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1.812

THE EDUCATION OF THE CHILD FROM ONE TO THREE

PREPARKD BV

THE LITERARY STAFF

OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CHILD LIFE

MONOGRAPH OF THE

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CHILD LIFE Philadelphia

Monograph

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UBhs7

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This paper should be read in connection with another in this series, entitled "The Second and Third Years."

MAR 18 i9}4

COPYRIGHT, 1914 AMKIICAN INSTITUTE OF CHILD LIFE

^C' A 36 2 94 4

THE EDUCATION OF A CHILD FROM ITS FIRST TO ITS FOURTH BIRTHDAY

"I come in the little things,

Saith the Lord:

Not borne on morning wings

Of majesty, but I have set my feet

Amidst the delicate and bladed wheat,

That springs triumphant in the furrowed sod.

There do I dwell in weakness and in power;

Not broken or divided, saith our God!

In your strait garden plot I come to flower.

About your porch My Vine,

Meek, fruitful, doth entwine;

Waits, at the threshold. Love's appointed hour.

"I come in the little things,

Saith the Lord:

Yea! On the glancing wings

Of eager birds, the softly pattering feet

Of furred and gentle beasts, I come to meet

Your hard and wayward heart. In brown, bright eyes

That peep from out the brake, I stand confest.

On every nest

Where feathery Patience is content to brood

And leaves her pleasure for the high emprize

Of motherhood —

There doth My Godhead rest."

— Evelyn Under hill.

The Parent as Educator — The Body — The Training of the Senses — Emotional Training — The Training of Instincts — Play and the Playroom — The Train- ing of Attention — The Training of Memory — Teaching to Talk — Teaching Hand Activities — Moral Training — The Importance of Home Educa- tion— Summary — References.

It is hard to get some mothers to take their function as teachers in the nursery seriously. They argue that they would postpone educa- tion as long as possible, so as to keep their babies from growing up. Upon this excuse Mrs. Dorothy Canfield Fisher has put a most emphatic stamp of disapproval. She says :

"Consider for a moment the real significance of the feeling expressed by the mothers we have all met, when they cry, *Oh, I can't hear to have the babies grow up!' and when they refuse to correct the pretty, lisping, inarticulate baby talk. I have been one of those moth- ers myself, and I certainly would have regarded as malicious and spite- ful any person who had told me that my feelings sprang from almost unadulterated egotism, and that I 'couldn't bear to have the babies grow up' because I wanted to continue longer in my complacent, self-assumed role of God, that I wished to be surrounded by little sycophants who, knowing no standard but my personality, could not judge me as any- thing but infallible, and that I was wilfully keeping the children granted me by a kind heaven as weak and dependent on me as possible, that they might continue to secrete more food for my egotism."

Mothers, especially those who have read about the so-called "won-

der children" that have lately been evolved and exploited and who are not at all desirous that their own children should be precocious, may be reassured by knowing that, while an intelligent and well-rounded nurture is likely to bring little children forward through the various grades of school in advance of most of those who are of their own age, such an advantageous purchase upon life, having nothing abnormal about it, may always be retained and enjoyed. The only essential is that whatever nurture we give shall be the exposure of the little human plant to sunlight and food rather than to some quick-lime forcing process. Mrs. Fisher says that when she was an intense, violent girl of seventeen she received some sound advice from a wise old doctor about how to lift some little children with whom she happened to be playing. "Don't take hold of their hands to swing them around !" he cried. "You cannot tell when the strain may be too great for their little bones and tendons. You may do them a serious hurt. Have them take hold of your hands !" There is a good deal of sound philos- ophy in this. Not our grasp of the passive children, but their active grasp of us is the helpful bond for their up-bringing.

The Parent as Educator

If the parent is to be a good teacher he must have the right attitude toward his child. There are three wrong attitudes, and there is only one right one. The three wrong attitudes are: That a child is a play- thing to be used for the pleasure or amusement of his parents and adult relatives ; that he is an object of compassion and therefore it to be perpetually indulged ; that he is to blame and therefore is at times to be punished. The right idea is that even a little child is a person. He has rights, needs and wants all his own. As Miss Helen Webb, of England, says :

"The fact is that each child comes into this world an independent being. As soon as he has developed senses capable of feeling, seeing and hearing, he at once begins forming links, on . his own account, between himself and the whole world around him, and shows him- self as intelligent, or often much more intelligent, than the grown-up people he lives among. He is ready to observe and notice and reason and draw his own conclusions from everything he sees and hears, but as yet he is very ignorant, and extremely credulous ; and just for these very reasons, if for no others, he put us on our honor to be truthful and honest in all our dealings with him."

The purpose of this essay is to show how this person may have his early rights and needs satisfied through the co-operation of his parents.

The right attitude being taken for granted, the parent who is going to educate little children needs three other things. These are training, a plan and time.

This is not the place to enlarge upon what constitutes an adequate trainmg for a young father or mother. Sufficient is it to say that any training is better than none, and that all the training a parent can get is not too much. The Institute, as a correspondence school for parents, is constantly engaged in endeavoring to give them adequate training.

But have you a plan? Do you know what you want your children to develop into? If not, how are you going to help them develop? Perhaps the most important thing this essay can do is to stand in the immemorial struggle which goes on in so many homes, between the desire to bring up children by "mother instinct," and the duty of bringing them up by a plan, forever upon the side of the latter. The Institute's "Calendar of Childhood" is a standard summary of a good plan. Let us suppose that the life-plan which you have for your child embodies the following simple elements : A good, beautiful body capable of expressing the spirit, especially through the voice and the hand ; an intelligent, supple, open luind, able to master, to invent, to find resources and to enjoy itself ; a friendly, generous social nature, and a moral life both reverent and helpful. To build a life like this, building stones are needful. Our plan must have its specifications and go into each detail of the day's work. It is more trouble at the start to have a plan than to get along without one. It often takes a con- tractor longer to plan his house than to build it. but the man who lives in it afterward seldom has cause for complaint. It is more trouble in the beginning to pick up after a child than to train him to pick up after himself, but six months' practice in the latter will take the place of a lifetime of having somebody else pick up after him. So as to habits. Mr. G. Spiller is so businesslike that he suggests putting a time limit upon the formation of the habits. For example, he would give a week to training a child to be prompt at his meals, and having closed that chapter, he would inflexibly go on to the next.

In order to execute a worthy plan for the benefit of a person who is as important as a child it is necessary that a mother should give some definite time to her task. Said Mrs. Wood-Allen : "It does involve a half hour, or an hour in most days, when the mother has occupations which will let her mind be given to the child. If she aoes the family mending, this is easy. If she does not, she will probably have to make time to be with the children. That is not difficult, or a great exaction, for she must have some way of knowing her own chil- dren, and the only way to do it is to share their occupations — to do something with them. Her choice is between doing something which they suggest, and doing something which she suggests. If she simply follows their suggestions, there is a single gain of friendship. If they do what she suggests, the gain is double ; not only she gains their friend- ship, but they gain new interests and powers."

The Body.

Mr. G. Spiller suggests the importance of attention to the bodily welfare of a little one by telling us that to give such attention is "to be just to the child." The just bodily rights which he names are these: "Proper food and sufficient healthy and regular exercise for its mind and body ; fresh air all day and night ; regular ablutions, warmth, play, rest and comfort." He gives this weighty assurance : "Danger is out of the question if you are just to your child on this and similar counts." He also goes into details and enumerates the following bodily rights of a little child :

"(a) The child is to be put to bed at regular times, early, whilst awake, without anyone remaining with it, and without leaving a light behind in the room:

"(b) It should rise at regular times, the amount of sleep being adjusted according to age;

"(c) It should, health permitting, have its food and bath regularly in a regular place, and in a regular manner, not playing with the food nor having food between mealtimes;

"(d) It should have at least twice a day, in very nearly all weath- ers, outdoor exercise or outdoor air for stated periods at set times (of at least one and a half hours) ;

"(e) By the age of two and a half it should practically eat by itself, and begin to dress and wash itself ;

"(f) It should not care to touch anything on the table, nor touch sticks, knives, forks, matches, lamps nor any class of object not already permitted, and it should not wish to ask for what others possess ;

" (g) It should always have its hands and face clean before meals, and cleanliness and tidiness should be generally encouraged;

"(h) It should ask for, or use, a handkerchief;

"(i) Its natural wants should be, in health, satisfied at appointed and convenient intervals."

