantle, and a membranous or coriaceous teg-
men, in which are formed several calcareous plates, varying in the
different genera, and wanting only in one; subovate at its lower or
anterior part; very convex on the back; attenuated and subarticu-

- lated at the upper or posterior end. It has attached to it, on either

side, six limbs, cach terminated by two long, slender, horny, many-
jointed cirri. The first pair of these limbs, placed not far from the

296 Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia

mouth, represent the thoracic feet of the crustacea ; the rest may be
considered as analogous to their abdominal false feet. The intestinal
canal has two apertures; the oral with a prominent arched lip, a
pair of palpi, and three pairs of maxillary appendages, expanded
and ciliate at the end; the anal subterminal and dorsal; the ceso-
phagus is short; the stomach large, with bursiform appendages ;
the intestine wide. They have a complete double circulation, with
white blood, and respire by branchiz, varying in form, but usually
placed at the base of the lower cirri. Their nervous system is com-
posed of a double series of ganglia, as in the crustacea. They have
no distinct head, eyes, or tentacula. The individuals are bisexual ;
the ova are fecundated in their passage, and escape by a long, very
slender, contractile tube, placed at the extremity of the body, be-
tween the last two pairs of cirri.

In some, the envelope or tegmen is composed of several calcareous
pieces, disposed in two lateral plates, with a medial or dorsal piece,
or of a membranous or coriaceous epidermic covering, in which are
developed small or rudimentary calcareous pieces, together with a
flexible, and somewhat contractile peduncle. In others it is mem-
branous, with four or two lateral pieces at the top, and inclosed ina
calcareous conical tube, composed of six or fewer contiguous or united
pieces, open above, and closed below by a membranous lamina or a
calcareous plate. The mantle in all is open above, in the form of a
slit, by which the cirri may be protruded.

These cirri are constantly in rapid motion, and are the means of
impelling the water into the cavity between the body and the man-
tle, both for respiration, and as containing the animal matters on
which they feed. The body is affixed to the tegmen or shell by a
transverse muscle, placed at its lower part, and by muscular fasci-
culi, which spread over the mass of the viscera.

The young, at first free, locomotive, and resembling the larve of
certain crustacea, undergo various changes, both before and after they
become fixed. But, as in these notes, I intend to confine myself
exclusively to what I have personally examined, I ain unable at pre-
sent to say anything on this subject.

These animals, all of which inhabit the sea, are naturally ar-
ranged into two orders, Pedunculata and Sessilia, each of which
contains a single family,

The Crrrirep1a Pepuncunata, commonly named Barnacles, have
the body supported by a tubular, fleshy, somewhat contractile and
extensile peduncle, of which the base is attached to some firm sub-
stance. To this series belong the genera Lepas, Cineras and Otion,
which; with others, form the family of the Lepadina.

In it the animal is oval or oblong, generally compressed, very con-
vex on the back, narrowed behind, suspended in a testaceous or
membranous envelope, to which it adheres by a transverse muscle,

=

Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 297

situated near the lower edge of the aperture; the mantle open at
the upper part only, and with the cuticle prolonged at the other end
to form a fleshy peduncle; the branchie simple, tapering, at the
base of the lower cirri.

Lepas. BARNACLE.

Animal subovate, compressed, gibboso-convex on the back, incurvate,
with the mouth very prominent, and furnished with a pair of external,
partially adnate palpi, and three pairs of incurvate, compressed, maxil-
lary appendages, of which the thin terminal lamina is ciliated with spines
or bristles ; the body narrowed behind, with twelve pairs of pedicellate,
long, slender, incurvate, multiarticulate, lobulate, bifariously ciliate
cirri; two unequal, slender, tapering branchial filaments on each side ;
one from the base of the pedicle of the first pair of cirri, the other from
the side of the body near it; the ovarian tube tapering, annulated, longer
than the last cirri.

Tegmen compressed, subovate, with two large calcareous plates on
each side, and a single, elongated, curved dorsal piece; the aperture in
the form of a slit, occupying the upper half of the ventral border; pe-
duncle cylindrical, contractile, fleshy: its epidermic coat continuous
with the tegmen ; its inner dermic tube continuous with the mantle or
dermal lining of the tegmen, on the inner surface of which is a delicate
layer of pigment.

This genus being generally considered the typical group of the Barna-
cles, or Pedunculated Cirripedia, it ought to give its name to the family.
Linnzus’s genus Lepas is equivalent to almost the entire class, he having,
in his Systema Naturee, only one other genus, containing a single species,
and now generally named Alepas, but to which the priority-of-nomen-
celature naturalists must restore its proper name Triton, which has been
given to a genus of Batrachian reptiles, and also to a genus of Gastero-
podous mollusca. The sessile species were first separated under the

eneric name of Balanus, but now form a family, Balanina, of which

alanus restricted is typical. To be consistent, the pedunculated spe-
cies ought to have retained the name Lepas, agreeably to the practice of
Montagu and others; and as they now form a family, it ought to be
named Lepadina, of which Lepas restricted is typical. Bruguiere and
Lamarck, however, call Lepas Anatifa, a specific Linnean name al-
tered and mutilated. Dr Leach calls it Pentelasmis, and Blainville Pen-
talepas ; in which cases, the family name should be Anatifina, or Penta-
lasmina, or Pentalepina. As naturalists are not yet agreed as to nomen-
elature, and the general meeting proposed some years ago, for the pur-
pose of settling such important matters, has not yet taken place, isolated
persons like myself must employ some such names as are intelligible.

The Lepades, Anatifse, Pentelasmides, or Pentalepades, then, live
affixed to wood, cork, bark, fuci, crustacea, fishes, and other bodies, as
well as to each other, and to various pedunculate and sessile cirripedia.
Their fleshy peduncle varies in length and colour, even in the same spe-
cies. The tegmen also presents considerable differences as to the form,
thickness, and markings of its pieces. They are more abundant in warm
than in temperate climates, and rare in the colder regions, into which,
however, they are often carried, by the currents and winds, along with
the bodies to which they adhere.

Of this genus three species have occurred: two of them long known,
but very imperfectly described ; the other not hitherto observed, or at
least distinguished, in our seas.

298 Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia.

1. Lepas anatifera. Common Barnacle.

Tegmen ovate, much compressed, obliquely truncate ; the lateral
plates very thin, fragile, bluish-white, faintly iridescent, obsoletely
rugoso-striate, with minute radiating striule ; the lower plate subovato-
tetragonal, with the basal margin oblique and nearly straight, the poste-
rior shorter and convex, the sutural straight or slightly concave, the apex
rather obtuse; the upper plate oblong, obtuse at both ends, with the
supra-umbonal side shorter than the anterior; the dorsal piece linear-
oblong, obtusely carinate, sulcate, or striate ; the peduncle rugose, pale,
the epidermic portion of the tegmen scarlet, orange, or yellow ; the cirri
pale yellowish-grey. :

The body of the animal is ovate, compressed, incurvate, very convex
on the back, narrow behind ; anteriorly soft, with a membranous integu-
ment, which becomes horny on the hind part, where it is marked be-
neath with faint transverse depressions. The mouth prominent, with an
induplicate or somewhat semilunar, bullate, rounded lip, with two thick,
pointed palpi, which are adnate until toward the end, directed forwards
or downwards, with the tip free and ciliate, and three pairs of incurvate,
compressed maxillar appendages, lamelliform at the end. The first or
outer pair, with the terminal lamina oblong, acute, with six external,
marginal, long, acuminate teeth or serratures, of which the posterior are
longest; the second with the lamina broad, with five short, broad teeth
or lobes, and several bristles; the third, inner or medial, narrower, and
ciliate.

The first pair of feet, in‘the form of oblong, compressed bodies, are
placed immediately above or behind the mouth, and bear each a pair of
unequal, tapering, compressed, horny, articulated, incurvate cirri. The
second pair are at some distance from the first, and the rest close toge-
ther, subcylindrical, compressed, biarticulate ; their cirri longer. All
the cirri are lobed and ciliate on the anterior or lower border, convex
on the dorsal side, with a few very small bristles at each joint. The
first pair of cirri with eighteen joints, the last with thirty-five joints and
lobes, on each of which are generally about sixteen unequal ciliary bris-
tles, in two divergent series.

On each side, on a prominence at the base of the first foot, externally,
is a long, subulate, soft, and flexible filament; and at some distance
from it, on the side of the body, towards the back, is another, about half
its length.

The narrowed part of the body to which the five pairs of abdominal
feet are laterally attached, is marked beneath with faint, irregular,
transverse depressions between the feet, and thus perhaps subarticu-
lated. It ends in a very long, slender, tapering flesh-coloured tube,
usually curved inwards, but, when extended, exceeding the last cirri in
length. At the base of this tube, on the dorsal aspect, is the anus, over
which are two oblong, mobile, horny plates.

The general colour of the body is pale purplish yellow, partly flesh-
colour; the cirri yellowish-grey, or light horn-colour.

A large round muscle, attached to the anterior part of the body,
under the mouth, extends from one of the large calcareous plates of the
tegmen to the other, like one of the adductor muscles of a bivalve shell.
The body is also attached to the tegmen by muscular fasciculi, which
expand beneath its integument over the viscera.

The subsidiary dermal envelope or mantle is very thin, whitish, mar-
gined at the aperture with an elastic scarlet or orange-coloured filament.
Between it and the epidermic envelope or shell is a very delicate film of
pale purplish-brown pigment, appearing like a film of China ink or neu-
tral tint, divided into minute polygonal or circular fragments.

Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 299

The tegmen testaceous, much compressed, ovate, with the base some-
what oblique and straight, the ventral margin convex, sinuate toward
the end; the dorsal margin uniformly curved in about the fifth of a
circle ; the apex obliquely truncate.

The lower lateral plate little convex, subovato-tetragonal, very thin,
fragile, white, faintly iridescent, glossy, concentrically rugoso-striate,
divergently-minutely striulate; the basal margin straight, or slightly-
concave or convex, the umbonal or basi-ventral angle projecting a little;
the ventral margin conyex, the dorsal convex scarcely half the length
of the basal; the sutural margin straight ; the apex rather acute.

The upper lateral plate oblongo-triangular, flat, somewhat concave,
very thin, fragile, white, faintly iridescent, concentrically striate, diver-
gently minutely striulate ; the ventral margin slightly concave ; the su-
tural margin straight; the dorsal slightly convex, but with the umbonal
point sensibly projecting, and about half the length of the ventral margin
from the upper angle, which is rounded; the lower angle narrow, but
rather obtuse.

The dorsal plate curved, linear-oblong, convex, with a slight medial
groove, or obtusely carinate, striate, narrower and incurvate below, with
a transverse arcuate or semilunar base; the apex obtuse, extending to
the middle of the lateral plate.

The epidermis on the margins of the calcareous plates is bright scar-
let ; between the plates, and at the base of the tegmen, scarlet or orange,
often inclining to yellowish-grey.

The peduncle short, about the length of the tegmen, sometimes shorter,
sometimes half as long again, rugoso-granulate, light greyish-yellow or
flesh coloured, orange or scarlet, becoming bright scarlet at the upper
part ; its internal or dermal tube pale greyish.

Very young individuals, two-twelfths of an inch in length, and others
up to half an inch or more, haye the peduncle and membranes yellowish-
white ; the tegmen and its plates of the same form as in the adult, but
the plates extremely thin, almost membranous at the margins.

Considerable variations occur in the outline of the tegmen ; in the form
of the plates, and especially of the upper as well as the dorsal; in the
thickness of the plates, and the convexity of the lower; and in distinct-
ness of the striz.

Generally ovate, the tegmen has its basal line straight, or somewhat
convex, rarely a little concave ; the ventral line convex for half its length,
then sinuate or slightly concave; the dorsal line more or less convex ;
the apex generally obliquely truncate, or obtuse, or even acute. The
lower plate sometimes has the ridge from the umbo to the point very
prominent, but generally inconspicuous, its sutural margin generally a
little concave, sometimes straight. In the upper plate, the umbonal
angle is sometimes distinct or even prominent, sometimes inapparent,
whence the apex may be obliquely truncate, or the dorsal line may run
in a uniform curve to the end, or the tip may even beacute. The dorsal
piece may be broader or narrower, more or less convex, sometimes nearly
flat, but generally with an obtuse keel, sometimes having a medial groove;
One or more series of depressed dots sometimes extend from the umbo
to the suture-margin of the lower plate, as has been noticed by Chemnitz
and Philippi. The strie are sometimes very distinct, although fine,
sometimes faint or somewhat obsolete.

The bluish tint of the plates is entirely owing to the pigment and
ig for when they are removed the colour is pure white, or reddish-
white.

The application of the term levis, smooth, as specific, by Lamarck
and others, is improper, inasmuch as the valves are always striate.

300 Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia.

Of the descriptions of Anatifa levis or Lepas anatifera given by authors,
those which agree best with our specimens are by Philippi and Dr Gould.
Cuvier’s figure differs a little, and his specimens must have been much
older. His figures of the structure are very rude, and those of the cirri
in particular very incorrect.

The following references are all which I can apply to this species, as
it presents itself on the Ichaboe vessels :—

Lepas anatifera. Linn. Syst. Nat. 1109. Very probably.

Lepas anatifera. Chemn. Conch. viii. 340, plate 100, fig. 853-4-5.

Lepas anatifera. Penn. Brit. Zool. iv. 74, plate 38. fig. 9.

Lepas anatifera. Turt. Conch. Dict. 71. Excluding his varieties,
which yet belong to the same species.

Anatifa levis. Lamk. Anim. sans Vert. v. 404.

Anatifa levis. Gould, Invert. Massach, 19, woodcut p. 11.

Anatifa levis. Philippi, Moll. Sicil. 252.

Anatifa levis. Brown, Illustr. plate 4, fig. 3, 4.

Lepas anatifera. Donov. Brit. Sh. plate 7.

Lepas anatifera. Mont. Test. Brit. 15.

Pentalepas levis. Blainv. Malac. plate 84, fig. 3.

The following are the dimensions of several individuals :—

Length, . : 1 4 L°'6 a eee} a ig 0 6
Depth, . : 0 10 S Epa 0) 0 94 0 8 0 3}
Breadth, . : 0 33 0 32 0 3 0. 2 ate
Peduncele, ienG PIN) ie?) 0 6 0 4

2. Lepas Nauta. Sailor Barnacle.

Tegmen ovate, compressed, obliquely truncate; the lateral plates rather
thick, bluish-white, glossy, obsoletely rugose, with distinct radiating
striule ; the lower plate subtriangular, with the basal margin very
oblique, straight, the posterior half its length and convex, the sutural
straight, the apex rather acute; the upper plate oblong, subrectangular
at the tip, narrow, and rather acute at the lower end, the supraumbonal
side of about the same length as the anterior ; the dorsal piece linear-
lanceolate, carinate, deeply sulcate, extending to more than half the
length of the upper lateral piece, abruptly inflexed at the base; the pe-
duncle rugose, dusky-brown, the epidermic portion of the tegmen scar-
let or orange ; the cirri greyish-brown.

The body of the animal is ovate, compressed, incurvate, very convex
on the back, narrow behind ; anteriorly soft, with a membranous integu-
ment which becomes horny on the hind part. The mouth prominent,
with an induplicate or vaulted, bullate, rounded lip, with two thick ad-
nate palpi, free at the end, where they are conico-compressed, and end
in a long incurvate, acute prickle, and three pairs of incurvate, com-
pressed, maxillar appendages. The first or outer pair with the terminal
lamina oblong, acute, with six external marginal, acuminate teeth or
serratures, of which the posterior is much larger, the rest gradually de-
creasing. The second with the lamina broad, with five short, broad
teeth, and ciliate. The third or inner narrower, pointed, and ciliate.

The first pair of feet close to the mouth, with the cirri unequal, of
about 15 joints ; the rest crowded, the last with 45 joints; all ciliate,
with long unequal bristles in two series, generally from 12 to 16 on each
lobe.

Two branchial tapering filaments on each side, the longer attached to

Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 301

the prominence at the base of the first foot, and shorter than its cirri,
the other smaller, on the side of the body.

The ovarian tube very slender, longer than the last cirri.

The colour of the body light brown, dotted with darker ; that of the
cirri greyish-brown ; the pigment dusky brown. In other respects, the
structure is the same as in Lepas anatifera.

The tegmen testaceous, compressed, ovate, with the base very oblique,
straight or slightly concave, the ventral margin convex, slightly sinuate
toward the end, the dorsal margin curved in the fifth of a circle to the
angle of the upper plate, then abrupt.

The lower lateral plate subtriangular, rather convex, rather thick,
bluish-white, faintly iridescent, highly glossed, concentrically obsoletely
rugose, with distinct small diverging strie ; the basal margin straight or
slightly concave, with a small reflexed rim, the umbonal angle not pro-
jecting, the ventral margin gently convex, the dorsal convex, about half
the length of the basal, the sutural margin straight ; the apex truncate
or rectangular.

The upper lateral plate oblongo-tetragonal, nearly flat, or slightly
convex, bluish-white, concentrically obsoletely rugose, divergently dis-
tinctly striulate, the ventral margin straight, the dorsal distinctly angu-
late, the umbonal point being prominent, the space between it and the
point straight or concave, and about equal in length to the ventral margin,
the lower angle very narrow and acute.

The dorsal plate gently curved, linear-oblong, rising into a prominent
keel, its sides concave or sloping, deeply grooved, the grooves often
forming slight denticulations on the keel, the apex very narrow, extend-
ing nearly to the umbonal angle of the upper plates, its base narrowed,
abruptly incurved at the end, expanded and emarginate.

The epidermis on the margins of the calcareous plates very narrow,
bright scarlet, at the base of the lower plates often forming a regular
series of angular shreds; between the plates, where it is very narrow,
and at the base of the tegmen dusky.

The peduncle shorter than the tegmen, dusky or blackish-brown, ru-
gose, minutely granulate, its internal tube dark grey or brownish.

It varies considerably ; but in every form or age is easily distinguish-
able from Lepas anatifera, into which it does not graduate. Generally
broadly ovate, the tegmen has its basal line oblique in various degrees,
sometimes straight, often more or less concave, never convex ; the ven-
tral line convex to the end of the large plate, then straight or convex ;
the dorsal line gently convex; the apex sometimes obtuse, generally
rectangular, sometimes extended, acute or obtuse. The lower plate has
always a prominent ridge from the umbo to the apex, and is more or
less convex below. In the upper plate the umbonal angle may be
more or less prominent, and the margin beyond is straight, concave, or
rarely convex. The dorsal plate, always sulcate and carinate, may have
the keel continuous, but generally undulate or denticulate. One or
more series of depressed dots sometimes extend from the umbo to the
suture-margin of the lower plate. The stris are sometimes strongly
marked, generally moderate, sometimes faintly, always more distinctly
than in Lepas anatifera.

The bluish tint of the plates is entirely owing to the pigment and
mantle, for when they are removed the colour is pure white, with a slight
tinge of lilac-purple.

‘his species differs from Lepas anatifera in having the tegmen smaller,
more convex, more oblique at the base, and more distinctly striated.
The plates are thicker, the lower more convex, with a much more pro-
minent angular ridge ; the upper more pointed at its lower end, the

302 Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia.

posterior more prominent, more deeply sulcate, and quite differently
curved at the base, it being there suddenly inflexed. Lepas anatifera
has a wide membranous space between the dorsal plate and the dorsal
margin of the lower plate ; Lepas incurvata has also a wide space there ;
but in Lepas striata there is scarcely any, the margins of all the plates
being almost in contact. The dorsal plate in Lepas incurvata extends
one-third up the upper plate, in L. anatifera half-way, in L. striata two-
thirds.

The species here described is the same as one which I have frequently
met with on planks, logs, and tangles, in the Outer Hebrides. It does
not, however, grow on the tangles in their natural state, it being only
when they have been floating in the sea, after having been dried on the
sands, that they form upon them. The same species I havealso found on
corks on the east coast of Scotland. Itis that described as Lepas striata
in the Mollusca of Aberdeenshire.

It is not easy to find references for this species. Although referred
by many to Lepas anserifera of Linneeus, it certainly is not that species ;
nor is it Anatifa striata of Bruguiere, Lamarck, or Philippi, which they
refer to Lepas anserifera, and has the valves “ argute striate.” It is
very certainly Anatifa striata of Dr Gould, his descriptions agreeing in
every particular and circumstance. I find no other specific name for it
than Anserifera and Striata, to neither of which can it lay claim, and there-
fore am obliged to get it a new name, until some priority person find an
old one for it.

It occurred in small numbers, along with Lepas anatifera and L. in-
curvata, in the midst of a dense mass of Otion and Cineras, on the bows
and sides of a Fraserburgh brig, which came to Aberdeen in the begin-
ning of January 1845.

Lepas anserifera. Mont. Test. Brit. 16.

Lepas anserifera. Turt. Conch. Dict. 72.

Lepas striata. MacG. Mollusca of Aberdeenshire, 357.

Anatifa striata. Gould, Invert. Massach. 20.

The dimensions of several individuals are :—

=

Length, Bere 1 th Q 0 10 0 9
Depth, . Pee VD a 0 8 QO 54 AS
Breadth, a "Oe 0 3 0 4 0 2% 0 24
Peduncle, 0 10 0 4 0 5 0 4 0 5

3. Lepas incurvata. Incurvate Barnacle.
Anatifa elongata. Quoy et Gaimard.

Tegmen semicordate or ovato-oblong, with the anterior margin straight
or recurvate, compressed, tumid below, obtuse; the lateral plates very
thin, fragile, bluish-white, slightly glossed or dull, obsoletely rugose,
with very minute radiating striule ; the lower plate subovato-tetrago-
nal, with the basal margin convex, the posterior rounded and equal, the
sutural convex, the apex acute ; the upper plate oblongo-tetragonal, ob-
tuse at both ends, with the supraumbonal side as long as the anterior ;
the dorsal piece narrow-oblong, convex, sulcate or striate ; the pedun-
cle rugose, minutely granulate, brownish-black, the epidermic portion
of the tegmen partly dull scarlet or dingy orange ; the cirri dusky.

The body of the animal is ovate, very convex on the back, narrow be-
hind ; anteriorly soft, with a membranous integument, which becomes
horny on the hind part, where it is marked beneath with faint transverse

Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia. 303

depressions. The mouth very prominent, with an induplicate or some-
what semilunar, bullate, rounded lip, with two thick, pointed palpi,
which are adnate, until toward the end, directed forwards and inwards,
with the tip free, and terminating in a recurved spine, and three pairs of
incuryate compressed maxillar appendages, lamelliform at the end.
The first or outer pair, with the terminal lamina oblong, acute, with six
external, marginal, acuminate, teeth or serratures, of which the poste-
rior is much larger. The second, with the lamina broad, with four cili-
ated lobes. The third or inner, less compressed, ciliato-dentate.

The first pair of feet, oblong, compressed, placed immediately behind
the mouth, and bearing each a pair of unequal, tapering, compressed,
horny, articulated, incurvate cirri. The second pair at some distance,
and the rest close together, subcylindrical, compressed, biarticulate,
their cirri longer. All the cirri are lobed and ciliate on the anterior bor-
der, convex on the dorsal side, with a few very small bristles at each
joint. The first pair with seventeen joints, of which the last five are
very slender, the last with forty-five joints and lobes, on each of which
are generally five, or from four to six ciliz on each side, arranged in
two divergent series.

On each side, on a prominence at the base of the first foot externally,
is a long, subulate branchial filament; and at some distance from it, on
the side of the body, is another about half its length.

The narrowed part of the body to which the five pairs of abdominal
feet are attached is marked beneath, and on the sides, with faint trans-
verse depressions between the feet. It ends in a very long, slender,
tapering, dusky tube, of about the length of the last cirri. At the base
of this tube, on the dorsal aspect, is the anus, over which are two ob-
long, mobile, horny plates.

The general colour of the body is light brown, or dark yellowish-grey,
often dotted with dusky; paler on the sides; the cirri dusky brown,
pale along the back, and with the ciliary bristles brownish-grey.

The transverse muscle, and subcutaneous muscular layer, as in the
last species.

The subsidiary dermal envelope or mantle very thin, dusky-brown,
margined at the aperture with a yellowish filament. Between it and the
testaceous tegmen is a film of dark-brown pigment disposed in irregu-
lar roundish or polygonal fragments.

The tegmen compressed, tumid below, semicordate, somewhat in-
curved, with the basal margin convex, the ventral direct, gently sinuate,
at the end somewhat recurvate, the dorsal uniformly curved in the fifth
of a circle, the apex obtuse.

The lower lateral plate considerably convex, subovato-tetragonal,
very thin, fragile, bluish-white, or greyish-blue, concentrically rugose,
and faintly striulate, divergently obsoletely striulate ; the basal margin
convex, the umbonal angle considerably prominent, the ventral margin
sinuate, the dorsal convex, as long as the basal or longer, the sutural
margin very slightly convex, the apex acute.

The upper lateral plate oblongo-tetragonal, flat, somewhat concave,
very thin, fragile, white, concentrically rugose and striulate, divergently
obsoletely striulate, the ventral margin straight, or a little concave, less
than half the length of the sutural, which is slightly concave, the dorsal
margin convex, with the umbonal point scarcely prominent, its distance
from the tip less than the length of the ventral margin, the upper angle
rounded, the lower obtuse.

The dorsal plate curved, narrow-oblong, convex, with a slight rounded
carina, striate, narrowed and incurvate toward the base, which is ex-

304 Professor MacGillivray on the Cirripedia.

panded and emarginate, the apex obtuse, extending only to a third of
the length of the upper lateral plate.

The epidermis on the margins of the calcareous plates is generally
bright scarlet, between the plates dusky, sometimes pale, rarely scarlet.

The peduncle short, about the length of the tegmen, rugoso-granulate,
with very small, unequal, roundish, flattened tubercles, greyish or
brownish-black, at the base often pale grey, at the top reddish; its in-
ternal or dermal tube greyish-brown.

Very young individuals, two-twelfths of an inch in length, and others
up to half an inch, have the peduncle and membranes generally dusky,
being only of a lighter tint than in the adult.

Very considerable variations occur in the outline of the tegmen; in
the form of the plates, and especially of the upper, as well as the dorsal ;
in the convexity of the lower, and the prominence of its umbonal angle;
and in the lustre and distinctness of the striz; but, in all the varieties,
there is no possibility of mistaking the species, or of not seeing that
it is very distinct from any other.

Generally semicordate, the teginen never varies in the convexity of its
basal line; but the ventral line may be quite straight, generally sinuate,
more or less recurved at the end, sometimes remarkably so, the apex
generally obtuse, sometimes obliquely truncate, rarely narrowly and
directly truncate. The lower plate has the ridge from the umbo to the
point obsolete, slight, scarcely ever very prominent, always very close
to the margin, and nearly parallel to it; its sutural margin almost
always convex, rarely straight. In the upper plate, the umbonal angle
is sometimes obsolete, sometimes distinct. The dorsal piece may be
broader or narrower, always convex, and sulcate, generally with a keel
more prominent toward the base. ‘The strive sometimes pretty distinct,
the lustre glossy, seldom iridescent, often dull.

The bluish tint of the plates is entirely owing to the dark pigment and
mantle ; for when they are removed the colour is pure white, with a faint
tinge of reddish-purple.

It is needless to compare this species with Lepas anatifera, or any
other known to me, as it is readily distinguishable. Its semicordate,
subrecurvate form, the greater convexity of its basal plates, the greater
breadth and less elongation of its dorsal piece, and other characters,
might be noticed. The cirri are much longer, and have more joints; and
their colour, as well as that of the body, is much darker.

Lepas tegmine ovato-oblongo, subincurvato, basi convexo, rotundato,
apice obtuso, cirrisultimis articulis 45 nigrescentibus, &c.

Lepas tegmine ovato, basi compresso, subrecto, apice oblique truncato,
cirris articulis 35, flavicantibus, &c.

The following are the dimensions of several individuals :—

Length, 1 4 ES dees ie ey PeAg 1 4
Depth, siameanie OG 0 8 0 9 O 8 0 7 0 93-
Waidth,. ..°. 0 4 0 4 0 44 #O 4 0 3 O 4%
Peduncle, 0 10 0 10 0 8 0 6 OS 0 9

This species was more abundant than the others, and its peculiar form
struck me the moment I saw it, as being very different from that of any
other species known to me. As to its specific rank there can be no
doubt; and if it has already been described, no harm can ensue from
my having given so long an account of it. The naming of a new species

Professor Macgillivray on the Cirripedia. 305

is not a matter for which I would make a great scramble; for it is dis-
gusting, as well as ludicrous, to see with what eagerness some people
tear the small shreds of knowledge out of each others mouths.

It is not very improbable that it may be Anatifa elongata of Quoy and
Gaimard, which is said to inhabit the coasts of New Zealand, and of
which the specific character given in the second edition of Lamarck is:
A. testa compressa, elongato-ovali, postice subtruncata, cinereo-cceru-
lescente, margine lutea; pedunculo mediocri, tuberculato.

