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THE EDUCATED HORSE:

TEACHING HORSES AND OTHER ANIMA]

TO OBEY AT

WORD, SIGN, OR SIGNAL,

TO WORK OR RIDE;

ALSO,

THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS,

DISCOVERY IN ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY,

AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF

KOMESTIO -A-nSTXIME^IjIS 5

BY •

DENTON OFFUTT.

WASHINGTON. MARCH, 1853

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1854,

By DENTON OFFUTT,

in the Clerk's office of the District Court of the District of Columbia.

'111" v

PREFACE.

I invite you to read the beginning. If you are not suited in one manner
of explaining it to you, it will be in another — by examining all, and holding
fast to that which is right.

The mind of man — the capacities of the horse and other
animals, have emanated from the same Creator ; and when
thoroughly understood, will be found to be wisely adopted to
the external world. The horse possesses, in common with
man, and most of the animal species, the five external senses,
by which he appreciates the existence, presence, and pro-
perties of qualities of objects which present themselves.
Controlled by intellect, he is impulsive, and under the gui-
dance of his senses, he is cautious and disposed to be dis-
trustful. Unusual sounds put him on the alert. He snuffs
the air to wind the object which has startled him. His eye
cautiously scans every object within its range, and he shrinks
from, or defends himself against the approach or touch of
that which has addressed his caution or combattiveness.

There is as great a variety in the disposition and character
of horses as exists in the human family; and this, in both,
depends upon the individual organization and temperment.
The disposition of a horse, and his peculiar traits of character,
may be determined as certainly by a practiced eye as that of
any human being. The principles of phrenology and phy-
siognomy are applicable to the horse and other animals as
well as to man. To understand these principles and their
application, is one design of this book, which, when thoroughly
understood, will enable any one to manage with facility, any
domestic animal he may wish to control.

VI.

The horse is, naturally, an affectionate and mild animal ;
and the only reason why he is not as docile and tractable as
the dog is, because the same system of management is not
adopted in his education. The Arab, who fondles on -his
horse as he would his child, feeding him from his own hand
and keeping him in his own tent with his family, is repaid
by having an animal which he can govern at will by a word
or sign, which will single him out from a thousand, and which
will never desert him. By my system, the wildest or most
vicious horse may be made useful in a short time ; but all
cannot be equally gentle. There are three kinds : the wild,
the stubborn, and the fighting horse. You may teach some
to be as kind as the Arabian.

My search in taming horses, consists in a plan of treatment
based upon phrenology and physiognamy, and their indica-
tions of individual disposition and character. The timid, the
obstinate, and the vicious, are not to be approached and
treated in the same way. Having learned from a glance of
the eye, the disposition of the animal, I adopt the tones of
my voice and my manner, to his disposition, and thus convince
him that I will not hurt him. By the observance of unifor-
mity of order, patience, and mildness, his fears are removed
and his confidence secured. By teaching him to look for
caresses and protection from your hand, as the dog ; rubbing
and patting him in the face, and talking kindly to him, you
may sooth the most timid and vicious. Amply endowed with
faculties of perception, by which he determines your motive
or design, he can appreciate a kindness or resent an injury.
" Will the Lion submit to those beasts that would destroy his
den ? Will the Bear lick the hands of those who would kill
the cubs ? Or will the Snake submit, without resistance, to
him that would put his foot on his back':"

If the reader will direct his attention to any material ob-
ject, and consider, 1st, its existence ; 2d, its form ; 3d, its
size ; 4th, its weight ; 5th, its locality, (or relation in space
to other objects); 6th, the number of its parts ; 7th, the or-
der of physical arrangements of its parts : 8th, the changes

VII.

which it undergoes ; 9th, the period of time which those
changes required ; 10th, the analogy and difference between
the individual under consideration and other individuals ;
11th, the effects which it produces; and, lastly, if he will de-
signate this assemblage of ideas by a name, he will find that
he has obtained a complete knowledge of the subject.

In view of the fact, that every new system, whatever it
may profess to teach, meets with opposition and ridicule from
an uninformed public, it might be deemed useful to present
in a prefatory form : 1st., a short notice of the reception
which other discoveries have met with on their first announce-
ment. 2dly, A brief outline of the principles involved that
I propose to teach the dumb. 3dly, An enquiry into the
presumptions for and against these principles, founded on the
known phenomina of human nature ; and 4thly, A historical
sketch of their discovery. But as these things will be ad-
verted to in the course of my oral instruction, I will not en-
cumber the preface with a development of- them. Suffice it
to remark, that one great obstacle to the reception of any
discovery, is the difficulty which men experience in at once
parting with old notions which they have imbibed in early
life, and which have become the stock of their understandings.
Cogent must be the arguments which will induce a man to
abandon at once his old opinions, and pretentions to knowl-
edge and learning, and throw himself into the open field of
investigation in search of truth. Hence mankind regard
with suspicion every new discovery, and embrace it only when
convinced of its importance and truth.

In reply to the enquiry, whether a horse gentled by my
system will remain gentle ? I answer, if a horse becomes
gentle by kind treatment, he will remember your kindness
towards him ; and if he meets with harsh treatment, he. will
remember that also, and dislike all such masters. When the
unkind master approaches him, he will fly from him, whilst on
the other hand, he will approach the one whe is accustomed
to caress and treat him with kindness. And this is common
with all domestic animals. Is it not reasonable to suppose,

Yin

that if an animal becomes obedient and docile by gentle
methods of treatment, he will not only remain so, but also
become more and more tractible under a continuance of the
same treatment ? It is common with all animals to avoid
their enemies. Horses fear men ; sheep, wolves, &c, and
express attachment only to those whose kind treatment has
secured their affection and confidence.

One special object in view in my system of instruction is,
to introduce a humane plan of treatment, which will not only
prove to be highly advantageous to the horse himself, by
which his value will be enhanced, but an ample remuneration
to his master. Whatever renders the animal more valuable,
benefits the owner as a matter of course. Nature has given
to the horse noble traits of character, which should be pre-
served and rendered subservient to the purposes of man, by
an approprirte plan of management. This is fully apprecia-
ted by the Arab of the desert, whose habits and mode of life
render his subsistence, safety, and successful enterprise, de-
pendant upon the perfection of his trusty steed, which he
values above price. Nothing deserves severer censure than
the wanton brutality often parctised in the treatment of that
noble gift of the Creator to man — the Horse. A plan of
management is adopted for the purpose of " breaking him,"
as it is called, (and truly a breaking it is, for he is ruined by
it) which renders him comparatively worthless and unsafe for
many of the purposes for which he is used. Teach a horse
in the right way, and he will soon learn what you wish him
to do. Repeat your lessons, and they will soon become fa-
miliar to him, and with a little practice, he will perform what
you desire — thoroughly educated.

The capabilities of the horse very far exceeds our concep-
tion, and they may be developed, by proper management, to
an astonishing extent. To instruct others in this art, is pro-
posed by the Author.

PRINCIPLES.

We are told by the poet, and it has almost resolved itself
into an axiom, that

" The proper study of mankind is man."

Without aiming to controvert this precept, I shall endeavor
to prove in these pages, that the proper study of mankind
extends much farther, and embraces not only the character-
istics of the human family, but all things corporeal and incor-
poreal, and more especially of the whole animate^ creation.
In the scale of being, man ranks first ; but to him alone are
not confined, sensation, perception, emotion, or passion. All
of these principles of life are shared with him, by those ani-
mals which we are accustomed to look upon as destitute of
mental attribute more than may pertain to what is denomi-
nated interest. It is not my purpose to enter into metaphysi-
cal speculation, but to draw upon facts as unfolded by ex-
perience and observation. In entering upon this task, prompt-
ed by what I consider duty to my fellow man, and to the long
and watchful years I have devoted to the cultivation of an
intimate knowledge of the organic structure, habits, inclina-
tions, and diseases and their remedies, of the animal king-
dom, I am aware of the embarrassments I must encounter in
removing long established prejudices, and pioneering my way,
as it were, through labyrinths and tangled forests of error, in
clearing and making plain the avenue to the temple of Truth.
As the philosophical Spurzheim sought to embody the immu-
table laws of the Creator, for the better treatment and gov-
ernment of man, so do I desire to extend the principle still
further, and appeal, by pointing out their application to the
laws of nature for the more tender and benevolent treatment
and government of the lower order of animals.

We are, by education, made steadfast to our errors. Being
" at the head of the terrestrial creation," we look down upon
all other animals as insensible to the impressions that move
and direct and govern their actions. Because we do not un-
derstand and interpret their language, we consider them
dumb, and look upon them as possessed only of the meanest
instinct — of life, of hunger, of pain, of sexral feeling. By

10 PREFACE ON TEACHING HORSES.

allowing the principle, which it is my purpose to elucidate,
as we are compelled to invest them with intellectual facul-
lilarly enjoyed by man, and rendered more apparent
in him, because improved by education and the most careful
and assiduous cultivation.

Preface on Teaching Horses.

Before you commence the teaching of horses, and other
beasts, you will seldom find a beast to teach all those princi-
ples or the half of them, by this kind of practice after learn-
ing him to work and to ride ; many other things he will
be readily and easily taught. I do not now remember to
have had a horse or mule, that was very bad to ride and work
both. But if he was very hard to ride, he will be willing to
pull ; and if hard to learn to pull, he was ready to ride, so
you have nOf» reason to dread a long routine of trouble, if
you practice the proper plans.

First. Be kind to them in all things.

Second. Remember that order is God's first law — uniformity
in all you do, and repeat it until the animal can understand
your wishes. This will soon be done if you will convince his
five senses in all things.

There is nothing hard to do, or required to remember than
convinces the five senses. You will find a difference in them,
that the bold and discreet, will be better adapted to many uses,
than the timid and fearful. I hope you will not look for them
all to be of one kind of mind, body, or color. I am aware
that many men of that kind will take this plan, and by prac-
tice teach or gear, or teach the rope to gear hitch in among
gentle waggon horses or plow horses, when there is gentle
ones to ride twelve a day with ease, and many I have taught
to work single in plow, so you need not complain of the time.
Some are so badly supplied with bridles, gear, and lines to
use that they will have horses spoiled for want of a dollar bri-
dle or twenty cents worth of rope, or some other small fixing,
never having any thing as a systematic farmer or business
man's economy is what I recommend, but bad materials is not
economy, or stinginess, is the saving a dollar to lose a one
hundred dollar horse.

THE STALL. H

THE STALL.

The stall should be so placed and constructed, that you may
go to the horse with convenience on both sides, and move
around him; as the true principle is to convince his five sen-
ses that you will do him no hurt or injury. He will look and
smell at you, listening for your tone of voice, and the manner
in which you approach him. When you place your hand on
him, it is necessary to do so, as quietly as possible. Do not
let the hand move for one minute, at first. Then do not let
it move more than three feet in a minute — the slower the bet-
ter, for the great aim is to remove all fear and apprehension
of danger, and give him evidence that you will not hurt or
injure him. Always on approaching him, give him some
food as an evidence of your kindness and friendly intention.
If he has been on grass, offer him corn, then oats ; if he has
been fed on corn, give him oats, then grass, apples or what
you may have, that horses usually eat. If he be dry, give
him water from your hand. Holding the water to him pro-
duces a better effect than to lead him to it. The reason is
obvious. All domestic beasts come to you for food, more es-
pecially when the snow covers the ground, or the lot has no
grass or other food to satisfy hunger. Hunger and drought
is the necessary of their nature, and consequently the govern-
ing law. Through these they are addressed, and readily
learn to appreciate their friends. Combining the evidence
of your kindness, given to their five senses, and looking to you
to furnish the accustomed supply of food and water, they early
begin to recognise and acknowledge your friendship, and show
their appreciation, by following your directions with astonish-
ing facility. You can easily accomplish all that can be done,
or is to be acquired. It is by such means, animals are taught
to open doors, or gates, pull down fences, untie halters, or
slip their bridles. The hot sun or unhealthy skin that itches,
urges him to wallow. All that he does is with the design to
satisy his wants or gratify his feelings. Little things are
important to him. If the gnats or flies bite him, he resists,
and shows his uneasiness by restiveness, and employs the
means nature affords, to relieve himself from the annoyance.
He obeys the great law of nature, and his success is equal to
the conveniences with which he has been gifted.

12 THE HORSE LOT.

The Horse Lot.

In the selection of lots for all kinds of animals, tne slightly
undulating or rolling are to be preferred, as the water from
heavy rains are drawn off, without creating ugly pools, or
soft marshy spots, or being washed into unsightly gullies. It
is best to have them enclosed with post and railing, and so
high as to prevent any. attempt to leap over. The enclosure
should be at least seven feet high, or more, for the horse is
very exact in his measurement, as may be seen at any time
when a loose animal is driven into a fence corner. He walks
up to it with his breast, at a glance discerns whether it be
practicable or not. The posts and rails should be large, for
he can very readily determine the strength of the fence ;
and sometimes in an effort to break through, he not only in-
jures himself very materially, but becomes frightened to a
degree that leaves a bad impression for the future.

As before remarked, the ground should be as dry as possi-
ble, with water in the lot. The locality, if practicable, should
be on the south side of a hill, to keep off the cold winds, and
sandy, that they may wallow and clean off easily. The west
winds as well as those from the south, are generally pleasant,
which are to be preferred to any other exposure. I would
have in the lot, all the shade that would be required for the
number of animals. The form of the lot is best in the trian-
gular shape, or A. If it be necessarily otherwise, a square,
with four strings running to the centre, and extending to
within ten yards of each other. The horses being thus hem-
med up, are less inclined to run, and are to be caught with
more facility. As a general rule to be observed, the less
noise and more quiet in all things, the better. I have often
seen children and men hallooing about their horse lots, the
horses running, cows lowing and dogs barking ; and yet these
persons will tell you that they are gentle to their beasts. To
all such I would say; fashion has a potent influence; then
pattern after those that have gentle, fat, and sleek horses. I
have seen persons with large numbers of animals, which they
were feeding for the purpose of fattening ; and when one was
was wanted, be compelled to drive them all up. The horses
were afraid to enter the lot, but Avould run all over the field
or pasture, before they would enter the gate or gap. And when
once in it would run round and round, seeking some avenue
of escape, until wearied down, covered with profuse pcrspira-

TO TAME A WILD HORSE. 13

tion, and purging as if with disease. This will not fatten.
Any one of common sense and the least reflection, must be
aware that they will inflict more injury than days or even
weeks will be able to remedy ; and then, the lasting impres-
sions on the memory may not be eradicated in a life-time.

To Tame a Horse that is perfectly wild.

Have him in a stable or paddock, and after clearing the
premises of every thing calculated to frighten him, (dogs,
chickens, &c.,) drive him as gentle as possible into a corner,
and approach him by degrees, that he may see there is no
cause of alarm. If too skittish to let you approach him, take
a rod eis;ht or*ten feet lono; and rub him with it till somewhat
gentle, and approach gradually by shortening the rod. If
the horse shows fight and attempts to fly at you, as the wildest
are apt to do, shaking a blanket in his face will effectually
frighten him from his purpose. Ride a gentle horse by the
side of a wilder one, and he will be safer, and the wilder one
tamer. As soon as he will allow your hands on him, rub his
face gently downwards, (not across or "against the grain" of
the hair ;) as he becomes reconciled to this, (as you will per-
ceive by his eye and countenance,) rub his neck and back till
you come to his tail, repeating the operation several times
till he will permit you to handle his tail freely. You must
rub him on both sides, as he may be gentle on one side and
not on the other.

Stall to gentle the Horse in.

The stall for gentling the horse, is of four posts, set three
feet apart, and eight feet long. The first slat one foot from
the ground, leaving space to get your hand in, that you may
rub the horse and gentle him before you let him out. The
height of the stall should be seven or eight feet, that they
may not try to get out. The bridle should be put on, and let
him remain in the stall one day, and bad horses from three
to five days, as the fear of the handler may require.

You may lead him out, calling to him in a soothing steady
voice, and in about ten minutes he will follow you like a dog.

Exercise.

Exercise the young horse before you ride or work him, as
this will prepare him to be more quiet to work or ride. This

1-i TEACHING A HORSE TO HARNESS.

should be done with all horses that have been idle for a length
of time, as it might then be seen if they had acquired any
bad tricks.

Put on a young horse the gag rein, sursingle, and croup or
crupper, drive him round you gently, and he will soon be
quiet ; then rub him repeatedly over the whole body. As he
runs round you, use a pole, a corn or hemp stalk would be
preferable, so as to rub it over him without scaring or hurt-
ing him, but to make him sensible that things may touch
without doing him injury or producing pain. By continuing
this course, his apprehension will be removed. A similar
course teaches the horse to stop against the shaft, or the
sweep of a mill or cotton gin. He should not be exercised
too much at one time ; when fatigued, he should be rested ;
in the meantime, pet him and rub him all over, show him
kindness by feeding him from your hand ; the quantity of
food given at one time should be small, in order to teach him
to look for it. This method of procedure may appear slow
and irksome ; but in three days it will do more than all others
combined.

After the young horse has been exercised one or two hours,
he should rest eight hours, and in this way two lessons may be
given each day. If you make him stiff and sore from over
exercise, he becomes feverish, irritable, timid, and easily
frightened, as is the case with man. His stall should be large
and roomy, and he may be tied by passing a rope round his
neck, or better a head-stall halter, to which a bit may be
fastened at pleasure, that he may learn briddle easy. If
his mouth becomes sore, he will turn away his head and re-
fuse to be bridled ; in this event, the bit should be wrapped
with some soft substance such as leather, and the horse should
be treated kindly until his mouth becomes well.

To teach a Horse to Harness.

Have first a bridle with blinds, and check rein and croup,
in order to have entire control. Then have a long rope, say
twenty or thirty feet in length, as large as a bale rope, or
such as should be used to throw a horse. Lay this rope oyer
the horse's neck, hanging along his side, so to drag after him.
Take the reins quietly, near the bit, and rub him on the fore-
head and neck, talking kindly and in a gentle tone of voice.
Then as slowly as possible lead him along. If he appears
alarmed and manifests the slightest disposition to caper, stop
him and rub him over the head and neck again, gently speaking

WORK HORSES. 15

to him during the time. Start him again ; and continue this
process until he ceases to be restive and moves along quietly.
You should allow the rope to slip off, occasionally, from his
back, and re-adjust it. It should be allowed to drag first on
the outside of his legs, then on the inside. This is necessary
to accustom him to the traces, and prevent his kicking or be-
coming frightened, if he should get his legs over them. If
he seems wild and skittish, the rope should be kept on his
neck several days. The blinds should also be kep very close
for the first hour or day, and sometimes three days or more,
as it has much to do in keeping him quiet and subduing him.

Do not turn the horse loose at first with the rope dragging
on the ground, lest it should cause him alarm. It will only
be safe after he has drawn it along some time and become ac-
customed to such an appendage.

After practising this until he becomes familiar with the
rope, proceed to gear him quietly and cautiously. The traces
should not be permitted to swing about and strike him with
the ends. Nor should the gear be too tight at first, as its
moving about is calculated to produce alarm, which is to be
avoided by all means.

When he is geared, put on the lines and drive him about
until he will start readily and stop at command. When this
is done, attach a long rope to the ends of the traces and gently
pull them. When he is attached to a wagon, do this with a
tried horse, which should start first, and have it in a place
where you may turn easily to the right or left ; and especially
where the start may be made without the slightest impedi-
ment or obstruction. As he often may show an inclination
to turn to the right or left, yield to his disposition, and in
turn he will become accustomed to your direction, and yield
to your guidance. The waggon should have have a high
tongue ; and I prefer the yoke, that the tongue of the waggon
may not strike him, nor as it winds, press on his hind leg and
cause him to kick or lean upon it. The waggon should not
have any thing to rattle, as he is easily alarmed and his ap-
prehension is startled at the slightest noise.

Work Horse.

In all cases, you should be at the horse's head ; and the
one at the head, should in every instance, start and stop him,
after gently rubbing his head and neck, and speaking to "come
along" and he will follow. If he does not obey, rub him over
again, and by turning to the right or left as the case may be.

16 WORK-HORSES.

and he will start. Keep elose to his head, and watch for the
lightest evidence or symptom of alarm; in which case stop
him, and repeat the directions heretofore given. If he goes
off quietly, stop him in ten yards. This is to he repeated
three times in succession, after which he will appear more
gentle and obedient. Still do not drive him out of a slow
walk, that he may acquire a quiet, easy mode of moving in
harness.

There should he an outside line to his bridle, that, if he
should scare at any thing, you may apply your power with
more readiness to check him. If he be hard mouthed, apply
the draw-rein by letting the line go through the right ring,
and fastening it to the left check. By this his head is pul-
led up, and the power is very great.

When hitched to the waggon, stroke his face gently and
lead him forward. Keep him from going too far forward
however, and rather repress him ; as it is best to keep him
well back at first till he has become accustomed to the motion
of the gear and the resistance of the draft. Do not, in any
event, fasten the rein so as to draw on the chin or jaw. It
is calculated to confuse and perplex the animal. If he be
attached to a plough, a sursingle should be used to prevent
his reins from going too far forward. The reins in the head
collar around the leader's neck should be properly adjusted,
and the reins so fixed that he cannot back on the swingle
tree. The off line in all cases to be used to keep him back,
and it also serves to keep him to his place.

In teaching the horse to work, the more quietly it is done,
the better. It is also requisite that he should learn to start
slowly ; and when more than one are driven, they will move
off together. The efficacy and importance of this may be
seen in the drawing of the mule and ox. Jerking and jump-
ing against a load soon strains the horse, makes him sore and
balky, and impresses him with erroneous perceptions that can
never be wholly eradicated — or rather can only be removed
by the most careful pains and constant assiduity.

The rules laid down here, are simple but effective. When
all the old rules fail, as they must do in ninety-nine cases out
of a hundred, those which are here asserted will prevail. The
impressions of the old system of breaking a horse are now ap-
parent. The errors it imposes, the wrongs it inflicts are
sufficiently manifest. If the new mode I have laid down, has
a few defects, it still has the advantage over the old, which
was deficient in toto. Kindness has on more than one occa-
sion, been more potent than blows, and in nothing is it more

TEACHING A HORSE TO FOLLOW YOU IT

remarkable than in the education of that noble and tractable
animal, the horse.

The collar should fit close to the neck; as it is often the
ease that by the collar pressing on the outer part of the shoul-
der there is a tendency to impede the free circulation, which
results in sweany and lameness. Sometimes the top of the
harness is two wide, which causes a pressure on the point
of the shoulder, taking oft' the hair and abrasing the skin.
By refering to the plate it will be seen from an examination
of the gearing, that the breeching does not go as low as com-
monly used. Often the back of the animal becomes sore.
This may be remedied by ploughing with breeching or hip
straps. With young horses, I recommend the use of this ad-
dition to the gear, as it prevents them from getting their feet
out of the traces, or by having a piece of leather, raw hide
or gum elastic extending from one trace to the other, in front
of the stretches or swingle, so far up that when the horse stops
the leather presses on the legs so that he cannot get his foot
between it and the tree. This is easily applied, and is a sure
prevention. You may use a strong piece of bagging and in-
sert some splits, such as are put in lady's corsets or dresses,
laced after the fashion of sacken bottom beds. In teaching ani-
mals to draw, it should be, that the lighter the load at first
the better. I have, in my experience, found that the weight
of the plough itself was quite enough, for one or two hours —
nor should a greater weight be tried, until the horse has
learned to move with freedom, or exhibits no restiveness what-
ever.

It cannot be too urgently impressed on the mind that in-
struction is the more easily imparted to the horse, by per-
suasion and kindness. Ill usage is never forgotten, and ani-
mals of the mildest disposition and the utmost tractableness
may be irreparably injured by injudicious haste, by obstrep-
orous language, or what is still worse, the infliction of blows.
Like the dog, the horse likes to be caressed, and he repays
all the good treatment of his master by a ready compliance
with his will, and the most grateful and lasting attachment,
obeying the slightest indication of his wish to go forward or
pause, and evincing the liveliest expressions of satisfaction at
his approach.

To teach a Horse to follow you.

You may cause any horse to follow you in one to ten min-
utes. First, tie his halter or bridle in his mouth and around
3

18 TEACHING A HORSE TO FOLLOW YOU.

his neck or over the saddle, so as to keep his head up from
the grass, and other objects that he may wish to eat or smell,
some should be tighter than others, for some are too fast, and
others too slow. Then take him from among the horses and
people, to the most convenient place. Speak to him, rub him
over the forehead above the eyes, and with the hair and over
the neck and face below the eyes, not on the nose ; as soon as
you pass yonr hand over the head and face three times or
more, you will find him attending to you, as it is often they
will lean their head towards you.

The manner of going from and to him should be slow, and
quiet — reach your hand out slow, and touch him on the shoul-
der, hip, or head, which he may be most willing you should
do ; for if his mouth, head, or any other part be sore, or has
been sore, he will not turn towards, and in accordance with his
mind, as I have said by the form of the head.

I have shown you the plan, and by little practice, all may
be done that is necessary. The more you feed them and
handle them, the more quiet are all creation. If you are not
in the habit of handling them, do not lose hopes ; wait and
see others practice ; and by thus seeing them do, and know-
ing how it is done, and what the animal is on the premises,
you will come to correct conclusions. Seeing all the facts,
you will soon know what is to be done.

The perfection is, first, the soil ; second, the culture ; rich
soil like all things has produced more of late than former
ages. Who could believe, the quality of materials and the me-
chanical skill has surpassed past ages. The perfection of the
telegraph ; the music of Jenny Lind, and the drum music of
the Infant drummer, are proof of what can be done. If these
musicians can charm the world with it, the mechanic can
drive the boats with fire and water and represent the world
of the terrestrial Globe, as Planatanarians do, surely you
can play your part. To ride and work the horse, and use him
for your comforts, by the law that pervades all creation. Try
to get the plan clearly in your mind, and practice it until you
can do it ; as many others have done. By so doing, reap
many advantages of the useful animal.

And if there be nothing to attract his attention, more than
yourself, you may then say to him, come along ! come along !
repeating the tone to suit his spirit. If dull, loud. If
spirited, low and quiet ; the more constant and regular, the
better ; be careful not to walk faster than suits the horse ;
not to get more than three to ten feet from him, or you will
soon lose attention, and he will then look to other objects.

TO TEACH A HORSE TO LIE DOWN 19

If there be any bruise or sore on the face, be careful not to
touch that; or if there be any place he refuses to let you
touch, do not force it, but try if he will be taught to allow
you to handle it quietly, by laying your hand on it slowly
and quietly, and repeat until he is convinced that he will not
be hurt. To teach him not to run from you after quieting
him, let him stand, and you go from and to him some three
times.

'JTo teach a Horse to lay down.

I have found this principle of much importance. First is,
that the efforts and struggles made to relieve himself, sub-
dues his ambition, and in safety to handle him all over, with-
out danger to you or horse, yet in all things be quiet and
slow at first ; after handling him all over the body and limbs,
have him to get up and repeat it three times, by this time
you will find him much more submissive. In all cases where
he first lies down you will find him inclined to lie there again,
this you should do for the three first times ; then if you wish
him well trained to lie down, take him to another place and
continue to do so until you can have him to lie down where
you may desire. It is the case where the horse is to be shod
or that he has a sore or wound on the foot, how by this means
you may manage it. If you wish to alter a horse, or that you
may want to put a pack on his back or a deer you killed, or
you wish to carry him on a steamboat or ship, and stand-
ing a long time often injures him, by this many of those
advantages are gained. It is then easy to make use of him
as life-guard whilst you sleep. When he is lying down go to
his back and place your head on his cheek, he will take the
alarm from smelling or hearing the enemy before seeing them,
by raising his neck from your head, jars you and awakens you,
then you will always find him looking in the direction of the
enemy. If it be dark mount him, let him take his own course,
and he will escape from them. If you were out in the wil-
derness where means could not be had, you might get grass
or leaves, let him lie on the grass and you on him.

The bridle with bare bit not to work in [the centre, for it
draws the the mouth in. You see, the drawing of the bridle
reins, sirsingle, and crupper is important, to learn him to
obey. The bridle to turn to the right or left, or to stand
still in putting on sirsingle, you should give it light at first,
then pull it a little for three or four times that he may not
get scared at it. In putting on crupper you should rub his

20 TO TEACH A HORSE TO LIE DOWN.

tail down until quiet, pulling it gently, raising it up and put-
ting it down, until he will allow you to put it on his back,
then put the crupper on, holding to the tail, raising it up and
down until quiet, then make it tighter.

All you have to learn him is to submit to the bit ; do not
rein him tight, but enough to let him stretch his neck against
it until he learns to submit ; after an hour or more raise it
a little tighter until he learns its use.

If he be vicious you may rein him very tight for a short
time, but be careful not to keep it tight too long, for he will
faint and fall, and in struggling may throw himself back and
kill himself. In vicious horses you may punish them for a
short time by tight reining of them, until they are tired.
When this is done loosen them, and rub and pet them, this
will subdue their viciousness and make them more fond of
you ; then he is in condition to take to the stable, as that is
the proper place to commence in all instances. The more
vicious they are, the more important that they should be in
the stable, as they would not jump in the stable (it is seldom
they jump in a stable) when they would out of it They should
be kept in the stable and used for one hour or more. The
above plan for teaching them to lay down is important for
working horses ; I recommend that they should be worked
first, as there is less danger to man and horse.

To teach a horse to lie down, commence on the near fore
leg by rubbing his leg quietly, and taking up the foot three
times or more and putting it down gently and rubbing it ;
you may put a loop on it, the loop should be made short
enough to turn the foot up, so as not to strike the other leg,
then tie a string across the loop to prevent it slipping off;
then if he is not learnt to lead he may pull back and lie down,
if he has, put on him a sirsingle as I describe in drawing.
Let it be tight uround the girt or heart, and fasten it on the
back, so that when he lies down you may loosen it ; and let him
lay for a while, rub him all over, be as quiet as possible. If
he gets up, repeat it until he will lie as long as you want him.
If he is not inclined to obey this, have a pair of lines so long
that you may let the right rein come under his belly, then
you will stand off from him five or ten feet that he will not
fear you, then as you turn his head to the right in places the
centre of his weight on the left shoulder, that causes him to
kneel down ; and after kneeling do i on the first time

lay down — sonx rill rise up three or four times. If

the sirsingle is vury tight he will lay down the sooner. If
he attempts to rise up as often as ho may like, by this means

TO TRAIN A HORSE FOR THE SADDLE. 21

he will soon learn your wishes, and you may soon take the
foot in your hand and he will gently lie down. You will find
the deeper the sand or the looser the ground, or what makes
the bed soft the easier he will be to learn. You will find that
they are not so willing to lie on wet ground as on that which
is dry. If the ground is very hot they will not be so willing
to lay there.

To train a Horse for the Saddle.

After putting on the saddle, placing him in the stall, and
going through the process of rubbing him over the head, then
body and legs some three times, you may put on the blind-
bridle, sirsingle, and crupper ; then rub him again all over.
This manner of doing is the fastest and best manner of quiet-
ing them. They can only be gentle as they become familiar
with their handler. This is true, for they will become quieter
to the person that handles them than to any other. It is often
difficult to have horses or any other beasts to obey all persons
alike. Horses often seem quiet to a white man and not to a
negro or Indian, and he may be kind to negro or Indian and
not to a white man; and often quiet to lady or child and
not to a gentleman. It is true, circumstances alter cases
with all the beasts. This is evidence to you that he reasons,
and you should treat him accordingly. This is true of many
grades of all creation. Timid, sullen, and fighting animals,
quietness and persuasion will bring about control of them to
usefulness. You now have gentled him to be familiar with
you, rub, pat, and handle his head, legs, and tail. When
you have given him plenty of exercise by driving him around
at the length of the leading reins, then you should learn him
to be led by the side of another horse ; and when you get
him trained to ride, at first you should lead him a while that
he may leam to go ; then let him follow after the gentle horse.
Before you mount him take him in a stable or pen, the pen to
be seven feet or more in height, that he will not attempt to
get out.

To teach a Horse to stand whilst you Mount him.

Take him to the stable, and if he be bad, tie him to his stall
and commence by first rubbing him over the face and talking
kindly to him ; then get close to his side that you may look
between his cars, rub him, and when you get him to stand
quietly, mount in the saddle, sit quietly on him, rub him and

22 TO BREAK A HORSE OP SHYING OR DODGING.

after sitting on him one minute when he stands still quietly,
dismount, and do not until he is still. Repeat this ten or fif-
teen minutes in the stable, he will remember it ; then take him
out and repeat it until he understands you. A draw-rein or
curb-bridle will be best to train him with, as he will be easily
held. The saddle should be tightly fastened on ; in all cases
the martingale is useful.

If you wish him to come up to a block to get on him, lead
him up to it, used as you have learnt him to stand; after get-
ting him there, rub him, then quietly get on the block and
mount him. This should be repeated, then lead him away
then back until quiet, then to another place, and you will soon
have no more trouble with him; but if you should have him
to come up and then at some other time get on him, and as
soon as on him whip or spur him, and repeat it, you will soon
find him restless, or any one in your absence, or some boy to
ride him to water. You find a lady's horse or an old gentle-
man's horse act according to the manner they are treated.
Use is nature and habit is its nurse. If you are not syste-
matic in your plans how can you expect the horse be.

To make a Horse used to Steam Engines.

All horses in the fields near the rail road soon learns to
know that the cars will not hurt them, and often they
will not move for its puffs or whistle. So you will remember
he will soon learn if you will give him a fair opportunity to
do so ; this you will do by leading him to the car, and do not
be in too much haste to get him near to it, but lead him around
it. It may be necessary to lead him around it three times,
and speaking to him and rubbing him as above described ; at
first lead him away from it and then back several times, and
when it leaves follow after it for half a mile By repeating
this some three or four times he will be more gentle. You
may find a difference at first, if the color of the cars is changed
or has on them live stock of any kind, or any hides that
smell.

To break a Horse of Shying or Dodging.

Never strike him for an offence of this kind. But when
he scares let him stand. Speak to him and rub him on the
neck. If not too much alarmed let him go around it, do not
kick or torment him, but encourage him by talking to him.
If this will not do, when he scares stop him, for it is natural

TO MAKE A IIOItSE STAND WHERE YOU LEAVE HIM. 23

for them to stop at the approach of danger, except at falling
of trees, get oft", rub him in the face and talk to him — lead
him up to the object of alarm, then away and back until he
will come up to it quietiy ; this repeated successfully some
three days or less, you will find him obedient to you. The
young beasts are more timid than children at the age of seven
or more, the mind partakes of the fullness of the body ; thus
you see the age in which horses show their knowledge of
opening gates, bars, and pulling down fences.

To prevent Horses jrom scaring at Bridges.

At first lead them across some three times, back and for-
ward, until quiet, repeating this at several bridges you es-
tablish the habit ; be sure not to hurry over bridges as it will
excite their fears ; let them folloAY when in company — all
beasts have their leaders, and aged animals have strong com-
mand, which the weak obey — patience is the best teacher. —
This evidence teaches more of those senses. Hence the old
horse jumps the fence or ditch, and the young horse follows
him ; he leads the young into the field. The old often fills
himself and goes out and as far as from the place as possible
for fear of censure — the young is punished for the crime.

To make a Horse stand where you leave Mm.

First, tie a knot in the reins of your bridle, making the
near rein shorter, so as to draw his head one fourth of a cir-
cle, and tight enough to rein him so that if he moves he may
be compelled to turn around ; the saddle may require a crup-
per to prevent his pulling it forward. If you have no sad-
dle, tie it to his tail. Another plan is, to have a wide cloth
fastened to the head-stall of the bridle, and wide enough
when loose, to cover over his eyes. By doing this many
horses will in a short time learn to stay where you leave them.
It is necessary to turn him from the course he may want to
go. It is not certain that you will know how tight the reins
should be until you try them ; if too tight it will cause them
to go around too fast, and throw and injure them, or cause
them to faint and fall. If no one is there they may die for
want of circulation of blood. You must have some judg-
ment of your own, or I cannot point out the case to suit all.
If I learn you the rules and principles you must work out the
sum. If the horse is of the docile and kind species, prac-
tice this some three or four times, and if he appears quiet you

24 TO MANAGE v CONTRARY HORSE.

may lot him loose to eat grass, or you may learn him Uy the
use of the drag rope ; after learning him the use of it, you
may have a short pin ami drive in the ground, then you may
learn him by throwing the rope down. If you are kind to
him, and he is of the kind I describe, it is easy to teach him
all that makes him useful. Go to work in good faith and obey
the laws and truth.

To accustom a Horse to an Umbrella.

In teaching him to approach an umbrella, let the umbrella
be folded at first, and then draw rein or curl) that you may
hold him — this is to be done on foot, as he is easily learned
and held.

You should have a stable high enough to set on him, then
commence by first letting him smell it, then pass it quietly
over his face and neck, then put it against his face, rattle it
on his neck, then raise it, by putting it against his face, raise
it over his head as high as possible, then shut it ; repeat the
process, then let the cotton pass against his face, and he will
not be fearful when it touches him.

To accustom a Horse to a Gun.

Commence showing your friendship by carressing as above
detailed ; then snap percussion caps with a pistol, and let the
horse smell the smoke of gunpowder. At every explosion,
caress your horse till all fright is removed, then you may fire
small reports over head, around and behind the horse until
all is quiet. After firing three or four times he will not jump;
you may then mount and fire ; the danger is over. As soon
as you convince the horse that the explosion will not hurt him,
you may fire a cannon and he will not budge.

To manage a contrary Race Horse.

If he stops or sulks when leading him, speak kindly to him
and rub him down the face, using the bridle no more than you
can help. Turn his head gently to the right or to the left ;
turn around, and you will never have to turn his head in this
way more than three times, before the sulkincss will disap-
pear and he will be willing to start. Continue rubbing him
in the face, talking to him as in other cases, and keeping him
quiet by leading him about, using the same soothing tone of
voice, till the time of starting. Make him stand in ono spot

'2i> TO TEACH A HORSE TO PACE.

by rubbing him in his face. If he frets, lead him away, and
then back to the same spot, until he remains quiet at that
spot. Some three or four times will do. If you have a race
horse which flies the track, you may break him of it by blind-
ing the eye on the side he flies, and practicing for some time ;
as soon as you put the blinds on, he will instantly go to the
track, or you may run him occasionally the contrary way
around the track, from the way he is accustomed to run. —
Some horses run unkindly under the spur. Most race horses
are whipped too much. If you whip, strike different parts of
the body. Many need only the encouragement of the voice,
and if trained to obey it, it answers all purposes.

To teach a Horse to Pace.

First, select a horse with a good tread, that reaches well,
so as to pass the hind foot over the track of the forefoot ;
long bodied horses such as mules reach well. Two or more
days walk with the weight of a three pound shoe on each hind
foot will give him a gentle pace ; level and dry ground is the
best; take care not to let them loose with such shoes on. —
You are certain of success by having a strap three inches
wide, and long enough to reach around each leg, before and
behind, below the knee and hock, with holes punched in it,
and tying them tight at the distance they naturally stand,
and lead them gently and slow, so as to get the proper motion,
as the slower he learns the motion the better he will pace ;
after you have got him well in motion, then increase his
speed by lengthening the strap and gently pushing him along
steady, and press on the bit that you may prevent him from
a change of motion.

To travel Horses by Steam or Sail.

When you first go to the vessel do not hasten him up to it,
wait to let him see there is no cause of alarm, lead him from
and to it, talking kindly to him, rub him in the face as gentle
as possible, lead him on the boat or ship as the steam begins
to puff, then go to him, talk to him, rub him over, and the
alarm will soon wear off; offer him some food from your hand ;
by this he will do well ; he may get so badly scared that he
will hardly drink or eat for five or ten days ; after your ar-
rival at the end of your journey be cautious of their taking
too much exercise, best to put them in a small lot. there to
remain twenty-four or forty-eight hours. If rode ten or
4

£6 KICKING HORSES.

twenty miles after standing, without such caution, they be-
come stiff, and often founder badly ; sometimes never get
well. I have seen good horses ruined by a ride of fifteen
miles, some less, and some from a run or play of a mile. —
You should always be cautious of such cases ; for horses from
the stable that have been standing for some time without ex-
ercise, often ruin themselves, or cause colic or founder.

On all vessels, to prevent the jar and shaking, the stall or
platform on which he stands, should have two springs under
it, fore and aft, to prevent him bracing his legs from one side
to the other, and would permit them to sleep with less ex-
citement, for it is often the excitement which weakens the
appetite and sickens the horse.

Kicking Horses.

The first thing, is to take him to deep sand or deep loose
ploughed land, then gear him after the manner you design
to work him. Then put a large rope thirty feet long over
his neck ; let it hang by his side, rubbing his sides and legs ;
put on him the bit, gag-reins and crupper, that he may not
struggle and kick ; then lead him about, that he may kick
until worried and sore ; let him rest when he is worried, that
he may feel the soreness, and continue and he will learn bet-
ter the folly of so doing in one hour ; others in a day. If
there is sores anywhere about his legs or the hair is off,
or otherwise, let him alone until all is well. This is like the
true pulling horse that has strained himself, jerking until
sore, then will not pull an empty buggy. I have managed
them, and they would scringe and lean back like they would
set down.

The truth is, that all creation is on the change, and I re-
member many cases that I have seen where the animal was
well broken by experience. I have seen them with brush to
the tail-boards, and they were so completely broken, that
you, if you could but drive them slow, they would go slow to
prevent the legs from bruises ; and I have often seen them
stoop behind, to keep the legs from the blows, yet not kick.
I know of a case where a man let the horse loose — let him
run with the swingle-tree, kicking it and tireing his legs, until
he was perfectly given out, and such is the beat broken of all.
I have never saw one attempt to kick afterwards. I remem-
ber a case I broke, that my relative kept for fifteen years or
more ; I always fear of her for her safety. You may pre-
vent them from kicking by a cirsingle tight around the loins.

THE FIELD OF BATTLE. 27

The memory of the animal m good, and such severe lessons
would never be forgotten by them.

I would advise that care is taken to prevent them from in-
juring themselves — be cautious of their getting loose and
running, and in their fright, running against a tree or fence
and injuring themselves. When loose and blind bridle on, it
often happens that they fall down. They are like persons,
some can be scared into better senses, while others can be
scared out of all they know ; but if you, in learning the
horse, practice the plan I have explained, I have yet to see
the one that has got the habit of kicking.

The Field of Battle.

You find it recorded in the book of Job, chapter 89, verse
18, — uIIast thou given the horse strength ? Hast thou cov-
ered his neck with thunder? Canst thou make him afraid as
a grasshopper. The glory of his nostrils is terrible. He
paweth in the valley, andrejoiceth in his strength. He goeth
on to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear and is not
affrighted. Neither turneth he back from the sword. The
quiver and the glittering spear and shield rattleth against him.
He swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage. Nei-
ther believeth he but that it is the sound of the trumpet. He
saith among the trumpets, ha, ha ! and he smelleth the battle
afar off, the thunder of the cannons, and the shouting,"

The eulogies on the horse here, expresses that he is not
cowardly, but he has confidence in himself; he looks on the
cowardly with contempt, rejoices in his own power, his will
he is determined to accomplish, for he will not submit ; when
he beholds the sword, he discerns the danger, and expresses
his fierceness and rage. The false pretenders he will not be-
lieve. He sanctions the right and condemns the wrong.
Here is decision of character combined. Decision of charac-
ter is cautiousness — cautiousness of his rights and firmness to
defend them. The prime ruling faculties in all principles is,
investigation ; without this, the judgment is defective. The
wild horses on the prairie are always found arranged in mili-
tary order, with their sentinels and signals to warn the army,
and in one minute the whole company is ready for the con-
test— the colts in the rear and the mothers in front of the
colts, and the line of sires before them, and the general in
front at twenty feet or more, and at his sign or command,
they all go forward in the fight, and if he commands the re-
treat, he is in the rear of all, protecting the weak at all
hazards.

2* ON PRAY OR CART HORSBS.

It is their law to have rear guards to protect the young, or
tlio lame and the old. So you will find it easy to teach them
the natural law of their mind. In training the horse to fight
for you or to fight in the army, you must dress the persons
to fight them in a dress similar to the enemy, as it will aid
them to distinguish the enemy, for if the horses are tormented
by persons with a colored, black, or Indian dress the spite is
there, so you may learn them by disguise, by painting the
face to Huit the case.

On Dray or Cart Horses.

This is to show the practice of the grades that the various
roads show. The strength of one to four as Ma-cadamized,
is 33 to 124. If one horse can haul the load two miles per
hour, it is hard for two to haul it four miles p'er hour, and
you cannot continue the rule up to ten miles per hour, for it
is hard for many to go that without burden. But small num-
bers can go four miles in in twelve minutes. If the best
graded or plank road, a horse can haul two ton at the rate of
two miles per hour, then you will say that two horses can
draw it four miles per hour. This rule is not safe to horses,
if it was, it would say that eight horses could draw it six-
teen ; that would be five hundred pounds to the horse. I
would not recommend any to try such a practice, as the poor
beast would suffer by such vanity.

If you'will use two wheeled carriages, use the swingle-tree,
and as little weight on the back, and have the shafts wide
apart at the hip — four feet, that he may turn as easily as pos-
sible. The shafts should be just above the points of the
shoulder, and so long as to strike the hames and collar — not
the horse's side, and two feet room behind to back out : and
in going in ditches and washes, good gear is important for
good horses, as the guage to scribe the width of the plank,
or compass to form a correct circle. Rule and principle is
to be observed by all that would succeed well. I will recom-
mend the four wheeled drays that are used in Georgia and
South Carolina ; the wheels are low, they will turn under the
body, and the horses work side by side with neck yoke, to
prevent the tongue from striking them, which should be used
in all tongues. I would prefer a two-wheeled dray rather
than the shafts. It would be but little trouble to keep the
weight forward.

TO MANAGE A HORSE THAT SULKS IN HARNESS- 29

To manage a Horse who Sulks in Harness.

First, is to learn the various causes that may confuse him:
that the breeching is not too low on the thighs, or that the
head stall is not to draw up his mouth so that his mouth is
not sore, or the bridle is not too severe, so as to hurt him. If
so, rope the bit, that he may hold it in his teeth, and if the
rings in the harness are not so as to pull him back more than
around, as it is more commonly so. If so, take it out of the
rings of the harness, and the rings of the saddle may hold
it up. If you find him not suited, then let them come to his
side as plow lines ; by this you may lead him to go along ;
you will often find it necessary to go to his head, speak to
him, rub him in the face, turning him to the right and left,
until you find the way he is most inclined to go, and in a
little time he will go your way. If you work him to wheels,
the cart or gig is best, that you may turn him shortly around;
practice this, and do not whip him, and you will soon over-
come him ; some by taking off" the blinds, will obey ; with
others it may be necessary to stop their ears with cotton, and
with it often to stop the sound ; with others, hitch a pair of
horses or oxen to the hind part of the cart, and pull him back,
and repeat this until you give him the word, and he will
not do so any more. Another plan is, to put him to light
burden, and place him with his head to the food or stable ;
let him stand and get thirsty and hungry, and at meal time
try him, and continue until he is willing to go ; then, from
your hand, give him apple, bread, or what he will eat.

We have stated that Oils Rhodium, Annis, and Cinnamon
in equal proportions, put into the nose of the horse, some
ten minutes before you hitch him to a wagon, is very certain
to remove the sullenness. You may do as well with the chest-
nut of one of the legs of another horse, pulverized and blown
into the nose — this is easily obtained. The same may be
used with a wicked and wild horse at first handling. I have
given above, the direction how to use it.

You will manage the sullen horse by stopping his ears with
cotton, and wet it to be tight. Another plan is to hitch to hind
part of a wagon, and make the others pull him back slowly ;
some you will pull back faster, until they are willing to pull
when commanded. If you hitch them in this way, the breech-
ing and belly-band is all important to keep the gear right.
Many of them are so badly geared or driven that they are
confused. In all oases the manager is in fault, for horses do

30 PLANS ON PLANS FOR TEACHING HORSES.

not do anything without a cause. In their natural field they
act in accordance with the law of mind. To go forward ; no
horse has much spirit until the habit is beat into him. There-
fore, if you balk the horse, do not spoil his disposition
by abuse, it is ignorance to spoil him, and worse to abuse
him, for your want of knowledge of the business ; tight reins,
or collar too loose or tight, will gall his neck, or if he is so
blinded by the blinds that he cannot well see the way, it will
tend to cow them, it is often useful to such horses as are
vicious and hard to hold.

If your horse is inclined to run away with you, apply the
draw reins and blind-fold him, but any ordinary woman or
boy can hold any horse with draw-reins.

For sullen and stubborn horses, take a rope three times his
leno-th — tie it to his tail between his legs, and by suddenly
pulling it, he will move on0 rather alarmed ; try this but do
not abuse them.

To introduce the Man to the Horse.

To teach a horse to be kind to others when you have hold
of him, you must let them come and speak to him, and rub
him ; you should have care to repeat the rubbing of him, and
to give him some food to eat, but continue your friendship
until he shows to you quietness ; in some it is but little odds
who controls them ; in others it will be hard to teach them to
obey the white man, while they are kind to ladies, children,
ne«ro, or Indian; and if the person wishes 'to be successful
with the horse, the more his dress is like the owner's the bet-
ter, but be careful of any red or peculiar color, for red is
what they resist.

PLANS ON. PLANS FOR TEACHING HORSES.

Several Plans and other Methods of Gentling Horses and

Mules.

I will place.the best first, and so on, until through therm
If you apply the several plans and practices, the system of
communicating or addressing the five senses, you will do some
good, and not be apt to do any harm. To the two first plans :
you may have a gentle pet colt, but must learn to ride or work
it. The kind boy has as much trouble to learn to work as

RECEIPT FOR TEACHING HORSES. 31

the bad boy. The mere fact that the boy is kind, -will not
prove that he is a mechanic, or a philosopher, or statesman ;
or that the sheep is more teachable than the vicious dog, or
the quiet horse who learns to open the stable door or gate.
The vicious grades, qualities, and dispositions do exist through-
out man and beast, and all creation, and in all grades of ap-
titude. Men have their favorites in business, horse his choice
of all kinds of work, or to ride, in gates, walk, pace, or trot.

To G-entle a horse, mule, or cotv.

Take the oil of Rhodium, oil of Annis, oil of Cinnamon,
three equal parts, and mix them together, and let them smell
it by putting it on your fingers end, and rub it on or in the
nose, and in ten or twenty minutes, they are then ready to
receive your kindness, and your plan of teaching as above
described. It has an astonishing effect on the animals of the
world. I have managed dogs in a wonderful manner by it.
It soothes the wild and timid. With the cow I have never
failed to do all that may be required, when first in Texas,. on
the Brazos, I managed vicious cows, that would run at the
horse, by getting her in a lot and throwing over her the rope,
and tying her to a tree or post, and in fifteen minutes I rub-
bed her all over, milked her, took off the rope, and she re-
mained quiet. When I went back a year after, her owner
said to me that he never had any more trouble with her, and
he had succeeded well with others.

Receipt for Taming horses.

We have stated that by feeding the horse from your hand
it will make him in a short time as fond of you as your doo-
is. If he has no other food but that which he gets from you,
but the more food will suit him, and leran him your will. I
find you will have to learn him to the bridle, and all other
practices to make him suit your purpose. It is common, as
I have said, that many horses have been easily controlled that
were bad disposed, The fact that he was hard to ride, and
it so happened that he was worked first, and he was inclined
to work, that caused the management to be easy, and reverse
to that in riding. So if you find him wild to one, immedi-
ately commenee the other, and this will, in three or six days
supercede the danger of the animal from injuring himself or
you ; and it is advisable to bear in mind, that in all cases,

8*i RBCEUPff FOK TAMING HORSES.

that you have seen, where the dam or sire has been hard to
work or ride, the colts have often partaken of the habits of
them ; get their confidence and you will succeed better in one
hour than you would in a week. I repeat those things as
they are of so much importance.

Sicken horses with Tobacco.

This can be done (and will subdue his vicious disposition,)
by washing him with the decoction of strong tobacco. One
quart will make the nervous horse very sick, others of a bili-
ous temperament, a gallon. If the weather is warm and he
is exercised, it may kill him, if you do not have more than a
common acquaintance with the temperaments, his size, age,
and weather, be sure not to use it. The plan laid down will
serve all if well used.

Receipt for Taming Horses.

One pound of oat meal, a quarter of a pound of honey,
and half a pound of laurence, made into a cake and baked ;
put the cake into your bosom and keep it there until it sweats,
and when the horse has fasted twelve or twenty-four hours,
give it to him to eat, then use him kind and gentle.

Another cruel and hard case is the whip, yet all those whims
have had their friends and admirers, who praise them as some-
thing of much usefulness and worthy of praise. The whip-
ping plan will soon learn the horse to follow, but will not
teach him to work or ride, but will often cause him to be
hard to catch tn the field. The plan of whipping the horse
on the hind legs as he runs around in the stable, after worry-
ing and cowing him, go to him and rub and pet him. If he
does not stand, repeat the whipping and petting, until he will
follow, but do not strike him in the face or on the fore legs,
they are imperfect.

The second best plan is the use of the chestnut or scruf
from the leg of another animal ; it is found on the inside of
the fore leg, above the knee, and on the hind one adjoining
to the hock. By drying it and pulverizing it, and putting it
in a goosequill that will hold a dose for each nostril, it tends
to sicken or stupify them. You then must adopt the system
of teaching him by the plan laid down.

3d. Plan. The Spanish manner is to milk the mare and
mix salt in it, and give it to them from your hand to lick,
same three or four times a dav. In three davs they become

HOW THE STABLE SHOULD BE MADE, 88

fond of you. Adopt this for a while by feeding the hungry,
and it will manage more than force.

All those principles can be applied to other animals, so far
as they should be taught. Bear it in mind, that you have
to hold back some and encourage others, but practice will ac-
complish all you can anticipate.

How the Stable should be made.

The length should be to suit each horse, with eight feet in
the clear, with box for food, and eight feet to turn in, that
he may have above stall a width of ten feet passage, that the
air may be plenty in the warm seasons. Iron rods for all
stalls — the rods of a quarter of an inch will do, the height
should be seven feet, to prevent them from biting each other?
and then they will allow the current of air to pass through,
The windows should be two feet wide and two high, and three
feet from the floor, with iron rods through them to prevent
the horse from jumping through them. Shutters should be
adopted in winter to prevent the rain or snow from beating
in. The height of the second floor should be ten feet, with
sky-lights the length of the stable for light, and to let off the
scent that may arise. If the stable is not clean, do not put
the food into it, as the scent will spoil it.

I would recommend that the shutters for the doors for sum-
mer be frame work ; wood, with iron rods for slats, to allow
the air to come freely through the house ; the suffering from
the heat will take away the appetite, cause them to feed ir-
regularly, and by so doing cause them to eat too much? and
give them the colic. For this reason it is better to be too
cold than too warm. It is far better for horses to feed in the
open air in warm weather than in stables, if he is shaded by
roof or trees to shelter him from the sun. Some shady
ground or plowed lots for them to wallow on so as to dry
themselves, for the sweat and dirty feeling prevents them
from eating. If the weather is not cold, pour water or that
which has been in the sun for some time to get warm, it will
suit to wash them in rivers or small streams, or by pouring on
with the bucket, is best in cleaning, and helps to free them
from fever, as all horses and mules have by laborious motion,
and excited fevers. This should be done after feeding.

The stable is best when it is high enough to clear the head
of the rider, and it should be close that he may not see out —
that his attention may be to you, and the animal has been
well run around you until disposed to stand, and has been
learned to lie down, and is disposed to submit, have the sad-
dle fastened on tight and strong, then place yourself close by
5

34 HOW THE STABLE SHOULD BE MADE.

his side, standing in a manner that you can look between his
ears, and in that manner you will easily and quickly rise in
the saddle. Before raising, rub him over the head and neck,
speaking quietly to him, then mount him ; do not mount until
he stands — try to have him stand when you mount and dis-
mount ; do not have him move if you can keep him still. In
the first corner get up three times — then three times to each
corner of the stable ; lead him to the corners.

This should be done with all horses once around, and as
much oftener as you please. By so doing, and riding them
around the stable three »r more times — to the right, then to
the left — and j practicing them in this manner, until quiet,
which you can do in one hour, I have the first to rear or cut
up, then practice this out of the lot. I would prefer loose
or wet ground, or in deep snow, that is six or more inches
deep. For this reason persons succeed well in working horses
to sleighs. In such conditions they fear to fall themselves.
Always talk to them, you will not say too much, but often too
little, as it keeps their attention from other things and to you.
If the fright is great, speak louder and faster — keep the head
towards the alarm. Teach them all things, and then ride them.

In riding all young beasts lead them to the side of another
horse, so that they will scare less, and will soon learn to fol-
low. The best time to learn a horse to walk, is when young
and it is most important to stick to a trot without breaking
up. If you are fearful of his throwing you over his head,
you may prop it by a fork under his chin, and a collar of rope
around his neck to hold the lower end, not to go down to the
legs ; thus you may prop his head as high as you please and
prevent all pitching over the head. This will, if the head
is high, make his steps short and slow. To confine the three
first day's work to walk, is all proper, and will do more to
gentle them than any excitement will do, as it tends to make
them scarey.

Never strike them for scareing, for it is sure to make them
more scarey ; they are inclined to stop when they scare or
shy around. Thus it is best to adopt their law until you can
adopt them to know yours by patience ; in ten or twenty days
you can have kind and obedient horses. This is mor« than
you can train the child to do in the same length of time. By
patience you are well paid, and acting in accordance with the
law of mind and matters, to act otherwise is showing the
want of reflection and of the mercy we owe to the dumb
beast of our comforts. Will you not be just to the servant of
your many blessings ? Will you have them to mourn and cry
for mercy when they only require, for all their toil and suf-
fering here, the mere food and water.

36 LANGUAGE OF THE HORSE.

LANGUAGE OF THE HORSE.

The language of the horse is proven to all well-observing
gentlemen ; yet their signs are so simple as never to mistake
each other. His language is so easily learned, so far as we
are concerned, and we need it daily for the purpose of know-
ing the designs of the horse, that we may tell him not to jump
or run off. There are many lives lost that might be saved ;
such was the fate of one of the gallant officers in the late
battles of our country, whose life might have been saved
had he, when young, given five dollars, and devoted one day's
time to acquire a knowledge of the signs conveyed by the
motions of the horse, instead of his entire devotion to Latin
and Greek, a knowledge of which it took him, no doubt, years
to acquire.

It is necessary to learn in this particular manner, because
tiis eyes, nose, ears and feet, are the means of obtaining evi-
dence to examine the various things of this life, upon which
he makes up his opinion, and if he has it in his power, he
carries out his design ; if he is overpowered, he will stand
like a soldier and not move. If badly treated, and once gets
loose, he endeavors to keep so, and makes the most powerful
efforts to remain free. God has blessed him with those facul-
ties for self-possession ; his eyes are better at night than
man's, his ears comprehend sound, his nose enables him to
«mell his enemy at a distance of a mile ; so if any are lying
hidden he is able to smell him, and for this reason all wild
animals run with the wind in their noses, which enables them
to smell their hidden enemy.

The smell of the man is so often changed by eating and
drinking that it often alarms one of those five senses of which
be knowns it is all important to keep him quiet ; this is not
the case with the horse. God has blessed him with the sense
of examining for himself, and with this sense he uses the mind
to consider all the particulars ; he prefers his own senses to
any other ; he has a natural desire to look and examine for
himself ; if he neglects noticing one thing he might neglect
"it in eating and swallowing poison, or let some wild beast
pounce upon him and devour him,

DIALOGUE BETWEEN MAN AND HORSE

Man — "I wish to put my hands on your face and come near

you."

Horse — "If so, you must let me see that you will not hurt
me, nor will have anything about you that will, nor anything
that smells badly. I am a stranger to you ; all that will of-
fend any ef the five senses I will be compelled to guard against,
and those senses must have the proof that you will not hurt
me before I will allow them to be on me."

Man — I "wish to put my hand all over you ?"

Horse — "This you may do by commencing at the face.
Commence rubbing on the face and repeat it, then pass en
down the neck, first as slight as possible, and as I become
used to it rub the harder. Remember always to rub the way
the hair lies smooth. My tail is, that when I play, h*l<4 up
high ; as pride and beauty, you must be careful to handle it ;
but after you raise it, repeat it ; raise it, put it down several
times until it goes up quietly ; it becomes habituated by
use."

Man — "Then the more I rub you, and repeat it, the quieter
you get ?"

Horse — "It is so in all beasts."

Man — "I wish to show you a pretty blanket to learn you
to let the man's coat or lady's dress hang down by your side,
and in winter to keep you warm?"

Horse — "You have shown me that you would feed me, and
-other new things have not hurt me ; I will let you use tBe
blanket about my face as soon as I can see and smell it, then

38 DIALOGUE BETWEEN MAN AND HORSE.

feci and hear the rattle, I will better understand it. If you
change it for one of another color I want to look at it and
examine its quality."

Man — "I will then spread it quietly over you, and repeat
it, then let it hang down at the tail, let it fall off at the heels
and sides for a while, then I will fasten it to the tail ; this
will use you to the things falling off of your saddle or person,
that you will not scare or kick them.

Will you let me hang a rope over you, about the creases of
the neck, so as to let it drag along to your legs, and then
over the back to hang against the hips, and as you turn to
rub the hocks ; then to put on the gear, and fasten a rope to
the ends of it to let you become used to them, and put lines
on your back?"

Horse — "Yes sir, you will do it quietly, not have the rope
too hard or rough, to make me think it is a snake biting, or
thorns sticking in me. If you put on the gear and lines,
there are so many things about me at one time, I want you
to put me by the side of my old acquaintance Ball, for I have
often seen him in the wagon, and the side that is against him
I am not fearful of being hurt, and where he goes I will go.
Young horses are fond of following their old friends, but you
must remember not to have me encumbered by a lot of gear,

and then — or to have things knocking and jerking

about."

Man — "How shall you be startled, if you will go before I
will follow ; I want to feel my way five steps at first, or less
than that ; if alarmed, then let me know if anything is wrong
by rubbing me over the face and neck, then after starting
and stopping some three or four times you will understand
that?"

Horse — "If you fasten me to such things and rush me off,
and commence fighting me, I will then commence rearing and
jerking to get loose, and free from such abuse ; remember
that confidence lost is hard to restore. Remember that all
have to learn, and practice is important in exercise.

Man — "Your practice of the use of the bridle, and
friendly acquaintance with me, will you not allow me to ride
you:

Horse — "Yes, if you will show me you will not hurt me.
This is done by your rubbing me over the face, neck, and
body, then get close along by my side and rising quietly in
the stirrup, then down in the same place until I can know
your will. Now, I am inclined to go with Ball round the
fields to learn how to walk and to turn to the right and left ;

DIALOGUE BETWEEN MAN AND HoRSE. 3(J

there are cases that we learn to turn but one way, sometimes
from sore mouth, other times from the tongue of the wagon
striking against them, other times from alarm of gear, others
from whips so as to pull more than I know how ; consequently
I look for the whip and begin jumping up in confusion."

Man — "How shall we learn you better than by taking level
pieces of ground, the wagon can be easily drawn slowly and
quietly, and repeatedly practiced until it is well done. To
be well done must be well practiced, for the mind to compre-
hend or design ?"

Horse — "How can you learn me to stand if you never have
no plans or signs for me to comprehend the difference of going
or standing. I am always looking for the whip or a jerk of
the bridle."

Man — "If you are to know my will, I cannot let you know
but by first letting you know my design until understood ; as
for your stopping, I then speak to let you know I wish you to

go along ; but if you repeat this you know that — but

as soon as you come to me and commence whipping me and
halloo wha, I then look for the whip ; whenever you halloo
wha, confidence is lost in you and I am looking for whip, and
friend horse shows signs for us to be off."

Horse — "If I am to stand while you get on me, or for you
to get seated in your carriage, or otherwsie, you must first
take the reins in your hand, then speak to me to let me know
when to go ; for if I am to be always on the look for the whip
for the sign to start by, I will be ofi' in time to keep clear of
it ; for between two opinions, doubting both, it is certain to
be as often wrong as right, but guess if you are ready or
not."

Man — "How shall I learn you the acquaintance of umbrel-
las,, handkerchiefs, my hat, gun, or buffalo-skin, and many
other things you will meet with?"

Horse — "All those things are easy; first you must rub me
in the face to get my attention, and then let me look at it in a
quiet manner and not get me scared and fearful of it, for I
cannot always relieve myself of it at my will ; after I look I
want to smell it, then to feel it, then hear the rattle of it ; if
I feel it at the time you rattle it, I more clearly comprehend
it. First commence slowly and continue until understood. —
Fire off the gun, at first it should be upwards, as this is a
new thing to me."