Mr. Spiller supplements these rights by a similar catalog of con- ditions, which calls "The Simple Life for Children" :

(a) The diet should be of the simplest kind — such as will be inex- pensive and nourishing, while not overburdening or disordering the digestive organs.

(b) Sweetmeats should be reduced to a secondary place, i. e., taken after meal times as part of meals (where they are essential), but not "before or in the place of the proper meal.

(c) The child's bed must be hygienic, so as to propiote in time hardihood or sturdiness.

(d) It should not always sit on people's laps, or be carried about, or be constantly attended to. It should tend to be independent of others' help, and by the age of two and a half self-amusement and self-activity should be highly developed. Being with the child without all the time attending to it, and placing the child so that it cannot read- ily see its guardian, will in obstinate cases tend to encourage inde- pendence of others.

(e) Its dress should be simple, neat, tasteful and serviceable. Exer- cise should not be hampered by the consideration of spoiling fine clothes.

(f) It should find its happiness in health, in play, in being active and in contact with nature.

Since the matter of bodily care is dealt with in another mono- graph in this series, these suggestions may be sufficient, if we complete them by some which have been made by Dr. J. M. Tyler in his "Growth and Education." We may, therefore, continue our enumera- tion as follows :

(g) The child should have proper clothing, especially that which protects a large amount of surface from exposure. "The trunk of a

child may be in a Turkish bath of flannels while his legs and arms freeze."

(h) The child should have plenty of pure air, not damp and not excessively dry. 'Tt is a good deal to expect of a baby that he will thrive in an atmosphere where fairly tough plants die."

(i) The more sunshine the better, and the proper temperature. "Every plant has its own special temperature which is necessary for its most rapid growth. Wherever man may have originated, the tempera- ture for a baby is surely not that of the Desert of Sahara."

(j) A child should be protected from nervous instability. He constantly responds to conditions in his surroundings. He is imitative almost as soon as he can notice. "He is remarkably amenable to sug- gestion ; he is intensely impressible." "Every impression on the nervous system modifies its growth and influences its mature con- dition."

The Training of the Senses

Perhaps the most distinct advantage that is claimed for the Montessori method is its success in making little children sense spe- cialists. Much of the so-called "didactic apparatus" of Madame Montessori is of value in the nursery, and, it is an encouragement to add, the most valuable portions of it are the least expensive and can easily be contrived by the parent. The famous dressing frames can be fashioned out of pieces of old garments attached to slate frames. The blocks, the color boxes, the materials for testing rough and smooth, the geometric insets and the alphabet can all be made at home. The mother's piece bag is a better "fabric box" than the Italian one. There is a danger, which Dr. Gesell points out, in thinking education is dependent upon formal apparatus. "The majority of children find ample opportunity in their daily domestic excursions to handle various forms, to touch hard, soft, smooth and elastic surfaces. The baby crawling on the floor begins to run his fingers over the carpet, the furniture, the soft dress mother wears, her hair, etc. He plays by the hour with this thing and that, unconsciously assimilating and sifting, enjoying and comparing a multitude of impressions, very many of which cannot be incorporated even with the most elaborate apparatus. Why take such natural experiences and reduce them to a series of self- conscious impressions, bringing in a lot of unnecessary paraphernalia? We must make use of the bountiful experience and phenomena of everyday life and not construct a series of boxed experiences, making no useful whole?"

The nursery then is the place where the expression, "Don't touch !" should almost never be used, but where every day there should be con- secutive and informal opportunities to feel different materials, touch objects of different sizes, shapes and smoothness, and to combine them together by all sorts of extemporaneous building devices. Here, too, is the place for regular excursions around the room with the child, so that he may see certain things for himself — the pictures on the wall, the windows and doors, the colors in the carpets and the playthings for the day. Out-of-doors is an even better place for exercising the sense of sight and learning to judge sizes, to discriminate distances and

to see color. Looking out of the window is an instructive amusement for even a little child. A writer in the "Foundation Library" says :

"Suppose the nursery window looks out upon a busy street. There the chUd will see the policeman on duty, the electric car passing, the mail man, the express wagon, the grocery team, perhaps the fire engine on its way to save houses and, it may be, people's lives. There is a shoemaker's store nearby, and a little farther on the dry goods store and market. The mother here has an opportunity to emphasize her dependence upon all of these people, and also their dependence upon her, and to lead the child to realize the true dignity and value of labor. The child may be led to notice the sky, the clouds, the sunbeams dancing through the windows, showers of rain, the whistle of the wind, the beauty of the snowflakes, the frost pictures on the window pane and twinkling of the stars."

It is also helpful to bring some of the brightness of out-of-doors into the house. Says Nora A Smith : "A prism hung in the window to make 'light-birds' on the wall is always a joy to the children, and one of the oddest and prettiest effects in the world is obtained by hanging or fastening to the windowpane a plate of glass which has been made into what is technically known as a grating. This is pro- duced by scratching upon the surface thousands of fine lines parallel and almost touching. When the light falls upon it, it is refracted and broken into its elements so as to throw rainbow halos and splendors in every direction. If hung in the direct sunlight, the blaze of color is almost too brilliant for comfort."

There should also be regular culture of the sense of hearing. While it is too early for definite music instruction, it is not too soon to teach the child to keep his voice gentle. Mrs. Mary Wood- Allen says : "The time to teach the correct use of the speaking voice is while he is learning to talk," and she adds, "Sing to him, play to him, see how soon he will sing a musical sound after you ; sing the scale often or play it ; play and sing the intervals ; encourage him to imitate you." We may also make use of the sensitiveness which most children have to music as early as this by giving them contrasting note sounds — high and low, loud and soft, fast and slow. Of course, children like other noises, the ticking of the clock, the sounds different animals make and noises which they can make themselves. A child has a right to bang a tin pan now and then, beat a drum, hammer with a stick, blow a tin trumpet and shout out loud. We have also the op- portunity to make the ear sensitive by training in listening. "A large number of Montessori devices," says Mrs. Fischer, "if they were not called 'sensory exercises,' would be recognized as merely fascinating new games for children. What is blind-man's buff but a 'sensory- exercise for training the ear,' since what the person who is 'It' does is to try to catch the slight movements made by the other players accurately enough to pursue and capture them? Children have an- other game called, for som.e mysterious reason of childhood, 'Still pond, no more moving !' a variety of blind-man's bluff, which trains still more finely the sense of hearing, since the players are required to stand perfectly still, and the one who is 'It' must detect their presence by such almost imperceptible sounds as their breathing, or the rustling

caused by an involuntary movement. If Montessori herself had in- vented this game, it could not be more perfectly devised for bodily control." One of the most impressive exercises in Madame Montes- sori's "House of Childhood" is that by which she gives room for what she calls "the lesson in silence." The playroom is gradually made absolutely quiet, each person being motionless. The shutters are darkened and the children sit in the attitude of prayer. The purpose is the double one of relaxation and of developing the power of medi- tation. There is power in silence, and quiet listening to the sounds of Nature and of music helps in forming a child's disposition.

Emotional Training.

