THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A DEVELOPMENTAL GUIDANCE UNIT
AND SELF- INSTRUCTION MODULE ABOUT SEXUAL HARASSMENT
AMONG SEVENTH GRADE STUDENTS
By RUSSELL A. SABELLA
A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
1995
This dissertation is dedicated to my father, Giuseppe Sabella; my mother, Sina Sabella; my loving wife, Betty; and to my son, Giuseppe Salvatore Sabella, for providing me with much love, support, and inspiration.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
With reverence and appreciation, I would like to acknowledge the people who have contributed to the completion of my dissertation.
My parents, Giuseppe and Sina Sabella, who came to the United States from Sicily, showed me true diligence, perseverance, and courage. I am thankful for their relentless source of support and encouragement. I only hope to gain their wisdom in my lifetime. I love them very much.
My three brothers, Salvatore, Jimmy, and Joseph have been close friends. I am grateful for their help and support .
My sincere thanks goes to Shihan Don Rosenthal, my judo instructor and good friend, for his guidance, timely encouragement, and enlightening perspective on life.
My doctoral committee chairman, Robert D. Myrick, has provided over the last nine years genuine friendship, care for my family and myself, scholarly leadership, guidance, and invaluable mentorship. His work with me is greatly cherished. I look forward to many more years of collaboration and fellowship.
My committee members, Dr. Gerardo Gonzalez, Dr. Maxwell Parker, and Dr. Cecil Mercer, have provided valuable input
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for the development and completion of this dissertation. I thank them dearly.
I also wish to thank Mrs. Marty Johnson, Westwood Middle School; Dr. Thomas Summers, Westwood Middle School; Mr. Bruce Johnson, Ft. Clarke Middle School; Blair Bushkin, University of Florida; Kristi Winger, University of Florida; Mrs. Dorine Thomas and Mr. Ret Thomas, Buchholz High School; and the BHS TeenAiders for their enormous help, support, and understanding .
Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Betty Sabella, and son, Giuseppe Salvatore Sabella, for believing in me and holding me up when I grew tired. Betty has been so giving and loving.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vii
ABSTRACT viii
I INTRODUCTION 1
Purpose of the Study 4
Research Questions 4
Statement of the Problem 5
Need for the Study 6
Theoretical Basis for the Study:
Developmental Guidance 7
Definition of Terms 12
Organization of the Study 14
II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 15
The Nature of Sexual Harassment 15
The Victims and Perpetrators 25
The Middle School Student 49
Previous Attempts at Sexual Harassment
Intervention 52
Peer Facilitator Programs and Training .... 60
Summary 72
III METHODS AND PROCEDURES 7 3
Population and Sample 74
Relevant Variables 7 8
Instruments 80
Research Design 88
Hypotheses 88
Participant Training 90
Procedure 92
IV RESEARCH FINDINGS 94
Knowledge 95
Attitude 98
Behavior 101
Self-Concept 105
School Comfort 106
V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, IMPLICATIONS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS Ill
Summary Ill
Conclusions 115
Limitations 120
Implications 121
Recommendations 122
APPENDICES
A HIGH SCHOOL PEER COUNSELING
CURRICULUM OUTCOMES 124
B INFORMED PARENTAL CONSENT FOR STUDY
PARTICIPATION 125
C SH INVENTORY 126
D SAI INVENTORY 129
E A LARGE GROUP GUIDANCE UNIT ABOUT SEXUAL
HARASSMENT FACILITATORS GUIDE 130
REFERENCES 163
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 17 9
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2-1 Legal Decisions Affecting Sexual Harassment .... 54
3-1 Population of Alachua County Middle Schools .... 75
3-2 Sampling of Middle School Students 7 7
3-3 Focus, Title, and Objectives for the Intervention
Sessions 79
3-4 Summary of Research Design 89
3-5 Summary of Procedures and Time Table 93
4-1 Means and Standard Deviations for Knowledge, Attitude, Behavior, Self -concept, and School Comfort 97
4-2 Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for
the Sexual Harassment Inventory Knowledge Scale . 99
4-3 Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for
the Sexual Harassment Inventory Attitude Scale . . 102
4-4 Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for
the Sexual Harassment Inventory Behavior Scale . . 104
4-5 Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for
the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale . . 107
4-6 Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for
the School Atmosphere Inventory 110
Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School
of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A DEVELOPMENTAL GUIDANCE UNIT
AND SELF- INSTRUCTION MODULE ABOUT SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG
SEVENTH GRADE STUDENTS
By
Russell A. Sabella
August, 1995
Chairman: Dr. Robert D. Myrick
Major Department: Counselor Education
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a developmental guidance unit and self- instruction module about sexual harassment on early adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self-concept, and school comfort of middle school students. In addition, three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper led; and self-instruction.
A pre-test-posttest control group design was used with 14 0 seventh graders from two middle schools in Alachua County. Four science classes from one school and four English classes from another school were randomly assigned
one of three experimental groups or the control group. The intervention was delivered in one condition by adults (teachers or student counselors) and trained and supervised high school peer facilitators in another condition. The third condition consisted of students responding to a self- instruction module about sexual harassment similar to the adult-led and peer-led conditions except for the benefit of group activities and discussion. Data were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance on five dependent variables. Five null hypotheses were tested.
No significant differences (a = .02) were found among groups in changes from pretest to posttest in sexual harassment knowledge (HoJ, attitude (Ho2), behavior (Ho ), self-concept (Ho4), or school comfort (Ho5). However, a significant mean difference resulted from pretest to posttest (a = .02) for the experimental and control groups taken together for self -concept .
The data analysis did not support the six-week intervention about sexual harassment with seventh grade students. However, qualitative data taken from teachers and students indicated that the intervention had merit and needs to be studied again, using more reliable instrumentation.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
The public has become increasingly aware, through the media and increased educational efforts, of the pervasiveness and intensity of sexual harassment. It has been a controversial, sensitive, and elusive problem that has been mostly ignored even in light of its damaging repercussions. Incidents of sexual harassment have involved people across different genders, races, educational levels, and socioeconomic status. No individual is immune from its debilitating effects on mental health, job performance, academic progress, and the economy in general.
One critical incident of sexual harassment made an especially dramatic impact on the public's awareness. In October, 1991, Professor Anita Hill pressed charges against Judge Clarence Thomas after his nomination to the United States Supreme Court. When the U.S. Senate appeared ready to confirm Thomas without airing the charges, an outpouring of protest from American women stopped the proceeding in its tracks and forced a public hearing (Petrocelli & Repa, 1992) .
2 Since this time, a relatively great deal of knowledge has been ascertained about the nature of sexual harassment in the workplace and colleges. Only presently has the study of sexual harassment involved high schools and middle schools. Until now sexual harassment was presumed to be a problem exclusive to adults or adult environments.
Episodes of sexual harassment are now known to pervade the experiences of children and teen-agers even as early as third grade (Harris, 1993). For example, a neighbor makes comments about the size of a young girl's breasts. Or, a teacher implies he will give a student a higher grade if she sits on his lap, kisses him, touches him, or flirts with him. Perhaps a tennis coach rubs against a male student during practice. A camp counselor may manipulate situations so a student frequently winds up alone with him.
Peer-on-peer sexual harassment is the most prevalent type of sexual harassment in the schools. For example, consider the cases of Martin, Topeka, and Steven. Martin was an eighth grade student who believed that it was funny to make sexual gestures at girls to invoke their reactions. It not only amused him but his friends who would watch. The victim suffered embarrassment and wanted it to cease. Because Martin was a popular boy with all the students and the faculty, she was hesitant to report him. She felt powerless .
3 Topeka is an attractive and popular seventh grade girl. Several boys asked for her phone number with intentions of eventually "going steady with her." She disregarded such requests because she was interested only in one boy, Kevin. When Topeka asked Kevin for his phone number, he did not give it to her because, unbeknownst to her, his parents would not allow it. Topeka grew angry and accused him of being stupid. In the halls, she tried to humiliate him by making sexual and derogatory remarks like, "Kevin, you don't know what you're missing. You're too dumb to know better. You're probably not man enough to have me anyway 1 "
Steven is a sixth grade student. He was picked on by a group of eighth grade girls who often teased him. He first thought that they were just flirting with him which made him feel good. However, the girls began to focus on his body, pinch, and laugh at him. Steven tried to avoid them, but the girls always seemed to find him. He told himself that he was making something out of nothing. He also wondered if boys can be sexually harassed?
Martin, Topeka, Steven, and their classmates, need help. Their knowledge, repertoire of behaviors, and various attitudes about the other gender is limited. Healthy intergender relationships can become ineffectual and, over time, self-esteem may deteriorate. These students need to learn about the nature of sexual harassment: what it is, how to prevent it, how to resolve it, how to report it, and how
4 to assist in reducing the overall occurrence of sexual harassment in the school setting.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a developmental guidance unit and self- instruction module about sexual harassment on early adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept , and school comfort of middle school students. In addition, three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper led; and self-instruction.
Research Questions
The following research questions received special attention:
1. Does participation in a developmental guidance unit about sexual harassment have an effect on knowledge about sexual harassment?
2 . Does participation in the unit have an effect on attitude about sexual harassment?
3. Does participation in the unit have an effect on potential reporting behavior?
4. Does participation in the unit have an effect on self- concept?
5. Does participation in the unit have an effect on school comfort?
Statement of the Problem
The literature on sexual harassment has expounded and addressed such topics as incidence rates (Adams, Kottke, & Padgitt, 1983; Dzeich & Weiner, 1984; Harris, 1993), attitudinal correlates (Biraimah, 1989; Burt, 1991; Carroll & Ellis, 1989), counseling/recovery issues (Taylor, 1983; Koss, 1987; Morris, et al . , 1985) perpetrator profiles (Pryor, 1987; Rappaport & Burkhart, 1984; Bouchard, 1990;), and risk reduction efforts (Strauss, 1992; Thacker, 1994; Lumsden, 1992; Bogart & Stein, 1987; Bouchard, 1990; Petrocelli & Repa, 1992).
Further, the literature about sexual harassment prevention has been primarily descriptive in nature. It has focused mainly on strategies that adult men and women can employ to reduce the likelihood of sexual harassment. To the contrary, there has been relatively little research that has empirically investigated the effectiveness of sexual harassment prevention activities particularly focusing on middle school students. Attempts at sexual harassment interventions which use high school peer helpers as the intervention facilitators in the area of sexual harassment are nonexistent in the professional literature.
Schools are responsible for providing a safe and secure environment in which students can perform. Sexual harassment is known to be destructive and traumatic among it's victims (Quina & Carlson, 1989). For the perpetrator,
6 being guilty of sexual harassment can result in retributive actions such as suspension from school or legal proceedings (Strauss, 1987). Also, because schools are liable for preventing or resolving instances of sexual harassment, negligent school personnel can be subject to significant fines and fees as well as loss of employment (Griffin, 1984) .
Can sexual harassment be prevented? Early interventions may be one solution to the problem. A developmental guidance unit that helps students learn more about the nature of the problem may not only create a better learning environment in schools but lays the foundation for positive interpersonal relationships in other environments. There is a need to develop early interventions and to study their effects.
Need for the Study
Some people believe that sexual harassment is just a fact of life. They think that nothing can be done about it, so, it's best not to talk about it too much. In fact, sexual harassment is a pervasive social problem among our youth today, and it escalates when ignored (Bogart & Stein, 1987). Reducing the incidence and prevalence of sexual harassment through a developmental guidance unit or self- instruction module could have positive effects on students' views and actions toward others. When boys and girls strive for healthier personal relationships, they also approach
7 better working relationships. This can lead to enhanced academic progress.
According to Strauss (1992), without intervention, unhealthy sexual attitudes and behaviors formed before and during adolescence may go unchallenged and unchanged throughout life. Providing information about sexual harassment and the opportunity to examine one's attitude and behaviors regarding intergender relationships is a positive and effective form of intervention. For many young people, more educational programs can bring about awareness, reflection, empathy, and changes in negative behavior.
Healthier relationships between students can foster increased confidence in oneself and in one's school (Wittmer & Myrick, 1989). The perception of school comfort only becomes more positive with heightened levels of safety, security, and confidence. Positive relationships can also allow students to better focus on their schoolwork rather than on their fear of others or certain situations (Purkey, 1970). Therefore, alleviating sexual harassment could have a beneficial outcome on how students feel about themselves and how they get along, two conditions which are known to foster academic performance.
Theoretical Basis for the Study: Developmental Guidance
Going to school provides many and various experiences. School can be a place where students learn valuable personal knowledge, skills, and attitudes in addition to their formal
8 education. Children influence each other's self -concept and the course of their futures. Students can experience the gamut of emotion, both pleasant and unpleasant, during these formative years. Personal concerns and conflicts can be an enormous undertaking and affect academic performance in direct and indirect ways (Duncan & Gumaer, 1980).
Each student comes to school with a unique background consisting of special needs and interests which influence the way he or she learns. In trying to fulfill these needs and interests, students inevitably run into problems. Some student problems, more than others, are disruptive to the effective operation of the school. The intensity of an experience is relative from one person to the next. For example, some adults may dismiss a broken relationship between a boy and girl as only a matter of "puppy-love" and of no real consequence, especially compared to other problems. However, some young children can become severely depressed, irrational, and suicidal in response to such a broken relationship (Gesell & Ames, 1956).
Organized developmental guidance and counseling is meant to help young people cope with the issues and problems of growing up. More specifically, such programs are designed to enhance personal, social, vocational, and academic growth (Dinkmeyer & Caldwell, 1970). According to Myrick (1993), the primary goal of developmental guidance
9 and counseling is to help students learn more effectively and efficiently.
Developmental guidance and counseling assumes that human nature moves individuals sequentially and positively toward self -enhancement . It recognizes there is a force within each of us that makes us believe that we are special and there is nobody like us. It also assumes that our individual potentials are valuable assets to society and the future of humanity (Myrick, 1993).
The developmental approach considers the nature of human development, including the general stages and tasks that most individuals experience as they mature from childhood to adulthood (Havinghurst , 1972). It centers on positive self-concepts and acknowledges that one's self- concept is formed and reformed through experience and education. It further recognizes that feelings, ideas, and behaviors are closely linked together and that they are learned. Therefore, the most desired conditions for learning and re-learning are important considerations for development (Myrick, 1993). Theoretical Aspects of Developmental Guidance
The theory of developmental guidance includes several defining aspects. First, human development is a life-long set of physiological, psychological, and social processes that begins at birth and continues until death. Second, this development involves an interaction between what a
10 person is given genetically at birth and the different environments in which that person lives and grows (Myrick, 1993). Third, the idea that life follows a sequential and hierarchical unfolding of various types of development is a definitive aspect of this theory. For instance, developmental guidance considers cognitive development (e.g., Piaget, 1970), moral development (Gilligan, 1982; Kohlberg & Tureil, 1971), sexual development (Russo, 1983; Campbell, 1989; Gullotta & Adams, 1993) and overall human development (Erickson, 1963; Havinghurst, 1953).
Self-concept has been recognized as an important variable in developmental guidance. According to Myrick (1993), as the self-concept develops, various attitudes and personal styles take shape, which in turn become part of the learning process. It appears that significant attitudes about self, others, school, and society, which affect how a person learns and later functions as a mature adult, are formed while young people are growing up in their families and attending school. Therefore, to consider developmental tasks and stages, without giving attention to self -concept , might be considered senseless. In addition, it seems clear that one's self -picture is shaped by interpersonal relationships and that these relationships are part of the conditions in which people learn.
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Principles and Goals of Developmental Guidance
There are seven principles of developmental guidance (Myrick, 1993). These principles include the following:
Developmental guidance is for all students.
Developmental guidance has an organized and planned
curriculum.
Developmental guidance is sequential and flexible.
Developmental guidance is an integrated part of the
total educational process.
Developmental guidance involves all school personnel.
Developmental guidance helps students learn more
effectively and efficiently. • Developmental guidance includes counselors who provide
specialized counseling services and interventions.
Similarly, Shertzer and Stone (1976) wrote that guidance operates under five principles. These principles are as follows: (a) guidance is concerned primarily and systematically with the personal development of the individual; (b) the primary mode by which guidance is conducted lies in individual behavioral processes; (c) guidance is oriented toward cooperation, not compulsion; (d) guidance is based upon recognizing the dignity and worth of individuals as well as their right to choose; and (e) guidance is continuous, sequential, educational process.
Developmental guidance also features a set of curriculum and goals. There are eight goals which
12 characterize almost all developmental guidance and counseling programs (Myrick, 1993). Guidance units, which feature organized learning activities, are designed to facilitate student learning and the accomplishment of these goals. The eight goals include (a) understanding the school environment, (b) understanding self and others, (c) understanding attitudes and behavior, (d) decision making and problem solving, (e) interpersonal and communication skills, (f) school success skills, (g) career awareness and educational planning, and (h) community pride and involvement .
A developmental guidance unit on the prevention of sexual harassment seems particularly relevant to young adolescents. The middle school years are a time when students experience significant body changes and when social relationships play an important part in their personal growth. These relationships influence how students perceive school and their learning environment.
Definition of Terms
1. The adult-led intervention for this study is facilitated by adults such as school counselors or teachers.
2. Guidance is a constellation of services, commonly delivered by professional educators such as teachers and counselors, aimed at personal growth, career development, and school adjustment.
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3 . A hostile environment is created when unwanted personally offensive sexual attention, not necessarily associated directly with an employment or academic decision, involves the person being harassed.
4. A peer facilitator is a student who uses helping skills and concepts to assist other students and sometimes adults to think about ideas and feelings, to explore alternatives to situations, and to make responsible decisions (Myrick and Bowman, 1981).
5. The peer-led intervention for this study is facilitated by professionally and systematically trained high school peer facilitators in grades 10, 11, or 12.
6. A perpetrator is a person accused and determined guilty of sexual harassment by the proper authorities.
7. School comfort is the level of a student's perceived safety, security, and well-being in the school atmosphere.
8. Self-concept is a person's self -perception in relation to important aspects of life.
9 . Sexual harassment awareness is the level at which an individual recognizes and understands issues of sexual harassment.
10. Sexual harassment risk reduction involves increasing an individual's awareness of those variables which, when operationalized, decreases the possibility of sexual harassment occurring.
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11. The self-instruction module is a unit in which subjects read and respond to materials about sexual harassment issues without the benefit of group discussion.
12. Sex-roles are the normative requirements that apply to the specific, relative behavior of males and females in particular situational contexts.
13. Sexual harassment is any unwanted and unwelcome sexual behavior that is experienced by a person.
14. A victim is a person identified as experiencing sexual harassment.
Organization of the Study The remainder of this study includes a review of the professional literature in Chapter II. This review includes an overview of the nature of sexual harassment, victims and perpetrators, middle school students, previous attempts at sexual harassment interventions, peer facilitator programs and training, and a summary. Chapter III will contain a description of the resultant sample, relevant variables, instruments, research design, hypotheses, participant training, the developmental guidance unit, and research procedures. The data analysis and results of the study will be presented in Chapter IV. A summary of the results, conclusions, limitations of the study, implications, and suggestions for future investigations is provided in Chapter V.
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a developmental guidance unit and self- instruction module about sexual harassment on early adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept , and school comfort of middle school students. In addition, three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper led; and self -instruction.
Chapter II is a review of the professional literature and focuses on the nature of sexual harassment, victims and perpetrators, middle school students, previous attempts at sexual harassment interventions, peer facilitator programs and training, and a summary of the professional literature about sexual harassment.
The Nature of Sexual Harassment
Although the term sexual harassment was not part of the English language until 1975, from the mid-1970s until the present, activists and authors began giving attention to the problem. After 1980, publications on the topic increased
15
16 rapidly as a result of congressional hearings, increased litigation, and publication of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission guidelines on harassment issued in November of that year. The current body of literature includes publications regarding sexual harassment in employment, daily life, and education (McCaghy, 1985).
This section will review the definition of sexual harassment and related issues in the workplace, college campuses, and grade schools. Sexual Harassment Defined
Many of the difficulties surrounding the issue of sexual harassment were caused by the lack of clear, precise, or uniform definitions. In Alexander v. Yale (1977), the courts established a legal precedent under Title IX of the 1972 Education Amendments. None of the federal guidelines, however, contained a uniform definition of sexual abuse in the academic setting, and there were no standards for all institutions to follow. The denotation of sexual harassment varied among campuses, but most definitions involved physical assault, verbal assault, and the concept of coercion or the misuse of differential power (Somers, 1982).
The forms that sexual harassment can take are varied. However, federal guidelines passed by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) in 1980 can serve as a starting point for seeking clarity on murky definitional issues. The EEOC classifies sexual harassment as a form of
17 sex discrimination under Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act.
According to the EEOC, sexual harassment encompasses unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. In the work place, sexual harassment can be said to have occurred when (a) submission to such conduct is either explicitly or implicitly made a term or condition of an individual's employment; (b) submission to or rejection of such conduct by an individual is used as the basis for employment decisions; or (c) such conduct has the purpose or effect of unreasonably interfering with an individual's work performance or creating an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment (Lumsden, 1992).
Quid Pro Quo and hostile environment are two general categories of sexual harassment. Literally meaning "this for that," quid pro quo occurs when employment (or academic) opportunities or benefits are linked with sexual conduct (Blackwood & Lamb, 1992 in Lumsden, 1992). Conversely, it also includes harassment in which sexual advances are made with the stated or implied threat that if the advances are not accepted, there will be work or school related reprisals. A hostile environment involves unwanted, personally offensive sexual attention that need not be directly associated with an employment or academic decision involving the person being harassed (Shoop, 1992).
18 Strauss (1988) provided a description of sexual harassment that focuses on adolescents. Included are specific behaviors that are unwanted and sexual in nature such as touching, verbal comments, sexual name calling, spreading sexual rumors, gestures, jokes, cartoons, pictures, leers, too personal a conversation, cornering/blocking movements, pulling at clothes, students "making out" in the hallway, attempted rape /rape.
Bouchard (1990) reported four parts of sexual harassment. First, sexual harassment is one-sided and unwelcome. Second, it is about power, not about physical attraction. Third, sexual harassment happens over and over, and fourth, sexual harassment does not stop even after confrontation. Fourth, the victim simply cannot get the offender to cease their harassing behavior. Sexual Harassment in the Workplace
In October 1991, a woman named Anita Hill went before the United States Senate Committee. She alleged that her former supervisor, then Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas, sexually harassed her. Nationally, the number of complaints filed with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) rose to 7,495 from October 1991 through June 1992 compared to 4,962 during that period the previous year. One reason for this is that, until this event, many victims of sexual harassment felt isolated and perhaps could not even define sexual harassment.