Let the smoke and all be blown from the face of the horse,
for in all cases are changed as soon. In various cases he will
stand whilst the fire goes up, when under foot, or at the nose,

40 DIALOGUE BETWEEN MAN AND HORSE.

many causes much alarm ; some stand well in the woods, others
will not let persons stand around them and fire. In all cases of
noise keep the face in direction of the noise ; steamboat ov
car, as it passes turn their face to it ; it is a natural desire to.
see all things that they hear or smell.

Man — "How do you like the drum?"

Horse — "It is pleasing to the organ of combativeness, a&
soon as I find it will not hurt me.

Let me look at it and smell it, then rub it against my neck
and shoulders, and where it is to rub me as you ride ; then
lightly tapping it, then smell it, rub it on me ; soon I will be
alter you with it, for I am inclined to give my attention to new
things, keep my eyes in the direction of the sound, it is easy
to get me to follow the drum, or any other music in like man-
ner.

Man — "A flag is pretty in the breeze and sunshine ?"

Horse — "Yes, it is."

Man — "You are fearful of its motion ?"

Horse — "Yes I am."

Man — "They are all pretty things, innocent, sweet, and
good for the horse.

Now the best way is to use the senses God has given you
for your safety, for one failure would lose your life by poison,
as you are surrounded by poisonous snakes ; but remember
to see you are right, then go ahead?"

Horse — "It is in this case as in all others ; or let it be the
covering always a flymg about ; fold it up, let me see, smell,
and rub it over my face ; then commence slowly by waving it
over me, and as soon as the proof is enough all is right.

In many cases it is better to put on first the bridle with
the gagerarion side reins, martingales and crupper, to hold
the head and all in one attitude, that he is more willing to
hear your friendly and quiet offering. In this manner you
will soon let him know your will in repeated proofs, and all is
right then. As soon as it is done, you then change the bri-
dle'; you should begin by showing the same, if he then receives
it quietly you may forever depend upon him, if there be no
cause for change.

Man — "Why do you pull back when I go into your stall?"

Horse — "I am fearful of you, if you will put your hand on
the hip before you come in, and let me know you will not hurt
me, I will stand."

Man — "You appear to have been displeased with this stall
ever since you got hurt and scared here?"

Horse — "I never like misfortune nor the places that cause
them, for it is bad memory that forgets them."

DIALOGUE BETWEEN MAN AND HORSE. 41

f

Man — Why are you fearful of the bridle?"
Horse — "My mouth has been hurt by it and the fingers,
my ears pulled, sometimes my eyes ; flies have hurt them ; I
am trying to take care."

Man — "I will put on the bridle to let you know my will ;
check-reins, martingale, and crupper to hold all fast ; so you
are compelled to hold still ; then quietly handle the ears and
lips ; I find there is no hurt, all is right. I will in this case
put on and take off another bridle over this until all is right.
It may be important in some cases to do so with other things,
or to spread a blanket over them, and over the head', and one
down the back to the heels."

Horse — "I am more cautious than fearful. I do not fear
the blanket ; after examining it closely you may fasten it to
my tail, after putting it over the head and down the back to
the heels, andletting it fall at the heels and side ; but be care-
ful in opening it and spreading it over the body, and frequently
letting it go to the tail if it does not cause me to stir up the
dust, or in some degree tend to alarm me, you may know it
is all right. If you wish it to drag after me, first let there
be a piece of cloth hung on each side of me, some six or eight
yards long, so as to rub each side of me at the same time ;
after this is done fasten it to my tail. Let me be as wild as
I may, in all cases have me by the bridle, and rub me in the
face, speaking kindly to me, and not make me move only by
my own will."

Man — "If you are alarmed at anything around you and
will not move quietly, the best way is to show you that you
will not be hurt, then you will move off quietly ; so when you
are alarmed you had best stand until the alarm is over, to
prevent a fright."

Horse — "When you wish me to get on a bridge, ice, or in a
boat, or into a strange stable or ^narrow walk, how will you
manage to accomplish your design?"

Man — "I will go before you and show you the best way.
I am inclined to look around at it in as many different ways as
possible, so by turning about and leading up on one side of the
place and then the other ; sometimes the difference of the width
of ^he door, the trial will succeed gently. Be careful, the less
you suppose the better ; as like begets like, he is soon to con-
tend."

Horse — "Remember that all animals are desirous of regular
exercise to wear off the unpleasant feelings produced by stand-
ing, and want of water and motion ; it is necessary to quiet
and compose the system ; for those cause a horse to be gentle ;
6

42 DIALOGUE BETWEEN WAN AND HORSE.

is in a better condition to remain in dry, but that he may be
hungry and ready to receive your kind offer of some good
food, and then exercise prepares them for further teaching,
In many cases you exercise the horse and teach him the use
of the blanket on his back, or to the rope over the body and
along his sides and legs, to learn him not to kick ; you
should not fasten the rope to anything as it only tends to
scare him."

Man — "Will you lay down on a sand bank or plowed land,
or on a snow pile that is free from sticks or stones, and all that
is calculated to hurt you?"

Horse — ''I am cautious where to place my body, as I will
look around me to see if there is anything in my way before
I lay down."

Man — "How shall I teach you to lay down ?"

Horsa — "First rub my fore leg on the inside and out until
I find you will not hurt it, then take it up and put it down
until I can know there will be no hurt, then loop around the
leg to hold it up for fear of its slipping off, then tie a string
between the leg and foot."

Put on him the sirsingle, fasten it on top of the back, that
you can unfasten it as soon as he lays down, it being very
tight, if he is inclined to resist it, he cannot well rear up.

If the horse has not learned to lead, try pulling the bridle,
and he will pull back ; this will bring him to his knees, and
after remaining in this position a short while he will lie down.
Now he is down let him remain until you see he is quiet, then
approach his face slowly, then first touch him on the face, then
rub him down to the foot. Remember always at first to touch
lightly, and as you repeat it, the more firmly, and rub them
one way, and that is with the hair, to make it smooth, as they
are naturally fond of this treatment. Cows, in the winter,
by their acts, and also other animals show proof of this fact,
as those you see that lick themselves look best.

Man- — "What advantage is there in teaching you to lay
down ? In some cases there is none, but all horses are aware
of their condition ; some that are wild after being handled
in this way seem to be convinced that they will not be hurt,
and as they become more convinced by rubbing their legs and
flanks, or any other part that will tend to quiet them while
down ; but if any accident has previously happened to him,
you can fasten him and do what is necessary ; so all that will
make him docile is calculated to make him more useful and
safe."

Horse — "All teaching is best that is quietly performed,

DIALOGUE BETWEEN MAN AND HORSE. 43

and then repeated until Avell understood ; all would perform
this; after it is practiced some several times, you may take
hold of the foot and the bridle and cause them to lie down,
and you may, by fastening up the leg, then gently tapping
them on the front part of the leg, will cause them to lie down
at your command ; if you wish them to sit up on their hips
you must place their fore feet out before them, then let them
rise gently, and you should stand close to their sides to hold
the bridle, and press against them that you may steady them
up ; in some instances of this kind it is better to use the curb
bridle, yet you should be cautious not to hurt the mouth, as
it is calculated to produce bad habits.

Man — "You have long been rearing, kicking, pitching and
placing your head between your legs V

Horse — "All creation resents mistreatment, and this is the
cause of these actions ; some are inclined to practice them
more than others."

Man — "You say in some cases they are forced to do wronc
and some you are forced to make them do right ; there are
various ways to force them to obedience. The first is to fas-
ten them together with a strong rope around their neck, giv-
ing them not more than one foot apart, so that they cannot
rear up and fall down, then leading them about to let them
know they are fast, mount them and dismount them ; in this
manner no horse can throw his rider. Another method is to
have a leather stvap, so strong that it cannot be broken, and
drawn around the waist so tight that he cannot rear up. —
Another is to put on them side lines, as represented in the
plate, to learn a horse to pace."

Horse — "Pur reason and observation teach us that things
to be done well, the mind must well comprehend the subject
of it, and practice makes it the more perfect."

It is so in man and horse, in his walk or in his dance, or in
his pace, rack, or in his leap, or in man's leaps or hops, and
the progression growrs the better form in man or horse for
action. This perform the better height in man, length in
horse, and width and strength in other animals being equally
the better ; this is to show that time is necessary to practice
well all things in a man, it takes him to the age of twenty or
twenty-five years to have that dignified walk and becoming
motion in his possession, often to thirty-fire. So it is found
in the horse, the best sp^ed in trot and pace requires from
seven to nine, and greater number of horses both great and
small, are, from want of better knowledge, in good strength
and action from various causes, many by use in the early part

44

DIALOGUE BETWEEN MAN AND HOR6E.

of life before the system is formed, as many are crooked in
legs from it, the teeth matures with the bones, the ribs are
all close together at three years, at four the ribs nearest the
hip become farthest apart, and for each year afterwards the
ribs continue to seperate until all are free from each other,
and by this you may know the age by feeling.

How to treat your horse when you wish to catch him in the
pasture or forest : first in going to him approach him quietly,
if he should be inclined to move around you, stand and let
him compose himself, and stand and look him when he looks
at you ; when he is apparently composed, you may slowly
approach him, if he moves, stop ; and when this is practised
you will soon teach him to wait your motion ; if he holds his
head towards you, you will soon succeed, and when you get
to him give him something from your hand, then turn him
loose and go to him again ; continue this process until you
make yourself familiar with him. If his mouth is sore, as
young horses are apt to be, he may turn his lips towards you,
this is an indication that he is fearful that his mouth will be
hurt ; but try and get to him, for if you have done as you
are told, he will not kick ; as soon as his mouth gets well, he
will turn his head again ; if he is inclined to be wicked, for
your own safety put around his neck a hair or cotton rope,
(as this kind lasts best), about thirty or forty feet long, so
that you may get hold of it and soon learn him to stand ; in
all cases be careful to fasten the rope close up to the head
that it may not choke him, as more danger occurs by letting
it come low down, because sometimes in pulling the rope it
might slip over the ears and break the neck ; this should also
be observed in the like process in stables.

THE MEANS OF OBTAINING A GOOD SEAT.

I do not attempt to teach here the profession of riding-
masters, but the importance of a good seat ; which you must
have if you wish to ride easy to self and horse. The seat to
be a good one, the saddle must be well formed — large enough
in length and width to permit you to set easy, so that you
are not pressed forward or backward, and so wide as to let
the thighs hold a part of their own weight, and not be allowed
to drag. And they should not drag all on the hip joints, for
all such pivots will chafe and often blister the thighs. The
height of the saddle behind and before, should be great enough
to support the body if the animal should stumble or jump ;
so now you will readily see the true attitude is for the weight
to pass from the centre of the head to the neck, down the
spine on the imvard side to the seat, which shows that the
straightest position is the most easy and natural, with the
bridle in the left hand, the style and manner that you see
all the best and safest riders pursue.

If you have not practised this manner of riding, it is easily
learnt, and once you get accustomed to it, you will say it is
more easy, natural, and far more safe ; it is often that per-
sons do not like to ride on horseback, because they have not
learnt the true manner of riding. I would invite you to read
Mr. Buchanan's Method of Horsemanship. It is certain you
cannot manage your horse well until you first learn how to
manage yourself. If you apply yourBelf there iB pleasure,

46 TO OBTAIN A GOOD SEAT.

the reverse is displeasure. By strict observation it has been
ascertained that the most awkward can be learnt to ride well
in a few weeks' time. A quiet and spirited horse is the best
to learn to ride on ; its habits should be submissive to the
bridle-reins, notted so as to be at the command of the hand.

I would recommend to those who wish to know how to give
their horses a superior style of standing, moving, elevation
of head, curving of .the neck, carrying the ears forward,
carrying a graceful tail, moving with their feet well under
them, which gives a light and graceful movement, and will
improve them in paying attention and carrying their ears
forward, which attitude will make them scare much less, and
at the same time will give you a complete command of the
bridle. This is the natural attitude in applying their strength
and action in throwing the nose out and head up, the reverse
power is lost. Think of yourself, and the reverse and power
is lessened in proportion to the natural attitude.

I would recommend persons to read Mr. Bucher's Method
of Horsemanship ; this work is printed in Philadelphia, Pa.;
he shows many good things in accomplishing the education
for style, movement, and graces. I look upon the accomp-
lishment in the same light as I do of a well accomplished gen-
tleman or lady who is taught to move and dance.

This education can be given by any person that is in the
habit of handling them, and can be taught by my pupils in
less time than he proposes, which adds equally to the style
that accomplishments do to ladies and gentlemen of the best
quality in a shorter time, as one is more habitual than the
other. The value of the animal is much increased by the
good style he is taught to move in submission to the easy
motion of the rider, fearless without stumbling or tripping.
If you wish a horse of superior style these things must be
taught to make his motions natural and easy. All can be
much improved and all that show as Military Horses should
be handled by the same plan. All ladies' horses must be
taught perfect submission, as it makes the hard-mouth sub-
mit to the ladies' delicate motion.

By examining the principles of Bucher and myself, you
will have more testimony of the truth of both authors,
and enable you to practice them.

ON CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. 47

OF CRUELTY TO ANIMALS.

Shame upon thee, savage Monarch-man, proud monopolist of rea-
son ; t

Shame upon Creation's lord, the fierce ensanguined despot :

What, man ! are there not enough, hunger, and diseases, and fa-
tigue,—

And yet must thy goad or thy thong add another sorrow to exis-
tence?

What! art thou not content, thy sin hath dragged down suffering
and death

On the poor dumb servants of thy comfort, and yet must thou rack
them with thy spite ?

The prodigal heir of creation hath gambled away his all, —

Shall he add torment to the bondage that is galling his forfeit serfs?

The leader in nature's paean himself hath marred her psaltery,

Shall he multiply the din' of discord by overstraining all the strings ?

The rebel hath fortified his stronghold, shutting in his vassals with
him,—

Shall he aggravate the woes of the besieged by oppression from
within ?

Thou twice deformed image of thy Maker, thou hateful represen-
tative of Love,

For very shame be merciful, be kind unto the the creatures thou
hast ruined;

Earth and her million tribes are cursed for thy sake,

Earth and her million tribes still writhe beneath thy cruelty :

Liveth there but one among the million that shall not bear witness
against thee,

A pensioner of land or air or sea, that hath not whereof it will
accuse thee ?

From the elephant toiling at a launch, to the shrew-mouse in the
harvest field,

From the whale which the harpooner hath stricken, to the minnow
caught upon a pin,

From the albatross wearied in its flight, to the wren in her covered
nest,

From the death-moth and lace-winged dragon fly, to the lady-bird
and gnat

The verdict of all things is unanimous, finding their master cruel :

The dog, thy humble friend, thy trusting, honest friend ;

The ass, thy uncomplaining slave, drudging from morn to even ■
The lamb, and the timorous hare, and the laboring ox at plough •
The speckled trout basking in the shallow, and the partridge glean-
ing in the stubble,

48 ON CRUELTY TO ANIMALS.

And the stag at bay, and the worm in thy path, and the wild bird

pining in captivity,
And all things that minister alike to thy life, and thy comfort, and

thy pride,
Testify with one sad voice man is a cruel master.

Verily they are all thine: freely mavst thou serve thee of them
all:

They are thine by gift for thy needs, to be used in all gratitude and
kindness :

Gratitude to their God and ihinc, — their Father and thy Father,

Kindness to them who toil for thee, and help thee with their all:

For meat, but not by wantonness of slaying: for burden, but with
limits of humanity;

For luxury, but not through torture ; for draught, but according to
the strength;

For a dog cannot plead his own right, nor render a reason for ex-
emption,

Nor give a soft answer unto wrath, to turn aside the undeserved
lash ;

The galled ox cannot complain, nor supplicate a moment's respite ;

The spent horse hideth his distress, till he panteth out his spirit at
the goal;

Also, in the winter of life, when worn by constant toil,

If ingratitude forget his services, he cannot bring them to remem-
brance ;

Behold, he is faint with hunger ; the big tear standeth in his eye ;

His skin is sore with stripes ; and he tottereth beneath his burden;

His limbs are stiff with age, his sinews have lost their vigour,

And pain is stamped upon his face, while he wrestleth unequally

with toil ;
Yet once more mutely and meekly endureth he the crushing blow;
That struggle hath cracked his heart-strings, — the generous brute

is dead !
Liveth there no advocate for him ? no judge to avenge his wrongs ?
No voice that shall be heard in his defence ? no sentence to be passed

on his oppressor ?
Yea, the sad eye of the tortured pleadeth pathetically for him ;
Yea, all the justice in heaven is aroused in indignation at his woes;
Yea, all the pity upon earth shall call down a curse upon the

cruel ;
Yea, the burning malice of the wicked is their own exceeding

punishment.
The Angel of Mercy stoppeth not to comfort, but passeth by on the

other side,
And hath no tear to shed when a cruel man is damned.

DEFENCE OF NEUROLOGY.

"The man is thought a knave or fool,

Or bigot plotting crime,
Who for the advancement of his kind

Is wiser than his time.
For him the hemlock shall distil;

For him the' axe be bared ;
For him the gibbet shall be built;

For him the stake prepared ;
Him shall the the scorn and wrath of men

Pursue with deadly aim ;
And malice, envy, spite and lies

Shall desecrate his name.
But truth shall conquer at the last,

For round and round we run,
And ever the right comes uppermost.

And ever is justice clone.

•'Pace through thy cell, old Socrates.

Cheerily to and fro ;
Trust to the impulse of thy soul

And let the poison flow.
They may shatter to earth the lamp of clay

That holds the light divine.
But they cannot quench the fire of thought

By any such deadly wine ;
They cannot blot thy spoken words

From the memory of man,
By all the poison ever was bruised

Since time its course began.
To-day abhorred, to-morrow adored,

So round and round we run,
And ever the truth comes uppermost,

And ever is justice done.

"Plod in thy cave, grey anchorite,

Be wiser than thy peers;
Augment the range of human power,

And trust to coming years,
They may call the wizzard and monk accursed,

And load thee with dispraise ;
Thou wert born five hundred years too soon

Eor the comfort of thy days.
But not too soon for human kind,

Time hath reward in store,
And the demons of our stories become

The saints that we adore.

7

50 DEFENCE OF NEUROLOGY

The blind can see, the slave is lord ;

So round and round we run ;
And ever the wrong is proved to be wrong,

And ever is justice done.

"Keep, Galileo, to thy thought,

And nerve thy soul to bear ;
They may gloat o'er the senseless words they ring

From the pangs of thy despair ;
They may veil their eyes, but they cannot hide

The sun's meridian glow ;
The heel of a priest may tread thee down.

And a tyrant work the woe ;
But never a truth has been destroyed ;

They may curse and call it crime ;
Pervert and betray, or slander andelay

Its teachers for a time ;
But the sunshine aye shall light the sky

As round and round we run;
And truth shall ever come uppermost,

And justice shall be done.

•'And live theve now such men as these —

With thoughts like the great of old;
Many have died in their misery,

And left their thought untold;
And many live, and are ranked as mad,

And placed in the cold world's ban,
For si nding their bright, far-seeing souls

Three centuries in the van.
They toil in penury and grief,

Unknown, if not malign'd;
Forlorn, forlorn, bearing the scorn

Of the meanest of mankind.
But yet the world goes round and round,

As the genial seasons run,
And ever the truth comes uppermost,

And ever is justice done."
/

"The spirit of Liberalism, he remarked, was rising in this
ao-e as a mighty power, before which the despotisms of Eu-
' rope, the power of Mammon, and the spirit of bigotry, were
trembling in their strongholds. In this free country political
despotism had been crushed, and the tyranny of opinion in
science and religion was meeting with the same fate. The
whole army of Reformers (of whom many were present) were
marching to a sure and brilliant triumph. Medical and scien-
tific reformers were leading an important section of this army,

INQUIRY CONCERNING THE SOULS OF BRUTES. 51

and they with the reformers of morals and religion would
march side by side — their standards floating together and
often meeting in the great crusade against evil and ignorance
for the redemption of the race."

AN INQUIRY CONCERNING THE SOULS OF
BRUTES.

"Are these then made in vain? Is man alone.

Of all the marvels of creative love,

Blest with a scintillation of His essence —

The heavenly spark of reasonable soul?

And hath not yon sagacious dog, that finds

Or the huge elephant, that lends his strength

To drag the stranded galley to the shore,

And strives with emulative pride to excel

The mindless crowd of slave chat toil beside him ;

Or the young generous war-horse, when he sniffs

The distant field of blood, and quick and shrill

Neighing for joy, instills a desperate courage

Into the veteran trooper's quailing heart, —

Have they not all an evidence of soul,

(Of soul, the proper attribute of man,)

The same in kind, though meaner in degree ?

Why should not that which hath been — be forever ?

And death, O, can it be anihilation?

No. — though the stolid atheist fondly clings

To that last hope, how kindred to despair !

No, — 'tis the struggling spirit's hour of joy,

The glad emancipation of the soul,

The moment when the cumbrous fetters drop,

And the bright spirit wings its way to heaven I

" To say that God annihilated aught,
Were to declare that in an unwise hour
He planned and made somewhat superfluous.
Why should not the mysterious life that dwells
In reptiles as in man, and shows itself
In memory, gratitude, love, hate pride,
Still energize and be, though death may crush
Yon frugal ant. or thoughtless butterfly,
Or, with the simoom's pestilential gale
, Strike down the patient camel in the desert?

" There is one chain of intellectual soul,

In many links and various grades, throughout

62 INQUIRY CONCERNING THE SOULS OF BRUTES.

The scale of nature; from the climax bright,

The first great Cause of all, Spirit supreme,

Incomprehensible, and uncon fined,

To high archangels blazing near the throne,

Seraphim, cherubim, virtues, aids, and powers,

All capable of perfection in their kind : —

To man, as holy from his Maker's hand

He stood in possible excellence complete,

(Man, who is destined now to brighter glories,- —

As nearer to the present God, in One

His Lord and Substitute, — than angles reach ;)

Then man has fallen, with every varied shade

Of character and capability,

From him who reads his title to the skies,

Or grasps, with giant-mind, all nature's wonders,

Down to the monster-shaped, in human form,

Murderer, slavering fool, or blood-stained savage ;

Then to the prudent elephant, the dog

Half-humanized, the docile Arab horse,

The social beaver, and contriving fox,

The parrot, quick in pertinent reply,

The kind-affectioned seal, and patriot bee,

The merchant-storing ant, and wintering swallow.

With all those other palpable emanations

And energies of one Eternal Mind

Pervading and instructing all that live,

Down to the sentient grass and shrinking clay.

In truth, I see not why the breath of life,

Thus omipresent, and upholding all,

?hould not return to Him and be immortal,

(I dare not say the same.) in some glad state

Originally destined for creation,

As well from brutish bodies, as from man.

The uncertain glimmer of analogy

Suggests the thought, and reason's shrewder guess ;

Yet revelation whispers nought but this, —

' Our Father careth when a sparrow dies,

And that ' the spirit of a brute descends,'

As to some secret and preserving Hades.

" But for some better life, in what strange sort

Were justice, mixed with mercy, dealt to these 2

Innocent slaves of sorded, guilty man,

Poor unthanked drudges, toiling to his will,

Pampered in youth, and haply starved in age.

Obedient, faithful, gentle, though the spur,

Wantonly cruel, or unsparing thong,

Weal your galled hides, or your strained sinews crack

Beneath the crushing load, — what recompense

Gan He who gave you being render you,

ENQUIRY CONCERNING THE SOULS OF BRUTES. 53

If in the rank, full harvest of your griefs

Ye sink annihilated, to the shame

Of government unequal?— In that day

When crime is sentenced, shall the cruel heart

Boast uncondemned, becase no tortured brute

Stands there accusing? Shall the embodied deeds

Of man not follow him, nor the rescued fly

Bear its kind witness to the saving hand?

Shall the mild Brahmin stand in equal sin

Regarding nature's menials, with the wretch

Who flays the moaning Abyssinian ox

Or roasts the living bird, or flogs to death

The famishing pointer? — and must these again.

These poor, unguilty, uncomplaining victims,

Have no reward for life with its sharp pains ? —

They have my suffrage ; Nineveh was spared,

Though Jonah prophesied its doom, for sake

Of sixscore thousand infants, * much cattle ;'

And space is wide enough for every grain

Of the broad sands that curb our swelling seas,

Each separate in its sphere to stand apart

As far as sun from sun ; there lacks not room,

Nor time, nor care, where all is infinite." — Tupper.

THE THEORETICAL

EDUCATION OF
DOGS.

SPORTING

" The good sportsman makes the good dog ;" all the secret
consists in knowing when to punish him and when to reward.
The showman's dog daily makes this reflection : " If I do not
jump I shall be beaten, my master gives me nothing to eat,
he prevents my sleeping ; if I jump I shall eat, drink, and
be caressed ; let us jump ;" and he jumps. Imitate the show-
man. Your words, whether harsh or soft, your caresses or
your lashes, should be so regulated as to cause ideas to find
place in the habits of your young dog. The moment he can
run, you should occupy yourself with his education ; take him
out walking, accustom him to your voice, and make him obey
you. You should also accustom him early to the noise of
your gun. I have known dogs, with regard to which this pre-
caution has not been taken, being frightened at the report.
After his name, the first words made known to him ought to
be "to hear;" these should be repeated on every occasion
when you call him to your side; caress him when he obeys,
punish him when he disobeys. But his punishment should
be light ; content yourself with a few harsh words and a shake
of the whip.

The dog is by nature very sagacious and intelligent; he
loves his master ; profit by this : act with patience and temper,

THE SPORTSMAN 55

and consequently only punish him when he does not do what
he knows he ought to do. It is dreadful to see a sportsman
breaking the ribs of his dog with the whip ; the poor beast
crouches at the feet of his master, licks his hand, and seems
to say, " Why do you beat ? teach me what to do, and I will
do it ; I ask no better. "

The moment the master has spoken the dog should obey ;
you must not, however, omit anything, above all at the com-
mencement : but never punish him, not even by harsh words,
till he has learned and understands that which you desire of
him. His obedience should be repaid by many caresses ; a
few kind words he readily understands, and knows well how
to show his gratitude. You should therefore be prodigal of
kindness, and at the same time avaricious of punishment.
The dog delights in flattery ; carressed by the voice and gest-
ure, he feels even the severity of your look, and a quick word
is a still greater punishment. Then comes the threat of the
whip ; then a light pull of the ear ; then a little more se-
verity ; the lash only on great occasions, and this should only
be resorted to in extreme measures, in cases of absolute ne-
cessity. Proportion the punishment always to the fault, and
when your dog, having been chastised, finishes by, obeying,
double your caresses ; he knows and feels the difference, and
will profit by the lesson. During your walk, take the pre-
caution to study the character of your young dog. If he is
gentle and timid, act with much management ; if he is wild
Avickedand cunning, be severe. You are his lord and master ;
he should read his destiny in your eyes. A word from you
ought to make him tremble ; another ought to make him jump
with joy. But, above all, be careful to make use of the same
expressions to obtain the same result. The language of dogs
does not admit of synonymes ; it requires technical terms, and
the vocabulary is of no great lengh. You should occupy
yourself personally with his education ; another voice than
your own will disturb his ideas ; the inflictions will no longer
be the same, and the animal will understand nothing.

When your dog is for some time accustomed to this passive
obedience, the base of his education, that he comes to you the
instant you call him, stops his gambols and his fun at the
slightest word from your mouth : you must instruct him to
lie down at your command ; the front legs should be elon-
gated, the rear ones placed under him. Your dog should
always take this position the moment that with a loud voice
you cry out "Down." Soon he will attain this habit, and
the slightest sign of your hand be sufficient U cause him to

56 AND HIS D0(1.

obey. Thus placed you will hold him fixed when walking
round him ; when you call him he will rise, but not sooner.
A well trained dog should lie down in an instant.

He should then be taught to fetch aud carry ; this may be
done in playing with him, but it does not always succeed.
You commence hj throwing before him a linen cloth, and the
moment he seizes it call him ; caress him when he returns,
and take the cloth from his mouth. Should he drop the cloth
previous to your taking hold of it, place it in his mouth again :
repeat this lesson continually, The same exercise may be
carried on with a stick, which should be covered with a hare
or rabbit-skin in order to prevent his holding it too fast with
his teeth. He should seize it by the centre : should he seize
it by the ends, do not allow it, but commence again. You
see dogs which will not fetch or carry, and others which will
readily do so : in the former case, you must make use of for-
cing collars : these collars are made with small spikes within ;
a string is attached to the collar, and a pull causes the spikes
to give severe pain : this should be used carefully at first : if,
however, the dog be obstinate, a few severe pulls will bring
him to reason.

When your dog brings readily any object thrown for him,
then make him bring dead game — a patridge, a quail, or a
rabbit. It is only when the dog is full grown and strong he
should be made to carry the hare. If he has a hard mouth,
and injures the game with his teeth, try the effect of putting
pins in the birds.

Your dog carries ; he obeys when you call him ; he under-
stands the words "to heel," '' fetch it," "give:" you mus-
teach him to to seek : his vocabulary is augmented by the
word " seek." In shooting, the dog ought to go over a
hundred times more ground than his master. He should
always range in zigzag, to the left, and never pass a tuft of
grass without beating it. To teach this manoeuvre you should
act thus : —

The dog ranges before you at the distance of fifteen or
twenty paces ; you should never allow him to be further : you
call him on, changing suddenly your direction. The dog
comes to you ; you make a sign to advance in saying " Seek."
This time you go in a contrary sense : you begin again, and
always at the words "turn" all accompany all your move-
ments ; and generally dogs will take at once to this manoeu-
vre from the dislike they have of losing sight of their master
when they observe that he changes his direction.

The natural instinct of a well-bred dog will cause him to

AND U1S DOG. 01

il seek" the moment he has a knowledge of game, which ex-
perience will tell him whdre to find it : he will then alone seek
it without being told, as a dog has no less pleasure than his
master in sporting.

Your dog brings, seeks, and hears ; he obeys ; the question
is then to teach him to point. The greater portion of point-
ers point naturally : I have known them when six months
old follow their mother to the field, and, on seeing her point,
quietly place themselves behind her, elongate their noses,
elevate the paw, stretch out the tail, and remain till the gun
is discharged.

Throw for vour dog the cloth or stick as before, saying at
the same time "Seek:" the moment he approaches it, draw
the spiked collar, at the same time crying out to him " Hold."
When he is on the point, fire your gun, only charged with
powder, and do not let him touch the bread till you have fired.

Repeat this lesson until he well understands it, and till he
points without the use of a collar. Many sportsmen in such
case cry "Seize it" to their dog: I condemn this manner.
In the open as in the crowd a good dog ought never to rush
in. Game should rise itself, and when the shooter approaches
quietly.

If a dog throws himself among partridges or quails, thev
will rise frightened and wild, and will be far more difficult to
hit. When getting up before a shooter they will fly straight.
If they be red-legged partridges that the dog runs into, they
will rise at once ; in a contrary case, they rise the one after
another. For a hare or rabbit, the inconvenience of rushing
in is still more serious, as the dog once started, will follow
the animal ; if he is near, you forbear to shoot ; you risk the
life of your dog. In a marsh the case differs; a dog ought
to rush, but you should never permit him till he is well ground-
ed in good principles, and not until you have no fear that
this habit will induce him to force his point in a wood or in
the fields.

Young dogs are full of spirit ; it is necessary to calm them.
When you see your pupil carried away by excitement beyond
the distance of twenty paces, stop him with a severe voice.
When he rejoins you, give him a sign to advance again, say-
ing "gently, gently:" moderate your voice, if his ardour is
too great. All these lessons, repeated with patience, will
not be lost on a dog of pure breed. You should well know-
how to distribute your recompenses as well as chastisements :
give them at the proper moment, and be prodigal with your
£a vors.

58 THE SPORTSMAN

When your dog knows all that we have here named, he is
broken, theoretically speaking. Many sportsmen exact more.
The education of a pointer is very trifling : he is formed by
nature ; in his youth he is so excited that he forces and starts
the game, but he soon knows better: the instinct of the chase
causes him to reason ; he continues his gallop, but he stops
when necessary.

A sportsman understands the powers of his dog : his listen-
ers, who have scarcely believed his tales, are surprised by
facts. I know a man who took a burning stick from the fire,
threw it in the centre of the hall, and desired his dog to bring
it. The dog walked round the burning brand, fearing to
touch it : the order being repeated to him, he at length ap-
proached it, and having first extinguished the fire with his
urine, seized it in his mouth, and dragged it to the feet of his
master.

THE PRACTICAL EDUCATION OF SPORTING DOGS.

Procure a living partridge and cut his wings : secure it
from time to time, from distance, in sundry grassy spots.
Then attach your bird by a string to a tree or bush. It
will at first endeavor to escape, but finding that impossible,
it will soon lie close ; allow it to remain so, and leave it. —
Your dog not having observed these preparations, take your
gun and the wind, and with him approach the ground that
has been touched by the bird. Then repeat the lesson to
"seek." Your dog will become impatient: as soon as he
scents the game, he starts ; stop him with a gentle remon-
strance ; make him return to your side, and cool his ardour
by the words "Gently, gently." As you have only one
partridge, and that must die in the lesson, be careful of his
life, and allow the practice to last as long as possible. Tell
your dog to seek ; make him turn to the right and the left ;
and lastly, when he approaches the game, cry loudly to him
to "hold." Should he not stop, a good pull at the spiked
collar will instantly have the effect. Then approach your
dog, saying to him quietly, " Hold, hold !" Walk round him :
your voice and looks will fix him to the spot he has taken.
When you have done this several times, take the partridge,
put it under his nose that he may scent it without permitting
him to touch it. Then let the bird go behind you : take your
dog away, and recommence your lesson. Do this several

AND HIS DOG. 59

times, and above all follow the advice given you before : and
the moment your dog has pointed at the bird without the aid
of his collar, kill the partridge and make him bring it. When
the dog precipitates himself on the bird, and enjoys the plea-
sure of holding it in his mouth, cut the string by which it has
been attached. Assure yourself that he does not bite the
bird, and that he gives it to you the moment you desire him .
Throw it three or four times in order to make him bring it
again, and recommence this practice as often as you can pro-
cure a living bird.

This lesson may be also followed up with a rabbit in a court-
yard. It is not necessary to secure it ; this animal accustomed
to live in burrows, will not endeavor to save itself in an open
space : it will remain quiet. If your dog runs after a hare
or rabbit which gets up, he should be severely punished : this
custom will cause you to miss many a shot ; he should not
move until your gun be discharged.

We are now arrived at the period to take your dog to the
field. If he is wild, place the collar on him and allow the
cord attached to it to trail on the ground ; you will then al-
ways master him by placing your foot on it. The animal re-
ceives a severe shock, the sharp points run into him and soon
correct him. But each time that you so stop him you must
tell him the reason. If he is wild on his beat, you must say
" Gently, gently." If a bird rise before him and he desire
to follow it, say "Hold, hold." These expressions, or any
other constantly repeated, will end by being perfectly under-
stood, and each time you pronounce them your dog will under-
stand your desire. When you are shooting to a young dog,
fire under his nose, if you have the chance, at the game he
has pointed. The bird is often so destroyed : what does that
signify ? such will not ever be the case.

Several of these practical lessons will confirm the dog in
his points ; and he will soon make the following reflection:
" If I move the game is off; if I stop it will be killed ; and
I shall take it in my mouth, and plunge my nose in its blood.
I rejoice. Do not move."

Some partridges rise : you kill two or three ; your dog only
brings back one ; do not ask him for the others ; they will
serve each in their turn for an excellent lesson. You charge
your gun with powder only ; take your dog with the wind
towards a dead partridge — it is still hot ; your dog will soon
seek it, and will point to it as to a living bird. A general
fault among young dogs is to beat with their noses on the
ground; they follow their game by the track, and take it

HO THE iSPQltTSMAX

against wind. This must not be permitted, as in such manner
their scent is less strong : at times they do not scent it at all.
The moment you see your dog with his nose on the ground,
approach him, make him hold up his head, and oblige him to
seek elsewhere. The moment he receives by the wind some
particles of scent, he will follow them with his nose in tin-
air. Partridges hold far better before a dog which hunts by
the wind than before one that follows on their track. If in
the latter case he point, it is only by chance, and when the
game is surprised and lies close under his nose.

Never allow your dog to run after partridges : the first
time he does it punish him severely. Slip on the cord,
and give him a smart shock of the collar, using the words
"hold and "to heel." On a second occasion the whip must.
be applied, having care at the same time to make him sensible
by words of his chastisement. There are dogs with whom
both the above modes of correction have not the desired effect :
their excitement carries them after the game, and they be-
come deaf to the voice of their master ; they require a more
severe lesson, a charge of No. 7. from your gun from forty
paces in their flanks. At this distance such is not dangerous ;
it tickles, causes a few drops of blood to flow, and the dog is
none the worse. All my dogs have had this dose, ami they
are as well as I am. You finish by preventing this bad habit ;
their own judgment and experience soon prove that the ad-
vantage is on the side of the wings. But as regards the hare,
running as themselves on the ground, they always hope to
catch it, because they recollect having taken several ; they
forget the fact of their having been first wounded. " I caught,
one yesterday," says the dog; "why not another to-day ?"
If it be possible, you must prevent their being followed : if
you are not successful, be not too angry. The first time you
find yourself shooting in company, and have a young dog, be
careful to prevent his running to the discharge of another
gun. A few lashes of the whip will generally in such cases
have the desirable effect. If your dog, when on the point, en-
deavors to snap at a hare or a rabbit, a quail or a partridge,
and by chance seize the game, you should run up to him.
threaten him, oblige him instantly to drop it, and kill it with
your gun. If you suffer this enormity, your dog will believe
he knows better than you ; he will endeavor to seize your game
on all occasions, will seek it and you will lose your shots. —
The dog must be well satisfied that he can do nothing with
game without his master — which is the fact.

When your dog has committed a serious fault, and you

AST) Hli DOS. 61

judge an application of the whip necessary, you must seize
him suddenly and apply it. But if, knowing his fault, he
hesitates to approach you, you must not call him as a friend
in order to punish him : this will be a reason he will not for-
get. Approach him angrily, and catch him if you can : in
all cases, if he flies, he is aware of having committed a fault.

Now that your dog knows all that he ought to know, there
is only one thing wanted : it is to make him take to the water.
Be careful not to face him, or throw him in, neither to select
cold weather ; if you do so, you will make it ever repulsive
to him. This lesson should be taught during the summer,
when the water is warmed by the sun. Take him to the side
of a stream which is not deep, so that he may enter the water
gradually. Throw in a stick or any thing else, and make him
bring it. If he refuse, wait till he is hungry, then throw in
some pieces of bread, at first near, then farther, and caress
him when he obeys you. By and bye, when he seems without
fear, throw in at some distance a dead partridge, which you
have previously caused him to scent, and without hesitation
he will throw himself into the water. To finish this lesson,
put a duck into a pond, and tell your dog to bring it ; the
duck will plunge, and the dog will pursue without catching
it. When you have amused yourself sufficiently with this
chase, shoot the duck, and your dog will proudly bring it on
shore.

The good sportsman makes the good dog : kill plenty of
game, and your dog will become perfect. The sporting dog
judges his master as a soldier judges his general. If he be
a ^ad shot, the dog becomes careless. It is certainly by
egotism that man causes a dog to submit to all his lessons,
that he chastises him with the collar and the whip : but he
also provides for him pleasures, which on the other hand he
never would have enjoyed. If the dog could speak, he would
thank you : without him you could do little ; without you he
could do nothing. The sporting dog loves the chase above
all ; he loves it as much as the most ardent sportsman. If he
is such, the sight of a gun animates him ; if he is lame, he
will drag himself after you ; if he sleep, he dreams of par-
tridges, rabbits, and hares. I have even known dogs wake
up at the words "gun," "quail," "partridge." This effect
has been caused without being said on purpose ; merely the
expression in conversion has caused them to move the head
or sigh. The dog is man's best friend ; it may be said he
was created for his companion. Frederick the Great was one
day in the midst of his courtiers, who assured him of their

62 THE SPORTSMAN AND HIS DOG.

devotion to his person. The king listened to them, when at
the moment, the door opened, and his dog came bounding
into the room. " You say well my, friends," added the king;
" but here is my best friend."

It would require ten volumes to relate the history of cele-
brated dogs ; I shall therefore confine myself to one, as a
finish. During the Emigration, a marquis of my acquaintance
was received at the residence a Grerman baron. On the first
day his astonishment was great at remarking at the baron's
table an enormous dog, seated in an arm-chair. When ;m at-
tempt was made to serve any one before him, some tremend-
ous sighs burst from his breast, and he was appeased on his
plate being filled. " You are surprised, sir," said the barori,
"to see a dog at my table, and treated as we are. "When
you are informed as to the value I place on the attachment
of this admirable beast, you will not blame me I hope. My
chateau took fire during the night ; I was asleep ; my ser-
vants fled and forgot me. I should certainly have been burned
to death, when my dog seized me by the feet, awoke me, led
the way through the flames, and I was saved. I owe my life
to him, and I do not feel that I do too much for him, when,
for the rest of his days, I give him all the enjoyments I can
provide for him."

110 Nassau Street,

%llth December, 1853.

Dear Sir : You are at liberty to copy from my work on
Comparative Physiognomy to the extent you propose, or
further if you are disposed to do so. It pleases me that any
one should so highly appreciate that work as to desire to
copy from it. Your art of training horses, and the science
upon which the art is based, would interest me very much,
and a copy of your work, you may be sure, will be thankfulty
received.

Respectfully, yours,

"j. W. REDFIELD.
Denton Offut.

I quote my own sentiments by others, to show that others
see the ci'uelty that is practised. I regard Dr. Redfield as
a philosopher, a genius, and a God like man, desirous of the
happiness of all creation. I would recommend his book to
all, as a teacher in mercy and Christianity.

D. 0.

COMPARATIVE PHYSIOGNOMY.

The reader who has felt a sufficient interest in our subject
to accompany us to the last chapter, will have made a number
of observations in confirmation of our own, and some, no
doubt, that are really or apparently contradictory. We do
not claim to be infallible, and the reader is not bound to be-
lieve anything that he does not see, to be true. Of the state- '
ments we have made, and respecting your interest in them,
we would say to you, gentle reader, as we heard an Irish ap-
ple-woman say to a boy who asked her for an apple : " If you
see one at all that pleases yourself, take it." This conveni-
ently illustrates the gentlemanly relation, as well in respect
to ideas as in respect to bodily hospitalities, at the same time
that it illustrates the natural gentility of the Irish, and, a
jwiori, the gentility of the dog. The language used by that
poor Irishwoman, and the common speech of Irishmen, is
such as is heard when one gentleman addresses another, and
of the kind that is used in genteel society.

Dear reader, we fancy you asking us mentally to let go
your button, at the same time that you are attentive polite.
You must not suppose that we have inflicted upon you all that
we might have done, had we been disposed to trace the re-
semblances between men and all inferior animals of creation.
We must receive credit for not having even mentioned all the
resemblances between the men and animals that we have
treated of. For example;, we might have asked you to ob-
serve that, of the two classes of negroes, the one open their
mouths like fishes, and the other their jaws like elephants.
Then we might have directed your attention to the fact that
the English are inclined to drawl, and utter half their words in
the inspiration of the voice: to use aspirates where they ought
not, and to leave them off where they belong : like the cow
in her long-drawn loo, in her moo-hoo ; in her h as in hoo,
when she takes back her breath ; and in her neglect of the h
as in hoist, when she has a potato in her mouth, which «ives
her occasion to expel what she cannot swallow. It is evident
that other animals, the dog and the cat for example, when
they endeavor to expel anything from their throat, gives the
sound of h ; and that in inspiration they give only the vowel

64 t; COMPARATIVE PHYSIOGNOMY.

sound, if any. It is in consequence* therefore, of a resem-
blance to the cow, that the Englishman say?, "'Ear me," and
"Lend me your Aears." It is worth mentioning, also, that
one of the most celebrated places in England is called " Ox-
ford." Then, if we had said all that we might have said
about the resemblance between the Chinaman and the hog,
we shoald have remarked upon the similarity of sounds — as,
for example, the words Tchong-Koue, Ning-po, Hong-
kong, Kwang-tung, and the Choos and Foos of the Chinese
language, partake of the nasal grunt and the/00-ing of an
old hog ; while Fukeen, Pekin, Pechele, and the like, are akin
to the squaking of a little pig. As the life employment of
the hog is chewing at first-hand (for he has no time to spend
in chewing the cud,) it is not str.nge that nearly every other
word of the Chinese language has a " chooo" in it, so that
the Chinese in conversing do little besides choo. Then we
might have spoken of the similarity of the French language
to that of the grog, till with the twirling of Unguals about
our ears we might have fancied ourselves in Bedlam. We
might have drawn comparison between the languages of men
and animals, as between the faces of these and those ; but we
did not, and there are many other things we did not touch
upon.

It may be thought that in the preceding chapters there is
no orderly arrangement ; but there is an order, and it is ac-
cording to harmony, and for that reason it is not easily per-
ceived. Harmony is so delightful, that Ave perceive only that
it governs us, and not that it governs us by laws. When we
have unfolded the science of ISIature more fully, we shall ana-
lyse and understand that which we are now sufficiently happy
in feeling. From feeling we shall glide into perceiving, from
perceiving into understanding, and from understanding into
something higher.

We are hard-hearted indeed if having studied our relation-
ship to the inferior animals, we .are not disposed to treat them
more kindly. We sympathize with them for we perceive that
the same faculties which warm our breasts animate theirs. —
We share with our " creature comforts," for they are creatures
more than we, and our superior reason enables us to provide
for those comforts better than they. Our moral and religious
inspiration, by which we are distinguished, prompts us to con-
fer happiness on others. If we are not true to this, we are
inhuman — that is, we are neither men nor brutes — and this
never can be said of inferior animals. Creatures are not bad.
A person with a good natural disposition is called a "good

COMPARATIVE PHYSIOGNOMY. b£>

creature," and it is in reference to our natural dispositions
that we are called the "creatures of God." — "An unfortunate
creature" we often hear of, but who ever heard of a wicked
creature, except it were of some one whose wickedness is sy-
nonymous with ugliness, such as is observed in the cow or the
goat? If we say to a person, "You wicked creature!" the
word "creature" shows that we do not mean it. The word
"wicked!" is equivalent to saying of the person thus addres-
sed, that —

"E'en his failings lean to virtue's side!"

A perverted character has never the term "creature" ap-
plied to it. It is evident, therefore, that our relationship to
the lower animals is no disgrace to us if it is not to them. —
In this case, we are "children of Nature," as they are, but
more perfectly, for we are also the "children of God." It
is an honor to be the children of " the common Mother" when
widom is given us to know our Father — which wisdom is not
given to the lower animals. A true nobleman will despise
his poor relations : he knows that his origin is humble, and
that all his riches and honors are conferred by his Sovereign.

" Man is an animal." With this humiliating truth we com-
menced our subject, and with this we conclude. But for the
use which we should make of this knowledge, we adopt the
sentiments of an old author : —

" Man considered in himself, and in his own proprium, is
nothing but a beast, having like senses, like appetites, like
lusts, and also like affections in every respect ; his good and
best loves are likewise very similar, as the love of associates
of his own species, the love of children, and the love of his
mate ; so that there is no difference between them in any re-
spect. But that he is man, and more excellent that the beasts,
is, because he has an anterior life, which beasts have not, nor
are capable of having ; this life is the life of faith and of love
from the Lord ; and unless this life were to influence and
prevail in each of these properties which he has in common
with the beasts, he would never be anything else but a beast :
as, for instance, in respect to love towards his associates, if
he loved them only for the sake of himself, and there were
not in the love something more celestial and divine, he could
not be called a man in consequence of that love, because it is
similar with beasts : and so in other instances : wherefore un-
less the life of love from the Lord were in his will, and the
life of faith from the Lord in his understanding, he would in
9

66 COMPARATIVE PHYSIOGNOMY.

no respect be a man. By the life which he has from the
Lord, he lives after death, because thereby the Lord joins
him to himself ; and thus has a capacity of being in heaven
with the angels, and of living to eternity : and although man
lives a -wild beast, and loves nothing else but himself, and the
things which respect himself, yet the mercy of the Lord is so
great, being divine and infinite, that he never leaves man,
but continually breaths into him his life by the angels, which
notwithstanding his perverse reception thereof, still gives him
a capacity of thinking, of reflecting, of understanding what is
good or evil, whether it relate to moral, civil, worldly, or cor-
poreal life, and thereby of discerning what is true or false."
Mankind in general find their resemblance in the ape, as
was shown in a preceding chapter ; while races of men, and
individuals in particular, resemble animals of species and va-
riety. As to animals in general, we also find their resem-
blance in the ape : it is easy to see that the quadrumana re-
semble both beasts and birds, living as they do in trees, and
and grasping with the posterior members, as birds do, and
belonging at the same time to the mammalia. It is evident,
therefore, that every man, in resembling the ape, resembles
the entire animal kingdom, and that by resembling each indi-
vidual beast and bird he resembles each individual man to
whom such beast or bird bears a resemblance. As all men
have a resemblance in common, it is certain that each indi-
vidual man has in himself the peculiarities of all other people,
so blended, that only his own individual peculiarity is con-
spicuous. Also, as the predominant animal nature is bovine
in one, oquine in another, canine in another, feline in another,
and so on — it is evident that there is in every individual a con-
gregation of all sorts of animal natures, and that the differ-
ence between people is the predominance of one or other of
these elements. Of course, it is the element that is most con-
spicuous in an individual that constitutes his resemblance to
a particular beast or bird.

t Being fortified by reasoning, we have no hesitation in saying,
figuratively, that man's breast is a menagerie of animals, of
beasts and birds, clean and unclean, wild and tame. To name
them and govern them by morality and religion, is his high-
est duty and his highest delight. He transforms them into
the likeness of the higher faculties by which they are gov-
erned; and with these they are so admirably blended, that
they ars no longer animal, but human. The animals of the
external world still resemble him, for he subjects to the same
discipline as those within. He masters them by love and kind-

COMPARATIVE PHYSIOGNOMY. 07

ness ; he makes them beautiful and useful, peaceful, harmoni-
ous, and happy. He exhibits in himself (and it is shadowed
forth in the animals around him) a fulfilment of the prophecy :

" The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb,

And the leopard shall lie down with the kid ;

And the calf, and the young lion, and the falling-, together ;

And a little child shall lead them.

And the cow and the bear shall feed ;

And the lion shall eat straw like the ox.

And the sucking-child shall play on the hole of the asp,

And the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatric's den :

They shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain.1'

The helpless condition in which man is born makes it ne-
cessary that he should be endowed with a superlative degree
of that faculty which prompts him to look out for his own in-
terests. It is difficult to see how a person could be possessd
of individuality without self-love for its basis, or recognise the
indivdualify of others without first recognising his own, or
ever love his neighbor until he had first loved himself. ft Char-
ity begins at home." Man is required to " love his neighbor
as himself," which proves that the standard by which he has
to measure his love for his neighbor exists beforehand, and
that it is right and proper that he should have loved himself
first. Self-love, therefore, is good ; it is necessary to a weak
and dependent being ; and all beings are weak and dependent,
and the Creator has given them self-love that they may sup-
ply their deficiencies. And what are their deficiencies, and
what their wants ? Their first wants are physical, their se-
cond sensual, their third, rational, and their fourth supernal.
As long as these wants continue, so long self-love must be
active ; but in the degree that these wants are supplied, it be-
comes man to be charitable, and to minister to the wants of
others. It is only after these wants are supplied, that man
can be wickedly selfish. The object of self-love is to prompt
him to take care of himself; and if he desire that others may
take care of him, he is selfish beyond what Nature intended.
An animal requires all the self-love that Nature has given it
to supply itself with necessaries ; and it is contented to " shirk
for itself" if its exertions are capable of supplying its wants.

At the season of the year when it is capable of doing more
than this, Nature bestows offspring, and the care of the par-
ents is expended upon other objects than themselves. —
Thus self-love in animals is kept within bounds ; and it is
proved by this that the inferior creatures are good. But with

68 COMPARITIVE PHYSIOGNOMY

human beings it is otherwise. They wish to be taken care
of by others, and to be supplied with multitudes of things
that are not necessary ; and for this end they acquire artifi-
cial appetites, such as the appetites for tobacco, tea, coffee,
opium, and alcoholic stimulants. This perversion of self-love
in man is from the perversion of the privilege of dependence,
which is extreme at the moment he is born, which is again ex-
treme at the moment of his departure from this world : it is
from the perversion of his perfect dependence upon his parents
for the supply of his bodily wants at the commencement of
his lifs, and of his perfect dependence upon his Creator for
those things which alone can satisfy the cravings of an im-
mortal soul at the period of his transition into another state
of existence. Between these two extremes of dependence
there is abundant room for self-exertion, self-improvement, and.
self-dependence, and there is occasion for the exercise of be-
nevolence toward others when benevolence toward self has ac-
complished its object. What then must be the depravity of
man, when, instead of loving himself and taking care of him-
self for the sake of his neighbor, he loves his neighbor in keep-
ing for the sake of himself? Look at those who in all coun-
tries oppress and enslave the bodies and souls of men, and at
those who in their weakness and poverty exercise their ty-
ranical selfishness in oppression of the inferior animals, and
and you will see. The animal which the natural man resem-
bles, viz., the ape, is selfish and disgusting in the extreme.

The Lord is my shepherd ; I shall not want ;

He maketh me to lie down in green pastures :

He leadeth me beside the still waters.

He restoreth my soul :

He leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his name's sake.

Yea, though I walkthrough the valley of the shadow of death,

1 will fear no evil ; for thou art with me ;

Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me."

THE PHRENOLOGY OF ANIMALS.

The principal conditions upon which the mental manifes-
tations are found to depend. These are mainly as follows :

I. The size of the braest, other conditions being equal,
is found to be the measure of the aggregate amount of the
mental power ; and the relative size of the several organs of
an individual, indicates the proportional strength and energy
of his corresponding faculties.

It should, however, be remembered, that the amount of
one's mental power, depends even more upon these "other
conditions," such as hi a organization, or the vigour of his
constitution, the condition of his nutritive organs, the state
of his health, his temperament, the amount of excitement
under which his various faculties act, his education, habits,
diet, &c, than upon the size of his brain alone. Accord-
ingly, in consequence of different degrees of health, rest, fa-
tigue, excitement, &c, the manifested quality or amount of a
man's mental power, will vary twenty, forty, and even eighty
per cent., whilst the kind or quality will differ little if any.
Hence, both in proving phrenology, and also in apply-
ing its principles, the province of the phrenologist is to point

70 PHRENOLOGY.

out the character or kind of talents and mental power, rather
than their precise amount ; and yet, if he is informed as to
those "other conditions," (and it is notonly hisright to know
them, but preposterous in him to pronounce without such
knowledge,) he can ascertain very nearly the amount, as well
as the kind, of intellect and feeling.

Average. — One having an average-sized brain, with ac-
tivity only average, will discover only an ordinary amount of
intellect ; be inadequate to any important undertaking ; yet,
in a small sphere, or one that requires only a mechanical
routine of business, may do well with activity, great or very
great, and the organs of the propelling powers and of prac-
tical intellect, large or very large, is capable of doing busi-
ness, and pass for a man of some talent, yet he will not be
original or profound ; will be quick of perception ; have a
good practical understanding; will do well in his sphere, yet
never manifest any traces of greatness, and out of his sphere,
be common-place : with moderate or small activity, will hardly
have common sense.

Full. — One having a full-sized brain, with activity great
or very great, and the organs of practical intellect and of the
propelling powers, large or very large, although he will not
possess greatness of intellect, nor a deep strong mind, will
be very clever ; have considerable talent, and that so dis-
tributed that it will show to be more than it really is ; is ca-
pable of being a good scholar, doing a fine business, and,with
advantages and application, of distinguishing himself some-
what, yet he is inadequate to a great undertakimg ; cannot
sway an extensive influence, nor be really great : with activity
full or average, will do only tolerably well, and manifest only
a common share of talents : with activity moderate or small,
will neither be nor do much worthy of notice.

Large. — One having a large-sized brain, with activity
average, Avill possess considerable energy of intellect and feel-
ing, yet seldom manifest it unless it is brought out by some
powerful stimulus, and will be rather too indolent to exert,
especially his intellect : with activity full, will be endowed
with an uncommon amount of mental power, and be capable
of doing a great deal, yet require considerable to awaken him
to that vigorous effort of mind of which he is capable ; if his
powers are not called out by circumstances, and his organs
of practical intellect are only average or full, he may pass
through life without attracting notice, or manifesting more
than an ordinary share of talents : but if the perceptive fac-
ulties are strong or very strong, and his natural powers put

PHRENOLOGY. 71

in vigorous requisition, he will manifest a vigour and energy
of intellect and feeling quite above mediocrity ; be adequate
to undertakings which demand originality of mind and force
of character, yet, after all, be rather indolent : with activity
great or very great, will combine great power of mind with
great activity ; exercise a commanding influence over those
minds with which he comes in contact ; when he enjoys, will
enjoy intensely, and when he suffers, suffer equally so ; be
susceptible of strong excitement ; and, with the organs of the
propelling powers, and of practical intellect, large or very-
large, will possess all the mental capabilities for conducting
a large business ; for rising to eminence, if not to pre-emi-
nence ; and discover great force of character and power of
intellect and feeling : with activity moderate, when power-
fully excited, will evince considerable energy of intellect and
feeling, yet be too indolent and too sluggish to do much ;
lack clearness and force of idea, and intenseness of feeling :
unless literally driven to it, will not be likely to be much or
do much, and yet actually possess more vigour of mind and
energy of feeling, than he will manifest.

Very Large. — One having a very large head, with activity
average or full, on great occasions, or when his powers are
thoroughly aroused, will be truly great ; but upon ordinary
occasions, will seldom manifest any remarkable amount of
mind or feeling, and perhaps pass through life with the credit
of being a person of good natural abilities and judgments,
yet nothing more : with activity great, strength, and the in-
tellectual organs the same, will be a genius ; endowed with
very superior powers of mind and vigour of intellect ; and,
even though deprived of the advantages of education, his
nutural talents will surmount all obstacles, and make hira
truly talented : with activity very great, and the organs of
practical intellect and of the propelling powers large or very
large, will possess the first order of natural abilities.; mani-
fest a clearness and force of intellect which will astonish the
world, and a power of feeling which will carry all before him ;
and, with proper cultivation, enable him to become a bright
star in the firmament of intellectual greatness, upon which
coming ages may gaze with delight and astonishment. His
mental enjoyment will be most exquisite, and his sufferings
equally excruciating.

Moderate. — One with a head of only a moderate size,
combined with great or very great activity, and the organs of
the propelling powers and of practical intellect, will possess
a tolerable share of intellect, yet appear to possess much more

72 PHRENOLOGY.

than he does ; with others to plan for and direct him, will
perhaps execute to advantage, yet be unable to do much alone,
will have a very active mind, and be quick of perception, yet
after all, have a contracted intellect ; possess only a small
mental calibre, and lack momentum both of mind and char-
acter : with activity only average or fair, will have but a
modei'ate amount of intellect, and even this scanty allowance
will be too sluggish, so that he will neither suffer nor enjoy
much : with activity moderate or small, be an idiot.

II. The Strength of the System, including the brain,
or what is the same thing, upon the 'perfection or imperfec-
tion of the organization. Probably no phrenological condi-
tion is so necessary for the manifestation of mind, as a strong,
compact constitution, and energetic physical powers. Even
after a violation of the laws of the organization has brought
on disease, a naturally vigorous constitution often retains no
small share of its former elasticity and energy, and imparts
the same qualities to the mental operations ; but in propor-
tion as this is defective, weakness and imbecility of mind,
will ensue.

III. The Degree oe Activity. — In judging of the man-
ifestations of the mind, the activity of the brain is a con-
sideration quite as important as its size. Whilst size gives
power or momentum of intellect and feeling, activity imparts
quickness, intensity, willingness, and even a restless desire,
to act, which go far to produce efficiency of mind, with ac-
companying effort and action. Under the head of size, how-
ever, the effects of the different degrees of activity were pre-
sented, and need not be repeated here.

The temperaments are capable of being greatly modified,
and they are even radically changed, by the habits, diet, exer-
cise, &c, of the individual. The hard-working animal, who
exercises his muscles mainly, and cultivates but little sensi-
tiveness, either of body or feeling, and the fashionable belle
who experiences the other extreme of excessive sensibility,
both physical and mental, will serve to illustrate this point.
The author is of opinion, that, in the case of the tempera-
ments, as in that of the several organs, the nearer equal they
are, the better for the manifestation of both the physical and
mental energies, and for long life.

The Propelling or Executive Faculties. — One having
combativeness, destructiveness, firmness, self-esteem, hope,
&c, large or very large, and an active brain, has impetus,
enterprise, and efficiency, and drives what he takes hold of;
these faculties being to the mind what steam is to the engine,
or wind to sail.

PHRENOLOGY. 73

Average or Full, is between one with those organs large
and small.

Moderate or Small, takes hold of things softly and with
mittens on, lacks efficiency; and has not enough "go ahead"
in him.

Upon the Temperament, by which term phrenologists
designate the degree of energy with which various classes of
the corporal organs operate. With some propriety they de-
scribe four temperaments.

1. The Bilious, or that in which the osseous and muscu-
lar portions of the system predominate in activity, produces
great physical strength : endurance and power of body and
mind ; with great force and energy of mind and character.
Signs : a bony, muscular, athletic frame ; black hair ; dark
eyes ; a strong, steady pulse ; hardness of flesh ; bones pro-
jecting, &c.

2. The Lymphatic, or that in which the various secreting
glands are the most active portion of the system, produces
an ease-seeking disposition of mind and body, and aversion
to effort. Hence it tends to lengthen out life, as is evident
from it predominating more in young horses ; and advanced
age. Signs : soft and abundant flesh ; slow but steady
pulse ; love of ease ; light hair ; and great size of abdominal
viscera.

3. The Sanguine, or that in which the arterial portion of
the system, which gives circulation to the various fluids, par-
ticularly the blood, predominates in activity, is accompanied
with strong feelings, warm passions, and a great amount of
ardour, zeal, activity, and warmth of feeling, yet with less
endurance and power. Its predominance indicates a strong
constitution ; love of physical pleasure ; and a stirring, busi-
ness talent : combined with much of the lymphatic, it is less
favorable to the mental manifestations, and requires much
exercise in the open air. Signs : sandy or auburn hair ;
soft skin ; a fresh, florid countenance ; blue eyes ; a strong,
rapid pulse ; warm passions ; a deep and broad chest and
shoulders ; a stout, well- built frame, &c.

4. The Nervous, or that in which the brain and the nerves
predominate in activity, gives clearness of perception ; quick-
ness of mind and body; susceptibility to excitement, with
less power and endurance. Signs : light, fine, and thin hair ;
delicate skin ; smaller frame ; head relatively large ; small
chest ; rapid, but not hard or strong pulse, &c.

The nervous predominant, with a large share of the bilious
and sanguine, combines a great amount of power and endur-
10

74 PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.

ance of mind and body, with great activity and excitability ;
and is more favorable to intellectual pursuits, and vigor of
thought and feeling, than perhaps any other. When one of
this temperament enjoys, he enjoys intensely, and when he
suffers, his sufferings are extremely excruciating.

The sanguine-bilious is not an unfavorable temperament,
nor particularly favorably, whilst it gives a great amount of
mental power, it is frequently, though not always, coupled
with some manifest deficiency.

The nervo-bilious unites great power with great activity,
and, although it seldom gives brilliancy, it produces that kind
of talent which will stand the test, and shine in proportion as
it is brought into requisition. A good share of the san-
guine added, is more favorable to the manifestations of
mind, and also, of physisal power, than probably any other.

The bilious combined with the lymphatic, gives consider-
able power of mind, and strength of body, accompanied with
so much heaviness and indolence as to be less favorable ; yet
if one with this temperament acts under strong excitement,
his efforts tell with power upon the object in view.

The nervo-sanguinous, with but little bilious, gives extreme
intensity of action, and perhaps brilliancy of talent with vivid
feelings and conceptions, yet, for want of the strength im-
parted by the bilious temperament, the mental operations will
be fleshy, rapid, and too intense to remain kmg enough to
amount to much, the activity being too great for the strength.

But the following classification and naming of the Tem-
peraments, appears to the author more simple and compre-
hensive, and less liable to be misunderstood, than those now
used.

PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.

INDIVIDUALITY.