Perhaps the most important single opportunity which we have in training the emotions is that of helping the child to conquer those fears which grow poignant as soon as the child's imagination develops to make them possible. Too many of the fears of childhood are, how- ever, acquired from the antipathies of adults. Says Kirkpatrick : "If the persons around him show fear of worms, insects, snakes, darkness, lightning, etc., he shares their feelings and may in later life be unable to overcome his timidity and repugnance, although he knows there is absolutely no basis in reason or fact for such feelings. No doubt, many characteristics often supposed to be instinctive or inherited, are the result of emotional attitudes produced by the actions of others during this period of great susceptibility to social influences." On the other hand, nothing can do more than the courageous resistance of fear on the part of a parent to give a child a sense of confidence in her mother which shall prove secure and lasting. Also, for the culti- vation of love nothing counts more than what has been called "the therapeutic value of a mother's caress" at such times, which, as the same person says, "is the only soothing syrup ever needed."

"Assume that your child has no fear," says Mrs. Hallam, "and, so far as possible, act upon that basis. Never ask your child if he is afraid. If it is necessary for you to send him into a dark room to bring you something, do not let the thought of fear enter your mind or his. You know there is nothing that will hurt him and you should take it for granted that he also knows it. Perhaps the imaginative child may create his own fears. When this happens, insist that he tell you definitely what he is afraid of. Often the object of his fear is imaginary, and when brought out into the daylight will disappear. For example, the child hears the water dripping in the bathroom and thinks it is a person trying to get into the house. He hears a tree branch sweeping against the house and thinks it is a bear. Take the child in where he can see and hear the water dripping at the same time. Show him the tree in the daylight. One mother quieted her child's incipient dread of 'bears' by telling her that if there were a bear prowling about the house or neighborhood, it must be a tame one, which has escaped from a show, as the wild ones had been driven away long ago. Of course, the owner would be looking for it and would pay a large sum of money to anyone who would catch it for him. 'We will watch and see if we can't get it to come into our shed and keep it for the owner. Then the owner will like us, besides giving us the money.' "

9

In his sensible little book, "Our Boy," Mr. Harry Edwards Bar- tow gives us his philosophy of the place of fear and anger in a child's life and then proceeds to tell how he dealt with the latter in the case of his little boy: "Both fear and anger were protective instincts in primitive man. When the danger was too great for him to cope with, fear drove him from it ; but when there was a possibility of mastering it, anger urged him to fight in defense of his rights and property. Our baby inherited an instinctive anger, which both the mother and I laugh- ingly blamed on the race rather than on ourselves. He was always ready to quarrel with what did not please him. He scolded long be- fore he could talk, and the 'Ah,' which indicated temper, was the ex- pression he retained longest in infancy. In fact, it became a serious problem how we should break him of 'Ahing' and striking, without utterly destroying the instinctive anger which he would need later in order to fight a man's battles. To inflict corporal punishment for it only drove him into a frenzy and increased his lack of control ; while, to ignore it entirely would permit the development of an unreasonable and uncontrolled combativeness, which would set him at enmity with every one. If he 'Ahed' at mother, I caressed her and would not play with a boy who was so rude to her ; if he 'Ahed' at his baby, we took it from him and loved and spoke kindly to it ; if he 'Ahed' at children who came to play with him, he was taken out of the game. It was a long and hard process before he learned that uncontrolled anger brought him some loss."

The Training of Instincts.

Bright, indeed, is the mother who recognizes her constant op- portunities to encourage education through the instinct of curiosity. It requires common sense rather than a college education, in order to see all our opportunities. Mrs. Fisher gives an instance of a quick- witted employment of such an opportunity by a washwoman of her acquaintance: "When the first of my neighbor's children was a little over three, his mother found him, one hot Tuesday, busily employed 'folding up,' that is, crumpling and crushing the fresh shirtwaists, which she had just laboriously ironed smooth. She snatched them away from him, as any one of us would have done, but she was nimble- witted enough to view the situation from an impersonal point of view, which few of us would have adopted. She really 'observed' the child, to use the Montessori phrase ; she put out of her mind with a conscious effort her natural, extreme irritation at having the work of hours destroyed in minutes, and she turned her quick mind to an analysis of the child's action, as acute and sound as any the Roman psychologist has ever made. Not that she was in the least conscious of going through this elaborate mental process. Her own simple narration of what follow- ed runs : 'I snatched 'em away from him and I was as mad as a hornit for a minit or two. And then I got to thinkin' about it. I says to myself. He's so little that 'tain't nothin' to him whether shirtwaists are smooth or wrinkled, so he couldn't have taken no satisfaction in bein' mischievous. Seems 's though he was wantin' to fold up things, without really sensin' what he was doin' it zvith. He's seen me fold

10

things up. There's other things than shirtwaists he could fold, that wouldn't do no harm for him to fuss with. And I set the iron down and took a dish towel out'n the basket and says to him, where he set cryin', ''Here, Buddy, here's sometliin' you can fold up." And he set there for an hour by the clock, foldin' and unfoldin' that thing.' "

Mrs. Annie Winsor Allen says : "Any interested mother with the right implements can put her child in the way of these good be- ginnings. She has only to give her child the chance of being interested in desirable things, and then to encourage curiosity, imitation, and experiment by her ready interest and sympathetic admiration, along with plenty of cheerful helping. She will find they learn in a most curious way, by pauses anl leaps. She gives them the clue and then lets them draw out the thread ; lets them follow the trace themselves, threading the labyrinth with all its surprises, and arriving alone and triumphant at the center. Being taught actually hampers the rapidity of personal thought. A child well started learns many things fastest by itself."

Here is where comes one of the permanent values of the Mon- tessori system. Madame Montessori believes that every time we do something for our nursery child that he can do for himself, we are robbing him of the opportunity of growing stronger. She says : "Who does not know that to teach a child to feed himself, to wash and dress himself is a much more tedious and difficult work calling for infinitely greater patience than feeding, washing and dressing the child one's self ? But the former is the work of an educator, the latter is the easy and inferior work of a servant. Not only is it easier for the mother, but it is very dangerous for the child, since it closes the way and puts obstacles in the path of the life."

When Mother Carey, in Mrs. Wiggins' charming story, was accused of "always making new beasts out of old," she replied : "So people fancy, but I am not going to trouble myself to make things, my little dear. I sit here and make things make themselves. Any one can make things if they will take time and trouble enough ; but it is not everyone who, like me, can make things make themselves." But people do not yet believe that Mother Carey is as clever as all that comes to.

At this period the behavior of adult people makes its life impress upon' little ones, for so close is their hnitafion that a child reflects everything around him that people do and say in so far as he can. Lit- erally, everything is "catching." And this is a supremely important fact, so much so that Mr.W. B. Drummond says : "If the child is the heir of all the ages, it is only by imitation that he can enter on his inheritance." We now have the opportunity, therefore, to help the child in many ways and, of course, in no way more than by offering him good examples to imitate. Even in the practice of handling toys there is some choice as to the right method. Madame Montessori has all manipulations made by a hand gesture from left to right, because this correct gesture helps to prepare the children to write properly. Mrs. Wood-Allen urges that the child now be allowed to do particularly those things which will be permanent satisfactions, like painting, sewing, digging, etc. "Let him take the implements and try to imitate you ; let him get the

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'feel' of them before you try to teach him the very best methods." The child may now actually have his small part in helping in small duties of the household; a broom to sweep with, a small dust-pan to take up dust, dusting small articles of furniture, helping to make the bed, helping mother cooking by beating eggs, rolling out dough, etc. Mrs. Wood-Allen gives this charming description to illustrate this instinct for helping:

"Among her Christmas gifts little Lois Barrows has received a broom and dust-pan. She sees with great delight her mother's preparation for the next sweeping day and runs to find her implements.

" 'I can help sweep, mamma,' she exclaims joyfully, as she begins flirting her broom vigorously over the carpet.

" 'Yes, dear,' replies Mrs. Barrows, who believes her child to be of more importance than things. 'You can help if you will do just what mamma wants you to. First, you can take these books and put them on the sofa as mamma dusts them.'

"With shining eyes and a feeling of great importance at being mamma's helper, little Lois carries the books. 'What next, mamma?' she asks.

" 'Now you can help me put the sheets over the furniture.'