19 Another plausible reason that reports of sexual harassment in the workplace became more frequent is the changing workforce. Women's entry into the workforce has been prompted by necessity because of demanding economic conditions, increasing number of female head-of -households, and desire for greater job satisfaction. As more women have tried to obtain wage-paying jobs, they have had to fight continuously for fair treatment. For example, as recently as 1990, the median annual earnings for a full-time woman employee in the United States was $19,816 per year— only 71 percent of the median earnings of a full-time male employee. Sexual harassment has been identified as a means to maintain the status quo of power. It may be one way that many men express their resentment and try to reassert control when they view women as their economic competitors (Petrocelli & Repa, 1992).
According to Petrocelli and Repa (1992) male workers who sexually harass women on the job are, perhaps unintended, doing more than annoying her. They are reminding her of her vulnerability, creating tensions that maker her job more difficult and making her hesitant to seek higher paying jobs where she may perceive the tensions as even greater. Hence, sexual harassment can create a climate of intimidation and repression. A woman who is the target of sexual harassment often goes through the same process of victimization as one who has suffered rape, battering or
20 other gender-related crimes— frequently blaming herself and doubting her own self -worth.
In addition to trauma imposed on the victim, sexual harassment in the workplace may have other consequences. For example, sexual harassment can have a cumulative, demoralizing effect that discourages women from asserting themselves within the workplace, while among men it reinforces stereotypes of women employees as sex objects. Also, sexual harassment can cause direct economic injury in the form of employment status, lost wages, and other job benefits. Sometimes it can lead to firing for failing to go along with the sexual demands of an employer (Petrocelli & Repa, 1992; also see e.g., EEOC v. Domino's Pizza, 1983; Priest v. Rotary, 1986).
Study results on the frequency of sexual harassment incidents in the workplace range considerably. As high as 92 percent of women employees have reported some form of sexual harassment. A study of federal employees found that 42 percent had suffered unwanted sexual advances on the job (Sandler, 1989). Further, sexual harassment has become a serious issue among men. The number of law suits brought by men alleging sexual harassment is increasing and will likely continue to increase as more women attain supervisory and management positions (Hazzard, 1989).
21 Sexual Harassment in Universities
Sexual harassment is neither a new issue at the work place nor on the university campus. Five students claiming sexual harassment by faculty at Yale University sued the institution in 1977 under Title IX. Since then, it has been increasingly recognized that sexual harassment can create a malevolent effect on the learning environment. For example, Dzeich and Weiner (1984) reported that 30 percent of undergraduate women experienced harassment by at least one of their professors during their four years in college.
A woman who refuses sexual demands may jeopardize her academic career or employment. Reprisals are not unusual; unfair grades or job evaluations may be given. The student may be fearful of any interaction with a professor. Students may drop courses, transfer to other schools, and even discontinue their education (Sandler, 1989).
How frequent are incidents of sexual harassment on the college campus? Results have been consistent even though different definitions of sexual harassment may be used. About 20 to 30 percent of women undergraduates experience some form of sexual harassment. For graduate students, the figures are higher, between 30 and 40 percent. When definitions of harassment include sexist remarks and other forms of gender harassment, the incidence rate among undergraduates approaches 70 percent (Adams, Kottke, & Padgitt, 1983; Lott, Reilly, & Howard, 1982).
22 One small university reported that, of 215 undergraduate survey respondents, 89 percent of women and 85 percent of men reported at least one incident of sexual harassment in one of four categories: in class, with faculty, with staff, and with students (Mazer & Percival, 1989; Paludi & DeFour, 1989; Carroll & Ellis, 1989). Not all women experience harassment nor do most professors or staff proposition their students or workers; usually, it is a small number of men harassing a larger number of women either simultaneously, sequentially, or both.
Only recently have studies begun to examine faculty harassment. At the University of California at Davis, 20 percent of the women faculty reported they had experienced harassment; at Harvard University, 32 percent of the tenured female faculty and 49 percent of the untenured female faculty reported experiencing sexual harassment. At the University of Pennsylvania, 47 percent of women faculty reported having experienced some form of sexual harassment on campus (Sandler, 1989).
Similarly, an investigation of sexual harassment of women professors by students attempted to determine how widespread the problem is and to examine how gender and status define an individual's vulnerability to sexual harassment. Survey data from 208 25- to 67-year-old female instructors employed at a university revealed that subjects experienced a variety of behaviors, mostly from male
23 students, which ranged from sexist comments to sexual assault (Grauerholz, 1989). Sexual Harassment in Schools
Until recently very little attention has been paid to the sexual harassment that occurs in our junior high/middle and secondary schools. The first survey on peer-to-peer sexual harassment in secondary schools, conducted by the Massachusetts Department of Education, was administered in 1980-81 to approximately 2 00 male and female high school students in Massachusetts. In addition, 60 in-depth interviews were conducted with young women who were enrolled in courses that were considered non-traditional for their sex (shops and courses such as auto body, auto mechanics, plant maintenance, plumbing and air conditioning, metal fabrication, etc.). The study revealed that sexual harassment is a problem for many students in high school, both in vocational high schools and in comprehensive schools; that young women are much more likely to be victims of sexual harassment than their male counterparts, especially in the more severe forms of unwanted sexual attention; that student to student sexual harassment is more prevalent than teacher to student sexual harassment; and that peer-to-peer sexual harassment, including cases in which the harasser is both known to or identifiable to the victim or not known, ranged from verbal and written comments
24 to physical assault to attempted rape (Bogart & Stein, 1987) .
More recently, the American Association of University Women's (AAUW) Educational Foundation commissioned a questionnaire study to provide an empirically supported profile of the problem of sexual harassment in schools. The survey was completed by a total of 1,632 public school students in grades 8 through 11, from 79 schools across the continental United States. Students were provided a definition of sexual harassment as the following: "Sexual harassment is unwanted and unwelcome sexual behavior which interferes with your life. Sexual harassment is not behaviors that you like or want (e.g., wanted kissing, touching, or flirting." (Harris, 1993).
The AAUW questionnaire found that 4 out of 5 students (81%) reported that they were the target of some form of sexual harassment during their school lives. In addition to the finding that sexual harassment is widespread, the survey also reported that
• Sexual comments, jokes, looks, and gestures— as well as touching, grabbing, and/or pinching in a sexual way— are commonplace in school.
• Being called gay would be more upsetting to boys than actual physical abuse.
• Experiences of student-to-student harassment outnumber all others types of sexual harassment.
25 • Notably higher numbers of girls than boys say they have
suffered as a result of sexual harassment in school;
African-American girls have suffered the most.
Reilly (1992) suggested that adolescent attitude towards sexual harassment varies according to certain demographic variables. She used high school students and adults enrolled in traditional and nontraditional training programs. Also used were teachers in 12 different school districts. Study participants were asked if they considered 10 different behaviors to be sexual harassment. Female respondents were more likely to consider the behaviors to be sexual harassment than were male respondents; however, both males and females felt that forms of sexual harassment in which job security, compensation, or work assignments were conditional on sexual favors were most offensive.
Further, respondents aged 16-18 were consistently less likely to perceive behaviors as sexual harassment than were individuals aged 13-15 or over 18. Race also influenced perceptions of sexual harassment. Caucasians and Hispanics were most sensitive to sexual harassment (Reilly, 1992). The Victims and Perpetrators
This section describes the victimization experience, the perpetrator, and other liabilities which accompany sexual harassment.
26 The Victims of Sexual Harassment
One factor which compels intervention efforts in the area of sexual harassment is the experience of the victim. One researcher noted that, "Experiencing violence transforms people into victims and changes their lives forever. It is inevitable that once victimized, at minimum, one can never again feel quite as invulnerable" (Koss, 1988, pg. 3).
Sexual Harassment Trauma Syndrome, as described by Woody and Perry (1993), is comprised of emotional reactions, physical reactions, changes in self perception, interpersonal relatedness and sexual effects, and career effects. Further, sexual harassment of one family member can disrupt or alter the entire family system. The emotional impact of sexual harassment was further delineated by the AAUW study (Harris, 1993) which indicated that 50 percent of all students who have been harassed suffered embarrassment. Similarly, 37 percent of students attributed to sexual harassment their feelings of self -consciousness, 29 percent felt less sure or less confident about themselves, 24 percent felt afraid or scared, 21 percent doubted whether they can have a happy romantic relationship, 17 percent felt confused about who they are, 16 percent felt less popular, and 12 percent felt more popular because of experiencing sexual harassment.
Sandler (1989) noted that a victim who is harassed often finds herself in a double bind. She may be unsure if
27 a real injustice has occurred. Did he really touch her breast or did she imagine it? If he really did touch her in a sexual way, is that really something she ought to complain about? Will anyone take her seriously if she does? If she ignores it, will it go away? These questions are not easy to answer and often leave a victim in an intellectual and emotional quandary. The Perpetrators of Sexual Harassment
Harassers are people with a "hangup" about power, they are bullies. Harassers like to give orders and make other people afraid. They are often people who will do anything to have their own way. Sexual harassers can often pick up the wrong message from televisions and movies about what other people want. Once in a while, the harasser is a sadist, someone who simply enjoys inflicting pain in others (Bouchard, 1990).
Sexual harassment perpetrators can also experience deleterious consequences because it is a moral and legal violation against society. Further, sexual harassment is usually a violation of school rules, regulations, or policy. In addition to hurting the victim, a perpetrator is subject to school disciplinary procedures ranging from verbal reprimand to expulsion. Criminal proceedings may find a perpetrator guilty of at least a misdemeanor which carries with it fines, probation, or jail time. The injurious experiences of the victim, perpetrator, and sometimes school
28 officials warrants investigating the effects of a developmental guidance unit and self-instruction module about sexual harassment. The Liabilities of Sexual Harassment
Incidents of sexual harassment have evoked law suits involving money settlements, community outrage, and displays of ignorance. For instance, LEXIS/NEXIS is a commercial online database service which provides information including legal documents from all states and some other countries, the texts of major newspapers and periodicals, and medical information (LEXIS/NEXIS User's Guide, 1993). A LEXIS/NEXIS search using the key words "sexual harassment and school" resulted in the following reports in various major newspapers: • In the Georgia case of Franklin vs. Gwinnett
County Public Schools, the court ruled that "victims of sexual harassment and other forms of sex discrimination in schools may sue for monetary damages" under Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. Title IX prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender in schools and colleges that receive federal funding. According to some lawyers, the legal decision "could result in multimillion-dollar award verdicts against school districts and colleges ( "Attorneys Assess High Court Harassment Ruling Impact, 1992)."
29
School officials in one Minnesota high school ignored a girl's complaints of vulgar treatment by boys for a year and a half until she filed charges with the state and won a $15,000 "mental anguish" settlement.
A high school girl filed suit against her school after officials did nothing about removing graffiti in the boy's bathroom that called her a "slut" and depicted her as doing demeaning acts with boys and animals. She made requests over 10 months to have the graffiti removed and for a long time didn't mention it to her parents. The student won a $15,000 settlement.
A Texas civil rights group filed a federal lawsuit seeking $850,000 against a school district, alleging school leaders failed to protect two teen-age girls from sexual harassment by three boys.
In California, the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Civil Rights found that one of their school systems failed to protect an eighth grade girl who repeatedly endured classmates' shouts of "moo, moo" and other taunts about her body. Her parents filed a lawsuit and settled out of court for $20,000.
When a swarm of young men in Missouri surrounded a girl in a New York swimming pool, ripped off her bathing suit and sexually assaulted her, a city official called it, "horseplay that got out of hand."
30
• A high school newspaper in St. Petersburg, Florida featured stories about sexual harassment. One story included the results of a survey which said that 43 percent of girls and 16 percent of boys had been touched against their will. The survey also asked if girls, "...invite the advances made by a man through their dress or behavior." Sixty-two percent of the boys and 21 percent of the girls said yes.
• Another Minnesota student, seven years old, became the first elementary school student in the country to accuse her peers of sexual harassment. The student's mother filed a sex discrimination complaint against the school district charging that it failed to discourage harassment of her daughter and other girls who were subjected to nasty language, taunting and other threats. In the settlement, the district agreed to institute a sexual harassment policy. Additionally, the educational impact of sexual
harassment is significant. When students are the target of sexual harassment, their right to an equal education is compromised. Experiencing sexual harassment can interfere with "learning, attendance, course choices, grades, and therefore economic potential" (Strauss, 1988).
Consider that 23 percent of students who have been sexually harassed say that one outcome of the experience is not wanting to attend school. Nearly one in four girls
31 (24%) say that harassment caused them to stay home from school or cut a class (Harris, 1993). Since school attendance is directly related to grades, increased truancy can increase the risk of jeopardizing one's career potential (e.g., see Bobbett, 1993; Ceci, 1991; and Lee, 1989).
Further, 2 3 percent of those experiencing sexual harassment reported not wanting to talk as much in class afterwards (Harris, 1993). Several studies indicate that there already exists a lower rate of class participation among female students as compared to male students at the elementary level (Biraimah, 1989; DeVoe, 1991; Visser, 1987). Experiencing sexual harassment may add to the problem of low participation among females.
Twenty-one percent (21%) of students who have been sexually harassed say the experience has made it more difficult to pay attention in school. Sixteen percent (16%) of students said they have made a lower grade on a test or paper; 13 percent made a lower grade in class; 16 percent found it hard to study, and 12 percent of students who have been harassed had thoughts about changing schools. A small percentage of students changed schools and doubt whether they have what it takes to graduate from high school because of sexual harassment (3% and 4%, respectively, Harris, 1993) .
32 Other Considerations
What factors make sexual harassment a problem? Several elements which contribute to the increased risk of sexual harassment have been identified throughout the literature. Strauss (1992) suggested several factors which include social norms, lack of clear communication, sex-role stereotyping, and false perceptions and beliefs about sexual harassment (i.e., myths). Also, lack of victim reporting contributes to sexual harassment.
The degree to which each factor contributes to sexual harassment is not known and requires further research. More is known about how each of these factors contributes to the area of sexual assault. Notwithstanding, sexual harassment and sexual assault have been recognized as having similar and analogous attributes. One expert in the area of sexual misconduct closely places the two on the same continuum. The continuum includes listening to sexist jokes, telling sexist jokes, sexual objectif ication, viewing violent pornography, emotional withdrawal, rape fantasies, believing submission is consent, sexual harassment, threats and violence, sexual assault, and rape (Parrot, 1991).
The parallel relationship between sexual harassment and sexual assault is also exemplified by Quina and Carlson (1989). These authors developed a working guide to the treatment of survivors of sexual victimization. In the guide, rape, incest, and harassment are treated as related
33 forms of sexual abuse. Woody and Perry (1993), in writing about the psycholegal considerations and family therapy as treatment choice, include in their definition of sexual harassment: verbal innuendoes, gestures, unwanted physical contact, and rape.
Further evidence suggesting the analogy between sexual assault and sexual harassment exists. For example, 60 male and 162 female undergraduates completed an instrument called the Sexual Harassment Proclivities Scale (SHPS). These scores were compared with those for measures of sex-role stereotyping, adversarial sexual beliefs, sexual conservatism, acceptance of interpersonal violence, rape myth acceptance, likelihood of rape, acceptance of feminism, empathetic concern, sexual activity, and sexual exploitation. Most of the results were statistically significant for both men and women, although correlations tended to be higher for men. A factor analysis of the SHPS yielded a 1-factor solution for both men and women, supporting the view that the scale measures likelihood of sexual harassment (Bartling & Eisenman, 1993).
This study investigates the effects of a developmental guidance unit and self-instruction module about sexual harassment on early adolescents. The unit is designed to enhance knowledge, behavior, and attitude that is incompatible with the factors identified as increasing the risk of sexual harassment. These factors which included
34 social /cultural norms, interpersonal communication behavior, sex-role stereotyping, sexual harassment mythology, and lack of victim reporting have been derived from known factors contributing to sexual assault or rape.
Social and Cultural Norms. Sexual harassment happens partly because society pushes adults and teens to be sexual. Sex is used to sell everything from cars to toothpaste. Advertising exploits women, and increasingly men, by dressing them in short, tight clothes and photographing them in suggestive poses (Strauss, 1992).
Sometimes it is difficult for males to understand what females feel when they are routinely portrayed as sex objects. Males do not perceive sexual attention as negatively as females do. One gender may believe that, because they enjoy sexual attention, the other gender may enjoy it, too. When one gender does not enjoy sexual attention, but the other keeps giving it, this is the point at which sexual attention becomes sexual harassment (Strauss, 1992).
Interpersonal Communication Behaviors . Sexual harassment is perpetuated also because intergender communication is sometimes unclear. An individual's statements may not coincide with his/her nonverbal behavior. For example, when a female says, "no," but she says it with a smile and a polite tone of voice. Perhaps she is smiling because she is embarrassed; she does not want to seem rude
35 or she has learned to place other people's feelings above her own. Perhaps she smiles so as not to reveal her anger. Boys may distinctively believe the messages obtained from her nonverbal behavior over what she says .
One way that males tend to miscommunicate with females is to misinterpret a female's messages, verbally and non- verbally, according to a set of preconceptions. Usually, such preconceptions are sexual in nature. Therefore, a meaningless twist or turn of a female's body might be considered "playing hard to get" to a male if he is preoccupied with sex.
Males and females communicate from two different standpoints. Males engage the world as an individual in a hierarchical social order in which he is either one-up or one-down. Conversations in the male's world are negotiations in which people try to achieve and maintain the upper hand if they can, and protect themselves from others' attempts to put them down and push them around. Females, on the other hand, approach the world as individuals in a network of connections. Conversations in this world are negotiations for closeness in which people try to seek and give confirmation and support, and to reach consensus. They try to protect themselves from others' attempts to push them away (Tannen, 1990).
Such disparity in intergender communication can lead to grave misunderstandings, which, may contribute to unwanted
36 sexual attention. Sensitivity training is needed to enhance knowledge, behaviors, and attitude which facilitate communication that is more clear and accurately understood. In the schools, this training could take the form of a developmental guidance and counseling unit.
Sex-role Stereotyping. Another factor which contributes to the frequency of sexual harassment is sex- role stereotyping. Sex-roles are the attitudes and behavior patterns adopted as an expression of masculinity and femininity. Masculinity and femininity are structures that have for centuries guided the lives of men and women and shaped the decisions which they made. As babies become toddlers and then preschoolers, they are deluged with direct and indirect messages about how they are to behave based solely on their sex. These messages come from parents and relatives, other adults, siblings, and friends and from cultural media such as movies, television, books and song lyrics (Warshaw & Parrot, 1991).
For instance, girls learn, early on, that they should be "sugar and spice and everything nice" while boys learn that they should be "snips and snails and puppy dog's tails." The girls' labels sound sweet and passive. The boys' labels sound daring and active. From such imprints, many girls proceed along a "niceness" track. They learn that they are supposed to be friendly and to yield to others' needs and wants even if it means sacrificing their
37 own. They may develop a sense of physical and intellectual helplessness; are discouraged from becoming self-reliant and independent; learn to defer to men; to rely on men to provide them with social status, protection, and, ultimately, a secure future (Warshaw & Parrot, 1991).
Many of our society's sexual harassment-supportive attitudes and myths are rooted in beliefs about appropriate behavior for women. For example, if a woman is too friendly, men are likely to perceive her behavior as seduction (Abbey, 1982). Or, if she is wearing a skirt which ends above her knees, then she wants the man to touch or comment on them. In fact, showing one's knees is not the same message as "touch me."
Many boys are steered onto an "aggression" track that guides them toward a self-centered view of their place in society. They learn to set aside the needs of others, to use physical responses to beat an opponent when faced with conflict, and to equate showing empathy with being weak and feminine. This kind of upbringing often leads to beliefs in sexual entitlement and social superiority over females. The result is a string of myths that boys and men are expected to live up to (Warshaw & Parrot, 1991; Koss, 1988).
Given these divergent social development patterns, some of the travelers on the "niceness" track and some of those on the "aggression" track are on a collision course with each other. They may collide as preteens or teenagers in
38 junior high or high schools or at after-school jobs; as young single adults in college or the work place; or as marriage partners, dates, or friends in later years. Many of the collisions may be perceived, considered, or identified as sexual harassment.
Thus, for many men and women, "the battle of the sexes" may be just that. From their socialization in childhood and adolescence, they developed different goals related to sexuality which set them up as adversaries. Both groups learned that women, to maintain their own "worth," are supposed to control men's sexuality and that men are supposed to singlemindedly go after sexual intercourse with a female, regardless of how they do it (Warshaw & Parrot, 1991; McShane, 1988) .
Traditional sex-roles can place limitations on many facets of our lives including relationships, on a date, communicating with others, and in the work place. Traditional sex-roles can especially be unnecessarily confining, and overconf ormity to traditional sex-roles can be dysfunctional (Pleck, 1981). Nevertheless, traditional sex-roles for men and women in relationships have been pervasive and robust.
The majority of literature on sex-roles suggest that rigid sex-roles can restrict one's knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors to those deemed societally appropriate for each respective gender. Learning about sex-roles can increase
39 one's choices in how to learn, perceive, and act. A review of the professional literature resulted in one study which provided evidence to the contrary. Powell (1986) examined the effects of rater characteristics on definitions of sexual harassment in 249 undergraduates and 102 part-time students in MBA courses holding full-time jobs. Subjects were administered the Bern Sex-Role Inventory and classified as high/low in masculinity or femininity. Then, a sexual harassment index was calculated. Results showed that sex influenced subjects' definitions of sexual harassment, whereas sex-role identity had a minor effect.
In more recent times, traditional roles are rapidly changing and creating a disturbance for the individuals involved. Hart and Dalke (1983) indicate that an increasing number of women are returning to school . Women are moving outside the traditional four areas in which they have been working: clerical, service, factory, and sales. They are now becoming airline pilots, engineers, doctors, oil drillers, and executives. The authors also indicate that men are shifting roles, too. There is an increase in the number of men teaching young children, heading schools and libraries, and working in nursing and clerical positions. They are also refusing transfers as a part of professional advancement in order to maintain a stable and meaningful family life.