1st. Observing and individualizing power and desire', cu-
riosity to see and know ; disposition to specify, personify. —
This faculty is large in the horse and elephant. They re-
member their friends, and the various things they see. If
alarmed by any dress or animal they appear never to forget
it. If any uncommon thing is in their stable or lot, they
are seeking to know what it is. This gives desire to see and
know.

2d. Form. Cognizance and recollection of shape, or con-
figuration.— This faculty aids to distinguish one animal from

PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES. 75

another. If a man lias a gentle horse, let him change his
shape by crawling on the ground, or going on his hands and
feet, and the horse will not let him come near him.

3d. Size. Cognizance and knowledge of relative magni-
tude, bulk, &fc. — Horses will sometimes obey women or child-
ren better than men, this may be owing to having been fed
by them more than by men. All stubborn horses when sud-
denly pulled by the bridle refuse to obey, but if gently pulled,
and spoken to with a soft tone of voice, you may soon teach
them your friendly design, and make them prompt to obey
all your orders. A loud voice will control docile more than
stubborn horses, the voice should be varied according to the
nature and disposition of the horse. Those things which
your horse appears to be afraid of, such as a gun, umbrella,
or buffalo skin, being presented to him will remove his stub-
bornness.

4th. Weight. Intuitive perception and application of the
principles of specific gravity, projectile forces, momentum,
balancing, resistence. — This you find is not common, for a
horse to rear by a blanket being on his back, but when a man
is on him he often shows different behaviour.

5th. Color. Perception and recollection of colors, hues,
tincts, fyc. — The primary colors in their different degrees of
brilliancy, and their innumerable combination, it is through
this faculty that they notice the various colors of food and
other objects that they meet with.

6th. Locality. Cognizance and recollection of relative
position, forms and geography of places, desire to travel, see
the world, $-c. — The recollection of places, courses, and dis-
tances; the horse recollects well the place in which he has
been alarmed or injured, for he often behaves better at a new
home than his former one.

7th. Number. Intuitive perception of the relations of
numbers. — The number of times anything is repeated, as all
animals learn by practising, until well understood, if a horse
has attempted as many as three times to do a thing, and
failed, he is apt to refuse to try again, if the circumstances
are changed or directed to go in a different course he may
try it.

8th. Order. System; physical arrangement ; a place
for things. — Is heaven's first law ; it is through this faculty
that we can rely upon success in managing horses, for when
treated systematically they will obey ; it is the violation of
order that causes their disobedience ; rubbing them against
the hair makes them angry.

76 PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES.

9th. Tune. Tone ; sense of melody and musical har-
mony ; ability to learn tunes and detect chord and discord by
ear. — The sense of melody and harmony in sound, enables
them to tell the various sounds of substances.

10th. Time. Cognizance and recollection of succession,
the lapse of time, dates, how long ago things occurred. — It is
the faculty that recollects the hour of the day to feed, and
the hour of the night to sleep, it gives a foreknowledge of
wind, rain, and snow.

11th. Eventuality. Recollection of actions, phenomena,
occurrences, what has taken place, circumstantial and histori-
cal facts. — The memory of events, the power of calling to
mind those circumstances and incidents, it is the faculty that
recollects kindness and injuries.

12th. Language. Power of expressing ideas and feel-
ings, by means of words, attaching meaning to signs, fyc. ;
verbal memory ; desire and ability to talk. — The mind wishing
to communicate a knowledge of these to other individuals,
can accomplish it only by making signs expressive of their
existence ; these signs may consist of the peculiar gestures,
looks and cries. The colt in approaching a crowd often
shows his teeth, and the horse often shows his malice with his
mouth, ear, eye, and feet, by pawing and kicking,
senses.

i
13th. Chemicality.

"Who taught the nations of the field and wood,
To shun the poison and choose their food." — Pope.

Thus may be defined the perception of those chemical
qualities of bodies which affect the sense of taste and smell ;
and we admit that the senses do perceive, and convey
impressions, we shall be obliged to acknowledge that this
faculty depends upon an organ of the brain. The horse and
mule have this organ very large, they will not eat grass that
has been manured by one of their own kind, for a year, un-
less suffering with hunger, they can always detect good and
sweet food of all kinds.

Its locality in man is between the eyes and about the
middle of the nose. In the horse, as yet, I cannot exactly
locate it.

Pneumatics — "He breathed into his nostrils the breath
of life, and man became a living soul."

This organ bears exactly the same relation to the lungs that

PHRENOLOGY. 77

alimentiveness does to the stomack. When the lungs are not
supplied with air a disagreeable feeling of suffocation is ex-
perienced, analogous to the feeling of hunger when alimen-
tiveness is not gratified. The mule has such width to the
head that he sees all that is passing, and above the eye, near
the temple and ear this width is the organ, as in man, and I
have yet to see the mule wind broken. I was long of the
opinion that large nostrils were not a sure sign of good wind.
Those large in that part of the head are generally also in the
chest, and fullness of the breast. This organ is the same in
all domestic animals and is shown by this form.

14. Comparison.

Perception of analogies, resemblances, differences ; ability
to compare, illustrate, criticise, classify, generalize, £c. — The
horse compares the various animals, but his opinion of the
lamb or the kid will not lead him to the lion. Look at a man
in his natural dress and walk, but let the man go on his hands
and feet, or crawl on the ground, then you will see him want
to know, and compare those causes to ascertain the resem-
blance, and he will act accordingly, as his experience, com-
parison, and ability to discover through these are unknown.
1 have often seen men meeting the Indians or Mexicans, and
found the horse to refuse the meeting of them because it was
Indians or Mexicans, the difference in personage. The smell
often appears to be the cause ; in going to the camp ground
of the enemy, who had left five or ten days, and rain bad
fallen, he was yet unwilling to go about the place. If all
the perceptions below comparison be large, and this organ is
large, the animal will possess great poA?er of discrimination,
and will be capable of nice distinctions.

Phrenologists say that the dumb do not reason beyond
their experience. I differ with them here, as I have just
shown, in his various actions, in his pitching the man over
his head, thus he falls, rares, falls back on him, runs against
a tree or fence to knock him off, or falls down, rolls over and
will not get up. This he has not learned in the field, but
acts according to circumstances ; and it is true in his obedi-
ence, for when kindly taught, he continues the good beha-
viour ; but if you change or vary the causes, he is quick to
discover why, which often is the cause of many persons being
injured from the saddle.

78 rilRENOLOGY.

15. Casuality.
"Observe how system into system runs." — -Pope.

(Cognizance of the relations of cause and effect ; ability to
apply them, or to adopt means to ends ; power of reasoning,
drawing inferences from premises, discovering first princi-
ples.— Casuality is the preception of dependence. Every-
thing in existence is more or less intimately related to every
■other thing ; but when the relation of one thing to another
is such that it must always precede it, it is said to be its
cause. Thus we perceive the dependence of the rivers upon
the tributary streams ; the dependence of the streams- upon
the springs ; of the springs upon the rains ; of the rains upon
the clouds ; of the clouds upon evaporation ; of evaporation
upon heat ; of heat upon the laws of reflection.

Organ of Time. — This enables us to perceive the depend-
ence of events upon time ; thus the falling of rain must hap-
pen prior to the overflow of the springs, and the swelling of
the streams afterwards. The horse, hog, and other animals,
will often change their places, if the weather is severe, and
causes them to suffer.

The function of this faculty is to compare all our precep-
tions together, to perceive their resemblancos and differences,
and the classification to which they belong. It harmonizes
all our perceptions, and perceives the agreement among them.
If a strange animal of any kind, unnatural to the horse, is
present, he examines with his eye, nose, and' ears to learn its
kind, whether a sheep, or wild and destructive. As soon as
he sees its form, size, color, and discovers its innocence, he
approaches it, and acts accordingly ; if, on the other hand,
it be a panther, he remains on the cautious ground.

Species I — Domestic and Social Propensities.

1. Amativeness — Reciprocal attachment, and love of the
sex.

2. Philoprogenitiveness — Parental affection and tenderness,
love of offspring. The horse is as fond of the colt as a mother,
and will fight to defend it, and often show more regard for it
that a father for his child.

3. Adhesiveness — Susceptibility of attachment to associ-
ates, fondness for society, inclination to love and be loved.
This faculty causes the horse to experience the greatest de-
light in a return of affections. The horse sometimes on
forming an acquaintance rejects it, and continues so to do,

PHRENOLOGY. 79

but on the first smell he merely squeals, and does not kick
or paw. The acquaintance when formed is forever fondly re-
ceived, and continues for life. This is the cause of beasts
going in droves,

4. Jnhabitiveness — Love of home and country, desire to
locate, and remain in one place, attachment to the place in
which he once lived. The horse has often been known to
forsake his new home and travel a great distance through
forests, and over mountains, and to swim rivers, to reach his
native home.

5. Concentrativeness — Unity and continuity of thought
and feeling ; power of entire and concentrated application to
one thing. The person of mental concentration and contin-
uity. This faculty causes the mind to dwell on any given
subject until they have thoroughly acted upon it, and pre-
sented the result. The horse when he sees, smells, or hears
any object, his mind is hard to draw from it, that make his
fears, if forced great and dangerous, when he sees it, hears
it, on its touching him, or it may be from any other impres-
sion on the mind, its color, or form, as the circumstances may
be, he rears or jumps. He keeps in mind for a long time the
abuse, or other circumstances, and soon brings to mind the
various evils or scares. In many instances the young be-
come confused by various things at the same time, as the
gear, the rattle of the wagon, the noise of the men and many
other causes.

5. Vitativeness — Love of life, as such, unwillingness to die.
This is shown by the horse, at seeing one lying in the road,
or the blood, or see them sick often go to man for aid, ex-
pressing their pains by groans and sighs. Cows bawl much
over the dead.

7. Combativeness — Feeling of resistence, defence, opposi-
tions, boldness, willingness to encounter; courage, resent-
ment, spirit. Propensity to defend, resist and oppose. It is
this faculty which makes the horse useful in the wagon, plough,
and for all the useful purposes of life, it is necessary to self-
preservation, it gives love for parade. The wild horses in
droves shows the line of battle, with the officers in front of
the danger.

8. Destructiveness — Executiveness ; indignation ; force ;
severity ; sternness ; a destroying, pain-causing disposition.
Propensity to destroy, exterminate, and inflict pain. The
horse that has this large is inclined to kick, rear, and fall
back. When running away he will aim to run against some
object, to knock off his rider, or the plough or wagon or post,

80 PHRENOLOGY.

to free himself from it ; sometimes he will aim to leap off of
a bank to destroy it and himself. When tired he will sit or
lie down.

9. Alimentiveness — Appetite for sustenance, desire for
nutrition. This faculty is a relish for food. I do not agree
with the popular idea as to drink ; thirst is another organ.
Horses seldom injure themselves by eating in the field of
plenty, but when forced to exercise it produces colic, founder,

&c.

10. Acquisitiveness — Love of acquiring and possessing
property as such ; desire to save and lay up, innate feeling of
mine and thine, of a right to possess and dispose of things.
The horse will fight man or beast for food he has in his pos-
session, but will not fight for that which man has. The
horse has no power of preserving the food as the squirrel or
bear.

11. Secretiveness — To hide or conceal himself from his
enemy. Many horses on the approach of any one pretend
as if they would, but do not. Some have learned to hop, as
if lame in one of their legs.

II. Moral, Religious, and Humane Propensities.

1. Cautiousness — Carefulness ; provision against danger.
This is larger in the horse that in the man; He on the ap-
proach of any body, or any thing uncommon, uses caution,
which is not neglected on the approach of all to him ; that
which is new is closely examined. On his lying down he looks
around, smells the place, and one of them is frequently watch-
ing while the rest are sleeping or eating.

2. Approbativeness — Sense of honor, regard for charac-
ter ; ambition ; love of popularity, fame, distinction, &c. The
dog on meeting his friend shows this. The horse will show
it more often when his master is kind to him. When the food
has come to him he is then most playful.

3. Benevolence — Kindness and friendship. "As you would
that others should do unto you do ye even so to them." The
best proof of this is to show it to friends and foes. I learned
a horse, so that when his master was pulled off by another
horse he was leading, his foot fastened in the stirrup, to
reach round his head, unfasten the girth, and let the saddle
fall to the rider. Dr. Comb informs us, that horses have
this organ, and says, if they want it they will kick and
bite.

PHRENOLOGY. 81

4. Constructiveness — The bee, the beaver, the swallow,
and others, construct their dens and nests. The horse uses
his mouth to open the doors or gates ; to pull down bars or
fences. The cows use their horns to open doors, gates, &c.
Dr. Comb informs us, that the dog, horse, and elephant most
nearly approach man.

5. Imitation — Disposition and ability to take pattern after,
imitate. Thus you see the horse imitate the eigns of friend-
ship or of fight, and one learns to open the gate sooner than
another ; by this they learn to dance and other great perform-
ances.

6. Conscientiousness — Innate feeling of duty, accountabil-
ity, justice, and right ; moral principle ; and love of truth.
The horse will always warn tho enemy of his intention to
fight. If anything suddenly hurts him he is then compelled
to begin his fight. He is never known, when on guard while
his friends sleep, to go off without warning them of the ap-
proach of danger or an enemy.* The commander on a re-
treat is always in the rear, to guard the young and the crip-
ples. He is careful in forming for battle to guard the young.
He is conscious of his obligation to his master for his food.
But many horses and cattle, in new countries, are often abused
by dodging them, and compelling them to stay in mud and
stick until their legs get sore, and until they forsake their
unkind masters, and go wild, and hide in low and bushy bot-
toms.

7. Ideality — Imagination, last fancy, love of perfection
and the beautiful in nature.

8. Marvelousness — Belief in the supernatural. It is this
which causes the horse to fear stumps and other undefined
objects, but when he gets up to them and examines them, he
is no more afraid.

9. Veneration — The feeling of worship for a Supreme
Being ; respect for religion and things sacred, and for supe-
riors. The young horse will not follow the young when the
old ones are about, as young colts in a lot will remain quiet
with old ones. I do not know how they worship, but they
submit to their superiors in age.

10. Self-Esteem — Self-respect high tone, bold feeling, know-
ledge of his own power. It is this that causes the horse that
is in the lead to struggle to keep ahead of his company with
all his power.

11. Firmness — Decision, stability, fixedness of character.

*This remark is applicable to the wild horse of the desert.
11

82 PHRENOLOGY.

Acting along with combativeness produces determined brave-
ry, and he would adopt the plan which appeared to him most
promising, and steadily pursue it to the end. This prompts
the horse to return to his native land, through the forest,
leaping fences, and swimming rivers. A horse thus consti-
tuted, if mistreated, will refuse to obey, and always refuse to
submit or go along.

12. Hope — Anticipation ; expectation of future happiness,
success, &c. This is one of the natural traits of the horse
which causes him to submit to his master's will, and stand
tied to a post by a bridle for a day, even when suffering for
food and water. It gives him the patience and mildness of
a lamb. Every propensity is dependant upon the intellect,
but the higher propensities are peculiarly dependant upon the
higher intellectual faculties. I cannot conceive how this
organ can act unless assisted by causality, as it is only by
means of causality that we look forward to the future.

13. 3£irthf ulness or Wit — Intuitive perception of the jok-
ing, fun-making, ridiculing disposition and ability. The horse
when young is as playful as a child. The mule, the bear and
the puppy all play, but generally leave off these pleasures as
they grow older.

In conclusion I have shown that the senses of sight, smell
hearing and taste are more perfect than in the man, the sense
of feeling equally as good, and serves his use as well. The
organs of order and tune, and all other senses as good. The
decision is most perfect when the senses have examined the
matter. Thus we see one with imitation will give tone to voice
and action equal to the author of the voice or emotion. Man's
superiority of power is his hands ; he can execute what his
mind conceives ; place his works and ways far above the works
of the animal kingdom united. The moral qualities of the
horse causes him to feel the emotions of grief; he sighs and
mourns after his absent friends ; he enjoys their company in
his plays and amusements.

COMBE'S CONSTITUTION.

General view of the Constitution of Animal Nature and its
Relations of External Objects.

In surveying the external world, we discover that every
creature and every physical object has received a definite
constitution and been placed in certain relations to the other
objects. The natural evidence of a Deity and his attributes
is drawn from contemplating these arrangements. Intelli-
gence, wisdom, benevolence, and power characterize the works
of creation ; and the human mind ascends by a chain of cor-
rect and rigid induction to a great First cause, in whom these
qualities must reside. But hitherto this great truth has rather
excited a barren though sublime admiration, than led to bene-
ficial practical results.

Man obviously stands pre-eminent among sublunary objects,
and is distinguished by remarkable endowments, above all
other terrestrial beings. Nevertheless no creature presents
such anomalus appearance as man. Viewed in one aspect he
almost resembles a demon ; in another he still bears the im-
press of the image of God. Seen in his crimes, his wars,
and his devastations, he might be mistaken for an incarnation
of an evil spirit ; contemplated in his schemes of charity, his
discoveries in science, and his vast combinations for the benefit
of his race, he seems a bright intelligence from Heaven. The
lower animals exhibit a more simple and regulated constitu-
tion. The lion is bold and ferocious, but he is regularly so,
and, besides, is placed in circumstances suited to his nature,
in which at once scope is given, and limits are set, to the
gratification of his instincts. The sheep, on the other hand,
is mild, feeble and inoffensive ; but its external condition also
is suitxl to its constitution, and it apparently lives and flou-
rishes in as great enjoyment as the lion. The same remark
applies to all the inferior creatures ; and the idea which I
wish particularly to convey is, that their bodily organs, facul-
ties, instincts, and external circumstances, forms part of a
system in which adaptation and harmony are discoverable ;
and that the enjoyment of the animals depends on the adap-
tation of their constitution to their external condition.

If we saw the lion one day tearing in pieces every animal

84 combe's constitution.

that crossed his path, and the next oppressed with remorse
for the death of his victims, or compassionately healing those
he had mangled, we should exclaim, what an inconsistent
creature ! and conclude that he could not by any possibility
be happy, owing to this opposition among the principles of his
nature. In short, we should be strikingly convinced that two
conditions are essential to enjoyment ; first, that the different
instincts of an animal must be in harmony with each other ;
and secondly, that its whole constitution must be in accordance
with its external condition.

When, keeping those principles in view, we direct our at-
tention to Man, very formidable anomalies present themselves.
The most opposite instincts or impulses exist [in his mind :
actuated by combativeness, destructiveness, acquisitiveness,
and self-esteem, the moral sentiments being in abeyance, he
is almost a fiend ; on the contrary, when inspired by benevo-
lence, veneration, hope, conscientiousness, ideality, and intel-
lect, the benignity, serenity, and splendour of a highly ele-
vated nature beam from his countenance, and radiate from his
eye. He is then lovely, noble and gigantically great. But
how shall these conflicting tendencies be reconciled, and how
can external circumstances be devised that shall accord with
such heterogeneous elements ? Here again a conviction of
the power and goodness of the Deity comes to our assistance.
Man is obviously an essential and most important part of the
present system of creation ; and, without doubting of his fu-
ture destinies, we ought not, so long as our'knowledge of his
nature is incomplete, to consider his condition here as inex-
plicable. The nature of man has hitherto, to all philosophi-
cal purposes, been unknown, and both the designs of the
Creator and the situation of man have been judged of igno-
rantly and rashly. The skeptic has advanced arguments
against religion, and crafty deceivers have, in all ages, founded
systems of superstition, on the disorder and inconsistency
which are too readily admitted to be inseparable attributes of
human existence on earth. But I venture to hope that man
will yet be found in harmony with himself and with the con-
dition in which he is placed.

I am aware that some individuals, whose piety is entitled
to respect, conceive, that as the great revolutions of human
society, as well as all events in the lives of individuals, take
place under the guidance of the Deity, it is presumptuous, if
not impious to endeavor to scan their causes and effects. But
as the Creator has bestowed faculties on man, it is presumable
that he governs him in accordance with them, and their con-

combe's constitution. 85

stitution implies that he should investigate creation. The
young swallow, when it migrates on the approach of the first
winter of its life, is impelled by an instinct implanted by the
Deity, and it can neither know the causes that prompt it to
fly, nor the end to be attained by its flight. But its mental
constitution is wisely adapted to this condition ; for it has no
powers stimulating it to reflect on itself and external objects,
and to inquire whence came its desires, or to what object they
tend.

Dr. Combe states that the young swallow when it migrates
on the approach of the first winter of its life, is impelled by
instinct implanted by the Deity, that it can neither know the
causes that prompt it to fly nor the end to be attained by its
flight. Dr. C. informs us that all our reasoning depends on
our feelings than on our perceptions and reflections. Let us
see how this will apply to the subject under consideration.
Prompted by hunger, thirst, smell, motion, and air, the grat-
ification of the desires to the natural wants of life ; without
these desires it would not exist long. If the bird had lost its
sight its cautiousness would prompt its consciousness that if
it flew forward it would come in contact with tree or hill, and
its firmness would then prompt it to fly upward to escape from
harm. Now take from it one, or two or more of its five
senses, and what will it do for the want of them, and where is
its instinct to direct its welfare ? As I have before alluded,
motives and action depends on its five senses, and perception
and reflection.

By those principles it protects itself, independent of those
principles I know of no one than could take care of it in
life, great or small. All action must be governed by prin-
ciples to direct its action. All science has some corrections
to indicate its meaning. The basis of all language has let-
ters as medium, by which it is taught figures, we learn to
calculate. The blind man uses raised figures and letters.
Dumb men, by proper signs and signals, holds intellectual
conversation with his fellow-men.

If you take away from him sight and hearing, he is no
longer conversant with his fellow-man.

Locality gives the desire to travel, and elementiveness
prompts the desire. The language of all creation may be
one of which as parents tell it, and the sharp eye sees the
food and the nose smells it, and insects in the air and streams
of water. The motives of it travelling south may be prompt-
ed from a motive to go with tho natural current of the air to

86 combe's constitution.

a warmer clime, that blows to the south, as they may travel
the easier or they may delight in the pleasant breeze so much
as to fly and meet it, and enjoy the pleasant air which seems
pleasant to all. Many birds and beasts enjoy the breath of
the natural elements in water, and in spring the warm sun
that aids life, as it is natural for creation to enjoy pleasant
elements of life. He says that, for it has now powers stimu-
lating it to reflect on itself and external objects. In the first
place I reply that perception preserves all objects. The
moral faculties is the stimulant for imitation, and learns all
young to pattern after the old, of which he admits in common
birds as well as in the mocking birds, to be more perfect than
any family of man to imitate all his fellow men. I will say
the bird sees the gnat it wants to eat, hunger prompts it to
fly, supplying its wants by catching the gnats, the end ac-
complished, is support of life by eating the insects.

In elevating our moral nature, we must obey God and make
more happy the beast. We are commanded to live in peace
with them, as was in in Paraaise named by Adam, and Noah
in the Ark, and it is written that the time shall come, when
all the families shall live in peace with one another ; and our
cruelty to them is often the cause of our being crippled and
killed by them ; and our own misery and the suffering of the
poor beast of our comforts.

"Because the creature itself also shall be delivered from
the bondage of corruption into the glorious liberty of the
children of God." — Romans 8 c. 21 v.

"For we know that the whole creation groweth and teavel-
leth in pain together unto sorrow." — Romans 8 c, 21 v.

It is my great and earnest desire for man to be merciful to
the boast.

NATURAL LAWS OF CREATION,

A PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISM.

-o-

Creneralities.

What is the meaning of the word Philosopher ?

It signifies Lover of Wisdom.

And what is understood by Wisdom ?

Wisdom consists in the knowledge and in the application of
Truth.

Who then is truly a philosopher ?

He who not only loves, but who applies truth universally.
The second part is as essential to the character of a philoso-
pher, as is the practice of morality to that of a christian.

What is the aim of philosophy ?

To know objects and phenomena, and to show the possi-
bility of making practical application of the knowledge ac-
quired.

Then there must be many kinds of philosophers ?

As many as there are species of knowledge, or subjects
that can occupy attention. One may be a philosopher, and
study entire nature, or a particular district of her domain ;
as animals, plants, minerals, man generally, or his physical,
moral and intellecture parts in particular.

The horse is a philosopher on many subjects, in applying
his senses to all objects that may surround him so far as he is
interested.

1st. In having their sentinels, signs, and signals, in form-
ing in battle array, the strong command and the weak obey.

2d. In retreating, to have the wind in their nose, that
they may not approach a hidden enemy, with the commander
in the rear protecting the young.

2>d. He is an astronomer in regard to the change of wea-
ther, thus he retreats to the grove for protection from the
wind, rain, and snow.

88 PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISM.

4:th. He is a mineralogist, in selecting water for drink in
sickness and health.

5th. ,He is a botanist, in selecting the different kinds of
plants and grasses for his food and medicine.

6th. He is a mechanic, in slipping his bridle, opening gates,
and doors, and in pulling down fences.

7th. He is a reasoner, because he selects certain grounds
and positions, in throwing or dislodging his rider, also in dis-
cerning his friend and foe.

8th. He is a philosopher in deceiving his pursuer, by walk-
ing along before him as if he would stop, when fixed to suit
his plan, he suddenly wheels and runs to the point of exit.

9th. He is a philosopher in discovering locality, courses,
latitude and longitude ; by this he readily takes his course
for home.

10th. He is conscious of his blindness and danger, and
cautiously listens to the roaring of water, and all that sur-
rounds him, and feeling his way, and if he gets out of his
road he will soon feel to turn, and regain it. On the approach
of a storm or tempest, he will sigh, moan, and groan, as if in
great uneasiness.

11th. We here see the Feeling Perceptions, Reflection,
and Spiritualism, in this regularity, all minds receive the
things of the world.

Lastly. To satisfy his appetite at night when his master
sleeps, he opens the gate and fence, and goes in the field to
supply his wants, thus accomplishing his will contrary to the
design of man, that great monopolist of all reasoning.

How may laws be divided ?

They may be classed under two heads — the Natural, and
the Artificial. The first are imposed by the Creator, the sec-
ond by individual governors.

What is the signification of the word nature ?

Nature is a word to which three distinct meanings are at-
tached : —

1st. It designates the universe, — the heavens, the earth.
All that meets sense.

2d. It expresses essence — that which characterizes or con-
stitutes a class of beings, or individuality. In this sense we
say : every being acts according to its nature ; — man in his
nature js not an angel ; we cannot change the nature of things ;
we cannot, for example, gather figs of thistles, nor grapes of
thorns.

3d. It is used to signify the First Cause personified, and

PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISM. 89

may then be considered as synonymous with God, or Crea-
tor.

What are the characteristics of natural laws, or of laws es-
tablished by the Creator ?

Natural laws are inherent in beings, often evident, always
demonstrable, universal, invariable, harmoneous, and common
in animals.

How is the first character of natural laws, their inherence,
explained ?

The laws of nature exist by creation, and enter as a part
into the constitution of beings. The inherence of natural
laws is therefore apparent.

How is the second charactiristic of natural laws, their regu-
larity, to be apprehended ?

The regularity of phenomena is so generally evident as
scarcely to require demonstration. Every one knows that
without support his body falls, and that water cools the
body.

Are all inanimate, and all living beings subject to natural
laws?

All beings whatsoever have a determinate nature ; all phe-
nomena appear in conformity with fixed and invariable laws.
Any opinion to the contrary is fraught with danger to man-
kind and creatures.

In what does the misery of creatures consist ?

In the non-satisfaction of his faculties.

Then the causes of the misery of creatures are different,
are they not ?

They vary according to the faculty or faculties which are
active, and which are not satisfied.

What is the principal cause of the unhappiness of crea-
tures ?

Ignorance and transgression of the natural law.

It appears, therefore, that to know and to practise the natu-
ral law is extremely important ?

As the evil consists in its transgression, and good in its ac-
complishment, and as its infringement is the principal cause
of man's unhappiness, the natural law ought to be made a
principal study with every individual ; it should be learned
by heart, and its precepts never lost sight of in the business
of life.

How may the natural law of creatures be subdivided.

Into three kinds, after the threefold nature of his functions,
viz : Vegetative, intellectual, and Moral ; and Motion ia
life.

12

i)0 PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISM.

Do these kinds of laws exert a mutual influence ?

They do, and it is of much importance not to confound the
fundamental faculties in which they inhere, with the product*
of the mutual influence of those faculties, nor the existence
of three kinds of laws with their reciprocal relations.

SECTION I.

Of the Vegetative Laws of Man and Creatures.

What natural laws of man and creatures are Vegetative ?

Those which concern the preservation of his hody are so
entitled.

How may these laws be divided ?

Into two orders, having for their objects respectively,

1st. The preservation of the individual ;

2d. The preservation of the species.

What are the most important of the natural laws that re-
late to the preservation of individuals ?

1st. A good innate constitution ;

2d. The laws of dietetics, which include temperature, light,
air, food, cleanliness, exercise, and repose.

Is not a perfect attention to the laws of dietetics indispen-
sable to health ?

Yes ; a certain quantity of caloric is necessary to life, but
it injures the bodily health in too great abundance or too great
scarcity.

Cold engenders many complaints, not only among the poor,
but also among the rich. The impossibility of guarding
against sudden changes of temperature, and the imprudence
with which all expose themselves to these, are causes of innu-
merable diseases. The quality of the air man breathes also
influences his bodily state. Carbonic acid gas suppresses the
vital functions, hydrogen retards, and oxygen accelerates
them ; marsh miasmata produce diseases, &c. Air free from
all putrid or other exhalations is necessary to enable man to
exercise his various attributes with energy.

How may the dietetic laws that relate to Alimentation be
considered ?

Either as the quality or quantity of alimentary matter is
concerned.

Does the quality of animal's food deserve attention.

It should be accommodated to age, temperament, climate.

PHILOSOPHICAL CATBCHISM. 91

fcnd season ; and should vary with the prevailing weather, and
the state of health of the individual. Whatever is easily di-
gested is wholesale, whatever is not is pernicious. Many
enactments of ancient legislators show their sense of the
propriety of regulating the quality of aliment. Religious
law-givers seem also to have had the same end in view, when
they pronounced certain others to be unclean. Pork in the
warm countries of the East is unwholesome, and the Jews and
Mahometans are forbidden by a religious commandment to
eat of it.

Does the general law in regard to the salubrity of aliments
vary in different countries ?

In every climate the general law is the same : such food is
universally to be used as may be digested with ease. But
aliment varies in kind in every different country ; and as food,
by another natural law, must always harmonise with the par-
ticular circumstances of existence, with age temperament,
climate, &c. such things cannot be proper, in lands where the
excessive heat and light of the sun stimulate the vital func-
tions greatly, as are wholesome and even necessary in regions
where frogs, and frost, and darkness, cramp the energies of
animals.

There is nothing then clean or unclean in itself ?

Nothing. Everything, however, may deserve either title
by its employment in general or particular cases.

Are the dietetics of the Jews' of Palestine, and of the Egypt-
ians, adapted to the nations of the north ?

By no means. To prescribe the same course of diet to the
inhabitants of every country of the globe, would be no less
absurd than to command the same material, and the same
form, for the garments of the Esquimaux, European, and na-
tive of Senegal.

How is the natural law, having reference to quantity of food,
entitled ?

Sobriety or Temperance.

Is this law of much importance ?

It exerts a powerful influence upon the well-being of indi-
viduals. The sober man digests easily, his body is properly
nourished, and he is ever in a condition to perform his la-
bors.

What crimes are committed against society ?

Gluttony and Drunkenness.

What evils attend on the first of these ?

A long train of ills wait upon gluttony. It injures the
health, and weakens the digestive powers ; or it brings on

92 PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISM.

obesity, unfits the body for its duties, obscures the powers of
the mind, and occasions every species of inconvenience.

SECTION II.

Of the Intellectual Laws of Man and Animal.

What is the essence of Intelligence, or Understanding ?
It is to know. The intellect alone acquires knowledge, of
whatever kind it be. Animals acquire knowledge by prac-
tice in work and riding, to go and return, and to know friends
and foes.

In what does Intelligence consist — or, what is Intelli-
gence ?

Intelligence is a word which, at one time designates a per-
sonified principle which knows ; at another, no more than an
attribute of a principle — the faculty of knowing ; sometimes
also the name is used to signify the functions collectively which
have place with consciousness.

In what are philosophers agreed, in their discussions upon
intelligence, and in what do they differ ?

All agree as to the effect of Intellect ; for all assign to it
every species of knowledge, — to know is its nature ; but dif-
ferences occur, as to what it is that knows, as to the objects
known, the conditions necessary to knowledge, and the vari-
our degrees of certainty of our knowledge.

What opinion is the most generally entertained as to that
which knows ?

The greatest number of philosophers speak of, and admit,
an incorporeal something, inhabiting the animal's body, which
knows. Others, however, consider knowledge as a function
or product of certain organic structures.

How are these two classes of philosopher entitled 1

The partizans of the first opinion are called Spiritualists,
those of the second, Materialists.

What was the literal meaning of the word among the
Greeks and Romans, which corresponds with Spirit or Soul
among the moderns ?

Air, or breath.

And by what name is the doctrine of the incorporeal some-
thing of man's constitution designated ?

PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISM, 93

It ia termed Psychology, from the Greek — soul, and dis-
course or doctrine.

What are the ideas most generally entertained concerning
this incorporeal part of man?

That it inhabits our mortal body, by the medium or assist-
ance of which its operations are variously manifested, and
from which it is separated at death, to change its habitation.
By what name have some modern French philosophers en-
titled the vis, or power which knows and the result of its ac-
tivity or knowledge ?

They have called the power which knows, Sensibility with-
out paying further attention to its nature, its actual state, or
its destiny ; and to the product of sensibility, that is, know-
ledge, they have given the general title, Sensation.

Can we, by reasoning, arrive at the conclusions on the na-
ture of that which knows, on its manner of acting, or on its
final destination ?

These are purely subjects of religious belief, and history
shows that opinions, the most contradictory and unlikely,
have been promulgated and received in regard to them.
What conclusion is to be drawn from this fact ?
That every individual is to have full permission to believe
that which seems to him good and proper, provided neither
individual nor general happiness be compromised.
Is reason a fundamental power of mind ?
No, this term indicates the functions of Comparison and
Casuality severally or in combination.
What is the aim of reason ?

Reason is given to direct the functions of all the other
special powers of the mind, and to bring them into harmony ;
without being guided by reason, every faculty is liable to
errors.

Since reason is essential in preventing the errors of the
other faculties, is it free from erring ?

Reason acts accordiag to determinate principles, but it does
not furnish the objects on which it operates, hence it will err
each time when the premises or objects of its activity are not
truly furnished. Gold may be silvered by gilt.

Since many mistakes have thus been made in regard to the
powers of the mind, how can we, by reasoning, arrive at a
knowledge of its special faculties.

A faculty will, by reason, be recognized as special.
1st. When it exists in one species of animal and not in
another.

2d. When its manifestations are not in proportion to those

9-4 PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISM.

of the other faculties, neither in the different sexes nor in the
same individual.

3d. When its manifestations may be singly healthy or singly
diseased.

4th. When its manifestations do not appear nor disappear
simultaneously with those of the other powers.

5th. When it can alone or singly repose.

6th. When it is transmitted in a distinct manner from pa-
rents to offspring.

The same mode of proof applies to the special affective, as
well as the special intellectual faculties. Observation and in-
duction must lead to the knowledge of both.

How is the existence of any special faculty whatever to be
proved by observation ?

By the recognition of a relation between special manifes-
tation and particular organic apparatus.

What are the affective faculties of men and animals ?

f Desire of Life.

* Desire of Meat and Drink.

1. Sense of Destroying.

2. Sense of Amativeness.

3. Sense of Parental Love, or Love of Offspring.

4. Sense of Attachment.

5. Sense of Habituation.

6. Sense of Courage.

7. Sense of Secresy.

8. Sense of Acquiring or Collecting.

9. Sense of Constructing.

10. Sense of Cautiousness.

11. Sense of Approbation and Notoriety.

12. Sense of Self-esteem.

13. Sense of Benevolence.

14. Sense of Reverence.

15. Sense of Firmness and Perseverance.

16. Sense of Conscientiousness.

17. Sense of Hope.

18. Sense of Marvellousness.

19. Sense of the Ideal and Perfect.

20. Sense of Mirth and Humor.

21. Sense of Imitation.

What are the intellectual faculties of man and animal ?

1. Five external Senses which convey to him peculiar im-
pressions of the external world.

2. A faculty which personifies these impressions, and pre-
sents them as separate from the organs of external sense.

PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISM. 95

This faculty seems to procure him notions of individual exis-
tence.

3. Particular faculties which know the Physical Qualities
of objects, as Configuration, Size, Weight, and Color.

4. A particular faculty which knows what passes in objects-
and their qualities, that is, which cognizes the phenomenal
world. The same faculty seems also to turn into knowledge
all sensations felt in the body ; as pain, fatigue, the necessity
of different evacuations, cold, heat, and lastly, the activity of
all the affective powers.

5. Particular faculties which conceive notions of the Lo-
calities of objects, of Time or duration, whether of objects,.
or of phenomena and their succession ; of Melody of Num-
ber, whether of objects, qualities, phenomena, or tones ; of
Order, whether in objects in physical qualities, in phenomena,
in localities, in succession, or in number.

6. A particular faculty which cognizes Analogy or Differ-
ence, Similitude or Dissimilitude, and Identity, and establishes
harmony ; and another which appreciates the causes of ob-
jects and of phenomena.

7. A particular faculty which knows and presides over the
signs of artificial language.

What is understood by the Passions, and by the Affec-
tions ?

These words denote modes of action of the primary facul-
ties. Passion expresses the highest degree of their activity.
Affection the mere general mode of their being affected.

SECTION III.

Of the Moral Laws.

Is the horse naturally a moral being ? — that is, a being
who, by his own nature, views his actions in relation to duty
and justice ?

Yes : there is in his constitution an inherent sentiment^ en-
titled Moral Conscience, which produces such an effect.

Are the moral precepts of all creatures and animals alike ?

No ; for the act which is considered just in one country, is
often looked on as unjust in another.

What is the cause of this diversity of decision ?

^t> PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISM.

The sentiment of conscientiousness does not determine that
which is just or unjust, it only feels the necessity of being
just. The majority of mankind take for granted whatever
they are told is right ; and assume as just, the precepts to
which they have been accustomed from infancy. Among
the few who think, Intellect determines Justice ; but the con->
elusions are still influenced by the general mental frame.

How may conscience be divided '!

Into Absolute and Individual. The first is Conscience as it
ought to be for all men and animals ; the second, as its name
implies, is the Conscience of individuals.

In what does the Absolute Conscience of creatures and
animals consist?

In the sentiment of conscientiousness combined with the
whole of the faculties peculiar to creatures and animals, those
common to the human kind and animals being held in sub-
jection.

In what does Individual Conscience consist ?

It results from the sentiment of conscientiousness combined
with the other faculties of individuals. He, therefore, who
possesses the superior sentiments in great activity, will esteem
these notions and actions as unjust, which another, whose in-
ferior feelings are strong, and superior weak, would look upon
as just. Intellect, it appears, is corrupted or swayed by the
affective powers, and admits as just whatever these recognise
as agreeable.

Can we trust to the individual Conscience of mankind and
animals ?

No ; it is impossible. Many feel very slightly the desire
and necessity of being just, and seldom or never think of ex-
amining their actions with relation to moral rectitude. Be-
sides, people are frequently misled in their moral judgments
by the influence of other feelings ; and many things whioh
the standard of Absolute Conscience pronounces unjust,
pass for just when estimated by individual manners of judg-
ing.

Ought not the moral laws therefore to be studied, deter-
mined, and proposed as obligatory ?

Certainly ; Conscience should be Positive.

Is there any difference between Positive and Absolute Con-
science ?

There ought to be none. In the world, however, Positive
Conscience, or the Law, has most commonly been a product
of the Individual Consciences of rulers.

PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISM. 97

Has the Natural Moral Law, or Absolute Conscience, any
distinguishing character ?

It has all those of the natural laws generally.

Have men any right to make moral laws ?

They have none, any more than to fabricate laws to regu-
late their vegetative and intellectual functions. They cannot
change the law of propagation, nor of alimentation, nor of
any other functional operation ; they can form no conception
of an object without dimensions and figure ; they cannot con-
ceive an effect without a cause ; neither can they love pain,
nor approve internally of that they perceive to be bad or im-
moral.

Who made the moral laws of men and animals,?

The same Great Cause that traced the laws of man's phy-
sical and intellectual parts also instituted laws for the regu-
lation of his moral nature — God, the Author of the uni-
verse.

How does the Creator make known or reveal his laws ?

To inform man and creatures of his enactments, God has
endowed him with understanding, to observe and to learn
those that implicate his physical and intellectual natures ;
and has implanted in his interior, sentiments which make him
feel the moral laws.

Is there not another source whence knowledge of Moral
Laws is derived?

Yes, Revelation ; that is, knowledge communicated by God
to man in a supernatural manner, when they had now learned
the law within themselves.

SECTION IV.

Of Mortality.

In what does a Moral doctrine consist ?

It is a doctrine of rights and of duties, and of those things
which are, and of those things which are not, to be done.

What is to be understood by moral philosophy ?

The term moral is sometimes used in opposition to physical,
also styled natural ; and the moral philosophy means the
doctrine of the Mind, but the same term also signifies the
13

98 PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISM.

higher powers of Man in opposition to his brute nature, and
in that sense, moral philosophy is the same as Ethics, the
doctrine of rights and of duties, or of the moral precepts
which admit of proof by reasoning, and which bear the char-
acter of conviction.

As to rights — has man any right over God ?

He has none.

What duties has man and animals towards their Maker ?

To obey His will in all things.

What rights has man over the beings of creation gene-
rally ?

Man's superior endowment in faculties elevates him far above
all else that lives, and he has a natural title to profit by his
situation. Such a law is universal ; it extends throughout
the whole chain of created things.

Can we then with propriety say that all was made solely
for man ?

It is ill-directed pride alone, that has promoted the concep-
tion of the utterance of such an assertion. Every creature
advantages itself at the expense of others ; and if man turn
the whole to his profit, he only follows the common course of
nature. This, however, is far from showing that it was made
solely for him. Geology indeed proves, that many beings
inhabited the earth before the human kind was called into
existence.

Has man rights only over those creatures which, with him-
self, enjoy existence ?

No ; he has duties also towards them. Neitheir the physi-
cal nor the purely animal nature knows aught of duty ; but
to these, man unites a third, which causes him to view his
actions in relation to mortality. An essential faculty of the
moral man and animal is Benevolence, and this forbids him
to torment sentient beings for his pleasure. All cruelty to
animals is, therefore interdicted by Natural Morality.

Is there a natural law, that allows man to kill animals for
the sake of their flesh as food ?

Many tribes of the lower animals only live by shedding
blood. Now the brute portion of his nature leads man to
destroy, just as it does the inferior creatures. Man's ana-
tomical structure proves also, that he is fitted to live upon
flesh ; and further, he thrives on such food. Still, his be-
nevolence ought to restrain him from the commission of every
act of cruelty, either against the lower animals or his fellow
men.

PHILOSOPHICAL CATECHISM. 99

What Virtues may be entitled individual ?
Every action whose end is development and preservation of
the body, the understanding, and the moral character of the
Individual.

Wherein consists the difference between Individual Virtues
and those Virtues which regard Families, Nations, and the
whole Human and Animal kind ?

It lies in the employment that is made of the corporeal,
affective, and intellectual power, to further the nappiness of
ourselves, of our families, or of mankind in general.

Which of these Virtues is the most excellent and ennob-
ling?

That which interests the whole human and animal kind is
eminently superior to all the rest. True it is, indeed, that
this is generally lost sight of altogether. In the apprecia-
tion of the Virtues, the scale of their worths is commonly
reversed. Most men and animals think first of them-
selves, then of their families, then of their country, and
seldom expend a thought upon humanity at large. There are
even few who recognize the happiness of the species as the
aim of man and creatures existence, and the subordination of
all else to this. Yet nature shows most evidently that she
does all for the species : she universally sacrifices individuals
to its preservation. Moreover, desire of self-preservation in-
heres in all animals, love of family and of country in a smal-
ler number, but love of the entire species is a distinguishing
character of man in his best estate.

Is it to be expected that man will practise the virtue of
universal love ?

No ; hitherto the happiness of countries has been sacri-
ficed to that of families and individuals ; but general philan-
thropy is commonly decried and scouted as an aberration of
the understanding ; and this, too, in despite of the express
command of Christianity.

[From the American Phrenological Journal.]

WHY IS NOT MAN IMMORTAL, AND BEAST MOR-
TAL?

♦ <

"Beasts are forms of affections : evil and useless beasts are
evil affections, but gentle and useful beasts are good affec-
tions. Man also partakes of the same affections. How often
do we. hear it said that such a one is as gentle as a lamb or
as wild as a dove ; another may be as fierce as a tiger, or
wolf; another as cunning as a fox, or like a snake in the
grass ; and yet another may be as sharp-sighted as an eagle,
etc., etc.

Beasts have all the faculties which they are capable of re-
ceiving. Those which they have may be strengthened, but
no new ones can be developed. "They are at once born into
the sciences corresponding to the love of their life." This
instenct is implanted in them in a greater or less degree, ac-
cording to their organization, and the use for which they were
created. They can never use any other language than that
which they at first use ; they cannot think from the under-
standing, therefore they cannot reason ; they are not capable
of self-improvement. Each kind of animal can perform its
own use, and not that of another. Instinct teaches them
how to build their nest, what food is proper for them, and how
to fly from their enemies. These things, they can do in the
earliest stage of their existence. They were created entirely
for the use and service of man.

Beasts have no moral and intellectual faculties by which
they can receive divine love and wisdom, therefore they can-
not comprehend why they were created, neither can they be
elevated above the uses and wants of the body, consequently
they cannot be consociated with angels nor conjoined with the
divine mind.

Now let us see how it is with man. At his birth he is the
most helpless of all created beings ; but he has a form or or-
ganization by which more can be developed than any other.
He very soon begins to show a desire for knowing what is
going on about him. In the first years of infancy the affec-
tions should be cultivated, and regulated or taught. He does

MORTAL AND IMMORTAL. 101

not know what is best, but should be directed. He can never
give a reason for what he does ; he acts from impulse ; it is
always "because I want, or do not want to do that." He has
many things to learn before the power of reasoning can be
developed through his senses.

He next learns things more scientifically, and wishes to
know more about the "why" and "wherefore" of things. —
During this period only the natural mind has been opened ;
but a basis has been laid for the opening of the spiritual
senses to serve as a plane for future operations. We next see
"the rational principle." He begins to feel a "spirit of lib-
erty," a desire to throw off restraint, and act for himself, to
have some perception of spiritual truth, to perceive more
clearly the right and wrong of things, and act from principle.
The moral faculties are more fully developed, and by a right
use of them are gaining strength, in order that he may be
enabled to perform well the more active duties of life, when
he shall have arrived at manhood. He then begins to obey
the truths learned, and to do good because his understanding
tells him it is right, and thereby becomes a rational, spiritual
being. He is capable of the higher and more refined enjoy-
ments ; can perceive the beauty and sublimity ; may feel the
approbation or reproaches of conscience, according as he has
used or preserved the truths he has learned. All this brings
him into a state for the opening of a still more interior or ce-
lestial degree of the mind. He then does good, not only be-
cause his understanding tells him it is right, but because his
will loves to obey the laws of God. He then more fully com-
prehends the purposes of his creation, and the dealings of
the Divine Providence with him ; and comes into a state to
be consociated with angels, and conjoined with the Lord.

I doubt this premise, and of course question the conclusion
built on it. I cannot now give all my reasons. The follow-
ing anecdote is in point :

Some years since, in the town of New Boston, New Hamp-
shire, there was in a family a woman who was insane, a con-
firmed maniac. A partition was made by upright slabs se-
cured in the floor of the room (which was the common living
room of the family,) and a piece of timber overhead. Here
she was constantly confined. A shower coming up, all the
members of the family, women as well as men, went out in a
field adjoining the house to assist in raking and getting in the

102 WHY IS NOT MAN IMMORTAL,

hay. A window was left open, the dog was in the house — I
believe, a full, or cross of the shepherd's dog.

The family had been baking, and had thrown a large quan-
tity of coals from the oven into the large fire-place. The
people in. the field heard the dog barking and howling, and
saw him jumping up to the open window, in such apparent
distress and want of assistance, that they concluded something
was wrong at the house ; they accordingly dispatched one of
their number to see what the trouble was with the dog. The
person came up, and looking in at the window, witnessed the
dog's operations,

The mad woman had got out of her pen, and thrown the
coals about the room. They set fire to the floor. The dog
would get hold of the woman and pull her away from the fire-
place ; he would then brush the coals to the hearth with his
paws, and put out the blaze on the floor, while he was doing
this, the woman would get to the fire-place, and scatter the
coals again. Again he would pull her away, and then go to
work to brush up the coals and put out the fire. But finding
that he had more work to accomplish than he could perform,
the fire kindling in so many places, he gave notice at the
window, and called for assistance. The person entered the
house, secured the woman, swept up the coals, put out the fire,
and returned to haying.

Now instinct would have taught the dog to make his escape
from a burning building ; but knowing that the woman was
crazy — knowing that she was doing mischief — knowing she
would burn the house — and finding that he could not manage
the affair, but thinking that the sane folks could — calling for
their assistance, and giving them notice of the danger, looks
very much like what those wise folks call reasoning, or would
look like it, if it had been done by a human being.

That many animals possess Casuality is clearly evinced by
their frequent adaptation of ways and means to end. Call
this instinct, if you will — and every exercise of every one of
of our faculties is instinctive — it is nevertheless an instinctive
exercise of the reasoning faculties. They possess Individu-
ality, Form, Size, Weight, Color, Order, Number, Locality,
Eventuality, Time, Tune, Language — do they not communi-
cate by action and intonation, and the reasoning faculties and
human nature ? That is, they observe objects, recollect shape,
measure distances, balance their bodies, distinguish ripe fruits
and other things by color, know the difference between one

AND BEAST MORTAL. 103

and many, find places, remember facts, keep time. How often
do oxen and horses learn to step at the same — sing, as in birds
— express their desires by signs and vocal sounds, read human
nature and the designs of men in their looks, learn by expe-
perience — Comparison and Eventuality — and evince Casuality
by adapting means to ends, as in cases like the dog mentioned
above ! They therefore posses at least a moiety of all the
intellectual faculties.

That they likewise possess the moral, is evident from the
Benevolence of dogs in rescuing the drowning, and suffering
swine in the ado they make when one of their members squeal,
&c. ; and if they do not possess Conscientiousness and sense
of guilt — as dogs when caught stealing sheep, &c, — then I read
their natural language wrong. And do they not pray for food
when hungry, to go with their master, &c. ? At least, they
evince dependence, shown in a recent number to constitute the
elemental feeling of veneration and prayer. Hope they evince
clearly, and also Firmness, as in fractious horses ; and I think
I could show their possession of Spirituality. At all events,
we know they possess all the other moral faculties — weak to
be sure, but yet there, and the smallest amount sufficess for
our argument. Since, therefore, they posses the identical
moral and intellectual faculties possessed by man, and differ
only in their degrees — and here men differ from each other —
and our argument is not based in degree, but in possession, no
matter how little — why should not a common destiny await
them ? In common with Bishop Butler, one of the great
philosophico-orthodox authors studied in our most religious
colleges, I can see no valid objection against their immor-
tality. What objections to their existing in a future state?
They might even be of service there as here. At all events,
the Bible often speaks of angels using horses, and means
something by it.

Yet our question primarily concerns their possession of the
moral and intellectual faculties, which no analyzing mind can
question. The story we recently published of the dog chas-
ing the boy to bite him, but when the boy fell and broke his
leg, setting up a cry to procure help ; and of the dogs of St.
Bernard, who have rescued so many freezing travellers on the
Alps, and many like facts, establish our point. To call all
this instinct is to confess the very point involved, for this in-
stinct is only the natural action of the very faculties in dis-
pute.

104 DOG ATTENDING CHURCH, &C.

( Extract fsom a newspaper.)

A dog and child playing in a yard near the edge of a pond,
the child fell down and rolled in — the poor little dog ran
around the house to the large dog, and he ran and pulled the
child out of the water ; the child was seen by the mother to
fall and role in the water — she was sitting at the window,
upon the second floor, and before she could get to the child,
the dog had taken it from the water.

A Dog attending Church.

A Dog that attended church for two years at Clarksville,
Tennessee, on the Columbian river, in 1848. I was there
and saw the dog, and was informed by gentlemen, (editors in
the place) that it was in their columns. The dog came there
astray, and took up his board at a good hotel, and watched
the back yard ; he did not take up with any one, nor did he
run about the streets with other dogs, but strictly watched
his yard at all times except Sundays, between ten and one
o'clock, when he went to church, and was known by the
name of Calvin. When the church bell rang he would go
into the church and lie down in the pulpit ; he visited the
church alone and returned alone. On one occasion there
was a report out, that there was to be a learned Methodist
minister to preach on that day, there being no preaching in
the Presbyterian church. He went to the M-ethodist church
and laid down in the pulpit, and waited until they sang
and prayed. After he had preached awhile the dog got up
and went out and never left his own church again to hear
others preach.

Learned Dogs, Hogs, Croats, Circus Horses, Parrots, arid the
Canary Birds that has caused such numbers to visit them.

It was not until tha eighteenth century that the dumb and
blind man was learned to read and write. The Bible teaches,
that there was a time when there was but one language and
one tongue — now many tongues, and yet but one language.
When tho Lord made covenant with man he did with bea3t,
and taught language and tongue to all his creation.

The Benevolent Horse.
A gentleman had a pair of horses in a field which he was

BENEVOLRNCnS OF HOGS, &C. 105

walking through — one of them came in great haste to hia
master, and then going in the direction of the place where
"his mate was fastened in a bridge. He kept going off and
coming back to him. He at length went in great haste to
his mate and found he was yet in the bridge. He again
went to his master and tried to make him understand him
by neiging and making an unusual noise. At length the
master seeing the horse so uneasy to express his wishes, went
with him and found his mate fastened in the bridge — the
master went to work, got the horse from the bridge, then the
horse went to his master and rubbed his face against his in
his way, as much as to say "lam thankful to you for reliev-
ing my friend from his distresses."

-True Religion

Is always mild, propitious and humble;
Plays not the tyrant, plants no faith in blood ;
Nor bears destruction on her chariot wheels :
But stoops to polish, succor and redress,
And builds her grandeur on the public good."

THE SYMPATHY AND SAGACITY OF THE COW.

A gentleman passing through a field saw a cow come run-
ning in haste towards him, he looked at her, and when near
to him she stopped and looked at him and lowed and mourn-
ed, then turned and moved in the direction of her calf. The
gentleman followed her — she then showed him the calf in the
ditch and water, but it was drowned ; he got it out on the.
bank, and she stood mourning over the dead,

Benevolence of a Hog at Viclcsburg, Mississippi.

There was a hog in Vicksburg, Mississippi, wheore a fiat
boat had sunk loaded with corn, who would dive down aad
get a ear and feed herself, and when satisfied, would dive
down and get it for her pigs and other acquaintances until
she satisfied them. There was another case in Madderson
county, Kentucky, where a pet hog was allowed to go in and
out of the corn crib, and he would take a ear in his mouth
and then go and stand over the fence and let it fall, and con-
tinue to feed them at different times.
14

PHRENOLOGY AND PHYSIOGNOMY APPLICABLE
TO MAN AND HORSE.

The Principles of Phrenology and Physiognomy are appli-
cable to man and horse. And the disposition of the former
cannot be determined with more certainty, that than of the
latter, by the application of those principles. The educated
and practiced eye of the observer will readily detect any pe-
culiarity on the disposition and character of a horse which he
has never seen before, and thus enable him to adopt at onco
that plan of management which will prove most successful. —
No one with a knowledge of the difference existing between
two horses, would think of treating a tried and docile animal
with the bold and determined discipline which would be re-
quired in the management of the spirited charger. As in
the management of human beings, so with horses, the discip-
line necessary for one is inappropriate to another. Ignorance
of the principles which should govern us in their management
has led to the shameful and unnecessary abuse of this noble
animal.

If you would render your horse tractible and subservient to
your purposes, you must educate him. Of this he is suscep-
tible. You must teach him your will ; and then kind treat-
ment will secure his obedience. From his Phrenological de-
velopments and indications of Physiognomy, learn first the
peculiarities of his disposition, and then address your mode of
instructions to those peculiarities. If he is timid, let him
understand by your kind and gentle treatment that you do not
design to hurt him. Secure his confidence, and then proceed
to teach him what you wish him to do. Repeat your lessons
by practising him on what you wish him to perform, occasion-
ally encouraging him by patting and caressing him. In this
way you render him permanently gentle and tractable. The
memory of the horse is remarkable — what he once learns, he
never forgets, and hence the importance of the proper plan
of treatment in the commencement of his training.

The Indian and Spanish method of breaking horses renders
them comparatively worthless. They gentle them by break-
ing them down. A young horse under their management is
soon old. His constitution is impaired and his voracity de-
stroyed by the cruel treatment, and exhaustion of nervous

PHRENOLOGY AND PHYSIOGNOMY. 107

energy and muscular power, to which he is subjected in order
to subdue him, and that too, generally before he has been
matured by age. All harshness and barbarity in the man-
agement of this noble animal I protest against. It is wholly
uanecissary, and proves that of the two, the master has less
sense than his horse. I repeat again, the horse soon learns
what he thinks you wish him to do, and he tries to obey you.
If you deal harshly with him, by jerking, beating, whipping
and spurring, he will play the fool as well as yourself; but if
you deal kindly and gently with him, allaying his fears by
carres ses, as soon as he understands what you wish him to do,
he will yield obedience.

Always remember that in training a horse for any purpose
he must first know what you wish him to do ; for it is impos-
sible that he can know your desire until you have communi-
cated it to him by teaching him.

The facility and readiness with which animals, in training,
acquire a knowledge of words and signs, is truly astonishing.
Some may be taught almost anything, except articulation. —
Some horses evince more sagacity and intellect than others,
and this difference will always be found to be in accordance with
these Phrenological developments, or the difference in the for-
mation of their heads. The ass and mule have been gene-
rally proverbial for their stupidity — a most mistaken notion.
Just the reverse of this is the truth. Though obstinate, their
sagacity is astonishing when circumstances bring it into play.

So rnuch depends upon the form of the head and develop-
ment of the different organs, that no one, without a know-
ledge of the subject can pronounce with any degree of cer-
tainty upon the qualities and properties of a horse presented
for his inspection. The information which I impart to my
pupils will enable them promptly to select, among many horses,
such as are good feeders and easily fattened — to detect the
stumbler — to designate the scarey or vicious horse, and choose
such as possess a combination of the best qualities.

The different temperament indicated by the color and tex-
ture of the hair, form, and size of the muscles, give diversity
of character to the tone and nervous energy of horses. These
are subjects worthy of consideration, and one highly impor-
tant to those who wish to deal on trade in this kind of pro-
perty.

Horses that have good constitutions, and are remarkable
for durability, have lively hair of a deep grey color — such as
the blood bay, dark brown, red sorrel, &c, As these are sub-

108 TO THE ADMIRERS OP SCIENCE.

jects, however, upon which I descant in my oral instructions,
and concerning which the reader may ohtain information from
the next chapter and other sources, I shall not prolong the
present chapter by the addition of other remarks connected
with these subjects, further than to state the fact, that wher-
ever a striking resemblance is found to exist between man and
horse in the general outlines of the face, and expression of
countenance, these will be found to exert a corresponding simi-
larity in some one or more traits of character.

TO THE ADMIRERS OF SCIENCE.

Gentlemen : — We daily hear of the march of the progress
to perfection of many branches of science. Why may we not
cultivate the mind of the domestic animals for the usefulness
of man ? To teach him to ride or work, that we may ride
with more safety, and in confidence by our safety, that our
ride may be more gratifying and amusiug, that our daily la-
bors will not be so perplexing and aggravating. Why shall
the Americans suffer by this more than the Arabs and Turks
in their countries ? History informs us that the horse is
never known to kick or bite his master. In America the
pages of newspapers are darkened of the many cripple^ and
killed, anv many of the useful animals crippled and killed
from the want of better knowledge of the proper system to
teach them your will. They are always in fear of the whip,
and between too opinions — evil is the result. As injustice
and cruelty go hand in hand by so many unthinking, unfeel-
ing men that they practice this to the beast, supposing that
they have no thought ; and I believe that the best horses have
more teachable qualities than such beings. I am aware of
the persecution I must bear from these assertions, for I well
remember the first of my public performances — the slander.
I have gone on by degrees as I have improved.

We can hear from the pulpit that some men are worse than
the beast ; they kill what they will not eat : the lion kills to-
day and to-morrow eats : the man kills to-day and repents
the next. You will remember that cultivation or habit rules
man.

TO ADMIRERS Off SCIENCE. 100

The great bulk of mankind measure the professional abilitj
of individuals solely by their degree of reputation, forgetting
Shakspeare's remark, " that a name is very often got without
merit, and lost without a fault." A professional gentleman,
in a populous country, seems to be the plaything of fortune ;
his degree of reputation is for the most part totally casual ;
they that employ him know not his excellence ; they that re-
ject him know not his deficiencies. To impose upon the world
is to secure your fortune ; to tell a truth you did not know
before, is to make you run equally sure. How was the ex-
position of the blood first received ? Harvey, its discoverer,
was persecuted through life ; his enemies in derision styled
him the "the circulator."

Gentlemen, how was the still greater discovery of the im-
mortal Jesmer received, Vaccination ? Like every other dis-
covery, with ridicule and contempt ; not only was he perse-
cuted and oppressed, but lost his practice of medicine of which
he had made his living ; even religion and the Bible were
made engines of attack against him, and were deduced as chief
grounds of accusation against the new practice, and they griev-
ously attempt to prove from quotations of the prophetic parts
of Scripture, and the witness of the fathers of the church,
that vaccination was the real Antichrist. When I first prac-
ticed the teaching of the horse I was said to be drunk ; by
others deranged ; others said I had unnatural power, and in
some degree as yet fearful of me. How true are the words
of the son of Siruch: "after searching the world, he returned,
and saw under the sun that there was neither bread to the
wise, nor riches to men of understanding, nor favor to men of
skill."

But so different from each other are even the greatest Far-
rier authorities on every subject in medicine, that I do not
know a single disease in which you will find any two of them
agreeing. Take the subject of Cholic ; one will offer as a sure
cure, turpentine ; another will recommend whiskey and salt,
no limits to the prescription, all differing, and none will pay
for him if he dies, at 10 or 20 per cent, for insurance. I am
of the opinion that it would be as bad a case to insure a well
horse with the dose, as the disease for it it is fire to fire, it i8
fever and 'dose would cause the same. If false facts, says
Lord Bacon, be once on foot, what, though neglect of
examination, the countenance of antiquity and the use made
of them in discourse, they are scarce ever retracted. " Noth-
ing," Bays Sir Humphry Davy, " has so checked the progress

110 TO THE ADMIRERS OF SCIENCE.

of philosophy as the confidence of teaching in delivering dog-
mas of truths, which it would be presumtuoua to question."

We read of learned observers, and gentlemen see there arc
much greater obstacles in overcoming old errors than in dis-
covering new truths ; the mind in the first case being fettered,
in the last perfectly free in its progress. To say that any
class of opinions shall not be impugned, that these opinions
are infallable, and that their authors cannot eiT ; what can
be more egregiously absurd and presumptuous ; it is fixing
bounds to human knowledge, and saying man cannot learn by
experience ; that they can never be wiser in future tban they
are to day. The vanity and folly of this is sufficiently evinced
by the history of religion and philosophy; great changes have
taken place in both, and what our ancestors cosidered indis-
pensible truth, their posterity discovered to be gross errors.
To continue the work of improvement, no dogmas, however
plausible, ought to be protected from investigation.

