June 21, 1957

Not to be bound because the following
plates were found missing by the Library:

Pea ee eee ae

186 THE EGGS
EUROPEAN BIRDS

REV. FRANCIS C. R. JOURDAIN,

MAL iM: B.. 02 Di.

TO BE COMPLETED IN ABOUT 10 PARTS,
CONTAINING ABOUT 140 COLOURED PLATES
BY A. REICHERT AND THE AUTHOR.

DO Ge

LONDON.
R. H. PORTER. 7 PRINCES ST. CAVENDISH SQUARE W.

GERA-UNTERMHAUS.
FR. EUGEN KOHLER.
1906.

Notice to Subseribers.

N the present work the author, after much consideration, has decided to

follow the recommendations of the Fifth International Zoological Congress
with regard to nomenclature. While fully aware of the inconvenience
caused to those who have become accustomed to the names most commonly
in use among English naturalists, he is convinced that this drawback is
outweighed by the advantage of adopting the same system of nomenclature
which is in use among almost all other civilized nations. After all, the
main use of scientific nomenclature is to provide a common language for
scientists of all nations, and this can only be done by all agreeing to
accept one code of rules. For this reason the Tenth Edition of Linnzeus has
been adopted as the original standpoint instead of the Twelfth, although the
writer's personal preference would be for the latter work, as embodying
the matured judgment of the great Swedish naturalist.

With regard to the recognition of geographical races, now that the
various forms of all the Palearctic species are being worked out by
Dr. Hartert in his work on the Birds of the Palearctic Fauna, it becomes
for the first time possible to extend this study to the Oology of the Birds
of Europe. Hither to the usual practice among British naturalists has
been to elevate our local races to the rank of species (as in the case the
Motacille and Pari), while at the same time entirely ignoring many equally
well marked continental races. For the nomenclature of these forms the
trinomial system has been adopted, as clearer and less open to confusion
than the binomial systems of Dr. Sharpe and Mr. Dresser. Possibly some
of the forms mentioned in this work may be thought scarcely sufficiently
well defined to require subdivision, and this may eventually prove to be
the case; but great care has been taken to avoid the lumping together of
statistics which apply to distinct races.

For purposes of measurement the millimetre has been adopted as the
unit, in order to facilitate comparison with the statistics im continental
works, and as being now in general use for scientific purposes. It should
be noted that the breadth of an egg is usually subject to much less
variation than the length, and is therefore a more reliable test. Where
sufficient material has been accessible a series of not fewer than 100 eggs

Measure-
ments
and
Weights.

IV

of each form has been measured by the writer, or statistics compiled from
thoroughly reliable sources. The weight, though a very variable factor, is
useful in combination with statistics of size, and its value has been under-
rated by English naturalists. In this connection Gobel’s tables in the
Zeitschr. f. Ool. are important, though unfortunately misprints are not
unknown. At present the statistics on the weight of the full egg are too
scanty for us to estimate their value.

It is with much pleasure that the author is able to announce that
arrangements have been made to figure thoroughly identified specimens of
many rare eggs. Among these we may mention Whitehead’s Nuthatch,
Riippell’s Warbler, La Marmoras Warbler, the Knot, etc.

Addenda et Corrigenda to Part I.

p. 5. ©. corax laurencei Hume has been shown by O. Reiser (Ornis Bal-
canica, III, p. 255) to occur in the eastern part of the Greek archipelogo.

p- 20. P. pica mauritanica Malh. The breeding season extends from
March to May.

p. 23. Nucifraga caryocatactes (L.). Reiser has recorded a single
clutch of 5 eggs from Bosnia, Mar. 22, 1904 (Zeitschr. f. Ool. 1904, p. 13).
For notes on the nesting of this bird in Hungary see Aquila 1894, p. 48.

p. 31, 1. 11 from below. For ‘Sicily’ read ‘Brittany’. In Sicily the
Chough only breeds on the mountains inland.

CORVIDAE.

1. Raven, Corvus corax L.

Plate 1, fig. 1 (Kiev, Russia, 13 Mar. 77), 2 (Pomerania, 5 Apr. 92), 3 (Kiev),
4, 5 (Peltrouomi, 16 Apr. 91), 7 (Karlo, 13 Apr. 89), 8 (Kiev). Plate 26,
fig. 1 (N. Cornwall, Mar.).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXIX, fig. 1, a—e. Hewitson,
I. Ed. I, pl. LXIX; I. Ed. I, pl. XLVI; I. Ed. I, pl. LVII. Baedeker,
Tab. 34, fig. 3,4. Taczanowski, Tab. XXXVII, fig. 1. Seebohm, Brit. Birds,
pl. 16; id. Col. Fig., pl. 55. Frohawk, Brit. Birds, II, pl. VII, fig. 229—232.

British Local Names: Corbie Crow, Great Corbie Crow. Welsh:
Cigfran. Manx: Feeagh. Erse: Feach dhuv, Bran. Scotland: Corbie.
Gaelic: Fitheach, Biadhtach. Orkneys: Corbie, Kroot.

Foreign Names: Bosnia: Gavran. Bohemia: Krkavec. Denmark:
Ravn. Finland: Korppi, Kaarne. France: Corbeau, Grand Corbeau, Cro,
Croc. Germany: Kolkrabe, Steinrabe, Rabe. Greece: Korax, Korkorax.
Helgoland: Groot Roab. Holland: Raaf. Hungary: Hollo. Italy: Corvo
amperiale, Corvo maggiore, Corbatt. Lapland: Pultokas, Karanas, Bolffan.
Luxemburg: Ramm, Rof, Remmkuob, Schaak. Norway: Ravn, Korp. Poland:
Kruk wlasciwy. Russia: Woron, Kernesh. Sweden: Korp, Ravn, Ram.

Corvus corax L. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 567; Newton, ed.
Yarrell, II, p. 259; Saunders, Manual, p. 241; Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds,
p. 423. CC corax corax L. Hartert, Voég. Pal. Fauna, p. 2.

Breeding Range: North and Middle Kurope: Norway, Sweden,
Denmark, Russia, the British Isles, France, Holland, Germany, Switzerland,
Austro-Hungary, Italy and the Balkan peninsula. (Hartert regards the Ravens
of the Ferées, the Iberian peninsula, North-west Africa, the Canaries and
Sardinia as subspecifically distinct, while the Greek forms have not yet
been thoroughly investigated and the Iceland birds belong to the form
C. corax principalis Ridgw.)

In England the Raven is now almost exterminated, although fairly
numerous 50 or 60 years ago, except on those parts of the coast where
high cliffs are to be found, such as the Cornwall and Devon coast, and in
mountainous districts, such as the Cumbrian Hills and some spots in the

i

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

2

Pennine range. In Wales perhaps some sixty pairs still breed; and in the
Isle of Man, Scotland, the Hebrides, Orkneys, Shetlands and St. Kilda it is
not uncommon and in some districts plentiful. In Ireland it has now become
scarce, except on the west coast. Formerly it was generally distributed
over the British Isles, breeding not only in rocks and cliffs where available,
but also in lofty trees. At the present time nearly all our resident birds
nest in rocks, but interesting details of tree-breeding birds in Suffolk and
Essex will be found in Ootheca Wolleyana, p. 518 and the Zoologist,
1867, p. 599.

On the Continent a few pairs still breed in Holland where large
timber exists. In Germany the Raven has become rare, and is now chiefly
found in the forests of the North German plain, especially in Schleswig-
Holstein, Hannover, Oldenburg, Rhein-Hessen, Nassau, Westphalia, Pome-
rania and East Prussia. It nests in the forests of Jutland and is not
uncommon in Austro-Hungary. In Scandinavia it is found breeding both
on rocks and in trees, and is numerous in some parts, flocks of 20 to
50 and even 70 being occasionally met with on the northern coasts:
in Russia it is also widely distributed, but commonest near the sea-shore.
In the Balkan peninsula it is numerous, even haunting the towns, and is
generally distributed in the Alps, breeding in lofty pines as well as rocks:
as also in the Apennines.

Where the nest is placed among crags, a site is usually chosen
which is well overhung by rock and in consequence is generally difficult
of access. In many cases alternative sites are used, but sometimes the same
spot is occupied year after year. On sea cliffs or rocks inland the nest is
a very bulky structure, built of good sized sticks, heather or furze stems
etc., well lined with wool, cow or deer hair and grass (Scirpus), while
old rags and bits of paper are sometimes used. The cup is about 10 inches
across and 5 or 6 inches deep. After the young have been some time in
the nest, it becomes very conspicuous from the whitewash which covers
it. In flat countries high trees are usually chosen and the nest is decidedly
smaller and more compact. In rare instances ruinous buildings have been
utilized (See Ussher, Birds of Ireland, p. 93; Ootheca Wolleyana, p. 514;
Clarke and Roebuck, Vert. Fauna of Yorks. p. 36; Hancock, Birds of
Northumbervand and Durham, p. 32). In Russia it is said to nest frequently
in church towers and even on houses.

The eggs, which are laid on consecutive days, are usually 4 to 6

gs. or 7 in number. Complete clutches consisting of 3 eggs only are probably

the produce of old hens whose reproductive powers are failing. If the
first clutch is taken, another is deposited after an interval of 10 days and
this has been known to take place three or four times: but the Raven is
naturally single-brooded. The usual types of colouring are illustrated in

3

the Plate: but eggs with a clear blue ground (as in CG. corone and C. cornix)
are not infrequently found, sometimes almost without markings, at other
times boldly blotched with very dark brown, almost black. Professor
Newton has a very remarkable clutch of 4 eggs, received from Unst (Shet-
lands) in 1854, which have “a cream-coloured or pale flesh-coloured ground,
blotched with reddish brown or pale lavender”.

The time of laying is remarkably early: in the south of England from
the last week in February to about March 15 is the usual time. In Wales
the shore breeding birds nest decidedly earlier than those in the hills —
full clutches from mid-February to early March on the coast, while in the
hills about the middle of March is the best time. On the Irish coast
Ussher has found young as early as March 16 and in the Shetlands most
eggs are laid in mid-April (Saxby). The eggs are hatched 18 or 19 days
from laying of last egg (Kvans).

On the Continent the breeding season varies with the latitude and
elevation. In Germany eggs may be obtained from mid-March to early
April (exceptionally as early as March 4): in northern Scandinavia from
mid-April to early May. In the Balkan peninsula from mid-March to the
end of April.

British and Scandinavian eggs are larger than those from the plains
of mid-Europe. Average of 79 British eggs 49.8 >< 33.5 mm., of 44 Scan-
dinavian eggs 48.8 X 34.3 mm., 31 eggs from Germany and mid Russia
average 48.16 < 33.48 mm. Mean average of 154 eggs, 49.19 >< 33.73 mm.,
Max. 63 X 34.5 (Sutherland) and 44 < 40 mm. (Sweden, C. A. Westerlund),
Min. 42.5 < 29 mm. (Russia, Gibel). A dwarf egg from Norway measures
39 < 29 mm. (Newton coll.).

Average weight of 13 British eggs 1.893 g. (Jourdain); of 17 Nor-
wegian 2.171 g., varying from 1.75 to 2.48 g. (Lilliestierna). Mean average
(30 eggs) 2.051 g. Gobel gives as average of 6 full eggs 27.08 g.

Geographical Races.

a. N. European Raven, C. corax corax L. (See above).
b. Ferée Raven, C. corax varius Briinn.

Local Names: the Ferées: Ravnur, Korpur, Avujtravnur. Partial
albino: Quwtravnur.

C. corax varius Briinn. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 4.

Breeding Range: the Ferées, where it is resident, breeding in the
sea cliffs. The eggs appear to vary considerably in size: average of
5 eggs 50.12 >< 34.64 mm. Max. 54 >< 35.5 and 48 >< 36 mm., Min.
46 >< 33 mm.

1*

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

4

e. Iceland Raven, C. corax principalis Ridgw.
Plate 1, Fig. 6 (Greenland).

Local Names: Hrafn, Krummt.

Breeding Range: Iceland. [Also Greenland and Labrador to Alaska. |

In Iceland the eggs, usually 4—5 in number, sometimes 3 only in
second layings, are deposited late in March or more frequently in April
(Hantzsch). The nest is usually built on the sea cliffs.

Average of 18 Icelandic eggs 51.75 = 34.8 mm., Max. 57 &< 32.3 and
54.2 < 36.3 mm. Min. 47.5 < 35 and 57 >< 32.3 mm. _ Bendire gives
49.53 < 34.54 mm. as the average of 39 eges. Average weight (of 4 eggs)
1.96 g. (Hantzsch).

d. Spanish Raven, C. corax hispanus Hart. & Kleinsch.

Local Names: Portugal: Corvo. Spain: Cuervo, Grajo.

C. corax hispanus H. & KI. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 5.

Breeding Range: the Iberian peninsula, where it is a generally
distributed resident. It breeds indiscriminately in rocks or trees according
to the district. Eggs 3—7. The time of laying appears to vary con-
siderably. Saunders saw large young on March 18 at Baza (Granada) and
describes it as nesting near Malaga in mid-February while Irby says that
laying begins about mid-March; but in the pine woods of Andalucia, where
it is common, the great majority of eggs are laid in the last week of April
or the first week in May. Average (32 eggs) 47.64 >< 33.14 mm., Max.
54.2 < 35.2 mm., Min. 44 < 33 and 46.3 < 32.2 mm. Average weight
(12 eggs) 1.935 ¢., Max. 2.39 g.

e. Sardinian Raven, C. corax sardus Kleinsch.

Local Name: Corvo.

C. corvus sardus Kl. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 6.

Breeding Range: Sardinia, where it is very common, Corsica and
probably elsewhere in the Mediterranean. Nests chiefly in cliffs, but also in
the forests and lays 4—6 eggs, which are deposited about the end of March
and early in April (Whitehead).

Average of 16 eggs from 8. Corsica in Tring Museum 46.55 X< 32.78
mm., Max. 59.3 < 36.5 mm., Min. 44 < 30.5 mm.

f. Tangier or Irby’s Raven, C. corax tingitanus Irby.
Local Names: Algeria: /Horahb. Marocco: Grab. Spain: Cuervo.

Corvus tingitanus Irby. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 563. Corvus
leptonyx Peale. Id. Man, Pal. Birds, p. 425. C. corax tingitanus Irby. Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 6.

4)

Breeding Range: Possibly a pair or two nest on the coast of
southern Spain. (Cf. Irby, Ornith. of the Straits of Gibraltar, 2nd Ed., p. 85.)
[In Africa: Marocco, Algeria, Tunis. ]

Breeds amongst rocks, also on trees and bushes; near Mazagan usually
on date palms. The nests, sometimes built close to one another, are con-
structed of sticks, neatly lined with grass and small roots. Eggs 3—7:
usually laid in the first half of April near Mazagan (Hartert); April 20 near
Tangier (Irby), but Erlanger and Spatz obtained clutches in Tunis on March 19
and April 8—9. The eggs are smaller than those of typical C. corax, more
elongated in form, and the ground colour is rather brighter. Average of
76 eggs from Marocco, Algeria and Tunis (Erlanger 21, Kénig 7 and 48
measured by the author) 47.34 >< 32.36 mm., Max. 54><35.6 and 49><36 mm.,
Min. 42.5 ><33.1 and 44><30 mm. Average weight of 11 eggs (Konig 7
and 4 by author) 1.707 g.

[Notes. In the Sahara, Egypt, southern Palestine, Persia, etc., is found
the Brown necked Raven, C. corax uwmbrinus Sund. Eggs from Egypt are
decidedly paler and bluer than typical eggs of C. corax. Average of 12 eggs
44.05 < 31.26 mm. (Feb. 2— Mar. 26). The Canarian Raven, C. corax
canariensis H. & K. is closely allied to C. c. tingitanus. (See Journ. f.
Ornith. 1890, Tab. VIII, fig. 10.) Average (19 eggs) 48.05 <32.17 mm.

The Fantail Raven, Corvus affinis Riipp. occurs in Palestine, south
Arabia, Middle and Upper Egypt etc. Eggs as yet undescribed. |

2. Hooded Crow, Corvus cornix L.
Plate 2, fig. 1—7 (Pomerania).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XL, fig. 1, a~g (C. cornix and
C. corone). Hewitson, 1st Ed. I, pl. XCVII; 2nd Kd. 1, pl. XLIX, fig. 2;
3rd Kd. I, pl. LVI, fig. 2. Baedeker, Tab. 34, fig. 2. Taczanowski,
Tab. XX VII, fig. 2. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 16; Col. Fig., pl. 55. Frohawk,
Br. Birds, pl. VII, fig. 237—240.

Nest: Oswin Lee, III, p. 66.

British Local Names: England: Royston Crow, Dun-, Norway-,
Kentish-, Bunting-, Scare- or Grey Crow. Isle of Man: Greyback. Manx:
Fannag. Welsh: Bran Hedlyd. Ireland: Grey-backed Crow, Scald Crow.
Erse: Finnoge, Fanoge (phonetic). Scotland: Hoodie Craw, Hoodie, Huddie,
Grey Craw, Saddleback Craw or Crow. Gaelic: Frannag. Shetlands and
Orkneys: Craa, Hoodie Craa.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Vrdna. Bosnia and Herzegovina: Gavran.
Denmark: Krage, Graa Krage. Ferées: Kraaka (1), Kradka (2). Fin-
land: Varis. France: Corbeau mantelé, Corneille mantelée or grise. Fries-
land: Schiere-krie. Germany: Nebelkriihe, Mantel- or Graue Kriihe. Greece:

British
Isles.

The Con-
tinent.

6

Koréne. Helgoland: Kreih. Holland: Bonte Kraai, Grijze- or Lummel-
Kraai. Hungary: Dolmanyos Varji, Varju. Iceland: Krdka. Italy: Cor-
nacchia bigia, Cornacchia, Taccola, Corronca, Mulacchia. Lapland: Vuoracds,
Vuoras. Luxemburg: Grove kuob. Norway: Kraake. Poland: Kruk wrona.
Russia: Seraja worona, Woroka. Sweden: Kraka, Gra Krdka, Kajsa.

Corvus cornix L. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 543; Newton,
ed. Yarrell, Hl, p. 275; Saunders, Man., p. 245; Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds,
p- 421. C cornix cornix L., Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 9.

Breeding Range: Common in Norway, Sweden, the whole of European
Russia, but least numerous in the south-east, the Ferées, Scotland, Ireland,
Denmark, eastern Germany, Austro-Hungary, Majorca and Minorca, Sicily,
Italy, the Balkan peninsula and the Cyclades (Naxos).

| West Siberia as far as the Lena, Crete, Cyprus and the countries
bordering on the eastern Mediterranean are also inhabited by this species,
and the Sardinian and Persian races are mentioned below. |

In England a few instances of the breeding of this bird are on
record, mostly from the east coast counties (Northumberland, Yorkshire,
Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk and perhaps Essex), but occasionally inland,
as in Warwickshire in 1887. It is a well known resident in the Isle of
Man, and is generally distributed throughout Ireland and the adjacent
islands, being especially common in the south-west. In Scotland is fre-
quently interbreeds with C. corone, but tends to replace it in the north
and is found in the Hebrides, Orkneys, Shetlands and St. Kilda. Along
the coast the nest is frequently built on the cliffs, and is as a rule easy
of access and not overhung by rock like that of C. corax. In treeless
districts such as North Uist, the nest is often placed on the ground, among
heather: while low bushes are also utilized where trees are not available,
and instances are on record where it has been placed on a building (Zool.
1899, p. 73) or on a crofter’s hut (Gray).

In Scandinavia and the greater part of Russia as far as the forest
limit, it is plentiful, breeding in the pine or birch woods, and is also
common in Jutland and the Danish Islands, often nesting close to the
farms. It has once or twice bred in Holland and I have seen a pair on
Texel at the end of May. In Germany the distribution of this species has
been carefully worked ont and is well shown on the map which illustrates
Matschie’s paper in the Journal fiir Ornithologie for 1887, p. 617—648
(Tab. II). Roughly the western limit of C. cornix may be defined by a
line drawn from the mouth of the Hider, by Neumiinster, Liineburg, Helm-
stadt, Naumburg and Chemnitz to Pirna. A second line from Rostock by
Wusterhausen, Brandenburg, Luckenwalde and Gorlitz to Zittau defines the
eastern limit of C. corone, while the space between the two lines in occu-
pied by both species in varying proportions. In Switzerland this species

7

is reported to have bred occassionally, but confirmation is needed. In
Austro-Hungary it breeds in Bohemia, Austria and Hungary, is common
in Transylvania and very plentiful and tame in Slavonia. Over the greater
part of the Balkan peninsula it is generally distributed, chiefly breeding
in the hills up to 5400 feet, and becoming scarce in Greece, while it has
been found nesting on Naxos and the neighbouring islets. In Italy, Sicily
and the Balearic Isles it is a common resident.

Very similar in construction to that of C. corax, but of course smaller.
Nests among rocks are as a rule more bulky and contain more material
than those in trees. Besides the usual sticks, twigs, furze or heather stems,
large seaweed stalks are often utilized on the coast, and Saxby mentions
cases where the foundation of the nest consisted of bones of ponies and
sheep. Turf is frequently used to fill up interstices, and wool, feathers, paper,
moss and hair are used as lining material; while the whole is compactly
built, with the usual warm and deep cup. Over the greater part of its
range this species is a tree-breeding bird, but along rocky coasts the nest
is usually placed on a ledge or crevice of the cliff. At Thorshavn (Ferdées)
it is said to breed on the houses, and where neither trees nor rocks are
available it nests on the ground among heather, generally close to a stone.
Pearson found a nest off the Norwegian coast, in a circular iron cage, used
as a beacon, 11/, miles from the land! and Naumann records nests on a
beam under a bridge, on a dunghill and on the high chimney of an
old house.

Usually 4 to 5 or 6 in number, rarely 7, except in Central Hungary
(F. C. Selous), and resembling those of C. corone in character, though the
ground colour is often of a more decided green and in a large series the
average size is seen to be rather less. As in the case of C. corax and
C. corone, the type with a distinct blue ground occurs, often when the rest
of the clutch are normal in colour. In a series from the Ferées the pro-
portion of blue eggs is larger than usual. Occasionally blue eggs are found
without any markings, but this variety is scarce. A clutch of red eggs of
this species was taken near Gothenburg, Sweden, on May 12, 1889, and
is now in Mr. Ramberg’s collection.

In Ireland the eggs are usually laid in April, but in west Cork they
have been taken as early as March 15 (Ussher); in Scotland from about
April 20 onwards, but in the Shetlands seldom before mid-May (Saxby).
In Germany and Denmark eggs may be found from early April, and this
appears to be the case also in Italy, Greece, Asia Minor etc.; in Montenegro
from April 14 to 24; but individual birds vary a good deal in this respect
and though the Hooded Crow is single-brooded it is not uncommon to find
fresh eggs and well grown young on the same day, even where undisturbed.
In northern Scandinavia the eggs are frequently not laid till the middle

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments,

8

or end of May, and on the lower Petschora Seebohm received the first
eggs on May 30. Period of incubation about 18 or 19 days.

Average size of 100 typical examples 41.2><29 mm. (Rey). Ab-
normally long eggs measure 52.7 X 30.2 mm. (Lapland, Newton coll.) and
52 >< 32 mm. (N. Uist, A. W. Johnson coll.); Max. breadth 42.2 >< 33 mm,
Dwarf eggs measure 34 >< 26.5 (Tring Museum) and 35 24.3 mm. (J. Sand-
man) but the Minima of 100 eggs are 38.2 < 28.7 and 40.5 << 27.5 mm.
(Rey). Average weight 1.224 g. (Rey).

Geographical Races.

a. European Hooded Crow, C. cornix cornix L. (See above).
b. Sardinian Hooded Crow, C. cornix sardonius Kleinsch.

Local Names: Sardinia: Corroga braxia or barza, Corronca.

C. cornix sardonius Kleinsch. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 10.

Breeding Range: Sardinia and Corsica.

Wharton found this race very common in Corsica, nesting in low
trees near swamps. First eggs taken on April 12. Whitehead found many
nests after April 26. Eggs 4—6 in number, rather dark in colour, some
markings being almost black. Average (12 eggs) 44.34 >< 29.58 mm.,
Max. 48.5 < 30.7 mm., Min. 40.9 < 28.2 mm.

[In west Siberia C. c. sharpii Oates replaces the typical race, and in
Persia and Mesopotamia C. c. capellanus Scl. 9 eggs of the latter sub-
species average 43.68 < 29.17 mm. (Fao, Feb. and Mar.)|

3. Carrion Crow, Corvus corone L.
Plate 3, fig. 1—10 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XL, fig. 1 a—g (C. cornix and
C. corone). Hewitson, I. Ed. I, pl. XCI; IL Hd. I, pl. XLIX, fig. 1; Ill. Ed.
I, pl. LVII, fig. 1. Baedeker, Tab. 34, fig. 1. Taczanowski, Tab. XXVII.
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 16; Col. Fig., pl. 55. Frohawk, Br. Birds, pl. VII,
fig. 233236.

British Local Names: England: Crow, Black-, Corbie-, Gor- or
Midden-Crow. Welsh: Bran. Scotland: Black Huddie or Hoodie, Blackneb.
Gaelic: Frannag.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Vrdna éerna. Denmark: Sort, Holsteensk
or Ravne Krage. Ferées: Hjaltlands Kraoaka, France: Corneille notre,
Corbeau. Friesland: Krie. Germany: Raben- or Schwarze Krtihe, Rabe,
Kriige, Krée. Helgoland: Swart Kreih. Holland: Kraai. Hungary: Fekete
Varjt. Italy: Corneilla nera, Corbatt, Cornacchia nera. Iceland: Krdka.
Luxemburg: Knob. Poland: Kruk wroniec. Portugal: Gralha, Corvo. Russia:

)

Tschernaja Worona. Spain: Corneja negra, Graja, Corbatilla. Sweden:
Svart Kraka.

Corvus corone L. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 531; Newton, ed.
Yarrell, II, p. 274; Saunders, Man. p. 243; Dresser, Man. of Pal. Birds,
p- 421. C. corone corone L. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 11.

Breeding Range: England, southern Scotland, France, Portugal,
Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, western Germany, Bohemia,
parts of Austria and European Russia.

Except where kept down in numbers by strict game preservation, this
bird is still tolerably plentiful in England, and even more so in the wilder
parts of Wales. Its distribution in Scotland is peculiar and has not been
thoroughly worked out. Though commoner in the south, it occurs locally
over the greater part of the country, a few pairs nesting even in West Ross.
In the Isle of Man, the Hebrides, Orkneys and Shetlands it is however
replaced by C. cornix. On the mainland interbreeding between the two
species frequently takes place. In Ireland this species only occurs very rarely.
The nest is generally built high up in trees, but among the Welsh hills it is
not uncommonly found in mere bushes on the hill sides. On the Yorkshire,
Somerset, and Devon coasts it is occasionally met with on the cliffs, and
on the rocky and treeless coasts of north Anglesea and Cornwall this appears
to be the usual site (Zool. 1904, p.11). A pair nested on the ground in
the F'arnes in 1832 according to Hewitson.

In southern Spain it is decidedly rare, but even here a few pairs
breed in the sierras, while in Portugal and northern Spain it is more numerous.
Throughout France and the Low Countries it is generally distributed, and
in some parts of Friesland is extraordinarily common. Von Homeyer
records a nest from Majorca (Journ. f. Ornith. 1862, p. 252) and Wharton
from Corsica (Ibis 1876, p. 24). For the distribution of this species in
Germany see article on C. corniz, p. 6. (Cf. also Diederich, Jahresber. d.
Gesellsch. von Freund. d. Naturwissensch. in Gera, 1884—1888). J. Thiene-
mann states however that C. corone is the prevalent species in west Schleswig,
the north Frisian islands and the greater part of Holstein, excepting the
Oldenburg district and Fehmern. It is a common resident in Switzerland and
is found in north Italy, breeding in the highlands of Piedmont, Liguria,
Lombardy and Venetia, but rarely south of the Apennines. The accounts of
its distribution in Austro-Hungary and the Balkan peninsula are conflicting
and there appears to have been some confusion between this species and
C. frugilegus. It probably occurs in Bohemia, Moravia, Lower Austria and
abundantly in the Tyrol, but was not recorded with certainty from Hungary
till 1896, and Reiser regards it as absent from the Balkan peninsula,
though found in certain districts of European Russia (Orel, Kazan, Kiev
and the Caucasus.)

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

10

Nest. Over the greater part of its range the Carrion Crow is a tree-breeding
bird, but Fatio describes it as nesting in fissures of rock and holes in old
walls in the Alps. On the other hand it certainly nests occasionally on
the ground in the sand dunes of Holland, and Albarda mentions a nest in
a ruinous chimney. The nest is well and strongly built of sticks and
twigs or heather stems, compacted with earth or turf and moss, and warmly
and neatly lined with wool, roots, rags or hair. Occasionally dead leaves
or feathers are found in the lining of the cup, which is rather deep and
about 8 inches across. Frequently the nest is placed high up among the
thinner boughs of some isolated deciduous tree and is then very conspicuous,
but where much persecuted, many nests are to to be found built close to the
main stem at the junction of one of the larger branches and often well
concealed with ivy.

Eggs. These are usually 4—5 in number, but 6 are sometimes found and
occasionally birds are found incubating 3, 2 or even a single egg. One
hen (probably a very old bird) which only laid two eggs in 1898, hatched
off a single young one in the following year. In England the Crow is
single brooded (although Naumann says that they sometimes breed twice
in the year). When the first laying has been taken another is deposited
about a fortnight afterwards, and even a third if necessary, but usually with
fewer eggs. They are generally laid about 3 pm. and the period of
incubation is about 18 or 19 days. In colouring they resemble the eggs
of the other Corvi, but have as a rule a rather less decided green tint than
eges of C. cornix. It is not unusual to find one egg in a clutch much
more lightly marked than the rest, often with a blue ground; while entirely
blue eggs, without any markings, have been taken in Great Britain and on
the Continent. Some eggs on the other hand are very heavily marked
with bold blotches of olive brown, but never with black, as in the case
of C. corax.

Breeding In England eggs may be found from April 6 onwards: in the Mid-

Season. Jands April 17—27 is about the best time (about a fortnight later than
C. frugilegus). In Germany, according to Rey, full clutches may be found
from the beginning of April. Chapman found 5 eggs on March 23 in
the Sierra de las Cabras, which seems to indicate rather earlier breeding
in Spain.

Moaatre- Average of 100 typical eggs 43.5 >< 30.1 mm. (Rey), Max. 49 >< 32.5

ments. mm. (coll. Blagg), but an abnormally long egg measures 50.5 >< 29 mm.
(coll. A. W. Johnson); Min. 38.2 >< 26.3 mm. (Rey). Average weight 1.279 g.
A dwarf egg measures 30 >< 25.5 mm. and weighs 720 mg. (Rey), and
R. H. Read has one 27.3 < 22.1 mm.

1m

4, Rook, Corvus frugilegus L.

Plate 4, fig. 1—7 (Germany); Plate 41, fig. 3 (Red var., Gliicksburg
April 1896, von Wangelin).

Kegs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XL, fig. 2, a—e. Hewitson, I. Ed. I,
pl. LXXI; I. Ed. I, pl. L, fig. 1; Ill. Ed. I, pl. LIX. Baedeker, Tab. 28,
fig. 5. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 16; id. Col. Fig., pl. 55. Frohawk, Br.
Birds, pl. VU, fig. 241—244.

Nest: O. Lee, Ill. p. 90,92.

British Local Names: England: Crow, Bare- or Bald-faced Crow.
Welsh: Ydfran or Ydfrun. Gaelic: Grewmhach-Rocus. Shetlands: Scotch
Craa. Erse: Pray-ach-awn (phonetic).

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Havran polni. Bosnia: Gavran. Denmark:
Kornkrage, Blaaraage. Ferées: Hjaltlandskraaka (Q“), Hjaltlandskrika ().
Finland: Pient korppi, Peltovaris. France: Corbeau Freux, Freux, Graille.
Germany: Saat-, Feld- or Steinkriihe, Nacktschnabel, Rick. Greece: Chabaréni.
Helgoland: Groot swart Kauk. Holland: Roek, Korenkraai, Zaadkraai.
Hungary: Vetést varju. Italy: Corvo reale or nero, Corbatt. Luxemburg:
Mierschtkuob. Malta: Corvu. Norway: Blaakraake. Poland: Krukgawron.
Portugal: Gralha calva. Russia: Gratsch. Sardinia: Coroga niedda, Corbu.
Spain: Corneja calva, Graula, Grajo. Sweden: Raka, Svartkraka, Rauk.

Corvus frugilegus L. Dresser, Birds of Kurope, IV, p. 551; Newton,
ed. Yarrell, Il, p. 289; Saunders, Manual, p. 247; Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds,
p. 426. C. frugilegus frugilegus L. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 13.

Breeding Range: The British Isles, Orkney, South Sweden, Denmark,
South Finland and Russia generally from Archangel to the Caucasus,
Germany, Holland, Belgium, France, Austo-Hungary, North Italy and the
Danube valley. [In North Persia, Turkestan and southwest Siberia it is
replaced by C. f. tschausdi.|

Rookeries are to be found in plenty in all wooded districts of Eng-
land, Wales, the Isle of Man, Ireland, and Scotland: but those in Sutherland,
West Ross and Cromarty have only been formed within the last forty
years. In the Orkneys colonies have been established since 1848, but a
lodgment has not yet been effected on the Shetlands. On the west coast,
Islay has been inhabited since 1820, while Eigg (1886), Skye (circa 1870)
and the Outer Hebrides (1895) have been colonized of late years.

Where tall trees are available, even in large towns, they are generally
used for nesting places. No particular preference appears to be shown
for any one species of tree, but the majority of English rookeries are
naturally built in deciduous trees, although evergreens, such as the Scotch
fir and spruce, are also occasionally utilized. In treeless districts, such as
the West of Ireland, many rookeries are built on low bushes on islets in

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

12

the loughs; and where all the timber is small, nests may be found only
a few feet from the ground. Exceptional cases of rookeries in pollarded
willows, holly bushes, hedges, and even in lauristinus bushes, Portugal laurels
and an apple tree, are on record, while in 1865 a nest was built on the
ground in a meadow near Longnor, Staffordshire (Zvol. 1865, p. 9626).

The nests are generally placed close together and sometimes large
numbers are to be found in the same tree. Single nests, built apart from
the main colony, are usually destroyed by the other rooks. Numerous cases
of twenty nests and upwards in one tree have been recorded, while an
entire rookery, consisting of about 100 nests is said to have been built
in a single ash tree at Barton-on-Humber (Yarrell, Il, p. 296). It is no
uncommon occurrence to find a flourishing rookery in the midst of a large
town. (For notes on London rookeries see Zool. 1878, p. 193 and 441.)
Instances where nests have been built on houses, church-towers, spires,
chimneys, vanes, etc., are too numerous to specify. Besides the well-known
cases usually quoted, the same habit has been observed in the Isle of Man
(Zool. 1892, p. 96), Ireland (Ussher, Birds of Ireland, p. 98) and the Orkneys
(Buckley and Harvie-Brown, p. 127).

In France the rook, though rather local, is more numerous in the north
than in the south, where it is scarce, but a colony exists as far south as
Biarritz, although it is not known to breed south of the Pyrenees.

It is also plentiful in the Low Countries, but the great majority of
continental birds are summer migrants and not residents, lke their British
relatives. There are a few large rookeries in Denmark, near Aalborg, Veile
and other places. For particulars of the principal German rookeries, some
of which are of enormous size, containing over 20,000 nests, see Matschie’s
article in the Journ. f. Ornith. 1887, p. 617. In Wiirtemburg and Bavaria
rooks are decidedly less numerous and remain through the winter, but
in Switzerland they are only known as winter visitors or met with on
passage. Colonies exist in Lombardy, Venetia and near Modena, but not
in south Italy. Though local it is on the whole widely distributed in
Austro- Hungary, but absent from some districts. It has however been
recorded as breeding in Bohemia, the “Auwilder” of Vienna (Lower Austria),
Carinthia, Slavonia, Hungary (see map and article in Aguila for 1904),
Galicia and one or two localities in Transylvania, where it is said to have
been introduced. In the Balkan peninsula there are large rookeries in the
Danube valley and in the Dobriidscha, and colonies may possibly exist in
Macedonia. In Russia it is found in the Caucasus and is plentiful in
the Crimea, while its northern range extends to Finland south of lat.
63° N., the Kola peninsula, where it was observed in 1903, and the lower
Petschora. It breeds plentifully near Gothenburg, but is chiefly found in
the southern part of Sweden south of lat. 60° N., though occurring as

13

far north as Angermanland, and is common on Bornholm, Oland and
Gottland. To Norway it is principally a visitor on migration, but a few
remain to breed.

Both in the British Isles and on the Continent many rookeries are
built in the immediate neighbourhood of heronries, and though sometimes
both species remain on good terms with one another, this is by no means
always the case, and one large heronry in east Suffolk has been decimated
by persistent egg stealing on the part of the rooks.

These vary considerably in size, those built by young birds being
more slight in construction than those of older birds, which are frequently
built on the foundation of the old nest of the previous year, repaired at
intervals in winter and early spring. They are about 2 feet across and
are built of sticks and twigs, mixed with clay in order to give stability,
and bits of turf. The lining material varies a good deal; roots, dead grass,
straw, hair, wool, dead leaves and occasionally feathers, are to be met with,
while in the Orkneys fish bones and dry tangle are used (Saunders). The
cup is not so deep as in the nest of the Hooded and Carrion Crows.

The clutch varies from 3 to 6, but the latter number is rarely met
with and the usual number is 3 to 5. In type they are distinctly corvine
and much resemble some varieties of Carrion and Hooded Crows’ eggs,
but they are never found entirely without markings, as is sometimes the
case in the species previously treated of. The single ege with an decided
blue ground in a normally coloured set, so often found in the crows, does
not occur, or at any rate very rarely. On comparing a large series, a decided
tendency to olive brown markings and a less decided blue ground is seen
to be characteristic of the Rook’s eggs. Mr. R. H. Read has almost spotless
eggs from Yorkshire. Baron Kénig-Warthausen obtained 3 clutches of
the red variety of this ege in 1893 and 1894, probably the produce of
a single hen, and in 1896 von Wangelin obtained two eggs from the Ober-
forstere1 Gliicksburg, one of which is illustrated on PI. 41, fig. 3. It is
interesting to notice that the normal eggs of the South African Corvus
capensis Licht. are of a similar type of colouring. As the rook sits at
night after the first egg has been laid, there is often a considerable difference
in the state of incubation of a clutch of 5 or 6 eggs. Hggs placed in
an incubator were hatched on the 17th and 18th days (Evans), which
corresponds with results obtained by watching.

As an interval of over a month often elapses between the laying of
the first and last eggs in a rookery, it is difficult to give exact data, but
in the south of England full clutches may be taken from mid-March and
occasionally in February, while in the Midlands the last week in March
and the first few days in April is the best time, and further north the
first half of April. In mild autumns the rook occasionally mades premature

Nests.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

14

attempts to breed, and eggs have been laid and even young hatched in
October and November in Northants, Warwick, Oxford, Suffolk, Hants,
Sussex, Cornwall and Devon (Zool. 1904, p. 422 etc.). In Germany Dr. Rey
found full clutches usually between April 10-—-15, and Almasy observed
fledged young at the month of the Pruth on May 24, while in Denmark
Kjerbélling gives the second half of April as the usual time.*
Matinee Average of 100 eggs (Germany) 40.7 < 27 mm. (Rey), Max. 48 < 30.2
ments. mm. (coll. Blagg), Min. 35><28 and 35.3%24.2 mm. An abnormally
long egg measures 48.3 X 25.2 mm. and weighs 1.12 g. (Rey). Average
weight 1.034 g. (Rey). Dwarf eggs are also occasionally met with, 23 < 18.7
mm., etc. Average weight of 8 full eggs 15.97 g. (N. H. Foster).

5. Jackdaw, Coloeus monedula spermologus (Vieill.).
Plate 5, fig. 7—14 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XL, fig. 4, a—d. Hewitson, I. Ed.
I, pl. XLIV; UU. Ed. I, pl. L, fig. 2; U1 Ed. I, pl. LX, fig. 2. Baedeker,
Tab. 24, fig. 4. Taczanowski, Tab. XXX. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 16;
id. Col. Fig., pl. 55. Frohawk, Br. Birds, II, pl. VI, fig. 222—228.

Nest: O. Lee, I, p. 160.

British Local Names: England: Daw, Kae, Jack. Welsh: Coeg
fran. Scotland: Kae, Ka-wattie. Orkneys: Kae. Gaelic: Cathag, Corrachan.
Erse: Cawg, Cawdhoge (phonetic).

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Kavka. Denmark: Allike, Kaa. Feeroes:
Hetlands kraaka. France: Choucas, Corbeau choucas, Choucas grise, Petite
corneille. Germany: Dohle, Duhle, Thule. Helgoland: Kauk. Holland:
Kerk-kauw, Toren-kraai or Ka, Kauw. Hungary: Csdka. Italy: Taccola,
Corbatell, Monachia. Luxemburg: Klénge Metzerkuob. Malta: Ciaula, Cola.
Poland: Kruk kawka. Portugal: Cuneta, Chota. Sardinia: Corroga, Taccula.
Spain: Graja, Grajo, Cornella blanca.

Corvus monedula L. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 523; Newton,
ed. Yarrell Il, p. 305; Saunders, Man. p. 239; Dresser, Man. of Pal.
Birds, p. 419. Coloeus monedula spermologus (Vieill.). Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 16.

Breeding Range: The west-European race of the Jackdaw inhabits
the British Isles and the whole of the Kuropean Continent, with the
exception of Scandinavia, where it is replaced by the typical race, and
Russia and the Balkan peninsula, where C. m. collaris Drumm. is the
prevalent form. The exact limits of each race are however as yet imperfectly
known. [Occurs locally also m N. W. Africa. ]

—* But Ottosson says that in Scandinavia the eggs are laid in March, three
weeks earlier than those of C. cornix, unless the weather is very severe.

15

Although the Jackdaw is generally distributed over the British Isles
with the exception of the barren moorlands, yet there are certain districts
in Scotland and Ireland where it is absent without any apparent cause.
It is only a visitor to the Shetlands, but there are several colonies in the
Orkneys and a few have bred in Skye since 1897, although as yet it is absent
from the Outer Hebrides and St. Kilda. In West Ross it is rare, but is reported
as increasing in numbers in the Inner Hebrides. In many of the islands
off the Irish coast and on some parts of the mainland, it is replaced by
the Chough. It is abundant in the Isle of Man. The nesting sites adopted
by this species are of the most varied character. Where high cliffs are
found, whether on the coast or inland, it usually breeds in holes and crevices
of the rock. Hollows in the roofs of natural caves, such as the Peak
Cavern in Derbyshire, are also tenanted by many pairs, as are also the
sides of ‘water-swallows’ and quarries. The Jackdaw nests readily in
buildings: old castles, church towers, chimneys of houses and dovecotes
being frequently occupied. In the wooded plains the nest is frequently
placed in a hollow tree, but where timber is absent or small, it is not
uncommon to find Jackdaws breeding in rabbit holes, especially in Ireland.
More exceptional sites are among ivy on walls, in old Magpie-nests, among
the foundations of Herons’ nests, or old and bulky masses of nests in a
Rookery. Occasionally the Jackdaw builds a nest for itself at the junction
of a bough with the trunk of a tree. Instances have been reported from
Northampton, Staffordshire, Salop, Worcestershire, Lanark and Fifeshire.
A nest in the rigging of a training ship at Gareloch was noticed in the
Annals of Scott. Nat. Hist. 1892, p. 43.

No Jackdaws breed in the Ferées or Iceland, but in France, Belgium,
Holland and Germany it is commonly found in suitable localities. In the
Iberian peninsula it is very local, but Tait found a colony breeding under
rocks in islands in Vigo Bay, Galicia, and it is locally common in some
of the Cotos of the Guadalquivir, etc. In Switzerland it is distributed
through the low-lying plain, but is not found in the Alps. In Austro-
Hungary it is common in the ‘Auen’ near Vienna, and though absent from
some districts is found locally throughout the greater part of the country;
while it has been observed breeding in Italy, Sardinia, Sicily and Malta.
The eastern limit of this race has not been exactly determined.

[In Marocco it is common at Tetuan and Dixon described it as numerous
in the province of Constantine, but Kénig failed to meet with it there and
von Krlanger omits it from his list of Tunisian birds. |

The Jackdaw is a sociable bird, and where nesting sites are available,
breeds gregariously; but it is not uncommon to find single pairs breeding
by themselves. Where the nest is built in a hole, the amount of material
used depends upon the size of the hole. In small holes of trees I have

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

16

seen eggs laid upon a mere handful of sheep's wool, but instances are on
record where sticks have been piled up to the height of 10 or 12 feet
in order to provide a foundation for the nest (See Yarrell, Il, p. 308).

The lining consists chiefly of wool; but other materials are also used
at times, such as dead leaves, straw, paper, shavings, rags, dung, fur, feathers
and cow-hair. Sometimes a little clay is also found.

Nests built in the open vary in type. Some which I examined in
Shropshire in 1901 were very bulky structures, built in spruce firs. The
older nests were placed on the foundation of a previous year’s nest and
were not domed, but had a high circular wall of sticks built up round
them a foot or more high. Other nests have been described (North Staff.
Field Club Report, 1901) as 27 in. deep and 24 in. in diameter, domed
with twigs (not thorns), with only one entrance. Newly built nests are
much shallower and more flimsy in construction than those which have
been used for two or three years.

The usual clutch is 4 to 6 in number, but in some districts 7 eggs
are not uncommon, and in dry seasons 3 are said to constitute a full clutch.
They differ from those of the genus Corvus in their very pale greenish
blue ground colour and more sparse markings. Some eggs are so finely
freckled that they might almost pass for those of Nucifraga, while others
are very boldly blotched with dark olive brown with underlying patches
of ash-grey. In a few cases they have been found almost without markings.
The eggs of this species (and also of C. frugtlegus) are sometimes found
smeared with clay, possibly intentionally, and occasionally the eggs are
covered up with the nest lining.

In England the eggs are laid from about April 20 to May 5, but
from April 25 to May 1 is the best time, and when the first laying is
taken a second is deposited ten days later. In Ireland the latter half of April
is the usual time (Ussher). Rey gives April 16—29 as the usual date for
the Halle a Saale district, and curiously enough in south Spain the laying
season is if anything rather later, full clutches being found about April 26.

British eggs appear to be slightly larger than continental. 50 Con-
tinental eggs average 33.7 >< 25.2 mm. (Rey), 50 British eggs, 35.47 < 25.32
mm. Mean average (100 eggs) 34.58 X 25.27 mm., Max. 40.6 < 25.5 and
33 >< 29.7 mm., Min. 30 < 22.3 mm. An abnormally long egg measures
45.7 X21 mm. (Carlisle, R. H. Read). Average weight (50 eggs), 763 mg.
(Rey). 4 full eggs average 12.26 g. (Foster).

Geographical Races.
a. Swedish Jackdaw, Coloeus monedula monedula (L.).

Local Names: Norway: Kaye, Kaa, Ravnkate. Sweden: Kaya, Kyrk-
kiija, Alka, Tornkraka, Svartfagel.

17

C. monedula monedula (L.). Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 15.

Breeding Range: Norway and Sweden south of Trondhjem Fjord.
Common in the towns and villages of south Sweden. The eastern limits
of this race are not yet clearly defined.

In breeding habits and eggs it does not appear to differ from the
west European form, and the few eggs examined show no departure from
the western type. Number of eggs usually 5—6, less commonly 4 or 7.

Average measurements (7 eggs), 35.44 < 24.8 mm.

b. West European Jackdaw, C. monedula spermologus (Vieill.). See antea p. 13.
e. East European Jackdaw, C. monedula collaris (Drumm.).

Local Names: Bohemia: Kavka. Bulgaria: Cavka. Finland: Naakka,
Hakkinen. Greece: Kaliakovinda, Koloios, Karyé. Russia: Galka.

C. monedula collaris (Drumm.). Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 17.

Breeding Range: European Russia (except in the extreme north),
locally in Transylvania, the Balkan Peninsula. [Also the Caucasus, Armenia,
Mesopotamia, N. W. Persia, Turkestan, Afghanistan and Kashmir. |

13 eggs of this race from Transylvania in Mr. F. C. Selous’ collection
and 8 from Turkey average 35.26 < 25.67 mm., Max. 39.2 < 26 and
36.4 * 27 mm., Min. 31.5 * 26 and 36 < 24.2 mm., and do not appear to
differ from those of the western race. Kriiper describes these birds as
nesting in holes of rocks and trees, as well as under the roofs and in the
scaffold holes of houses in Macedonia. Eggs 5—7 in number, laid in April;
in the hills till late in May (Kriiper); in Montenegro Fiihrer took 34 sets
between April 23 and May 15.

6. Magpie, Pica pica (L.).
Plate 3, fig. 1—10 (Germany); Pl. 41, fig. 11 (Gliicksburg, von Wangelin).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XL, fig. 3, a—e. Hewitson, I. Ed. I,
pl. LXV; Ul. Ed. I, pl. LI, fig. 1—2; UL. Ed. 1, pl. LX, fig. 3. Baedeker,
Tab. 28, fig. 1. Taczanowski, Tab. XXX, fig. 1. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 16;
id. Col. Fig. pl. 55. Frohawk, Br. Birds, II, pl. VI, fig. 218—221.

Nest: O. Lee, III, p. 136.

British Local Names: England: Pie, Chatterpie, Pyet, Pyanet, Ninut,
Nanpie, Madge. Welsh: Pioden. Scotland: Pyot. Gaelic: Pioghaid. Ire-
land: Mag.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Straka. Bosnia: Gavran. Denmark:
Almindelig Skade, Heister. Finland: Harakka. France: Pie ordinaire,
Margot, Agasse. Germany: Elster, Alster, Agerst, Schalaster, Langstiel.
Greece: Karakdza. Holland: Ekster, Bonte Ekster, Atzel. Hungary:

Szarka. Italy: Gazza, Cecca, Gazzera. Lapland: Revos’ a-karanas. Luxem-
9

=

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

18

burg: Kré, Krék, Jelster. Malta: Ciaula baida. Norway: Skjere, Skjor,
Skjur, Tunfugl. Poland: Kruk sroka, Sroka zwyczgajna. Russia: Soroka.
Sweden: Skata, Skjura, Skira, Skamsfugel. Sicily: Carcarazza.

Pica rustica (Scop.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 509; Newton,
ed. Yarrell, Il, p. 312; Saunders, Man. p. 237; Dresser, Man. of Pal. Birds,
p. 417. P. pica pica (L.). Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 19.

Breeding Range: The whole of Europe with the exception of the
Iberian peninsula, where it is replaced by a form intermediate between the
typical and the Moorish race. [Also Asia Minor, Persia and Transcaspia. |

Common in all the wooded districts of England and Wales, except
where it has been exterminated by game preserving, as in Norfolk and
Suffolk, and nesting not only in tall trees but also in thick thorny hedges,
sometimes only a few feet from the ground. In Ireland it is now common
and increasing, breeding in every county, though less numerous in the ex-
treme west (Ussher). It breeds on the Aran Islands and Rathlin, nesting
in the ivy on rocks where trees are absent, and also in low bushes, some-
times only two feet from the ground, on islets in the loughs. It is common
in the Isle of Man, and also locally in parts of the south of Scotland,
where however it appears to be decreasing or stationary in numbers. It
does not breed in the Shetlands, Orkneys, Outer Hebrides or 8. Kilda; is
rare in Skye and north Scotland, and unknown in Iceland and the Ferées.

In the plains of central Kurope the Magpie is everywhere conspicuous,
and there are few parts of the continent, except in the alpine regions of the
principal mountain ranges, where it is not represented. In Scandinavia it
is found commonly as far as the North Cape, enjoying a certain amount
of protection and in consequence becoming very tame and familiar. Here,
as in the treeless parts of Jutland, the nests are frequently built under the
eaves of the houses and several have been seen in a single tree; while in
the far North instances have occurred of nests being built on the ground... In
Kuropean Russia Witherby records it from the Kola peninsula and Pearson
from Kanin. Towards the south Kriiper describes it as common in Acarnania
and the plain of Parnassus, and it is generally distributed throughout Italy.
In Sicily Lilford found nests in the papyrus swamps near Syracuse, but
curiously enough it is not met with in Sardinia, Elba or Corsica, and Lilford
did not observe it in the islands of the western Mediterranean.

This is an elaborate piece of architecture, consisting of a strongly
built foundation of sticks, with earth or turf intermingled, carefully plastered
internally with a neat cup of clay or mud: while a large dome of black-
thorns is built over the top of the whole, and when the cup is thoroughly
dry, a lining of fibrous roots is added.* Where the usual materials are not
available, as in the islands off the west coast of Ireland, the Magpie will

* On rare occasions replaced by dry grass.

1)

-

make use of briar stems and hay (Ussher). In at least two instances which
have come under my notice the parent birds have been dispossessed after
the completion of their nest, in one case by a pair of Squirrels, and in
the other by Long eared Owls. In warm springs the work of building is
often commenced in February or early March, and the construction is
entirely the work of the hen, the cock providing material.

The usual number is 6—7, but occasionally sets of 5 are found in-
cubated, while clutches of 8 are not uncommon and 9 eggs are occasionally
met with.* As a rule they do not show any great variation in colour.
The ground colour varies from pale blue with a greenish tinge to greenish
yellow and buff, generally finely spotted with olive brown, especially towards
the blunt end, and showing underlying spots of pale inky violet. Some
egos show a very distinct cap or zone of brown spots, while others have been
found quite devoid of markings and almost white or light bluish green in
ground colour. Kricheldorff (Zettschr. f- Ool. 1903, p. 10) describes ery-
thristic varieties of the eggs both of this race and of P. p. mauritanica Malh.

In England eggs are generally laid from mid April to early May,
April 24— May 1 being the best time in the midlands. In Ireland most
birds breed in April, while in Germany eggs may be found from the second
week in April, but most eggs are laid late in April or early in May, and
from the latter date to June in N. Russia. Kriiper took full clutches in
Acarnania on April 18, and Fiihrer m Montenegro from April 16 to May 8.
The period of incubation is 18 days and the hens sit as soon as laying
has begun.

100 normal eggs average 32.9><23 mm., Max. 3725 mm., Min.
28 X< 22,5 mm. (Rey). R. H. Read has a clutch of very large eggs, almost
without markings: Max. 39.4 * 27.6 and 37.528 mm. (Somerset). An
abnormal egg in Tring Museum measures 44.9 >< 26.5 mm. (Hartert). Average
weight 565 mg. A dwarf egg measures 23.9 >< 18.7 mm. and weighs
250 mg. (Rey); another from N. Brabant is 22.4 >< 16.2 mm. Average weight
of 13 unblown eges 10.517 g. (Foster).

As is frequently the case in species of wide distribution, eggs from
the northern limit of the breeding range are distinctly larger than those
from the middle and south. Thus 10 eggs from W. Bothnia (coll. Newton)
average 40 < 24.25 mm.

Geographical Races.
a. European Magpie, P. pica pica (L.). See above.
b. Spanish Magpie, P. pica melanotos Brehm.

Local Names: Portugal: Pega. Spain: Urrdéca, Marica.

P. p. melanotos Brehm. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 21.

* Hager (II. Ornith. Jahresber. f. S., p. 80) mentions an instance where

10 were laid.
O*

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Nest.

Kegs.

Measure-
ments.

20

Breeding Range: Probably the whole of the Iberian peninsula, but
possibly the birds which are found north of the Sierra Guadarrama belong
to the typical race. Hartert has examined specimens from Madrid, Toledo
and Portugal as well as from southern Spain.

This race (intermediate between the European and Moorish birds) is
very plentiful in some districts in Spain and Portugal, but entirely absent
from others. Near Aranjuez it is very common, and this is also the case
in some parts of Andalucia. It frequently acts as foster parent to the
Great Spotted Cuckoo.

The nests are sometimes placed at a considerable height, but are also
frequently only a few feet from the ground; and have been found in thick
bramble bushes. Noble says that nests in brambles are often not roofed in,
and I have found several of this type in big poplars by the Tajo. One,
found on May 2, 1905, was actually built in a patch of thick reeds, about 6
feet above the water!