40 Movement towards the condition of androgyny is necessary for emancipating males and females from socially determined roles which are uncompromising and stifling. As described by Heilbrun (1973), androgyny is the condition under which the characteristics of the sexes, and the human impulses expressed by men and women, are not rigidly assigned. Androgyny seeks to liberate the individual from the confines of the appropriate. Unless progress towards androgyny occurs, men and women will continue to struggle for self -actualization and experience intergender unrest, such as in the form of sexual harassment.
Moving toward androgyny is not effortless. For example, Strauss (1992) wrote that teens who try to challenge these stereotypes don't get much support from their peers, society, and sometimes their own parents. Girls are told that boys won't like them if they show their intelligence. Boys are told that they are "wimps" if they don't fit the stereotype of the tough-guy "macho" male.
Sexual Harassment Mythology. A fundamental reason that sexual harassers and victims of sexual harassment exist is because they often believe myths concerning male-female interactions. For instance, Reilly and her colleagues (1992) found a positive correlation among mens' self- reported tolerance for sexual harassment, adversarial sexual beliefs, rape-myth acceptance, likelihood to rape, and experience as a sexual victimizer.
41 According to Sandler (1989), many misconceptions surround sexual harassment. There are the "beauty" and "clothing" myths. Essentially, some people believe that a female's beauty can be so overpowering as to "cause" sexual harassment. Similarly, the victim can be blamed for the harassment because of the clothing she wore. Although a woman's clothing may communicate, "I'm a woman," this is not the same message as "Touch me." Clothing does not give others permission to touch or grab; it does not signal what a woman wants or will do. The beauty and clothing myth views sexual harassment as an extension of biological drives, ignoring the issue of power, and shifting the responsibility and blame to the victim (Sandler, 1989).
Further, the beauty and clothing myth perpetuates the idea that the world is really safe and fair, and if the woman dresses or acts in a particular way, the male will control himself and not sexually harass her. In essence, this myth tells women that they must strive for invisibility to avoid being sexually harassed, and if they are sexually harassed, it is because they were not invisible enough. In reality, people are often sexually harassed irrespectful of attractiveness, age, or behavior.
Another common misconception or myth about sexual harassment is that rules, policies, or the laws prohibiting it restrict normal socializing between males and females. The truth is that sexual harassment consists of unwelcome
42 conduct of a sexual nature. It in no way affects ordinary social contact between people (Petrocelli & Repa, 1992).
Yet another myth is that the victim should have just said "No," or "Stop." This myth involves poor or inaccurate intergender communication. Victims of sexual harassment may sometimes say "yes" or do nothing simply because they are too frightened to confront the harasser, who, many times is aggressive. In particular, many women have difficulties confronting sexual harassment because they have been socialized to be "nice" which usually means "do not make waves." Frequently, confronting sexual harassment is difficult because the victim may suffer unpleasant consequences such as negative peer pressure, ridicule, or isolation.
Ironically, when sexual harassment is confronted, sometimes the perpetrator simply ignores it and continues. He may believe that his behavior is not as serious as perceived by the victim. Or, he simply may not be able to stretch his own definition of appropriate and understand why his actions may be unwelcomed. Accordingly, believing that simply saying "No," or "Stop," to a harasser is sufficient is erroneous.
Another myth about sexual harassment is that females falsify charges as a way of getting back at males. Although sometimes true, this myth perpetuates the belief that true sexual harassment is rare. To the contrary, studies
43 indicate that the incidence and prevalence of sexual harassment is ubiquitous (Harris, 1993; Illinois Task Force, 1980). Still, studies which report on the prevalence of sexual harassment are thought to be highly underestimated. Sandler (1989) approximated that females— perhaps more than 90 percent^-don't want to report or file charges because they know of the risks involved. Risks may include retaliation from the perpetrator, being ostracized from peers or colleagues, being ridiculed, experiencing additional harassment by others, and sometimes loss of employment or promotion.
Another myth which removes sexual harassment from being "real" denies that any harm was done. Unwanted behaviors such as "cat calling," lewd and lascivious comments, sexual innuendos, and jokes are dismissed as harmless flirting. These myths reject the victim's trauma of experiencing another's intrusive actions. According to Burt (1991) many "no harm done" myths refer to women of societally devalued status or women who are stereotyped as sexually available. The most extreme implication of these myths is that once a woman has consented to any sexual activity, she is never again in a position where she can legitimately say "no." Prostitutes are a special case of the open territory victim, so devalued that many people believe that prostitutes cannot be sexually harassed.
44 The "no harm done" myth is the type of myth that traps minority women, whose experiences of sexual violation are not taken seriously because they are stereotyped as being promiscuous and therefore already devalued. Any group of women stereotyped as being sexually active outside of marriage, such as divorcees or prostitutes, or any women who frequent places associated with being sexually available, such as bars, run the risk of being dismissed as unworthy of the law's protection or of sympathetic concern when they press charges of sexual harassment (Burt, 1991; Koss, 1988).
The "she wanted it" myth maintains that the victim of sexual harassment wanted it, invited it, or liked it. The issue of consent lies at the crux of this type of myth. These myths simply pose the questions: Did she want it or did she have to endure it? Did her observed behavior stem from personal motivation, in which case she granted permission, or from a hostile environment created by the perpetrator, in which case it was sexual harassment (Burt, 1991)?
Complications arise in answering this seemingly simple question because the culture's many myths concerning women and sex are distilled to a belief that "women never mean no." At some level, women are always presumed always to "want it," no matter what is said. To differentiate sexual harassment from flirting, one must be convinced that the victim did not consent to the sexual actions of another or
45 others. Differentiation becomes convoluted when women with certain reputations or identities are stereotypically assumed to consent more readily, to more men, in more situations .
The "she deserved it" myth claims that the victim did something to initiate the harassment. These myths admit the traumatic experience of the victim although they hold the victim responsible-^theref ore sexual harassment did not occur. If she was attractively dressed; walked alone passed a construction site; if she was, in the perpetrators perception, a tease; if she had previously been out on a date with him; if she said "hello" to him at school or the office— it was the victim's fault. The victim "got into the game" of sexuality, this reasoning goes, and once in the game, society loads her with the full responsibility for whatever happens. The "she deserved it" myth does not distinguish between companionship, friendship, a date, sexual intercourse and her asking to be sexually harassed. When blame is placed on the victim, certain underlying ideological assumptions may be operating. For example, women are sly, manipulative, devious, underhanded; that women are teases; that they like to make men jump through hoops. And if they lose control and the situation goes too far, then getting harassed is simply what they deserve and their own fault for trying to control and manipulate men (Burt, 1991).
46 The contribution of myths to sexual harassment involves their function as a method to maintain male dominance in a patriarchal society. Sexual harassment myths justify and excuse sexual harassment. They teach victims to blame themselves for their own victimizations. They support the use of hostility, coupled with sexuality, as a mechanism for keeping females powerless. The myths make clear to females that preventing sexual harassment is her responsibility and that she will find little sympathy for her situation should she be so careless as to allow herself to be sexually harassed. They make especially clear the disbelief and blame she will encounter should she be sexually harassed by someone she knows. Sexual harassment myths keep victims quiet and controlled (Burt, 1991).
Another way myths may be functional is perpetuation of a "blame-the-victim" attitude which makes it more difficult for victims to seek help and to recover from sexual harassment. This way, the harasser is "freed" of the guilt that accompanies the responsibility for actions. The harasser becomes desensitized to the seriousness of sexual harassment, it's consequences, and simultaneously achieves a "clear conscience." This combination is conducive to recommitting the crime of sexual harassment.
Sexual harassment mythology shapes people's attitudes towards women, relationships, and appropriate gender specific behavior. Unfortunately, the current research
47 suggests that the more rigid that one adheres to his/her sex-role stereotype, the more problems that exist between the genders. Teaching young children about sex-roles gives them greater latitude in their behaviors, attitudes, and knowledge. This supports positive, mutually respectful, and overall healthy relationships.
Lack of Victim Reporting. The lack of victim reporting is another contributing factor to sexual harassment. According to Harris (1994), students do not routinely report sexual harassment incidents to adults. In addition, boys who have been harassed are more likely than girls to have told no one (27% and 19%, respectively). Only seven percent of sexually harassed students say they have told a teacher about the experience, with girls twice as likely as boys to have done this. By far, most reporting takes place on a peer-to-peer basis: 63 percent of sexually harassed students have told a friend.
Reasons and rationale for the lack of reporting include that victims feel uncomfortable, embarrassed, or ashamed. They are afraid that no one will believe them, that harassment will reflect badly on their character, that somehow they will be viewed as having invited the behavior. And often, they do blame themselves. They may feel unjustified guilt, be fearful of repercussions, and may even be too ashamed to tell friends or family (Sandler, 1989). If students were more knowledgeable and confident about
48 reporting, perhaps reporting sexual harassment, then reporting might occur more often.
Reporting sexual harassment is important for several reasons. One, even if the victim does not want to press criminal charges, reporting the incident to law enforcement officers means that the incident will be officially documented. Second, reporting sexual harassment can help the victim feel more empowered. Third, reporting is the first step in an official investigation and a possible conviction. A victim who initially does not want to prosecute and changes his/her mind later could not do so if he/she did not report soon after the incident occurred. On the other hand, if a victim wants to prosecute and reports the incident, he/she can always later decline. Fourth, reporting provides more consistent consequences for perpetrators of sexual harassment which discourages future incidents from occurring. Fifth, reporting an incident of sexual harassment can lead to a confrontation with the perpetrator and ultimately resolution.
A successful resolution can help to avoid further actions and prove to be an educational experience. Such an experience can become constructive and reduce the risk of another incident. The guidance unit about sexual harassment with seventh grade students used in this investigation also attempts to increase knowledge about reporting, skills for
49 making effective reports, and a positive attitude about reporting.
The Middle School Student
This investigation focuses on seventh grade middle school students. Students at this age and stage of development are known to be highly influenced, experiencing rapid growth and development, and therefore, excellent candidates for sexual harassment sensitivity training. This section delineates known developmental characteristics of this age group. Included is the nature of sexual development of children.
The ages from 10-15 years mark a critical period in human development. Youngsters grow by leaps and bounds. They gain weight, lose their baby fat and develop sexually. The changes are not only physical ones. Middle-schoolers also develop thinking skills that prepare them for adulthood. They begin to discover a sense of their own identity, to understand abstract concepts like "right and wrong" and "justice and injustice." They begin to think about friends, family and the future in different ways.
Characteristics among adolescents can vary in depth and breadth. However, general qualities for this age group have been identified. The following is a list of behavior patterns typical among middle school students, particularly seventh graders (Gullotta & Adams, 1993):
50
• Alternate white-hot bursts of emotional and physical energy with long periods of "vegging out" — usually by adult standards, basically doing nothing productive.
• Taking risks such as in asking for dates and often getting their feelings hurt easily.
• Simultaneously crave tender loving care from their parents, even as they ask for more independence.
• Youngsters focus intensively on their own interests and privacy, but at the same time, they are concerned with what peer groups think of them.
• Want more privileges, but they may have difficulty accepting the responsibility that comes with them.
• Begin to be aware of social issues. The Nature of Sexual Development
Sexual attention to self and others increases with advanced sexual development. Such attention can be positive or negative depending on one's degree of sexual maturity and gender. Normal development among boys, especially a broadened chest, increased muscle density, body hair, and a deeper voice is usually met with acceptance and even reverence among adolescents. For girls, however, normal sexual development is many times met with ridicule. Larger hips and breasts, the beginning of menarche, and perhaps the beginning of cosmetic enhancement are often the brunt of jokes, sexual comments, and rumor. Also, boys and girls who are sexually underdeveloped may suffer negative sexual
51 attention. Following are known characteristics of average sexual development.
The relentless growth of the body is the dominant theme during the early-adolescent period. No other period during the second decade of life rivals these growth advances and none incubates such potential for social and emotional change. About two years before puberty the body begins readying itself for the forthcoming distress. In this period, known as pubescence, the body undergoes an increased rate of physical growth (Mitchell, 1979; Gullotta & Adams, 1993) .
Psychological responses to such rapid and tumultuous growth encompasses many challenges. The most notable is a general preoccupation with the body, with the way it looks and how it feels. This is a period of body shyness and sensitivity. Students feel self-conscious, they worry about how their body looks to others, even though they possess some objective idea as to whether it is attractive by general standards (Mitchell, 1979; Gullotta & Adams, 1993).
Many adolescents have discovered that feelings of inadequacy and inferiority can be alleviated by making fun of others, even in a playful way. However, at any given time, the playfulness may or may not be taken seriously, so the game is not without psychological risk. As a child progresses along his or her sexual development, the risk for being sexually harassed also advances. Even though
52 motivation to sexually harass others is not known to be sexually driven, advancing sexual development may provide the focus for such behavior.
Previous Attempts at Sexual Harassment Intervention
Sexual harassment has proven to be highly resistant to change, the existence of both legal and other strategies notwithstanding. In part, at least, this may be because sexual harassment works. Socially, politically, and economically, sexual harassment protects male "turf," intimidating and humiliating those who would threaten it, putting them in their place and keeping them there (Bogart & Stein, 1987).
Former attempts at reducing and preventing the occurrence of sexual harassment has been mostly confined to the work place and university settings. Further, much of the effort to reduce or eliminate sexual harassment has been in the form of guidelines and policies formulated by the administration or supervisor. The following delineates previous attempts at sexual harassment intervention at the work place, college campuses, and middle/high schools. The Work place
Prior to the 1980 's, there were no federal or state laws prohibiting sexual harassment on the job and few instances in which it was prevented or punished. A woman who was beaten, seriously molested or raped in the work place might file an assault or battery lawsuit, for example,
53 but that happened only rarely. The term sexual harassment was not known (Petrocelli & Repa, 1992). A series of legal decisions, beginning with the Civil Rights Act Title VII of 1964, paved the way for current laws regarding sexual harassment in the work place. Table 2-1 depicts legal decisions affecting sexual harassment at the work place and, eventually, the classroom.
Many employers have not relied on laws regarding sexual harassment for preventing sexual harassment in their work place. Nor have organizations waited for the determination of sexual harassment to occur in the courtroom. Instead, they have taken a somewhat proactive stance by setting official policies and procedures to deal with such situations.
Most sexual harassment prevention policies provide for informal and formal complaint procedures . The informal route allows the harassed individual to complain to a member of management or a person designated to receive such complaints. The formal route provides for a formal, written complaint, usually accompanied by a documented investigation (Thacker, 1994).
Problems with these policies do, however, exist and may have limited effectiveness. Individuals who are targets of the harassment are required to file a complaint. However, almost half of them do not feel comfortable complaining, either formally or informally, about the unwelcome sexual
54
Table 2-1.
Legal Decisions Affecting Sexual Harassment,
1964 Civil Rights Act Title VII prohibits sexual/racial discrimination at work.
1972 Civil Rights Act Title IX, Federal Education Amendments, prohibits sexual/racial discrimination against students and staff in education.
1980 The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) defines sexual harassment.
1980 Continental Can v. Minnesota court case determines that an employer and/or organization is liable for sexual harassment and must take prompt action to correct the problem.
1982 Huebschen v. Wisconsin Department of Health and Social
Services court case determines that submission to sexual advances cannot be made a term of employment, and that an organization is liable for the actions of its supervisors .
19 86 Meritor State Bank v. Vinson court case determines that sexual harassment is a form of sex discrimination under Title VII, and that allowing an environment of sexual harassment is unlawful.
1991 Ellison v. Brady court case rules that a "reasonable
woman" (rather than the traditional "reasonable person") standard should be applied by juries and judges in considering sexual harassment case.
1991 Robinson v. Jacksonville shipyard Inc. court case
determines that posting pornographic material at work is a type of sexual harassment and creates a hostile environment .
1991 The Civil Rights Act of 1991 states that a victim of
sexual harassment can attempt to recover compensatory and punitive damages from his or her employer.
1991 In an out-of-court settlement, a high school in Duluth, Minnesota is ordered to pay $15,000 in damages to a student who was sexually harassed by her male peers.
1992 Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools makes clear that students who suffer sexual harassment and other forms of sex discrimination can seek monetary damages from their schools and school officials for violating their civil rights .
1992 The Minnesota Court of Appeals decides that an employee need not complain at the time about sexual harassment on the job in order to sue later and collect damages from the employer. Their decision strengthens the position that employers are liable if they knew or should have known about harassment. It supports the growing sense of awareness of which behaviors are appropriate, and which are clearly inappropriate.
(Strauss, 1992, p. 6)
55 advances. For these people, the response is likely to be passive, acquiescent, perhaps even compliant. A policy that requires passive targets to complain is similar to having no prevention policy at all (Thacker, 1994). Further, such policies sometimes do not account for when the designated complaint receiver, many times a superior, is the perpetrator. College Campuses
Colleges have recognized their obligation to provide work and study environments free of sexual harassment and intimidation. Like the work place, sexual harassment intervention efforts at colleges primarily have been in the form of policies and procedures. The other principal intervention method uses education in the form of classroom discussion, workshops, and presentations.
Institutions have chosen to take a number of productive actions designed to eliminate harassment and its effects rather than to merely wait for charges of sexual harassment to be brought. A study by Saunders (1992) showed that 91 percent of colleges have sexual harassment policies. Institutions have also developed procedures to inform new staff, faculty, and students about sexual harassment policy. Moreover, many institutions have disseminated information concerning grievance procedures; developed publications about sexual harassment and its legal implications; developed a code of conduct for faculty and staff; included
56 material on sexual harassment in courses on human sexuality; and trained counselors and other student personnel to deal with sexual harassment issues raised by students (Sandler, 1989) .
Dzeich and Weiner (1984), recommended three goals for sexual harassment policies to be credible. They must prevent harassment, remedy situations which occur, and deal with perpetrators. The authors suggested that remedies must not only address the needs of women but stop the offending behaviors. Top-level administrators, such as the president or provost, must be committed to the prevention of sexual harassment; by affixing their signature to policy statements and procedures, they send a strong message to the community. They may carry with it authority, legitimacy, and perhaps even needed resources.
Unfortunately, formal procedures have not appeared to act as a deterrent. For instance, both Harvard University and the University of California at Davis had formal policies and procedures in place at the time these institutions conducted sexual harassment surveys, yet more than 13 percent of the women respondents at the University of California and nearly half those at Harvard, reported unwanted sexual approaches from male faculty (Bogart & Stein, 1987).
Some institutions disseminate information in the form of flyers, brochures, and television spots over school
57 networks. For example, the Project on the Status and Education of Women at the Association of American Colleges offers numerous publications intended to address sexual harassment on college campuses. Advanced efforts in preventing sexual harassment may take the form of direct education and sensitivity training.
Educating students about sexual harassment, in an effort to prevent it's occurrence, has been performed in a variety of ways. Such training can take place as part of courses such as Psychology, Sociology, Women's Studies, English, Human Sexuality, and electives such as Career Development .
Some institutions have formulated peer education programs that focus on sexual misconduct. At Princeton University, students are trained through the SHARE Program (Sexual Harassment /Assault Advising, Resources, and Education) in counseling and group facilitation skills and also receive training on specific issues of sexual harassment, sexual assault, and male/ female communication. Then, as peer educators, they help design and conduct workshops on such issues as acquaintance rape, peer or faculty harassment, and homophobic harassment (Hindus, 1989) .
According to Hindus (1989), peer educator input is invaluable, since they are aware of student concerns on campus and can provide examples and scenarios that are
58 familiar to their peers. Their participation can also be important in designing workshop formats, selecting films, videos, and resource materials, and deciding when and where to conduct workshops for students. They also speak to other students about harassment and refer them to appropriate resources.
Hindus (1989) also wrote about the advantages of using peer educators for sexual harassment intervention efforts. One result of such peer counseling and educating activities is the legitimizing of the issue of harassment for students who might discount the same messages from administrators. In addition, peers often are more accessible, less hampered by institutional concerns, and better able to understand and relate to another student's experiences. They also can mobilize other students on these issues and serve as catalysts for institutional change. As activists, they can alert administrators to student needs and concerns, and act as informal educators for their peers in daily interactions. Middle and High Schools
Limited and sporadic efforts have been placed on learning more about the nature of sexual harassment among children in the school setting. One reason might be that sexual harassment is a disturbing issue among parents and administrators alike. Many parents do not like the idea of their children discussing such delicate issues and, thus, have denied permission for systematic data collection among
59 their children. To appease parents and others, administrators may be motivated to ignore the problem and conclude that it does not exist or occurs in rare isolated incidents in their setting.
Attempts at preventing sexual harassment at the grade school level include formulating policies and procedures; posting flyers; conducting discussions in the classroom as well as with parents during Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) meetings; assigning someone, usually a school counselor, the role of school sexual harassment complaint manager; and including sexual harassment in the student handbook.
Several publications have resulted in response to the importance of preventing sexual harassment among our youth. For example, Everything You Need to Know About Sexual Harassment (Bouchard, 1990), Tune In to Your Rights: A Guide for Teenagers About Turning Off Sexual Harassment (Morris, et al., 1985), How to Stop Sexual Harassment in Our Schools: A Handbook and Curriculum Guide for Administrators and Teachers (Shoop & Edwards, 1994), Sexual Harassment and Teens: A Program for Positive Change (Strauss, 1992), and Confronting Sexual Harassment: Learning Activities for Teens (Sabella & Myrick, 1995).
Even though sexual harassment has been found to be highly prevalent and pervasive among our school children, prevention efforts seriously lag. This investigation will
60 add to a deficient area of the literature about sexual harassment prevention for middle schoolers.
Peer Facilitator Programs and Training
This study will use systematically trained and supervised high school peer facilitators in one of four conditions. This section contains a history and definition of peer facilitation, rationale for using peer facilitators in this study, the roles of peer facilitators, and a review of the literature about peer facilitator effectiveness.
American adolescents are among the greatest resources of our nation. Like most people, they want to feel special and needed. They want to do things which bring them favorable recognition and which demonstrate that what they do is of value. One of the most interesting and innovative educational endeavors of our time is the development of peer facilitator programs, where young people are trained to help their peers and others (Myrick & Folk, 1991).
Peer counseling is a rapidly growing people-helping- people phenomenon that has found a vital place in schools, businesses, and communities in the United States and Canada. Peer counselors attempt to address a range of human needs in areas of social-emotional functioning, behavior control and management, and educational achievement (Alkin, 1992).
According to Myrick (1993), the concept of peers helping peers is not new. The idea began years ago in one room school houses, when older students were given the
61 responsibility of tutoring younger students in basic skills. The process was not as refined as it is today. However, the value of having students help other students was learned early in the history of education and has never been forgotten.