The cirri of all the Cirripedia known to me, namely about twenty
species of the genera Lepas, Pollicipes, Otion, Cineras, Balanus, and
Coronula, have a tube filled with fluid along the back, distinct from the
more compressed, anterior, concave, ciliated, part. They are extended
partially or entirely by the propulsion of this fluid. On removing the
pressure they resume their curvature. It seems probable, that the muscles
in the pedicle or foot propel the fluid, and perhaps there may be filaments
for curving the cirri. At all events, the mechanism is most simple and
efficient.

Another fact is, that the application of heat and light changes the dark
cclour of the epidermis, whether of the stem or pedunele, to scarlet.
Ifthe mantle and dermal tube of the peduncle be removed from the
darkest Barnacle, the epidermis will almost always become red in dry-
ing. So that for all the importance which Dr Gould attributes to the
- colour of the stem, as a distinctive character, it is really not much
worth.

A third and more important fact is, that on the epidermis of many
specimens of Lepas incurvata and L. Nauta, I find a kind of small cal-
careous spicula, which at first sight one might take to be a species of
Pedicellaria. These objects, generally considered as organic portions
of the sea-urchins and star-fishes, on which they are found in vast
numbers, would therefore have to be also viewed as organic appendicules
of Barnacles, or else distinct beings, parasitic on the Cirripedia, as well
as the Echinodermata. It is on the membrane between the calcareous
plates, and on the peduncle, that they occur. They do not, however,
resemble the Pedicellariz which are seen on our Echinodermata, but
present the appearance of single or aggregated spicula, often divergent
or radiate, and mostly covered by a pellicle of the epidermis. Whether
erystallizations or aggregations of calcareous particles, or organic beings,
these objects require a more minute examination than I am able to be-
stow upon them at present.

Some species of the genera Cineras and Otion come next in order.

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. UXXVI.—APRIL 1845. U

( 306 )

On the Intellectual Character of the Esquimaux. By RICHARD
Kine, M.D.* (Communicated by the Ethnological So-
ciety.)

Vitruvius states, that “the northern nations, from cold
and moisture, have large bodies, a white skin, red hair, grey
eyes, and much blood, and, breathing a thick and cold air,
are dull and slow of understanding.”+ “ The frigidity of the
North Americans,” writes Lord Kames, ‘‘ men and women,
differing in that particular from all other savages, is to me
evidence of a separate race.” t

According to Herder, “‘ The blood of man, near the pole,
circulates but slowly, the heart beats but languidly; con-
sequently, the unmarried live chastely, the women almost
require compulsion to take upon them the troubles of a
married life ; and the mother suckles her infant a long time,
with all the profound tenacious affection of animal mater-
nity. So hard is their fate, that, in winter, they are often
obliged to support themselves in their caves by sucking their
own blood.” M. Lesson says of the habits of the lyperborean
people, ‘‘ The rigour of the climate has obliged them to dig
for themselves subterraneous abodes. They sew with nerves
their winter garments, made of the skins of seals, and make
their summer dresses of the intestine of the largest whales.
The Esquimaux is skilful in the chace of foxes and sables,
whose skin serves him for clothing and for barter. Their
loose morality renders the men addicted to polygamy, and
indifferent to the virtue of their wives and daughters.Ӥ The
French historian, Charlevoix, asserts that the Esquimaux
“ are the only savages known who eat raw flesh; that they
wear their hair in great disorder ; that their beard is so thick
that it is difficult to discover the features ; that there is some-
thing terrifying in their face, and that their whole exterior
shews the animal, or is very brutish ; that of all people in
America, there is none who correspond more with our EKuro-
pean idea of a savage, for they are ferocious, wild, defying,

* Read before the Ethnological Society, June 19. 1844.
t Quoted by Lord Kames, pages 51 and 52. + Kames, p. 52.
§ Quoted by Prichard, p. 502.

On the Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 307

restless, and always inclined to do mischief to the stranger ;
and that they have little intercourse and commerce with
their nearest neighbours.”*

Such are the authorities upheld by Dr Prichard in the
present day, and such are the materials used by Dr Beke
for establishing this hypothesis: “That the origin of the
numerous and widely differing races of man is to be re-
ferred to a single parent stock, possessed of a high de-
gree of cultivation, the following principle presents itself.
That the culture, or the degradation of an aboriginal race,
will be in proportion to the geographical distance of its re-
sidence from the common centre of dispersion. For in-
stance, if we take the primitive residence of the post-di-
luvian race to have been in the north-west portion of Meso-
potamia, it will be seen that the countries more immediately
surrounding that central point, viz., Assyria, Chaldea, Egypt,
Pheenicia, and Asia Minor, are those whose inhabitants were,
in the earliest ages, possessed of the highest degree of cul-
ture; whilst, on the other hand, at the points most distant
from the same centre, the Papuans, the Hottentots, the Es-
quimaux, and other savage races, have degenerated almost
to the lowest state compatible with the retention of rational
endowments.’’t

In order to test the correctness of the data, as far as the
Esquimaux are concerned, upon which Dr Beke has estab-
lished his hypothesis ; and upon which Kames, Herder, and
Prichard, have wasted considerable learning and ingenious
reasoning, I refer to the papers laid before the Society on
the physical character, and arts and manufactures of the
Esquimaux. It will be found that I have added six inches
to the stature assigned to them by the authors mentioned ;
that I have proved they did not, could not, dig subterraneous
abodes; and that from the same cause they were obliged,
although not the only known savages who eat raw flesh,
sometimes to eat their provision raw ; and I adduced the evi-
dence of Cook, Kotzebue, Parry, Franklin, Lyon, Ross, and

* Quoted by Prichard, p. 502.
t Chas."F. Beke, in an article in the Edinburgh New Philosophical
Journal.

308 Dr King on the

others, that they preferred it cooked, when blessed with the
means; that the wearing the hair in great disorder was
almost a solitary exception, and not a general rule; that in
contradiction to the terrifying face and animal and brutish
exterior, I have quoted Cook, Parry, Franklin, Lyon, and
Richardson; that if anything remarkable was observable
in the beard, it was in deficiency, and not in excess ; that their
winter garments were not made of seals’ skins, nor their
summer dresses of the intestines of whales; that they were
not skilful in the chace of sables, and did not either use its
skin for clothes or for barter; for the very evident reason
that no such animal is found in their country.

And I now proceed to adduce additional facts, arranged
under the head of intellectual character. It will thus be
seen which of the philosophers are correct, whether Lord
Kames, who states “‘ the women require compulsion to take
upon them the troubles of a married life ;” I had almost
forgotten Lord Byron who says in allusion to frigidity, “happy
the nations of the moral north ;’,—or M. Lesson, who asserts
that “their loose morality renders them addicted to polygamy,
and indifferent to the virtue of their wives and daughters ;”
whether they are “dull or stupid,’ as Vitruvius will have
it; or “ degenerated almost to the lowest state compatible
with the retention of rational endowments,”’ for which Dr
Beke contends. The sucking of their own blood, and the
suckling of their infants, with all the profound tenacious
affection of animal maternity, scarcely demands attention,
notwithstanding it appears in Dr Prichard’s work; but it
may be necessary to state that the cause which Vitruvius
assigns for their dulness and stupidity, “that of breathing
a thick air,’ does not exist. The arctic atmosphere is as
thin and as elastic as that of any part of the globe, and the
sky is Italian. So free of moisture is the atmosphere during
the winter that a few hours’ exposure of linen, wet from the
wash-tub, renders it so dry as not to require airing prior
to being worn.

That the natives of Labrador were, to a certain extent, at
the time Charlevoix wrote, the ferocious people he has de-
scribed, I am not prepared to deny ; but I will neither admit
that such is their general disposition, nor that the whole

Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 309

race are to be accountable for so small a portion of the
Esquimaux family. When they were visited by the Nor-
wegians, and the early travellers, in search of a north-west
passage, they were a peaceable and hospitable people ; and
in return for a good disposition and friendly conduct to
their discoverers and subsequent visitors, Thorsin, the Ice-
lander, and Sir Martin Frobisher, our own countryman, as
well as others, committed upon them the most gross acts of
cruelty. The natives of Greenland were subject to the same
inhuman treatment at the hands of both the Danes and the
English ; and had that good man Hans Egede been a Charle-
voix, these inoffensive people would, from their spirited re-
taliation upon their enemies, have been branded with the
same infamy that the French historian and Dr Prichard
have endeavoured to fix upon the poor inhabitants of Labra-
dor. But we can spare them the dreadful ordeal of public
censure, for they also had an Egede in the person of Captain
Cartwright,* who passed many years among them, yet Dr
Prichard makes no allusion to that traveller. The Esqui-
maux of Labrador, says Captain Cartwright, are “the best
tempered people I ever met with, and most docile—a nation
with whom I would sooner trust my person and property than
that of any other.”

Sir Edward Parry found the natives of Melville Peninsula
entitled tothe same encomium. It is true that Hans Egede,
of the natives of Greenland, and Sir Edward Parry and
Captain Lyon, of those of Melville Peninsula, have borne
testimony to the carelessness with which the aged and des-
titute are treated ; but these people, we know, form exceptions
to the nation at large, and their more erratic mode of life,
compared with that of the rest of the race, is no doubt the
cause of this; a kind of life which necessarily consigns the
sick and infirm of all uncivilized races to desertion, and con-
sequent starvation. Self preservation is inherent in man,
civilized or uncivilized ; and I have no hesitation in saying,
that it is self preservation which obliges the Esquimaux of
Melville Peninsula to act as they do.

* Cartwright’s Journal of his Residence on the Coast of Labrador.

310 Dr King on the

Of their general disposition regarding their social relations
among themselves, all who have visited them speak in the
most favourable terms. They are uniformly described as
most scrupulously honest, careful of the aged, affectionate to
their children, devotedly attached to each other, and fond of
their domestic animals. So little are they inclined to quarrel,
that, after two years’ acquaintance with the natives of Mel-
ville Peninsula, Sir Edward Parry has only related one case
where it extended to blows; and Captain Lyon remarks, in
his private journal, in speaking of the same community, that
their evenness of temper is not surpassed, if equalled, by any
other nation. In pain, cold, starvation, disappointment, or
under rough treatment, their good humour is rarely ruffled.
Few have ever shewn symptoms of sulkiness, and-even these
for a short time only. Those who have, for an instant, felt
anger at neglect, or at being punished for some offence, are
in a few moments as lively and as well disposed to the per-
sons who offended them as if nothing had occurred; conse-
quently that detestable passion revenge, so common to un-
civilized man in general, is not known to them. Captain
Lyon could learn of no instance of any one man having killed
another, or of a son imbibing from his father any dislike
towards particular persons ; and Sir John Ross informs us
that, among the natives of Regent's Inlet, there is but a soli-
tary case on record of a murder having been committed, and
that occurred in hot blood.

With respect to their disposition in relation to strangers,
hospitality is their leading virtue, and petty thieving their
greatest vice. The narratives of all the travellers who have
visited the Esquimaux teem with accounts of the hospitality
they have received from them. When a stranger approaches
their dwellings, it is the custom for one of the party to attach
himself to the visitor, to carry his baggage, to point out the
best road, to help him over the streams of water or fissures in
the ice, and to attend him wherever he goes during his stay.
On his arrival at the dwelling, he is supplied by the women
with dry boots, and, if necessary, skin dresses, and then handed
to the place of honour, a deer-skin seat. If reparation is
wanted in the pulled-off clothes, they are immediately attended

re oe

Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 311

to, and if the host is short of bedding, he or she, as the case
may be, is contented to sit up while the guest sleeps. A poor
old woman having received Sir Edward Parry as her guest,
gave up her bed, as well as a large deer-skin blanket which she
rolled up for his pillow, and felt contented in dozing away the
night in a sitting posture before her lamp.* That they are
not always so polite, though equally hospitable, we are obliged
to confess, from a circumstance which happened to Captain
Lyon. On one occasion he “ was awakened from his slumbers
by a feeling of great warmth, and to his surprise found lying
beside him, under the same blanket, his Esquimaux host and
his two wives, with their favourite puppy, all fast asleep and
stark nuked. Supposing this was all according to rule, Cap-
tain Lyon left them to repose in peace, and again resigned
himself to rest.’’t

Although among themselves, and, in the first instance, with
foreigners, they are scrupulously honest, after a short acquaint-
ance with the latter, the reverse is often found to be the case.
Does it not, then, become a matter of question, whether, after
all, the strangers are not the most in fault? For instance, the
disposition for thieving is found to be very great among the na-
tives of Hudson’s Strait and of Prince William’s Sound, whilst
along the coast of North America the propensity decreases
from west to east ; and at its most eastern discovered limit that
vice isnot known. Here, it is evident, that even with foreigners
it is not natural to them to be dishonest ; for where they are
most exposed to European trade, as at Hudson’s Strait and
the north-west corner of America, the vice is notoriously com-
mon, while at Regent’s Inlet it is altogether unknown. Be-
tween Regent’s Inlet and Hudson’s Strait there is an inter-
mediate state of things, if the trifling cases of theft related by
Sir Edward Parry and Captain Lyon are to be taken into ac-
count. Out of two hundred of the natives of Melville Peninsula,
the amount of those officers’ acquaintance in that locality, only
three of their number were considered as determined thieves,
and they are said to haye performed their work so clumsily as

* Parry’s Second Expedition, p. 205.
+ Lyon’s Private Journal, p. 246.

312 Dr King on the

a_

to have been instantly detected. One was a woman who en-
deavoured to secrete a nine-inch block in her boot, and the
second was a man who was detected making off with the last
piece of corned beef belonging to the midshipmen. Upon be-
ing chased, he practised a feint by dropping a piece of fat and
kicking snow over it, as if the whole was buried.* The third
was Ooming, the wife of the latter, who, by being all attention,
succeeded in picking an officer’s pocket of his handkerchief.
To weigh with these, both Sir Edward Parry and Captain
Lyont have mentioned numerous instances of extreme honesty ;
“ which,” adds Sir Edward Parry, ‘‘ when we consider the
amazing temptations constantly thrown in their way, in the
shape of wood and iron, substances esteemed by them as high-
ly as we do gold or jewels, we know how to appreciate their
honesty.”

Before leaving this part of my subject I wish to correct
some travellers in their assertion, that there is no such thing as
gratitude amongst this people. It is evident they have been
led into error, from taking too cursory a view of their peculiar
customs. It is because they do not apply that virtue in the
same way we do, that it has been thought to be wanting.
For instance, it is their custom to express themselves grate-
ful, only when their tendered favours are accepted. But, in ur-
gent cases, it is evident they possess the feeling of gratitude
after our own fashion. A party of Mountain Indians, jealous
of Sir John Franklin, in consequence of his having traded with
the Esquimaux, determined to attack him at a particular spot.
This became known to an old Esquimaux, to whom had been
given a knife, and some other trifling articles, on the preced-
ing day; upon which he called aside two young men of his
tribe, and said to them, “‘ These people have been kind to us,
and they are few in number ; why should we suffer them to be
killed? You are active young men, run and tell them to de-
part instantly.” The young men suggested that the White
men had guns, and could defend themselves. ‘‘ True,” said
the old Esquimaux, “ against a small force, but not against so
large a body of Indians as are now assembled, who are like-

* Lyon’s Private Journal, p. 174.
+ Parry’s Second Expedition, p. 163; Lyon’s Private Journal p. 347.

Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 313

wise armed with guns, and who will crawl under cover of the
drift timber, so as to surround them before they are aware;
run, therefore, and tell them not to lose a moment in making
their escape.” Notwithstanding this, and much more which
I could bring forward if necessary, Dr Prichard can reconcile
unto himself his quotation from Charlevoix,—* That, of all
people in America, there is none who correspond more with
our European idea of a savage; for they are ferocious, wild,
defying, and restless, and always inclined to do mischief to the
stranger.”

Additionally, let us review the information which the various
travellers who have visited this interesting people have laid
before us. Tooloak, a youth, and two pleasing little girls, of
nine and eleven years of age, natives of Melville Peninsula, are
said to have possessed a capacity equal to any thing they chose
to take an interest in learning. “ Indeed, it required,” says
Sir Edward Parry, “ no long acquaintance to convince us, that
art and education might easily have made them equal or supe-
rior to ourselves.’”’ Sauer* has mentioned a native woman of
Prince William’s Sound, who learned to speak Russian fluently
in rather less than twelve months. In allusion to the natives
of Labrador, Sir Martin Frobisher found them “ in nature
very subtle and sharp-witted, ready to conceive our meaning
by signs, and to make answer well to be understood again;
and if they have not seen the thing whereof you ask them,
then they will wink, or cover their eyes with their hands, as
who would say, it hath been hid from their sight. If they
understand you not whereof you ask them, they will stop their
ears.”+ The natives of Melville Peninsula make use of winks
and nods in conversing; the former conveying a negative
meaning, and the latter, as with us, an affirmative. The na-
tives of Schismareff Inlet, when urged to an interview by Kot-
zebue, hit their heads with both hands, and then fell down as
if dead; as much as to say that their lives were not safe:
and, in order to make him understand the time it would take
him to reach a particular spot, one of the little community

* Sauer’s Account of an Expedition into the North Parts of Russia.
+ Richard Hakluyt’s Collection of Curious Voyages.

314 Dr King on the

performed the following pantomime. He seated himself on
the ground, and made the motion of rowing, by the necessary
movements of his arms; this business he interrupted nine
times, closing his eyes as often, and resting his head on his
hand. Thus Kotzebue learned that it would take him nine
days to get to his destined haven.

Captain Beechy obtained a knowledge of the coast he was
surveying from a native of the same locality, after the follow-
ing very ingenious and intelligible manner. The coast line
was first marked out with a siick on the sand, and the dis-
tances regulated by the day’s journey. The hills and ranges
of mountains were next shewn by elevations of sand or stone,
and the islands represented by heaps of pebbles, their propor-
tions being duly attended to. Where the mountains and
islands were erected, the villages and fishing-stations were
marked by a number of sticks placed upright, in imitation of
those which are put up on the coast wherever these people fix
their abode. Thus, a complete topographical plan of the de-
sired coast was, in the most intelligible manner, clearly laid
down. The Esquimaux are, moreover, equally ready at com-
prehending similar methods adopted by Europeans, as Sir
John Ross proved, when, in order to fix with the natives of Re-
gent’s Inlet the date of an appointment, he drew on the snow
the form which the moon would then present. These people,
we are further informed, at once adopted the use of the knife
and fork, and all the paraphernalia of refined society connect-
ed with the table.* A little boy at Melville Peninsula could
imitate the cries of almost all the birds and animals he was
acquainted with ; the young ducks answering the distant call
of the mother, having all the effect of ventriloquism. Every
sound from the angry growl of a bear to the sharp hum of a
musquitoe, we are informed, he was able to express in a won-
derful manner.

This art is turned to account in the chase of the deer, by
imitating the peculiar bellow of these animals from behind a
large piece of rock or some other natural screen; and thus

* Sir John Ross’s Expedition in the Victory.

Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 315

they are led by curiosity to within gun-shot.* Boys from 12
to 16 years of age at once comprehend the mechanism of the
gun, and will discharge it for the first time with perfect steadi-
ness ; and the men, with very little practice, soon become supe-
rior marksmen.t A case is recorded of a native of Labra-
dor who killed an animal with the first shot he ever fired.{
The same individual, in company with two of his country-
men, while on a visit to Lord George Sutton at Kelham in
Nottingharashire, in 1772, was in at the death of a fox, which
happened in an open field, with three couples and a-half of
hounds out of twenty-five, a proof how hard they must have
driven him, although neither of them had been on horseback
more than three times before.§

A disposition for aping European gait and manners was ap-
parent among the natives of Kotzebue’s Sound,| the River
Clyde,§ Melville Peninsula,** and Regent’s Inlet.}+ A favour-
ite mode of shewing this propensity was by aping the English
custom of walking up and down the deck of a ship. A shrewd,
observing, merry fellow of Iotzebue’s Sound, perceiving the
officers of Captain Beechy’s ship thus employed, determined
to turn them into ridicule, by seizing a young midshipman by
the hand, and strutting with him up and down the deck in a
most ludicrous manner, to the great diversion of all present ;
and two native women of Melville Peninsula insisted upon
walking arm-in-arm with Captain Lyon, in consequence of hay-
ing been told that such was the practice of the Kabloona
ladies, as they term our fair countrywomen. The father of a
young female of Kotzebue’s Sound shewed this kind of talent
in another way. Observing Captain Beechy sketching his
daughter’s portrait, he seated himself down with a piece of
flat board and plumbago, and very good humouredly com-
menced a portrait of him, aping his manner, and tracing every
feature with the most affected care, whimsically applying, at

* Lyon’s Private Journal. + Parry’s Second Expedition.
~ { Cartwright’s Journal, § Idem. || Beechy.
{| Parry’s First Expedition. ** Lyon’s Private Journal.

tt Ross’s Expedition in the Victory.

Dr King on the

the same time, his finger to the point of his pencil, instead of
a penknife, to the great diversion of his wife and daughter.
Captain Beechy has not informed us ofthe extent of his talent
as a portrait-painter ; but it appears that he omitted the hat
which Captain Beechy wore, and he was extremely puzzled to
know how to place it upon the head he had drawn.

A lively little boy of Melville Peninsula, of four years of age,
performed an aping trick after nearly the same fashion. Havy-
ing witnessed an officer noting down the names of persons and
things in a memorandum-book, he took it up, with the pencil,
and then walked to every person in the hut, and gravely asked
him his name, affecting, at the same time, to write it down ;*
and a very amusing application of the art was practised by a
native of the River Clyde. Sir Edward Parry had placed him
on a stool for the purpose of taking his portrait; and as he
from time to time became weary, he was reminded to keep his
position by Sir Edward Parry putting himself in the proper at-
titude, and assuming a grave and demure look. These actions
the native always imitated in such a manner as to create con-
siderable diversion among all present, and then very quietly
kept his seat.t The mimicry of the Esquimaux, however, is
said to be complete when the women form themselves into
groups in order to gossip and talk scandal; they then ape
in perfection the manner of the persons of whom they speak,
interlarding at the same time their stories with jokes at the
expense of the absentees, though to their own infinite amuse-
ment. {

The natives of Kotzebue Sound are considered by Captain
Beechy very superior to the South Sea Islanders in recognising
plates of natural history, if they represent those creatures with
which they are acquainted—a talent which Sir Edward Parry
turned to good account at Melville Peninsula, by obtaining
from a native woman named [ligluik, a knowledge of the ha-
bitat of the Larus sabina, a species of gull which led to his
adding that rara avis to his natural historical collection. The
same intelligence was observed among others of the same

* Lyon’s Private Journal. + Parry’s First Expedition.
{ Parry’s Second Expedition. § Ibid.

Intellectual Character of the Esquimaux. 317

community ; and one of them named Toolemak learned him-
self to draw very fairly. So it was with Augustus, Sir John
Franklin’s interpreter; and Sacheuse, who filled the same
office in Sir John Ross’s expedition to Baffin’s Bay in 1818,
became sufficiently master of the art as to make a drawing of
the first interview of the exploring party with the Esquimaux
of Regent's Bay, which, from its value, was engraved as an
illustration to the narrative of that expedition.

We have the strongest evidence that their geographical
knowledge is as perfect as the most civilized being could pos-
sibly attain, unassisted by nautical instruments. Iligluik, and
a native man of the same tribe with herself, drew the coast-
line from Winter Island to Igloolik, and pointed out the ex-
istence of the Fury and Hecla Strait, “ with peculiar intelli-
gence and extraordinary precision ;’’* and two natives of Re-
gent’s Inlet, named Ikmallik and Tiagashu, were no less ac-
curate in the delineation of that extraordinary neck of land,
the Isthmus of Boothia.t+

The art of domesticating animals, and turning them to ac-
count, is no mean proof of intellectual power; an art which
we find in perfection amongst these people in regard to the
dog, the only animal they can turn to account in the inhospi-
table regions they inhabit. Further, if we agree with the
eminent historian Robertson, that tact in commerce, and cor-
rect ideas of property, are evidence of a considerable progress
towards civilization, we must give the Esquimaux credit for
great intelligence. More of this hereafter. Again, the neat
mode of arranging their hair and dress, and the women being
required to labour less than the men—the very reverse of that
which is generally the case with uncivilized tribes—is further
proof of intelligence.

As a test of intellectual power, it is both interesting and
important to study the first impressions of the uncivilized,
relative to the arts of civilization. A favourable opportunity
to watch this trait of character occurred in two men, with

eachawife and child, natives of Labrador, brought to England

* Parry’s Second Expedition.
+ Ross’s Expedition in the Victory.

318 Dr King on the

by Captain Cartwright in 1772. The number of shipping
they saw at London Bridge greatly astonished them, but the
bridge itself, they passed through without taking the least
notice of it. It was soon discovered they had taken it for
a natural rock which extended across the river. They
laughed at Captain Cartwright when he told them it was the
work of man; nor could they be persuaded to the fact until
they came to Blackfriars’ Bridge, which he caused them to
examine with more attention ; shewing them the joints, and
pointing out the marks of the chisels upon the stones. They
no sooner, however, comprehended by what means such a
structure could be raised, than they expressed their wonder
with astonishing significancy of countenance. St Paul’s, also,
they supposed to be a natural production; and they were
quite lost in amazement when they were taken to the top,
and convinced that it was a work of art. The people below
they compared to mice, and insisted that it must be at least
as high as Cape Charles, a mountain of considerable altitude.
The exquisite nose of the hound, the sagacity and steadiness
of the pointer, and the speed of the greyhound, were matters
of great astonishment to them. But above all, they were
most struck with the strength, beauty, and utility, of that
noble animal the horse. At first the multiplicity and variety
of objects confused them, and on one occasion, one of the
men named Attiock, after a long walk, remained very pensive,
and then turning up his head, and fixing his eyes upon the
ceiling, he broke out into this soliloquy, “ Oh! I am tired.
Here are too many houses; too much smoke; too many
people; Labrador is very good; seals are plentiful there ; I
wish I was back again.” The longer, however, they con-
tinued in England the greater was their admiration in pro-
portion, their ideas gradually expanding till at length they
began more clearly to comprehend the use, beauty, and
mechanism, of what they saw.

They attracted great notice during their stay in this
country. On witnessing a review by His Majesty they were
so surrounded by the crowd as to incommode their view,
which attracting the notice of the King, he gave orders for
their admission into the reserved ground. Here his Majesty

Intellectual Character of the Esquimaux. 319

rode slowly past them, and condescended to salute them by
taking off his hat, accompanied with a gracious smile ; honours
which they were highly pleased with, and often mentioned
afterwards with great exultation. Provided with cloth
dresses after their own fashion, instead of seal-skin, they were
taken to Court by Royal command, where their behaviour
and dress rendered them conspicuous objects. They were
at the opera when their Majesties were there, and chancing
to sit by Mr Coleman, the manager of Covent Garden Theatre,
he invited them to a play. He fixed upon Cymbeline, and

they were greatly delighted with the representation. But

their pride was most highly gratified at being received with
a most thundering applause, by the audience on entering the
box. The men observed to their wives, that they were placed
in the King’s box, and received in the same manner as their
Majesties at the opera, which added considerably to their
pleasure. They returned with Captain Cartwright to their
country and friends to all appearance well; but in the en-
suing Autumn they died of small-pox.

Travellers who have visited the Esquimaux at their own
homes, have also furnished us with some interesting facts re-
garding their first impressions. Kotzebue informs us, that
nothing attracted the attention of the St Lawrence Islanders
so much as his telescope. The same admiration of that in-
strument was observed of the Esquimaux of the Mackenzie.
They called it eetee-yaw-gah (far eyes), the name that they
give to the wooden shade which is used to protect their eyes
from the glare of the snow, which, from the smallness of its
aperture, enables them to see distant objects more clearly.*
The report of a gun astonished them much, and an echo from
some neighburing pieces of ice, made them think that the ball
had struck the shore then upwards of a mile distant ;+ while
the Esquimaux of the Coppermine River, when fired upon by
Hearne’s party ran and picked up the musket-balls, supposing
them to be thrown to them as presents.{ Perceiving fumes of
tobacco issuing from the mouth of a person smoking, they

* Franklin’s Second Journey. + Idem.
} Hearne’s Journey to the Frozen Ocean.