The clutch varies in number from 5 to 8, and the eggs are similar
in appearance to those of the typical race. An abnormally coloured egg in
the British Museum is pale blue with a cap of very dark sepia at the
small end.

Average of 50 eggs 33.7 < 23.8 mm., Max. 38.5>%<26 mm. Min.
29.8 X 23.3 and 32.523 mm. Average weight of 19 eggs 575 mg.

[The Moorish Magpie, P. pica mawuritanica Malh. is the resident species
in Marocco, Algeria and Tunis. Breeding Season early in May. Average
of 50 eggs (Kénig 27, Erlanger 4 and 19 in Brit. Mus. etc.) 32.8 < 23.27 mm.,
Max. 3823.7 and 31.2 X25 mm., Min. 3023 and 31 X22 mm. Average
weight of 26 eges 560 mg. (Kénig). In appearance the eggs do not differ
from those of the other race.

The eggs of the North Asiatic race, P. pica bactriana Bp. are con-
siderably larger than those of the European form. According to Tacza-
nowski they range in size from 33 X23 to 38 X25 and 37 < 25.4 mm.|

7. Azure winged Magpie, Cyanopica eyana cooki Bp.
Plate 41, fig. 12—15 (near Madrid).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XLI, fig. 8. Baedeker, Tab. 50,
fig. 15. Ibis 1866, pl. X, fig. 3—8.*

Foreign Names: Portugal: Rabilongo, Charneco. Spain: Mohino,
Rabilargo, Garrula; in Leon, Ruipego.

Cyanopica cooki Bp. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 503; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 416. C. cyanus cooki Bp. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 24.

* The egg of the E. Siberian form, C. cyana cyana (Pall.) is figured in the
yO ASio. Day loo!

21

Breeding Range: South and mid-Spain, but absent from the eastern
provinces; Portugal south of Lisbon.

A very local species, breeding in colonies, many nests being found
at a short distance from one another. In Spain it is plentiful in wooded
districts in New Castile, such as the Casa del Campo near Madrid, Aran-
juez, Talavera, etc., also in Estremadura and in parts of Andalucia (Coria
del Rio, the Coto del Rey and locally between Sevilla and Cordova). In
Portugal Dr. Rey found it plentiful near Barreiro in Estremadura and Tait
describes it as abundant in Algarve and also met with it in spring in Alemtejo.

Colonies frequently consist of 5 or 6 to 20 pairs, and the nests are
built at varying heights, sometimes only 5 ft. from the ground, but more
often about 15 ft. up, and occasionally as high as 30 ft. In construction
they have been compared to those of the Jay and Great Grey Shrike. The
foundation is made of small twigs, lichens and green moss, compacted with
mud, upon which a superstructure of stalks, roots, moss and flowering
plants is built, and the flattened cup is lined with goats’ hair and sheep's wool.

Usually 5—6 in number, but 7 are occasionally found, and clutches
ef 8 and even 9 are said to have occurred in Spain. The ground colour
is usually pale brownish yellow, sometimes shading into a bluish, greenish
or warm reddish tone. They are sparsely marked with brownish spots
with underlying flecks of violet grey.

Rey found fresh eggs in Portugal throughout the month of May; in
Andalucia Noble took a full clutch on April 24, but general laying did
not begin till May 4.

400 eggs measured by Rey give the following results: average
26.7 <X 19.5 mm., Max. 30.2 * 22 mm., Min. 2419.7 and 24.5 X18 mm.
Average weight 407 mg., varying from 260 to 500 mg.

8. Nuteracker, Nucifraga caryocatactes (L.).

Plate 5, fig. 1—2 (Sarajevo, 3. IV. 94), 3 (Rafus Planina, 6. IV. 98),
4—5 (Bosnia, 3. IV. 96), 6 (Palé, Bosnia, 28. II. 98).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XLI, fig. 4, a—c (unrecognizable).
Baedeker, Tab. 50, fig. 14; Tab. 76, fig. 4. Journ. f. Ornith. 1856, Tab. I,
fig. 1. Taczanowski, Tab. XXXII, fig. 1. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1867,
pl. XV (Aves), fig. 2. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 16; id. Col. Fig. pl. 55.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Sojka turecka, Ofesnik. Denmark:
Noddekrige, Pletfugl. Finland: Péhkiniihakkinen. France: Casse-noix,
Alognier. Germany: Tannenhiiher, Nusshiher. Holland: Notenkraker.
Hungary: Magtiré. Italy: Nocciolaja, Gai d’ montagna, Rompa-nos. Norway:
Noddekraake, Blaakraake. Poland: Orzechiwka stryszek. Russia: Kédrofka.
Sweden: Notraka, Notgubbe. Transylvania: Havast Matyas.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

22

Nucifraga caryocatactes (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 451;
Newton, ed. Yarrell, U, p. 330; Saunders, Manual, p. 233; Dresser, Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 409. NV. caryocatactes caryocatactes (L.). Hartert, Vig. Pal.
Fauna, p. 25.

Breeding Range: Norway, Sweden, Gothland, Bornholm, 8. W. Finland,
the Russian Baltic Provinces, Poland, Germany (Kast Prussia, Harz, Schwarz
and Béhmer Wald, probably also Thiringer Wald), Jura and the whole
Alpine district, includmg the French, Swiss, Austrian and Italian Alps,
Austro-Hungary (Lilienfeld district, Tatra, Carpathian Mts., Transylvania,
Styria, Bosnia, etc.).

In Norway the Nutcracker inhabits the forests up to about lat. 641/,°N
but is nowhere numerous, while it has been found breeding in Sweden
in Gétarike and Svearike. In Bornholm nests were found in 1862—3, and
in March 1864 three nests with fresh eggs were taken (Proc. Zool. Soc.
1867, p. 163). It occurs in 8. W. Finland, and has probably bred near
Abo, while nests have also been taken at Raumo (61°) and Forssa, as well
as on Aland (Wasenius). In East Prussia Hartert found nests in 1882 and
1884, and one is said to have been found in Pomerania in 1860. Schiitt
obtained three nests on the Kandel Berg in the Schwarz Wald and others
have been taken there subsequently; while in 1868 eggs were obtained in
Anhalt (Harz), where it still breeds. In Austro-Hungary a nest with young
is said to have been found on the Héllgebirge in 1858, and on the Hochanger
Alp eggs have been taken from 1867 onwards. Five nests were obtained
in the Tyrol. by Franz in 1864 and Pfanni took eggs in the highlands of
Lilienfeld in 1887. Perhaps the first nest seen by any naturalist was an
empty one found by Thienemann on the Riesen-Gebirge, but the bird has
not been found there since. In Transylvania it is common on the higher
mountain ranges, descending in autumn. Of late years large numbers of
eggs have been taken in Bosnia, in the neighbourhood of Sarajevo, and
according to Reiser (Orn. Balc. I, p. 86) it is common in the pine-forests
of the Rilo planina and has been observed in the Rhodope Mountains, on
the borders of Bulgaria and Rumelia. In the Alpine valleys it is generally
distributed and fairly common up to the forest limit, as a rule from about
3000 to 6000 ft. in summer, but sometimes as low as 2100 ft. in some
parts of Valais, and on the other hand up to 7500 ft. in the Haute Engadine
(Fatio). It is also found more or less commonly in the Jura and in the
Départements on the Italian and Swiss borders of France, whence the Abbé
Caire obtained the first authenticated eggs in 1846. It has been observed
in spring in the subalpine valleys of Piedmont, Venetia and North Lombardy
and no doubt breeds there. It was formerly supposed to occur in the
Pyrenees, but has not been observed by Messrs. Saunders, Backhouse, Clarke
or Wallis, and proof of its breeding there is still wanting.

23

This is, as far as we know, almost invariably built in coniferous woods,
usually at a considerable elevation but not necessarily so, as is shown by the
fact that it has been found in East Prussia, Bornholm and parts of Sweden
where there are no hills of any magnitude. It is commonly placed close
to the trunk of a pine, fir, or larch tree at a height of about 15 to 18 ft.
but sometimes as much as 30 ft. and is about 1 ft. in diameter externally,
51/, m. in depth, with a depression of about 4 in. in diameter and 1%/,
to 21/, im. in depth. The foundation is formed of sticks and twigs from
various trees (larch, birch, spruce, bird-cherry etc.) recently plucked, mixed
with moss, leaves and lichens, and occasionally earth or rotten wood is
found underneath the lining, which consists of a thick layer of dry grass
stalks, and hair-like lichens (Usnea barbata) with one or two feathers from
the sitting bird.

These are usually 3 or 4 in number, and in many districts 3 is the
normal clutch; but instances are on record of 2 eggs having been found
much incubated, and several sets of 5 are said to have been taken in the
Jura. In colour they are a very pale bluish green, sometimes almost
white, finely but generally speckled with olive brown and grey spots. In
some eggs the markings are chiefly confined to the blunt end, but do
not show any tendency to form a zone or cap, while occasionally they are
almost absent. The only eggs with which they can be confused are pale,
finely spotted Jackdaw’s eggs, but in these the colour of the spots is
always darker than in those of the Nutcracker, and the ground colour is
more bluish in tint. The shell is fine grained with but little gloss.

This is remarkably early, and in conjunction with the retiring habits
of the bird at the nesting season, accounts in great measure for the un-
certainty which so long prevailed as to the eggs and breeding habits of
this bird. In Bornholm young birds were found on April 9, 1863 and
fresh eggs on March 23, 1864, but not till April 10 (incubated) in the
following year; while in E. Prussia Hartert found half-fledged young on
April 19, and nearly fresh eggs on Mar. 21. A clutch from Finland is
dated April 27. Eggs from the Schwarzwald were taken Mar. 12—29.
In Switzerland the time varies from Mar. 10 to Apr. 15, but generally
about Mar. 20, while clutches from Austro-Hungary have been taken
between Mar. 20 (5 days incubated) and April 18, and in Bosnia from
Mar. 21 to April 30.

The period of incubation is stated to be 18 days, and the sitting
hen frequently does not leave the nest until the tree is struck. The eggs
are laid at intervals, according to Schiitt, of three days.

Average measurements of 100 eggs (23 by Bau, 16 Johnson, 11 Rey,
and 50 by the author) 33.95><25.03 mm., Max. 37.5><24.7 and 33 ><26 mm.,
Min. 30.3>< 24.6 and 34><21.5 mm. Average weight 590 mg. (Rey),

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments,

24

varying from 530 to 700 mg. Unblown eggs according to Vogel weigh
from 8.5 to 11.5 g., while Schiitt gives 10.27 to 11.15 g. as the weight.

Geographical Races.

a. Thick-billed Nuteracker, N. caryocatactes caryocatactes (.) See antea, p. 21.
b. Thin-billed Nutcracker, N. caryocatactes macrorhynchos Brehm.

N. caryocatactes macrorhynchos Brehm. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 26.

Breeding Range: Siberia, except Kamtschatka, where it is replaced
by N.c. kamchatkensis Barrett-Ham. This form, which is resident in the
forest country east of the Urals, is the bird which periodically occurs on
autumn and winter on migration, both on the continent and in the British
Isles. In breeding habits it probably does not differ from the western
race, but nothing is definitely known on the subject. Seebohm’s statement
that it retires into the forests in June for breeding purposes has been
shown to be erroneous, as some of the birds that he secured were birds
of the year.

9b. British Jay, Garrulus glandarius rufitergum Hart.

Eggs: Hewitson, I]. Ed. I, pl. CXII, fig. 2; IL Ed. I, pl. Ll, fig. 3;
Ill. Ed. I, pl. LX, fig. 1. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 16; id. Col. Fig., pl. 55.
Frohawk, Br. Birds, pl. VI, fig. 216—217. [The eggs figured are most
probably those of this race, which are however indistinguishable from eggs
of typical G. glandarius L.|

Nest: O. Lee, IV, p. 78.

British Local Names: England: Jay-pie, Jay-pyot, Jay bird. Welsh:
Screch-y-coed.

Garrulus glandarius (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 481;
Newton, ed. Yarrell, Il, p. 323; Saunders, Manual, p. 235; Dresser, Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 411 [partim]. G. glandarius rufitergum Hart. Hartert, Vég.
Pal. Fauna, p. 30.

Breeding Range: Great Britain and Ireland.

This handsome bird is generally distributed throughout all the
wooded districts of England and Wales; its silent and skulking habits
durmg the breeding season enabling it to hold its own even im those
counties where game preservation is extensively carried on. From treeless
districts, such as west Cornwall, and moorlands it is naturally absent, and
is not found on the Isle of Man. In Ireland Ussher records it as breeding
in Leinster and the adjoining part of Munster (i. e. the basins of the Rivers
Suir, Nore and Barrow), while in other parts of Ireland it is either an
irregular visitor or altogether unknown. In Scotland it is found im wooded

25

districts on the southern slopes of the Grampians from Dumbarton to Forfar,
and occurs in suitable localities south of this line, but to the north and west
it is decidedly rare and has only been recorded from a few localities as a
resident, such as Glengarry, Inverness, Benderloch, west Kintyre, etc. Unlike
the Rook and the Starling, it does not appear to be extending its range, but
rather to be stationary or even decreasing in numbers in the north. In
the Hebrides and northern islands it is unknown.

The sites used for this purpose vary considerably. Perhaps the most
usual situation is among the thick foliage of undergrowth in woods, such
as hazel, blackthorn, holly or evergreens, as a rule not more than 20 ft.
from the ground and frequently half that height, or even less. Another
favourite site is among the outgrowth which sprouts where a bough has
been sawn off. The leafy lower boughs of oak trees are also sometimes
chosen, as are also plantations of thick young spruce, and in Derbyshire
I have seen two or three nests in tall larches or Scotch firs, within a yard
or two of the top, and not less than 60 ft. from the ground. An even
more remarkable site is recorded in the Zoologist for 1863, p. 8720, where
a nest was found within a foot of the ground in tall lng, on Witley
Common, Surrey. The foundation of the nest consists of sticks and twigs,
with sometimes a little earth, while the cup is neatly and thickly lined
with fine roots and occasionally dry grasses. Horsehair is also said to be
occasionally found in the lining. The nest distinctly recalls that of the
Bullfinch, but of course is built on a much larger scale.

Usually 5 or 6 in number, but 4 are not uncommon, and 3 young
have been found in a nest, while clutches of 7 are occasionally found.
The ground colour is generally pale sage green or olive buff, finely mottled
with rather darker markings of olive or liver brown, which sometimes
tend to form a zone at the big end; while a hair line or streak of very
dark brown (almost black) is often present at the same end. Some eggs
show a strong tendency to the rufous type of colourmg found in other
species of Corvidae, and others are almost devoid of markings and show only
the bluish green ground.

Rather variable, but usually in the south of England between April 25
and May 20, and about a week later in the north-midland counties.

The period of incubation is said to be 16 days, and the sitting bird
often does not leave the nest until almost touched.

Average of 100 eggs from England 31.73 >< 22.85 mm. Max.
34.3 < 24 and 34 < 24.6 mm. Min. 28.2 * 22 and 32.1 < 21.1 mm.
Average weight of 6 eggs 562 mg. English eggs appear to be slightly
longer and not so rounded in form as continental specimens, but the eggs
of all the races of G. glandarius are practically imdistinguishable.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

26

Geographical Races.
a. Continental Jay, G. glandarius glandarius (L.).
Plate 7, fig. 1 and 3—6 (Germany), 2 (Switzerland).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XLI, fig. 6, a—f. Baedeker, Tab. 50,
fig. 17. Taczanowski, Tab. XXXI, fig. 2.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Sojka. Denmark: Skovskade. Finland:
Nira. France: Geat ordinaire, Zé. Germany: Hiiher, Eichelhiiher, Nuss-
hither, Hiigert, Markolf. Helgoland: Hiidiger. Holland: Vlaamsche Gaai,
Meerkolf. Hungary: Szajké. Italy: Ghiandaja, Berta, Gagia. Norway: Skov-
skrika. Poland: Séjka pospolita. Russia; Soika. Sweden: Nétskrika, Allon-
skrika, Kornskrika, Skogskata.

G. glandarius (L.). Dresser, |. c. [partim]. G. glandarius glandarius (L.).
Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 29.

Breeding Range: The whole of Europe with the exception of the
British Isles, the Iberian peninsula (where it is replaced by G. g. fasciatus
A. E. Brehm), south-eastern Russia (G. g. caspius Seeb.) and the eastern
part of the Balkan peninsula (G@. g. krynicki Kal.), while other forms
inhabit Sardinia and Cyprus.

Wherever wocds and plantations occur the Jay is usually found
throughout the great Kuropean plain. It appears to be absent from Bornholm,
and has not been recorded from the Scandinavian forests north of the
Arctic circle, but in Russia Gébel mentions it in his list from north-west
Russian Lapland, and Wolley obtained one at Muonioniska in autumn,
while it is found throughout Finland. In the higher Alpine forests it is
replaced by the Nutcracker, though plentiful in the lower valleys of Switzer-
land. The exact range of the typical race and of G. g. krynicki in the
Balkan peninsula is as yet undetermined, but Kriiper records glandarius
as resident throughout Greece and common on Olympus, and it is the
resident form in Montenegro, the greater part of Bulgaria and is the only
form found in the Dobriidscha.

In nesting habits this race closely resembles that alveady described,
but Klemschmidt mentions an instance of a nest having been found built
on the ground in the side of a hollow way, and von Wangelin records
another on a heap of brushwood, scarcely a yard from the ground. A
nest is also said to have been found in a hole of a tree (Jowrn. f. Ornith.
1861, p. 470).

Usually the number of eggs in the same as that of G. g. rufitergum.
(According to Kleinschmidt exceptional cases have occurred of 8, 9 and even
10 eggs being found.)

In Greece the end of April or the beginning of May (Kriiper); in
Switzerland in April or May, while Rey found clutches in Germany from

27

the end of April to the end of May, and second layings of 4 eggs to the
end of June.

Average of 100 eggs 31.6><23 mm., Max. 36><24.5 and 32.3><25 mm.,
Min. 2921 mm. Average weight 566 mg. A dwarf egg measures
21.8 >< 17.2 mm and weighs 350 mg. (Rey).

b. British Jay, G. glandarius rufitergum Hart. See p. 24.

ce. Spanish Jay, G. glandarius fasciatus A. E. Brehm.

Local Names: Portugal: Gato. Spain: Arrenddyo.

G. glandarius klenschmidti Hart. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 30.

Breeding Range: The Iberian peninsula.

Irby describes this form as very plentiful in the cork wood of AI-
moraima and in the valleys and hill sides, up to a considerable height,
though rather local. It also breeds freely near Granada (Saunders). Jays
are also found in small numbers in 8. Portugal, and are abundant in
wooded parts of northern Spain and Portugal. Near Gibraltar the eggs
are laid early in May (Irby).

d. Sardinian Jay, G. glandarius ichnusae Kleinschm.
G. glandarius ichnusae Kleinschm. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 30.
Breeding Range: Sardinia, also Corsica and probably other islands,
Brooke found this race very numerous in the forests on the mountains
of Sardinia, and Whitehead describes Jays as fairly common in Corsica.
6 Eggs taken there average 30.2 < 22.6 mm. and are light in colour.

e. Cyprian Jay, G. glandarius glaszneri Mad.

G. glandartus glasznert Mad. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 31.

Breeding Range: Cyprus.

Guillemard met with this bird in pine woods near Kikko (in the ex-
treme west of the island), and also on Troddos (6600 ft.), where Glaszner
also found it very common.

f. Caspian Jay, G. glandarius caspius Seeb.
G. glandarius caspius Seeb. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 31.
Breeding Range: The steppes of south-east Russia from Lenkoran
to the Caspian Sea.
An egg from Lenkoran, taken on May 6 measures 32 >< 22.6 mm.

g. Black headed Jay, G. glandarius krynicki Kalen.

G. krynickt Kal. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 495; Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 414. G@. glandarius krynicki Kal. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 32.

Measure-
ments.

28

Breeding Range: Hast European Turkey. [Also Asia Minor and
the Caucasus. |

Robson found nests in the forest of Belgrade, near Constantinople,
and in Asia Minor it is not uncommon locally, both in the plains and in
the hills, nesting in the olive and pomegranate woods (Kriiper). The
breeding season begins early in May, and full clutches have been taken near
Smyrna from May 8 to early im June. The number of eggs varies from
4 to 7. They are rather dark coloured, and 42 eggs average 3023.07 mm.,
Max. 33 < 24 and 30.2 < 24.5 mm., Min. 26 X 22 mm.

[In north Africa three forms of Jay are found: G. glandarius minor
Verr. (@. oenops Whit.) from parts of the Maroccan Atlas and south Algeria;
G. glandarius whitakeri Hart. from north Marocco, Tangier, etc., and
G. glandarius cervicalis Bp. from the cork-oak woods of north Algeria.
Eggs of the last named race are figured in the J. f. O. 1896, Taf. VI, fig. 5.
Average of 12 eggs (Kénig 3 and 9 by the author) 31.8 <22.9 mm.,
Max. 33.5 >< 23.5 and 32.5 =< 24 mm., Min. 30 >< 22 mm. Two eggs weighed
480 and 550 mg. (Konig). Breeding season, early May.

In western Asia besides G. g. krynicki, another race, G. g. atricapillus
Geoff. is found in Palestine and Syria. ‘Tristram describes it as common
in olive groves from Lebanon to Hebron and in the forests of Gilead and
Bashan. It is an early breeder, and young were found hatched in April.
An egg from Tyre measures 32 >< 22.6 mm. East of the Urals, G. g. brandtit
Eversm. is the resident form. An egg taken on May 11 measures
30.5 < 22.4 mm.

10. Siberian Jay, Perisoreus infaustus (L.).
Plate 7, fig. 7, 8, 10, 12 (Muonio, 15. IV. 89), 9, 11 (Lapland), 13 (Lap-
land, 19. VI. 89).

Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 77, fig. 5. Bree, Birds of Europe, Ed. I, I, pl.
Ootheca Wolleyana, Tab. XIII, fig. 1—16.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Sojka glovéstna. Denmark: Lavskrige.
Finland: Kuusanka, Kuukkeli, Kukkainen, Hephorakka, Kuuskilainen. Ger-
many: Ungliickshiher, Rotschwanzhiher, sibirischer Hiher. Hungary: Eszaki
szajkoé. Lapland: Kuossak, Kuoska. Norway: Gyertrudsfugl, Ulykkesfugl,
Lavskrike, Rofuhre. Poland: Séjka zlowroga. Russia: Rousta. Sweden:
Lafskrika, Telltjuxa, Rodtjuxa.

Perisoreus infaustus (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 471; Man.
of Pal. Birds, p. 410. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 34.

Breeding Range: Scandinavia, the Baltic provinces and north of
Russia.

In Norway this birds breeds commonly in East Finmark up to the
limit of the pine region, and more sparingly in the Tromsé and Trondhjem

29

Amter, while according to Collett it has also been found as far south as
Kristiania and south Telemark (591/,° N. lat.). In Sweden Hennicke has
recorded it in August from Stéllet in Wermland (south of 601/,° N. lat.),
but it is absent from Gotarike, though distributed over the country N. of
Lat. 60°—61°. In Lapland it is found wherever conifers exist, and in
Finland is most numerous on the eastern border (Sandman). In the forests
of eastern Esthonia and Livonia it is also a resident, and is common in
the Kola peninsula. [East of the Urals it is replaced by P. infaustus
sibericus (Bodd.). |

Like those of the Nutcracker, the eggs of this species were unknown
to science half'a century ago, and for the same reasons. Many interesting
details as to its nidification may be found in Ootheca wolleyana, part II,
p. 478. Most of Wolley’s nests were found in Scotch firs and spruce,
and were as a rule placed about 12 ft. from the ground, though some-
times as low as 7 ft, or as high as 20 ft. The nest is constucted of
bleached sticks, sometimes covered with black lichens, but mostly without
bark, then lighter coloured lichens and a thick layer of feathers,* lichens
(Usnea barbata, Everina sarmentosa, Parmelia saxatilis, etc.) reindeer hair,
hare’s down, spider's nests, leaves and portions of wasps’ nests, as well as
the down of Eriophorum, grass stalks, moss and bits of bark. Dimensions:
diameter 5.5 to 8 in., depth 2.75 to 4.75 in, diameter of cup 2.35 to
3.4 in., depth of cup 1.6 to 2 in. (Collett and Benzon).

The nest is sometimes very conspicuous, but is often placed in a
thick, bushy tree, and is easily overlooked on account of the vast extent
of the forests and the silent and retiring habits of the bird during the
nesting season. It is usually built close to the stem and often on the
ontskirts of a wood or close to a track.

Three or four in number, but occasionally five have been found.

These are somewhat variable both in ground colour and in distribu-
tion of markings. The ground colour varies from dirty white to pale
greenish, but some eggs have a decidedly warmer tint. The surface spots
are of dark or light yellowish brown, sometimes evenly distributed, but
more often congregated ot the big end, sometimes forming a zone or cap.
Occasionally they are found chiefly at the small end. The underlying blotches
are violet grey in colour.

The nest is built early in the year, when snow is deep on the ground
and the cold very severe, and most eggs appear to be laid in Lapland
towards the end of April, but full clutches may be obtained from April 6
onward to about May 10. Perhaps April 24 may be taken as the average
date. In mid-Sweden fledged young have been met with on May 20, and

* Chiefly from the Willow Grouse, Capereaillie and Lapp Owl.

Nest.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

30

Middendorff found naked young of the Siberian form, P. infaustus sibericus
(Bodd.), on April 16, so that the eggs must have been laid at the end of
March. Incubation begins as soon as the first ege is laid, and the bird
sits so closely that she is frequently lifted from the eggs by the Lapps.
The young leave the nest at the end of May or early in June. There is
some evidence that a second brood is occasionally reared, and Printz found
small young on July 15.

Average size of 100 eggs (42 Rey, 34 Jourdain and 24 Sandman)
30.04 21.84 mm., Max. 34 < 21.6 and 30.6 < 23.6 mm., Min. 27 X26 mm.
Average weight (42 eggs) 400 mg. (Rey): of 16 eggs, 381.5 mg., varying
from 350 to 440 mg. (Westerlund).

11. Chough, Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax (L.).

Plate 2, fig. 8—11 (Granada, 1. V. 1894); Plate 26, fig. 2 (Galway,
21. V. 92), fig. 3 (Waterford, 21. V. 83).

Kegs: Thienemann, Fortpfi, Tab. XLI, fig. 3. Hewitson, I. Kd. I,
pl. CXII; Il. Hd. I, pl. XLVI, fig. 2; Ill. Ed. I, pl. LVI. Baedeker, Tab. 28,
fig. 2. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 16; id. Col. Fig., pl. 55. Frohawk, Br.
Birds, pl. VI, fig. 214—215.

British Local Names: England: Cornish Chough or Daw, Red-
legged Crow or Chough, Cornwall Kae, Market-jew Crow, Chauk Daw.
Cornish: Palores. Welsh: Bran big coch. Manx: Caaig. Ireland: Red
legged Jackdaw (North), Cliff Daw (South). Erse: Cawg, Cawdhoge. Scot-
land: St. Columba’s Bird (Iona). Gaelic: Caag.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Kavée svatlavé. France; Crave ordinaire,
Choucas rouge, Corneille royale or imperiale. Germany: Steinkréhe, Alpenkriihe.
Hungary: Havasi Hollo. Italy: Gracchio corallino, Coracia di montagna,
Gracco, Taccola del bech ross. Poland: Wrénczyk czerwonodziby, Tyz.
Portugal: Gralha di bico vermelho. Russia: Kluschitza, Bortevschik. Spain:
Graja, Chova, Jucala, Gralla de bech vermell. Tyrol: Cornagia del piz cotocteu.

P. graculus L. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 437; Newton, ed.
Yarrell, Hl, p. 252; Saunders, Man., p. 231; Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 405.
P. pyrrhocorax (L.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 35.

Breeding Range; On the islands in the Mediterranean, and parts
of Spain, Portugal, Brittany, the Channel Isles, 8. W. England, Wales,
W. Scotland, Ireland, the principal mountain ranges of Europe (Alps,
Pyrenees, Apennines, Caucasus, etc.), Italy and the Balkan peninsula. [Also
N. Africa, and Asia from Asia Minor to E. Siberia.]

In England and Wales there has been a marked diminution in the
numbers of this species of late years, and many well-known breeding haunts
are now deserted. The only part of England where it still breeds is the

dl

rocky coast of Devon and Cornwall, while perhaps a few pairs still exist
in Dorset. On Lundy it is now scarce, though formerly plentiful, but is
not found on the Scillies. Along the Welsh coast scattered pairs nest in
the sea cliffs, or occasionally in a quarry close to the sea. It still survives
in the Isle of Man, but in nothing like the numbers of former years. At
the present time the chief strongholds of this species are the west coast
of Ireland and some of the Scottish Islands. Ussher describes it as breeding
in Antrim, Donegal, Down (rare), Leitrim (?), Sligo (rare), Mayo, Galway,
Clare, Kerry, Cork and Waterford, usually on the coast and adjacent islands,
but sometimes also on mountain ranges inland. In Scotland it is local,
but in certain localities common, on Islay, Jura, Gigha and other islands,
of the Inner Hebrides as far as Skye. Possibly a few pairs may still nest
on the western mainland, but on the Outer Hebrides it is unknown.

In France the Chough breeds locally on the coast of Brittany, and
is not uncommon on Sark. Rey found a colony of 40 to 50 pairs nesting
in the face of a precipice in Portugal, and it is plentiful locally in the
Pyrenees, though less numerous than P. graculus (L.), and is also found
in Navarre, in the Cantabrian Mountains and in considerable numbers in
the Sierras of the south (Sierra Nevada, 8. de Ubrique, etc.). In Corsica
and Sardinia its haunts are the mountain ranges, but in Sicily it breeds in
the sea cliffs: it is found also in the Basses-Alpes, and in pairs or small
colonies in the Alps of Ticino, Valais, Vaud, Berne, Uri, Glarus, Appenzell,
Grisons and the Engadine (Fatio), and on the Italian side in Piedmont and
Lombardy as well as in the Apennines. Further north it has occured
rarely in the Vosges, and in the mountain ranges of Bavaria, as well as
in Styria, Carinthia, and the Tyrol. Records from the Bukowina require
confirmation. In the Balkan peninsula it appears to be confined to the
southern part (Pindus range, Parnassus, etc.), but is a resident on Crete
(Mt. Ida) though absent from Cyprus. Eastward it has been recorded from
the Caucasus in large colonies, and the southern Urals. [In the Canaries
it is confined to Palma, and has not been recorded from Palestine. |

In some parts of its range, such as the British Isles, Portugal, Sicily,
etc., the nest is usually placed in a cave or crevice of cliff along the sea
coast, or else in a quarry within sight of the sea. In other districts, such
as Sardinia, Greece and the great mountain ranges of Europe, it is found
in gorges and lofty ranges of cliff, often at a considerable altitude and far
inland. Fatio says that in Switzerland church towers and walls of old
castles are also utilized for nesting purposes. On the west coast of Ire-
land a favourite spot is a crevice in the roof of a sea cave, often quite
inaccessible. The nest is usually large and somewhat like that of the
Jackdaw in construction. The foundation consists of sticks, furze stems and
heather stalks, sometimes only withered plants, roots and a little grass or

The Con-
tinent.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breed ing
Season.

Measure-
ments.

32

moss, warmly and neatly lined with wool, or cow and goat hair, Approximate
diameter of nest 10 in., the height depending on the size of the crevice
or shelf. The same site is occupied year after year, and a second clutch
is sometimes deposited in the same nest after the first has been taken.
Ussher mentions an instance of a breeding place occupied for over 40 years
consecutively.

Usually 4—5, but 3 are not uncommon, and Ussher records instances
of 2 only, while 6 have been known to occur. The Chough is single
brooded, but second and third layings are deposited when the first clutches
are taken. Incubation appears to begin after the laying of the first egg,
and as the eggs in a clutch are often in different stages of development,
it is probable that they are not always laid on consecutive days. The yolk
is of an extraordinarily deep, rich, red colour.

The ground colour varies from creamy white (rare) to very pale
yellowish green and pale brownish yellow, while some eggs have a bluish
cast. The underlying blotches and spots are pale lilac, while the surface
markings vary from sepia to reddish brown, but are most frequently yellowish
brown, and vary much in depth of colour. The character of the markings
is very variable: sometimes a few bold blotches and spots, sometimes
numerous fine speckles, at one time evenly distributed over the surface,
at another forming a distinct zone or cap, generally at the big end. About
10 per cent, show traces of a black streak at the blunt end. The shell
is somewhat glossy with numerous minute projections and occasionally
small lumps of calcareous matter are found on the surface.

The earliest Irish date for a full clutch is April 10, but most eggs
are laid there in the last week of April and May 1—8. On the Cornish
and Welsh coasts the breeding time is perhaps rather later — earliest date
April 19 — and most eggs in the first fortnight of May. In the Alps eggs
are found from the end of April onward, but in south Spain clutches may
be obtained at the beginning of April, and on Palma in the last week of
March, and probably about the same time in Greece.

Average of 100 eggs from Cornwall and Ireland 39.46 >< 27.94 mm.,
Max. 42.6 >< 29 and 41 <29.5 mm., Min. 34><26 and 36.9 >< 24.6 mm.
Spanish eggs appear to be larger and perhaps warmer in colour. Average
of 19 eggs (9 by E. Rey and 10 by author) 41.05 >< 28.26 mm. Max.
44.1 28.5 and 42.1 <29.5 mm. Min. 36.5 <27.8 and 40 X< 21.1 mm.
Average weight of 45 Irish eggs 994 mg. but 9 Spanish eggs average
1.020 g., varying from 0.910 to 1.150 g. (Rey).

5")

33

12. Alpine Chough, Pyrrhocorax graculus (L.).
Plate 4, fig. 8 (Pyrenees), 9—11 (Parnassus).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XLI, fig. 2, a—d. Baedeker, Tab. 28,
fig. 3. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 16; id. Col. Fig., pl. 55.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Kavée podhorni. Croatia: Colica, Capka.
France: Chequard, Choucas des Alpes. Germany: Alpendohle. Hungary:
Havasi csoka. Italy: Gracchio. Poland: Wronczyk zéltodzioby, Tyz. Russia:
Kluschiza. Spain: Gralla de bech groch, Graja, Grayjilla.

Pyrrhocorax alpinus Vieill. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 445;
id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 406. P. graculus (L.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 36.

Breeding Range: Mountain ranges in Spain and Portugal, Pyrenees,
Alps, Apennines, Balkan peninsula and Caucasus. [In Asia, Palestine and
Asia Minor to the Himalayas. |

In the Iberian peninsula the Alpine Chough is not uncommon locally
in the higher mountain ranges, such as the Sierra Nevada, 8. de Grédos,
etc., and has been recorded from Portugal (Rey), breeding as a rule at a
greater elevation than its congener. Colonies are also to be met with at
various points in the Pyrenees, sometimes together with P. pyrrhocorax (L.)
as in the gorges of Corsavi, but usually higher. It is met with on both
the French and Spanish sides and is much the commoner species of the two.
A colony exists on the Bréche de Roland at a height of 9500 ft. (Wallis).
In the Alpine region it is generally distributed throughout the Alps proper,
between the forest limit and the snow line, but is absent from the Jura, and
occurs in small numbers in the adjacent mountain districts of France, 5. Ger-
many, Austria and Italy. In the last named country its range extends south-
ward to the Apuan Alps and the northern Apennines. Whitehead saw large
flocks in Corsica, but it appears to be absent from Sicily* and Sardinia. In
Austro-Hungary it is found in the Tatra Mts. (Wodzicki and Scherfel), on
the Rax-Alpe (Lower Austria) and locally in the Tyrol, southward to the
Dinaric Alps. Along the mountain ranges of Bosnia, Montenegro, Servia
and western Bulgaria (Rilo and Stara-Planina) it is generally distributed
and in many districts plentiful, and probably further research will prove
that it is present on all the principal ranges of the peninsula. In Greece
it is resident in all the mountains and is very numerous on Parnassus, the
Taygetos Mts., etc., and it has been observed in Albania. Bogdanow records
it from the Caucasus and Sabanaeff from the Urals.

Usually built in some natural hole or fissure in the vast precipices
or gorges, which abound in the great mountain systems, and therefore
difficult of access even where the birds are plentiful. Unlike the Red-billed
Chough, this species is not littoral im its habits during the breeding season

* But see Whitaker, Birds of Tunisia, I, p. 8.
3

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-

34

at any part of its range. The foundation of the nest consists of dead
sticks, upon which is a superstructure of fir twigs, heather, dry roots,
grass, etc., the interior lining consisting im some cases of dry grass, m
others of hair and wool, with afew feathers of the bird. Diameter of nest
about 11 in., of cup 6 in.

In Spain, the Alps and the Balkan peninsula the number of eggs is
4 or 5, but Neweklowsky and Reiser found 3 the maximum on the Otscher-
héhlen, while broods of 2 only were common. The ground colour varies
as in the case of P. pyrrhocorax (L.), and the markings are also similar
in character and equally variable. The brown markings however are never
quite so rufous as in some varieties of Chough’s eggs, and there appears
to be less tendency to form a zone at the big end, while some eggs are
almost devoid of surface markings, and only show a few violet-grey under-
lying blotches on a whitish ground. A black streak is also sometimes
but rarely present.

Reliable data as to the breeding season are rather scanty. In Spain eggs
have been taken in May; in Switzerland from the end of April to mid-
June (Fatio), while the young leave the nest by the end of June. On the
Otscherhéhler Reiser gives May 11 as the average date, but some (probably
older) birds have eggs by the end of April, while a nest on the Balkans
contained young a few days old on June 5. In Greece the breeding season
is perhaps earlier. Kriiper surmised that the laying time was the beginning
of April or even the end of March, but fresh clutches have been taken
on Parnassus as late as May 20.

Average of 45 egos (28 by the author, 8 by Rey, 5 by Reiser and 4 by

ments. ‘K6nio-Warthausen) 38.29 >< 26.44 mm., Max. 41.8 x 26.4 and 38 >< 28.5 mm.,

Min. 34.3 >< 25.3 and 39.5 >< 21.5 mm. Average weight of 8 eggs 847 mg.,
varying from 650 to 960 mg. (Rey).

STURNIDAE.

13. Common Starling, Sturnus vulgaris L.

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXVIII, fig. 1, a—b. Hewitson,
I. Kd. I, pl. IX; IL. Ed. I, pl. XLVU, fig. 1; NI. Ed. I, pl. LV, fig. 1. Baedeker,
Tab. 50, fig. 12. Taczanowski, Tab. XXXIII, fig. 2. Seebohm, Brit. Birds,
pl. 11; id. Col. Fig., pl. 54. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. VI, fig. 210—213.

British Local Names: England: Stare, Shepster or Sheepstare,
Starnel, Gyp; Brown Starling (juv.). Welsh: Drudwy. Scotland: Sturlin’.
Shetland: Starn. Erse: Dridh or Drid-yogue.

BTS)

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Spacek. Denmark: Staer, Star. Finland:
Mustakottarainen. France: Htourneau. Germany: Gemeiner Star or Sprehe.
Holland: Spreeww. Helgoland: Sprien. Hungary: Seregély. Italy: Storno.
Norway: Staer, Star. Poland: Szpak skorzec. Portugal: Estorninho. Russia:
Skvoretz. Sweden: Star, Starr, Staer. Spain: Estornino.

Sturnus vulgaris L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, II, p. 228; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, IV, p. 405; Saunders, Manual, p. 227; Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds,
p. 399. S&S. vulgaris vulgaris L. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 41.

Breeding Range: Europe from the North Cape, but absent from
Lapland, northern Sweden, EH. Finland and the Archangel Government; and
replaced by other forms in the Iberian and Balkan peninsulas and §. Russia.

Here the Starling is a resident, and not a bird of passage as on the
greater part of the Continent. It is now generally distributed throughout
England and Wales, except on the bare moorlands and mountain tops, and
In some parts is extraordinarily plentiful. In Northumberland, Cumberland,
Wales and Cornwall it was formerly only a winter visitor, but within the
last 40 years has become established as a breeding species. The history
of its distribution in Scotland is remarkable. It appears to have been a
resident in the Shetlands and Orkneys for a century or more; in the Outer
Hebrides it was abundant in 1841, and in St. Kilda in 1830. The main-
land appears to have been gradually colonized by migratory waves from
two distinct sources; firstly from the northern isles in a 8. W. direction,
and secondly from the south (See Annals of Scott. Nat. Hist. 1895, p. 2
and 92). In the Isle of Man it is common, and in Ireland it now breeds
im every county, though still scarce in summer in Donegal, Kerry, W. Cork,
Waterford and Wexford (Ussher).

In Norway this species has increased its range northward of late
years and was observed at Vardé by Pearson in 1903, but as yet is only
thinly distributed im the extreme north, and is still absent from northern
Sweden. Gdbel also records it from N. W. Russian Lapland, but it is not
known in N. E. Finland, though v. Wright says it occurs near Uledbore.
In the Archangel Government it was not observed at Archangel by Harvie-
Brown or on the Petschora by Seebohm, and is still rare north of lat.
60° to 64°. Over the rest of Kurope it is generally distributed except in
certain districts, such as Montenegro, while in 8. Russia and the Balkan
peninsula it is replaced by S. v. purpurascens Gould, &. v. caucasicus Lor.,

S. v. tauricus But., etc. On the other hand it is found throughout Italy,

with the exception of Calabria; but in Sicily and Sardinia its place is taken
by S. unicolor Temm., and it is only known as a winter visitor to Corsica
and the Iberian peninsula.

The nesting sites of this species are very varied. Where there is
plenty of old timber, a hole in a tree is perhaps the most favoured spot,

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

36

but great numbers of nests are built in holes of walls or buildmgs, under
eaves and in chimneys, while on rocky coasts or where cliffs are met with,
a natural crevice or hole in the rock is often utilized. Thus in the
Hebrides the Starling nests in the sea-caves in common with the Shag
and the Rock Dove, quite independently of man. On the other hand in
cultivated districts the nests are generally either in, or close to, dwelling
houses; and should a slate come off the roof or the spouting be left un-
covered, a starling is sure to take advantage of the vacancy. Nesting
boxes are readily adopted, and in Jutland I have seen wooden cases affixed
to the walls, divided into compartments capable of accomodating 100 pairs,
which appeared to be well patronized. An unfortunate feature in the
character of this species is the readiness with which it ejects other interesting
birds, such as the Green and Great Spotted Woodpeckers, and the Swift,
from their nesting holes and takes possession of them. Among the more
unusual sites used for breeding purposes may be mentioned: old Sand-
martins holes, in thick ivy against walls or trees, against the side of a
haystack, in holes in the ground (St. Kilda) and among stone heaps or
boulders on the beach (Shetlands), in old Magpies’ and Wood Pigeons’
nests, occasionally in open nests among the branches of thick trees, both
in England (see Yarrell, IH, p. 232; Zool. 1837, p. 347, 1899, p. 370) and
Denmark, in rabbit warrens (Anglesea), etc. The nest itself is a carelessly
built structure, varying in size according to the situation and composed
chiefly of straw, with occasionally a few dead leaves, dry grass and moss,
and a scanty lining of feathers, or wool and hair. Some birds have been
observed to decorate their nests with blossoms of flowers, green leaves, etc.

The clutch varies from 4 to 7, but on several occasions I have met
with 8 eggs in a nest, which there is every reason to believe were the
produce of one hen. The somewhat glossy pale blue, sometimes white or
almost white, eggs are familiar to all. Occasionally an egg shows traces
of reddish brown spots.

In the British Isles the vast majority of birds rear only a single
brood, but occasionally a second is hatched off. It has however been
asserted that this is not really the case, and that what appear to be second
broods are in reality only the late hatches of those birds which have hitherto
failed to find nesting holes. (See the Naturalist 1889, p. 112, 366, etc.,
Zool. 1903, p. 390, etc.) It seems more natural to suppose that, as in the
case of the Spotted Flycatcher, some birds breed twice. Saxby speaks of
this as the rule in Unst, and in the western part of the Continent and
southern Germany it usually takes place, whereas in Scandinavia, Denmark
and N. E. Germany the reverse is the case. Time of incubation 14 days.

In the British Isles the usual breeding season is from mid-April to
early May, but occasionally nests have been found in December, January and

37

February. Where two broods are reared the eggs of the second hatch may
be met with in the first week of June, usually 3 or 4 days only elapsing
between the flight of the young and the cleaning out of the nest for the
second brood. A few instances are on record of three broods having been
reared (Nat. 1891, p. 49, etc.). Rey gives the second half of April as the usual
time for full clutches in Germany, while in Finland the eggs are laid early in May.

English eggs appear to be larger than Continental. 51 from Germany yeasure-

only average 28.83 >< 20.84 mm. (Rey), while 50 English eggs average
30.33 >< 21.4 mm. Mean average of 100 eggs 29.57 >< 21.11 mm., Max.
34.1 >< 22.4 and 31.2 < 22.8 mm., Min. 27 < 20.4 and 28.6 < 20 mm.
A dwarf egg measures 25.2 < 19.5 mm. (R. H. Read coll.). Irregular
longitudinal grooves are frequently found on eggs of this species. Average
weight of 51 German eggs 431 mg. (Rey).

Geographical Races.
a. Common Starling, S. vulgaris vulgaris L. See above.
b. Ferée Starling, S. vulgaris faroensis Feild.

Local Name: Ferdées: Steari.

S. vulgaris faroensis Feild. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 44.

Breeding Range: the Ferdes.

This easily recognized race is a common resident in the Ferdes,
breeding in colonies in the rocks and also in the walls of stone outhouses.
Feilden found well-feathered young on Sand6é on May 22, but also obtained
clutches of 5—6 fresh eggs on May 23 and from June 2 to 23. The eggs
are similar to those of other races, but as might be expected, average
somewhat larger.

Average of 27 eggs 30.9 * 21.56 mm., Max. 33.5 >< 22.6 and
Je oo mins Min: 29 ></20 i and 32.) >< 20) mm:

e. Caucasian Starling, S. vulgaris caucasicus Lorenz.

Local Name: Russia: Blestyastche-skvoretz.

S. caucasicus Lor. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IX, p. 234; Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 400. S& v. caucasicus Lor. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 46.

Breeding Range: The Caucasus. [Also in N. Persia and in the
highlands of the 8, W.]

Rey gives measurements of 5 egos, which average 28.1 >< 21.16 mm.,
Max. 29.6 >< 22.6 mm., Min. 27.1 > 20 and 29.1><19.3 mm. Average
weight 365 mg.

d. Purple winged Starling, S. vulgaris purpurascens Gould.
S. purpurascens Gould. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 419; Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 400. S. v. purpurascens Gould. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 46.

ments.

38

Breeding Range: The Balkan peninsula, delta of the Danube. (Also
Asia Minor, Cyprus, Persia, etc.)

In the Danube valley and the Dobrudscha this race is plentiful.
Tschusi and Reiser have recently described the birds from Greece (Thessaly,
perhaps also 8. Macedonia) under the name of S. vulgaris graecus Tsch. & Reis.
(Orn. Jahrb. 1905, p. 141).

Eggs taken in Turkey are not distinguishable from those of the
typical race. Reiser gives the usual measurements as 28.8 >< 21.2 mm.
(Bulgaria). Weight 440 me.

e. Crimean Starling, Sturnus vulgaris tauricus Buturl.

Breeding Range: The Crimea.

Recently described by Buturlin as a distinct species, but more probably
only a local race of S. vulgaris. Irby and Blakiston describe it as common
in the Crimea, arriving in mid March, and breeding in holes of cliffs and
nesting boxes about the middle of April.

(Buturlin also describes the race inhabiting the district between
the Ural and the middle Wolga under the name of S. vulgaris jitkowt,
and considers the N. Caucasus birds to be a new race of S. poltoratekyi
(S. p. satunini But.), but Hartert (2m ltt.) doubts the distinctness of the
latter form.)

[S. v. poltaratskyt Finsch inhabits Siberia as far as the Baikal Lake
and also occurs in Cyprus, while S. v. granti Hart. is the resident Starling
of the Azores. |

14. Sardinian or Spotless Starling, Sturnus unicolor Temm.

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXX VII, fig. 2, a—b. Baedeker,
Tab. 50, fig. 138.

Foreign Names: Italy: Storno nero. Marocco: Zarzor kahal. Por-
tugal: Estorninho preto. Sardinia: Stwrru nieddu, Sturru neru. Spain:
Tordo, Tordo serrano. Tunis: Sarsour.

Sturnus unicolor Temm. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 415; Man.
of Pal. Birds, p. 401. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 46.

Breeding Range: The Iberian peninsula, Sardinia, Sicily and the
Balearic Isles. [Also in N. Africa from Marocco to Tunis. |

In many towns of southern Spain this species is as familiar as S. vulgaris
at home, but it is somewhat local in its distribution and is not common
near Gibraltar. North of the Straits of Gibraltar it is as a rule only a
summer visitor, but Tait records it as resident in Portugal and very common
inland, but not numerous near Oporto. In Sardinia it is very plentiful, and
breeds in the mountains of Sicily. It is omitted from the lists of Wharton,

39

Gigholi and Whitehead for Corsica, and is only an occasional visitor to
the south of France, Italy and Malta. [On the mainland of Africa it is
resident, breeding in the cliffs of Cape Blanco (N.) and other localities on
the Maroccan coast. In Algeria it is curiously scarce, but breeds in Tunis
in numbers. |

like 8. vulgaris this species is sometimes met with nesting singly
and sometimes in small or large colonies. All the nests met with by Rey
in Portugal were built in crevices of rocks, but in Spain many pairs breed
in holes of trees. Pigeon houses and old Moorish towers are also freely
used and sometimes 100—150 pairs may be found nesting together. In
the towns any hollow in the roofs or hole in the walls of old buildings
is occupied. In north west Africa many nests are found in holes of the
sea cliffs, and also in the mosques inland, but in Tunis von Erlanger found
this species in possession of forsaken nests of Bee-Eaters and Rollers, as
well as breeding in crevices of the precipitous sandy cliffs at Oued Kasserine,
In Sardinia it breeds chiefly in holes of old buildings.

The clutch varies from 4 to 6 in number, and the eggs do not differ
from those of S. vulgaris. In south Spain the usual breeding time is about
the last week in April, and in Sicily from the second week in April on-
ward, but eggs have been taken in Marocco at the end of March, and
according to Kénig the young are hatched in Tunis about mid-April and
leave the nest at the beginning of May, but Erlanger took an incubated
clutch and a fresh egg there early in June.

60 eggs (50 measured by the writer, 5 by Erlanger and 5 by Rey),
average 30.82 >< 21.44 mm., Max. 34.2 >< 22.2 and 33 = 22.6 mm., Min,
28.1 >< 22 and 29>< 20.2 mm. Average weight of 5 eggs 396 mg. (Rey).

15. Rose coloured Starling, Pastor roseus L.

Eges: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XX XVIII, fig. 3, a—c. Hewitson,
Il. Kd., pl. LV, fig. 2. Baedeker, Tab. 50, fig. 11. Taczanowski, Tab.
XXXIV. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 11; id. Col. Fig., pl. 54.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Spacek rugovy. Denmark: Drossel-staer,
Rosenstar. Finland: Punakottarainen. France: Martin roselin. Germany:
Rosenstar, rosenfarbene Drossel, Staramsel. Greece: Hagion Puli. Helgo-
land: Stwwr-Amsel. Holland: Rosé Spreewv. Hungary: Pasztor madar,
Rézsds Rigo. ltaly: Storno roseo, Storno marino. Poland: Gniarek rézowy.
Russia: Rosowy Skworez, Skwornik. Sweden: Rosenstare.

Breeding Range: Breeds at irregular intervals in colonies in 8. Russia,
E. Hungary, Dobrudscha, Bulgaria, etc. In 1875 in Italy. [Also in Asia
from Asia Minor to Turkestan. |

The breeding of this interesting bird appears to be regulated to some
extent by the abundance or absence of the Orthoptera which form its

Nest.

Eggs.

Measure-
ments.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

40 -

staple food. Thus in Italy it is of uncertain and irregular occurrence, but
is said to have bred there in some numbers in 1740 (Savi). In 1875,
when Verona was infested by Acridium italicum, flocks of these birds, ten
or twelve thousand in number, arrived on June 3—4 and took possession
of the castle of Villafranca, nesting in every hole and cavity (see Zool.
1878, p. 16), but on July 14 all migrated southward. In Slavonia, Croatia
and Dalmatia it breeds occasionally (Brusina). In Montenegro it has been
observed by Fiihrer, and has probably bred in Albania. In Bulgaria and
Rumania it is an irregular visitor, sometimes breeding in large numbers,
especially in the Dobrudscha, where Elwes and Buckley found a large
colony near Milchova (1869) and the brothers Sintenis observed it nesting
at Medzidje, Zurilovka, etc., in 1875, while other visits are recorded in
1867, 1871, 1876 and 1889. These breeding places are however rarely
occupied for two consecutive years. In Hungary Petényi recorded it as
nesting in several places in 1837, and it is said also to have bred in
Switzerland, but the evidence is somewhat untrustworthy. According to
Erhardt is has bred im the Cyclades. To south Russia (Bessarabia,
Kherson, Crimea and the Caucasus district) it is a common visitor and
frequently breeds. Von Nordmann describes its nesting habits as observed
near Odessa in 1844. [In Asia Minor the discovery of a large colony in
the hills above Burnabat by the Marchese O. Antinori and yon Gonzenbach
was described in Nawmannia for 1856, and a translation appeared in the
Zool. 1857, p. 5668, while in 1871 Kriiper found colonies in another part
of the range.|

Invariably found in colonies, the nests much resemble those of the
Starling, and are placed in almost any kind of hole, but usually in crevices
of rocks, among loose stones, in holes of walls, or less commonly in holes
in banks and in the ground. The nesting materials consist of twigs, straw,
hay, dry grasses and plants; with a lining of roots, leaves, moss and feathers,
but frequently eggs are laid upon the bare earth with hardly a vestige
of a nest.

The usual number appears to be 5 or 6, but near Odessa von Nord-
mann found 6—7 common, and in some cases met with 8 and 9; and
Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria says the number varies from 3 to 8. In
appearance they resemble those of the Starlings, but are decidedly paler
in colour, many eggs being almost white with a faint bluish tinge. They
have also much more gloss than Starlings’ eggs. Herr O. Ottosson has a
clutch from Asia Minor with rusty brown spots.

At Villafranca the first eggs were laid on June 17, about a fortnight
after the first arrival of the birds, and the young were fledged by July 10,
so that they were able to migrate on the 14th. (The time of incubation
must therefore be short and the development of the young very rapid.)

41

Eggs from the Dobrudscha were taken about mid-June (Hodek). Near
Odessa in 1844 nesting began early in May, and in 1856 near Burnabat
the young had in many instances left the nest by June 30, but on the
other hand Kriiper did not meet with fledged young till July 11 in 1871.
It is evident that the time of laying varies considerably in different years.

Average of 80 eggs (54 measured by the writer, 23 by Rey and
3 by Reiser) 28.68 =< 21.03 mm., Max. 32 << 20.8 and 29.8>< 22 mm.,
Min. 26 >< 21.3 and 26.5>< 19.5 mm. Average weight (23 eggs) 408 mg.,
varying from 350 to 450 mg. (Rey).

ORIOLIDAE.

16. Golden Oriole, Oriolus oriolus (L.).
Plate 8, fig. 1—4 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XX VII, fig. 11, a—c. Hewitson,
I. Kd. I, pl. XII; I. Ed. I, pl. XX; I. Ed. I, pl. XXVI, fig. 1. Baedeker,
Tab. 50, fig. 10. Taczanowski, Tab. XXXII, fig. 1. Seebohm, Br. Birds,
pl. 11; id. Col. Fig., pl. 54.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Zluwva obecna, Mathes. Denmark: Guld-
pirol, Gulddrossel. Finland: Kuhankatttajdé. France: Loriot jaune. Germany:
Pirol, Kirschpirol, Goldamsel. Greece: Sykophdgos, Kitronpotl. Helgoland:
Biilow. Holland: Wiele-waal, Gele gouw, Goud-merel. Hungary: Sdrga
Rigo. Italy: Rigogolo, Repéndol. Poland: Wilga zélta. Portugal: Papafigo,
Marellante. Russia: Ivolga. Spain: Oropendola. Sweden: Sommargylliing,
Gultrast.