If we continue to oppose, do we not so far clog the wheels
of time ; and we find a certain class of men who would first
try and wish to condemn one, that has not yet examined
either. Theory and practice neither is envious, and has never
shown any aid in the useful to mankind, and some that have
a knowledge of some one of the arts, are willing to condemn
all others. Religious bigots tell all things by their self-con-
ceited concientiousness, but the better informed are waiting
to know how to decide. Can that be just that is not merciful ;
Do not cruelty and injustice go hand in hand. Man often
would wish to be called a christian, but cannot let his anger
rule, for fear of the law of church or country ; but on the
helpless horse he shows his cruel and debased heart. Rea-
sons are often asked for the cause of all such. The poor man
is like a pile of logs covered with rocks for lime, the fire con-
sumes the wood and the stone becomes lime, and its natural
character changed then. If water is applied it smokes ; if
handled becomes unpleasant; this is the case with man and
horse. The natural character is to reason right, to teach and
to show, not to beat or abuse, for that coufuses, for where wit
falls pride in our defence, fills all the cavity void of sense.
For like causes, like effects, kindness begets kindness in life
when properly applied. The learned men of Egypt and Ara-
bia, the eminent men of Greece and Rome, the great ana-
tomical teachers and philosophers of the middle ages knew
not the circulation of the blood; how wild was their theory.
Yet it was not till the seventeenth century the illustrious

TO THE AOMIRERS OF SCIENCE. Ill

Harvy demonstrated the true nature of the blood, and the
manner in which the blood circulates through the body. The
more immediate reward of his discovery was calumny, misrep-
resentation, aud loss of his professional practice. !So as man
had so long to learn his own nature, I may well suppose much
longer time to learn the character of the horse that he had no
mind, as we have reverenced the opinion of the former ages
in our own health, and caused many to suffer, as I have al
ready shown. You may then Avell suppose that there is no
limit to man's experience that leads to inquiry in the natural
law of kindness, as the great God has in his divine wisdom
made things to act in harmony and for ease, we, in our pow-
ers, cause his natural elements one to destroy another, or
cause lighter bodies to sink in the wTater than the water : in
violating these principles we suffer in mind and body. As
well might the poet say, " grow wiser now in thy scale of
sense, the way thy opinion gains the hand of Providence : go
teach the eternal wisdom how to rule in thy sphere of life
and be a fool."

Destroy his inclination to contend, and his race would all
be destroyed. It is his contentious character that makes him
draw the plough, wagon, and persevere on the road with his
rider. The same makes^ man, cultivate the soil: it is
the spirit of the minister in the pulpit contending for his doc-
trine ; some for one thing and some for another, so is the
horse diverse in various ways.

Does not mercy plead for the heaviness of all sympathizing
beasts that sigh and sorrow for each other. Can that which
is not merciful be preferred to that which is merciful ; the
dog and the horse have often been seen to show sympathy for
their master. Arabin Adolfin after ariving in England, was
abused, and would not be ruled by them ; three years had pas-
sed and he saw his groom that attended him to the country ;
when he saw him he whined, and showed his friendship to him
as the only friend of this country ; the sailor showed them all
that was necessary. Then it is the case that there are animals
who will show more good character than man, for we are com-
manded to have mercy, do justice, and walk humbly before
God.

" The more you can explain and facilitate the attainment
of any science, the more you will find that science approach
perfection. The true philosopher has always studied to find
out relations aud resemblances in nature, thus simplifying the
apparently wonderful ; the most perfect system that has ever

] VI TO THE ADMIRERS OF SCIENOfl.

been alluded to to, be that which can reconcile and bring to-
gether the greatest number of facts that come within the
sphere of the subject of it. In this consists the glory of New-
ton, whose discovery rests upon no higher order of proof. —
How was this discovery received on its first announcement ?
In the words of Dr. Chalmers, "authority scowled upon it;
and taste was disgusted by it ;' and all the beauteous specu-
lation of former days was cruelly broken up by this new an-
nouncement of the better philosophy, and scattered like the
fragments of an aerial vision over which the past generations
of the world had been slumbering their profound and pleasing
revere." To nature, eternal Nature, must truth ever make
her first and last appeal. By this, and this only, am I wil-
ling that the new fabric which I have presumed to erect
upon the ruins and reverses of the past, should be tested and
tried.

In the higher powers of Observation, Comparison, Com-
prehension and Direction, termed Mind or Intellect, man
stands pre-eminent above all animals ; in so far as regards
the more immediate observation of certain things around him,
he is nevertheless excelled in some respects by many. The
eagle has a finer and farther sight ; the hearing of the mole
is more acute ; the dog and the vulture distinguish odors
wholly unappreciable to him ; not a few of the wilder deni-
zens of the forest have even a keener sense of taste and touch.
In mere perspective power, then, the beasts of the field are
in some things permitted to surpass us — while the sagacity
of the elephant and the dog, the courage and emulation of
the horse, the cunning of the fox, and the building babits of
the beaver, declare to us, however unpleasing the announce-
ment, that others of God's creatures, besides ourselves, pos-
sess the elements, at least, of that reason upon which we so
highly pride ourselves. To the greater degree of complexity,
perhaps I should rather say completeness of our eelebral or-
ganization, to our more perfect development of that source of
all reasoning power — the brain, we assuredly owe this cor-
responding increase in the number and force of our reason-
ing faculties. To this completeness of his eelebral develop-
ment, man, then, is indebted for his great mental superiority
over every other thing that lives, just as certainly as that by
the complete mechanism of his comprehensible organ— the hand9
his power of physically executing what his head mentally con-
ceives, places his works and his ways so far above the works
and the ways of the whole animal kingdom united. But th«

TO THE ADMIRERS OF SCIENCE, 118

rudiments of this instrumental part of man's reasoning facul-
ties variously developed, may be detected in numerous links
of the great chain of animated being, of which he is confes-
sedly the chief. To every variety of race that animates the
globe, whether in external or internal configuration, we have
undeniably many features, of relationship ; nor let us spurn
even the meanest and most shapeless as beneath our notice,
for if every organic production of their common Maker. —
Have not all of them eyes, noses, mouths and ears ; senses to
see, hear, smell, taste and touch ; and each its respective lan-
guage of sounds and signs, by which it conveys its meaning to
the other individuals of its race ? Nay, have not animals
many of man's passions and emotions — most of his sympa-
thies— his power and choice of resistence — the knowledge by
Comparison, who is their friend and who their foe ; Reflec-
tion, whom to conciliate, whom to attack, where to hide, and
when to show themselves ; Memory, of kindness ; Imitation,
and consequently docility — in some instances, simulation and
dissimulation, each pursuing its own mode of artifice ? Do
not their young, too, as in the instance of the child, gambol
and play, and leave off both as they grow older, for other
pleasure ? And, yet, there are persons of a temper so un-
philosophical as to deny them Blind ! — Who will tell me that
man is so far superior to the dog in this respect, as the dog
is to the oyster ! Of mental, as of physical power, there are
gradations. If we have stupid and weak men, so have we
stupid and weak animals, according to their respective races.
But there are dogs that will observe, calculate, and act more
rationally than some human fools you may see every day. —
When did you find the dog prostrating himself before a figure
of his own making asking it questions, supplicating it, and
howling, and tearing his hair, because it answered him not ?
Which of all the brutes quarrels with his fellow-brute for going
his own road, whether circuitous or otherwise, to a town or
otherwise, to a town or village that does not concern the other
in the least ? Or which of all the animal tribes manifests
such a paucity of intellect, as more than once, to mistake tho
same false signs for real sense, — imposture for integrity,
gravity for wisdom, antiquity for desert? Never in my life,
Gentlemen, did I see the dog or monkey implicitly submit-
ting himself to another of his race, in matters that especially
interested himself. On the contrary, in the case of the mon-
key, instead of trusting to the authority of his fellow-monkey,
in a spirit of laudible curiosity he has always handled witk
15

114 TO THE ADMIRERS OF SCIENCE.

his tiny fingers, and examined with his quick prying eyes,
everything that took his fancy; in no single instance that I
remember, did he ever allow himself to be taken by the ears.
Even in his language of chatter and gibber, he never seems
to mistake the meaning of his comrades, never takes one sign
in two more senses, — senses the most opposite, — so as to get
confused and bewildered in his manner or his actions. Can
you always say this of man ? Have you never heard hira
even in his discussions on this very subject, one moment
charging every thing of intellect to Mind, at another to In'
stinct, — instinct which, to have a meaning at all, must mean
this — right action without experience. Horse, when he sees,
hears, and touches an object, he becomes convinced. Expe-
rience corrects the error of both, and this correction of error
is one of the first efforts of the three mental faculties, Obser-
vation, Comparison and Reflection. It is with these identi-
cal faculties that both men and animals perceive a relation-
ship betwixt two or more things, and act in regard to such
things according to their respective interest, — rightly in some
instances, wrongly in others. The correction, to-day of the
errors of yesterday, is the chief business of men. As he
grows in years his experence of things enlarges, and his judg-
ment, as to their true value and relationship to himself, be-
comes more and more matured. The Brutes, then, have the
very same intellectual faculties variously developed, which,
when stimulated to their utmost in man, and with the assist-
ance of his higher moral faculties, become Grenius, — if
by genius is meant the discovery of relationships in nature
hitherto undiscovered, and Heading as all such discoveries do,
to practical results beyond contemporary anticipation. New-
ton' s system and Watt's steam engine are examples. Gentle-
men, you now clearly see that in the power of gaining knowl-
edge by experience, — call it Mind, Reason, Intellect, or what
you please, — the beast of the field partakes in common with
man, though not in the same degree, yet both partake of it
in a degree equal to the particular position and exigencies in
which they are individually or socially placed. For animals,
like man, have their cities and sentinels — their watchwords
of battle, siege and defence : nature, too, has given them all
their respective weapons of offence and defence. Man less
gifted in either of these respects, first fashioned his sword
and his shield, and his armour of proof. It was only after
the experience of centuries, he reached by higher mental
efforts; to the knowledge necessary for the construction of th«

DISEASES OF THE HORSB. 116

musket, the cannon, and the other munitions of modern war-
fare. Necessity was the mother of his invention here, as in-
deed, in every other instance ; but by this, also, the lower
animals profit. What but necessity enables our domestic ani-
mals to change their habits, so as to live in peace, harmony
or slavery with man ! — even as necessity obliges man enslaved
to do and bear for his fellow-man, things the most repugnant
to his nature. How different the habits of the domestic dog,
from the dog or wolf of the prairie, from which he originally
sprung ! In the wilderness, the one would all but perish from
stern necessity should teach him to hunt down his prey, the
other would require precept upon precept through successive
generations, before he could be taught like tho shepherds*
dog to come at his name, and to drive the sheep at his mas-
ter's call, or arithmetically to single out from the heard two,
three, or more, and to watch, or uge them on at his bidding.
To deny animals mind, is to deny them design, without which,
putting mere instinct apart, neither men nor animals act in
any manner or matter.

SYMPTOMS OF DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

The diagnosis of the diseases of the horse, is a matter as
important as it is difficult in certain cases. In order to es-
tablish it, it is necessary to subject the sick animal to an ex-
amination, which not only embraces the disease and its symp-
toms, but extends also to the rest of phenomena of the ani-
mal's peculiar life. The comparison between these two or-
ders of symptoms, shows us how far the present state of the
horse is removed from the natural condition, and allows us
to establish our prognosis ; for it is evident that the mora
the functions are altered from their normal course, the more
the physiogamy of the animal differs from what it should be,
the exterior is changed ; the more the secretions and excre-
tions have become irregular ; the more serious and alarming
is the character of the disease.

The examination of a sick animal presents, in some res-
pects more, in some less of difficulty than that of a human
being affected with disease. It is more difficult, inasmuch as
the practitioner must often dispense with the knowledge of

116 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

the case. The animal not being able to speak to inform him
of his orevious habits, of the injurious influences to which he
was exposed, &c, and the persons who are in care of him,
generally affording but very incomplete information, — we fre-
quently obtain but very vague and unsatisfactory ideas about
the case ; besides that, we are not always told respecting the
onset of the disease, whether such be really unknown, or those
in charge of the animal have been too careless to inquire into
it, or there may be some motive for concealing it. Another
difficulty is owing to this, that the animals cannot tell us their
subjective symptoms, that is to say, what they feel, the na-
ture of their pains, &c.

But on the other hand the examination is more easy in
Bome respects, because the animal, obedient to its intellect,
expresses its sufferings by movements, attitudes, looks, sounds,
&c. The phenomena themselves are much more distinctly
marked, because there is not in this case as in man, the ima-
gination to exercise any influence over them. Also every-
thing discovered in the sick animal may be considered as a
consequence of the state of the organs. The pulse and beat-
ings of the heart, among others, afford much more precise
and certain signs than in man. A practical knowledge of the
symptoms of the disease constitutes what it is called, in veter-
inary medicine, and is very necessary to the homoepathist.

It is of the utmost importance, when a sick animal is ex-
amined, carefully to collect all the symptoms, even those the
least marked, and to arrange them properly ;' for this is al-
most the sole and only means of ascertaining the form of the
disease : the practitioner having no other resource for this,
except to take into account that which is represented extern-
ally in the animal.

The order in which we proceed to the examination is
not a matter of indifference ; from the manner in which it is
done, we judge of the skill of the practitioner. Thus it would
be giving a very unfavorable idea of oneself to commence the
examination by indicating the accessory symptoms, and then
to pass to that of the essential symptoms, or to jumble and
confound both orders of symptoms indiscriminately. To con-
fine oneself to a certain order, is besides, a means for render-
ing the examination itself much easier.

The usage is to commence with the symptoms which are
referable to the exterior of the animal, and which, as such,
first fall under the cognizance of the senses, because in many
eases, they are sufficient to enable us to recognize the dis-

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 117

ease, and even to judge of its seat. To this head may be re-
ferred : —

1st. The movements and attitudes of the body and its seve-
ral parts, chiefly of the head, eyes, limbs, and tail, as the
animal indicates the pains he feels by striving to repel or
avoid the pernicious influences from without, or to relieve the
sufferings which torture him.

2nd. The look and physiognomy. To be sure it cannot be
said that the horse has a physiognomy, in the sense in which
this term is applied to the human subject. Still the charac-
ter, the breed, and the state of health and of disease are ex-
pressed in him in a very striking manner. His physiognomy
becomes particularly characteristic in tetanus, internal gan-
grene, vertigo, &c. It is for this reason we should attach a
special importance to the examination of the eye.

After having considered all the symptoms connected with
the exterior of the body of the animal, we next proceed to ex-
amine the pulse and the beatings of the heart. These two
phenomena have great value, as characteristic signs, in the
diseases of our domestic animals — of the horse more espe-
cially. The pulse is felt on embracing the submaxilliary ar-
tery between the index and middle finger, as it crosses the
anterior portion of the tuberosity of the lower jaw. With
respect to the beatings of the heart, they are felt by placing
the palm of the hand on the horse's left side, not far
from the elbow. But to be able to judge of a disease
from the pulsation of the arterial system, it is necessary to
know the character of the character of the pulse in the state
of health, and to have attained a certain degree of dexterity
in examining it. The number of the pulsations is about from
thirty-two to forty per minute in the adult horse, when in
health, and from forty-six to fifty-five in the young horse.—
If the animal is irritable, his pulse is more frequent and also
harder, that is, it strikes with more force against the finger,
which is generally considered a sign of vigor ; it is slower
and softer in phlegmatic breeds.

The pulse varies very much in diseases. It is accelerated
(above fifty, sometimes seventy or eighty, and even up to
one hundred or more,) in febrile diseases. The pulse at once
frequent, hard, and strong, in general indicates an inflamma-
tory affection. When slow and weak, or easily compressed,
it denotes debility, advanced age, or an anemic state of the
body. When accelerated or feeble, it indicates imminent
danger, and worse still, if it have an unequal, intermitting

118 DIKE ABES OF THE HOUSE.

character. In phneumonia, it is frequently oppressed. Iff
enteritis, hard, quick, and wiry in its feel. If whilst tfce
mouth and feet are cold, the pulse is no longer felt, life is*
very seriously threatened. Oftentimes the pulsations of the
leart are no longer perceptible during the repose of the ani--
mal, but slight motions are sufficient to render them pcrcep--
tible. Further, there are two circumstances which, must not:
Ibe lost sight of; the first is, that we can judge so much bet-
ter of the state of the pulse, the more tranquil the animal is ;:
the second is, that the pulse is influenced by everything which'
<can excite fear or uneasiness, so that we should not examine
at abruptly, and before we have familiarized ourselves with
the animal to a certain extent.

After the pulse, the respiration should be examined ; we
should first attend to its frequency and its relations to the
pulsations of the heart. In the state of health, the horse
respires from nine to ten times every minute. We should
see also what the temperature and odor of the expired air
may be. We examine all the phenomena with which the res-
piration may be accompanied, such as different sounds, cough,
he. The animalies of this function possess great importance,
not only in the idiopathic affections of the organs charged
with its performance, but also in the diseases of other organs,
particularly in the brain, heart, &c. In the lesions which
Compromise the entire vital activity, and in many fevers, es-
pecially in those which assume an inflammatory character.

From the respiration, we pass on to digestion. The ap-
paratus destined for the performance of this function fur-
nishes important diagnostic signs, inasmuch as it enjoys a
great predominance in our domestic animals, and indepen-
dently of the diseases peculiar to it, it participates in those
of several other systems and organs. We investigate the
•igns which may be derived from hunger, thirst, the manner
in which the animal takes his food, masticates and swallows
it, the state of the abdomen, the quality of the alvine dejec-
tions, &c.

The total loss of appetite is a phenomenon much more se-
rious in domestic animals than in man. It is, therefore, al-
ways a favorable sign when they take food, provided, however,
that they are conscious of what they do.

A phenomenon worthy of remark is, that inflammatory dis-
eases in the contraction of the intestinal parieties, and a dimi-
nution in the secretions, which may be ascertained by the
small size, hardness, dryness, the more or less deep color of

©ISEASBf OF THB ilOKHS. 119

the evacuations, whilst the contrary takes place in putrid dis-
eases, where the alvinc dejections are united into larger mas-
ses, and generally covered with mucus.

The examination of the urinary organs is necessary, as well
in reference to the diseases peculiar to the apparatus itself,
as because it contributes to make known the general state of
inflammation, putridity, spasms, so that it furnishes signs of
the highest importance.

Lastly, we must direct attention to the state of the mucus
membranes, those chiefly of the mouth and nose; their pale
or red color, and the characters of their secretion affords
signs sufficient to indicate certain diseases.

The examination should bear, not only on the aberations
which the vital phenomena have undergone, but also on the
causes of the diseases, if they not already appear from the
symptoms themselves. As every disease must be considered
as the product of two factors, an internal or subjective, cause
and an external or objective cause, the veterinary practitioner
should give his investigations a two-fold direction. With re
spect to the animal, he, takes into consideration his age, sex,
breed constitution, mode of life, the labor he has had to per-
form, the state of health he enjoyed hitherto, the diseases
with which he had previously been attacked, and the
state of those animals of the same breed. With respect to
the second point of view, he looks to the state of the atmos-
phere, the kind of food given him, the character of the sta-
bling, the first morbid phenomena which manifested them-
selves, the course of the disease up to the present period,
and the treatment employed.

Most of the diseases of the horses are accompanied with
pains, which manifest themselves externally, according to the
parts whence they derive their origin. If the painful part is
a foot, the animal assumes an attitude such as may spare this
part ; when standing, he throws the leg forwards, so that it
may have less to do than the other in supporting the weight
of the body. In laminitis, when standing, the weight is thrown
on the heels. When walking, he rests less on it ; when one
touches it, he sometimes draws it back, or raises the foot ; if
the pain have its seat elsewhere, the animal frequently turns
his head towards this part, or strikes it with the foot. In
case the pains are very severe, he remains if struck with stu-
por, and with his head inclined to the ground, or else he
scrapes with his fore-feet, or stamps with the hind-feet, or he
rolls himself on the ground.

120 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

The eyes, even when they are not the seat of the disease,
often express the state of the animal : dull and full of water,
for instance, they indicate exhaustion and weak, whilst when
bright, full of force, and projecting out of the orbits, they de-
note an inflammatory state, or sometimes a very acute pain.

Every time the hair is observed to be dull and staring, it
is a proof of disease, for it is shining and smooth when the
animal is in good health. This symptom denotes a bad nu-
trition insution food, more especial abdomal affections, when
emaciation is combined with it.

When the respiration is slow and calm, we conclude that
there is no fever, and that the pectoral organs are healthy;
when it is hurried, violent, and accompanied with heaving of
the flanks, it freqnently, denotes the presence of fevers, more
especially of inflammatory fever, and when there is cough, or
stertorous breathing, we infer the existence of some disease
of the lungs or the windpipe.

If the horse remains constantly standing up, the fore-legs
widely separated, we are warranted in presuming a disease
of the thoracic organs, pneumonia, peripneumonia, inflamma-
tion of the diapram, water in the chest, &c, because in all
these cases respiration is performed with more ease whilst
standing. When the animal always remains lying down, it
is a proof of great debility, or of pain, or some disease of the
feet.

Every time that certain parts of the body are either burn-
ing hot or very cold, we may reckon it that there is some dis-
ease. Heat of the mouth and that of the mouth, with sha-
king and a staring coat, are invariably symptoms of fever ;
cold in the head, ears, and feet, frequently indicate great de-
bility and exhaustion of the animal.

" Oh ! mickle is the powerful grace that lies
In herbs, plants, stones, and their true qualities :
For not so vile that on the earth doth life,
But to the earth some special good doth give;
Nor aught so good, but, strained from that fair use,
Revolts from true birth, sthmbling on abuse,
Nortue itself turns vice, being misapplied,
And Aice sometimes by action dignified.
Within the infant rind of this small flower,
Poison hath residence, and Medicine power !"

ON MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES,

By Finlay Dun, Jun., Veterinary College,

PRIZE REPORT.

There are certain conditions which nrast be fulfilled by man,,
in order to preserve the domestic animals under his charge
in proper health and vigour. These conditions consist chiefly
in furnishing them with a sufficiency of good food and pure
air, and with efficient shelter from the inclemency of the
weather. The proper fulfilment of these conditions consti-
tutes what we understand by good management, whilst the
neglect or violation of them constitutes mismanagement.

It is evident that our definition of mismanagement applies
to every error in the management of all domesticated animals ;
but as the present Report is restricted, under several subdi-
visions, to the "diseases arising from mismanagement of farm
horses," we have to consider the subject in regard to them
alone, and under the following prescribed head : —

1. Insufficient or improper food.

2. Overwork.

3. Insufficient shelter.

4. Neglect of incipient disease.

5. Want of medical skill in professional attendants.

The diseases induced by bad management of farm-horses
are numerous and occasionally severe. They may supervene
immediately after an error in management has been commit-
ted, but more frequently spring from weakness and suscepti-
bility to disease, produced by continued neglect or error. —
Thus a single instance of adstinence from cold, seldom pro-
duces in a healthy animal, any permanent evil ; but when such
instances become frequent, they soon begin to develope their
injurious consequences. It is; therefore, by no means a fair
16

122 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

criterion of any system of management to say that it must be
good because under its operation disease is not speedily per-
ceptible, for among the lover animals, as well as in man, mis-
management may frequently be long continued before its bad
effects become at all apparent. Thus insufficient food, over-
work, and insufficient shelter, require a considerable time be-
fore they produce even their earliest effect ; but in proportion
as these effects are slow and imperceptible in their develop-
ment, there are the more to be dreaded, on account of the
ravages they make before being detected or arrested.

Any single cause of disease is greatly strengthened by the
co-operation of other causes. For example, deficient ventila-
tion, or want of cleanliness, materially aggravates the evils
resulting from hunger, overwork, or exposure to wet or cold ;
and again, overwork and want of shelter are much more se-
verely felt by ill-fed than well-fed animals. Further, the evil
effects of mismanagement are modified by conditions inherent
in the animals themselves. Those of strong and vigorous
constitution, of hardy breed, or mature years, are less affected
by errors in mismanagement than those of delicate frames, of
highly artificial breed, or of tender years.

But although in favorable circumstances, and in certain
animals, some sorts of mismanagement may appear for a time
to be without effect, still they sooner or later produce evident
injury, disease, and loss, and thus afford the strongest pos-
sible evidence of both the sanitary, and pecuniary advantages
of good management. Indeed there is no method by which
the advantage of good management can be so clearly shown
as by noting the evils of mismanagement. Causes of disease,
previously unnoticed or disregarded, are thus exposed to view,
and their injurious influences ascertained ; attention is also
directed to the preventive treatment of disease, which is al-
ways more certain and satisfactory than the remedial treat-
ment, besides being of higher practical value, since it affects
numbers rather than individuals, and, when properly studied,
leads to the adoption of extensive sanitary improvements.

But without further preface we proceed to the considera-
tion of the first head of the present Report.

1. Insufficient improper Food. — The subject of dietetics is
so extensive, and the topics it embraces so closely connected
with each other, that it is somewhat difficult to consider the
question of insufficient and improper food in a detailed and
distinct manner, without making some preliminary observa-
tions on food in general. We shall, therefore, consider the

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 123

subject of insufficient and improper food under the following
heads : — (a) The uses of food and the general effects of star-
vation ; (b) the quantity of food requiste for farm-horses ; (<?)
the division of food into two great ciases, and the proportion
in which these should exist in the diet of the horse ; (d) the
injurious effects of insufficient food (that is, food defective
either in quantity or nutritiveness,) and its influence in de-
veloping disease ; (e) the evils of too long intervals between
the times of feeding ; and (/) the diseases induced by improper
food, by excessive quantity and unsuitable quality of food.

(a) Every tissue of every animal is constantly undergoing
change and decay. Every action, physical or mental, occa-
sions a waste of the structure immediately concerned in the
production of that action. Every act of the mind causes a
consumption of the tissues of the brain, and every contraction
of a muscle renders useless and effete some of the particles of
that muscle. The waste produces a constantly recurring de-
mand for new material. At definite intervals this demand
attracts atention by exciting the sensation of appetite or hun-
ger ; and this sensation is removed and the demand is satisfied
when new material is or food is introduced into the body in
sufficient quantity and of suitable quality to repair this waste.
In such circumstances, the demand and the supply are jusily
balanced. When, however, the supply exceeds the demand
increases in size and in weight. When on the other hand, the
demand exceeds the supply, when the amount of waste or effete
matter is greater than that which the animal can assimilate
from its food, the diet is insufficient, and loss of wTeight and
starvation of some of the structures of the body soon occur.
But a system of diet may vary much in the degree of its in-
sufficiency. It may be so greatly defective as speedily to
cause death, or so little defective that even after some weeks
its effects are scarcely apparent, while between these two ex-
tremes the symptoms and effects of the error are of all de-
grees of intensity.

When the animal is entirely deprived of food, the weight
of the body speedily decreases. Those tissues suffer first
which are least essential to life : the fat disappears : by and
by the muscles shrink and waste ; then the bones lose weight :
and last of all, the blood becomes so small in quantity and so
impoverished in quality that there is not even sufficient nu-
triment for the brain and other parts of the nervous system,
and death shortly follows. The time that animals survive
total abstinence from food is much modified by circumstances.

124 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

When in good condition and arrived at maturity, they live
longer than when lean and not fully grown. When supplied
with abundance of good water they also live longer than when
deprived of food and water. Thus man, when deprived al-
together of food and water, dies in eight or nine days ; but
with plenty of pure fresh water life is sustained for nearly
three times as long. In similar circumstances a horse will
live about the sam® time as a man. Such extreme cases of
deprivation are, however, exceedingly rare, but derive great
interest from exhibiting in a short space of time, and in the
greatest intensity, evils, which a less insufficient system of
diet develope only after a great length of time, and in a much
less aggravated form. The effects, however, though differing
widely in degree, are essentially the same in kind ; and all
the symptoms of insufficient food, and the diseases to which
it tends, depend upon the fact that the waste exceeds the sup-
ply.

(b) It may not be out of place to notice briefly the quan-
tity of food requisite to maintain farm-horses in good health
and condition. This is modified by various circumstances,
but especially by the nature and amount of the work they
perform. An allowance, suitable during the spring months,
and when the work is pretty severe, may consist of the fol-
lowing proportions of oats, hay, and roots, viz. from 10 to
18 lbs. of oats, at 40 lbs. weight per bushel ; 14 lbs. of
steamed turnips or potatoes. The oats should be bruised,
and are most economically given at two different times — one
half, in the morning and the other half about noon. It con-
tributes much to the condition of horses to give them a small
quantity of beans along with, or instead of, a part of their
oats. Hay and fodder should always be given cut ; for, by
such preparation, it is more easily masticated and digested,
and the animal is thus allowed more time for rest. In some
parts of the country cut straw is substituted for hay, especially
during autumn and the early part of the winter, but such a
substitution diminishes the nutritiveness of the diet. The
boiled or steamed food is useful for keeping the bowels in
good order. It should be mixed with chaff, chopped straw,
or meal-seeds, and with a handful of common salt ; and part
should be given when the horse returns from work in the even-
ing, and the remainder an hour or two after.

(c) Food, besides being insufficient in absolute quantity, is
often insufficient from containing an inadequate supply of nu-
tritive materials. To be nutritive, food must be capable of

MISMANAGEMENT OP FARM HORSES. 125

forming healthy blood, and of building up the various animal
tissues. All varieties of food have been subdivided by Liebib
into two — the plastic elements of nutrition and the elements of
respiration. The former class includes substances such as
animal and vegitable fibrine, albumen, and casein — the latter,
substances such as starch, gum, suger and fat. All articles
of the former class, contain nitrigen or azote, and are hence
termed nitrogenous or azotized substances. On the other
hand, the articles, of the latter class contain no nitrogen, but
are rich in carbon, which is often united with the elements
of water ; and hence they are termed non-nitrogenous, non-
azotized, carboniferous or hydrocarbons. Substances of these
two different classes are applied in the animal body to very
different purposes. The azotized principles are employed for
repairing the waste, and adding to the bulk of the muscles
and all the more highly organized tissues — they are the flesh
producing principles. The non-azotized articles of food are
consumed in all parts of the body to support the animal heat ;
they are burned, or enter into chemical union with the oxygen
which enters the blood at every inspiration — they cannot form
blood or flesh.

Every natural system of diet, and every system adequate
to support life, contains representatives of each of these two
classes. In milk, the azotized principles are represented by
the casein, and the non-azotized by the saccharine and oily
matters ; and also in the food of adults substances of each
class are naturally mingled. Animals restricted exclusively
to azotized food soon become unhealthy, and die for want of
fuel to support the animal heat ; while on the other hand
those fed on non-azotized food, as pure starch, gum, or sugar,
die in a very short space of time ; dogs, for instance, in about
thirty days. In such cases death occurs in about the same
time, is preceded by very similar symptoms, and produced
much in the same way as when no food whatever is given. —
After confining an animal some days to such food, the nutri-
tion of the body is so disturbed, and the powers of life so de-
pressed, that death speedily occurs ; nor after a certain time
will the substitution of a sufficient diet be of any avail.

The injurious consequences of too highly azotized food are
seldom or never seen amongst farm-horses, their food rarely
containing, for any length of time, an excessive proportion of
azotized matters. The injurious effects of an inadequate pro-
portion of these are, however, of frequent occurrence ; and
food is more often insufficient in this respect than from being

1*25 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

defective in absolute bulk. The proportion in which the azo-
tized and non-azotized elements should exist in the food of
horses employed in ordinary farm-work should be one of the
former to five or six of the latter. This proportion of nitro-
genous principles is somewhat less than that necessary for
man, and somewhat greater than is generally present in the
food either of cattle or sheep. It'will, however, be found to
be the proportion in which these two sorts of alimentary prin-
ciples are present in all well-ordered dietaries for the horse.
In some circumstances it may, without detriment, slightly
altered. Thus, horses whose work is light will maintain their
condition on a somewhat less proportion of nitrogenous prin-
ciples than that above stated ; while those, on the other hand,
whose labor is severe and long continued, require a still larger
allowance. Young animals, from the rapid growth of their
tissues, also require, for healthy existence, a larger propor-
tion of nitrogenous principles than adults ; and we accord-
ingly find these principles forming nearly one half of the solid
ingredients of all sorts of milk.

(d) With reference to man, as well as the domesticated
animals, errors of diet are common, and often attended by
serious evil consequences. Numerous facts and statistics,
published during the last few years, show that the continuance
of a deficient or improper diet inevitably produdces sickness
and mortality, and this has been especially observed among
the lower classes of the community. The recorded rates of
mortality in years of famine are always far above the average,
and always bear a very close relation to the price and abund-
ance of food, and especially of wheat. Such statistics are
of great value, as showing the influence of insufficient food
on a very large scale. The history of the Royal Navy, prior
to the end of the last century, also furnishes corroborative
facts on this snbject. Until then scurvy, dysentery, and
sloughing ulcers produced incalculable suffering and mortality,
and, in the words of Captain Cook, "tremendous calamities"
and " depopulation of fleets." By the introduction of a suffi-
cient and well-selected diet the crews of our nayy have been
also entirely freed of these destructive diseases. "1797,"
says the official report, " the victualing was changed, greatly
improved, and strictly regulated ; and consequent immediately
to the change the health of the seamen improved strikingly ;
scurvy, typhoid fever, dysentery, and ulcer, which up to the
period of the change had produced great havoc, became com-
paratively rare in occurence and light in impression."

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 127

From the reports of prisons, workhouses, and othor public
institutions, we might adduce many other striking instances
of disease and death resulting from ill-regulated diets. What
has been already mentioned will however, suffice to show that
an abundance of good food is essential to the health of man ;
and if this is true in regard to man, few will dispute that a
sufficiency of food is equally essential to the health and well-
being of the horse. Indeed, from his nature and the labori-
ous services exacted from him, the injurious influences of in-
sufficient food are as speedily and certainly developed in him
as in man, and far more speedily and certainly than either
in cattle or sheep.

Ey insufficient food we understand food insufficient either
as to quantity or as to nutritiveness ; and in the following
pages we shall use the term in this twofold sense. It will,
however, be obvious from the preceding remarks that these
two forms of insufficient food produce similar effects, and that
both operate injuriously by reducing the strength and general
vigor of the system. Under either system of starvation,
horses become lean and miserable looking ; their bellies flat,
and their quarters thin and angular ; their skins adherent to
their ribs, and infested with lice and other vermin ; and their
hair rough and coarse. Their strength and spirit also fail ;
they are unfit even for moderate exercise, and are dull and
listless. These are the consequences of insufficient food with
which, on accout of their comparatively frequent occurrence,
we are most familiar. When, however, the defective feed-
ing is still more excessive, or of longer continuation, or when
its injurious consequences are aggravated by other errors, in
management, it leads to still greater evils, some of which may
be here enumerated. The gradual removal of the fat and
shrinking of the muscles produce extreme emaciation;
the digestive systemn loses its tone ; and diarrhoea and even
dysentery, appear, which rapidly reduce the fast-failing
strength. The blood is thin and watery, and passes through
the walls of its vessels, causing serious swellings in various of
the dependent parts of the body, as in the limbs and about
the sheath. This impoverished state of body especially favors
the production of two very serious diseases, namely, tubercu-
lar consumption and glanders. These affections owe their
orign to similar causes : their existence indicate a deteriorated
and vitiated state of the blood, and their cure is all but hope-
less.

128 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

Tubercular consumption is of less frequent occurrence in
horses than either in the human subject or in cattle, and ia
rarely seen except in animals in which there is strong consti-
tutional predisposition to it. If this latent predisposition be
excited in early life, the disease generally attacks the mesen-
teric glands and mucous follicles of the small intestines ; these
become enlarged, and filled with unhealthy pus and tuberous
matter : the lacted vessels are unable to take up the nutritive
portions of the food, and the animal dies of inanition. In ad-
vanced life the tubuculer deposits are more abundant in the
organs of respiration. A gluey fibrinous matter appears on
the surface of the mucous membrane lining the air-cells and
the smaller bronchii. The more fluid portions of this are ab-
sorbed ; and there remains a greyish yellow, cheese-like mass,
incapable of organization, and containing numerous gritty in-
organic particles. After a variable, but generally considera-
ble time, these tubercles run on to unhealthy suppuration ;
large portions of the lungs become quite inadequate to the
performance of their functions ; the quantity of the circula-
ting fluids is lessened by diarrhoea aud dropsical effusions,
and death results from extreme exhaustion. It is stated by
I)r. Alison that the causes of pulmonary consumption and
scrofulous diseases " may be all ranked together as causes of
debility acting permanently or habitually for a length of time,
although not so powerfully as to produce sudden or violent
effects." But there are few more powerful causes of debility
than imperfect nourishment, and therefore we can scarcely
deny its great influence in contributing to develop these in-
tractible diseases. Indeed it is well known that such diseases
are remarkably common amongst badly-fed portions of the
population, and that even amongst the most healthy inmates
of prisons a scanty diet has produced, after some time, glandu-
lar enlargement of the neck and other symptoms of struma,
which entirely disappeared when the prison discipline was
somewhat relaxed, and the nutritiveness of the diet in-
creased.

Causes which, in other animals give rise to consumption
generally produce in the horse glanders and farcy. These
diseases are essentially the same ; they are induced by simi-
lar post-mortem appearances, pass imperceptibly into one
another, generally co-exist in fatal cases, and are, in short,
but two different stages of the same constitutional malady.
As induced by insufficient or bad food, farcy usually appears

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 129

first, and may continue for some time before any symptoms
of glanders present themselves. Both diseases depend upon
a vitiated condition of the blood. This, in the first instance,
causes irritation and unhealthy inflammation of the absorb-
ent glands and vessels, which become swollen from the depo-
sition of lymph and the inflammation of their valves. The effu-
sion, however, is of a morbid character, and after some time
runs on to suppuration ; the skin overlying the part is re-
moved by ulceration, and thus farcy-buds are formed. The
poison is carried by the blood to all parts of the body, and
under certain circumstances, rapidly reproduces itself. Tu-
bercles and unhealthy buds are deposited in all the lymphatic
glands and in the substance of the lungs. The functions of
digestion and assimilation are imperfectly performed, and the
blood becomes so impoverished and vitiated as to be unfitted
for the nutrition of the body. Ulcerations appear on the mu-
cous membrane of the nostrils, which is attacked on account
of its high vascularity : for those parts first undergo disinte-
gration which require for their healthy existence, the largest
amount of blood. The time which elapses between the first
■development and the fatal termination of glanders is exceed-
ingly variable, being sometimes a few weeks, and sometimes
even years. With judicious management and feeding, a
glandered horse may sometimes continue fit for work for a
very long time ; but the action of any debilitating cause calls
forth, with unrestrained force, the latent disease, and hastens
on the inevitably fatal results. All influences which deterio-
rate the general health or vitiate the integrity of the system
must be considered as causes of glanders. It sometimes fol-
lows influenza, strangles, diabets, and other debilitating dis-
eases, and is notoriously the scourge of badly-managed stables.
Three of its most frequent causes form three several heads of
this essay, viz. insufficient food, over-work, and bad shelter ;
and all three, as indeed all other causes of the disease, so act
as to reduce the powers of life below their natural healthy
standard.

Insufficient food frequently causes functional diseases of
the digestive system. It produces atony, weakness, and per-
verted secretion, and is thus a common cause of indigestion,
acidity, and occasionally of colic. It favors the development
of intestinal worms, and by inducing hunger, or impairment
of the functions of digestion, sometimes gives cause to crib-
biting and wind-sucking.

There is no age at which animals are exempt from the evils
17

130 MISMANAGEMENT OF FAKM HORSES.

of insufficient food, but there are certain ages at which they
suffer more frequently and severely than at others. Thus
the consequences of a scanty diet are more speedily produced,
more aggravated and lasting, in very old and in young ani-
mals, than in adults, and the reason is obvious. In old age,
the powers of assimilation are often considerably impaired,
waste is rapid, strength beginning to decline, and health and
vigor can only be maintained by abundance of well chosen
nutriment ; while in youth there is a twofold demand for new
materials, which are required at this time not only for repair-
ing the tissues, but also for increasing their bulk. This two-
fold consumption of aliment, with the want of strength to re-
sist depressing influences, sufficiently accounts for the marked
effects of defective feeding on horses previous to maturity.

When insufficient food, as is too often the case, occurs in
connection with other errors of mismanagement, its evil con-
sequences become immeasurably increased. When insufficient
quantity co-exists with bad quality of food, its effects are pro-
duced with ten-fold rapidity and certainty. Irritation of the
alimentary canal, as indicated by diarrhoea and colic, is
amongst the earliest consequences of this two-fold error. In
such cases irritation of the kidneys is also often induced, and
this, with an impoverished state of the blood, sometimes gives
rise to diabets. Insufficient food greatly aggravates the evils
of bad shelter and exposure to rain and cold ; it increases
their tendency to induce catarrhs, pulmonary affections, oph-
thalmia, rheumatism, and such like diseases, by reducing the
vigor of the body and its power to resist disease ; while, in
connection with want of cleanliness, it is a fertile cause and
great aggravation of mange, grease, and other skin affections.
In fine, insufficient food is sometimes an exciting, but still
more frequently a predisposing, cause of disease. It induces
a debilitated and deteriorated state of the system, which re-
sists all the exciting causes of disease, favors the transmission
of contagious disorders and the development of latent mala-
dies, and lessens in all patients the hope of a speedy and fa-
vorable recovery. The evil consequences of a scanty diet
often remain long after the error has been amended. All
animals lose condition much faster than they gain it. Thus,
if the food of a cow be deficient for one day, the milk is re-
duced in quantity for several days. Again, a starved colt often
bears about with him for months, and even years, the unmis-
takeable evidence of an ill-judged economy in his early diet.
It requires long good feeding to get him into condition, and

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 131

he is in general less easily kept in condition than a horse well
fed from his birth. Such facts show the great importance of
supplying horses with a sufficiency of food at all times, and
any sort of management which overlooks or ignores this fact
must he inconsistent with the health of the animals and with
the best interests of the proprietor.

(e) Before passing to the consideration of improper food
we shall briefly notice an error in the dieting of farm-horses
which is unfortunately very widely prevalent. It is this :
much too long an interval is allowed to intervene between
the times of feediug. The animals are frequently worked for
six hours consecutively, and during this time receive no food
whatever. Such a practice is very prejudicial to the health
of horses, preventing their being kept in good condition, ren-
dering them prone to debilitating diseases, and especially lia-
ble to colic and almost all diseases of the digestive system.
The natual habits of the horse and the conformation of his
digestive system show that he has neither been intended nor
is adapted to suffer such long fasts. When at liberty he eats
during twenty of the twenty-four hours, and the smallness of
his stomach clearly indicates the necessity of supplying him
with food at frequent short intervals. Farm-horses, should,
therefore, be fed every hour, or at most every five hours ;
and if there be a longer interval between the regular times
of feeding, an intermediate meal should be given. This
may conveniently consist of a cake, either of bean-meal, or of
a mixture of bean and oatmeal. A pound weight of this,
kneaded up with water and sufficiently fired, may be given to
each horse; and for the field or road snch food, when com-
pared with hay or corn, has the great advantage of being
speedily eaten, of affording much nutriment in a conveniently
concentrated form, and of being little liable to be wasted. —
The author is acquainted with several farmers who give these
cakes whenever the work is severe and the hours long, and
all of them agree that their horses are now in much better
heart and condition, and less frequently attacked by indiges-
tion and colic, than they were when subjected to protracted
abstinence and without any intermediate meal.

{f) Food may be improper on account of excess of quantity,
over-nutritiveness, or bad quality; and under these several
heads we purpose noticing the subject of improper food.

An an excessive quantity of food consumed at one time is
very apt to produce immediate bad consequences, as colic, en-
teritis, laminitis and occasionally, from the great distension gen-

132 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

erally present in such cases, rupture either of the stomach or in-
testines. Affections of this sort frequently occur amongst farm-
horses, from the large quantity of food eonsumed after pro-
tracted abstinence, or from their getting loose during the
night and gaining access to the contents of the corn-chest.
In such cases food is consumed to an amount so unusually
large that it is only very partially digested ; in this case it
soon undergoes 'chemical change, and becomes a source of
irritation, and the intestines endeavor to relieve themselves
of their load by those violent spasmodic contractions which
form the characteristic symptoms of colic. The irritation,
however, is sometimes so excessive that, unless natural or
artificial aid be afforded, inflammation is set up. Frequently,
too, the sensitive and vascular laminae of the feet become in-
flamed, constituting laminitis, or acute founder. The pro-
duction of this disease by excessive eating is generally ac-
counted for by the doctrine of metastasis, or in other words,
by supposing that the irritation of the alimentary canal is
transferred to the feet. In this, as in many other cases in
which metastasis is said to occur, there is, however, no actual
transference of the disease from one part to another, but
merely an extension of the disease from its original seat to
parts of similar structure, connected by continuity or con-
tiguity of surface. And hence we find that, in cases of the
rapid ingestion of large quantities of food, the consequent
irritation of the alimentary canal extends to the lamife of the
foot, on account of their being endowed with great vascu-
larity and sensibility.

Amongst the lower animals, the evils of continued excessive
quantity of food are sometimes conjoined with those of in-
sufficient nutritiveness. Colts fed exclusively on straw, as is
too frequently the case during winter, often afford examples
of the combined effects of both errors. Straw contains so
small a proportion of nutritive material that exceedingly large
quantities of it must be consumed in order to supply the waste
of the system. The usual consequences of such feeding are,
a gradual enlargement of the abdomen, and the production of
what is significantly termed a pot-belly. The overloaded in-
testines press forwards upon the diaphragm, and, by thus les-
sening the cavity of the chest and interfering with the respira-
tory movements, unfit the animal for active exertion. From the
overworked condition of the digestive organs, indigestion and
colic are also apt to occur.
Excessive quantity of highly nutritive food leads especially

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HOUSES. 133

to plethora, weed, surfeit and other cutaneous eruptions, as
well as to obesity and enlargement of the liver. Blood is
manufactured in larger quantity than can be conveniently dis-
posed of; and this plethoric state of body predisposes to
affections of an acutely inflammatory type, to appoplexy, and
to other diseases of the brain. From the superabundant
quantity and rich quality of the c irculating fluids, irritation
and inflammation of the absorbent vessels and glands are
often produced, constituting the disease termed weed. This
is especially apt to occur in plethoric subjects when their work
is less severe than usual ; and hence we find that the great
■ majority of cases of weed follow a day of rest. In some
horses an excessive growth of the fatty tissues is the conse-
quence of such high feeding. In man a corresponding con-
dition is considered disease, is termed polysarcia, and often
leads to serious derangements of important organs. In the
horse, however, it rarely causes actual disease, but always
unfits the animal for active exertion. Horses fed for a length
of time on large quantities of rich stimulating food are very
liable to enlargement of the liver. Such food requires for its
proper digestion very large quantities of bile ; and to meet
this constant excessive demand the liver gradually becomes
increased in size ; affording a good illustration of the general
rule applicable to all the organs and tissues of the body, that
the more a part is exercised the more highly it is developed.
From the stimulating nature of their food, brewers' and dis-
tillers' horses in particular are very frequently affected with
enlargement of the liver ; and I have met with several cases
in which the enlargement and softening of that organ were
so great as to cause rupture and death.

Food is occasionally given to farm-horses in a state of bad
■preservation. The common error of this nature is the ues of
heated or musty oats or hay. Such food, by irritating the
intestines, often give rise to indigestion or diarrhea ; or by
stimulting the kidneys produces diuresis and diabetes. When,
from bad preservation or other causes, food is of a very de-
fective quality, and forms for some time the whole or a great
portion of the diet, it causes all those evils above noticed as
resulting from insufficient food. Food, although of perfectly
sound and good quality, and capable of forming healthy chyle
and blood, sometimes disagrees with horses from its being en-
tirely different from that to which they have been accustomed.
It is frequently observed, for example, that, when farm-horses
are put upon winter food, the turnips cause at first colic and

134 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

derangements of the digestive system. And again, bean and
pea straw, which is much used as fodder in some districts, is
exceedingly apt to cause colic, unless at first gievn very spar-
ingly ; and yet, after a time, most horses eat large quantities
of it with impunity. There are, however, particular sorts of
food which always disagree with some horses, and to which
they appear never to become habituated. I have known
horses which were invariably seized with violent fits of colic
whenever they ate a small quantity of turnips, while others
were similarly affected by eating either bean or pea straw.
Such cases can only be accounted for on the supposition that
the stomach and intestines become after a time accustomed to
the stimulus of one particular sort of food, which the ali-
mentary secretions soon become peculiarly adapted to digest.
If food of an entirely different sort be substituted, some time
is required before the digestive system responds perfectly to
its stimulus, as the secretions become fitted for its easy and
speedy digestion. In a few exceptional cases, in animals of
peculiar constitution, and in regard to particular articles of
food, this adaptation to the change of food does not occur at
all, or only very tardily.

Before leaving the important subjects of insufficient and
improper food we shall briefly recapitulate the following
practical conclusions, deducible from the various subdivisions
we have adopted in the consideration of the present head.
To preserve farm-horses in health and vigor, their food must
be of sefficient quantity and nutritiveness ; it must be given
at short intervals ; it must not be too large in quantity, or
too rich in quality ; it must be in good preservation ; and it
must be changed only with great care, and by slow degrees.

2. Overwork. — Farm-horses, as a class, are not so fre-
quently overworked as some sorts of horses. Their work is
constant, but slow ; and the hours of labor, although occa-
sionally too long, are on the whole tolerably regular. Their
diet also, in most of the best-farmed districts of the country,
is liberal ; and considerable care is paid to their general com-
fort. Under such management the horses are vigorous and
healthy; and although their work may occasionally for a
short time be severe, and the times of labor too protracted,
still in adult seasoned horses this seldom of itself gives rise to
disease. Very different however, is the case where the ani-
mals are habitually overworked, especially when at the same
time sujected to a deficient system of diet, bad housing, or
the breathing of impure air. In such circumstances, over-

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 135

work speedily and certainly reduces the strength and vigor,
and becomes the exciting eause of some diseases, and the pre-
disposing cause of others ; the evil consequences induced oc-
casionally occuring during the undue exertion, but more fre-
quently some time after.

Amongst the most common and certain consequences of
overwork are general depression of the vital energies and loss
of natural vivacity and of condition. Loss of condition ren-
ders the horse very liable to galls from the collar and saddle,
which are cured with difficulty, from the small amount of
muscle andjadipose tissue covering the bones, and from con-
tinuance of the hard work. The exhaustion engendered by
overwork powerfully predisposes to many diseases. Inflam-
mation of the various parts of the pulmonary apparatus, oph-
thalmia, and gladers, are, caeteris paribus, more frequent
visitants of stables where horses are overworked than where
the work is moderate and judiciously regulated. And when
disease attacks the overworked horse, his debilitated state of
body often leads to untoward complications, interferes with
the action of necessary remedies, diminishes the efficacy of
the vis medicatrix naturae, retards recovery, and hastens
death.

The limbs of the horse exhibit most exquisite arrangements
of parts and curious modifications of structure; powerful, solid,
and unyielding levers ; muscles condensed into the smallest
bulk consistent with strength, or replaced by ligaments and
tendons, of more compact and denser structure, and of un-
tiring vigor ; cartiliginous pads beautifully adapted for sus-
taining presure and obviating concussion ; joints whose per-
fect form excites the admiration of the most accomplished
mechanicians, and from the study of which they have derived
several valuable contrivances ; an extensively distributed ap-
paratus, to elaborate and contain an oily fluid for lubricating
this wonderful machinery, for preventing friction in joints
and facilitating motion of tendons ; and at the base of all,
supporting the whole weight of the frame, and often exposed
to violent concussion, an agglutinated mass of hair, forming
the strong, inelastic, non-vascular, and insensible hoof, and
affording perfect protection to the highly vascular and sensi-
tive structures contained within it.

But although this locomotive apparatus is of great strength,
and adapted to sustain with impunity a great amount of ex-
ertion, yet it is often quite inadequate to those tasks of
strength or fleetness to which it is sometimes subjected, in

136 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HONSES.

ministering to the avarice or wants, or pleasnres of man.

Indeed, there is scarcely a disease of the extremities which
is not produced either directly or indirectly by excessive or
long-continued overwork.

In violent exertions the bones are 'sometimes fractured,
particularly the bones of the fetlock ; but this seldom occurs,
except during more rapid work than usually falls to the lot
of farm-horses. Laceration of muscular fibre is occasionally
met with. The best illustration of this occurs in the disease
generally termed shoulder-slip, which consists in a tearing of
some of the muscular fibres of the antea or postea spinatus,
or the teres extenus — muscles lying on the outer part of the
shoulder-blade. We shall notice this accident somewhat in de-
tail, as it does not seem to have attracted that attention which
it deserves. It appears to be more common in Scotland than
in England. It generally occurs in youug horses, shortly
after they are put in the plough, or in older animals not pre-
viously accustomed to such work. The consequence is, that,
from a false placing of the feet, and the horse being hurried
on by his companion, the muscles of the shoulder are brought
into sudden and violent action, and rupture of some of the
minute muscular fibres takes place. The animal falls lame,
but the lameness is often scarcely perceptible. The muscles
affected, being kept in a state of inaction, become atrophied,
or wasted to such an extent that the spine and tubercle of the
scapula are often felt quite distinctly, and the bone seems in
close contact with the skin. From this wasting of the mus-
cles which keep the shoulder-joint in its position, it is thrown
outwards at every step giving the animal a rolling, unsteady
gait. The treatment of such cases consists at first in rest,
and subsequently in gentle and gradually increasing exercise.
The application of a blister may sometimes be advisable.

Stains of the tendons of the fore-leg are a very common
consequence of overwork. The disease, as met with in farm-
horses, generally occurs first in the metacarpal ligament, just
aeove its insertion into the tendo perforans. From exposure
to undue tension, several of the fibres of this important liga-
ment are torn, and great pain is in consequence felt, when-
ever the limb is extended, as when the foot is placed on the
ground. Unless the animal be prevented from using the
limb, much inflammation takes place, and also effusion, which,
by separating he fibres of the ligment from each other, de-
flects them from their straight course, thus producing at the
same time thickening and shortening of the limb. From the

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 137

excessive pain, and the endeavors to relieve the strained liga-
ment as much as possible, undue stress is frequently thrown
on other parts of the limb ; and hence Avhen a horse is still
kept at work, the perforans and tendon and suspensory liga-
ment soon become also involved. The tendo perforans is
also liable to strain, lower down in its course, near its inser-
tion in the bone of the foot, and just where it passes over the
navicular bone. From injury done to this part of the tendon
it becomes inflamed, the inflammation- extending to the bur-
sae lying within the tendon, and subsequently, in more ag-
gravated cases, to the bone itself. Friction is produced by
impaired synovial secretion, and roughening of the opposing
surfaces by effusion ; and this gives rise to a very character-
istic sort of lameness, a short, tripping, yet careful gait, a
peculiar method of standing with one foot projected, a wast-
ing of the muscles of the shoulders, upright pasterns, and a
red, inflamed appearance of the sole, especially round the
point of the frog. In short, the animal is groggy. He is
affected by naivcular disease, a disease so common as to be
familiar to every one having the most limited experience in
horseflesh.

But besides diseases of the bones, muscles, and tendons of
the extremities, overwork also produces diseases of the tissues
of the joints and of the feet. Subjecting animals whose limbs
are not of the strongest conformation to continued hard work,
often gives rise to {diseases of the joints, by causing undue
friction. To relieve this friction an unusually large quantity
of synovia is poured out, as in bog-spavin. This palliation
of the evil is often, however, insufficient; the friction still
continues, inflammation extends from the synovial fringes to
the cartilages ; and this occurring in the hock, or in any of
the larger joints, eventually renders the animal useless. Fric-
tion occurring between tendons, or between a tendon and any
other tissue over which it moves, gives rise to wind-galls, the
most unfailing, although certainly not the most serious
consequence of hard work. They consist in puffy swel-
ling of the synovial bursse, or bags placed to facilitate mo-
tion between different parts of the limb. They are usu-
ally found about the fetlock, and generally in connection
with the bursse, between the tendo-perforans and tendo-per-
foratus, or between the tendo-perforans and suspensory liga-
ment. Although various diseases of the foot appear in con-
nection with overwork, still they cannot be considered as de-
pending upon it alone, but are rather induced bv its co-op-
18

138 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

eration with other causes, such as peculiar formation of the
feet, or improper shoeing. In connection with these, over-
work is a fertile cause of corns, and also of contraction. Its
influence in producing laminitis will be noticed present-

The evils of overwork are very remarkable in young horses,
that is, in animals below the age of five or six, because their
strength and powers of endurance are not so great as in adult
life, and their bones, muscles, and all other structures are
still growing rapidly, and want firmness and solidity. On
this account, hard work, or any other depressing agent, pro-
duces its effects more speedily and certainly before than after
maturity. In some parts of the country it is the practice to
put horses to work much too young, often many months be-
fore they are three years old. Those who adopt this practice
generally advocate it on the principle that the animals require
exercise, and that such exercise is beneficial to their growth.
This is certainly undeniable ; but the exercise to which the
young horse is subjected is constant unremitting toil, and not
the healthful beneficial exercise which he requires, and which
he would naturally take. In consequence of such misman-
agement, when the animal is five years old, instead of being
healthy, vigorous, well-formed and full of animation, he is a
miserable, jaded, worn-out, dull, and spiritless creature ; his
limbs weak, and probably mis-shapen from injudicious wear
and tare ; his spirit crushed by the hard usage received in
urging him to tasks to which his strength was unequal ; and
if not absolutely unsound, his debilitated constitution renders
him an easy victim to many serious diseases. In short, from
an ill-judged economy, too often the cause of much misman-
agement, a few months' work is gained at the expense of years
of good service, and a useful animal is virtually rendered aged
before reaching maturity ; for certain it is that undue work
during early life and before the animal is fit for it brings on
premature old age ; nor do we think we over-estimate the
evil when we say that a year of future usefulness is lost for
every month that the colt works before he is fit for it.

The colt intended for agricultural purposes, if well grown
and carefully nurtured, may be taken up for work when two
and a half years old ; but for at least six months' after he
should not have more than three or at most four hours' work
per day, and that only of the lightest description. With a
quiet, steady neighbor, he may be employed for light plough-
ing, or mav be yoked in a thrashing-mill. Until four years

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 139

old, the amount and times of work may be gradually increased;
and at this age, the animal will be fit for all ordinary farm
work, except heavy carting, for which he should not be used
until at five years old.

There are two diseases to which overworked young horses
are especially liable— splint and spavin. Splints are bony tum-
ours, situated between the cannon bones and the small splint
bones, and generally occurring on the inside of the fore limbs.
They rarely cause lameness, except during their formation,
and when high up on the limb. They are produced by an
abnormal activity of a perfectly normal process. The bones
above mentioned are in early life, united to each other by a
cartilago-ligamentous connection ; but about the time of ma-
turity, osseous matter is produced by which they become firmly
cemented together. If, during this natural process, the ani-
mal is made to use his limbs for fast or severe work, active
inflammation is set up in the soft tissue between the two bones,
apparently as a natural position for strengthening the parts
as rapidly as possible, by uniting the two bones into one. —
But from the undue action to which the parts have been sub-
jected, the inflammation still continues ; and after the bony
cement is produced, osseous matter is deposited in nodules.
These constitute splints, and until the inflammation is subdued
they continue to cause more or less lameness. The inflam-
mation and lameness may be overcome by rest and appro-
priate treatment; and although the splint still remains, the
lameness is cured.

Many horses become the victim of bone spavin, from being
injudiciously worked at an early age. This disease is apt to
occur in animals with upright hocks, and in the case where
the width below the hock is disproportionately small as com-
pared with that above it. Spavin, like splint, is caused by
inflammation of the ligamentous connection between two bones.
It appears on the antero-internal part of the limb, usually
between the metatarsal bone and the cuneiform medium, but
in some cases between the two cuneiform bones, to which also
in severe cases the inflammation often extends. Spavin ap-
pears to have been brought about, in the first instance, by
pressure and concussion, which cause injury and inflammation
of the parts just referred to. This inflammation gradually
converts into bone the ligamentous connections between one
or more of the tiers of bone forming the hock. During this
formation of bone the pain and lameness are most intense,
and permanent relief is rarely obtained until the ossification

140 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HOUSES.

is completed, which even in favorable cases, prevents all mo-
tion'between the smaller bones of the hock.

Work to which an animal has not been accustomed, and for
which he has not been prepared, is often productive of very
injurious consequences. A certain regulation of diet and a
certain amount of previous training are absolutely necessary
before a horse can with safety perform labor even of mode-
rate severity. Ignorance or neglect of this fact often gives
rise to disease. It is, for example, no uncommon thing for
a farmer to purchase horses that have stood for some consid-
erable time in a dealer's stable where they have probably be-
come fat from soft feeding and want of exercise. The pur-
chaser naturally enough wishing to test their powers, puts
them to the work of seasoned horses, and is surprised to find
them fail in satisfactorily performing their allotted tasks.
But more than this ; serious disease is often the consequence
of such severe and sudden trial ; and the purchaser, although
in error, thinks himself imposed upon, and frequently seeks
redress at law.

Derangements of the digestive system and laminitis often
result from overworking horses that are out of condition.
Affections of the lungs are also frequent among those em-
ployed for rapid action, but are less cammon among agricul-
tural horses.

For the proper performance of digestion and assimilati' n
a large amount of blood and nervous energy is required.
When, however, an animal previously accustomed to it, is
subjected for some time to excessive hard labor, there is an
unusually great expenditure both of blood and of nervous
power ; and as some time elapses before this loss can be re-
paired, the functions of digestion are much retarded, part of
the food undergoes chemical change, and causes irritation, as
indicated either by colic or diarrhaea. The latter complaint,
especially in young horses with large flat sides, is a very com-
mon consequence of such mismanagement, and, unless the
diet be attended to, often continues for a very long time, the
food meanwhile passing through the intestines, in a crudo
and undigested state.

Laminitis, or, as it is also termed, acute founder, consists in
inflammation of the delicate sensitive laminae of the foot. It
may be caused either by the unwonted stress whTch overwork
imposes directly upon these structures, or by derangement of
the digestive system of the skin. Violent exertion frequently
induces laminitis, by increasing to excess the functions of the

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 141

skin, and thus rendering it unusually susceptible of the action
of cold. From the exhaustion of the system which usually
obtains in such cases, and from the undue elevation of the
surface heat, the cold operates as a powerful sedative ; the
blood leaves the surface and collects round internal organs,
and the secretion of the skin is arrested, and all its functions
are impaired. The laminae, however, are merely skin modi-
fied to serve a special end ; they are continuous with it, and
are affected by the same agencies which influence it, On ac-
count, however, of their extreme vascularity and sensitive-
ness, they are far more speedily and intensely acted on by
any cause of disease, and hence these laminse are often ex-
cited to acute inflammation by causes inadequate to inflame
other portions of the skin. Such is the manner in which we
believe most cases of laminitis to be produced by the influence
of overwork.

3. Insufficient shelter. — In a climate such as ours, and in
the absence of epidemics and epizoots, the great proportion
of disease, both in man and the lower animals, is traceable to va-
riable or low temperature. In man a direct relation is observa-
ble between temperature and the prevalence of disease. " Tem-
perature, says Dr. Gay, " is beyond all doubt the most influ-
ential cause of disease." The tables of the Registrar-General
also establish the fact that a cold season or winter is always
accompanied by a high rate of mortality.

Insufficient shelter acts injuriously on all animals, chiefly
by exposing them to sudden changes of temperature and to
the influence of excessive cold, winds, rain, and storms.

Animals in good health and abundantly supplied with food
do not suffer much inconvenience even from very great cold,
if unaccompanied by moisture. Of this we have sufficient
evidence in the fact that horses, as well as other animals,
living at high altitudes, and in climates much colder than ours,
enjoy unimpaired good health. In such animals, however,
there is a universal expenditure of heat, in consequence of
the contact of the cold air, the greater evaporation and ra-
diation from the surface of the body, and the increased den-
sity of the inspired air. To compensate for this unusual loss,
a larger supply of food is necessary than for animals surround-
ed by and breathing a warmer air. In short, a more rapid
combustion is necessary to maintain the heat of the body, and
a larger quantitiy of fuel must be supplied to support that
combustion. "The cooling of the body," says Liebig, "by
whatever cause it may be produced, increases the amount of

142 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

food necsssary." Sheep exposed to the inclemency of winter
weather eat much larger quantities of food and fatten more
slowly than those in sheltered situations and receiving the
same sort of food. The milk yielded by cows is often much
diminished if the animals are exposed to cold, even for a short
while. Indeed, amongst all animals, the effects of cold are
greatly aggravated by insufficient food. Their conjoined in-
fluence on man is thus clearly stated by Sir John Richard-
son : — " During the whole of one March we experienced that
no quantity of clothing could keep us warm while we fasted ;
but on these occasions on which we were enabled to go to bed
with full stomachs we passed the night in a warm and com-
fortable manner."