320 Dr King on the

called out ookah, ookah (fire, fire), and demanded to be told
what he was doing.* European clothing they conceived to be
made out of the skins of animals ; and since they had none such
in their country, they asked what sort of animals they were
and where they were to be found.t| Not recognising them-
selves in a looking-glass, the natives east of the Coppermine
River, endeavoured to find the stranger by peeping round the
corner of the glass.} At seeing Captain Ross and Lieutenant
Parry drawn on sledges by their men, they laughed heartily ;§
a proof they had no knowledge of difference of rank. They
doubtless took them for children of an older growth at play.
Glass they took for ice,|| biscuit for the dried flesh of the musk-
ox ;{ watches, and musical instruments, for living creatures ; a
musical snuff-box being, in their opinion, the child of an hand-
organ ;** a little terrier dog was looked upon with contempt by
the natives of Regent's Bay, as being too small to draw a sledge;
but had they known its intelligence, they would probably have
been as desirous of obtaining it as the natives of Prince Williams
Sound were a spaniel belonging to Captain Billings. That
animal took a particular dislike to the natives, and being one
day on shore tented with his master, he had an opportunity
of displaying it. The cabin-boy had carelessly placed the tea-
board, so that part of it with spoons, &c. were seen on the
outside of the tent. One of the natives, perceiving this, ap-
propriated the spoons to himself, which no one observed but the
dog, who sprang up, leaped over those in the tent, seized the
thief by the hand with the spoons in it, and held him fast
till Captain Billings told him to let go; a circumstance which
kept the whole community honest ever afterwards in the dog’s
presence, jj}

A little black cat, belonging to Captain Lyon, afforded the
natives of Melville Peninsula an unceasing fund of amuse-

* Dr Richardson’s narrative in Franklin’s Second Journey.

+ Captain Ross’s First Expedition.

t{ Kotzebue ; Franklin. § Ross’s first expedition. || Idem.
@ Parry. ** Lyon’s Private Journal.

++ Sauer’s Account of an Expedition into the North parts of Russia.

Intellectual Character of the Esqumaux. 321

ment ; and when the animal jumped over the arms folded for
the purpose, their admiration was expressed by slowly
and forcibly inhaling their breath and quickly nodding their
head.* A sailor, walking upon his hands along the deck of
Lieut. Chappel’s vessel, in Hudson’s Straits, threw them into
a violent fit of jumping and shouting ;+ and a mixture of
mirth and admiration was excited by the effects of a winch,
at which one man easily mastered and drew towards him ten
or twelve others who held by a rope, using all their strength,
and grinning with exertion and determination till con-
quered.f

The natives of Regent’s Bay shrunk back, as if in terror,
from a pig whose pricked ears and ferocious aspect presented
a somewhat formidable appearance. The animal happening
to grunt, one of them was so terrified that he became from
that moment uneasy, and appeared impatient to get away,
and all the rest took to their heels in alarm at witnessing
the exhibition of some juggler’s tricks.§ When the women
of Winter Island were informed that the Kabloona ladies
were not tattooed, they were astonished at their being so
devoid of taste; but when told that they never wore breeches, a
general cry was raised “‘ how cold they must be.”|| Ona royal
salute being fired, three or four héy-yai’s (our “ dear me’’),
were the sum-total of their remarks; and before the salute
was ended, the whole party of Esquimaux, who were assem-
bled for the purpose, became tired of it, although none of
them had ever heard a great gun or seen a flag. Captain Lyon
led an old woman to the side of a 24-pounder carronade, and
entered into conversation with her, when he observed that
at the explosion she did not even wink her eyes, but very
earnestly continued a long story about a pair of boots for
which some of his people had not contented her.

From an anecdote, related by Captain Beechy, of the
een See WOAS Hiw ov aOR Bik” Cercle

* Lyon’s Private Journal, p. 145.

+ Narrative of a Voyage to Hudson’s Bay, p. 66.

} Lyon’s Private Journal, p. 140.

§ Ross’s First Expedition.

| Lyon’s Private Journal, p. 251. I Idem, p. 402.

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. x

322 Dr King on the

natives of Kotzebue Sound, he has come to a different con-
clusion regarding their nervous sensibility. He states, that
the people of that vicinity were very inquisitive about his
firearms, and to satisfy one of them, he made him fire off a
musket that was loaded with ball, towards a large tree that
was lying upon the beach. ‘The explosion, and the simple
operation of touching the trigger,” he adds, ‘‘ so alarmed the
native, that he turned pale, and put away the gun. As his
fear subsided he laughed heartily, as did all his party, and
went to examine the wood, which was found to be perforated
by the ball, and afforded a fair specimen of the capability of
our arms; but he could not be prevailed upon to repeat
the operation.”

Surely it is quite clear, upon Captain Beechy’s own shew-
ing, that it was the recoil of the musket, and not the simple
operation of touching the trigger, that alarmed the native, for
he struck the object he aimed at. That the musket was
either overloaded or a kicker is evident ; and I question if it
would be deemed a simple operation to pull the trigger of a
thoroughpaced kicker. That the perforation of the wood
afforded the natives a fair specimen of the capabilities of
Captain Beechy’s firearms, I am quite prepared to believe ;
but the circumstance which forced itself upon my mind, on
reading the anecdote, was, that the youth should have struck
the object he aimed at with his first shot, which, it appears,
made no impression upon Captain Beechy.

In stating, that if, according to the historian, Robertson,
tact in commerce is an evidence of a considerable progress to-
ward civilization, we must give the Esquimaux credit for great
intelligence, I had reference not only to their commercial
transactions amongst themselves, but with the neighbouring-
Red men and Europeans ; and my reasons for again alluding to
the subject is to remove the impression, “that they have little
intercourse and commerce with their nearest neighbours.”
The fact is, that there are no people in either of the continents
of America whose commercial system is so well organized as
that of the Esquimaux. Sir John Franklin, and, more re-
cently, Messrs Dease and Simpson have informed us that trade
is carried on between the Esquimaux of the Mackenzie, and

Intellectual Character of the Esquimauzx. 323

the Loucheux, and Hare Indians, and that along the whole
line of coast from the Mackenzie River to the Russian settle-
ments in North Western America, furs on the one side, and
European manufactures on the other, are annually exchanged
at regularly established fairs ; and thus pass from tribe to tribe,
until, about the close of summer, they reach their respective
limits.

Of the Esquimaux of the west coast of Greenland, Crantz ob-
serves, “that amongst themselves they hold a kind of fair.
The Winter Festival of the Sun is frequented by persons who
expose their wares to view, and make known what commodities
they want in exchange. Any one disposed to purchase, brings
the goods in request, and the bargain is complete. The prin-
cipal trade is in vessels of Weichsteen, which is not to be met
with in every place. And since the Southlanders have no whales,
while the inhabitants of the north coast are in want of wood,
numerous companies of Greenlanders make every summer a
voyage of from five hundred to one thousand miles to the north,
and even from the east coast to Disko, in new Caiaks, and
Oomiaks, They barter their lading of wood for the horns
of the narwhale, the teeth, bones, and sinews of the whale,
which they, in part, sell again during their return homewards.
To the factors, the Greenlanders carry fox and seal skins, but
particularly blubber.”*

Captain Graah, in describing the island of Attuk, remarks,
that “an annual fair is held by the EKastlanders and West-
landers of Fredericsthal, who go there in the summer for
the purpose of catching seals of the Cristata species.t The
articles of barter are bear, seal, and dog skins for articles of
European manufacture, and especially for spear and arrow
heads, knives, needles, handkerchiefs, and tobacco.”’{ I have
also stated, that the Esquimaux of Churchill in Hudson’s Bay,
and of the Great Fish River, meet annually near the head
waters of the latter, for the purpose of trading among them-
selves, and with the Chipewyans.

* Crantz’s History of Greenland, pp. 160 and 161.
+ Narrative of an expedition to the east coast of Greenland, by Captain
W. A. Graah, p. 66. { Idem. p. 81.

324. Dr King on the

The estimation in which women are held among the
Esquimaux is something greater than is usual in savage life,”
if we except the natives of Greenland,t who are not only phy-
sically, but mentally, inferior to the most of their brethren.
It is a very general custom for parents to betroth their chil-
dren in infancy ; and this compact being understood, the par-
ties, whenever they are inclined and able to keep house, may
begin living as man and wife, the husband being thenceforth
bound to labour for their support ; and this is not unfrequently
the case at thirteen or fourteen years.{ Where previous en-
gagements are not made, the men select their wives amongst
their relations or connections, paying but little regard to
beauty of face or to person. Young men naturally prefer
youthful females ; but the middle-aged will connect themselves
with old widows, as being more skilled in household duties,
and better able to take care of their mutual comforts.

The marriage ceremony is very simple. The youth declares
his passion to the parents and relatives on both sides; and,
having obtained their consent, he immediately repairs to the
habitation of the bride to take her away, if he considers him-
self strong enough; but if not, he presses into the service two
or more old women, whose duty it is to convey the bride ‘to
her new home,—a work of no little difficulty ; for, though ever
so anxious for the union, it is incumbent upon her to appear
otherwise, and she must contend with the messengers with all
her might, or she will lose caste for modesty. After due,
though prudent, reluctance, she at last yields, and is conveyed
to her husband’s home, where further ceremony must be gone
through. For some time she keeps at a distance, sits retired
in some corner upon the bench, with her hair dishevelled, and
her face covered. In the mean while the bridegroom uses all
the rhetoric of which he is master, and spares no pains to
bring her to a compliance with his wishes. This is generally
successful, and the wedding is concluded.§

* Parry, 526; Richardson; Curtis. + Crantz.
¢ Lyon, 352; Parry, 378; Ross, 251. § Egede; Parry.

Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 325

It is not always mere dissimulation on the part of the
bride ; for sometimes she faints, sometimes elopes among the
mountains, and not unfrequently cuts off her hair,—an act of
greater importance to an Hsquimaux woman than that of
assuming the veil to an European, for she is then doomed to
perpetual celibacy, whatever her after inclinations may be. If,
however, she has not gone to the last extreme, the women go
after her, and drag her by force to her suitor, who, in this
case, uses to his utmost his persuasive powers, and when no
kind and courteous behaviour will avail, compulsion is had
recourse to. If she should then say, with Falstaff, “« Not by
compulsion,” and she should not speedily get a husband, ne-
glect is succeeded only by death from starvation.*

A very amusing anecdote is related by Captain Cartwright,
of a little love-making on his part. Eketcheak, a native of
Labrador, married a second wife, a young girl about sixteen
years of age. “I took,” says Captain Cartwright, “ a fancy
to her, and desired that he would spare her for me, as I had
no wife, and in great want of one. He replied, * You are
welcome to her, but I am afraid she will not please you, as
her temper is very bad, and she is so idle that she will do no
work, nor can she use a needle; but my other wife is the best
tempered creature in the world; an excellent sempstress, is
industry itself, and above all, she has two children, all of
whom are much at your service; or, if you please, you shall
have both, and when I return next year, if you do not like
either the one or the other, I will take them back again.’ I
thanked him for his extreme politeness aud generosity, and
told him that I could not think of depriving him of the good
wife and two children, but would be contented with the bad
one. ‘ You shall have her,’ said the native; ‘ but before we
proceed any farther in this business, I wish you’would men-
tion it to her relations, and obtain their consent.’ Her father
being dead, I sent for her mother and two uncles, who readily
gave their consent, and expressed great pleasure at the honour
of the alliance. I then communicated my wishes to the young
lady ; but she no sooner understood what they were, than she

* Crantz ; Parry.

326 Dr King on the

began to knit her brows; and the instant I had concluded my
speech, in which I expatiated on the pleasure, elegance, and
affluence which she would experience as my wife, to what she
enjoyed in her present state, she contemptuously replied,
* You are an old fellow, and I will have nothing to say to
you!’’’ Here ended the courtship.

Egede informs us, that, in Greenland, if the father of the
youth is rich enough he gives a matrimonial feast, and prizes,
to be contended for by running matches, a feast which lasts
for two days.

The Esquimaux are polygamists, but they rarely have more
than two wives, and only one if she have issue ; and the women
have the same privilege as to the number of husbands.* Sir
John Ross found two brothers at Regent’s Inlet, having one
wife between them.+

With the exception of the Greenlanders the women are
treated well; are rarely, if ever, beaten ; are never compelled
to work, and are always allowed an equal authority in the
household affairs with the men. Though a phlegmatic people,
the Esquimaux may be said to treat them with fondness ; and
young couples are frequently seen rubbing noses, their favourite
mark of affection, with an air of tenderness.t Okotook and his
wife Iligliuk were frequently observed taking each other by
the hand from mutual affection ; a convineing proof, in Captain
Lyon’s mind, not only that Iligliuk was treated with great ten-
derness, but that she loved her husband.§ Inallusion to anillness
which Okotook laboured under, Captain Parry remarks of Ili-
gliuk, that nothing could exceed the attention which she paid to
her husband; she kept her eyes almost constantly fixed uponhim,
and seemed anxious to anticipate every want.|| It sometimes
occurs, from inequality in a numerical point of view between
the sexes, that a man journeys to a distant tribe in search of
a wife. A native of Regent’s Inlet had a propensity this way
onagrand scale. He had discovered a tribe to the westward,
where the females were most numerous; and when a wife was
wanted for some of his party he transferred to him his own
wife and went for another to himself; a friendly service which,

* Crantz ; Ross. + Ross, 356. { Lyon, 353.
§ Lyon, 150. | Parry, 217.

Intellectual Ciaracter of the Esquimaux. 327

we are informed, he had perform.d no less than six times.*
The advantage of this, as far as he was concerned, was obvious ;
for in each of the six families he had a son or two, so that in
his old age he might, according to custom, claim support from
all or any of them, or from the most successful in hunting, as
he was entitled to the share of a father.

At Igloolik and Regent’s Inlet, cousins are allowed to marry,+
but a man will not wed two sisters 3 while at Greenland, mar-
riage between cousins is rare, and there are instances of men
having taken to wife two sisters at the same time, and even
mother and daughter. Sir Edward Parry has related two in-
stances which occurred at Igloolik of the father and son being
married to sisters.§ A son or daughter in law does not con-
sider father or mother in law in the light of relations. || If a
boy and a girl, although in no way related, have been brought
up in the same family, they are looked upon as brother and
sister, and are not allowed to marry.

The Esquimaux sometimes repudiate their wives, from real
or supposed bad behaviour ;§ or, as is move generally the case,
owing to their having no issue. The ceremony is very simple.
The arctic lord bestows a cross look upon his lady, and then
leaves his home. The lady at once understands him, packs up
her traps, and domiciles herself with her former protectors.

Instead, however, of repudiating their wives for want of
issue, they more frequently adopt the children of others.
This custom was found to be extensively practised at Melville
Peninsula, and the advantage is obviously that of providing
for a man’s own subsistence in advanced life ; and it is, conse-
quently, confined almost exclusively to the adoption of boys,
who can alone contribute materially to the support of the aged
and infirm. Whea a man adopts the son of another as his
own, he is said to “ tego,” or take him; and, at whatever age
this is done (though it generally happens in infaney), the child
then lives with his new protectors, calls them father and mo-
ther, and is himself looked upon as the rising’ head of the
household.** The agreement is almost always made between
RUE ETE eee dv Ne OS Ll ee a
* Ross. t Lyon; Ross. {¢ Lyon, p. 352. § Parry, 528.
|| Lyon ; Ross. 41 Lyon. ** Lyon, 353; Parry, 532.

328 Dr King on the

the fathers. Toolemak, an angetkook, or priest, having lost
all his own children, was found by Sir Edward Parry to have
adopted some of the finest male children of the tribe. For the
same reason, a widow with a family never pines for want of a
husband. It is on record, that a happy widow with five children
was received with open arms as the partner of another, almost
immediately after the death of her husband.* If she has no
family by this second husband, and she has no partiality for
him, as soon as her sons are grown up, and become seal-catch-
ers, she can desert her old benefactor; for by law she has ab-
solute power over her sons’ labour. It is evident, therefore,
in Esquimaux land, that the widows with families have it all
their own way.

And now let us consider the position of the childless widow,
or, what is the same thing with the Esquimaux, the widow with
infants of that tender age that they are not likely to be soon
turned to account, as suppliers of provision. Poor creature!
her fate is a hard one. While bewailing the loss of her hus-
band to distraction, his effects are clandestinely purloined by
her guests, who, at the same time, bear the compliments of
condolence on their tongue. The bereaved widow has no re-
source, but to endeavour to ingratiate herself with him who has
been her greatest plunderer. He will keep her a while, and,
when he is tired of her, she must try to insinuate herself into
the favour of another. But at last she and her children are
left to their hard fate. A little longer, perhaps, they protract
life by eating shell fish, and sea-grass; but finally they die
from starvation. In Captain Parry’s narrative of his second
voyage, a very affecting case of this kind is recorded.

Self-preservation has evidently given rise to this custom ;
for the most able hunters at certain seasons have great dif-
ficulty in providing for themselves; and since neglect must
fall heavily upon some, it is natural to suppose that a man will
first cling to his wife and children. But I have no excuse for
the cruel system of robbery which custom entails upon the
weak and the friendless.

Sen a a a a eee

* Ross, 515,

Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 329

When there are no children it is considered a reproach to
both parties, but the poor woman generally gets the most
blame, and is very ill treated, except she is a wise woman, and
then she obtains a second husband and has another chance.

Nothing can exceed the affection of the Esquimaux for
their children; which is displayed, not in the mere passive in-
dulgence and abstinence from corporal punishment, but bya
thousand playful endearments, such as parents and nurses prac-
tise in our own country. Nor, indeed, is severity necessary ; for
the gentleness and docility of the children are such as to occa-
sion their parents little trouble. Even from their earliest in-
fancy the Esquimaux possess that quiet disposition, gentleness
of demeanour, and uncommon evenness of temper, for which,
in more mature age, they are for the most part distinguished.
Disobedience is scarcely ever known; a word or even a look
from a parent is enough ; frowardness and disposition to mis-
chief, so common to our youth, form no part of their disposi-
tion. They never cry for trifling accidents, and sometimes
not even from very severe hurts, at which an English child
would sob for an hour. It is, indeed, astonishing with what
indifference even tender infants bear the numerous blows they
accidentally receive while carried at their mothers’ backs.*

It has been asserted by alate traveller, that the Esquimaux
will barter their children for some trifling present ;+ but, be-
lieve me, and I have been at some pains to determine that
point, there is no ground for such an assertion. Sir Edward
Parry was at first inclined to fall into this error, but upon a
better acquaintance with the people, he discovered his mis-
take ; and, let it be said to his praise, he has freely and pub-
licly corrected himself.t

Esquimaux youth are as fond of play as any other young
people and of the same kind; only, that, while an English child
draws a cart of wood, an Esquimaux of the same age has a
sledge of whalebone ; and, for the superb baby-house of the for-
mer, the latter builds a miniature hut of show, and begs a
lighted wick of her mother’s lamp to illuminate the little dwell-

Se ae aaa cer ee
* Lyon. t Back. { Parry, p. 531.

330 Dr King on the

ing. Their parents make for them, as dolls, little figures of
men and women habited in the true Esquimaux costume, as
well as a variety of other toys; many of these having some
reference to their future occupations in life, such as canoes,
spears, and bows and arrows. They sometimes serrate the
edges of two strips of whalebone, and whirl them round their
heads, just as boys do in England, to make the same peculiar
humming sound. They will dispose one piece of wood on an-
other as an axis, in such a manner that the wind turns it
round like the arms of a windmill; and so of many other toys
of the same simple kind, These, and possibly the smaller pup-
pies, are the distinct property of the children, who sometimes
sell them, while their parents look on without interfering or
expecting to be consulted.

The education of children, according to Crantz, is thus con-
ducted :—As soon as the boy can make use of his hands and
feet, his father puts a little bow and arrow into his hand,
that he may exercise himself by shooting at a target, and
also instructs him in throwing stones at a mark. Towards
his tenth year he provides him with a caiak, to practise row-
ing, oversetting, and rising, fowling, and fishing, by himself,
or in company with other boys. In his fifteenth or sixteenth
year he must go out with his father to catch seals. The
first seal he takes is consecrated to make a festivity for the
family and neighbourhod. During the repast, the young
champion must relate his noble achievement, and how he
managed to catch the creature. The guests admire his dex-
terity and prowess, pronounce the meat to be particularly
good flavoured ; and from this day the females begin to think
of finding him a bride. At the age of twenty years he must
make his own caiak, implements, and weapons, and fully
equip himself for his profession; and if he is successful, he
marries. ‘T'o acquire perfection in the use of the caiak is no
mean part of his education. Few become proficients ; many,
in consequence, are the lives that are lost by drowning.

The girls do nothing till they are fourteen years of age,
but chatter, sing, and dance, with the exception of fetching
water, and perhaps waiting ona child. But afterwards they
must sew, cook, dress leather, and, when they advance fur-

ee ea

Pao

Intellectual Character of the Esquimauz. 331

ther in years and strength, help to row the woman’s boat,
where these are in use; and, in Greenland, even build houses.
From the twentieth year of a woman’s life to her death, her
life is a continuation of fear, indigence, and lamentation. If
her father dies, her supplies are cut off, and she must serve
in other families. She is thus secured abundance of provi-
sions, but she will want good clothing; and for want of this,
especially if she be not handsome in person, or dexterous in
her work, she must remain single. Should any one take her
to wife, she fluctuates between hope and fear for the first
year, lest from want of children she should be repudiated,
and then her character is lost; she must return to servitude,
and perhaps purchase the support of life at a scandalous
rate. If her husband retains her, she must now and then
take a blow in good part, must submit to the yoke of a
mother-in-law, or must submit to his having another wife or
two. If her husband dies, she has no other jointure but
what she brought with her; and, for her children’s sake,
must serve in another family more submissively than a
single woman, who can go where she will. But if she has
any grown up sons, she is then better off than any married
woman, because she can regulate the domestic affairs as she
pleases. If a woman advances to a great age, and has no
family to keep up her respect, she must pass for a witch ;
which, being attended with some profit, she by tio means dis-
likes.

Notwithstanding all the hard labour, fear, trouble, and
vexation, the women commonly reach a greater age than the
men, who are so worn out and enfeebled by passing most of
their time at sea, in snow and rain, heat and cold, during the
severest winters as well as summers; by strenuous labour ; and
by alternate fastings and feastings, that they seldom attain the
age of 50. Many also lose their lives in the water, so that
there are everywhere fewer men than women. The women
frequently live till they are 70, and even 80 and upwards.

The Esquimaux believe in future rewards and punishments,

-and, like most other uncivilized races, have traditions concern-

ing the creation and the deluge. They have their priests, in
whose sayings and doings they put implicit belief, and their

332 Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers.

superstitions. As far as we know, no kind of religious wor-
ship exists amongst them.

The dead are dressed in their best clothes, and conveyed,
not by the regular entry, but through the window.* The per-
sons performing these duties, put on gloves, and stop their
nostrils with skin or hair. Infants have their feet placed to-
wards the rising sun, or east; half-grown children south-east ;
men and women in their prime with their feet to the meridian
sun; middle-aged persons to the south-west; and very old
people the reverse of children, or west.t It is customary to
place weapons at the grave of a man, and culinary utensils
and sewing materials at the grave of a woman;{ and in
Greenland, according to Egede, the head of a dog is placed
near the graves of little children, as a guide to the land of
souls. Dishevelled hair, and abstinence from the duties of the
toilette, and from all gaiety, for a time, is adopted as a mourn-
ing rite ; and the graves of the departed are frequently visited.
At Melville Peninsula, it is usual to walk round the grave in
the direction of the sun, and to chant forth inquiries as to the
welfare of the departed soul,— Whether it has reached the
land of spirits? If it has plenty of food?§ At the funeral of
the inhabitants of Greenland, it is usual for a woman to bran-
dish a lighted stick, at the same time calling out—Piklerruk-
pok, “ Here is no more to be got.” ||

Ninth Letter on Glaciers; addressed to Professor Jameson.
Remarks on the Recent Observations made on the Glacier of
the Aar (in 1844) by direction of M. Agassiz. By Profes-
sor FORBES, F.R.S., Corresponding Member of the In-
stitute of France. Communicated by the} Author.

EDINBURGH, 7th March 1845.
My D5AR Sir,—However satisfied one may be with the
conclusiveness of their own experiments, it is always pleas-
ing when they are confirmed by others even in their minuter

* Lyon, 370; Egede, 153. + Lyon, 371. t Lyon, 371; Egede, 151.
§ Lyon, 371. || Egede, 153.

—_

Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 333

particulars, especially if the observations have been made
in circumstances at all different. In this respect, I find
with pleasure, from a communication read at the Institute on
the 9th December last, that M. Agassiz’s coadjutors on the
glacier ofthe Aar, have obtained results so perfectly accord-
ant with those which you have done me the favour of pub-
lishing on former occasions, that they would have satis-
factorily established, had earlier observations been awanting,
the viscous theory of glacier motion with which alone they
are reconcilable ; the single seeming antagonism to my own
measurements being one which tells still more in favour of
that view. .

I propose to give a brief summary of these results, and to
shew their correspondence with my own. This correspon-
dence—amounting almost to coincidence—is, of course, éo
me, a satisfactory guarantee for their accuracy, as far as
they go. By others, the goodness of the instruments, and the
expertness of the observers, must, in the mean time, be taken
for granted.

It is hardly necessary to premise that M. Agassiz and
his friends now admit that all glaciers move fastest at the
centre, and slowest at the sides.

But a new fact still less reconcilable with the dilatation
theory resulted from the first attempt to apply geometrical
measurement to the motions of this glacier ; viz.,

I. The glacier of the Aar moves fastest in its middle
region, and slower in its upper and lower regions (7. e. to-
wards the origin and termination). The slowness in the
upper region does not so plainly follow from the facts at pre-
sent before us, but the retardation towards the termination of
the glacier is undoubted. The following are the motions origi-
nally ascertained, in $ of a year, or, more exactly, 289 days.
We prefer retaining the original measures in Swiss feet ; the
stations are in descending order, and a quarter of league
(4000 feet) apart* (the second in order indicates the rock
called Hotel des Neufchatelois.)

* Bulletin de la Societé de Neufchatel, 8th Nov. 1843.

334 Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers.

169.2 Swiss feet
177.1
141.3
150.1
133.1
83.7
58.3

This result is very different numerically from that which
I obtained on the Mer de Glace of Chamouni, but the differ-
ence is of the kind which might have been expected from
their great diversity of situation and circumstances. I never
expected, or pretended to find in the Mer de Glace the same
peculiarities of velocity as in other glaciers ; on the contrary,
I endeavoured to shew* what were the local peculiarities as
to slope, and breadth, which probably produced the law of
variation of the motion which I observed, slowest in the
middle, and quickest towards either end, precisely the reverse
of that observed by M. Agassiz; but I neither depreciate the
accuracy of his surveyor, nor contend that one cause of mo-
tion sways the glacier of the Aar, and another that of the
Montanvert. On the contrary, the difference appears to me
entirely conformable to the viscous theory; and the glacier
of the Aar, in this respect, a more instructive example than
the Mer de Glace of Chamouni.

I have shewn in one of the passages of my work just cited,
that the velocities of the different portions of the glacier
depend, among other things, on their inclination or slope ;
and hence, I should have inferred, that in a glacier which
did not slope faster and faster towards its lower end, till it
becomes almost precipitous, there would be accumulating
resistance due to the friction of the ice on the bed of a long,
nearly uniform, gently sloping valley, such as that which
contains the glacier of the lower Aar, which must magnify
the tendency which the ice has to be squeezed forwards and
upwards against the mass immediately in advance of it,
which produces the frontal «ip of the ribboned structure or

* Travels in the Alps, p. 145, 371.

Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 335

slaty cleavage of the ice, in the way that I have explained in
my Seventh Letter. Inaglacier then, whose slope is nearly
constant and small, I should expect a condensation of the ice
longitudinally, and a swelling of the surface depending upon
the motion of the plastic ice in the direction of least resist-
ance. Now this is exactly what we have in the results
of measurement. If the annexed figure represent the plan

Lal/ aan LULU YU

Uo an WA

of the glacier, and the ice be divided into imaginary com-
partments by vertical sections; since, whilst AB moves
177 feet, CD moves but 141 feet, there is a condensation
of the mass of ice ABCD, from back to front, of no less
than 36 feet in that time, and so for the successive slices
EF, &c. How, then, is this shrinking to be accounted
for? Not by the mere internal melting, for that would pro-
duce merely a lowering of the surface, and a subsidence of
the level of the ice ; such as I have shewn* actually takes
place in other glaciers whose sections move with increasing
velocity on the whole. There is only a vis @ tergo which
can approximate the sections together, and, as we read in
the Comptes Rendus, squeeze the moraine longitudinally, giv-
ing it a greater breadth,t and coudense the entire body of
the ice so as to make it more compact in texture.t

If we take a vertical section instead of a plan (see next
page), the slice abcd must be condensed into the higher
and shorter solid cdef, and so of the rest, and the surface

—

* Travels, p. 153.
- t Les “ Moraines médianes s’élargissent dans la méme proportion que
le mouvement se ralentit.” Comptes Rendus, 9th Dec. 1844, p- 1301.

t Ib. p. 1306, line 29.

336 Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers.

will be a swelling one, as acen, which might even rise to--

f
MMMM OL
wards valley, but generally need only be less sloped than the
bed. The effect of superficial thaw, and internal subsidence,
diminishes this again, and gives it the form of the dotted
curve an’.

In these diagrams the varying velocity in different parts
of the transverse section is, for simplicity, kept out of view.

A retardation of the foremost portion of a viscid stream,
and consequent heaping of its surface, is exactly imitated in
the models formed of plaster of Paris, which I have else-
were described, and which, though of uniform fluidity from
end to end, and therefore not subject to the objection arising
from the cooling of lava, where a precisely similar fact is
observed, reproduce faithfully the motions of the glacier of
the Aar.