In the 1950 's and 1960 's empathy, openness, and acceptance were identified as ingredients for effective change in counseling and therapeutic relationships (Bergin & Garfield, 1971; Rogers, 1957 in Alkin, 1992). These findings, together with the inability of traditional mental health and educational services to address the needs of the population at large, once again led to the training of paraprofessionals to augment professional services (Albee, 1985 in Alkin, 1992) .
During the 1970 's, successful "peer counseling" programs were started in several schools and universities (e.g. Hamburg & Varenhorst, 1974; Samuels & Samuels, 1975; Gray & Tindall, 1978; and Myrick & Erney, 1978). However, some peer counseling programs experienced problems. The term peer counselor has been met with skepticism by parents, teachers, administrators, and counselors who reserve its use for crisis interventions or intense situations when a person is in trouble. Some see counseling synonymous with therapy, and, therefore, inappropriate for unlicensed people (Myrick, 1993). Efforts to fit the title to functions that peer counselors perform leads to avoid the term peer counselor in
62 favor of more acceptable titles (e.g., peer helper, peer friend, or peer facilitator) .
The term peer facilitator was introduced (e.g. Myrick & Erney, 1978) because it seemed more accurate in describing the limited role and function of young people as helpers. It communicates best what students are asked to do when helping others. At the same time, it provides enough flexibility to incorporate several helping roles and functions. In addition, the term is easier to explain to parents and educators (Myrick, 1993). Further, the need for more precision in labeling is supported by apprehension about the potential liability in having minimally trained peers perform what might be perceived as professional counseling activities (Alkin, 1992).
This investigation recognizes the term peer facilitator as referring to a student who uses helping skills and concepts to assist other students— and sometimes adults-^:o think about ideas and feelings, to explore alternatives to situations, and to make responsible decisions (Myrick & Bowman, 1981).
The importance of using peers in sexual harassment
intervention lies in their intrinsically established mutual
perception of trust and genuineness. Myrick and Sorenson
(1992) noted that,
As children mature, peer influences become increasingly more important in their lives. Peer groups influence social attitudes and skills, emotional well being, and the general climate of
63
the school and community. When adolescents behave in dys functioning ways, their behavior is often attributed more to their peer relationships than to family interactions . This is especially true for problems related to drug use, delinquency, and sexual behavior, (p. 9)
People tend to talk to others perceived most like themselves about personal problems. One middle school study showed that less than a third of the student body believed there was someone in school to whom they could talk about their problems. Less than a third said they knew of a teacher or friendly adult available to listen to them. Most agreed that when they or their friends had problems, another student was the best place to find help (Myrick & Sorenson, 1992) .
Another study determined that boys who have been harassed are more likely than girls to have told no one (27% and 19%, respectively) . A scant 7 percent of sexually harassed students say they have told a teacher about the experience, with girls twice as likely as boys to have done this. By far, most reporting takes place on a peer-to-peer basis: 63 percent of sexually harassed students have told a friend (49% of boys and 77% of girls, Harris, 1993). Accordingly, peers need to be used as effective and efficient assistants in combatting the problem of sexual harassment.
There are four critical areas in which peer influence dominates: in finding out how to deal with aggression, in learning about sex, in developing moral standards from
64 within, and in finding emotional security (Segal & Segal, 1986). Therefore, students remain on the front line when it comes to recognizing incidents of sexual harassment. Peers can be important resources for assisting in sexual harassment prevention efforts.
In addition to helping other students in the area of sexual harassment, Myrick (1993) has noted several advantages to peer facilitators themselves. Such advantages include that students can:
• learn leadership skills which can be used throughout life.
• become actively involved in helping their schools have better learning environments. Students communicate more effectively and are more positive with each other. They learn more about how to be sensitive to others and how to stand up for their own rights.
• provide more guidance services to others because there are more helpers in the school. Peer facilitators are the helping hands of teachers and counselors. They help deliver guidance services and, consequently, many more students are involved.
• contribute to a highly visible program that brings positive public relations to the school's guidance program.
• become less likely to be resistant to learning something when they learn that their help is valued and
65 wanted. Personal growth is an expected outcome for all the peer helpers.
• provide a positive experience for the program coordinator and trainer. It is often reported as the highlight of a counselor's or teacher's week.
• have the opportunity to act as models for other students and to implement effective interpersonal skills as part of the school day. It can help build positive school environments which make school a better place to be for everyone, including teachers and counselors .
Informal peer education is a natural part of high school life. Countless times during the normal course of a school day, information of varying degrees of accuracy on such topics as sex, alcohol, drugs, hygiene and diet passes from one student to another. Often those students who enjoy a high status among their contemporaries are viewed as purveyors of reliable information in these areas. Using trained peer helpers for facilitating a guidance unit about sexual harassment is a more systematic approach to the natural order of school life. Natural opinion leaders, interested in being more effective helpers are seen as ideal instruments for inculcating healthy lifestyles in a school population. Given proper training, these natural leaders can serve not only as role models but as advocates of healthy skills and information (Sparks & Hudson, 1984).
66
Using peer facilitators is also endorsed by the
American School Counselor Association (ASCA) . In 1989, ASCA
published its official position statement on peer
facilitator programs,
. . . peer facilitator programs enhance the effectiveness of the counseling program by increasing outreach programs and expansion of guidance services . Through proper selection, training , and supervision, peer facilitating can be a positive force within the school and community that will meet the need of a sizeable segment of the student body.
Students often communicate their problems to their peers rather than to parents, administrators, or counselors . There exists in every school community a segment of the student population that rejects adult relationships. In our society peer influence may be the strongest single motivational force in a student' s life. Peers can be selected and trained by professional counselors in communication and counseling skills through a carefully planned peer counseling program, and produce additional guidance services which otherwise might never have been realized. (Myrick & Folk, 1991, section H, appendix A)
Peer Facilitator Effectiveness
Although there exists no published studies about the effectiveness of high school peer facilitators in the area of sexual harassment intervention, many studies concerning peer facilitator effectiveness exists in other areas of intervention, for different grade levels, using similar formats. For instance, Tobler (1986) conducted a meta- analysis of 143 adolescent drug prevention programs to identify the most effective program modalities for reducing teenage drug use. Peer programs were found to show a definite superiority. On the ultimate criteria for drug
67 use, peer programs were significantly different than the combined results of all the remaining programs.
Similarly, Mathur and Rutherford (1991) conducted a review of the literature to evaluate the success of peer- mediated interventions in promoting social skills of children and adolescents with behavior disorders. The authors analyzed 21 articles on their experimental, procedural, and generalization components. Results indicated that (a) peer-mediated approaches have demonstrated success in reducing immediate positive treatment effects, (b) typologies of peer-mediated treatments have been identified, and (c) peer-mediated approaches, in general, have contributed to the effectiveness of generalization technology.
A study investigating the effects of peers on academic achievement was based on 905 students in 150 classrooms for grades four, five, and six. Peer effects was added to a model which employed teacher, student, and campus effects to explain academic achievement. Results of the study include a significant increase in the amount of variance explained in student academic achievement (gain score) for each grade, as well as when the overall case is tested (Jones, 1988).
Waters (1991) studied the effect of peer facilitation instruction on AIDS knowledge and attitudes of teenage students and teachers. The author also compared the peer facilitation instruction to a traditional instructional
68 framework. Positive change was found in both knowledge and attitude among students from the peer-intervention group and the traditional group. Some positive change was also found in knowledge among teachers from the traditional group and in attitude among teachers from the peer-intervention group. Overall, no significant differences were found between the peer-facilitation and the traditional approaches to instruction in the amount of knowledge and attitude change for both students and teachers.
Fouts (1985) investigated the effects of a peer facilitator-led study skills unit on study skills, self- concept, school attitude, classroom behavior, and academic achievement among sixth grade middle school students. The study skills unit was implemented by trained eighth grade peer facilitators and a professional school counselor. No significant differences were found in sixth graders' classroom behavior and academic achievement. However, significant differences were found in self-concept and school attitudes. This investigation provided further support for the effectiveness of trained peer facilitators in changing study skills.
Sprinthall, Hall, and Gerler (1992) described a program in which 11th and 12th graders became peer counselors for groups of middle school students experiencing a family divorce. The results supported the developmental goals for the program for both the high school students and middle
69 school students. Both groups showed an increase in interpersonal awareness, greater understanding of the complexities and paradoxes of life, psychological causation, individuality, and the internalization of standards for mature judgement.
Another examination of peer facilitator effectiveness was conducted for secondary school students in an alternative school. The dependent variables included self- concept, interpersonal relations and school interest. Twelve students from the school, selected by a screening committee of students and faculty, were trained in communication, coping skills, and group dynamics for a total of sixteen sessions over an eight week period. After training the peer facilitators co-led six groups of students for a total of fourteen sessions over a six week period. Findings indicated that participants in the program showed a significant gain in school interest over non-participants. Self-concept scores of participants did not differ significantly from those of non-participants. This study lends further support to the positive relationship between participation in a peer group facilitation program and positive attitude toward school. Further, the study calls for further research to using peer group facilitation to increase the school interest of secondary students in the alternative school (Kelley, 1980).
70 Analogously, Correll (1983) reported that following training and experience as peer tutors in a behaviorally oriented reading program for junior high school students, formerly disruptive students decreased their disruptive behaviors and exhibited improved morale and increased academic progress.
Many empirical studies concerning the effectiveness of using peers as group facilitators have corroborated the personal experiences of trainers. Peer facilitator trainers have provided anecdotes which are a tribute to the work that peer facilitators have provided for their contemporaries. Common sense and systematic research both provide a sound basis for using high school peer facilitators in the area of sexual harassment among seventh grade students. High School Peer Facilitators
The areas in which high school peer facilitators have been used are as diverse as the facilitators themselves. For instance, Frenske (1983) reported using peer facilitators to encourage increased female interest in science careers. Maher and Christopher (1982) examined the effectiveness of behavioral group counseling in preventing remediating maladjustment of 24 ninth graders of average intelligence. When compared to ninth graders receiving routine counseling services, the students receiving group counseling improved their school attendance, and GPA, while reducing their number of disciplinary referrals and
71 referrals for special education. Additionally, there were no differences between groups receiving counseling from professionals and from older students.
One orientation program led by peers intended to foster successful school adjustment for entering eighth graders in a black, suburban high school. It was hypothesized that deficits in attendance and appropriate school-related behaviors may be due largely to a lack of accurate information about expected behavior, appropriate role models, good interpersonal skills and acceptance of personal responsibility. The results for the class initially participating in the peer-led informational-processing group were a reduction in absences, improved conduct, and subsequently fewer failing grades (Huey, 1985).
High school peer facilitators can be trained in many settings and by using various methods. Settings can include the classroom, on field trips, during small group guidance, in a school club, during teacher-advisor groups, or during a summer camp. Methods can include weekend marathons, a f ocused-project approach, retreat-workshop approach, small group units, or elective classes. The peer facilitators used in this study are trained in the classroom as members of an elective class called Peer Counseling III and IV. The course follows the high school peer facilitator curriculum shown in Appendix A.
72 Summary
The injurious effects of sexual harassment span from the classroom to the courtroom. Students can be emotionally and physically traumatized which seriously hinders the developmental and educational processes. The destructive nature of sexual harassment compels further research in the area of interventions. Further, because sexual harassment occurs mostly among peers, investigations which include using peer facilitation as an intervention condition are needed.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a developmental guidance unit and self- instruction module about sexual harassment on early adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept , and school comfort of middle school students. In addition, three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper led; and self-instruction.
CHAPTER III METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Sexual harassment is any unwanted sexual attention that interferes with one's life. It has been recognized as a problem among people in the workplace and students at universities. More recently, the problem of sexual harassment has been acknowledged among students in the middle and high school grades. Sexual harassment interferes with students' academic progress, economic potential, social and emotional development, and psychological well-being.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a developmental guidance unit and self- instruction module about sexual harassment on early adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept , and school comfort of middle school students. In addition, three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper led; and self-instruction.
The population and sample, relevant variables, instruments, research design, hypotheses, participant training, the developmental guidance unit and self-
73
74 instruction module, and research procedures will be described in this chapter.
Population and Sample
Alachua County is located in north-central Florida, covers 965 square miles, is home to 194,000 people, and is considered a center for education, medical research, and agriculture. The University of Florida is the financial anchor for the area, serving as employment for over 11,300 people (according to figures released on June 6, 1995 by the Alachua County Chamber of Commerce) and providing income for the many businesses and service providers in the area.
The population for this study consisted of seventh grade students from seven different middle schools in Alachua County, Florida. On May 9, 1995, the total middle school student population in Alachua County was 6,268. The total number of seventh grade students was 2,275. The population of Alachua County middle schools is racially integrated, at approximately 62% white and 34% African- American. The percentages of males to females is virtually even (See Table 3-1). The Alachua County school system also includes six high schools and 23 elementary schools. Sample
All seventh grade students in Alachua County middle schools were eligible to participate in the study. Of the seven middle schools invited to participate in this study, two agreed. Considering the management of experimental
75
Table 3-1.
Population of Alachua County Middle Schools.
School
Grade
Black White
TOT
|
Lincoln |
6-8 |
650 |
662 |
601 |
627 |
1312 |
|
Howard Bishop* |
6-8 |
548 |
566 |
546 |
529 |
1114 |
|
Westwood* |
6-8 |
463 |
507 |
303 |
631 |
970 |
|
Mebane |
6-8 |
261 |
287 |
166 |
375 |
548 |
|
Spring Hill |
5-8 |
245 |
263 |
89 |
410 |
508 |
|
Fort Clarke |
6-8 |
637 |
649 |
255 |
938 |
1286 |
|
Oak View |
6-8 |
256 |
274 |
159 |
368 |
530 |
|
TOTALS : |
3060 |
3208 |
2119 |
3878 |
6268 |
Schools participating in this study.
76 conditions and research procedures, seventh grade students at both schools were identified as those who could best participate in the study. More specifically, four seventh grade science classes in School A (out of 14 total science classes) and four seventh grade English classes at School B (out of 19 total English classes) were selected to take part in the study because they could be randomly assigned to experimental conditions.
The classes in each school were randomly assigned, using a table of random numbers, to one of four different experimental conditions (peer-led [E ] , adult-led [E ], self-instruction [E3], and control [Cj]). A total of 182 seventh grade students participated in this study (out of 2,163 total in the county, or 8.41%). Of the 182 students, 140 (77%) completed all instruments during pretesting and posttesting and were included in the data analyses (see Table 3-2) .
Data collection ensued after securing research and participant approval from the Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects (i.e., University of Florida Institutional Review Board) , Alachua County School Board Department of Research and Evaluation, school site Principals, teachers, and students' parent (s) or legal guardian(s) (see Appendix B for Informed Parental Consent for Study Participation) .
77
Table 3-2.
Sampling of Middle School Students.
|
al |
Scho |
ol |
|||
|
Experimentc Condition |
Westwood |
Ft. |
Clarke |
Condition Total |
|
|
Peer-led (EJ |
17 |
18 |
35 |
||
|
Adult-led (E2) |
19 |
18 |
37 |
||
|
Self-led (E3) |
22 |
18 |
40 |
||
|
Ctrl (CJ |
12 |
16 |
28 |
||
|
School |
Totals |
70 |
70 |
140 |
78 Relevant Variables
This section describes the independent and dependent variables included in this study. Three instruments were administered both pre- and postintervention by student counselors and teachers. They were (1) The Sexual Harassment Inventory (including subscales of knowledge, attitude, and behavior), (2) The School Atmosphere Inventory, and (3) the Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale. Independent Variable
This study included one independent variable, the guidance unit or experimental intervention, with three levels. The three levels were characteristic of who facilitated the intervention and included: teachers and student counselors (adult-led) , systematically trained and supervised high school peer facilitators (peer helper-led) , and students ( self -instruction ) .
The developmental guidance unit about sexual harassment among seventh grade students included six sessions which focused on knowledge, attitude, and behavior regarding sexual harassment. The six sessions were conducted over six weeks (one session per week) . Table 3-3 depicts the focus, title, and objectives for each session. Dependent Variables
This investigation focused on five relevant and dependent variables: knowledge, attitude, behavior, self-
79
Table 3-3.
Focus, Title, and Objectives for the Intervention Sessions.
Focus
Title
Objectives
Knowledge & Self Concept
Tic -Tac- Know
Knowledge, Self- Concept, and Attitude
Knowledge, Self- Concept , and Attitude
Knowledge, self- Concept , and Behaviors
Knowledge, Self- Concept, and Behaviors
Knowledge, Self- Concept , and Behaviors
Hit or Myth: You Make the Call
Is it Sexual Harassment?
Are You a Good Listener?
Earning Mutual Respect
Helping Yourself and Others
To introduce the topic of boy- girl relationships and how physical changes influence personal relationships; to introduce the concept of sexual harassment and that it has become a problem in society.
To have students be aware of sexual harassment mythology; assist in refuting false beliefs about sexual harassment .
To help students identify sexual harassment when it occurs; to differentiate between three forms of sexual harassment (physical and verbal; hostile environment; and quid pro quo) .
To teach communication skills including active listening, nonverbal communication, and facilitative responding.
To teach the definition and concept of mutual respect; appreciating differences; and being sensitive to personal space .
To teach students how to confront a perpetrator; report sexual harassment; keep a journal of incidents; effectively support and help others experiencing sexual harassment.
80 concept, and school comfort. Each of the variables were measured by an appropriate instrument.
Instruments
This study included three criterion measures. The Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale assessed self- concept. The Sexual Harassment Inventory measured general knowledge, attitude, and behavior of sexual harassment issues. Last, the School Atmosphere Inventory assessed each student's level of school comfort. All instruments are self -reported. Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale (PHCSCS)
The procedure for choosing the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale included first identifying self-concept as a factor significantly related to the area of sexual harassment and then conducting an extensive review of the assessment literature. The PHCSCS was determined as an appropriate and sufficient instrument for determining actual change in self-concept as affected by the developmental guidance unit and self-instruction module about sexual harassment.
The PHCSCS is an 80-item, self-report questionnaire designed to assess how children and adolescents feel about themselves. Children are shown various statements that tell how some people feel about themselves and are asked to indicate whether each statement applies to them using dichotomous "yes" or "no" responses. The PHCSCS is intended
81 for use with children and adolescents, ages 8 to 18 years (Piers, 1989).
Construction and use of the Piers-Harris was based on the belief that individuals hold a relatively consistent view of themselves which develops and stabilizes during childhood. Further, the PHCSCS operated under five assumptions as outlined by Piers (1989). First, it was assumed that children will reveal important aspects of this underlying self-image by stating whether or not a series of simple, declarative statements hold true for them, and that this assessment of their self-concepts relates meaningfully to other aspects of their personalities and to predictions of future behavior (Piers, 1989).
A second assumption included the view that self-concept has both global and specific components. Global self- concept reflects how an individual feels about himself or herself as a total person, taking into account his or her characteristic interactions with others, general and specific abilities, and physical self-image. Areas of specific self -concept result from an individual's self- appraisal in specific areas of functioning (e.g., physical self, moral and ethical self, academic self).
Third, it was assumed that self-concept is relatively stable. Although shaped by experience, it is not something which changes easily or rapidly. In children, self -concept is initially more situationally dependent and becomes
82 increasingly stable over time. Although it is possible to enhance children's self -concept through a series of corrective experiences, changes are not likely to occur as the result of a brief, single, or superficial intervention such as a weekend camping trip.
The fourth assumption was that self-concept has a self- evaluative as well as a self-descriptive component. It represents an individual's accumulated judgments concerning himself or herself. Some of these evaluations may reflect internalized judgments of others (e.g., values, norms, notions of what constitutes socially desirable traits and behaviors). Others may be unique to the individual.
Fifth, self-concept is experienced and expressed differently by children at various stages of development. A sixth assumption is that self-concept serves an important organizing function and plays a key role in motivation. An individual's judgment of whether or not a particular behavior is consistent with his or her self-image also helps guide future behaviors. Behaviors which are consistent with one's self-image will tend to be favored over inconsistent behaviors.
A number of studies (e.g., Fahey & Phillips, 1981; Marsh, Smith, Barnes, & Butler, 1983; Platten & Williams, 1981) have investigated the test-retest reliability of the PHCSCS with both normal and special samples. Test-retest reliability coefficients range from .42 (with an interval of
83 8 months) to .96 (with an interval of 3 to 4 weeks). The median test-retest reliability was .73. It has been noted that reliability estimates which are based on more heterogenous samples are expected to be higher due to less constriction in range. In addition, the fact that shorter test-retest intervals are generally associated with higher reliability estimates is also consistent with expectation since there is less chance that environmental or developmental changes will have affected children's self- concepts. Internal consistency coefficients of the Piers- Harris ranges from .88 to .93. The test-retest interval for the present investigation is seven weeks.
Estimates of the content, criterion-related, and construct validity of the PHCSCS have been obtained by a number of empirical studies. These studies have used a variety of approaches including item analysis, intercorrelations among the scales and items, and comparisons of the responses of various criterion groups. Correlations between the PHCSCS and behavioral ratings by teachers for sixth grade students ranges from .17 to .25. Correlations with peer ratings for sixth grade students ranges from .34 to .49 (Piers, 1989).
The Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale has been used extensively as reported in the professional literature. For instance, an electronic search of all dissertation abstracts from over 550 universities, including almost all
84 North American graduate schools and many European universities, yielded 169 dissertations which used the PHCSCS . Further, an electronic search of the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), from January 1988 to March 1995 yielded 29 other studies and articles which incorporate the PHCSCS. The ERIC database is an index to journals in education and the ERIC microfiche collections (composed of report literature) .
The PHCSCS has been used considerably for the purpose of empirically and systematically detecting specific treatment effects. For instance, Barrett (1985) used the PHCSCS to detect changes in behavior for children in a private clinic for deficits in social skills. The children were trained using the behavioral techniques of cognitive behavior modification, modeling, role-playing, and token reinforcement .
Carusi (1983) used the PHCSCS to evaluate a transactional analysis unit intervention. Additionally, Dygert (1980) studied the effects of a human relations program on self-concept and achievement among eighth grade rural students using the PHCSCS. Another and final example of a study which uses the PHCSCS to ascertain treatment effects includes Roberson's (1981) investigation of the effects of stress inoculation training in a classroom setting on state-trait anxiety level and self-concept of early adolescents.