Oriolus galbula L. Dresser, Birds of Europe, II, p. 365; Newton,
ed. Yarrell, I, p. 233; Saunders, Manual, p. 145; Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds,
p- 226. O. oriolus oriolus (L.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 51.

Breeding Range: Continental Europe generally; excepting Norway,
Sweden (except possibly in the south), north and west Finland, and Russia
north of about 60° N. lat. In the British Isles it has bred occasionally
in the south of England. [Also in Asia; Persia, Turkestan, and 8. Siberia
to the Altai range; as well as in Tunis, Algeria(?) and Marocco.|

The Oriole is a tolerably frequent migrant to the south of England,
and has nested, or attempted to do so, in Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Northants,
Herts, Devon, Surrey, and several times in Kent. For particulars of two
instances in which a brood was successfully reared see Zool. 1874, p. 4232:
1875, p. 4624. It may possibly have nested at Tresco, in the Scillies,
where it occurs frequently in spring.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

42

In Sweden it occurs in the south, and occasionally as far north as
Dalarne and Westerbotten; it is also said to have bred in Kalmar lan
50 years ago. On the other hand it is not uncommon over a great part
of south eastern Finland, from Lojo in the south-west to Idensalmi (about
633° N. lat.) and eastward to Onega, but does not appear to be found
north of lat. 60° in east Russia. A few pairs nest in the Danish islands
and Schleswig Holstein, and it is common in the wooded districts of France,
the Low Countries, N. Germany, Austro-Hungary and Russia. In the
mountainous parts of Middle Europe it is less numerous, and in Switzer-
land does not as a rule breed above 3000 ft. In the Iberian peninsula it
becomes scarce in the south; and though plentiful in north Italy, is only
found nesting in wooded mountains in the southern provinces, and it is
doubtful whether it breeds at all in Sardinia. In the Balkan peninsula
it is generally distributed except in the south, but some breed on Corfu.
In the Caucasus it nests, according to Radde, up to 6000 ft.

The very remarkable nest is to be found in many kinds of trees,
preferably oaks or planes, but occasionally elm, white poplar, alder, apple,
birch or pine, not only on the outskirts of woods and in small plantations,
but also in wooded gardens, parks etc., even in large towns. It is usually
built far out on a horizontal bough at a considerable distance from the
main stem, often at a height of 10 to 30 or even 60 ft. from the ground,
but sometimes, though less commonly, within 6 ft. of it* The nest is
always placed at the fork of a bough, and is slung lke a cradle between
the two branches, to cach of which it is firmly attached, close to the angle.
The materials consist of grass stems, leaves of sedges and grass, roots,
strips of bark and wool, intermixed with a little moss and sometimes strips
of paper, or feathers, and is smoothly lined with flowering heads of grasses.
Approximate size: diameter 4351 in. depth 3?—54 im. When placed
high the nest is often difficult to see, and even harder to get at, without
sawing off the bough.

Usually 4 in number, sometimes 5. The ground colour varies from
pure white to a warm creamy tone, rather sparsely marked with spots and
a few fine specks of very deep purplish brown, almost black. Round the
larger spots are generally faint traces of paler purple red, forming a slight
penumbra. As a rule most spots are congregated towards the large end.
Occasionally eggs are met with almost without markings, while others
have one or two big blotches. The shell is tolerably glossy, but when
closely examined shows numerous fine irregular ridges running transversely
and a few longitudinal grooves.

* A nest was found in Silesia by Prof. Augustin only 3 ft. from the
ground.

45

The Oriole is a late breeder, and only rears one brood in the season.*
Harting took a nest between Paris and Orleans on June 3 with young
birds, but this appears to be an unusually early date. In Holland many
clutches are taken in the last week of May and the beginning of June.
Rey gives the first half of June as the usual time in north Germany, but
on one occasion found a nest with 3 eggs on May 17. In the south of
Europe the breeding season is earlier. Chapman gives May 20 as the
usual date date for Andalucia; in Italy it is said to breed from the end
of April to the beginning of June (Arrigoni), and a nest found in Bulgaria
on May 30 contained hard-set eggs (Reiser).

Average of 100 eggs (20 measured by Rey, 11 by Blasius and 69
by the writer) 30.87 < 21.3 mm. Max. 36 >< 22.2 (Newton' coll.) and
32>< 23.5 mm., Min. 28><20.3 and 31><20 mm. Average weight (20 eggs)
386 mg. (Rey). A dwarf egg in the Rey collection measures 19.7 > 15 mm.
and weighs 165 mg.

[ICTERIDAE,]

Note. Although several species of this American family have occurred in
Europe, it is probable that all were either escaped birds or ‘assisted passengers’.

Bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus (L.).
Plate 25, fig. 23, 24 (United States).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XX XIII, fig. 2, a, b. Bendire, II, Pl.
le) fier:

Breeding Range: Canada from S. British Columbia to lat. 47° on the east
coast, the northern United States to about 115° w. lon., but rarely south of
lat. 39°—40°. (Recorded twice from Helgoland.) Eggs 5—7 in number, very variable,
almost every set being differently marked (see Bendire, II, p. 433). Average of
77 eggs in the U. S. Nat. Mus., 21.08 15.71 mm., Max. 22.35 >< 16.26 mm., Min.
17.53 >< 15.24 mm. (Bendire). Weight 150—170 mg. (Rey).

Cassin’s Cowbird, Molothrus cabanisii Cass.
Plate 15, fig. 10—18 (Venezuela, H. Rolle).

Breeding Range: W. Venezuela and the adjacent parts of Columbia.
(Recorded from Helgoland, 1. X. 99). Parasitic upon other birds (see Rey, p. 353).
14 examples average 22.56 «17.79 mm., Max. 23.2 * 19.2 mm. (fig. 18), Min.
21.217 mm. (fig. 10). Average weight 300 mg. (Rey).

Red winged Blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus (L.).
Eggs: Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 11; id. Col. Fig., pl. 54. Bendire, pl. V1
fig. 13—15.

* Saxby (Zool. 1861, p. 7540) reports unfledged young in August in Belgium.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

44

Breeding Range: Canada from Great Slave Lake to 49° N. lat., and the
United States. (Recorded from the British Isles and Italy.) Eggs 3—5, rarely 6.
(See Bendire, II, p. 452.) Average 24.88>% 17.55 mm., Max. 27.94> 19.05 mm.,
Min. 20.57 < 15.75 mm. (Bendire).

Other American species which are said to have occurred are the Meadowlark,
Sturnella magna (L.),* the Baltimore Oriole, Icterus galbula (L.),+ and the Rusty
Grackle, Scolecophagus carolinus (Miill.)**]

FRINGILLIDAE.

17. Hawfineh, Coccothraustes coccothraustes (L.).
Plate 9, fig. 18—22 (Saxony).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXXVI, fig. 2, a—c. Hewitson,
id) tpl xX; IL hd. Ty pl. XLIM, fig. 2; Wl Ed) “pl Lil ioaaas:
Baedeker, Tab. 12, fig. 1. Taczanowski, Tab. LXIX, fig. 1. Seebohm, Br.
Birds, pl. 13; id. Col. Fig., pl. 56. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. IV, fig. 126—128.

British Local Names: England: Grosbeak, French or Haw Grosbeak,
Berry-Breaker. Isle of Wight: Cow-bird.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Dlask. Denmark: Kirsebaerfugl, Kjaerne-
bider. Finland: Nokkavarpunen. France: G'ros-bec. Germany: Kirschkern-
betsser. Holland: Dikbek, Appelvink, Kersebitter. Hungary: Meggyvago,
Madér. Italy: Frosone. Norway: Kirsebaerfugl. Poland: Luszczak
grubodziob. Portugal: Bico grossudo. Russia: Dubonos. Spain: Pifionéro,
Cascanueces. Sweden: Stenkniick.

Coccothraustes vulgaris Pall. Dresser, Birds of Europe, II, p. 575;
Newton, ed. Yarrell, Il, p. 98; Saunders, Man. p. 171; Dresser, Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 287. C. coccothraustes coccothraustes (L.). Hartert, Vog. Pal.
Fauna, p. 55.

Breeding Range: Europe generally, excepting Ireland, the greater
part of Scotland, northern Scandinavia and Russia north of lat. 60°. [Also
Asia Minor, N. Persia etc.; replaced in N. W. Africa by C. c. buvryt Cab.|

Although formerly supposed to be only a winter visitor, the Hawfinch
is now known to have bred in suitable localities in every county of Eng-
land except Cornwall; but it is still decidedly rare as a breeding species
in Northumberland, the Lake district and North Devon, and is perhaps
most plentiful in the midland and south-eastern counties. In Wales it
is extending its range westward, but is still absent from the coast of
Cardigan Bay, Anglesea and Carnarvon, and only known as a casual

* Eggs: Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 11; id. Col. Fig., pl. 54. Bendire, II, pl. VI, fig. 20, 21.

+ See Zool. 1890, p. 487. Eggs: Bendire, II, pl. VII, fig. 6—9.
** Eees: Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 11. Bendire, II, pl. VII, fig. 14—16.

45
visitor in many districts, though not uncommon in the valleys of Brecon.
In Scotland it appears to be slowly colonizing the south-eastern district,
and has been definitely recorded as breeding in Fife (Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist.
1904, p. 11), while there is reason to believe that it has nested in Perth
and Midlothian.

In Norway the Hawfinch has not been proved to breed, but in Sweden
it nests occasionally in Skane, Blekinge, Halland and Smaland, and has
occurred as far north as 644° N. lat. In Denmark it is chiefly found on
the islands, especially Zealand, and in Finland the nest has been found at
Helsingfors. From 8. Petersburg southward it is generally distributed over
the wooded parts of the European plain and in the lower valleys of the
hilly districts, becoming more numerous in the south of Europe. In Portugal
it is found from Evora to Beira and the Alto Douro, but is not common
and chiefly met with on higher ground. In Spain it is common in the
wooded sierras, and a few nest in the cork wood near Gibraltar. It is fairly
numerous in Corsica, but local, and rare on the west coast; while in Sardinia
it breeds plentifully in the orchards, and is not uncommon in Sicily. It
is chiefly known in Italy on passage, but some are sedentary both in the
north and in the south. In the Balkan peninsula it appears to be generally
distributed, though not very numerous, and breeds in suitable localities
from Aitolia and the Taygetos Mts. northward. [Hast of the Urals the
limits of this race and C. c. japonicus Temm. & Schl. are not exactly
known. |

The Hawfinch often breeds in gardens and orchards, generally nesting
on a horizontal bough of some lichen grown fruit tree, or else in a free
standing hawthorn. In such situations the nest is seldom built at any
great height, sometimes only 6 or 8 ft. from the ground. At other times
it prefers the outskirts of the woodlands, or isolated trees in hedgerows;
breeding indifferently in elms, sycamores, beeches, limes or other trees, on
lateral boughs, sometimes as much as 40 ft. or more from the ground,
and at other times among the outcrop from the trunk, only a few feet
high. Occasionally nests are found in hollies or on pollarded stumps in
hedges. The hen is a very close sitter, and as the parents are shy and
unobtrusive birds, the ravages of the whole family among the peas, or the
fringe of clipped shoots under the yew trees, are often the first intimation
that a brood has been hatched off in the vicinity. When built high up
in forest trees the nest is not easy to detect, as it is rather small for the
size of the bird, and somewhat shallow, but the fringe of small twigs
projecting from either side of a horizontal bough when seen from below
is very characteristic. In parks, orchards and old gardens several pairs
may be found nesting near one another. The foundation of the nest is
a layer of small twigs, with a shallow superstructure of bents, bark fibre

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

46

and coarse roots with sometimes a few lichens; lined with fine roots, hair,
fibre, or in some cases entirely with pigs’ bristles. Approximate size:
diameter 54—6 in., depth 2—2+1 in., diameter of cup 34, depth 1 in.

From 4 to 6 in number, but generally 5. They are very characteristic
and often exceedingly handsome. The ordinary ground colour is a pale
bluish or greyish green, varying to pale slate colour and rarely to pale
creamy brown or warm buff. The markings consist of a few bold spots
and streaks of lighter or darker olive brown, sometimes almost black, with
faint underlying hair lines, blotches and streaks of purplish grey. Occasionally
the dark markings are wanting, and sometimes only small spots on a blue
ground are met with.

The Hawfinch is single brooded, and in the south of England eggs
may be obtained from the end of April onward, and in the north
Midlands usually about the third week in May. Near Leipzig Rey found
fresh eggs from April 25 to June 20, but probably the last found nests
were second layings. In E. Prussia it nests at the end of May (Hartert).
Apparently there is not much difference between the time of breeding in
middle and southern Europe, for in Corsica Whitehead found fresh eggs
on May 16, and in Andalucia they breed in May, while fresh clutches have
been taken in the sierras at the end of the month. In Italy however the
breeding season begins towards the end of April. The period of incubation
is about 14 days.

There is very great variation in size and shape, some eggs being round
oval, others elongated ovate or even subpyriform in shape. Average size of
100 eggs (52 measured by Rey and 48 by the author) 23.86 < 17.24 mm.,
Max. 27.1>< 16.7 (Germany, Rey) and 22 <19.5 mm. (Dorpat, Br. Mus.),
Min. 19.8 >< 15.7 mm. (Epping, Br. Mus.). Average weight (52 eggs)
236 mg. (Rey).

18. Greenfinch, Chloris chloris (L.).
Plate 10, fig. 17—21 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXVI, fig. 4, a—c. Hewitson,
Lid, 4 pl. XVI; 01, Ed: I, pl. XLUDL fig. 1; IL Ed: Bipl Liliesa:
Baedeker, Tab. 20, fig. 1. Taczanowski, Tab. LXIX, fig. 2. Seebohm,
Br. Birds, pl. 12; id. Col. Fig. pl. 56. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. IV,
fig. 120—125.

Nest: O. Lee, HI, p. 48.

British Local Names: Green Linnet, Greene, Green Olf. Welsh:
Aderyn Melyn. Scotland: Green Lintie.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Zvonek. Denmark: Grénirisk, Svensker.
Finland: Vihredipetpponen. France: Verdier, Verdun. Germany: Griinling,

47

Griinfink, griiner Hdnfling. Greece: Phiort. Helgoland: Kort Guihl-
Kliitjer. Holland: Groenling. Hungary: Zéldike. Italy: Verdone, Verdello.
Norway: Svenske, Gronfink, svensk Irisk. Poland: Dzwoniec. Russia: Zele-
nuschka, Sweden: Gronhiimpling, Gronfink, Svenska, Groning.

Coccothraustes chloris (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, Il, p. 105. Ligurinus
chloris (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IH, p. 567; Saunders, Man., p. 169;
Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 283. Chloris chloris chloris (L.). Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 61.

Breeding Range: The cultivated and wooded districts of Europe,
except the Iberian peninsula (replaced by C. c. awrantiiventris), and the
north of Scandinavia and Russia. [Also Asia Minor, N. Persia and N. W.
Turkestan. |

Generally distributed over the whole of Great Britain and Ireland,
excepting the bare moorlands and mountain ranges; but does not appear
to breed on the north west coast district of Ireland, the Outer Hebrides,
the north west coast of the Scottish mainland or the Shetlands, though
it now breeds freely in the Orkneys. In the Inner Hebrides it nests on
the larger wooded islands, such as Mull, Jura, etc.

In Norway this species ranges up to about 65° N. lat., and has been
found breeding at Trondhjem’s Fjord; but in Sweden its northern limit
appears to be 62° N., and in the Urals about 60°. Over the northern
part of its range it is a summer visitor, but in the British Isles and
southern Europe it is sedentary as a rule. Southward its range extends to
the islands of the Mediterranean and it is common throughout Italy and
the Balkan peninsula, breeding not only in the plains but also in the
mountains of Greece.

Highly cultivated and well timbered districts, parks, gardens, etc., are
the favoured resorts of the Greenfinch during the breeding season, and here
it nests at times in such numbers that it almost appears to be sociable
in its breeding habits. I have known 15 to 20 nests in one high, straggling
hedgerow, not more than 150 yards in length; and frequently a clump of
evergreens in a garden will hold 5 or 6 nests. They are generally to be
found in shrubs and tall hedges, but also on the lower boughs of forest trees,
and among the outcrop from the trunk, and rarely among ivy or even
tall furze. The foundation consists of a few twigs, moss, bents, roots, etc.,
closely interwoven, sometimes with wool; lined generally with finer roots
and hair, but occasionally with a profusion of feathers; and there is much
variation in size, as well as in the materials employed.

Generally 4—6 in number, but occasionally 7 are found. The ground
colour varies from dirty white to pale greenish blue, with rather sparingly
distributed small spots of lighter or darker reddish brown, occasionally a
streak or scrawl, and with underlying markings of paler violet or reddish

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments,

48

brown. Most of the spots are to be found at the large end, sometimes
forming an irregular zone; and occasionally eggs are met with both with
bluish and white ground, but entirely without markings. A scarce variety
is very thickly freckled with reddish spots. In shape and size they are
extremely variable, some being much elongated.

Few eggs are laid in England before the beginning of May, and in
the Midlands most are laid between May 20 and the beginning of June.
A second brood is frequently found in July, and fresh eggs may occasionally
be found late in August. Rey says that in Germany the eggs (5—7) are
laid in April, and a second brood (5—6 eggs) in May or June. In the
south of Europe the breeding season is rather earlier, beginning in mid-
April in Greece. The eggs are hatched early on the 14th day (Evans).

The hen sits very close and frequently does not leave the nest till
almost touched.

Average of 101 eggs (77 continental eggs by Rey and 24 British
by the writer) 20.25 >< 14.52 mm. Max. 24.1 >< 14.2 and 21> 16 mm.,
Min. 17.2 13.5 and 21.5><12.2 mm. Average weight 123 mg. (Rey).
3 full eggs average 2.122 g. (Foster).

Dwarf eggs measure 15.5 >< 12 (Rey) and 12.5 >< 9.5 mm. (R. H. Read).

Geographical Races.
a. Common Greenfinch, C. chloris chloris (L.). See above.
b. Spanish Greenfinch, C. chloris aurantiiventris (Cab.).

Foreign Names: Portugal: Verdilhéo. Spain: Verdon, Verderon.

C. chloris aurantiiventris (Cab.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 63.

Breeding Range: Southern France, Spain und Portugal. [Also
Marocco, Algeria and Tunis. |

Very abundant in Portugal, and common in gardens and wooded
districts in Spain. Fresh eggs may be found in Andalucia from the middle
of April. [In Marocco, Algeria and Tunis north of the Atlas range it is
a common resident; Hartert describes it as very plentiful in the orange
groves on the Oum R-biah in middle Marocco, and obtained eggs on
April 10.]

In nesting habits and eggs this race closely resembles the common
Greenfinch. Average of 22 eggs from 8. Spain, Algeria, etc., 20.64 >< 14.56
mm., Max. 21.7><14 and 21.615 mm., Min. 19.2>15 and 2014 mm.

[In Syria and Palestine the resident birds belong to the form C. chlorts
chlorotica (Bp.). In China and Japan various forms of C. simica L. are
found. An egg of the Japanese race, C. sinica minor (Temm. & Schl.)
from Japan is represented on Pl. 15, fig. 4; and one of the Manchurian
race, C. sinica ussuriensis Hart. from the Amur on Pl. 15, fig. 5. A
young bird of C. sinica was captured near Copenhagen on Noy. 6, 1892.|

49

19. British Goldfinch, Carduelis carduelis britannica (Hart.).

Eggs: Hewitson, I. Ed. I, pl. CXXXVII; II. Ed. I, pl. XLIV, fig. 1;
Til. Hd. I, pl. L, fig. 1. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 12; id. Col. Fig., pl. 56.
Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. IV, fig. 129—130.

British Local Names: England: Tluistle Finch, Proud Tarlor,
EF linch, Seven-coloured Linnet, King Harry, Redcap, Goldie; Grey Pate (juv.).
Welsh: Nicol, Jacknico. Scotland: Goldflinch. Erse: Kinyeen ore (phonetic).

Carduelis elegans Steph. Dresser, Birds of Europe, II], p. 527
(partim); Newton, ed. Yarrell, IJ, p. 117; Saunders, Man., p. 173; Dresser,
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 274 (partim). Acanthis carduelis britannicus Hart.
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 68.

Breeding Range: The British Isles, but almost extinct in Scotland
except in a few southern localities. —

Formerly this species appears to have been very generally distributed British
throughout the whole of England and Scotland, except on the mountain les.
ranges. Its numbers have however been very greatly reduced by bird-
catchers, especially in the neighbourhood of large towns and in thickly
populated districts;* but the partial protection afforded by the Wild Birds
Protection Act has resulted in a decided increase of late years. At the
present time it is perhaps most numerous in the valleys of Wales, and
is not uncommon locally in many parts of England (see Zool. 1903, p. 23,
70, 104 etc., for fuller details). In Scotland it is now rare, though reported
as increasing in the Solway district and other localities in the south, and
formerly common locally; but a few isolated instances of breeding have
been reported from many districts, even from Skye and Caithness. To the
Hebrides and northern islands it is only a rare straggler. In Ireland it is:
very generally distributed and in some districts common, but has been
greatly thinned down in numbers near the towns.

Very frequently the nest is built in a fruit tree (apple, pear, plum etc.) Nest.
and in north Staffordshire usually in a damson orchard; but in the south
of England a great many nests are placed far out on the spreading branches
of the chesnut, sycamore, elm, beech, or other leafy tree. It is met with
less commonly in high hedgerows, conifers and evergreens. Where trees
are scarce, as in the west of Ireland, it will breed in gooseberry bushes,
furze, ivy on walls etc. (Ussher). The nest is very artistically constructed
of roots, bents, lichens and a little moss, interwoven with wool; sometimes
lined with willow down, at other times with hair and wool, and it is said,
feathers. Dimensions: diameter 3 in., depth 24—3 in., diameter of cup
2 in., depth of cup 14 in.

* See Zool. 1860, p, 7143.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

50

Usually 4—5 in number, but occasionally 6 are found. The shell
is thin and partly transparent, showing the yolk plainly and looking almost
white when unblown, but afterwards acquiring a bluish tinge. The markings
generally consist of a few distinct spots or streaks of reddish brown,
sometimes almost purplish black, with faint underlying spots or blotches
of reddish grey. Some eggs are boldly marked, while others have only
a few fine speckles. As a rule they have a character of their own, but
some varieties are indistinguishable from those of the Linnet.

The eggs of the first brood are generally laid between May 9 and
June 9, but most eggs are found about May 14—26. When a second
brood is reared (as is frequently the case), eggs are laid towards the end
of June or later. Fledged young have been found in the nest as late as
Oct. 2 in the Dove valley. In Ireland Goldfinches have been known to
breed in April; but May and June are the regular breeding months, and
July nests are probably second broods. Incubation lasts 14 days.

Average of 100 eggs (64 Irish and 36 English) 17.03 >< 12.87 mm.,
Max. 18.7><13 and 16.3>< 13.6 mm, Min. 15.5 ><12.2 mm. Average
weight (14 eggs) 79 mg. 8 full eggs average 1.429 o. (Foster).

Geographical Races.
a. Continental Goldfinch, C. carduelis carduelis (L.).
Plate 11, fig. 16—20 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXV, fig. 9, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 20, fig. 3. Taczanowski, Tab. LXXIII.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Stehlik. Denmark: Stillids. Finland:
Tiklt. France: Chardonneret, Chardonnet. Germany: Stieglitz, Distelzeisig,
Distelfink. Greece: Karderina. Helgoland: Ziebelitsch. Holland: Putter,
Bloemputter, Distelvink. Hungary: Tengelicz. Italy: Cardellino, Cardello.
Norway: Stillads. Poland: Szczygiel. Russia: Schtsscheglok. Sweden: Steglits.

Carduelis elegans Steph. (partim). Dresser, Newton and Saunders, 1. c.
(see p. 49). A. carduelis carduelis (L.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 67.

Breeding Range: Europe, excepting N. Scandinavia and N. Russia.
Replaced by other forms in the British Isles, 8. Spain, Sardinia, Corsica ete.
[Also Palestine and Asia Minor. |]

The northern limit of this race in Norway is 644° N. Lat., and in
Sweden to Wermland and Dalarne (61°—62°). In Finland it occurs in
Tavastehus, Kuopio and Messuby, but in the Urals not above 60°. Over
the rest of Europe it is generally distributed in suitable country, but is
not as a rule very common anywhere, except in the countries bordering
on the Mediterranean. In the Balkan peninsula it is common, and breeds

51

in the Cyclades, Crete, Cyprus, etc., while in Italy it is plentiful, and is
found also in Sicily.

In breeding habits it is resembles C. c. britannica, and its nest and
egos are also similar. Hartert has known two broods reared from the
same nest at Wesel.

In Scandinavia the eggs of the first brood are usually 4 in number;
the second brood generally consists of 5—6 (Ottosson), but in Germany
the first laying consists of 5, rarely 6, and the second of 5 eggs (Rey).

First broods in Germany in April or the beginning of May, second
in June (Rey); in Greece from mid April onwards, earlier in the plains
than in the hills (Kriiper); while in Scandinavia the first eggs are laid in
May or early June.

Average of 22 German eggs (12 by Rey and 10 by the writer),
17.3>¢12:65 mm., Max. 18><13.2 and 17>< 13.5 mm., Min. 15.6 >< 12.7
and 17.3 >< 12.3 mm. Average weight (12 eggs) 85 mg. (Rey). Eggs from
Greece are decidedly smaller: 23 from Parnassus average 15.9 >< 12.4 mm.,
Max. b7 >< 12.3 and 16.6 >< 13.5 mm: Min. 15.1 >< 12 and 15.5 >< L170 mm:

b. British Goldfinch, C. carduelis britannica (Hart.). See p. 49.
e. Sardinian Goldfinch, C. carduelis tschusii Arrig.

Local Names: Sardinia: Cardanera, Cardellina.

A. carduelis tschusit (Arrig.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 68.

Breeding Range: Sardinia and Corsica.

Common and resident in Corsica, where Whitehead found many nests,
some of which contained young, in the beginning of April, and obtained
eggs up to June 10. In Sardinia it is the commonest Finch on the island
and begins to pair in the first week of April (Brooke). The eggs are
rather small: 5 in the Tring Museum average 16.3 12.36 mm., Max.
16.8 >< 12.3. and 16.6><13 mm., Min. 15.8 <12 mm:

d. Barbary Goldfinch, C. carduelis africana (Hart.).

Local Names: Portugal: Pintasilgo. Spain: Guilguéro.
A. carduelis africanus Hart. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 69.
Breeding Range: Southern Spain. [Also Marocco, Algeria and Tunis. |
Goldfinches are among the commonest birds of southern Spain, and
appear to rear at least two broods; for fresh eggs are to be found from
the middle of April to the end of May, while the young of the first brood
are on the wing by mid-May. Many pairs breed in the orange groves,
building most beautiful little nests, smaller than those of C. ¢. britannica
(diameter of cup 12% in.), composed almost entirely of white plant down
and a little moss, woven together with fine roots and hair. [In the Barbary
states it is also very common, breeding in the orange groves and olive
4*

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure
ments.

British
Isles.

52

gardens in April and May.] Eggs generally 4—5 in number; slightly
smaller and lighter than the average of mid Huropean eggs, but other
wise resembling them. 26 African eggs measured by Erlanger, Konig and
Hartert, and 29 Andalucian eges by the writer, average 16.22 >< 12.63 mm.,
Max. 18> 13 and 1614 mm, Min. 15X12 mm. 7 Algerian eggs
weigh 63 mg. (K6nig), and 5 Spanish eggs average 73 mg.

[In Madeira and the Canaries a small dark race is found, C. carduelis
parva Tsch., and east of the Urals a larger form, C. c. major Tacz.|

20. Siskin, Carduelis spinus (L.).
Plate 11, fig. 21—25.

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXV, fig. 14, a—c, Hewitson,
II. Ed. I, pl. XLIV, fig. 2; IM Ed. I, pl. L, fig. 2. Baedeker, Tab. 20,
fig. 2. Taczanowski, Tab. LXXII, fig. 2. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 12; id.
Col. Fig., pl. 56. Frohawk, Br. Birds, pl. IV, fig. 131.

Nest: O. Lee, Il, p. 146; Kearton, Rarer Br. Birds, p. 105. (See
also Booth, Rough Notes, part XII.)

British Local Names: Barley Bird, Aberdevine. Welsh: Dreiniawg.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Cicek. Denmark: Grénsidsken. Finland:
Kréinsiska. France: Tarin. Germany: Erlenzeisig, Zeisig. Helgoland:
Ziesk, Holland: Sysje. Hungary: Cziz. Italy: Lucarino, Lugaro. Norway:
Sisik. Poland: Luseczak Ozyz. Portugal: Lugre. Russia: Cig, Cizik.
Spain: Lugano. Sweden: Gronsiska, Siska.

Carduelis spinus (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, Il, p. 126. Chrysomitris
spinus (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 541; Saunders, Man., p. 175;
Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 276. Acanthis spinus (L.). Hartert, Vog. Pal.
Fauna, p. 71.

Breeding Range: Kurope, locally, where coniferous woods exist,
except in N. Scandinavia and Russia, the Iberian peninsula, the greater
part of Italy and the southern part of the Balkan peninsula. [In Asia
from Asia Minor to Japan.]

Although the Siskin is reported to have bred in some fourteen counties
of England, most of the accounts of its nesting are quite at variance with
what we know of its breeding habits in the north, and it is probable that
in several cases the birds have been wrongly identified. It was however
found nesting in Durham in 1848 and also in 1874, and a few pairs bred
in the woods of Longtown, Cumberland between 1879 and 1885. In Scot-
land it. has been recorded as breeding in the Solway district, and north
of Perthshire its distribution is regulated by the presence or absence of
coniferous woods, but it is locally common as far north as Dunrobin (E.
Sutherland), though scarce on the western side of the country except per-

53

haps locally in W. Ross, and absent from the Hebrides, Orkneys, ete. It
has however occurred on the Shetlands, Mingalay and in Barra (1897),
but does not breed there. It was first found nesting in Ireland by Ussher
in 1857, and since then has been found breeding locally in all four provinces.

In Norway, though by no means common, it is known to breed
chiefly in the forests of the south and east, as far as Trondhjem’s Fjord,
and in Sweden appears to be chiefly confined to the middle of the country,
but nests in several localities in Skane, Blekinge and Kronoberg in the
south. In Finland its range extends to Uledborg (Pudasjirvi, Karlo, etc.).
A few pairs breed in the large coniferous forests of K. Jutland, and it has
also been known to nest on Falster and Bornholm. Throughout middle
Europe it is found locally in the larger coniferous woods of France, the
low Countries, Germany, Switzerland, Austro-Hungary, N. Italy, Bulgaria
(Baba-Planina, Rhodope Mts., etc.), probably Montenegro, and Russia from
58°— 60° N. lat. to the Caucasus.

Appears to be almost always placed in a conifer, Douglas, spruce,
silver or Scotch fir, larch and even deodara (Ussher). It has been asserted
that the nest is occasionally found in the birch forest, but further con-
firmation of the statement is desirable. The birds spend most of their
time about the tops of the tallest trees and generally build far out on
one of the branches, sometimes as much as 12 ft. from the stem. As the
usual height from the ground is about 40—50 and even 60 or 70 ft., it may
well be imagined that the nest is by no means easy to see.* Ussher
(Birds of Ireland, p. 57—58) gives many interesting details of the breeding
habits of this species in Ireland, and describes the nest as 1} to 2 in.
wide across the cup and 114 in. deep, less compact than that of the Gold-
finch, the light being sometimes visible through it. A number of small
dead twigs of fir or heather, often with grey lichens attached, are usually
built into the foundation of the nest, which consists chiefly of green moss,
with a few dry bents, bound round with wool or horsehair. The lining
consists of fine roots and sometimes also a few feathers, rabbit down,
cowhair, or thistle down.

45 in number, but 6 are said to occur. They show great variation
in size and also in colouring. The finest eggs I have seen were from Ire-
land, and were not only larger than any Scotch eggs which have come
under my notice, but also more brightly coloured. The ground colour
varies from a decided clear pale blue to a fainter tint. It is always clearer
and paler than the tint of the eggs of the Lesser Redpoll and the shell
is more glossy. The markings consist of pale red or reddish grey spots
and streaks, with a few spots of very dark red brown.

* Exceptionally the nest has been found only 12 ft. from the ground (A.
Ellison).

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

o4

It is an early breeder, nesting in Scotland from early in April to
the beginning of May, and generally rearing a second brood in June.
St. John found well fledged young near Nairn on April 26, and Hancock
found young nearly fledged in Elgin on May 2, but it is not unusual to
find fresh eggs in the first week of May in Ross. In Ireland Ussher found
the first clutches in Waterford and Wicklow early in April, and second
broods in June. Young birds have been seen on the wing on April 29.
On the Continent eggs are found in April or early May, and again in June.

Average of 72 eggs laid in a wild state, 16.27 >< 12.02 mm., Max.
185 pA?) and) 18.1>< 13 2mm: (co. Wacklow),) Mined 457 S12 sand
16.6 >< 11.1 mm. (Scotland). Of the above 72 eggs, 4 were taken in Ire-
land, 49 im Scotland and 19 from the Continent (Thuringia, Styria, etc.).

[Carduelis tristris (L.) is said to have occurred once on Achill Island (Zool.
1894, p. 396).]

21. Linnet, Carduelis cannabina (L.).
Plate 11, Fig. 1—5 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXXV, fig. 10, a—e. Hewitson,
Hd Tipl KCVE fe: 152; 0h Ed. b pl XV, tig. ds Bd pl Gly tess
Baedeker, Tab. 20, fig. 13. Taczanowski, Tab. LXXI, fig. 2. Seebohm, Brit.
Birds, pl. 13; id. Col. Fig., pl. 57. Frohawk, Br. Birds, II, pl. V, fig. 158—167.

Nest: O. Lee, IV, p. 40.

British Local Names: Grey, Red, Brown, Rose, Blood, Furze or
Whin-Linnet; Grey, Whin-grey, Hemplin. Welsh: Llinos. Scotland: Lintie,
Whin, Grey or Rose Lintie.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Jiftce obecna. Denmark: Tornirisk,
Graa- or Rédirisk. Finland: Hempponen, Hamppuvarpunen. France: Linotte.
Germany: Bluthinfling, roter or grauer Hinfling. Helgoland: Lrdisk. Holland:
Kneutje, Vlamsijs. Hungary: Kenderike. Italy: Fanello, Montanello. Norway:
Tornivisk. Poland: Makolagwa. Portugal: Pintarroxo. Russia: Repolow.
Spain: Camacho, Jamas. Sweden: Himpling, Sommarhdmpling.

Linaria cannabina (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 31. Linota
cannabina (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, Il, p. 153; Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds,
p- 312. Acanthis cannabina (L.). Saunders, Man., p. 187. A. c. canna-
bina (L.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 73.

Breeding Range: Europe, excepting the northern half of Scandinavia
and north Russia, but replaced in 8. Spain, 8S. Italy, Dalmatia, etc. by
C. c. mediterranea (Tsch.).

Generally distributed throughout the British Isles, but is especially
partial to furze covered commons and waste lands, and less numerous in
the highly cultivated districts. On the higher mountain ranges it is
replaced by the Twite, as also in the Outer Hebrides and Shetlands. In

55
the Inner Hebrides it is local, but nests in a few localities, and is common
in the Orkneys. On the Scottish mainland north of the Great Glen it is
scarce and local, and entirely absent from a great part of Ross, Sutherland
and Caithness, but is common locally in the Moray Basin. In Ireland it
is very common, breeding in all the open districts and many of the islands.

In Norway it is common in the south and breeds sparingly in the
Bergen and Trondhjem dioceses up to lat. 63° N., and generally in southern
and middle Sweden to about 61°—62°. Wheelwright met with the birds
at Quickjock, but failed to find nests, and in HK. Russia it is absent from
the greater part of the country north of lat. 60°. Over the rest of Kurope
it is locally common in suitable localities, but the exact limits of the
typical and the Mediterranean races are not yet clearly defined.

Wherever the ground is overgrown with furze bushes, brambles, black-
thorn or low scrub, the Linnet is pretty certain to be found breeding.
Plantations of young trees where there is plenty of undergrowth and
hedgerows are also favourite sites. Sometimes the nests are found in
considerable numbers within a short distance of one another, so that, like
the Greenfinch, it may almost be said to breed at times in colonies. As
Dr. Rey has pointed out, the Linnet breeds indifferently on the hills and
in the plains, in sand dunes or in swamps.

The nest is neatly and solidly built of grass stalks, roots, moss, etc.,
and sometimes a few fine twigs or bits of heath, warmly lined with hair,
wool, plant-down or feathers: while Rey mentions cases where strips of
cloth, string and even coloured silks have been found interwoven. Dimensions
in inches: diameter about 34, height 2; breadth of cup 24, depth 12.
It is usually found a yard or two from the ground, less commonly 3—4
yards high, but has been met with in tussocks on sand-dunes, in heather,
on the bare earth in Scandinavia (Ottosson), among grass in Germany (Rey),
among moss on rocks in the Alps (Bailly) and even in a potato or broccoli
plant! In Germany the nest is also frequently found in the ‘hedges’ of dead
branches by which the sand dunes are kept from drifting, as well as in
turf stacks and heaps of cut wood (Hartert).

Usually 4—5, sometimes 6, while 7 have occasionally been found.
Two (possibly sometimes three) broods are raised in the season. The eggs
show considerable variation in size, shape and colouring. Sometimes the
ground colour is a clear light blue with a slight tinge of green, at other
times it is bluish or French white; while the markings consist generally of
spots of purplish red, congregated round the large end, and underlying
spots or blotches of paler red or violet. Eggs entirely without markings
are found both with white and blue ground; and one variety is profusely
speckled with reddish, like the egg of the Spotted Flycatcher. Large
specimens exceed the minimum size of Greenfinch eggs.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

56

In England the eggs of the first brood are generally laid from mid-
April to early May, and the second in June or even July; while in Ireland
Ussher has found eggs from May to July, and in Germany Rey has taken
them between April 25 and August 15. In Greece Kriiper says they lay
from mid-April onwards, but in the south some birds evidently breed very
early, as Fiihrer saw fledged young on April 21 in Montenegro. In Finland
not before Mid-May. Incubation is chiefly, but not solely, performed by
the hen, and the eggs are hatched on the 14th day from the laying of the
last egg (Evans).

Average of 100 eggs from England and the Continent (80 by Rey
and 20 by the writer) 18.12 >< 13.10 mm. Max. 20.3>14 mm., Min.
14.7 >< 13.4 and 16><12 mm. Average weight (80 eggs) 98 mg. (Rey).
9 full eggs average 1.631 g. (Foster). Fatio has a dwarf egg 9>< 6.5 mm.

Geographical Races.

a. Common Linnet, C. cannabina cannabina (L.). See above.
b. Mediterranean Linnet, C. cannabina mediterranea (Tsch.).

Acanthis cannabina mediterranea Tsch. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 75.

Breeding Range: The northern shores of the Mediterranean, Dal-
matia, S. Italy, S. Spain, etc. The exact limits of this and the typical
race are not clearly defined. In 8. Spain great numbers nest in April.

[In the Canaries, Madeira and N. W. Africa the resident form is
C. c. nana (Tsch.). 11 eggs from Tenerife average 16.62 >< 12.89 mm.,
and are decidedly smaller as a rule than eggs of the typical form. From
the Caucasus and Asia Minor eastward C. c. fringillirostris (Bp. & Schl.)
is found. Average of 4 eggs from near Smyrna, 19.5>< 14.1 mm. (Coll. Selous). |

22. Twite, Carduelis fiavirostris (L.).
Plate 11, fig. 6—10 (Broadstone, Yorks, 16—20, VI, 80).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXXV, fig. 11, a—c. Hewitson,
1, Bat) pl. XOVE. hg. 3; Ts Hd pl XUV. tig. 35 ali ie plas
fig. 3. Baedeker, Tab. 20, fig. 14. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 13; id. Col.
Fig., pl. 57. Frohawk, Br. Birds, II, pl. V, fig. 172—173.

Nest: Kearton, Brit. Birds’ Nests, p. 315.

British Local Names: Mountain, Grey or Moor Linnet. Scotland:
Heather, Hill or Yellow neb Lintie.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Jirice horné. Denmark: Byjergirisk,
Moirisk, Bjergfinke. Finland: Keltanokka hemppo. France: Linotte de mon-
tagne or & bec jaune. Germany: Berghdnfling. Helgoland: Road-ejetihssed.
Holland: Fratertje. Hungary: Télu kenderike. Italy: Funello nordico. Nor-

57

way: Gulnaebet Irisk, Knitter. Poland: Gorniczek. Spain: Pajarel. Sweden:
Gulniibbad Himpling, Vinterhimpling.

Linota flavirostris (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 59; Newton,
ed. Yarrell, I, p. 160; Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 313. Acanthis flavi-
rostris (L.). Saunders, Man., p. 193. A. f. flavirostris (L.). Hartert, Vég.
Pal. Fauna, p. 76.

Breeding Range: Locally in the north of England, Ireland, Scot-
land and the adjacent isles (but not on the Ferées), Norway, Lapland and
perhaps also Finland.

In England the Twite is chiefly confined to the mountains and moor-
lands north of lat. 53° 204, although a few instances of its breeding farther
south are on record. W. H. Hine found a small colony nesting in N. Devon
in 1904, but though it is said to occur locally in N. Wales, definite proofs of
its breeding there are still lacking. A few pairs are found on the moorlands
of N. Staffordshire, but it is only on the extensive grouse moors of Long-
dendale (Cheshire), the High Peak (Derbyshire) and W. Yorkshire that is
begins to be at all common. In some parts of Yorkshire it is tolerably
plentiful; and is found in small colonies locally im many suitable localities
in our northern counties, nesting not only on the hills, but in the Lancashire
mosses only a few feet above the sea level. In Cumberland and the Lake
district it is local and far from common, and though recorded from the
Isle of Man 40 years ago, has not been observed there recently. In Scot-
land it is much more numerous, breeding among the heather, not only on
the mainland, but also on the Inner and Outer Hebrides, the Orkneys,
Shetlands and also on 8. Kilda. On some of the islands on the west coast
where the heather is high it is exceedingly common, and on the Orkneys,
Fair Isle and Shetlands it is everywhere abundant. In Ireland it is locally
common, especially near the coast, but does not breed in the low lying bogs
of the midland counties, and not often on the mountain ranges inland.

In Norway it is found sporadically in colonies in different localities,
such as the Dovrefjeld and the Filefjord, in the subalpine region, as well
as here and there along the west coast and islands as far as Tromsé
(lat. 69° 39° N.); while in Lapland it breeds plentifully near Karesuando
(Lillejeborg), and is said to have nested in Finland near Uleaborg. In
Sweden it is only known to occur in small numbers in the extreme north,
and its presence in N. Russia in the breeding season is very doubtful.

On English moors, where the heather is usually short, the nest is
generally close to, or even on the ground, often close to a sheep track. In
some parts of Scotland on the other hand (such as the islets in the Firth
of Lorne) it is not uncommon to find nests 3 or 4 ft. above the ground
in long, rank heather. In more open and wind swept districts, such as the
Outer Hebrides, where there is less cover, the Twite usually breeds on the

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

58

ground, often under shelter of on upturned sod or in rough pasture, and
sometimes among ivy or creepers on walls and rocks.

On the mainland it nests occasionally in trees in preference to the
open moors, and in the Orkneys and Shetlands many nests are now built
in gooseberry and elder bushes. Almost every kind of site is utilized
occasionally in these islands, e. g. in walls, peat stacks, stone heaps, under
boulders, in rabbit holes, haystacks, on ledges of cliffs, among young corn
or roots, even on cabbage stocks and inside a hollow turnip growing im a
field! In Ireland Ussher has found nests in furze, and one has been
recorded from under a tuft of rushes (Ellison). The nest is generally
neatly built of dry grass, fibrous roots and stalks, with fine twigs of heather
sometimes as a foundation and a little moss, and the lining consists generally
of hair and wool, with an occasional feather or two. Saxby found rabbit
down woven into the lining in Shetland nests, and on one occasion large
quill feathers (one 8 in. long) attached to the edge; while Macpherson records
one lined with peat fibre. Inside diameter about 2—24 im. depth 14 in.

5—6 in number as a rule, but Ussher has twice found clutches of
7 in Ireland, and 4 eggs are sometimes found. They resemble those of
the Linnet, but as a rule the underlying markings are few and there is
a decided tendency to streaks instead of spots, Ground colour generally
clear pale blue; the rather scanty spots or streaks are of very dark red
brown, and generally towards the large end. Saxby found a set of pure
white eggs in Unst.

The Twite is rather a late breeder, and in the north of England usually
lays from the middle to the end of May, or early in June. In Scotland the
breeding season is very similar, and in the Shetlands fresh eggs may be found
from mid-May onwards. In Ireland it is rather earlier, and Ussher has taken
full clutches in the first week of May. As fresh eggs have been found
both in Ireland and the Shetlands in July and August, it is probable that
a second brood is occasionally reared. The hen sits closely, and when
flushed flits restlessly about the heather.

Average size of 100 eggs from the British Isles (40 measured by
Rey and 60 by the writer) 16.89 >< 12.6 mm. Max. 18.5 >< 12.5 and
17.2 >< 13.7 mm., Min. 15.3 > 12.3 and 16.8>< 11.8 mm. Average weight
(40 eggs) 73 mg. (Rey). 4 full eggs average 1.474 g. (Foster). A dwart
ego (Yorkshire, R. H. Read) measures 14.2 >< 11.3 mm.

[From Asia Minor and the Caucasus eastward a paler form is found,
C. flavirostris brevirostris (Moore). Clutches of 5—6 eggs from the Kuko-

Noor measure 17 < 12.4 and 17.1 >< 12.6 mm., and resemble those of the

typical race (Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 77).]

59

25. Mealy Redpoll, Carduelis fiammea (L.).
Plate 11, fig. 11—15 (Lapland).

Kegs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXV, fig. 13, a—c. Hewitson,
Il. Ed., pl. LI,* fig. 1, 2. Baedeker, Tab. 20, fig. 15. Taczanowski, Tab. LX XII,
fig. 1. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 12; id. Col. Fig., pl. 57.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Cecatka obecna. Finland: Varpunen,
Punapid. Holland: Barmszsje, Paapje. Hungary: Nyirizsezse. Italy:
Sizerino. Norway: Grasisikk, Moirisk. Poland: Luszczak czeczotka. Russia:
Tschetschoska. Sweden: Kortnibbad Grasiska.

Linota linaria (.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 37; Newton,
ed. Yarrell, I, p. 133; Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 315. Acanthis linaria (L.).
Saunders, Man., p. 189. A. flammea flammea (L.). Hartert, Vig. Pal.
Fauna, p. 77.

Breeding Range: The typical race mhabits the birch and alder
region of northern Scandinavia and Russia, but in N. Lapland a long billed
race, C. f. holboelli (Brehm), is the prevalent form. [Also in Siberia and
arctic America.| (The study of the breeding habits of these birds is attended
with peculiar difficulty, owing partly to the diversity of opinion with regard
to the validity of the various species and subspecies of Redpolls, and
partly to the overlapping of the range of two closely allied species, C
flammea and C. hornemanni. Moreover not only do intermediate forms
between the typical race and Holbdéll’s Redpoll occur, but it is said that
in some districts both races are found breeding. See the bis 1904, p. 445.)

In Norway the Mealy Redpoll is abundant in the Tromsé diocese
up to about lat. 69°, and though less numerous in the south, small colonies
may be found in the birch woods not infrequently as far as the Dovre-
and Langefjeld, and occasionally even in the Kristiansand diocese. In
Sweden its range is more limited, and though common in Jemtland it is
scarce south of lat. 62°, but a few pairs have been found nesting in Werm-
land, Gefle, Kolmorden (1876), and Upsala (1902). In Finland and N.
Russia the distribution of the various races and species is very imperfectly
known and probably varies from time to time. At Lutni on the Murman
coast C. hornemanni exilipes was the only species found breeding by Pearson
in 1895, but was not met with subsequently. On the other hand C. flammea
(7 holbilli) was recorded from Lutni and other localities on the same coast
in 1899, 1901 and 1903, and also from Habarova (opposite Waigatch)
in 1897*. Seebohm secured a few specimens of C. flammea as well as
C. h. exilipes on the lower Petschora. In South Finland Westerlund
says it has bred near Helsingfors; Deichler describes it as nesting in the

* See also Pearson, Three Summers, etc., p. 166.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Breeding
Season.

Measure -
ments.

60

Russian Baltic Provinces, and von Homeyer on Hiddensoe, near Riigen in
the Baltic; while according to Hartert it breeds in northernmost E. Prussia,
near the Baltic.

Like the Twite, the Mealy Redpoll is a sociable bird; and it is not
uncommon to find several nests within a short distance of one another in
open glades of birch forest and on the outskirts of thickets of willow. As
a rule they are placed in the fork of a bough from one to ten feet high,
but nests have been met with on the ground in tufts of grass, and Newton
(II, p. 188) mentions one on the hollow top of a birch stump. They are
generally very neatly built of bents and roots, with sometimes a few lichens
and shreds of bark, on a foundation of a few heather twigs; while the
lining consists of willow down or flower-seeds, feathers (usually of gulls,
willow grouse or snowy owl), and reindeer hair. Diameter about 3—3+% in.,
height 2—24 in.; diameter of cup 14—2, depth 1—1?2 in.

Generally 5—6 in number, occasionally 4 only. For purposes of accurate
comparison most of the eggs in collections are of little use, owing to the
uncertainty as to the distribution of the various forms of Redpoll and
absence of authentication. As a rule Redpolls’ eggs are distinguishable
from those of other allied Fringillidae by the deeper blue of their ground
colour, duller surface of shell, more profuse and lighter markings and a
decided tendency to spots rather than streaks. The ground colour is however
very fugitive and individual eggs vary a good deal.

Somewhat irregular, nests with fresh eggs and young being often
found in close proximity. In mid-Norway full clutches may be taken from
the last week in May till about the middle of July, but usually in June.
On Karlé from the first week in June onwards (Sandman).

100 eggs from Scandinavia and north Russia measured by the writer
average 16.98 12.65 mm., Max. 20 < 12.2 and 17.6 > 13.6 mm., Min.
14.4 >< 12.2 and 15.5>< 11.5 mm. Some of these may belong to the next
species, but 22 which certainly belong to the typical race average
16.85 < 12.8 mm. Newton has a dwarf egg measuring about 11 >< 9 mm.
Rey gives the average weight of Redpolls’ eggs as 71 mg.

Geographical Races.

a. Mealy Redpoll, C. flammea flammea (L.). See above.
b. Holbéll’s Redpoll, €. flammea holboelli (Brehm).

Acanthis flammea holboelli (Brehm). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 79.
(Whether Holbéll’s Redpoll can be regarded as a strict geographical
race can hardly be stated with certainty as yet. Wolley observed considerable
wearing down of the mandibles of resident birds in Lapland during the
winter months, so that it is unsafe to attach too much importance to this

b1

character, especially as some birds regularly migrate southward in winter.
Witherby, who has shot both forms in the same little company, is disposed
to consider the variation individual. Intermediate forms also occur; and
without further investigation no distinctive characters can be given with
regard to breeding habits or eggs, but so far the larger billed and longer
winged birds have only been found within the most northerly limits of
the range of this species in both the Old and New Worlds.)

ce. Greater Redpoll, C. flammea rostrata (Coues).

A. flammea rostratus (Coues). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 80.

Breeding Range: Southern Greenland. (Has occurred at Barra, W. Scot-
land (Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist. 1901, p. 131) and Ireland (Birds of Ireland, p. 64).
Eggs said to be larger than those of the typical race.

d. Lesser Redpoll, C. flammea cabaret (P. L. 8. Miill.),
Plate 38, fig. 11 (Scotland); 26, fig. 4, 5 (Derbyshire, VI. 04).

Kiggs: Hewitson, I. Ed. I, pl. XCVI, fig. 4; Il. Ed. 1, pl. XLV, fig. 2;
Il. Ed. 1, pl. LI, fig. 2. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 12; id. Col. Fig., pl. 57.
Frohawk, Br. Birds, pl. V, fig. 168—171.

British Local Names: Chevy, Chaddy, Grey Bob, French Grey,
Banty Hemplin, Red Linnet. Welsh: Llinos bengoch. Scotland: Dwarf Lintie.

Foreign Names: France: Sizerin cabaret. Holland: Klein Barmsijsje.
Italy: Organetto. Switzerland (German): Stiidlicher Leinfink. Spain: Volicelo.

Linota rufescens (Vieill.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 47;
Newton, ed. Yarrell, Il, p. 146; Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 316. Acanthis
rufescens (Vieill.). Saunders, Man., p.191. A. flammea cabaret (P.L.S. Miill.).
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 80.

Breeding Range: The British Isles and the whole Alpine district,
probably also in the Carpathians. Redpolls (? C. f. cabaret) are also resident
in the Balkans and Caucasus.

In England this bird is commonest in the counties north of about
52° 30’, though everywhere rather local. In the south midland and south
eastern counties it breeds sporadically in small numbers, but is decidedly
scarce along the south coast and practically absent from the Devonian peninsula,
though recorded as breeding in Somerset and Dorset. In Wales it is fairly
common in the valleys, especially in some parts of the north (e. g. 5. Denbigh),
but is found also locally in the south, in Pembroke, Cardigan, Brecon, ete.
In Scotland it is a local resident or summer visitor in many of the wooded
straths of the mainland, and is known to nest in the Orkneys and some
of the Inner Hebrides as well as on Barra. In Ireland it is common and
widely distributed, nesting in every county except Kerry and on Aranmore

Island (Co. Donegal).

British
Isles.

62

ee In the valleys of the French, Swiss, Italian and Austrian Alps it is
Europe. tolerably common in the breeding season. 8. B. Wilson obtained a nest
on the Engstlen Alp in 1886 at a height of over 6000 ft., and according
to Fatio it 1s chiefly found in the Alpine cantons up to about 5700 ft.,
and more rarely in the Jura. Although the nest has not actually been
found in the Carpathians, the birds are seen in Hungary in winter and
spring. Reiser describes a form of Redpoll as breeding in the Balkans, and
Radde- mentions it as nesting in the Caucasus, but up to the present no
specimens are available for examination. On Helgoland a pair bred in 1872.

Nest. The sites adopted by these birds vary considerably. In the south
of England nests may be found in alders, osier beds, on small fruit trees,
on the outskirts of small plantations or shrubberies, and in high straggling
hedges. Another not uncommon site is among young conifers, especially
larches; and though most nests are built at no great height from the ground
there are a few exceptions to the rule on record. In Yorkshire it has
been recorded as nesting on the ground among bracken (Zool. 1902, p. 194);
in Scotland in tall heather, 2 ft. from the ground; among ivy on a tree
trunk in Somerset (Zool. 1903, p. 457), while on the other hand nests have
been found 40 ft. or more from the ground in ashes, elms, chesnuts,
larches, etc., and in Ireland it has bred in furze and currant bushes, honey-
suckle or briars (Ussher). It is not uncommon to find several nests in
tolerably close proximity, and some preference in shown for the neigh-
bourhood of rivers or marshes. The nest is very characteristic, being
composed chiefly of coarse stalks and roots, the ends of which project and
give it a rough, unfinished look: sometimes on a foundation of a few twigs.
At other times moss, wool and lichens are used. Internally the nest is
beautifully lined with white vegetable down as a rule, but sometimes with
hair or feathers, or even both. Diameter about 24 in., height 2 in., diameter
of cup 1% in., depth 1 in.

Eggs. 4—6 in number, but usually 5. The blue is of a greener shade,
and when fresh is decidedly deeper in tint than that of the other
Finches of this genus. The shell is also less glossy, and the markings,
which consist of a few spots or small streaks chiefly, at the large end,
are dark purplish brown, with underlying paler reddish brown spots or
blotches.