The fact established on the glacier of the Aar satisfactorily
refutes the notion that a predominant state of compression
in a glacier is incompatible with the existence of transverse
crevasses.

Il. Continuity of motion. Until recently it was a question
entirely unresolved, whether the glaciers move by insensible
and nearly uniform degrees, or whether they start forward
by short jerks, as might be expected if the movement in
their irregular channels were effected by piecemeal fractures,
local subsidences, and the justling of independent fragments.
Accordingly when I determined, for the first time, in June
1842, the absolute continuity of the motion down even to the
interval of an hour,* it seemed impossible to reconcile this

* See first Letter on Glaciers in this Journal, October 1842, p. 340.

Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 337

to the only modification of De Saussure’s theory applicable
to the case, and the fact seemed to point, as a necessary
consequence, to an insensible yielding of parts throughout
the whole mass, which therefore moves as a whole, and not
by jerks occasioned by strains upon a nearly rigid mass when
they attain the limit consistent with the small play of flexi-
bility of the particles, as some authors would have us be-
lieve.*

It is satisfactory to have an entire confirmation of these
particulars, from the observations made on the glacier of the
Aar in 1844. The observations were made “ to the accuracy
of a millimetre on the movement of the glacier from hour to
hour,’+ and “ at the lower extremity of the glacier, as in the
upper part of its course, the glacier does not advance ab-
ruptly, by jerks (saccades) as formerlyt supposed, but its
march is gradual and continuous.”

Il. The influence of warm and damp weather in accelerating
the continuous march of the glacier, and of cold weather in
checking it, I deduced in 1842 from a careful comparison of its
motion for three months with the state of the thermometer,
and exhibited the result in numbers and diagrams. Here,
again, the observers on the Aar glacier have confirmed this
fact, so important in a theoretical point of view. “The ad-
vancement of the glacier,” they say, “ was far from uniform ;
it varied considerably, according to the condition of the
atmosphere.” During nine days of cold snowy weather in
August 1844, the mean daily advance was 155 millimetres,
but during the sixteen fine days which followed, it moved
through 230 millimetres per day.

* Mr Hopkins’s experiment of a box full of ice descending an even
plane, does not apply to this case, because, though it moves as a whole,
it does so without change of figure, and without the resistance arising
from the irregularity of the channel ofa glacier; and hence the seeming
analogy to a glacier entirely fails.

t Comptes Rendus, p. 1302, line 12.

{ Jadis. It is to be inferred that the writer meant previous to
1842.

§ Comptes Rendus, p. 1303, line 9.

|| Travels in the Alps, p. 148.

“1 Comptes Rendus, p. 1301, at the bottom.

VOL. XXXVII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. Y

338 Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers.

It is worthy of remark, that the entire annual motion of
the part in question of the glacier of the Aar, was ascer-
tained to be 60 metres, or 164 millimetres per day.* Now
the mean motion during 35 days of August and September,
was 203 millimetres, or but one-fourth above the annual
mean (and during part of the time, we have seen, it fell to
155 millimetres, or 6e/on the annual mean); proving suffici-
ently that the annual motion is not entirely effected during
the warm season, and that even in winter it must bear a
very sensible proportion to its summer motion, as has been
directly proved in the case of the Mer de Glace of Cha-
mouni.t

IV. The extreme inequality of motion of the central and
lateral parts of glaciers is the best direct proof of the very
considerable plasticity of their mass ; and in the paper before
us this is shewn, in a still more striking manner, than in the
experiments which I have published. A glacier, like the
Mer de Glace of Chamouni, has sd considerable a velocity
(on an average at least three times that of the glacier of the
Aar), that the ice is impetuously borne along, and torn from
the sides at the expense of innumerable lacerations and
crevasses. So that in the whole extent of the middle and
lower regions of that glacier, in no place do the ice and
ground meet without the former being more or less fissured
by rents. But the contrary is the case on the great glaciers
which move on small slopes, and with smaller velocities ;
and the discovery of this fact rewarded me for the labour of
a short visit which I made the Great Aletsch glacier, in July
1844, when I ascertained, not merely the small daily pro-
gress of the mass of the glacier, but the astonishing retar-
dation produced by the sides, whilst the surface remained
compact and wholly undivided by longitudinal crevasses.
In that case, I found that, “whilst the velocity of the iee at
1300 feet, or about a quarter of a mile from the side, is
14 inches in 24 hours, at 300 feet distant from the side it

* Comptes Rendus, p. 1301, line 29.
t Travels in the Alps, p. 151, 420; and Fifth Letter on Glaciers
Edin. Phil. Journal, April 1844.

Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 339)

was but 3 inches in the same time ; and close to the side it
had nearly, if not entirely, vanished.”* Now this observa-
tion, a hasty one, and which, therefore, I am happy to have
confirmed, is more than borne out by the observations on the
glacier of the Aar, detailed in the Comptes Rendus, and which
were made shortly after. The movement of the centre of
the glacier is to that of a point 5 metres from the edge as
FOURTEEN to ONE; such is the effect of plasticity! Thirteen-
fourteenths of the motion of the glacier of the Aar, are due to
the sliding of the ice over its own particles, and one-fourteenth
only to its motion over the soil.

V. Motion of Glaciers of the Second Order. It is a ques-
tion of considerable interest to know how those small glaciers,
called by De Saussure glaciers of the second order, advance:
compared to the great ice masses which fill the bottoms of
valleys. These little glaciers, on the contrary, are usually
isolated, extending but a small way, occupying a nook or
niche in a mountain side, and though persisting in their oc-
cupancy, and shewing signs of motion and activity, like other
glaciers, yet stretch forward but a small way, then cease
abruptly, as if foiled in the struggle to join their icy con-
tribution to the magnificent glacier which often fills the
valley immediately below them.+ Their isolated position, their
great absolute height, and their usually very steep declivity
and small surface, give considerable interest to the determi-
nation of their rate of motion, at least approximately. Ac-
cordingly I seized the occasion of spending some days in
July 1844, at the Hospice of the Simplon (already at a
height of 6600 feet above the sea), to examine and measure
the progress of the small glacier which hangs from the slope
of the Schénhorn, immediately behind it, and 1400 feet
higher. I intend to give elsewhere a minute account of this
glacier, and my observations upon it; but in the mean time
I may state that one of the marks observed, at a point
having an inclination of 10°, moved at the rate of 1.4 inches

* Eighth Letter on Glaciers, Edin. Phil. Journal, Oct. 1844.
t See a Plate, giving a correct idea of a glacier of the second order, in
my Travels, plate ix.

340 Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers.

in 24 hours ; and another, at an inclination of 20°, moved 1.8
inches in the same time. This small result is quite confor-
mable with the dry and powdery condition of such elevated
glaciers, yielding little water, and capable of exerting, on
their under parts, a very trifling hydrostatic pressure.*

Exactly analogous results were obtained by M. Agassiz’s
coadjutors at a somewhat later period of the same year.
The experiments are fully detailed in the Comptes Rendus ;+
and the conclusions which are deducible from them, are (1),
that the daily motions of these small glaciers, which, rested
on beds so highly inclined as from 15° up to 33°, are included
between 20 and 72 millimetres (0.79 to 2.84 English inches)
per diem. (2.) The observers think that their observations
go to prove that when these glaciers are prolonged far enough
to meet the main glacier below, and to unite their streams,
then the lower part of the tributary glacier, or that nearest
the point of union, moves SLOWER than the upper part, or that
nearest the origin of the little glacier ; but, on the contrary,
if the glacier be pendant on the slope, and the lower end
decays away without joining the principal, then the inferior
extremity moves FASTER than the origin. Now the cause of
this variation in the two cases (should the fact really appear
to be general, as is not unlikely, provided the lower station
be always chosen low enough), seems to be, that the main
glacier resists the interference of its tributary with its
course, and consequently represses its stream, causing a
heaping up in front, such as mere friction on a low incli-
nation alone produces, and is thus in conformity with the
viscous theory. In the other case, that of the free glacier
of the second order, the difference of velocity at the upper
and lower station (one-seventh part only) is not more than
the difference of slope (15° and 25°) will readily explain.

VI. Movements of Bas-Névés or Snow-beds. One observation
remains which completes my analysis of the measures of
M. Agassiz’s coadjutors. Itis one of considerable interest, and
I believe isnew. It is the establishment of the fact that the

* This experiment is briefly mentioned at the close of my Highth Letter
on Glaciers.

t p. 1303 and two following pages.

it~

Professor Forbes’s Ninth Letter on Glaciers. 341

highly inclined beds of old snow, formed by avalanches, which
lie unmelted in the ravines, without assuming any external
trace of glacial structure, have a proper motion of their own.
This, though to me not unexpected, is very interesting ; for
the most attached advocate of either the dilatation or the
sliding theory, will hardly maintain, on the one hand, that
the congelation of soft snow could act here as a propelling
force, or on the other, that the motion can take place with-
out acceleration in the totality of a mass, inclined (in this
case) at an angle even of 43°, over the bed on which it rests :
especially since the actual movement under this enormous
inclination was only 7 millimetres, or three-tenths of an inch,
per day ;* or one-thirtieth of that of the great glacier under
an inclination of but a few degrees. The velocity increased
towards the lower extremity, as in the free glacier of the
second order. On the Plastic theory, this evidently pre-
sents the extreme case of a body, approaching in its nature
to a soft heavy powder slightly moistened, which gives
way by the yielding of its parts, and so far resembles a
fluid (as a bank of earth, slightly glutinous, rather than sand
doves) ; and the slowness of movement is in conformity with
the imperfectness of the fluid pressure, and with the fact
already stated (under Head III. above) that the velocity of
any glacier is proportional to the completeness of its satura-
tion with water at the time. The bas-névés, or old avalanches,
furnish very little water at their lower extremities.

I have now gone through these observations, made by per-
sons, it may be assumed, not particularly desirous to find
results confirming a theory which they have opposed, but
which it may be hoped they will oppose no longer, when
their own results speak in language so unequivocal. My
analysis has been succinct, but complete and impartial. The
facts are stated as given, without selection or suppression.—
I am, dear Sir, yours sincerely,

JAMES D. ForBEs.

Professor Jameson.

* Comptes Rendus, p. 1305, line 32; and p. 1396,

Note on the Crystallization of Carbonate of Lime. By JOHN
Davy, M.D., F.R.S. Lond. and Edin. Communicated by
the Author.

When the lime in lime-water is rapidly precipitated by
passing into it carbonic acid gas, as by blowing on it with
air from the lungs, the precipitate examined with the micro-
scope, is found to consist of exceedingly minute particles,
too minute, indeed, to allow of their form being distinguished,
being about 55570 inch in diameter, either dispersed or col-
lected in groups.

When precipitated in part in this way, if the jar of lime-
water be covered with a plate of glass, so as to admit the
access of air slowly, the crust formed after two or three
hours’ rest, similarly examined, will be found to consist
of granular globules, or of little masses approaching the
globular form, about ;,5>5 of an inch in diameter, in which
the granules or minute particles exhibit an arrangement
somewhat symmetrical.

If the jar still containing lime in solution, be again covered
with glass, and allowed to remain tranquil from twelve to
twenty-four hours, the pellicle of carbonate of lime formed
at the end of this time, will be found in some points to differ
from the preceding ; the globules will be found mixed with dis-
tinct cubical crystals, varying in size from about zs355 Of an
inch to 7,55 and ;,4,; the intermediate size the most com-
mon. The smallest, it may be remarked, require a nice ad-
justment to be seen distinctly.

Lastly, if the jar be covered with a plate of glass in the
first instance, so as to permit very slowly the entrance of air,
the pellicle of carbonate of lime formed, will consist entirely
of crystals, and these chiefly cubical, connected together, and
varying in size from about zo'55 to zo55 Of an inch in dia-
meter.

By adding to the lime-water different substances, the form
of the carbonate of lime in the pellicle resulting from the ab-
sorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere, is found to be
altered, and that variously. I may mention a few instances

of the effect of substances added, which have no power of

On the Crystallization of Carbonate of Lime. 343

decomposing the lime-water,—or, if possessed of such power,
added in so small a quantity as to leave lime.in excess, to
yield a crust of carbonate of lime.

1. Serum of sheep’s blood. Lime-water after admixture
with a small quantity of this, put aside for a few hours, the
jar covered with a glass plate, yielded, besides cubical cry-
stals, some of a prismatic form and some pyramidal. In this
instance and the following, the portion of pellicle examined
was confined between two slips of glass, so as to prevent
the formation of adventitious crystals by evaporation.

2. Nitrate of barytes. Lime-water, to which a few drops
of this salt in solution had been added, treated like the pre-
ceding, yielded tabular crystals variously truncated, and
some pyramidal.

3. Muriate of lime. The crystals obtained in this instance,
a few drops of the salt in solution having been mixed with
the lime-water, were cubical and pyramidal,—with which
granular globules were intermixed.

4, Chlorate of potash. The crust formed on the lime-water,
to which a very little of this salt had been added, consisted
chiefly of little spindle-form masses, with plates of compa-
ratively large size and great thinness, most of them imper-
fectly formed, their outline being in part irregular.

Do not these results admit of application? May they not
serve to illustrate the extraordinary variety of form in which
carbonate of lime, in its mineral state, is found in nature ?

It occurred to me, as not improbable, that carbonate of
lime, formed without previous solution of the lime, viz., from
the combination of the lime of the hydrate with carbonic
acid, might present itself in a crystalline form, the ten-
dency to assume this form being so great. ButI have
not, on trial, found it to be so. Recent carbonate of lime,
obtained by exposing quenched lime to the atmosphere, has
appeared, under the microscope, to be onlyminutely granular,
as is the hydrate itself; and a mortar of nearly pure car-
bonate of lime, attached to a stone, on which are hierogly-
phies, from the walls of ancient Thebes, has exhibited the
same minutely granular character. This fact, I may remark,
is not in favour of the idea of homogeneous particles, ex-
erting an attractive force on each other, independent of

344 Professor Bischof on the Origin of

solution, capable of originating motion, or change of posi-
tion, such as is implied in the conversion of an amorphous
into a crystalline mass.

_ Tus Oaks, AMBLESIDE,
March 11. 1845.

On the Origin of Quartz and Metalliferous Veins. By
Professor GUSTAV BiscHoFr, of Bonn.*

It is not possible that the quartz veins, in the various
stratified formations—as in greywacke, in clay-slate, in horn-
blende-slate, &c.—could have been formed by the agency of
a smelting heat. Even presuming that it is in the power of
nature to fuse quartz, which, taken alone, is infusible in the
heat of our most intense furnaces, a mass of such excessive
heat as molten silica must have fused the adjacent rock to a
greater or less distance, according to the width of the quartz
vein. Silicates must have been formed, much more fusible
than the substance of the quartz vein. These silicates (fel-
spar, mica, &e.), the bases for which (alumina, potash, soda,
oxide of iron, &c.) had been furnished by the adjacent rock,
must, however, have been found not only between the vein
stuff and the rock, and far into this latter, but also pene-
trating into the quartzose vein stuff itself; for, the consti-
tuents of the adjacent rock, fused by the molten silica, would
have penetrated into the interior of the vein stuff, and have
formed silicates.

Suppose only, for example, that molten silver is poured
into a leaden mould, of such thickness that only that portion
of the mould in the vicinity of the silver poured in should
melt, there would not be found, after the cooling of the
molten metal, a single particle of pure silver, but only a
mixture of silver and lead. But the difference, in fusibility,
between silica and rocks such as clay-slate, is certainly still
greater than that between silver and lead; and the affinity
of silica to the bases in the rocks, or the propensity of the
latter to form silicates with the former, is certainly not less
than the affinity of silver for lead.

* Translated by Lewis D. B. Gordon, Esq., Professor of Civil Engi-
neering in the University of Glasgow.

Per

) pie

ae

Quartz and Metalliferous Veins. 345

it must, therefore, be considered as a necessary conse-
quence, that if ever fused silica had been injected into a vein
fissure in clay-slate, there would have been formed, after
the gradual cooling and consolidation, not a vein of pure
quartz, but a crystalline vein stuff, of the nature of granite,
in as far as the adjacent rock could have furnished the ne-
cessary bases for the production of granite. If, therefore,
we could suppose that ever pure quartz in fusion rose up
from beneath, we might also, on the other hand, conclude,
that a granite vein, in a country of clay-slate, would be pro-
duced ; but not that a quartz vein could have been formed
in such a manner.

To these difficulties of conceiving the rising of fused silica
in a vein fissure, comes this again, that quartz veins fre-
quently consist of very thin strings, of half an inch wide, or
even less. Were it, then, still conceivable that molten
quartz, of a foot or more in width, could rise in a fissure or
rent, without solidifying in the course it must have travelled
from unknown depths, yet it would be quite inconceivable
that a mass, of scarcely half an inch in thickness, should
flow through the cold rock without being immediately chilled.
This were equally impossible as to attempt, by pouring
melted iron into a channel some hundred feet long, and half
an inch wide, to form an iron rail or plate.

If we lay aside the notion of the production of quartz
veins in stratified formations by the agency of a smelting
heat, there remains no other assumption but that these veins
have been formed by the agency of water. In fact, there is
not one phenomenon presented by quartz veins that is incon-
sistent with this assumption. On the contrary, every cir-
cumstance may be explained, by its aid, in a simple and un-
forced manner.

There is scarcely any water, whether it’be spring or river
water, which does not contain silica in solution, though fre-
quently in very small quantities. Should such water pene-
trate through the narrowest cleft, there is the possibility that
more or less of the dissolved silica may be deposited in it.
It is true, that such a deposition supposes that the water,
either, being hot, cools during circulation in the cleft, or
evaporates ; or that other substances maintaining the silica

346 Professor Bischof on the Origin of

in solution are precipitated ; but we must not overlook other
circumstances from which this precipitation may arise. Very
many phenomena shew that there exists a peculiar affinity
between sélica and organic substances or organic remains. AS
an example, I may mention that, in the wooden piles of Tra-
jan’s Bridge, near Vienna, quartz coneretions—agates even
of half an inch in thickness—have been found ;* and that,
according to observations of Glocker, it is only on a lichen
that Hyalite is formed on the Serpentine of the Zobtenberg.t
If, now, in the above instances, the wood of the bridge pile
has induced a precipitation of silica from an extremely dilute
solution, such as the water of the Danube presents—if, in
like manner, a lichen has occasioned such a precipitation,
from, probably, equally dilute solutions, then it is easy to
understand, that organic remains in a Neptunian rock, as in
clay-slate, may likewise effect a precipitation of silica.

It may be said, in opposition, that the supposed effect of
organic remains must cease in the rock as soon as the thin-
nest covering of precipitated silica has been formed ; but it
is known, that, as soon as a deposition of a dissolved sub-
stance has begun from whatever cause, it goes on, although
this cause may no longer be in action. I am, however, far
from alleging, that the presence of organic remains in geo-
logical formations, has always induced the deposition of
silica in quartz veins. If such were the case, this effect
could only be considered as acting in quartz veins in Nep-
tunian formations, and would have no application to such
veins in the crystalline formations.

It becomes, however, necessary to inquire into the causes
by which deposits of silica from watery solutions may have
been effected. Is it not sufficient to refer to the numberless
quartzy formations which must unquestionably have had
their origin in the wet way ? Can we, in the frequent silici-
fication of organic substances—of wood in wood-opal, for

* Breislak’s Geologie, Bd. ii., p. 492.

+t Verhandlungen, der K. L. C. Akad. d. Naturforscher, Ba. Xiv,
Abth. ii., p. 545. Compare also Von Buch on the Silicification of Organie
Substances in the Abhandlungen, der K. Acad. d. W. zu. Berlin, 1828,
p. 48, “ Where” says Von Buch, “ there is no organic substance, there
is never silicification to be found.”

—

Quartz and Metalliferous Veins. 347

example—entertain, even remotely, the idea of formation by
heat. Ehrenberg found, as he told me, a Vermetus, an inch
long, in fire- opal.

The deposit of silica in quartz veins can be conceived to
have taken place by ¢wo modes. Hither springs rose up in the
vein cleft, from which it was deposited, or water, containing
silicie acid, penetrated from the adjacent rocks into the vein
cleft. Both processes occur at the present day, although
deposits of pure silica from springs are rarities. Examples,
too, are not wanting of the locality of the discharge of the
spring changing, or of the discharge completely ceasing.
Both cases, doubtless, arise most frequently from the under-
ground channels being stopped by deposits.

I have myself observed the complete cessation of a mineral
spring. About twelve years since, there flowed, close by the
Laacher-See, near the old abbey, a pretty abundant spring,
which, judging from its enclosure, was used in former times
by the inhabitants of the abbey. I visited this spring several
times, as it excited my curiosity, being the only one of all
the numerous springs in the neighbourhood of the Laacher-
See, which shewed not even a trace of iron. It was a pure
seltzer, containing, principally. bicarbonate of lime and mag-
nesia. On going to see this spring, some years later, I
found it stopped. There are also, very frequently, to be
found in this neighbourhood, even considerable beds of éron-
ochre, which indubitably have been deposited from irony
springs, although such no longer occur in these localities.
Such beds are often met with at the higher levels; and, in
the lower levels, springs containing iron, which still deposit
iron-ochre. It is very probable, that changes in the locality
of the discharge of the springs have resulted from the ob-
struction of their channels. Yet not only such obstructions,
but also considerable accumulations of iron-ochre, at the
issue of the spring itself, have, here and there, induced the
disappearance of the springs. Thus, in one place, where
there was a three feet thick bed of ochre, I caused a sinking
to be made, and discovered underneath a very abundant
ferruginous spring.

In this neighbourhood there are, here and there, appear-
ances from which we may conclude that there has been a

348 Professor Bischof on the Origin of

change in the nature of the spring’s deposit. In the imme-
diate vicinity of the iron springs, more or less considerable
deposits of calcsinter present themselves, whilst the actual
or present sediments consist of iron-ochre, with a slight ad-
mixture of lime. It is very probable that these are the
very springs which formerly deposited calesinter, and which,
at the present day, deposit only iron-ochre. If such a change
in the nature of the spring’s deposit be in harmony with the
not unfrequent change in the constituents of the spring, we
have in this an indication of the various deposits which occur
in vein clefts—viz. in metalliferous veins. I believe, in fact,
to have acquired conviction, and hope to shew proofs, that
the most of the vein stuffs in metalliferous veins, if not all,
have been introduced in the wet way.

Evidence for the variety of deposits in metalliferous veins
are presented, amongst others, by the veins of the Erzgebirge.
Thus, v. Weissenbach found, in the silver veins of Brand,
in the Freyberg district, the arrangement of the component
parts of the vein from the older towards the younger mem-
bers—that is, from the wall to the centre, to be always as
follows :—

1. Quartz predominating.

2. Manganese-spar—Brown-spar.

3. Sparry iron, fluorspar, barytes, equal with each other.

4. Calespar.

He never found the above-named sparry minerals in any
other than this series, and it appears, as far as he had op-
portunity of observing, to occur pretty much the same
throughout the whole Saxon vein formation. It is import-
ant in reference to this mode of formation of the vein mass
in metalliferous veins, remarks v. Weissenbach, that, should
the above observation obtain generally, it would result
that not the ores, but much more the kinds of spar, would,
to a certain degree, characterize the epochs of formation.*

* Just as I was about to send off this paper, I have received, through
the kindness of the Berghauptmann Freiesleben, his most recent inter-
esting work, ‘‘ Die Sachsische Erzginge,”’ &c., &c. Freyberg, 1843.

We there find under the title, “‘ Arrangement of the Vein stuffs,”
the following: ‘It is peculiar to many formations, as has been long

Quartz and Metalliferous Veins. 349

Just as in the deposits of those springs at the earth’s sur-
face, to which we formerly alluded, an alternation appeared,

known, that some of their veins display a regular ribbon-like structure,
in as much as their minerals form parallel layers variously alternating with
each other. (Zonen, Streifen, Bander oder Glieder.) However, according
to my notions, there has been more regularity discovered in this, than
is consistent with direct observation. There has also been fixed for
many formations a distinct epochal series of their members. It has been
assumed, for example, that quartz forms the outer member next the walls
of the vein ; the spars, on the other hand, the inner or middle members .
Even Werner’s theory of veins (amongst others § 31) contains very dis-
tinct remarks on this. But more recently persons have gone further,
and have raised up a theory of the development of veins upon it. It
has been further assumed, that, as the depth increases, either the inner
newer members disappeared, and the outer became more predominant,
or, vice versa ; from which the enrichment and impoverishing of a vein
according to the depth have been explained. This may be the case in
certain veins ; but it does not appear to me to be founded on a per-
vading or completely established law,” &c.

“Even a regular memberment of the vein stuffs is not a predominat-
ing circumstance. In many cases there exists no trace of it. Still sel-
domer, however, is there a constant epochal series in the individual
members. For one example, in which the one or the other may be
proved, there are many others in which this is not the case ; where, rather,
the different kinds of ore and matrices lie intermixed irregularly, as if
poured together in one cast; or where the epochal series of the indivi-
dual members does not remain the same. Isolated regularly membered
veins have ever attracted more especial attention, because they are more
interesting than others. Hence the great number of opposing appear-
ances seem to have been less observed. I have therefore directed espe-
cial attention to this point for some considerable time ; and when I have
adduced more particularly the results of my observations for each parti-
cular formation, in a future complete exposition of the foregoing sketch,
it will be seen that the general legitimate deductions which can be made
from these, are only few. There are only a few minerals which prove
themselves to be the newest formations, alike in druses and as the in-
nermost members of the vein—for example, native silver, sulphuret of
silver, (silver glance,) ruby silver, calespar; others occur again and
again alternately, next the walls and in the middle—for example, quartz,
pyrites, brownspar, barytes,” &c.

It is indeed difficult to decide between two men such as Freiesleben
and vy. Weissenbach, both practised in observation, and both, by their
long calling as practical miners, in a position to study the most various
relations of veins. Although the latter is inclined to assume a determi-

nate epochal series of the members of veins, he by no means ignores the

350 Professor Bischof on the Origin of

though only one, we find also in metalliferous veins a more
frequently repeated alternation of vein stuffs. If these sur-
face deposits shew, incontestibly, that the same spring may
change the nature of its deposit in the course of time, we
can, from this, conclude as to the possibility, at least, that also
the alternating members of the vein, in metalliferous veins,
may have had the same origin.

If we recur to the question of how the silica in quartz
veins may have been precipitated from watery solutions,
we cannot consentaneously suppose that this deposit has
been a consequence of a decrease of temperature of the dis-
solving medium, or of its vaporization during the circulation
of the water through the clefts ; and as the assumption that
organic remains in the adjacent rock have played a part, is
only admissible for quartz veins in Neptunian formations,
there remain still certain difficulties to solve. These de-
crease very much, however, if we take into consideration a

fact that the regularity appears very frequently disturbed, and even
adduces many examples of this.

The question is, whether order is the rule and confusion the excep-
tion, or whether the former is only fortuitous? As the formation of
veins is a process occupying a great space of time, and as, after it had
already begun, the fissures again widened out and the new fissure took,
here parts of the adjacent rock, there parts of the vein stuff, according
to the state of adhesion and cohesion between the rock and the vein
stuff already formed, and of this latter with itself; it must have hap-
pened that the more recent vein stuffs now gained the interior,—now
were deposited on the walls and on the fragments torn from the adja-
cent rock, To this has to be added, that there not unfrequently took
place an exchange between the older and newer members of the vein,
by, the; former being taken up by the solvent medium, and the latter
being deposited and taking the place of the former. It might thus also
so happen, that (if we suppose the introduction of the vein matrices in
the: wet way,). the same fluid, containing several vein-stuffs in solution,
according as in one part it came in contact with the adjacent rock, and
in another with older members of the vein, deposited by exchange one
substance here, another there, just.as.a fluid, would do if we added first

one and then another re-agent. All these causes might) produce the

most. various disturbances. in the formation. of the vein-stufls, so that
regularity only appears in those instances in which these disturbing
causes have not acted. I have enlarged upon these circumstances in
the sequel.

ni ORR

Quartz and Metalliferous Veins. 351

circumstance which is perfectly grounded in the laws of che-
mical affinity, and whose effect can be proved in the case of
springs likewise. It is the mutual exchange, or the expul-
sion of one substance dissolved in water by another, with
which the water comes in contact. Just as, for example, the
bicarbonates of lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, and oxide of
Manganese, are precipitated by alkalies; so the same pre-
cipitation would follow, if water containing these bicarbon-
ates were to come in contact with minerals having alkalies
as constituent parts; for, although the latter are combined
with silica, still these silicates would be decomposed by the
half-combined carbonic acid of the bicarbonate. I have
observed such a mutual exchange in a very palpable manner.
The mineral spring formerly mentioned as having flowed
from under a bed of iron-ochre, had channelled a passage for
itself in ¢rass, which was decomposed into a rich clay all
around, and upon this channel there was an incrustation of
carbonate of the protoxide of iron (spherosiderite).