85 The Sexual Harassment Inventory (SHI) and the School Atmosphere Inventory (SAI)
A search for instruments appropriate for measuring knowledge, attitude, and behavior regarding sexual harassment was conducted by reviewing several data bases. These included: a) the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC); b) Buros Mental Measurements Yearbook; c) Tests in Print; d) the American College of Testing (ACT); e) Dissertation Abstracts; f) PsycLit; and g) Health & Psychosocial Instruments (HAPI). No instruments were found to exist for obtaining reliable, valid, and properly normalized data about middle school students' knowledge, attitude, or behaviors about sexual harassment.
Instruments found to measure factors regarding sexual harassment were normalized for undergraduate and graduate college students or for adults in the workplace. Instruments were considered in closely related areas such as interpersonal interaction (e.g., Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation Behavior for Children, ) , behavior (e.g., Jessnes Behavior Checklist, The Child Behavior Checklist, Texas Social Behavior Inventory, Waksman Social Skills Rating Scale,), and attitude (Harassment Sensitivity Inventory; Attitudes Toward Communication Patterns in a Work Setting Questionnaire) . None of the considered instruments were found to be appropriate for measuring the outcome variables in this study.
86 Instruments considered for measuring school comfort included Security-Insecurity Inventory, Supervisory Inventory on Safety, Classroom Environment Scale (2nd edition) , Learning Environment Inventory, and the School Environment Preference Survey. However, none of these instruments were appropriate in regard to validity, reliability, or norm references, for adequately measuring level of perceived school comfort in this study.
In response to the lack of instruments, two inventories were especially designed for this study, the Sexual Harassment Inventory (SHI) and the School Atmosphere Inventory (SAI). Items for the SHI were developed by identifying pertinent information about students' knowledge, behaviors, and attitude about sexual harassment via a review of the professional literature. Items for the SAI were developed by interviewing experts in education and middle school students. An initial inventory encompassing both the SHI and the SAI included 58 items. It was piloted using 96 students from three different home room classes at a middle school not participating in the study. Students responded on a five point Likert-type scale indicating their level of agreement to each item. Choices included Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Uncertain, Agree, and Strongly Agree (in order from 1 to 5 ) .
The test-retest interval was seven days and resulted in a Pearson r correlation coefficient of .48. An item-by-item
87 correlational analysis was also conducted and items were eliminated which were most highly intercorrelated. The remaining items were then rank ordered by correlation coefficients. Twenty-eight total items with high intercorrelations and with the least test-retest reliability were deleted while making certain that each subsection maintained an adequate number of items.
The resultant Sexual Harassment Inventory (SHI; see Appendix C) used in this study measures knowledge (10 items), attitude (6 items), and behavior (3 items), associated with sexual harassment among middle grade students. Further, the SHI included a section of four items to address sexual harassment incidence and prevalence. The School Atmosphere Inventory (SAI; see Appendix D) , designed to assess perceived comfort in the school environment, encompassed seven items.
The new inventories were once again administered, presented as one instrument, to a total of 4 6 students in two different classrooms in a school not participating in the study to obtain test-retest reliability. A Pearson r of .56 was obtained. Afterwards, the principal investigator interviewed eleven middle school students, 23 graduate students in school guidance and counseling, and several experts in the field of test and measurement about altering the inventories for clarity and consistency. The number of
items were not changed, but edited. The revised instruments were used for this study.
Research Design
The hypotheses were tested based on the data derived from a randomized pretest-posttest control group design (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). The pre- post-test control group design is conventional and appropriate because of its many research advantages. The design minimized threats to internal validity such as history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, statistical regression, differential selection of subjects, experimental mortality, and interaction among factors (Mason & Bramble, 1989). A summary of this design is presented in Table 3-4.
Hypotheses
There will be five dependent variables in this study: knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept , and school comfort. An appropriate test of significance (a=.10) will be used to determine whether any measured differences are greater than chance alone.
The following five major hypotheses will be tested: Ho2: There will be no statistically significant difference
(a=.02) in knowledge change over time (pre to post)
among the experimental and control groups, as measured
by the Sexual Harassment Inventory.
89
Table 3-4.
Summary of Research Design,
Week
Experimental
Condition 1 2-7
R El Peer-led 0X, 02, 03
R E2 Adult-led 0^ 02, 03
R E3 Self 0lf 02, 03
R C2 Control 0X, 02, 03
|
x, |
o4, o5, 0 |
|
X2 |
o4, o5, 0 |
|
X3 |
o4, o9, o |
|
0w o5, 0 |
01 = Pre-test of the Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept
Scale
02 = Pre-test of the Sexual Harassment Inventory
03 = Pre-test of the School Atmosphere Inventory
Xa = High School peer facilitator-led developmental guidance unit on sexual harassment.
X2 = Adult-led developmental guidance unit on sexual harassment.
X3 = Self -instruction module about sexual harassment.
04 = Post-test of the Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept
Scale
05 = Post-test of the Sexual Harassment Inventory
06 = Post-test of the School Atmosphere Inventory
90 Ho2: There will be no statistically significant difference (a=.02) in attitude change over time among the
experimental and control groups, as measured by the
Sexual Harassment Inventory. Ho3: There will be no statistically significant difference
(a=.02) in behavior change over time among the
experimental and control groups, as measured by the
Sexual Harassment Inventory. Ho4: There will be no statistically significant difference
(a=.02) in self -concept change over time among the
experimental and control groups, as measured by the
Piers-Harris Self-Concept Scale for Children. Ho5: There will be no statistically significant difference
(a=.02) in school comfort change over time among the
experimental and control groups, as measured by the
School Atmosphere Inventory.
Participant Training
This section describes training procedures with adults and high school peer facilitators to help them deliver the intervention in a skillful manner. Each facilitator received a facilitator's manual (Appendix E) which includes the developmental guidance unit on sexual harassment and met with the principal investigator for an initial orientation.
Adult facilitators consisted of two teachers and two school counseling graduate students from the University of Florida. The principal investigator interviewed each adult,
91 at each site, at least once per week. The goal of each contact was to discuss the progress of the previous sessions, review for future sessions, and maintain consistency among groups and schools.
Peer facilitators were drawn from an elective course at Buchholz High School in Gainesville, Florida, which is designed to prepare peer helpers who work in various projects. The training consisted of successful completion of an introductory 18-week elective course on peer facilitating called Peer Counseling I/II which incorporates the core helping skills. For example, peer helpers studied and practiced skills such as attentive listening, facilitative responding, problem solving, giving feedback, and referring. Further, peer helpers focused on knowledge regarding current adolescent issues such as suicide, sexually transmitted diseases, sexual assault, eating disorders, stress management, drugs and alcohol, and career development.
To prepare peer helpers for facilitating the guidance unit on sexual harassment, the principal investigator reviewed the facilitator's manual with them and their trainers. Following, the trainers prepared and rehearsed each session before the peer helpers met with the middle school students. Trainers assisted the peer helpers practice facilitating each session via role-plays and discussion. The principal investigator interviewed the peer
92 helper trainers on a weekly basis to discuss the progress of each session in the unit, answer any questions for future sessions, and maintain consistency among groups and schools.
Procedure
This study began in February, 1995. It encompassed approximately eight weeks of school and was completed in April, 1995. A summary of the procedures and time frame is presented in Table 3-5. The self-instruction condition for this investigation presented the guidance unit about sexual harassment in the form of written materials. The materials contained activities which required reading, evaluating, and responding to the items used in the adult-led and peer-led conditions . Data Analyses
Following data collection, the five hypotheses were tested using a repeated measures analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) . The repeated measures ANOVA was used to test for time X group effects, significant differences between experimental and control groups, and significant differences in pretest to posttest data. The time X group interaction was the effect of primary interest, denoting whether there was a differential amount of change from pretest to posttest occassion among the four groups.
93 Table 3-5. Summary of Procedures and Time Table.
Week Procedures
1 Orient and assist in training of peer facilitators.
2 Random assignment of conditions for each school. Organizational meeting with adults at each respective school and with high school peer facilitator trainers to review facilitator's manual and procedures for the study. Peer facilitators continue their training.
3 Orientation and training for adults. Peer facilitators continue their training.
4 Obtain consent to participate from students and parents. High school peer facilitators continue preparation for facilitating the unit.
5 Pre-testing of all subjects.
6 Session 1 of the intervention.
7 Session 2 of the intervention.
8 Session 3 of the intervention.
9 Session 4 of the intervention.
10 Session 5 of the intervention.
11 Session 6 of the intervention.
12 Post-testing and debriefing
CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a developmental guidance unit and self- instruction module about sexual harassment on early adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept, and school comfort of middle school students. In addition, three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper led; and self-led.
Data were completed on 140 students from two middle schools in Gainesville, Florida. More specifically, complete data were obtained from 37 students in the adult- led group, 35 students in the peer-helper led group, 40 students in the self-led group, and 28 students in the control group.
Five separate repeated measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted, one for each of the five variables related to the hypotheses. The experimental and control groups were examined on the following variables: knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept , and school comfort. Each
94
95 hypothesis was tested at the .02 level of confidence and used the F score and accompanying p. value.
The .02 level of significance was used to control for Type I error rate. The principal investigator wanted to obtain an overall confidence level of 90% which has been traditionally accepted in social research. Since five group hypotheses tests were used (knowledge, attitude, behavior, self-concept, and school comfort), the .10 confidence level was divided into five hypotheses tests, resulting in an individual alpha level of .02.
Knowledge
Sexual harassment knowledge consists of recognizing and understanding relevant facts about sexual harassment. Ten items, items 15 through 24 on the Sexual Harassment Inventory, were included and assessed whether respondents correctly agreed with known facts about sexual harassment, including definitions, scenarios, and statistics. For example, one item asked for level of agreement to the statement, "If a person was accidentally offended by a sexual joke, then it is not considered sexual harassment." A low level of agreement is desirable for this item. Other items involve identifying sexual harassment (e.g., "I know sexual harassment when I see it taking place"), knowing about contributing factors (e.g., "Sexual harassment happens when a person gets excited and cannot control him/herself"),
96 and prevalence (e.g., "Sexual harassment happens to about 50% of all middle school students.")
Items were framed in both negative and positive directions. However, before the data analysis occurred, items written in the negative were reversed for consistency and ease of interpretation. Therefore, a high score on the behavior sections of the Sexual Harassment Inventory is considered favorable.
The minimum and maximum range of scores for the behavior subscale was ten and fifty, respectively. Higher scores on the inventory were favorable over lower scores. A score of 30 to 4 0 reflects uncertainty about sexual harassment facts. A score greater than 40 reflects general agreement to facts about sexual harassment and is therefore desirable. Students who scored below 30 generally do not correctly recognize facts about sexual harassment as reported on the SHI. Ho^ There is no statistically significant difference (a =
.02) in knowledge change over time (pre to post) among
the experimental and control group as measured by the
Sexual Harassment Inventory.
As illustrated in Table 4-1, students in the control group achieved a group mean score of 34.7 0 on the pretest and 33.96 on the posttest of the SHI. Students in the adult-led group achieved a group mean score of 34.31 on the pretest and 33.92 on the posttest. The peer-helper led
97
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98
group achieved a group mean score of 33.03 on the pretest and a 35.40 on the posttest. Students in the self-led group achieved a group mean score of 34.32 on the pretest and 34.49 on the posttest.
The repeated measures ANOVA of these data is reported in Table 4-2. The p value (.038) and the F value (2.90) suggest that there was not a statistically significant time X group interaction at the .02 level of confidence. Therefore, the null hypothesis relating differential change in sexual harassment knowledge among the groups was not rejected.
In regard to sexual harassment knowledge, a statistically significant difference between schools resulted (F = 9.17, p = .003). Westwood scored significantly higher (x = 35.46, SD = 5.00) than did Ft. Clarke (x = 33.37, SD = 4.69).
Attitude
Attitudes concerning sexual harassment consists of beliefs about the other gender, contributing factors, and reasons why sexual harassment occurs. Six items, item numbers 9 through 13 on the Sexual Harassment Inventory, were included such as, "People who are sexually harassed are asking for it." A low level of agreement is desirable for
99 this item. Other items included were, "When someone dresses in a sexy way they deserve to be sexually harassed, " "Girls
Table 4-2.
Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for the Sexual Harassment Inventory Knowledge Scale by Group.
Mean Source of Variance df SS Square F P
|
Group |
3 |
9.61 |
3.2 |
.12 |
.950 |
|
School |
1 |
253.02 |
253.02 |
9.17 |
.003* |
|
Group*School |
3 |
152.02 |
50.67 |
1.84 |
.144 |
|
Error |
127 |
3503.58 |
27.59 |
||
|
Time (Pre-Post) |
1 |
14.54 |
14.54 |
1.24 |
.268 |
|
Time*Group |
3 |
102.08 |
34.03 |
2.90 |
.038 |
|
Time*School |
1 |
.71 |
.71 |
.06 |
.806 |
|
Time*Group*School |
3 |
94.82 |
31.61 |
2.70 |
.049 |
|
Error |
127 |
1488.62 |
11.72 |
'significant at .02 level of confidence.
100 may say they don't want it, but they really want sexual attention," and "Some people like being sexually harassed."
All items about attitude were framed in the negative. However, before the data analysis occurred, the items were reversed for consistency and ease of interpretation. Therefore, a high score on the attitude section of the Sexual Harassment Inventory is considered favorable. The minimum and maximum range of scores for the attitude subscale was 6 and 30, respectively.
A score of 18 to 23 reflects uncertainty about items reflecting attitude. A score greater than 23 reflects general disagreement to false beliefs about sexual harassment and is therefore desirable. Students who scored below 18 generally agree with false beliefs about sexual harassment or beliefs regarded as misogynist as reported on the SHI. Ho2: There is no statistically significant difference (a =
.02) in attitude change over time among the
experimental and control group as measured by the
Sexual Harassment Inventory.
Students in the experimental conditions showed a positive increase in attitude scores on the Sexual Harassment Inventory. More specifically, students in the adult-led group increased from 22.86 to 24.03, giving a difference of 1.17 points. The peer-helper led group increased from 21.69 to 23.37, giving a difference of 1.68
101 points. The self-led group increased from 23.95 to 24.36, giving a difference of .41 points. The control group resulted in a decrease from 23.29 to 22.32, presenting a difference of -.97 points.
The repeated measures analysis of variance is summarized in Table 4-3. The F score of 1.63 and p_ value of .19 suggest that there was no statistically significant time X group interaction at the .02 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis relating to differential change in attitude among the groups was not rejected.
Behavior
Sexual harassment behavior consists of actions considered effective for reporting an incident of sexual harassment. Three items, items six through eight on the Sexual Harassment Inventory, were included and addressed being able to talk with a counselor, parents, or friends after an incident of sexual harassment. For example, one item asked for level of agreement to the statement, "If I were sexually harassed, I would want to tell a counselor." A high level of agreement is desirable for this item.
All items concerning behavior were framed in positive directions. Therefore, a high score on this section of the Sexual Harassment Inventory is considered favorable. The minimum and maximum range of scores for the behavior subscale was three and fifteen, respectively. A score of 9 to 12 reflects uncertainty about such behavior. A score of
102
Table 4-3.
Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for the Sexual Harassment Inventory Attitude Scale by Group.
Mean Source of Variance df SS Square F
|
Group |
3 |
156.68 |
52.23 |
2.06 |
.11 |
|
School |
1 |
81.77 |
81.77 |
3.23 |
.07 |
|
Group*School |
3 |
113.43 |
37.81 |
1.49 |
.22 |
|
Error |
127 |
3215.96 |
25.32 |
||
|
Time (Pre-Post) |
1 |
16.60 |
16.60 |
1.39 |
.24 |
|
Time*Group |
3 |
58.38 |
19.46 |
1.63 |
.19 |
|
Time*School |
1 |
1.56 |
1.56 |
.13 |
.72 |
|
Time*Group*School |
3 |
44.75 |
14.92 |
1.25 |
.30 |
|
Error |
127 |
1517.67 |
11.95 |
103 13 or higher reflects motivation to report incidents of sexual harassment to trusted friends and adults. Students who scored below nine would not engage in this type of behavior regarding sexual harassment as reported on the SHI. Ho3: There is no statistically significant difference (a =
.02) in sexual harassment behavior change over time
among the experimental and control group as measured by
the Sexual Harassment Inventory.
With the exception of the self -led group, both experimental and control groups decreased their scores on the behavior scale of the Sexual Harassment Inventory. The adult-led group resulted in a decrease of .40 points from pretest (x = 10.38) to posttest (x = 9.98). The peer-helper led group decreased from 11.23 to 10.91, giving a difference of .32 points. The self -led group remained the same from pretest to posttest with a score of 10.93. The control group showed the greatest decrease from pretest (x = 10.64) to posttest (x = 9.89), presenting a difference of -.75.
The repeated measures analysis of variance is summarized in Table 4-4. The F score of .45 and p_ value of .71 suggests that there was no statistically significant time X group interaction at the .02 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis relating to differential change in sexual harassment behavior among groups was not rejected.
104
Table 4-4.
Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for the Sexual Harassment Inventory Behavior Scale by Group.
Mean Source of Variance df SS Square F P
|
Group |
3 |
41.58 |
13.86 |
1.43 |
.24 |
|
School |
1 |
2.60 |
2.60 |
.27 |
.61 |
|
Group*School |
3 |
14.13 |
4.71 |
.49 |
.69 |
|
Error |
132 |
1276.68 |
9.67 |
||
|
Time (Pre-Post) |
1 |
7.02 |
7.02 |
1.89 |
.17 |
|
Time*Group |
3 |
5.06 |
1.69 |
.45 |
.71 |
|
Time*School |
1 |
4.48 |
4.48 |
1.21 |
.27 |
|
Time*Group*School |
3 |
17.52 |
5.84 |
1.58 |
.20 |
|
Error |
132 |
489.53 |
3.71 |
105 Self-Concept Self -concept, as assessed by the PHCSCS, is defined as a relatively stable set of self-attitudes reflecting both a description and an evaluation of one's own behavior and attributes. Items are phrased in either a positive (e.g., "I have many friends") or a negative (e.g., "I feel left out of things") direction to assess favorable or unfavorable evaluations of self. A high total score indicates a favorable self -concept (i.e., a high degree of self-esteem or self-regard, Piers, 1989).
The total score has a possible range of zero to 80, and reflects the number of individual items which were responded to in the direction of positive self -concept . Thus, a high total score indicates a favorable self-concept whereas lower scores are associated with lower self -concept . A score of 51.84 is considered average.
Ho4: There is no statistically significant difference (a = .02) in self-concept change over time among the experimental and control groups as measured by the Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale. The group means for students in all four groups increased from pretesting to posttesting in their unadjusted means on self -concept . This indicated that all groups had elevated their self-esteem. On the pretest, students in both the experimental and control groups scored an average of 62 which is equal to a national percentile of 73.
106 Posttesting scores resulted in an average score of 65 which is equal to a national percentile of 81.
More specifically, the control group increased from 64.00 to 69.04 giving a difference of 5.04 points. The adult-led group increased from 63.11 to 64.27 presenting a difference of 1.16 points. The peer-helper led group increased their self-esteem scores on the PHCSCS from 60.09 to 61.63 for a difference of 1.54 points. The self- instructed group resulted in a positive increase of 2.35 points after raising their average scores from a 60.80 to a 63.15. These gains in self-concept scores from pretesting to posttesting were statistically significant at the .02 level of confidence (F = 16.51, p = .0001).
The repeated measures analysis of variance on data using the Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale is summarized in Table 4-5. The F value of .69 and p value of .56 suggest that there was no statistically significant time X group interaction at the .02 level of confidence. Therefore, the null hypothesis relating to differential gains in self-concept among the groups was not rejected.
School Comfort
School comfort, as measured by the School Atmosphere Inventory, is defined by the level of perceived safety and security about one's school environment. Items both describe the respondent's perception of the school and their
107
Table 4-5.
|
Summary Table |
for Analysis |
of |
Variance for |
the |
Piers- |
-Harris |
||||
|
Children's |
Se |
If- |
-Concept |
Scale |
bv |
Group . |
||||
|
Source of Variance |
df |
SS |
Mean Square |
F |
P |
|
Group |
3 |
1283.02 |
427.67 |
2.08 |
.11 |
|
School |
1 |
89.06 |
89.06 |
.43 |
.51 |
|
Group*School |
3 |
644.17 |
214.72 |
1.04 |
.38 |
|
Error |
129 |
26587.76 |
206.11 |
||
|
Time (Pre-Post) |
1 |
402.12 |
402.12 |
16.51 |
.0001* |
|
Time*Group |
3 |
50.69 |
16.9 |
.69 |
.56 |
|
Time*School |
1 |
1.1 |
1.1 |
.04 |
.83 |
|
Time*Grp*School |
3 |
54.38 |
18.13 |
.74 |
.53 |
|
Error |
129 |
3142.47 |
24.36 |
'significant at the .02 level of confidence.
108 feelings about their surroundings. For example, items such as the following are included: "I feel safe at school," "There are one or more dangerous groups at school," and "Sometimes I walk the long way to class to avoid trouble with other students."
There are seven total items on the SAI, three of which are in the negative and four in the positive. However, before the data analysis occurred, the negative items were reversed for consistency and ease of interpretation. Therefore, a high score on the SAI is considered favorable. The minimum and maximum range of scores are 7 and 35, respectively .
A score of 21 to 27 reflects uncertainty about their perceived level of school comfort. A score of 28 or higher reflects general agreement to statements reflecting a positive outlook towards safety and security while in school. Students who scored below 21 on the SAI tend to disagree that their school environment is a safe and secure place to work. Ho5: There is no statistically significant difference (a =
.02) in school comfort change over time among the
experimental and control groups as measured by the
School Atmosphere Inventory.
With the exception of the peer-helper led group, students in both the experimental and control groups decreased their unadjusted means on school comfort. The
109 adult-led group decreased from 22.46 to 22.11, presenting a -.35 difference. The peer-helper led group increased from 22.31 to 22.35 giving a .04 difference from pretest to posttest. The self-led group decreased from 21.57 to 21.17, presenting a -.40 difference. The control group decreased their score by .08 from pretest (x = 21.86) to posttest (x = 21.78) .
The repeated measures analysis of variance is summarized in Table 4-6. The F score of .03 and p value of .99 suggest that there was no statistically significant time X group interaction at the .02 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis relating differential change in school comfort among the groups was not rejected.