When the air at low temperature is set in motion, as by
ivinds, the sensation of cold becomes much aggravated, and
sometimes almost unbearable. In such cases, however, there
is no diminution in the temperature of the air. During the
keen piercing winds which occasionally sweep over our island,
the thermometer indicates that degree of temperature which,
in the absence of these winds, would be considered mild and
agreeable. This influence of winds, in aggravating the effects
of cold, has been noticed by most Arctic voyagers. Thus it
is stated by Parry, that he and his crew suffered more from
cold in a breeze with the thermometers at 32° Fahr. than in
calm weather with the thermometer at zero. The explanation
of this is very obvious. Cold air in motion causes more rapid
evaporation of fluid from the skin than air at rest of the same
temperature ; for it speedily displaces the atmosphere of warm,
humid air which surrounds the body, and substitutes instead
fresh quantities of air at a lower temperature, and hence pos-
sessed of greater heat-abstracting power. In this way we
may in part account for the great consumption of food, the
tardy growth, and poor condition of badly-sheltered horses.

But sufficient shelter, besides exposing horses to the evil
of colds also affords them imperfect protection against undue
moisture. The inhalation, for any considerable length of
time, of an atmosphere surcharged with moisture, cannot but
exercise a deleterious influence on the animal body ; for such
an atmosphere contains, in proportion to its volume, less oxy-
gen than drier air, and possess a power of diffusion conserably
inferior to it. This diminished power of diffusion interferes
with the full and rapid arterialization of the blood — a pro-
cess ou the due activity of which depend life and health. —
The presence of moisture in the atmosphere does not neces-

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 143

sarily reduce its temperature, but appears to modify the ac-
tion of that temperature, and to render it more hurtful.
Moisture also promotes decomposition and facilitates the
transmission of infectious disorders. When conjoined with
undue warmth, moisture has a powerfully relaxing effect, and
thus prepares the body for the favorable reception of the ex-
citing causes of disease. But when it occurs in connection
with cold, it is then that dampness induces its most frequent
and serious evils — its power being increased tenfold. It ab-
stracts heat and electricity from the body, interferes with the
important functions of assimilation and secretion, arrests the
cutaneous exhalations; and thus gives rise to abnormal changes
in the blood, to the retention of effete particles, and to the
imperfect renovation of the plasma. Such are the general
effects of the conjoined action of cold and wet, and to this
conjoined action may be ascribed many of the worst evils of
insufficient shelter.

Shelter may be insufficient, either from the exposed posi-
tion of pasture-lands or of farm-steadings, or from the faulty
construction or bad repair of the stables, courts, or sheds, in
which animals are housed. The general effects of these dif-
ferent sorts of bad shelter do not however materially differ.
It would appear at first sight a very natural supposition that
an animal should suffer less when placed in a draught of cold
air than when completely surrounded by an atmosphere at
the same temperature ; because in the former case the cold
acts only on one particular part of the surface, while in the
other it acts upon the whole surface. Experience, however
leads us to a very different conclusion. But, although every
one admits the danger of currents, few consider the manner
in which they prove injurious. When a healthy animal is
placed in a cold atmosphere, the cold unless very intense
stimulates all the vital functions to increased activity ; the
respirations are increased in force and frequency ; the in-
spired air is dense, and hence contains a large quantity of
oxygen in proportion to its bulk ; and thus the animal heat
and vigor of the circulation are maintained unimpaired. But
the case is very different when cold is applied locally by a
current of air. The part subjected for some time to its seda-
tive influence becomes bloodless, its functions disturbed, and
its secretions arrested. The effects of the cold are not suffi-
ciently extended to induce the necessay reaction ; the balance
of the circulation is disturbed, and then inflammation of pre-
disposed parts is the usual consequence. Disease is thus often

144 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

produced in small and badly-constructed stables. These, from
being over crowded, and from want of appliances for efficient
ventilation, often become overheated ; and to remedy this evil
the doors and windows are thrown open, admitting currents of
cold air. The previous heated, and it may be, fatigued con-
dition of the animals, predisposes them to suffer from this
mismanagement ; and many serious and fatal catarrhs, bron-
chitic, and pulmonic affections, are traceable to such errors.

If horses, especially after continued severe exertion,
tion, remain exposed to inclement weather, or are put into
stables where they'*are rapidly cooled by draughts, the vessels
on the surface of the body become constricted by the action
of the cold, and blood is driven in excessively large quantity
to the internal organs. These soon become surcharged and
oppressed with blood, and their functions impaired and ar-
rested. The balance of the circulation is thus disturbed, and
effete matters are retained ; and from the operation of these
two causes inflammation is produced. This inflammation at-
tacks those parts which are weakest and least able to with-
stand the assaults of disease. Hence, according to the pre-
disposition of the animal, and in proportion to the amount
and duration of the exposure, insufficient shelter will induce
inflammation of various parts of the respiratory apparatus and
of the eyes, derangements and diseases of the bowels, feet,
and kidneys, rheumatic affections, and general depression of
the vital energies.

In localities where shelter is wanting or insufficient, dis-
eases of the respiratory organs are unusually frequent and se-
vere. The mucous membrane lining these organs is particu-
larly apt to suffer. In the horse, the membrane is very vas-
cular and sensitive, and covers a large extent of surface. In
the nostrils, it is thick, and copiously supplied with large
blood-vessels, and assumes a condition very similar to erectile
tissue. It is this peculiarity of conformatoin which predis-
poses the horse to catarrhal affections, or, as they are famil-
iarly styled, "colds in the head." These consist in inflam-
mation of that portion of the respiratory mucous membrane
which lines the nostrils and sinuses of the head. Dryness of
the parts affected is soon succeeded by copious discharge, at
first, of a thin watery fluid, and subsequently of a thick mu-
copurulent one. The eyes are also red and weeping ; for, as
usually happens in such cases, inflammation speedily extends
to surfaces of like structure and close proximity. There is
more or less feverishness, as indicated by the impaired appe-

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 145

tite, quickened pulse, and unequal surface heat. The inflam-
mation often extends downwards, and involves other parts of
this extensive mucous membrane. It sometimes attacks that
portion lining the larynx, and, from the effusion produced,
the symptoms are often very acute, and the issue precarious.
More commonly, however, it affects that portion of the mu-
cous membrane which lines the trachea, bronchii, and minute
air-cells, causing bronchitis. The principal phenomena at-
tending this disease are the same as in catarrh, namely, effu-
sion and fever. The particular symptoms are modified by
structure and functions of the parts affected, and are described
in detail in most treatises on veterinary science. Other parts
of the respiratory apparatus besides the muscus membrane
are also apt to suffer inclemency of weather. Horses exposed
to low temperatures or stormy winds, or placed in currents of
cold air, throughout most of its extent, from the nostrils to
the ultimate air-cells, as also the tissue of the lungs and their
serous covering ; and death usually results from suffocation,
caused by the large quantity of frothy mueus poured into the
trachea and bronchii.

Many of the diseases affecting the eye often originate from
insufficient shelter. There is no cause of simple ophthalmia
or inflammation of the conjunctiva — the mucous membrane of
the eye — so frequent as cold. Nor is it an unfrequent cause
of that more serious and deep-seated inflammation of the eye,
known amongst veterinarians by the name of specific ophthal-
mia. When the exciting cause is slight, and its continuance
transient, the more external of these inflammations is gener-
ally produced ; but when very intense, or of long continuance,
the more deeply-seated usually occurs. The latter is usually
attended by very aggravated symptoms, is tedious and trouble-
some of cure, apt to induce cataract, and always predisposes
the eye to suffer from a return of the inflammation, especially
when the vital functions are in a state of depression, are some-
times attacked by pnuemonia or inflammation of the substance
of the lungs, but still more freqently by pleurisy or inflam-
mation of the serous membrane which covers these important
organs, and is reflected over the inner walls of the chest. —
Diseases of the respiratory organs, produced by exposure, ex-
hibit some characteristic features, which distinguish them from
the same class of diseases resulting from other causes. These
diseases affect, to a greater or less degree, almost all parts of
the respiratory apparatus ; the mucous membrane is involved.

The influence of the weather on affections of the bowels is
19

146 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

not so obvious as on those of the respiratory organs. The
same inclement weather which produces in most horses, catarrh,
bronchitis, or pleurisy, occasionally gives rise to enteritis. —
This is most apt to attack horses with flat ribs, and those sub-
ject to indigestion and colic. Such cases of enteritis are ex-
actly similar to those produced by other cause. They are
characterized by the same symptoms, require the same treat-
ment, and run their course with the same frightful rapidity,
sometimes destroying life in six or eight hours. When horses
are plentifully supplied with good food, steady and continued
cold rarely causes diarrhae. This affection, however, is
frequently produced by sudden alterations of temperature,
or the conjoined action of wet and cold, and in such cir-
cumstances is often very troublesome and apt to become hab-
itual. It is the same disease as catarrh or bronchitis, except
in situation. It depends on irritation of the mucous mem-
brane, and of the mucous follicles abundantly distributed on
it, and which pour out an excessive quantity of fluid.

Exposure to wet and cold, by deranging the functions of
the skin, sometimes induces laminitis, especially if the horse
be over-heated and exhausted from severe or long-continued
work. The production of laminitis in such cases has already
been noticed under the second head of this essay, and there-
fore need not be again adverted to here.

When horses, previously well housed and tended, are ex-
posed to rain and cold, they are occasionally attacked by in-
flammation of the kidneys, which frequently results from the
continued dropping of the loins, or from exposure to drifting
snow sleet. The disease, however, is not of frequent occur-
rence in the horse, but most cases of it result either from the
above-mentioned cases, from injudicious feeding, or from the
excessive action of powerful diuretics ; and not, as is generally
stated, from blows or external injuries, which cannot, we think
seriously affect organs so deep-seated and protected as the kid-
neys. Nephritis, or inflamation of the kidney, is urshered in
with ordinary febrile symptoms : the pulse is accelerated, but
soft, from the large amount of mucous membrane involved ;
the bowels are out of order ; there is sometimes diarrhae, but
more generally constipation ; the animal walks with a strad-
dling gait, and if turned round grunts with pain. When one
kidney only is affected, the stiffness and lameness are confined
to the corresponding side ; the urine is diminished in quan-
tity, and altered in quality, it is sometimes mixed with pus,
sometimes with blood ; it may be liquid, or in clots or shreds :

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 147

the pulse after a time becomes much accelerated, and symp-
toms of coma appear, depending upon arrested action of the
kidneys, and accumulation of urea in the blood.

Inexposed situations, the fibrous and fibro-serous tissues
are very apt to become affected by rheumatic inflammation. —
This variety of inflammation is principally confined to these
fibrous tissues, is attended by fever, manifests a marked dispo-
sition to shift from one part to another,, and differs from or-
dinary inflammation in its terminations, for it does not run on
either to suppuration or gangrene. Some animals have a
greater disposition to it than others ; but this predisposition
may be engendered, even in the healthiest subjects, by expo-
sure to cold and wet. Such agencies appear to induce rheu-
matism, by causing an abnormal congestion of the internal
organs, and arresting the cutaneous excretions. Effete mat-
ter is thus retained in the blood, exciting irritation in the
congested parts and especially in the fibrous tissues. The
symptomsjof rheumatism vary with the parts involved. When
muscles of the neck and back, it constitutes what is termed
the chords. This affection is attended with stiffness and ten-
derness of the neck and back, inability to elevate or depress
the head, and great difficulty and pain in moving. The fe-
brile symptoms are often violent, and there is a full, strong,
incompressible pulse — a very characteristic symptom of all
rheumatic affections. Such cases are often troublesome, gen-
erally lasting some weeks, but they are not in general very
dangerous. The joints, and especially the larger ones, are
sometimes the seat of rheumatic inflammation ; but this form
of the disease is less frequent in horses than in cattle. It is
attended by stiffness and inability to move, pain on pressure,
and more or less fever. The inflammation attacks one or two
of the joints, and then, leaving them, involves others, and,
in bad cases, the pleura and pericardium are often affected*
This tendency of the disease to shift from one part to another
is, we think, an unanswerable argument in favor of its being
a disease depending upon some change in the blood, and not
a mere local affection.

Insufficient shelter, besides being a potent exciting cause
of disease, is also a predisposing cause of many and various
maladies. It produces depression of the vital energies, and
hence renders animals subject to its influence, especially liable
to epizootic diseases. From its debilitating and deteriora-
ting influence, it leads to phthisis pulmonalis, glanders and
farcy. Further, it produces a habit of body which aggravates

148 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HONSES.

the character of many diseases, renders them unusually in-
tractable, and apt to assume untoward complications. Ani-
mals reared in such unfavorable circumstances are long in
coming to maturity ; they have in general a miserable and
unthriving appearance, their skins are thick and hard, and
their hair long and coarse.

But to conclude, we may remark, by way of recapitulation,
that the insufficient sheltering of farm-horses is productive of
many and various evils. It causes an unusually great con-
sumption of food, and even with the most liberal diet good
condition is rarely attainable. It produces disease, some-
times by causing sudden and great derangements of the cir-
culation, and sometimes by depressing the viral energies. —
By the former mode of action it generally induces plegmon-
ous or acute inflammation ; by the latter pulmonary consump-
tion glanders, and farcy. In short, insufficient shelter may
be considered as the special exciting cause of all affections of
the respiratory organs and of all rheumatic inflammations,
and a powerfully predisposing cause of almost every disease.

4. Neglect of Incipient Disease. — There unfortunately pre-
vails amongst farmers a disposition to overlook or think light
of the promonitory or incipient symptoms of disease. Even
after an animal is discovered to be ill, — and this, from care-
lessness or want of observation, is not always so early as it
ought to be, — much valuable time is often lost in supinely
waiting to see if the case will spontaneously improve, or in
the employment of useless or injudicious measures. In many
diseases of the horse such procrastination is productive of
very serious injury, of inducing permanent unsoundness and
even death, and always prolonging the duration of the malady,
and increasing the difficuly of treatment.

Certain indication or signs, or as they are technically termed,
symptoms, always precede and accompany disease. These
serve the important purpose of attracting attention to disease,
and are therefore safeguards against its extension or increase.
The symptoms which in the horse indicate the approach of
internal disease are generally of a febrile character. The
animal is dull and listless, or restless and uneasy ; the sur-
face heat unequal, the ears and extremities cold, and the
mouth hot ; the digestive functions deranged and the appe-
tite impaired or capricious ; the pulse slightly accelerated and
the respirations hurried. When an animal shows several of
these symptoms, and, still more, all of them, he should be
narrowly watched ; If in plethoric condition blood may with

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 149

advantage be abstracted, and a laxative administered ; and
on the earliest manifestation of the localization of the disease
other appropriate remedies should be promptly used. The
symptoms manifesting incipient disease of the extremities are
more or less pain when the parts are put in motion, unwil-
lingness to use the affected parts ; in short, lameness and ten-
derness. These symptoms, although easily observed, and
often traceable to their causes, are frequently neglected. —
The horse, instead of getting a few days' rest) and a little at-
tention, is still kept at work, until perhaps he can go on no
longer. The nature of the case is then for the first time ex-
amined, and its treatment commenced ; but from the previous
procrastination and neglect, several weeks of rest and of
proper medical [treatment are often required to render him
fit for work.

In the ordinary affairs of life "there is a tide which, taken
at its flow, leads on to fortune;" so also in the treatment of
disease, there is a time when remedies are most likely to be
attended with success, and that time is undoubtedly the early
stage of disease. All diseases at their outset are more man-
ageable than they are after a time. Thus, in the case, even
of the more serious local inflammations, the symptoms are at
first few and simple, and perhaps not very intense ; the pow-
ers of nature are strong and active, and the action of remedies
comparatively certain. Unless, however, a change for the
better is either naturally or artificially brought about, the
numbep and intensity of the symptoms go on increasing ; the
conservative power of nature becomes impaired ; the disease,
from being merely local, involves the whole system ; the di-
gestive functions are deranged, the circulation, and hence the
respiration affected; morbid changes are in progress; and
remedies act slowly and uncertainly, and are often quite in-
effectual in controlling or subduing the now fully developed
disease. In pneumonia, or inflammation of the lungs, for exam-
ple, there is at first coldness of the surface, cough, fever,
slighly accelerated pulse or breathing ; and well directed meas-
ures will often entirely and speedily avert further evil effects.
Should this stage, however, be allowed to pass unattended to,
these symptoms become aggravated ; effusions are poured into
the areolar structure of the lungs, become organized, and, as
no treatment whatever can remove them ; they often even
when recovery takes place, interfere with the important func-
tions of respiration, and permanently impair the integrity of
the organs.

150 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

There are, we believe, but few diseases which do not afford
the clearest and most incontrovertible evidence of the import-
ance of early judicious treatment ; and the injurious conse-
quences of the neglect of such treatment. This is, however,
chiefly observable in acute diseases. It is well known, for
example in enteritis. In the horse this disease sometimes
runs its fatal course in six hours, and even in four ; and un-
less the earliest symptoms be noticed and combatted, there is
but little hope of a successful issue. The inflammation affects
the mucous coat of the intestines, exhibits great tendency to
spread all parts of this delicate and sensitive membrane, and
also involves the serous and muscular coats. It is on this ac-
count that such cases are so unmanageable ; for the rapidly ex-
tending inflammation and great amount of effusion produce
such a shock, and cause so much debility, that death speedily
ensues.

Wounds, when neglected, frequently take on very unfavor-
able conditions, which ordinary attention might have easily
prevented. Simple incised wounds from want of cleanliness,
often run on to suppuration ; and in certain situations, where
matter or other irritants are permitted to accumulate; sinuses
and fistulse are frequently induced. Thus, slight injuries
about the poll or withers, or in the neighborhood of ligament-
ous and fibrous tissues, when not properly attended to often
run on to the formation of extensive, deep-seated and tedious
wounds. Pricks and otherjjinjuries of the foot, when promptly
attended to, are generally easy of cure ; but when neglected,
give rise, amongst other diseases, to sinuses or quitters, which
pass in various directions, destroying the connections between
the hoof and the vascular parts of the foot, involving some-
times the coffin-bone itself; and months of patient and unre-
mitting care are often ineffectual in restoring the parts to
health.

Before leaving this head, we purpose briefly noticing a few
of those diseases of the extremities which are most apt to be
aggravated by inattention to their incipient symptoms. There
is no case in which neglect of a simple ailment so frequently
and certainly induces serious and permanent disease as in that
very common affection termed strain of the back tendons. —
This often consists in the laceration of only a few of the ten-
dinous fibres, which with rest soon reunite, and the animal is
soon restored to soundness. But if kept at work, the lacera-
tion increases, violent inflammation is established, and thick-
ening contraction and permanent unsoundness are the inevi-

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 151

table, consequences. Bone Spavin, when noticed early, is
sometimes checked by rest and soothing treatment ; the differ-
ent parts of the hock being thus kept sound and perfect. —
When spavins, are not early attended to, and especially if the
horse continues at work, the inflammation attains such inten-
sity that it cannot be subdued until osification has taken place
between some of the bones forming the hock. It is to hurry
on this unavoidable termination that blisters, firing, and such
other remedies are so often employod ; but the cure is accom-
plished only at the expense of entire loss of motion between
the several bones forming the lower part of the hock ; and
although the animal may go sound he always goes stiff A
similar result obtains in the case of curb. This consists in a
strain of the calcareo-cuboid ligament — a ligament which pas-
ses down the postera-internal surface of the os calcis, or promi-
nent bone of the hock. It is at first tolerably easy of cure ;
but if neglected or improperly managed, thickening and osifica-
tion take place. Spavins, or, as they are called by way of dis-
tinction, bog-spavin, also afford a good illustration of the retribu-
tive justice which overtakes neglect of the incipient symptoms
of disease. In these cases we find in the first instance the cap-
sular ligament of the hock-joint distended by an excessive quan-
tity of synovia, secreted to lessen the irritation set up by previ-
vious friction. Unless there be a repetition of the exciting cause,
this curative effort of nature may be successful, and with rest
soundness may be restored. If, however, sufficient time be
not allowed for a perfect cure, the joints become permanently
thickened by deposition of lymph : and sometimes osseous
matter is produced, uniting the bones of the hock into one
unyielding bony pillar. I have seen several specimens of such
cases of anchilosis of the bones of the hock, resulting from
disease of the joint, and in which all parts of the hock were
ossified except the tendons and the grooves in which they
lay.

In many of the hilly parts of the country young horses are
subject to a species of dislocation of the patella, the bone
being jerked inwards at every step the animal takes. In very
aggravated cases there is little hope of perfect recovery, as
there is generally knuckling over at the fetlock, which
renders the animal perfectly useless. It is only, however,
from the most culpable neglect that such cases assume a seri-
ous aspect : for when observed and attended to sufficiently
early, they are generally entirely cured by the adoption of
very simple measures, such as the removal of the animal to

152 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

soft and level pasturages, and the putting on of light shoes.
The following case, which recently came under my observa-
tion, shows at the same time the importance of arriving at a
correct diagnosis, and also the evil of delaying the adoption
of proper remedial measures. Several horses were standing
together in an innkeeper's stable, and one of them made a
kick at his neighbor, and struck him a few inches above the
hock, on the inside of the hind limb farthest from him. As how-
ever, there was little apparent lameness, and no swelling or
injury of the skin, the animal was put to work as usual, but
was soon seen to move on three legs. On examination there
was found to be fracture of the tibia with displacement; and
the animal was destroyed. In this case the kick must have pro-
duced fracture more or less complete, but without displace-
ment ; and had the nature of the case been at first fully
ascertained, and the animal kept at rest for a few weeks, per-
fect recovery would have taken place. But instead of this,
the animal was put to work, which caused entire separation
of the parts, and prevented all hope of a speedy recovery.

From inattention to shoeing, and neglecting to relieve a
tender sole from undue pressure, corns are produced. These,
when uncared for multiply and reach the quick, causing much
lameness, and it may be supparation and detachment of the
hoof. A trifling sandcrack, when neglected, often extends
through the whole crust, and months of care may be required
before the breach is perfectly repaired. A slight injury of
the anterior part of the foot, or inattention to a badly-adjusted
clip, frequently produces a seedy-toe. Neglect of cleanliness
gives rise to thrushes ; and mismanaged or neglected quitters
to false quarter.

But we must now leave this head, not because we have ex-
hausted the subject or the illustrations that might be advanced
to show the evils of neglect of incipient disease, but because
a further discussion of the subject would involve much repeti-
tion, without strengthening materially our arguments, while
the illustrations that might be adduced are numberless, seeing
that the principle applies to almost every disease and injury
to which the horse is liable.

5. Want of Medical Skill in Professional Attendants. —
It is difficult to estimate the amount of evil arising from want
of medical skill in professional attendants. Such want of
skill may operate injuriously in almost every disease. It may
be shown either by injudicious treatment, or by failing to em-
ploy proper treatment — it may consist either in doing positive

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 153

harm, or in failing to do good — it may do too much, or not
enough. In short, there is no error, great or small, into which
want of skill may not lead the practitioner. And to refer,
however briefly, to all the circumstances and diseases amongst
horses, in which want of skill is sometimes shown, would be
to notice almost every affection to which the horse is liable.
It will, however, we believe, be more in accordance with the
intention of the proposed head if we confine our observations
to the mistakes and errors which most frequently occur
amongst persons of some professional standing.

Want of medical skill in the treatment of disease is some-
times shown in the employment of unsuitable remedies, and
also in the injudicious use of proper remedies. This, we be- ,
lieve, is often the case with bloodletting in inflammations of
the respiratory apparatus. In many cases the medical at-
tendant is not called in until the second or third day — until
the intensity of the inflammation has passed away. The pa-
tient, however, is examined, and the case pronounced to be
pneumonia, pleurisy, or bronchitis. If the practitioner be
one of those who treat diseases merely according to their
names (and there are still too many such,) he immediately
abstracts blood, on the ground that bleeding is placed first
among the remediea for such diseases, and is moreover the
" sheet-anchor for the cure of inflammation." A more inti-
mate acquaintance with the phenomena of such inflammations,
would, however, have taught the practitioner that the treat-
ment adopted, although very weakening for the early stages of
the disease, could be of no service in the latter stages, when
effusion had taken place, and the more acute inflammation
had been thereby overcome ; and that such treatment could
only retard recovery, by debilitating the patient to no pur-
pose. It appears to us that the great majority of veterinary
surgeons are much too fond of bloodletting, and often prac-
tice it where it can do no good, and may do much harm. Aa
above stated, they often err in employing it when the time
has passed for its being of any use. This and similar errors
depend in a great part upon a morbid love of intermeddling,
and determination to do something — faults however, for which
the veterinary practitioner is not always accountable, since
his employers are seldom content to leave matters to the
curative powers of nature, thinking that the more physicking,
bleeding, and medical treatment the patient getg, the better.
This mistake appears to be prevalent in many parts of the
country, but especially in some of the more wealthy manu-

20

154 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

facturing districts. Such opinions are however, very errone-
ous, and the practice to which they lead is often extremely
injudicious. The evils of such practice are chiefly observable
in some of those cartarrhal affections occasionally occurring,
as epizootics, in most varieties of that ill-defined disease in-
fluenza, and in all the exanthemata or eruptive fevers. Such
diseases generally run a certain definite course, and whatever
interferes with that course is productive of more or less in-
jury ; they show a marked tendency to spontaneous recovery,
require only the use of measures which second the efforts of na-
ture, and are far more frequently mismanaged by two much
than two little treatment.

From these remarks it will be apparent that medical at-
tendants may sometimes betray want of skill in employing
remedies in all stages of a disease which are suitable only in
one stage ; in treating cases of the same disease in exactly
the same manner without any regard to modifying circum-
stances ; in intermeddling with diseases which are best left
almost entirely to nature ; or in attempting to alter the fixed
and natural course of disease.

But want of professional skill, besides being often apparent
in the treatment of disease, is perhaps still more so in the di-
agnosis and prognosis of disease. This is clearly shown in
the various contradictory statements made by different prac-
titioners concerning the same case, as may often be seen in
the annals of veterinary jurisprudence and the reports of
many of our courts of law. How often, for example, (Jo we find
the most conflicting opinions entertained on questions of
soundness ! How faulty and absurd are the ideas propoun-
ded concerning the nature of disease ! How fallacious the
opinions often given of the probable duration of particular
cases, and of the time required for the production of certain
morbid appearances of death ! How common the error of
mistaking one pathological condition for another, as conges-
tion for inflammation — a chronic debilitating disease for an
acute and inflammatory one — a simple and curable malady
for a severe and incurable one !

There may occasionally be some difficulty in distinguishing
between normal and abnormal appearances ; the gradations be-
tween health and disease being so often so slight and impercep-
tible that it is difficult to say where the one ends and the other
begins ; and hence perfectly healthy conditions are sometimes
mistaken for morbid conditions and vice versa. Thus, many

MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 155

horses have been rejected as unsound, in consequence of the
opening through which the optic nervejpasses being mistaken for
cataract. Indeed, the highest perfection of form has frequently
been mistaken for disease. Many animals have been con-
demned as spavined on account of the remarkable develop-
ment of the natural roughened eminences on the antero-inter-
nal part of the hock around the anterior and inner part of
the cuniform bones. This conformation, however, instead of
showing weakness or disease, gives strength and power by
affording mechanical advantage for the insertion of muscles
and tendons. The natural ridge extending round the small
pastern-bone is also apt, when prominently developed, to be
mistaken for ring-bone. True ringbone, however, is situated
lower down, and immediately above the upper part of the
hoof, and often exists in only one limb ; whereas the ridges
and tuberosities to which we have referred will be found alike
in both limbs, and only in limbs which show in other parts
considerable irregularities and asperities. The sulcoe and
cavities found in the cartilages of the lower joints have, by
some, been mistaken for ulcerations ; and one gentleman of
high standing in the profession, has stated, that the presence
of these cavities in the hock-joint was the cause of obscure
hock lameness. Unfortunately, however, for the credit of
this opinion, such cavities are found in many, nay, in most,
sound hocks, and are placed there for the important and ex-
press purpose of spreading the synovia, or joint-oil, over all
parts of the joint. They have many characteristics which
distinguish them from cavities caused by inflammation : their
edges are smooth and glistening, and they are lined with vas-
cular synovial fringes. These few instances show the want
of skill of some practitioners in mistaking healthy for diseased
conditions, and strengthen our conviction that the veterinary
practitioner should have an accurate knowledge of healthy
structure and functions, as well as of morbid structure and
functions ; or in other words, of anatomy and physiology, as
well of pathology.

There is, perhaps, no class of cases which brings the skill
of the veterinary surgeon to a severer test, than injuries or
disease of the extremities, or, as they are significantly termed,
lamenesses. In the horse these are very numerous; they
occur in almost every part and tissue of the limbs, and are
semetimes difficult to detect, as they are often concealed from
view, not being perceptible except by nice manipulation,
while their symptoms are apt to be falsely interpreted. A

156 MISMANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES.

knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the parts affec-
ted, and a certain amount of experience and of manual tact
and dexterity, are the only sure means of detecting lamenesses
and arriving at their accurate diagnosis and prognosis.

Want of medical skill in professional attendants is now
much less common than it was even a few years ago : and in
most localities where aggriculture is in an advanced condition,
and stock numerous and valuable, there are to be met with
veterinary surgeons of liberal education, and possessed of a
competent knowledge of both the principles and practice of
their profession. This improvement in the skill and educa-
tion of veterinary practitioners is, we believe, the result not
of one, but of several, causes. It has been brought about by
the increased value of all domestic animals, by the spread of
knowledge among agriculturists, by the necessity consequently
felt throughout the country, of having skilful and thoroughly
educated men to whom to confide the medical care of stock ;
and it has also been promoted, in no small degree, by the
valuable instructions now afforded at both the London and
Edinburgh Veterinary Colleges in all departments of veterin-
ary knowledge. Farther, the Royal English Agricultural
Society and the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scot-
land have materialy contributed to the advancement of veterin-
ary science, and to the consequent improved position of its
practitioners, by their active exertions and liberal support.
The salutary influence of these two Societies on the improve-
ments of veterinary knowledge can scarcely, we think, be over
estimated, fey patronage and pecuniary aid they have ex-
tended and improved the courses of professional study ; by
premiums for papers on various veterinary subjects they
have elicited and disseminated very important informa-
tion concerning the management of animals both in health
and disease ; and by the personal interest which so many of
their most influential members take in the advancement of
the veterinary art, the profession is rapidly attaining that
status to which its importance and usefulness justly entitle it.

Note by the Author. — These principles will apply to all ani-
mals, and should be adopted to all. If you will examine
this well, and all the circumstances equally favorable, you
will see the importance of its usefulness.

HEALTH. 157

HEALTH

An equitable and medium temperature prevails throughout
the frame. The voluntary and other muscles obey with the
requisite alacrity the several necessities that periodically call
them into action. The mind neither sinks nor rises but upon
great emergencies ; the respiration, easy and continuous, re-
quires no hurried effort — no lengthened sigh. The heart is
equal to its beats and not easily disturbed; the appetite
moderate and uniform. At their appointed periods, the va-
rious secreting organs perform their office. The structure of
the body, so far as bulk is concerned, remain, to appearance,
though not in reality, unchanged ; their possessor being
neither encumbered with obesity, or wasted to a shadow. His
sensorium is neither painfully acute nor morbidly apathetic ;
he preserves in this instance, as in every other, a happy mod-
eration. His sleep is tranquil and dreamless.

If we analyze these various phenomena, we shall find that
they all consist of a series of periodic repetitions, each sepa-
rate organ having its own particular period for the proper per-
formance of its function ; some of these phenomena are diur-
nal, some recur in a greater or less number of hours, — while
others exhibit a minutely or momentary succession. At morn,
man rises to his labor ; at night, he returns to the repose of
sleep ; again he wakes and labors ; at the appointed period
he " sleeps his senses in forgetfulness" once more. His lungs
now inspire air, now expel it ; his heart successively contracts
and dilates : his blood brightens into crimson in the arterial
circle of its vessels — again to darken and assume the hue of
modena in the veins. The female partner of his lot — she
who shares with him the succession of petty joys and sorrows,
hopes and fears, which make up the day-dream of life, has
yet another revolution, the Catamenial and Parturition, or
the process by which she brings their mutual offspring into
the world, is a series of periodic pains and remissions.

Every atom of the material body is constantly undergoing
a revolution or alternation ; liquid or aeriform one hour, it
becomes solid the next — again to pass into the liquid or aeri-
form state : and ever and anon varying its properties, colors,
and combinations, as, in brief, but regular periodic succes-
sion it assumes the nature of every organ, tissue, and secre-

158 HEAATH.

tion, entering into, or proceeding from, the corporeal frame.
"It is every thing by turns, and nothing long."

The phenomena of the human body, like every other phe-
nomenon in nature, have all a relation to Matter, Space,
and Time ; and there is another word, Motion, which may
be said to bring all three to a unity ; for without matter and
space, there can be no motion, and motion being either quick
or slow, must also express time or period.

Moreover, there can be no motion in matter without change
of temperature, and no change of temperature without motion
in matter. This is so indisputable an axiom in physics, that
Bacon and others supposed motion and change of temperature
to be one and the same. You cannot, for example, rotate a
wheel for a few seconds, without heat being produced, and
the iron that binds it becomes expanded ; in other words, it
exhibits a motion outwards : when the same wheel is allowed
to stand still, the temperature falls, and the iron hoop de-
creases in size. There is in that case motion inwards. By
the same law, if, even in the middle of winter, you run for
any length of time, you will become heated; and you again
shrink in size when you stand still to cool yourself. To the
mind's eye, extremis probatis media presumuntur. Having
shown the truth in extremes, we presume the rest ; for as I
there are motions both of quickness and slowness that elude
the eye, so are there changes of temperature that the ther-
mometer may not reach. Those, then, who ascribe the source
of animal heat exclusively to the lungs, seem to have forgot-
ten these facts ; they have forgotten that, in the constant mu-
tation of its atoms, every organ, nay, every atom of that or-
gan being ever in motion, must equally contribute to this end ;
for to this common law of all matter, every change in the
body is subjected. The powers by which the corporeal mo-
tions are influenced, are the same that influence the motions of
every kind of matter, namely, the electric, mechanical, and
ehemical forces, and the force of gravitation. When rightly
considered, the whole of these powers resolve themselves into
attraction and repulsion. It is by attraction that the fluid
matter of the blood assumes the solid consistence of an organ ;
again to pass by repulsion into the fluidity of secretion. From
the earth and to the earth, the matter composing our bodies
comes and goes many times, even in the brief space of our
mortal existence. In this, the animal system resembles a
great city, the inhabitants of which, in the course of years,
are constantly changing, while the same city, like the body,
betrays no other outward appearance of change than what

SLEEP. 159

naturally belongs to the periods of its rise, progress, maturity,
or tendency to decay.

The. last, and one of the most importent of the revolutions
of the healthy state, is

SLEEP.

Philosophers of all ages have made this an object of their
most anxious study, its relation to death, perhaps, being their
chief inducement to do so. "Half our days," says Sir Tho-
mas Browne, " we pass in the shadow of the earth, and Sleep,
the brother of Death, extracteth a third Jpart of our lives."
In the state of perfect sleep, the pupil of the eye will not con-
tract on the approach of light ; the skin has no feeling ; the
ear no sense of hearing ; the taste and smell are not to be
roused by any of the ordinary stimuli. What is this (figura-
tively speaking) but a periodic half-death : speaking truly,
but a periodic palsy or cessation of internal motion of the
nerves while we maintain a consciousness of existence, and
perceive our relationship to the world around ? Broken sleep
consists either in brief remissions of the whole sleeping state,
or in a wakefulness of one or more of the five senses. There
are individuals, for example, who always sleep with their eyes
open, and who would see you, were you to enter their cham-
ber with the most noiseless step. These tell you there are
always half awake. In the condition of body termed night-
mare, there is a consciousness of existence with a wakefulness
of the nerves of sight or feeling ; but with a total inability to
influence the voluntary muscles by any efforts of the will.
The subject of it can neither sleep nor turn himself. The
dreamer,, portions of whose brain think, and therefore act or
move, is partially awake. The somnambulist and sleep-talker
are dreamers, who, having portions of the brain in a state of
action, and others torpid, perform exploits of deed or word,
that bring you a mind of the maniac and the drunkard, whose
powers of judging are defective. A man may be entirely
awake with the exception of a single member ; and this we
still refer to a torpid state of some portion of the brain. Such
a man will tell you that his arm or leg is asleep or dead. But
as this is a Soporific subject, andmayhave a soporificen influence
on some of you, I may as well wake you up with an anecdote a
brother medical officer, of the army once told me of himself:

While serving in the East Indies, Dr. C. one night awoke,

or I should rather say half-awoke suddenly, when his hand

1G0 SLEEP.

at the instant came in contact with a cold animal body. His
fears magnifying this into a cobra capel, he called out most
lustily, "A snake, a snake!" But before his drowsy .domes-
tics had time to appear, he found he had mistaken his own
sleeping arm for this most unwelcome of oriental intruders !

Gentlemen, the human body in health is never asleep
throughout, for when volition is paralysed — when we are all
but dead to everything that connects us with the external
world, the heart still continues to beat, the lungs perform
their office, and the other internal organs, over which volition
has no control, keep on their usual harmony of motion ; in
other words, the digestion of the food, the circulation of the
blood, and the other lesser motions of organic life, proceed as
in the waking state. The more important motions of the
heart and lungs could not cease for many minutes without en-
dangering the entire life in the higher animals ; though these
organs in the bat, dormouse, and snake, appear to be inactive
for months. Nevertheless, even in those animals, they are
not entirely so ; the wasted state of their bodies, when they
wake, proving the movement that had been going on in all
the atoms of their various organs during the period of hyber-
nation. The state termed a fainting fit, it is true, compre-
hends, even in man, a temporary palsy or death of the whole
body ; but such state prolonged to a very brief period passes
into death perpetual. Catalepsy , or trance, being a sleep of
all the organs, internal as well as external, though not of
their atoms, has a great resemblance to death-, as to have been
frequently mistaken for it. The subject of this condition of
body, by something like the same inexplicable power which
enables the dormouse to hybernate, may remain apparently
dead for days, and yet recover. More inexplicable, still, if
what travellers tell us be true, is the recovery to life of fish,
that have been completely frozen for months.

We now pass to the consideration of those alterations of
the temperature, and periodic movements of the body, termed

DISEASE OR DISORDER.

Till the hour of sickness comes, how few non-medical per-
sons ever think of a subject which ought to be the interest of
all ! The same men who discuss with becoming gravity the
artificial inflections of a Greek or Latin verb, neglect to in-
form themselves of the natural laws that govern the motions
of their own bodies ! No wonder that the world should be so

DISEASES. ltil

long kept in darkness in medicine and its mode of action, —
no wonder that even educated persons should still know so
little of the proper study of mankind — man ! In the theories
of disease, the early priests, as I have already told you, ima-
gined they detected the workings of demons. Medical theo-
rists, on the contrary, attribute them to morbid ingredients
in the blood or bowels. One age bowed the knee to an " ac-
rimony'' or "putridity;" another acknowledged no cause but
a " humor." The moderns hold the notion that a mysterious
process, which they term "inflammation," is the head and
front of all offending. How absurd each and all of these doc-
tines will appear in the sequel ! Disease, Gentlemen, is nei-
ther a devil to " cast out," an acrimony or credulity to be ex-
pelled, nor any fanciful chemical goblin to be chemically neu-
tralized ; — neither is the state erroneously termed inflamma-
tion, so commonly the cause as a coincident part of general
disorder. Disease is an error of action — a greater or less va-
riation in the motion, rest, and revolutions of the different
parts of the body — reducible, like the revolutions of Health,
into a systematic series of periodic alternations. ' Whatever
be the cause or causes of corporeal aberation, in obedience to
the law of all matter, the first effects are change of motion
and change of temperature. The patient accordingly has a
feeling of heat or cold. His muscular movements lessund er
the control of their respective influences, become tremulous,
spasmodic ; or wearied, palsied, the functions of particular
muscles cease. The breathing is hurried on slight exertion ;
or it is maintained slowly and at intervals, and with a long
occasional inspiration and expiration — familiar to you all in
the act of sighing. The heart is quick, palpitating ; or lan-
guid, or remittent in its beats ; the appetite craving, capri-
cious, or lost. The secretions are either hurried and increased
in quantity ; or sluggish, or suppressed. The body shows a
partial or general waste ; or becomes in part or in whole pre-
ternaturally tumid and bloated. Alive to the slightest stimu-
lus, the patient is easily impassioned or depressed ; his mind,
comprehending in its various relations every shade of unrea-
sonable sadness or gaiety, prodigality or cupidity, vacillation
or pertinacity, suspicious caution, or two confident security :
with every color of imagination, from highly intellectual con-
ception to the dream-like vagaries and reveres of hallucina-
tion. His sensations are perceptibly diminished or increased.
Light and sound, for example, confuse or distract him ; like
the soft Sybarite, a ruffled rose-leaf frets him. With the
11 '

162 DISEASES.

smallest increase in the medium temperature of the atmos-
phere, he becomes hot and uncomfortable, and the slightest
breeze shivers and discomposes him ; or, as you may some-
v times observe in the case of extreme age or idiocy, he becomes
equally insensible to excess of light, sound, heat, and cold.

Contrast, if you please, these simpler forms of Disease
with what we have said of Health, and you will at a glance
perceive that the difference betwixt the two states consists in
mere variation of the sum or amount of particular corporeal
motions, in a difference of effect of external agency on the
matter and functions of the body. Structural change, or ten-
dency to decomposition of any part of the frame, so frequently
but erroneously associated with disease as a cause, it is not
even a necessary element in a fatal result. What are Tooth-
ache, Consumption, Rheumatism, but development of consti-
tutional change ? — they are phenomena which may or may
not arise out of general corporeal disturbance, according to
particular habits and predisposition. By predisposition, I
mean the readiness or fitness of one part of the body more
than another to be acted upon by influences from without, —
occasioned by a weakness in the cohesive power of the atoms
of that part to each other. Wehave all our predispositions.
Let us now look into the

Causes of Disease.

What are the agencies that give rise to

" Maladies

Of ghastly spasms, or racking tortures, qualms
Of heart-sick agony, feverish kinds,
Convulsions, epilepsies, fierce catarrhs,
Intestine stone, and ulcer, colic pangs,
Demoniac phrenzy, moping meloncholy
And moonstruck madness, pining atrophy,
Marasmus, and wide-wasting pestilence,
Dropsies and asthmas, and joint-racking rheums?"

Milton.

Poison and Physic are, in truth, one and identical, for any
earthly agent may become both, by turns, according as it is
used or abused. A German poet rightly observes —

Divide the thunder into single notes,
And it is but a lullaby for children ;
But, pour it in one volume on the air,
And the intensity makes Heaven to shake.

ADAPTATION OF FOOD TO CLIMATE. 163

The same rule holds good in physic. Everything depends
on the scale or degree in which you apply a given substance
to the body, and the particular circumstances and condition
of the body at the time, whether such substance be a remedy
or a poison. What is there that pertains to earth or air, that
we may not usefully employ? If man, in his ignorance or
depravity, turn a particular power to evil account instead of
to good, shall blame be imputed to the Almighty, who be-
stowed it on him as a boon.

THE ADAPTATION OF FOOD TO CLIMATE.

We have every reason for believing that when our Creator
placed man upon this earth, that he also placed such articles
of food as were best adopted for his nutrition and support,
and that these articles were the spontaneous production of
t\\e earth, and also peculiar to the climate in which he was
first placed. But at the fall of man, disorganization and con-
fusion followed — and man not only degenerated in a moral,
but also in his physical organization. But notwithstanding
everything in nature, as regards man, is more or less confused,
still there are sufficient data to prove conclusively to every
reflecting mind that this world was made for man, and origi-
nally to say the least the organization of man was perfectly
adopted to the world. When we look abroad among the brute
creation, we find each species occupying its peculiar latitude
or zone, and subsisting upon the productions of the earth
peculiar to that location. Remove those animals to a diffe-
rent zone, and they invariably begin to dwindle away to a
greater or less extent just in the proportion to the change we
make in their food and climate.

By referring to the History of Animals we shall find each
peculiar species occupying a particular or corresponding po-
sition upon the earth's surface. So with regard to man, if we
travel from the North to the South pole, we perceive almost
as much contrast in the human organization, temperament,
&c, as in the animal creation. We shall find also that it
the extreme Torrid Zones that man and animals subsist almost
exclusively on animal food, while we go to the same extreme
South, or towards the Torrid Zone we shall find men and ani-

164 ADAPTATION OF FOOD TO CLIMATE.

mals subsisting upon vegetables. And to carry tho analogy
still further, we should find in these parts where men live
almost entirely upon animal food, the Frigid Zone most pre-
dominant in their organizations ; and in the Temperate Zone
you will also find a more equal development of all the Zones
in their organizations, and as you progress towards the Torrid
we shall see less of the animal and more of the intellectual
or moral. These broken remarks I have thrown out, leaving
it for you to draw your own comparisons and classifications.
We may also carry our analysis still further, with regard to
the differeut senses in the same climate — for instance persons
in order to enjoy the greatest degree of health in these lati-
tudes, should subsist on animal food in cold weather, and
vegetable food in warm weather. And yet we cannot point
out any one rule to be followed by all, because all differ more
or less in their organizations. Hence man from his pe-
culiar make, will require more animal than vegetable food
under all circumstances and vice versa. Physiologists have
prescribed different dietetic rules, and all to no purpose, for
the simple reason that no two individuals are alike in all re-
spects, and so marked is this difference in some cases that what
is "meat for the one is poison for the other." And until men
are precisely alike in every respect no one code of rules can
be established for all men — with regard to any of their
habits.

There is no essential difference'in the organization of man
and animals, excepting that man is endowed' with intellect or
reason and allowed a scope or control over all animals, and is
o-overned by these reasoning faculties — while animals are limit-
ed to a certain sphere and are governed by circumstances.
Different animals are limited to a very few articles of food —
while man choose an almost endless variety ; but if such a
variety of food was intended by our Creator. The domestic
animals eat a great variety of articles of food.

Torrid,

Temperate,

Frigid,

Respiration,
Caloric,

Electricity,

Acid,
Alcoline,
Salt, '

Red,

Yellow,

Blue,

Torrid Zone in man is the top of the Head, and gives his
moral character. In creatures it is the front head that gives
fullness and width between the eyes and ears, by this, color,
complexion, respiration, &c, is given Acid, Red, and Zone,
with this organism, will be large in the frontal head and
shoulders , as in the mule, the most gentle horses and cows.

ADAPTATION OF FOOD TO CLIMATE. 165

French Merino Sheep, and Bremen Cattle, sweet vegetable
food is best adapted to them.

Temperate, Caloric, Alcaline, Yellow, Vital, Liver, Lung,
and Stomach Diseases, Yellow Fever, Jaundice, and Yellow
Water, Zone lare, the head is rounding to the top, and body
large — Food, Vegetation and grain ; will eat alcaline ashes to
sweeten appetite and to prevent purging from eating grass or
imperfect food. We give you these ideas that you may the
more readily select the proper medicine to suit the disease,
and may lead you to observe the particulars of the several
kinds of animals, also the particulars of the different
cnes.

Frigid, Electricity, Salt, Blue ; one with this form of head
the selfish organs are large, alimentive, thrust, secretiveness,
turbulence — Food, Meats, Salts, Exciting Drinks, and such
as passionate, irritate, and feverish, are subject to disease of
bowels, when in a Southern country. If small, give weak,
feeble, and irregular operations from the bowels, like the
sheep, goat, mule, camel, and other animals.

The various systems of practice is to suit the different
opinions of gentlemen agreeable to their choice and their
several circumstances, to be able to obtain the means to suit
the diseases of the various animals. In warm seasons of the
year in the Southern climates, water is one of the safest and
cheapest practices, and if you fail to cure with it, the patient
is not materially injured by it ; you then may treat it by
Homopathic medicine and in harmony with the Hydropathy.
In my profession I have adopted the Homopathics, and in
my own person have found great relief; but in the treatment
of the animal, but little.

I know others who practice it and are always successful ;
I recommend others to examine it, and see what can be gained
by it. All system of practice in examining the diagonisis
must be governed, to some extent, by the temperature. I
allude to the crono-thermal, the chill, and the fevers.

There are numerous diseases among the several kinds of
our domestic animals that arise from exposure to the cold
rains, snow, and chilling winds; and the burning sun is the
cause of many, as it is shown, these causes have the effect.
By stopping the cause the effect would cease. I allude to the
many animals confined to high, open fields, to severe chilling
winds, and the hot burning sun, instead of being placed in
some low grounds along the bushy and shady waters and
flowing springs. As 1 have shown the advantages of springs

166 WATER-CURE.

to be superior to other water for winter and summer, there is
a loss in growth and in diseases that often amounts to ten and
twenty per cent, by such unphilosophical practices. I will
now call your attention to the zones of the head and body
as worthy of our notice, some may profit by it. I hope to
see the time when we may learn from it more. I have noticed
that such animals are more free from one class of diseases
than another, and it was of the peculiar form of vital, lim-
phatic, or bilious and nervous formations, as a defective form
will be more inclined to the diseased part as abided to Al-
pathy practice. I have practised much and have been cau-
tious of such large doses of medicine, and of late years ceased
to take blood, and only adopt it in very peculiar cases. Nor
have I had occasion in my long practice to blister any horse.
No horse should be ruled or seatoned, if we apply the skill of
this age of improvement, strong stimulants superceed them
all. Large doses of purgatives often takes away the strength
of the animal, and produces diseases itself in place of a cure.
It is impossible to give such action on the urine and organs,
or sweating ; but the proper application of opening the pores
will have a three fold effect, it will ease pain, give digestion,
and the urine will flow healthily, for the pain is the cause why
the general action has suffered. By using the cold water
bath and clothing warmly, it will produce perspiration and all
the functions of life will be in action. Many other treat-
ments have been pointed out for these diseases. Galvanism
and Electricity have been practised on horses to good effect,
but rarely applied, as all that is required is to obtain the regu-
lar activity of the circulations. I will here remark that I
have applied the last discovery of Magnetic or Electri-
cal oil, and it has had a wonderful effect in relieving pain in
various parts of the system, and in curing ague or chills, in
from one to five minutes in case of man and of lock-jaw in
the horse.

WATER-CURE.

All diseases that have the chills will have their fevers and
swelling. Bathe with river water not at a less temperature
than 60 degrees. In the use of warm bath they will bare it

WATER-CURE. 167

as high as 180, but this will depend on the condition of the
patient, both having the tendency to equalize the tempera-
ture and ease the pain, and regulate the circulation. In chills
and fevers in man, the shower bath in the latter part of the
fevers, cures the chill when the warm water would kill. In
chills or inflammation of the lungs of the horse, ten or fifteen
buckets of water will regulate them — make the breathing
more easy and natural — warm water would often make the
case worse. Where there is a want of action on the skin and
extremities, cold water, if to ease pain, clean sores, and re-
duce swelling, it is often that warm is the best. If in bruises
of ankles or scratches, foot evils, great and sudden swelling
of parts or joints, cold water is the proper remedy. And in
cases where the disease is violent, you may add the additional
Alpathy medicine, some of the anti-spasmodic camphors, assi-
fidity, sulfate of quinine. You have seen cases in which
water is the best and only remedy required, and is often of
use in most of the diseases in its place.

Many persons are fearful of losing their horses, and with
anxiety give too many kinds and doses of medicine ; others
neglect to give the animal the attention, and he would often
be relieved by the water bath or some other dose. I often
given the animal what would be called double practice, as they
harmonise. Water on the surface relieves spasms. Internally
opium, assifidity, camphor, brandy, &c. It is not necessary
to enumerate them.

' All things serve and are reserving,
There is nothing stands alone,
Wherever the chain ends
To man it is unknown.

I have seen the different practices of medicine, and it is
better for a gentleman to use the water, that is one of the
elements of his nature in proper doses, or to take the blood
of life or give a dose of opium so large as to put him to wake
no more. Horses, cows, and hogs bathe themselves where
the water is suited in depth and bottom to bathe it. In treat-
ment, it is all important to use grasses and roots to keep the
fluids of the system and digestion active, by as much good
grass and tender food as they will eat. Plenty of it gives
copious discharges, stength, and flesh by which health triumphs
over disease.

List of diseases cured by Water.
Abscesses of neck, body or legs.

lb'S WATER-CURE.

Swelling of the legs.

Burns, and rubbing of gear.

Fractures.

Fistulo, cold or hot.

Pole evil, cold or hot.

Sprains.

Swelling of knees.

Apoplexy.

Nervous fevers.

Involuntary closing of the eye.

Swelling of the eyes.

Paralysis.

Titunus.

Vertigo.

Beating of the heart.

Colic of all kinds.

Diarrhoea.

Diffculty of parturation.

Dynbeatus

Swelling of the genitals.

Non-continuance of urine.

Restraint of wind.

Spasms of the bladder.

Application by standing them in the water, swimming them,
and giving them spirits, and applying wet bandages. Bath-
ing one to four hours at intervals, and one, two, or three
times a day, watching the change of the temperature of the
body aud pulse.

Disease of the liver and spleen.

Jaundice.

Hepatites.

Splenitis.

Fevers.

Fevers attended with dullness.

Inflammatory fevers.

Fevers attended with putridity.

Rheumatic fevers.

Tuberculous fevers.

Typhus.

Fearcy.

Fatigue.

WATKR-CURE. 169

Diseases of the Feet.

Bruise of the sole.
Founder, warm and cold.
Thrush or thrash.
Wounds of the feet.
Lameness by prick of nails.

Diseases of Liver, Stomach, and Intestines.

Colic.

Constipation.

Diarrhoea.

Dysentery.

Good spring or well water, when the animal has not worked
too hard nor suffered for it. Never drink too much, often too
little.

Cause of Aberration in Morses, Cattle, Hogs, Sheep, fyc.

Grains give more of the fat and muscles. Grasses or green
wheat and barley gives bone and fluid to body — thus you see
their importance in fattening animals. If you feed them with
the grain plentifully, they will fatten one and sometimes two
pounds per day, you then give them plenty of vegitable food
that they eat heartily, and you will see the increase to be
from fifty to one hundred per cent. ; in the sheep it will often
be a hundred per cent. When grass, barley, wheat, rye,
&c. are green, it will do ; and the cane-brake will add to
the health and growth of them all. If you are raising either
of these animals be certain to provide green pastures for the
mothers during the winter, as it is of much importance to the
old and young. And in all sires, it is recommendable to
strong healthy progeny. The importance for health of dam
and sire varying, and age will be seen in the various animals.
We now allude to such diseases as is caused by the want of
the food above alluded to, which may be prevented by giving
a plenty of vegetation.

Abortion.

Depraved appetite.

Loss of appetite.

Indigestion.

Epilepsy.

Vertigo.

Swelling and diseases of the bone.

22

170 WATER-CURE.

Range.

Constipation.

In the treatment of these diseases in animals, the food is
important to accomplish a speedy cure, and ■where the ani-
mals enjoy plenty of it they are seldom sick. The above
diseases may have, as I before said, a double treatment, and
such means as you may find to suit them (water or other
means) may hasten the cure. In the cold countries where the
animals are fed on grain and dry hay and straw, they become
poor, their eyes express want. Before death you find them
with diseased livers. Again in the summer when they have
plenty, they become smooth in coat, with eyes bright and
lively. If the animals are bred agreeable to the four tem-
peraments, and strong vital organs, and fed properly, and in
good shade and shelter, there will be but few sick to nurse ;
and this is my aim.

Amount of Food required by Animals.

An ox requires two per cent, a day of his live weight, of
hay, that is, if the ox weighs 2000 pounds, he requires 40
pounds of hay, if he is working, two and a half per cent. A
milch cow should have three per cent, of her weight, as she
is proportion ably lighter than an ox, and part of the sub-
stance of her food goes to form milk. In fattening an ox
he may be fed five per cent. All good growing sheep take
four per cent. ; and growing animals require more food, and
it is very poor economy to starve them. Loss of flesh and
health is the result with them all ; and often part die of dis-
ease. The system will be doing good or evil in all cases.

Foundered Horse.

This treatment is more appropriate in warm than in cold
weather. A horse was so stiff that he was not able to step
more than six inches, and when he attempted to turn would
nearly fall. I put him in water knee deep, and kept wet
blankets on him nearly all the time, for four hours, and then
put him in the stable, and put another blanket over him and
left him for a while. If you find him apt to chill, stop the
cold application and apply the warm ; wet him with stiretus
licke as it will stimulate and cool off the fever. After stand-
ing some hours, or all night, and when he is » sweating, rub
him, as it is important to do it two or three times a day, al-
ways rub him with the hair. Then lead him a mile, and rest

TIIE HORSE. 171

ten minutes, then back. Then in water again for an hour.
Then lead him another mile, then let him stand five or ten
hours. Thon into water again for one hour — then feed on
green food and let him rest all night. The next morning he
will be well and travel on his journey. In all cases plenty of
good water and green food in it, should be given to the horse
at regulars ; or ground or scalded grain if the green is not to

be had.

-

To Cure Glanders.

I haVe lately discovered a remedy to cure the glanders in
a horse ; sometimes his throat was swollen to a terrible degree ;
and he could only raise or lower his head four or six inches.
What is the glanders ? Why it is diseased glands — the little
vessels that brings the saliva to the mouth and throat, that
are diseases, stopped up and must be opened. What will do
it ? Tobacco will vomit and may open them. Take half a
pound of fine cut tobacco and put it in two quarts of warm
water, then wash his throat to his legs and around his ears,
and down his throat with a mop. If it makes him very sick
bathe him again next morning ; after bathing him the second
time, put his head to the ground, and he will eat as usual,
and be entirely well.

Flies, and Hot Sun.

In its effects on different animals, I have shown their natu-
ral qualities to breath hot air, and their colder has its reflection
and absorption. The white silver grey, and shining bay sor-
rel reflects the sun and suffers less than those which absorb
it. A glazed hair will not absorb the rays of the sun as fast
as a rough one, aud it i3 so in all colors ; the smoother and
more glossy the hair, the better it reflects the rays of the
sun, and the less the animal suffers from it. This also shows
strong and healthy circulation, which is all important to su-

172 THE HORSK.

perior animals, all other organization being equal. To pro-
tect your horse or ass from the sun, cover him with a "white
sheet of linen as its surface is smoother than cotton. White
paper is hard to set on fire with the sun glass, but rub your
hand over it and roughen the surface, and it is then easy to
burn. This applies to all. The cotton will be of much use,
it will shelter them from the sun, flies, gnats, musquetoes
with large muzzles of musquetoe cloth, you will shelter them
from the buffalo gnat that gets in the nose of the beast. The
covering should be large so as to come to the knees and hocks,
and cover the thigh. By this I have travelled with one horse
alone over the worst prairies without the suffering of the horse
and so much kicking, throwing the head round, worrying him-
self and rider, and protected against the flies and sun. I
would recommend this in all cases of insects and sun, with
the horse, mule, and oxen, as the best plan to protect them,
and prevent the heat. Animals sweat better and have less
fever. I do not find it hard to apply to loose, or droves of
beasts. All night where the musquetoes are, it is useful to
protect them in sleep. The covers should be fastened with a
cirsingle to prevent its getting off, or to one side. You should
wash the sheet, and not let it get too dirty and stiff.

I warn you against gumelastic, or any other cover that
will prevent the circulation of air, which is dangerous to
health. — All extremes are dangerous.

The Plough Horse in Mot Sun.

The white cover is of use to all black horses, to shelter
them from the sun. If the fly is numerous it is useful to all.
The water he drinks should be clear and cool, as the spring
will afford. Young horses that are teething, paw the water
and muddy it. They bathe to cool the body. They drink
more warm or soft water than they do cool — it requires more
to coll the system, often makes them sluggish and weakens
the appetite. It is well known, that animals eat the heartiest
in cold weather, ice water helps man to eat his dinner. If
the weather is warm, an airy stable, is the best. If the horse
is in a stable that sweats him, he feeds badly, often sickens,
and causes him to eat irregularly, and becomes unhealthy
and poor. Horses, mules, and oxen, all perform better by
being washed and bathed, when they season is warm, and is also
the best manner for cleaning them. If they do not sweat, they
should bath to destroy the fever, must sweat freely to pre-

THE HORSE. 173

vent his panting and blowing. They should bathe fifteen to
thirty minutes in water about seventy degrees, or warmer ;
in this case, he should not be chilled. In washing the horse
to keep him clean, five to ten minutes. In warm weather
if the thermometer is eighty or more, the beast to be washed
once a day will do more to keep them in order, than any cur-
rying or brushing will do, and to prevent the colic, and other
diseases. I would have a rope thirty feet long, round his
neck ; let them losse to wallow, that you may teach them by
rolling in the sand or loose dirt to dry the sweat off. In
all horse lots there should be loose sand as the place to roll
in, and it is sooner cleaned off, than those who have not pastures
for them. Use the rope as above, and stake them out, as the
grass is so important for health and saving of grain. I have
known travellers to start from Missouri, without grain, to go
two thousand miles, and arrive at their place of destination
with their horses in good order.

DISEASES OF THE FEET.

Contraction, or narrow heels.

It is often that the shoe in drawing the heels causes pain,
the pulse beats full and strong, the animal is uneasy in the
feet, often raising and replacing the foot, the pain will be in-
creased by a journey, the speed, and the quality of the road,
sand, dust or pike road, the softer the better for the horse.

In many instances, the animal goes tripping, flinching,
stumbling, and sometimes falls down, causes fevers, and
weakens his appetite, his hair is rough, and sometimes spasms
into the lock-jaw, and often in travelling they suddenly go
lame ; the owner thinks that some accident has happened to
him, knows nothing of his suffering in the feet. Spams often
follow severe pain pain in the stomach, face, or eyes. All
pain do not produce spasms, some horses are more inclined
to that disease than others, some to the disease of the bones,
another of colic, another of the skin. Spasms kills by the
affection of urine or genitive organs, often the cause is not
known when the horse drags his legs with slow movemement.

Perspiration is the effects of Circulation.
The healthy perspiration is known by its coming out as

174 THE HORBB.

vapour, without color, and is salty, eyes is dry, the animal
spritless and quiet — the body not feverish, sweats in drops,
cold and clammy, system dull and irritable, weak, digestion
feeble. If you see a race horse on the track that appears in
fine condition for a race, and as he moves about the course
he sweats in drops, and after running a heat he will be cold
and clammy, in that situation he will not be able to make a
good run, and is very apt to be distanced. Sweating is of
great importance to regulate the temperature — it is the me-
dium of the body, as the external heat takes off the sweat too
rapid ; then the body becomes dry and feverish, and if there
is a hot burning sun, and the color is black, the heat may be
as high as one hundred and twenty degrees, ten or more
degrees higher than fever heat, and will prevent them from
performing in the day time. If there be sun shine, and
the cover of sheet white, that reflects the sun and prevents
the sweat from passing off too soon. It is of great aid and
protection to the animal, and will perform much better. The
sheet should be light and thin for summer, but for |winter,
thick and heavy.

Niching Horses.

I cannot be silent on the nicking horses, make the best of
the fashion you may ; it is a great outrage to intellect, and de"
grading our moral standing ; a national insult to the Ameri-
can people, who boast of their philanthrophy and liberality to
be so cruel.

The operation produces the most severe pain to the animal,
and in many cases death ; the taking off a man's leg produce
not half the pain, as all the spinal nerves end in the tail and
reach half way to the leg ; and the so called intellectual gen-
tlemen can be pleased and proud to see the poor beast shorn
of his comforts, suffering by the heinous act of butchery and
barbarism ; and when well he has lost the means of sell-pro-
tection against the flies and mosquitoes that sucks his blood.

Is this the age of intelligence and improvement of the nine-
teenth century, endowed with the blessings of religious liberty ?
they say so — but the North American Indian, without the
light of Christianity, or the customs of polite society is not
half so cruel.

There are many who is aware of the suffering which this
act causes, it often results in death. I hope they may learn
better. Cruelty is at war with Christianity, and let it be

THE HORSE. 175

shown in what way they may, the cruelty of the knife is worse
than thirst or hunger.

If a gentleman wishes to raise himself in the opinion of his
fellow men, I hope he will adopt some other plan, than by
his cruelty to the poor dumb beasts of his comforts and the
friend that feeds him, clothes him, the means of his pleasure,
that bears him from place to place, through wet, cold, and
heat. A true intellectual and benevolent man, is merciful to
his beast. If you wish the world to believe you when you
say you are a christian and often pray for the will of God, who
wills the happiness of his creation, by carrying before you to
the place of worship such horrid emblems, not of mercy, but
of cruelty, more than is practiced by the lion of the desert,
committing crime and causing suffering to divert and amuse
himself. If we were to see a lion causing his prey to suffer,
and the next day, still worrying him, we would say that it
must be a very miserable creature, which can be so inconsist-
ent.