In this case, undoubtedly, the free and half-united carbonic
acid of the mineral spring had extracted the alkalies from the
silicates of the trass, whereby the bicarbonate of the prot-
oxide of iron lost its dissolving medium, and deposited itself
as carbonate of the protoxide of iron, as contact with the air
was excluded. It is very probable that the carbonate of soda,
which is so frequent a constituent of the mineral springs ris-
ing in the crystalline formations, has this origin in many
cases,—that, viz., water, loaded with bicarbonates of lime,,
magnesia, protoxide of iron, and manganese, came in contact
with formations containing silicates of soda.

In this manner, we can easily perceive how manganese spar,
brown or pearl spar, sparry iron, and cale-spar, which so
frequently occur as the matrix, may have been precipitated
from waters that contained these minerals as bicarbonates,
so far as there were silicates of the alkalies present in the ad-
jacent rock. This is, however, exactly the case in the me-
talliferous veins running through the gneiss of the Erzge-
birge, and in other crystalline formations. Such exchanges
(Austauschungen) might be repeated more than once, if the

352 Professor Bischof on the Origin of

composition of the water circulating in the vein-cleft
changed.

Thus, Dr Speyer of Hanau, found, near Dietesheim, encasing
pseudomorphous crystals of sparry iron, of the form of cale-
spar.* They occurin the druses of Anamesite, in which, too,
spherosiderite is not unfrequently met with. It is not to be
doubted that waters, which at an earlier period had deposited
cale-spar, as they changed their nature and became charged
with acid carbonate of the protoxide of iron, have effected the
exchange between cale-spar and sparry iron. . We do not re-
quire to ask whether that portion of earbonic acid which changes
the neutral carbonate into bicarbonate, has a greater affinity
for carbonate of lime than for carbonate of the protoxide of iron,
or inversely ; for there are many examples in chemistry of an
inversion of affinities, under different circumstances, namely,
when unequal masses operate. Water, charged with the bi-
carbonate of the protoxide of iron, may, if it flows uninterrupt-
edly over cale-spar, part with the half-combined carbonic acid
to this latter, and so dissolve it and carry it off, and, on the
other hand, deposit the carbonate of the protoxide of iron thus
become insoluble. But just as well might the reverse case
occur, and the half-combined carbonic acid in a water charged
with acid carbonate of lime be given off to sparry iron, and
so the former be deposited, and the latter dissolved. In the
first case, the greater mass of the half-combined carbonic acid
in the bicarbonate of iron is effective ; in the latter, on the
other hand, that of the half-combined carbonic acid in the bi-
carbonate of lime; for, in the one case, new portions of the
iron compound, in the other new portions of the lime com-
pound, are uninterruptedly brought to bear by the water in
circulation. Besides, the poss¢bility of cale-spar occurring in
the form of sparry iron cannot be doubted, although no such
case is known.

That these pseudomorphous crystals of sparry iron, in the
form of cale-spar, are produced in the wet way, no one will
doubt. The crystals of sparry iron are partly hollow in the
interior, partly more or less filled with cale-spar; the inner

* Die Pseudomorphosen des Mineralreichs, von Blum.—Stuttgart
1843; S. 304.

se

RELI PAR ASO RIAN te

ec <

On the Origin of Quartz and Metalliferous Veins. 353

planes are uneven and somewhat granular. Where there is
still cale-spar, plates of sparry iron may be seen between its
foliated layers, by which regular cells are formed. These
pseudomorphous crystals are partly upon calc-spar, partly
united immediately with anamesite.

These circumstances shew that the conversion or exchange
goes on slowly ; so slow a process can only be conceived to
operate in the wet way, and any idea of an effect by heat
must be excluded.

The encasing pseudomorphous forms of bitter-spar, which
the sparry iron in the quartz veins in greywacke near Rhein-
breitbach assumes, have certainly been produced in a similar
manner. [If the fluids which had earlier deposited bitter-spar
in these veins changed their nature—did they become irony
—then the half-combined carbonic acid of the bicarbonate of
iron took up the bitter-spar, and deposited in its place, as
sparry iron, the salt of iron changed into neutral carbonate
of the protoxide of iron.

Little difficulty as there is in understanding the deposit of
the frequently named carbonates in the veins, and the expul-
sion of the one by the other ; it is, however, more difficult to
explain the deposit of quartz by exchange. Quartz, it is true,
presents itself in the forms of calce-spar, bitter-spar, sparry
iron, carbonate of lead, gypsum, barytes, fluor-spar, and
barytocalcite. It is therefore supposable, that if cale-spar,
for example, were deposited from a solution at one period,
and at a later period were brought into contact with a solu-
tion of silicic acid, the former would be dissolved and the
latter deposited.

In this manner, however, the deposit of quartz in quartz-
veins and in the metalliferous-veins of the Erzgebirge, could
not well be explained, as this would assume that the one or
the other of these minerals had existed in the veins before
the deposit of the quartz. This would, however, contradict
the epoch series of the vein matrices of metalliferous-veins
of the Erzgebirge. It is, besides, scarcely to be imagined,
that the predominating quartz, the oldest member of the ma-
trices of these metalliferous veins, could have been deposited
by such an exchange.

(To be Concluded in next Number.)
VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. 7

( 354 )

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
(Continued from Vol. XXXVL., p. 198.)

Monday, 4th December 1843.
Sir THOMAS BRISBANE, President, in the Chair.

The following Communication was read :—
On the Influence of various Circumstances in Vegetation
upon the activity of Plants. Part Il. The Umbelli-
ferous Narcotics. By Dr Christison.

In the First Part of this inquiry, the author gave an account, in
1840, of some observations made by him, as to the influence of
season on the activity of the acrid plants of the natural family
Ranunculacee, and of the narcotics belonging to the family Dru-
pacee.* In the Second Part now laid before the Society, he pro-
ceeded to relate a series of experiments instituted by him with the
view of determining the influence of season on the activity of the
poisonous narcotic plants of the family Umbellifere.

The plants belonging to this family are for the most part aroma-
tic and stimulant, and destitute of poisonous properties. In four
species only have narcotic properties been unequivocally recognised,
viz., Conium maculatum, Cinanthe crocata, Cicuta virosa, and
Aithusa cynapium ; but these are universally held to be highly
energetic.

1. Conium maculatum, Common Hemlock.—No accurate infor-
mation is yet possessed as to the influence of season on the activity
of this species : for all investigations on the subject are vitiated by
the uncertain strength of its preparations, and the ignorance which
prevailed till very lately as to the conditions required for securing
their uniformity. The author has found by experiment, as Profes-
sor Geiger had already been led to conclude, that every part of the
plant is poisonous, both the root, the leaves, and the fruit ; and that
the root is least active, the leaves much more so, but the fruit the
most active of all. The root is commonly held to be most active in
midsummer, when the plant is in full vegetation and coming into
flower ; but this belief is founded only on a single, and not alto-
gether conclusive, experiment made by Professor Orjila. This
author found this part of the plant to be so feeble at all times, that
its respective energy at different seasons could not be satisfactorily
settled. The expressed juice of twelve ounces of roots had no ap-
preciable effect on a small dog in the end of October or towards the

* See the Society’s Proceedings, 1840-41.

ianccer

A

Dr Christison on the Umbelliferous Narcotics. 355

close of June; but an alcoholic extract of six ounces in the begin-
ning of May killed a rabbit in thirty-seven minutes, when intro-
duced into the cellular tissue. The leaves are commonly thought
to be most energetic when the plant is coming into flower in mid-
summer, and to be very feeble while it is young. The author finds
it to be probable, that the leaves are very active in midsummer ;
but he has likewise observed, that they are eminently energetic in
the young plant, both in the beginning of November, and in the
month of March before vegetation starts on the approach of genial
weather. Thirty-three grains of a carefully prepared alcoholic
extract, representing one ounce and a, third of fresh leaves, killed a
rabbit in nine minutes, when introduced into the cellular tissue.
The fruit is most active when it is full grown, but still green and
juicy. It then yields much more of the active principle conia than
afterwards when it is ripe and dry. The author added, as a fact
contrary to general belief, that he had found the ripe seeds of hem-
lock, and an alcoholic extract of the leaves, to sustain no diminu-
tion in energy by keeping, at all events for eight years.

2. Cnanthe crocata, Dead-tongue.—This species is universally
considered to be the most deadly of all the narcotic Umbellifere.
Many instances of fatal poisoning with its roots have been published
during the last two centuries, in the various periodicals of Europe.
It has repeatedly proved fatal in two hours; and a portion no bigger
than a walnut has been thought adequate to occasion death. Fatal
accidents have occurred from it in England, France, Holland, Spain,
and Corsica. The root would seem from these cases to be the most
active part ; but few observations are on reecod as to the effects of
the leaves, and none as to the fruit. The root appears from these
cases to be very active in all seasons, at least in the beginning of
January, the end of March, the middle of April, the middle of
June, and the middle of August.

The author proceeded to inquire carefully into the effects of season
upon this species as it grows wild in the neighbourhood of Edin-
burgh, but was surprised to find that every part of the plant in this
locality is destitute of narcotic properties at all seasons. The juice
of a whole pound of the tubers, the part which has proved so deadly
elsewhere, had no effect when secured in the stomach of a small dog,
either in the end of October when the tubers are plump and perfect,
but the plant not above ground, or in the month of June when it
was coming into flower ; and an alcoholic extract of the leaves, and
that prepared from the ripe fruit, had no effect whatever when
introduced into the cellular tissue of a rabbit, under the same con-
ditions in which the Common Hemlock acts so energetically. By a

_ comparative experiment he ascertained that tubers, collected near

Liverpool, where one of the accidents alluded to above happened
in 1782, act with considerable violence on the dog; and he briefly
noticed some experiments, made at his request by Dr Pereira,

356 Proceedings of the Royal Society.

with the GEnanthe of Woolwich, shewing that there also it is a
powerful poison to the lower animals. Climate seemed to the
author to furnish the only adequate explanation of these extraordi-
nary differences ; yet the plant grows in all parts of Scotland with
great luxuriance.

3. Cicuta virosa, Water-hemlock.—This species has been also
held to be a deadly poison ever since an express treatise on its effects
was published by Wepfer in 1716; and repeated instances of its
fatal action have been observed since, and some of these very re-
cently, in Germany. The root is the only part which has given
occasion to accidents ; it has proved fatal in two hours and a half.
Nevertheless, this plant too seems innocuous in Scotland, or nearly
so, although, like the last species, it grows with great luxuriance.
The juice of a pound of the roots collected in the end of July, while
the plant was in full flower, produced no narcotic symptoms ; and
the only effects observed, namely, efforts to vomit, might have arisen
from the operation which is necessary to secure the juice in the
stomach. An alcoholic extract of the leaves collected at the same
time, and a similar preparation made with two ounces of the full-
grown seeds, while still green and juicy, had no effect whatever when
introduced into the cellular tissue of a rabbit, except that inflamma-
tion was excited where the extract was applied.

4. The author has not yet had an opportunity of trying the effects
of the fourth species, Athusa cynapium, or fool’s- parsley.

Monday 18th December 1843.
Dr ABERCROMBIBE, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :

1. A description of Congenital Malformation of the Auricle
and External Meatus of both sides in three persons,
with Experiments on the state of Hearing in them, and
Remarks on the mode of Hearing by Conduction through
the hard parts of the Head in general. By Professor
Allen Thomson.

2. On the Luminousness of the Sea. By Dr Traill.

Tuesday, 2d January 1844.
Dr ABERCROMBIE, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

}. On the Fossil Vegetables of the Sandstone of Ayrshire,
illustrative of a series of them, as a Donation for the
Society's Museum. By J. Shedden Patrick, F.R.S.E.,
F.R.S.S.A., &e-

Dr Christison on CEnanthe Crocata. 357

2. On anew Self-Registering Barometer. By Robert Bryson,
F.R.S.

Monday, 15th January 1844.
Dr ABERCROMBIE, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Vibrations of an Interrupted Mediuni. By Pro-
fessor Kelland.

2. On certain Laws of the Resistance of Fluids. By John
Scott Russell, Esq.

3. Chemical Examination of the Tagua-Nut, or Vegetable
Ivory. By Professor Connell.

Monday, 5th February 1844.
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Tides of the Firth of Forth, and the East Coast of
Scotland. By J. 8. Russell, Esq.

2. Additional Observations as to the Poisonous Properties
of Ginanthe crocata. By Dr Christison.

In this paper the Author added a few supplementary observations
to those made on the alleged poisonous properties of the @nanthe
crocata, in his paper on the poisonous Umbellifere, read on the 4th
December last.

He stated that he had met with other cases of poisoning with this
plant, recorded by Continental authors, shewing that death may take
place in an hour,—that so small a quantity as a single tuber, no
bigger than the finger, has proved fatal,—that the roots are poison-
ous in some countries, from the beginning of January till the
middle of October at all events, and probably throughout the whole
year ; and that Spain may be added to the countries formerly men-
tioned, where fatal effects have been produced by the plant.

He next added, that he had recently tried on a dog the effects of
the juice of a pound of tubers, collected by Dr Pereira on the 16th
December from the locality of Woolwich; and that no effect, or an
exceeding slight one only, was produced.

It was farther observed, that, according to an analysis executed
in 1830 by MM. Pihan-Duteilay and Cormerais, the activity of the
roots in French plants depends upon a resin. On proceeding to try
upon a rabbit the effects of the resin, obtained by their process from
the Woolwich plants, the author found that, when the resin from
eight ounces avoirdupois, amounting to 24 grains, was introduced in
the state of emulsion into the cellular tissue, the animal died in 78

358 Proceedings of the Royal Society.

minutes, after being affected with a remarkable combination of tetanic
spasm and convulsions: but that no effect whatever was produced

by the resinous extract from the same quantity of roots obtained

about the same season of the year (midwinter) from the Dalmeny
cenanthe, near Edinburgh.

He concluded this notice with an account of some experiments on
the chemical analysis of cenanthe, observing that he had failed to
obtain any principle from the Dalmeny seeds or root, by a process
analogous to that by which conia is obtained from hemlock; and
that the alcoholic extract of the Woolwich plants, distilled with solu-
tion of potash, yielded, like hemlock, a little oleaginous-like fluid,
which was too minute in quantity for him to ascertain its properties
accurately, but which, on the whole, seemed a volatile oil, and not
an alkaloid.

Monday, 19th February 1844.
Dr ABERCROMBIE, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On the cellular Fibre and the Incrusting Matters of
Plants. By Mr P. F. H. Fromberg. Communicated by
Professor Johnston.

2. On aremarkable Oscillation of the Sea observed at various
places on the coasts of Great Britain, in the first week
of July 1843. By David Milne, Esq.

This phenomenon was observed on the 5th July and three follow-
ing days. It did not occur on all parts of the coast of Great Bri-
tain. In England, it was observed only on the south shores of
Cornwall and Devonshire. In Scotland, it was observed on the
east coast ; and there it was seen at a great many places, between
Eyemouth in Berwickshire and the Shetland Islands.

It was only on the 5th of July that the oscillation occurred on
the Cornish and Devonshire coasts. It prevailed on the Scottish
coast, however, from the 5th to the 7th July inclusive.

The phenomenon consisted of a flux and reflux of the sea, beyond
what could be accounted for by ordinary tides, or any wind prevail-
ing at the time. The water suddenly rose up and sunk down from

2 to 5 feet in perpendicular height, producing effects more or less ~

striking, according to the shelving character of the shore,

In regard to the cause of the phenomenon, various had been the
surmises ; though the general impression seemed to be, that it was
produced by distant submarine earthquakes.

The author stated that he could not acquiesce in this view, and
gave his reasons for saying so.

ee eee

te

Se ee el

Mr Milne on Oceanic Oscillations. 359

In order to obtain a wider field of induction, he referred to for-
mer instances of oceanic oscillations, and shewed that they were
almost always accompanied with considerable atmospheric disturb-
ances,

He then proceeded to give an account of a remarkable storm of
wind accompanied by thunder, lightning, and hail, which had tra-
versed the British Islands on the 5th of July, appearing first in the
SW. of England, and passing through the midland counties, tra-
verSing the south-east parts of Scotland, and going off about the
Aberdeenshire coast.

By the lightning and large hail-stones accompanying this storm,
much damage to property, as well as loss of life, had occurred.
At Sheffield, the barometer was, during the passage of the storm,
observed to sink suddenly about an inch.

The storm appeared to have rotated, and in the usual way,—Viz.
in a direction contrary to that of the hands of a watch,—of which
proofs were given.

The author then suggested, that the oscillations in question were
probably produced by this storm. The parts of the coast where they
were observed, coincided with the direction in which the storm moved.
The fact that the oscillations on the Cornish and Devonshire coasts
commenced before the storm arrived there, so far from being hostile
to, supported this-view ; for if waves were created by the storm, as
it approached Great Britain, these waves would advance more rapidly
than the storm, which appeared to move northwards at the rate of
from 70 to 80 miles per hour,—whereas the similar waves produced
by the two Lisbon earthquakes had moved forward at a rate of from
120 to 130 miles per hour.

As to the way in which waves could be produced on the surface
of the ocean, sufficient to produce the fluxes and refluxes in ques-
tion, it was observed—

(1.) That the wind, by its mere mechanical pressure, was capable
of heaping up, over a large expanse, a considerable body of water.
By the force of the south or south-west blasts in the storm, the sea
would be elevated, and waves would thereby be formed, which would
move forward before the storm towards the south coast of England.

(2.) That the level of the ocean rises in proportion to the fall of
the barometer ; so that if, as there was every reason to suppose, this
storm was accompanied in its track by a diminution of atmospheri-
cal weight, waves almost commensurate in extent with the diameter
of the storm would be formed.

In either or in both of these ways, the sea may have been, and
probably was, so affected on the Sth, 6th, and 7th July 18438, as to
produce the ebbing and flowing which was observed on certain parts
of the coasts of Great Britain.

360 Proceedings of the Royal Society.

Monday; 4th March 1844.
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, President, Bart., in the Chair:

The following Communication was read :—

On the Human Races in Britain, enumerated by Tacitus,
By Dr Hibbert Ware.

This memoir had. been undertaken as preliminary to an ethnolo-
gical inquiry which the author had proposed to institute into the
aborigines of the British Islands. It was premised, that in this en-
deavour to seek for ancient races in those which were modern, great
caution is required.

It has been asked, if, at the present day, we can as readily dis-
tinguish an Iberian type from one that is Gaulish or Caledonian, as
was done more than seventeen hundred years ago in the time of
Tacitus? It is answered, that, by a conservative principle in our
nature, directed to the persistency of types, the influences of Time,
Climate, and Civilization, are rendered of little avail. And, even in
a mixture or crossing of races, there is an interposition of preserving
laws made in favour of mutually approximating types, such as those
of Europe. For instance, when two or more races are mingled to-
gether in different proportions, it is expected that the type of the
minority will eventually become merged in that of the majority.
But whether, in accelerating or postponing such a result, it will be
found that, among all animals, nature exercises a sort of discretion-

ary power under three varied circumstances: 1st, When races.

widely differ from each other ; 2d, When races are in a less degree
remote; and, 3d, When races, like those of Britain, or Europe in
general, approximate closely to each other. . These three circum-
stances the author discussed in succession.

1st, When races widely differ from each other, as in the crossing
of the horse and the ass. In this case, nature has ever declared,
that a debased or intermediate breed shall not be perpetuated.

2d, When races are in a less degree remote. In this example
nature acts with uniformity, as in the crossing of the spaniel with
the greyhound, &c. ; and, among the human species, in the mixture
of European and black races. In any one of these instances, there
is no Incapacity in the progeny to perpetuate its breed; but it will
be found that the principle directed to the persistence of races gra-
dually restores, in the course of a few generations, the purity of any
one of the types which may have been contaminated by mixture,
while the other type, in the mean time, is doomed to extinction.

3d, When races approximate closely to each other, as when
spaniels (of which there are divers breeds) are crossed among
themselves, and the same of white and grey mice, the result shews
that, in the progeny, the types of a paternal or maternal stock are

a ee ee he oe

ee, =

~~) = eee

a, ay a ee Pe

Dr H. Ware on Ancient British Races. 361

less liable to occur in an intermediate, than in a perfectly dis-
tinct form ; or, in other words, that there is a less tendency to a
fusion than to a separation of types. For instance; in the Western
Highlands of Scotland, which were peopled in succession by the
dark-haired Gacl, and the flaxen-haired Scandinavian, there is, in
the descendants, less a mixture than a separation of the types ;
the progeny of many families of the peasantry illustrating the dis-
tinctness with which Gaelic and Scandinavian characters are repro-
duced in cases where the paternal and maternal types differ from
each other.

In bringing forward these illustrations, it was far from being
argued that a progeny did not often exhibit an intermediate charac-
ter, derived from the two races of a paternal and maternal stock ; it
was simply urged that a separation of types is equally, if not more
common; and that, when a sort of intermediate character is ac-
tually derived from two European races, it is not necessarily per-
petuated to a future progeny. On the contrary, a pure and distinct
type, even though rendered, for a generation or two, intermediate
and obscure, is often revived, with all its primitive decision of cha-
racter.

The author, lastly, availed himself of the occasion to state, that
the laws which appertained to the characters of races, hold good also
with individual distinctions ; and that nature seemed far more in-
tent upon perpetuating through successive generations, what might
be named the type of the individual or person, than upon produc-
ing intermediate likenesses, referred (often fancifully) to two types,
paternal and maternal.

From all these observations, it was concluded, that, although in
every society of mixed races the type of the minority had a ten-
dency to become merged, or to disappear in that of the majority,
yet that, by the interposition of relaxed laws, made in favour of
the mixture of two or more approximating races, such a result
(in the absence of exterminating wars, famine, or pestilence), may
be postponed to an incalculable period of time; and, as an ulti-
mate consequence, that the discovery of ancient European races
in those which are modern, is a reasonable expectation not likely to
be frustrated.

After these observations, the author proceeded to the chief object
of the Memoir, which was to explain, on ethnological principles, the
ancient British races enumerated by Tacitus. These were, 1st, the
Caledonians—* the red hair of those who inhabit Caledonia, and
their large limbs, bespeak a German origin ;” 2d, the Gauls—
“© those who are nearest to the Gauls are also similar to them ;”
and, 3d, the Iberians, indicated by their swarthy features and their
curled hair.

The following exhibits a classification of the modern British races,

362 Proceedings of the Royal Society.

with which the author compared those enumerated by Tacitus ; but
the description of them does not admit of abridgment.

(A.) RAcES REFERRIBLE TO THE LicHT-HAIRED GERMAN STOCK.

Under the common title German, it was supposed that three races,
and possibly a fourth, might be included.

(a) The Teutonic race.—To this race the description given of
the Germans by Tacitus was supposed to apply exclusively. This
type the author stated to be found in Scotland and the north of
England.

(6) The Scandinavian race-—This type was described by the
author as it occurs in Orkney and Shetland, in the North and West
Highlands of Scotland, and in Ireland.

(c) The Anglo-Frisian race-—The type prevails in the south
and midland districts of England, but diminishes in the northern
counties and in Scotland.

(d) The Pictish race.—The author has not yet had leisure to
verify his suspicion, that there exists, in certain Scottish districts,
another German race, to which, possibly, the description given of the
Picts by Adamnan and various early writers, may apply.

(B.) Tue Darx-Hatrep Raczs or Europe.

Between the light-haired and dark-haired races of Europe consti-
tutional differences exist ; the former shewing the sanguine, and the
latter the melancholic temperament. In the female constitution the
diversity is still more apparent. Under the dark-haired races are
included (a) the Cymric ; (b) the Gaulish ; (c) the Iberian. Tacitus
merely distinguishes the two latter ; but, under the term Galli of the
ancients, two distinct races are included; and when the Romans al-
luded to the gigantic stature of the Gauls, the description could only
apply to the Cymric race, variously named Cimmerii, Cimbri, and
Ombri, who were contemporary with the Gauls.

(a) The Cymric race.—This was the type of the ancient Britons
in the time of Tacitus, as well as of the Belgz and Armorici in Gaul.
It was also, that of the Fir-bolgs (Viri Bolgz) of Ireland.

(b) The Gaulish or Gallic race ; also. named Celtic,—a name
which M. Thierry has proved to be merely a local one applied to an
armed confederation of Gauls. The type was that of a third part of
Gaul; and, in the time of Tacitus, it distinguished the population of
Ireland, part, of Wales, and perhaps a few. limited districts of Cale-
donia.

(c) The Iberian race.—This type is still to. be studied in the:
ancient Silurian district of Tacitus, particularly in the counties. of:
Monmouth and Brecon. Hitherto the characters of this: race have.
not been defined ; which blank in ethnology it was one of the lead-
ing objects of the present memoir to supply ;—while another, yet

Dr H. Ware on the Aborigines of Britain. 363

an ultimate one, was to shew, that the Iberian tribes are to be con-
sidered as the aborigines of the British Islands, as well as of Spain,
Treland, Gaul, and Italy.

Monday, 18th March 1844.
Dr ABERCROMBIE, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Existence of an Osseous Structure in the Verte-
bral Column of Cartilaginous Fishes. By James Stark,
M.D., F.R.S.E.

2. Farther Observations on Glaciers, by Professor Forbes.

Monday, 1st April 1844.
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, President, Bart., in the Chair.

The following communications were read :—

1. On the Development, Structure, and Economy of the Ace-
phalocysts of Authors ; with an Account of the Natural
Analogies of the Entozoa in general. By Harry D. 8.
Goodsir, Conservator of the Museum of the Royal Coll.
Surg. Edin. Communicated by John Goodsir, Esq.

2. Account of a Repetition of Dr Samuel Brown’s Processes
for the Conversion of Carbon into Silicon. By George
Wilson, M.D., Lecturer on Chemistry; and John Crombie
Brown, Esq. Communicated by the Secretary.

3. On Dr Mathew Stewart’s General Theorems. By T. S.
Davies, Esq., F.R.S.E.

Monday, 15th March 1844.
Very Rey. Principal LEE, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—
1. Inquiry into the Aborigines of the British Islands. Part 2:

On the claims of the Cymric and Gaelic races to be thus
considered. By Dr S. Hibbert Ware.

In the first part of the present memoir, it was shewn that Cesar
divided Gaul into three parts, of which one was inhabited by the
Belge, another by those who, in their own language, were called
Celt, but who, by the Romans, were named Gauls, and a third by
the Aquitani. These three nations, according to the Roman his-
torian, differed from each other in language, customs, and laws; but

364 Proceedings of the Royal Society.

it was remarked by the author, that they also differed from each
other in physical characters,—the Belgz possessing what is named
a Cymric type, the Gauls proper a Gaulish type, and the Aquitani
an Iberian type. All these three races were to be distinguished
from the zanthous, light-haired, Germanic tribes of the West of
Europe, not only by the dark colour of the hair and eyes, but by
other particulars, as the form of the head, &c.

The present memoir was confined to (1st), the Cymric race, and
(2dly), the Gaelic race.

(1st), The Cymric race—The physiological distinction of Cymric
and Gaelic races was first established by the late Dr W. F. Edwards,
in his memoir ‘‘ Des Caractéres Physiologiques des Races d’Humain.”
The Cymric head is long, and often failing in width. The forehead
is large and high ; the nose curved, with the extremity depressed,
and the nasal ailes raised or turned up; the chin strongly marked
and prominent, and the stature tall. It was also explained by the
author that these physical characters were associated with a distinct
moral type.

It was argued, in the present memoir, that the Cymri had no
real pretensions whatever to consider themselves (as in the ancient
British triads) a primitive race in Britain. In tracing their pro-
gress from their oriental sojourning place to the remote west, they
appear to have taken possession of no ground in any part of Europe
which had not been preoccupied by other races. The author, in
the course of arriving at this conclusion, gave the following historical
account of the Cymri.

Sogdiana and Bactriana appear to have been the cradle of this
_ race. At the present day, the Cymric type may be identified
among the wandering tribes of Beloochistan, of which the author
had evidence in some very accurate drawings, executed for him by
his late son, during the expedition of Lord Keane.

The course of Cymric migration from east to west, was inferred
by ihe occasional light which history affords of the physical cha-
racters of this early race, aided also by philological tests. The
Cymric type is to be detected among some of the tribes anciently
dwelling between the Caspian and Euxine seas, and in certain
Eygptian sculptures, as figured by Rosellini, of the Feccaro (named
by Wilkinson, Tokkari) dwelling, in the time of Rameses the Third,
not far from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. Various
kinds of evidence also demonstrate, that the Cymri are to be traced,
during their westerly migration, in Persia, along the shores of. the
Black Sea, in Greece, in Italy, and in the tracts watered by the
Danube and the Rhine. They again appear as confederated
tribes, known by the appellation of Boii, and Belge. Under the
name of Fir-bolgs (Viri Bolgz), they peopled Ireland, and, in occupy-
ing England and Scotland, they were lastly driven, by Saxon inroads,
to the mountainous recesses of Wales. Various details of the greater

Dr H. Ware on the Aborigines of Britain. 365

or less prevalence of the Cymric type, as it is to be traced in these
different countries, were supplied by the author.