Brecding In the south of England according to Newton, eggs are known to
Season. have been laid by the end of April, but the more usual time seems to
be from mid-May to the end of June. In Derbyshire I have found most
nests between May 25 and June 15. Ussher gives the latter part of May
or the month of June as the usual time for eggs in Ireland.
In the Alps, according to Fatio it nests from the end of April to
late in May, and Wilson found fresh eggs on June 8.

63

100 eggs from Great Britain average 15.97 >< 12.2 mm., Max. measure-
17.5 X 12.3 and 16><13.2 mm, Min. 14.3><10.5 and 15.3><10 mm, ments.
A dwarf egg measures 13.5 >< 10.3 mm. (R. H. Read). Average weight of
16 eggs 73 mg. 5 full egos average 1.315 go. (Foster).

e. Iceland Redpoll, C. flammea islandica (Hantzsch).

(Recently described by Hantzsch as a separate race in his Beitr. z.
Kennin. d. Vogelwelt Islands, p. 300. Resident in Iceland, where they nest
in the scrub, 2 to 6 ft. from the ground, during the first half of June, and
lay 5—6 egas. Average size of 9 eggs, 17.73 >< 12.59 mm., Max. 18.4><13mm.,
Min. 17 >< 12.6 and 17.1><12.4 mm. Average weight 65 mg. Full eggs
vary from 1.5 to 1.6 g. (Hantzsch). Possibly C. hornemanni also breeds
on the island. Cf. Zool. 1901, p. 407.)

24. Coues’ or Hoary Redpoll, Carduelis hornemanni exilipes (Coues).

Tinota extlipes (Coues). Dresser, Birds of Kurope, IV, p. 51; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 317. Acanthis hornemanni exilipes (Coues). Hartert, Vie.
Pal. Fauna, p. 81.

Breeding Range: Lapland and northern Russia. [Also Arctic Siberia
and America. |

Apparently this species is somewhat irregular in its breeding range
in northern Europe. H. J. Pearson met with no other form in Russian
Lapland in 1905, and found it abundant near Lutni; on subsequent journeys
however only Mealy Redpolls were met with, except in 1903 near the
Tuloma, when two were shot. Witherby’s examples from this district
were C. flammea. Seebohm obtained specimens of both species from the
Lower Petschora up to lat. 714°. Pearson describes the nests and eggs
as indistinguishable from those of the Mealy Redpoll.

Eggs 4—6 in number, and much incubated on June 20. 9 authentic
eggs in H. J. Pearson’s collection average 17.35 >< 12.91 mm., Max.
IS 2 rand 1.3 >< 13:2 mm. Mim, 16:5 >< 13:1 “and 18 S< 12mm

Geographical Races.
a. Greenland Redpoll, C. hornemanni hornemanni (Holb.).

Eggs: Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 12; id. Col. Fig., pl. 57.

Linota hornemanni Holb. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 55; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 317. Acanthis hornemanni hornemanni (Holb.). Hartert,
Voég. Pal. Fauna, p. 81.

Breeding Range: Spitzbergen, Jan Mayen; perhaps also in Iceland.
[In Greenland to lat. 73°, etc. |

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

64

Owing to the fact that C. flammea rostrata also breeds in Greenland,
there is great uncertainly as to the authenticity of many Greenland eggs
in collections. Coburn reports having found this species breeding in Ice-
land (Zool. 1901, p. 407). 7 eggs taken by P. Nielsen at Akureyri certainly
appear too large for C. flammea islandica, averaging 18.08 >< 13.4 mm. in
size (coll. H. J. Pearson). 27 eggs ascribed to this species from Greenland,
taken during the latter part of June, average 17.64 >< 13.04 mm., Max.
19 >< 13 and 17.5><14 mm, Min. 15 >< 12 mm.

b. Coues’ Redpoll, C. hornemanni exilipes (Coues). See p. 63.

25. Citril Finch, Carduelis citrinella (L.).
Plate 10, fig. 22—26 (Switzerland).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXV, fig. 16, a—b. Baedeker,
Tab. 20, fig. 4.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Penkava citronovd. France: Venturon
alpin, Serin de montagne. Germany: Zitronenzeisig, Zitronenfink. Italy:
Venturone, Legorin de montagna. Spam: Verdoncillo.

Chrysomitris citrinella (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 535;
id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 278. Acanthis citrinella citrinella (L.). Hartert,
Voég. Pal. Fauna, p. 81.

Breeding Range: The chief mountain systems of central and south
Kurope.

In Spain this bird breeds on the spurs of the 8. Nevada, and Saunders
records a nest from Granada (2200 ft.). It is also found in the Pyrenees
up to about 6000 ft. and in the Vosges Mts., while in the upper valleys
of the Alps and Jura it is widely distributed and not uncommon from
2700 to 5400 and even 6000 ft. (Fatio). In Germany it breeds in the Schwarz-
wald, and its range also extends to the Tyrol and Salzburg. According to
Arrigoni the resident Italian birds probably belong to the next subspecies,
and Reiser does not include include it in the Ornis balcanica (Vols. U,
Il], IV). [The older records of this species from Greece and Corfu probably
refer to the Serin.]

The Citril Finch is a mountain haunting bird, and the nest is almost
invariably built in a pine or other conifer, sometimes at a considerable
height. It is neatly constructed of grass stalks, lichens and moss, with
spiders’ webs, fine roots or hair interwoven, and lined smoothly with hair,
thistle down or feathers. Being usually placed at the extremity of a branch
and partly concealed by the pine needles, it is not always easy to find.

4—5 in number, and practically indistinguishable from those of several
other species of this genus. The ground colour is perhaps more bluish

65

than in eggs of the Serin and Goldfinch as a rule, but the markings are
very similar.

In Switzerland according to Fatio, the eggs are laid towards the end
of April or at the beginning of May; but 8. B. Wilson took 3 nests with
eggs on May 28 in the Jura, and they may also be obtained till late in
June. The nest found by Saunders at the Alhambra contained 3 eggs
on April 4.

41 egos (11 measured by Rey and 30 by the writer), chiefly from
Switzerland, average 16.5><12.59mm., Max. 18.5>< 12.5 and 16.2><14.1 mm.,
Min. 15.3 >< 13.4 and 16.1 11.7 mm. Rey gives the average weight of
11 eggs as 74.4 mg.

Geographical Races.
a. Citril Finch, C. citrinella citrinella (.). See above.
b. Corsican Citril Finch, C. citrinella corsicana (K6n.).

Chrysomitris corsicana (K6n.). Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 279.
Acanthis citrinella corsicana (Kon.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 82.

Breeding Range: Corsica and Sardinia, where it is an abundant
resident, breeding even in the coast districts as well as in the mountains.
According to Arrigoni it is probably also this form which breeds in the
mountains of N. Italy. In Corsica Whitehead describes it as usually nesting
in arbutus trees. The nest is built of grass stems, lined with feathers
and is rather rudely constructed. The breeding season appears to vary
with the altitude, for Whitehead found young on April 29 on the coast,
while in the hills many nests were still empty at the end of May. Average
of 4 eggs in Tring Museum: 16.72 X12.75 mm., Max. 17.713 mm.,
Min. 16 < 12.5 mm. (Hartert, in litt).

26. Serin, Serinus canarius serinus (L.).

Plate 11, fig. 26, 28, 30 (Moravia); fig. 27, 29 (Switzerland).

Kees: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXXV, fig. 15, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 20, fig. 5. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 12; id. Col. Fig., pl. 56.

Foreign Names: Austria: Hirngrill. Bohemia: Zvonohlik. Denmark:
Guulirisk. France: Cimi, Serin. Germany: Girlitz. Greece: Spurgitis.
Hungary: Garlic, Cstcsérke. Italy: Verzellino. Poland: Kulczyk. Portugal:
Serzino, Spain: Chamaris, Verdecillo. Sweden: Gulhiimpling.

Serinus hortulanus Koch. Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 549;
Newton, ed. Yarrell, H, p. 111; Saunders, Man., p. 177; Dresser, Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 280. Serinus canaria serinus (L.). Hartert, Vg. Pal. Fauna, p. 83.

Breeding Range: The greater part of South and Central Europe;
is gradually extending its northern range. [Also the Barbary States and
Asia Minor. |

5

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Breeding
Season.

66

In the Iberian peninsula the Serin is abundant in most wooded districts
of Spain and Portugal, nesting in olive and cork-oak trees, in the pine
forest, and also on the slopes of the Pyrenees. In France it occurs chiefly
in the central and southern provinces, and is abundant in Corsica, nesting
in the olive, ilex, and cork trees. It breeds in the hilly parts of northern
and central Italy, occasionally in Calabria and Apulia, and is scarce in the
south of Sardinia. In Switzerland it is tolerably common in the plain, but
occurs in the mountains up to about 3600 ft, and of late years has
considerably increased its northern range in Germany (see Orn. Monatsber.
1893, p. 1), breeding not uncommonly in Brandenburg, while it has nested
in Pomerania and West Prussia and in the Rhine valley at least as far
as Kéln, as well as in Silesia. In Austro-Hungary it is now found in
every province, and is especially common in W. Hungary and Bohemia.
In Poland it was first recorded as breeding in 1877. In does not appear
to be a common breeding species in the pine forests of the Balkan penin-
sula, but is found on the wooded mountains of Greece.

This nest is as a rule a difficult one to find, though the peculiar
sibilant notes of the cock occasionally indicate its neighbourhood. In
middle Europe it is built in almost any kind of fruit or forest tree,
generally 9 or 10 ft. from the ground, but sometimes as low as 5 ft., in
gardens, parks, orchards, vineyards or avenues; sometimes among the small
twigs, and at other times at the angle of a stout branch. It is neatly built
of grass stalks and roots, often with a few lichens attached, interwoven
with spiders’ webs, or thread, and is generally smoothly lined with hair,
feathers, or down. Approximate measurements: diameter 34 in., depth of
cup 14—14 in, diameter 13—2 in. In N. Africa nests have been found
in bushes only 3 ft. high, as well as in olives and cork oaks up to 20 ft.

3—4 in the south, but generally 5 in the north; closely resembling
those of the Citril Finch and Goldfinch in colour and markings. They are
however generally smaller than those of the latter, and according to Rey,
frequently show a bluish tinge, which however soon fades. Occasionally
a clutch is marked with big blotches of purple brown.

In Middle Europe generally in May; in Corsica about the second
week of April, but much earlier in the south. Thus Rey found fledged
young on one occasion in Portugal on March 12, and eggs may be found
in Spain from the end of March to mid June. In Tunis Whitaker has

‘ seen well grown young in the nest on March 24, but Meade-Waldo found

Measure-
ments.

egos in the Maroccan Atlas in July. In Marocco Hartert found eggs at
Mazagan early in April.

Average of 100 eggs (82 by the writer and 18 by Rey) 16.17 ><11.86 mm.,
Max. 17.6><12.5 and 16.3>< 12.7 mm. Min. 144><11 mm. Average
weight (18 eggs) 70 mg. (Rey).

67

Geographical Races.

a. Canary, S. eanarius canarius (L.).
Plate 26, fig. 7 (Tenerife, 16. IV: 91).

Foreign Names: Azores, Canaries, etc.: Canario, Pajaro canario.

Serinus canarius (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 557; id. Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 281. S. canaria canaria (L.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 84.

Breeding Range: The Canaries, Azores and Madeira. (Has occurred in
the British Isles, Italy, ete.).

This large race of the Serin is abundant in most of the islands in the above
named groups. The nest is built not only on orange and cypress trees, 10 to
20 ft. from the ground, but also in the heaths and cistus scrub on the hillsides,
sometimes within a few inches of the ground. It is composed of stalks or moss,
lined with white hair, down or feathers. The number of eggs is variable: 3 is
the usual clutch on the Azores, but 4 are sometimes found; while in the Canaries
5) eggs are not unusual and 6 have been recorded. In the Azores eggs may be
found throughout April and May, but in Tenerife along the coast nesting begins
in January and at least two broods are reared, although in the high mountains
breeding takes place in June and July (Meade-Waldo). In colour the eggs are
variable; some are white without markings, but most have spots or streaks of dark
purplish red, sometimes only the paler underlying markings, on a pale bluish
or even reddish white ground.

62 eggs from the Azores, Tenerife, Palma, ete., average 17.17><13 mm.,
Max. 19.1 13.3 and 1814 mm., Min. 15.5 13.1 and 16.612 mm. Schmitz
has taken eggs 20 >< 13.5 and 17.8 14.5 mm. in Madeira.

b. Serin, S. canarius serinus (L.). See p. 65.

[Another species of this genus, S. syriacus Bp., occurs locally in the mountain
districts of Palestine, nesting in the forks of tall shrubs. Two eggs taken by
Tristram on June 16, 1864, measure 16.7 >< 12.4 and 17.113 mm. (coll. Newton).
It has been recorded from Dalmatia. S. icterus (Bonnat.-Vieill.) is said to have
occurred in England and Italy, and S. canicollas Swains. has been twice taken in
the south of England.]}

27. Red-fronted Finch, Serinus pusillus (Pall.).

Plate 38, fig. 10 (Caucasus).

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Zvonohlik rusky. France: Serin nain.
Germany: Rotképfiger Girlitz. Russia: Korolkowyt Wjurok; near Tiflis:
Malinowka.

Serinus pusillus (Pall.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IL, p. 561; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 282; Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 85.

Breeding Range: The Caucasus. [Also Taurus Mts., N. Persia,
Afghanistan, Turkestan, Kashmir, etc. |.

Little is known of the breeding habits of this bird, which nests in
the juniper forests of the mountain ranges of western Asia.

The nest is described as rather larger and better built than that of Nest.
the Serin, constructed of fine grasses with sometimes a few fine twigs in

5*

Eggs.

Breeding

Season.

Measure-
ments.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

68

the foundation, interwoven with lichens, chips of rotten wood, and strips
of bark, and warmly and softly lined with feathers, wool, and goats’ hair. It
is often found low down, but sometimes as much as 20 ft. from the ground
in juniper bushes, from 3000 to 3500 ft. or according to Dresser, 5000 ft.
above the sea level.

3—5 in number, and have been compared to those of the Serin and
Canary. They are thin-shelled, and the markings tend to form a zone of
dark rusty brown spots and streaks round the big end on a bluish white
ground.

Danford found fresh eggs in the Taurus Mts. on April 21, but in
Afghanistan the breeding season falls early in June (Wardlaw Ramsay),
and Biddulph took a nest near Gilgit on July 28.

The illustrated ege, obtained through Nehrkorn, measures 17.2 >< 13.2
mm., and weighs 88 mg. (Rey). An egg, taken by Danford (coll. H. E. Dresser),
measures 17 >< 13.5 mm. Other eggs ascribed to this bird from Kuldja
and the Caucasus average much less (8 specimens) 15.6 >< 12 mm.

28. Desert or Trumpeter Builfinch, Erythrospiza githaginea (Licht.).
Plate 26, fig. 6 (Algeria).

Foreign Name: Italy: Trombettiere.

Erythrospiza githaginea (Licht.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 85;
id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 329. E. g. githaginea (Licht.). Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 88.

Breeding Range: North Africa from Algeria to Egypt. It has
occurred at various places along the southern shores of Europe.

Resident in the hilly and stony country south of the Atlas, nesting
under tussocks of grass or other plants on the hill sides. The nest is
neatly built of fine bents, lined with fine roots and a little hair, wool, or
a few feathers.

Usually 4—5, occasionally 6 (Whitaker), are elongated in shape and
‘of a delicate sea green colour slightly spotted and streaked at the large
end with dark lake and reddish brown’ (Birds of Tunisia, p. 221). These
markings tend to form a zone.

From the end of February onward through March; latter in the north
of the breeding range than in the south. Probably two broods are some-
times reared.

Whitaker gives the average size of two clutches as 20 <14 mm.,
Hartert as 18—19><14 mm. Average of 10 eggs (Erlanger 4 and 6 by
the writer) 20.2 < 14.74 mm.

[The N. African race is replaced in the Canaries by FE. githaginea
amantum Hart. 32 eggs of this subspecies average 18.6 >< 14.1 mm., Max.

69

20d Sous seand Ts 15.2° mm.) Mine I> 13.70) ando)s< tas em.
In colour they resemble eggs from N. Africa. In Palestine another form
is found, E. githaginea crassirostris Blyth, which ranges through Persia
and Afghanistan to the Punjab.|

29. Common Bullfineh, Pyrrhula pyrrhula europaea Vieill.
Plate 9, fig. 5—8 (Altenkirchen, Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXVI, fig. 3, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 20, fig. 7. Hewitson, I. Ed. I, pl. XLII, fig. 3; Il. Ed. 1, pl. XLVI, fig. 1;
III. Ed. I, pl. LIV, fig. 1. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 12; id. Col. Fig., pl. 56.
Frohawk, Br. Birds, Il, pl. V, fig. 174—179.

Nest: O. Lee, IV, p. 130.

British Local Names: Olph, Bloodolph, Bud-picker, Hoop, Bullie.
Welsh: Aderyn-y-Berllan, Chwifanydd. Scotland: Bullflinch, Bullie.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Hyl obecny. France: Bouwvrewil commun.
Germany: Kleiner or gemeiner Gimpel or Dompfaff. Helgoland: Doompoap.
Holland: Goudvink. Hungary: Siivilté maddr. Italy: Ciuffolotto. Portugal:
Cardeal.

Pyrrhula europaea Vieill. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 101;
Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 166; Saunders, Man., p. 195; Dresser, Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 333. P. pyrrhula europaea Vieill. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 94.

Breeding Range: The British Isles and western and middle Kurope
from the north of the Iberian and Italian peninsulas to West Prussia.

As a rule the Bullfinch is much more familiar and generally distributed
in the British Isles than on the continent. Though scarce in some districts,
it is not uncommon in most parts of England and Wales. In Scotland
it is an increasing species, and is found in the valleys up to the limits
of the birch on most parts of the mainland. It occurs in 8. E. Skye
(Sleat) and has been seen in spring in N. Uist, while it breeds regularly
in several of the Inner Hebrides (Higg, Mull, Islay, Jura, etc.), although
not as yet established in the Orkneys or Shetlands. In Ireland it has bred
in every county and is not uncommon in the wooded districts.

Although is must be fairly common in N. Portugal, it appears to
be only thinly distributed along the Cantabrian range, but Lilford met
with it sparingly in Santander, and Saunders describes it as not uncommon
in the Basque provinces and Navarre. Here, as on most parts of the Con-
tinent, it haunts the mountain forests, and is found in the wooded parts
of the Pyrenees up to 4600 ft. In France it is local, and scarce in the
south, but in Switzerland is generally distributed in the Alpine valleys,
especially on the northern side. It also breeds in smaller numbers in the
beech and pine forests of northern and middle Italy from about 1800 to

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Breeding
Season.

70

3000 ft. In the pine woods of 8. Holland a few pairs also nest; and in
Germany it is local, and entirely absent from some districts, while in
Pomerania and E. Prussia it is replaced by the larger race. Among other
districts where it occurs more or less commonly may be mentioned the
Thiirmger Wald, the Harz, Silesia, etc, and it is on the whole more
numerous in the mountainous districts of S. Germany than in the northern
plains. In Austro-Hungary a good deal of confusion exists between the
two races, and at present their limits are not definitely known, but pro-
bably the smaller form is only found in the west, if indeed it is found
there at all.

The Bullfinch which Reiser describes as breeding in the mountain
ranges of Bulgaria and Montenegro, is probably the large form, P. pyrrhula
pyrrhula. :

In the British Isles the nest is often found in gardens, fir plantations,
clumps of evergreens, thickets and thick hedges; very frequently in a box
tree (Buxus sempervirens) and also commonly in yew trees. On the Con-
tinent it is usually built in firs or other trees, in dense forest. Nests in
hedges are sometimes only 4 ft. from the ground, but the more usual
site is about 5 to 7 ft. high in thick evergreens, while in the forests of
the Continent the nest has been found at a height of 15 ft. The nest is
very characteristic, consisting of fine twigs and moss, with sometimes
a few lichens, neatly lined with very fine roots and hair, and rarely with
a few feathers or a little wool. There is considerable variation in the
size of nests, some (probably those of young birds) being much smaller
and slighter than others. As the Bullfinch is a life-paired bird, the same
locality, though not the same spot, is often resorted to for several years
in succession. The hen sits very closely when incubating.

Usually 4—5, occasionally 6. In colour they are a clear blue with
a tinge of green, marked chiefly at the large end with spots and an
occasional streak of dark purplish brown, sometimes black or almost black.
These markings tend to form a zone. The underlying markings consist
of spots and sometimes large blotches of violet grey. A rare variety has
red spots on a white ground, and sometimes pure white eggs are found
(R. H. Read) or white eggs with faint reddish brown frecklings.

In the south of England the first eges are laid during the last week
of April or early in May, and a second brood in June. In the N. of Eng-
land the time is decidedly later, and most eggs are laid in the latter half
of May or the beginning of June, while second broods may occasionally
be found in July. Irish birds breed about the same time. Rey gives
May and July as the breeding season in Germany, and in the Alps it nests
in May or June according to the season, sometimes breeding a second time
in July and early August (Fatio).

(al

100 eggs (13 from the Continent measured by Rey and 87 British yeasure-

eggs by the writer) average 19.50 >< 14.46 mm., Max. 22.1>< 13.6 and
20.4>< 15.4 mm. Min. 17>< 14.2 and 17.2><13 mm. Average weight
(13 eggs) 110 mg. (Rey). 6 full eggs average 2.095 g. (Foster).

Geographical Races.

a. Northern or Russian Bullfinch, P. pyrrhula pyrrhula (L.).
Plate 9, fig. 1—4 (Sweden).

Eggs: Taczanowski, Tab. LXVIII, fig. 1.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Ayl velky. Denmark: Dompap. Finland:
Tuunherra, Punatulkku. Germany: Grosser or nordischer Dompfaff or
Gimpel. Holland: Groote or noordsche Goudvink, Hungary: Eszakt siivolto.
Italy: Ciuffolotto maggiore. Norway: Dompap. Poland: Gil wldsciwy.
Russia: Snegir. Sweden: Domherre, Klump. Transylvania: Pirok, Havasi pinty.

Pyrrhula major Brehm. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 97; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 334. P. pyrrhula pyrrhua (L.). Hartert, Vig. Pal.
Fauna, p. 93.

Breeding Range: Scandinavia, Russia, N. HE. Germany, Hungary, etc.
[Also in W. Siberia, etc. |

This large race inhabits the forests of middle and southern Sweden,
from Smdaland and Goteborg in the south to about Lat. 67° N., and is
also found on Gotland. In Norway it breeds in the south eastern districts
and along the west coast, and has occurred even in East Finmark. It is
generally distributed over the greater part of Russia, excepting in the high
north. In Finland it occurs sparingly, but is not uncommon in the Baltic
Provinces and Poland, though scarce near Archangel and only met with
sparingly by Seebohm on the lower Petschora. From the Kola peninsula
it has only once been recorded. In Hast Prussia a few pairs breed, and
it is said to occur also in Pomerania, but the exact limits of the two
races are imperfectly known at present. It is however almost certainly
this form which breeds in Galicia, Hungary and Transylvania, and probably
also (as recorded by Reiser) sparingly in Montenegro and Bulgaria.

Similar in construction to that of the western race, but in the north
of Europe Usnea barbata is often used as lining material, and probably
the nest is as a rule rather larger. Average measurements: 2} in. high,
34 in. broad; depth of cup 12, diameter 2 in.

Usually 5—6 in number, sometimes 4, and very similar in appearance
to those of P. pyrrhula ewropaea. The ground colour varies from bluish
white to a decided clear greenish blue.

As eggs are found in Scandinavia in May and again in July two

broods are probably reared. In Finland most eggs are laid in June:

average date about the second or third week in the month.

ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

(2

Average of 65 eggs (25 in coll. Wasenius, 16 by the author, 11 by
Rey, etc.) from Finland, Scandinavia, etc, 20.42 >< 1469 mm, Max.
23.2 >< 14.8 and 21><16 mm., Min. 18>< 14.4 and 19.2><14 mm. Average
weight (11 eggs) 137 mg. (Rey).

b. P. pyrrhula rossikowi Derjugin.
Breeding Range: Transcaucasia and probably in the whole of the
Caucasus.
[A very distinct form, Pyrrhula murina Godm. inhabits San Miguel
in the Azores, but is now on the verge of extinction. Eggs unknown.|]

30. Caucasian Rose-Finch, Carpodacus rubicilla (Giild.).

Carpodacus rubicilla (Giild.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 69;
id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 319. C. rubicilla rubicilla (Gild.). Hartert, Vég.
Pal. Fauna, p. 99.

Breeding Range: The Caucasus range, where it is chiefly met with
in the higher valleys, frequenting the banks of the mountain streams.
Nesting habits not known, but the eggs probably resemble those of C.
rubicilla severtzovt Sharpe, described and figured by Dresser in the Ibis
1904, p. 107, pl. III, fig. 1 and 3. They are of a beautiful blue colour,
sparingly spotted at the large end with black, and average (3 eggs)
23.86 >< 17.1 mm. (coll. H. E. Dresser).

[Rose Finch, Carpodacus roseus (Pall.).

Carpodacus roseus (Pall.). Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 324. C. rosea (Pall.).
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 105.

Breeding Range: Siberia, from the Yenesei to Sakhalien. (Has once
been recorded from Hungary.)

Czekanowski, who found this species nesting in the valleys of the R. Angara,
near Paduna, has given no details of its breeding habits. A clutch of 5 eggs in
Dresser’s collection from the Upper Yenesei averages in size 20.62 >< 15.1 mm.,
Max. 21.215 and 20.3>15.4 mm., Min. 2015 mm. These eggs are clear
pale blue, without spots.|

31. Searlet Rosefinch or Grosbeak, Carpodacus erythrinus (Pall.).
Plate 9, fig. 9—12 (Moscow, 30. V. 88).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. IC, fig. 16, a. Baedeker, Tab. 20,
fig. 12. Taczanowski, Tab. LX VII, fig. 2. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 12;
id. Col. Fig., pl. 56.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Hyl rudy. France: Roselin cramoisi.
Germany: Karmingimpel. Hungary: Karmazsin pirok. Italy: Verdone
bastardo. Poland: Gal dziwoni. Russia: Tschetschewiza. Sweden: Rosen-
fink, Rodhiimpling.

73

Pyrrhula erythrina (Pall.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, HW, p. 172; Saunders,
Man., p. 197. Carpodacus erythrinus (Pall.). Dresser, Birds of Europe,
IV, p. 75; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 321. C. erythrina erythrina (Pall).
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 106.

Breeding Range: The greater part of European Russia and a few
localities in E. Prussia, Hungary, etc. [Also in Siberia as far as the Lena,
replaced by other subspecies in central Asia and Kamtschatka. |

It is said to have bred in E. Finmark in 1867—8, and nests regularly
in southern Finland, especially in Nyland, and has been met with in summer
in the Kuopio district. In Livonia, Esthonia and Kurland it is found, but
not in large numbers, and is recorded as breeding near Archangel. Seebohm
met with two males at Ust Tzilma on the Petschora on June 7. In Great
Russia it is not uncommon and breeds not uncommonly in the Moscow
Government and also in Volhynia. Further south it is found as far as
the lower waters of the Volga and Don, but the Caucasian birds appear
to approach the Himalayan form, C. erythrinus roseatus (Hodgs.). In
Poland it is generally distributed but nowhere common, while in Germany
its only breeding place at the present time is the north eastern district of
E. Prussia, although it is said to have formerly bred in Silesia. In Austro-
Hungary, besides Galicia, it has occasionally bred in N. Hungary (Gémér,
Szepes and Saros counties).

Hartert describes this bird as breeding commonly in several localities
near Pillau, between Kénigsberg and Memel, and on the Kurische Nehrung.
Its favourite haunts are swampy woods of Alnus glutinosa with dense
undergrowth, always in the neighbourhood of rivers, and here the nest
is usually built low down in thick bushes. It is a very flimsy construction
of dead stalks, and dry grass lined with fine roots and horsehair. Diameter
of cup 22 in, depth 14—14 in, diameter of nest about 5—64 in.,
depth 22 in. The loud, flute like note of the cock when once heard is
quite unmistakable.

Usually 5 in number, though clutches of 6 are said to have been
found, and second layings often consist of only 4 eggs. They are of a
beautiful deep cerulean blue, which is however somewhat fugitive, sparsely
marked towards the blunt end with fine spots and streaks of deep chococate,
almost blackish, brown and occasionally a few violet grey underlying markings.

In E. Prussia full clutches are generally to be found in the second
week of June (earliest date June 7), but fresh eggs may be taken till
July (Hartert), while in 8. Finland the breeding season appears to be very
similar, eggs having been taken from June 9 to 18, and even in the first
week of July. In mid-Russia full clutches have been taken from May 23
onwards, but most eggs are laid early in June. Probably only one brood
is reared as a rule. The hen sits very closely when incubating.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

74

Average size of 86 eggs (48 by writer, 28 by Wasenius and 10 by
Rey) from Russia 20.05 >< 14.29 mm., Max. 22.2 >< 14.2 and 22 15.5 mm.,
Min. 18 >< 13.3 mm. Average weight (10 eggs) 123 mg. (Rey).

32. Pine Grosbeak, Pinicola enucleator (L.).
Plate 9, fig. 14 (Kittila, 4. VI. 88), fig. 13 and 15—17 (Kittila, 10—15. VI. 89).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXXVI, fig. 1. Hewitson, IJ. Kd.
I, pl. LIIL* Baedeker, Tab. 20, fig. 11. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 12; id.
Col. Fig., pl. 56. Ootheca Wolleyana, Tab. XU, fig. 1—20.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Ayl ofesnik. Denmark: Krognaeb, Svensk
or Norsk Papeggie. Finland: Kéipilintu. France: Bowvreuwil dur bec. Ger-
many: Hakengimpel, Fichtengimpel. Holland: Haakbek. Hungary: Nagy
pwok, ltaly: Ciuffolotto delle pinete, Cardinale. Lapland: Pacajas-loddi.
Norway: Konglebit. Poland: Gil klesk. Russia: Shur. Sweden: Tallbit,
Nattvaka, Svensk papgoja.

Pyrrhula enucleator (L). Newton, ed. Yarrell, IH, p. 177; Saunders,
Man., p. 199. Pinicola enucleator (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV,
p. 111; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 338. P. e. enucleator (L.). Hartert, Vég.
Pal. Fauna, p. 114.

Breeding Range: N. Scandinavia and N. Russia, [Also in N. Siberia,
but replaced in the east by P. enucleator kamtschatkensis (Dyb.).|

In Norway this species is found in Saltdalen (67° 20°) according to
Westerlund, and is tolerably numerous in the birch forests of KE. Finmark
(Sydvaranger, etc.). In Sweden it only breeds in the northern and eastern
part of Swedish Lapland, and is usually found nesting in the fir region
here and in the adjoining parts of Finnish Lapland. Wolley obtained a
large series of nests and eggs in 1855—58 from this neighbourhood. It
does not nest in 8. Finland, but occurs locally in the Kola peninsula, and
in the Archangel Government, where Harvie-Brown records it from near
Archangel and Seebohm from the Lower Petschora, while Pleske found it
in the pine forests west of the White sea.

The nest is usually placed 4 to 12 ft. from the ground, most frequently
about 5 or 6 ft., and over the greater part of its range this bird appears
to inhabit the region of conifers, nesting very often in small spruces and
also pines close to the stem. In the Kola peninsula and E. Finmark it
appears to breed in the birch forest. The foundation of the nest consists
of a flattish and rather loosely built structure of interlaced trailing twigs
and roots, which are sometimes of considerable length. Within this, and
looking almost like another nest, is a compact lining of fine roots or wiry
grass with sometimes hair lichens (Usnea) or a little hair.

75

The usual number is from 3 to 4, but on one occasion Sandman
found 5 eggs in a nest. They are handsome and characteristic: blue green
in ground colour as a rule, varying somewhat in depth of tone, some eggs
being very pale in tint and others varying from yellowish to greyish green.
The markings consist generally of a few bold purplish brown blotches,
sometimes almost black, and occasionally a dark streak or irregular line,
with underlying paler violet grey blotches and spots. Occasionally an egg
is closely freckled all over with small spots, and a good many show a
tendency towards a zone of markings at the big end, while eges are some-
times found with one or two very large blotches only. The shell is
tolerably smooth and shows but little gloss.

From the last days of May to the first week of July. Meinertzhagen
took a nest with much incubated eggs at Muonioniska on May 30, but
this is an unusually early date, and most eggs are laid from the 10th to
the 20th of June. The hen is a close sitter, and both sexes are remarkably
unsuspicious in their habits.

Average of 100 eggs (59 by the writer, 24 by Sandman and 17 by
Rey) 26.03 17.72 mm., Max. 30 >< 18.5 and 28>< 19.1 mm., Min. 23 ><17
and 23.8 >< 16.9 mm. A dwarf egg in Newton's collection measures about
19> 15.7 mm. Average weight of 17 eggs 221 mg. (Rey).

33. Seoteh Crossbill, Loxia curvirostra seotica Hart,
Plate 26, fig. 8 (Ross, 19. LT. 99).

Eggs: Hewitson, II. Ed. I, pl. LIV, fig. 3. Seebohm, Brit. Birds,
pl. 13; id. Col. Fig., pl. 56. Frohawk, Br. Birds, II, pl. V, fig. 180.

Nest: O. Lee, II, p. 48.

Loxia curvirostra L. (partim). Newton, ed. Yarrell, H, p. 187; Dresser,
Birds of Europe, IV, p. 127; Saunders, Man., p. 201; Dresser, Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 339. L. curvirostra scotica Hart. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 120.

Breeding Range: Very common locally in the forests of mid- and
north Scotland.

This strong billed race (frequently mistaken for L. pytyopsittacus)
has increased enormously in numbers of late years in Scotland, owing to
the amount of re-foresting that has taken place there. It is now found
in abundance from the wooded parts of S. E. Sutherland southward through
the counties which form the Moray Basin. Fuller details as to its present
distribution in this area will be found in the work of Harvie-Brown and
Buckley on the Vert. Fauna of the Moray Basin, I, p. 298, ete. On
several estates they are now shot down owing to supposed damage done to
the forests by destruction of seed-cones. In mid-Scotland it has been

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

76

recorded as breeding not uncommonly in many localities, more especially
in the older forests, and many instances are on record of its nesting in
the southern counties down to the Solway district and the Cheviots. The
breeding limits of this race and the weak billed English form are however
imperfectly known. JL. c. scotica is a winter visitor to England and LZ. c.
anglica occurs in Scotland.

Generally built im a Scotch fir or spruce, occasionally in a larch. It
is often placed among the topmost twigs of a high tree, at other times
near the end of a horizontal bough, but generally toberably high up. Few
nests are less than 25 ft. from the ground and many are much higher
but it is stated that they have occasionally been found as low as 5 ft. In
larches the nest are easily seen early in the year, but in evergreen conifers
they are often very hard to find, and can only be detected by hearing the
low chirruping of the sitting hen while being fed on the nest by the cock.
The foundation of the nest consists of a loosely built platform of dead
twigs of the larch or fir, while the interior is composed of dry grasses,
lichens, etc., lined. with wool, moss, finer grasses, and a few of the green
spikes of the Scotch fir. Other materials occasionally used are deer hair
and a few feathers. External diameter of upper nest 5 in., of cup 24 to
2% in., depth of cup 14 im. Although the Crossbill can hardly be said to
breed in colonies, it is usual to find several nests within a short distance
of one another.

The usual number varies from 3 to 4, but 5 are occasionally found,
and Harvie-Brown has seen a nest containing the extraordinary number of
7 egos! (V. F. of Moray Basin, I, p. 296). In appearance they somewhat
resemble those of the Greenfinch, but the markings are often much darker
in colour, and as a rule fewer. The ground colour is generally greenish
white, occasionally warmer in tone, and the markings consist of a few
bold spots, streaks or scrawls of dark purple red, sometimes almost black,
chiefly at the large end. In a few cases they are altogether wanting, while
in others only the faint underlying blotches, smears and spots of pale
reddish brown are met with.

In Scotland fresh egos may be obtained from February to April,
while a second brood is sometimes reared in June, but perhaps the first
week or so in March is about the best time. The hen sits very closely,
and has been known to allow herself to be taken on the nest.

Average of 100 Scotch eggs (71 by the writer and 29 by F. Nor-
gate) 21.24 >< 15.91 mm., Max. 24><15.5 and 21.6><17.3 mm, Min:
18.6 >< 15.6 and 20.6 >< 14.6 mm. As well be noticed there is considerable
variation in size among the above eges, of which 96 were taken in
Ross-shire.

=~]
=~]

Geographical Races.

a. English Crossbill, L. curvirostra anglica Hart.

Eggs: Hewitson, I. Ed. I, pl. CXXXV; II. Ed. I, pl. XLVI, fig. 2.

L. curvirostra L. (partim). Newton, Dresser, and Saunders lL. ¢. (p. 75).
L. curvirostra anglica. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 119.

Breeding Range: Erratically in England; probably it is this race
which breeds in the wooded parts of Ireland. (Z. c. anglica is a weak
billed form, barely distinguishable from the ordinary continental bird.)

In England the Crossbill is chiefly known as an erratic migrant,
sometimes remaining to nest for one season, and at other times for two
or three years in succession, after which it generally disappears. A few
pairs seem however to be permanently resident in the pine woods of N.
Hampshire and Surrey, and possibly in other parts also. Isolated instances
of breeding have been reported from many counties, and in the bleak “breck”
district of Norfolk Mr. F. Norgate found considerable numbers breeding in
the scattered pine belts in 1889. In Ireland Crossbills have apparently
increased in numbers since 1888, and are now known to breed in fair
numbers, but very locally, in most of the large coniferous woods of the
country. Probably nesting has also taken place in the Isle of Man.

Norgate (Birds of Norfolk, Il, p. 391) describes Norfolk nests as
composed of Scotch and other fir twigs and dry grass roots, lined with
dry grass, rabbit's felt, and occasionally a feather or two. Greenfinches
nests from the same locality were composed of similar materials, but the
extraordinary tameness of the sitting birds rendered identification easy.
All the nests found were built in Scotch firs, with the exception of one,
which was placed in an oak. In one case the tree was so small that the nest
could be looked into by a man standing on the ground. Many nests were
quite inaccessible and practically invisible from below. In Ireland Ussher
mentions a nest only 15 ft. from the ground on a steep slope, but describes the
usual height as 25 to 40 ft. The favourite nesting site is a group of old
Scotch firs on a hill, but larch and spruce trees are occasionally utilized.

The usual number of eggs appears to be 4 in England, but Norgate
took a clutch of 5 on April 1. In Ireland Ussher has never found more
than 4. The darkest spots on a series of Norfolk eggs are less black
than m many Scotch specimens.

Most clutches from Norfolk were taken during the month of March
and the first week of April, but there is little doubt that occasionally eggs
are to be found in February; and second broods have been recorded from
various parts of England in June and July. In Iveland eggs are laid in
February or March, sometimes April, and in 1899 the young had left their
nests before the end of March (Ussher).

British
Isles.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

78

25 egos taken in Norfolk by Norgate average 22.32 < 16.06 mm.,
Max. 25 >< 17) mm. Min. 20 =< 16 and 922) s< 15:25) mm) itis noticeable
that the average size is equal to that of eges of L. pytyopsitacus.

b. Continental Crossbill, Loxia eurvirostra curvirostra L.
Plate 12, fig. 26—29 (Viborg, Denmark, 19. Il. 89).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXVI, fig. 18, a—b (c?). Baedeker,
Tab. 20, fig. 8.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Krivka obecna. Denmark: Mindre or
almindelig Korsnaeb. Finland: Kéipylintu, Ristinokka. France: Bec-croisé.
Germany: Gemeiner or Fichtenkreuzschnabel. Helgoland: Borrfink. Holland:
Kruisbek. Hungary: Kis keresztorrt, Maddér. Italy: Crociere. Norway:
Grankorsnaeb. Poland: Krzyzodziéb. Russia: Klest-yelovik. Sweden: Mindre
Korsniibb, Krumsnabel.

Loxia curvirostra L. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 127; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 339 (part.). LZ. c. curvirostra L. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 117.

Breeding Range: The larger coniferous woods of the whole of
Europe, except the British Isles, the Iberian peninsula, the Balearic Isles
and Cyprus, where it is replaced by other races. It has not been found
breeding in Sardinia, Sicily or southern Italy.

In Scandinavia and Russia the Crossbill is found as far as the pine
belt extends, sometimes appearing in great numbers. In Denmark it breeds
only rarely; but is found locally in all the large pine forests of middle
Kurope, nesting in the Alps from about 2700 ft. to 5400 ft. In the
Balkan peninsula it is found not only in the Balkans, but also in the
mountains of Greece, and is resident in northern Italy in the Etruscan
Apennines and on the southern slopes of the Alps. In Corsica it is fairly
common in the pine forests.

Similar to that of the British race already described. Wheelwright
says that Swedish nests are usually built in small pines, very rarely in
firs, never in the depths of the forest, but always on a stony rise where
the trees are small and stand wide apart. During the nesting season the
cock sings from the top of a pine in the vicinity of the nest, and by
watching them he found over 35 nests in one season. They do not breed
in colonies, but two or more pairs are always to be found in the same
district and the same locality is often resorted to year aften year.

3—5 in number; similar in appearance to those of the British races.

Apparently there is not much variation in the breeding time over
the greater part of Europe. In Scandinavia it extends from February to
the end of April. In Denmark full clutches have been found from the
end of January onward: in Styria Hanf found two nests with 4 eggs each

fs

on January 20; and a second brood is apparently sometimes reared, as the
young from two nests in Upper Bavaria did not leave the nest till Sept. 5.
The period of incubation is 14 days, and the hen begins to sit as soon
as the first egg is laid.

100 Scandinavian and Danish eggs (24 measured by Rey, 17 by Meves
and 59 by the writer) average 21.72 >< 15.64 mm. Max. 25.5 >< 16 and
23 >< 10 mm, Min. 19:'4>< 154 and 20.7 < 14.1 mm: Average weight
of 24 Danish eggs 137 mg., varying from 128 to 153 me. (Rey).

e. Spanish Crossbill, L. curvirostra hispana Hart.

Foreign Names: Portugal: Verdilhdo. Spain: Verdon.

L. curvirostra hispana Hart. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 119.

Breeding Range: The Iberian peninsula.

Saunders describes this form as chiefly confined to the forests of
Segura, and Lilford met with is commonly in the pine forests of the
Guadarrama range in June. Chapman mentions having seen small parties
in the Andalucian pifales in spring.

d. Scotch Crossbill, L. curvirostra scotica Hart. See p. %.
e. Balearic Crossbill, L. curvirostra balearica (Hom.).
L. curvirostra balearica (Hom.). Hartert, Vig, Pal. Fauna, p. 120.
Breeding Range: Majorca (Mallorca).
Tolerably abundant in this island.

f. Cyprian Crossbill, L. curvirostra guillemardi Mad.

L. curvirostra guillemardi Mad. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 121.

Breeding Range: Cyprus. Guillemard found this bird in tolerable
abundance on Troédos, and obtained young birds, April 20—23.

[In addition to the above mentioned races the Algerian and Tunisian
bird has been separated under the name of L. curvirostra poliogyna Whit.
Nothing is known of its nesting habits, except that Kénig found the young
on the wing near Batna on May 11. An egg of the N. American form
L. curvirostra americana Wils. is figured on Pl. 12, fig. 30.]

34. Parrot Crossbill, Loxia pytyopsittacus Borkh.
Plate 12, fig. 25 (Wermland, Sweden, 1. IV. 75).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXXVI, fig. 17, a—b. Baedeker,
Tab. 76, fig. 12. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 13.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Krivka bavorskd. Denmark: Stor Korsnaeb.
Finland: Jso-kiipylintu. France: Bec-croisé perroquet. Germany: Grosser
or Kiefernkreuzgschnabel. Helgoland: Groot Borrfink. Holland: Groote
Kruisbek. Hungary: Nagy keresztcsirti. Italy: Crociere delle pinete. Norway:

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Kegs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

80

Furukorsnaeb. Poland: Krzyzodzisb papuzka. Russia: Klest sosnowtk.
Sweden: Stérre Korsniibb, Kruvas.

Loxia pityopsittacus Bechst. Newton, ed. Yarrell, H, p. 207; Dresser,
Birds of Europe, IV, p. 121; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 340. Loaxia pytyopsittacus
Borkh. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 122.

Breeding Range: Scandinavia and N. Russia as far as Poland.
Occasionally also in E. Germany.

In Scandinavia the Parrot Crossbill occurs irregularly as a breeding
species in pine forests throughout the whole country from northern Skane
to Lappmark, but is everywhere less numerous than the Common Crossbill;
and according to Wheelwright, the two species are never found breeding
together in one district in the same season. This is probably accounted
for by the different food of the two species, the Parrot Crossbill feeding
chiefly on pine cones and the Common Crossbill on those of the fir. In
Finland the large-billed bird nests at irregular intervals in various parts
of the country and is also resident in Esthonia, Livonia and Poland. It
also breeds irregularly in E. Prussia, in the forests of Silesia and in
Thuringia, between the rivers Roda and Orla, where C. L. Brehm first
described its breeding habits, while it is said also to have nested occasionally
in Upper Bavaria and Switzerland, and a pair on one occasion remained
to breed near Darmstadt.

Similar in construction to that of the Common Crossbill, but perhaps
rather better built and more warmly lined with strips of bark, lichens, a
few feathers, etc., and constructed of grass stalks, pine needles, mosses
(Sphagnum, Hypnum, etc.) and lichens upon a foundation of twigs. It
has been found at varying heights, but seldom less than 15 ft. from the
ground, and from 4 to 7 ft. from the main stem. External diameter
51—6 in, height 2?—34 in, diameter 24—3 in, depth 14—1# in.

3 or 4 as a rule, but 5 sometimes, though rarely, occur. Not only
are the egos larger than those of the Common Crossbill, but the markings
are frequently bolder and often almost black in colour. Occasionally the
ground is suffused with a beautiful pinkish blush.

Variable, eggs having been found from December to June. In
Scandinavia the usual breeding time is from the beginning of March till
late in April, but eggs have occasionally been taken in February. In
Silesia Brehm found most birds nesting in February and March, but also
in mid-December and January, as well as in May and June in some
seasons.

Average of 100 eggs (23 by Kénig-Warthausen, 13 by Rey, 12 by
Meves and 52 by the writer) 22.31 >< 16.5 mm, Max. 26.32 >< 16.36 and
22.29 < 18.05 mm., Min. 20 < 15 mm (Wheelwright, Sweden). Rey gives
the average weight as 169 mg., varying from 160 to 180 mg.

Raven, Corvus corax L.

Ridgw.

lis

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hand %—6 €:. corax corax L. 6-C

1

A. Reichert, pink.

1—7 Hooded Crow, Corvus cornix L.
8—11 Chough, Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax (L.).

9 10 A, Reichert, pin f-

1—10 Carrion Crow, Corvus corone L.

FT) ping:

AG Reicher

1—7 Rook, Corvus frugilegus L.

8—11 Alpine Chough

, Pyrrhocorax graculus (L.).

12 ; 13 AiReehert pang 14

1—6 Nutcracker, Nucifraga caryocatactes (L.).
7—14 Jackdaw, Coloeus monedula (L.).

weeps *

Puc *

1—10 Magpie, Pica pica (L.).

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bert, pimp 13

12 A. Reic

1—6 Jay, Garrulus glandarius (L.).
7—13 Siberian Jay, Perisoreus infaustus (L.).

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14 15 16 © at Reh etatping

1—4. Golden Oriole, Oriolus oriolus (L.).
5—9 Waxwing, Ampelis garrulus (L.).
10—17 Lesser Grey Shrike, Lanius minor Gm.

1—4 Northern Bullfinch, Pyrrhula pyrrhula L.
5—8 Bullfinch, P. pyrrhula europaea Vieill. 9—12 Scarlet Grosbeak, Carpodacus ery-
thrinus (Pall.). 18—17 Pine Grosbeak, Pinicola enucleator (L.).
18—22 Hawfinch, Coccothraustes coccothraustes (L.).

ef 21 25 A Reicherd. pings

1—8 Chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs L.

9—16 Brambling, F. montifringilla L. 17—21 Greenfinch, Chloris chloris (L ).

22—26 Citril Finch, Carduelis citrinella (L.).

10

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1—5 Linnet, Carduelis cannabina (L.).
11—15 Mealy Redpoll, C. flammea (L.).

6—10 Twite, C. flavirostris (L.).
16—20 Goldfinch, C. carduelis (L.).

21—25 Siskin, C. spinus (L.). 26—30 Serin, Serinus canarius serinus (L.).

A Reichert, p7hx

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28

1—10 House Sparrow, Passer domesticus (L.). 11—20 Tree Sparrow, P. montanus (L.).
21—24 Rock Sparrow, Petronia petronia (L.).
25 Parrot Crossbill, Loxia pytyopsittacus Borkh. 26—29 Crossbill, L. curvirostra L.
30 American Crossbill, L. curvirostra americana Wils.

13

23 24

1—5 Corn Bunting, Emberiza calandra L.
12—15 Cirl Bunting, E. cirlus L.
21—22 Cretzschmar’s Bunting, E. caesia Cretz.

Reisherty p26

6—11 Yellow Bunting, E. citrinella L.
16—20 Ortolan, E. hortulana L.
23—26 Rock or Meadow Bunting, E. cia L.

14

Reichevt, pimy:

1 Pine Bunting, Emberiza leucocephala S.G.Gmel. 2—6 Reed Bunting, E. schoeniclus (L.).
7 Rustic Bunting, E. rustica Pall. S—9 Yellow breasted Bunting, E. aureola Pall.
10—11 Red headed Bunting, E. luteola Sparrm. 12—16 Black headed Bunting, E. melano-
cephala Scop. 17—21 Snow Bunting, Passerina nivalis (L.). 22—26 Lapland Bunting,
Calearius lapponicus (L).

A -Reieh ert pink

1, 2 Intermediate Reed Bunting, Emberiza schoeniclus canneti (Brehm).

3 Thick-billed Bunting, E. pyrrhuloides Pall. 4 Japanese Greenfinch, Chloris sinica minor (‘T. &S.).

5 Manchurian Greenfinch, C. s. ussuriensis Hart.
6 Little Bunting, Emb. pusilla Pall. 7—9 Melodious Warbler, Hippolais polygiotta (Vieili.).
10—18 Cassin’s Cowbird, Molothrus cabanisii Cass.

15

16

1—5 Skylark, Alauda arvensis L. 6—9 White winged Lark, Melanocorypha sibirica (Gm.).

10—11 Brehm’s Crested Lark, Galerida theklae Brehm. 12 Black Lark, M. yeltonensis

Forst.. 13—17 Woodlark, Lullula arborea (L.). 18—22 Crested Lark, G. cristata (L.).
23—27 Calandra Lark, M. calandra (L.).

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27

1—4 Short toed Lark, Calandrella brachydactyla (Leisl.). 5—8 Pallas’s Short toed Lark,

C. minor heinei (Hom.). 9—12 Shore Lark, Eremophila alpestris flava (Gm.). 13—16 Alpine

Pipit, Anthus spinoletta Sav. 17—18 Rock Pipit, A. spinoletta obscurus (Lath.).

19—21 American Pipit. A. spinoletta pensilvanicus (Lath.). 22—27 Meadow Pipit,
A. pratensis (L.).

18

(L).

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1—5 Grey Wagtail, Motacilla boarula L. 6—10 Blue headed Wagtail, M. flava L.

11—14 Northern Yellow Wagtail, M. flava borealis (Sund.). 15—18 Yellow Wagtail,

M. flava rayi (Bp.). 19—22 Grey headed Wagtail, M. flava cinereocapilla Savi. 23 Yellow

headed Wagtail, M. citreola Pall. 24—27 Black headed Wagtail, M. flava melano-
cephala Licht.

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P. ater L. 13—16 Azure Tit, P. eyanus Pall.
Tichodroma muraria (L.). 26—30 Long tailed Tit, Aegithalos caudatus (L.).

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81

35. Two-barred Crossbill, Loxia leucoptera bifasciata (Brehm).
Plate 34, fig. 18 (Archangel, 4. V. 92).

Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 20, fig. 10.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Krivka bilokridla. Denmark: Hoidvinget
Korsnaeb. Finland: Kirjaswpi kiipylintu. Germany: Zweibindiger Kreuz-
schnabel. Helgoland: Witt-jiikked Borrfink. Hungary: Szalagos keresztczorii.
Italy: Crociere fasciato. Norway: Hoidvinget Korsnaeb. Poland: Krzyzodziéb
dwupregowy. Sweden: Béindel or Norsk Korsndb, Pipkrums.

Loxia bifasciata (C. L. Brehm). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 211;
Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 141; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 343; Saunders,
Man., p. 203. JZ. leucoptera bifasciata (Brehm). Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna,
pe 23.

Breeding Range: Northern Kuropean Russia. [Also Siberia; but
perhaps the eastern birds may form a separate race, L. leucoptera elegans
Hom. See Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 124.|

Although well known as an erratic visitor to Scandinavia and Finland
in varying numbers, this bird has not been definitely recorded as breeding
there, but a nest ascribed to it was taken near Upsala in March 1890.
Its home appears to be the great forests of the Archangel Government,
but it is not found in the Kola peninsula, and its range northward naturally
does not extend beyond the limits of the coniferous forest. Reliable notes
on the breeding of this species are much to be desired.

Dresser describes a nest from the Archangel district as smaller and
slighter than that of the Common Crossbill. The dimensions given by
O. Bamberg (Zeitschr. f. Ool. 1904, p. 52) of two nests ascribed to this
species from the Lena valley are approximately as follows: external dia-
meter 54—7+4 in., height 24—2? in. diameter of cup 21—2% in., depth
1—1+ in. The foundation of these nests consisted of fir twigs, stalks,
lichens and moss, with dead leaves interwoven, lined with lichens, roots,
down and small feathers.

3—4 in number, and 5 are said sometimes to occur. Four eggs
from Archangel in the British Museum average 20.8 < 14.7 mm., and are
thus decidedly smaller than those of the Common Crossbill, besides being
more boldly marked. On the other hand Ottosson describes an egg from
Siberia as 22.6 >< 15.9 mm., weight 135 mg., and an egg in Rey’s col-
lection measures 22.4 >< 16 mm. and weighs 160 mg. Bamberg describes
the eggs as averaging (17 specimens) 23.52 < 16.6 mm., Max. 24.6 >< 16.4
and 23.2 < 17.4 mm., Min. 22.5><16.1 and 24.1><16 mm., average weight
154 mg., varying from 138 to 168 mg. If these measurements are correct
the eggs exceed the normal size of eggs of L. pytyopsittacus, but it is
worthy of note that the eggs of the American White winged Crossbill,

6

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

82

L. leucoptera leucoptera Gm. are decidedly small. Six eggs from N. America
in the British Museum average only 20.65 > 14.7 mm. [This form appears
to have occurred in the British Isles. For illustrations of the egg see
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 19; id. Col. Fig., pl. 56.]

36. Chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs L.
Plate 10, fig. 1—8 (Germany).

Kegs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXVI, fig. 5, a—e. Hewitson,
I. Kd. I, pl. XVI, fig. 3, 4; Il. Hd. I, pl. XLI, fig. 1; Il. Hd. I, pl. XLIX, fig. 1.
Baedeker, Tab. 12, fig. 3. Taczanowski, Tab. LXXI, fig. 1. Seebohm, Brit.
Birds, pl. 13; id. Col. Fig., pl. 56. Frohawk, Br. Birds, pl. IV, fig. 148—155.

Nest: O. Lee, I, p. 10.

British Local Names: Spink, Chink, Pink, Twink, Scoppie, Shellie,
Shel-apple, Shilfa; Buck-, Horse-, Copper- and Beech-finch, Apple bird.
Manx: Ushag-y-choan. Welsh: Y Bink, Winc, Gwinc, Asgell fratth. Gaelic:
Breacan-beithe.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Pénkava obecnd. Denmark: Bogfinke.
Finland: Finkki, Peipponen. France: Pinson, Quinson. Germany: Buch-
fink, Edelfink, Fink. Helgoland: Bochfink. Holland: Vink, Kwinker, Schild-
vink. Hungary: Erde: Pinty. Italy: Fringuello. Norway: Bogfink. Poland:
Zieba. Portugal: Tentilhdo. Russia: Sjablik. Sweden: Bofink. Spain:
Pinzon real.