I was informed by one of the officers of the U. S. Army,
that in 1812 or 13, in crossing the Ohio river, there being
no boats, they were compelled to swim the river with their
horses, and those that were nicked could not succeed in swim-
ming across, fer they would soon tire. I have seen many that
was nicked, that the stump (I do not call it tail,) shook with
palsy when worked or driven ; this is the effects of nicking,
which takes away the horse's strength to make a show. There
is a law in several states against cruelty to animals, and in
Louisiana it is a penetentiary offence for killing a horse, and
this act of nicking often kills. If we are compelled to make
laws to restrain those that profess Christianity from cruelty,
they are poor christians, are truly a disgrace to Christianity,
and degrading to the morals of society. In Philadelphia
there is a society who have a hospital to protect the poor beast
from starving.

A good and truly religious man, is merciful and has a re-
gard for the life of his beast ; he does not muzzle the ox that
tramples out his corn, or stints the kid of his mother's milk.
The Lord hath spoken to you, and forbids such pride, which
is the seed of rebellion, that lost man his paradise. Such
pride is like the crab-aple tree, that puts forth beautiful blos-
soms and perfume, but its fruit is all sour ; or like the tall
stately oak which allows itself to be embraced by the poison-
ous vine that kills it.

It is at war with the foundation of the ten command-

176 DISEASES OF EIIE HORSK.

ments of God — * Love mercy, deal juslty, walk humbly before
God ' are the very foundation of God's commands.

" The quality of mercy is not strained ;
It droppeth as the gentle ra\n from Heaven
Upon the place beneath. It is twice blessed;
It blesses him who gives, and him who take<\
'Tis mightiest in the mightiest ; it becomes
The throned monarch better than his crown ;
It is an attribute of God himself.

-We do pray for mercy :

And that same prayer doth teach us all to render
The deeds of mercy.,} — Shakespeare.

DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Altering Colts.

I would recommend that colts be two years old before cut,
so as to increase the strength of the circulation of blood and
gives fuller and better face and more courage, better coat of
hair.

In preparing colts for altering, their food should be light
for some four or five days, that the quantity of blood should
be lessened, and the system less heated, so that there will be
less danger of swelling. The less blood taken the better ; if
the swelling is large it is a sign that the fever is high, and
the mattering will not go on in proper time, and as the mat-
tering is lessened the danger is increased, and if the parts,
do not matter, death is certain. If you can make it matter
well, there is less danger. If any searing is used, I would
use strong hickory ashes, I know of some that use no other
means. The best of wash of alum water will increase the
mattering; and the application of honey is found to be the
best remedy to reduce the swelling.

Early commencement of Swelling behind the Ears close to

the Mane.

If this diease is not sore and hot, it is called pole-evil, and
if it does not break, or get worse, let it alone. If sore and
hard, apply cold water by a stream falling on it, give arsenic

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 177

or quinine in doses to ease the pain. If soft use the knife,
open it, and then wash with lime. Zinc solution as a wash,
two or more a day. Then to creasefall the wether where the
crease is, run a hot iron through the skin, or a rowel of hair
on each side of the neck near the mane, take them out as soon
as the parts are inflamed, not to remain more than the third
day ; this will cause them to be creasefallen and is of use in
fistulers as they are of the same character but on different
parts. Solution of copper, lime, or zinc as a wash two or
three times a day, will cure in a short time.

Castration.

Some doses of arnica are useful to prevent and stop the
traumatic fever which succeeds this operation. It is right
also to wash the wound with water to which some drops of
tincture of arnica have been added. Not only is the cure
more expeditious, especially when the lotions are frequently
repeated, but the employment of the arnica also destroyes in
the bud several occurrences which sometimes prove danger-
ous. If fistulge become developed, we should follow the
course traced out under the article Fistalo. Under the
fever Tetanus will be found the indication of the treatment
to be adopted if that affection should supervene. I have
always found arsenicum, followed by sulphur, useful in treat-
ing the tumefaction of the belly which sometimes occurs after
the operation.

I was called to see a seven year old horse that had been
castrated. He continued to show great pain, hard breathing,
eyes watery, pulse rapid, much swelling, no signs of matter-
ing, and very stiff. I commenced bathing the head, and then
all the body, and mostly over the loins, and after applying
ten buckets of water he was much relieved. I then gave
him twenty grains of quinine and in four hours I bathed him
with five buckets of water, and moved him to the river and
let him stand in water up to his sides, two hours, and the run-
ning commenced. I then gave him twenty more grains of
quinine. The next morning he was eating, the swelling re-
duced, bathed him and gave him mash and grass. He soon
recovered.

In all cases, if the animal appears in pain, when first cut,
bathe him, and give ten to twenty grains of quinine and sps.
of camphor to ease the pain and fever.

23

178 DISEASES OF THE HORSB.

Contusions.

Contusions are cured in a very short time by the external
application of tincture of arnica diluted with water. It is
only in very bad cases that this medicine should be employed
internally. If a bone has been affected along with the soft
parts, or if the periosteum has been injured, instead of arnica,
ruta graveolens and Symphytum should be employed, inter-
nally and externally. In some cases conium has been found
useful.

Thus, when too tight, girthing produces a contusion, the skin
gradually becomes exoriated, and, if the matter be neglected,
it is not uncommon to see inflammation and superation come
on. Arnica never fails to cure lesions of this kind promptly
and easily. If tumefaction has manifested itself, and if the
swelling, when neglected, become inflamed, and pus be al-
ready formed, mercurius vivus, or hepar sulphuris, disposes
it to open, and affects a cure. If crusts or scabs form in the
injured part, thuja is indicated ; its use should be followed by
that of sulphur.

In the same manner, harness badly made, or ill applied,
occasions injuries to the breast, back, and shoulders. There
is first observed a blood excoriation, which, when neglected,
passes readily into inflammation, and supperation, and is often
difficult of cure. Arnica given immediately, both internally
and externally, soon cures all swellings of this kind. Asifoetida
alternated with the external employment of arnica, is very
useful in the treatment of colts which we desire to habituate
and accustom to draught, and when sweated from the pres-
sure of the harness. Bath and arsenicum are employed
when the wound suppurates; alum, when large crops of
pimples become developed on the part; arsenicum chamo-
milla, lime, and sulphur, when fungus excrescences ap-
pear.

Curb.

A swelling is so called that has its seat formed on the
sheath of the flexor tendon. It is sometimes occasioned by a
blow in leaping over timber, or walls ; but the most frequent
cause is a strain. The horses most liable to it are those with
sickle-shaped hocks, although the best shaped legs and hocks,
do not at all times escape. There being generally an undue
weight thrown on the parts in breaking, it at fii st appears
insignificant, but generally terminates in lameness. Arnica

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 179

and sulphate quinine never fail to prove useful, when em-
ployed in proper time, and especially when the animal is al-
lowed rest. If on the contrary, he be neglected, pain, swel-
ling, and inflammation increase gradually, and there is formed
a hard, cold, indolent tumor. There are cases, however, in
which it does not become so considerable, or at least increases
but slowly ; the horse then continues able to perform his du-
ties, and the lameness which existed at first at length disap-
pears. But when the swelling increases very much, continual
lameness supervenes ; the motions of the joint, particularly
those of flexion, become more and more impeded. When the
strain is recent, quinine alternated with salt, and applied ex-
ternlly in the form of a lotion ; and when first injured, mixed
with boiling water, and applied hot ; at the same time give
dose of medicine internally ; with respect to the treatment of
this disease, use standing water to cover the hock, applying
oil of cedar as blisters, aud sutyhur must not be overlooked.

Docking.

The operation is sometimes followed by nervous irritation,
which, when neglected, may bring on fatal consequences, such
as Tetanus. In such cases, then, it is right to administer
doses of arnica, in order to remove the traumatic fever. In
cases (which are not uncommon) where the operation is suc-
ceeded by Tetanus, the directions given under that head
should be followed. The appearance of gangrene, which has
sometimes been observed to occur after the operation, is pre-
vented by the timely use of brandy or whiskey. However,
if there be inflammation already, &c, arnica is no longer
of any use, and we must have recourse to some doses of
asafoetida. Frequently, more especially when the first incis-
ion has been made too high, a fistulous ulcer supervenes, for
the treatment of which see the article Fistula. Some
lint, steeped in a diluted tincture of copper, should be bound
tightly around the dock, which generally will answer every
intention.

Fractures.

It sometimes happens from a fall, or a severe blow, that a
greater or less portion of the bones of the ilium become frac-
tured. There then appears in the same place a hot, painful
tumor ; the horse limps, chiefly at the commencement, and
when we view bim from behind, we see the affected haunch

180 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

lower than the other. This accident is never dangerous in
itself. Every time the case is presented to me I have re-
moved it by employing externally the strong tincture of Sym-
phytum. I also give some drops of this internally from time
to time.

Fractures of the ribs are often cured of themselves ; they
are treated with bath. When they are complicated with splin-
ters projecting internally they are liable to produce suppura-
tion of the lung.

Abscesses.

All abscesses, even when they depend on an external cause,
having been preceded, or being still accompanied by inflam-
mation, their treatment must be commenced with sulphate of
?uinine or arsenic ball, to abate the fever and ease the pain,
f cold, bathe with warm water. If hot you, may use the
cold. If the swelling has been of three days standing, and
is soft, open it — none should wait for it to break, and apply
at night linseed oil to keep it open and running. The bath-
ing should be three times a day, and if the case requires it,
for half an hour at each time. Diet of grass, roots, pumpkins,
or mash food. The zinc wash almost always serves to induce
suppuration when re-issue cannot be obtained ; a dose of it is
to be taken every six hours. The means employed in the
case of abscesses which have suppurated are : arsenic, inter-
nally and externally, when the edges are hard and averted,
when there is pain, inflammation, and the pus exhales a bad
smell ; silecia, when the pus is thick, and of a bad color.

Every time that certain parts of the body are either burn-
ing hot or very cold, we may reckon on it that there is some
disease. Heat of the head, ears, and feet, frequently indi-
cate great debility and exhaustion of the animal.

Anticor.

This name is given to a round inflammatory swelling, about
the size of the fist, which forms on the chest opposite to the heart.
This tumor frequently comes on after exposure to the cold :
it then yields to one ounce of sulphur, repeated with antimony,
followed by arnica. This last remedy is also the one which
should be employed, when the swelling is occasioned by a
contusion, or any other external cause. Sassafras oil on and
inward, acts on the urine organs, and is also useful in the case
of a more extensive and general affection of the chest.

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 181

Mallanders and Sallanders.

Scurfy eruptions, are so called, seated at the anterior bend
of the hock, or at the posterior of the knee, accompanied with
oozing, crusts and cracks in the skin, and which is productive
of itching, pain, and sometimes even of lameness. This dis-
ease is sometimes owing to long travelling on bad roads, want
of cleanliness ; but for the most part it depends on internal
causes. Baths and and tonics are generally the most useful
for it ; next come solution of lime, creosote, and sarsaparilla.
Sulphur completes the treatment. If any lameness remain
after the disappearance of the exanthemata, we should have
recourse to bath.

Oedematous Swelling of the Legs.

This is a disease which has its principle seat in the inferior
part of the legs, more especially the hind legs, which at times,
however, ascends higher up, even to the trunk, and which is
also observed in the anterior extremities. It first presents
itself in the form of a swelling, which generally lessens by
exercise, but alwavs reappears after standing a long time in
the stable, and increases very much after some day's rest.
The swollen part, which appears a little hot to the touch, oc-
casions to the animal a sense of itching, and an acute pain
whenever the part receives pressure, although in other cases,
there appears little or no pain. At length, after the swelling
has attacked all the posterior part of the pastern-joint, a liquid
discharges itself by small pores from the heels which at first
is clear, like water, but soon soon becomes turbid and sanilus,
so as to corrode the skin and destroy the roots of the hair.
The inflammation and pain then make rapid progress, so
much so, that the animal can no longer bear the slightest
touch ; he limps very much in walking, and when at rest he
holds the foot off the ground. A few doses of antimony are
sometimes sufficient to cure the disease radically, often in a few
days, even when it is inveterate. However, when it lasts for
some considerable time, the lameness increases very much,
and there are frequently develoded on the swelling, brownish
or bluish excrescences, called grapes, which bleed on the least
touch, and continually exhale a fetid ichor, it has now become
a case of greasy heel. Antimony administered internally, its
strong tincture being at the same time employed externally,
is useful in this case also. Amongst the other remedies
which prove most usefu\,ar8enicum, asafoetida, aud sulphur are

182 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

the principal. Arsenicum, has produced excellent effects in
a very bad case : the cure was ultimately effected by mash,
and standing them in water from one to four hours, giving
them a better stall or lot to suit their comforts, with marhes
and green food until it is relieved.

Phthiriasis ; or, Morbus Pedicularis.

Horses which a e much used, not kept clean, and badly
fed, are frequently much tormented by vermin, which increase
very much on their body, and contribute not a little to ex-
haust them still more when no pains are taken to destroy
them. This object is accomplished by means of an ointment
prepared with one part of bruised parsly, and three parts of
lard, which is spread over the hair of the animal by means of
a wisp of straw in the hand. Internally, sulphur are given,
and if the animal is very weak, antimony.

Sweating.

Sometimes the least motion is sufficient to cause a horse to
sweat. In several cases I have stopped this infirmity by
means of nux vomica, antimony, and sulphur, to each of which
I allowed from five to six days to exhaust its action. A friend
of mine cured it. Bathing and a change of food has also
been ascertained to be very useful in it. Regular and steady
exercise, with proper diet, should also be enforced.

Tumor on the Elbow.

A tumor which comes on the point of the elbow generally
proceeds from the animal's shoes being in comtact with the
point of the elbow when lying ; in consequence of a fall, a
blow, or under the influence of some internal cause. The
swelling is, at first, hot and painful ; but, by degrees, it is
converted into a cold, indolent swelling, which scarcely ever
interferes with the hore, but is merely detrimental to the beauty
of his shape. In the treatment we should have regard more
particularly to the duration of the disease, and to the way in
which it was brought on, wrhether by an internal cause, or
some external violence. The affection, when recent, and
more especially when occasioned by external violence, is easily
cured with arnica, with which may be combined the dilute
tincture of this medicine. If the disease be of long standing,
chamomilla must be employed; and if the swellings begin

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 183

to grow hard, antimony. When of very long standing, or
spontaneous, it is in general very difficult to cure. The prin-
cipal means then are sulphur, antimonium, oil of cedar and
sepia.

Sjyavin.

Spavin consists in an inflammation of the ligamentous con-
nection of the head of the small metatarsal with the inner
cuneiform bone of the hock, but its position varies considerably;
it is followed by ossific deposition, and which interferes more
or less with the movements of the hock ; the contiguous sur-
faces being rough and inflamed, the articular cartilages being
transformed into bone, &c, although all the horses affected
with spavin are not lame, as it is very similar to a splint,
when not effecting the motion of the horse. There appears
to be in some breeds of horses a predisposition to this affec-
tion, perhaps more from the peculiar construction of their
hocks, as is the case with curbs. It may arise from strains,
particularly in leaping, or from too much exertion being re-
quired of horses when young. It seldom appears before the
third year, or after the eighth. The diagnosis is generally
easy. In order to decide whether a horse is affected with
spavin, we must first examine whether there be an enlarge-
ment not perceptible on the other hock, on the inner and
lower side of the joint. The sprain is sometimes, more es-
pecially at the commencement, so small, that we can succeed
in distinguishing it only by comparing together the corres-
ponding points of the two legs seen anteriorly and posteriorly ;
but in time it increases in size, and sometimes attains the
size of a hen's egg. When it is osseous to the feel, it consti-
tutes bone spavin, properly so called ; if it consist of a soft
swelling produced by an effusion of serum into the joint, it is
called false spavin. The lameness frequently disappears with
work ; but if the animal is allowed to rest for a time, and
then trotted again, the lameness becomes more perceptible.
As an exception to all this, motion increases the lameness in
some horses affected with spavin, whilst others are not lame,
though they have very large spavins ; and others, again, are
very lame, though scarcely any trace of the disease is per-
ceivable in them. Besides, we know that the lameness is re-
ferable to spavin, increases gradually in consequence of fa-
tigue and work, which may be accounted for by the pains
which the animal then feels. With regard'to the remedies at

184 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

the comuiencernen, we should employ internally and extern-
ally, oil of cedar.

Splint.

This term is applied to an exostosis of greater or less size,
which usually supervenes after a contusion ; they are situated,
generally, on the inner small metacarpal bones of the fore-
legs, although it is frequently seen on the outside, and, at
times, on the hind legs. After having existed for some time,
they seldom occasion lameness, except they are so situated as
to interfere with the action of the ligament, tendons, or the
knee joint, or when first forming. I have several times de-
rived benefit in recent exostoses by means of arnica, internally
and externally. If the tumor is of long standing, there will
be some difficulty in making it disappear, and very often we
do not succeed in so doing.

Straining of the Tendons.

A strain of the flexor tendons, or of the sheath that en-
velopes them, is generally attended with excessive lameness,
and inflammation of the parts ; we must assist the animal in
resting the injured leg, as much as possible, by means of a
high-heeled shoe, as before spoken of in the article " shoulder
strain;" give one or two doses of quinine, as there is gen-
erally constitutional irritation present ; we must then have
recourse to cold bath, and honey externally ; let a tea-spoon-
ful of vinegar and salt be put in a pint of water, a piece of
lint saturated therein, and applied round the leg, then let a
linen bandage, dipped in vinegar, be lightly rolled around the
lint, to keep it in its place : absolute rest is indispensably ne-
cessary.

Arnica and tonics are also of use if the part is bruised, or
if the periosteum is injured, which is frequently the case in
bruises of the cannon bone from blows in leaping timber or
walls, in which way I have seen the extensor tendon com-
pletely divided, and then become again as useful as before
with but very slight permanent enlargement, which enlarge-
ment, after divisions of tendons, had better not be interfered
with. The general practice of stimulants more frequently
enlarges than reduces the interstitial deposition.

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 186

Sting of Bees,

The Sting of a bee or of a wasp is a circumstance of no
consequence. But when a multitude of these insects have
fallen on a horse, the pain and inflammatory swelling may-
go on so as to occasion the animal's death.- Arnica and ars-
enic employed, of five or ten grains, and if not better in fif-
teen to twenty minutes, apply brandy or whiskey or honey
immediately over the swelling, and it will givNe ease in twenty
minutes. One quart of good liquor may be repeated in thirty
minutes.

Colt Distemper,

Bleed at the nose ; one quart or two will relieve in tv o
or three days ; this can be done in the veins of the face,-
or gristle of the nose ; if you cannot bleed at the nose, bleed at
neck, from two to six quarts as soon as the animal is affected,
Stop, give him ground food, and, such as is easy to digest j
open air if the weather will permit it. Water and food should
be put on a level with his body, for the reach of the head in-
flames the swelling. Repeat the bleeding, if not better in
two days.

The cough will be relieved by one ounee of ground mustard,
given in wet brand or mash. As soon as the swelling is soft,
open it, as it gives ease to the breathing ; in some cases it is
soft enough to open on the third day, if it be not soft, aid
the relief by getting the issue and mattering. The character
of this is like the cold and hot stages of disease If hot, bathe,
and if cold, give quinine to warm the vital organs ; this should
be given in doses, from five to ten grains, repeated in two
to four hours. In this case the water he drinks should not
be colder than spring-water, given at the level of the body.
Their diet should be grass, pumpkins or mashes. I have seen
horses that have been stabled, and then turned out to graze,
and in one day or less time, their jaws have been swelled
round to their ears ; this is to show that colts may inflame
the disease by grazing. If you raise colts and calves, give
them if it be possible, green food for winter, as it is both
healthy and cheap. All young stock, pigs, lambs, &c, a small
quantity with other food will be of much importance.

BacJc-RaJcing.

This process is very useful in cases of fever, costiveness,
24

18G DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

colic, and other diseases, in order to faver the operation of
purgatives and injections ; for in these diseases, the dung in
the recutum, or straight gut, becomes dry and hard, to the
great inconvenience of the animal, and serious disadvantages
as to the operation of medicines. When he has not dunged
for some time, and a fulness is perceived about the flank and
fundament, back-racking should be attended to, as follows :

Let the operator strip his arm bare, and having well
anointed it and his hand with soft soap, lard or butter, prefer-
ing the first, the fingers should be brought to a point, and
the hand gently introduced into the rectum and chaw away
the indurated faeces. This should be done several times, and
then the animal should be left to himself a short time, while
a drink of physic, or an injection, or both, as the case may
be, is preparing. This simple process often affords much re-
lief, and it is immediate, which is important in cases of great
distress.

The gumelastic bag is the best for the injection — with
a pipe of a foot in length with a nob on the end to prevent
injury. To give a free and easy discharge from the bowels in
a grown horse, it will require four gallons of warm water, with
salt or soap oils, and repeat it to suit the case ; it often re-
quires three times.

Injuries, fye.

Accidents and various affections are incident to animals,
that are not readily perceived; therefore they should be
thoroughly examined, occasionally, in every point, especially
young animals, and those not generally used, so as to allow
of casual inspection, in order to see that no accident has be-
fallen them, or that some affection is not creeping upon them
imperceptibly, that will, neglected, become a formidable evil.

It is highly important that animals be timely relieved from
accidents, as sometimes a delay will prove fatal, and diseases
of every description are far more easily cured when taken in
their first stages, than when they have

"Grown with their growth and strengthened with their strength."

A horse that appeared sick, was examined very attentively
for the cause of complaint, and a piece of cob was found
across the roof of his mouth, nearly stopping up his throat.
This is only one among thousands of instances. There are
numerous accidents and complaints with which animals are

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 187

afflicted, that may escape the notice of a superficial observer,
or that may occur on those animals not generally handled,
and by neglect they may increase, from small beginings, to
severe and obstinate disease.

Nails or snags in the feet often causes serious lameness
which by early attention would soon be cured.

Holding the Tongue when giving Medicine.

That animals may swallow freely and the medicine go down
the right way, their tongues should be free. As a caution on
this point, a case was related to us for publication. An
ox, after eating hearty, and drinking largely was puffed
up. On being worked, the swelling went down. On drink-
ing again at night, the swelling had abated, and the ox was
eating hay. The medicine was given by holding his tongue
out of his mouth, and pouring the medicine down his throat.
He breathed not again, but fell down and died immediately.

On examination, his windpipe, for eight inches in length,
was completely filled with chewed hay. It is supposed that
on holding the tongue, the windpipe is open, and is liable to
receive whatever is poured down the throat ; and the reason
that no more injury is done in this way, is because the medi-
cines are generally liquid.

Pouring medicine down the throats of animals, with the
tongue held, generally occasions coughing, which is doubtless
owing to some of it going down the wrong way. The use of
those parts connected with the roots of the tongue, which is
affected in the natural way.

Mode of giving Liquid Medicine.

Sometimes, when medicines have no nauseous taste, animals
will drink them voluntarily. Or if refused in this state, they
may be induced to take them in palatable food. But there
are numerous cases in which it is necessary to turn the medi-
cine down the throat. Some use a junk bottle for this pur-
pose ; a horn is better, as a bottle is liable to be broken. In
using a horn, stop up the large end, and pour from the small
one, as it L- less liable to waste.

The more quietly you handle the horse, the more willingly
he takes the dose, but be cautious of holding the head too
high, as it naturally produces strangling. The mouth should
be little higher than the throat, moving the mouth by the bit,
will cause him to move his tongue ; and raising and letting
the mouth down and up, will cause him to swallow.

188 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Fungus of the Collar.

This name is given to indurations of the skin or cellular
tissue,which occur chiefly in parts which are exposed to strong
and continued pressure of the harness. Arsenicum is a tried
remedy in such cases. Chamomilla has been chiefly recom-
mended in the treatment of those which are developed in the
withers. These excrescences must be sprinkled externally
with dilute tincture of arnica, and when they begin to put on
an unhealthy character, with arsenicum (two drops to a spoon-
ful of water.) Sometimes they open : they should then be
treated like other abscesses. Nux-vomioa is useful in the
treatment of those fungous excrescences so common to the
heel, and also solution of zinc.

Apoplexy.

Apoplexy is of two kinds, the serious and sanguinous ; the
latter is, however, of the most frequent occurrence in the
horse. One of the principal causes is high feeding with in-
sufficient exercise; if may also be caused by the animal drawing
a heavy load up an inclined plane, although in this case there is,
perhaps more frequently rupture of a blood-vessel and hemor-
rhage from one or both nostrils ; if the animal's stomach is
overloaded with food, it is more likely to produce congestion
of blood on the brain than standing in the hot sun,

The norses most liable to apoplexy are those who have a
short and thick neck, are of a dull lazy habit, with a dispo-
sition to become fat, and when, on days that are somewhat
sultry, they begin to suffor vertigo. A horse in this case car-
ries the head low, the breathing is laborious, the pupils are
generally dilated ; and the pulse nearly indistinct ; there is
a frequent flow of saliva ; he raises the fore-legs a little more
than usual,stumbles as he walks along, chiefly on being turned,
falls sometimes, comes again to himself in a few moments.
Usually these symptoms are frequent, always becoming more
severe, and at length an attack of apoplexy declares itself,
in which the animal falls as if struck with lightning, and
after some fits of convulsion dies. As soon as the precursory
symptoms are perceived, a few doses of sulphur are given,
which has found a sure means of preventing a fatal termina-
tion, especially if the horse be fed moderately, employed
properly and not worked too severely during hot weather.
Nux vomica and antimony may also be used in the premoni-
tory symptoms with good effect, also murr ami opium.

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 189

Nervous Fever.

Bathing to relieve the heat — ten or twenly buckets thrown
on, or standing from one to four hours. This affection ap-
pears but rarely, probably even never, as a nervous affection
from the commencement ; it precedes, in general, inflamma-
tory or catarrhal fever, is frequently associated with other
febrile states, and occasionally degenerates into a true putrid
fever ; so that whatever is to be said of the latter, is equally
applicable, in a great measure to it. Like putrid fever, it has
for its characters, great depressing, total prostration of
strength, disposition to convulsions, frequent grinding of the
teeth, and complete insensibility. The febrile paroxysms
usually occur in the evening. Frequently the disease reigns
exizootically, and causes great havoc. The principal remedy
to be employed is water and quinine, repeated twice every
day. Arsenic and antimony alternately with sulphur, was
found very effectual in a case where there was short and fre-
quent cough with tightness in the chest. Nux vomica, qui-
nine, and belladonna have also succeedeed. Those affected
had a very dry cough, the respiration was difficult, the mu-
cous membranes generally inflamed, a serious discharge from
the nose, great depression, and but little appetite. First a
dose of quinine, was given, then usually after the expiration
of ten hours, bathing. When the disease had diminished con-
siderably, at the end of two days, sulphur and lime-water
were given, according to symptoms ; the patients were cured
in general on the sixth or seventh day. When there was
gastric complication, loaded tongue, swelling of the abdomen,
obstinate constipation, alvine evacuations unhealthy, and much
thirst, the treatment was commenced with nux vomica, which
was repeated frequently two or three times in the space of
two days, after which, a dose of crude antimony in general
sufficed to effect the cure. In some of the affected individuals
there was a sort of vertiginous stupor ; insensible to the im-
pressions from without ; they remained with the head hang-
ing down or resting on some place, without paying any atten-
tion when called, as if asleep, and it is not without difficulty
they could be drawn from their stupor, or the inconvenient
position which they assumed ; in those cases bathing and
mash was administered, and repeated two or three times if
the somnolence did not give way. In general, they were con-
valescent at the end of from six to ten days. Those more dan-
gerously affected were the horses which scarcely ever remained
at rest, with small hard pulse, violent movements of the ab-

190 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

dominal muscles, nostrils very much dilated, profuse yellowish
thick discharge from the nose, pulsations of the heart unequal,
and the color of the skin very changeable. A close of Assi-
foetida was given to them at first, then veratrum, and in some
cases camphora ; in them it was of great importance to es-
tablish the functions of the skin and abdominal organs. Only
two patients died, but they had been neglected, and the treat-
ment too long deferred.

Involuntary Closing of the Eye-lids.

Bathing is the remedy to be employed in the spasmodic
closing of the eye-lids, which is observed sometimes in cases
of periodical ophthalmia; it is frequently met with, howeyer,
as an isolated symptom. Chammomilla has been useful in
a case where quinine and arsenic, had produced no effect.

Swelling of the Eyes.

Prominence or projection of the eyes out of their orbits is
a common consequence or accompaniment of weeping. I
have found stramonium useful in a case where there was a
sort of periodical swelling of the eye-lids ; I first prescribed
a dose of sulphur. Ignatia and chamomilla are recommended
in the treatment of swelling of the eye-lids ; the former in
that of the upper lid, the second in that of the lower. Sepia
and sulphur have also been found effectual in a great many
cases. If there be lachrymation at the same time, quinine
and water may be employed with advantage.

Weakness of Syncope.

After profuse nasal hemorrhages, after a wound which has
occasioned heavy loss of blood, incomplete syncope some-
times supervenes ; the horse, being very feeble, totters and
trembles ; he is covered with a cold sweat, and sinks down
sometimes ; but when stretched on the ground, he still moves
his limbs and soon revives. A dose of quinine or nux vom-
ica here produces the best effects. When the same phenome-
non comes on after excessive labor, which has been carried
beyond the animal's strength, and he has received little or
no nourishment. However there are cases wherein complete
snycope is observed in the horse, which after having tottered
a little, falls to the ground deprived of consciousness, as it
were dead, remaining stretched without moving, without con-

DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

191

vulsions, with cold ears and feet. Under such circumstances
brandy has been several times of great benefit. When on
falling the horse becomes convulsed, this is an attack of epi-
lepsy.

To cure the common Tetanus.

Tetanus is an extremely dangerous disease, observed more
particularly in horses than any other domestic animals. It
consists in a peculiar spasm of the muscles of the jaws, and
often too of the entire body. The jaws are so completely
closed, than one might break them rather than separate them
one from the other. At the onset of the disease, which al-
ways commences with slight symptoms of colic and constipa-
tion, with moving of the tail, the animal feels some difficulty
in opening the mouth ; by degrees the ears become rigid, the
eyes are widely opened and distorted, the neck is rigid and
immovable ; spasm soon seizes the entire body ; the animal
becomes rigid in every part ; the muscles are hard, the respi-
ration is hurried and loud, and the animal's body is covered
with a cold sweat ; his body, in fact, seems as if he was a
wooden horse. JNo power can then succeed in opening the
mouth ; the nose forms a hard cone ; the horse, almost inca-
pable of making the least movement, remains standing, his
legs very much separated, and at length dies between the
eighth and tenth day. But the disease does not always com-
mence with trismus of the jaws ; it often begins with spasm
of the muscles of the posterior region, which extends gradu-
ally to the anterior parts of the body, and which attains its
extreme degree when the jaws are closed. The first case

li»*j DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

happens when during the moist and cloudy weather, the ani-
mal has been wounded in a very sensitive part, more es-
pecially in the joints and in the foot. The second is observed
when the horse, otherwise predisposed, has been subjected to
great cold after being very much heated. But there is no
doubt that many other causes also contribute to produce this
disease, which, for the most part, attacks well-bred horses,
and which in general is not recognized, except when it ha9
made considerable progress. The eiforts of allopathy have
hitherto had but little success. Homoepathy has been more
fortunate. Nux vomica has proved very efficacious. It is
administered in repeated doses, at first several times a day,
then every two or three days. If only rigidity remain in the
limbs, arsenicum is prescribed, after which it is right almost
always to refer to nux vomica. In some cases where the
animal had not recovered appetite, benefit has been obtained
from ipecacuanha.

Bathe him in twenty buckets of water, but if you can
bathe him in a river it is better ; then give him one quart of
good brandy in three quarts of water-— the raw spirits burns
the mouth and requires adulteration — and if he gets supple
by the spirits as he begins to sweat, it is a sign of the reliev-
ing of the disease. After that has relieved him and he seems
to be over the effects of the spirits, if he is hot give him a
deep bath, repeat it in an hour ; then give him some 10 or 20
grains of quinine, but they should be small doses, and given
each hour. It would be better to watch the" chilly and hot
stage of the horse, and to make him comfortable in all cases.
This treatment will relieve the chill in thirty minutes, and
in some cases I have relieved them in ten minutes. It acted
like electricity on the horse, before he got back to the stable
he opened his mouth. I also relieved a jack by the same
process. I will relate a case which a gentleman that was
engaged in buying and selling horses told me of a case that
had been running on for five days ; he at length gave him up
and turned him out to die. During the night there was a
heavy fall of rain, and the next morning he wrent to see where
he had died, and to his astonishment, when he went to where
he was, the horse nickered to him for food, and soon got en-
tirely well. Gentlemen, I warn you against too much warm
clothing, for many use double the quantity that is necessary ;
do not use gumelastic nor any other air-tight dress, thin cotton
or linen will do for summer, and in winter, thick twilled cotton
is preferable for blankets, as it turns the rain better. Air is
essential to health.

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 193

After running, a horse became so stiff during the night,
that he could scarcely move a single step. On examining him
I found him affected with tetanus ; his neck was tense, and
the legs, more especially the hind legs, very much separated ;
the back, on the middle of which a circumscribed, painful
tumor was observed, formed a straight line ; the tail hung a
little to the right. The muscular parts affected with tetanic
contraction, were rigid and very hard to the touch, more es-
pecially those of the back, thighs and flanks, less so, how-
ever, than those of the legs and neck. If the animal was
obliged to move, he did so with extraordinary rigidity, and if
an attempt was made to trot him, prespiration soon manifested
itself, with hurried respiration. At the same time there was
redness of the nasal mucuous membrane and of the conjunc-
tiva ; pulse a little full, but not very frequent ; respiration
painful and hurried with dilation of the nostrils ; skin
tense and dry ; and animal rarely evacuated ; the evacuations
were small and dry. A favorable circumstance was that
there was not yet a trismus of the jaws, or at least that it
was not much marked, for the animal was still able to chew
his hay without difficulty when cut, and to swallow it readily ;
he also retained a moderate appetite ; he had run the day
before in the midst of heavy rain with a north-east wind. On
the afternoon of the same day, I observed short contractions
in the flanks, similar to those which might be produced by
galvanic shocks, a circumstance which appeared to me a good
omen, by inducing me to hope a favorable reaction of the vital
force. Towards evening a mild and uniform perspiration took
place over the entire body ; it lasted however but a short
time, and the animal became dry, whilst being rubbed. On
the following day, the general state seemed improved ; the
respiration was not accompanied with such violent efforts ;
the muscles of the flanks and back were no longer so rigid,
but the voluntary motion of the thighs was not yet effected
without considerable difficulty ; there had been a copious dis-
charge of a pulverulent appearance, and frequent alvine
evacuations. The same dose repeated. Two days after,
considerable diminution of all the symptoms ; relaxation of
all the muscles which had been affected with spasm ; the ani-
mal feels more facility in turning the neck and moving the
legs, which now diverge less during standing ; breathing al-
most natural ; pulse full and regular ; not more than forty-
five per minute ; appetite good. From this time up to three
days after, during which period two doses more of nux vomica
were administered, the improvement progressed with incredi-
25

194 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

ble rapidity, without the least relapse, so that at the end of
six days the animal was perfectly cured.

I have shown you that the front-head was the form that
gave the breast, and that combativeness and strength gave
length to the body, and full strong loins and thighs. In this
disease the part most affected is at the joining of the head to
the neck, and running to the hind foot. I saw a case that
was affected severely, the farrier applied bags of ice to the
head of the horse, and relieved the jaws by it ; but not ap-
plying tonics to regain his appetite and strength, he lost the
horse. Ice or brandy may be applied to the head, but re-
member where there is a wound, however small, even where it
is bled, to apply sulphate of copper, oil of vitriol, or something
to get up the matter of the sore, for then the animal may
be partially relieved, if this fails you will be apt to lose the
patient. Warm or cold water will relieve the foot, and then
brandy will be of use to cure the patient. One cause of this
disease is want of circulation, but do not bleed the patient as
it is the blood that is required to keep him alive ; other causes
are numerous, wounds of various kinds, contraction of the
shoes, pressing on a sensitive part of the foot, or the throg
of the foot being too prominent and pressing on the ground,
extreme heat or cold, over-work and running, is often the
cause, and after one or two days sometimes kill many.

Cough.

Cough is a common symptom in different diseases, for in-
stance, in broken wind, strangles, pneumonia, bronchitis, &c.
In such cases it disappears under the influence of the treat-
ment suited to the general morbid state. But this does not
always take place, and occasionally the cough continues after
the principal disease has been cured, and degenerates into a
chronic state without any discoverable disease. When the
cough is not complicated with any other affection of the lungs,
the chief means to be adopted are the following : mustard,
if it has supervened after a cold ; quinine alternately with
sulphur, if it require mueh effort, and cuts the respiration
short.

Colic.

Colic, a disease common in the horse, is sometimes danger-
ous, in consequence of its rapid course, but generally yields
very readily to remedies. By leading them into cold water

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 195

deep enough to cover them or by pouring it on the back, and
in fifteen or twenty minutes taking them out and walking them
a short time and repeating the bathing, you have the best
means of getting a passage from the bowels. It is often the
case that the urine organs needs water-melon seeds or spirits
of nitre or quinine to relieve the spasms of the neck and
bladder, and sometimes spirits of camphor, either of the
above gives immediate relief. In fifteen years practice, I have
not known water to fail to cure in any case. The causes which
produce it are very various ; costiveness, and influence of cold,
oats oftener than grasses, overloading of the stomach, and
drinking very warm or cold water whilst heated, food of bad
quality, flatulen and unusual, excessive toil, continued far be-
yond the time for feeding, being out during a violent storm,
worms, &c. We even see horses to which a small portion of
a certain kind of food never fails to give colic, though it may
not injure others. Finally, we sometimes observe a species
of chronic colic, connected with some internal and deeply-
seated disease, most frequently of a poisonous nature.

Among the general symptoms of colic, the following are
more especially characteristic. The animal refuses his food
he beats or paws the ground with his fore-feet, raises the hind-
feet towards his belly, frequently looks at his flanks, his tail
frequently quivers, the feet are generally close together, and
the animal frequently throws himself on the ground, rolls
about or places himself on his back, presses his legs up to his
body, remains for some time in this situation, and suddenly
rises himself again ; the symptoms of colic then return, some-
times in the midst of mourns and groans, and in some cases
with perspirations over the entire body. Under other cir-
cumstances, one of the flanks or belly is swollen, though oc-
casionally the horse, especially at the onset of the attack,
passes his urine and foeces, which, notwithstanding the urgent
desire he feels, he is not always able to do. Usually there
are moments of relaxation, during which the animal remains
standing or lying, and even eats some of his food ; but the
pains soon return with increased intensity. The longer it
lasts the more the horse's countenance bespeaks the acuteness
of his sufferings ; the nostrils are dilated, the respiration hur-
ried, he grinds his teeth, bites the manger, shakes his halter,
becomes furious, and dies in a cold sweat, often in a few hours,
rarely after a struggle of several days. Bathing will soon
invite the heat to the surface ; the more internal the fevers'
the colder the skin. It is so with cases of mortification of

196 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE.

the vital organs, the heat may he aided hy laudanum, pep^-
permint, or alcaline.

The treatment is always to commence with a dose of alca-
line or spirits of nitre, which is to he repeated once or twice,
according to circumstances ; this relieves the first violence of
the attack, and occasionally, more especially in colic from cold
is sufficient to triumph over the disease. If this result he not
obtained at the end of a quarter of an hour after the third
dose of aconitum, a dose of arsenieum should he given, the
chief remedy in those especially termed flatulent, when they
depend on disturbance of digestion, on excess of food, or of
bad quality, or on drinking or eating. Very frequently the
repetition of this remedy is of great use, whilst in other cases
we shall find it best to alternate it with alcaline, for when the
stomach is sour it soon sweetens it. If after the Colic has
ceased, constipation remain, nux vomica should be given, and
in obstinate cases opium ; after which, should it fail, which is
no uncommon occurrence, we must have recourse to asafoetida.
Colic is rather frequently accompanied with retention of urine
or it has even been occasioned by it ; water-melon seed are
then indicated, and in obstinate cases spirits of camphor
always succeeds.

Colic from Constipation.

Colic from constipation is frequently produced either by
unwholesome food, or by the impression of cold. In this dis-
ease the symptoms common to the different species of colic
are carried to rather a high degree, and in a great number of
cases, there is also added the tympanitic state of the abdo-
men. However we may consider as symptoms which charac-
terize them, the efforts of the animal to free itself from the
foecal matters, and the nature of those it happens to expel.
As in general there is inflammation and disturbance of diges-
tion, the first thing to be done is to administer water, by bath-
ing or pouring, to cool the fever and reduce the pulse ; as
soon as the system becomes chilly he is relieved, and then
blanket him, and be sure to rub them well with the hair down,
also th© use of injections of tepid water should not be lost
sight of. After these means have in some degree calmed the
first attack, if no dejections have as yet come on, nux vomica
should be employed, when the dung is in small lumps, hard
and compact ; opium when it is blackish, and, as it were,
burnt, with a black color of the tongue, the poor animal lying

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 197

extended on the ground, as if he were dead ; laudanum, as-
sifoetida, soap, or alcaline, in obstinate cases, when the rec-
tum is empty, the animal remains a long time tranquil, and
the attacks of colic not very acute, and longer intervals su-
pervene between the attacks.

Colic from Cold.

This disease resembles, to a certain extent, windy colic,
with respect to its symptoms ; but it differs from it chiefly in
this, that the abdomen of the animal is but slightly enlarged,
or not at all so, and also that the accessions, instead of being
continued, manifest themselvss by spasmodic paroxysms. The
animal frequently starts, then lies down, remains for some
time without moving, rolls himself, raises himself suddenly,
and places himself very frequently in the attitude of dis-
charging his urine or foeces, but without being able to suc-
ceed. All at once a calm is re-established, the pains cease
for ten or fifteen minutes, they then return with an increased
severity, and the horse is lost if relief be not brought very
soon. Anti-spasmodic camphor will relieve the urine organs;
assifoetida, five buckets of water and blankets, will open the
pores of the skin. Assifoetida in doses repeated every ten
minutes is possessed of an indisputable specific power. Bath
or buckets of water, two ounces of laudanum is good in all
cases ; commence and repeat the dose by giving from two
ounces up to eighteen.

Flatulent, or Windy Colic.

Colic in general, and windy colic in particular, are among
the diseases most frequently met with in horses. The symp-
toms are generally known ; the horse ceases to eat, he scrapes
with his feet, frequently looks at his flanks, carries his hind
feet towards them, whisks the tail, throws himself on the
ground, brings up his legs close to his body, strives to roll
himself, but soon stands up, and recommences the same series
of movements ; at first he dungs and passes urine ; but in a
short time he can no longer do so, notwithstanding all his ef-
forts ; the belly swells ; the eye is open wide ; the fixed look
denotes the intense pain, the respiration is very much hurried,
the nostrils are widely dilated, and perspiration often inun-
dates the entire body. Sometimes there are intervals without
pain, during which the animal becomes calm, and strives
even to eat ; but the pain soon returns with increased se-

198 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

verity ; the feet and surface of the body become more and
more cold ; at length the animal dies in the midst of a cold
sweat, and with all the symptoms of frenzy, usually at the
end of from twelve to thirty-six hours ; sometimes however
in the short space of a few hours ; the struggles seldom lasts
long if relief is not obtained.

The occasional causes of the disease are somewhat numer-
ous : most frequently it depends on overloading the stomach ;
or else it is the consequence of bad food, especially that which
is damp, or musty food, as clover, &c, which the animal has
eaten greedily. A dose of asifoedity, repeated if necessary,
removes the inflammatory state, which is predominant in such
cases, and frequently there is no necessity for anything else, as
the disease will disappear in half an hour, especially when it
has been brought on by cold. After aconitum, that which is
most suitable is arsenicum, which almost dissipates the entire
symptoms with the utmost promptitude. Nux vomica and
opium are,|in general, infallible means for removing the obsti-
nate constipation occasioned by windy colic, which disappears
the moment this constipation cease. However, this does not
always happen; and in obstinate cases, sulphur mash has
constantly been found useful.

Colic (Verminous.)

Collections of worms in the intestines oocasion sometimes
symptoms which bear a great analogy to the attacks of colic,
or perfectly resemble them ; for the horse strikes with his
tail, raises his hind feet towards the belly, throws himself
on the ground, rolls himself, rises up, and then eats as usual.
But we cannot consider it as certain that such attacks are
owing to worms, unless we have had some other means of as-
certaining the existence of these. A dry cough is a usual
attendant, with an unthrifty looking coat, and, in general,
shaking after drinking. The animal affected with worms
often moves his tail to the right and left , he strives to rub
his hind part, and particularly the end of the tail against
different objects ; he frequently licks the walls, and rubs his
upper lip ; he has continual rumbling in his bowels, and his
dung, at first a little liquid, is generally very foetid. After
antimony, wo should employ in such cases, nux vomica.

Diarrhoea.
The most prominent causes of diarrhoea or long continu-

DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 199

ance on unwholesome food, brackish or mineral waters, undue
purgation from different medicaments, verminous affections,
and in some horses habituated to close hot stables, the change
of temperature will induce it. Horses that are light-hearted
and of a nervous disposition are the most susceptible to it ;
anything that irritates or inflames the stomach and intes-
tines are likely to induce super-purgation and spirits of nitre.
Treatment. — If caused by worms, we must administer sul-
phur, and nux vomica. The medicaments that are found
most useful in the various kinds of diarrhoea are aconitum
napelhis, arsenicum album, boyonia, earbo vegetabilis, Pulsa-
tilla, colocynthis, murcurious, nux vomica, ipecacuanha, sul-
phur, fyc. If there are feverish symptoms, and in warm
weather, we administer cold water ; if the foeces smell offen-
sive, with approaching putridity, and if resulting from change
of temperature, particularly from heat to cold, laudanum.

Enteritis.

Inflammation of the intestines bears, with respect to its
symptoms, a close resemblance to spasmodic'colic, from which,
however, it may be distinguished. In colic there is generally
a remission of symptoms, and the pulse varies, being at times
natural, at others small and feeble, then full and quick,
whereas in enteritis it is hard and quick, and as the disease
advance, the pulse still rises to double the number of beats,
or even more, and there is no remission of pain, although it
appears at times more severe, but the horse gradually gets
worse until speedy relief is obtained. The animal refuses to
eat, but there is great thirst, and the respiration, which is
accelerated, is accompanied with beating of the flanks. The
eyes are red and starting, mouth hot, the extremities some-
time hot and sometimes cold. The animal has the back
arched, frequently looks at the abdomen, which is tense and
painful, he scrapes with his feet, rolls himself on the ground,
starts up with a frightened air, stamps with the fore feet,
strikes the abdomen with hind feet, and is very sensitive to
the slightest touch. At first he voids from time to time a
small quantity of foeces ; in a little time he passes nothing
from the bowels. When the disease has lasted for some time,
and an apparent calm comes on, during which time the ani-
mal's legs and feet become deadly cold, and the eyes, which
were before depicted with anxiety, now becomes sunken, and
the pulse imperceptible, it is a proof that the inflammation

200 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

has degenerated into gangrene, and that death is not far off.
Water is one of the chief remedies ; laudanum is to be
administered every ten or fifteen minutes, until a perfect
cure is established, or at least until a perceptible change for
the better has taken place. In general, the animal is saved
at the end of half an hour- If the continued employment of
laudanum has not removed all the symptoms after from two
to three hours, arsenicum should be given, which is more es-
pecially indicated when the disease has been produced by
cold drinks taken when the animal has been sweating, or by
some irregularity of regimen. Spirits of camphor and arnica
have succeeded in other cases.

Indigestion.

Great irregularity in regimen and exposure to cold is very
frequently the cause of this affection, horses laboring under
indigestion have a staring coat and an unhealty appearance.
Attacks of indigestion are particularly common in voracious
animals, which are made to work immediately after taking
food. When the stomach alone is affected, we observe em-
barrassment in the breathing, and dislike to food. This is
the case for employing antimonium and matter injections.
Ipecacuanha, which is to be followed by asenic and mash,
at the end of about an hour, is also very useful. When the
indigestion is carried to an extreme degree, the animal is
found to be very restless, he holds the head down very much,
keeps at a great distance from the manger, frequently strikes
with his fore-feet, and almost always sweat is oozing from
him ; the alvine evacuations are dry and mixed with undi-
gested oats. This state differs from colic in the animal not
being anxious to lie down. The principle remedies are : ipe-
cacuanha, which is useful in almost all affections of the ab-
domen : nux vomica when there is loss of appetite ; constipa-
tion, and the foeces consist of small lumps ; oil of sassafras in
the case of watery stools unattended with pain : asafortida,
if the digestions are liquid and fetid ; antimonium crudum,
in case large feculent lumps are voided, with aversion to food ;
chamomilla when there is diarrhoea, with swelling of the
belly

Abortion.

Mares in foal are exposed to abort, when they are worked
too hard, or when they are ridden without sufficient caution.

DISEASES 05 THE HORSE. 201

Abortion is also occasionally the result of a fall, blow, etc.
In the latter case arnica must be given at once to prevent it,
as also green food, if there have been luxation.

Mares are very sensitive to the effects of the sight and
smell of blood ; it will frequently cause abortion. Fish
will, by being carried on them, or beef hides, or by giving
them salt, cause abortion. The feeding of mares, cows,
sheep, and sows, that are fed on corn or other grain, that
have but little green food or hay often miscarry. I have
seen in bad winters when animals got but very little, that
some lost four and five colts, others lost calves, colts, lambs
and pigs. All who raises them should prepare by cain-braik,
wild grass, or barly wheat, rye, or winter oats. I find it to
he the best manner of raising winter pigs, and all young stock
and young poultry in spring. By this management you will
seldom lose one ; and the loss is more common before you
are warned by the symptoms. The bath and the quinine is
the best remedies as tonics. I will observe that in all cases
of hogs and horses, that nux vomica will cure it. I will not
use nor recommend breeders to use arsenic.

Painful and bloody Urine.

The presence of a calculus in the bladder can only be dis-
covered by examining this viscus per rectum, which under
such circumstances is often found to be enormously distended,
so as frequently to burst. The symptoms are in general
those which are met in cystitis. Frequent voiding of urine,
occasioned by the irritation of the calculus, sometimes with
great difficulty, at other times completely suppressed, the
urine is thick and whitish, and on standing a short time de-
posits a sediment, at other times it is tinged with blood ; the
horse is at times attacked with spasms, and groans with pain,
frequently hitting his sheath with his hind feet, &c. The in-
flammation requires the employment of spirit of camphor qui-
nine, or in getting a passage, black pepper on the end of
pences ; or if a mare, pepper on a sliced onion. Water-
melon seed, and oil of sassafras are useful. Such diseases
as spasms, treat them as such, and always watch close the
thermole tremel, the hot and cold stage. It is better to let
the symptoms of fever remain, than to lose strength, for the
cold stage is death ; and it is more difficult to raise the pulse
than to reduce it.

26

202 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

Diabetes.

This disease owes its origin to various causes, such as change
of food, of water, the frequent use of medicines given as
diuretics, &c. It may be temporary, arising from nervous
excitement, or permanent, from existing a long time, and
caused by an altered secretion from a long continuance of
unwholesome food, or abuse of medicine.

The medicines most useful in this disease are camphor, nux
vomica, sulphur-water, and barly food.

Pain of Kidneys from Pressure.

Like all lesions occasioned by prolonged pressure, the
affection of kidneys never fails to yield in a very short time
to external treatment with arnica water, more especially
when during this treatment the horse is no longer ridden.
But in cases where the affection is of very long standing, a
few days are often sufficient to bring about a cure. Antimony
is an excellent remedy against contusions of the spine and
withers ; bathing, when there is a hot and tense swelling in
the ribs. When the tumors developed on the bone are not
hot to the touch. When they have passed into the chronic
state, conium almost always is of service.

Spasm of the Bladder.

This affection consists in a spasmodic contraction of the
sphincter of the bladder, which renders the passing of the
urine impossible. It is often observed after cold, when the
horses pass the night out of the stable, or as a secondary
symptom in colic ; it has also been frequently observed after
a day's hunting. The animal evinces great uneasiness ; he
is tormented as much almost as in fits of colic, scrapes, throws
himself on the .ground, stands up again after some minutes,
and often strains to pass urine, but ineffectually. Occasionally
the abdomen is swollen, and in the dissection of horses, the
spleen is frequently found considerably enlarged, (hyper-
trophied,) sometimes it has been found to weigh upwards of
fifteen pounds. There are also cases on record of rupture of
the viscus ; the symptoms resemble those of gripes, and has
been mistaken for the latter by observant practitioners ; the
death of the animal generally takes place in eighteen or
twenty hours after the symptoms are observed. On examin-
ing the rectum, we find that the bladder is very much dis- .

DISEASES Of THE HORSE. 203

tended. Cold bath, dose of quinine and black pepper, are
then proper in most cases ; however, camphor deserves
the preference when the animal has passed the night out of
the stable. Water-melon seed is an excellent remedy in case
of strangury. Opium also produces very good results, es-
pecially when there are intervals of rest between the pains,
the pulse being small and scarcely perceptible, the animal
sad, and as it were asleep. It is stated that camphor has
been found useful in the case of heat and full pulse, and rosin
in that of cold in the extremeties.

DISEASES OF THE LIVER AND SPLEEN.

Jaundice.

This affection, which is not very common in horses, is re-
cognized by the yellow color of the conjunctiva, inner sur-
face of the lips, and the interior ef the mouth. It is in the
generality of cases symptomatic of acute or chronic hepatitis,
is generally accompanied with fever ; the serum of the blood
and urine are of a yellow tinge. It is usually accompanied
with great debility, the appetite fails, the evacuations have
a yellow tinge, but are more frequently clay colored.

Causes are bad shade in the field, and poor water to drink
or bathe in. The principle remedies are : quinine, nux vomica,
mercurius vivus sulphur, asafoetida, nitre, allum, and a bath
of from one of two hours' duration. Their food should be wa-
ter-melons, pumpkins, and mashes. Give them good shade
in the day time, and let them out to graze at night.

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH.

Carbuncle on the Tongue.

This disease, which is very uncommon in the horse, but is
extremely contagious, takes place when in typhus the miasm
is thrown on the tongue, so that this organ is covered with
small vericles full of a turbid fluid, or when there supervenes
a small pimple surrounded by a bluish circle. The vesicles
-bust and fill the mouth with a fetid ichor, which corrodes the
tongue to a considerable depth ; the tumefaction of this latter
o rgan goes on increasing ; corroding ulcers are soon produced,

204 DISEASES OF EHE HORSH.

and the organ becoming gangrenous, is detached in distinct
portions ; death generally supervenes at the end of from
twenty to thirty hours.

I had a drove of eighty-five horses and young mules; I
bled many, and gave them half an ounce of allum and lopus,
and in two days they were all well.

Biting.

This is either the consequence of natural ferocity, or a habit
acquired from the foolish and teasing play of grooms and
stable-boys. When a horse is tickled and pinched by thought-
less and mischievous youths, he will first pretend to bite his
tormentors ; by degrees he will proceed farther, and actually
bite them ; and very soon after that, he will be the first to
challenge to the combat, and without provocation will seize
some opportunity to gripe the incautious groom ; and then,
as the love of mischief is a propensity too easily acquired,
this war, half playful and half in earnest, will become habi-
tual to him, and will degenerate into absolute viciousness.
Nothing can here be done in the way of cure ; kindness would
aggravate the evil, and no degree of severity will correct it.
Prevention, however, is in the power of every proprietor of
horses. While he insists on gentle and humane treatment of
his cattle, he should systematically forbid this horse-play. It
is that which can never be considered as operating as a re-
ward, and thereby rendering the horse tractable ; nor does it
inscrease the affection of the animal for his groom, because
he is annoyed and irritated by being thus incessantly teased.

He may be taught better by putting him in a close place
and letting him be watered and fed from your hand, not full
but half allowance, by a new master and home. If this fails,
stake him out by a rope twenty feet long, so that he cannot
get at you or run away,and take a long whip and apply it to
his hips, back, and belly, and sometimes on the back, belly,
and hips.

Then when he will come to you be kind to his face, then if
he is not quiet, give him six more stripes.

Getting the CJieeJc of the Bit into the Mouth.

Some horses that are disposed to be mischievous try to do
this, and are very expert at it. They soon find what advan-
tage it gives them over the driver, who by this manoeuvre
loses almost all command. Harsh treatment is here com-

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 205

pletely out of the question. All that can be done, is, by some
mechanical contrivance, to render the thing difficult or im-
possible, and may be managed by fastening a round piece of
leather on the inside of the cheek of the bit. By having
large rings attached to the cheeks, you can prevent them from
getting hold of them.

Vicious to Clean.

It would scarcely be believed to what an extent this exists
in some horses, that are otherwise perfectly quiet. It is only
at great hazard that they can be cleaned at all. The origin
of this is probably some maltreatment. There is a great dif-
ference in the sensibility of the skin in different horses. Some
seem as if they could be scarcely made to feel the whip ;
others cannot bear a fly to alight on them without an expres-
sion of annoyance. In young horses the skin is peculiarly
delicate. If they have been curried with a broken comb, or
hardly rubbed with an uneven brush, the recollection of the
torture they have felt makes them impatient, and even vici-
ous, during every succeeding operation of the kind. Many
grooms, likewise, seem to delight in producing these exhibi-
tions of uneasiness and vice ; although, when they are carried
a little too far, and to the hazard of the limbs of the groom,
the animals that have been almost tutored into these expres-
sions of irritation, are brutally kicked and punished.

This, however, is a vice which may be conquered. If the
animal be dressed with a lighter hand, and wisped rather than
brushed, and the places where the skin is most sensitive be
avoided as much as thorough cleanliness will allow, the horse
will gradually lose the recollection of former ill-treatment,
and become tractable and quiet.

It is better in cleaning them, to curry and rub them with
the hair, as it has a powerful effect on the circulations, that
makes them sore ; my head is now very sore by turning the
hair back. I believe the animal is better dirty than rubbed
against the hair. The health of the horse is much improved
by rubbing him all over with the hand.

Swallowing without Grinding.

Some greedy horses swallow their corn without properly
grinding it, and the power of digestion not being adequate
to the dissolving of the husk, no nutriment is extracted, and
the oats are voided whole. This is particularly the case when

206 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

horses of unequal appetite feed from the same manger. The
greedy one, m his eagerness to get more than his share, bolts
a portion of his corn whole. If the farmer can, without con
siderable inconvenience, so manage it that every horse shall
have his separate division of the manger, the horse of smaller
appetite and slower feed would have the opportunity of grind-
ing at his leisure, without the fear of his share being stolen
from him by his neighbor.

The cause is the teeth, in some the jaw-teeth should be
rasped of the irregular edges and eides, as the rasp is easily
applied. In some the front-teeth are too long for the grind-
ers, in this case you should cut them down with a rasp.

Cutting.

Of this habit we have already spoken, and we would ad-
vise the owner of a cutting horse, without trying any previous
experiment of raising or lowering the heels, to put on the
cutting foot a shoe of even thickness from heel to toe, not
projecting in the slightest degree the crust, and the crust it-
self being rasped a little above the quarters ; and to let that
shoe be fastened as usual on the outside, but with only one
nail on the inside, and that almost close to the toe. The prin-
ciple on which the shoe acts, has been explained.

It may be remedied by leather being put between the foot
and shoe, and letting its edge extend out half an inch as a
defender.

Not Lying Down.

It not uncommonly happens that a horse will seldom or
never lie down in the stable. He sometimes continues in ap-
parent good health, and feeds and works well ; but generally
his legs swell, or he becomes fatigued sooner than another
horse. If it is impossible to let him loose in the stable, or to
put him into a spare box, we know not what is to be done.
No means, gentle or cruel ; will force him to lie down. The
secret is that he is tied up, and either has never dared to lie
down through fear of the confinement of the halter, or he has
been cast in the night, and severely injured. If he can be
suffered to range the stable or have a comfortable box, in which
he may be loose, he will usually lie down the first night. Some
few horses, however, will lie down in the stable, and not in a

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 20T

loose box. A fresh, well-made bed will generally tempt the
tired horse to lie down.

Give him a box to himself, but do not halter him, and give
him plenty of bedding ; try him by different kinds of bed-
ding, suchas straw, saw-dust, leaves, &c.

Pawing.

Shackles are the only remedy, with side lines sufficiently
long to enable the horse to shift his posture, or move in his
stall ; but even these must be taken off at night, otherwise the
animal will seldom lie down.

The cause of this is the uneasy place and irregular stall,
which is so narrow that he cannot be comfortable. Many
horses contrive to back that they may get their feet more
level, so as not to strain the hind part of the legs. The box
or stall will allow them to be more easy.

Quidding.

A horse will sometimes, partly chew his hay, and suffer it
to drop from his mouth. If this does not proceed from irreg-
ular teeth, which it will be the business of the veterinary
surgeon to rasp down, it will be found to be connected with
sore-throat, and then the horse will exhibit some other symp-
tom of indisposition, and the swallowing of water will be ac-
companied by a peculiar gulping effort. In this case the
disease (catarrh, with sore throat) must be attacked and the
quidding will cease.

If it be sore-throat, quinine may be given, from ten grains
to sixty. Ten grains for a dose.

Tripping.

He must be a skilful practitioner or a mere pretender who
promises to remedy this habit. If it arises from a heavy fore-
hand, and the fore-legs being too much forward the horse, no
one can alter the natural frame of the beast : if it proceeds
from tenderness of the foot, grogginess, or old lameness, these
ailments are seldom cured ; and if it is to be traced to habit-
ual carelessness and idleness, no whipping will arouse the
drone. A known stumbler should never be ridden, or driven
alone, by any one who values his safety or his life. A tight
hand, or a strOng bearing-rein are precautions that should not
be neglected, but they are generally of little avail ; for the

208 DISEAEKS OF THE IIORSfl.

inveterate stumbler will rarely try to save himself, and this
tight rein may sooner and farther precipitate the rider. If,
after a trip, the horse suddenly starts forward, and endeavors
to break into a canter, the rider or driver may be assured that
others before him had fruitlessly endeavored to remedy the
nuisance.

The causes of stumbling may be from natural want of
nerves of eyes, as already shown, but this rarely causes them
to fall. The defect of seeing is the cause of ten falling to
one of the natural defect. You seldom see them in their
natural pastures fall down. If you will examine the charac-
ter of the horse (if his organization be good) and find him
stumbling, you will then say it is the effect of shoes.

Weaving.

This consists in a motion of the head, neck, and body, from
side to side, like the shuttle of a weaver passing through the
web, and hence the name which is given to this incessant and
peculiar action. It indicates an impatient, irritable temper,
and a dislike to the confinement of the stable ; and a horse
that is thus incessantly on the fret will seldom carry flesh, or
be safe to ride or drive. Turn them loose in stall.

It is caused by confinement and the want of regular exer-
cise in narrow stalls, that he cannot change his attitude of
standing nor turning around. The narrow stall and ele-
vated fore-feet, will often produce string-halt. All habits
that is not the habits of the horse in the pasture is the effect
of bad management. It may be that you are not aware of
your duty to the animal. Natural law calls for self-preserva-
tion.

Wild Look.

Wildness of look is a symptom occuring in different diseases,
and one which merits serious attention every time it is car-
ried to an extreme degree. Bathing, opium, mash, and ar-
tenicum are then indicated, under the head of fever remedies,
which are to associate with those required by the general state
of the animal affected.

Mange.

The horse's itch, similar to that in the haman subject, con-
iits in an eruption which comes out on the back, loins, but-

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 209

tocks, shoulders, thighs, &c. Feeding on dry food is the
principle cause of this disease. It has often been cured by
giving them green food and corn. It always depends on an
internal affection (psora,) and extends with great facility by
contagion. The eruption on the skin does not constitute the
disease itself; it is only a product or result of it. A purely
local treatment is unsuitable, and should therefore be rejected.
When psora, which has its root within the system, external
integuments, it produces there a vast number of small, very
itchy pimples, which oblige the animal to rub himself inces-
santly, and a fluid oozes from them, which soon becomes dry
on exposure to the air, and form a scab. The latter resolves-
itself into furfuraceous scales, so that the part affected be--
comes covered with a dirty powder, and the hair thus matted
is raised and bocomes erect. Besides, there are frequently
produced small ulcers, which increase in depth, destroy the
roots of the hair, and cause intolerable itching. This is what-
is called moist itch, which yields to a dose of tincture sulphu-
ris applied to the skin, and sassafras pill ; if there be only
itchy pimples and scabs, they are soon cured with arsenic, suc-
ceeded in a little time by sulphur. But,'independantly of
this moisc itch, there is another, called the dry itch, consist-
ing in small pimples which desquamate, so that the part of
the skin affected seems as it were covered with a fainacceous-
powder. The itching is frequently so severe as to deprive
the horse of appetite, and not to allow him a moment's rest
at night. Here a dose of sulphur and assifoedita is almost
specific.