(Qdly), The Gaulish, or Gaelic races,—According to Dr Edwards,
the head is round, so as to approach in a manner to a spherical
form ; the forehead is moderate, a little swelled out, and retreating
towards the temples; the eyes are large and open; the nose, in
tracing it from the depression at its origin, is nearly straight, or
without any marked curvature, and rounded at the extremity; the
chin is also rounded. Lastly, the height is moderate; which, as
Thierry, in his Histoire des Gaulois, first shewed, is an important
historical distinction : for whenever the Romans spoke of the gigantic
height of the Gauls, they meant their Cymric, and not their Gaelic
foes. It was also explained that the moral type of the Gauls
differed much from that of the Cymric race.

In considering the claims of the Gaelic race to be ranked as
aboriginal in Britain, the author entered upon two questions, (#)
their original sojourning place, and (b) their course of migration.

(a) The Asiatic cradle of the Gaelic race.—The author, after
noticing the suspicion of Baron Larrey, that Arabia was to be thus
considered, as well as the various opinions on this subject, advanced
by Vallancey, Dr O’Conor, Sir William Betham, and others, was
inclined to believe that the primitive Gauls were a polished and
civilized people, originally dwelling on the eastern coast of the
Mediterranean, who, as maritime adventurers, visited the west of
Europe on objects of traffic, particularly for the sake of the precious
metals. He did not consider it as necessary to this opinion, that
they should be identified with the Phoenicians, or any other nation
equally maritime ; but left this question to be determined by more
satisfactory evidence than has hitherto been adduced, resulting from
a comparison of physical characters. It was also observed, that the
leading physical characters of the Gael, namely, the form of the
head and features, appear in the figures of certain sculptured
monuments of the very early period of Rameses the Third, which,
from a discordancy in other respects, have greatly puzzled both
Champollion, and Rosellini. These figures of a civilized people,
richly attired, are referred to inhabitants of Canaan or its confines.

(b) The course of Gaelic migration to the West—The author was
disposed to consider, that evidence of the westerly course of Gaelic
migration might probably be found in the commercial settlements
which early maritime tribes may have formed on the Mediterranean
coasts and islands. He, accordingly, adverted to the remark of
Baron Larrey, relative to the identity of the western Arabs with
Gaulish races,—to the assertion of Gesenius, that the Numidian
language was a pure, or very nearly pure, Hebrew, such as was
spoken by the ancient Canaanites or Phoenicians,—and to various
Clyclopean structures in Malta, on the African coast, and elsewhere,
similar to those which characterise the westerly countries of the

366 Proceedings of the Royal Society.

Gael. But the author dwelt most upon the account of the Tur-
ditani of Spain, as given by Pliny, to whom on early introduction of
letters was ascribed, together with the use of valuable works of art
wrought in the precious metals, resembling such as are constantly
discovered in Ireland, which indicate the very early state of civil-
ization in this country. The author then entered into a detailed
description, from personal observation, of the greater or less fre-
quency of the Gaelic type in France, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales ;
and of the causes to which its disappearance in many extensive dis-
tricts might have been attributable.

After these explanations, the general question was considered,—
What race ought to be regarded as aboriginal in the British islands ?
Llwyd had long since shewn, from the language of topography, that
the Gauls had preceded the Cymri in the occupation of Britain. But
it was asked,—if there might not have been a still earlier race exist-
ing in this country than the maritime and commercial Gauls ?

To this question an answer was given in the affirmative. Taci-
tus, in his enumeration of British races, has suggested, that an an-
cient Iberian stock, remarkable for a swarthy complexion and curled
hair, might have passed over and occupied the seat of the Silures (in
South Wales) ;—a British tribe, with whom he was disposed to iden-
tify this primitive race of Spain.

It was then stated, that the author had collected abundant evi-
dence which leads to the conclusion, that an Iberian, or Aquitanian
race, was an older one in Britain than either of the two whose pre-
tensions he had discussed ; but that it would be in vain to establish
their aboriginal claims, unless the history of the Cymri and the
Gael, in reference not only to their Asiatic sojourning place, but also
to their westerly course of migration, was well understood. He,
lastly, expressed his hope, that, if the aboriginal claim of the Ibe-
rian race meet with confirmation, some light would be thrown upon
the fossil bones of the human species which are found in caves, or
buried deep in strata of peat, occasionally associated with the remains
of animals now extinct, which have had an existence prior even to the
records of history.

2. On the Knowledge of Distance given by Binocular Visions.
By Sir David Brewster, K.H.

Monday, 6th May 1844.
Dr ABERCROMBIE, V.P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Conversion of Relief by Inverted Vision. By Sir
David Brewster, K.H.
2. On the Geology of Cockburn-Law and its Neighbourhood.

I i le ae eee

Geology of Cockburn- Law. 367

By William Stevenson, Dunse. Communicated by David
Milne, Esq.

The author, in the first part of his paper, described the nature of
the formations, and in the last part offered his views in explanation
of the appearances.

In describing the formations, he enumerated, first, those of aqueous,
and last those of igneous origin.

I. The former consist of the greywacke, the old red sandstone,
and the coal formation.

(1.) The greywacke strata form the summit of Cockburn-Law,
having a strike about NE. and SW. nearly vertical. There appears
to be no decided evidence of any organic remains in these strata ;—
there are curious markings which are most probably only concretion-
ary. At Hoardwheel, situated to the eastward of Cockburn-Law,
two varieties of copper ore are found in the greywacke, the green
and the grey, the former of which is the most plentiful, and imparts
a beautiful hue to some of the rocks. The oxide of manganese is also
widely diffused.

(2.) The old red sandstone strata lie over the vertical strata of
the greywacke. At a distance from the hills they are generally ho-
rizontal, or dip away at a gentle angle ;—but at the sides of the hills
they are highly inclined. These old red sandstones are extensively
developed in Preston Haugh. The lowest bed consists of both angu-
lar and roundish greywacke and porphyritic portions. The colour of
this formation is, especially towards its base, of a red colour.

It is in this formation, that the bones, teeth, scales, and spines of
the Holoptichius nobilissimus, a large ganoid fish, are found. These
interesting relics are very abundant in the strata opposite to Cock-
burn Mill, and also about half a mile below it, on the right bank of
the Whitadder.

(3.) The strata of the coal-formation lie above the old red sandstone
rocks in a conformable position. They are to be seen in the Whit-
adder, below Preston Bridge, and consist of the ordinary sandstones,
shales, and strata of ironstone. The only fossils prevailing in them
are those of terrestrial vegetables.

II. The Igneous rocks were divided by the author into two classes
—one of which he described as the Felspathic, the other as the
Augitic.

(1.) The Felspathic rocks comprehend all those igneous rocks
associated with the greywacke strata, consisting of the granites,
and syenites, and old porphyries of Cockburn-Law, the Staneshiel,
the Knock Hill, Blackerstone Hill, &c.

(2.) The Augitic trap-rocks exist almost entirely among the more
recent aqueous rocks, viz., the old red sandstones and coal-measures.
They are seldom or never seen within the range of the greywacke
formation, at least in this neighbourhood.

368. Proceedings of the Royal Society.

These augitic traps exist both in the form of narrow dykes, and in
that of great masses constituting hills. Of the former, the Cum-
ledge trap-dyke is a good example. _ It is seen in the bed of Oxen-
dean Burn at Cumledge House, and there forms an amygdaloidal
greenstone, abounding in veins of zeolite, steatite, and other mine-
rals. The width of the dyke at this place is about ten yards, The
average direction of the dyke is NNW. and SSE. It has had the
effect, as usual, of hardening the strata on each side of it. This dyke
- has been traced by the author for a considerable distance, running
through both the old red sandstone and coal formations. It ap-
pears also to reach into the granite of the Staneshiel and Cockburn-
Law,

An amygdaloidal trap is to be seen on the left bank of the Whit-
adder, below Cockburn Mill, forming a bed of about four feet thick,
and lying above the old red sandstone strata. There are large ac-
cumulations of greenstone at Borthwick and Castle Mains. Dunse-
law is also composed of basalt.

In the second part of his paper, the author shewed that the granite
and other felspathic rocks were formed before the deposition of the
old red sandstones, and the trap-rocks after the deposition of the
coal-measures,

Mr Stevenson’s paper was illustrated by a geognostical map, as
well as by numerous sections.

3. Notice regarding the Indian Grass Oil, or Oil of Andropo-
gon Calamus-aromaticus. By Thomas G. Tilley, Phil. D,
Communicated by Dr Christison.

Monday, 2d December 1844.
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. Account of the late Earthquake at Demerara. By W. H.
Campbell, Esq. Communicated by M. Ponton, Esq.

2. On the Existence of an Electrical Apparatus in the Flapper
Skate and other Rays. By James Stark, M.D., Fellow
of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh.

3. Observations on the Comet, visible now or lately in the
Constellation of the Whale. By C. Rumker, Esq. Com-
municated by Sir T. M. Brisbane, Bart.

Monday, 16th December 1844.
Sir GEO. MACKENZIE, Bart., in the Chair,

The following Communications were read :—

ll iti i

Doubly Refracting Structure of Topaz. 369

1. On a Possible Explanation of the Adaptation of the Kye to
Distinct Vision at Different Distances. By Profes-
sor Forbes.

2. Notice of an Ancient Beach near Stirling. By Charles
Maclaren, Esq.

Monday, 6th January 1845.
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—
1. Farther Remarks on the Electrical Organs of the Rays.
By Dr Stark.
2. Observations on the same subject. By John Goodsir, Esq.
3. On the Cause which has produced the Present Form
and Condition of the Earth’s Surface. By Sir George
Mackenzie, Bart.

Monday, 20th January 1845.
The Right Reverend Bishop TERROT, V. P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1, Some Account of the Magnetic Observatory at Makerstoun,
and of the Observations made there. By J. A. Broun,
Esq. Communicated by Sir T. M. Brisbane, Bart.

2. Description of a Sliding Scale for Facilitating the Use of

the Moist-bulb Hygrometer. By James Dalmahoy, Esq.

3. Account of Experiments to Measure the Direct Force of
the Waves of the Atlantic and German Oceans. By
Thomas Stevenson. Communicated by David Stevenson,
Kisq.

4. A Verbal Communication in regard to Chevalier’s Expe-
riments on the Decomposition of certain Salts of Lead
by Charcoal. By Dr Traill.

Monday, 3d February 1845.
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On a Peculiar Modification of the Doubly Refracting
Structure of Topaz. By Sir D. Brewster, K.H.

While exaaiining, in polarised light, some of the crystals which
VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845, 2A

370 Proceedings of the Royal Society.

he had discovered in Topaz, the author observed certain optical phe-
nomena, depending on a peculiarity of structure. This peculiarity is
manifestedeither in the depolarisation of light, when it gives rise to four
quadrants of light, separated by the radiiof ablack rectangular cross si-
milar to the central portion, or the tints of the first order in the uni-
axal system of polarised rings, or in the unequal refraction of com-
mon light, which gives rise to the mirage of a luminous point, in the
form of concentric circles surrounding the centre of force. In every
case there was found a quadrangular cavity in the centre of the in-
tersection of the cross, generally dark and opaque, but in one case
having a luminous spot in the centre. These cavities are from the
sooo to the 7,55 of an inch in diameter.

These cavities are quite distinct from all those formerly described
by the author ; and from the phenomena above described, he con-
cludes that the contents of each cavity have exerted an elastic force
on the surrounding mineral while in a plastic state. In some cases
fissures are seen proceeding from the central cavities, but these are
supposed to have been produced after the mineral had become indu-
rated, and had already been subjected, in the plastic state, to the
pressure or force above indicated.

These cavities never accompany the cavities with two fluids, but
occur in specimens containing numerous embedded erystals, differ-
ing little from Topaz in refracting power.

Since the mineral must have been plastic when it yielded to the
pressure here noticed, it cannot have been formed by the aggrega~-
tion of molecules having the primary form of the crystal.

These considerations, along with others connected with the crys-
tals, which oceur in the cavities of Topaz, have led the author to
adopt the idea of a new and peculiar kind of crystallization, to which
he will soon direct attention.

2. Extracts from Letters to the General Secretary, on the
Analogy of the Structure of some Voleanic Rocks with
that of Glaciers. By C. Darwin, Esq., F.R.S. Specimens
were exhibited. With Observations on the same sub-
ject, made by Professor Forbes.

“I take the liberty of addressing you, knowing how much you
are interested on the subject of your discovery of the veined struc-
ture of glacierice. I have a specimen (from Mr Stokes’s collection)
of Mexican obsidian, which, judging from your description, must
resemble, to a considerable degree, the zoned ice. It is zoned with
quite straight parallel lines, like an agate; and these zones, as far
as I can see under the microscope, appear entirely due to the greater
or lesser number of excessively minute, flattened air cavities. I can-
not avoid suspecting that in this case, and in many others, in which

Structure of Volcanic Rocks and Glaciers. 371

lava of the trachytic series (generally of very imperfect fluidity) are
laminated, that the structure is due to the stretching of the mass or
stream during its movement, as in the ice-streams of glaciers. * * 7

“If the subject of the lamination of volcanic rocks should interest
you, L would venture to ask you to refer to p. 65-72 of my small
volume of ‘ Geological Observations on Volcanic Islands.’* I there

* The laminated, volcanic rocks of Ascension, consist, as described
by Mr Darwin, of excessively thin, quite parallel layers of minute crystals
of quartz (determined by Professor Miller) and diopside ; of atoms of an
oxide of iron, and of an amorphous, black augitic mineral ; and, lastly,
of amore or less pure felspathic stone, with perfect crystals of felspar
placed lengthways. The following is a portion of the passage referred to :
—‘‘ Several causes appear capable of producing zones of different tension
in masses semiliquified by heat. In afragment of devitrified glass I have
observed layers of spherulites, which appeared, from the manner in
which they were abruptly bent, to have been produced by the simple
contraction of the mass in the vessel in which it cooled. In certain
dykes on Mount Attna, described by M. Elie de Beaumont, as bordered
by alternating bands of scoriaceous and compact rock, one is led to sup-
pose that the stretching movement of the surrounding strata; which ori-
ginally produced the fissures, continued, whilst the injected rock remained

uid. Guided, however, by Professor Forbes’s clear description of the
zoned structure of glacier ice, far the most probable explanation of the
laminated structure of these felspathic rocks appears to be, that they
haye been stretched, whilst slowly flowing onwards in a pasty condition,
in precisely the same manner, as Professor Forbes believes, that the ice
of moving glaciers is stretched and fissured. In both cases, the zones
may be compared to those in the finest agates ; in both, they extend in
the direction in which the mass has flowed, and those exposed on the
surface are generally vertical. In the ice, the porous lamine are rendered
distinct by the subsequent congelation of infiltrated water ; in the stony
felspathic lavas by subsequent crystalline and concretionary action.
The fragment of glassy obsidian in Mr Stokes’s collection, which is zoned
with minute air-cells, must strikingly resemble, judging from Professor:
Forbes’s description, a fragment of the zoned ice; and if the rates of
cooling and the nature of the mass had been favourable to its erystalliza-
tion, or to concretionary action, we should here have had the finest pa-
rallel zones of different composition and texture. In glaciers, the lines of
porous ice and of minute crevices seem to be due to an incipient stretch-
ing, caused by the central parts of the frozen stream moving faster than
the sides and bottom, which are retarded by friction. Hence, in glaciers
of certain form, and towards the lower end of most glaciers, the zones
become horizontal. May we venture to suppose that, in the felspathic
lavas with horizontal laminee, we see an analogous case? All geologists
who have examined trachytic regions have come to the conclusion, that
the lavas of this series have possessed an exceedingly imperfect fluidity ;
and as it is evident that only matter thus characterized would be subject
to become fissured, and to be formed into zones of different tensions,
in the manner here supposed, we probably see the reason why augitic
lavas, which appear, generally, to have possessed a higher degree of
fluidity, are not, like the felspathic lavas, divided into lamine of differ-

_ ent composition and texture. Moreover, in the augitie series, there

never appears to be any tendency to that kind of concretionary action,
which, we have seen, plays an important part in the lamination of
rocks of the trachytic series, or, at least, in rendering that structure ap-
parent.”

372 Proceedings of the Royat Society.

throw out the idea, that the structure in question may perhaps be
explained by your views on the zoned structure of glacier ice, the
layers of less tension being, in the case of the Ascension obsidian
rocks, rendered apparent, chiefly by the crystalline and concretionary
action superinduced in them, instead of, as in zoned ice, by the con-
gelation of water. “ = *

‘«« How singular it at first appears, that your discoveries in the
structure of glacier ice should explain the structure, as I fully believe
they will, of many volcanic masses. I, for one, have for years been
quite confounded whenever I thought of the lamination of rocks which
have flowed in a liquified state. Will your views throw any light
on the primary laminated rocks? The lamine certainly seem very
generally parallel to the lines of disturbance and movement, Be-
lieve me, &c. C. Darwin.”

To Professor l'ORBES.

Professor Forbes confirmed the previous remarks by others, made
by himself on the specimens transmitted to him by Mr Darwin, and
on specimens from Lipari and Iceland in the collection of the Royal
Society, as well as by direct observations made by himself on the
lava streams of AXtna.

3. Professor Forbes then read the following Letter from
Professor Gordon, of Glasgow, also on the subject of
the Viscous Theory of Glaciers.

GuLasGow, January 31. 1845,

* * * When you requested me to give you a memorandum of

what appeared to me to be the very glacier-like motion and appearance
of Stockholm pitch flowing from a barrel, I considered my observation
to have been too casual to be worth writing, and having foreseen that
I could arrange an experiment at Gateshead in the beginning of the
year, I delayed giving you the memorandum you wished. I had
hoped to have been able to inspect and report on my experiment
about this time ; but I cannot go to Gateshead for some time to come,
nor have I had any report of the progress of my pitch glacier since
the 6th January, when I was informed it had not moved since the
day after I left it, on the 28th December. Your note of yesterday
induces me to offer you the following still perfectly vivid impressions
of the analogy between ice and Stockholm pitch.

Allow me, in the first place, to mention that I read your travels in
the Alps, in May last ; and that on the 24th of June I spent almost
20 hours on the glaciers of the Grindelwald. I went up by the
lower glacier, prepared with poles to prove the motion, and actually
observed a progress of about 12 inches in the course of 13 hours,
from 6 a.M. to 7 p.m. I traced the “dirt bands” on the surface.

OSS S—“<—~;PSPhté‘(C;C;SCS

On the Viscous Theory of Glaciers. 373

I was let down into several crevasses, one of them to a depth of 30
fect, and could trace the slaty st»uctwre of the ice, the alternate
clear blue thin veins, and the transition to opaque grey or even
white. I descended from the glacier with a much better appreciation
of the theory of glaciers than I had had, and a strong conviction
that the facts I had observed, could not be otherwise accounted for
than by the mechanical theory you have given. In passing through
Gateshead in August, a broken headed barrel of Stockholm pitch at
the Wire Rope Factory, attracted my attention. Its general appear-
ance is represented in Fig. 1.*

A mass of Stockholm pitch broken from a barrel in August (at
the time of the observations I am about to mention) presented a dark-
brown colour, a glassy lustre, translucent edges. The substance is
fragile, fracture conchoidal, and very uniform. A mass, Fig. 4.,
which was brought to me by the workman having charge of this
department, and which he had broken from the end of such a
stream as I have represented coming from the barrel, presented
generally the same appearance as a mass broken from an entire
barrel,j but had this remarkable peculiarity, that there were lines
—structural lines, a a «a a—whose texture and colour were dif-
ferent from the general colour of the mass recognisable on such
points as b b b, between any two such structural lines.

Fig 2. is an elevation of the stream of pitch, shewing pretty
nearly the dimensions and outward appearance of the stream. The
striated slaty structure appears here on the outside, as is more dis-
tinctly (intended to be) shewn in Fig. 3, ‘There were certain well-
defined lines, and on either side of these for some little distance,
other small lines or cracks (but not open cracks or fissures), and then
a space of smooth glassy-looking pitch.

I am strongly impressed with the idea, that the structural lines
are a result of the motion, and that they correspond with the veins
of glaciers. The lines incline most when the surface is steepest, as
at h, Fig. 3., and are very faint and nearly horizontal at 7, where
the surface of the stream is nearly so too. I left Gateshead with-
out having an opportunity of getting a sectional view of this stream.
I can get no real Stockholm pitch in Glasgow, else I should have
made the experiment you have incited me to attempt here. I am, &c.

Lewis Gorpon.

Yo Professor FORBES.

* The numbers refer to drawings sent by Professor Gordon to Pro-

fessor Forbes.
+ The pitch is fragile at the same time that it fows.—L.G,.

( 3874 )

Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society.

On 23d Noy. 1844 this Society commenced its thirty-
eighth session, and appointed office-bearers for 1845. Pro-
fessor Jameson was re-elected president; Professor Traill,
Dr Greville, and Dr Brunton, were elected vice-presidents ;
Dr C. Anderson, W. Copland, Esq., Harry D. 8. Goodsir,
Esq., and Dr Coldstream, were chosen of the Council; Dr
Neill, and T. J. Torrie, Esq., joint-secretaries; and the
other office-bearers, were re-elected.

Jan. 25,—Professor Jameson, P., in the Chair. A communica-
tion from Dr John Dayy on the Nature and Qualities of Guano
was read; and also a paper by Mr Rhind on the Transport of
Erratic Blocks. Numerous donations to the Society’s library were
announced.

Feb. 8.—Professor Jameson, P,, in the Chair. Dr Traill read
the first part of a paper on the Characters and Classification of
Serpents. At the same meeting Mr John Goodsir gave a particu-
lar descriptive account of a minute entozoon infesting the spinal
nerves of the Gadidz ; and which he exhibited in a recent specimen
of haddock. As the cells of this parasite had long ago been
figured by Dr Monro secundus, in his great work on the Nervous
System, Mr Goodsir proposed to name the animal Neuronoia
Monroii.

Feb. 22.—Dr C. Anderson in the chair. Dr Traill communi-
cated the second part of his paper on Serpents, illustrating the fa-
milies, genera, and species, by an extensive series of well pre-
served specimens.

Mar. 15.—Dr W. Macdonald in the chair. Professor Jameson
read a paper on the Supposed Stratification of Primitive Rocks and
their alleged Mechanical Origin. Dr Neill, secretary, then read (1.) a
communication from William Baker, Esq., endeavouring to establish
the identity of the Salmon with the Common Trout; (2.) An account
by M. Guerin of Geneva, of the Rock-nose of Whalers, being either
a marked variety of the Balena mysticetus or a distinct species ;
(8.) Notes made during a visit to Ichaboe, and the adjoining coast
of Africa, in 1844, by Mr P. Gillespie, commander of the barque
Drummore of Leith, with his meteorological journal ; (4.) Notice
regarding a specimen of the Frog-shaped South American Lizard,
called Phrynosoma cornuta, which had been kept alive for some
months in a hothouse at Canonmills.

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376

The Meteorology of Whitehaven. 377

Mean State of the Barometer and Thermometer at Canaan
Cottage, near Edinburgh. By A. ADIB, Esq. 1844.

Lat. 55° 57’. Height above the mean level of the Sea, 246 feet.

| Thermo- Registering

a meter ff Thermometer. Barometer.
MonrTus. JODPREYEUr Rain.

| 10 sot ant Means of

Mean. Minimum. | Maximum.| Morning. | Evening.
January .......3: 38.48 32.22 | 54.22 29.28 29.63
February......... | 34.52 22.43 | 4651 29,25 29.26
MVEA CH ere savecenr rs | 35.29 39.35 | 62:59 | 29:16 29.45 2.43
Apr! Jerse d22 ne. | 51.17 48.33 | 58.50 29.76 29.73 0.40
Ways 3. c0ccsssess <2 ie 5876 39°23 | 58.42 29.99 30.10 0.15
DUNC 2-2 nc0sccaee 58.14 46.66 | 64.26 29.65 29.65 2.71
EU 252-5 -2405--. 57.79 48.39 | 65.39 29.62 29.65 2.39
August............ 56.09 46.93 | 64.68 29.19 29.54 2.11
September......... 53.18 48.00 | 60.29 29.82 29.81 2.40
October ........... 41.20 40.11 | 6583.23 29.60 29.69 0.82
November ........ 44.15 38.40 | 48.03 29.52 29.45 3.92
December ........ 36.63 28.90 , 36.42 29.84 29.88 0.37
Annual Mean...| 47.12 39.32 | 55.77 29.55 29.65 | 20.65

47.55 29.60

The Meteorology of Whitehaven. Remarks on the Weather, &§c.,
of 1844. By J. F. Minumr, Esq. Communicated by the
Author.

It must have been obvious even to the most casual observer of atmo-
spheric changes, that the past year has been marked by several periods
of extreme drought. Indeed, except in 1842, there is no year which at
all approaches it in dryness, since the Journal was commenced in 1832.
The quantity of rain taken by the gauge in 1844 is 36.723 inches, being
2.030 inches under the fall in 1842, and nearly 12 inches under the ave-
rage.

The wet days exceed those of 1842 by 5, but are 32 under the average
number, which is 204.

The principal periods of drought in 1844, are as follow :—From the
23d of April to the 5th June, rain fallen .262, or about a quarter of an
inch: 25th June to 10th July, none: 23d August to 5th September,
none ; and there was but one wet day from the 17th of the same month
till its close: from 19th November to 31st December (44 days), 0.405,
or between a quarter and half an inch, The quantity of melted snow is
above the average by 0.774, or more than three quarters of an inch, and
the number of snowy days also exceed the average number by seven.
The fall of rain at Cleator, four miles S. of Whitehaven, registered by
T. Ainsworth, Esq., is 39.31 inches, and the wet days 152.

Last year we gave the results of some experiments with two gauges
(the one placed at 6 inches, and the other at 6 feet above the ground)
which were apparently at variance with what has been considered by
most Meteorologists a well-established fact, “that where a gauge is
merely removed to a higher position in the atmosphere, independent of

378 The Meteorology of Whitehaven.

locality, less rain is deposited in the instrument in proportion to its dis-
tance from the surface.” But, however this may be at small distances
above the ground, it is certain that at considerable elevations much less
rain is deposited than at the surface. Thus, one of the gauges with which
the experiments above alluded to were conducted, on being removed to
the steeple of St James’s Church (78 feet above the street*), received,
in 1844, only 27.862 inches, about one-fourth less than the gauge at 6
feet. The gauge on the steeple was examined weekly, and | generally
found it to contain from one-third to one-fourth less than the standard
instrument at 6 feet. The difference, however, varied from one-half to
only one-tenth less; on five occasions I found the quantity only one-
half, mostly when the fall was moderate and attended with violent gales.
Thrice the receipts of the two gauges were equal, or nearly so, when
the rain descended in yast torrents during a calm, or with no particular
high wind; and, upon one solitary oceasion, the higher gauge exceeded
the lower by nearly one-fourth, without any attendant circumstances
apparently sufficient to account for the discrepancy. The rain fell
chiefly on two nights, the upper current varying from two to three
points west of the wind, which was strong at SW. and SSW.

Although the receipt of rain is greatest at or near the surface of the
ground, and the fall is found to diminish as the gauge is removed to a
higher position in the atmosphere ; yet as we ascend into hilly and moun-
tainous districts, the annual depth of rain rapidly increases. Thus the
fall at Whitehaven during last year is only 36.723, whilst at Ennerdale
Lake it amounts to 54.626, an excess of nearly one-half; and this is pro-
bably below the average proportion, The fall at Keswick, in 1844, is
40.629 ; at Ambleside, 58.828; at Grasmere, 65.632 ; and at Doncaster,
in Yorkshire, only 18.18 inches. The writer has, for some time past,
had a number of gauges dispersed through the Lake District of Cum-
berland, the results of which he intends to publish in the course of the
ensuing summer. It may be remarked, that Ennerdale is far from being
the wettest portion of the Lake District.

BARoMETER.—The mean of the barometer (29.743), so nearly corre-
sponds with the average of preceding years, that the difference is un-
worthy of notice. An examination of the table will confirm the remark
made in last year’s report, relative to the atmospheric tide, or horary
variation of the mercurial column. The mean at 9 A.M. is 29.743, at 2
P.M. 29.740, and at 9 P.M. 29.749. The atmospheric pressure arrives at
the maximum between 9 and 11 o’clock in the evening; at 3 P.M. it is
at the minimum, and at 9 A.M. at the mean for the 24 hours. The annual
high extreme of the barometer (30.30) oceurred with the wind at ENE.,
on the 2d of May, about a week after the commencement of the six
weeks’ drought. The lowest point which it reached was 28.58, with
the wind at SE., on the 25th of February, amidst a continuance of very
changeable weather—frequent falls of snow, alternating with keen frost,
and a bright unclouded sky.