Fringilla coelebs L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, II, p. 68; Dresser, Birds of
Europe, IV, p. 3; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 306; Saunders, Man., p. 183.
F’. coelebs coelebs L. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 125.

Breeding Range: HKurope generally, but scarce within the Arctic
Circle. [Also in W. Siberia, Asia Minor, Palestine, etc. Replaced by other
forms in N. Africa, the Azores, Canaries, etc., and does not breed in the
Ferées or Iceland.]

Generally distributed and plentiful throughout the cultivated and
wooded parts of the British Isles, but naturally absent from the bare moor-
lands. In the north of Scotland it is found commonly in the straths as
far as the limits of tree and brushwood growth, and nests in small numbers
in the Orkneys. It has also been known to breed in the Shetlands, but
is absent from the open and treeless islands of the Outer Hebrides, although
nesting in the wooded islands off the west coast, such as Mull, Higg, ete.
In Ireland it is a common resident everywhere, except in those districts
which are altogether destitute of trees.

Here the Chaffinch is not only a familiar inhabitant of gardens,
orchards, and in fact all localities where trees grow, but is also met with
in the deep forests, and on the mountain ranges as well as in the plains.

85

In the Alps according to Fatio it is found breeding in the Haute Engadine
up to about 5400 ft. In the Iberian peninsula it is commonest in winter,
but many remain to breed locally where there are trees, even in the ex-
treme south of the country. It is plentiful also in Corsica, Sardinia and
Sicily, but in the latter island and in southern Italy is chiefly met with
in the mountains. This is also the case in the southern part of the Balkan
peninsula. In the north of Europe the Chaffinch becomes scarce in the
north of Scandinavia and Russia, but a few pairs breed as far north as
Enare Lappmark and up to the limits of the birch region, while Collett
observed a pair in June on an islet near the North Cape. In Russia
it is recorded from the Kola peninsula, near Archangel, and the Urals
to lat. 62°.

In the British Isles is as often in the fork of a bough in a hedgerow
as in a tree, usually from 4 to 15 ft. high.* In the north of Scotland
it is occasionally built in low bushes almost on the ground. In the great
European plain it is generally from 9 to 30 ft. high, but Rey has found
nests in young conifers at a height of 3 ft. and Fatio and Irby mention
isolated examples of nests built within a few inches of the ground in
Switzerland and Andalucia. There is a good deal of variation in the
materials used and also in size, but as a rule it is most artistically con-
structed of wool, moss, dry grasses, roots, etc, studded externally with
lichens, fragments of bark, or even paper, affixed with spiders’ webs; and
lined chiefly with hair and a few feathers. The nest, which is built by
the hen, is well felted together, and generally shaped to fit the supporting
bough. The cup is deep, with somewhat concave sides, diameter nearly
2 in., depth 13—14; external diameter about 31—4, height 14—3 in.

Usually 5 in the first brood, but 6, and on the continent even 7, have
been found; while the second brood often consists of only 4. There is
considerable variation in colouring: the normal ground colour being pale
greenish stone colour, with spots and streaks of dark purple brown, often
suffused with cloudy patches of pale sienna brown, as though the colour
from the spots had ‘run’. Sometimes the darker markings are wanting,
and only pale brown cloudings and speckles are met with; and occasionally
a clutch is found entirely without markings. Many eggs show a tendency
to a bluish ground, and a very remarkable variety with dark purplish
brown, almost black, markings on a clear blue ground has occurred not
only in Great Britain, but also in Germany, where it is not uncommon in
some districts, e. g. near Glatz in Silesia (Hartert), Greece and Scandinavia.
The shell is dull and almost devoid of gloss.

* Instances of nests on wall fruit trees, or against walls, have occasionally
been recorded; also among ivy on tree trunks.

6*

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

84

In the British Isles first clutches are found from about April 15
onwards, and the eggs of the second brood in the latter half of May and
early June. In Germany first broods from April 20 to May; second broods
in June (Rey). In the north the breeding season is later: on Karlé the
earliest date given by Sandman is May 28, and most nests were taken in
early June. In the Parnassus eggs have been taken from April 18 to
June 23 (Kriiper).

The average size varies somewhat according to locality. Rey gives
the average of 100 mid-European eggs as 19.3><14.6 mm., Max. 22.8><15.5
and 22.5>158 mm. Min. 17> 13.7 and 17.7132 mm, 32 eggs
from Karlé and Enare are rather larger, averaging 20.13 >< 14.72 mm (Sand-
man and Nordling), and on the other hand Reiser gives measurements of
eggs from Parnassus as 19.1 to 17.5 >< 15.3 to 14.1 mm. An unusually
broad egg in my collection measures 20 16.5 mm., and dwarf eggs are
sometimes met with, 13 >< 10, 14.5 >< 11.5, 16 > 12.5 mm, etc. Average
weight 125 mg. (Rey). 15 full eggs average 2.024 g. (Foster).

Geographical Races.

a. European Chaffinch, F. coelebs coelebs L. See above.
b. Moorish Chaffinch, F. coelebs spodiogenys Bp.

Fringilla spodiogenys Bp. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 13; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 309. F. coelebs spodiogenys Bp. Hartert, Viég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 127.

Breeding Range: Tunis, but replaced in Algeria and probably also
in §. Marocco by the closely allied #. coelebs africana Lev. and in N.
Marocco by F-. coelebs koenigi Roths. & Hart., according to Hartert. Has
occurred in Italy. For notes on the breeding habits of this bird see
Whitaker, Birds of Tunisia, p. 214, Konig, Journ. f. Ornith. 1893, p. 57, ete.
Eggs usually 3 or 4, rarely 5 in number; larger as a rule than those of
the Huropean race. 17 eggs (14 by Erlanger and 3 by the writer) average
21>< 15.29 mm, Max. 23><16 mm. Min. 19><15 and 21>14 mm.
A dwarf egg measures 17 13 mm, (Erlanger). Ground colour dull pale
greenish blue, ‘sparsely clouded and spotted with vinous and russet markings’
(Whitaker). Breeding season from mid-March to April and May.

[In Madeira the resident race is /. coelebs madeirensis Sharpe. 7 eggs
average 21.57 >< 16.3 mm. (Kénig and Schmitz*); average weight of 3 eggs,
160 mg. (K6nig). The Azorean birds are known by the name of F- coelebs
moreletti Puch. Average of 7 eggs, 21.27>< 15.36 mm. In the Canary
group F. c. canariensis Vieill. is found on Tenerife, Gran Canaria and
Gomera, F. c. palmae Trist. on Palma and Hierro, while a distinct species,

* Eggs figured in Journ. f. Ornith. 1890, Tab. VIII, fig. 2.

85

the Teydean Chaffinch, F. teydea Webb & Berth. mhabits the pine woods
of the Peak of Tenerife. 14 eggs of F ¢. canariensis average 21.8 15.4
mm. and are sparingly marked at the big end with fine red brown spots
or streaks on a pale bluish green ground.* The Teydean Chaffinch only
lays 2 eggs, blue green in ground colour with blackish brown spots and
underlying vinous blotches.; Average size of 6 eggs 23.45 >< 16.45 mm.
As will be seen from the above, the eggs of the N. African and Atlantean
Chatfinches are as a rule larger and more sparingly marked than those of
the Continental form. |

3¢. Brambling, Fringilla montifringilla L.
Plate 10, fig. 9—16 (Muonio, 8—19. VI. 92).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXVI, fig. 6, a—e. Hewitson,
I. Ed. Suppl. pl. CLXIX; II. Ed. I, pl. XLI, fig. 2; III. Hd. I, pl. XLIX, fig. 2, 3.
Baedeker, Tab. 12, fig. 2. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 13; id. Col. Fig., pl. 57.
Frohawk, Br. Birds, IJ, pl. V, fig. 156, 157.

British Local Names: Mountain or Bramble Finch, Cock-o’-the North.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Jtkavec. Denmark: Kvaeker, Norsk
Bogfinke. Finland: Peippo. France: Pinson des Ardennes. Germany:
Bergfink. Helgoland: Quidker. Holland: Keep, Berg- or Boschvink. Hungary:
Fenyé rinty. Italy: Peppola. Lapland: Vintan. Norway: Byergfink, Kvaeker.
Poland: Jér. Portugal: Tintihao montez. Russia: Wjurok. Sweden: Berg-
fink, Norrqvint. Spain: Montafies, Millero.

Fringilla montifringilla L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 75; Dresser,
Birds of Europe, IV, p. 15; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 311; Saunders, Man. p. 185;
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 130.

Breeding Range: Scandinavia and N. Russia. [Also in Siberia up
to about 50° N. Lat.| (In the British Isles the Brambling is said to have
bred once or twice, but the evidence is not conclusive.)

In many parts of Norway it is decidedly numerous, haunting the
subalpine coniferous woods and also the birch forest, up to about 70° N. Lat.,
while southward its range extends to about 59° N., where a few pairs
breed on the high fjeld. In Sweden is does not as a rule breed south of
lat. 62° or 63°, though occasional instances of nests in Upland and West-
manland (about lat. 60°) are on record. In Lapland it is numerous and
breeds on the Kola peninsula and throughout northern Russia, while
Bianchi has recently recorded it as breeding in the 8S. Petersburg Govern-
ment, but in the Urals its range does not extend beyond lat. 62°.

* Kees figured in Journ. f. Ornith. 1890, Tab. VIII, fig. 3.
+ Eggs figured ibid. Tab. VIII, fig. 1.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

86

Very similar in construction to that of the Chaffinch, but as a rule
less neatly finished and rather larger. The materials used also vary
according to locality, some nests being almost entirely composed of bents
and dry grasses, while other are covered externally with fragments of
birch bark, lichens, etc. and lined with feathers, hair, and willow down.
It is usually built at the junction of a bough with the stem of a birch or
small fir, at a height of from 6 to 10 ft. but occasionally much higher.
External diameter about 41 in. diameter of cup 21—24 in, depth
about 14 in.

Generally 5 to 7 in number, and somewhat similar in character to
those of the Chaffinch, from which they differ as a rule in their darker
and more greenish ground colour and more cloudy and less distinct
markings. The variety with a pale blue ground occurs only rarely, but
has been taken in Lapland by Meves.

In the valleys of southern and middle Scandinavia the laying season
begins about mid-May, and on the mountains at least a week later, but
in the north of the country eggs are usually found in June and even July
and in Lapland the first clutches are taken early in June. On Karlé
Sandman found eggs from May 20 to June. Probably one brood only
is reared in the season.

Average of 100 eggs (83 measured by Rey and 26 by the writer)
from Lapland and Norway, 19.5 >< 14.6 mm., Max. 22.2 >< 15.6 mm., Min.
18.1> 13.5 mm. Average weight of 83 eggs, 126 mg. (Rey).

38. Snowfineh, Montifringilla nivalis (L.).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXVI, fig. 7. Baedeker, Tab. XII,
fig. 4.
Foreign Names: Bohemia: Pénkava podhorni. France: Pinson de
neige, Niverolle. Germany: Schneefink. Greece: Chiondda. Hungary: Havast
Pinty. Italy: Fringuello alpino. Poland: Losczak znaczek.

Montifringilla nivalis (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 617; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 297. M. nivalis nivalis (L.). Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 132.

Breeding Range: Sierra Nevada, Pyrenees, Alps, the mountain
ranges of the Balkan peninsula and perhaps also the Apennines. [Also
Palestine (?). |

In Spain Dr. A. C. Stark found these birds very common in the Sierra
Nevada at 3000 to 6000 ft. in small flocks, and probably it also occurs
in the Sierra Guadarrama. In the central Pyrenees it is generally distributed
along the snow line, among the outcrops of rock, and is not uncommon.
Along the whole Alpine range it is locally common in summer above

87

6500 ft. even up to nearly 9000 ft. but has not been known to breed on
the Jura. In Italy it is tolerably numerous on the Alpine chain from
Liguria to Venetia, and has been observed at various poimts on the
Apennines, as far south as Gran Sasso. In the Balkan peninsula it is
found in Montenegro and probably in other mountainous districts, while in
Greece Reiser identified this species on the Korax and Kiona at about
6000 ft. in 1894. [In Palestine a few pairs of this race, or perhaps the
Caucasian form, are found on Hermon and the Lebanon.| One specimen
has been recorded from Sussex (Bull. B. O. C., XV, p. 58).

In uninhabited districts the nest is built in crevices of rocks and
cliffs which are free from snow, but where buildings and stone walls exist,
many nests are to be found underneath the eaves or in holes in walls.
The nest is rather bulky, built chiefly of dry grass; together with tufts
of hair, wool, leaves, wood-shavings and a few feathers; lined with feathers
of Ptarmigan, woven together with horsehair, etc. External diameter 8} in.,
diameter of cup 34 in. (S. B. Wilson). The Hospices on the 8. Bernard,
Simplon, Grimsel, and 8. Gothard are all inhabited by several pairs of
these birds.

Vary in number usually from 4 to 5, but 6 are occasionally found.
They are pure white, regular oval in shape, somewhat thin shelled and
with little gloss.

According to Fatio the first clutches are to be found at the end of
April or the beginning of May, and a second brood is often reared towards
the end of June or in August. On the 8. Gothard 8S. B. Wilson found
nearly hatched young on June 16, and of 5 nests examined none contained
eggs on May 27, so that here the eggs are apparently laid about the
beginning of June, which corresponds with nesting dates from various
localities. In the Pyrenees H. M. Wallis was of opinion that nesting had
not begun on June 21. These observations tend to show that in some
localities at any rate, only one brood is reared as a rule.

Average of 62 eggs (25 measured by Rey and 37 by the wniter)
from the Alps, 23.42 < 16.96 mm., Max. 25.5><18.1 and 25> 18.2 mm.,
Min. 21><16 and 21.5% 15.3 mm. Average weight (25 eggs) 225 mg.,
varying from 210 to 230 mg. (Rey).

Geographical Races.

a. Alpine Snowfinch, M. nivalis nivalis (L.). See above.
b. Caucasian Snowfinch, M. nivalis alpicola (Pall.).
Montifringilla alpicola (Pall.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IX, p. 187;
id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 298. M. nivalis alpicola (Pall). Hartert, Vég.
Pal. Fauna, p. 133.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

88

Breeding Range: The alpine regions of the Caucasus. [Also in
Persia and Afghanistan to E. Turkestan. |

In the summer it inhabits the mountains at a height of from ten
to fourteen thousand feet, and apparently resembles the European race in
its breeding habits.

39. Rock Sparrow, Petronia petronia (L.).
Plate 12, fig. 21, 22 (Spain); 23, 24 (Greece).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXIV, fig. 18, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 12, fig. 10. Reiser, Orn. Bale. II, Taf. II, fig. 20, 21.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Vrabec Zlutokrky. France: Moineau
soulcie. Germany: Steinsperling. Holland: Notmusch. Italy: Passera lagia.
Poland: Loszczak lesny. Portugal: Pardal francez. Russia: Kameni) worobe).
Spain: Gorrién montés, Chilla.

Petronia stulta (Gm.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 607; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 295. Petronia petronia petronia (L.). Hartert, Vig. Pal.
Fauna, p. 141.

Breeding Range: Southern Europe: Spain, 8. France, locally in the
Alps and Austria, Italy and Greece. [Also near Smyrna. |

Although not uncommon on rocky ground and in the Sierras of the
Iberian peninsula, this species is nevertheless extremely local. It occurs also
in the south of France, and is found in small numbers in the mountainous
part of Switzerland. In Germany according to Hartert it is confined to
the ‘Mussel-chalk’ districts of Thuringia, the valley of the Saale and its
tributaries, the Unstrut, Ilm and Gera. It is said also to have been
found formerly in the Wetterau and the Rhine valley. In Austria it is
of very rare occurrence but has been observed in the Tyrol.

In Italy it is found in suitable localities over the greater part of the
country and also in Sicily, but does not breed in Lombardy and is rare
in the Trent and Po valleys.

In the Balkan peninsula Lilford observed this species near Cetinje,
Montenegro, in 1857, but it has not been observed there since, and is not
found in Bulgaria. In Greece however it is common, building among
the ruins of the Acropolis and in the roofs of the houses. Reiser records
it from Thessaly, Parnassus, Acarnania, etc., and Lilford from Albania. In
the islands of the Greek archipelago it is however rare. [Also in Asia
Minor (Smyrna). |

Over the greater part of southern Europe the nest is generally found
in crevices of rocks, and occasionally in old walls, ruined towers, holes
in trees, etc. In Greece is not only breeds commonly in ruins, but also
nests underneath the tiling of inhabited houses (Orn. Balc. Ill, p. 236).

89

It is said to have formerly nested occasionally in fruit trees, and Reiser
mentions one instance of its breeding in a pine tree. The nest is much
like those of the other Sparrows, composed of straw, grass, etc., and lined
with feathers.

4 to 7 im number, of the usual Sparrow type of markings, but varying
considerably, some showing much of the whitish ground colour, and others
being handsomely marbled and spotted. Reiser figures an egg in which
the usual minute brown spots have run together into a large coffee coloured
blotch. The only constant difference between the eggs of this species and
those of other Sparrows in their decidedly stronger gloss.

In Greece Kriiper says that two broods are reared in the plains, but
only one in the mountains. First eggs are found from mid-April onwards,
but mostly towards the end of the month, and second broods in June; in
the mountains towards the end of May.

Average size of 86 eggs from S. Spain and Greece (44 by Reiser,
24 by Rey and 18 by the writer) 21.85 >< 15.67 mm., Max. 23.5 >< 16.5
and 21.7><16.9 mm., Min. 19.3><14.8 and 20.3><14.7 mm. Average
weight (44 eggs) 199 meg. (Reiser); 24 eggs 216 mg. (Rey). As will be
seen from the above they are generally rather smaller than those of
P. domesticus (L.).

Geographical Races.

a. Continental Rock Sparrow, P. petronia petronia (L.). See above.
b. Sardinian Rock Sparrow, P. petronia hellmayri Arrig.
P. petronia hellmayri Arrig. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 143.
Breeding Range: Sardinia and Corsica.
Barely distinguishable from the Continental form. In Sardinia it is
an abundant resident, but is scarce in Corsica, where a few pairs breed in
the mountains in May.

¢. Russian Rock Sparrow, P. petronia exigua (Hellm.).

P. petronia exiguus (Hellm.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 143.

Breeding Range: The mouth of the Don and the Caucasus to
Erzerum.

Sarudny says the eggs vary in size from 22.4 < 16.1 to 20> 14.5 mm.
' [In Madeira and the Canaries a small dark form is found commonly,
P. petronia madeirensis Erl., which nests under the eaves of buildings, and
lays small, ight coloured eggs. Average size of 10 eggs, 21.24 >< 15 mm.
In the Barbary states the resident form is P. petronia barbara Erl. 3 eggs
taken by Erlanger average 21><15.8 mm. In Palestine the large and
very distinct P. petronia puteicola Festa is found in summer, breeding in
old wells. 9 eggs average 21.33 >< 15.9 mm. in size. Breeding season,
mid-April. |

Eggs.

Breeding

Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

90

40. House Sparrow, Passer domesticus (L.).
Plate 12, fig. 1—10 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXIV, fig. 15, a—e. Hewitson,
I Ed. 1, pl Xi fig 1,2; I Nd. pl. XU, fie. 3, 4; Tl ed 1, plein,
fig. 3, 4. Baedeker, Tab. 12, fig. 7. Taczanowski, Tab. LXX, fig. 1.
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 13; id. Col. Fig., pl. 56. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I,
pl. IV, fig. 1832—143.

British Local Names: Spadger, Spuckie, Sprug, Craff (Cumber-
land). Manx: Jallyn. Welsh: Golfan Aderyn y to. Scotland: Spwig, Spurd.
Gaelic: Gealbhoun. Erse: Galun, Gealbhan.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Vrabec domdci. Denmark: Spurv, Graa-
or Huss-spurv. Finland: Varpunen. France: Moineau commun. Ger-
many: Haussperling, Hausspatz. Greece: Spurgitis. Helgoland: Karkfink.
Holland: Huismusch. Hungary: Hdzi veréb. Italy: Passera oltremontana.
Norway: Graa- or Hus-spurv. Poland: Luszczak wrébel. Portugal: Pardal.
Russia: Domaschni woroboj. Spain: Gorrién, Pardal. Sweden: Gra-
spink, Sparf.

Passer domesticus (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, II, p. 89; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, III, p. 184; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 289; Saunders, Man., p. 179.
P. domestica domestica (.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 147.

Breeding Range: EHurope, with the exception of Italy, and the
adjacent islands. [Also Siberia and at Tangier. |

Generally distributed over the whole of the inhabited parts of Great
Britain and Ireland, but scarce in some of the high-lying villages, and
never found at any distance from dwelling-places. It is found also in the
Isle of Man, on nearly all the inhabited islands on the west of Scotland
(though replaced by the Tree Sparrow on 8S. Kilda and scarce in the Outer
Hebrides), and in the Orkneys, Fair Isle and Shetlands.

Although as yet unknown in Iceland and the Feerées, this obtrusive
species has established itself in almost every inhabited part of the Continent
with but few exceptions. In the Iberian peninsula it is plentiful and not
infrequently breeds in the foundations of the nests of the larger raptorial
birds, as well as in roofs of houses, etc. To Italy however it is only a
rare straggler in the north, but is said to be resident in Udine; as well
as in Istria. In the Balkan peninsula its range extends to Huboea, and
it is also found in the Cyclades and Cyprus. Von Homeyer has recorded
it from the Balearic Isles, but it is absent from Corsica, Sardinia and
Sicily. In northern Europe its range extends in Russia to Archangel and
the lower Petschora; in Lapland it is found up to nearly lat. 674° N., and
on the northern coast is noted by Pearson from the Pechenga, while in

91

Norway it has reached Oxfjord, south of Hammerfest. It is however still
unknown in the Ferées and Iceland.

The characteristically untidy nest is generally placed in some crevice
or recess of a building, very often underneath eaves, or behind spouting.
Ivy-covered walls are also much used, and in large towns any convenient
nook, even in a statue, is soon occupied. Many nests are also built in
trees, sometimes high up among the smaller branches, and at other times
close to the stem, but always at a fair height. The House Martin is often
ejected from its home in order to provide a nesting site for this species,
which has also been found breeding in the foundations of nests of rooks,
storks, and the larger birds of prey, eagles, kites, etc., as well as in sand
martins holes, and occasionally in crevices of cliffs.

When built in the open the nest is a large domed structure, composed
of straw, dead grass and any available material, while the lining generally
consists chiefly of feathers, though hair, wool and other substances are also
used. When placed in a hole the outer covering is sometimes dispensed
with either partly or altogether. If undisturbed several broods may be
reared from one nest, and if the first clutch of eggs is removed another
will be found about ten days later. Dr. Rey mentions two instances in
which no fewer than ten clutches were removed from one nest in a
single season.

Usually 4 or 5 in number, but instances of 6 and even 7 eggs in one
nest have occurred and sometimes the full clutch consists of 3 only. They
vary considerably, but it is usual to find one egg in each nest much more
lightly marked than the others. Some eggs are quite white, while others
have the markings confined to a cap or zone at the big end, but the majority
are more or less finely spotted allo ver with varying shades of ashy grey
and brown. The varieties are too numerous for description, but it should
be noted that some eggs show a decided tendency to erythrism. This has
also been observed in Sweden. According to Mr. J. P. Nunn from 60 to
70 per cent of the lightly marked eggs are unfertile (Zool. 1888, p. 30).

As a rule the Sparrow is not a particularly early breeder, and eggs
are seldom found in the country districts before May, while in the midlands
the second week is about the usual time. In towns and where artificial
heat is maintained breeding takes place almost all the year round, and the
same thing has been observed in places with a mild climate. Saxby found
eggs in the Shetlands as early as April 11 and newly hatched young in
December. In the northern limits of its range the eggs are not laid till
the end of May or early June, while in Greece they have been found by
mid-March.

Average size of 100 German eggs, 22 < 15.6 mm., Max. 25.2 >< 15.6
and 23><17 mm. Average weight 207 mg. (Rey). The same author

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

92

mentions dwarf eggs 12.5> 10.8 and 12.7> 10.2 mm., as well an as
abnormally large egg 25.9>< 16.9 mm. Eggs from northern Europe are
slightly larger: thus 20 eggs from Finland average 23.2 < 16.3 mm.
(Sandman). As will be seen from the above measurements there is con-
siderable variation in size and shape in the eggs of this species. The
average weight of 33 full eges is 2.568 g. (Foster).

[Several Geographical Races of this species are found south of the
Mediterranean: P. domesticus tingitanus Loche inhabits Marocco, Algeria
and Tunis, P. d. ahasver Kleinschm. the country south of the Atlas, P. d.
biblicus Hart. part of Syria and Palestine, etc.|

41. Italian Sparrow, Passer italiae (Vieill.).
Plate 26, fig. 9 (Ticino).

Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 12, fig. 8.
Foreign Names: Italy: Passera.
Passer italiae (Vieill.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 585; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 290; Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 152.
Breeding Range: Italy, Corsica, southern France and the Balearic Isles.
Con- This species replaces the Common Sparrow, south of the Alps, on
ace the mainland of Italy, where it is an abundant resident in the towns and
villages. It is however absent from Sardinia, Malta and Sicily (except at
Messina), but occurs in the Balearic Isles, and locally in the Tyrol and
Istria in company with P. domesticus (Arrigoni) as well as in Elba and
Corsica. In the Riviera it is found at Nice, and occurs also as far as Lyon.
WERE, In nesting habits it closely resembles the House Sparrow, and the
ete. eoos are quite undistinguishable, though perhaps slightly smaller than
typical eggs of P. domesticus from middle Europe. Breeding season from
April to July.
Measure- Average size of 38 eggs measured by the writer, 21.76 >< 15.37 mm.,
ments. Max. 23.6 < 16.4 mm., Min. 20 >< 16 and 20.5 >< 14.1 mm.

42. Spanish Sparrow, Passer hispaniolensis (Temm.).
Plate 26, fig. 10 (Sokia, Asia Minor, 16. V. 99).

Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 12, fig. 9.

Foreign Names: France: Moineau espagnol. Italy: Passera sarda.
Portugal: Pardal. Spain: Gorrién molinero.

Passer hispaniolensis (Temm.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, II, p. 593;
id. Man. of Pal. Birds, p. 291. P. hispaniolensis hispantolensis (Temm.).
Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 156.

93

Breeding Range: Locally in Spain and the Balkan peninsula. [Also
in the Cape Verde Isles, the Canaries, N. Africa, and from Asia Minor to
Central Asia; while local races are found in 8. Italy and the main islands
of the Mediterranean. |

In the Iberian peninsula this species is exceedingly local, but is
abundant in some places. It is also found on some of the Canary Islands,
and in the Barbary States large colonies are frequently met with. In
Greece it appears to be local in the breeding season, but Kriiper records
it from Acarnania and near Vrachori, and Reiser from Velestino in Thessaly.
The latter naturalist also discovered a colony near Philippopolis in E. Rumelia
in 1893. In Asia Minor it is locally abundant, breeding in huge colonies.

As a rule this bird prefers to nest in the open country, avoiding
towns and villages, but usually near cultivated ground. In southern Spain
and Marocco the nest is often placed under that of one of the larger birds
of prey, but this habit is also often shared by P. domesticus. Occasionally
however it builds an independent nest among the branches, spherical in
shape but more neatly constructed than that of its congener. In Algeria
and Tunis hundreds of these birds nest in colonies in the tamarisk thickets,
and also in the date palms and poplars, while at Sousa in K. Tunis
Whitaker found nests under the eaves of a crowded café, not more than
9 or 10 ft. from the ground. In the Balkan peninsula colonies breed in the
nests of the White Stork and Imperial Eagle, and in Rumelia Reiser found
nests among the branches of willows. In Asia Minor the nests are sometimes
placed so closely together that the trees are completely covered by them.

Usually 5—7 in number. In colour they are subject to little variation;
nearly all having a pale bluish ground, rather sparsely marked with dark
leaden or olive-grey spots and streaks, with finer underlying paler bluish
grey spots. The markings frequently tend to form a cap. One egg in a
clutch is sometimes lighter than the rest, but this tendency is not nearly
so common as in the House and Tree Sparrow.

In N. Africa from April onwards, while in the Balkan peninsula and
Asia Minor most eggs are laid about the middle of May.

Average size of 104 eggs (chiefly from Asia Minor) 21.98>< 14.19 mm.,
Max. 24>< 16 and 23.5 >< 16.2 mm. Min. 20 *14.5 and 21.1><14 mm.
Reiser gives the average weight of 13 eggs from Thessaly as nearly
164 mg, varying from 120 to 200 mg.

Geographical Races.
Spanish Sparrow, P. hispaniolensis hispaniolensis (Temm.). See above.
Sardinian Sparrow, P. hispaniolensis arrigonii Tsch.
P. hispaniolensis arrigont Tsch. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 157.
Breeding Range: Sardinia and probably also Corsica.

Con-
tinental
Europe

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

94.

In Sardinia small colonies nest in the groups of wild olive trees;
some also build about houses and towns. Nests of dry grass, lined with
feathers, like the Common Sparrow's (A. B. Brooke).

Maltese Sparrow, P. hispaniolensis maltae Hart.
P. hispaniolensis maltae Hart. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 157.
Breeding Range: Malta and Sicily.
Common in Sicily, breeding in small parties or isolated pairs, but
congregating in large flocks in winter and early spring.

Calabrian Sparrow, P. hispaniolensis brutius Fiore.
P. hispaniolensis brutius Fiore. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 158.
Breeding Range: 8. Italy (Taranto, Catanzaro, etc.).
[From Transcaucasia and Palestine eastward to Kashmir is found P. h.
transcaspicus Tsch., while in 8. Algeria another race, P. h. fliickigert Klemschm.
is the resident form. |

43. Tree Sparrow, Passer montanus (L.).
Plate 12, fig. 11—20 (Germany).

Kegs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXIV, fig. 13, a—d. Hewitson,
Td: I, pl: XU, fg. 3,.4; 0. Ed. 1 pl XU, te. 1). 2; Ti hd 1 plik
fig. 1, 2. Baedeker, Tab. 12, fig. 6. Taczanowski, Tab. LXX, fig. 2. See-
bohm, Br. Birds, pl. 13; id. Col. Fig., pl. 56. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. IV,
fig. 144—147.

British Local Names: Mountain Sparrow, Copper Head. Welsh:
Aderyn y to geir mewn bargod.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Vrabec polni. Denmark: Skovspurv.
Finland: Metsiivarpunen. France: Friquet. Germany: Feldsperling, Bawm-
sperling. Helgoland: Ingelsk Karkfink. Holland: Ringmusch, Boommusch.
Hungary: Mezei Veréb. Italy: Passera mattugia. Norway: Pilfink. Poland:
Luszczak Mazurek. Russia: Polewoj worebej. Sweden: Fiiltsparf, Pilsparf.
Spain: Gorrion serrano.

Passer montanus (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 82; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, IL, p. 597; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 293; Saunders, Man., p. 181.
P. montana montana (L.). Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 160.

Breeding Range: Locally throughout Europe, scarce in the extreme
north, and absent from Portugal and most of the Mediterranean islands.
[Also in Siberia eastward to China: apparently only accidental in N. Africa. |

In England it is not nearly so common as the House Sparrow and
is as a rule very local, being generally found in colonies, often at some
distance from houses. It has however been found breeding in every county

95

with the exception of Cornwall and Devon, although very scarce in Cumber-
land and Westmorland. In Wales it is very sparingly distributed over
the northern counties and has been met with in the breeding season in
Anglesea, Carnarvon, Denbigh, Flint, Montgomery and Brecon, but is still
unknown in the western and southern parts of the country, except at
Llandaff. It nests in the Isle of Man, but in Ireland is only known to
have permanently established itself in the County Dublin. In Scotland it
occurs sporadically in colonies, chiefly on the eastern side of the mainland
from Sutherland southward, but has also been recorded from W. Suther-
land and Argyll, and is said to have formerly bred in Ayr. It is found
in Bute and many of the Inner Hebrides (Higg, Coll, Tiree, Iona, Oronsay,
Jura etc.), and also in Skye, while it is common on Barra and S. Kilda,
and has been recorded as nesting on Unst, Shetlands (1903).

In the Iberian peninsula it is unknown in Portugal and only occurs
locally in eastern Spain. It is absent from Corsica and Sardinia, but
appears to be found in Sicily. Though wanting in Greece it is common
in Bulgaria and Macedonia, and appears to be very generally distributed
thoughout the contries of central Kurope, in some places being even more
abundant than the House Sparrow, as in parts of Austro-Hungary. North-
ward it was formerly plentiful in the Ferées, but has apparently disappeared
of late, and is unknown in Iceland, while in Scandinavia Collett found it
established at Vard6 (about 70° 30° N.) in 1885, and in Russia it is found
as far as Archangel and the Petschora valley.

In England the favourite breeding places are holes in pollarded willows
or other trees, hollows in ivy covered trees, and in old nests of Herons,
Rooks, Crows or Magpies. In treeless districts it is sometimes placed in
holes of cliffs or loosely built walls, while exceptionally it has been
recorded from haystacks, holes of Green Woodpecker and Sand Martin,
thick hollies, thatch or tiling of cottages, etc., and nesting boxes are often
appropriated. In some parts of the Continent it regularly haunts the
villages and towns, and in eastern Europe frequently builds among the
foundations of Storks’ nests and the eyries of the larger birds of prey,
Reiser has found as many as 30 pairs breeding in one Eagle's nest. In
construction the nest resembles that of the House Sparrow, being as a rule
carelessly constructed of straw, dead grass, etc., warmly lined with feathers,
wool, or hair. Kleinschmidt has found fresh blooms of hyacinth at the
entrance of a nesting box occupied by this species. Some nests are
domed and substantially built, but where the hole is small but little
material is used.

4—6 in number and similar in character to those of the House
Sparrow; but on comparing a series of both species it will be seen that the
eggs of the Tree Sparrow have as a rule finer and more numerous markings,

Con-
tinental
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Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

96

sometimes almost concealing the ground colour, and producing a marbled
appearance. ‘There is also a greater tendency to brown, some eggs having
rich chocolate markings, and the gloss is decidedly higher. One egg is
as a rule much lighter in colour than the rest; more rarely two light eggs
are found in a clutch.

In the south of England the first eggs are generally laid about
mid-May, but in the Midlands most are laid towards the end of the month,
and in northern localities, such as 8. Kilda and the Shetlands, they are
not laid till the third week in June. Two broods are usually reared, and
fresh eggs may be met with as late as August. In Germany Rey found
most eggs in May, and is of opinion that in some districts only one brood
is reared. In N. Russia Seebohm took eggs early in June.

Average size of 103 eggs (65 from Germany by Rey and 38 from England
by the writer) 19.55 >< 14.05 mm., Max. 22.2><14.1 and 20.2 *14.8 mm.,
Min. 17.5><13 mm. An abnormally large egg in the Rey collection
measures 22.6><15.4 mm; weight 175 mg. 4 eggs from the Petschora
average 22 >< 14.5 mm. The average weight is 159 mg. (Rey).

|The Desert Sparrow, P. simplex saharae Erl., inhabits the sandy
wastes of Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli, Eggs 3 in number: size about
19 13.5 mm.|

44. Corn Bunting, Emberiza ealandra L.
Plate 13, fig. 1 (Greece), 2—4 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXXII, fig. 8, a—d. Hewitson,
I. Ed. J, pl. I, fig. 1, 2; I. Ed. I, pl. XX XIX, fig. 1; I. Ed. I, pl. XLVI,
fig. 3. Baedeker, Tab. 3, fig. 3. Taczanowski, Tab. LXV, fig. 1, LXVI, fig. 1.
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 13; id. Col. Fig. pl. 57. Frohawk, II, pl. V,
fig. 181—187.

British Local Names: Bunting Lark, Grass Bunting, Horse or
Clod Lark. Welsh: Bras-yr-yd. Isle of Man: Thistle Cock, Barley Bird.
Manx: Pompee-ny-hoarn. Gaelic: Gealag Bhuachair. Shetlands: Cornbill.
Erse: Gealbhan an guib ramhair.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Propdska, Pisték. Denmark: Kornlaerke,
Bomlaerke. France: Proyer, Preyer. Germany: Gerstenammer, Grawammer.
Greece: Tsiphtes. Helgoland: Dicke Diert. Holland: Graauwe Gors, Gierst-
vogel. Hungary: Sordély. Italy: Strillozzo. Norway: Kornspurv. Poland:
Poswierka prosowa. Portugal: Trigueirdo. Russia: Obsjanka prosjanka.
Spain: Triguéro, Ave tonta. Sweden: Kornsparf, Kornlirka.

Emberiza miliaria L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, UH, p. 38; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, IV, p. 163; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 343; Saunders, Man., p. 207.
E. calandra calandra L. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 165.

97

Breeding Range: The British Isles, 8. Sweden, and all central and
southern Europe, but absent from northern Russia. [Also N. Africa,
Palestine and Asia Minor to Turkestan. |

In Great Britain the Corn Bunting is a local resident, being perhaps
most numerous in the maritime counties and in the flat corn lands, but is
not uncommon locally in the little walled in crofts up to 1000 ft. It is
not found in mountainous, moorland, or thickly wooded districts, and is
also rare or absent from many cultivated and open districts inland. In
N. Wales it is practically confined to a belt one mile wide along the
coast, but breeds inland near Llangollen and Montgomery (Forrest). It
breeds in the Isle of Man, and is generally common in Ireland near the
coast and on the islands, but less numerous and local in the interior. It
inhabits most of the islands off the W. coast of Scotland and is also common
on the Orkneys and Shetlands.

In Norway it is only known to breed in the extreme south (Lister
and Jaederen), but in Sweden it is distributed over the southern and western
provinces as well as Oland. South of the Baltic and the Gulf of Riga it
is generally distributed in suitable localities, being very plentiful on the
plains of Jutland, but is said to be local in the south of Russia. In the
countries bordering the Mediterranean it is very common, and also in the
islands, especially Sardinia.

In the British Isles the nest is usually placed in long mowing grass,
clover, or corn fields, but occasionally it is found in furze, low scrub,
or briars, and is then raised some little distance from the ground. It
is built of roots, bents, grasses, etc., lined with finer grasses and some-
times a few hairs. There is very often some large and conspicuous plant
in the neighbourhood of the nest. On the arid plains of southern Spain
it is frequently found under the shelter of one of the thistles or large
lihaceous plants which are common there, while near Gibraltar Irby found
many nests on the edge of marshes. The hen is a close sitter, and the
cock generally keeps on droning ont his monotonous song at intervals
from some point of vantage such as a wall, telegraph wire, or bush, in
the neighbourhood of the nest.

3—5 in number, occasionally 6, in the British Isles; on the Continent
Rey gives 5 as the usual clutch, but 7 have been found in southern Spain.
They are subject to much variation, some being almost white, or pale blue
with famt brown markings, but in most cases the ground colour varies
from greyish or yellowish white to warm rufous brown, while the markings
are of the most varied character, and consist generally of pale lavender
or greyish brown underlying blotches, spots and streaks, with very bold
‘worm-lines, streaks and spots of deep blackish brown, sometimes tending
to form a cap or zone at the big end. An unusual variety has only a few

7

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

98

fine spots, while the most strongly erythristic type has a few blackish
streaks on a red-brown ground.

In England the first eggs are laid at the end of May, but most birds
breed during the month of June, although on the South Downs many
birds do not lay till early July, and fresh eggs can be obtained till late
in July or even August; while in Ireland eggs are rarely taken in May, |
but are sometimes found as late as August. In Germany according to Rey
two broods are reared: the first clutches being occasionally deposited in
April, but generally in May, and the second about mid-June or July. In
southern Spain and Greece the eggs are laid from about mid-April to mid-
May, while in N. Africa young birds have been met with on the wing at
the end of April, but most eggs are laid early in May.

100 eggs measured by Rey average 24.3 >< 17.6 mm., Max. 28 >< 19
mm., Min. 21><17 and 22><16 mm. An egg from the New Forest
measures 28.6 >< 18 mm. (EH. W. Blagg), and some English eggs are almost
round in shape, 19 >< 17.8 mm. (H. G. Tomlinson). Average weight 135 me.
(Rey); 213 mg. (Bau). 4 full eggs average 3.086 g. (N. H. Foster).

[The race inhabiting the Canaries has been separated under the name
of E. calandra thanneri Tsch. It is an abundant resident on all the islands. }

45. Yellow Bunting, Emberiza citrinella L.
Plate 13, fig. 6—11 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXXII, fig. 4, a—d. Hewitson,
1 Bd: Lp, UW fig. 3, 4; Ol Ede pl. XXX, aie. +3, 45 nae
pl. XLVII, fig. 2. Baedeker, Tab. 3, fig. 8. Taczanowski, Tab. LXVII,
fig. 1. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 13; id. Col. Fig., pl. 58. Frohawk, Br.
Birds, II, pl. V, fig. 188—195.

Nest: O. Lee, IV, pp. 100, 102.

British Local Names: Yellow Hammer, Yellow Yeorling, Scribbling
Lark, Goldfinch, Yite. Cornwall: Gladdie. Welsh: Llinos Felen, Melyn
yr eithin. Manx: Ushag wee. Scotland: Yite or Yitey, Spink, Yeldroch.
Gaelic: Buidheag. Erse: Buidheog.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Strnad obecny. Denmark: Gulspurv,
Gulverling. Finland: Keltasirkku. France: Bruant jaune, Verdiére. Ger-
many: Goldammer. Helgoland: Gyiihl Kliitjer. Holland: Geelgors, Schriver.
Hungary: Czitrom sdrmdny. Italy: Zigolo giallo. Norway: Gulspurv. Poland: -
Poswierka Trznadel. Russia: Obiknovenot owsjanka. Spain: Cerillo. Sweden:
Gréning, Gulsparf.

Emberiza citrinella L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, II, p. 43; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, IV, p. 171; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 353; Saunders, Man., p. 209.
E. citrinella citrinella L. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 167.

99

Breeding Range: The British Isles and Continental Europe, except
the north of Scandinavia and Russia, and in the south, Portugal, the greater
part of Spain, southern Italy, Greece and the Mediterranean Islands. [Also
inhabits western Asia. |

In the British Isles it is a common resident in most parts of the
mainland and islands, but has not yet been found breeding in the Shetlands.

In the Iberian peninsula it is found north of the Cantabrian Mts. and
in Navarre, but further south is only a winter straggler. In Italy it is
common in the northern provinces, but becomes scarcer towards the middle
of the peninsula and is absent from the south. It is also unknown in
Greece, but is very plentiful in Bulgaria, and occurs on the Montenegrin
mountains, although absent from the coast. In Russia some birds appear
to belong to an imperfectly known geographical race, FE. citrinella erythro-
genys Brehm, which probably also inhabits W. Siberia, Turkestan, Persia
and Asia Minor. North of lat. 67° 40° in Finland and 651° in E. Russia
it is not found, and in Scandinavia its range does not extend beyond lat.
70° N., but over the rest of Europe it is fairly common and general.

Frequently built on the ground at the foot of a hedge, bush, or steep
bank, and generally partly hidden by growing grass. Sometimes however
it is placed in a bush at some little height, and an instance is on record
of a nest 7 ft. from the ground in a broom-plant, while others have been
found 10—12 ft. high in the side of a haystack (Zool. 1903, p. 465) and
twice on fruit trees trained against a wall 5 and 7 ft. high, in one case
on an old Blackbird’s nest. Another extraordinary site is within a hollow
turnip! (Field, 7. V1. 02); while in Germany a nest has been found under
a turntable at a station. Occasionally also a hen has been found incubating
egos on the bare ground, probably when the nest has been destroyed while
she was laying.

Nests vary in size according to position, those built in bushes being
naturally more bulky than those placed in a hollow on a bank side. The
materials consist chiefly of stalks, grasses, etc., with a little moss and a
smooth lining of horsehair, while occasionally a few leaves are used in the
foundation.

3—5 in number, but clutches of 6 have been occasionally recorded
from the Continent. In some districts the set almost invariably consists
of 3, and in Ireland Ellison has sometimes found 2 only, while 5 are scarce.
In Germany Rey states that the first clutch consists generally of 5 eggs,
the second of 4, and the third of 3 or 4. In colour and markings they
show great variety. Some eggs are almost pure white, without any markings;
but the most usual ground colour is a pale purplish white, with fine under-
lying spots or streaks of pale violet, and pencilled with interlacing hair
lines or streaks of dark purplish brown, and a few spots of the same

T*

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

100

colour. Occasionally the ground colour has a decided rufous tint, and some
eggs are a warm brownish red, with a few blackish hair lines.

As three broods are frequently reared, the breeding season is of long
duration. In England the first eggs are laid late in April, but in the hills
and the north the more usual time is in May, sometimes not till the second
or third week. From this time onward eggs may be found till August
and even September. In Ireland most eggs are laid in May and June, but
late clutches are occasionally found. In Germany Rey has taken eggs from
April 25 to July 31. In the northern part of its range only one brood
is reared and the eggs are laid in June. Incubation lasts 14 days, and
the hen is a close sitter, while the cock reiterates his simple song from
a hedge or tree close at hand.

Extraordinary variations in shape and size are occasionally met with.
Rey gives the average size of 100 eggs as 21.2 >< 15.9 mm., Max. 24.2><17.1
and 23.5 >< 17.7: mm., Min. 18.5>< 14.3 mm. Abnormally elongated eggs
measure 30.2 >< 15 mm. (R. Smith), 28.3 < 14.3 mm. (KE. W. H. Blagg) and
28 >< 16.4 mm. (E. Rey). Some eggs are pyriform in shape, while others
are almost spherical, measuring 18.3><17, 18>< 16.8 mm., etc. (C. A. Wester-
lund), and 3 dwarf eggs measure 14.3 >< 10.5, 14.2 >< 12 and 13.3 >< 11 mm.
(R. H. Read). Average weight of normal eggs 160 mg. (Rey), 178 mg.
(Bau); 15 full eggs average 2.702 mg. (Foster).

Geographical Races.

a. Common Yellow Bunting, E. citrinella citrinella L. and
b. Eastern Yellow Bunting, E. citrinella erythrogenys Brehm. See above.

46. Pine Bunting, Emberiza leucocephala S. &. Gmel.
Plate 14, fig. 1 (Amur, 5. V)).

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Skrivan sibirsky. France: Bruant a
couronne lactée. Germany: Fichtenammer. Italy: Zigolo gola rossa. Poland:
Poswierka bialolbista. Russia: Strenatka-beloshapotchnaya.

Emberiza leucocephala Gmel. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 217;
id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 359. E. leucocephalos 8. G. Gmel. MHartert, Vig.
Pal. Fauna, p. 169.

Breeding Range: Siberia, from the Urals to the mouth of the Amur.
Has occurred on Helgoland and in Austria, Dalmatia, Italy, ete.

According to Dybowski (Journ. f. Ornith. 1873, p. 86) the nest is
always in the open, on the edge of the forest or thickets, and is placed
on the ground in a slight depression at the foot of a tree, bush, or fallen
bough. It is built of grass stalks and bents, smoothly lined with finer
grasses and horsehair. External diameter about 54 in., depth 2 in. dia-

101

meter of cup 22 in, depth 1,%, in. The eggs are 4—6 in number,
varying in ground colour from pale pinkish to violet or greenish, with
numerous fine brown streaks and hair lines or spots, and pale underlying
violet grey spots. On the whole they bear a great likeness to the eggs
of the preceding species, and like them are sometimes found very lightly
marked. Incubation is performed by the hen, the cock singing from some
dead branch in the neighbourhood, and the eggs are laid at the end of
May, a second brood being reared in July. Average measurements of 54 eggs
(22 by Taczanowski, 7 by Rey and the rest by the writer) 21.48 >< 16.1 mm.,,
Marc 2osr l6fand 20 >< 17.3 mm, Mino 19 >< 16:3 and 19.6>< 14-2 mms
One egg weighs 170 mg. (Rey); average of 22 eggs, 173 mg. (Bau).

47, Black headed Bunting, Emberiza melanocephala Scop.
Plate 14, fig. 12—15 (Attica); 16 (Smyrna).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXII, fig. 3, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 3, fig. 9. Taczanowski, Tab. LXV, fig. 3. Seebohm, Brit. Birds,
pl. 15; id. Col. Fig., pl. 58. Reiser, Orn. Balc. III, Taf. HI, fig. 22—24.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Propdska cernohlavy. France: Bruant
crocote. Germany: Kappenammer. Greece: Ampelowrés, Krasopouli. Hungary:
Kucsmas sdrmdny. Utaly: Zigolo capinero. Montenegro: Zutar, Zutka.
Russia: T'schernolowaja owsjanka.

Emberiza melanocephala Scop. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 64; Dresser,
Birds of Europe, IV, p. 151; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 346; Saunders, Man.
p- 205; Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 170.

Breeding Range: 8. E. Europe. [Also Palestine and Asia Minor
to the Caucasus, Persia and Beluchistan.| Has occurred in the British Isles.

In Greece and many of the islands of the Archipelago, Crete, and
Cyprus, this bird is a well known and numerous summer visitor, arriving
at the end of April and breeding plentifully in the vineyards and gardens
of the plain, and in smaller numbers on the hillsides. It is also common
in the low lying parts of Macedonia, Rumelia, etc., but becomes scarcer north
of the Balkans. On the west side of the peninsula it is very common in
the plains of Dalmatia and Montenegro, but is rare above 1500 ft. In
south Russia it is found as far as the lower part of the Volga valley,
and in Italy occurs frequently on the east coast, where it occasionally
breeds, especially in Venetia. In Asia Minor it is found in vast numbers.

Seebohm describes nests from Greece as neatly finished inside, but
rather loose and ragged in appearance outside; the foundation consisting
of dry grass, thistle leaves, etc., and the main part constructed of the yellow
dry stalks of small flowering plants, covered with seed capsules, lined with
brown roots and finer grasses and sometimes hair. Diameter of cup 23 in.,

Con-
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Measure-
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Nest.

Eggs,

102

depth 2 in. In Greece the nest is usually built on a vine stock, but in
Turkey it is often placed among the standing peas, and in Montenegro
von Fiihrer found nests 5—6 ft. from the ground in wild pomegranate
or other bushes. At other times it is found almost touching the ground
in low scrub, and also in brambles and creepers.

Usually 4 or 5 in number, but 6 are sometimes met with, and Fiihrer
took one clutch of 7 eggs. In type they differ widely from most Bunting
eggs, except those of H. luteola. The ground colour is pale greenish blue,
rarely without markings, but generally with pale violet underlying spots,
and brown blotches or spots, but not streaks. Some eggs have very bold
blotches of warm brown; others have distinct zones or caps of confluent
spots at the big end, and a third type has the fine spots evenly distributed
or almost obsolete,

Kriiper states that in Greece the breeding season begins in mid-May
(about a fortnight after the arrival of the birds) and lasts through June;
most eggs being laid about May 20—30. In Montenegro Fiihrer took
40 nests between May 27 and July 5. Only one brood is reared; in-
cubation lasts 14 days, and the hen is relieved by the cock about mid-day
and towards evening.

Average of 100 eggs (50 by Rey and 50 by the writer) 22.42><16.06
mm., Max. 26>< 15.1 and (according to Reiser) 23.8 >< 18.2 mm., Min.
19>< 14.5 and 19.25><14 mm. As will be seen, these eggs vary much in
shape and size, some being much elongated, while others are almost spherical
(19.5 >< 16.4 mm.). Rey gives the average weight as 172 mg., and in a
series of 35 eggs weighed by Reiser the weight varies from 135 to 200 mg.

[Red headed Bunting, Emberiza luteola Sparrm.
Plate 14, fig. 10, 11 (Kuldscha).

Eggs: Ibis 1904, pl. III, fig. 7—9.

Emberiza luteola Sparrm. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IX, p. 211; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 347; Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 171.

Breeding Range: Transeaspia, Afghanistan, Turkestan and S. W. Siberia
as far as the Altai Range. (Has occurred twice on Helgoland.)

This bird is said to frequent lowlands and cultivated ground, building a
flattish nest about 4% to 54 in. in diameter, with a rim 1—1} in. thick. It is
usually placed either on, or at a short distance from the ground in a small bush,
and is composed of dry grasses, stalks, leaves and twigs loosely put together, lined
with finer grasses and frequently also with horsehair.

The eggs are 3 to 4 in number, similar in character to those of the
preceding species, but usually paler in ground colour. Some specimens are not
unlike light eggs of the White Wagtail. They are sparsely marked with fine
ochreous brown spots, and still finer underlying ashy specks, on a pale greenish
or bluish white ground. The markings tend to form a cap at the big end. In
one clutch from Transcaspia the spots are purplish red in colour, but this is
unusual. The breeding season lasts throughout May.

103

Average of 22 eggs (2 by Rey and 18 by the writer) 20.04>< 15.38 mm.,
Max. 2216 and 21.2 16.5 mm., Min. 1915.6 and 202145 mm. Two
eggs weigh 138 and 150 mg. (Rey).]

4S. Yellow breasted Bunting, Emberiza aureola Pall.
Plate 14, fig. 8, 9 (Siberia).

Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 12, fig. 11. Journ. f. Ornith. 1856, Tab. II,
fig. 15.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Strnad rusky. Finland: Kulta sirkku.
Germany: Weidenammer. Russia: Strenatka tschernolitsaya. Sweden: Rysk
Videsparf.

Emberiza aureola Pall. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 223; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 349; Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 173.

Breeding Range: Russia, east of Lake Onega and north of lat.
50° N. [Also Siberia to Kamtschatka, etc.] Has occurred once in Eng-
land (Cley, Norfolk, 21. IX. 05), and also on Helgoland, as well as in
Austro-Hungary, Italy, Holland and S. France.

Near Archangel this species is exceedingly common, but in the country
between the Dwina valley and the great Lakes is only thinly distributed.
It is said also to be common in the governments of Moscow, Tula, and
Kazan, although unknown near Moscow till 40 or 50 years ago. In the
valleys on the western slopes of the Urals it is scarce. Its usual haunts
are the low meadows interspersed with small alder and birch bushes, and
overgrown with patches of Veratrum album; but in 8. E. Siberia Radde
met with it among the brush covered river banks up to 6000 ft.

Usually built either on the ground or close to it, sometimes in low
bushes or on stumps, and often under the shelter of a plant of Veratrum
album. Many of the nests found by Dybowski in E. Siberia were however
3 ft. from the ground. The nests are not easy to find, as the sitting birds
frequently run some distance before taking wing. They are composed of
dry grasses, with a lining of a few horsehairs. Both sexes incubate.

Usually 4 or 5 in number, rarely 6. Some eggs bear a considerable
resemblance to those of the Reed Bunting, bué as a rule the ground colour
is distinctly greenish, sometimes decidedly so, and at other times varying
to stone colour, pale bluish or olive. The markings consist of spots and
streaks, occasionally also hair lines, of dark brown, with underlying
cloudings of purplish grey or brown, which sometimes almost obscure the
ground colour.

In Russia fresh eggs may be found from June 9 to early in July, while on
the Upper Lena, Hall took nests between June 18 and 25. Near Archangel
most nests contained newly hatched young on July 13—14 (Harvie-Brown).

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

104

Average of 52 eggs (11 by Rey, 3 by Meves and 38 by the writer)
20.53><15.05 mm.,- Max. 22.2><15.3 and 21.5><16 mm., Min. 18><15.3
and 20><14 mm. A dwarf egg in Dresser’s collection measures 15.2 >< 11.5
mm. Average weight of 11 eggs 120 mg. (Rey).

49. Cirl Bunting, Emberiza cirlus L.
Plate 13, fig. 12—15 (Greece).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXXII, fig. 5, a—c. Hewitson,
1) hd. pl: a, ag; IL Hd: 1) pl: Xb; dig. ds TL Eds, ipl xa yas
fig. 2. Baedeker, Tab. 3, fig. 7. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 13; id. Col. Fig.,
pl. 58. Frohawk, Br. Birds, II, pl. V, fig. 196—197.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Strnad evréivy. France: Bruant zizi.
Germany: Zaunammer, Zirlammer. Holland: Cirlgors. Hungary: Sévény
sarmany. Italy: Zigolo nero. Portugal: Sia, Stocho. Russia: Ogorodnaya
ovsyanka, Spain: Linacéro.