IVarts on Horses and Mules,

Twenty-one grains of nux vomica, not repeated more than
once in fifteen days, but repeated uutil cured.

This case I know to be true. A young lady had a wart
on her finger which was very painful ; many remedies were
applied, but without avail. At length, the following prepara-
tion was prescribed : cranberries boiled down, then a poultise
for two days. It soon became well, and has been for many
years in excellent health.

Cure for Stoppage of Urine.

If it is a horse, apply fine pulverized black pepper on the
end of the penis. If a mare, an injection in- cold or tepid
water.

27

210

DISEASES OF THE HOUSE.

Cure of Hives in Horses.

Pulverized blood-root, one drachm. Lobelia, one drachm.
Composition, two drachms. To be given in soft food three
times a day.

AGES

The Two Year Old Colt.

The above cut deserves attention, as giving an accurate
representation of the nippers in the lower jaw'of a two year
old colt.

Three Years.

The central teeth are larger than the others, with two
grooves in the outer tonvex surface, and the mark is long,

DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

211

narrow, deep, and black, not having attained their full growth,
they are rather lower than the others. The mark on the two
next nippers is nearly worn out, and it is wearing away in
the corner ones. This mouth represents two and a half;
shows no change until the third year old.

Six Years.

At six years the mark on the central nippers is worn out ;
there will still be a difference of color in the centre of the
teeth. The cement filling the hollow, made by the dipping
in of the enamel, will present a browner: hue than the other
part of the tooth, and it will be evidently surrounded by an
edge of enamel. Persons not much accustomed to horses
have been puzzled here ; they expected to find a plain sur-
face of a uniform color, and knew not what conclusion to
draw when there was both discoloration and irregularity.

This represents an important item, that the bones continue
until seven years old ; after seven it is but rare you see a
horse splint-spavin, or any other disease of the bone ; for this
reason I am unwilling to put the young horse in service as

212 i»ISEASE3 OF THB HORSE.

I

soon as many do. You may know the age of the horse by
the rib ; at four years old the first rib, at the hip, becomes
farther apart, at five another, and so on until seven.

The age of the horse after ten is shown below the eye, at
eleven one rinkle, at twelve two, until fifteen years old ; at
that age the hair on the outer edge of the ear is off, often, but
not in all cases, at fifteen the ears of some going forward, the
opening is rather backward, and the bone of the lower jaw be-
comes sharp, and at ten the fundament is turned inside out
when he dungs. I find this subject hard to speak positive on,
but the most correponding proof I decide, I rarely then miss
more than one year, unless the horse be over fifteen years
aid.

Teeth.

In some horses the jaw teeth cuts the side of the lips and
tongue, which causes them to get sore, and they are com-
pelled to swallow their food without grinding it well, and the
grain comes through them whole ; such will not fatten. The
grain swells and produces colic. This is easy to cure by the
use of the rasp ;* put it in his mouth and run it over the teeth,
he will allow you to file it down. The instrument is six inches
long, the handle is eighteen, making it two feet in length. I
can have them made in Cincinnatti for one dollar ; this is one
of the most important instruments used by the Farrier. It
is the cause of some horses not turning to the side the lips
are sore, and makes some go sidelong in harness, and often
causes them to hold the bit in one side of the teeth. This is
easy remedied, and many require it to be done.

Horses that are not allowed to feed on grass, but on hard
grain, the fore teeth grows so long, as to prevent them from
grinding their food ; have the fore teeth shortened by the rasp,
which may be done by gagging the mouth,

I' — -uui, "I

* See cut, fig. 3, on the following page,

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

«!S^

Fig. 3.

214 DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

The Hoof.

The effect of this squeezing of the sensible sole is most
commonly witnessed at the angle of the inner heel, where the
descending heel of the coffic bone forcibly pressing the vascu-
lar sole upon the horney sole, ruptures a small blood-vessel,
and produces what is called a corn, but which is in fact, a
bruise. If we carefully observe the form and size of the frog
in the foot of a colt from four to five years old, and as its
shoeings are repeated, we shall become convinced that a visi-
ble departure from a state of health, and nature is taking
place ; at first it will be found large and full, with considera-
ble elasticity, the oval in form open, and expanding, with a
continuous, well defined, and somewhat elevated boundary, the
rine at the heels fully developed, plump and rounded, and the
whole mass occupying about one-fifth of the circumference of
the foot ; by degrees the fulness and elasticity will shrink
and lose their plumpness, the clefts will become narrower, its
oval form disappear, the back part of its boundary give way,
and it will dwindle into a narrow crack, extended between
the wasted parts, presenting only the miserable remains of a
frog, such as may be seen in the feet of most horses long ac-
customed to be shod.* This dwindling down to one-half its
proper size is the direct effect of shoeing, and pairing. The
reason assigned for further mutilating this fast diminishing
organ at every shoeing, is a most unfounded dread that it
would run all over the foot, if it were not for the controlling
influence of the drawing knife. Mr. M. writes, I have a horse
in my possession whose frogs have not been touched by a
knife for five years, and yet it has never occurred to any one,
that they are overgrown, but every one is attracted by the
evenness of surface, and fine expanded cleft which they pre-
sent. Perhaps about one in a thousand may form an excep-
tion, where a large, loose tissued frog may require a little
pairing once or twice in a year.

Fig. -2, shows the foot ready to receive the shoe, and the
part on which it should press, and not on any other, nor let
the shoe come out as the marks represent, as is commonly
practised, but let its shape be to suit the foot, for all re-sha-
ping, as shown above, injures the horse and his motion.

The edge of the shoe every where to the edge of the crust ;
to level the shoe you may heat it only as hot as to burn it to

See fig. 1, page 213.

DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

215

lay smooth, but a good smith with good tools, will not need
this aid. The shoe you see is cupped in a similar manner as
the foot, to keep free of any other pressure but the rine and
horny part of the foot ; this is to be carefully clone if the
horses foot is flat, for often it causes lameness. I am not in
favor of more weight on the foot than is necessary to support
the strength of the horse, this is surely fashion, for it is not
the better judgment ; if many of the shoes were used as a
lupe-ring all the strength of the horse could not open it ; it is
but rare you see a horse that needs shoes to weigh more than
a pound, the strain is greater on a fast horse than a slow one.
I am opposed to toes and corks, if any use for either, it would
be on the ice, then short and sharp, one set to prevent the
foot slipping sideways, the other back or forward.

Fie:. 4.

The shoe when nailed on will press only on the rine of the
foot, as shown in the plate of the natural foot, fig. 2, the
shoe will fit so smooth as to hold water, and the inside of the
shoe will be one-fourth to a half inch from the bottom of the
foot. I am opposed to the practice of cutting out the bottom
of toe foot any more than necessity compels, for large feet
are better'than small ones ; in all cases their heels are trimmed
to make them look well, I had rather splice on the foot lea-
ther than cut the heel as much as practised, for the foot

21C

DISEASES OF THB HOK6B.

should always stand at an elevation of 45 deg. to cause the
ligements of the front and back of the leg to press equally
when standing. The elevation of horses in stalls will not
omit the easy manner of standing,rit is the cause of lameness.
In Philadelphia I found the head much elevated, and I found
more string halted horses there than in any other place du-
ring my travels ; this I believe to be the cause ; I want my
horse to stand as level as possible.

Narrow and contracted heels (see fig. 1.) I believe to be
the cause of more stiifness, rocking or short steps than any
sweany in the shoulders, and it is the cause of more lameness
than any other disease known in the United States. I would
recommend those who have not bad and rocky roads not to
shoe their horses. I have in long journeys of from one to two
thousand miles, in several cases, had my horse to perform
better if shod. This you contracted by the shoe by a slow
process ; to cure it, first shoe the horse with a shoe of half a
pound, let the nails come as far back as will hold them, place
the jaws of the blacksmith's tongs between the heels of the
shoe and stretch it one-fourth to half an inch as the size of
the foot may require, repeat this once in six or seven days.

DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

217

You should wet the foot as often as possible, and use soft
grease, and linseed oil.

The best rule to go by is the width of the hind foot, you
may stretch it as wide, for nature forms the fore foot largest.
If the contraction has not been but for a short time, the cure
will be affected in from one to five days, but if for a year or
more, a longer time will be required, and some may not be
cured at all. I cure forty-nine out of fifty.

Defects- of the Hind Legs.

I here show you that you should be cautious of all horses
of which the hocks are lumped, or in any way diseased. For

28

218 DISEASES OP THE HORSE.

dislocation of the stifle joint the best remedy is to swim them,
this will rarely fail to bring the bone to its place. Then let
them remain quiet and do not move them more than necessary
until they are perfectly recovered. In the above cut, a shows
the wind gall, this may be relieved by any strong astringent
decoction, as tan bark, rubbing the part upward ; b is an en-
largement of the hock, it is difficult of removal, the best reme-
dy is oil of cedar ; c is called bone-spavin, this is an enlarge-
ment on the bone of the leg, it is hard to remove, but may
sometimes be done, on its first appearance, by repeated blis-
terings ; d is the curb or letting down of the nerves of the
leg, caused by a strain, the best remedy is by blistering or
burning, but is sure radically to injure the horse; / shows
diseased nerves, all enlargement of that portion of the leg
should be guarded against as dangerous in the extreme ; g
represents an enlargement of the bone, this is incurable, but
if the horse is old it will not make him lame, if he is under
six year old it is dangerous ; h represents the ring bone, this
is a bony substance coming on the frontal portion of the pas-
ture joint ; I have treated of the cure in another place.

I would warn all to beware of horses having any appear-
ance of these diseases, as they will more or less injure the horse
forever. Take no ones word in regard to any of those appear-
ances but go by your own judgment.

(See Fig. 5, page 216.)

To prevent Contraction of the Foot.

This shoe will serve to show the design. It is to be riveted
together, and must be a good fit, yet permit it to move the
toes of the horse that is contracted, half an inch, as they
wear off faster than others, because the heels is numbed for
want of more circulation in the parts, but it is best to preserve
his motion, and smooth, well-leveled shoes will this put on. A
young horse will retain his action and seldom stumble, and
rarely become sprung in the knees that destroys tens of thou-
sands.

Sprung Knees.

It draws the heels together until the ligament of the back
of the legs loses its proper circulation and lively action ; the
animal then uses the front ligament, as you may see by look-
ing at the hoofs, and you will find the toe of the shoe worn ;
this then bows or extends, strength is then lost, and the ani-
mal is ruined. I would urge you to watch his shoes, and his

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 219

motions before it is too late. This is not the case mHiorses
not shod. I recommend to your consideration the use of the
jointed shoe, as it cannot contract the fore foot more than
the hind one, and is rarely affected.

Twenty-five to thirty-five is the age that is common to the
horse on farms by good treatment.

Hide Bound.

In this disease the horse appears dull, and his skin is tight
on his bones. It is caused from want of water and food.
Bleed and give sassafras or spice-wood tea in mashes. Slip-
plery-elm, green and rich food, tonics, are also good in this
disease.

Lampers.

Is caused by feeding on corn, and want of cooling food >
horses never have it on grass. When it hurts, the horse rubs
his tail. Cured by green food, and scarrifying the bars of the
mouth, but lightly. Never burn, it is useless and cruel.

Poison known as Milk Sickness.

Caused by wild food, sometimes the horse will not complain
until exercised ; do not exercise him, but sweat freely for four
days as much as he can bear, and all is well. Poisons of
other kinds, horses seem to vomit. I am at a loss for a cure,
but would recommend sweating, nux vomica, and arsenic.

The Coon.

For amusement, and showing the disposition of the coon,
and it is the case with many other animals, that when their
young or company is in distress to endeavor to relieve them,
or escape from danger. If a coon is in the ground or in the
hole of a tree where he lives, he is then safe. If on a tree
go forty or fifty yards off, and commence fighting with the
dogs, and imitate the squall of the coon with your mouth,
and strike the ground with brush ; he will then endeavor to
escape as best he can.

INTERMARRIAGE

AND

CROSSING OF ANIMALS.

The anatomical and physiological knowledge necessary t >
the understanding of this book, is comprised in this page am
the two following ones. It is merely a brief view of a Natu-
ral System of Anatomy and Physiology, — the former describ-
ing the particular structures or organs of animals, and the
latter the actions or functions of these organs — drawn from
the first account given of such a system, which was published
by me, above thirty years ago, in several elementary works,
and especially in Preliminary Lectures with expositions of
the errors of Bichat, Richerand, &c.

According to that system, the human body and that of the
higher animals consist of four classes of organs and func-
tions, namely :

1st. The Locomotive organs and functions, consisting of
bones, which support the body and its parts ; ligaments,which
connect the bones together and form the joints ; and muscles ■
or bundles of red flesh, which move these. — Together, these
form an apparatus of levers, which exercise large and con-
spicuous motion, and of which the limbs are chiefly composed.
It is by means of this apparatus, that all motions of the higher
animals from one place to another are accomplished.

2clly. The Vital Nutritive organs and functions, consisting
of lacteals, fine tubular vessels, which absorb nutritious matter
from the blood taken into the intestines, and carry it towards
the heart, to be converted into blood ; blood-vessels which
circulate the blood thus formed ; and various glands or filters,
which secrete or deposit, not only the various substances com-
posing the different organs, but the fat, the milk, hair, wool,
and other animal products. All of these consist of tubes,
which exercise only a minute perislatic or pulsating motion,
and of which the trunk of the body is the centre and princi-
pal seat. It is by means of this apparatus, that not only nu-
trition and secretion are effected, but that useless matters are
removed and thrown out of the body.

INTERMARRIAGE. 221

3dly. The Mental or Thinking organs and functions, con-
sisting of the immediate organs of sense, the eye, ear, &c,
which receive impressions from external bodies ; a brain, which
perceives, compares, reflects, &c. ; and a cerebal or little brain,
situated below the back part of the greater brain, and above
the neck, which wills, and consequently throws the muscles
into those actions which fulfil its purposes. All of these con-
sist of series of globules, bound by membraneous investments,
into fibres of various forms, of which the motion is invisible,
and which chiefly occupy the head. It is by means of this
apparatus that sense, thought, and the impulses to action, and
consequently all connexion with external objects, take place.

4thly. The Nervous Temperament, or that in which the
brain and the nerves predominate in activity, gives clearness
of perception ; quickness of mind and body ; susceptibility to
excitement, with less power and endurance. Signs: light,
fine, and thin hair ; a thin, clear, delicate skin ; smaller frame ;
head relatively large ; small chest ; rapid, but not hard or
strong pulse ; motion and action is given by the nerves.

I regard Dr. Walker as the most learned Physiologist of
the day, and lay down this system to compare with him as a
Physiologist. He has not given a knowledge of the nervous
system in full detail, but alludes to it as a cerebal, which
wills and consequently throws the muscles into those actions
which fulfils its purpose. Nerves is all the senses, brain, will
and pulse.

I have given four classes of the Natural Arrangements of
the organs of Anatomy, and in all classes of them the nerv-
our temperament.

222

NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP ORGANS.

Natural Arrangement of Organs — Anatomy.
Class I.

LOCOMOTIVE ORGANS.

Order I.

Order II.

Order III.

Order IV.

Bones,

Ligaments,

Muscles,

Nerves,

or

or

or

or

Organs of
Support.

Organs of
Connexion.

Organs of
Absorption.

Organs of
Motion.

Class II.

VITAL

ORGANS.

Order I.

Order II.

Order III.

Order IV.

Nerves,

Lymphatic,

Veins, Arteries,

Glands,

or

or

or

or

Organs of

Organs of

Organs of

Organs of

Motion.

Absorption.

Circulation.

Secretions.

Class III.

MENTAL ORGANS.

Order I.

Order II.

Order III. Order IV.

Eye, Ear, &c.

Cerebrum,

Cerebellum, Nerves,

or
Organs of
Sensation.

or

Organs of

Perception.

or . or
Organs of Organs of
Respiration. Motion.

Nerves.

Veins and A rteries.

Organs of

Reproduction,

Organs of Organs of
Digestion. Respiration.

Natural Arrangement of Functions — Physiology.

Class I.

LOCOMOTIVE FUNCTIONS.

Order I.

Function of

Support.

Order II.
Function of
Connexion.

Order III.

Function of
Absorption.

Order IV.

Function of
Motion.

NATl'RAL ARRANGEMENT OF ORGANS.

228

Order I.
Function of
Absorption.

Order I.

Diseases of
Sensation.

Class II.

VITAL FUNCTIONS.

Order II. Order III.

Function of Function of

Circulation.

Secretion.

Class III.

MENTAL FUNCTIONS.
Order II. Order III.

Diseases of Diseases of
Perception. Reflection.

Order IV.

Function of

Pulsation.

Order IV.

Diseases of
Volition.

Passage of Blood to Lungs. Passage of Blood from Lungt.

Function of Function of Function of

Digestion. Respiration. Secretion.

Natural Arrangement of Diseases — Pathology.
Class I

LOCOMOTIVE FUNCTIONS.

Order I. Order II. Order III. Order IV.

Diseases of Diseases of Diseases of Diseases of

Support. Connexion. Absorption. Motion.

Class II,

VITAL FUNCTIONS.

Order I. Order II. Order III. Order IV.

Diseases of Diseases of Diseases of Diseases of

Absorption. Circulation. Secretion. Motion.

Class III.

MENTAL FUNCTIONS.

Order I. Order II. Order III. Order IV.

Eyes, ears, nose Cerebellum Cerebellum Nerves

or Organs of or Organs of or Organs of or Organs of

Feeling. Perception.

Will.

Motion,

'V'llWii

A DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE.

The horse to be perfect, should, in three things, resemble
each of the following animals : — 1. A woman — In wide chest,
plump quarters, and long hair. 2. A lion — In boldness,
stateliness, and fire, 3. A bull — In eye, nostril, and joint.
4. A mule — In hoof, strength, and perseverance. 5. A deer —
In head, leg, and hair. 6. A sheep — In face, patience, and
mildness. 7. A wolf — In breast, loin, and lope. 8. A fox —
In ear, tail, and trot. 9. A cat — In walk, action, and leap.
10. A snake — In sight, memory, and supleness.

Form and Shape.

Like a Woman — Chest broad, not deep ; round back in
horses are generally, if not always, too flat to breathe easy
and digest well. I am in favor of those large in the girth,
(all well-bred animals are large around the heart ;) let the
thighs be large, so as when you are behind, they cover the
belly, muscles coming down to the hock, mane and tail full.

Like a Lion — Bold, fearless, fierce, courageous, and stately,
a firm manner of standing, with all the feet well on the ground ;
a horse much wearied will be found resting on one or the other
foot, and frequently shows lameness.

Like a Bull — The eye round and full, a flat eye indicates
weakness of sight ; nostril thin, easily dilated, the joint round
and short, fitting closely.

Like a Mule — The hoof steep, black and slick, the strength
of his limbs large, firmness of tendon and flesh, perseverance,
his motions regular and constant, steadily bearing upon the bit
and gear.

Like a Deer — Head well tapered to the muzzle, giving
lightness to the head, causing them to carry up well, submis-
siveness to the bridle. Heavy headed horses are sluggish,
and have great disposition to hold down their heads; legs
broad, bone large, well tapered, adding strength to beauty,
hair shining and lying close to the body, showing great en-
durance ; this is a favorable sign for all well-bred domestic
animals.

Like a JVoIf — The loin well arched, connecting the fore
and hind quarters, the breast full, giving expansion to the
29

22G QUALITIES.

lungs, and admitting free action to the fore legs ; the lope
and stride free and easy.

Like a Sheep — Face free from flesh, bony, mild, and pa-
tient, the countenance quiet and tranquil, standing quietly.

Like a Fox — The ear well set up and pointed, round and
sharp ; trot, light, airy, and graceful, without jostling, tail
bushy.

Like a Cat — Active, bending the body freely and easily,
walking and leaping without apparent exertion.

Like a Snake — -Sight strong, the eye free from moisture,
the memory is for life, the supleness of body enabling them
to turn and twist in every direction without much exertion.

QUALITIES.

Action.

Animals possessing the best action are peculiar for large,
clean, fiery, and dry eyes. For instance, the horse, the mule,
the camel, and the lion ; the ostrich, the turkey, the jumping
fish, the serpent, and the frog.

Speed.

Those animals possessing great speed, are peculiar for their
small head, short, and small jaw, namely : the horse, the deer,
the grey-hound, the fox, the rabbit, the rat, the ostrich, the
turkey, and the guinea-hen.

Health. t .

Health is the proper action of all the functions of the
body. A failure of any of the functions to perform their re-
quired duty ensures disease. The best marks of health in
animals are a lean, bony face, a wild, dry, and fiery eye, and
a good smooth coat of hair of a bright glossy color.

Strength.

The prominent features of strength, are large and tapering
limbs; short, full, and rounding joints, firm muscles; bright
lively, and shining colors, with a wide back and broad loins.

QUALITIES. 227

The organ of strength gives width at the joining of the neck
and head, with a bold and stately appearance.

Quietness.

Quietness may be known by a lean convexed face, with a
mild and patient eye, and small head. This is plainly stamped
on the sheep, horse, mule, and Bremen cow.

Docility.

Docility is known by the great width of the head above the
eyes, which gives general observation, and by this observance
prevents surprise. It is most perfect when the qualities of
quietness are combined with it in a fine horse or mule.

Thrift

Thriftiness is known by a long and may be large head. —
The colors are bright and lively in horses, mules, cattle, hoga
and sheep ; and is particularly marked in the grey-hound, the
lion, and the moose.

Fattening.

Animals that are easily fattened have short heads, round
full face, with a great variety of colors ; spots of white, black
and red are desirable, and brindle is by no means inferior.
The largest and best of our domestic animals are spotted and
have a short head ; the hog and ox fattens faster than the
horse or mule.

Wind.

This organ is situated on the front of the head and near
the ears above the eyes. It is remarkable in the mule and
other animals that have this developed largely, have wind in
proportion as shown in plate.

Bottom.

Bottom depends on large bones and ligaments. One ani-
.nal may fail for want of strength, and another for want of
wind. Mule and ox have large legs.

(From Buchanan's Journal of Man.)

CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.

The mechanism of the circulation is sufficiently understood,
but our mechanical knowledge of the circulation, derived from
Harvey and his successors, does not give us the law of the
distribution of the blood. The knowledge of the channels
and hydraulic apparatus, without that of the forces which
preside over the circulation and distribution of the blood, is
comparatively a meagre species of knowledge. Health re-
quires an equilibrium of circulation, while disease produces a
disturbance of the equilibrium — hyperemia being an essential
element of inflammation, and every hyperemia of one locality
indicating anemia of some other portion of the system.

The law of distribution indicating the tendency of each part
to hyperemia, anemia or rectitude of circulation would indi-
cate the tendencies of all parts of the system as to growth,
health and disease — it would give us the philosophy of path-
ology, and would contribute much to rendering medicine an
exact science.

We regard the circulation as controlled or modified by the
brain, and also as reacting upon and reciprocally affecting the
brain in accordance with the laws of sympathy between the
brain and the body. The facts of this influence when ar-
ranged, show that each organ of the brain acts upon the cir-
culation in the direction of its pathognomic line, or in other
words, in the direction in which its fibres point. Thus, the
organs of the external, lateral surface of each hemisphere
point more or less laterally, and did each hemisphere control
the same side of the body, might be said to point externally ;
but as hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body, its
lateral organs necessarily point internally, or toward the in-
terior of the body, and hence tend to direct the circulation so
as to determine toward the internal viscera, and produce that
increase of their action which arises from an increased supply
of blood, and which also produces this increased supply.

The range of organs lying just in front of the ear, run-
ning from the temporal arch downward along the jaw, indi-
cates these determinatons. The uppermost is the seat of the
cephalic tendency, and indicates a determination toward the
brain, increasing the activity of its organs. The location

CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 229

next lower, (the pulmonic, indicates the determination to the
lungs. The next location, near the top of the ear, indicates
the determination to the heart, and the next lower to the
liver. Below the cardiac and hepatic localities, we find the
gastric and intestinal — the former at the articulation of the
lower jaw — the latter extending along the course of the lower
jaw nearly to the chin.

The developement of any of these regions, producing a de-
termination to the part, indicates a tendency to its growth,
developement and predominance. Hence, a local hyperemia
is a natural consequence of each of these organs in very pre-
dominant developement, as anemia is of their absence, and
the tendencies to disease may be accordingly determined, to
some extent, by their size. When large, the diseases are of
an active hyperemic character ; when small, the tendency is
to a predominance of torpor or debility.

The determination to the shoulder and arms is supposed to
be controlled by the organs lying on the median line of the
occiput, commencing at Firmness and extending as low as the
neck ; and the determination to the lower limbs depends upon
the organs of the base of the brain, extending from the jaw,
mastoid process and occipital spine, down the neck. These
determinations are inferred from the sympathy of the diffe-
rent parts of the body with the brain. The regioon of the
neck sympathizing with the lower limbs ; the shoulder and
arm with the medium range of the occiput ; the lower part of
the occiput or region of crime sympathizing with the lower
and posterior part of the body ; the lateral part of the occi-
put or region of Adhesiveness and Restraint, sympathizing
with the upper part of the back ; the entire abdominal region
of the body sympathizing with the anterior surface of the
chest, and the region of Virtue with its upper anterior and
lateral aspects on each side of the intellectual department.

These determinations are accompanied by a peculiar state
of the pulse , and as every cerebial organ has its peculiar re-
lations to the circulation and pulse, it follows that the pulse
may be considered diagnostic of the state of the mind and
body.

The cardiac region produces a state of excitement, and is
indicated by an excited pulse, beating with rapidity and vio-
lence, but not with great regularity. If the excitement is
continued the pulse is apt to become feeble and more unsteady
unless the constitution possesses great tone or vigor.

The region of Health produces a full, firm, and regular

230 CIRCULATION OF TUB BLOOD.

pulse ; the region of Disease produces a small, feeble, flut-
tering and irregular pulse.

The horse Boston on page 224 shows many good qualities,
the form of the head shows that the circulations is strongest
in the part that is connected with the developement, and when
fattened will give growth to the front of the body with
which it is connected, and tends to give length and width to
it. The heart is supposed to be the centre of circulation and
the front convex face gives the length of neck and shoulders,
and the back head to the back, in width, breadth, length, and
breadth of hips, and the jaws gives the belly width and full-
ness below the ears and above the eyes, and gives to the sides
of the body.

First, the face of Boston is full and projecting, front of
eyes gives long neck, large shoulders, and width of face and
body, full jaws gives good full breast and low body ; his back-
head is large, full at the joining of the head to the body, that
holds up the head and gives width of back, length, and wide
hips and thighs, these principles hold good with creation at
large, the mule, cow, sheep, hog. Alpaca sheep with full
fronthead, but not face, back is long. The giraffe is remark-
able in the front face and front of the heart and in length of
neck. The ostrich, turkey, goose, buffalo's fronthead is very
large, and their breast remarkably large. The lion and the
catamount is specimens to which you can apply these princi-
ples, and principles will serve for all. The backhead is larger
in the deer, and is thrown up and backward ; his length, back
and thighs is large compared with his belly, so is the grey-
hound, rabbit, frog, and alligator, is two-thirds of his length
back of the heart. I have no room to allude here to other
theorists, but to point to my own opinions of creation, in the
drawings I allude to.

APPLICATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS TO THE
BREEDING OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

General Observations.

The same laws, it has been already seen, are as applicable
to animals as to man : — the law of Selection operating where
both parents are of the same variety, when either gives the
organs of sense, forehead, and vital system, and the other,
the cerebal and locomotive system ; — the law of crossing
operating where each parent is of a different variety, when
the male gives the backhead and locomotive system ; and the
female, the forehead organs of sense and vital system ; — and
the^law of in-and-in breeding operating where both parents
are of the same family, when the female gives the backhead
and locomotive system, and the male, the forehead, organs of
sense and vital system.

But no law is dreamt of in the common practice of breed-
ing.

In breeding hunters, says the author of the article Horse
in the Enclyclopsedia Britannica, "observe similarity of shape
in horse and mare. As length of frame is indispensable in a
hunter, if the mare be short, seek for a stallion likely to give
her length. Again, if the mare be high on her legs, put her
to a short-legged stallion, and vice versa ; for it is possible
that even a hunter's legs may be too short ; a racer's cer-
tainly may be."

It is very true that stallions have been known both to give
length of body and shortness of limbs. But this effort is as
often unsuccessful as successful. How shall it be insured ? —
As these laws show — by the male, possessed of these forms,
having higher voluntary and locomotive power than the fe-
male.*

"Much more dependence," says the same article, "is now
placed on the stallion than on the mare.f The racing calen-

* Natural law is where tbe one gives the vital and fattening quality, which
is the fronthead and jaws, and in this case the animal is improved in size ;
by partaking of the proportion of the two, and is larger than dam and com-
monly better than sires, not reducing the size, but improving ingrowth and
proportion.

f The improvement of the colt depends on both equally. The best mule
colt is that to which the dam gives its vital organs and speed reversed in
formal sires. If the sire is superior to the mare, it will hold good. If the
mothers are superior, the male colt.

23^ GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

dar, indeed, clearly proves the fact. Notwithstanding the
prodigious number of very highly bred and equally good
mares that every year are put to the horse, it is from such as are
put to our very best stallions that the great winners are pro-
duced. This can in no other way be accounted for, than by
such horses having the faculty of imparting to their progeny
the peculiar external and internal formation absolutely essen-
tial to the first-rate race-horse."*

Such horses do so, because they have the "faculty" of do-
ing so ! A very satisfactory way of accounting, indeed ! —
Now, the cause is the same here as were the means indicated
in the preceding case. Among good stallions, the best is he
who is possessed of the highest voluntary and locomotive
powers, which he accordingly stamps upon his progeny.

But it may be asked, of what consequence is it whether we
call the stallion the "very best," or say he has the "highest
voluntary and locomotive powers." The difference is, that
the first expression states only the fact ; the second, at the
same time, assigns it reason, which enables us to connect the
mere fact with other facts, and to derive from them useful
conclusions.

Opposite conditions would enable the mare to stamp her
voluntary and locomotive system upon the progeny — always
with some disadvantages.

These remarks exemplify the use of understanding the ap-
plication of the law of Selection. The utility of the law of
crossing may be similarly exemplified.

"I have often been told," says Sir John Seabright, "that
from the beautiful shape of Mr. Elman's South Down sheep,
they must have been crossed with the Few-Leicester ; and
that from the fineness of their wool, they must have been
crossed with the Merino breed ; but I do not conceive, that
even the skill of this very distinguished breeder could have
retained the good shape of the former, without any appear-
ance of the coarseness of its wool, or the fine fleece of the
latter, without the deformity of its carcass, had he crossed his
flock with either of these breeds."

If "shape" here expresses the locomotive system, and if
the wool be an appendage of that system, it is evident that
they could not be thus obtained.

*He says the horse does so because he has the faculty of doing so. I have
repeatedly shown that the best breeders have the most boldness, sullinessr
and fire ; and superior constitution ; this will apply to the dam or sire in all
their size, speed, &c.

DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE. 233

These, though brief, are sufficient proofs of the importance
of a knowledge of the application of the laws here announ-
ced.

It is rather more difficult to observe the application of these
laws to animals than to man : 1st, Because animals are gene-
rally examined in a state of imperfect growth ; 2dly, Because
the details of their forms are more or less obscured by hair,
wool, &c; 3dly, Because, when it is, not only not a cross,
but when there is nearly a perfect homogeneity of form be-
tween the male and female, no difference can be expected in
the result.

Hence my correspondent * * * *, who could not perceive
such difference in his homogeneous herds and flocks, justly
observes (23 February, 1838,) "It may possibly be that my
experience relating only to animals which have been bred for
many generations by persons having the same objects in view,
are all of them so similar in their shape and constitution, that
it is difficult to say which parent is the one that the progeny
take after." * And he adds, "I must beg to add that if you
could prove upon scientific principles and practical experience
any theory to be correct of the nature of the one you have
adopted, you would do a great service to all those engaged in
breeding animals."

— — o-

THE HORSE'S ACTION AND SPEED.

In speaking of horses, the circumstance which will occur
to every thinker as interfering with these laws, in the hypo-
thesis of blood ; for certainly, if that could be transmitted in
fourths, eighths, sixteenths, &c, it would be opposed to a doc-
trine, like that of these laws, according to which it is organi-
zation alone which is interchanged, and that always by halves
gives or taken away. Indeed, I do not hesitate to acknow-
ledge that, if there were the slightest truth in the hopothesia
of blood, there could be none in the doctrine now laid before
the reader.

It is curious, however, that although that unfounded hypo-
thesis exists in the works of almost all writers, yet it was long
ago refuted by Osmer ; and I cannot do better than quote
30

234 DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE.

from his work on the subject, which is so perfectly in harmony
with my own.*

"Horses who have the finest texture, elegance of shape,
and most proportioned, are the best racers, let their blood be of
what kind it may ... If I was asked what beauty was, I
should say proportion : if I was asked what strength was, I
should say proportion ... A proper length will also be
wanting for the sake of velocity : no weak, loose, dispropor-
tioned horse, let his blood be what it will, ever yet was a prime
racer, f

"If it be objected, that many a plain ugly horse has been
a good racer, — I can even allow a very plain horse to be a
prime racer, without giving up the least part of this system :
for instance, if we suppose a horse with a large head and long
ears, (like the Godolphin Arabian,) a low mean forehead, flat
sided, and goose rumped, — this, I guess, will be allowed to be
a plain ugly horse ; but yet if such a horse be strong, and
justly made in those parts, which are immediately conducive
to action, if his shoulders incline well backwards, his legs and
joints in proportion, carcase strong and deep, his thighs well
let down, we shall find he may be a very good racer, even
when tried by the principles of mechanics, without appealing
to his blood for any part of his goodness.

"We are taught by this doctrine of mechanics, that the
power applied to any body must be adequate to the weight of
that body, otherwise such power will be deficient for the ac-
tion we require . . . The force and power of a muscle con-
sists in the number of fibres of which it is composed ; and the

* We admire shape and proportion, and we have many
racers in this country, and there are now only two whose forms
are alike — Boston very long body and Fashion short. Dr.
A. Walker learned much of Physiology, but has not classified
the nerves, and for this reason alludes to muscles for all mo-
tion. If you paralyze the nerves, the muscles lose their ac-
tion.

f Dr. Youatt on this subject, says horses of various shapes
run well ; he prefers good shape, but knowing the nerves is
the seat of motion, his description is imperfect. A weak
horse travels or runs on smooth and soft ground, but on pikes
or hard track, may let down. If the bones and joints are as
strong as the nerves, he may be a good performer. By nerves
we may account for the speed of beasts, birds, and fish.

DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE. 235

velocity and motion of a muscle consists in the length and
extent of its fibres. Let us compare this doctrine with the
language of the jockey: he tells us if ahorse has not length
he will be slow ; and if mado too slender will not be able to
bring his weight through. Does not the observation of the
jockey exactly correspond with this doctrine?"

I may here observe that my general law, applicable not only
to muscles but to all organs, that the intensity of function is
as the length of organ, and the performance of function as
the breadth of organ, is the foundation of all rational distinc-
tion between horses for speed and horses for endurance in
draught, &c.

"When we consider a half-bred horse running one mile or
more, with the same velocity as a horse of foreign extraction,
we do not impute that equality of velocity to any innate qual-
ity in the half-bred horse, because we can account for it by
external causes : that is, by an equality of the length and
extent of his levers and tendons. And when we consider a
half-bred horse running one mile or more, with the same ve-
locity as the other, and then giving it up, what shall we do ?
Shall we say the foreigner beats him by his blood, or by the
force and power of his -tendons ?* Or can we, without re-
proaching our own reason and understanding, impute that to
be the effect of our occult and hidden causes in one of these
instances, and not in the other?

"How many instances have we of different horses beating
each other alternately over different sorts of ground ! How
often do we see short, close, compact horses, beating others
of a more lengthened shape over high and hilly courses, as
well as deep and slippery ground . . . And how comes it to
pass that horses of a more lengthened shape, have a superi-
ority over horses of a shorter make, upon level and flat courses?
Is this effected by the difference of their mechanical powers,
or is it effected by the blood ? If, by the latter, then this
blood is not general, but partial only, which no reasoning man
will be absurd enough to allow.

"How many revolutions of fame and credit, have all sports-
men observed in these high-bred families . . . Observation
shows us that on one hand, Ave may breed horses of foreign
extraction too delicate, and too slight for any labour ; and on

* Whilst he opposes the blood, he sustains his position in
muscle forgetting that nothing has cause within itself. The
name of nerves is seldom used.

236 \ DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE.

the other hand, so coarse and clumsy as to be fitter for the
cart than for the race. Shall we wonder that these cannot
race, or shall we doubt that degrees of imperfection in the
mechanism, will produce degrees of imperfection in racing I
and when we find such deficient, shall we ridiculously impute
it to a degeneracy of that blood, which once was in the highest
esteem, or to the want of judgment in him who did not pro-
perly adopt the shapes of their progenitors ! . . . Shall we
confess this, or is it the fault of nature ?

"If we should be asked why the sons of the Godolphin
Arabian were superior to most horses of their time, I answer,
because he had great power and symmetry of parts, (head
excepted) and a propriety of length greatly superior to all
other horses of the same diameter, that have been lately seen
in this country.

"If any man who doubts this excellence to be in the blood,
should ask how it comes to pass that we often see two full
brothers, one of which is a good racer, the other indifferent,
or perhaps bad, I know of but two answers that can be given :
we must either allow this excellence of the blood to be par-
tial, or else we must say, that by putting together a horse
and a mare different in their shapes, a foetus may be produ-
ced of a happy form at one time and at another the foetus
partaking more or less of the shape of either, may not be so
happily formed. Which shall be do ? Shall we impute this
difference of goodness in the two brothers, to the difference of
their mechanism ? or shall we say this perfection of the blood
is partial ? If the latter, then we must own that blood is not
to be relied on, but that the system of it, and whatever is built
on that foundation, is precarious and uncertain, and therefore
falls to the ground of its own accord.

"Where shall be find one certain proof of the efficacy of
blood in any horse produced in any age or country, indepen-
dent of the laws of mechanics ?*

"He who has a fine female, and judgment enough to adapt
her shapes with propriety to a fine male, will always breed
the best racer, let the sort of blood be what it will."

* Laws of mechanics could hardly account for the action of
mules and the speed of the horse, deer, and grey-hound, or
the action and speed of the cat, rabbit, or ostrich, compared
with the horso ; or the leap of the frog and fish, the best of
iespers.

THE BARB.

- ^.

The Q-odolphin Arabian.

In giving a very summary account of the most celebrated
and useful breeds of different countries, it is natural to begin
with those of Africa.

At the head of these is the Barb, from Barbary, and
particularly from Morocco and Fez, and the interior of
Tripoli ; and remarkable for his fine and graceful action. It
is rather lower than the Arabian, seldom exceeding fourteen
hands and an inch. The shoulders are flat, the chest round,
the joints inclind to be long, and the head particularly beau-
tiful. The Barb is decidedly superior to the Arab in form,
but has not his spirit, or speed, or countenance.

The Barb has chiefly contributed to the excellence of the
Spanish horse ; and when the improvement of the breed of
horses began to be systematically pursued in Great Britain,
the Barb was very early introduced. The Godolphin Ara-
bian, as he is called, of whom we have presented our readers
with a cut, and who was the origin of some of our best racing
blood, was a Barb ; and others of our most celebrated turf-
horses trace their descent from African mares.

More in the centre of Africa, in the kingdom of Bournou,
is a breed, which Mr. Tully, in his almost romantic history
of Tripoli, reckons superior even to those of Arabia or Bar-
bary ; it possesses the best qualities of both those breeds,
being as serviceable as that of Arabia, and as beautiful as
that of Barbary.

238

DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE.

THE ARABIAN.

The Wellesly Arabian.

The Arabian horse would not be acknowledged by every
judge to possess a perfect form : his head, however, is inimi-
table. The broadness and squareness of the forehead, the
shortness and fineness of the muzzle, the prominence and
brilliancy of the eye, the smallness of the ears, and the beau-
tiful course of the veins, will always characterise the head of
the Arabian horse.

THE DARLY ARABIAN.

The Darly Arabian was the parent of our best racing stock.
He was purchased by Mr. Darly's brother, at Aleppo, and

DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE. 239

was bred in the neighboring desert of Palmira. The figure
here given of him is supposed to be an accurate delineation.
It contains every point, without much show, which could be
desired in a turf-horse.

The immediate descendants of this invaluable horse, were
the Devonshire or flymg Childers ; the Breeding or Bartlet's
Childers, who was never trained ; Almanzor and others.

The two Childers were the means through which the blood
and fame of their sire were widely circulated, and from them
descended another Childers, Blaze, Snap, Samson, Eclipse,
and a host of excellent. horses.

FLYING CHILDERS.

The Devonshire or Flying Childers, so called from the
name of his breeder, Mr. Childers, of Carr-house, and the
sale of him to the Duke of Devonshire, was the fleetest horse
of his day. He was at first trained as a hunter, but the su-
perior speed and courage which he discovered caused him to
be transferred to the turf. Common report affirms that he
could run a mile in a minute, but there is no authentic record
of this. Childers ran over the round course at Newmarket
(three miles six furlongs and ninety-three yards) in six min-
utes and forty seconds ; and the Beacon course (four miles
one furlong and one hundred and thirty-eight yards) in seven
minutes and thirty seconds. In 1772 a mile was run by Fire-
tail, in one minute and four seconds.

In October, 1741, at the Curragh meeting in Ireland, Mr.
Wilde engaged to ride one hundred and twenty-seven miles

240

DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE.

in nine hours. He performed it in six hours and twenty-one
minutes. He employed ten horses, and allowing for mount-
ing and dismounting, and a moment for refreshment, he rode
for six hours at the rate of twenty miles an hour.

Gray Norman.

The Gray Norman is a cross of the Arabian on the English
draft horse. Ths Arabian has nervous eyes, small chin and
head, light easy motion, easily ruled by bridle that a lady
may drive in safety, and is in short, the most valuable for a
farm. Large enough to draw good. Travels well under the
saddle.

The manner of holding his head is a proof of his docility
and stateliness.

WILD HORSES, CATTLE, AND HOGS.

In the prairies when they see you, if they have been
frequently pursued by man, the horses form lines of defence,
the mothers protecting the young. The sires defend their
chief in command, and in front of lines, horses first, mares
next, and colts in the rear. If you approach them quietly,
and the distance is enough, when you get within three or four
hundred yards of them and stop, the horse in command
will gallop nearly to you, and around you, then go to his
command. If you quietly pursue them, they will run from
you, and if possible, may hide or form lines as before. If
you continue your pursuit after the third running, they then
will act, as if to say, what is your design. You should not
halloe nor gallop after to alarm them. I have several times
got close to them and among them, and turned them to the
right or left as I wished. This principle has been applied to
effect in 1825, and thirty droves were driven from Texas to
Natchez, Mississippi. This will apply to cattle that have
once been tamed. I will tell you of the case in Texas in
1843, and 1844. The horses had a desire to remain in a
certain range and locality — they would not run out of cer-
tain prairies. I commenced travelling after them ; they ran
round their watering places — I suppose that they ran over
eighty, or one hundred miles in the day, but by night that
run would be a walk, and I then could ride among them. I
could turn them right or left. The young ones would nicker
to their mothers and mothers to them. I could see them and
ride on the inside of their circuit. I suppose they ran four
miles to my one. The weather was warm, and the mosque-
toes bad. I was compelled to seek rest. The next day I
could not find them.

To catch the wild beast, make a large pen, strong and
high to prevent them from attempting to get out — put salt
outside ; leave it open in different places, let them go in and
out ; put gentle animals inside, in a small pen, salt and feed
them, and they will soon become quiet. Then prepare a
large gate, and give it a shut from the inside, and set it on
triggers ; then you may with small twine, pull the trigger at
the distance of a mile. The lot should have angles in form,
and a suitable lot and stall to get them in singly, one at a
31

242 DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE.

time. Then blindfold and secure them, or if you wish to
drive them, bell some gentle ones, and they soon will smell
and listen at the others, and follow the drove. This I have
tried on cattle and hogs, and it will be found practicable.
Cattle you may put in yoke together. You should put to
the bottom of the bows a pole tied loose to prevent them from
getting their yokes turned around.

Wild animals all like salt, and by putting salt at a certain
place, they will come to it. But they do not appear to want
ealt just before rain, and use less in time of wet spells, but in
dry weather it is hard to keep them from it. By salting
them regularly, all will become more quiet and docile, if you
have no dogs about the place of salting.

I have seen wild buzzards or carrion crows alight in the
streets of Charleston, South Carolina. I know a gentleman
who feeds his fish — they will not go to another person.

The Character and Disposition of the Horse.

The natural character and dsposition of the horse may be
known by his manner of holding his head, by his own will,
and his movements will often decide your judgment of tho
truth of it. The perfect head represents the full face and
wide front head, that moves forward with light and low steps ;
and if he attempts to throw or dislodge his rider, he pulls
down his head and kicks up. If he is larger in the back head
and turbulent and skittish, he moves high and more short.
If he runs he bounds too high to make the best speed. If he
attempts to throw or dislodge his rider, is apt to rear, and fall
back, and hazards the life of himself and the rider. And
such horses on threatening to fight turn their heels to kick,
being stronger in their hind legs and hips. And the docile
threatens with his fore feet and teeth, and stronger in the
shoulder, and fuller breast. The timid and scarery horse
throws the rider by jumping from side to side, and carries
out his nose. The intellectual horse turns his nose in and
front head forward.

Color of Horses.

The breeding of horses, you have to bear in mind, after
noticing their form, shape, length, breadth, and width, it is
all important in obtaining the best colors.

Silver Grey has one advantage over all others, as this color
reflects off the rays of the hot sun, better than any other ; all
other qualities equal.

HEAVES IN HORSES. 243

The Red Sorrel is the next nearest to the white, and makes
him next best, and is the most vital, and has the best circu-
lation in the breathing power of the lungs, and the natural
perspiration is easier.

The Bay, bright and shining, is remarkable for hardihood
and great endurance, and the best of spirit. Will suffer more
in the hot sun than the grey or sorrel horse, but often are good
performers and desirable animals.

In breeding, first seek a cross of color, then the forms ; by
this you will get the best of all. It is often good to vary
the color and by cross of forms, but when all is combined, it
is the best of all. It is hard to express by the pen as clear
as with animals, to write to attempt to satisfy the unbeliever,
it is useless to attempt it. Such do not know enough of the
subject —

It is God above and man below,

What can we reason from, but from what we know.

The law favorable to the improvement of animals is in
crossing. If the best colors is in good health at the time that
the colt is got, the colt will partake of it, either from dam or
sire, and such is like to give good size. It is for this cause
that it is always favorable to have either white feet and face,
or a mealy nose.

The mule cross of colors in dam and sire, with mealy nose,
will go with the largest cross jack and jenny, and all in good
health and matured in age and body, is the most commendable,
and it is of this description, that the superior ones have had
their origin.

Heaves in Horses.

Take about a tablespoonful of tar on the point of , paddle,
and after drawing out the horse's tongue, place it as low down
on it as possible, so that he will swallow it. This is to be
done once a week ; give him also the same quantity of ground
ginger three times a week, mixed with his food, for one month.
The horse to be only moderately worked. This remedy has
cured many cases.

ESSAY ON CATTLE.

The Domestic ox, is not, as is well known, indigenous to
America ; but was introduced here by our European ances-
tors in the beginning of the 17th century. An attempt has
been made to trace the origin of our common cattle, especially
those of the northern states, exclusively to the English Devon ;
and it is probable that it did mingle largely in the early im-
portations, from the fact that a large portion of the colonists
were from the south of England, or embarked from ports in
that district, where the Devon at that period was the prevail-
ing. The characteristics of this variety also, as to horns,
color, &c, have always been the favorite ones among the
people of the United States. But at the time of the settle-
ment of America, little attention, comparatively speaking, was
paid to the breeds, or purity of blood, and it is altogether in-
credible that the emigrants, to whose number almost every
port in England and probably in the United Kingdom, fur-
nished its quota, should have been at the pains to procure the
Devons. To say nothing of the preferences which each would
naturally have felt for the cattle of his own district, it would
argue a degree of care and solicitude on a subject, then deemed
of little importance, altogether incompatible with the charac-
ter and motives of the men who colonized the new world.
Many of them probably were scarcely aware that there was
such a breed in existence ! Besides, the Dutch in New- York,
and the Swedes on the Delaware, introduced the cattle of
their respective countries, which were subsequently incorpo-
rated with the common stock. Although, as we have before
remarked, the Devon characteristics prevail, the practiced eye
will readily detect traces of this varied lineage. Few or none
of our common stock equal the North Devon, in the finish
and beauty of their proportions, more generally perhaps re-
sembling the coarser Sussex ox ; and our cows are better
milkers. Our black polled cattle give indications of their
Welsh and Galloway extraction, and it is but a few years
since, on the Mohawk and Hudson rivers, there existed un-
doubted remnants of the stock imported by the Dutch settlers
from Holland.

ESSAY ON CATTLE. 245

To speak of the merits of a race so varied, as a whole,
would evidently be preposterous. Selections may be readily
made from our common cattle, combining very considerable
excellence for dairy, the yoke, and the shambles ; while an-
other and a larger portion are destitute in a part or the whole
of these qualifications. Their value to cross with the improv-
ed breeds, will be hereafter adverted to.

We shall proceed now to consider the breeds of later intro-
duction, imported with the view of improving the common
stock. These are the Devons, Herefords, New Leicesters,
Ayrshires, Alderneys, and the Short Horn family, consisting
of the "Improved Short Horn," or Durham, the Teeswater,
Holderness, and a thick, heavy buttrcked variety of York-
shire cattle, which have provincially obtained the name of
"Devonshires."

The Devon— (Fig. 1.)

In symmetry and beauty of proportion, the high bred De-
von scarcely acknowledges an equal. His delicate limbs, deep
red color, beautifully tapering horns, high and spirited action,
united with docility in the yoke, and a show of blood, falling
little short of that of the thorough bred horse, have always
rendered him a favorite with breeders of taste, in his native
country. Favorable specimens of them were introduced into
the United States in 1817, from the herd of tha Earl of Lie-
cester, (then Mr. Coke.) Notwithstanding his many excel-
lencies, it cannot be said that the introduction of the Devon
was attended with any striking benefits. Singularly suited,

246

ESSAY ON CATTLE.

by his rapid gait for the plow, on the light lands of Norfolk,
and some other parts of England, his peculiar excellence, his
activity, has been found to avail him little on the more gene-
rally tenacious soils of the United States. In strength, the
Devon ranks only in the fourth or fifth class of British oxen.
The cross with our common cattle produced an animal some^
what improved from the latter in his points, but with no great
additional value for the yoke, and decidedly inferior for the
dairy. Yet a slight admixture of Devon blood, has been
thought advantageous in modifying the coarseness of heavy,
bony breeds, like the Holderness, and it has ever been strenu-
ously advocated as a cross with the Improved Short Horn, by
distinguished English breeders. But others object that the
Durham gains nothing by the admixture in his propensity to
take on flesh and fat ; while size and milking properties arc
sensibly diminished. This was decidedly the opinion of Col.
Powell, who instituted numerous experiments. The variety
thus produced would doubtless be capable of enduring a short-
ness of keep, incompatible with the superior size of the pure
Short Horn, and thus be better adapted to high and less fer-
tile lands ; but there are other breeds which as a cross with
the Shot Horn, would be as well calculated to attain this
end, without so great a sacrifice of milking properties. The
portrait above (fig. 1,) is that of a Devon cow, owned by Mr.
Western, which we copy from the Farmers' Series.

The Herefordshire Cotv. — (Fig. 2.)
The breeder has been taught by experience, that when the

ESSAY ON CATTLE.

247

cow, although she should be somewhat roomy, is too large
and masculine, the ox will be brawny and coarse, and per-
haps a little sluggish at work, and even somewhat unkind
and slow in the process of fattening, and these are objections
which, most of all, he would be unwilling to have justly made.
The Herefordshire is therefore somewhat undersized ; and it
not unfrequently happens that she produces a bull-calf that
grows to three times her own weight.

■^yiY

The New Leicester. — (Fig. 3.)

This breed, spoke into existence as it were, by the com-
manding genius of Bakewell, were derived from the original
Long Horns, of the midland and north-western counties of
England. The Lancashire or Craven, as this original variety
is generally denominated, were characterized, at least the
better portion of them, by their length and roundness of car-
cass, and by giving peculiarly rich milk, though in moderate
quantities. They were large, coarse boned, but possessing a
considerble, and sometimes a marked tendency to fatten. A
smaller variety of the same breed, generally inhabiting moun-
tain and moor lands, according to Mr. Youatt, gave milk as
superior in quality. Out of these materials Bakewell formed
the New Leicesters, which for aptitude to acquire external
fat and early maturity, became almost unrivalled. He re-
duced the size, and especially the bone of the old Long Horns,

248 ESSAY ON CATTLE.

and under his moulding hand, the new variety reached a finish
and beauty unknown in any other breed of the day. This is
strikingly shown in the above portait. (fig. 3.) from Garrard's
Views of British Oxen. Unfortunately, however, milking
properties were to a considerable extent, sacrificed by him.
The Leicesters, or " Shakspears," as they are more usually
styled in the United States, were of different colors, but more
generally red, with finch or " lined" backs, as they are termed,
in this country. Long, slim, tapering horns, projecting for-
ward and downward, and turning up at the points— sometimes
falling down the sides of the head in a curve, the points
nearly meeting in front, is also characteristic of the race.
The New Leicesters, owing to that cardinal defect in Bake-
well's system, breeding from too close affinities, and to the
appearance of a rival in the improved Short Horns, destined
to sweep away all opposition, have nearly disappeared ; but
grades between them, and the old Long Horns are still cher-
ished by many of the midland dairies of England. A cross
between them and the Short Horn are still more common,
and answer excellently for the purposes of the butter dairy.
The milk of the Short Horn is improved in quality, though
diminished considerably in amount, and the cross bred ani-
mals are supposed to be peculiarly hardy and unsubject to
disease. Long Horns of various grades between the old
Lancashire and the improved Leicester, have at various pe-
riods, been introduced into the United States, and specimens
of them, crossed with the Durham, (with no admixture of
other blood,) exist in this and one or two neighboring coun-
ties. They are a beautiful breed, possessing much of the
substance of the Short Horn, with the peculiar fineness in
the forend, characteristic of the New Leicester. Some of
them are exceedingly delicate handlers, with thick, silky
coats, are rich, though not uncommonly deep milkers.

The Ayrshire.

It is but a little more than fifty years since, according to
Mr. Aiton, (the best authority on the subject,) the Ayrshire
cows were " of diminutive size, ill-fed, ill-shaped, and they
yielded but a scanty supply of milk ; * * * the chine
of their backs stood up high and narrow, their sides were
lank and short, their hides thick and adhering to their bones,
and their piles coase and open." In short, there can be but
little doubt that they would gain nothing by comparison with

ESSAY Off CATTLE. 249

the most ordinary American cows. We had adverted par-
ticularly to their then condition, because in following them
up to their present high degree of excellence, we find a les-
son fraught with peculiar value to the Amercan farmer. Our
breeders have certainly as good, or a better breed on which
to commence their improvements, and the ameliorating crosses
which made the Ayrshire cow what she is, are equally within
out reach. Though from the length of time which has
elapsed, and the imperfect record, or rather the absence of
all record, which is too generally kept of such transactions,
little is known of the progressive steps attending the cross,
and though there are some who seem disposed to call in ques-
tion the fact, whether it ever took place, it is generally con-
ceded that the present celebrated race were produced by a1
judicious admixture between the original cow of Cunnigham,
Kyle, and Ayrshire, (Mr. Aiton's description of which we1
have already quoted,) and some of the earlier Short Horns,
from the banks of the Tees. The benefit attending the cross
were accelerated, and no doubt much heightened by the moist,
mild climate, and rich herbage of that district of Scotland
where the Ayrshires principally prevail ; pronounced by Mr.
Youatt, " the finest dairy county in Scotland, and equal per-
haps to any in Great Britain." This improved race is of a
red and white color, beautifully mottled, short in the leg,
the horns small and fine, the head and neck delicate,
the latter thickening properly toward the shoulders, the car-
cass deep but inclining to be fiat, and the loin and haunch,
compared with the Short Horn, narrow.

Five gallons of milk daily, for two or three months, after
calving, three gallons for the next three months, and one
gallon and a half for the remaining four months, in which
she is milked, is stated as the average amount given by the
Ayrshire cow. As a milker, she of course, yields to the larger
Short Horn, nor will she take on an equal amount of flesh and
fat, on the richer soils of England ; and on the bleak and hea-
thery hills of Scotland, the various breeds of black cattle
would thrive and fatten where the Ayrshire would scarcely
obtain a subsistence. But on medium soils, there is perhaps
no breed, size and the consumption of food being considered,
which presents a much better combination of milking and
grazing qualities. Of their value as working oxen, our au-
thorities are silent, and we do not know that any experiments
have been instituted among the few imported into the United
States. If they are good in this respect, such a breed would
32

250

ESSAY ON CATTLE.

be a desideratum in many portions of our country. But aa
■we have before hinted, we believe this desideratum can be
supplied more easily and cheaply by materials within our
reach. This point will be discussed in its proper place.
•

The Alderney.

This small breed of French cattle, are fashionable in the
parks and pleasure grounds of English gentlemen, on account
of their diminutive size, and the peculiar richness of their
milk. Col. Powel's fifteen years experience with them, pro-
nounces them, in his somewhat summary way, " an unthrifty,
dwarfish, savage breed ; and Parkinson remarks, "they are of
as bad a form as can possibly be described." Their appetite
is voracious ; an Alderney cow consuming nearly as much as
a Short Horn, which is three times her size. Some of them
have been imported into our country, but probably with no
very great advantage.

The Holderness. — (Fig. 4.)

Some time during the 18th century, Short ^orned Cattle
were introduced into the north-eastern counties of England,
from the adjacent continent. They are indiscriminately
termed Yorkshire or Holdernest cattle, by the early writers ;

ESSAY ON CATTLE. 251

the former name derived from that of the county where they
first began extensively to prevail ; the latter derived from
a town of the county, where either they were introduced, or
where, as tradition runs, certain improvements in the breed
were first attempted. They subsequently, as we shall see,
attained the name of Teeswater, and finally of Durham, or
"Improved Short Horn."

Marshall describes the original Holderness as "thin
quartered, too light behind and too coarse before, large
shoulders, coarse necks, and deep dewlaps." Lawrence,
after passing a high encomium on a selection which might
be made from them, describes the remainder as "long,
gaunt, deep carcasses, without adequate substance, placed
on high stilts, of the coarsest timber, slow feeders," &c.
They were also, by the consent of all the English writers
on the subject, thin skinned, inclined to be tender constitu-
tioned, bad provers, their flesh coarse and often dark or
" liery. In one particular, however, they were from the first
pre-eminent, in amount of milk given by them, though it was
not of so rich a quality as yielded by some other breeds. In
York, Durham, the adjacent counties, over which this breed
rapidly spread itself, early attemps were made to improve the
form, without sacrificing their milking properties. Marshall
gives a singular account of one of these efforts. After de-
scribing the Holderness, as we have already quoted, he says :
" This, from being found disadvantageous to the butcher,
* * * * the breeder attempt to enlarge the hind
quarters; and had he stopped when he got to the happy me-
dium, he would have wrought a good work ; but the fashion
was set — cloddy bullocks were in estimation. The first va-
riety of this species of cattle, which I can recollect, was a
thick, large boned, clumsy animal; remarkably large behind,
with thick gummy thighs ; always fleshy, but never fat, and
the flesh being of a bad quality. This, however was not
the worst; the monstrou* size of the buttocks of the- calf was
frequently fatal to the cow. * * * * They were
probably the worst breed the vale ever knew." We have
here an exact description of a variety existing in many parts
of our own country, known popularly in this, and some of
the adjacent counties, as " Devonshires," though their horns,
to say nothing of their posterial deformity, proves this to be
an entire misnomer. From the singular projection behind,
they are commonly known also as "Punkin rumps;" and
although large and rather showy, they are certainly the worst

252

ESSAY ON CATTLE.

breed in the United States. The picture given above, (fig. 4.)
is that of a Holderness or Teeswater cow, crossed 'with the
Improved Short Horn.

The TeeswaUr.

In more judicious hands the Short Horn rapidly improved.
Among the spirited breeders, on the banks of the Tees, (which
divides York and Durham,) they rapidly assumed a distinctive
character ; shorter legged, more compact, the milk but sightly
diminished, and this more than counterbalanced by its in-
creased good quality, — -better feeders, hardier, carrying more
fat, and their flesh more marbled and finer in grain. This
signal improvement was effected, it is generally supposed, by
a system of judicious crosses. An importation of cows from
Holland, is usually referred to as one of these, and Mr. Ber-
ry conjectures the wild white breed of England to have fur-
nished another^ Hence the strong admixture of white in the
Teeswater and the Durham. The improved variety, denomi-
nated indiscriminately, Teeswater or Holderness, immediately
became the general favorite in the large metropolitan dairies
and milk establishments. For milking properties, and when
no longer used for that purpose, aptitude to take on flesh,
England had never possessed so valuable a breed,

The Durham, or Improved Short Horn. — (fi(J>d6-)

At this epoch, and with such materials, Mr. Charles Col-
ling commenced his carreer as a breeder. His wonderful
success has been ascribed by some, to chance j but the Rev.

ESSAY OS CATTLE. 253

Henry Berry, the best possible authority on this subject,
thinks otherwise. He pronounces it the result of "a delib-
erate and well considered plan." Mr. Colling found the Tees-
water yet possessing some of the faults of the old Short Horns.
From their overgrown size, they were too frequently coarsely
and loosely formed, and they were entirely inferior to what
the Durhams afterwards became, in aptitude to fatten and
early maturity. Mr. Colling was remarkably favored in his
efforts to counteract these defects, by the possession the bull
" Hubback," the great ancestor of the improved race. He
was smaller than the Teeswater, while "his flesh, hide, and
hair," Mr. Berry remarks, " were seldom equalled." On
account of his remarkable disposition to take on flesh, he soon
became useless. The same qualities marked his dam. It is
unnecessary for us, at this time, to follow the progressive
steps which marked the onward career of the Improved Short
Horns. While it is admitted that in the hands of some breed-
ers whose attention has been exclusive to the carcass, their
milking properties have deteriorated, it is well known that in
other hands, they have fully maintained their equality with
the Teeswaters as milkers, while in early maturity, kindly
feeding, proof and quality of flesh, they decidedly surpass
them. In early maturity they have, confessedly, no rivals,
being ready for the butcher from two to four years earlier
than the other English breeds. It is not wonderful that a
race, presenting such a rare combination of excellencies,
should soon become the favorite of the English breeders. The
Long Horns have disappeared before them, or been merged
in them by repeated crosses in the northern and midland
counties, while in the south they are rapidly superseding
the Hereford and the Devon. They have been engrafted on
the Holderness Short Horns of the city milk establishments
almost universally, and with manifest advantage. The pro-
duce, with milk very slightly diminished, but of increased
richness, yield as profitable return in the dairy, while the
value of the carcass for the grazier is nearly double in value.
Short Horns, of every variety, from the gaunt, unsightly
animals described by Lawrence, to the most finished speci-
mens of the improved family, have been repeatedly imported
into the United States. The miserable, heavy buttocked
variety, known here as " Devonshires," we have already ad-
verted to. There are also among us, large and not unsightly
Short Horns, probably a modification of the above, poor milk-
ers and bad provers, which are popularly known as "Eng-

254 ESSAY ON CATTLE.

lish cattle," — though they sometimes borrow the name of
Teeswater or Durham, to suit the purposes of the seller. They
are usually red or brown, Avith dark muzzles, their horns short,
fine, and tipped with black. A Hoiderness bull from North
Allerton, on the Arve, was imported from England a few
years since, and finally driven to Oneida county in this State,
where he remained until he died. Though a monster in size,
and marked with the characteristic defects of the earlier Short
Horns in his form, his get, with the best common cows, were val-
uable as milkers, and not deficient in symmetry. Animals of
various degrees of merit, bearing the name of Durhams, but not
of pure blood, have also been introduced at various times, on
speculation. And finally, pure Improved Short Horns, in
considerable numbers, have been imported by spirited breed-
ers in several the eastern, northern, and western states.