" 'Why do you do that?' queries the child, as she straightens out the sheet over the sofa.

" 'To keep the dust off,' answers Mrs. Barrows. 'Now we'll open the windows and then you can go and sweep the porch while I sweep here. Let us see which can sweep her room best.'

"By this ruse she gets the child out of the dust of her sweeping, but does not deprive her of the privilege of helping. Occasionally she goes to the door to oversee the sweeping of the porch and to make encouraging suggestions.

" 'Can I help dust, mamma?' asks Lois.

" 'Yes, dear, here is a cloth, and this is the way to dust a chair. You see, it will help mamma a great deal if you do it well, for then she won't have to stoop so much.'

"The child is really anxious to do her work right, and soon learns to see the dust and remove it, to shake her dust cloth out of doors, as mamma does, and surveys her finished work with great pride. Her eyes glow under her mother's just commendation. 'I'm your little helper, ain't I, mamma?'

" 'Indeed you are and always will be.' "

"We can make use," says Mrs. Mumford, "of his natural desire to be helpful. A small child will put his bricks in the box, his train in the corner, his coat in the cupboard, he will fetch and carry for us in the nursery, under the impression that he is helping us, and is, therefore, an important little person. Tidiness as a duty makes no special appeal to him ; but he loves to lend a helping hand. By working up this desire, we get a good start in the direction of the habit we wish to instill — just as by working on the child's desire to be manly, we persuaded him to use every effort to put on his own boots. We did not have to command these actions to be done, be- cause we are able to establish their connection with th,e child's natural desires. Repeated opportunities for the exercise of such desires gradually produce the habit."

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Children may also be trained in higher imitations through the behavior of parents, brothers and sister, in low tones of voice, politeness to one another, pleasantness, bright cheerfulness of ex- pression, etc.

By the time the child is two and a half years old he begins to shov/ imaginativeness, and his imitation now takes a new turn. He gives new and poetic meanings to old objects of play. The more meager the apparatus, the more scope there seems to be for the play of imagination, "The sweetest craft that slips her moorings on the Round Pond, is what is called a stick boat," writes J. M. Barrie, "because she is rather like a stick, until she is in the water and you are holding the string. Then as you walk round pulling her, you see little men running about her deck, sails rise magically and catch the breeze, you put in on dirty nights at snug harbors which are unknown to lordly yachts. Night passes in a twink and again your rakish craft noses for the wind, whales spout, you glide over buried cities, and have brushes with pirates, and cast anchor on coral isles * * * You always wanted to have a yacht * * * j^ ^^g g^d your uncle gives you one * * * but soon you like to leave it at home * * * Those yachts have nothing in their holds. It is the stick-boat that is freighted with memories. The yachts are merely toys."

When English children in a nursery were given Madame Mon- tessori's "geometric insets," which look so much like scale weights, they at once pronounced them to be ginger beer bottles and began to play with them as such. The whole situation became alive, full of interest, with the quick adaptation of means to ends, fun, chatter and a warm human interest. It is a defect of the Montessori system that the imagination is nowhere recognized. That is, "pegs" are never more than "pegs in holes," and the dressing frames were never more than strings on cloth. "This apparatus does satisfy the three- year-old child's mechanical activity, but it does not lead on to con- structive activity. What shall we say to a system for the develop- ment of our child which has no place for stories?" Now is the time to attach a story to every game. We should encourage the child also in the telling of his own quaint little fancies and never laugh at him when he expresses himself in this way. The best helps to the develop- ment of fancy are picture books and stories.

Imagination may be made a strong factor in the government of children at this age. The mother can always find some natural impulse of fancy which she can make use of as a motive force to action. Mr. Bartow says : "The game I liked best was to pretend that I was the little boy and he the father. Even in this game, where we exchanged personalities, he did not allow me to lead. I must be the kind of little boy he said and must do as he directed. How very careful he was of me as he put me to bed on the couch, or took me for a ride on the big rocking chair, or for a walk into the next room. I liked the game because, I prized his caress, and because he unconsciously learned many lessons of thoughtfulness and kindness." A writer in Practical Motherhood gives an instance of the diversion of obstinacy through imagination. " T cannot go to bed,' said Helen, the de- cided, T am going to Chicago to see grandma, and the train is wait- ing.' Instantly the mother replied :

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" 'The Chicago sleeping coach is on the south track, Helen, and here,' with a wave of her hand toward nurse Mary, 'is the porter to say that your berth is ready.'

" 'Is that so?' said the interested Helen. 'Why I almost took the wrong train, What a re-scape !' "

"And, with happy good nights and promises of speedy return, the radiant Helen departed via the south bedroom for the Chicago sleeper. The father looked on and laughed. Nevertheless, he offered his word of wisdom.

" 'You cater too much to that child's imagination, Nell. You ought to exact instant obedience.'

" 'She did not disobey,' said the satisfied mother, cheerfully. 'I would rather have obedience without exaction, if possible, and since imagination is one of our faculties, why should it not be used to help us over hard places sometimes?' "

Mrs. Mumford makes a practical suggestion : "Suppose the little lad longs to be a soldier, or to be a man like his father. Mother can then make him realize that manhood is out of the question while she has to put on his boots ! What soldier before he went to battle, what father before he went to business ever had any one put on his boots for him? In this way she associates with the sight of the boots the thought that it is manly to put them on alone ; the desire to become manly is strong in the boy, strong enough to overcome difficulties and lead to action. He therefore makes the necessary effort ; once made, owing to the Law of Habit, it is easier to make the effort a second time; and gradually the demand upon his attention becomes less and less, until the boots are put on automatically, and the habit has been formed." She also suggests an ingenious method of encouraging the establishment of regular physical habits by a system of rosettes and flags by which the child is honored for such fidelity. Further sug- gestions in this direction of government through imagination are available in our pamphlet chapter entitled "The Dramatic Instinct in the Home."

Play and the Play-Room

The less elaborate the fittings of the nursery are the better. Miss Nora A. Smith makes the following suggestions :

"A cork or hemp rug for the floor that will deaden sound a little and provide warmth, yet can be taken up and thoroughly cleansed, a hammock or an old couch with a washable cover, a few low chairs, stools, and tables suitable for Lilliputian legs, and that is all. If the handy father will fashion a rough cupboard for each child, or arrange shelves for each, with curtains, or even nail packing boxes to the floor, with the covers securely fastened in as shelves, the happy possessors of the room will not envy even the infant Prince of the Asturias. And why should they? What does any reasonable human being want more than light and space, warmth and air, a place to store his few pos- sessions, and room enough to work out his ideas?"

And in the middle of this room Mr. Joseph Lee asks us to put a pen. "At this time of life I think the most useful adjunct of the

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baby's existence is a pen — not to write with, but to live in. Certainly in my own experience I have found that the pen is mightier than the nurse — at least in producing a contended mind. Ours was five feet square by about twenty-six inches high, a good height to stand and hold on by and to shake. It had a bottom of some water-proof ma- terial, buttoned on at the corners, that was good after a rain, espe- cially on grass, and made it easier to move all one's worldly pos- sessions at once. The pen has a most interesting physiological effect in the direction of contentment. Children seem willing to spend hours and hours playing in it when they will soon get fussy if left outside. Often even after a child who has been running all over the playground or the room has already become tired and cross, he will, if taken up and put inside the pen, quiet down and play contentedly, singing to himself. There is evidently something about an insuper- able, and therefore accepted, limitation that is very soothing to the childish mind."