Emberiza cirlus L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 50. Dresser, Birds
of Europe, IV, p. 177; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 354. Saunders, Man, p. 211.
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 175.

Breeding Range: Southern England, Wales, the countries bordering
on the Mediterranean and Black Seas from Spain to the Caucasus. [Also
Asia Minor and N. W. Africa. ]

It is rather remarkable that this bird, which on the Continent has
its head quarters in the Mediterranean region, should be found breeding
in so many English and Welsh counties. Full details as to its distribution
will be found in the Zoologist 1892, pp. 121 and 174. Briefly the Cirl
Bunting breeds commonly but locally along the counties bordering our
southern coasts, in the Isle of Wight, and also in smaller numbers in Somerset,
Wilts, Gloucester, the Thames valley, Hertford, Bedford, Northampton,
Warwick, Worcester, Hereford and Salop. It is also said to have occasionally
nested in Stafford, Yorkshire, and Lancashire, but in view of its absence
from the north of England and the eastern counties, further evidence is
desirable. In Wales a few pairs are now known to breed locally in
Glamorgan, Cardigan, Brecon, Montgomery, Carnarvon and Flint, and it
is not uncommon locally in Denbigh.

In the Iberian peninsula it is plentiful in the north of Portugal and
tolerably common in southern Spain. It is found also throughout France,
taly, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, ete, but is local in Switzerland, and in
Germany only occurs in small numbers in the south west (valleys of the
Rhine, Mosel and Saar). In Austro-Hungary it is only recorded from the
coast districts, but is widely distributed and common in the Balkan
peninsula, breeding principally in the hilly districts. In Russia it is found

105

in the Crimea, but is scarce in the Caucasus; while it is common on the
hills of Asia Minor and Crete, and is abundant in the mountain ranges of
N. W. Africa.

In the British Isles the nest is usually found in gorse, often some
little distance above the ground, less frequently in hedge bottoms or
bramble thickets, and occasionally on the ground on a bankside. In the
south of Europe and N. Africa it haunts the brush grown hill sides, and
is also found in open glades of cork forest near Gibraltar. The nest is
built chiefly of bents and roots, with occasionally moss, leaves, etc., lined
with finer grasses and usually, but not always, with horsehair. External
diameter about 4 in., diameter of cup 24—3 in.; depth of cup 14 in. The
cock is not at all shy, but pours forth his vigorous, but monotonous song
with head thrown back and widely opened bill from some bush or tree
in the vicinity of the nest.

4—5 (rarely 6 in number in southern Europe), while late broods often
consist of only 3. As a rule the eggs are characterized by their pale
bluish or greenish white ground and bold, almost black streaks. Occasionally
however a nest is found in which the ground colour of the eggs has a
pinkish tinge, and such exceptional clutches are not to be distinguished
from eggs of the Yellow Bunting. I have seen eggs of this kind from
the Parnassus, where EF. citrinella does not occur, as well as from the
south of England. In a clutch from Asia Minor the markings are of
a distinctly reddish brown, instead of the usual very dark sepia.

In England the usual time for first clutches is from about May 10
to the end of the month, while second broods may be looked for from
mid-July to August. In warm, sheltered spots, eggs may occasionally be
found at the beginning of May. In southern Spain the eggs are laid early
in April, and in Greece from the middle to the end of the month, second
broods being found up to the middle of July.

Average size of 100 eggs (53 by Rey and 47 by the writer)
2s >< 16.1. mm. Max, 23>< 17 and 21><18 mm: Mim: 19.2 >< 15 mm:
An abnormally large egg from Greece measures 26.4>< 22.4 mm. (Reiser).
Average weight of 53 eggs, 166 mg. (Rey); of 22 eggs, 171 mg. (Bau). It
will be noticed that as a rule the eggs are broader than those of E. citrinella,
and are occasionally very rounded in shape.

[Strickland’s Bunting, Emberiza cinerea Strickl.

Egg: Ibis 1904, Pl. ITI, fig. 11.

Emberiza cinerea Strickl. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 159; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 352; Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 178.

This species, which is supposed to have been seen once on Helgoland, is
not uncommon in Asia Minor, but the nesting habits and eggs are almost
unknown. Two eggs from a nest taken on May 10, 1889 by one of Kriiper’s

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

106

collectors average 20.5 >< 15.4 mm. in size, and are bluish white, sparingly marked
with black spots and small blotches and a few pale underlying spots. (Coll.
Dresser and Newton). Mr. F. C. Selous has a clutch of eggs taken in Asia Minor
at a height of 3000 ft. from a nest on the ground, which may belong to this bird.
Three eggs average 20.53 16.23 mm., and are dull French white with a few
very dark spots, scrawls and hair lines of sepia brown, and pale underlying violet
grey blotches. They are less glossy than eggs of E. cirlus or caesia.]

50. Ortolan, Emberiza hortulana L.
Plate 13, fig. 16 (Switzerland), 17—20 (S. Sweden).

Eges: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXXII, fig. 7, a—d. Hewitson,
J. Ed. I, pl. CXXVI; IL Hd. 1, pl. XL, fig..2; IL. Wid. 1 pl SVE ties T:
Baedeker, Tab. 3, fig. 5. Taczanowski, Tab. LXV, fig. 2; LXVI, fig. 2.
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 15; id. Col. Fig., pl. 57.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Strnad zabradit. Denmark: Hortulan-
verling. Finland: Metstisirkku, Peltopetppo. France: Bruant ortolan.
Germany: Gartenammer, Ortolan. Helgoland: Orteloan. Holland: Ortolaan,
Vremdeling. Hungary: Kérti sérmany. Italy: Ortolano. Norway: Hortulan.
Poland: Pogwierka ogrodniczek. Russia: Sadovaja owsjanka. Sweden:
Ortolansparf, Ortolan. Spain: Hortoldno.

Emberiza hortulana L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 57; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, IV, p. 185; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 356; Saunders, Man., p. 213;
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 180.

Breeding Range: Europe, locally, from 68° 40° N. lat. in Sweden
and 57° N. in the Urals southward, but not the British Isles. [Also in
Asia from Smyrna and Syria to Afghanistan and W. Mongolia; N. W. Africa. |

In view of its wide distribution on the continent it is remarkable
that the Ortolan is only a rare straggler to the British Isles. In Spain
and Portugal it is not uncommon in the mountainous districts, and in
Andalucia Chapman found it breeding in the islets of the marisma. In
France it is commonest in the south, but is absent from the islands of
the western Mediterranean, or only winters there; and is equally scarce
in the south of Italy, though not uncommon further north. It breeds
here and there in Switzerland, especially in the south west, and is not
uncommon in some parts of Holland (Gelderland and N. Brabant). In the
great plain of N. Germany it is not uncommon, but local (though formerly
almost unknown), but becomes scarcer in the south. It is local and
not plentiful in Austro-Hungary, but is common and widely distributed in
Turkey, and is met with on the higher mountains of Greece to a height
of over 7000 ft., and also in Crete. In S. Russia and the Crimea it is
common, and occurs also in the Caucasus; while northward its limits extend
from 68° N. lat. in Finland to only 57° N. in the Urals; and in Scandinavia

107

it is common in the 8. Norwegian valleys and in the 8. W. provinces of
Sweden, but comparatively rarely found N. of Stockholm, except along the coast.

The situation varies according to locality. Thus in Sweden it is
generally found in the green rye fields, and in the great plain of central
Europe among the corn; but in Norway it haunts the bush grown hillsides,
and nests in similar places as a rule in the Iberian and Balkan peninsulas.
It is placed either on, or close to the ground, in a slight hollow, under
shelter of growing crops or bushes, and is built of dead grasses and roots,
lined with finer roots and sometimes hair, somewhat carelessly constructed.
Approximate diameter 3 in., height 2 in. In northern Europe the mono-
tonous, “Tink, tink, tink-tjéhrr’ of the cock may be heard till late in the
summer nights (Wheelwright).

Usually 5 or 6 in number, but sometimes only 4 are found. The
ground colour varies from bluish white to creamy and warm pinkish or
reddish grey, rather sparsely spotted with very dark purple brown markings
and occasionally a few streaks or scrawls of the same colour. There are
generally a few underlying streaks and spots of pale violet grey. Now
and then an egg is met with almost devoid of markings, and one set has
the spots in the form of a zone.

In Spain eggs may be found from May 5 (Chapman), while in Greece
and Asia Minor the usual time is from May 13 onwards, and in central
Europe the latter half of May. In Scandinavia most eggs are laid in the
second half of May and early in June, and in Finland towards the beginning
of June. As will be seen the breeding season varies very little, for even
in Norway and Sweden full clutches are occasionally found at the beginning
of May. Apparently only one brood is reared.

Average of 100 eggs (29 by Rey and 71 by the writer) 19.73 >< 15.29
mm., Max. 22 >< 16.25 and 20 >< 17 mm., Min. 18.2 < 16 and 18.8>< 14.3
mm. These measurements are sometimes slightly exceeded: 22.5 >< 16.5
(Reiser, Greece), 19 >< 14.1 (Westerlund, Sweden) and 18 >< 14.5 (Bau).
Average weight of 36 eggs, 142 mg. (Bau); Rey gives as average, 158 mg.

51. Grey necked Bunting, Emberiza buchanani Blyth.

Emberiza huttoni Blyth. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IX, p. 215; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 357. E. buchanani Blyth. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna,
p. 182.

Breeding Range: Has occurred in the Caucasus (Derbent) and
Crimea, [Transcaspia, Turkestan, Persia and Afghanistan. |

The only definite information as to the breeding of this bird is that
given by Blanford (Zoology and Geology of E. Persia, p. 259). He found
a nest with 3 well-incubated eggs on May 22, at an elevation of 8000 ft.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Nest.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
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Nest.

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Season.

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108

It was built in a thick bush, about a foot from the ground, and was neatly
and compactly built of moss.

The eggs were very pale green, ‘with small distinct rounded surface
spots and minute dots of purplish black and fainter purplish grey markings,
the latter being chiefly confined to the larger end’.

Average size 24>< 16.5 mm.

52. Cretzsehmar’s Bunting, Emberiza caesia Cretz.
Plate 13, fig. 21 (Parnassus, 4. VI. 76); 22 (Attica, 4. V. 80).

Eggs: Reiser, Orn. Bale. II, Taf. Ill, fig. 1, 2.

Foreign Names: France: Bruant cendrillard. Germany: Rostammer,
Grauer Ortolan. Greece: Bla&chos. Italy: Ortolano grigio.

Emberiza caesia Cretz. Dresser, Birds of Kurope, IV, p. 213; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 358; Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 182.

Breeding Range: The Balkan peninsula. [Also Asia Minor to the
Caucasus. |

In Greece this Bunting is one of the most conspicuous birds, haunting
the bare rocky hillsides in company with Chats and Larks, and only
occasionally perching for an instant on the scattered clumps of thyme and
low scrub which grow here and there. It also nests on the mountains of
Corfu and in the Cyclades, and is ubiquitous on Cyprus, where Guillemard
met with it even on the summit of Troddos. In Macedonia it is much
scarcer, but is not uncommon on the hillsides in Asia Minor and Syria
while a few pairs are said to breed in Lower Eeypt.

Generally built on the ground, sometimes among rocks, and at other
times under cover of a tuft of grass, or in a low bush. It is neatly and
compactly made of dead grasses, lined with fibres and horsehair (Tristram).

4 or 5asarule, but clutches of 6 are occasionally found in Greece.
They somewhat resemble those of the previous species, but the ground
colour is darker and the markings often more numerous. The ground varies
from greyish or yellowish white to russet or reddish grey, with almost
black spots and streaks (sometimes showing a purple penumbra) and violet
grey underlying spots and ‘worm lines. The shell is somewhat glossy.

Kriiper found eggs in Greece from the end of April or the beginning
of May onward, most eggs being taken between May 4—16; but as fresh
eggs as well as fledged young were found on June 16, it is probable that
two broods are reared. In Syria according to Tristram these birds were
beginning to sit by April 19, but two nests with eggs were taken by
F. C. Selous near Smyrna on May 20 and 24.

Average of 60 eggs (28 by Rey, 17 by Reiser and 15 by the writer)
19.55><15.17 mm., Max. 21.6><16.2 and 19.2><16.7 mm., Min. 17.8 & 14.3

109

and 18.5 >< 13.5 mm. Hartert mentions an egg 22.5 >< 17 (Greece, Kriiper).
Average weight of 28 eggs, 138 mg. (Rey); of 17 eggs, 136 mg. (Reiser).

53. Rock Bunting, Emberiza cia L.
Plate 13, fig. 23—26 (Basses Alpes, France).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXII, fig. 6, a—b. Baedeker,
Tab. 3, fig. 6.

Foreign Names: France: Bruant fow or des prés. Germany: Zip-
ammer. Greece: Tsichloni tou Bounou. Hungary: Bajszos sérminy. Italy:
Zigolo muciatto. Portugal: Triguetrdo. Russia: Gornaya ovsjanka. Spain:
Escribéno, Cip-cip.

Emberiza cia L. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 205; id. Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 368. F. ca cia L. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 183.

Breeding Range: The countries bordering on the Mediterranean,
penetrating northward to Switzerland, 8. W. Germany and part of Austro-
Hungary. [Also Asia Minor, Syria, and the Atlas range.| Has occurred
once in Sussex, Bull. B. O. C. XII, p. 28 (1903).

In Spain and Portugal this species is not uncommon on the slopes
of the sierras, breeding near the patches of cultivated ground and vineyards
on the hillsides. It is also found in the Pyrenees commonly to about
3600 ft. and exceptionally up to 5100 ft. in Andorra, and also in many
of the more hilly parts of southern and eastern France, and is generally
distributed throughout the mountainous districts of Switzerland up to about
4000 ft. In Italy it breeds in the Alps and Apennines, as well as in the
mountains of Sicily; but in Germany it appears to be chiefly confined to
the valleys of the Neckar and the Rhine to the Drachenfels, the Eifel, and
near Neuenburg. In Austro-Hungary a few pairs breed sporadically in
Moravia, Lower Austria, Salzburg, Styria, and on the N. slopes of the
Transylvanian Alps. In the Balkan peninsula it occurs not uncommonly
in the mountains of Bosnia, Herzegovina and Montenegro up to 4200 ft.,
and has also been met with in the Balkans; it is also a tolerably common
resident in the higher mountains of the south of the peninsula, where its
simple song is to be heard in the still fir woods (Kriiper). In the hill
districts of the Crimea and Caucasus, as well as Asia Minor, it is not
rare, and a few are found in the Lebanon, while some remain to breed in
the Atlas range.

Usually placed on rocky ground among stones and rough grass,
sometimes, as in the Rhine valley, among the tangled growth on the
stone walls which separate the vineyards, and occasionally low down in
some small bush. It is composed of moss, edelweiss leaves, grasses, roots,

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding

Season.

Measure-
ments.

Nest.

Eggs.

110

and sometimes strips of vine bark, lined with fine roots, horsehair, etc.
External diameter about 41 in., diameter of cup 2} in. depth 14 in.

4—5 in number, and very characteristic. Upon a greyish white or
pale buff ground, many irregular dark brown or blackish hair lines are
interwoven, and tend sometimes to form a zone. There are also a few
spots, and underlying pale grey hair lines and spots are visible.

In Germany eggs have been taken early in April, but the usual time
appears to be the beginning of May. Chapman and Irby state that in
Spain the eggs are laid in April, but fresh eggs may be found till the end
of June; while in Greece Kriiper rarely found full clutches before mid
May, and obtained most eggs in the last days of May and in June (earliest
date, May 11; latest July 7). Tristram also found eggs in Lebanon towards
the end of June. Probably only one brood is reared as a rule in the
northern parts of its range.

Average size of 86 eggs (25 by Bau, 14 by Rey, 4 by Reiser and
43 by the writer) 20.63 >< 16.01 mm., Max. 23.3 >< 16.5 and 20.75 >< 17.5
mm., Min. 19.5 >< 15.5 and 20.2><15 mm. Average weight of 25 eggs,
152 mg. (Bau); of 14 eggs, 158 mg. (Rey).

Geographical Races.
a. European Rock Bunting, E. cia cia L. See above.

b. Eastern Rock Bunting, E. cia par Hart.

E. cia par Hart. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 184.

Breeding Range: N. Caucasus, E. Persia, Transcaspia, Turkestan,
Afghanistan and Beluchistan.

Four eggs from Issik Kul are rather small, averaging 19.27><15.42 mm.

[East Siberian Meadow Bunting, Emberiza cioides castaneiceps Moore.

Emberiza cioides Brandt (part.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IX, p. 223; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 364; Saunders, Man., p. 215. . cioides castaneiceps Moore.
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 186.

Breeding Range: E. Siberia (lower Amur and Ussuri valleys), Askold,
Manchuria, Corea, and China as far south as Foochow. Has been once obtained
in England.

The nest, composed of twigs, leaves, grass and fern fronds, lined with fine
grass, fibres and hair, is usually placed in a small pine, not far from the ground
(Ibis 1905, p. 45). Some are compactly built, while others are carelessly constructed.

4—5 in number, and fully described in the Ibis, 1900, p. 36. They have
a wreath of interlacing vandyke brown hair lines round the big end, with a few
pale grey underlying streaks and occasionally a yellowish cloud, upon a greyish
white ground. Two broods are reared in China, as fledged young have been
shot on May 24, while eggs have been taken as late as June 26 and young found
in July. Average size of 6 eggs in Brit. Mus., 19.63 >< 15.23 mm.

111

The eggs of the western form, E. cioides cioides Brandt, are very similar,
but occasionally the ground colour is of a warmer tint. Average size of 28 eggs
(9 by Hartert, 6 by Taczanowski, and 13 by the writer) 20.26 ><15.6 mm., Max.
22 < 16.1 and 1916.5 mm., Min. 19> 15.2 and 20><14.7 mm. Eggs figured in
Journ. f. Ornith. 1873, Tab. II, fig. 25, 26.]

54. Rustic Bunting, Emberiza rustica Pall.
Plate 14, fig. 7 (Sotkamo, Finland, 19. VI. 87).

Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 12, fig. 13 (nec 12), 76, fig. 10. Seebohm,
Br. Birds, pl. 68 (nec 15); id. Col. Fig., pl. 58. Newton, Proc. Zool. Soc.
1897, pl Ll, fig. 8, 9.

Foreign Names: Denmark: Bondeverling. Finland: Pohjansirkku.
Germany: Waldammer. Helgoland: Road-striiked Nieper. Holland: Bosch-
gors. Italy: Zigolo boschereccio. Norway: Vidjespurv. Poland: Poswierka
tzypregowa. Sweden: Videsparf.

Emberiza rustica Pall. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 29; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, IV, p. 229; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 362; Saunders, Man., p. 217;
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 188.

Breeding Range: Norrland in Sweden, H. Finland and N. Russia.
[Also Siberia to Kamtschatka. (?)|

Apparently this species is extending its range westward, but as it is
partial to swampy forest it is possible that its presence has been frequently
overlooked. It is found nesting, though sparingly, in the forests of N.
Russia as far as lat 62° N. in the Urals, and occurs near Archangel, but
is much less common than F. pusilla. It is also said to have bred in
N. W. Russian Lapland, and in 1867 was found nesting in E. Finland.
Since that time a good many nests have been taken there, chiefly in the
neighbourhood of Sotkamo (8. Uledborg). In Sweden a pair were shot
by B. Fries on May 20, 1821 at Haparanda, and a young bird near Luled
on September 6, 1835; but definite proof of its breeding there was not
forthcoming till July 1899, when unfledged young were found in Norrland.
In 1902 a nest with 4 young was found in the Degenfors district in
Westerbotten, and since then it has also been ascertained to breed in
Norbotten. [Hast of the Urals it appears to be scarce in the Yenesei
valley, though Seebohm shot one in lat. 62° N., but common in Trans-
baikalia and Amurland; it was met with by Middendorff in the Stanowoi
Mts., and is also found in Kamtschatka. |

Built of grasses and bents, and placed on the ground or low down
in bushes, in openings of swampy coniferous forests.

Usually 4 or 5 in number, occasionally 6. In character they resemble
somewhat the eggs of the Reed Warbler, and are entirely devoid of the
usual hair lines and streaks so frequently found in Buntings’ eggs, appro-

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

112

aching in this respect those of the Yellow breasted and Black headed
Buntings. The ground colour varies from pale sea green to greenish blue
or greenish grey, with numerous greyish olive or yellowish brown irregular
blotches and spots, which are generally thickest at the big end, and under-
lying blotches of pale violet. Some eggs are said to show a reddish
shade of ground.

In the Archangel district eggs have been taken from June 3 to July 10,
and in Finland from May 28 to June 25. Only one brood is reared.

Average of 43 eggs (21 from Finland in coll. E. Wasenius, 5 by
Sandman and 17 by the writer), 20.36 15.12 mm, Max. 21.8 >< 15.2
and 20.5><15.5 mm., Min. 19><14 mm. According by Ramberg some
eggs do not exceed 18.5 mm. in length. Rey gives the weight as 117 mg.

55. Little Bunting, Emberiza pusilla Pall.
Plate 15, fig. 6 (ex Nehrkorn coll.).

Eggs: Middendorff, Reis. Sibir, Zool. pl. XIII, fig. 4. Naumannia
1854, Taf. 3, fig. 5. Baedeker, Tab. 76, fig. 5. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 15;
id. Col. Fig., pl. 57.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Strnad malinky. Denmark: Dvaerg-
verling. Finland: Viéihdisirkku. France: Bruant nain. Germany: Zwerg-
ammer. Helgoland: Franzis Meper. Holland: Dwerggors. Italy: Zrgolo
minore. Sweden: Dvergsparf.

Emberiza pusilla Pall. Newton, ed. Yarrell, U, p. 34; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, IV, p. 235; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 363; Saunders, Man., p. 219.

Breeding Range: N. Russia, from Onega Bay to the Urals, chiefly
between lat. 64° N. and the forest limit. [Also Siberia to the lower Amur.|

In the Dwina delta and the forests around Archangel it is very
common, though local, haunting not only the old pine forests, but also the
mixed woods of young pines, firs, alders, and birches. Seebohm also found
it very numerous on the Lower Petschora from north of about lat. 66° to
the tundra beyond the limit of forest growth. |The first eggs were taken
on the Boganida by von Middendorff, who also met with this species on
the Stanowoi Mts. Seebohm and Popham found many pairs breeding in
the Yenesei valley, especially between the Arctic circle and lat. 71° on the
tundra, and the latter observed young birds even on the Brekhowski Islands.
Pallas recorded it from the willow swamps of Lake Baikal, and Schrenk
discovered a nest on the lower Amur. |

Usually a hollow among dead leaves, moss and grass, well lined with
fine grasses, while occasionally a few reindeer hairs are also found in the
lining, but this appears to be exceptional. Most nests are found in openings
of the forest, but a few pairs breed on the tundra, where a few dwarf

113

willows are the only tree growth. Schrenk’s nest was placed among the
tussocks of a swamp in an opening of the forest.

Generally 4 to 5, occasionally 6 in number, and exceedingly variable
in colouring and markings. They have been compared to those of the Corn,
Reed, Rustic and Black faced Buntings. The ground colour in some cases
is greenish, at other times pink, grey, stone colour or brown; while the
markings usually consist of blotches or spots and scrawls of dark brown,
sometimes purplish and sometimes greyish, with underlying blotches of
pale violet or reddish grey.

In the Dwina valley the best time appears to be June 20—24, while
on the Yenesei Seebohm took fresh eggs from June 23 to the end of the
month, and hard sat eggs on July 6. Popham however found fresh eggs
by the middle of the month, and on the Brekhowski Isles young were
still being fed by their parents on July 25.

Average of 33 eggs (32 by the writer and 1 by Rey) 18.28 «13.94
mm., Max. 20.2 >< 14.3 (Rey) and 19> 14.8 mm. Min. 164>< 13.3 and
18>< 13.2 mm. Rey gives the weight of one egg as 130 mg.

[Yellow-browed Bunting, Emberiza chrysophrys Pall.

Emberiza chrysophrys Pall. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 193; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 356; Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 189.

Breeding Range: E. Siberia (Dauria, Tarei-Nor, Rivers Argun and
Willni, Askold I.)

Supposed to have occurred at Lille and in Luxemburg. Breeding habits
and eggs as yet unknown.|

[In N. W. Africa is found the House Bunting, LE. striolata sahari Lev. It
is extraordinarily tame, and breeds generally under the eaves or in holes of the
walls of native houses, depositing 83—4 greenish white eggs, freckled with brown
spots and also underlying grey specks, in March and April.* Average size of
26 eggs (13 by Erlanger, 9 by Konig and 3 by Hartert) 19> 13.84 mm., Max.
20> 14.4 and 19.1>14.6 mm., Min. 1813 mm. Average weight of 9 eggs,
96 mg. (Konig). In Palestine and Arabia it is replaced by the Striped Bunting,
E. striolata striolata (Licht.), which is also found in Nubia, Kordofan and eastward
to India, and has occurred in Turkey. In Rajputana it breeds in November
(perhaps also in July), depositing 3 eggs about 18.5 to 19>< 12.2 to 13.2 mm. in
size and resembling those of E. s. sahari in appearance.]

56. Reed Bunting, Emberiza schoenielus (L.).
Plate 14, fig. 2—6 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXXII, fig. 9, a—c. Hewitson,
I. Ed. I, pl. Ul, fig. 5, 6; If. Hd. I, pl. XXXIX, fig. 2; II. Hd. I, pl. XLVI,

* Eggs figured in Journ. f. Ornith. 1896, Tab. VII, fig. 9, a, b.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

114

fig. 1. Baedeker, Tab. 3, fig. 4. Taczanowski, Tab. LX VII, fig. 2. Seebohm,
Brit. Birds, pl. 15; id. Col. Fig., pl. 57. Frohawk, Br. Birds, II, pl. VI,
fig. 198—206.

Nest: O. Lee, I, p. 140.

British Local Names: Reed or Water Sparrow, Blackcap, Black
headed Bunting. Welsh: Golfan y gors. Scotland: Moss Sparrow, Black
Bonnet, Coalyhead.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Strnad rdkosni. Denmark: Rorspurv,
Rorverling. Finland: Pajusirkku. France: Bruwant des roseaux. Germany:
Rohrammer. Helgoland: Meper, Holland: Rietgors. Hungary: Nadi
veréb. Italy: Migliarino di padule. Norway: Sivspurv, Rorspurv. Poland:
Pogwierka potrzos. Russia: Bolotnaja ovsjanka. Sweden: Siifsparf. Spain:
Molinero.

Emberiza schoeniclus L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, Il, p. 23; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, IV, p. 241; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 370; Saunders, Man., p. 221.
E. schoeniclus schoeniclus L. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 194.

Breeding Range: Europe generally, but replaced by other forms
in the greater part of Hungary, the Balkan peninsula, and 8. Russia, in
the breeding season. [Also in W. Siberia, but not in Iceland on the
Feerées. |

In Great Britain and Ireland it is a generally distributed resident in
all suitable localities, and in some places very common. It is also found
on most of the islands, and is not uncommon even in the Outer Hebrides,
and breeds, though sparingly, in the Orkneys. Hitherto it has not been
found nesting in the Shetlands, and on the mainland of Scotland north of
the Great Glen it is somewhat local.

In Spain only a few pairs breed on the islets of the marismas in the
south, but it is not uncommon locally further north, at the Albufera of
Valencia, etc. In Portugal it is only known as a winter visitor, but is
resident in central and southern Italy, as well as in the Italian islands,
according to Arrigoni, although not noticed in Sardinia or Corsica in the
breeding season by Brooke, Wharton or Whitehead. Over the great plain
of central Europe it is a generally distributed summer visitor in districts
suited to its habits, and is also found in Scandinavia and N. Russia almost
up to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. To south eastern Europe it is only
a winter visitor.

Almost invariably found in the neighbourhood of water, or in damp
and marshy neighbourhoods. As a rule the nest is either on, or close to
the ground, often in grass or coarse vegetation or in a thick tuft of rushes,
and generally well concealed. Another common site is among flood drift
on an osier stump, a foot or so from the ground; while in the north it
is said to nest not uncommonly on the branches of sapling firs. Hewitson

115

records nests on bunches of flattened reeds, and an abnormal site is mentioned
in the Zoologist for 1897, p. 336, where a nest was found suspended from
the boughs of a willow and overhanging the water, over 5 ft. above its
surface. In 1886 1 came across a nest in Oxfordshire in a heap of dead
sticks by the water side: Ussher mentions nests between boulders on Lough
Mask, and two or three feet high in heather in Connemara, and Witherby
found one several feet up in a tree. On the Petschora Seebohm found
another built within an old Fieldfare’s nest, 9 ft. above the water. The
principal materials used are dead grasses, bents, and reeds or rushes, with
occasionally a little moss or withered leaves of sedge or reed, lined with
finer grasses, a little hair, and in some districts the flowering tops of reeds.
Diameter of cup 21 in. depth 1—12 in. The hen sits very closely, and
often flutters away from the nest as if injured.

Generally 4 or 5, sometimes 6 in number. In Ireland a full set
occasionally consists of 3 only, while on the other hand R. H. Read has
taken a clutch of 7 egos in Norway. Two hens have been known to lay
in a single nest; nine eggs, consisting of two distinct sets of 6 and 3 egos
respectively, were found in a nest on the Elbe in 1878. They are rather
variable in colouring, but are often of stone colour, varying from pale
greyish olive to warm buff. Some eggs however have a pale greenish
ground, others are decidedly rufous, and occasionally a set of white eggs
devoid of markings is met with. As a rule however they are boldly spotted
and streaked with very dark brown, almost black, and underlying worm
lines and spots of violet grey. The dark brown markings generally show
a penumbra of sepia or purple brown. Ussher describes a set with slender
streaks on a smoke grey ground. They are opaque looking in appearance
and have little or no gloss.

In England eggs may be taken from about mid-April onward throughout
May, June and early July, and two or sometimes three broods are reared,
but in Ireland the usual time is from May 20 through June and sometimes
July. lLilford has recorded a full clutch as early as March 23, but this
is quite exceptional. The breeding season does not appear to differ much
on the continent; but in Scandinavia few eggs are laid before mid May
and in Lapland not till mid June, while at the mouth of the Petschora
Seebohm received fresh eggs June 19—23. Period of incubation about
13—14 days.

There appears to be little difference in size between eggs from the
north of Kurope and those from further south. Average size of 172 eggs
(72 by A. Bau, 37 by Rey and 73 by the writer), 19.39 >< 1443 mm.,
Max. 22> 15.4 and 19.5> 15.5 mm, Min. 17.4><13.4 mm. Average
weight of 72 eggs, 130 mg. (Bau); of 37 eggs, 135 mg. (Rey). 5 full
eggs average 2.138 g. (Foster).

8*

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

116

Geographical Races.
a. Common Reed Bunting, E. schoeniclus schoeniclus (L.). See above.
b. E. schoeniclus canneti (Brehm).
Plate 15, fig. 1, 2 (Herzegovina, 19. V. 90).

E. schoeniclus cannett (Brehm). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 197.

Breeding Range: Hungary, Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Servia,
Albania, Bulgaria and Thessaly.

In Hungary (except in the N. W., where the common Reed Bunting
is found) this intermediate form is not uncommon; von Fiihrer observed
it in the reed beds of the Scutari Lake, and Reiser describes it as common
in marshes in Bulgaria. It is also known to breed in Servia, Bosnia,
Albania and probably also Thessaly.

In breeding habits it is not known to differ from the ordinary form,
and the eggs are similar in appearance, but appear to be rather larger.

Average size of 18 eggs (16 from Hungary by the writer and 2 from
Herzegovina by Rey) 21.1 >< 14.93 mm., Max. 22.2 >< 14.7 and 21 >< 15.5
mm., Min, 19.6 >< 14.5 and 20.1>14 mm.

ce. E. schoeniclus tschusii Reis. & Almisy.

E. schoeniclus tschusii Reis. & Almasy. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 198.
Breeding Range: From the north of the Dobrudscha to 8. Russia
and Lenkoran.
d. E. schoeniclus othmari Hart.
E. schoeniclus othmart Hart. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 198.
Breeding Range: Apparently replaces the preceding form in E.
Bulgaria.

57. Thick-billed Reed Bunting, Emberiza pyrrhuloides Pall.
Plate 15, fig. 3 (8. Russia).

Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 12, fig. 12.

Foreign Names: Russia: Kamichowaya ovsjanka. Turkestan: Kara-
bash kuchkach.

Emberiza pyrrhuloides Pall. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 249;
id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 372. E. pyrrhuloides pyrrhuloides Pall. Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 198.

Breeding Range: The shores of the Caspian Sea from the foot
of the N. Caucasus and the lower Volga to Transcaspia and Turkestan,
as far K. as Issik Kul, etc.

Little is known of the breeding habits of this bird, but probably
they resemble those of E. schoeniclus. In appearance the eggs are also

117

very similar, but are perhaps slightly larger. Two clutches of 5 eggs from
Transcaspia were taken on May 15 and 20. Average size of 11 eggs
(1 by Rey and 10 by the writer) 20.16 14.3 mm., Max. 21>< 15.5 and
20 >< 16.1 mm., Min. 19.5><15 and 20 x 14.8 mm.

Geographical Races.

a. E. pyrrhuloides pyrrhuloides Pall. See above.
b. E. pyrrhuloides reiseri Hart.
E. pyrrhuloides reisert Hart. Hartert, Voge. Pal. Fauna, p. 199.
Breeding Range: Thessaly (Lamia, Volo) where it is apparently

resident.
ce. E. pyrrhuloides palustris Savi.

E. pyrrhuloides palustris Savi. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 199.

Breeding Range: Italy, only during the breeding season in the
north, but resident in Tuscany, 8. Italy and Sicily; also in the south of
France and in EH. Spain.

Arrigoni describes the eggs as rather larger than those of E. schoentclus,
paler and more blue in tint.

{Other forms inhabit E. Turkestan, the Saissan Nor, etc.|

58. Lapland Bunting, Calearius lapponicus (L.).
Plate 14, fig. 22—26 (Lapland).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXII, fig. 12, a—e. Hewitson,
Ill. Kd. I, pl. XLVI, fig. 1, 2. Baedeker, Tab. 3, fig. 2. Seebohm, Br. Birds,
pl. 15; id. Col. Fig., pl. 57. Newton, Ootheca Wolleyana, Tab. XI, fig. 19—24.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Strnad laponski. Denmark: Laplands
Verling. Finland: Lapinsirkku. France: Plectrophane lapon. Germany:
Lerchen-Spornammer. Helgoland: Berg-Seilling. Holland: Djsgors. Iceland:
Solskrikia. Italy: Zigolo di Lapponia. Lapland: Véirri-cicds. Norway:
Laplands Spurv. Poland: Pogwierka sponiasta. Russia: Punocka. Sweden:
Lappsparf.

Plectrophanes lapponicus (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 15; Dresser,
Birds of Europe, IV, p. 253. Cualcarius lapponicus (L.). Dresser, Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 373; Saunders, Man., p. 223. Cualcarius lapponica lapponica (L.).
Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 200.

Breeding Range: N. Scandinavia, Lapland, Kolguev, Waigatz, Novaya
Zemlya and the Arctic coast of Russia, [Also Arctic Siberia and N. America,
Greenland. |

In Norway this species is found breeding not only on the islands and
cloudberry covered moorlands of Finmark, but also in the upland swamps
of the Dovrefjeld as far south as lat. 62°. In Sweden it is however only

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

118

met with in Lapland, where it breeds in some numbers locally on: both
sides of the Russian border, generally in marshy ground overgrown with
dwarf willow. It is also numerous in Russian Lapland, north of the
coniferous belt, on the tundra. On Kolguev it is one of the commonest
birds, but is local on Waigatz, and only found in the south of Novaya
Zemlya. On the tundra near the mouth of the Petschora it is the com-
monest bird. To Iceland it is only a rare straggler, but specimens have
been shot in May on Jan Mayen and Franz Josef Land.

It is not uncommon to find several pairs breeding within a short
distance of one another where suitable nesting ground is limited in extent.
The nest is built on the ground, often in the side of a tussock, or under cover
of some dwarf shrub, like that of a Red throated Pipit; and is composed
chiefly of dead grasses and a little moss, with a lining of finer grasses,
sometimes reindeer or lemming hair, and apparently always a few feathers.
This last characteristic is generally sufficient to distinguish the nest from
that of the Red throated Pipit, which it otherwise much resembles. Height
of nest about 2 in., breadth about 34—4 in., diameter of cup 24 in,
depth 14 in. The hen sits closely, but the presence and song of the cock,
which is generally to be seen on some adjoining hillock, discloses the where-
abouts of the nest.

Generally 6, occasionally 5 in number, while 7 have been found. They
are rather variable in colour, the ground colour ranging from greenish
grey to pale olive brown, with blotches and cloudings of darker reddish
brown (which in some cases almost obscure the ground colour) and worm
lines, streaks and spots of almost blackish brown. Occasionally eggs are
found which are undistinguishable from some varieties of eggs of A. cervinus,
while others approach those of E. schoeniclus, or even A. pratensis.

In mid Norway full clutches may be taken in the first week of June,
but in the north of the country not till the middle of the month. In
Lapland about June 12—15 is the best time, and in Kolguev Pearson
found young on the wing early in July.

Average of 100 eggs (36 by Rey and 64 by the writer) 20.67 < 14.96
mm., Max. 23><16 mm., Min. 18> 14.3 and 19.3><14 mm. An ex-
ceptionally large egg from N. America measures 23.5 >< 17.1 mm., and
a dwarf 14 >< 12.3 mm. (Rae). Average weight of 36 eggs, 149 mg. (Rey);
of 28 eggs, 142 mg. (Bau).

59. Snow Bunting, Passerina nivalis (L.).
Plate 14, fig. 17—21 (Greenland).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXXII, fig. 11, a—e. Hewitson,
I, Ed. I, pl. XI, fig. 2; IL Ed. I, pl. XXXVI, fig. 1, 2; IL. Hd. I, pl. XLVI,

119

fig. 3. Baedeker, Tab. 3, fig. 1. 'Taczanowski, Tab. LXVI, fig. 3. See-
bohm, Br. Birds, pl. 15; id. Col. Fig., pl. 57. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. VI,
fig. 207—209.

British Local Names: Snowflake, Snowbird, White Lark. Scot-
land: Cock o’ the North, Gualach. Shetlands: Snaa Fool.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Strnad snégni. Denmark: Sneverling,
Snefugl. Finland: Zumt Pirrku. France: Ortolan de neige. Germany:
Schneeammer. Helgoland: Seiising, Ljskletter. Holland: Sneewwgors. Hungary:
Hostrmany. Iceland: Snjétitlingur. Italy: Zigolo della neve. Lapland:
Allap. Norway: Snefugl, Snespurv. Poland: Poswierka sniegula. Russia:
PodoroZnik. Sweden: Sndsparrf.

Plectrophanes nivalis (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, H, p. 1; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, IV, p. 261; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 374. Plectrophenax nivalis (L.).
Saunders, Man., p. 225. Passerina nivalis nivalis (L.). Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 202.

Breeding Range: Arctic and subarctic Europe, extending to the
Feerdes, Shetlands, and the higher mountains of Scotland. [Also Greenland,
Arctic N. America and Asia, except Alaska and Kamtschatka, where P.
nwalis townsendi Ridg. replaces it.|

The first definite record of the breeding of this species in our islands
is that of Saxby, who obtained a nest with 3 eggs on July 2, 1861 in
Unst. Since that date there is evidence of its having bred several times
in the Shetlands. For a century past it has been supposed to nest on the
higher mountain ranges of Scotland, and in July 1886 a nest with young
was found in Assynt by Messrs. Peach and Hinxman, and two years later
Mr. J. Young found one with 5 eggs in the same district, while on June 5,
18938, another nest with 5 eggs was taken in Banff, at a height of about
3700 ft. Since then young have been met with and old birds seen in
summer in various localities, such as the Torridon Hills (W. Ross), Ben
Nevis, Ben Cruachan, etc. The head quarters of this species appears to
be the Cairngorm range, but scattered pairs are to be met with on many
of the peaks over 3000 ft. high, nesting among the loose stones of the
screes, usually not far from the top.

In the south of Norway it breeds on the high fjeld, below the snow
line, as far as about lat. 60° N., but in the north it is found not only on the
shore, but even on the isolated stacks out at sea, nesting generally under
boulders. In Lapland it is found both on the barren uplands, strewn with
erratic boulders, and also on the rocky parts of the coast, and Sandman
records an instance of its breeding on Karlé. On Kolguev it is common,
nesting in fissures of the bluffs, and on Novaya Zemlya and Waigatz it
is more plentiful than any land bird (Pearson), while a few pairs appear
to breed at the mouth of the Petschora and near Habarova, and probably

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

120

nest among the heaps of driftwood in default of rocks. Further north it
is common in Franz Josef Land and generally distributed in Spitzbergen.
In the Ferées a few pairs formerly bred on the tops of the mountains,
and also in the northern islands of the group, but of late years their numbers
appear to have diminished. In Iceland it is common and generally distributed,
from the sea coast up to the snow line (2000 ft.), avoiding only the low-
lying grassy or marshy districts, and breeding in crevices of the lava,
sometimes at a considerable depth, as well as under boulders and in stone
heaps or in walls. [In Arctic N. America it is known to breed as far
north as Grinnell Land (lat. 82° 33’ N.).]

Although as a general rule the nest is placed out of sight in some
crevice of the rock, it is occasionally found in quite an exposed site.
Chapman has seen nests built quite openly among boulders on the high
fjeld in Norway; on Franz Josef Land one was found on a small open
ledge 5 ft. from the ground; on Waigatz Feilden and Pearson noticed old
nests on flat boulders in the dry bed of a stream, and found young in a
nest on the top of a little pinnacle 3 ft. high and 6 in. wide. Captain
Lyons found a nest on the bosom of the corpse of an Eskimo child on
Southampton Island. The materials consist chiefly of dead grasses and
stalks, with occasionally a little moss or a few twigs, lined with finer grasses,
a little hair or wool and feathers of Ptarmigan, Snowy Owl, Raven, Gull,
etc. The nests vary in size according to their position; approximate
diameter of cup, 2#—3+1 in.

Usually 5 or 6 in number, occasionally 4 or 7, while 8 are occasionally
found in Greenland. They are very variable in colouring, and in some
cases extremely handsome. The ground colour is usually pale bluish or
greenish, but occasionally white, sometimes with a yellowish or reddish
tinge; while the markings generally tend to form a zone or cap at the
big end, and consist of spots, blotches, and streaks of deep red brown, and
sometimes a few spots or lines of almost black, generally with underlying
spots or blotches of violet grey.

In Scotland and mid Norway the first eggs are laid at the end of
May and the first days of June. In Lapland they are rather later, and
most eggs are found in the latter half of June. In Iceland the breeding
time seems to vary considerably. A few older birds have eggs about
May 20, but most nests are found in June, and may even be met with
up to the second week of July with fresh eggs. In Franz Josef Land
the first fledged young were seen July 10—26, and on the Taimyr full
clutches were found by June 10. The period of incubation is 14 days.
When flushed from the nest the hen is usually joined at once by the cock,
and soon begins to work her way back to the eggs as inconspicuously
as possible.

121

Average of 100 eggs (27 by Rey and 73 by the writer) 22.04>< 16.14 Measure-
mm., Max. 24.1 >< 16 and 21.5><17.5 mm.,, Min. 19.5><16.1 and 21.2><14.9 ™°r
mm. These measurements are sometimes exceeded: Max. 24.8 >< 15.9 mm.
(Hantzsch), Min. 19.2 >< 15.2 (Hantzsch) and 22.9>< 14.4 mm. (Nordling).
H. J. Pearson has a dwarf ege from Iceland, 13.7><11 mm. Average
weight of 27 eggs, 168 mg. (Rey); of 32 eggs, 173 mg. (Bau). Full eggs
average 4 o. (Hantzsch).

[The White throated Bunting, Zonotricha albicollis Bp., has occurred three
times in Great Britain; all probably escaped birds. ]

ALAU DIDAE.

60. Calandra Lark, Melanocorypha ealandra (L.).
Plate 16, fig. 23—25 (Greece), 26, 27 (S. Russia).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXVI, fig. 5, a—d. Baedeker,
Tab. 66, fig. 6. Taczanowski, Tab. LXIII, fig. 1. Seebohm, Col. Fig,,
pl. 58. Reiser, Orn. Bale. IU, Taf. II, fig. 17, 18 (var.).

Foreign Names: France: Calandre. Germany: Kalanderlerche. Greece:
Kalandra, Gialiandra. Italy: Calandra. Portugal: Cochicho. Russia:
Stepnoi Javronok. Spain: Aléndra, Calandria.

Melanocorypha calandra (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 365;
id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 382. M. calandra calandra (L.). Hartert, Vog. Pal.
Fauna, p. 208.

Breeding Range: Portugal and the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean and Black Seas, but not known to breed in Egypt.

In Portugal this species, although very local, is found in Trazos Con-
Montes, as well as in the south. In Spain it is an abundant and con- Papas
spicuous resident in the great plains of the south and east, haunting both
corn and grass lands as well as arid plains. It has only been noticed in
southern France, and was not observed by Wharton or Whitehead in
Corsica, but is extremely common in Sardinia. In Italy it is a common
resident in the central and southern provinces, and a few pairs appear to
breed in Venetia, while it is also found commonly in Sicily. In the Balkan
peninsula it is common on suitable ground, in Dalmatia (near Zara), in
Montenegro (only near Podgorica), in Bulgaria (common on the plains and in
the Dobrudsha), in Turkey (especially numerous near Saloniki), and in Greece
(Thessaly, Acarnania, Attica, and the Cyclades). It is plentiful on the
steppes of S. Russia and the Crimea, but local on the Kirghis Steppes,

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding

Season.

Measure-
ments.

122

and though met with north of the Caucasus, is not found in the Baku
district. [Also in Armenia, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Palestine, and N. W. Africa,
from Marocco to Tunis, but replaced in Turkestan, Persia, Afghanistan, etc.
by M. calandra psammochroa Hart. |

Placed in a depression of the ground, sometimes as much as 3 or
4 in. deep, and sheltered by coarse herbage or corn. It is composed of
the usual dead grasses, bents, etc. lined with rather finer materials;
diameter of cup about 27 in. It is generally well concealed, and is usually
found only by flushing the hen from the nest.

4—5 in number as a rule in the south of Europe. In Montenegro
von Fiihrer found normally 5, and occasionally 4 or 6. Kriiper once found
a clutch of 7 eggs in Acarnania, and F.C. Selous took clutches of 6 and
7 near the Maeander River in Asia Minor. They are small for the size
of the bird and are generally boldly spotted and blotched with ochreous
brown and underlying grey spots, thickly distributed over a yellowish white
ground, sometimes in a zone. Some eggs have been compared to those
of the Great Grey Shrike. Reiser describes and figures some remarkable
Greek specimens with only a few bold spots of dark brown and lilac (J. c.).
Most eggs show a fairly decided gloss.

In 8. Spain the first eggs are found in the first or second week in
April, and thence onward through May and early June; while in N. Africa
they may be taken as early as the end of March and throughout April
and May, so that probably two broods are reared. In Greece the breeding
season lasts from the end of April to June, and in Montenegro from May 4
to the end of the month.

Average of 100 eggs (68 by Rey and 32 by the writer) 24.23 >< 17.87
mm. Max, 27.15< 18.9 and’ 268 >< 19.2 mm. Min. 21:5>< 16 eand
22.5>< 16 mm. Average weight of 68 eggs, 239 mg. (Rey), of 38 eggs,
237 mg. (Bau).

[In Transcaspia, Asia Minor, Persia, etc., is found an allied species,
M. bimaculata (Ménétr.). Eggs like those of M. calandra. Average of
3 in Dresser’s collection, taken by Sarudny in Transcaspia on June 10,
23.3 17.2 mm.]

61. White winged Lark, Melanocorypha sibirica (Gm.).
Plate 16, fig. 6--9 (S. Russia).
Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. IC, fig. 14, a,b. Baedeker, Tab. 66,
fig. 7. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 15; id. Col. Fig., pl. 58.
Foreign Names: Germany: Sibirische Lerche. Hungary: Fehérszarnyu

pacsirta. Poland: Skowronek bialokrzydly. Russia: Belokrilot Javronok.
Melanocorypha sibirica (Gm.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 642; Dresser,

123

Birds of Europe, IV, p. 373; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 385; Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 211. Alauda sibirica Gm. Saunders, Man., p. 257.

Breeding Range: Steppes of 8. HE. Russia. [Also from Transcaspia
to the Yenesei valley. |

In Russia the range of this species extends from the steppe land
north of the Caucasus (Stawropol government), throughout the Astrakhan
steppes and northward to Saratow and Orenburg. In this district it is
plentiful, but only occurs rarely in the south Russian steppes. It has
strayed to England as well as various parts of the continent.

Placed on the ground on the grassy steppes in any slight depression,
and composed of dead grasses, etc., often sheltered by a grass tuft.

Usually 4, although 3 and 5 are said to occur occasionally. In size
they differ only slightly from those of the Skylark and Crested Lark, and
as a rule are thickly spotted or blotched with olive brown upon a greyish
or yellowish white ground, like the eges of M. calandra. Many eggs show a
tendency towards a zone of markings round the big end, and as a rule
they are a trifle greener in colouring than most Larks’ eggs.

The end of April and throughout May, varying according to locality.

Average size of 100 eggs (72 by Rey and 28 by the writer),
22.61 >< 16.38 mm., Max. 24.5><17 and 23.5>< 17.2 mm., Min. 20.5 >< 15.2
mm. Average weight, 213 mg. (Rey).

62. Black Lark, Melanocorypha yeltonensis (Forst.).
Plate 16, fig. 12 (Kirghis Steppes).

Kegs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXVI, fig. 8, a—e.

Foreign Names: Germany: Mohrenlerche. Russia: Javronok Tschernoi.

Melanocorypha yeltonensis (Fozst.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV,
p. 377; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 386; Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 213.

Breeding Range: 8S. E. Russia: the salt steppes E. of the Volga.
[Also from the Caspian Sea to W. Siberia and Turkestan. |

In the Kirghis steppes this bird is a common resident, breeding in
the neighbourhood of the salt marshes, but not on the dry steppes. Little
is known of its breeding habits, which however probably resemble those
of the other Larks. The nest is placed on the ground, and is well hidden.

The eggs are generally 4 in number, though 5 are said to occur
occasionally, and resemble those of the Calandra Lark, but show a more
decidedly white ground.

Average size of 23 eggs (4 by Rey and 19 by the writer) 25.1 >< 18.12
mm., Max. 28 >< 18.2 and 25.5 19 mm., Min. 22.5 >< 18 and 24.2 >< 17.2
mm. Average weight of 4 eggs, 319 mg. (Rey). The breeding season
appears to full in the first half of May.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.
Measure-
ments. .

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

124

63. Short toed Lark, Calandrella brachydactyla (Leisl.).
Plate 17, fig. 1 (Odessa), 2—4 (Greece).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXVI, fig. 7, a—d. Hewitson,
II. Ed. I, pl. XXXVII*; III. Ed. I, pl. XLV, fig. 4. Baedeker, Tab. 66,
fig. 2. Taczanowski, Tab. LXIII, fig. 2. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 15; id.
Col. Fig., pl. 58.

Foreign Names: France: Alouette calandrelle. Germany: Kurzzehige
Lerche. Greece: Tsaréthra kalokairiné, Molochthros. Italy: Calandrella,
Calandrino. Portugal: Carreiréla. Russia: Malowt Javronok. Spain:
Terréra, Terrerilla.

Calandrella brachydactyla (Leisl.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, 1, p. 637;
Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 341; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 393; Saunders,
Man., p. 255. C. brachydactyla brachydactyla (Leisl.). Hartert, Vog. Pal.
Fauna, p. 214.

Breeding Range: S. Europe, from the Iberian peninsula to S. Russia.
| Also N. Africa from Marocco to Egypt, and Asia Minor to Beluchistan. |

In the Iberian peninsula it is a common summer visitor in the plains,
arriving about mid March, and frequently found in company with the
Calandra Lark. In Spain it is commonest in the cultivated districts and
the dry marisma, while in Portugal its favourite haunts are sandy plains
near the sea, not only in the south, but also near Oporto. In France it
is found in diminishing numbers northward as far as the plain of Troyes,
and though scarce in the northern provinces of Italy, is plentiful in the
central and southern parts. It is also found in the Balearic Isles, Sardinia,
Sicily, and Malta, but not in Corsica; and has been recorded from almost
every province in the Balkan peninsula, being especially numerous in the
heaths of Montenegro, where it breeds up to 1500 ft. It breeds in the
Cyclades, but is local and not common in Cyprus, while its range in Russia -
extends to the steppes of Astrakhan and the Caucasus, where it is common.

Generally in some slight depression, such as a hoof print or a natural
hollow, and often under the shelter of a tuft of grass or clump of thistles;
built of dried grasses, roots, etc., and neatly lined with hairs, plant down
or a few feathers, in some cases, but not always.

Usually 4 or 5 in number, and extraordinarily variable in appearance.
Some eggs are almost white, while others vary in ground colour from
yellowish or brownish, to occasionally pinkish or pale bluish, and are almost
covered with innumerable fine spots of pale brown, greyish yellow or pale
greenish brown. The markings often tend to form a zone at the big end;
and sometimes a dark hair line is found, emphasizing the likeness to the
eggs of the Yellow Wagtails. In N. Africa the number of eggs seldom
exceeds three.

125

In Greece generally from the end of April onward, but exceptionally
much earlier, for Reiser records nearly fledged young on Hymettus on
April 27. In Spain the breeding season is slightly earlier, beginning about
mid-April in the extreme south. According to Arrigoni two broods are
reared in Italy, in April and July, while in N. Africa the eggs of the first
brood are laid in April or May and those of the second early in June.
Period of incubation, 13 days.

Rey gives the average of 104 eggs from Greece and Portugal as
19:6 >< 14.6 mm, Max, 23.8 >< 14.2 and 20.7 >< 15 mm., Min. 16.1>< 13:8
and 20.5><13.5 mm. Reiser however records an egg 21.6 > 15.8 mm.
N. African eggs are very similar; average of 22 (Hrlanger and Kénig),
20.1><14.3 mm. Average weight (Rey) 129 mg.

64. Pallas’s Lark, Calandrella minor heinei (Hom.).
Plate 17, fig. 5—8 (8S. Russia).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. IC, fig. 15. Baedeker, Tab. 66,
fig. 3.

Foreign Names: Germany: Stwmmellerche. Russia: Malowt Ja-
vronok.

Calandrella pispoletta (Pall.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 355;
id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 395. ©. minor heinet (Hom.). Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 219.

Breeding Range: Steppes of S. E. Russia. [Also Transcaspia. |

Eversmann says that the true home of this species is on the steppes
of the Caspian, northward to Indersk and eastward to Lake Aral, where
it is found in countless numbers. Henke found it less common than C.
brachydactyla on the salt marshes between the Volga and the Ural, but
easily distinguishable by its note.

Placed on the ground in the most barren parts of the steppes, where
there is little vegetation except a few Artemisia plants, and composed of
grasses and bents, with sometimes down in the lining.

4—5 in number, tolerably glossy, and greyish or greenish white in
colour, with medium sized spots of hair brown, and ashy grey underlying
markings. The ground colour, according to Rey, is as a rule more greenish
in tint than in the eggs of C. minor polatzeki. In some cases the spots
are thickest at the big end.

From the beginning of April to June.

Average of 58 eggs (54 by Rey and 4 by the writer) 18.7 >< 14.56
mm. Max. 20.1 > 15.2 mm, Min. 17> 13.8 mm. Average weight
136 mg. (Rey).

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Breeding
Season.
Measure-
ments.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

126

Geographical Races.
a. Andalucian Lark, C. minor baetica Dress.

Foreign Names: Spain: Marismena, Cujailla.

C. baetica Dress. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 351; id. Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 395. C. minor baetica Dress, Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 218.

Breeding Range: S. Spain.

In Andalucia, where it was first discovered by Lord Lilford, this bird
is found commonly in the valley of the Guadalquivir, and also in the Vega
de la Janda. In Granada it is resident near Malaga, and according to
Hartert also in Murcia and Valencia.