The most Profitable Breed.

Having thus given a hasty summary of the principal facts
which tend to throw light on the main question before us,
viz. " what breed of cattle is most profitable ," we proceed to
state our convictions on the subject.

That the common cattle of the country do not possess the
greatest attainable combination of excellencies, will readily
be admitted. A selection of them present very desirable
qualities for the dairy and the yoke ; but in feeding proper-
ties, and especially in early maturity they are deficient. A
full blooded Durham bullock will go profitably to the butcher,
at least two years earlier than the American, a decisive con-
sideration to the graziers : and although the former is the
greater consumer, the extra food required by him will weigh
but little against the two or even one year's additional keeping
of the latter.

But notwithstanding all that may be said for or against
them, it is to the best cross with selected animals of the com-
mon race, feasibility and expense being taken into considera-
tion, that the common American farmer must look for the
most profitable breed of cattle. In this proposition we wish
to be distinctly understood. We do not intend to assert that
the produce of any cross we might thus make, would surpass
in value breeds already in existence ; but the entire substitu-
tion of a foreign variety for our own, presupposes an expen-
diture of time aud funds utterly out of the question.

The question then is, with what breed is this ameliorating

ESSAY ON CATTLE. 255

change to be effected? On a careful comparison of the
characteristic merits and defects of our own cattle, with the
corresponding ones of other varieties, we arrive unhesitatingly
at the conclusion, that to the pure improved Durham, we
must look for the basis of the desired improvement. A cross
with the Devon or Hereford, would sacrifice milking proper-
ties : the dwarfish and ill-shaped Alderney, is not to be thought
of: the Ayrshire or the Long Horn, possess no excellencies
that the Durham does not possess in a greater degree : and
the Holderness, and the Teeswater Short Horns, compared
with the improved race, are as the crude ore to the manu-
factured and polished metal.

Experience has already proved, that the cross between the
Durham and our common race, is a most judicious one, and
examples are not wanting of it in our own country. A few
years since, a bull, sired by Wye Comet, was introduced into
Homer, and his progeny are remarkable for their size, beauty,
and milking properties. They are but few, as most of our peo-
ple at that period, who gave a thought to the subject of the im-
provement of their cattle,and they were not numerous, preferred
the cloddy buttocked Yorkshires ! Yet, there is perhaps not one
of the immediate descendants of this bull, that would not be
readily selected out of a large herd of the best common cattle,
for its superior beauty of form.

The first cross between choice native cows and the im-
proved Short Horn, has generally resulted equally favorably ;
indeed, the very beauty of the produce, has tended to pre-
vent further attempts at improvement, by encouraging farmers
to breed directly from half and three-quarter bred bulls. They
frequently have little of the beauty of their sires, and their ser-
vices are to be more cheaply procured. But the character-
istics of a variety thus obtained, are not sufficiently stamped
upon them in the first, second, or even third or fourth cross,
to be perpetuated with any great degree of certainty in their
offspring. In the language of the Rev. Henry Berry, " to
breed from the produce of a cross directly among themselves,
will lead to the results which have induced many persons,
without due consideration, to believe conclusive against cros-
sing ; but to take one cross, and then return and adhere to
one breed, will in the course of a few generations, be found
to stamp a variety with sufficient certainty."

Repeatad experiments have amply demonstrated, that in-
terbreeding betwen the Durham and our common race, if con-
ducted on the principles advocated by Mr. Berry, viz : by &

255 ESSAT ON CATTLE.

constant resort to the pure blooded bull, is attended with a
decided and manifest improvement of the produce in every
successive generation. The bull selected, should be small of
his kind ; line in the bone ; unusually full in the crops and
bosom, and wide in the loin and haunch — points in which the
common breed are defective. He should be chosen too from
a family of decidedly good milkers. If the bull is large of
his kind, the produce are generally coarse, and marked with
the defects which attend too great disparity in the size of the
sire and dam. The dam should be as good in the points indi-
cated in the bull, as our means of selection admits of: short
legged, compact, deep in the girth, and a plentiful and steady
milker. We have already alluded to the change effected by
the farmers of Ayrshire on a purer breedj by a Short Horn
cross ; and there can be no good reason why the American
farmer, with the same skill and perseverance, may not be
equally successful. Indeed there are grade Durhams already
among us, which there can be no doubt equal or excel the
Ayrshire in every desirable point.

The Durham, as we have before remarked, requires more
feed than our small native cattle. This, his superior size,
would lead us to expect. But though a greater, he is a more
promiscuous consumer, the coarsest quality of hay or straw
being readily devoured by him. In England, straw, with a
very small allowance of turneps, constitute his exclusive store
keep in winter. But to bring this matter to its true test, wilt
the Durham yield as great a return in flesh, fat, or milk, for
the amount of food consumed, as any given breeed ? That
he will, by repeatedexperiment, as well as his daily advancing
popularity,- in a counti-y where there are many varieties
greatly excelling our own in aptitude to fatten, and at least
equaling them in milking properties, fully attest. The
amount of food required by him, therefore, forms no objection
to the impoved Shot Horn on good soils, either in his pure
Btate, or as a cross with others.

The only question is, will the recommended cross supply
us with working cattle ? It is asserted on the best authority,
that the pure blooded Durham ox, will " work admirably ;"
and the reason assigned for his not being oftener used for that
purpose in his native country, is, that his early maturity makes
him too valuable at three, for the butcher, to be retained with
profit until four or five, for the yoke. There can be but little
doubt that united with our smaller, but vigorous and active
race, a heavy and powerful variety of working cattle will be

ESSAY ON CATTLE.

257

produced. Those especially fed on upland and less nutritious
pastures, whose labor ought to compensate for their tardier
maturity, with size, feeding properties, and docility, increased
by the cross, will lose little, and probably nothing of the
activity and hardihood of the common race. To what pre-
cise extent interbreeding should be carried, to produce the
most valuable breed of working cattle, experience can alone
determine.

HENRY S. RANDAL.
Cortlandville, January, 21, 1.840.

The Nagore Bull.

A bull and cow were exhibited at the Christmas cattle show,
in 1832, under the denomination of Nagore cattle. They
were beautiful animals, and attracted much attention. They
were the property of Henry Perkins Esq., of Springfield,
near Wandsworth, to whom we are indebted for the substance
of the following account of them.

They were bred by Lieutenant-Colonel Skinner, at his

farm at Danah near Pokah, on the borders of the Bichaneer

desert, one hundred miles to the westward of Delhi. They

are not buffaloes, but of the highest breed of cattle. They

33

258 ESSAY ON CATTLE.

are used in India by the higher orders, to draw their state
carriages, and are much valured for their size, speed, and en-
durance, and sell at very high prices. These specimens ar-
rived at Calcutta, a distance of 1400 miles, in January, 1820,
and were then something under six months old. They were
sent as a present to Mr. Wood, who was then residing at Cal-
cutta, and by whom they were forwarded to Mr. Perkins.

Colonel Skinner has a large stock of them ; and six or
seven beasts are always kept saddled to carry the military
despatches. They remain saddled three or four hours, and
if not wanted in that time, fresh ones are brought out to re-
heve their companions. They will travel, with a soldier on
their back, fifteen or sixteen hours in the day, at the rate of
six miles an hour. Their action is particularly fine — nothing
like the English cattle, with the side-way, circular action of
their hind legs— the Nagore cattle bring their hind legs un-
der them in as straight a line as the horse. They are very
active, and can clear a five-barred gate with the greatest ease.
Mr. Perkins has a calf which has leaped over an iron fence
higher than any five barred gate ; and the bull frequently
jumps over the same fence in order to get at the water, and
when he has drank his fill leaps back again.

The bull (Jupiter) was in high condition when exhibited.
He was employed in a light cart, and various jobs about the
farm : sometimes he goes fore-horse in the wagon-team, to
deliver corn ; he also drags the bush-harrow, and draws the
light roller over the ploughed land. He is very docile and
tractable, when one man drives him, and attends upon him,
but he has, now and then, shown symptoms of dislike to
others.

He is fed entirely on hay. Except when he works, a little
bran is given to him, and in the turnip season he is treated
occasionally with a few slices of Sweedes, of which he is very,
fond. He was at first very troublesome to shoe ; and it was
necessary to erect a break in order to confine him. He was
unwilling to go into it for some time, but now walks in very
contentedly.

He is very fond of being noticed ; and often when he is
lying down, if any one to whom he is accustomed goes and
sits down upon him, and strokes him over the face, he will
turn around, and put his head in their lap, and lie there con-
tentedly as long as they please.

Mr. Perkins very properly observes, that the chief advan-
tage of these Brahmin bulls would probably consist in their

ESSAY ON CATTLE. 259

speed and strength, in both of which they surpass any of our
breeds.

The cow (Io) is at grass with the milch cows, and conies up
with them morning and evening, when they are driven to be
milked ; but Mr. Perkins has not ventured to have her milked,
on account of the probable danger of the attempt : the value
of these cattle for the pail is therefore unknown. Two calves
have been bred from them, and a milch cow is now in calf by
the bull.

Neither of the calves is yet old enough, or ready, for the
butcher and therefore the quality of the meat is unknown ;
but a strong perfume being left upon the hand when it passes
over them, there may possibly be a peculiar taint in the meat.

Coivs and Milk.

Every farmer or dairyman is aware that there is a vast dif-
ference in the quantity and quality of milk given by different
cows, yet this variation is made by very few the basis of any
calculation as to the actual profit or loss in keeping such ani-
mals. As a general rule, it must be admitted that cows that
yield a large quantity of milk, require more and better feed
than those which yield less, in order to maintain the same
flesh ; but this is a point much depending on the breed, and
its constitutional qualities. The average of the best common
dairy cows, will not for six months exceed ten quarts per day,
while numerous instances are on record, of cows which have
averaged more than double this quantity for the same period.
We very much question whether a majority of our cows pro-
duce half a pound of butter a day for the same period of time ;
while the instances are not a few, in which cows have
yielded from ten to twelve pounds per week, and some have
much exceeded this, as the examples we shall give will show.
We think if the vast difference in profit between a good and
a poor cow was duly considered, much more pains would be
taken to produce and rear such animals and breeds as would
best serve the purposes of the dairy or the farmer. There
is no propriety in the farmer's keeping some half a dozen in-
ferior cows to devour his pasture in the summer, and empty
his barns in winter, to make butter for his family, when half
the number of good animals will do it much better, and ena-
ble him to dispose of the extra fodder the others would con-
sume, <>v add to his other stock in the same proportion.

260 ESSAY ON CATTLE.

Very few instances have been given where the quantity of
milk from a number of cows has been determined with accu-
racy. Mr. Aiton, from the record of several years with a
herd of the best Kyloes or North of England cows, gives the
following result, in which confidence may be placed :

"First 50 days, 24 quarts per day, 1,200
Second " 20 " 1,000

Third " 14 " 700

Fourth " 8 " 400

Fifth " 8 " 400

Sixth " 4 " 300."

Being 4,000 quarts to each cow, or an average of 13 quarts
for 300 days.

In Dickson's Survey of Lancashire, the quantity of milk
produced by five short horned cows of the ordinary, not im-
proved breed, in the summer at pasture, and winter at hay
and turnips, is stated as follows :

"One which did not go dry at all, 4,857 quarts.

One dry eight weeks, 3,985 "

One dry six weeks, 3,987 "

. One dry " 3,695 "

One dry eighteen weeks, 3,383 "

A large dairy on the late Mr. Curwen's farm, gave on an
average of four years, 3,700 quarts to each cow, but the ave-
rage in Lancashire generally, it is stated at between 8 and 9
quarts. Some of the county reports in Transactions of the
Agricultural Society, average the quantity as below :

Devonshire, 12 "j

Cheshire, 8 V quarts per day.

Lancashire, 8 to 9 J

Mr. Wm. Crams, in Sussex, had a cow that in four years,
from 1805 to 1809, gave 23,549 quarts of milk, producing
2,132 pounds of butter ; probably the greatest instance of
continued productiveness on record. Since the improved
Short Horns have become so well known, occasional examples
of still greater amounts of butter or milk for a short time have
been furnished. Thus the Rev. Mr. Hacket, near Newark,
Eng., had a cow which produced 19 pounds of butter in a
week, though the average of the cows in that vicinity did not
exceed six pounds per week. A cow of Mr. Calvert produced
373 pounds of butter in 3*2 weeks ; and for 20 weeks averaged

ESSAY ON CATTLE. 261

20 quarts of milk a day. The Yorkshire cows have in many
instances been remarkable for the quantity of milk produced
by them ; many, during the height of the season, yielding 30
quarts a day, and instances have occurred of reaching 36
quarts.

The instances of uncommon productiveness both in milk
and butter, among the cows of this country, are very numer-
ous. These instances of great yields are more common among
the improved breeds of imported stock, or such as have been
derived from them, by crosses with the native stock of cattle,
than among the old stock alone. Thus Col. Jacques' Cream
Pot breed, the result of a cross between the Durham bull and
a native cow, has produced butter at the rate of 17 pounds in
a week. We noticed not long since in the Pennsylvania In-
quirer, a statement of Mr. Gowens' Short Horn cow "Dairy
Maid" which yielded 33J quarts of milk per day for a week;
but the most remarkable instance of productiveness in a cow,
all things considered, we have ever noticed, is found in the
following statemen of Mr. S. Canby, of Woodside, Delaware,
furnished for the Delaware Journal. Mr. Canby's cow is
called "Blossom," and is from the excellent stock of C. H.
Hall, esq., of New- York.

After mentioning Dairy Maid, Mr. C. adds : —

"I concluded to try my cow.Blossom, a statement of whose
milking for one week you will find below, and by which you
will perceive she averaged for the week over 35 quarts per
day, and yielded 13J pounds of well worked butter. * * My
dairy maid is firm in the belief that at a cooler season of the
year, or with a spring house, the cream she had from Blossom
would have yielded 15 or 16 pounds of butter.

"Uncommon as this produce may be, I do not consider it
more so than the fact of her never having been dry since she
had her first calf, more than two year ago, and in the space
of 25 months, has produced five living calves, viz — on the 5th
of April, 1838, she had her first calf (Delaware ;) on the 4th
of July, 1839, she had twins, (Liberty and Independence ;)
and on the 16th of May, 1840, she had twins again, (Romeo
and Juliet ;) and I think I can safely say, that during the
whole of that time she has averaged full 20 quarts of milk
per day ; she gave 25 quarts per day with her first calf, and
made nearly 12 pounds of butter per week."

Mr. Canby in both years tried to dry Blossom before calv-
ing, but found it impossible. If Mr. Canby is right in his

262 ESSAY ON CATTLE.

estimate of the average daily quantity of Blossom's milk, she
greatly exceeds any other cow on record in product. The
average of Mr. Cram's cow, which has been considered at the
head, was 5,837 quarts per annum, while Blossom's is 7,300.
The average yearly product in butter of Mr. Cram's cow was
533 pounds, and that of Blossom, as estimated by Mr. Canby,
624 pounds.

It is not to be expected that the average of the cows in any
country can be made to equal these extraordinary yields of
milk and butter ; yet when we see what has been done by
Col. Jacques, and to what perfection care and judicious selec-
tion has brought other breeds of domestic animals, we can
conceive no good reason why our dairies should not have their
profits vastly increased by improvements in the milking quali-
ties of the animals composing them.

Cooking Food for Animals.

All are aware that grain of almost every kind greatly in-
creases in bulk by steaming or boiling, and this bulk is great-
est at the moment the grain is swelled so as to crack or burst
its skin. It is also known that cooked food is far more nu-
tritious to animals, than that which is uncooked ; and many
have gone on the supposition that its value for food was
equal to its bulk in cooking. This is doubtless a mistake, as
the nutrive power of articles is rarely in proportion to their
size, and never perhaps exactly in proportion to their increase
of bulk in cooking.

Reaumur instituted a series of experiments to determine
the rate of increase in different articles of food most com-
monly used for animals, and found the result of some of them
as follows :

4 pints of oats after boiling, fijled 7 pints.
4 « barley " " 10 "

4 " buckwheat " " 14 "

4 " Indian corn " " 15 "

4 " Wheat " " 10 "

4 " Rye " " 15 "

In the continuation of his experiments to ascertain the
effect of such food on animals, that with some of these articles,
thomrh the bulk was much increased, the total of food re-

ESSAY ON CATTLE. 263

quired to satisfy the animal, was the same as if no cooking
had taken place ; or that an animal that would eat half a
bushel of oats dry, would eat a bushel cooked with the same
ease. The nutritive power was, however, apparently in-
creased, or the whole of it contained in the grain made avail-
able ; which, when grain is fed whole or raw it is rarely the
case. On the whole, he came to the conclusion that when
wheat, barly, or Indian corn, is used for feeding, it is far
more economical to boil or cook these grains, than to feed them
in a raw state ; but that little is gained on the score of economy,
when time, fuel, &c, are taken into consideration, in cooking
oats, rye and buckwheat.

In determining the question of economy, much we think is
depending on the manner in which the cooking of the grain
is performed, whether alone or with other substances, such
as roots. Alone, corn is the most improved by cooking of
any of the grains, and the valne of corn meal for making
pork, it has been shown by experiment, is almost doubled
when made into pudding. We have been long in the habit
of boiling and steaming potatoes for feeding pigs or making
pork. With them, in the early part of the feeding, we in-
corporate apples, squashes, pumpkins, or indeed almost any
vegetables of which swine are fond. The grain we use, is
ground, and either steamed with the roots, or mixed with the
hot mass in the vats, as it is taken from the steamer. As
the feeding progresses, the quantity of meal is increased, un-
til towards the last, that material alone is used. Corn is de-
cidedly the best grain for making pork ; peas and barley are
next ; with the others, we have had little experience, though
what we have had with buckwheat has impressed us favorably
of its value.

(Letter from Mr. T. Eades.)

Lexington, Ky., January 6th, 1854.

Dear Sir : Your letter requesting me to send you the
height, weight, and color of some of my half blood Brahmin
cattle, was received on yesterday. Some of them will weigh
over 100 pounds a month ; at the age of ten months, 1010
pounds; at six months, upwards of 600 pounds. I sold a
calf to Mr. Stratton of Mississippi that is now eighteen months

2G1 ESSAY ON CATTLE.

old and measures 14| hands high and finely proportioned, a
beautiful red. They are all red or white.

Yours, respectfully,

T. EADES.

P. S. — Take them altogether they are the thriftiest and
finest cattle I have ever seen, and make the best oxen.
I intend killing one in a few days, you can then by noticing
the newspapers of this place, learn what kind of beef they
make.

T. EADES.

Denton Offutt.

Gf-reat Calves.

We have collected from various sources the following
notices, which, more conclusively than any thing else, will
show the size of the Short Horns. This great size of the
progeny, however, renders the crossing wiih the "scrubs"
or common breed of cows, somewat dangerous ; as in a single
neighborhood we have known two instances in which cows
crossed with a Durham, died during parturition.

Good. — Mr. G. V. Sacket of Seneca-Falls, is the owner of
a Durham calf, which when four hours old, was carefully
weighed by a number of gentlemen, and found to weigh 110
pounds.

Very Good. — M. B. Simmons, of Madison, has a calf
which weighed when two days old, 122 pounds.

Still Better. — (We do not say the best, because we might
be obliged to recall it.) Dr. J. Miller, of Truzton, has a calf
of the Short Horn Durham, which, when one day old, weighed
132J pounds, and on the second day 136 pounds.

Yearling Durham Bull. — Mr. George Geddes, of Camil-
lus, has a Short Horn bull, which in April last at the age of
one year, weighed 900 pounds.

The Selection of Cows for the Dairy.

According to Mr. Quenon's discovery which has been pub-
lished by John Nefflen, I am pleased to learn of any improve-
ment that may be made on all subjects, so far as the marks

ESSAY ON CATTLE. 265

of bag and teats are concerned. But the natural laws of
physiology has not been considered by him, and this is the
basis and foundation of our subject, they are our stars on the
internal as the colors are are our sunshine, as the important
guide to the Divine Truth. The form of the bag, teats, and
the large veins of the belly has been noticed by myself and
many others.

Mr. Guenon in his book, has given several illustrations
showing the different marks on various cattle, which, no
doubt, has been of considerable profit to many, and will no
doubt continue to be of advantage to the public at large.

I have adverted in a previous work of mine, where I differ
with him on the subject of the head and mouth of the cow.
Mr. Guenon recommends the selection of cows with long
heads and wide mouths. In this we disagree, as I give the pref-
erence to those having a short head and small mouth, with a
large eye and full, for these, in my judgment, is the best evi-
dence of rapid fattening qualities and healthiness. The shape
of the leg or length of tail I maintain has nothing to do with
the production of the milk or the growth of the cow. Such
ideas I regard as not being founded on any basis, and there-
fore unnecessary for me further to dwell on.

The following are considered as favorable milk 'marks : —

a, a broad large mouth ;

6, yellow or short or thin horns ;

c, delicate, soft, short, and close hair ;

d, broad, well spread ribs ;

e, a broad chest ;
/, a thin long tail ;

<7, straight hind legs ;

h, a regularly arched udder, covered with a short, close
silky clown ;~

i, four teats of equal length and thickness ;

k. thick projecting so called lacteal veins, which run along
under the belly, under the udder, towards the fore-legs,
forming a fork at the end, and and finally losing them-
selves in a round cavity.

I, The milk-wart in the middle of the lower jaw, at the
broadest part, nearer to the mouth than to the throat.

The more important of these points, are the five latter, from
g to I. The others are less decisive.

The following are considered unfavorable milk-marks : —

a, long thick horns ;

O-i

266 ESSAY ON CATTLE.

5, a long, narrow, pointed head ;
e, a bull-like, puffy neck ;

d, indented, pointed spine ;

e, short narrow ribs, not much bent ;
/, a short, thick tail ;

g, thin, long, bristly hair ;

h, unequally vaulted udder, with a few long hairs ;

i, teats of unequal length and thickness ;

k, hind legs, like those of a goat, bent in the form of a
sickly ;

I, thin lacteal veins, almost imperceptible, without a fork,
terminating in a point, and without any or with a very
small and shallow indentation at the end.
.w, the milk-wart, when nearer the throat than the lower
lip or chin.

Among all these favorable and unfavorable signs, there is not
one which by itself is decisive, but several of them must con-
cur ; besides this, they do not indicate the yield of milk, and
still less the duration of this yield, from the time of calving
to the period when the animal goes dry. Nor do we find in
them any guide, not even a hint, what male animals are to
be selected for the propagation, to sustain the productiveness
of the breed, or to increase it by improvement.

Mr. Guenon's discovery is useful to many in selecting a cow
that will give the largest and different quantity of milk. So
far as it corresponds with the natural laws of physiology, I
am willing to credit it, but no further. To them as a prin-
ciple he makes no claim, but attempts to show that a long
head and broad mouth, with a dish face should be selected as
the most favorable marks ; he further adds that straight hind
legs and a long tail are good marks of a good milker. What
says the laws of Physiology ? Let us see how his principles
will agree with the largest and most thrifty milkers of Ameri-
ca, including the long and short horned cattle, and we will
see it is also most important to regard the color in selecting
cattle. The white is better for the South, red Devon for the
North, in order to endure the severe winters of that latitude.
But the largest and finest of all animals are of the crossed or
mixed color, or in other words, rhone or spotted ; or to go
further and add still another color, black, which makes what
is commonly known as brindle, is yet more desirable and adds
to its value. Examine the head of these cattle and you will
perceive the failure of his principle. The largest head has
the longest horn, but is not so desirable as the short head.

ESSAY ON CATTLE.

267

This doctrine applies to animals in general, the hog having
the shortest head and sharpest mouth, are the most growthy,
and the best milkers. A sow will suckle six pigs, affording
nourishment enough to increase the weight of each one of
them a pound a day, making in the aggregate six pounds per
day. The best sheep have short heads, full faces, and small
mouths, in this class are found the best milkers. As for their
legs and tails, they have no regular forms or length. An
evidence of the quantity of milk they produce is found in
the rapid growth of their lambs, in many instances growing
at the rate of a pound a day.

The Southern Cow.

This is a good Southern specimen, and would suit to cross
with the Short Horn.

Here are some doggerel lines, which so well express the
greater number of the good points of such a cow as we havo

268 ' ESSAY ON CATTLE.

been now describing, that we are tempted to copy them from
the Farmer's Magazine : —

She's short in her face, she's fine in her horn,
She'll quickly get fat without cake or corn ;
She's clean in her jaws, and small in her chine,
She's heavy ie flank, and wide in her loin.

She's broad in her ribs, and long in her rump,
A straight and round back, without even a hump ;
She's wide in her hips, and calm in her eyes.
She's fine in her shoulders^ and thin in her thighs.

She's light in her neck, and small in her tail,
She's wide in her breast, and good at the pail;
She's fine in her bone, and silky of skin —
She's a grazier's without, and a butcher's within.

■

Her colors are rich and bright,

Varying in their hues,

And of black, red, and white,

And her superiority is improved by sun-light

Diseased and Imjjerfeet Cow-.

The cow I here represent is a specimen of an imperfect
one — face round and rough, with big mouth, tapering of the
head is wanted, strength wanting, neck too small, the back nar"
row, the hips and thighs too small, and colors arc deficient.
All show want of strength and health.

This is a good bull, and suitable to cross with any other
breed.

The cross and the superiority is, that one animal is supe-
rior in frame, bone, and muscle ; another, the fattening quali-
ties. The Brahmin hump is a mark of good thrift, the high
head, superior back and hips, and colors of the richest kind.
The cross with others, the superior growth, the bones is small,
but this is given by the cow.

(See cut, on following "page.)
This is a very superior Short Horned Bull, and suitable to
cross with any other cattle.

272 ESSAY ON CATTLE.

In selecting the best breeds of horses, cattle, and hogs,
you should be careful to remember the four temperaments
heretofore alluded to, and the colors as given — white, red, and
black, with the bridle. The white animal fattens faster than
any other color, and endures the heat of the sun, but not the
cold, rain, or snow. The red is usually remarkably smooth
and hasty, but not so large as the white, but endures the rain,
cold, and snow, much better. The black in the sun, suffers
more from heat and fevers than either of the others, and ow-
ing to its thin skin, is not able to endure so much cold. By
crossing and intermixing these colors you will greatly improve
the breeds, and carry out the laws of nature. The red gives
the muscle, white the flesh, and the black the bones. Also in
their food, grass gives muscle and bones, while grain is better
adapted for creating the fat — which shows conclusively that
the laws of nature demand that they -should be taken to-
gether. When fed upon grain alone they become diseased.

THE SHEEP.

UA Method of obtaining a greater number of One Sex, at
the option of the Proprietor, in the Breeding of Live Stock,
Extracted from the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, No.
I. p. 63.

" In the Anales de l'Agriculture Francaise, vols. 37 and
38, some very interesting experiments are recorded, which
have lately been made in France, on the breeding of Live
Stock. Mr. Charles Girou cle Buzareingues proposed at a
meeting of the Agricultural Society of Severac, on the 3d of
July, 1026, to divide a flock of sheep into two equal parts,
so that a greater number of males or females, at the choice of
the proprietor, should be produced from each of them. Two
of the members of the Society offered their flocks to become
the subjects of his experiments, and the results have now
been communicated, which^are in accordance with the author's
expectations.

" The first experiment was conducted in the following man-
ner : He recommended very young rams be put to the flock
of ewes, from which the proprietor wished the greater num-

ESSAY OBf CATTLE.

273

ber of females in their offspring ; and also, that, during the
season when the rams were with the ewes, they should have
more abundant pasture than the other ; while, to the flock
from which the proprietor wished to obtain male lambs chiefly,
he recommended him to put strong and vigorous rams four
or five years old. The following tabular view contains the
result of this experiment i

Flock for Female Lambs*

Flock for Male Lambs.

Age of Mothers.

Sex of Lambs.

Age of Mothers.

Sex of Lambs.

Two years, -
Three years, -
Four years,- -

Total,

Five years and
older, - - -

Total,

Males.

14
15

5

35

18
35

Females.

26
29
21

76

8

84

Two years, -
Three years, -
Four years, -

Total,

Five years and
older,

Total,

Males.

7
15
33

55

25
80

Females.

3
14
14

31

24
55

N. B. — There were three
twin births in this flock. Two
rams served it, one fifteen
months, the other nearly two
years old.

N. B. — There were no
twin births in this flock.
Two strong rams, one four,
the other five years old, ser-
ved it.

" The general law, as far as we are able to detect it, seems
to be, that, when animals are in good Condition, plentifully
supplied with food, and kept from breeding as fast as they
might do, they are most likely to produce females. Or, in
other words, when a race of animals is in circumstances favor-
able for its increase, nature produces the greatest number of
that sex which, in animals that do not pair,- is most efficient
for increasing the numbers of the race : But, if they are in
a bad climate or on stinted pasture, or if they have already
given birth to a numerous offspring, then nature, setting limits
to the increase of the race, produces more males than females.
Yet, perhaps, it may be premature to deduce any law from
experiments which have not yet been sufficiently extended.
Mr. Girou is disposed to ascribe much of the effect to the
age of the ram, independent of the condition of the ewe."
35

274

ISSAT 05 CATTLE.

A gentleman of experience informed me that by putting
the bull to cows with empty bags in the morning, would have
a male calf, and by putting him to a cow with full bags, would
have have a female calf. I offer this to support my opinion
that a mare put to a stallion and fiery horse, would in the
morning have a male colt, and when the mare was weary,
warm, or feverish, would be a mare colt. Remembering that
the ages of the animals and all the combined circumstances,
will give you success.

Merino. — (Fattens well.)

ESSAY OJf CATTLS.

575

The New Leicester.

276

JE8SAT 021 CATTLE.

Cottswool Ram.

ESSAY ON CATTLE.

277

French Merino.

278

ESSAY ON CATTLE.

The Alpaca.

The Alpaca is the tallest sheep, with the longest neck below
the eyes; his face is not full enough, and the best cross with
the French Merino or Cottswool would improve the size above
all others.

Profits of Sheep Breeding in Countries that have large
Prairies, Woods, Grass, Herbage, and Cane Brakes.

In places of this character the animals will thrive best, and
needs no assistance from- man, as nature will always supply
a sufficiency. South of 35 degrees latitude the sheep will be
found more productive and healthy, which is owing to the
freshness of the pasture, and they breed much more frequent,
as often as twice a year, and frequently at the end of the
year the lamb has a lamb. Thus it will be seen that you can
have three lambs from one ewe during the year. If you se-
lect twin lambs for rams and repeat the crossing, you will

ESSAY ON CATTLE. 279

have more than one-half or two-thirds of lambs. I have seen
half of the flock twins, which will make a profit of 200 per
cent in the sheep, and 200 per cent in the wool. If you cross
them on a superior stock, there will be an additional gain of
200 per cent. I have seen a flock of sheep in Texas on the
Brazos river, in which there were two ewes that had fifty-
two sheep in four years. The entire expense of keeping
sheep, as above described, is only the cost of the feeding of
the dogs, and the salt to keep them in health.

{From the United States Agricultural Journal.)

GROW MORE WOOL.

Our own experience and observation have satisfied us that
there is no kind of farming that is so generally profitable as,
raising sheep and wool. It matters not whether you are upon
the bleak mountains of Vermont or in the fertile plains of
Texas ; upon the prairies of the West, or the now solitary
hills and mountains of the South. Everywhere and anywhere
the sheep will live and thrive, and with proper care pay more
for the labor and capital invested than any other animal, or
any other system of farming. It is one of the most useful
and economical machineries which has been given us to con-
vert the vegetation of the farm to money. Were it for the
first time presented to us, we should consider the sheep one
of the most wonderful animals nature has produced for the
use of man. Its annual growth of wool, so admirably calcu-
lated for human clothing, and used in every portion of the
globe — its skin and flesh, and in many localities its milk, all
serve for the necessaries or luxuries of man.

There is no animal in which thereis so little waste or so little
loss. Of all other animals the cow comes nearest to the sheep
in the profit it returns to the farmer, for if well cared for, it
will pay for itself each year by the milk it yields, and defray
also, a portion of the cost of keeping. But the sheep, for at
least seven years of its life, will give an annual fleece each
year equal to the value of the carcass ; and the yearly in -
crease will be nearly or quite equal to the cost of keeping,
giving as a general thing a profit of cent per cent.

Is there any branch of farming or any other legitimate
business that will yield for a series of years a profit of ten

280 ESSAY 05 CATTLE.

per cent T We assume that there is none. The very idea
that profits of 50 per cent, would be realized in any branch
of business, would set the whole eapital of the country in
motion. Farms would be sold, merchants would sell off their
stocks, bankers close their banks, and indeed everybody who
had money to invest would rush into this gold mine.

We aver without fear of contradiction, in truth, that where
any kind of farm animals can find subsistence, that sheep if
properly attended to, will give a net profit on the investment
of at least fifty per cent., and that with the ordinary manage-
ment of farms, it will give some 20 to 40 per cent.

That there is no danger of overdoing the business we have
shown repeatedly in previous numbers. The annual increase
of population in the Union, requires the wool from three mil-
lions of sheep, so that to clothe the increased population
would require an annual increase of sheep equal to four mil-
lions.-

But when we come to consider that there is now an annual
deficiency of over seventy millions of pounds, there can be no
doubt that the wool-growing is the most stable pursuit that
can be engaged in. We cannot glut the market, nor will
there be any long time that the market will be depressed be-
yond the profitable point of production. On the contrary,
it is certain that, no farm product goes less often below this
point than wool. It has long been a source of constant won-
der to us, that so many farmers in Ohio and the Western
States neglected the sheep, for the very precarious business
of grain growing. Every year will give them a crop of wool
if they but take care of their sheep. But there is no certainty
for wheat, prepare the good ground ever so well. If we have
been rightly informed, the wheat raised in the West, has cost
the farmer more than he has obtained for it in the market.
Too much dependence has been placed upon this most uncer-
tain and expensive crop. We have tried wheat growing,
upon probably, as good a wheat farm as can be found in
Western New York ; and we have also tried sheep on the
same farm, and we are free to confess that although we have
a good market at our own door, yet we can raise a given
amount of money quicker, and much easier with a flock of
sheep than with wheat. But we find it well to raise both
sheep and wheat, as by that means we find we get better
profit than to be confined to either alone, while indeed most
land, that can be plowed, is the better to come at regular,
and not long, periods under the plow. With us in this re-

ESSAY OK HOGS. 281

gion, four years is aslong as it proves profitable to leave land
to grass. Very few resort to naked fallows. Some mow their
clover early and let it grow till August, when it is turned
under, cultivated, and sown to wheat ; others mow the first
year and pasture with sheep the second, and then plow.
Every good farmer keeps a few sheep at least. Very many
who have been in the habit of putting up a large quantity of
pork for summer use, now select out a few wethers, and give
them extra keep and make their summer meat of mutton —
decidedly the most healthful meat that can be used fresh,
and thus realize the money for their pork fresh.

The inducements to grow more wool are, a sure market,
less fluctuation from the point of profitable production than
any farm product, a larger interest or profit on the capital
invested than any other business, and therefore the best busi-
ness as a general thing the farmer can follow.

T. C. PETERS.
— Wool Grower.

THE HOG.

How much Pork will a bushel of Corn make*

This will depend on the quality of the hog, the water he
has, and the weather and field he is fed in. The spring, or
in mild and pleasant weather, and the privilege to seek his
own desires on the variots grass and roots. This I consider
an important question, as experience clearly proves. Writers
often contend for souring the food ; why is it that animals
fatten faster on sugar cane and molasses than any other food.
I urge all to notice the importance of change of diet, as it is,
to a certain extent, a medicine. The growth of all animals
is to partake of the several qualities of food ; certain parts
gives bone, another the muscle, another the fat, another the
fluids. What grain will give the best proportions to animal
life is yet an unsettled question.

This I consider an important question, and one that all
farmers ought to be able to answer. I will answer the ques-
tion by giving the result of an actual experiment, which is
the only way of obtaining correct information. Some years
36

282 ESSAY ON HOGS.

ago I was desirous of obtaining information as to the best
mode and most profitable way of fattening hogs. I inquired
of my neighbors and found some in favor of close-floored pens
and others large dry lots, and as to the amount of pork a
bushel of corn would make, their opinions were as various as
their countenances. I was just beginning to farm, and as I
was desirous of knowing the best way of fattening hogs, I
determined to try the different plans ; and also how much
pork a barrel of corn would make. I made a floored pen and
covered it in, weighed three hogs and put them in the pen ;
I also weighed three others of the same size and put them in
a dry lot, (average weight 175 pounds,) I fed six barrels of
corn to the six hogs ; they were forty days eating the corn,
with plenty of salt and water. Their average gain was 75
pounds. The hogs that was fattened in the lot gained the
most, one gained 88 pounds, one in the pen gained 84 pounds,
the other four were not so thrifty. These hogs were about
fourteen months old when slaughtered ; I put them up the
25th of October, there was a good deal of sleet and snow dur-
ing the month of November, which gave the hogs in the pen
an advantage they would not have had if the weather was
favorable ; they ate the same quantity of grain in the same
time. It also shows that the six barrels of corn made $11,25
worth of pork at 2J cents per pounds, and the farmer gets
12£ cents for his labor for feeding per bushel, over selling at
25 cents per bushel. Hogs will fatten faster in September
and October, than they will in colder weather. A few years
ago I fed one barrel of corn to a very fine Berkshire hog that
was about thirty months old, in the months of August and
September, and he gained 97 pounds in 85 days, which was
the length of time he was eating the barrel of corn. He ran
on a clover-field which was a great advantage to him.

This last experiment is considerably over an average and
would not hold good with common hogs. From the above ex-
periment it will be seen that of pounds of corn, (supposing
the corn to weigh 55 pounds to the bushel,) will make 1 pound
of pork. Mr. Arnott thinks this will not hold good with an
experiment. Subsequently observation has satisfied me that
the foregoing experiment as detailed, will do to practice upon.
Another very important question or inquiry suggests itself
from the foregoing, and that is, what is it worth to raise hogs
to the average weight of 175 pounds.

A correct answer to this question, based on actual experi-
ment, would be of great importance to farmers. To value the

ESSAY ON HOGS. 283

grass, clover, and grain fields that the hogs feed on while
growing to a gross weight of 180 or 200 pounds is scarcely
susceptible of being arrived at by experiment, yet with their
assistance I can raise a hog of 175 pounds and over with one
barrel of corn. It will be seen from these estimates that two
barrels of corn, with the advantage of grass and grain fields
will produce about 200 pounds of net pork, or 250 gross.
Estimating the corn at 25 cents a bushel, this would give the
farmer $1,50 for his grass, grain, fields, capital, stock, and
his labor. To sell corn at 25 cents a bushel is very unprofit-
able business, when we take into consideration the wear of the
land and pork at $2,50 per 100 pounds. If we take into
count the absolute necessity of clovering our land and im-
proving it, I have no hesitation in saying that it is better for
the farmer to raise pork at $2,50 than to sell corn at 25 cents
per bushel.

Hogs do best in large fields with plenty of water, and the
farmer now cuts up his corn in the months of September
and October, and he will be amply paid for his labor in the
improvement of his land for the sake of the manure of the
hog. It is a great saving of labor to turn the hogs in the
field when the hogs suits the size of the field.

W. M. JACKSON.

Fayette, Mo., August 10, 1853.

The Farmer's Magazine says, "I am indebted to a worthy
and sensible friend, and a friend also of the poor, for the
following estimate of what I shall term "pig population,"
and set it in array against the increasing demands of the
home population, which goes on at the rate of not quite 1£
per cent per annum — nay little more than 1£, by the last ten
years' census. I think with the assistance of my above-men-
tioned friend, I can feed the supernumeraries well, and in this
way, at any rate, save their bacon. Would you credit the
assertion that in ten years — ten short years — that from two
breeding sows many millions can be produced ? Would you
suppose (for I had no conception of the fact,) that more than
the present, or even anticipated population of the country for
ten years to come, is not equal to the number of pigs to be
thus born and bred in the same short period, if we choose ?
But I shall proceed to the proof and give the figures, which
are unanswerable arguments when well founded.

284

BSSAY ON HOGS.

His calculation then, is as follows, viz : that in one year,
two sows (one year old) will breed ten each, of which we shall
assume that one half are females, and so proceed on that as-
sumed equality :

The first year there will be males and females - 20

From which take males - 10

We have the result as breeders ... Jq

At the second year then, we may fairly take the

same ratio of ten to each, viz : - - 2)100

And it gives 100 males and females, leaving for
the third year -»«.•>.•--.
(I shall now drop the text, and merely give the fig-
ures, the same principle applying throughout,

50
10

2)500

250
10

The fourth year

Fifth year

Sixth year

Seventh year

Eighth year

Ninth year

Tenth year, males and females

2)2,500

1,250
10

- 2)12,500

6,250
10

- 2)62,500

31,260
10

- 2)312,500

156,250
10

- 2)1,562,500

781,250
10

-2)7,812,500

3,906,250
10

- 39,062,500

I hope my friend has brought his pigs to a good market ;
but to equalize the supply, I shall for the present purpose,
take only the male half of the pig population for food, leav-
ing the breeders to go on. In this way we can kill and eat
ten the first year (no bad increase from two sows, recollect) ;

ESSAY ON HOGS. 285

the second year 50 ; the third year 250 ; the fourth 1,250 ;
the fifth 6,250 ; the sixth 31,250 (pork in abundance now) ;
the seventh 156,250 ; the eighth 781,250 ; the ninth 3,906,-
250 ; and the tenth (when divided in like manner,) the enor-
mous number of 19,531,250 for food, without interfering with
the breeders, who I presume by this time, will probably need
killing also. Now I am not aware that much commentary is
necessary on this prolific subject ; every man who reads this
work will at once draw his own conclusion from the facts.

Berkshire Hog Constitution. .

Messrs. Editors — We send you a plate, and a short ac-
count of a Berkshire hog, bred and fed by us, of which the
above plate is a good likeness, with the exception of his hav-
ing four white feet, and a small strip of white in his face. He
was put up to fatten on the tenth day of September, at which
time he was calculated to weigh from one hundred and thirty
to one hundred and sixty pounds alive — he was slaughtered
on the twenty-fourth of February last, and weighed six hun-
dred and twenty-six pounds. Supposing his dead weight at
the commencement of fattening to be one hundred and thirty
pounds, which we are confident if an error, it is on the favor-
able side — it gives him an increase of four hundred and ninety-
six pounds, in one hundred and sixty-six days. His weight
we do not think so very extraordinary, only in his attaining
it in so short a time. It is our impression, that he would
have attained the weight of eight hundred pounds, had the
season of the year warranted us in keeping him two months
longer.

He measured in height two feet eight iuches ; from his
ears to the root of his tail, four feet eleven inches ; round the
body back of his shoulders, seven feet one inch; breadth
over his shoulders, two feet four inches — over his loin, two
feet two inches — when clove down the back he measured one
foot four inches deep on the shoulder, and his hams weighed
sixty, and sixty-one and a half pounds, which are all lean
with the exception of about one and a half inches only of fat
on the outside.

We wish at the same time, to inform those subscribers to
your invaluabie journal, who are breeders of Berkshire pigs,
two boars and two sows, selected by him expressly for us, re-

286 BSSAT ON HOGS.

gardless of trouble and expense, with a view of carrying for-
ward and imgroving on the properties of those hogs, previ-
ously imported by him, of which we held a good sample. They
are in color similar to those formerly imported, and sent out
by the same gentleman. To give a minute description of
them, would be unnecessarily encroaching on your room, as
every individual either personally acquainted with Mr. Hawes,
or possessed of some good hogs, descended from his importa-
tions, is no doubt convinced of his good judgement, and will
readily admit their claim to superior excellence.

We shall have six or eight litters of pigs to dispose of, the
present spring, the produce of four different boars, (one im-
ported,) between which there are no connection, which will
enable us to select our pigs for customers ordering them by
letter, from different sires, and dams, which will be an advan-
tage as regards their future progeny.

We are most respectfully,

A. & G. BRENTNALL.

Canterbury, Orange, Co. N. Y.

A certain Cure for the Scours.

I had a mare that had the scours so bad, that it reduced
her to such a state of debility, that she could not get up- and
down ; and the final result was, that her hoofs came off, and
new ones grew out. I tried every thing that I had seen pre-
scribed in the Farmer and Cultivator, without success. The
young men that worked my farm, then procured the leaves
and roots of the red, not the black raspberry, and made a
strong tea of it, and gave it to the beast three times a day.
In a few days she got upon her feet without assistance, and
the result was, a perfect cure. A. H. N.

A Good Pig. — Mr. Bailey Birge of Norfolk, Ct., lately
butchered a pig eight months and twenty-one days old, which
weighed when dressed four hundred and forty -three pounds.

The pig was a half blood Berkshire, crossed with some na-
tive breed. For sometime before it was butchered, its weight
forbid its rising, nor could it see, unless the fat was pressed
away from its eyes.

ESSAY ON HOGS.

288

Alligator.

Landpike.

Wild Hog.

288

ESSAY ON HOGS.

Berkshire.

Chinese.

ESSAY ON HOGS.

289

Berkshire.

What is the best form of the hog ? 1st, short head ; 2d, full
face, from the eyes up. The round head gives a round body, but
if the jaws (see Chinese hog, page 228) are very large, as repre-
sented in cut, the belly is too large. The cuts runs up to the most
perfect hog with full face. The hog fattens to a dishface, but
the best natural face is fullest ; the length of the hog, like>U
other animals is the growth in front of the heart and full face.
Length of the body and strength of the back depends on
the strength at the joining of the neck to the head. Three
colors in the hog is like the cow; the best is, white, red, and
black. If all three is combined in one, the better, but two
should be in all, to be the best quality. I hope what I have
said will be your guide, and suit your own fancy to direct you.
37

290

ESSAY ON HOGS.

•h('///

Best Food to Fatten Hogs.

"Variety is the spice of life." So in fattening hogs, a
great deal depends upon the variety of their food, of which
there are about 220 kinds eaten by them. This variety of
food affects the different zones of the body, that is, the nerves,
stomach, and bowels. Hence the greater variety of food, the
faster the hog will fatten. Grain, roots, and vegetables are
always desirable and necessary for the health of the hog.
When fed on grain alone, hogs will fatten one pound per day,
but give them grain, grass and roots together in abundance,
and they will fatten two pounds per day. This truth I have
fully tested, by giving grain with apples and grass. Spring
water is best for drink, and all that makes them comfortable
is to be given them.

ESSAY ON HOGS.

291

Berkshire,

292

ESSAY ON HOGS.

Woburn*

ESSAY ON HOGS.

293

Berkshire.

294

ESSAY ON HOQS.
\

A G-ood Cross.

Nine animals — three qualities to each, as described on page 225

^\

_-- a

The Saddle.

The saddle has a piece tied on the front to prevent the horse
from throwing the rider over his head. The sircingle should
he double, and on lacing it, run it through the rings, so that
you may have it tight to prevent hirn from rearing and falling
backwards as some do. Bridle of bare snaffle-bit that will
not hurt the mouth, but will keep him from jumping or run-
ning away.. The reins for the bridle should be long and round.
Take the rein of the right side over the top of the head and
through the left check-ring, and the left rein over to the right
check-ring ; this is double leverage, and acts on the edges of
the lips instead of the jaw-bones.

Facts concerning the Feathered Tribe.

You may control them for a short time by placing them on
the ground on their back or face, and by drawing a mark
from the bill with the finger or a piece of chalk, on the ground
around them.

Protection against Snakes.

It is well known by many that a snake will not pass over a
rope laid around your tent. If you make a mark in the dust
around a snake, he will remain there for a day or more. A
small woollen or cotton cord will protect you and your horse
from him by placing it around the place you wish him to graze
in for the night.

A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN THE TREAT-
MENT OF THE DISEASES OF ANIMALS.

In the present imperfect state of the knowledge of the dis-
eases of cattle and their remedial treatment, it may be sup-
posed that many gross errors are committed— many inert or
injurious medicines administered — many complaints aggrava-
ted, and thousands of animals lost. The pharmacopoeia of
the cow-leech does not indeed contain a numerous list of
drugs, but a considerable portion of them are either useless
or dangerous, or administered in ineffectual or destructive
doses. It is not, however, the object of the editor of this
work to draw up a catalogue of errors and abuses in cattle-
practice, although he might easily present one, ridiculous and
disgusting to an almost inconceivable degree ; but to describe
the properties, and doses, and combinations of those medi-
cines which the experience of rational practitioners in former
times, and the inquiries of scientific men in these later years,
of veterinary improvement, have sanctioned.

Alcohol.— There are two circumstances which not only
render the practice of giving stimulants to cattle far more ex-
cusable than in the horse, but absolutely necessary : the first
is the disposition which all the inflammatory diseases of cattle
have to take on a typhoid form, and assume a malignant char-
acter— and the second is, the construction of the stomachs of
these animals, in consequence of which a considerable portion
of the mediaine falls into the comparatively insensible paunch.
Hence, inflammation having been subdued, the practitioner
is always anxious to support the strength of the constitution ;
and even while he is combating inflammation, he cautiously
adds a stimulant to the purgative, in order that he may dis-
pose the tissues with which that purgative may come into con-
tact to be affected by it.

Aloes. — This is the best, and almost the only purgative on
which dependence can be placed in the treatment of the
horse ; but it holds a secondary rank, or might be almost dis-
missed from the list of cattle-aperients. It is always uncer-
tain in its effect, and sometimes appears to be absolutely
inert.

MEDICINES. 301

Alteratives. — These are medicines that are supposed to
have a slow yet benefical effect in altering some diseased ac-
tion of the vessels of the skin or of the organs of circulation
or digestion. To a cow with yellows, or mange, or that can-
not be made to acquire condition, or where the milk is dimin-
ishing, small quantities of medicine are often administered
under the tempting, but deceptive, term of alteratives. They
had much better be let alone in the majority of cases.

Alum. — This is a useful astringent in diarrhoea, and es-
pecially in the purging of calves. It is best administered in
the form of alum whey, which is composed of two drachms of
powdered alum, dissolved in a pint of hot milk ; a drachm of
ginger may be added ; and, if the purging is violent, a scru-
ple of opium.

Anodynes. — The only one used in cattle-practice is opium.
The doses in which it may be employed have -already been
pointed out when treating of the diseases in which it is indi-
cated.

Antimony. — There are but three preparations of it that
can be useful to the practitioner on cattle. The first is

Emetic Tartar, which, in doses from half a drachm to a
drachm, and combined with nitre and digitalis, has great
efficacy in lowering the circulation of the blood in inflamma-
tion of the lungs and every catarrhal affection, and particu-
larly in that species of pleurisy to which cattle are so subject.
Emetic tartar, rubbed down with lard, constitutes a powerful
and very useful stimulant when applied to the skin.

Antimonial Powder. — The powder of oxide of antimony
with phosphate of lime. It is frequently sold in the shops
under the name of James's Powder, and possesses all the
properties of that more expensive drug. It is a useful febri-
fuge in cases where it may not be advisable to nauseate the
beast to too great a degree.

Antispasmodics. — Opium, for its general power, and par-
ticularly for its efficacy in locked jaw, stands unrivalled. The
spirits of tupentine and nitrous either are useful in cases of
colic.

Astringents. — These are few in number, but they are pow-
erful : alum, catechu, opium (an astringent because it is an
anodyne) and blue vitriol comprise the list ; the first used
both externally and internally ; the two next internally ; and
the last internally, but chiefly powerful as arresting nasal
discharge.

Calombo. — A very useful tonic, and especially in those

302 MEDICINES.

cases of debility which accompany or follow dysentery. It
should be given in doses of from one to three drachms, com-
bined with ginger.

Camphor. — Used externally alone in cattle-practice. It
is a component part in the liniments for palsy and garget.

Chamomile. — If it were necessary to add another tonic to
the gentian and calombo it would be the chamomile, and on
the principle of not being so powerful as either of the others,
and therefore used in somewhat doubtful cases, when, if the
state of fever has not quite passed over a stronger stimulent
might have been prejudicial.

Copper.— There are but two compounds of this metal that
have any value in cattle-practice, and they are the Blue Vit-
riol, or sulphate of copper, and Verdigris, or acetate of
copper. The use of the first is limited to the coryza, or in-
flammation of and defluxion from the nose in cattle, accom-
panied by little or no cough or fever, and which is sometimes
in a manner epidemic. The manner of administering it is
described. As a caustic the blue vitriol is altogether super-
seded by those mentioned under that head.

Cordials. — These are destructively abused by many cow-
leeches, but, as has been again and again stated, there is that
in the structure and constitution of cattle, which will excuse
their adminstration much oftener than in the horse. Except
in extreme cases, and when their use is sanctioned by the de-
cision of a competent veterinary practitioner, they should not
extend beyond good home-brewed ale, and ginger and car-
raways ; or, perhaps, because the farmer will seldom believe
that a drink for a cow can be good for anything unless it
stinks of aniseed, a few drops of the oil of those seeds may
be allowed. The bay berries, and cardamom seeds, and cori-
ander seeds, and cumin seeds, and diapente, and elecampane,
and fennel seeds, and fenugreek seeds, and grains of para-
dise, and juniper berries, and horse-spice, and peper, and va-
rious other pungent aromatics that encumber the shelves and
loads the drinks of him of the old school, should be banished
from the pharmecopoeia of the rational practitioner of cattle-
medicine.

Digitalis {Foxglove.) — The leaves of this plant, gathered
about the flowering season, dried, kept in the dark, and pow-
dered when wanted, are most valuable in diminishing the
frequency of the pulse, and the general irritability of the
system in cattle. A reference to the treatment of almost
every febrile disease will illustrate this. The dose is from

MEDICINES. 303

half a drachm to a drachm, with emetic tartar, nitre and sul-
phur, and administered twice or thrice in the day, according
to the urgency of the case. The practitioner must not be
alarmtd at the intermittent pulse which is produced, It is
by means of certain pauses and intermissions in the action of
the heart, that the rapidity of the circulation is diminished
when this drug is exhibited. The intermittent pulse is that
which the practitioner will be anxious to obtain, and which
he will generally regard as the harbinger of returning health.
Diuretics. — Theso fortunately are not so much used in cat-
tle practice as in that of the horse; they are, however, al-
lowable and beneficial in swelled legs, foul in the foot, and
all dropsical affections, while they advantageously alternate
with other medicines in the treatment of mange, and all cu-
taneous affections, and in cases of mild or chronic fever. Ni-
tre and liquid turpentine are the best diuretics ; and almost
the only ones on which independence can be placed. The
doses have been already pointed out.

Cfinger.— The very best aromatic in the list of cordials for
cattle, and with the exception of carraways^ superseding all
the rest. The dose will vary from half a drachm to four
drachms.

Ipecacuanha. — This drug is used in the compound ipecacu-
anha powder, which has been recommended by some practi-
tioners in the treatment of dysentery. It is thus — ' Take
ipecacuanha root powdered, and opium also in powder, of
each a drachm, and sulphate of potash an ounce. Rub them
together to a fine powder.' The dose is from two to four
drachms. This, however, is not an efficient medicine for this
disease.

Lara. — This is the principal basis of all ointments.
Laudanum. — See Opium.

Lime. Carbonate of Lime, Chalks — This is a useful in-
gredient in all the drinks given in diarrhoea or dysentery.
In every stage of these diseases there is a tendency in the
fourth stomach, and perhaps in the intestines, to generate a
considerable quantity of acid, than which a greater source of
irritation can scarcely be imagined. The chalk, or the al-
kali of the chalk, will unite with this acid, and neutralize it,
and render it harmless. In the diarrhoea of the calf it is
absolutely indispensible, for there the acid principle is fre-
quently developed to a great degree. The dose will vary
from a drachm to an ounce.

Linseed. — Nothing can campare with the linseed meal as

3U4 MEDICINES.

an emollient poultice — if the ulcer is foul, a little of the chlo-
ride of lime should be mixed with it. If the object of the
poultice is to bring an ulcer into a proper state of suppura-
tion, a little common turpentine may be added ; but the cru-
elly-torturing caustics of the cow-leech and the farrier should
never disgrace the regular practitioner.

An excellent mash in cases of catarrh or sore-throat, and
as an emollient in any intestinal affection, is made by adding
bran to an infusion of linseed.

Linseed Oil. — Lard oil I prefer to castor-oil as as a pur-
gative ; it is much cheaper, and, it is . equally safe. Where
the case seems to indicate an oily purgative, and the first dose
of lard oil fails, it may be followed up by smaller doses of
linseed oil, until the desired effect is produced.

Mashes are very useful in cattle-practice, not so much to
prepare for physic, or to get into condition, as to form a
soothing and cooling substitute, when the case requires a tem-
porary abstinence from dry and stimulating food. They may
be composed, like those of the horse, of bran only, with hot
or cold water ; or of bran with a decoction of linseed. In
cases of debility, steeped or ground oats may be mixed with
the bran, or malt may be used as a substitute for the bran
and oats.

Mint. — An infusien or decoction of this plant will be a use-
ful vehicle in which other medicines may be administered for
the cure of diarrhoea or colic.

Myrrh. — The tincture of myrrh is a useful application to
wounds, and is also applied to the cankered mouth; but it
contains nothing to render it preferable to the tincture of
aloes in the former case, or a solution of alum in the .latter.

Nitre — See Potash.

Nitrous Ether, Spirit of. — A favorite medicine with many
practitioners in the advanced stages of fever. It is said to
rouse, to a certain degree, the exhausted powers of the ani-
mal, while it rarely brings back the dangerous febrile action
that was subsiding. It is not, however, a stimulant to which
the author has often dared to have recourse, except in the
advanced stages of epidemic catarrh, or the malignant epi-
demic. The dose should not exceed half an ounce.

Nux Vomica. — This is not introduced from any experience
which the author has had of its efficacy, but from the favora-
ble opinion which some continental veterinarians have ex-
pressed of it in the cure of palsy. The doses which they ,
gave consisted of more than an ounce. The author has tried

MEDICINES.

305

the nux vomica, and its essential principle, the strychinine,
as a cure for palsy in the dog, but never with success.

Opium. — As an anti-spasmodic, an allayer of irritation,
opium stands unrivalled.

White Vitriol. — This is a useful tonic application to the
eyes, when the inflammation has been subdued, and debility
of the vessels alone remains. It is particularly useful after
inflammation of the haw of the eye. Some administer it in
red water, and others in dysentery, very improperly. As a
general caustic it is superseded by many others.

A table of the weights and measures generally used in the
compounding of medicines.

The Pound
Ounce
Drachm

"Scruple

The Gallon
Pint

Fluid ounce
Fluid drachm

WEIGHT.

contains

Twelve ounces.
" Eight drachms.

" Three scruples.

" Twenty grains.

MEASURE OF FLUIDS.

" Eight pints.

" Sixteen fluid ounces.

Eight fluid drachms.

Sixty minium or drops.

Tablespoonful will regulate the ounce.

Tabular view of the most common doses of the agents employ-
ed internally in the horse.

Substances.

Aloes Barbadoes.

Alum.

Antimony.

Arsenic.

Belladonna.

Camphor.

Doses.

Six drachms.
Three do.
Two do.
One to ten grains.
Two drachms.
One do.

Cantharadies. Three grains.

Carraway seed or oil Six drachms.
Chalk. One ounce.

Action.

Purgative.
Astringent.
Sedative.
Tonic.
Narcotic.

Sedative, anti-spas-
[modic.
Tonic.

Carminative.
Absorbent

306

MEDICINES.

Copper acetata.

Digatalis.

Gentian.

Ginger.

Iron, sulphate of

Lime water.

Linseed oil.

Myrrh.

Nilere.

Opium.

Rosin.

Two drachms.
Thirty grains.'
Three drachms.
Three do.
Four do.
Two ounces.
Twelve do.
Two drachms.
Three do.
Two do.

Four do.

Tonic.
Sedative.
Tonic.
Cordial.
Tonic.

Gallon tonic.
Cathartic.
Tonic & astringent.
Diaretic.

Setative and anti-
spasmodic.
Diaretic.

INDEX

A.

An inquiry concerning the soul of brutes

Admirers of science, -

Adopting food to climate -

Amount of food required by animals - ■

Ages of horses -

Application of natural laws

Animals, ten

Benevolent horse
Benevolence of the Hog

Cruelty to animals
Comparative physiognomy
Combe's Constitution
Cure glanders -
Colic

B.

C.

51
108
163
170

210
231
225

104
105

47

63

83

171

196

307 INDEX.

Crossing of animals ------- 220

Circulation of blood - 228

D,
Dialogue between man and horse - - - - 37

Defence of Neurology ..-.-- 49

Dog attending Church 104

Diseases or disorders ------- 160

Diseases of the horse ._-.-- 176

E.
Exercise - - * - - -- - -13

Essay on cattle 244

F.

Flies and hot sun - 171

Feet diseases 173

H.
Horse gig --.,-,.. 35
Health 157

Hog, pork, corn 281

I.

Intellectual laws of man and animals - - - - 92

L.

Learned dogs, hogs, goats, and birds - 104

Language of the horse 36

M.
Make a horse used to steam engines - - - - 22
Make a horse stand where you leave him - - - 23
Moral laws. - - -'- - - - -95

Mortality - 97

List of Medicines 300

N.
Natural laws of creation - - - - • - 8 9
Nicking horses - 174

INDEX. 308

0.

On the Mismanagement of farm horses - - - 121

P.

Principles - - - -19

Preface on teaching the horse - - - - - 10

Plans and receipts for training and teaching horses, cat-
tle, &c. - - - - - - - - - 30

Phrenology of animals - - - - - - 69

Phrenology and physiology applicable to man and horse 104
Plow horses in the sun - - - -. - 172

S.
Sympathy and sagacity of the cow - - - - 105

Symptoms of diseases of the horse - 115

Sheep - - ------- 159

Stall to gentle the horse in - - - - -13

T.

The theoretical education of the sporting dog - - 54

The practical education of the sporting dog - - - 58

Teaching horses to perform twenty-four performances, -9-30

The manner of obtaining a good seat - - - - 45

V.

Vegetative laws of creation - - - - - 90

W.

Workhorse 15

Why is not man immortal and beast mortal - - 100

Water-cure - 166

Wild horses, cattle, and hogs 241

Wool growing - 279

===== ===== n — — s

»♦

m

\4,

Perfect Head. Imperfect Head.

Salt is one of the Universal Medicines.

A strong tonic, stimulates circulation and support's the
pulse, relieves the lungs, coughs, and colds ; aids breathing
and acids of stomach that often causes scours. I end, by re-
commending it to you for coughs or colds, sore throats, and
inflammation of the lungs, in man and beast. Relief will be
given in a short time. Keep it before you for all your stock,
but do not use that which is made by boiling — the bitter wa-
ter is poison to them.

Sulphur in small quantities is a good medicine in salt ; it re-
lieves fevers, prevents ticks, lice, and worms.

Antimony is useful to relieve hogs of worms, and given to
make them fatten ; must be given spring and fall.

Food. All animals are better with a variety of grass in the
field, and dry good straw, wheat or rye is good for them. So
in winter give them a good variety of grain, corn, oats, barley,
Rye, and roots, fodder, hay, clover, reed-top timothy, &c,.

TO SUBSCRIBERS.

We, the undersigned, have each of us purchased of Mr.
Denton Offutt, a copy of his book in relation to educated
horses ; laws of mind and physiology and diseases of animals,
which he has disposed of to us on the express condition that
all its contents are to be kept secret from all other persons
with certain exceptions hereinafter mentioned, and under a
specified penalty. In consideration whereof, we do, each of
us, bind ourselves our heirs and representatives to pay to said
Offutt, his heirs and representatives, the sum of fifty dollars
in each instance, where we shall communicate instructions for
curing, teaching or governing animals, or any of the instruc-
tions, to any person whatever, except it be to a son or daugh-
ter, residing in the paternal family. Or to a servant, to
whom you may say — " he must not halloe or make a noise to
excite them, but use a quiet tone of voice. Rub, and feed
them from the hand, as you do the dog, and use but few and
simple words. When you want the horse to stop, use no other
word than "wo!" — don't say "ho!" except you want him
to go slower. The more you talk kindly, the better. By
this, and by rubbing them in the face, they will soon learn
to follow, as a dog."

By the above, and the instructions for fixing the gear, you
can accomplish much.

And we do moreover bind ourselves, that when we shall
receive a copy of said Offutt' s book, in each of which will be
a printed copy of the foregoing agreement, we will, each of
us, sign owner's name therefor in the copy we may receive, as
evidence of our being severally bound thereby. We not only
bind ourselves legally to pay respectively, said penalty for
each violation hereof, but we bind our honor not to violate
the above agreement.

Ill

ill

i