Based on analysis of the data, null hypotheses relating differential changes in knowledge (HoJ , attitude (Ho2), behavior (Ho3) , self -concept (Ho4), and school comfort (Ho5) among the groups were not rejected. However, all experimental and control groups significantly increased their scores from pretesting to posttesting on the Piers- Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale. Also, there was a statistically significant difference in sexual harassment knowledge between schools.
Table 4-6.
Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for the School Atmosphere Inventory by Group.
110
Source of Variance
df
SS
Mean Square
|
Group |
3 |
59.06 |
19.69 |
.84 |
.47 |
|
School |
1 |
1.55 |
1.55 |
.07 |
.80 |
|
Group*School |
3 |
26.64 |
8.88 |
.38 |
.77 |
|
Error |
125 |
2927.02 |
23.42 |
||
|
Time (Pre-Post) |
1 |
11.51 |
11.51 |
1.23 |
.27 |
|
Time*Group |
3 |
.82 |
.27 |
.03 |
.99 |
|
Time*School |
1 |
20.53 |
20.53 |
2.19 |
.14 |
|
Time*Group*School |
3 |
2.51 |
.84 |
.09 |
.97 |
|
Error |
125 |
1172.24 |
9.38 |
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, IMPLICATIONS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a developmental guidance unit and self- instruction module about sexual harassment on early adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept , and school comfort of middle school students. In addition, three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper led; and self -instruction.
One hundred and eighty two seventh-grade students in two middle schools participated in this study. One hundred and forty students (77% of the total; seventy students from each school) completed all necessary pretests and posttests for data analysis. One experimental condition [Adult Helper Led (EJ, Peer-Helper Led (E2), Self-Instruction Module (E3) ; or Control (Cj)] was randomly assigned to four different groups at each school.
Ill
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The intervention lasted eight weeks. During the first week, all groups (Ex, E2, E3, and CJ were administered three pre-assessments which included the Sexual Harassment Inventory (SHI), the School Atmosphere Inventory (SAI), and the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (PHCSCS). All experimental groups (E , E2, and E3) participated in one 45-minute session per week during weeks two through seven. The control group members continued with their regular class curriculum for the days in which the intervention took place.
The adult and peer-helper group leaders followed the sessions as outlined in the facilitators manual. Throughout the intervention, adult leaders received continual direction from the principal investigator. Peer helpers also received ongoing systematic training and supervision from the principal investigator and their peer-helper trainer who is a licensed mental health therapist and school counselor. During the first week, all students participated in pretesting, and during the eighth week, all students participated in posttesting.
Pretesting and posttesting incorporated three criterion instruments which were fully completed by 140 students. The Sexual Harassment Inventory assessed knowledge, attitude, behavior, and incidence related to sexual harassment. The
113 Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scaled was used to measure self -concept . The School Atmosphere Inventory assessed level of school comfort.
A repeated measures analysis of variance was used to test for significant differences among experimental and control groups in amount of change from pretest to posttest. The resulting data related directly to the following null hypotheses :
1. There is no statistically significant difference in knowledge change over time (pretest to posttest) among the experimental and control groups as measured by the Sexual Harassment Inventory.
The repeated measures analysis of variance comparing changes in group means over time indicated no statistically significant interaction at the .02 level of confidence (see Tables 4-1 and 4-2). Thus, null hypothesis number one was not rejected. However, there was a statistically significant difference in schools when testing at the .02 level of confidence (F = 9.17, p = 0.003). In addition, no statistically significant threeway interactions occurred when testing for interaction effect of group, school, and time.
2 . There is no statistically significant difference in attitude change over time among the experimental and control groups as measured by the Sexual Harassment Inventory.
114 The repeated measures analysis of variance comparing changes in group means indicated no statistically significant interaction at the .02 level of confidence (see Tables 4-1 and 4-3). Thus, null hypothesis number two was not rejected. In addition, no statistically significant differences were found when testing for threeway interaction effect of group, school, and time.
3. There is no statistically significant difference in behavior changes over time among the experimental and control groups as measured by the Sexual Harassment Inventory.
The repeated measures analysis of variance comparing changes in group means over time indicated no statistically significant interaction effect at the .02 level of confidence (see Tables 4-1 and 4-4). Thus, null hypothesis number three was not rejected. In addition, no statistically significant differences were found when testing for threeway interaction effect of group, school, and time.
4. There is no statistically significant difference in self-concept change over time among the experimental and control groups as measured by the Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale.
The repeated measures analysis of variance comparing changes in group means over time indicated no statistically significant interaction effect at the .02 level of
115 confidence (see Tables 4-1 and 4-5). Thus, null hypothesis number four was not rejected. In addition, no statistically significant differences were found when testing for threeway interaction effect of group, school, and time.
5. There is no statistically significant difference in school comfort change over time among the experimental and control groups as measured by the School Atmosphere Inventory.
The repeated measures analysis of variance comparing changes in group means over time indicated no statistically significant interaction at the .02 level of confidence (see Tables 4-1 and 4-6). Thus, null hypothesis number five was not rejected. In addition, no statistically significant differences were found when testing for threeway interaction effects in group, school, and time.
Conclusions
Several conclusions were reached as a result of this study. First, this study found no statistically significant differences among experimental and control groups in change from pretest to posttest on the variables of knowledge, attitude, behavior, self-concept, or school comfort. However, these findings are inconsistent with student feedback about their experiences during postassessment . Students in the experimental groups (E , E2, and E3) completed a ten item survey about the intervention's impact
116 on their knowledge, attitude, and behavior involving sexual harassment.
Seventy one percent (71%) either agreed or strongly agreed that the intervention increased their understanding of others. Thirty-two percent (32%) of students experiencing the guidance unit about sexual harassment reported that the unit had a positive effect on their behavior towards others. Sixty-six percent (66%) reported that the intervention had an overall positive effect on them. According to the post evaluation of the intervention, forty-four percent (44%) of students reported that the unit increased understanding of themselves. Seventy-one percent (71%) reported that the unit helped them to better understand sexual harassment.
Students also responded to open-ended questions about the guidance unit. They responded with comments such as, "Needed to have more sessions," "I think it's great that you and the teachers are teaching us this, because we need to know how to deal with sexual harassment," and "I think I learned a lot because when I was in 4th grade my friend got harassed and I didn't know what to do but now I do. I learned a lot this year." Students also gave positive feedback about the activities in general (e.g., "The activities taught me a lot and they were fun ... it gives you a lot of facts and keeps you interested with activities.") and specifically (e.g., "I liked the Go to
117 Your Corner activity the most because you could find out what other people's opinions were").
One possible reason for the discrepancy between the lack of significant results and student assessment of the intervention is that students at this age and stage of life are inconsistent. Their thoughts, feelings, and attitudes are effected by fervent physical and psychological growth. Social and peer pressures may influence students at this age to change how they think and feel from one moment to another. If middle school students were inconsistent in their responses on the instruments, the overall power to detect significant changes is negatively effected.
Further, closer inspection of the data indicated that students responded to items about sexual harassment knowledge, attitude, and behavior by choosing responses mostly reflecting uncertainty, slight agreement, or slight disagreement (x=3.56 SD=0.42 and x=3.61 SD=0.50, pretest and posttest, respectively) . Students may perceive the topic of sexual harassment as being controversial and sensitive. Strongly agreeing or strongly disagreeing with statements about sexual harassment may be more psychologically risky than responses closer to "uncertain." Therefore, rather than to strongly agree or strongly disagree about statements regarding the topic of sexual harassment, students may have maintained a more safe posture by choosing responses closer to "uncertain" even though it was made clear that their
118 responses were strictly confidential. This lack of variance may have had a deleterious effect on detecting actual changes between experimental and control groups.
In summary, there appears to be a divergence between results as measured by the SHI and SAI , and the student evaluation of the guidance unit. Students rated their experiences with the guidance unit about sexual harassment as positive. They reported that they learned more about the topic and felt more confident about taking action. However, the hypotheses in this study were not rejected. This discrepancy may have been due to inconsistent and rigid student responses on the instrument items.
Close inspection of the research findings show increased group means from pretesting to posttesting in several areas which indicates some positive direction in student responses. Students in both the experimental and control groups scored significantly higher on the PHCSCS from pretest to posttest.
All experimental groups showed average positive gains on the variables attitude and self -concept . Groups experiencing the guidance unit led by peer helpers showed positive mean gain scores on all variables except for one — sexual harassment behavior. Students in the self- instruction intervention showed positive mean gain scores for attitude, knowledge, and self -concept . All variables
119 except for one, self -concept , showed no positive average gains for the control condition.
Overall, the intervention groups led by adults resulted in 18 students (51.40%) improving their scores on the SHI after receiving the intervention. The intervention groups led by peer-helpers resulted in 22 students (69%) improving their SHI scores while students in the self-instruction groups resulted in 17 (49%) students improving these scores. Similarly, 19 students in the control groups (50%) also improved their scores on the Sexual Harassment Inventory. Sixty-six students from all four conditions (52%) improved their combined scores of behavior, knowledge, and attitude.
On the SAI , fifteen students (43%) experiencing the guidance unit led by an adult resulted in positive mean gain scores on the SAI. Also on the SAI, students in groups led by peer helpers showed positive mean gain scores for fifteen students (44%). Self-led groups responding to instructional modules showed positive mean gain scores for fifteen students (40.5%). Ten students (37%) in the control groups showed positive mean gain scores on the SAI. Overall, students who made positive mean gain scores on the SAI included 55 students (41.4%).
Positive mean gain scores for the PHCSCS resulted in the following: 21 (56.8%) for the adult-led groups; 19 (55.9%) for the peer-helper led groups; 26 (65%) for the self-instruction groups; and 18 (69.2%) for the control
120 groups. Although there were no statistically significant differential changes over time among these four groups, there was a statistically significant difference in self- concept as measured by the PHCSCS from pretest to posttest (F = 16.51, p = 0.0001) for all groups averaged together.
It may be concluded that the pretests may have sensitized students and affected their responses on the postassessments. In essence, the preassessment may be an important part of the treatment. It may also be concluded that students significantly improved their self-concept as a part of normal developmental growth.
Limitations
This study had the following possible limitations:
1. The intent of the PHCSCS is not particularly disguised and the scores are subject to conscious distortions by children, usually in the direction of more socially desirable responses.
2. This intervention or guidance unit in this study was delivered to "intact" units. That is, the opportunity to randomly assign individual students to experimental conditions was not there. Therefore, the researcher had to rely on the random assignment of students that is typically done by the school registrar at the beginning of the school year. According to school counselors, the classes appeared to be equal in terms of gender, race, and academic achievement. However, this limitation also determined
121 procedures in the analysis of data. A Chi Square procedure was performed to determine if there were any statistically significant differences between groups based on gender or race. No differences were found for gender (X2 = .097, p_ = .992) or for race (X2 = 15.45, p_ = .218).
3. The sample was dependent upon the availability of faculty and students in the schools where all experimental conditions could be assigned and controlled in a reliable manner. This limited the sample of middle school students to seventh grade students in two academic subjects.
4. The Sexual Harassment Inventory is a relatively new measurement device that needs further investigation in terms of content validity. Data is still being collected regarding its validity and reliability.
5. The topic of sexual harassment was prevalent and sensationalized in local newspapers and on television at the time of the study. While this demonstrated a need for the study, information through the media could not be controlled. Students' knowledge, attitude, and behaviors may have been positively affected by public media.
Implications The results of this study showed no statistically significant difference among the experimental and control groups in regard to changes from pretest to posttest in knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept , and level of school comfort as they relate to sexual harassment.
122 Further, the nature of who facilitated the intervention did not make a difference in the outcome as measured by the three postassessments. Yet, students in all the experimental conditions reported that they benefited from experiencing the intervention.
Therefore, important research questions pertaining to how a guidance unit about sexual harassment influences these variables remains to be answered. Further, the nature of who leads such a guidance unit, and how this influences the outcomes, is needed.
The present research results showed that the intervention made no statistically significant differences in any of the five outcome variables. However, students rated their experiences regarding the guidance unit about sexual harassment as positive and meaningful. Students generally agreed that they had increased knowledge and understanding about the nature of sexual harassment and how to confront it. The divergence between these two sources of data may be due to (a) inconsistent responses on the SHI and SAI ; and (b) low variance in student responses to inventory items. Research instruments that produce more reliable responses need to be developed and used in similar research efforts.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are made based on this investigation :
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1 . More reliable instruments should be developed to assess the impact of sexual harassment interventions on behavior, knowledge, and attitude.
2 . More reliable instruments should be developed to assess the impact of sexual harassment interventions on level of perceived school comfort.
APPENDIX A HIGH SCHOOL PEER COUNSELING CURRICULUM OUTCOMES
Peer Counseling I
1 . Demonstrate an understanding of the fundamental characteristics for all counseling/f acilitative relationships .
2. Demonstrate an understanding of self, others, and community .
3 . Demonstrate an understanding of f acilitative communication skills.
4 . Demonstrate an understanding of problem-solving techniques.
5. Demonstrate an understanding of basic leadership skills .
6. Demonstrate an understanding of group dynamics and be able to perform group oriented tasks.
Peer Counseling II
7 . Demonstrate an understanding of the effects of peer pressure on the individual and society.
8. Demonstrate an understanding of the impact of interpersonal skills on all aspects of life.
9. Demonstrate an understanding of personal behavior as it relates to long and short range life and career goals.
10. Demonstrate an understanding of academic motivational skills.
11. Demonstrate an understanding of the aspects of assertiveness .
12. Demonstrate an understanding of the effects of stress and related coping skills.
Peer Counseling III
13. Identify the needs and concerns of the student population.
14. Demonstrate a knowledge of school resources and community youth servicing agencies.
15. Demonstrate a knowledge of program planning and implementation .
Peer Counseling IV
16. Utilize a variety of f acilitative strategies applicable to given situations.
17. Utilize knowledge and understanding gained through individual and group projects.
(following Myrick & Folk, 1991)
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APPENDIX B INFORMED PARENTAL CONSENT FOR STUDY PARTICIPATION
(SCHOOL NAME) will be participating in a study to determine the effects of a developmental guidance unit on children's behaviors, knowledge, and attitude about sexual harassment. Also considered will be how the guidance unit affects self -concept.
Your child's class was selected to participate in the study. Those children who participate will be asked to fill out three questionnaires at the beginning and again at the end of the study. In between, they will engage in discussion and activities about behaviors, knowledge, and attitudes about sexual harassment. The unit will require only two homeroom classes per week for three weeks and will focus on promoting healthy boy and girl relationships.
No physical or psychological risk is anticipated for children who participate. in addition, no monetary or other compensation, other than learning valuable information about preventing sexual harassment, will be provided to children who participate. Failure to participate will in NO way affect your child's academic standing or progress. Also, it will be explained to your child before the study begins that he/she may elect to not answer any or all questions.
Only those children whose parents or guardians return this consent form will be able to take part in this investigation. I would appreciate your signature on this form to allow your child to participate. If you have any questions or concerns, please call me at Lincoln Middle School (955-6711) or in the evenings at home (373-7372).
Thank you very much for your help!
J have read and I understand the procedure described above. I agree to allow my child participate in the procedure and I have received a copy of this description.
Russell A. Sabella, Ed.S. Doctoral Candidate, University of Florida
Please have your child return this form to there homeroom teacher by ( DATE ) .
Child's Name (Please Print)
Child's Signature Date
Parent/Guardian Signature Date
Parent /Guardian signature "~ Date
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APPENDIX C Sexual Harassment Inventory
1 . I am a :
1 = Boy 2 = Girl
2. I describe myself best as:
1 = Black (African-Am) 2 = White (European-Am) 3 = Asian-American 4 = Hispanic 5 = Other
3. Please bubble in the number 1 for pretest or 2 for posttest .
4. Bubble your correct school:
1 = Ft. Clarke Middle 2 = Westwood Middle
5. Who is leading the sessions?
1 = adult
2 = high school peer counselor
3 = I am completing the written activities
4 = Nobody. I will get the activities later.
FOR THE REMAINDER OF THE ITEMS PLEASE:
BUBBLE IN A NUMBER FROM 1 TO 5 ACCORDING TO WHAT
LEVEL YOU AGREE WITH EACH STATEMENT.
1 = Strongly Disagree 4 = Agree (A)
(SD) 5 = Strongly Agree (SA) 2 = Disagree (D) 3 = Uncertain (U)
6. If I were sexually harassed, I would want to tell a counselor.
7. If I were sexually harassed, I would want to tell one of my parents.
8. If I were sexually harassed, I would want to tell one of my friends.
9. When someone dresses in a "sexy" way, they deserve to be sexually harassed.
10. Some people like being sexually harassed.
11. People who are sexually harassed are usually asking for it.
12. Girls may say that they don't want it, but they really want sexual attention.
13. Boys may say that they don't want it, but they really want sexual attention.
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14. A person who is sexually harassed just needs to relax and see it as fun.
15. I know sexual harassment when I see it taking place.
16. Sexual harassment is against school rules.
17. Sexual harassment is against the law in 15 different states .
18. If it is difficult to work in school or on a job that lets sexual harassment happen, then it would be a "hostile environment."
19. Sexual harassment happens when a person gets excited and cannot control him/herself.
20. Sexual harassment happens most often in the bathrooms.
21. One of the best ways to deal with sexual harassment is to ignore it.
22. If a person was accidently offended by a sexual joke, then it is not considered sexual harassment.
23. There are five different forms or kinds of sexual harassment.
24. Sexual harassment happens to about 50% of all middle school students.
25. Sexual harassment happens a lot at school.
26. I have been sexually harassed at school.
27. I have seen someone who was being sexually harassed at school .
28. There may have been a time when I sexually harassed someone at school .
The following questions concern your experiences with the sexual harassment activities or self -instruction materials:
29. The sexual harassment unit increased my understanding of others.
30. The sexual harassment unit had NO affect on me.
31. The unit had some affect on my behavior outside the activities or materials.
32. I disliked being a member of the group doing the unit.
33. The sexual harassment unit increased understanding of myself.
34. I would recommend the sexual harassment unit experience for others.
35. The unit helped our school to be a better place to be.
36. This unit helps boys and girls better communicate.
37. I better understand sexual harassment.
38. I have talked to a friend about what I have learned regarding sexual harassment since the unit began.
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What is one thing that you enjoyed most about your experiences?
What is one thing that you would change about the unit to make it better?
Any other comments or suggestions:
APPENDIX D SAI INVENTORY
1. I know what is not allowed at school.
2. I feel safe at school.
3. Teachers at school are helpful.
4 . I find it easy to talk with a school counselors when I meet with him/her.
5. Their are one or more dangerous groups at school.
6. Some places at school are not safe.
7. Sometimes I walk the long way to class to can avoid trouble with other students.
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APPENDIX E
A LARGE GROUP GUIDANCE UNIT ABOUT SEXUAL HARASSMENT
FACILITATORS GUIDE
Your efforts in presenting this unit are most important and valuable. You will have a unique opportunity to help reduce the risk of sexual harassment among young people. Sexual harassment includes behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs that are widespread and disturbing.
Sexual harassment has been a problem typically recognized and studied in the workplace and across universities. Only until now has it been identified as a problem among our youth in their school environments . The following statistics reflect the extent of the problem:
• Four in five students (about 81%) say they have experienced some form of sexual harassment during their school lives; 85% of girls and 76% of boys.
• One in 3 students (32%) who have been harassed first experience sexual harassment in grade 6 or earlier.
• Two in 3 of all students surveyed (66%) have been targets of sexual comments, jokes, looks and gestures — as well as touching, grabbing, and/or pinching in a sexual way.
• Nearly 4 in 5 students (79%) who have been harassed have been targeted by peers : current or former students. Eighteen percent (18%) of students who have been harassed cite adults as the perpetrators.
• Two in 3 students who have been harassed (66%) say they have been harassed in the hallway.
WHY SEXUAL HARASSMENT RISK REDUCTION?
The pain a victim may have to deal with supports the idea of continued prevention efforts this area. One researcher had this to say about the victimization experience, "Experiencing violence transforms people into victims and changes their lives forever." A victim may experience what is now known as Sexual Harassment Stress Disorder (SHSD) . This can include experiences such as fear, avoidance, emotional numbness, disturbances of self-esteem, feelings of not having much ability, and other sexual difficulties. Further, SHSD can include: denial, migraines, food and/or drug and/or alcohol abuse.
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The perpetrator. A person guilty of sexual harassment can also experience awful consequences. In addition to hurting the victim, a student who sexually harasses can be subject to school disciplinary procedures ranging from verbal reprimands to expulsion. Criminal proceedings may find the harasser guilty of a misdemeanor which carries with it possible fines, probation, or jail time. Of course a disciplinary and/or criminal record can be a serious obstacle to college entrance, career advancement, scholarship, or political positions to name a few.
Other liabilities of sexual harassment. Sexual harassment incidents have led to law suits. Consider the following:
• A high school girl filed suit against her school after officials did nothing about removing graffiti in the boy's bathroom that called her a "slut" and depicted her as doing demeaning acts with boys and animals. She made requests over 10 months to have the graffiti removed and for a long time didn't mention it to her parents. The student won a $15,000 settlement.
• A Texas civil rights group filed a federal lawsuit seeking $850,000 against a school district, alleging school leaders failed to protect two teen-age girls from sexual harassment by three boys.
• In California, the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Civil Rights found that one of their school systems failed to protect an eighth grade girl who repeatedly endured classmates' shouts of "moo, moo" and other taunts about her body. Her parents filed a lawsuit and settled out of court for $20,000.
• School officials in one Minnesota high school ignored a girl's complaints of vulgar treatment by boys for a year and a half until she filed charges with the state and won a $15,000 "mental anguish" settlement.
• A high school newspaper in St. Petersburg, Florida wrote stories on sexual harassment. One story included the results of a survey which said that 4 3% of girls and 16% of boys had been touched against their will. The survey also asked if girls, "...invite the advances made by a man through their dress or behavior." Sixty- two percent of the boys said yes and 21% of the girls also said yes.
• Another Minnesota student, seven years old, became the first elementary school student in the country to accuse her peers of sexual harassment. The student's mother filed a sex discrimination complaint
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against the school district charging that it failed to discourage harassment of her daughter and other girls who were subjected to nasty language, taunting and other threats. In the settlement, the district agreed to institute a sexual harassment policy.
CARING PEOPLE CAN HELP
Teachers, counselors, administrators, and peer facilitators are important resources for reducing sexual harassment. This guidance unit about sexual harassment will be facilitated by both adult educators and professionally/systematically trained high school peer facilitators .