Placed in a slight hollow, sometimes on the bare ground, at other
times under shelter of a grass tuft, a clump of thistles, or a small bush,
in the islets in the marisma or in the marshes by the river. It is also
found in the corn lands, especially below Seville. The nest is composed
of dry grasses, with sometimes a few feathers in the lining and is said
to be rather more neatly built than that of C. brachydactyla.

Usually 3—4, but 5 are occasionally found. They differ considerably
in appearance from those of the Short toed Lark, which also breeds in the
same district, having an almost white ground, sparingly spotted or blotched
with ochreous or reddish brown and underlying violet grey. In some cases
the markings tend to form a zone.

The first eggs may be found at the beginning of April, but most
are laid in the latter half of the month, and also in May.

Average of 32 eggs 19.8><14.37 mm., Max. 21.5><14.1 and 19.1><15.2
mm. Mins dsi2.>< 13.4 and 192 >< 13/6)mm:

b. Pallas’s Lark, C. minor heinei (Hom.). See above.

[In addition to the above races, Tenerife is inhabited by C. minor
rufescens (Vieill.), while in Lanzarote and Fuertaventura another form,
C. minor polatzeki Hart. is met with. The eggs are very similar to those
of the Andalucian form. Average of 70 eggs (54 by Rey and 16 by the
writer) 19.78 >< 14.29 mm., Max. 23.5 >< 14.7 and 21.7><15.4 mm., Min.
17.6 < 14 and 20><13 mm. Average weight 136 mg. (Rey). In N. Africa,
from Marocco to Egypt, C. minor minor (Cab.) is abundant locally. The
clutch usually consists of 3 eggs, which are laid from the beginning of
April onward to June. Average of 15 eggs by Erlanger, 19.8 >< 14 mm.,
Max. 21><16 mm., Min. 18><14 and 20><11 mm. Average weight 132 mg.|

[Desert Lark, Ammomanes deserti algeriensis Sharpe.
Eggs: Ko6nig, Journ. f. Ornith. 1896, Tab. VII, fig. 6.
Ammomanes deserti (Licht.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 329; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 397. A. deserti algeriensis Sharpe. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 221.

127

Breeding Range: S. Algeria and Tunis.

Said to have occurred in Spain, Portugal, ete., probably in error. The eggs,
3—4 in number, are cream coloured, finely speckled all over with rusty brown
and violet grey. Breeding season, April and May. Average size of 22 eggs
(10 by Konig, 7 by Erlanger, 3 by Whitaker, etc.) 21.5>15.7 mm., Max. 23.2><16.6
and 22> 17.2 mm., Min. 2015 mm. Average weight (17 eggs) 155 mg. (Kénig
and Erlanger). In Lower Egypt and Sinai another form, A. deserti isabellina (Temm.),
occurs; from Palestine to the Persian Gulf, A. deserti fraterculus Tristr. of which
4 eggs average 22 >< 15,2 mm. in size; and in Transcaspia A. deserti parvirostris Hart.

Banded Desert Lark, Ammomanes phoenicura arenicolor (Sund.).

Eggs: K6énig, Journ. f. Ornith. 1896, Tab. VII, fig. 7.

Ammomanes cinctura (Gould.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 335; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 398. A. phoenicura arenicolor (Sund.). Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 224.

Breeding Range: S. Algeria to the Sinaitie peninsula.

Has occurred once at Malta. The clutch appears to consist usually of 2
to 3 eggs, laid in April and May, and resembling those of the preceding species,
but with a rosy or apricot coloured flush. The markings also tend to form a
zone at the big end. Average of 15 eggs (7 by Kénig, 3 by Erlanger, etc.)
20.36 >< 14.85 mm., Max. 22><16 mm., Min. 1914 mm. 8 eggs average 130 mg.
in weight.]

65. Crested Lark, Galerida cristata (L.).

Plate 16, fig. 20—22 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXVI, fig. 2, a—d. Hewitson,
Ill. Ed. I, pl. XLV, fig. 5. Baedeker, Tab. 66, fig. 8. Taczanowski, Tab. LXII,
fig. 3. Seebohm, Brit. Birds, pl. 15; id. Col. Fig., pl. 58.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Chocoloug’. Denmark: Toplaerka. France:
Cochevis, Alouette huppée. Germany: Haubenlerche. Holland: Kwifleewwvertk.
Hungary: Bibos pacsirta. Italy: Cappellaccia. Poland: Smieciucha. Sweden:
Tofslirka.

Alauda cristata L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 632; Saunders, Man.,
p- 253. Galerita cristata (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 285. Co-
rydus cristatus (L.). Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 390. Galerida cristata
cristata (L.). Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 228.

Breeding Range: Europe generally, except Norway, N. Sweden and
Russia, the British Isles, Corsica, and Sardinia, where it is absent. Replaced
by other forms in the Iberian and Balkan peninsulas and 8. Russia.

In Sweden this species has increased its range of late years, and is
now known to breed as far N. as Upsala, while it is common in Skane
and Halland. In Russia it is found in small numbers in the Baltic pro-
vinces, but does not nest in Finland or N. Russia. In Jutland however
it is not uncommon, and is locally plentiful in France, the low countries,
Germany and Austro-Hungary, while in Switzerland, where it was formerly

Con-
tinental
Europe.

128

rare, it is now established in many localities. In Italy it is common, as
is also the case in Sicily.

Nest. Almost invariably found in the immediate neighbourhood of roads
and dwelling places, where small parties of two or three birds may fre-
quently be met with, and are as a rule extraordinarily tame and familiar.
They show decided preference for low lying sandy and barren districts and
avoid mountain ranges, breeding frequently by the roadsides, and also on
the fallows and among corn, potato fields, or in gardens. The nest has
also been found on low turf walls and on the roofs of sheds in the fields.
It is composed of the usual materials, dead grasses, bents, etc., with a
lining of finer grasses and occasionally a few horsehairs. Diameter of cup
about 21 in. depth 1 in.

Eges. According to Rey, about 66 per cent of German nests contain 4 eggs,
and the remainder 5. (Clutches of 6 are rarely, if ever found in Hurope,
but occur in the case of some of the Asiatic races, while some of the N.
African forms often lay 3 eggs only). In appearance they run through
most of the variations of the Calandra and Skylark’s eggs, but are more
glossy than the eggs of the latter bird. Dr. Rey possesses a erythristic
variety with a distinctly red ground.

Breeding In Germany Rey found the earliest full clutches at the end of April,

Season. and the last fresh eggs at the beginning of June. Period of incubation
13 days; the young remain in the nest for 10 days and are able to fly
in 18 days.

Measure- Rey gives the average of 100 eggs as 22.7><16.8 mm., Max. 24.7><17

ments. and 22><18.3 mm., Min. 19><15 mm. This agrees closely with the average
of 38 eggs as given by Bau, 22.6><16.6 mm. Average weight 192 mg.
(Rey), 189 mg. (Bau). Abnormal eggs in the Rey collection measure
27.5 >< 18.9 and 18>< 13.2 mm., and Ottosson records an egg, 21.5><14.7 mm.

Geographical Races.

a. Mid-European Crested Lark, G. cristata cristata (L.). See above.
b. S. Russian Crested Lark, G. cristata tenuirostris Brehm.

Foreign Names: Russia: Javronok chochlatyi, Posmetushka.

G. cristata tenuirostris Brehm. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 230.

Breeding Range: S. Russia to Rumania (Sarepta, Poltava, Czerna-
voda, and Baragana). ;

Found in the valleys of the Lower Volga and Dnieper, and resident
im small numbers near houses on the Astrakhan steppes, as well as in the
Crimea. Also in the lower Danube valley.

129

ce. Caucasian Crested Lark, G. cristata caueasica Taez.

G. cristata caucasica Tacz. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 230.

Breeding Range: The Caucasus and W. shores of the Caspian,
from Petrowsk to Lenkoran.

Although breeding almost exclusively on the steppes, a few pairs
nest in the Caucasus up to about 4000 ft. according to Bogdanow.

d. Balkan Crested Lark, G. cristata meridionalis Brehm.

Plate 16, fig. 18, 19 (Attica).

Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 66, fig. 9.

Foreign Names: Greece: Korudulés, Katzouliéra.

G. cristata meridionalis Brehm. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 230.

Breeding Range: Dalmatia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Turkey and
Greece.

In Montenegro Reiser met with a pair breeding at a height of 1500 ft.,
but this is exceptional, and most birds are found in the vineyards, gardens,
and roadsides of the peninsula. In Greece this form is common and general
as well as in the Cyclades, and probably also in Crete. Eggs 4—5 in
number.* The breeding season in the south begins in April, in the north
usually in early May. Average of 10 eggs from Greece (6 by Reiser and
4 by Rey an att.) 23 >< 16.52 mm., Max. 24.9>< 17.1 mm., Min. 20.9 >< 15.9
and 24.7>< 15.8 mm. Average weight of 6 eggs 186 mg. (Reiser).

e. Spanish Crested Lark, G. cristata pallida Brehm.

Foreign Names: Portugal: Cotovia de poupa. Spain: Curretera,
Cujada.

G. cristata pallida Brehm. MHartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 231.

Breeding Range: 8. Spain and Portugal.

In the Iberian peninsula besides the present race, Brehm’s Crested
Lark, G. theklae Brehm, is also found. Hartert has identified this form
from Valencia, Murcia, Granada and Seville, and in Portugal from Beira
and Estremadura. It haunts the plains in preference to the sierras, where
G. theklae is met with. Nest made of dead grasses with horsehair in
lining; diameter of cup 21 in. Eggs usually 4, rarely 5 in number, and
variable in colour and markings. The breeding season begins about mid
April. 28 eges from the Guadalquivir valley average 22.64 >< 16.59 mm.,
Max. 24 5c 17 and 2350005 mm. Min, 21 >< 16.3) and@ 22 S< 16 mm

[In N. Africa several other races are found; G. c. riggenbachi Hart. in-
habits the corn fields and plains of middle and 8. W. Marocco, G. ¢. macro-

* In Asia Minor the usual clutch consists of 5 eggs, and occasionally 6 are
found (F. C. Selous).
9

Nest.

130

rhyncha Tristr. is found in N. and mid Algeria, and N. Tunis; while further S.
G. c. arenicola Tristr. replaces it; and G. ¢. nigricans Brehm, inhabits
the Nile delta. In N. Palestine is found G. ¢. cinnamomina Hart., but in
the Jordan valley G. c. brachyura Tristr. The eggs of G. c. macrorhyncha
differ but little from typical eggs of G. cristata. Average of 32 eggs by
Konig and Erlanger 22.37 >< 16.62 mm., weight 189 mg. Those of G.c.
arenicola are rather larger. Average of 14 by Erlanger 23.5 >< 16.8 mm.,
Max. 26><17 mm. Average weight 195 mg. The eggs of G. c. riggen-
bacht are also according to Hartert rather above the average, 4 eggs
measuring 24.4 >< 17.3 mm.|

66. Brehm’s Crested Lark, Galerida theklae Brehm.
Plate 16, fig. 10, 11 (S. Spain).

Kegs: Baedeker, Tab. 66, fig. 10.

Galerida theklae theklae Brehm. MHartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 237.

Breeding Range: Southern Spain and Portugal.

This short and thick billed species has been very generally confounded
with the Spanish form of the Crested Lark, G. cristata pallida, so that
but little reliable information is obtainable with regard to its nesting
habits. It occurs apparently not only in Murcia and Valencia, but also in
Granada, haunting the sierras in preference to the plains; and also in the
hills of Algarve in Portugal. Hither this or a closely allied form is also.
found in the Balearic Isles.

Probably as a rule 3, occasionally 4 in number, as is known to be
the case in several of the N. African races of this bird. They appear
also to have a greater tendency to approach the type of Woodlarks’ eggs,
but well authenticated specimens of the Spanish form are still desiderata.

[The breeding habits of the N. African forms of this species have
received some attention from Kénig, Erlanger, and Whitaker. Hartert
separates them as follows: G. t. erlangert Hart. from N. Marocco (Tangier
district), G. t. ruficolor Whit., from middle and southern Marocco, G. f.
superflua Hart. south of the Atlas in Algeria and Tunis, G. t. harterte Erl.
north of the Atlas in the same countries, G. ¢. carolinae Erl. the stony
deserts of 8. Tunis and Tripoli and G. t. cyrenaicae Whit. Barca. Erlanger
and Whitaker distinguish another form, G. t. deichleri El. from the sandy
deserts of S. Algeria and Tunis. There appears to be little difference
between the eggs of these races. The normal clutch consists of 3, rarely 4.
Average size of 4 eggs of G. t. ruficolor 22.7 >< 17.07 mm. (Hartert); of
6 eggs of G. t. harterti 22.66 < 16.83 mm. (Erlanger); while 18 eggs of
G. t. swperflua average 22.55 >< 16.55 mm., average weight 181 mg. (Er-
langer), and were found from the end of March onward.|

131

67. Woodlark, Lullula arborea (L.).
Plate 16, fig. 13—15 (Germany), 16, 17 (S. France).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXVI, fig. 4, a—d. Hewitson,
E Bde 1. pl OXXX SG fig. 4,05) TL: Hd; J; pl. XXXVI). fig. .3; HE heel,
pl. XLV, fig. 3. Baedeker, Tab. 66, fig. 5. Taczanowski, Tab. LXII, fig. 2.
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 15; id. Col. Fig., pl. 58. Frohawk, Br. Birds, II,
phe VEE fies 255:

British Local Name: Welsh: Uchedydd y coed.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Skfivan lesni. Denmark: Hedelaerke.
Finland: Mehtaleivo, France: Cujelier, Alouette lulu. Germany: Heide-
lerche. Greece: Molochdos tourldki. Holland: Boomleewwerik. Hungary:
Firdet pacsirta. Wtaly: Tottavilla. Poland: Skowronek borowy. Russia:
Sula, Liesnoi Javronok, Sweden: Triidlarka. Spain: Alondra de Monte.

Alauda arborea L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 625; Dresser, Birds of
Europe, IV, p. 321; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 389; Saunders, Man., p. 251.
Lullula arborea (L.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 241.

Breeding Range: Kurope, locally, except in N. Scandinavia and
N. Russia. [Also N. W. Africa and E. to Persia. |

This bird has apparently decreased in numbers of late years, and is
not now found in many localities where it is described as common by the
earlier British writers on Ornithology. It is however still found locally
in the south of England, and in some parts of Wales and Ireland. In
England it is commonest, though always local, in the counties bordering
the S. coast, and in the Isle of Wight; but also occurs in suitable ground
in the Lower Severn and Thames valleys. A few pairs breed on the slopes
of the Chilterns, and a colony exists on the heaths near Thetford, on the
borders of Suffolk and Norfolk. In the N. Midlands few reliable records
of breeding of late years are known, but nests have been found in Northants,
and probably a few still breed in Leicestershire and possibly also in Shrop-
shire and Cheshire, though it is apparently now extinct in S. Derbyshire,
where it was once common. In the northern counties it is recorded from
a few localities in Yorkshire (chiefly on the EH. coast), Lancashire, and
Cumberland, where Macpherson found it breeding on the W. coast. It is
a scarce resident in 8. Wales; formerly much commoner in Pembroke, scarce
in Cardigan, but locally not uncommon on the borders of Brecon and Radnor,
In N. Wales, although there is little doubt that a few pairs nest, definite
records are still wanting. In Scotland no reliable information as to the
breeding of this bird has been received of late years, although Harvie-
Brown took a nest in Stirlingshire in 1863. In Ireland it still breeds in
Co. Wicklow, and possibly in other districts, but is now one of the rarest
residents, though formerly found in Munster, Leinster, and Ulster (Ussher).

O*

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

132

In the Iberian peninsula it is local, but not uncommon in certain
districts of the southern provinces, and also on the tableland of central
Spain, 2000 it. above the sea; breeding generally where the undergrowth
is not too thick. It is also found in small numbers in Portugal, but in
France is fairly numerous in wooded districts, being sedendary in the 8.
and 8. W. and migratory in the N. In some parts of Brabant it is not —
uncommon, but in Denmark and N. Germany is scarce and local, though rather
more numerous in the 8. of the country, and is generally distributed and
common in Switzerland. Colonies exist in Livonia and Esthonia, and it is
said to breed in one locality in Finland (Abo Lin), as well as in various
districts of central and southern Russia, from Kiew and Kharkow in Little
Russia eastward to Saratow and Kazan, and is a scarce resident in the
Caucasus. In Scandinavia it is confined to the southern part of the peninsula:
not uncommon in 8. and 8. E. Norway, but scarce as a breeding species in
Sweden. In Italy it is resident in the hilly districts, especially in the &.,
and is also found in Sicily, while in Sardinia and Corsica it is common. The
geographical races of this species have not yet been thoroughly investigated,
but probably the birds inhabiting the Balkan peninsula will have to be
separated as L. arborea flavescens Khmcke, and possibly also the Corsican-
Sardinian birds also. In Greece it appears to inhabit the higher mountain
ranges only, but further N. it is found commonly on hillsides and high-lying
plains near the edge of forest in Albania, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Bosnia, etc.,
and is said to be plentiful on Crete and near Constantinople. [It is also
resident in the mountain ranges of the Barbary states, and a pale coloured
race, L. arborea pallida Sar. occurs in Transcaspia, HE. Persia, etc. |

Generally sheltered by some low bush, dead bracken, heath, or grass
tussock, and placed on the ground on a warm, sunny hillside in mountainous
districts, choosing especially those which are partly covered with dead
bracken and heath. In open, flat country it seems to prefer the neigh-
bourhood of pine woods, and in Spain often nests in open glades of cork
oak and ilex forest. It is rather neatly built of coarse bents and moss,
lined with finer grasses, and sometimes a few horsehairs. M. A. Mathew
records a nest built in a strawberry bed in N. Devon, and N. Wood found
one on the stump of an old oak overgrown with grass in Derbyshire.

Almost invariably 4 or 5 in number, although according to Fatio,
6 are known to occur, but rarely. No instance of a clutch of 6 eggs has
occurred within my own experience. The eggs are somewhat glossy, pale
greenish white or dirty white in ground colour, generally somewhat thickly
speckled with spots, and sometimes a few blotches, of hair brown and
underlying violet grey markings. Not infrequently the markings tend to
form a distinct zone at the big end, and occasionally they are decidedly
reddish in tint, almost approaching the finely spotted eggs of H. rustica

133 :

in type. In some cases the brown spots are wanting and only a few
underlying grey blotches are visible. Eggs closely resembling those of
Alauda arvensis and Anthus pratensis have been ascribed to this species,
perhaps through errors in authentication.

In Great Britain the Woodlark is a very early breeder, and the eggs Breeding

of the first brood are generally found in the last week of March and the ‘°°
first fortnight of April, but occasionally as early as mid March, both in the
south of England and in Wales; while eggs of later broods may be found
till late in June. In Germany most eges are found between the beginning
of May and the end of June, but exceptionally earlier. A nest with | egg
is said to have been found in Oldenburg on Feb, 21, 1884, (Journ. 7. Orn.
1886, p. 313), but this is scarcely credible. In central Spain Lilford found
fresh egos about the beginning of May at 2000 ft., and in Corsica Whitehead
found many nests after May 13, but in Sardinia eggs may be found early
in April, and Kriiper took eggs of the Balkan race from April 25 to
June 14, but found most nests in the latter half of May. The hen sits
closely, and incubation lasts 14—15 days.

Average of 100 eggs (46 by Rey and 54 by the writer) from Eng- Measure-
land, France, Holland and Germany, 21.12 >< 15.59 mm., Max. 24><16.3 ™™*
and 22 >< 17.2 mm., Min. 18>< 15.2 and 20> 14.5 mm. Corsican eggs
are generally large and light coloured. Average of 14 eggs, 21.45 >< 16.01
mm., Max. 24.2 >< 16.3 mm. Min. 19.5>< 16 and 20.7 > 15.2 mm. Hggs
from the Balkan peninsula resemble those from Corsica. Average of 23
from Greece, 21.21 >< 16.05 mm., Max. 22.5 >< 16.5 and 21.3 >17.2 mm.,

Min. 20.5 >< 16.6 and 21.5>< 15.1 mm. Average weight according to Bau
(39 eggs), 153 me., while Rey gives 156 me. as the average of 46 German eggs.

68. Skylark, Alauda arvensis L.
Plate 16, fig. 1—5 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXVI, fig. 1, a—e. Hewitson,
I, Kd. I, pl. CXXXIX, fig. 1—3; I. Ed. I, pl. XXXVI, fig. 1, 2; IIL. Ed. I,
pl. XLV, fig. 1. Baedeker, Tab. 66, fig. 4. Taczanowski, Tab. LXII, fig. 1.
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 15; id. Col. Fig., pl. 58. Frohawk, Br. Birds, II,
pl. VIL, fig. 245—254.

Nest: 0; Lee, IV, p...22,/24:

British Local Namesr Field Lark. Welsh: Uchedydd. Scotland:
Laverock. Gaelic: Uiseag. Manx: Ushag y tappee. Erse: Fudseog.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Skfivan polni. Denmark: Sang- or Gras-
laerke. Finland: Leivonen. France: Alouette des champs. Germany: Feld-
lerche. Holland: Leewwerik. Hungary: Mezei pacsirta. Portugal: Laverca.
Sweden: Sunglirka. Spain: Alondra.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

134

Alauda arvensis L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 614; Dresser, Birds of
Europe, IV, p. 307; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 387; Saunders, Man., p. 249.
A. arvensis arvensis L. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 244.

‘Breeding Range: Hurope generally, except in the extreme north
and south; replaced in the south east by A. arvensis cantarella Bp.

Common and generally distributed throughout Great Britain and Ire-
land, but less numerous in the N. of Scotland and scarce in some of
the wilder districts, such as the N. W. coast. It is however found in almost
all the islands, including the Shetlands, Orkneys, Hebrides, etc. being only
absent from a few outlying rocky islets and holms. It is a lover of the
open country and avoids woodlands, narrow valleys and the high mountains,
but may be met with up to 2000 ft. in England. It is unknown in Ice-
land, but a few pairs are known to have bred in the Ferées. Scottish
birds have been separated under the name of A. arvensis scotica by Tschusi
on account of their darker colouring.

In Scandinavia it breeds commonly in south and middle Sweden, and
is also found in Norway almost up to the N. Cape, but is not numerous
beyond the Arctic circle, and does not penetrate beyond Lat. 684° N. in
Lapland. It is the only bird which regularly nests on Helgoland, and is
generally distributed over the whole of the great European plain, and is
especially numerous in the plains of Jutland. (In the Iberian peninsula it
is only a winter visitor, but a small dark race appears to breed on the
Portuguese serras, in the mountains of Castile, and according to Saunders,
also in Aragon, which requires further investigation.) Over the northern
parts of its range it is a summer migrant, but towards the south it is to
a great extent sedentary.

Always placed on the ground, often in growing crops in cultivated
districts, among grass by road sides, among rough pasture or on moorlands,
and near the coast, even out on the open beach among the shingle and
sand, and among the dunes. It is placed in a hoofprint or any natural
depression, and is composed of dead grasses and bents, lined with finer
grasses, and sometimes, but not always, with horsehair. The old birds
are said to have been known to remove their young from the nest in
their claws. As the hen is a close sitter, the nest is frequently only found
by accident.

In the British Isles the clutch usually consists of 3 or 4 eggs, but
in some districts 5 are not uncommon. Rey gives 5 as the normal number
in Germany, and adds that 6 have been occasionally found; a statement
which also occurs in the works of Fatio and Westerlund. In Denmark
the first brood is said usually to consist of 4 and the second of 5. Hight
eggs, belonging to two clutches, have been found in one nest in Kent.
They are very variable in size and shape, and also differ considerably in

colouring. White, or almost white eggs are not uncommon; but the usual
type varies in ground colour from dull white to greyish, greenish, or
brownish white, thickly spotted with olive or hair brown and grey. Some-
times these markings are evenly distributed over the whole surface, but at
other times they tend to form a bold zone or cap at the big end. Some
eggs are decidedly ferruginous in tone, while a less rare variety has a
greenish cast.

As two if not three broods are often reared, the breeding season is
of long duration. A few pairs may breed in March, but few eggs are
found as a rule before the latter part of April in England, and frequently
not till early in May. From this time onward eggs may be taken till the
end of July. In Germany Rey took all his eggs between the middle of
April and July 25. Incubation lasts 14 days, and the hen sits closely,
returning to the nest very cautiously on foot, while apparently busied only
in feeding.

Although the breadth of these eggs is fairly constant, the length is
very variable, so that averages of small series show great discrepancies.
Average of 190 eggs (100 by Rey, 58 by Bau and 32 by the writer) from
Germany and England, 23.21 >< 16.83 mm., but abnormally large eggs
measure as much as 28 << 17.1, 27 >< 16.8 (Newton coll.) and 24.3 >< 18.5,
26.1 >< 18.3 mm. (Rey coll.), while the smallest egg is 18.8 >< 15.3 mm.
(Bau). Rey gives the average weight as 182 mg. and Bau (58 eggs) as
193 mg.

Geographical Races.
Common Skylark, A. arvensis arvensis L. See above.
Mediterranean Skylark, A. arvensis cantarella Bp.

Foreign Names: Greece: Tsarethra. Italy: Lodola.

A. arvensis cantarella Bp. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 246.

Breeding Range: Sardinia, Sicily, 8. Italy, the Balkan peninsula
from 8. Hungary to N. Greece, and 8. Russia.

Few, if any, of these birds are resident in Corsica, but in Sardinia
it is very numerous on the plains and is also common in Sicily and 8.
Italy, especially Apulia. In the Balkan peninsula it is found in Dalmatia,
and is common on the mountain plateaux of Montenegro up to about
5700 ft. on the Crna Planina, but is absent from the coast district. In
Bulgaria not only is it found in great numbers on the plains, but also on
the mountains, in company with the Balkan Shore Lark. In Macedonia it
is fairly common, but to Greece it is chiefly a winter visitor, though
possibly a few pairs may breed on the highest mountains, as Kriiper
observed one near the summit of the Veluchi range in summer.

In breeding habits is does not appear to differ from the common form.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

136

[The Asiatic form, A. arvensis cinerea Khmcke, which breeds in W.
Siberia, Turkestan, Persia, etc. (and winters as far W. as Algeria and
Tunis) has occurred in Scotland in winter (Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist. 1906,
p. 189). In Algeria, N. Tunis and perhaps part of Marocco the resident
birds belong to the race A. arvensis hartertt Whit. Eggs 4 in number;
average of 8 (Erlanger and Whitaker), 22.25 >< 1644 mm. |

[Curve billed Lark, Alaemon alaudipes (Desf.).

Eggs: Konig, Journ. f. Orn. 1895, Tab. VII, fig. 5, a, b.

Certhilauda desertorum (Stanl.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 273. C.
alaudipes (Desf.). Id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 375. Alaemon alaudipes alaudipes (Desf.).
Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 250.

Breeding Range: N. Africa, south of the Atlas Range. (Stated to have
occurred in S. Europe, but probably erroneously.)

A true desert haunting bird, breeding on, or under shelter of low serub,
and laying 8—4 eggs, creamy white, with violet shell marks, and brown surface
spots, which sometimes form a zone. They may be found from March to May.
Average size of 16 eggs (Kénig 5, Erlanger 4, and 7 by the writer), 21.78>< 16.55
mm., Max. 23><18 mm., Min. 20><15 mm. Average weight of 9 eggs, 173 mg.]

69. Dupont’s Lark, Chersophilus duponti (Vieill.).

Certhilauda duponti (Vieill.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 279;
id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 376. Chersophilus duponte duponti (Vieill.). Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 252.

Breeding Range: N. Algeria and Tunis. Also recorded from Por-
tugal and said to occur on the Balearic Isles. (One accidental occurrence
in Italy in Nov. 1900.)

The status of this bird in Europe is by no means satisfactorily known.
Barboza du Bocage records the ‘var. lusitanica’ from the 8. of the Tagus,
opposite Lisbon, but whether it is resident in Portugal or not is doubtful.
Irby states that several have been obtained in the Malaga district, and of
late years many skins are said to have been received from the Balearic Isles, but
von Homeyer saw no Larks there except the Short-toed and a form of
Crested Lark. In Italy one specimen has been recorded (20. XI. 1900).
In Tunis Whitaker has found it throughout the greater part of the high
plateaux of central Tunis to over 3000 ft. as well as in the plains, and
is of opinion that its apparent scarcity is due to the extraordinary capacity
possessed by the bird for concealing itself. Its haunts are covered with
patches of wild thyme and other plants, which afford it ample cover.

The nest is placed at the foot of some plant, and is loosely built of
bents and soft particles of Anthemis mixta.

The eggs are 3—4 in number, and may be found in Tunis from
the beginning of April to late in June. They vary considerably, even in

14s X S

the same clutch, and are not always to be distinguished from some eggs
of the Crested Larks. The ground colour is glossy greyish or creamy white,
generally thickly covered with small spots of yellowish or hair brown and
underlying grey shell markings.

Average of 30 eggs (7 by Erlanger, 6 by Whitaker and 17 by the
writer), 23.5 > 17.46 mm., Max. 25.2 >< 17.3 and 23.2 ><18.2 mm., Min.
21.6 =< 17 and 23 < 16.5 mm. Average weight of 7 eggs (Erlanger) 214 mg.

[Further south a rufous form, C. duponti margaritae (Kén.) is found.
Average of 14 eggs taken by Erlanger (Mar. 28 to April 9), 22.28 =< 16.82
mm. Average weight 192 mg.]|

70. Shore Lark, Eremophila alpestris L.*

Geographical Races.
a. N. European Shore Lark, E. alpestris flava (Gmel.).
Plate 17, fig. 9—12 (Norway).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXVI, fig. 3, a—d. Hewitson,
Ill. Ed. I, pl. XLV.* Baedeker, Tab. 66, fig. 1. Seebohm, Brit. Birds,
pl. 15; id. Col. Fig., pl. 58. Newton, Ootheca Wolleyana, Tab. XI, fig. 13—18.

Nests: Pearson, Beyond Petsora, pl. 23; Three Summers, pl. 32, a, b.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Skrivan podhorné. Finland: Tunturileivo.
France: Alouette de la Sibérie. Germany: Alpenlerche, Ohrenlerche. Holland:
Bergleeuwertk. Italy: Lodola gola gialla. Lapland: Ruossa Alap. Norway:
Fyeldlaerke. Russia: Javronok snejny. Sweden: Bergliirka.

Otocorys alpestris (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 604; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, IV, p. 387; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 378; Saunders, Man., p. 259.
Eremophila alpestris flava (Gm.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 255.

Breeding Range: N. Europe within the Arctic Circle. [Also N.
Siberia. |

This species is common during the breeding season in the N. of
Scandinavia, especially throughout Finmark, but a few pairs also nest above
the limits of tree growth as far south in Norway as the Dovrefjeld and
Roras. In Sweden it breeds on the fells in Lapland, and according to
Kolthoff has even nested in Jemtland on the Orviksfjellen. In Russian
Lapland nests have been found in the alpine region of the north of Fin-
land, as well as in the low lying country along the Murman coast. On
Kolguev it is plentiful, and breeds also on Dolgoi, and in some numbers
on Waigatz. It is also found on Novaya Zemlya, but in smaller numbers,
and in the Archangel Government on the mainland of N. Russia. Formerly

* Linnés Alauda alpestris is based on specimens described from Carolina, and
the name E. alpestris alpestris (L.) is therefore restricted to the N. American form.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

138

it was supposed also to breed in the Urals (Perm Government), but definite
proof is still wanting. In the Balkan peninsula and the Caucasus it is
replaced by other forms.

Usually placed on the ground in the side of a tussock of dead grass,
the upper edge of the nest being level with the ground (Pearson). The
same writer supposes that the nest hollow in the soft peaty soil is some-
times made by the bird itself. Wolley noticed that in E. Finmark the
nest was built near to a stone. In the most northerly part of its range
this bird breeds on the tundra, often close to the sea coast, but in the
south it haunts the mountains and is found only above the tree limit.
The nest is loosely built of dry sheep grass, lined with the down of Salix
lanata, the cotton rush, and other plants, sometimes with reindeer hair.

Usually 4—5 in Scandinavia, but on Kolguev Pearson never found
more than 4, and on both Kolguev and Waigatz some clutches of 3 only
were incubated. An examination of a large series shows that these eggs
vary considerably; the ground colour being generally greenish white, thickly
mottled with olive brown or light yellowish spots. In some cases the
ground colour is scarcely visible, while in others a few bold spots of dark
brown, or a decided zone, are found at the big end. Many eggs are like
those of the Skylark, but are as a rule paler in colouring, and occasionally
a dark hair line is found at the big end.

One of the earliest of the northern passerine birds, nesting almost
before the snow is melted. Probably two broods are reared in many cases,
for fresh eggs may be found in Finmark from May 12 till July; but most
eggs of the first brood are laid towards the end of May or early in June.
Pearson’s eggs from Russian Lapland, Kolguev, etc. were taken between
June 7 and July 24; the nest found on the latter date containing 1 fresh
egg! The female sits very closely at times, and has been known to run
on to the eggs within a few feet of the watcher. Wolley found that when
the first clutch was taken, a second, and even a third if necessary, was
deposited within a short distance of the original site.

Average of 100 eggs (17 by Rey and 83 by the writer) 22.76 16.24
mm. Max. 2616.8 and 24.918 mm, Min. 20.515 and 21 <14.7
mm. Average weight according to Rey 191 mg.

b. Saharan Shore Lark, E. alpestris bilopha (Temm.).

Eggs: Konig, Journ. f. Orn. 1896, Tab. VII, fig. 8, a, b.

Otocorys bilopha (Temm.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 399; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 380. E. alpestris bilopha (Temm.). Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p: 257.

Breeding Range: The Sahara, from Rio del Oro to Egypt. (Has
occurred at Malaga.)

139 z

Breeds on stony plains, nesting generally at the foot of a plant of
Helianthemum, during the second half of April. The nest is neatly built
of stems and grasses, lined with plant down and even bits of linen, and
is frequently surrounded by small stones. Eggs 2—3 in number, averaging
according to Kénig (16), 21.3> 15.1 mm., and weighing 160 mg. The
ground colour varies from creamy to bluish white, with fine speckles and
a few spots of brick colour, and underlying grey markings.

[In the Maroccan Atlas another race, E. alpestris atlas (Whit.) is
found, which has not occurred in Kurope.|

¢. Brandt’s Shore Lark, E. alpestris brandti (Dress.).

Otocorys brandtz Dress. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 402; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 380. 2. alpestris brandti (Dress.). Hartert, Vig. Pal.
Fauna, p. 257.

Breeding Range: Kirghis Steppes to Dauria.

A clutch of 3 eggs in the British Museum, taken by Mr. St. G. Little-
dale on the Altai range, averages in size, 21.8><15.6 mm. Breeds on the
steppe as well as in the mountains, laying in May.

d. Caucasian Shore Lark, E. alpestris penicillata (Gould).

Otocorys penicillata (Gould). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 395
and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 381 (part.). E. alpestris penicillata (Gould). Hartert,
Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 261.

Breeding Range: Caucasus and Taurus ranges up to 14000 ft.

Radde describes the nest as flattish, and built of grasses, lined with
sheeps wool. Eges 4—5; thickly spotted with reddish brown on a greenish
yellow ground. They are slightly larger than those of the arctic race,
5 eggs in the British Museum averaging 23.26 >< 17.04 mm.

e. Balkan Shore Lark, E. alpestris baleanica (Rehnw.).

Kegs: Reiser, Orn. Bale. I, Taf. IU, fig. b, «.

Otocorys penicillata (Gould). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IV, p. 395
and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 381 (part.). EH. alpestris baleanica (Rchnw.). Hartert,
Voég. Pal. Fauna, p. 262.

Breeding Range: The higher mountains of the Balkan peninsula.

In all probability breeds on all the higher mountains of the peninsula.
Reiser met with nesting pairs on the Vran planina in Bosnia, the Crna
and Sinjavina planinas in Montenegro, and found nests on the Strigel and
Baba planinas in the Etropol Balkan, where it was not uncommon. It
has also been observed at various points in the Trojan Balkan, the Rhodope
Dagh, and on the Stara planina (Servian border). In Greece it has only
been recorded from the Korax and Kiona. The nests were larger and

140

more strongly built than those of the Skylark. Eggs 3—4, tolerably glossy,
ground colour yellowish white, more or less thickly spotted with grey and
brown, and occasionally with black hair lines or spots. Average of 7 eggs
(Reiser), 23.04 < 17.03 mm., average weight 194 mg. They were taken
May 25—28.

[Another race FE. alpestris bicornis (Brehm) breeds on the edge of
the snow line on Hermon and Lebanon, in Palestine, buildmg a compact
and deep nest in a tuft of Astragalus or Draba. (Tristram.) |*

MOTACILLIDAE.
71. Richard’s Pipit, Anthus richardi Vicill.
Plate 18, fig. 24 (Siberia).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXV, fig. 14, a, b (?). Hewitson,
Il. Ed. I, pl. XXXVI, fig. 3; Ill. Ed. I, pl. XLIV, fig. 4. Baedeker, Tab. 35,
fig. 1. Journ. f. Orn. 1873, Tab. Il, fig. 21. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 14;
id. Col. Fig., pl. 58.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Linduska velka. Germany: Spornpteper.
Helgoland: Briiiif, Hungary: Sarkantyiis Pipis. Italy: Titro. Norway:
Stor Piplaerke. Sweden: Stor Pipliirka.

Anthus richardi Vieill. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 598; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, III, p. 325; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 219; Saunders, Man., p. 139.
A. richardi richardi Vieill. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 265.

Breeding Range: Siberia, Turkestan, Tibet and Mongolia. Has
strayed to most European countries. Although formerly supposed to have
bred in Europe, this species is now known to have its nesting grounds in
the plains of Siberia and China. Its western limit appears to be the steppes
of Turkestan, where Sewertzow found eggs, and Scully noticed it near
Yarkand in the breeding season, frequenting swampy ground. In the Yenesei
valley Seebohm found old and young plentiful in the low meadows by the
river in August, up to lat. 58° N. and Popham observed pairs near Yeniseisk
early in June. In the Baikal district Dybowski found it nesting plentifully
in 1868, and Hall describes it as found commonly on the Upper Lena,
while Przewalski and David also observed it breeding in marshy districts
in Mongolia. Hartert also records it from the Tian Shan, Chami, Nan Shan,
Kuku Nor, to the upper Chuan-che and Kan-su. A smaller race (A. in-

* Rhamphocorys clot-bey Bp. which is found on the N. edge of the Sahara
in Algeria and Tunis, has not been recorded from Europe. Sitting bird and eggs
figured by K6nig, Journ. f. Orn. 1895, Tab. XIV.

141

fuscatus Blyth) has been found nesting on the low hills near Fu-chau by
Rickett and La Touche.

Placed on the ground, often in a hoof print, and difficult to find,
as the hen runs from the nest when warned by the cock, which is always
on the watch. a Touche and Rickett describe the nest of A. richardi
imfuscatus as a loose cup of dry grass with sometimes a few twigs or a
little moss, placed in a hollow under a thick grass tuft (Zbis 1905, p. 47).

4—6 in number, varying in ground colour from pale olive or greenish
erey to dirty pink, and as a rule thickly marked with fine olive or reddish
brown spots and obscure underlying grey markings. Like so many Pipits’
egos, they tend to fall into two types, a greenish and a reddish one. Some
varieties have been compared to eges of the Shore Lark and White Wagtail.
Those of A. r. infuscatus from Foh-kien are boldly spotted.

Apparently in the first half of June in Siberia, while Dybowski is
of opinion that a second brood is reared in July. The southern race breeds
in Foh-kien in April and May.

Average of 24 eggs (10 by Dybowski, 12 by the writer, etc.),
21.38 >< 16.4 mm., Max. 23 >< 17.2 mm., Min. 20 >< 16.5 and 20.8 >< 15.4
mm. Weight of 1 egg, 167 mg. (Rey). Four eggs of A. r. infuscatus
are smaller, averaging 20.05 < 14.95 mm.

@2. Tawny Pipit, Anthus campestris (L.).
Plate 18, fig. 5—8 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXV, fig. 13, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 35, fig. 2. Taczanowski, Tab. LX, fig. 2. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 14;
id. Col. Fig., pl. 58a. |

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Linduska rolni. Denmark: Markpiber.
France: Pipi rousseline. Germany: Brachpieper. Holland: Duinpieper.
Hungary: Parlagi pipis. Italy: Calandro. Poland: Swiergotek rudawy.
Portugal: Curimtuni. Russia: Stschewritza polewaya. Sardinia: Fanfarrone.
Sweden: yall Pipliirka.

Anthus campestris L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 592; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, II, p. 317; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 218; Saunders, Man., p. 137.
A. campestris campestris L. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 267.

Breeding Range: From mid Sweden and the Gulf of Finland south-
ward locally over the whole of Europe, but absent from Norway, the
British Isles, Iceland, etc. [Also found in N. Africa, Palestine and Asia
Minor to Afghanistan, and 8. W. Siberia. |

In Sweden it is found in Blekinge, Halland, and is common along
the sandy coast of Skane as far as Kullaberg, and has been recorded from
Oland and 8. Gotland. Apparently scarce in Denmark, it is however found

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Breeding
Season.

142

in Livonia and Esthonia, although but few records of its presence in central
Russia exist. It is on the other hand locally common in Poland, and also
on the Kirghis steppes as well as in the Crimea and Caucasus districts.
Westward it has been found breeding in suitable spots in most parts of
the Balkan peninsula, avoiding the higher mountains and wooded districts,
but is not common, except in a few districts, in Greece. In Austro-Hungary
and Germany it is rather local, but is generally to be found in dry, sandy,
barren heaths, and on the outskirts of pine forests, but is less common
than one might expect in HE. Prussia. Few pairs breed in Switzerland, and
in Italy it is for the most part a bird of double passage, although some
stay to nest in suitable localities throughout the country and also in Sicily.
In Holland scattered pairs haunt the dunes along the coast and on the
islands, as well as the inland heaths of Brabant and Gelderland; and is
also breeds in Luxemburg (Belgium). In France it is not uncommon in
the S., and in Spain breeds in some numbers on the dreary and forbidding-
looking high tablelands of La Mancha and Murcia, and in scattered pairs in
Valencia and Catalonia, while further 8. in Andalucia and Granada it is a
bird of the sierra. This appears to be the case also in Portugal, where it haunts
high ground in the breeding season. In the Balearic Isles it is common and
generally distributed, and is plentiful in Corsica after April (Whitehead).

Rather a bulky structure, built of roots, stalks, etc., lined with finer
grasses and sometimes with horsehair. Von Fiihrer noticed thistle down
and seeds of Ranwnculaceae in nests from Montenegro, and also that the
site on rocky ground generally faced east. On the plains the nest is
generally sheltered by a grass tussock or a dwarf bush, and in sand dunes
is often concealed by a clump of marram grass, while in N. Africa it is
sometimes found among growing crops, but as a rule it prefers open and
barren country. The hen sits close and the nest is difficult to find, although
the metallic notes of the cock, delivered in true Pipit fashion during a
short flight, are characteristic. It is moreover a difficult bird to watch
on broken ground owing to the extraordinary speed with which it runs.
Diameter of cup 34 in.

Usually 4 or 5 in number, but 6 are occasionally found. They are
thin shelled and have rather more gloss than most Pipits’ eggs, while in
colour they bear a remarkable resemblance to those of the Rufous and
Grey-backed Warblers, and vary considerably. The ground colour varies
from yellowish or even reddish white to greenish or bluish white, generally
rather thickly spotted and streaked with reddish brown and pale inky or
violet underlying blotches. The markings sometimes are so thick that they
almost obscure the ground, and sometimes they tend to form a zone or cap.

In central Europe the eggs are seldom laid before the end of May
or the beginning of June, and probably one brood is reared; the July nests

143

which are occasionally met with being probably second layings. In Monte-
negro von Fiihrer took 13 nests between May 17 and July 14. Apparently
in N. Africa two broods are reared, for Whitaker says that eggs may be
taken in April, May and June in Tunis.

Average of 137 eggs (43 by Bau, 40 by Rey and 54 by the writer),
21.96 < 15.75 mm., Max. 23.8 < 16.6 and 22.5 >X<17.1 mm., Min. 1915
and 2014.6 mm. The variation in size apparently does not depend upon
locality. Hartert mentions an abnormally large egg, 24.6 < 17.4 mm. Average
weight of 43 eggs (Bau), 156 mg., of 40 eggs (Rey), 158 mg.

[In the Canary Isles from Lanzarote to Ferro is found Berthelot’s Pipit,
Anthus berthelotit Bolle. Eggs figured in Journ. f. Ornith. 1890, Tab. VIII, fig. 7.
They are usually 4 in number, and resemble rather pale eggs of the Meadow
Pipit. Breeding season from March to May. Average size of 60 eggs (19 by
K6nig, 14 by Bau and 27 by the writer), 19.2><14.6 mm., Max. 20.6><14.6 and
20> 15.2 mm., Min. 1814.5 and 18.5><14 mm. Average weight of 14 eggs,
122 mg. (Bau). The eggs of the Madeiran race, A. berthelotit madeirensis Hart.,
are variable in size, ranging according to Schmitz from 21—17.5 & 16.5—14.5 mm.,
and may be found from the beginning of February (on low ground) till August
(on the hills).]

73. Tree Pipit, Anthus trivialis (L.).
Plate 18, fig. 9—18 (Germany), 41, fig. 10 (Anhalt, coll. Rey).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfil., Tab. XXV, fig. 7, a—f. Hewitson, 1. Ed. I,
pl. CXIV; Il. Ed. I, pl. XXXV; Ill. Ed. I, pl. XLII. Baedeker, Tab. 35,
fig. 8. Taczanowski, Tab. LXI, fig. 1—3. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 14;
id. Col. Fig., pl. 58a. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. Il, fig. 97—100.

Nest: O. Lee, I, p. 136.

British Local Names: Tit-, Bank, Field, Tree, or Blood Lark.
Welsh: Hhedydd or Pibganwr y coed.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Linduska lesni. Denmark: Traepiber.
Finland: Mettiékirvinen. France: Pipi des arbres. Germany: Baumpieper.
Holland: Boompieper. Hungary: Erdet pipis. Italy: Prispolone. Norway:
Traepiplaerke. Poland: Swiergotek drzewny. Russia: Lasnoi konok. Sweden:
Tridpiplirka.

Anthus trivialis (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 569; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, II, p. 309; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 211; Saunders, Man., p. 131.
A. trivialis trivialis (L.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 272.

Breeding Range: Europe generally, from lat. 69° in Scandinavia and
66° in N. E. Russia to the Cantabrian and Pyrenean Mountains, mid-Italy
and the Caucasus. [Also from lat. 62° in Siberia to N. Palestine, etc.|

In England this species is generally distributed, except in the most
barren and treeless districts, such as the high moorlands and W. Cornwall,
and in some of our well wooded valleys is exceedingly common. In Wales

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

144

it is also common in all the wooded parts of the country, and is found in
smaller numbers on the bare hillsides of N. Wales up to about 1500 ft.
(Forrest). It is rare in Anglesea and absent from the Isle of Man. In
Scotland it is less numerous, except perhaps in the S. W., but exists
sporadically in suitable spots along the W. coast to Assynt. It is of course
not found on the higher mountains, but is common in Inverness, and was
found breeding in H. Sutherland in 1875 by Buckley, for the first time.
In the Orkneys it has been only once noticed in summer, and is absent
from the Hebrides. In Ireland it is not known to breed, and is also absent
from the Ferées and Iceland.

In Spain the Tree Pipit is found locally N. of the Cantabrian Mountains
(Santander, Zbis, 1883, p. 184), a fact which seems to have been overlooked
by most writers. In the Pyrenees it is scarce, but throughout the whole
of central Europe it is found wherever the country is sufficiently wooded,
breeding in the Alps in some cases as high as the limits of tree growth.
In Italy it is confined to the uplands of the northern provinces and the Po
valley, and in the Balkan peninsula it breeds commonly in Rumania and
Bulgaria, not only in the plains, but also in the mountains to far beyond
the tree limit, nesting in company with the Alpine Pipit at a height of
about 5100 ft. South of the Balkans it appears to be found only on
migration, but in Russia it breeds in the Crimea, and in the Caucasus not
only in the forest, but also in the subalpine zone, beyond the tree limit.
In the north it is found commonly in the wooded parts of Norway up to
lat. 69°, and in Finnish Lapland its range extends to Eniire, while in the
Kola peninsula a few occurrences have been reported from the Kandalax
district, and in the Petschora valley it was observed by Seebohm at Ust-
Tsilma (lat. 66°).

In the British Isles the nest is found in hedge banks, meadows, parks,
rough pasture, the outskirts of woods, and occasionally in plantations where
there is not much undergrowth. Another favourite spot is on the side
of a railway cutting or embankment. Generally the nest is placed within
a short distance of a tree or bush, but occasionally at some considerable
distance from anything of the kind, and it is said to be sometimes placed
in cornfields. It is built in a small hollow, generally sheltered by a tussock,
and consists of dead grasses, stalks, moss, etc., lined with finer grasses and
sometimes, but not always, with horsehair. Von Mojsisovic asserts that
in Hungary it is frequently found in reed beds! Diameter of cup 24—2? in.,
depth 14—1% in.

The number of eggs laid varies according to locality from 4 to 6 as
a rule. In Northumberland and Durham about 30 per cent of the nests
contain 6 eggs, and it is comparatively rare to find 4 only; while in
S. Derbyshire the normal set consists of 5, often 4, but rarely 6. Instances

145

of 7 eggs in a nest have occurred in Durham (twice), N. Wales, Pomerania,
etc., but the largest clutch I know of is one of 8 eggs in J. G. Tuck's
collection, taken in W. Suffolk. In Germany 11 per cent of the nests found
by Rey contained 6 eges, and the remainder 5. The variation in colour
and markings is extraordinary. It is almost impossible to describe all the
known varieties, of which eleven of the more usual types are figured on
Plate 18. Exceptionally eges with purple blotches on a pale blue ground
have been met with. (R. H. Read.) Roughly classifying the eggs as ‘grey’
or ‘brown’ and ‘red’ in general effect, it will be found that among the ‘grey’
egos in some cases a few bold spots only of dark sepia with soft edges
are found, in others the spots are evenly distributed as in Motacilla alba
(fig. 9), and sometimes the ground is almost completely concealed (fig. 10),
or else the spots form a cap or zone (fig. 11). Somewhat similar variations
are to be found among the ‘red’ eggs, and occasionally a bold spot or hair
line almost black in colour is found at the big end. There is always a great
similarity in appearance between eggs from the same nest. The curious
ego figured on Plate 41 appears to have all the colouring matter con-
centrated on one half of the ego. It will be noticed that some eggs show
much more gloss than others.

In England the breeding season begins about mid May, and fresh
egos may be obtained till the beginning of July, but most eggs are laid
in the midlands between May 20 and June 10. In Germany the nesting
time is very similar, but most eggs are found in June; and in the high
north eggs are rarely found before the middle of the month. In most
cases only one brood is reared, but apparently a second is sometimes
hatched off. When surprised on the nest the hen will sometimes run a
few yards in order to draw attention from the egos, but as a rule she
does not sit very closely, but slips off and joins the cock in uttering the
monosyllabic alarm note, while the intruder remains in the neighbourhood.

Average of 174 eggs (82 by Bau, 72 by Rey and 20 by the writer),
2009 >< 1d mm; MWax723:45<¢15.4 and 23 >< 172 mm., Mins 18 s<14
mm. A dwarf egg measures 13 >< 10.1 mm. (Derbyshire). Average weight
of 82 eggs, 132 mg. (Bau), of 72 eggs, 135 mg. (Rey).

74. Petschora Pipit, Anthus gustavi Swinh.
Plate 26, fig. 11 (R. Yenesei, 3. VII. 77, Seebohm).

Anthus seebohmi Dress. Dresser, Birds of Europe, I, p. 295. A.
gustavt Swinh. Id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 217; Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna,
p. 274.

Breeding Range: N. E. Russia, from the lower Petschora eastward.

[Also N. Siberia eastward to Bering’s Sea. |
10

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

146

Seebohm and Harvie Brown found this species breeding on the swampy
tundra in the Petschora valley, about 674° N., beyond the limits of forest
growth, but interspersed with willow thickets, in June 1875. It was not
uncommon near Alexievna and several nests were brought in by natives,
but was not observed further north. [In Siberia Finsch and Brehm
recorded it from the estuary of the Ob in 1876: Seebohm found it common
about lat. 701° in the Yenesei valley in 1877; Popham took one nest in
lat. 69° 40’ in 1897, and afterwards found it breeding in some numbers in
the marshes N. of Toorrukhansk in 1900, obtaining four nests. It has also
been obtained in Tschuski Land, N. of Kamtschatka and on Bering Island. |

Popham describes the first nest found by him as placed in a rather
swampy place among dwarf_willows, well hidden by a tussock of grass,
which quite concealed the eggs. The bird fluttered along on the ground
when flushed from the nest. Seebohm observes that the materials used
are chiefly flat-leaved grasses and water plants, with small leaves, and
occasionally a few dwarf Equiseta.

4—5 in number, and variable in colouring, some eggs being almost
uniform dark brown, with a black hairstreak or spot, while others are
much lighter, being almost covered with small yellowish brown spots, in
some cases with purplish marbling and in others with a dark cap or zone
at the big end.

On the Petschora Seebohm obtained fresh eggs from June 22 to the
first week of July. On the Yenesei Popham took a nest on June 26, and
Seebohm received eggs at the end of June and early July, while young
were being fed by the parent birds on July 25.

Average of 14 eggs in the British Museum, 21.36 < 14.76 mm., Max.
2215.2 mm. Min. 20.515 and 2214 mm. According to Dresser
however they range from 24.9 >< 16.5 to 20.3147 mm.

75. Meadow Pipit, Anthus pratensis L.
Plate 17, fig. 22—27 (Lapland).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXV, fig. 8, a—c. Hewitson, I. Ed. I,
pl. EXVOL fie. 2,°3; I. Ed. Gepl) XXXViptie) 15.0, id. Tapa aie
fig. 1, 2. Baedeker, Tab. 35, fig. 5. Taczanowski, Tab. LXI, fig. 4. See-
bohm, Br. Birds, pl. 14; id. Col. Fig, pl. 58a. Frohawk, Br. Birds, pl. III,
fig. 101.

British Local Names: Tit-, Grownd, Mountain, Meadow or Peat
Lark; Ling Bird, Moor Titling or Peep. Welsh: Ehedydd Bach, Gwas
y gog. Manx: Ushag y veet. Scotland: Moss Cheeper, Cheefinch, Heather
Lintie. Orkneys: Teeting. Shetlands: Teetick, Hill Sparrow. Gaelic:
Glasian. Erse: Kirkeen (phon.). ;

147

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Landuska luéni. Denmark: Eng-Piber.
Finland: Heindkirvinen. France: Pipi des prés. Germany: Wiesenpieper.
Holland: Graspieper. Hungary: Réts Pipis. Iceland: Gratitlingur. Italy:
Pispola. Wapland: Cici-cicas. Norway: Hngpiplaerke. Poland: Swiergotek
laceny. Portugal: Petinha. Russia: Lugovot konek. Sweden: Angpipliirka.
Spain: Cinceta.

Anthus pratensis L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 575; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, III, p. 285; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 210; Saunders, Man., p. 133;
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 275.

Breeding Range: Iceland, the Ferées, the British Isles, and Con-
tinental Europe, but absent from the Iberian peninsula, the Mediterranean
Islands, and the Balkan peninsula, and rare in §. Italy. [Also Siberia (valley
of the Ob) and Turkestan. |

In Great Britain this bird is very generally distributed throughout most
of the open country,* avoiding only the thickly wooded and highly cultivated
parts, and is equally at home in the marshes by the sea shore and on the
high moorlands some thousands of feet above the sea. It is also found in
nearly all the islands round our coasts, including the Isle of Man, the Hebrides,
Orkneys, Shetlands, etc. and has even been recognized on 8. Kilda. In
Ireland it is also common and general.