As to the articles for play. President Stanley Hall, commenting upon the kindergarten gifts, says: "The great faults of the gifts and occupations are not only that there are hundreds of other things that would do as well ; but I am convinced that two or three score could easily be found that possess great natural advantages over most, if not all, of these. Moreover, they deal with inanimate objects and too mathematical conceptions, while this is the age when the child's in- terest in animals culminates. They are also overemphasized, and idolatry of the ball, cube, slats, pricking, peawork, and the rest makes the kindergartener not only indifferent to new departures in the rapid development of recent times, but so suspicious of novelties that new gifts or occupations have to overcome a great presumption against them." And he adds: "Much might be said in favor of the color top, peg board, soap bubbles, and such old plays as jackstraws and knuckle bones. Sorting out very heterogeneous blocks and cards, and laying like to like, might be tried ; while popcorn, play with chalk, shells, spools, pictures — perhaps cut and pasted milkweed pods, potato work, possibly the whip, and all possible contact with animate life should be carefully developed — always remembering that the child's interest in animals culminates before that in flowers or trees, and that the latter reaches its apex before interest in inanimate things." Mr. Lee agrees that almost anything will be put to use by the child.

"They want to handle the universe and get used to it, and almost any object is material for investigation or adventure. One child whom I was talking with about the resources of her backyard, said, "Well, you see we are very lucky, because we have barrels." I could see that the condition was a fortunate one; but I did not at first perceive exactly what form the good fortune assumed, until she continued: "You see there is a little bank, and we get inside the barrels and roll down." Of course she was, as she had stated, an unusually fortunate young woman ; but I think if it had not been a bank, it would have been some institution equally remunerative."

Speaking of banks, Mr. Lee says :

"Above all, he likes to run down any kind of a bank; and the best is, of course, the one that makes a noise when he does it, such

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as may be produced by tilting a board up on the sand-box on one end. Having, as I supposed, invented this not very complicated piece of apparatus, and introduced it on our playground, I was both disap- pointed (because of the vanished opportunity for a world-patent) and gratified to learn that it was adopted by the Japanese in their in- stitution for soldier's children. I had my board hooked on the sand- box, so that it would not slip oif and be a cause of grief. But any ob- ject on a playground, like any new institution elsewhere in the social fabric, is apt to produce other consequences than those foreseen. A board, whether supervisory, executive, or otherwise inclined, may be put to uses not intended by its designer Ours, with one end on a chair, served as a bridge, as a boat, and — in conjunction with another board, with a gate that had become unhinged, and other objects of bigotry and virtue — as a sleigh for Santa Claus. Also it gives very good results when laid across one of the rollers of the sand-box so that the end hangs down when you run across it. Also it makes one side of a coast. For as soon as the snow comes, we shut the sand- box, roll it to one end of the piazza (with its back to the sun so as to minimize melting), pile the snow up on it, and make a coast. The last day of coasting we open it again and it re-enters on its office as a sand-box.

Miss Smith says : "It is most interesting, and shows the need children feel for large toys, to see their joy in playing with wash- boilers, coal-hods, waste-baskets, stoves, chairs, and various other domestic articles apparently quite unsuited to their size and require- ments. We commonly take them away from the baby, under the im- pression, not even dispelled by his wails, that he does not know what he wants, and present him instead with a rubber cat that squeaks or an ivory rattle hung with bells. The possibilities of these small and uninteresting articles are soon exhausted, and baby wails afresh for that big and satisfactory waste-basket that could be handled, tumbled about, inverted on his head, and even crawled into. Psychologists are telling us now that the larger motor activities, those of the arm and forearm, are developed before the smaller ones of the hand and fingers, and some of the kindergarten materials are being increased in size to meet the child's need in this respect. Let us remember the new knowledge and try to select playthings in accordance with it."

Besides the articles for regular use. Miss Smith suggests that "There should also be a mother's cupboard or closet in the playroom containing special playthings for great occasions, such as birthdays, holidays, days of convalescence or incipient invalidism, days when the wind is in the east, everybody's temper short, and hands likely to be raised against neighbors. To this retreat toys unappreciated or maltreated must be returned till a better mind comes to their owners, work neglected and left lying about must retire for a season, and any special article, become a bone of contention, withdrawn till its com- mon owners agree to share it in peace. Here, too, the mother will keep her stores of pencils, black and colored ; her sheets of white and brown wrapping paper, cut in suitable sizes and pressed smooth; her paste-board, buttons, spools, chalks, tin, cardboard and wooden boxes; her ends of string, tinfoil, picture magazines, catalogues —

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anything and everything, in fact, which will serve as fuel for the great play-engine."

And now, having equipped the play-room, what shall we play? This essential thing is that we ourselves should really play. Epictetus was a philosopher wise enough to see that we must actually enter into the joys of our children. He said: "When children come to us clap- ping their hands and saying, 'Tomorrow is the good feast of Saturn,' do we tell them that good does not consist in feasting? No — but we clap our hands along with them." A young woman told her mother that the sweetest memory of her childhood was the single afternoon when the mother got down on the floor and played dolls with her little daughter. The resourceful and skillful play of the mother on that single afternoon had never been forgotten. The mother, of course, was brought by her daughter's confession to a realization of the thousands of splendid opportunities for companionship and edu- cation which she had lost.

Some of our play may consciously be intended to train the child. A sensible article in "The Foundation Library" gives the following suggestions : "First, let us take the most universal of playthings, the ball, and roll it back and forth, finally introducing the signal, 'One, two, three, roll !' Stand a tall block or tenpin on the floor and roll the ball to knock it down. Place a nickel call bell on the floor and roll the ball to make it ring.

"If you have the kindergarten balls you will be ready for some ball plays. First, learn the colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, one at a time, and match them to articles of the same color in the nursery, such as draperies, wall paper, rugs, mother's dress or sister's hair ribbon. Put six balls in a row and ask the child to shut his eyes. You take one ball away, and ask the child to open his eyes and tell which ball is gone. Hide all the balls and let the child bring them to your lap, name the balls over and see if there is one missing, and if so, name that. Hide a ball and call out 'hot', 'cold', 'burning', as the child goes toward or away from the ball.

"Let the child hunt for his lunch cracker in the same way.

"Try to toss the ball in the air, and catch it, using the signal, 'One, two, three, toss !' Toss the ball to some one else, then throw and bound ball, then make a ring with twine on the rug or chalk on the floor and roll ball into it.

"A pretty game may be played with the waste-paper basket placed in the center of the room. If there are a number to play, all the better. Each one is given a colored ball and told to wait for the signal, 'One, two, three, throw !' All throw at once, but stand still to see where the balls go. The mother then invites some one to go to the basket and see if any balls have gone in, and count them as they are taken out one at a time. The signal then may be given to pick the balls up and begin over again. There will be no confusion if the mother is particular in regard to the signals of the game."

One readily sees how attention, altertness, patience, agility, and the exercise of sight, touch and hearing all come through these simple plays. It is just as feasible to use some of the tools of education in play as anything else. Here is a group of suggestions from Mrs, Allen :

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"A child of two likes to learn to count as part of learning to talk. Encourage this, but try to make ten the stopping place, until he has learned so far thoroughly. At about three years old begin to count things. He will probably understand already how many three is. Count things at the table ; count beads, blocks, etc., at any time you happen to think of it. Now and then see if he can count them. If he can, show your pleasure. Supply alphabet blocks, with pictures, as early as two years old. Call the letters by name often in playing with the child. Play games with them; e. g., turn all the pictures down and guess what picture is under each letter, etc. To a child of three, sing the alphabet."

A great deal of the play of children of this age is by themselves and consists of the exercise of the instinct of curiosity by repeated experiment. Some of the things which a little child likes to do with things are : turning keys in locks, opening and shutting doors, open- ing and shutting drawers, opening and shutting boxes, pouring things out of a bag and putting them back, taking things out of a drawer and putting them in again, playing with water, playing out in the rain, making soap suds in warm water, playing under the hose with a bath- ing suit on.

Some suggested articles for utilizing this experimental faculty in children are these :

Nest of boxes for opening and shutting and closing inside one another ;

Big blocks to pile one on top of another and knock down. The child is too young for building yet.