Teachers Can Help. Teachers are in a good position to conduct intervention efforts for reducing the risk of sexual harassment. Advantages include that:
LI Classroom groups are already intact, usually uniform for grade level.
â–¡ Trust and genuineness is part of the teacher-student relationship which is an important ingredient with a sensitive topic such as sexual harassment.
IJ Students have had the opportunity to establish rapport with the teacher and with each other. Increased rapport is essential to discussing sexual harassment and engaging in experiential activities.
â–¡ The unit can provide further development of the helping relationship with students and sometimes even parents.
â–¡ Teachers can model effective communication and acceptable behaviors .
Further, since the unit focuses on developing and using the teacher-student relationship, it can be a positive experience for the teacher. For instance, the second annual Metropolitan Life Poll of American Teachers conducted in 1985, indicated that 51 percent of all teachers surveyed said that they have considered leaving the teaching profession at some point in their careers. More secondary than elementary school teachers expressed disenchantment with education and appeared more likely to leave. Interestingly, 7 5 percent of those who considered leaving, but stayed, did so because of the satisfaction they derived from their relationship with students.
Peer Facilitators Can Help. Peer facilitators may be an ideal resource for helping. Consider that sometimes adults sometimes make children feel uncomfortable, especially when talking about a sensitive topic such as sexual conduct. Frequently, people feel that others their
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own age can better understand what they are going through, and that a better understanding usually results in more effective help.
Everyone knows too that the weight a peer carries behind any message, positive or negative, can be greater than that of an adult. Young people listen best to other young people. The positive influence peer facilitators can have on middle school students is powerful and exciting. There are other advantages of being a peer facilitator involved in sexual harassment risk reduction. Peers are often more accessible and available. As activists, peers can alert adults to student needs and concerns in the area of sexual harassment. Using professionally and systematically trained peer facilitators increases the number of helpers and the magnitude of the message.
WORKING WITH MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
Intervening at the middle school level makes good sense. Quite often (approximately 2/3 of the time), middle school students do not believe there is anyone in their school to whom they could talk about their problems. You will have the chance to show yourself as a caring and trustworthy individual. Second, this unit is developmental in nature. This intervention is meant to reduce the risk of sexual harassment before it happens. Third, students at this stage in life are ready and usually receptive to sexual harassment reduction training.
Middle school students may be in the initial stages of developing attitudes, behaviors, and knowledge which will later influence whether they are involved in sexual harassment or not. This intervention includes presentation and activities to:
Q Enhance skills such as giving feedback, effective communication, and officially reporting sexual harassment. Communication includes attentive listening, being open, and learning how one's perceptions influences communication patterns.
â–¡ Increase knowledge of facts pertaining to sexual harassment including legal and personal consequences.
â–¡ Heighten awareness of, and dispute, sexual harassment supportive beliefs.
â–¡ Practice behaviors conducive to healthy, equitable relationships .
SEXUAL HARASSMENT IS ALL AROUND US
Sexual harassment is widespread in the public schools. For instance, a recent study, which questioned 1,600 public
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school students in grades 8-12 from 7 9 schools across the United States, showed that 4 in 5 teen-agers have experienced some form of sexual harassment at school. One in 10 students said that they have been forced to commit a sexual act, beyond kissing, during school hours. And while most of the harassing came from schoolmates, 25% of the girls and 10% of the boys said they had been harassed by school employees.
The survey used a broad definition of sexual harassment, including sexual comments or jokes; spreading sexual rumors about another student; touching, grabbing or pinching in a sexual way; spying on a student who was dressing or showering; pulling another student's clothing off; forcing a kiss; "mooning" another student; or forcing another student to "do something sexual, other than kissing. "
Congratulations on facilitating this guidance unit on sexual harassment. I hope that you will enjoy the activities as you help students reduce the chances of sexual harassment occurring in their work environment. I also hope that you become proud of your work. Know that you are directly and indirectly contributing to each student's emotional, social, career, and academic development.
Sincerely, Russ Sabella
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Helpful Hints for Group Facilitators
As a group facilitator, it might be helpful to be reminded
of these group procedure "tips" to enhance
the success of the unit:
â–¡ Read the entire unit before beginning the first session. This will give you an overall "picture" of the objectives and how the sessions build on one another. Also, you may want to review and refresh your memory by skimming each session before leading it.
â–¡ Always leave about six or seven minutes to conduct your closing questions and statements.
â–¡ Use high facilitative responses in all your interactions. Especially concentrate on making feeling-focused responses, clarifying and summarizing, and asking open-ended (how or what) questions for discussion.
â–¡ Move through the procedures of each session at a fast pace without sacrificing effectiveness, this keeps students' attention.
IJ Check the physical arrangement of the room before starting and make certain that it is favorable for making the plan work.
â–¡ Stick to the plan while maintaining a little flexibility to accommodate your own personal style.
|
SUMMARY OF |
SESSIONS |
|
|
Title |
Session Focus |
|
|
1 |
The Nature of the Beast |
Knowledge |
|
2 |
Go To Your Corner! |
Knowledge & Attitude |
|
3 |
Is it Sexual Harassment? |
Knowledge & Attitude |
|
4 |
What Are You Trying to |
Related Behaviors & |
|
Say? |
Knowledge |
|
|
5 |
Hey I You're In My Space 1 |
Related Behaviors & Knowledge |
|
6 |
Helping Yourself and |
Related Behaviors & |
|
Others |
Knowledge |
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OBJECTIVES: To introduce and discuss the topic of boy-girl relationships and how physical changes influence personal relationships; to introduce the concept of sexual harassment and the extent of it being a problem in society.
MATERIALS :
1. "X's" and "O's" sheets
2. Masking tape.
BEGIN BY SAYING ... "Good afternoon. (For Peer
Facilitators: My name is .) Today is the
first of six sessions that we are going to have together. We will be learning about a very important issue which face us in our society . That issue is sexual harassment . Once a week for the next six weeks, we will be taking a look at what sexual harassment is, why it happens, and how to reduce the chances that it will happen. We will also learn what to do about sexual harassment if it happens to you or a friend. "
THEN SAY ... "Let's think of a few questions to get started
1 . What can you remember about the kinds of games that you played in elementary school?
2. Did these involve primarily boys, girls, or both?
3. How do physical changes in boys and girls at the middle and high school affect the way in which they talk and act toward each other?
NOW SAY . . . "Nature plays a part in preparing boys and girls for more mature and closer relationships through physical changes. They sometimes cause confusion, embarrassment, uncertainty, shyness, aggression, and almost always some social awkwardness . The middle school years are a special time for boys and girls, when you have an opportunity to learn how to relate to others in positive ways."
NEXT SAY . . . "Some of the problems during this time evolve in the form of sexual harassment . This is a problem that some of you are already familiar with. Let's play a game of Tic-Tac-Know to learn more about the nature of sexual harassment . "
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ACTIVITY 1: "TIC-TAC-KNOW! "
â–¡ Clear a part of the classroom to make room for the Tic- Tack-Know grid.
â–¡ Mark off your grid with the masking tape like so:
â–¡ Ask for volunteers to make up two groups of 6 people (for a total of 12 students).
â–¡ Have the two groups stand on two opposite sides of the grid and say . . .
FIRST SAY "One team will be the X's and the other team
will be the O's. You will hear a series of questions - some multiple choice, others true/ false. Discuss these among your team and come to an agreement on the answer. If you are correct you get to choose a member of your team to walk into a spot on the grid and hold that position. If you are wrong you cannot put anyone on the grid, then control goes back to the other team. The other team will get a new question. The first team to get Tic-Tac-Know wins 1 We'll move pretty quickly so we can play two games involving everyone in the class."
â–¡ Read the following questions for each game. Each question has the correct answer and an explanation.
â–¡ After you tell each team whether their response to the question is correct or not, wait until they have picked a spot on the grid and have settled down to read the rationale.
â–¡ Circle each question as you present them so I will know how far you've gotten.
QUESTIONS FOR TIC-TAC-KNOW
1. Someone is being sexually harassed when another person makes a sexual comment about them.
ANSWER: FALSE. The comment must be unwanted for it to be sexual harassment.
2. Nine times out of ten, when you ignore sexual harassment it usually goes away.
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ANSWER: FALSE: Sometimes, ignoring it usually makes it happen more because the harasser does not recognize that the behavior is unwanted.
Even if a person meant something as a joke, it is still considered sexual harassment.
ANSWER: TRUE: Joking does not excuse unwanted sexual attention and certainly does not dismiss the act as sexual harassment.
Sexual harassment happens because some people are too sensitive and they don't like flirting.
ANSWER: FALSE: Sexual harassment happens because the offender is ignorant, immature, or just plain mean. The victim is not to blame.
There are five different forms of sexual harassment.
ANSWER: FALSE: There are three forms of sexual harassment which includes - Physical /visual (such as touching, brushing against, flicking one's tongue at someone). Quid pro quo means "this for that" and happens when someone wants to trade something for sex. Hostile environment is a form of sexual harassment when someone is subject to sexual comments or sexual materials (such as posters of naked people) that negatively effects his/her school performance.
Sexual harassment happens most often in (a) the hallways, (b) the classroom, or (c) in the parking lot.
ANSWER: (a) In the hallway. Then next most frequently in the classroom and then in the parking lot.
People can claim sexual harassment even if they have not been touched.
ANSWER: TRUE: Making unwanted sexual comments or showing sexually explicit materials to someone who does not want them is sexual harassment.
Sexual harassment is against the law in 34 states and is now being considered in 12 others.
ANSWER: FALSE: Sexual harassment is against federal laws which means they are effective in all 50 states. It is a third degree felony and is punishable by fines and/or jail time.
Which of the following have been accused of sexual harassment: (a) President Clinton, (b) Judge Clarence Thomas, (c) Fred Savage (The Wonder Years), (d) Bob Barker (The Price is Right), (e) Richard Simmons, (f) Homer Simpson (The Simpsons), or (g) all of the above.
ANSWER: (G, all of the above). However, not all have been legally charged and/or have been found guilty.
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10. Sexual harassment is against school rules.
ANSWER: TRUE: Not only is it against school rules, but the county has written a policy against sexual harassment that applies to all schools in Alachua county.
11. According to a national survey of middle and high school students, about 55% of all students have been sexually harassed.
ANSWER: FALSE: Survey results showed that about 80% of school children experience some form of sexual harassment.
12. Sexual harassment can happen as early as 3rd grade although it happens for the first time most often in 7th grade.
ANSWER: TRUE.
13. Sexual harassment happens because when a person gets excited, he or she sometimes can't control him/herself.
ANSWER: FALSE: Although it is sometimes difficult to control what we say or do, it is possible. Sexual harassment happens because someone decided to act in a certain way.
14. Under the "new" laws, what used to be considered flirting is now known as sexual harassment.
ANSWER: FALSE: Unwanted sexual attention has always been harassment and has been around for a very long time.
15. A husband cannot be found guilty of sexual harassment when it comes to his wife because they are married.
ANSWER: FALSE. Having a marriage license does not give permission to treat your partner as a victim.
16. At least half the boys who are sexually harassed say that it was a girl who did it.
ANSWER: TRUE. About 57% do.
17. Being at a party with alcohol increases the chances of sexual harassment happening.
ANSWER: TRUE: Alcohol usually impairs a person's judgement and ability to make good decisions.
18. Victims of sexual harassment feel so bad that they often do not want to come to school.
ANSWER: TRUE.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What is one thing that you learned about sexual harassment today?
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NOW SAY . . . "Sexual harassment is unwanted and unwelcome sexual behavior which interferes with one's life. Sexual harassment is not behaviors that one likes or wants, such as kissing, touching, or flirting that is wanted. It is a topic that needs to be talked about. It is a problem in society that your generation will help solve. No longer can sexual harassment be ignored or tolerated. It is destructive to business, government, marriages, schools , and communities."
AND THEN SAY . . . "You are going to have an opportunity in this guidance unit to help bring about some changes in the way people relate to one another and to improve your own relationships . It may be one of most valuable topics that you will ever study."
FINALLY SAY . . . "If there is anyone in our group who is
uncomfortable or embarrassed about this topic, you may want to talk with me (us) privately. In the meantime, unless I hear otherwise from you, we will meet again .... and talk more specifically about the nature and extent of the problem of sexual harassment. We hope you enjoyed today's activity and look forward to seeing you next week (peer facilitators) . "
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OBJECTIVES: To increase awareness of sexual harassment mythology; to reject false beliefs about sexual harassment.
MATERIALS :
1. Masking Tape
2 . Large signs for the corners of the room designating level of agreement.
IJ Before you get started, tape the levels of agreement signs (Strongly Agree, Agree, Strongly Disagree, and Disagree) in each corner of the room. The "Uncertain" sign should go somewhere in the center of the room.
FIRST SAY . . . "Last week we took a look at some of the facts of sexual harassment. Our mission was to make sure that we had our story straight. Today we will be looking at something similar - some of the myths surrounding our topic."
KEY QUESTIONS:
1 . What is a myth?
ANSWER: A myth is a story that is not true although sometimes it gets passed on as if it is true.
2. What might be a myth about boys?
ANSWER: There are many. One might be that all boys always want sexual attention. This is not true. Some boys are annoyed and embarrassed by sexual attention.
3. What might be a myth about girls?
ANSWER: There are also many myths about girls. One is that if a girl wants to be alone with you, then she wants sexual attention. This may not be true. There are many reasons why a girl would want to be alone with a boy including wanting to talk, study, or watch television.
ACTIVITY 1: Go to Your Corner!
FIRST SAY . . . "Sorting out the myths from the facts about sexual harassment can sometimes be difficult and confusing. We sometimes learn what we know about something from people who really do not know the facts
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or who have been misinformed. Sometimes it can get tricky. So, if you find that you make a mistake about what is fact and what is a myth, don't worry, you're not alone. Feel good that you will finally know the facts . "
THEN SAY ... "Let's play a game called Go To Your Corner!
The way it works is that I will read a statement about sexual harassment. The statement could be a fact or it could be a myth. You will have to decide how much you agree or disagree with the statement. Your choices are Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, and Strongly disagree . Once you decide, go to the corner of the room that has the appropriate sign (pause and show each sign) . For those of you who cannot make up your mind, you can go to the center of the room where it says "Uncertain. "
â–¡ After you read each statement and students have had a chance to go to their respective corners, instruct students on opposite sides (for instance, the Disagree and Agree corners or the Strongly disagree and Strongly agree corners) to provide rationale for their decision. They can try to persuade the other groups, including the "Uncertain" group, that their position is the "correct" one.
â–¡ After some discussion, have the undecided students think about the arguments they have heard, make a decision, and go to one of the four corners.
IJ Then, provide the correct answers and rationale
provided for you after each statement and after you have regained their attention.
IJ You will probably only have time to get through the first three although others are provided for you in case you find that you have more time. Remember to save time at the end for closing statements.
GO TO YOUR CORNER! QUESTIONS:
1. Some people like being sexually harassed. ANSWER: FALSE. Remember, sexual harassment is unwanted sexual attention. Nobody likes to be humiliated, embarrassed, and hurt. People who believe this do not understand the difference between sexual harassment and flirting.
2. When someone dresses in a "sexy" way, they deserve to be sexually harassed.
ANSWER: FALSE. Nobody deserves to be humiliated, embarrassed, or hurt. This is what sexual harassment does. Dressing in a certain way could attract attention, and that attention may be sexual. But, if the attention is unwanted, then the situation could be
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considered sexual harassment. Perhaps the person who dresses in a "sexy" way ought not to according to one's opinion. However, this opinion does not give anyone the right to sexually harass someone else.
3. A person who claims they are being sexually harassed simply needs to relax and see it as fun.
ANSWER: FALSE. Sexual harassment is a crime. It is never, ever relaxing or fun. Believing this one is as ridiculous as believing that, "If you are going to be hit in the head with a stick, they you might as well sit down and enjoy it."
4. People say that they don't want it, but they really want sexual attention.
ANSWER: DEPENDS. Every once in a while someone might say they don't want sexual attention when they really do. It may be too embarrassing for that person to actually admit it. Or, they may not want others to think anything negative of them. However, when we believe that someone really means "yes" when they are saying "no, " then we are not listening to them. If this person acted on it, then they may be committing a crime. So, it is always much healthier to talk about it and find out for sure how a person really feels than to interpret, for yourself, what you think the person really means.
5. When it comes to sexual attention, sometimes "no" means "maybe. "
ANSWER: FALSE. A person might want to believe that a "no" means "maybe." This leaves room for opportunity. At the same time, however, this leaves room for terrible mistakes. Therefore, one must always take a "no" for it's face value. If the person who said "no" really meant "yes" then it is their loss and they will have to "fess up" later to get what they want.
6. Too many girls are crying "sexual harassment" because they have sex with a boy and then they are embarrassed when someone else finds out.
ANSWER: FALSE. This situation might happen every once in a while although it is rarely true. Sometimes people think it happens more than it does because when it does happen, it is usually told on national news and talked about a great deal .
â–¡ Instruct everyone to go back to their seats.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1 . What is one thing you learned today about sexual harassment?
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2. How do myths about sexual harassment begin? How do they continue?
ANSWER: Myths can begin in various ways. They can begin because people believe things even though they do not have any proof. These are called assumptions. They can begin as stereotypes (e.g., All boys want sexual attention) . Sometimes myths can start just because a person is misinformed (e.g., Some people enjoy being sexually harassed) . Myths about sexual harassment can be kept up by rumor and by the media such as television and movies.
3. Do your beliefs have an influence on how you act? ANSWER: Yes, what you believe indeed influences how you act. For example, if you believed that all snakes are dangerous, you would not pick up a snake in front of you. Or, if you believed that studying for a test increases your chance of getting a good grade, you will be more motivated to study than if you believed that it did not help. This is important because if you were sold on a false belief about sexual harassment it could lead to trouble.
NOW SAY . . . "Not everyone is in agreement about various beliefs concerning sexual harassment. You may have been surprised to discover that what you thought was true was really only a myth. This can happen to us as we continue to learn more about the world and mature. Since our beliefs influence how we behave, it is important to get the facts straight. It is just as important to reject myths when we hear them among others so that they will not continue along a path of personal destruction."
FINALLY SAY . . . "During our next time together, we will
continue learning more about what sexual harassment is and what it is not."
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Session 3: Is it Sexual Harassment?
OBJECTIVES: To help students identify sexual harassment when it occurs.
MATERIALS :
1. Scenario Strips.
2. Scenario Discussion sheets (to be handed to small group leaders ) .
OPEN BY SAYING . . . "As you know by now, sexual harassment
has become a problem in society that affects the way in which people work together. This problem often begins early in life, especially during the middle school years . "
NOW SAY "We have already discussed some facts and
myths about sexual harassment . To prevent it from happening, we need to recognize it when we see it. Recognizing sexual harassment is not always easy. We will be looking at some situations that may or may not be sexual harassment . Let's put our heads together and figure out what exactly makes up sexual harassment. For our next activity, we will break into four groups or teams. "
ACTIVITY 1: IS IT SEXUAL HARASSMENT?
â–¡ Divide the large group into three small groups. One way to do this is by dividing them by the row they are in or by having the students count off to three. Make sure that the groups do not form on their own or they will probably be imbalanced by gender or race. Have the group members sit together in one of three designated places in the room.
â–¡ Have each small group decide on who their small group leader will be (allow only about 30 seconds for this).
â–¡ Quickly go around the room and confirm each small group leader.
â–¡ Give each small group leader a "Scenario Discussion Sheet" which corresponds to the scenario that his/her group is reviewing (e.g., group #1 gets the discussion sheet for scenario #1). ONLY the small group leader
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should see the sheet. Explain that it will be his/her job to:
• make certain his/her small group is on task; he/she can read the scenario out loud while the group members read along
• ask the questions on the Scenario Discussion sheet
• report to the rest of the class what happened in the process of discussing the questions in his/her small group
â–¡ Pass out Scenario 1 to group 1, Scenario 2 to group 2, and Scenario 3 to group 3.
NOW SAY . . . "The task of each small group is to discuss your scenario. Try to agree on whether the situation constitutes sexual harassment or not. Also, each team should try to answer the questions provided with the scenarios. Team 1 will work on scenario #1, Team 2 on scenario #2, and Team 3 will work on Scenario #3.
â–¡ Give each team 5-6 minutes to complete their tasks. You can walk around the room to monitor their progress.
â–¡ When each team has completed their task, or at the end of the allotted time, begin to discuss each scenario. Each team's small group leader should read the scenario and report on the team's decision. Then, prompt each small group leader to tell about the various factors that were considered and what happened in the process. Use the following discussion questions:
• What happened when the group tried to agree?
• What was one issue where almost everyone agreed?
• What was one issue where almost everyone disagreed?
• How did the group's answers to the questions compare to the written answers on the leader's handout?
SCENARIO 1:
Brian and Joe, both in the same English class, sometimes make comments about what type of girls they like. One day Brian says to Joe, "I like vem with little round butts" in front of Jill, a girl who sits in the next row. Brian laughed as usual. Jill told them that she found such comments disgusting and asked them to stop. Both Brian and Joe apologized to Jill. The next day, Jill once again overheard Brian in a loud voice tell Joe a similar comment. Brian and Joe continued to ignore Jill's confrontations. Jill began to feel helpless and upset. She found it very difficult to concentrate in school.
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SCENARIO #1 QUESTIONS
1. Is this sexual harassment? Why?
ANSWER: Yes, Brian and Joe are guilty of sexual harassment. Even thought the comments may not be offensive to every person, they are offensive to Jill. Therefore, Brian and Joe are creating a "hostile environment" for Jill. A hostile environment is when a person makes a situation very difficult for someone else to concentrate, study, and ultimately make good grades. If Jill really thought the comments were funny and played along, the situation would not be considered sexual harassment.
2. What else could Jill have done to make it stop?
ANSWER: Most people would like to make the victim responsible by saying things like, "She should just walk away," or "It's not the boys' fault that she can't take a joke." However, responsibility for preventing sexual harassment relies on all people involved. It is never the victim's fault for being sexually harassed.