THERMOMETER,—The mean temperature of 1844 (48°.117), is about 1°
under the average of this locality. The thermometer attained its maxi-
mum with the wind at SSE., on the 23d July, when it rose suddenly
from 66°, on the previous day, to 79°.5, an elevation of 13° in 24 hours,
and of of 18°.5 in 48 hours. On the 24th and following day it reached 79°
and 78°; and on the 26th it as suddenly fell again to 66°, the maximum
of the 22d. The lowest point to which it descended was 22°.5, on the

—————

* St James’s Church is about 30 yards distant, in a direct line, from the
standard gauge at 6 feet.

The Meteorology of Whitehaven. 379

13th and 22d of December, with the wind at ESE. At Carlisle, the
minimum (9°) occurred on the night between the 5th and 6th of Feb-
ruary, when the minimum at Whitehaven was 33°, a difference of tem-
perature of 24° between two places, about 40 miles distant from each
other. We have on former occasions alluded to the decided superiority
which this town possesses over many others in the southern and south-
eastern counties of England, in the greater warmth and less variable
character of its climate, especially during the winter season. But it
maintains this advantage over most, if not every other town in the same
county, even those situated within a few miles of the sea. During the
late frost, the thermometer at Wigton, 30 miles NE. of Whitehaven,
was frequently 14°, 15°, and even 17° lower in the nights.

Drw-Porn7, &c.—The mean complement of the dew point, or the
difference between the temperature of the air and that of the vapour
which it holds in mechanical combination (5°.66), indicates a drier state
of the atmosphere than in the previous year; but 1842 stands higher
than either in point of hygroscopic dryness. Now the fall of rain is ex-
actly in accordance with the indications of the hygrometer: last year
9.843 inches less rain fell than in 1843, and 1842 received 2.030 inches less
than in 1844, and 11.513 inches less than in 1843. Andas the rate of the
production of vapour proceeds, ceteris paribus, in the inverse ratio to the
quantity of moisture already suspended in the atmosphere, we find ac-
cordingly, that the mean evaporating force is, in 1842, 25,8 grains; in
1844, 20.8 grains; and in 1848, 20.36 grains per hour.

Evaporation GAucu.—It may appear somewhat anomalous, that
whilst the quantity of water throwu off in the form of elastic vapour is
31.719 inches, an increase of 5.262 inches on the previous year, the mean
evaporating force continues nearly the same. This discrepancy between
estimation and absolute measurement, is chiefly occasioned by the in-
creased action of the sun’s rays in 1844 over 1843, which, it is obvious,
cannot be taken in as an element in computing the evaporating force.
Last year the fall of rain exceeds the evaporation only by five inches:
in 1843, the excess of rain was nearly twenty inches. The greatest
amount of evaporation occurs in May, and the least in December. It may
be worthy of remark, that the evaporation in December 1844 (.800),
with a mean temperature at the freezing point, is exactly the same as in
the corresponding month of 1843, with a mean temperature 10° higher,
but in conjunction with an excessively damp, foggy atmosphere. The
evaporation exceeds the fall of rain in no less than four months of last
year, viz., May, July, August, and December; and in three other
months, viz., April, June, and Nuyember, the deposition and absorption
are nearly equal. In this wet locality such a circumstance probably
does not occur more than once in a quarter of a century.

RaDIATION.—The amount or effect of terrestrial radiation is deter-
mined by exposing a self-registering thermometer on the grass, under a
clear or cloudless sky, and comparing its indications with those of a
similar instrument, covered at the top, about four feet from the ground.
The difference exhibits the depression of temperature produced in the
superincumbent stratum of air, by the free radiation of heat from the
earth’s surface, From a series of observations carried on almost every
night when the weather permitted, we give below the maximum or
greatest amount of radiation in each month, premising that in the first
four months of the year, the thermometer was exposed on the soil, and
during the other eight months on the grass :—

Maximum of Terrestrial Radiation.— January 23d, 6°.5 ; Feb. 12th,
7°; March 21st and 28th, 8°; April 7th and 12th, 8°.5 ; May 26th, 12°;
June 4th, 9°; July 15th and 23d, 11°.5; August 27th, 11° ; September
20th, 9°.5; October 28th, 11°; November 21st, 10°.5; December 3d, 11°.

380 The Meteorology of Whitehaven.

In 1€43 the greatest amount of radiation was 9° in the month of Feb-
ruary.

Winps.—Our rainy wind is the SW., and it is also the prevailing
one. The last three years, however, have received much less than the
average amount of rain ; and, accordingly, in distributing the winds over
that period, we find a deficiency of the SW., and an unusual prevalence
of easterly and north-westerly winds. In 1844, the north-westerly and
south-easterly classes are nearly equal in number, as will appear from
the following summary :—

NE, E,

373 | 47
36% | 413
40 31

783 | 1132 | 1193 | 1523 | 1733

Light Moderate Fresh Strong
Calm. | Breeze. Breeze. Breeze, | Wind. | Gales.

js): © haan 49 119 103 41 24
ISB hata pee 117 54 43 37
ey | | 7 149 | 58 a)" (Se

It will be observed, we had in last year an unusual preponderance of
calms and light winds, and fewer gales or high winds than usual. The
latter chiefly occurred in March and October.

WrATHER.—The following table exhibits a summary of the state of
the weather during the last three years :

Clear | Cloudy | Sun | Eel

YEAR. through-| without} Rain, | shone | Snow. | Hail, Frost. Light-
out. Rain. out. ning

weesias 30 164 172 292 ihs) Ppa hon} 15
1843...... 31 124 210 | 233 12 22 48 17
1842...... 43 | 155 167 253 6 15 25 9

The wet days are fewer by thirty-eight than in 1843 ; and we have
had forty-one more days of sunshine, seven of snow, and five of frost.

We shall now conclude our report with a short remark on the cha-
racter of each month of the bygone year.

January.—Fine and mild, with an unusual absence of frost, snow, or
gales of wind. Large Lunar Halos on the 2d, 26th, and 28th. On the
17th a thrush’s nest, containing two eggs, was found in this vicinity.

February.—Very changeable weather ; frost and a clear sky alternating
with rain, snow, and high winds. The snow, when melted, yielded 1.436
inches of water. Lunar Halos on the Ist, 2d, and 3d. That of the 2d
continued for more than five hours, and was followed by snow imme-
diately on its disappearance.

The Meteorology of Whitehaven. 381

March—Heavy gales prevailed during the first half of the month,
when the weather became fine and mild, and so continued, with occa-
sional frost, till its close. On the 3d, primroses gathered; 31st, first
butterfly seen (Vanessa urlica).

April—Beautifully fine and mild throughout. No frost, snow, or
hail. On the Ist, the tortoise-shell butterfly (Vanessa polychloros), and
on the 16th the Io began to appear. On the 14th the cuckoo, and on the
18th several swallows were observed in this vicinity. The cuckoo was
not Acard till the 21st or 22d, a week after it was first seen. On the
afternoon of the 28th a magnificent Solar halo was visible for three hours.

May.—The weather throughout the whole of this month was of the
most beautiful description. Slight showers fell on three days, but the
whole barely exceeded a quarter of an inch. The atmosphere was in an
exceedingly dry state, we may say almost destitute of moisture. The
daily complement of the dew-point varied from 10° to 26°, and the mean
of the dew-point for the month was 12°.06 under the temperature of the
air. On some occasions the dew-point could not be obtained without
the application of a freezing mixture to the instrument. This unusual
capacity of the atmosphere for vapour, and the prevalence of strong
easterly breezes, increased the daily amount of evaporation to an enor-
mous extent, which, combined with the absence of two of the causes
essential to the formation of dew, a calm and moist atmosphere, greatly
augmented the severity of the drought. The evaporation exceeded the
rain by more than six inches. The radiation of heat from the earth’s
surface during the nights was immense, frequently amounting to 11° and
even 12°. The mean of the radiation for twenty-four days is 7°.5. 22d,
an aurora. 3lst, a total eclipse of the moon, seen under most fayvour-
able circumstances. An account of this occultation appeared in the
Whitehaven Herald of May 5th.

June.—The fall of rain from the 23d of April to the 5th of June only
measured .262, or about one-fourth of an inch. This is the longest pe-
riod of drought I have recorded, except in 1856, when only two very
slight showers (.083) fell, from the 27th of April till the 8th of June.
Prior to the conclusion of the drought, the hay and grain crops had suf-
fered severely. The springs and wells had ceased to yield their sup-
plies ; and the lakes, streams, and rivers, were lower than they had ever
been known since the memorable 1826. A gentleman who made accu-
rate measurements of the depth of Buttermere Lake both in 1826 and
on the 4th instant, states, however, that the lake was 54 inches lower
in the former year. The atmospheric spring on the summit of Great
Gavel mountain, said to contain water even in the most extreme droughts,
was this month found empty. On the 14th we observed a patch of snow
on the Scawfell Pikes, an evidence of the low temperature of these ele-
vated regions. Severe as the drought was in the north, it was of much
longer duration in other parts of the kingdom, and especially in the
southern and eastern counties. At Edmonton, near London, the whole
of the rain which fell from the 25th of March to the 24th of June, only
amounted to 1.055 inches. At Doncaster. in Yorkshire, the drought was
even more severe than in the vicinity of the metropolis, commencing the
15th of March, and ending the latter part of June: indeed, very little
rain fell till the 14th of July. From the 15th March till the 15th June,
the fall scarcely exceeded half an inch. Grass was in many places not
worth cutting; and, in some instances, for want of pasture, the farmers
were obliged to turn their cattle into fields destined for hay.

July.— There was no rain from the 25th of June till the 10th of July.
The early part of the month was, consequently, highly favourable for
securing the hay crops, which, in many instances were got under cover
without a drop of rain. Seed grass proved a miserable crop, but ley and.

382 The Meteorology of Whitehaven.

meadow hay turned out tolerably well; at all events, so much better
than was looked for, that sellers, who expected to have realized 1s. per
stone for their hay, were afterwards fain to accept of one-third of the
anticipated price.

August.—Another remarkably dry and cold month, though it is usually
the warmest and among the wettest of the twelve. The evaporation
exceeded the rain (2 inches) by .521 ; yet the former is much less than
usual, and nearly 2 inches under that of the preceding month. This
deficiency was in part caused by the low mean temperature of the month,
which is 2° under that of July, and 2°.5 and 5°.5 respectively, under the
corresponding month in 1843 and 1842. On the 7th there occurred the
most terrific gale of wind ever remembered at this season. In the Lake
District it is described as a hurricane, and was attended by the most
violent torrents of rain. At Gatesgarth there fell 5.15 inches, and at
Buttermere 4.19 inches, in 48 hours. Our summer fruits, as gooseberries,
pears, and apples, were this year produced in great abundance. After
the violent storm above alluded to, which made sad havoc amongst the
fruit trees, apples were selling in our market at 6d. per stone, the price
of the better sort of potatoes. The grain harvest commenced in this
neighbourhood about the 24th. Aurore on the Ist and 9th. 27th, a
Lunar halo.

September.—We had no rain from the 23d of August till the 5th of
September, and there was only one wet day after the 17th of the month.
Weather fine and mild, and, on the whole, dry; for although we had
nearly six inches of rain, it all fell in eleven days. On the 13th and 14th,
however, the rain descended in vast torrents, and in forty-eight hours I
had measured 4.137 inches, the largest quantity which has fallen in any
two consecutive days since I have kept a record. On the 13th and 14th,
there fell at Gatesgarth 4.66 inches, and at Wastdale Head within a
fraction of six inches; but even this large quantity is very much under
the average proportion which exists between Whitehaven and some parts
of the Lake District. It is rather remarkable, that on these two days,
the fall at Grasmere did not reach three inches. We have again been
blessed with a most abundant harvest, which has been secured in excel-
lent condition. The wheat crop is pronounced better than it has been
for the last twenty-five years; barley was full on the ground, and the
yield is remarkably good ; but oats are deficient both in quantity and
quality. Except in very backward districts, tle harvest was quite con-
cluded in this part of the country by the 26th of the month.

October was chiefly remarkable for its high temperature. Swallows
were seen in the Lake District as late 2s the 15th; but none were ob-
served in this neighbourhood after the 22d of September, the usual time
of their disappearance. The weather was favourable for the out-door
operations of the farmer, and for taking up the potato crops, which were,
generally speaking, abundant, except on wet clayey lands. The turnip
crops were excellent. On the 24th, at noon, and for nearly three hours
after, there was a large Solar halo, 42° in diameter. On the evening of
the following day, there was also a Lunar halo.

November, we might observe, was unusually dry, if the same remark
did not equally apply to almost every month of the past year. On the
night of the 14th, there fell at Gatesgarth, in nine consecutive hours, more
than three inches of rain, nearly twice the quantity deposited at White-
haven during the whole of this month. We had no frost from the 21st
of March till the night of the 22d of November ; and this was the only
one in the month on which the thermometer reached the freezing-point.
A thermometer on the grass, however, fell to 24°, and in the previous
month it descended to 6° below the freezing-point. Several flocks of
wild geese were seén passing over the town during this month. On the

=<

Scientific Intelligence—Geology and Mineralogy. 383

24th, there occurred another total eclipse of the moon, seen to great ad-
vantage. Rarely do two central eclipses take place in one year; and
it is, perhaps, equally seldom that two consecutive occultations are seen
under such favourable circumstances.

December.—This is both the coldest and the driest December which
has come within the period of my observation. The mean temperature
is 10°.369 under the average, and 13°.895, and 14°.169 respectively, under
the temperature of the same month in 1842 and 1843. The evaporation
exceeds the fall of rain by more than three-fold. The whole quantity
of rain which fell from the 17th of November till the close of the year—
44 days, only amounted to .405, or between a quarter and half an inch.
12th, Lunar halo.

Although we would decidedly discountenance the predictions of the
so-called weather prophets, who profess to foretell atmospheric changes
with a mathematical certainty ; yet it seems obvious, from an examina-
tion of well-authenticated records kept over a long series of years, that
wet and dry periods do succeed each other with tolerable regularity.
The last three years have certainly exceeded the average in point of
climate: and the experience of some of our oldest meteorologists would
lead us to conclude, that this fine and dry period is not yet ended.

J. F. MIuueEr.

WHITEHAVEN, January 20th, 1845.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

1. Geognostical Structure of Magerde.—In the second part of Pro-
fessor Keilhau’s Gaeca Norvegica there is a very interesting account of
the geognosy of the island of Magerde in Finmark ; and we extract the
following few facts, chiefly for the purpose of indicating the geognosti-
cal constitution of the two most northern promontories in Europe. The
largest portion of Magerde is composed of gneiss and mica-slate. The
tract of gneiss lying farthest to the NW. of the island presents a rock
which is petrographically identical with the oldest gneiss in Norway.
The gneiss of Knivskjdl-Odden, the most northern promontory in
Europe, is granitic, while the rock composing the tract of gneiss at the
Kamoefjord, on the east side of the island, is partly the usual primitive
gneiss, and partly a porphyritic gneiss, containing large crystals of fel-
spar. The portion of gneiss occurring at Magerde Sound is of a less
constant petrographical character ; and Von Buch says, that the cliffs in
the Bay of Finyigen are so exceedingly black, that the observer has diffi-
culty in persuading himself that they consist of gneiss. The rock at
that locality is a small granular mixture of mica and a little quartz, the
plates of mica being so small, that they can with difficulty be recognised.
At another place in the same small tract of gneiss, the rock is more a
granite than a gneiss or a mica-slate, and is a pretty coarse granular
compound of greyish-yellow felspar and grey quartz, with so little mica
that the slaty structure is by no means distinct. The central portion of
Mageroe is composed of mica-slate, and contains two beds of white and
grey granular limestone. This mica-slate district includes the North

384 Scientific Intelliyence—Geology and Mineralogy.

Cape, in which promontory the rock is fine-slaty, rich in quartz, and
somewhat inclined to gneiss; some of the beds, as at Hornvigen, con-
taining a little felspar. At the North Cape the dip is from 50° to 80°
to the ESE. and SE. In the south and east of the island of Magerée,
the mica-slate becomes gradually changed into clay-slate, so that the
south-eastern coast of the island is almost to be regarded as a clay-slate
tract. To the north and especially to the north-east of Kjelvig (in the
south-eastern portion of Mageroe) there is a district chiefly composed of
granite ; and to the west of Kjelvig, euphotide occurs in considerable
quantity. The latter rock is met with on both sides of the Skibsfjord,
and forms the principal mass of two small portions of country, of which
the one is surrounded by the mica-slate of the island ; and the other by
mica-slate, and towards Kjelvig by the rock resembling clay-slate and
by granite. The euphotide frequently consists of a hard greenish or
brownish-black serpentinie basis, with imbedded bronzite; but some-
times consists of a greenstone mixed with smaragdite, which is fine
granular, and exhibits traces of a slaty structure. The greenstone some-
times contains no smaragdite, but presents hornblende, which is so de-
veloped and arranged as to impart to the rock the slaty structure of
hornblendic gneiss, and to admit of the direction and dip being deter-
mined. ‘There are complete transitions of all the different varieties into
one another ; and the euphotide formation passes imperceptibly into the
bounding granite. The relations of the euphotide to the mica-slate, de-
scribed by Professor Keilhau, are very curious, but for an account of them
we must refer to the original work.

2. Geognosy of Nordkyn in Finmark.—Professor Keilhau states that
the Kollefjord and the Oxefjord penetrate an endless series of strata of
mica-slate containing beds of quartz, and having a dip of from eighty
to ninety degrees to the WNW. These strata and beds extend to
Nordkyn, and there form the extreme northern point of the mainland
of Europe. There the quartz predominates ; it is generally coarse and
splintery ; and is sometimes mixed with mica, but at other times is
pure. In part it assumes the appearance of sandstone ; for, translu-
cent, milk-white, distinctly separated grains of quartz, which are some-
times as large as peas, are more or less closely aggregated together
in the coarse splintery mass. This is the first indication of a type which
assumes a very great degree of importance in the series of rocks towards
the east. The dip at Nordkyn is WNW., and is from seventy to eighty _
degrees. The violent surf renders it impossible to land at the extremity,
which is separated by a fissure from Kinerodden, the high promontory
of Nordkyn.

3. Supposed Organic Remains of Kaafjord in Norway.—Some very
curious round concretions have been found in the hard green slate of
Kaafjord, and have been regarded as petrifactions; but from the speci-
mens sent to me, they are evidently not at all of organic origin. They
are composed of compact greenstone arranged in concentric layers, and
remind those who have sufficiently studied the mutual transitions of the
greenstone and the green slate, of the globular diorite of Corsica. A
rock resembling the Corsican would have been produced at the Kaafjord,
if the transmutation of the green slate had proceeded a little farther. It
is, no doubt, the concretions mentioned above which Russegger has de-

Scientific Intelligence—Geology and Mineralogy. 385

scribed as remains of trilobites.—Keilhaw’s Gaea Norwegica; Part II.

. 285. :
rn 4. New Proof of the Cantal being a crater of Soulevement.—The
Cantal is almost entirely composed of trachyte, and its general aspect
presents a vast cone, having in its centre a gigantic hollow of about five
English miles in diameter. Deep valleys diverge from this centre on
all sides, like the spokes of a wheel, and impart to the whole mountain
mass a peculiar character, which, combined with various other pheno-
mena, has induced Messrs Elie de Beaumont and Dufrénoy to consider
it as a crater of soulevement. The“trachyte of the Cantal generally
occurs in the form of great nappes, which rise with a gentle slope in
the direction of the central depression. Its ordinary appearance is that
of a breccia, whose fragments and basis being of the same nature, can-
not be distinguished from each other; but, notwithstanding this frag-
mentary appearance, all its component parts are contemporaneous. The
name of trachytic tufa has been given to it,—an expression which
conveys the idea, that the matter issuing from the interior of the earth
in a pasty state, has given rise, in the yoleanic opening itself, to frag-
ments which were immediately united together by the flowing mass.
The nature of the rock is displayed in all the escarpments; but it is
exhibited with peculiar distinctness in the tunnel of nearly 4000 Eng-
lish feet in length, which has been pierced between the valleys of
Aurillac and Murat, on the road from Paris to Montpellier, for the pur-
pose of rendering the journey less dangerous in winter. This gallery
has also afforded the means of studying the numerous veins which tra-
verse the mass of trachytic tufa. The uniformity of the rock through
which the tunnel of Lioran has been carried, is one of the most interest-
ing facts revealed by this great work of art. We thus learn that it is
one and the same nappe of trachyte which is traversed throughout the
whole length of the tunnel,—a circumstance opposed to the supposition
adopted by some geologists, that the whole mass of the Cantal has been
produced by the accumulation of successive eruptions ; for we have in
this uniformity one of the most certain proofs of its formation by souleve-
ment.*

5. On the Cause of the Colours in Precious Opal. By Sir David
Brewster.—This gem is intersected in all directions with colorific planes,
exhibiting the most brilliant colours of all kinds. The cause of these
colours has never, we believe, been carefully studied. Mineralogists,
indeed, have said that they are the colours of thin plates of air occu-
pying fissures or cracks in the stone; but this is a mere assumption, dis-
proved by the fact, that no such fissures have ever been found during the
processes of cutting out, grinding, and polishing, which the opal under-
goes in the hand of the lapidary. In submitting to a powerful micro-
scope specimens of precious opal, and comparing the phenomena with
those of hydrophanous opal, Sir David Brewster found that the colorific
planes or patches consist of minute pores or vacuities arranged in paral-
lel lines, aud that various such planes are placed close to each other, so
as to occupy a space with three dimensions. These pores sometimes

* From M. Dufrénoy’s Report on a Memoir by M. Rozet on Auvergne.—
Comptes Rendus de V Academie des Sciences, vol. xviii. p. 133.

VOL. XXXVIII. NO. LXXVI.—APRIL 1845. 2B

386 Scientific Intelligence—Botany and Zoology.

exhibit a crystalline arrangement, like the lines in sapphire, calcareous
spar, and other bodies, and have doubtless been produced during the
conversion of the quartz into opal by heat, under the peculiar circum-
stances of its formation. In some specimens of common opal, the
structure is such as would be produced by kneading crystalline quartz
when in a state of paste. The different colours produced by those pores
arise from their different magnitudes or thickness ; and the colours are
generally arranged in parallel bands, and vary with the varying obli-
quities at which they are seen— Athenwum, Report of Brit. Assoc.

6. On Crystals in the cavities of Topaz, which are dissolved by
heat, and re-crystallize on cooling. By Sir David Brewster.—Sir
David gave a brief notice to the British Association of the discovery
which he had made, about twenty years ago, of two new fluids in the
crystallized cavities of topaz, and other minerals, One of these fluids
is very volatile, and so expansible, that it expands twenty times as
much as water with the same increase of temperature. When the va-
cuities in the cavity which it occupies are large, it passes into vapour ;
and in these different states he had succeeded in determining its re-
fractive power, by measuring the angles at five feet. Total reflection
takes place at the common surface of the fluid of the topaz. The other
fluid is of a denser kind, and occupies the angles and narrow necks of
cavities. The cavities, however, in which the soluble crystals are con-
tained, are of a different kind. They (viz. the cavities) are im-
perfectly crystallized, and thus they exist in specimens of topaz which
contain the cavities with the two new fluids; they contain none of the
volatile and expansible fluid, which is doubtless a condensed gas. The
crystals which occupy them are flat and finely crystallized rhomboids,
When heat is applied, they become rounded at their edges and angles ;
and soon disappear. After the topaz has cooled, they again appear,
at first like a speck, and then re-crystallize gradually, sometimes in
their original place, but often in other parts of the cavity,—their place
being determined by the mode in which the cooling is applied.

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.

7. Distribution of Plants on Mount Canigou, Eastern Pyrenees.—
In reporting to the Academy of Sciences on a table of the limits of cer-
tain plants on the western slope of the Canigou, presented by M. Massot
of Perpignan, M. Adolphe Brongniart made the following observations :
—M. Massot’s table gives the height above the level of the sea, of the
upper and lower limits of many of the species constituting the remark-
able vegetation of the Canigou, which forms the eastern extremity of the
chain of the Pyrenees. The table is so much the more interesting for
botanical geography, from containing the limits of many plants which
had not generally attracted attention in this point of view, and which,
although less striking to the eye than forest trees or cultivated species
covering large surfaces, nevertheless contribute, by their combination,
to impart to each zone its own particular aspect of vegetation. After
enumerating forty-two species, which he had observed on the summit of
the mountain, at a height of 9137 English feet, the author indicates the
lower limits of some of these species, and the upper limits of other plants

Scientific Intelligence—Botany and Zoology.

which do not reach that height. Other species, again, are confined be-
tween lower and upper limits which are not far distant from each other ;
and these neither grow towards the base of the mountain nor at the sum-
mit. The table shews, in a striking manner, the unequal extent of the
zones of the different species ; for some of them only grow under condi-
tions differing very little from one another, while others are suited to very
various climates—an observation which accords with what is remarked in
regard to differences of latitude. Among the plants which grow on the
summit of the mountain, M. Massot mentions two, the Potentilla nivalis,
and the Sawifraga oppositifolia, which cease to grow at 443 feet below
it (that is to say, at 8694 feet above the level of the sea), whereas the
Gentiana verna, and the Luzula spicata, which also grow on the sum-
mit, are met with on the slope of the mountain at much lower elevations ;
the former at 4337 feet, and the latter at 3238 feet above the level of the
sea; the one thus inhabiting a zone of about 4800 feet, and the other a zone
of about 5900 feet, It would be interesting to be able to extend this com-
parison to the greater part of the plants growing on this mountain, but in
regard to many of them we are still in want of data for the purpose: thus,
of forty-two species observed by M. Massot, on the summit of the Canigon,
he only gives the lower limits of twelve. It is to be desired that the author
should prepare as complete a catalogue as possible of the plants growing
on the mountain, that he should determine the lower and upper limits of
each of them, and that he should include in his researches the different
slopes of the mountain, so as to ascertain the influence of the exposure
on the limits of these different plants. The author ought also to be re-
quested to extend his observations to the limit of the cultivation of the
olive, and to add to his catalogue a list of the plants belonging to that
region, in order that we may be able to ascertain what are the plants
of the olive region which in that district penetrate into the region of vines,
and what are the relations between the flora of that region of vines and
the flora of the vine region of central and northern France. In M.
Massot’s table the limit of the oaks is not given; and it is very pro-
bable that, besides the evergreen oak and the cork tree, which must grow
in the olive region, and whose upper limit it would be interesting to de-
termine, oaks with deciduous leaves are to be met with higher up, re-
garding which it would be important to determine the upper and lower
limits, and also to ascertain distinctly the species. It would also be de-
sirable to ascertain, with accuracy, the limit of all the trees on the dif-
ferent slopes, and that those which generally grow in the Pyrenees, but
which seem to be awanting on the Canigou, should be indicated in a
special manner ; because the limits of trees, being those which are most
easily recognised, are most available in comparisons with different
countries. In pointing out the deficiencies in M. Massot’s investiga-
tions, my chief object has been to shew how interesting it would be for
botanical geography to possess a complete account of the distribution of
plants on a mountain so favourably placed as the Canigou, and which,
by its isolation, its various exposures, and its height, might become
one of the most important elements in the general examination of the
geographical distribution of plants in Europe. I shall only add, that,
in order that an investigation of this description should possess all de-
sirable certainty, it would be necessary that the author should collect,

388 Scientific Intelligence— Botany and Zoology.

and send to the Academy, specimens of all the species whose limits he
may determine, and also specimens of all the species taken from the
middle, and from the two limits of their region ; because, such specimens
would be necessary for the proper determination of species, and of the
differences which may be presented by them in the different situations
where they grow.

8. On solid Vegetable Oils. —Linnaan Society, June 18. The Bishop
of Norwich in the ehair.—A paper was read by Mr E. Solly on the
solid vegetable oils. These oils were characterised by possessing stearine,
the solid principle of all oils, in such quantity as to render them solid at
the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. They were of the con-
sistence of animal fats, and in many instances were used as substitutes for
butter, as articles of diet. There was some difficulty in distinguishing
these oils from wax, but the latter was produced in much less quantities.
The various plants yielding solid oils were pointed out, with the modes
of obtaining the oils, and the uses to which they were subservient in the
various parts of the world. Few or no British plants yield solid oils.
The plants yielding butter, tallow, and solid oils, which were mentioned,
are as follows :—Theobroma Cacao, chocolate-nut tree, yielding Cacao
butter; Vateria Indica, producing a solid semicrystalline fat, used for
various purposes in India, where the tree is called Tallow-tree ; Penta-
desma butyracea, the Butter or Tallow Tree of Sierra Leone. Several
species of plants belonging to the natural order Lauracex, as Lawrus No-
bilis, Tetranthera sebifera or Litsea sebifera, Lawrus cinmamomum, &e.,
yield solid oils, in addition to their volatile fluid oils. The Myristica
moschata, the common Nutmeg, with the M. sebifera, both yield a solid
oil, sometimes called nutmeg butter; Bassia butyracea, the Mahva or
Madhucea-tree, gives out a kind of butter whieh is used in India. The
Butter-tree of Mungo Park, found in Africa, is the Bassia Parkii of some
writers, though others have doubted if the Butter-tree of Park is a Bassia
at all. The butter is also called Shoa butter, and specimens were exhi-
bited, procured by Dr Stanger during the late Niger expedition. Several
palms yield solid oils; the principal of these are the Cocos nucifera,
cocoa-nut tree, and the Elis Guineensis ; the former yields the cocoa-
nut oil and butter, the latter the palm oil of commerce. All the
fruits, however, of Palmacez are capable of yielding more or less solid
oil, and many other species than those named yield the palm oil of
commerce.