Special drawer with key where he may keep miscellaneous things to take in and out, such as : pieces of cloth and felt, pieces of paper, pictures to cut out, little odds and ends, a few boxes of such things as seeds and spools and buttons and beads and shells to play with ;

A big bag with a stout draw-string for him to open, and shut and fill with dried beans and peas, or spools or bits of bright- colored cloth ;

Little bags with an assortment of things ;

Stout old pickle-bottles with such things as beans within, to shake up and down ;

An old newspaper, some paste made thin and some pictures to daub on the back with a big brush.

Some suggestions as to the directing of the destructive ten- dencies in children which are really the outgrowth of tHiis ex- perimental sense are :

Give them paper to tear up and muss, pieces of cloth to cut up, something soft to be picked to pieces, spools of string; give them toys which are intended to be taken apart and put together, like nests of boxes, big Hailman wooden beads for stringing on shoe laces, a peg-board, a box of big blocks, some of the Mon- tessori apparatus.

The subject of play is treated thoroughly in other pamphlet chapters of this Survey.

IS

The Training of Attention.

Of all the faculties of the mind this is the most important one for development at this period. There is a current story about a farmer who was asked why he furnished his hens food in such unmanageable sizes. His cogent answer was, "What is time to a hen?" A good many people seem to be thinking, What is time to a child? and feel that they have a perfect right to interrupt a child at any moment and for any purpose. Aside from the laudable irritation which the child feels, we are doing a serious harm to his limited powers of consecutive attention. It ought to be a rule, too, of the nursery that every game should be played for a sufficient length of time before the child is allowed to leave it for another. It is, for example, difficult for a little child who has chosen a puzzle not to leave it for his sister's picture-book which mother is explaining, but the puzzle must be finished before he may come and enjoy the pictures. Such rules are no hardship if they have always been a matter of course, and when school begins the value of this training is apparent.

A very frequent reason why children do not obey is that they do not attend, and so do not hear a command. Any request we make should be made in such a way as to dislodge everything else from the consciousness while we are speaking. To this end, it is well never to give an order until the child looks us squarely in the face and only while he is thus looking attentively at us. Such a habit is as good drill for attention as it is for obedience.

The Training of Memory.

Not until the second year does the child begin to recall events in the past and these only in spots. It is our duty to develop this power of recollection by frequently asking the child to recall first the events of the day and then those of the past week and the more significant ones of the distant past. In telling stories we should use words which express in sound the actual movements and sounds which the child hears and sees, using the same words over and over again, thus helping recollection by the uniformity of our phraseology. As to the first contact with literature, Mrs. Wood- Allen suggests :

"Have in the house any (or all) of the good collections of verse for children. Read or repeat poems to the child. What he enjoys he will ask to hear again. Do not be afraid of what seems 'too old,' unless it has in it something to frighten or burden a child. Repeat a favorite often, and as soon as he shows a power to repeat any part of it himself, be pleased. Do not insist on the learning. Merely admire."

We sometimes wonder why our children remember things so much better than, they do duties. Mrs. Mumford gives the explana- tion. "Neville learns his dates or his multiplication table by con- stant repetition, until the more or less interesting details are firmly impressed upon his mind. Yet every day, and at every meal, re- peatedly we have to tell him to keep his arms off the table, and he

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always forgets ! Where is the difference ? Memory is, as I have said, improved by repetition, but only when other things are equal ; and in daily life we forget that other things are not equal. If Neville paid as little attention to the repetition of his dates as to the details of his behavior at meals, then they would never be learnt. Interest and attention must be combined with the process of repetition ; the child must put himself into whatever he is doing, and not merely listen or repeat mechanically. How can we make use of this psychological fact? Instead of constantly telling Neville to put his arms down and nothing more, suppose we drill him in the right action, 'Arms on the table, arms off!' — *On, off — on, off' briskly, six times, while he suits the action to the words, and gives for the time his whole attention to the arm exercise. Then, reminding him that if he forgets again he will suffer some slight punishment to meet the case, we make repetition effective because no longer mechanical."

Teaching to Talk

By this time the child becomes awake to every word spoken. While he himself is capable only of uttering the names of those in the house and of a few familiar objects, he is nevertheless storing up in his memory many others which he is preparing to utter as soon as his lips can frame them. The pedagogy of teaching a child to talk, like the pedagogy of anything else, consists largely in discovering what the motives are that make children wish to talk. They appear to be three. There is the desire to give pleasure, which he notes is possible as soon as he makes his first sounds in the presence of his fond parents ; there is the instinct to imitate, and there is the wish to gain what comes from being able to ask for it. We may use all these motives. We should always express pride and affection at the earliest essays of speech. We should give him models to imitate as we teach him the names of familiar objects, give him books with familiar objects portrayed in strong outlines and with names attached, and answer his constant questions in as simple a way as possible and in short, concise sentences which he can repeat after us. If he asks over and over again and want the same answer over aiid over again, it is to help his memory. This is the way he gains the actual practice in word-using and sentence-building which will make his vocabulary. We may call upon his desire for getting things by asking for them by refusing to understand him when he gestures instead of speaking and only when he expresses his wants clearly.

The art of speech is really a tremendous one. The task which is before the child from the days of "the primordial squall" to intel- ligent speech, is stated by David R. Major as follows: "After the child once begins to combine words into sentences, the essential ad- ditional things which must be mastered before he can speak even plain English, are: (1) he must learn to use just the right number of words, enough, but not too many; (2) he must master the con- ventional order of words in the English sentence; (3) the intricacies of English inflection must be learned; (4) he must have regard for the distinctions in the meanings of pronominal forms, particularly,

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the personal pronouns, which give the most trouble, as a rule; (5) he must learn to say 'No' in such a way that his meaning will not be mistaken; (6) he must master the formula for questions; and lastly, and perhaps the most difficult of all, (7) his knowledge of the mean- ings of the words he uses must grow more exact."

One begins to realize that, charming though it is, the use or encouragement of "baby talk" with a child who has such a serious task as trying to speak our complicated language, is to do him an injustice by teaching him much which we shall soon be diligently wishing him to unlearn.

If you want your child to use more than one kind of speech, why not consider the possibilities of some mastery of a foreign tongue? Mrs. Annie Winsor Allen says : "Children find one sound as good as another to represent an object. They quickly learn to understand one another's baby talk and special words. So the notion of a foreign language is easy to them. One word is as sensible as another to learn, and several w^ords for the same thing do not seem out of the way. Is not a dish called also a plate, a saucer, a bowl, and what not? Say phrases, sentences and little jingles to him in foreign languages. When he begins to pick up English jingles, give him a chance to learn French and German jingles, too. Have at least one picture-book with jingles and counting, etc., in French, and one in German. Read them often, and explain them as you do the English ones. A single book or two of this sort, well selected, will give a child as useful a vocabulary and as much grammar as he would get at the same age from a foreign nurse."

Teaching Hand Activities.

The constant tendency of young children to use their muscles is sometimes classed as a special muscular sense and sometimes as an instinct. Whatever it be called, this impulse for muscular move- ment must be met intelligently and gratified for its necessity. There is a legitimate reason for movement-play, for a delight in the activity itself, such as running, jumping, climbing, trotting about, shouting and mussing things, rubbing, nodding the head, prattling, dropping things, stamping the feet, turning over things, pounding things, rattling, shaking, pouring, dancing the feet, shaking the whole body, etc. These seemingly useless constant movements are part of the child and are ex- ercises of all his doing powers which help get his apparatus into trim for perfect co-ordination and the unconscious mechanism of all his muscu- lar acitvity. This ceaseless energy should be allowed free outlet daily and as far as possible without interference. Also should it be remem- bered that, hand in hand with this form of exercise, in accordance with the needs of his nature, must go the recognition of the fact that it is freedom under law and that while there is a time to play and make a noise, there is also a time to stop the noise and play or work quietly. Some simple suggestions as to material and ways to give the child his freedom in the exercise of his muscles and the training of his hands are these :

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Under supervision, for a little while each day, help the little child to do the things he tries to do ; let him climb up and down stairs ; help him on a ladder ; let him climb on and off a chair ; let him run up and down a little hill ; catch him in the arms and lift him high as an end of the game.