IF THE STUDENTS HAVE TROUBLE COMING UP WITH IDEAS, YOU MIGHT SAY . . . "Most people would have trouble coming up with ideas for Jill to stop the vulgar comments made by Brian and Joe. The problem is that it is difficult to control someone else's behavior. That is why it is the harasser' s responsibility to stop. One thing Jill could do is to file an official complaint with a teacher , counselor , administrator , or even the school resource officer. "
3. How else might Brian and Joe respond to Jill's complaints?
ANSWER: Brian and Joe are either being insensitive or very forgetful in this case. They should have taken Jill very seriously the first time. Also, Brian and Joe could talk to Jill about her feelings.
4. In addition to being offensive to Jill, what else is wrong with comments such as the one Brian and Joe made?
ANSWER: Even if Jill didn't care about comments like the one Brian and Joe made ("I like vem with small butts"), there is still something wrong. Such comments reflect a certain attitude towards females. Many people who say things like that see women as objects. Such comments can show that the person does not recognize the other as someone who has feelings and may get hurt .
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SCENARIO 2:
Carl rides the bus to school and back home every day. Just for fun, he wrote a note to Juanlta and passed it to her. The note to Juanita read, "You have a really fresh body. How about you and I get together? Come over tonight ! . " After Juanita read the note and looked up at Carl, he made some sexual gestures with his eyebrows and lips.
SCENARIO #2 QUESTIONS
1. Is this sexual harassment? Why?
ANSWER: MAYBE. It depends on whether Juanita is receptive to Carl's remarks or not. If Juanita enjoys this kind of attention, then it would not be sexual harassment. But if she found the remarks to be offensive and if Carl would not stop, then it would considered sexual harassment. This type of sexual harassment would be considered visual, the most obvious and recognized. Carl may assume that such behavior is O.K. with Juanita and risks hurting her feelings and jeopardizing his career.
2. How might Juanita have felt if Carl's behavior was unwanted?
ANSWER: Juanita may have felt various unpleasant feelings including invaded, helpless, angry, or embarrassed. She had no say in Carl's offensive note and gesture. No one should be made to feel this way. Such unpleasant experiences can negatively affect Juanita 's academic performance, social confidence, and self-esteem.
3 . Why might Carl have acted this way?
ANSWER: All sorts of reasons, none of which excuse his behavior. Carl may believe that such behavior is harmless. He may have wanted some type of attention and did not know of a better way of getting it. Carl also might have done it because it makes him feel playful, even at Juanita 's expense. Some people, maybe even Carl, believe that girls enjoy that kind of attention, even against their will. Finally, he may simply be mean spirited and enjoys creating discomfort and even agony in others. Remember, these might be explanations for Carl's behavior but certainly not excuses. There is no justification for sexual harassment.
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SCENARIO 3:
A group of four girls frequently whistle "wolf calls" at Jamal. Jamal thought it was kind of neat and enjoyed the special attention. After a while, when the girls didn't stop, Jamal strangely began to feel embarrassed and uncomfortable. He no longer considered the attention special and began to also feel upset. He told them to quit it although they would laugh and continue. Jamal didn't really know what to do. Jamal just wanted to be left alone.
1. Is this sexual harassment? Why?
ANSWER: At first Jamal enjoyed the wolf calls and probably wanted the girls to continue. However, there came a time when it was no longer fun and he wanted it to stop. The point at which he did not consent to the wolf calls, and the females continued, that became sexual harassment.
2. Do boys really experience sexual harassment?
ANSWER: Yes. Sexual harassment for a boy can be just as traumatizing as it is for a female.
3. What might the girls have thought about Jamal 's request for them to stop whistling at him? Why?
ANSWER: Many people buy into the myth that boys are always ready and willing when it comes to sexual attention. It's simply not true. Boys are not always "turned on" by sexual attention. Boys can become uncomfortable in such a situation and want to be left alone. The sad thing is that when a boy refuses sexual attention, others may inappropriately label him as "less of a boy or man."
4. What might some of the other boys think if they knew that Jamal requested that the girls stop whistling? ANSWER: The other boys may believe Jamal 's worst nightmare — that he is less of a man, perhaps even a "sissy," because he was being ridiculed by a group of girls (often seen by boys as inferior) . Of course this is not true.
â–¡ Have the students stay in their groups while you make some concluding comments :
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What is one thing that you learned today about sexual harassment?
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2. What are some examples of sexual harassment that takes place in school?
ANSWER: Examples of sexual harassment include making comments about someone's body or a part of their body; making sexually explicit material such as posters, pictures, or hand-made drawings public; making academic achievement a condition of sexual favors; spreading rumors of a sexual nature about a person.
3. How can sexual harassment influence production in school? On the job?
ANSWER: Sexual harassment can seriously lessen performance on the job or at school. It is very difficult to work when you are feeling embarrassed, angry, degraded, humiliated, and disgusted. Sexual harassment also instills fear and can make the person think less of themselves.
4. What makes the business world concerned about this problem?
ANSWER: Sexual harassment decreases productivity which means loss of money. It kills team work and is against the law. A company can be sued for a lot of money if they allow sexual harassment to occur.
THEN SAY . . . "Today we have practiced recognizing sexual
harassment when we see it. It is also important to do our part in not letting it happen to us our others. This involves several skills which we will begin to tackle next time we meet."
CONCLUDE WITH "Next time we are going to think more
about how we might be more attentive to each other so that we do not miss out on what the other is trying to say. "
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OBJECTIVES: To teach communication skills which include active listening and nonverbal communication.
MATERIALS :
1. GIZZYDEECH cards.
2 . Blind spot paragraph
FIRST SAY . . . "This is our fourth session together and so that means we're past the half way point. There is still much to cover so we should move ahead to make the best use of our time. You probably remember that last week, we discussed several different types of situations and whether each situation involved sexual harassment . "
THEN SAY ... "Sometimes we ignore other person' s words and feelings . Being a careful listener is both an art and a science . Have you ever noticed how some people are good listeners, when others seem to be distracted and have trouble paying attention? Some people are tuned into what you are feeling and thinking, whereas others are not. Being a good communicator and problem-solver relies on being an attentive listener. "
NOW SAY . . . "Today, we are going to look at some ways in
which you can become a more attentive listener. As a person is talking, try to listen carefully for both pleasant and unpleasant feelings. Ask yourself: "What is the person experiencing in the situation?" Can you say aloud the feelings you are hearing? Let's listen to a few examples: "
ACTIVITY 1: GIZZYDEECH!
â–¡ Have students volunteer to help by raising their hand. LI Then, choose ten of these students balanced for gender
and race.
â–¡ Take them aside and give them each a "GIZZYDEECH card. Make sure they can all pronounce the word.
â–¡ In turn, have the students, in front of the class, read aloud the sentence they have on their card. They should read the sentence and focus on the feeling
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indicated on the card. They can also use their hands and facial expressions. Each card should result in a different tone of voice and body language. â–¡ After each student reads a card, have the students try to guess the feeling trying to be expressed. This game is similar to charades.
The GIZZYDEECH cards include:
1. Read with excitement; "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."
2. Read with sadness: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."
3. Read with anger: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."
4. Read with pride: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."
5. Read with fear: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."
6. Read with NO feeling: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH." 1 . Read with surprise: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH. "
8. Read with depression: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."
9. Read with confusion: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."
10. Read with love: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What might the word GIZZYDEECH mean?
ANSWER: Actually, the word doesn't mean anything, it was made up .
2. How did you know what the feeling being expressed was without knowing what the meaning of the word GIZZYDEECH is?
ANSWER: Perhaps you might have been able to tell the meaning of the word by the speaker's feeling and expressions.
3 . How might it feel for someone not to know what you are trying to say?
ANSWER: It probably feels frustrating. You may even feel helpless or left out.
4. Could the same statements have different meanings based on how they are said?
ANSWER: Yes indeed. A person's tone of voice and their expressions can change the meaning of what is said.
5. When someone says something but their body "says something else," which do you believe?
ANSWER: Most of the time, the listener will find that a person's body language is the most accurate. This is because the speaker cannot influence his/her body motions as well as they can what comes out of their mouth. The body usually does not lie like one's mouth can.
6. How does attitude affect what a person actually hears? ANSWER: You may have heard that "a person hears what they want to hear." Their is a great deal of truth to this statement. What a person wants (or needs) to hear
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may influence the meaning they place on what is actually said. When listening to others, it is always important to keep our own prejudices aside, and listen with an open mind. This is important because misinterpreting what someone says, and then acting on it, can sometimes lead to trouble such as sexual harassment.
NOW SAY . . . "Our ten volunteers have demonstrated how the same word, which in this case does not mean anything, can give a different message just by how it is said. You may have noticed that each person was saying the sentence with a different feeling and with different expressions . People can say a great deal just by their body language . Even if you don't understand what they are saying, you might be able to get the message by how they say it. Paying attention to underlying feelings can give a person insight into what is going on."
FINALLY SAY ... "Sometimes, a person's body language can be difficult to interpret, even confusing. This is because a person may be confused about what they are experiencing. For instance, a girl might enjoy sexual attention although has been brought up to think that "nice" girls should not. Or, for example, a boy who is being sexually harassed by a girl may be confused because he thought that boys are always supposed to enjoy sexual attention. When in doubt, an individual should always ask what the other person is trying to say or how they are feeling.
ACTIVITY 2: THE BLIND SPOT
OPEN BY SAYING We have talked about body language and
how it plays an important part in communication. Now let us turn to a different activity that should give us some further insight into what it means to be in tune to the messages that we get through our eyes and ears."
â–¡ Pass out the Blind Spot sheet. Make sure that the
students put them face down and do NOT read them until you say so.
NOW SAY . . . OK, In a few moments we will be reading together what is written on the sheets of paper I just passed out. Then, I will give you a very quick task that should only last a few seconds so you'll have to be on your toes. Are you ready? OK, turn your papers over
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â–¡ Have the students turn the papers over and have everyone read aloud. The paragraph contains the following:
• "One of the best feelings is the feeling of love. If a person is a friend of yours, and you love them, that is also a special kind of love. Peelings of fear sometimes come with love.
â–¡ Instruct the students to quickly count the number of letter F's in the sentence. Give them about 15 seconds.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. How many letter F's did you count?
ANSWER: There are actually ELEVEN of them in the sentence although they will probably not count all eleven.
2. How come there are different answers even though everyone has the same paper?
ANSWER: The reason is that most people miss the F's in the word of because it sounds more like a "v" than an " f . "
3 . What might you have learned about communication from this exercise?
ANSWER: This exercise attempts to show that communication is not always easy. We must work hard to make sure that we hear and see everything that is intended. The best way to do this is to listen carefully to words and feelings, confirm, and ask questions.
4. Is it possible that you can be wrong about something even though you think that you are absolutely right? ANSWER: Yes, that is why we should put off getting defensive and try to learn.
NOW SAY . . . "Our exercise showed us how we all have what Is called a blind spot. Sometimes we just do not see things that are right in front of us. In a similar way, we do not hear things that are spoken directly to us either. In these cases, we must try to get help from others to help us see or hear things in our blind spot. For example, in this situation, rather than arguing about how many letter F's there are in the paragraph, we could ask the other person to show us how they arrived at their answer. "
THEN SAY . . . "In relationships we must be careful to hear the other person' s words and feelings . If we do not, then we might miss something important which could eventually hurt their feelings . We are now learning
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that attentive listening is more work than most people think. It takes careful consideration of the person' s words, feelings, expressions, and our own frame of mind. "
FINALLY SAY . . . "In our next session, we will look at the
idea of mutual respect, especially when it comes to our personal space. See you next week!"
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Session 5: Hey! You're In My Space!
OBJECTIVES: To teach the concept of respecting other's "personal" space.
MATERIALS :
1. The Party Cards
2. Sheet of labels to use for sticking cards on people's back.
3. A radio or tape player (optional)
OPEN BY SAYING . . . "Last week we learned more about what it means to be an attentive listener. We played the GIZZYDEECH game and also talked about blind spots. We found that it takes lots of work to really understand what someone is saying and feeling. We also discussed how important it is to be an attentive listener to prevent hurting someone' s feelings . "
THEN SAY . . . "Today we will look at this idea called
respect . Respect is an expression of consideration, especially for someone's feelings . Respect is also showing appreciation. What are other ways that people are shown respect? Let's find out ..."
ACTIVITY 1: "THE PARTY"
FIRST SAY ... It's time for our next activity. Let's begin by using a little imagination. At this time, let's have a party. Our party will be somewhat different, however, because each person will have a different set of instructions to follow. Each of you will receive a piece of paper with your own personal message to others. The paper will be taped on your back where you can ' t see it . "
THEN SAY . . . "After everyone gets their special message, I will be giving you various topics to discuss as you socialize and get to know each other. Between each topic I will say "STOP." At that time, please turn your attention to me for the next topic. As you discuss the topics, others may react to your unique message . Oh yes, do not share the personal messages with anyone until the party is over! Later on we will
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see if the persons wearing a message can guess what it is . "
â–¡ Tape a message to each of student's back. Some students will receive the same message. The messages include:
• Disregard the topic and make comments about my feet! Say things like, "Ooooh, those are the best looking pair of feet I have ever seen!"
• Disregard the topic and make comments about my hands 1 Say things like, "Ooooh, those are the best looking pair of hands I have ever seen!"
• I hate it when people look me directly in the eyes when talking with me.
• I like to hold hands when I'm talking to a friend.
• I might be interested in going together with you.
• I like to talk with others ONLY when there is nobody around.
• I like people to get up close to me when I 'm talking with them.
• I scare you. Act nervous when talking to me.
• I am not comfortable with people "in my face." Stay at least 5 feet away when talking to me.
• You find me attractive.
• You are VERY interested in getting my phone number.
• You are extremely interested in what I have to say.
â–¡ If you have a cassette or CD player, begin playing some party music loud enough to hear but not too loud as to disturb any neighbors. If not, that's OK too, just skip this part.
â–¡ Then start the party by reading the first topic. After about two minutes, say STOP, wait to get their attention, and read the next topic. Here are the topics to use:
1. How would you describe the last party you were at?
2. What is your favorite thing to do on the weekend when you don't have any chores or other responsibilities?
3. If you had to choose a favorite musician or musical group, who would it be and why?
4. If someone gave you a million dollars to throw the next party, on the condition that you spent every dollar on the party, how would you do it?
NOW . . . Ask the following questions and allow anyone who raises their hand to answer:
• How did other people behave towards you?
• What do you think your personal message says?
158 FOLLOW UP DISCUSSION AND QUESTIONS:
1. How was communication affected by your message? ANSWER: Sometimes how a person sees you or how they think of you will affect just how they speak with you.
2 . How did you know when you were too close or too far from the person you were speaking with?
ANSWER: You must judge by the person's expressions to know if they are comfortable with you. Sometimes it is hard to tell so it is up to the other person to tell you or for you to ask.
3. What is personal space?
ANSWER: Personal space is the amount of space around you, at any given time or situation, that you feel comfortable with someone else.
4. How is personal space a consideration in sexual harassment?
ANSWER: Repeatedly violating someone's personal space and making them uncomfortable with sexual attention is considered sexual harassment.
NOW SAY . . . "You have all had a chance to interact at our special party. The goal of this particular activity was to teach the definition and concept of respecting the personal space of others. Each person brings to a conversation many things: ideas, beliefs , habits, skills, and a comfort zone. Some of you experienced what it was like trying to figure out how to get into a comfortable stance for both you and the other person with whom you were talking. If someone was closer to you than you wanted, you might have felt annoyed. When someone gives you unwanted sexual attention, in the form of words, pictures, or actions, the feelings only get stronger. You might feel angry, confused, helpless, and even violated. It is important to make certain that the other person is interested and open to your comments and or behavior no matter what the nature of your conversation is about.
CONCLUDE BY SAYING . . . "We are certainly winding down with our time. Next week will be our last session together as we explore and try to further understand the nature of sexual harassment. For our last meeting, we will take a look at how to reduce the risk of it happening. Also, we'll discuss how to best help a friend if it happens to him/her. "
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OBJECTIVES: To teach students how to confront a
perpetrator; report sexual harassment; effectively support and help others experiencing sexual harassment,
MATERIALS :
1. Handout: "Memo"
2. Handout: "Helping a Friend Who Has Been Sexually Harassed"
3. Handout: "Options for Confronting Sexual Harassment"
4. "Options for Confronting Sexual Harassment" strips
ACTIVITY 1: Opt to ST0P1
FIRST SAY . . . "We have certainly come a long way since our
first time together. Since then, we have discussed the definition of sexual harassment, sexual harassment myths, how to recognize it when you see it happening, and the importance of respecting someone's personal space. Now we must turn to the topic of what you might do to confront sexual harassment if it happens to you. We will also spend our time discussing how you might effectively help a friend if needed."
THEN SAY . . . "Let us look at several different options that you might have for stopping sexual harassment. Having options means having the power or right of choosing. Although you may not have the power to control the behavior of the perpetrator, you do have the power to stand up for your rights . "
NOW ASK . . . "What might be some options for confronting sexual harassment when you see it? Remember that violence is not an acceptable option.
â–¡ After brainstorming for about three to four minutes, have a couple of students help you pass out the handout called "Options for Confronting Sexual Harassment"
â–¡ Point out the options that students were able to offer. Then, point out the options that they did not mention.
â–¡ When you get to Option #6, pass out the "Memo" handout.
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SAY . . . "This handout will guide you in writing an official notification of your sexual harassment experience. You can send it to any adult that you trust."
NOW ASK . . . "Are there any other options for confronting sexual harassment, not including violence, that we missed?
NOW SAY . . . "OK, confronting a perpetrator of sexual
harassment is a skill. Like any skill, to get good at it, you have to practice . So, let us practice our sexual harassment confrontations skills. I need everyone to bring there chairs (or sometimes it's a desk and chair in one) into a circle around the room. (If the room you are in does not allow this such as in a science room then have the students stand in a circle) .
IJ Put an empty chair in the middle of the circle.
THEN SAY . . . "Now that you are all in a circle, let me
explain what comes next. Each person will pick from a hat one option for confronting sexual harassment. Pretending that the perpetrator is sitting in the chair in the middle of the circle, use the option you picked to confront him/her. You can make up what you think the perpetrator did in your personal confrontation .
Q Begin the activity by letting a volunteer pick out of the hat and practicing that option. If students are a somewhat hesitant, you might want to begin yourself.
U If at any time a student does not want to participate, allow him/her to pass. If a student passes, come back to him/her after everyone who wants to go has gone and ask if he/she would like to try it.
â–¡ Remember to offer a few complimentary words as you go
along to encourage participation and reinforce skillful confrontations .
AFTER THE LAST PERSON HAS GONE, SAY . . . "Terrific! Just remember that you have the right to not have anyone victimize you with sexual harassment . If someone does, you can use any or all of these options to confront him/her. You also have the choice to go right to option #6 and make an official complaint. If you can, always seek the help of your parents I guardians . Now let's turn to the most effective way to help and support a friend who has been sexually harassed. "
A
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ACTIVITY 2: HELPING A FRIEND WHO HAS BEEN SEXUALLY HARASSED
FIRST SAY "What can you do to help a friend who is
experiencing sexual harassment feel supported? (PAUSE FOR ANSWERS) One way is to make sure that you do NOT blame him/her in any way for the harassment. For example, you do not want to say that he/she should have expected the harassment because of what he/she was wearing or what was said."
THEN SAY ... "Let's take a look at some other things you can do to help a friend who is suffering from sexual harassment . "
â–¡ Pass out the Helping a Friend Who Has Been Sexually Harassed handout.
â–¡ Review the handout with the students. Point out the items that they were able to say and those that they did not.
â–¡ Finally, bring attention to the section with resource numbers in case they need to use them.
KEY QUESTIONS:
1. Is it possible that someone you know would do something that could be considered sexual harassment?
ANSWER: The answer is yes. It is difficult to believe that someone you know would do something as awful as sexual harassment, although it is sometimes true. This person may be just as guilty of sexual harassment as a stranger. This doesn't mean that you should not be friends with this person. What it does mean is that you have an obligation to help your friend stop the harassment before he or she hurts anyone else — and — before he/she hurts him/herself.
2 . What is the difference between an informal and a formal complaint?
ANSWER: An informal complaint is made unofficially. That is, the complaint is not written. A formal complaint follows certain guidelines and always involves a written description of the incident (s). Formal complaints are needed to make a legal case against the harasser if informal efforts are not successful .
3. What if sexual harassment happens with an adult? ANSWER: This is an especially tough situation because adults are supposed to know better, be responsible, and trustworthy. Even though this is ideal, the truth is that all adults are not trustworthy. Therefore, a
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young person who experiences sexual harassment by an adult should follow the same guidelines for when a student is the harasser. The adult harasser needs to be confronted and stopped.
FINALLY SAY . . . Our time together is coming to an end. We hope that you will take what you've learned to help fight sexual harassment that happens around you. Only when everyone does their share will sexual harassment really become a thing of the past. We hope that you've also enjoyed our time together. Even though sexual harassment is a disturbing topic, we've tried to make it somewhat fun through our activities. If you have any other questions about sexual harassment, remember that you have many caring and knowledgeable adults around who can help. All you have to do is ask. You can also check out books from your school and city libraries to read more about sexual harassment . We appreciate your attentiveness and participation . Thanks for playing!
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Russell Anthony Sabella was born in Manhattan, New York in 1965, the son of Mr. Giuseppe Sabella and Sina Sabella. Russell graduated from Cape Coral High School in 1983 and immediately attended the University of Florida. He received his Bachelor of Science degree in psychology from the University of Florida in 1987. During that time, he worked as a crisis counselor and resident assistant for the Division of Housing.
Russell then entered graduate school in counselor education at the University of Florida. Throughout graduate school, he worked with the Division of Housing as a Hall Director, Staff Resource Assistant, and also a Residence Director. He received his M.Ed, and Ed.S. degrees in guidance and counseling at the University of Florida in 1990.
Following graduation, Russell worked as a peer facilitator trainer and school counselor for the Alachua County school system. During this period, he became a doctoral student at the University of Florida in counselor
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174 education. He has authored, with his doctoral chair, Dr. Robert Myrick, a book entitled Confronting Sexual Harassment : Learning Activities for Teens. After completing his Ph.D., Russell will begin work as a faculty member in the Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky.
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for^the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Robert D. Myrick, Cj>airman Professor of Counselor Education
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Gerardo Gonzalez Professor of Counse
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. t ^~^V?
Woodrow M. Parker ~
Professor of Counselor Education
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Cecil Mercer <
Professor of Special Education
I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
August, 19 95
Dean, Graduate
LD
1780 1995
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
3 1262 08285 368 9
LD
1780 1995
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
3 1262 08285 368 9