9. On the Ibis —According to Pliny, the Ibis freed Egypt from ser-
pents. Herodotus had previously expressed the same opinion; but doubts
have been raised in modern times as to these birds possessing the power
of destroying serpents. These doubts were founded on the organisation
of the beak, the length and delicacy of which appeared but little adapted
to enable the birds to contend with animals possessed of a certain de-
gree of strength, however small they may be supposed to be.

The black Ibis, one of the two species the Egyptians possessed, is
pretty widely spread in Southern Algeria, where the French troops have
seen them flying in flocks like our crows. M. Guyon states, that having
had occasion to examine an individual killed in the Ourancenis (a great
mass of mountains in Algeria beyond Chelif), he found in its crop three
kinds of insects quite entire, which formed three very distinct packets,

New Publications. 389

one of locusts, another of Scolopendre, the third of scorpions. He has
been informed that other individuals of the Ibis, caught alive and do-
mesticated by the officers, fed only on grasshoppers or locusts, which they
chase, and which they will even take from the hand, if presented to them.

M. Guyon asks whether these locusts, so common in Egypt, may not
be the winged serpents of which Herodotus speaks, This appears to him
the more probable, because Herodotus, who gives the nomenclature of
all the animals of Egypt, from the elephant down to the fly, makes no
mention of locusts, which have always been the scourge of that country.
M. Guyon adds, however, that M. Lefevre informs him that he has seen
an Ibis seize and swallow lizards, as well as pretty large pieces of an
adder which he amused himself by throwing to it. This may be readily
conceived when we think of the manner in which the animal proceeds to
swallow its prey. Having seized it with the extremity of the beak, the
bird, by a rapid movement, throws it into the air, and soon takes it into
its throat. If it is a living body which it seizes, it is always the head
which enters first into the beak. M. Guyon has likewise learned from
other persons, that the Ibis is very fond of the barbel, a fish which
is found abundantly in the rivers of Algeria ; that it swallows food cooked
or raw, bread softened in water, boiled substances, &c. ; that it easily
becomes familiar with man, in so much that at Orleansville one of these
birds, which lived there at liberty for six months, came every day at
meal time to the tent of a captain, to receive the food he was accustomed
to give it.*

NEW PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

1. Elements of the Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrate Animals
designed especially for the Use of Students. By Rudolph Wagner,
M.D., Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology in the Uni-
versity of Gottingen, &c. Edited from the German by Alfred Tulk,
M.R.C.S., London. 8vo, pp. 264. Longmans and Co., 1845. This
valuable work will form a good Manual for Students of Comparative Anatomy.

2. Contributions towards a Fauna and Flora of the County of Cork.
By J. D. Humphreys (the Zoology), and Dr Power (the Botany). 8vo,
pp- 160. J. Van Voorst, London ; and George Purcell, Cork. 1845.

3. Elements of Physics. By G. F. Peschel, Principal of the Military
College at Dresden, &c. Translated from the German by E, West. II-
lustrated with diagrams and woodcuts. Part 1, Ponderable Bodies.
12mo, pp. 307. Longmans and Co., London, 1845, Not yet finished.

4. A Discourse delivered upon the opening of the New Hall of the
New York Lyceum of Natural History. By John W. Francis, M.D.,
8vo, pp. 93. New York.

5. The Chemistry of Vegetable and Animal Physiology. By Dr G.
J. Mulder, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Utrecht. Tyran-

* L’Institut, No. 540, p. 152.

390 New Publications.

slated from the Dutch by Dr Fromberg, with Notes, &c., by Professor
Johnston, Part 1. 8vo, pp.184. William Blackwood and Sons, Edin-
burgh and London. Hitherto many valuable Dutch works on Science have
remained concealed in the original language, and consequently unknown to the
greater number of English readers, We rejoice, therefore, to find that the
Messrs Blackwoods are about to supply this want. We think they have been
particularly fortunate in their selection of the very valuable and interesting
work of the celebrated Mulder, of which only the first part has been published.
The remaining parts we hope will follow speedily.

6. Philosophy of the Moving Powers of the Blood. By G. Calvert
Holland, M.D., London, 8vo., pp. 308. John Churchill, London, 1844.

7. On the Atmospheric Changes which produce Rain, Wind, Storms,
and the Fluctuations of the Barometer. By Thomas Hopkins. 8vo,
pp. 98. Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., London; and Sims and Denham,
Manchester. 1844.

8. Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve, up to No. 107. November
1844. Published 15th January 1845.

9. Calcutta Journal of Natural History, Nos. 13,14, 15, 16—Geology
and Zoology. By John M‘Clelland, Bengal Medical Service. The
Botany by W. Griffiths, F.L.S., Madras Medical Service.

10. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Nos. 60 and 61. Also
an extra Number, or Supplement to the Number for 1842. It is entirely
occupied with a Geological and Mineralogical Survey of the Himmalaya Moun-
tains, by the late Captain J. D, Herbert, The Author, and also the Editor
of this Memoir, appear to have had a glimpse of the views of Professor
Jameson on the want of Stratification in Primitive and Transition Rocks,
and of their Crystalline and Morpholitic characters, as given in his carly writ-
ings, and in his Lectures on Natural History.

11. American Journal of Science and Arts, by Messrs Silliman, has
reached, up to January Number for 1845.

12. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society —No.I. We shall be
happy to learn that this periodical obtains wide circulation.

13. The Natural History of Animals; being the substance of Three
Courses of Lectures delivered before the Royal Institution of Great
Britain. By Thomas Rymer Jones, F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Com-
parative Anatomy in King’s College, London. Vol. I., 12mo, pp. 362.
With 105 Illustrations. John Van Voorst, Paternoster Row, London.
1845. We trust nothing will occur to prevent the specdy publication of the re-
maining volumes of this interesting and promising work,

14. A Thermometric Table of the Scales of Fahrenheit, Centigrade,
and Reaumur, &c. By Alfred T. Taylor, Lecturer on Chemistry,
Guy’s Hospital, London. Thomas and Richard Willads, Philosophical
Instrument Makers, &c., Cheapside, London. 1845. This Table, with
the more extended Tables of the late Dr Atkin, published by Messrs Black and
Company, ought to go together, and be in the hands of scientific readers,

New Publications. 391

15. The Actual Process of Nutrition and Inflammation in the Living
Structure, demonstrated by the Microscope. Part II. By William
Addison, F.L.S.. &c. 8vo, pp. 114. With Plates. J. Churchill, Lon-
don; and Deighton, Worcester. 1845.

16. An Essay on Tropical Agriculture, with some remarks on certain
Barbadian Soils, &c. By G. Lovell Phillips, M.D., Oxon., F.R.C.P.L.
8vo, pp. 116. Hedderwick and Son, Glasgow. 1845.

17. Geology as a Branch of Education. By Professor Ansted. J. Van
Voorst, London. 1845.

18. The Geologist’s Text-Book. By Professor Ansted. J. Van
Voorst, London. 1845. Pp. 143..

19. Practical Geology and Ancient Architecture of Ireland. By
George Wilkinson, Architect, Member of the Royal Irish Academy,
&c. &c. Illustrated with seventeen plates, and seventy-two woodcuts.
8vo, pp. 348. London, John Murray; William Curry jun. and Co.,
Dublin. 1845.

20. Gaea Norwegica, Von Mehreren Verfassern, Herausgegeben
Von B. Mathias Keilhau, Professor der Mineralogie, Geognosie, und
Bergbaukunde, an der Universitit zu Christiania, Ritter des Kénigl.
Nordstern ordens so wie, des Kénigl. Wasa-ordens. Ordentlichem
Mitgl. der Konigl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Drontheim, der
Kénigl. Academie der Wissenschaften zu Stockholm, Ehrenmitgliede
der Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh, &c. &c. Zweites
Heft. Mit Zwei Tafeln. Folio. Christiania, Druck und Verlagvon
Johann Dahl. 1844. The following are the contents of the present
part of this important work :—IV. Determinations of the Heights of
Mountains in Norway. By A. Vibe, Esq., Captain of Engineers.
A considerable portion of this article is transferred to the pages of this
Number.—V. On the Structure of the Rock Masses of Norway. By
Professor Keilhau. The introductory portion of this able article, forwarded
by the Professor to us, appeared in former Numbers of the Philosophical
Journal-—VI. On the Norite, and of the Mineral Treasures of the
Granite Veins that occur in that rock. By Dr and Lecturer Scheerer.

21. Dent on the Azimuth and Steering Compass. Published by the
Author. London. 1844, 8vo.

22. On the Production of Soils and Manures by the Lower Orders of
Plants. By R. D. Thomson, M.T., Lecturer on Practical Chemistry in
the University of Glasgow. 8vo, 1845.

23, Annual Report of that pleasant Meeting, the Berwickshire Natu-
ralists’ Club. 8vo, 1844.

( 392 )

List of Patents granted for Scotland, from 24th December 1844,
to 22d March 1845.

1. To Wrtttam Tuomas of Cheapside, in the city of London, mer-
chant, being a communication from abroad, “‘ improvements in manu-
facturing stays, bandages, and other similar articles.”—24th December
1844.

2. To Witi1am Hieuam of Notty Ash, near Liverpool, in the county
of Lancaster, plumber, and Davip Brtxiuovuse, also of Liverpool afore-
said, merchant, ‘‘ improved constructions of boilers, for evaporating saline
and other solutions for the purposes of crystallization, and also for the
evaporation of fluids generally.”—24th December 1844.

3. To JosrpH Locxerr of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster,
engraver, ‘“‘ improvements in apparatus for preparing to be engraved or
turned such copper or other metal cylinders or rollers as are to be used
for printing, or embossing, or calendering calico or other fabrics.” —26th
December 1844.

4. To Roprrt Waker of Saint Helen’s, in the county of Lancaster,
colliery agent and manager, ‘‘improvements in apparatus for riddling
coals at collieries.” —26th December 1844.

5. To Curisrorner Purrrs of River, near Dovor, in the county of
Kent, paper-manufacturer, being partly a communication from abroad,
and partly by his own invention, “an improvement or improvements in
the manufacturing of paper, and in making writing and other papers, or
in the machinery employed for those purposes.’”’—26th December 1844.

6. To James Nrexp of Taunton, in the state of Massachusetts, in the
United States of North America, machinist, ‘certain improvements in
looms.” —27th December 1844.

7. To Henry Cuartes Lacy of Kenyon House, near Manchester, in
the county of Lancaster, Esquire, and Grorcr Watson Buck of Man-
chester, in the said county, civil-engineer, ‘‘ a new manufacture for, and
method of sustaining, the rails of railways.’ —28th December 1844.

8. To Joun Swinpetts of Manchester, in the county of Lancaster,
manufacturing chemist, ‘‘ several improvements in the preparation of
various substances for the purpose of dyeing and producing color ; also
improvements in the application and use of several chemical compounds
for the purpose of dyeing and producing color not hitherto made use of.”
—30th December 1844.

9. To Moss Pootz of the Patent Office, London, gentleman, being a
communication from abroad, “improvements in preparing or treating
hemp flax and other textile plants.”—30th December 1844.

10. To Bensamin Batuuie of Henry Street, in the county of Middle-

—_—-

List of Patents. 3938

sex, glazier and metal frame-maker, ‘‘ improvements in regulating the
ventilation of buildings.” —31st December 1844.

11. To Rosperr Grirritn of Smethwick, near Birmingham, in the
county of Stafford, engineer, ‘‘ improvements in the manufacture of bolts,
railway pins, spikes, and rivets.’ —31st December 1844.

12. To Guy Carterton Corriy of Sandford, in the county of Wilts,
Esquire, “certain improvements applicable to locomotive, marine, and
stationary engines.’”-—2d January 1845.

13. To Jonn Arnsuiz, farmer, Redheugh, near Dalkeith, North Bri-
tain, ‘‘ a certain improvement, or certain improvements, in the apparatus
and arrangements for the manufacture of tiles, and similar articles, from
elay and other plastic matter.”—2d January 1845.

14. To Gerorer Witt1am Lenox, and Joun Jones of Billeter
Square, in the city of London, merchants, ‘‘ improvements in the manu-
facture of sheaves and shells for blocks, and of bolts, rings, or washers,
for the purposes of shipwrights and engineers.”—9th January 1845.

15. To Cuartes Louis Marnurin Fovauer of Jermyn Street, Hay-
market, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, “‘ improvements in the
preparation of an artificial vegetable gum, to be used as a substitute for
gum-senegal.”’—9th January 1845.

16. To Josrrn Woops of Bucklersbury, in the city of London, civil-
engineer, being a communication from abroad, “ improvements in pro-
ducing and multiplying copies of designs and impressions of printed or
written surfaces.”"—10th January 1845.

17. To Anrcuipatp Trait of Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury
Square, in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, “‘ an improvement in the
manufacture of sails for ships and other vessels.’’—-13th January 1845.

18. To Franx Frerper of Old Street, in the parish of Saint Luke,
in the county of Middlesex, gentleman, being a communication from
abroad, “‘ certain improvements in wire-work for the manufacturing of
paper and the application thereof to such purposes.—13th January
1845. .

19. To Tuomas Lever Rusuton of Bolton-le-Moors, in the county of
Lancaster, iron manufacturer, “ certain improvements in the manufac-
ture of iron.”—14th January 1845. !

20. To James Parmer Bupp of Ystalyford, iron-works, Swansea,
merchant, ‘‘ improvements in the manufacture of iron.”’—17th January
1845.

21. To Ratrn Knowres Watter of Manchester, in the county of Lan-
easter, candle-wick manufacturer, “‘ improvements in the manufacture of
platted wicks, and in the manufacture of candles.”’—17th January 1845.

22. To Srernen Hurcuison of the London Gas-Works, Vauxhall, in
the county of Surrey, engineer, “ certain improvements in gas meters.”’
21st January 1845,

394 List of Patents.

23. To Arntnur Watt of Bisterne Place, Poplar, in the county of
Middlesex, surgeon, ‘‘ certain improvements in the manufacture of steel,
copper, and other metals.” —21st January 1845.

24. To Wit114M Berts of Smithfield Bars, in the city of London,
distiller, and ALexanpER Soutuwoop Stocker, of the same place, gentle-
man, ‘‘ improvements in bottles, jars, pots, and other similar vessels,
and in the mode of manufacturing, stoppering, and covering the same.”
—22d January 1845.

25. To Squire Dice of Bury, in the county of Lancaster, machine-
maker, ‘“‘ certain improvements in looms for weaving.”—22d January
1845.

26. To Prerre Armano Le Comte pe Fontainemoreav, of No. 7
Skinner Place, Size Lane, in the city of London, being a communica-
tion from abroad, ‘‘ certain improvements in covering or coating metals
and alloys of metals.” —24th January 1845.

27. To ALexanvEr Bain of Charlotte Street West, in the county of
Middlesex, engineer, “‘ improvements in apparatus for ascertaining and
registering the progress and direction of ships and other vessels through
water, and for ascertaining the temperature in the holds of ships and
other vessels, for taking soundings at sea, and in apparatus used in
lighthouses.” —27th January 1845.

28. To Grorce Brown of Glasgow, in Scotland, merchant, being a
communication from abroad, “‘ certain improvements in the manufacture
of soda.”—27th January 1845.

29. To Jonn Reepv Hux of No. 98 Chancery Lane, in the county of
Middlesex, civil-engineer and patent agent, ‘‘ improvements in a press
or presses, machine or machines, for letterpress printing.” —28th January
1845.

30. To Jonn Grorce Bopmer of Manchester, in the county of Lan-
caster, engineer, ‘“ certain improvements in locomotive steam-engines
and carriages to be used upon railways, in marine engines and vessels,
and in apparatus for propelling the same, and also in stationary engines,
and in apparatus to be connected therewith.”—29th January 1845.

31. To Joun James Russert and Tuomas Henry Russewt, both of
Wednesbury, in the county of Stafford, tube-manufacturers, “ improve-
ments in the manufacture of welded iron tubes.”’-——30th January 1845.

32. To Joun Ranp of Howland Street, Fitzroy Square, in the county
of Middlesex, artist, being a communication from abroad, “ improve-
ments in piano fortes.’’— 30th January 1845,

33. To CurisrorHer Dunkin Hays of Bermondsey, in the county of
Surrey, master mariner, “certain improvements in machinery or appara-
tus for propelling vessels.” —31st January 1845.

34. To Wixiiam Epwarp Newton of the office for patents, 66 Chan-
cery Lane, in the county of Middlesex, civil-engineer, being a communi-

ae

List of Patents. 395

cation from abroad, ‘‘ certain improvements in apparatus for propelling
vessels.” —4th February 1845.

35. To Roserr Gorpon of Heaton Foundry, Stockport, mill-wright
and engineer, ‘“‘ certain improvements in grinding wheat and other grain,
and in dressing flour and meal, which improvements are also applicable
to grinding cement and other substances.”—5th February 1845.

36. To Grorce Brett of Pembroke Road, in the city of Dublin, “ im-
provements in drying malt, grain, and seeds.”——5th February 1845.

37. To Peter Borrre of Princes Square, St George’s in the East,
in the county of Middlesex, engineer, “‘ certain improvements in steam-
engines, boilers, and propelling machinery.”—13th February 1845.

38. To Artuur Varnuam.of the Strand, in the county of Middlesex,
stationer, ‘“‘ improvements in the manufacture of paper, in order to pre-
vent fraud, which he intends to call ‘ safety and protective paper.’ ’—
13th February 1845.

39. To Francis Sranisias DE Sussex of Bethnal Green, in the county
of Middlesex, chemist, and Atexanprr Arrotr of Gloucester Crescent,
Regent’s Park, in the same county, chemist, ‘‘ improvements in the manu-
facture of oxides of manganese.” —13th February 1845.

40. To Frank Hits, “‘ certain improved means for producing or manu-
facturing artificial coal or fuel, and other useful products connected there-
with.”’—17th February 1845.

41. To Josrrn Tuomas of No. 1 Finch Lane, Cornhill, in the city of
London, publisher, being a communication from abroad, “a new and
improved tube.”—17th February 1845.

42. To Wittiam Epwarps Sraire of High Street, Mary-le-bone, in
the county of Middlesex, gentleman, “ certain improvements in the pro-
cesses and apparatus for preparing extracts and essences of vegetable and
animal substances.” —19th February 1845.

43. To James Power of Threadneedle Street, in the city of London,
merchant, being a communication from abroad, ‘improvements in the
manufacture of candles and soap, and in treating a certain vegetable
matter for such manufacture, and for other uses.” —24th February 1845.

44. To Roserr Oxtanp of Plymouth, in the county of Devon, chem-
ist, ‘‘ improvements in the manufacture of chlorine.’-—24th February
1845.

45. To Jean Atsert Patmarrr of Brussels, in the kingdom of Bel-
gium, colonel of staff, being a communication from abroad, “ improve-
ments in the means of economizing and applying heat obtained from
known processes.” —25th February 1845.

46. To Ricnarp Haworrn of Bury, in the county of Lancaster,
- engineer, “certain improvements in steam engines.”—26th February
1845.

47. To Wititam Hannis Tayxor of Piccadilly, in the county of

896 List of Patents.

Middlesex, gentleman, and Tuomas Bartiett Simpson of Great Russell
Street, in the same county, gentleman, ‘certain improvements in pro-
pelling.”—26th February 1845.

48. To Witu1am Kenworruy of Blackburn, in the county of Lan-
caster, manufacturer, ‘‘ certain improvements in looms for weaving.”—
28th February 1845.

49. To Avcustus Witi1am Gapespen of Woburn Square, in the
county of Middlesex, gentleman, “‘ improvements in the manufacture of
sugar.” —4th March 18435.

50. To Joun Bryru and Atrrep Brytu of the parish of St Anne,
in the county of Middlesex, engineers, and Grorcze ParkER Hussuck
of Ponder’s End, in the said county of Middlesex, engineer, ‘‘ certain
improvements in steam-engines, steam-boilers, and machinery for pro-
pelling vessels, which improvements in steam-engines and steam-boilers
are for the most part applicable to the purposes of steam navigation, but
are also applicable to other purposes for which steam-engines or steam-
boilers are or may be used.” —6th March 1845.

51. To Roserr Frreusson, linen manufacturer in- Dundee, in the
county of Forfar, Scotland, “improvements in the machinery and appa-
ratus for the manufacture of cloth by hand, steam, or other power.”—
13th March 1845.

52. To Lovis Anrorne RitrErBanpt of Gerard Street, Soho, in the
county of Middlesex, doctor of medicine,’ ‘‘ certain improvements in pre-
yenting and removing incrustation in steam-boilers and steam-generators.”’
—18th March 1845.

53. To Joun Fisner the younger, of Radford-Works, in the parish of
Radford, in the county of Nottingham, gentleman, and James Gippons
of New Radford, in the said parish of Radford, machinist, ‘‘ certain im_
provements in the manufacture of figured or ornamented lace or net and
other fabrics.’”-—19th March 1845.

54. To Auexanper M‘Doveatt of Daisy Bank, in the parish of
Manchester, in the county of Lancaster, gentleman, ‘‘ certain improve-
ments in the method of working atmospheric railways, which improve-
ments are also applicable to canals and rivers.’’—19th March 1845.

55. To Ocravius Henry Smirn of Wimbledon, in the county of
Surrey, Esquire, “certain improvements in steam-engines, boilers, and
condensers.”’—20 March 1845.

56. To Witton Grorcr Turner of Gateshead, in the county of
Durham, doctor in philosophy, “improvements in the manufacture of
caustic alkalies, soda, and potash, and their carbonates, and also in the
manufacture of the ferro-cyanates of soda or potash.” ——20th March 1845.

( 397%)

INDEX.

Adie, Mr R., account of electrical experiments, 97.

Adie, A. Esq., his table of mean state of the barometer and ther-
mometer at Canaan Cottage, near Edinburgh, for 1844, 377.

America, on the original population of, by Lieut.-Colonel Smith, 1.

America, its aboriginal race described, by Dr 8S. G. Morton, M.D.,
141.

American Encyclopzdia of Chemistry recommended, 187.

Amygdaloid, or toadstone of Derbyshire, noticed by J. Alsop, 179,

Ansted, Professor, his system of geology recommended, 188; Pro-
fessor Ansted’s new works enumerated, 391.

Aurora Borealis seen below the clouds, by the Rey. J. F arquhar-
son, LL.D., minister of Alford, 135.

Axinite, its occurrence in a fossiliferous rock in the Vosges, 181.

Bathymetrical Researches, By Professor E, Forbes, and Professor
Loven of Stockholm, 184.

Bible, its physical facts compared with the discoveries of modern
science, by Marcel de Serres, 239.

Biluchi tribes inhabiting Sindh, in the lower valley of the Indus
and Cutchi, by Captain T. Postans, 20.

Birds, fossil, remarks on, by Mr Paul Gervaes, 175,

Bischof, Professor, of Bonn, on the Origin of Quartz and Metalli-
ferous Veins, 344,

Boblaye, E, Le P., biography of, 193.

Cagots of the Pyrenees, observations on, 185.

Canigou, Eastern Pyrenees, distribution of plants on, 386.

Cantal, new proof of its being a crater of soulevement, 385.

Carbonic acid, solid, heat from, 184.

Christison, Professor, on the umbelliferous narcotics, 354.

—————— on nanthe crocata, 357.

Cirripedia of the Isle of Ichaboe described by Professor Macgilli-
vray, 294,

Coal, on its supposed inexhaustible stores, by T. Sopwirth, Esq.,
179.

Cockburn-Law, its geognosy, 366.

Contour lines in plans, their utility explained, by Captain Vetch,
Royal Engineers, 57.

398 Index.

Comet in the Whale, observations on, by M. Rumker, 174.
Coral Fishery in the Mediterranean, observations on, 188.

Darwin, C., Esq,, on volcanic rocks and glaciers, 370.

Davy, Dr John, on the mismanagement of stable-dung manure,

especially as regards exposure to rain, 38.

on the crystallization of carbonate of lime, 342.

on the formation of guano, 226.

Diorama, portable, observations on, by G. S. Tait, Esq., 214.

Dunbar, the Rev. William, D.D., his meteorological observations at
Applegarth manse, 375.

Earthquakes and extraordinary movements of the sea, on, by R. Ed-
monds, Esq., 271.
_Experiments by Brown and Knox, noticed by Berzelius, 182.
Evaporation, the formation and suspension of clouds considered,

by G. A. Rowell, Esq. of Oxford, 50.

Fireproof warehouses described, by William Fairbairn, Esq., civil
engineer, 101.

Fluorine in recent and fossil bones, and the sources from whence it
is derived, by J. Middleton, Esq., 116.

Forbes, James, Professor, his Ninth Letter to Professor Jameson
on glaciers, 332.

on the determination of heights, 286.

Fossil fishes in the London clay, noticed by Professor Agassiz,
“76,

Francis, J. W., M.D., Member of the Wernerian Natural History
Society, &c. &c., his Discourse on Natural History enume-
rated, 389.

Fucoidal plants, their influence on the formation of the earth, by
Professor Forchhammer, 178.

Goadby on the method of preparing animal substances, 185.

Guano, the formation of, illustrated by experiments, by John Davy,
M.D., &c., 226.

Gordon, L., Professor, on the viscous theory of glaciers, 372.

Holland, G. Calvert, M.D., on the philosophy of the moving powers
of the blood enumerated, 390.

Hopkins, Thomas, Esq., on the atmospheric changes which produce
rain, wind, and storms, and the fluctuations of the barometer,
enumerated, 390.

Index. 399
Ibis, observations on, 388.

Jones, Professor, his new work on the natural history of animals
noticed, 390.
Journal of the Geological Society of London recommended, 390.

Kaafjord in Norway, its supposed fossil organic remains, 384.
Keilhau, Professor, his Gaea Norwegica noticed, 391.

Low, David, Esq., Professor of Agriculture in the University of
Edinburgh, his work on Landed Property, &c., noticed, 187.

MacGillivray on the Cirripedie, 294.

Magerée, island of, its geognostical structure, 383.

Mammalia of the counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kincardine, by
Professor William MacGillivray, 43.

» gigantic and extinct, found in Australia, described by
Professor Owen, 177.

Mannite, its occurrence in the Laminaria saccharina, and other sea-
weeds ; also in mushrooms, 41.

Mediterranean Sea, temperature of, 180.

Meteorology of Whitehaven, by J. F. Miller, Esq., 377.

Milne, David, Esq., on oceanic oscillations, 358.

Mountains, heights of, in Norway, by Captain Vibe, 232.

Moveable-Derrick Crane described by William Wightman, 62,

Mulder, Professor, his work on the Chemistry of Animal and Vege-
table Physiology, noticed, 389.

Nicol’s Guide to the Geology of Scotland, recommended to travellers,
188.

Account of the newly discovered metal, Niobium, 181.

Nordkyn, in Finmark, its geognosy, 384.

Norwegian Mountains, their heights, as given by authors, 232.

Oils, vegetable, solid, observations on, 388.
Opal, precious, cause of the colours of, 385.

Patents granted for Scotland from 24th September to 20th Decem-
ber 1844,188,—also from 24th December 1844 to 22d March
1846, 392.

Pendulum, compensation, of Baily, observations on, by Mr R, Bry-
son, 220.

er

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400 ed Index.

Peschel’s Elements of Physics, enumerated, 389.

Philippi, Dr A., on the recent and fossil mollusca of the south of
Italy, and more particularly of Sicily, 202.

Polarization of light, in reference to the light of the sun, 181.

Publications, new, received, 186—noticed and enumerated, 389.

Royal Society of Edinburgh, its proceedings, 354.

St Rollox chimney at Glasgow, account of, by Professor L. Gordon,
216.

Sigillaria, observations on, by Mr King, concluded, 119.

Serres, Marcel de, his observations on the physical facts contained
in the Bible compared with the discoveries of the modern
sciences, 239.

Springs of water, observations on, by R. Were Fox, 66.

Teredo, a new species described by Professor William MacGillivray,
138.

Tide-Gauge, a cheap and portable one, described by J. 8. Russell,
F.B.S.E., &c., 71.

Topaz, cavities in, containing particular crystals which are dissolved
by heat, and re-crystallize on cooling, 386.

Veins, quartzose and metalliferous, their origin, 344.
Vestiges of the natural history of creation, its character, 186.

Wagner’s comparative anatomy recommended, 389.

Ware, Hibbert, Dr, on ancient human races in Britain, 360, 363.

Water, boiling, eruption of, from the extinct crater of Solfatara,
180.

Wernerian Natural History Society, its proceedings, 374.

Wilkinson, George, Member of the Royal Irish Academy, his work
on the Practical Geology and Architecture of Ireland, enume-
rated, 391.

Xanthie oxide discovered in guano, 1838.

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