Give a child old papers to tear up in little pieces, stuff an old bag full with them, and then let him punch this bag or toss it about.

Give the child blunt scissors and let him cut up slips of paper.

Let him jump on the springs of the bed once in a while.

Give him a big, soft ball to toss about.

Throw stones in the water with him.

Give him a sand pile and some cups and let him pour sand from one cup to another.

Give him a pan of beans, (as soon as he is old enough to keep them out of his mouth) and let him pour them in and out of the cup and muss them in his hand.

Let him have a big punching bag to punch and watch swinging back and forth.

Give him a football to kick about.

Give him) room to run and a time in which to run, jump and shout freely.

Let him roll on the floor or on the grass.

Turn to Maud Burnham's "Rhymes for Little Hands," Poulsson's "Father and Baby Plays" and Wells' "Floor Games" for further sug- gestions in this direction. These are all described in the list below.

Moral Training

The limitations of a child up to three or four years old are ethi- cally and mentally so great as to be almost beyond our understanding. We cannot get down low enough to believe in them, and the result is that the child is often treated in a wrong and unwise way. The basis of good morals is good habits.

Let there be regularity in meals, going to bed, getting up, etc. Let there be order in picking up things and putting them away after playing. A good suggestion for this is a big box with a cover or a low shelf where the baby may pile things up. A child should be taught early to restrain certain impulses like crying and anger, the natural processes of nature, through regularity, and at the same time gradually learn to wait for a few minutes for something he wants. Especially must the habit of silence at proper times be cultivated in a little child, not only that he may not disturb others, but that he may not miss some experience or opportunity to learn himself.

"Moral training in childhood," says a recent writer, "must be mainly a matter of stocking up the lower nerve centers with good reflexes ; that is, habits. The first of all these habits in importance is absolute, unquestioning obedience to father, mother, nurse, teacher, the laws. When the baby reaches for articles on the table and the parent says 'No! No!' that should be as final as the later recognition of a law of nature. Learning to eat without spilling his food on the table or on himself is a great moral achievement for a child. Learning to attend to excretions and keep his nose clean is a great step in moral

and social progress. Learning to dress one's self, buttoning clothes and tying shoe strings, marks still further stages in moral growth." Lady Isabel Margesson emphasizes the moral value of habitual obedience still further : 'There is one virtue that is eminently the virtue of infancy and in which 'all the laws and commandments' for that age may be summed up, that is 'obedience.' 'What mother says, you must do.' 'Do what I say.' 'Mother knows best.' Anybody who has closely watched and studied an infant can see that 'obedience' is an idea, a conception, that can be taught and understood even in the first year. The very helplessness and dependence of the young creature inclines him to obey from instinct, and if this natural inclination is fostered and trained, obedience will be a virtue that is within the child's power, and one which will have for it a distinct meaning. To insure this important factor in obedience, that is to say, that the child should have a distinct mental picture of obedience as such, it is neces- sary to repeat many times and in many different ways and forms, expressions about obedience — in fact to take pains to build up in the child's mind the absolute necessity for doing what it is told. There must be no relaxing when once an order is given — no weakening after- ward— and there should be in very early days a bodily penalty for disobedience." Concerning this habit of obedience, which Dr. G. Stanley Hall says should be "an instinct, if not a religion," Mr. Spiller speaks as follows : "Ask little of the child, see that what you ask is defensible ; state clearly and in a word or two your reasons ; and good-naturedly insist on being obeyed — without scolding, argumenta- tion, raising the voice, entreating or punishing. Argumentation, how- ever slight, feeds and creates disobedience and bad temper. If you say you will do a thing, do it at once, and do not repeat what you have said. Let the healthy child over eighteen months old be quietly allowed to cry two or three times till it is tired of crying, and crying will seldom be resorted to under similar circumstances."

Mothers are often heard to say of a two-year-old child : "I sup- pose I must teach him to obey soon." Do they not realize that a child is old enough to obey as soon as he is old enough to disobey? It is, in truth, a great responsibility that we take in dominating another life, even a little one, and it is a responsibility which we should covet to wield only when we are ourselves at our best. But it is one that goes with at least the first years of childhood. Before the child is capable of rational thought, there is no use arguing with him and there is no safety for him unless he does as he is told.

An English mother has written recently with wisdom concerning the technique of securing obedience during these first years. She says : "The first lessons in Obedience should begin at five or six months, for I believe that there is great value in beginning this before the child's mind is quick to resent interference. Up to crawling days the child has no choice of will, he can only take what is given to him, and lie where he is put. But as soon as his body is capable of respond- ing to his will, acquisitiveness begins, and if 'No' has been learned, the mother's and nurse's task is far easier and the child's life happier. Teaching 'No' is a very simple matter : I begin it by giving the child something that he may touch, but not suck ; as the little hand puts it up to his mouth, I take it down with 'No.' He is satisfied for a

moment, then tries again, and again the Httle hand is gently taken down with 'No.' After two or three repetitions the trinket is re- moved and one that may be sucked substituted. The lesson should be repeated a few times daily, with the same trinket, and very soon the child will understand the difference between the forbidden toy and the things that he may suck. As soon as he crawls, the next step in obedience should be taught by the word 'Come' ; and the important point is that once the word is said to him, he must come, though at first he has to be brought. These steps soon lead to the habit of obedience, if those who teach are careful to be consistent ; but if we allow occasional lapses, we make it so much harder for the chil- dren afterwards. As soon as a child can understand an order, he is old enough to obey it, and since the infringement of a command must never be permitted, how careful we must be to command only where we want and expect obedience."

The importance of securing unquestioning obedience early is that it saves so many difficulties later. Mrs. Mumford has an ingenious chart in which she represents the various obstinacies and excuses and subterfuges of the child who has not been trained to obey as a series of hurdles which stand between the point where the command was given and the end of the course where it was finally obeyed. She then represents by a shorter and straighter course, without obstacles, the pathway from the command through attention to the instant obedient reaction. There are emergencies where such promptness may save life, and it always saves strength to the mother and character and loyalty to the child.

Before leaving this subject, concerning which another pamphlet chapter of this survey ("The Government of Young Children") speaks in greater fullness, let us remind ourselves that even the young child, though he knows nothing of absolute truth, justice or virtue, is yet not entirely without insights which support our parental and con- crete truth, justice and virtue. "The various stimuli of discipline," as Dr. G. Stanley Hall wisely says, "are to enforce the higher though weaker insights which the child has already unfolded, rather than to graft entirely unintuited good. The command must find some ally, feeble though it be, in the child's own soul." That such alliance may exist is a source of comfort to the fallible mother who tries to be fair and wise and kind and firm.

A word must be said about will-training, for even infancy is not too early to begin this which is the most important and permanent of all kinds of education. The roots of will development are in obedience. There is an obedience which is conformity and there is an obedience which is self-control. The former is entirely forced, the latter is voluntary. Sometimes the former is necessary, but the latter is the more desirable. Even when we give commands to a young child we do not always have to use force to get them obeyed. The child soon learns to inhibit, to stop himself. At first he does this reluctantly and only when we are present. By and by he does so more easily and even when we are absent. When a child is able to restrain his own acts he is beginning to show will power, and the more regularly he does so the more adept he becomes in self-mastery. A writer in the Foundation Library illustrates the process by the story of two small

24

boys, who saw some flowers in a yard. One ran in and stole some, and the other refrained. The one who yielded thought how easily he could get them, and while he remembered how wrong he had been told such conduct was, he also recalled that no special harm had come to him before, and his imagination of what he might do with them seized him and he rushed off with them. The other boy saw the same flowers, he too thought how easily he could get them; but when he thought of the wrong he would do there came into his mind the many stories his parents had told him about the meanness and shame and ruin of thievery, and he also thought how bravely he had resisted once before and how glad he was, and so he went straight away and thought no more about them. You see, his parents had filled his mind and heart with a stock of good ideas that would come up in time to help in his will.

"The one boy and his parents had taken advantage of the laws of mental life and had built up in him strong and helpful groups of ideas that would help his will to do right. The other boy had by his habits of acting and thinking built up groups of ideas and so associated them that they hindered his will when he tried to do right, and helped even to weaken the effort of the will itself." Since all ideas that enter into the mind tend to go at once into action, to express themselves, the more right ideas, habits of right action and right desires we can establish the more we strengthen the will to select from among all possible ideas those which represent the will to righteousness.

The Importance of Home Education

It would seem impossible to exaggerate the importance of home •education during the years between one and four. "The importance of what is learned in the ordinary home," says Kirkpatrick, "is sug- gested by the following notes taken from Miss Munro's account of a child taken from an institution at three years of age. She could talk very little, but could understand a number of words. The attend- ant had no time to talk with her, but only to tell her what to do. She had no idea of family relations, 'mamma' meaning any of the nurses. Little had happened to her, except to be fed, washed and dressed, and she had no idea of the individual ownership of anything, not even of clothes. The most she knew was how to care for babies, learned by seeing and imitating the nurses. She had no idea of a doll, dog, cat or pictures and did not know she could not walk on water. She knew nothing of colors and could not learn to discriminate and match them for a long time. She used the sense of touch a great deal. She dis- tinguished very imperfectly between imaginings and real experiences. She was a bright child, but knew so little that the family concluded that children in a home must learn more in the first three years than in any other period of the same length. This is, therefore, pre- eminently the period in which the moulding influences of the home have most complete sway."

Another reason why training by the parents is essential is because the child himself is so ductile. Says Mr. Spiller:

"You can make it do what you like ; you can place it under such

25

conditions as you favor ; you can give it such treatment as you con- sider advisable. Within very restricted Hmits your child can do nothing to checkmate you. Its memory is weak ; it bears consequently no grudge ; and it can neither divine your plots nor can it counterplot. Hence, given that you know what you want to do and intend to do, and given that you may proceed intelligently, your child's very helplessness may be of assistance to you." And not only may we put in what we like, but what we put in remains. A father who had just been told the news of the birth of his first child says: "I never before knew responsibility as in that hour. I went into the library and stood at the v/indow. Across the street, where a new building was being erected, some mistake had been made and workmen were tearing down a part of the wall. 'You workers with material things,' I thought, 'can tear down the faulty construction, but can I do that with this new life I am to help build?' 'No,' I replied to my query, 'whatever goes into this young life goes there to stay.' "

The writer wishes to make a special claim for the value of fathers as parents. The father is really an ideal person to be a parent! So many mothers insistently monopolize the training of their little chil- dren and so many fathers are content to have them do so that a great many babies are being brought up practically as half orphans. The intention is that a father should be a practicing and not merely a con- sulting parent. There are at least some things which he can do better than a mother. His ideas as to a pungent course of bodily training for making an athletic boy or girl, his ingenuity in arranging the playroom or copying the Montessori apparatus or adding inexpensive devices, his novel experiments in play and handicraft with the children and his general freshness of approach when he enters the nursery make him a valuable coadjutor in the home school. Needless to add, if there is to be a life-plan, both parents must agree to it; and both cannot be teachers of the same child unless they are united on the same scheme of training.

Summary

We may summarize by saying that the little child has seven main needs which nobody outside his home can supply. They are :

(1) Food for the hungry senses — sight, hearing, taste, touch, smell.

(2) Means for legitimate exercise of muscles — in the motor development, that is taking place.

(3) Right environment and right models for imitation.

(4) Large opportunity for free experimentation with many objects in his environment.

(5) Large opportunity for communication and expression on a part of the child in forming the vocabulary.

(6) Large opportunity for wholesome development of imagi- nation.

(7) Right beginnings in habit-formation — laying foundation of right habituation, in politeness, care of things, putting away, inhibi- tion of crying, fussing, crossness, etc.

26

REFERENCES.

Note: Any book mentioned in these monographs will be freely loaned to any member of the Institute upon request. They may also be purchased, if desired. The principal sources of this monograph are as follows:

The Training of the Child, iOO pp., by G. Spiller, published by the Dodge Publishing Company, New York.

A most useful and sensible little book upon its subject. It is full of practical suggestions arranged in tabulated or easily remembered paragraphs.

Our Boy, 126 pp., by Harry Edwards Bartow, published by the Union Press, Philadelphia.

A small but adequate handbook on child-training, written from a father's standpoint. It is the only parents' book of which we know in which the various periods of child life are taken up in direct and definite order.

Making the Best of Our Children, First Series, 254 pp., by Mary Wood-Allen, published by A. C. McClurg Company, Chicago.

The strong point about Mrs. Wood-Allen's book is that it deals entirely with concrete instances. In the early portion of this volume, several examples of practical difficulties with young children are cited, and two parallel anecdotes are given, one showing the wrong and the other the right way of dealing with the case.

The Dawn of Character, 225 pp., by Edith E. Read Mumford, published by Longmans, Green & Co. New York.

Mrs. Mumford approaches child study from the standpoint of psychology. Her chapters upon the growth of imagination, the law of habit, the growth of habits and the training of the will are particu- larly helpful. There is also an appendix giving practical suggestions upon teaching the young child voluntary control of the physical func- tions.

A MoNTEssoRi Mother, 246 pp., by Dorothy Canfield Fisher, published by Henry Holt & Co., New York.

The most helpful for the average mother of all the books on the Montessori system. Mrs. Fisher shows how it is possible to use the Montessori devices in the nursery.

The Home-Made Kindergarten, 117 pp., by Nora Archibald Smith, published by Houghton, Mifflin Company, Boston.

Miss Smith shows how it is possible for the mother who does not have access to a kindergarten to give her child the benefit of the best the kindergarten has to offer.

Growth and Education, 294 pp., by John Mason Tyler, published by the Houghton, Mifflin Company, Boston.

This is not a text-book of hygiene, but a helpful book emphasizing the importance of normal physical growth throughout childhood and youth. For the purposes of the young mother the chapter upon the first three years of the child's life is especially helpful.

The Moral Life, 600 pp.. being volume nine of the Foundation Library, pub- lished by the Educational Society, New York.

This volume of a subscription book series of eleven volumes is edited by G. Stanley Hall. It contains valuable chapters upon habits, will and character training.

X

0 022 158 677 3

Play and Playgrounds, 27 pp., by Joseph Lee, published by the Playground and Recreation Association of America, New York.

This pamphlet, written in Mr. Lee's charming style, is the most fruitful publication of its size upon its theme. It discusses play in all its aspects and makes helpful suggestions both for the home and the public playground.

The Montessori Method, Zll pp., by Maria Montessori, published by Frederick A. Stokes & Co., New York.

The special value for mothers of this description of Madame Montessori's House of Childhood by its originator is in the twelfth to the fourteenth chapters, where she describes her methods for training the senses.

Rhymes for Little Hands, 155 pp., by Maud Burnham, published by Milton Bradley Company, Springfield, Mass.

The best book of finger plays. Each movement is illustrated by a winsome photograph of the hands of a little child.

Father and Baby Plays. 98 pp., by Emilie Poulsson, published by The Century Company, New York.

A charming little book suggesting all sorts of active sports to be played by fathers and mothers with their babies.

Songs and Music of Froebel's Mother Plays, 272 pp., by Susan E. Blow, pub- lished by D. Appleton & Co., New York.

The quaint and charming verses and simple music of the original Froebel plays, with English translations and suggestions for use in the nursery and kindergarten.

Floor Games, 94 pp., by H. G. Wells, published by Small, Maynard & Co., New York.

An attractive description by the well-known novelist of games to be played upon the floor by father and child, using blocks, toy soldiers, Noah's Ark and miscellaneous objects. Not adapted to children under three.

28

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