Besides being common on the Fwerées and found in Iceland up to
the limits of plant growth, it is found on suitable ground throughout the
greater part of the Continent. In Scandinavia it occurs chiefly on the fijeld
above the coniferous belt in the S., but in the N. is met with at all heights,
up to the N. Cape, and is found in Finland commonly as far as N. Lap-
land. In N. Russia its range extends to the Archangel government, where
it is common on the Murman coast and has been found nesting at the
mouth of the Petschora, but does not breed on Kolguev or Novaya Zemlya.
Over the great European plain it is generally distributed where the country
is suited to it, but its breeding range does not extend to the Iberian
peninsula, where it is only known as a winter visitor. It is also scarce
in the south of France, and though a few pairs remain to breed on high
ground even in the southern provinces of Italy, it is chiefly found on double
passage. In the mountain ranges of central Europe it has been found
nesting at a height of over 3000 ft. Formerly a few pairs were supposed
to breed in the mountains of the Balkan peninsula, but later observations
show that it only occurs there on passage. It is known to nest in the
Carpathians, but probably only occurs on migration in S. Russia. [East
of the Urals it is found in W. Siberia as far as the Ob valley and

* It is however unaccountably rare or altogether absent in some districts,
such as Oxfordshire (O. V. Aplin).
10*

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

148

in N. Turkestan. In Palestine Tristram observed a few pairs up to mid
summer. |

In the British Islands on low ground the nest is generally found in
marshy places, neatly concealed by a grass tussock or sometimes rushes,
but on the rough pastures and moorlands it is often found among the
heather. Other sites are on the edges of peat cuttings, in the scanty
grass growing among the sandhills by the sea coast, and the nest is said
to have been found in cornfields in the south of England. It is generally
well hidden, and the hen sits very closely and can be caught on the nest
without difficulty when its position is known. In Iceland it is sometimes
placed quite out of sight in some fissure in the ground. It is slight in
construction, and Lilford compares it to the inner cup of the Tree Pipit’s
nest. The materials used are dead grasses and bents, sometimes with a
little moss in the foundation, lined with finer grasses and horsehair. Dia-
meter of cup about 24 in., depth 14—14 in.

In the British Isles 4 to 6 in number as a rule, while a nest with
7 egos has been found on the Yorkshire moors. In Iceland usually 5—6,
once 7 (Hantzsch); while in Norway out of 14 nests found on the fjeld,
7 contained 6 eggs and 3 held 7. As arule they show less variation than
those of the Tree Pipit, and generally belong to a brown or grey type,
thickly covered with fine spots, and often with a black hairstreak at the
big end. The pink type so common in the Tree Pipit only occurs very
rarely, and closely resembles that of the Grasshopper Warbler. Eggs with
a bluish ground and few, if any, pale grey markings are also occasionally
found, while others are greenish in tint. A remarkable set from Scotland
has Bunting-like streaks on a dull stone coloured ground, and an Irish
set has deep rich brown caps to the big end (Brit. Mus).

In the British Isles two broods are generally reared. The first eggs
are found about April 20 in 8. England and about a week later in Wales,
but not till mid-May in the Shetlands. From this time onward they may
be found through May and June till early in July. In Iceland rarely before
June; in §. Scandinavia however the first eggs are laid in May, but in
the high North often not till mid-June, while in the European plain
the breeding season does not begin till early in May. Incubation lasts
13—14 days.

Average of 143 eggs (48 by Rey, 43 by Bau and 52 by the writer),
19.34<14.19 mm., Max. 21.3<15.2 mm., Min. 17.2>13.1 and 17.713
mm. A dwarf egg from Westmoreland in the Brit. Mus. measures 10.3><8.6
mm. Average weight of 43 eggs (Bau), 121 mg., of 48 eggs (Rey), 114 mg.
23 full eggs from Ireland average 2.196 g. in weight (Foster). Curiously
enough Icelandic eggs are rather small; average of 16, 18.36><13.98 mm.
(Hantzsch).

149

76. Red breasted Pipit, Anthus cervinus Pall.
Plate 18, fig. 1—4 (Lapland).

Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 35, fig. 7. Naumannia, 1854, Taf. 3, fig. 4.
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 14; id. Col. Fig. pl. 58a. Newton, Ootheca
Wolleyana, Tab. XI, fig. 7—12.

Nest: Pearson, ‘Beyond Petsora’, pl. 31.

Foreign Names: Finland: Peurakirvinen. France: Pipi a gorge
rousse. Germany: Rotkehliger Pieper. Poland: Swiergotek rdzawoszyjny.
Sweden: Rodstrupig Angpipliirka.

Anthus cervinus Pall. Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 299; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 213; Saunders, Man., p. 135. A. cervina Pall. Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 277.

Breeding Range: N. Hurope within the Arctic circle. [Also N.
Siberia to Kamtschatka and the Aleutian Isles. |

In Norway this species breeds in the Troms6 Stift, and in KE. Finmark
is even commoner than the Meadow Pipit. In W. Finmark it is not un-
common, and also nests in Tromsé Amt, but is not certainly known to
breed S. of the Arctic circle, though it is said to have bred near Trondhjem
(Collett). In Sweden it was first found nesting in 1867 on the Russian
border, in Torneé Lapmark and on Ounastuntura, and in 1904 §. A. Davies
found it common on the bogs at the head of the Kongimia (lat. 69° N_.).
Along the coast of Russian Lapland it is locally common, especially near
the lakes and on marshy ground, but does not appear to range far inland.
East of the White Sea it breeds on Kolguev, and is quite common on
Waigatz and Dolgoi, while it has been observed on the 8. Island of
Novaya Zemlya, but has not been proved to breed there. On the mainland
it is also found on the tundra beyond the limit of forest growth, and is
plentiful in the Petschora valley (lat. 68°).* [Further east it is found in
the Taimyr peninsula and on the tundra of N. Siberia. |

During the breeding season it chiefly haunts swampy ground, and
as a rule places its nest in a recess of one of the big hummocks or tussocky
ridges so often met with in bogs. Sometimes the nesting ground is overgrown
with willow scrub and dwarf birch. Collett mentions a nest under a willow
bush, and Pearson found one in a hole 6 in. deep, and another in an old
lemming burrow. Almost invariably the nest is well sheltered and concealed,
but that figured by Pearson was built in the open, among grass — a most
exceptional site. It is built of grasses and bents, and in some districts a
little hair is woven into the lining, while in others this is altogether
wanting. No feathers are ever used.

* Alston and Harvie Brown also record it from the Dwina delta (Lbis,
1873, p. 61).

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

150

Generally 5 or 6, while on one occasion Pearson found a nest with
7 eggs. They vary in the most extraordinary manner, even in the same
nest; so that in a large series some eggs will be found to resemble those

_of the Lapland Bunting, while others recall those of the Meadow Pipit,

Blue headed Wagtail, Tree Pipit and even Tree Sparrow! Some show a
pale bluish green ground with numerous fine spots; others are finely stippled
all over with pale ochreous and have a dark hair line at the big end, while
a third type has bold blotches and streaks of sepia, and a very characteristic
variety is clouded with rich maroon or mahagony colour, sometimes entirely
obscuring the ground, and varying in depth from the palest shade to almost
blackish red or dark olive. The rich red type seems to be characteristic, but
careful authentication is always necessary. Collett remarks that spiral
lines, though not invariably present, are frequently met with.

On the Kongima Davies took the first clutch on June 17, and in
Finmark the breeding season appears to begin about June 20, but fresh
egos (perhaps second layings) may be obtained till the beginning of July.
On the lower Petschora the time is rather earlier, as out of 39 eggs obtained
by Seebohm and Harvie Brown on June 22, many were much incubated.
Most clutches taken by Pearson in the first fortnight of July on Kolguev
and Waigatz were hard sat, and young were seen on the wing on Dolgoi
on July 20, so that the breeding season varies but little.

Average of 100 eggs (33 by Rey and 67 by the writer), 19.23 « 14.24
mm., Max. 21 < 14.3 and 18.1 15.1 mm., Min. 17.1<13.9 and 1813.4
mm. They are slightly smaller than eggs of the Lapland Bunting, but do
not differ appreciably from those of the Meadow Pipit in size. They are
however decidedly lighter than Lapland Buntings’ eggs. Average weight
according to Rey, 127 mg., but 20 eggs taken by Ottosson only average
114 mg.

77. Rock or Alpine Pipit, Anthus spinoletta (L.).

Geographical Races.
a. Alpine Pipit, A. spinoletta spinoletta (L.).
Plate 17, fig. 13—16 (Switzerland).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXV, fig. 9, 10, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 35, fig. 3. Taczanowski, Tab. LIX, fig. 1.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Linduska vodni. France: Pipi sptoncelle.
Germany: Wasserpieper. Hungary: Havasi pipis. Italy: Spioncello. Poland:
Swiergotek nadwodny. Spain: Espioncela.

Anthus spipoletta (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 581; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, III, p. 335; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 214; Saunders, Man., p. 141.
A. spinoletta spinoletta (L.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 279.

151 :

Breeding Range: The higher mountain ranges of central and
southern Europe. [Also in Asia Minor.|

The evidence of the breeding of this species in the Iberian peninsula
is not altogether satisfactory. Irby recorded it from the Sierra del Nino,
near Tarifa at 2500 ft., but only speaks of it as a winter visitor to the
coast in the Ornith. of the Straits of Gibraltar (2nd. Ed.). Arévalo quotes
Seoane as recording it from the Sierra Nevada, and also mentions San Ildefonso,
but gives no details. In the Pyrenees however it is very common on the
bare uplands above the forest belt to above the snow line, both on the
French and Spanish sides, and Eagle Clarke met with it in Andorra up to
8200 ft. In France it is found in the Vosges Mts., and is also generally
distributed throughout the whole Alpine region up to about 7500 ft., from
the Basses Alpes through Switzerland to the Tyrol. In Germany it is found
in the Schwarzwald, Thiirmger Wald, Rauhe Alp, Bavarian Alps, and
especially on the Sudeten (Riesengebirge) on the Bohemian border. It is
found also in many other districts of Austro-Hungary, the Carpathian range,
the Transylvanian Mts., Com. Banat in Hungary, Bosnia, Herzegovina, the
Semmering Alps, Styria, Carinthia, etc. In Italy it is said to be found
in the Lombardy highlands, the Apennines and even Calabria. In the Balkan
peninsula it is known to inhabit the grassy uplands of Montenegro, Albania
and the Rhodope Dagh, but is only a winter visitor to Greece. It has been
obtained in Sardinia in spring, and probably breeds there. In the Caucasus,
and perhaps also in the Urals, it is replaced by A. s. blakistonz.

Usually cunningly concealed in a hollow under a grass tussock, at
other times under shelter of a Rhododendron bush, or even in a crevice
of the rocks, or among stones. It is built of coarse grasses and stalks of
Alpine plants, often with roots attached, and sometimes also moss, lined
with finer bents and a few hairs, and occasionally a feather or bit of wool.
It is a difficult nest to find, and the birds are generally wary, but where
they are plentiful the hen may occasionally be flushed from the eggs.

Usually 5, but sometimes 4 or 6.* They do not vary mych, and the
bright red variety has apparently not occurred. The greyish aS ground
colour is almost hidden by innumerable ashy, brownish olive, or purplish
brown spots. Some eggs show a tendency to a cap or zone of dark spots
and there is occasionally a dark hair streak at the big end.

In the Alps the first eggs are laid at the end of April or early in
May, but as they may occasionally be found in June and even early in
July it is probable that a second brood is sometimes reared. In Carinthia
Keller took a full clutch as early as April 27, but most eggs are laid in

* Naumann speaks of clutches of 7 and 3 as rare, but I can find no con-
firmation of the statement.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

152

May in Central Europe. In the Pyrenees the best time appears to pe the
last week in May and the first days of June.

Average of 100 eggs (55 by Rey and 45 by the writer), 21.3 >< 15.52
mm., Max. 24 >< 15.8 and 22.5 >< 16.5 mm., Min. 19.3 >< 14.9 mm. Average
weight, 152 mg. (Rey). Exceptional eggs are recorded by Blasius (24 >< 15.2
mm.) and Prazak (18.9 < 14 mm).

b. Blakiston’s Pipit, A. spinoletta blakistoni Swinh.

Breeding Range: Caucasus and probably also the S. Urals. [Also
Turkestan, Tian Shan, Altai, and Nan Shan to Chuanche.|]

Common above the tree limit throughout the Caucasus according to
Radde. Some form of this species also occurs in the Urals up to lat. 64° N.
On the Nan Shan Przewalski found a nest at a height of 11,200 ft.

ce. American Pipit, A. spinoletta pensilvanicus (Lath.).
Plate 17, fig. 19—21 (Labrador).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXV, fig. 9, a—c. Baedeker, Tab. 35,
fig. 6. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 14.

Breeding Range: Subarctic N. America from Alaska to Greenland,
and on the mountains above the tree limit as far S. as Colorado. (Has occurred
on Helgoland).

For nesting notes see Coues, Birds of the North West, p. 40, Macoun, Cat.
Canadian Birds, p. 652, ete. Rey describes the eggs as intermediate between those
of A. pratensis and A. cervinus. Those which I have seen were very variable,
some showing a tendency towards the pink type, while others resembled the dark
brown type of A. cervinus eggs, or typical eggs of A. pratensis.

Average of 44 eggs (20 by Rey and 24 by the writer), 19.54> 14.58 mm.,
Max. 23.2><15.3 and 22><16 mm., Min. 17.214mm. Average weight, 126 mg. (Rey).

d. British Rock Pipit, A. spinoletta obseurus (Lath.).

Eggs: Hewitson, I. Ed. I, pl. LX VIII, fig. 1; Il. Ed. I, pl. XXXVI,
fig. 2; HI. Ed. I, pl. XLIV, fig. 3. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 14; id. Col. Fig.,
pl. 58a. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. Ill, fig. 102.

Nest: O. Lee, Ill, p. 132.

British Local Names: Sea Titling, Rock, Sea, or Sand Lark.
Scillies: Pinnick. Welsh: Ehedydd bach. 1. of Man: Sea Lark. Scotland:
Sea Lintie. Orkneys and Shetlands: Tang Sparrow, Teetick. Ireland:
Rock Lark. Erse: Kirkeen traw.

Foreign Name: France: Pipi des roches.

Anthus obscurus (Lath.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 586; Dresser, Birds
of Europe, ILI, p. 343; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 216; Saunders, Man., p. 143.
A. spimoletta obscura (Lath.). Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 283.

Breeding Range: Coasts of British Isles, Channel Isles and N. W.
France.

153 =

On all the rocky and precipitous coasts of the British Isles this bird
is found in the breeding season, but as a rule it avoids the low lying
portions of our shores at this time, though not uncommon there during
the winter months. Thus it is not known to breed in Lincolnshire or Kast
Anglia, but on the other hand the nest has been found among the sandhills
of Walney Island, and Macpherson says that a pair or so may be found
in the Solway marshes, while a few breed even on the flat coast of Louth.
It shows a great partiality for islands, and there are few outlying holms
that are not tenanted by this bird, from the Blaskets and Scillies to
S. Kilda and the Shetlands. It is strictly maritime in its habits, and is
seldom seen at any distance from the sea.*

On the Channel Islands it is very numerous, especially on Alderney,
Sark, and Herm, as well as the adjacent islets, and is also found on the
rocky and broken coast and islets of N. W. France. On Ushant it is plentiful
according to Hagle Clarke.

As a rule the nest is not an easy one to find, as the cock is usually
on the look out, and at his warning the hen slips quietly away from the
egos. Both parents show great anxiety as long as one remains anywhere
near the nesting place. The site too is very variable: sometimes the nest
may be found within a few feet of high water, while at other times it
may be high up on some towering cliff, and Eagle Clarke took a nest on
Foula at a height of 1300 ft. It is often placed deep in a crevice of the
rocks, so that it is sometimes necessary to remove stones from the opening
before the eggs can be reached. The entrance is often partly concealed
by some maritime plant or by a curtain of ivy. Other sites which have
occasionally been used are holes in old walls and in the soil at the top
of cliffs, old rabbit or puffin burrows, on a shelf in a sea cave (Ussher),
in the cabin of an old fishing smack (Harvie Brown), or the wreck of a
boat (Seebohm), on low banks overgrown with grass, under bracken in the
Scillies (Frohawk), and in thick beds of sea campion or nettles, and
according to Dixon under heaps of dry seaweed. In the Orkneys it has
been known to breed among loose stones, on the beach or on the top of
the cliffs; while in Wexford Ussher says that it generally nests on the
slopes of grassy banks or low cliffs. Dry grasses and bents are the
usual materials, generally with more or less horsehair in the lining,
but moss and seaweeds are also occasionally used, and Borrer records a nest

* It should however be mentioned that Pipits, supposed to be of this species,
have been observed far inland in Wales during the breeding season by Davenport
(near Bala and on Aran Mt.), Walpole Bond (nest found on the Brecon border),
and others, while Harting has met with them in the Mangerton Mts., Co. Kerry
at 2756 ft. (see The Field, Mar. 3 to April 20, 1901). The matter however needs
further investigation.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

154

from Eastbourne built of seaweed, mixed with the egg capsules of the whelk
(Buccinum undatum). Dixon noticed a large gull’s feather in the lining
of a nest on the Farnes.

4—5 in number, but Aplin found a nest with 6 highly incubated
eggs in Carnarvonshire. In colour they vary from greenish white, closely
freckled with greyish brown (Motacilla type), to dirty white, mottled and
sometimes almost obscured by olive or reddish brown, with grey underlying
markings. In some eggs the markings are bold and at times they are
concentrated in a zone or cap at the big end. One egg of this type in
the British Museum is almost white, with a dark brown cap. Erythristic
varieties are not uncommon. Ussher has taken eggs with specks of red
and violet on a pinkish ground in Kerry (Anthus trivialis type); on the
W. coast of Great Britain the red spotted type occurs occasionally, F. C.
Selous took a clutch with dark red spots and a few grey underlying marks
on a bright salmon pink ground in the Orkneys, and a pale brick dust
coloured form has been taken on Foula (Hagle Clarke).

Two broods appear to be usually reared, and the first eggs are laid
in April (April 17, hard sat eggs on the I. of Man, F.S. Graves; May 7,
young in nest, Wexford, Poole), but most birds lay during the last days
of April and the first half of May, while the best time for eggs of the
second brood is in the first week of June in the 8., and the second or
third in the N. of the British Isles.

Average of 100 eggs from the British Isles measured by the writer,
21.29 >< 15.91 mm, Max. 24><16.2 (8. Kilda) and 20.5>< 17.2 mm.
Min. 17.8 < 15.3 (Waterford) and 20.5> 14.1 mm. As a rule they are
decidedly larger than eggs of A. pratensis, but as will be seen the measure-
ments of the two species overlap. A. H. Evans has clutches of remarkably
small eggs, authenticated by himself and T. E. Buckley, which are quite
indistinguishable from typical Meadow Pipits’ eggs. Average weight of
4 Scotch eggs, 160 mg. Four full eggs from Ireland average 3.054 g.
(Foster).

e. Ferée Rock Pipit, A. spinoletta kleinschmidti Hart.

Local Name: Ferées: Graatujtlingur.

A. spinoletta kleinschmidti. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 284.

Breeding Range: The Ferées.

Feilden describes this race as extremely abundant, though confined
to the coast. Bunyard however observed a pair or two in the mountains
at a moderate height in 1905. In nesting habits it resembles our British
bird, and lays 4—5 eggs, which vary in much the same way, but there
is not a single erythristic specimen among the very large series in the
British Museum collected by Miiller, and one or two eggs show a dark
hair streak at the big end. Miiller took a nest with 4 eggs on April 29,

155 ai

1868, and noticed a bird building on April 4, but the great majority of
his nests were taken in the latter half of May and in June. Average size
of 100 eggs measured by the writer, 22.21 >< 16.11 mm., Max. 24 >< 16.5
and 22.5><17 mm., Min. 19>< 14.2 mm. The last measurement is taken
from a clutch which is somewhat smaller than any of the others. As will
be seen at once, the eggs of this form are on an average decidedly larger
than those of A. s. obscwrus.

f. Seandinavian Rock Pipit, A. spinoletta littoralis Brehm.
Plate 17, fig. 17, 18 (Denmark).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXV, fig. 11, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 35, fig. 4.

Foreign Names: Denmark: Skjaer Piber. Finland: Luotokirvinen.
Norway: Skjaerpiplaerke. Sweden: Skdr Piplirka.

A. obscurus (Lath.) (part.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 586 (A. ru-
pestris Nilss.); Dresser, Birds of Europe, HI, p. 343; id. Man. Pal. Birds,
p- 216; Saunders, Man., p. 143. A. spinoletta littoralis Brehm. Hartert,
Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 284.

Breeding Range: The coasts and islands of Scandinavia,

A fairly common breeding species along the whole Norwegian coast
line and islands, but not penetrating far up the fjords, from the Cattegat
to the Varanger Fjord. In Russian Lapland it is found W. of the Ribatchi
peninsula, but is absent from the Murman coast and the shores of the
White Sea. Birds from the N. (Varanger Fjord, etc.) differ somewhat as a rule
from those found on the W. coast (See Aplin, Zool. 1896, p. 379). In
Sweden it is found along the coast line from the most southerly part up
to about lat. 61°, and has been recorded from Bornholm, but does not breed
on Gotland. It has also been found nesting on some of the Danish islands
in the Cattegat (Deget, Hirtsholmen and Nordre Ron), and Vejrg in the
Samsé Belt (Winge).

In nesting habits it resembles the British and Ferée races. The nest
is built of bents and moss, seaweed being also used at times, and reindeer
hair has been found in the lining. Diameter of cup, 22 im. depth
nearly 2 in.

Usually 5 in number, sometimes 4. The few that I have examined
were rather pale in colour, and a blackish hairstreak is often found at the
big end. Reddish types are apparently not found.

On the west coast of Norway it is one of the earliest breeders, and
often has young before the end of May, laying again in June, but in the
high N. probably only one brood is reared, and the eggs are laid at the
end of May or early in June.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

156

Average of 19 eggs (Norway), 21.5 >< 15.45 mm., Max. 24 >< 17 mm.
(Westerlund), Min. 19.2 >< 14.5 and 20.1 >< 14.3 mm.

78. Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla flava L.

Geographical Races.
a. British Yellow Wagtail, M. flava rayi (Bp.).
Plate 19, fig. 15—18 (England).

Eggs: Hewitson, I. Ed. I, pl. LIX, fig. 3; Il. Hd. I, pl. XXXIV, fig. 3;
Ill. Ed. I, pl. XLU, fig. 3. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 14; id. Col. Fig., pl. 58a.
Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. III, fig. 95, 96.

Nest: O. Lee, IV, p. 140.

British Local Names: Yellow Molly or Wagster, Cow Bird, Barley
Bird, Seed Fool, Oatseed Bird. Welsh: Siglen or Tinsigl felen. Scotland:
Oatear, Seed Lady.

Foreign Name: France: Bergeronette a téte jaune.

Motacilla raii (Bp.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 564; Dresser, Birds of
Europe, III, p. 277; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 208; Saunders, Man., p. 129.
M. flava rayi (Bp.). Hartert, Vg. Pal. Fauna, p. 294.

Breeding Range: British Isles, N. W. France.

In England the Yellow Wagtail is a common summer migrant, breeding
in the plains and the more open valleys, but not as a rule over about
700 ft. In Cornwall and Devon it occurs chiefly on migration, but has
nested in S. Devon. It is scarce in the Lake district, and absent of course
from the great moorland district of the N. of England. In Wales it is
exceedingly local, but two or three colonies exist in Cardigan (one on the
Teifi bog, about 500 ft. above the sea); in Merioneth it breeds at Bala
and near the 8. W. coast, while in the N. it is local in Flint and Denbigh,
and occurs also in the upper Severn valley; and in Brecon is common in
the valleys of the Usk and Wye, etc. It is not found on the Isle of Man,
and in Scotland is practically unknown N. of the Great Glen, though stated
by Booth to breed near Inverness. In the Dee area it nests on the Aberdeen
coast (between Don and Newburgh), and is not uncommon in some localities
in the Forth district (Vale of Menteith, etc.). It also occurs sporadically
in the Clyde area, and in small numbers in Tay, but further 8. our in-
formation is still defective. In Ireland its distribution is very remarkable;
one colony breeds about Lough Neagh in Ulster; in Connaught another is
found along the shores of Loughs Corrib, Mask, and Carra; and in 1868
it was found breeding near Dublin, but has not been noticed there since.

In E. France M. flava flava appears to be prevalent, but from Dieppe
westward M. f. rayi is found.

157

Usually placed among the thickest herbage in mowing grass or pastures,
but sometimes also in cornfields, when it is necessarily much more exposed.
It is sometimes placed beside a bank in Ireland, or at the foot of a wall,
but all the nests which I have seen were built in the open, though generally
well concealed by grass. In Sealand it has been known to breed in
strawberry and cabbage fields (Cummings). In cornfields the nest is some-
times so low in a hollow that the back of the sitting bird is below the
level of the surrounding ground. The birds are wary, but their evident
anxiety discloses the approximate position of the nest, and the hen will
after a few tentative flights, drop on to the nest, and sits closely on being
walked up. Asa rule these birds do not breed close to one another, though
two or three pairs may be found in the same field. Newton however
records an exceptional case where 3 or 4 nests were placed within a few
yards of one another annually near Thetford. Most nests are built of
bents and roots, with sometimes a little moss, and lined with finer grasses
and horsehair. Occasionally a little wool is also introduced, and Hewitson
records two nests, one lined with rabbit down and the other without any hair
in a lining of fine roots. Diameter of cup, 21—24 in. depth, 1{—1+} in.
It is not uncommon to find a thistle or other conspicuous plant in the
immediate neighbourhood of the nest; and though most nests are found
near rivers and lakes, it may be found breeding on hillsides far away from
the nearest stream. :

Generally 5—6 in number, but clutches of 4 eggs have been found
incubated, and 7 are occasionally met with in Norfolk, while Norgate has
one set of 8. The greyish white ground colour is almost obscured by fine
mottling of ochreous brown, while many eggs show a blackish hair streak
at the big end. In some cases the colour may be described as uniform
greyish olive, and exceptionally almost white eggs have been found. There
is generally a great similarity in colouring to the eggs of the Sedge
Warbler, and some varieties are barely distinguishable from those of the
Grey Wagtail.

The usual nesting time in the 8. of England is from the second week
of May to the beginning of June, but exceptionally a full clutch may be
taken towards the end of April.* In the midlands and N. the usual time
is during the last week of May or the first fortnight of June; and as a
rule it is certainly not double brooded, as stated by Dixon and others,
though it is probable that a second brood is occasionally reared in the 8.,
as fresh eggs have been found at the end of June and even in early July.

Average size of 100 eggs measured by the writer, 19.01 >< 14.15 mm.,
Max. 21.5 ><14 and 20.1> 15.2 mm, Min. 16.9>< 12.7 (Rey coll.) and

* Eggs have also been found in Lancashire on April 26, a month earlier
than the usual date (F. S. Mitchell).

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

158

17.2 < 12.2 mm. (dwarfs). As will be seen the variations in sizé and
shape are very great, but on the average the eggs are slightly larger than
those of the Blue headed form. Average weight (13 eggs) 110 mg. Six
full egos weigh 2.111 g. (Foster).

b. Pallas’s Yellow Wagtail, M. flava campestris Pall.

Motacilla rai (Bp.) (partim.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, UI, p. 277;
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 208. M. flava campestris Pall. MHartert, Voég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 294.

Breeding Range: Kirghis Steppes, from the Volga to Transcaspia.
Has occurred in Hungary. This form closely resembles M. flava rayi in
appearance. No authentic breeding notes available.

ce. Blue headed Wagtail, M. flava flava L.
Plate 19, fig. 6—10 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl, Tab. XXV, fig. 5, a—c. Hewitson,
I. Ed. IJ, pl. CXXXIV, fig. 1—3; IL Ed. 1, pl. XXXIV, fig. 1, 2; DI. Ed. I,
pl. XLII, fig. 2. Baedeker, Tab. 35, fig. 9. Taczanowski, Tab, LVIII, fig. 2.
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 14; id. Col. Fig., pl. 58a. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I,
pl. Ill, fig. 94.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Konipas Zluty. Denmark: Gul vipstjert.
France: Bergeronette printaniére. Germany: Gelbe Bachstelze, Schafstelze.
Helgoland: Bliithoaded Giihlblabber. Holland: Gele Kwikstaart. Hungary:
Sdrga billegeté. Norway: Gulerle. Poland: Pliszka Zlta. Sweden: Guliirla.

Motacilla flava L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 558; Dresser, Birds of
Europe, III, p. 261; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 205; Saunders, Man., p. 127.
M. flava flava L. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 287.

Breeding Range: HKurope generally, excepting the British Isles,
N. Scandinavia and Russia, the Iberian, Italian and Balkan peninsulas and
S. Russia, where it is replaced by other forms.

A few instances of the breeding of this race in Great Britain are
on record, usually near the coast. Hancock mentions four nests in the
Tyne valley, near Gateshead in 1869—70 (Cat. Birds Northumberland and
Durham, p. 60); it has also been recently recorded as breeding in Sussex,
near Winchelsea, in 1901 and 1903 (Zool. 1901, p. 389; 1903, p. 420), and
subsequently in other localities (N. F. Ticehurst). It may possibly have
also bred in Suffolk and Kent.*

In France this appears to be the prevalent form, except in the N. W.
(M. flava rayi), while Eagle Clarke observed MW. f. cinereocapilla in the
Camargue, where it probably breeds. Possibly the Yellow Wagtails which
breed N. of the Cantabrian Mts. in Spain also belong to this race, which is

* See also Cambridge Phillips, Birds of Breconshire, p. 51.

159

found on the outskirts of the Pyrenees, but the limits of the various races are
still very imperfectly known, and are complicated by the fact that two, or
even three, forms may occur on passage in the same locality. In the
Low Countries, Denmark, Germany, and Austro-Hungary it is tolerably
common on suitable ground, but as a rule is absent from mountainous districts
and dry heaths. In Switzerland it nests chiefly in the plains, but also in
smaller numbers in the higher valleys; and in Italy appears to be restricted
to the highlands of the Po valley. In Russia it is generally distributed
through the Baltic Provinces, 8. Finland, Central Russia and Poland. In
Scandinavia the present form is confined to 8. Norway, where it is met
with very sparingly, and Sweden, where it is found throughout Gotarike,
but becomes scarce in the W., and is probably not found N. of lat. 62°,
though it is said to occur in Jemtland.

The nest and breeding habits closely resemble those of WM. f. rayz
already described. It is always on the ground, frequently on railway em-
bankments, at other times in rank grass in marshy meadows, or in crops
of clover, rape, sainfoin, peas, wheat, etc.

5—6 in number, though 7 are occasionally found in 8. Finland
(Pousar). Practically all the eggs of the various races of Yellow Wagtail
are indistinguishable, and some of the smaller eggs bear a great resemblance
to those of the Sedge Warbler.

Only one brood is reared annually. In Germany, Denmark, and Austro-
Hungary eggs are seldom found before June, sometimes late in July. They
may however be taken occasionally in the last fortnight of May, and this
appears to be the more usual time in the Low Countries and KH. France,
while in the Swiss valleys they are still earlier.

Average of 100 eggs (72 by Rey and 28 by the writer), 18.75 >< 13.90
mm., Max. 21 >< 14.3 and 19.2 >< 15.2 mm., Min. 16.3><12.8 mm. Average
weight, 105 mg. (Rey); 108 mg. (Bau, 39 eggs). The shape and size
of the eggs are very variable, but on the average they are a little smaller
than those of M. f. rayi.

d. Dombrowski’s Yellow Wagtail, M. flava dombrowskii (Tsch.).
M. flava dombrowskii (Tsch.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 289.
Breeding Range: Wallachia, the Dobrudscha, and in small numbers
in N. Bulgaria.

e. Sykes’s Yellow Wagtail, M. flava beema Sykes.

M. flava beema Sykes. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 290.
Breeding Range: W. Siberia, from Orenburg to the Yenesei. Has
occurred in England. (Zool., 1902, p. 232, etc.)

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.
Breeding

Season.

Measure-
ments.

160

f. Grey headed Yellow Wagtail, M. flava cinereocapilla Savi.
Plate 19, fig. 19—22.

Kges: Baedeker, Tab. 35, fig. 10.

Foreign Names: Italy: Cutrettola capocenerino. Portugal: Lavandisca
amarella. Spain: Nevadilla.

M. flava cinereocapilla Savi. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 292.

Breeding Range: The Iberian peninsula, Sicily, Italy (except in the
northern highlands), Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. [Also in N. Africa. |

In southern Spain this race is not uncommon locally in marshy spots
in the marisma and near rivers. (Whether the breeding birds of N. Spain
and Portugal all belong to the same form cannot be stated with certainty
at present. In Portugal some race of Yellow Wagtail is abundant). Hagle
Clarke observed it in the Camargue in May, and in Italy it is known to
breed in Venetia, Tuscany and commonly in Calabria, as well as Sicily,
but apparently not in Sardinia. Further east it is found in Dalmatia,
N. W. Bosnia and Herzegovina. [In N. Africa it has frequently been found
breeding, not only in Algeria, but also in Tunis. |

Much resembles the other races in its breeding habits, nesting by
preference in herbage close to water, but where this is lacking, it has been
known to breed on sandy islets surrounded by water, in rushy glades of
woods (Chapman) and in low scrub, near, but not quite on the ground
(Noble). Where suitable nesting ground is scanty, several pairs will be
found breeding close to one another.

5—6 in number, and very similar to those of other races in appearance.
In N. Africa 4 is the usual number.

Decidedly earlier than that of the more northern races. In Spain the
egos are usually laid in the last ten days of April or early in May, but
as the nest has been taken in June in N. Africa by Tristram and others
it seems probable that two broods are reared there.

Average of 35 eggs from 8. Spain and N. W. Africa, 18.56 >< 14.06
mm., Max. 20.5> 14.7 and 18.6 > 15 mm, Mm. 174 >< 13:633m@
18 < 13.5 mm.

g. Arctic Yellow Wagtail, M. flava thunbergi Billberg.*
Plate 19, fig. 11—14 (Lapland).

Nest: Pearson, Three Summers in Russian Lapland, pl. 57.
Foreign Names: Finland: Keltasirkku. Lapland: Fiskis-cicdsch.
Sweden: Nordisk Guléirla.

* This name is very reluctantly adopted in accordance with Lénnberg’s
paper in the Journ. f. Orn., 1906, p. 531.

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29 “30

1—5 Wren, Troglodytes troglodytes L. 6—8 Crested Tit, Parus cristatus L.
9—12 Marsh Tit, P. palustris communis Bald.
17—20 Goldcrest, Regulus regulus (L.). 21—24 Firecrest, R. ignicapillus T'emm.
25—26 Grey-backed Warbler, Agrobates galactodes syriaca (H. & E.).
27—30 Cetti’s Warbler, Cettia cetti (Marm.).

13—16 Bearded Tit, Panurus biarmicus (L.).

ayiiesd 5 Tas
22 Bag ert, ping. 23 15 27 28

1—6 Fantail Warbler, Cisticola cisticola (Temm.). 7—9 Bonelli’s Warbler, Phylloscopus bonelli
(Vieill.) 10 Siberian Chiffchaff, P. collybita tristis Blyth. 11—15 Nuthatch, Sitta europaea
caesia Wolf. 16—18 Subalpine Warbler, Sylvia subalpina albistriata (Brehm). 19—23 Sardinian
Warbler, S. melanocephala (Gm.). 24, 25 Dartford Warbler, S. undata (Bodd.) 26 Olive-tree
Warbler, Hippolais olivetorum (Strickl.). 27, 28 E. Olivaceous Warbler, H. pallida (H. & E.).
29 Booted Warbler, H. caligata (Licht.). 30 Paddy-field Warbler, Acrocephalus agricola Jerd.

sie BR ; oa sae
. ~/ = af gtrwey ag >
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4 Sa 3 15 16 17 oR
ee Sm s 9° 4)
‘ ‘ ¢ | Oey ine ae
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Paty : 2 Ly oe afy 9% —_—
6, % , “ , ‘teil Men ee i w Ze
‘ @ #& =) ° Pda a” an
a . “a : ir
18 Ae ) 22
5 j
19 20 21
Bor) &2 = Lay
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¥ -_ is : ss : ’t
; ; ‘F bs re 43h .!
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/ ae ried . * 73 oe RRs
24 5 ; - a "> 27
ty 3 : ne
25 28 26

1—4 Nightingale, Luscinia megarhynchos Brehm. 5—6 Northern Nightingale, L. luscinia

(L.). 7—14 Redbreast, Erithacus rubecula (L.). 15—17 Black throated Green Warbler,

Dendroica virens Baird. 18—22 Rock Nuthatch, Sitta neumayer Michah. 23 Greek Sombre
Tit, Parus lugubris lugens Brehm. 24—27 Lapp Tit, P. cinctus Bodd.

re

~ ae
ites ee

24

ALReidty ert, ying.

1—6 Great Grey Shrike, Lanius excubitor L. 7, 8 Southern Grey Shrike,
L. excubitor meridionalis Temm. 9 Isabelline Shrike, L. cristatus isa-
bellinus Ehr. 10—19 Woodchat, L. senator L.

25

A. Reid ert, ink

1—17 Red backed Shrike, Lanius collurio L. 18—22 Red tailed Shrike,
L. cristatus L. 23, 24 Bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus (L.).

1—5 Garden Warbler, Sylvia borin (Bodd.). 6—10 Whitethroat, S. communis Lath.

11—15 Blackeap, S. atricapilla (L.). 16—19 Lesser Whitethroat, S. curruca (L.). 20—23

Barred Warbler, S. nisoria (Bechst.). 25 W. Orphean Warbler, S. hortensis hortensis (G@m.)
24, 26, 27 E. Orphean Warbler, 8. hortensis crassirostris Cretz.

ZF: ech er LF pe 1X:
12 ae

1-5 Willow Warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus (L.). 6—10 Chiff Chaff, P. collyhita (Vieill.)
11 14 Wood Warbler, P. sibi tatrix (Bechst.). 15—17 Savi’s Warbler, Locustella luscinoides (Savi).
18—21 Grasshopper Warbler, L. naevia (Bodd.). 22-25 Moustached Warbler, Lusciniola melan-

opogon (Temm.). 26—29 Icterine Warbler, Hippolais icterina (Vieill.).

103 12

1—10 Blackbird, Turdus merula L. 11 Red winged Thrush, T. fuscatus Pall.
12 Black throated Thrush, T. ruficollis atrogularis Temm.
13 Dusky Trush, T. obscurus Gm.

30

31

1 EK. Siberian Thrush, Turdus sibiricus davisoni (Hume).

A. Res i) ert panda.

13

2—10 Mistle Thrush, T. visci-

vorus L. 11 Northern Ring Ouzel, T. torquatus torquatus L. 12—13 Alpine Ring Ouzel,

T. t. alpestris (Brehm).

1—6 Redwing, Turdus musicus L. 7-14 Song Thrush, T. philomelos Brehm.
15—17 W. Olivaceous Warbler, Hippolais pallida opaca Cab.

32

1—11 Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris L.
12—13 Swainson’s Thrush, T. ustulatus swainsonii Cab.

33

~~
=

Hal

Te

-. 35

23 24

1—10 HK. Russet Wheater, Saxicola hispanica xanthomelaena H. & E. 11—12 Whinchat,

Pratincola rubetra (L.). 13—17 Stonechat, P. torquata rubicola (L.). 18—20 White spotted

Bluethroat. Luscinia svecica cyanecula (Wolf.). 21—26 Red spotted Bluethroat, L. s.
svecica (L.).

20
ARE

ain
dyer \

1—4 Brown Thrasher, Toxostoma rufum (L.). 5—8 Palestine Bulbul, Pyenonotus capensis
xanthopygos (H. & E.). 9 Blue Rock Thrush, Monticola solitarius (L.). 10—13 Black
Wheatear, Saxicola leucurus (Gm.). 14 African Desert Wheatear, S. deserti deserti Temm.
15 —16 Asiatic Desert Wheatear, S. d. atrogularis Blyth. 17—20 Pied Chat, S. pleschanka (Lep.)

37

A Raidyer te, yt:

1—4 Great Spotted Cuckoo, Coccystes glandarius (L.). 5—6 Red breasted Flycatcher,
Muscicapa parva Bechst. 7—14 Spotted Flycatcher, M. striata (Pall.). 15—19 Swallow,
Chelidon rustica (L.). 20—24 Crag Martin, Riparia rupestris (Scop.).

=

>

(Mill). 12 Greenland Redpoll, C. hornemanni hornemsnni (Hélb.).

= 38

16

7—9 Red necked Nightjar, C. ruficollis Temm.

11 Lesser Redpoll, Carduelis linaria cabaret

13 Coues’ Redpoll, C.

hornemanni exilipes (Coues). 14 Black headed Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla flava melanocephala
Licht. 15—18 Hoopoe, Upupa epops L.

1—6 Nightjar, Caprimulgus europaeus L.
10 Red fronted Serin, Serinus pusillus (Pall.).

cp 23 AReicbert, pink

1—24 Common Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus L.

39

1—24 Common Cuckoo,

AL Reidyert, yrs

Cuculus canorus L.

40

, to Meee already Bree — Sand besides, ae is even. ‘more ee

SUGyia Ie

Poise a ree of Nay sees teas of he dierent races, 3 that h ere #

iA : ‘ bd ‘should ‘gute hone and eges. pene to 5 differ, hte ahaa ready /
in ae amade’ mown, Moreover, any such diftacortvas. as exist should. be reeke
hn? cf at ‘their ‘full worth in deciding the. difficult, question | of the validity. of the»
Ae - Narious races! . -. Among the» many’ useful ints in: the work we oy cy
A Fe “hotice the lists of local British and foreign names of the birds, the ee iN

sto, other forms the range ‘of which’ abuts ‘upon the European” anret ithe of ‘

. measutements of the eges, and the, ‘determination of the approximate weight 4
ot the’ ‘shells... It: ‘is’ ‘of course ‘impossible to. void ‘occasional » slips, \ ) Ai
“but the comparative insignificance and) infrequency, 0 of these. inaccuracies ‘only a
pomeyet our opinion, of the ged ey of Mr, t Jourdain’: work aH
bie NOOB, 82 Date aie
‘ “So. a) as we are. lable to, Auast fom’ fh first ‘aa: this. ok ‘has.
- much ‘to recommend it: The’ plates are. decidedly: good, ' and: the letterpress
» dealing with’ each species ‘is adequate’ ‘and affords much reliable information
‘i on a wide range ‘of ‘subjects — reference, to. Aiteratare,. ‘Tocal and foreign ‘
| mames, breeding range at home and, abroad, description: of Res, eee
” season, ete. — ‘and hears evidence of. considerable. research as bela
Le first hand ‘knowledge ‘on, the part of the’ author. of The, work’ is ‘tobe
Feta iy in about 10 ‘parts, containing some 140 coloured ‘a | i
promises to be’ an excellent one in an _Tespects.”
Nohanat! History, 1906, tps! 191, SN OE ER ‘% WENA BIN Gr FNS
scan Ne, have: now before ‘us the tnt part, of a. Jourdain’ publication

es
eee

ius

| ‘one “handed and ford coloured oldies acaaphiial ies are fully recognized &
ba and ose and the nomenelajare Saga ie ee pe niesdatonsl :

MTA phi Ty

PARTING

va <

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Pe = e (en 7 ft ;
: REY. FRANCIS C. R. JOURDAIN, :
VEO NOME TAME OSB oa Sa ic mug ae, ee
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Pape so ! . ae seek Sy 6 Meh eme
\ men aS ae Eg Uh KE ea MEI ANT zit > HME ¢
ne EN ap . estat eas RUT SPR Wh a
/.),) ‘TO BE°COMPLETED IN ABOUT 10 PARTS, oa
ene. CONTAINING ABOUT 140 COLOURED PLATES. ~~
' | BY ALEXANDER REICHERT AND THE AUTHOR. |
>> Price 10s..6d. per part net. .
MN eee NORA ON DONG (Oko iu NNSOMa FASE

A, agg eS H. PORTER. 7 PRINCES ST, CAVENDISH SQUARE wi” |
a os. G@ERBA-UNTERMBADS. Feo ano bie.
PS POA a, SIR ORS BS OBER 78540 BTN 21g bg

«ud a . i a (i j use : Dg 34 ye ws

161

Motacilla viridis Gm. Dresser, Birds of Europe, II, p. 269; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 206. M. flava borealis Sund. Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 294.

Breeding Range: N. Scandinavia und Russia. [Also in Siberia,
eastward to the Sea of Okhotsk.] Has occurred in England where it
is believed to have bred once. (Bull. B. O. C., XIII, p. 68, etc.).

In Norway this race is found commonly in the seter enclosures of
the southern high fjeld as far south as the Dovre. Northward it breeds
commonly in E. Finmark in all grassy spots. In Sweden it does not
range further south than lat 63° N. and is plentiful on the Upper
Muonio. In Finland it is tolerably common in Uleaborg, and in Russia
is found on the Murman coast, the Olonetz Government N. of Lake
Onega, and the Archangel Government. It is very numerous near
Archangel, and also on the Petschora to about lat. 67° N., but is
absent from the Kanin peninsula, the tundra N. of the Arctic Circle
and the islands in the Arctic Ocean. [Eastward its range extends right
across Asia.|

Like that of the other races, well concealed and by no means easy
to find. It is placed on the ground under shelter of a grass tussock or
stump. The parent birds ara very wary, and the hen leaves the eggs
long before the intruder approaches (S. A. Davies).

Usually 5—6 in number, but Pearson once took a clutch of 7 on
the Murman coast. They show the same variations as those of the Blue
headed form.

Full sets may be found in Lapland from about June 13 onward,
and newly hatched young on the 26th.

~ Average of 100 eggs (77 by Rey and 23 by the writer), 18.31 >< 13.97
mm., Max. 21.3><14 and 19.6><15.4 mm., Min. 16.1><12.9 mm. Average
weight, 106 mg. (Rey).

h. Black headed Wagtail, M. flava melanocephala Licht.
Plate 19, fig. 24—27 (Odessa, 10. V.).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. X XV, fig. 6, a—b.
Foreign Name: Greece: Tsina.

Motacilla melanocephala Licht. Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 273;
-id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 207. M. flava melanocephala Licht. Hartert, Vig.
Pal. Fauna, p. 295.
11

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments,

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding

Season.

Measure-
ments.

162

Breeding Range: The Balkan peninsula 8S. of the Danube, 8S. Russia
and the Caucasus. [Also Asia Minor and Persia.]| Has once occurred in
England (Bull. B. O. C., XIII, p. 69).

In Greece it breeds in the marshes and on the edges of the
lagoons near the sea, and is especially common on the islets where
colonies of Gulls nest, in Acarnania. It is also abundant in the
marshes of Macedonia, and Robson found a colony not far from
Constantinople. In Bulgaria according to Reiser, it is very plentiful
in some localities, e. g. near Sophia; but avoids mountainous districts
and becomes scarce in the Danube valley. Although more characteristic
of the E. than of the W. of the Balkan peninsula, it nevertheless _
breeds in the meadows at the N. end of the Scutari Lake, and is
also found in 8. Dalmatia. In 8. Russia it is met with from the
mouth of the Danube to the Caucasus, where Radde states that it is
found nesting not only in the lowlands, but also up to over 6000 ft.
[An Asia Minor it is common on the islands near Smyrna, and Danford
found it generally distributed on suitable ground in the interior of the
country; while it also breeds locally in Persia, where Witherby took
eggs near Shiraz at 5200 ft. on May 3, 1902.]

Placed on the ground, either in a marsh, or when on drier
ground sheltered by tamarisk bush or Salsola. In Bulgaria however
it is generally built in a cornfield. Most observers describe it as
well hidden and most difficult to find, but when the nests are placed
close together, as is sometimes the case, a careful search is generally
successful.

Usually 5 or 6, sometimes only 4. Most eggs examined have a
dark hair streak at the big end.

In Greece and Turkey the first eggs are laid at the end of April
and the beginning of May, but in Bulgaria the time appears to be rather
later; while in Greece and Asia Minor eggs have been taken till late
in June, so that possibly two broods are reared.

Average of 18 eggs (6 by Rey and 12 by the writer), 18.68>< 14.45
mm., Max. 20.5><14.8 and 19.3><15.1 mm., Min. 17.1><14 mm. Average
weight (Rey), 122 mg.

79. Yellow headed Wagtail, Motacilla citreola Pall.
Plate 19, fig. 23 (Kultuk, Lake Baikal).

Eggs: Journ. f. Orn. 1873, Tab. II, fig. 20.

163

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Konipas Zlutohlavy. Germany: Gelb-
képfige Bachstelze. Russia: Trjasoguska zeltogolovaja.

Motacilla citreola Pall. Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 245; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 203. JM. citreola citreola Pall. Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 296.

Breeding Range: N. HE. Russia. [Also Siberia to Mongolia.]

Seebohm and Harvie Brown met with this species in the
Petschora valley in small numbers as far S. as about lat. 66°, but in
the delta of the river it was quite the commonest bird, haunting the
open spaces between the willow thickets on the islands in great
numbers. It is however absent from the Dwina delta, but is said to
occur in the Orenburg Government (?). [In Asia its range extends
from the Ob valley and perhaps N. Turkestan through Siberia to Lake
Baikal. Przewalski found it breeding commonly in 8. E. Mongolia, but
not in Ussuri Land, while in the mountain ranges of Central Asia it is

replaced by M. c. citreolides (Gould).

Carefully concealed among the tangled grass and flowers in the
open spaces between the clumps of willows, in the Petschora delta;
while in Dauria, Dybowski found it sheltered by dry grass or low
scrub in marshy places. It is placed on the ground, and is composed
of grasses and bents, sometimes with moss, lined with fine roots
and reindeer hair, while occasionally a few feathers are also added.
Inner diameter about 2+ in., depth about 1 in. It is a very
difficult nest to find; the cock being generally on the look out,
and both sexes flying about overhead with incessant cries on the
approach of danger.

Usually 5 or 6, exceptionally 7 in number. They are very similar
in appearance to those of M. flava, but as a rule the markings are
Jess distinct, and the general appearance paler. The ground colour
is yellowish white, thickly specked with small pale rusty spots, and
frequently with a dark hair line or two at the big end. There is
but little gloss.

In the Petschora delta eggs were taken from June 19 to 27,
and young able to fly were procured on July 20, and were common
by August 1. In Dauria also the eggs are laid about mid-June. Only
one brood is reared.

Average of 64 eggs (15 by Dybowsky, Rey, etc., and 49 by the
writer), 19.05><14.06 mm., Max. 21><15 mm., Min. 18><14 mm.
A dwarf egg from the Petschora measures 16.8><13.2 mm. Weight
(5 eggs), 127 mg. (Rey).

Lux

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

164

80. Grey Wagtail, Motacilla boarula L.

Plate 19, fig. 1, 3, 4, 5 (Germany), 2 (S. Russia). Pl. 26, fig. 12
(Staffordshire, Blagg Coll.)

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfil. Tab. XXV, fig. a—c. Hewitson,
I id. 1, pl. UX, fig. 2; Ul, Ed. 1, pl. XXX fie. 2s ide asl
XLII, fig. 1. Baedeker, Tab. 35, fig. 11. Taczanowski, Tab. LXIX,
fig. 2, 3. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 14; id. Col. Fig. pi. 58 a. Frohawk,
Br. Birds, I, pl. I, fig. 93. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 20—24, and pl. —,
fig. 47, 48. Nest: O. Lee, IV, p. 114.

British Local Names: Rock Wagtail. Welsh: Siglen or Tinsigl
Lwyd.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Konipas horni. Denmark: Graa Vipst-
jert. France: Hochequeue. Germany: Graue Bachstelze. Greece: Tsili-
bethra. Helgoland: Gitihl Lungen. Holland: _Groote gele Kwikstaart.
Hungary: Hegyibillegeté. Italy: Ballerina gialla. Poland: Plszka
wolarka. Portugal: Alveola amarella. Russia: Trjasoguska gornaja.
Sardinia: Coetta groga. Spain: Pepita amarila. Sweden: Gra drla.

Motacilla sulphurea Bechst. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 552. MM.
melanope Pall. Dresser, Birds of Europe, I, p. 251; id. Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 202. M. boarula boarula L. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 298.

Breeding Range: Central and southern Europe, but absent from
the North and represented by subspecies in N. Asia and Madeira. [Also
found in the Great Atlas.]

In Great Britain this species, though nowhere very numerous, is
found in scattered pairs breeding at intervals along the courses of rivers
and streams in most hilly districts in Scotland, Wales, the Cumbrian and
Pennine ranges, and the W. of England, but is absent as a rule during
the breeding season from the level plains and the sea coast. It breeds
regularly in the Devonian peninsula, but is only known to nest occasionally
in the counties east of Dorset, Wilts, and Gloucester in the S. of Eng-
land, although nests have been recorded from Hants, Sussex, Surrey,
Kent, Berks, Bucks, Oxford and Northants. Further north a few pairs
breed in Leicester, and it is common in Derby and W. Yorks, but does
not nest in Notts or E. Yorkshire, though recorded by Cordeaux in N.
Lincoln. It is rare in Anglesea and the Isle of Man, but is pretty
generally distributed on the mainland of Scotland, while it occurs in small
numbers on most of the Inner Hebrides and on Skye, and it is said to
breed in the Orkneys. To the Shetlands and Outer Hebrides it is only

a straggler. In Ireland it has been recorded as nesting in every county.
eee It is absent from Ireland, the Faerées, Scandinavia, Denmark and
Europe. N. Russia; while in Germany it is common on the mountain streams of

British
Isles.

165

the middle and south of the Country (especially the Harz, Thiiringia,
Saxony, Franconia and the South), but is rarely met with on the northern
plains. In Switzerland it is generally distributed, breeding up to about
6000 ft., and is also found in the hilly parts of France and Belgium.
It is almost universal along the Pyrenean range, and is met with on all
the principal sierras of the Iberian peninsula, from the 8. Nevada to the
Cantabrian Mts, as well as in Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, and is said
to breed occasionally on Malta. In Italy it is confined to the hilly
districts in the breeding season, and this is also generally the case in the
Balkan peninsula and Austro-Hungary. In S. Russia it is tolerably
common, but does not range as far N. as the Government of Moscow,
though in the Urals it is said to be found as far as lat 59°. [It is also
common in the Canaries; and by the streams in the Great Atlas (Meade-
Waldo). |

Although essentially a haunter of clear mountain streams, a few
pairs will generally be found breeding for some distance after the river
has debouched into the plain, even as far as the sea-coast, using ledges
and cavities in the stonework of water mills, walls, and bridges as nesting
sites in default of high banks and rocks. The nest is generally, but not
invariably, placed close to water, often on a ledge of rock or on a steep
bank side, and occasionally among tree roots. Among less usual sites
may be mentioned the top of an old stump, and in a ventilator of a house
in N. Wales, on a shelf in a room entered through a broken window,
while Seebohm records a nest built on the ruins of an old Thrush’s nest
and another in the fork of an alder, close to the ground, and HE. W.
Blagg found a nest in semi-darkness at the far end of a natural cave not
far from the R. Dove. Sometimes the nest is concealed by a natural
growth of fern, ivy, or other vegetation, and is then not easy to see,
especially as the bird will sit close when it fancies itself unobserved. It
is however decidedly a shy bird in the early breeding stages, and when
flushed from the nest while building or before incubation has begun, is
very liable to forsake it altogether. On the other hand the parents
display the greatest anxiety for the safety of their eggs or young; and the
same locality, and sometimes the same spot, is often resorted to year
after year. The foundation of the nest consists of moss, with sometimes
a few small twigs, skeletonized leaves, and roots or grasses, and the lining
is generally horsehair, white preferably, though cowhair is also sometimes
used, and in one case the lining consisted entirely of pigs’ bristles. A
few feathers are also said to be occasionally found. In the Canaries
Konig found goat as well as cow hair, and wool, used as lining material,
and in the highlands of Greece Seebohm observed that the lining was
thicker than usual. Diameter of cup about 2% in., depth 1—1# in.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

166

4—6 in number, but 5 is perhaps the usual clutch. In a cold spring
I have known 3 eggs only to be laid, and in the Canaries 4 is the typical
clutch, but in 8. Derbyshire it is rare to find more than 5, although 6 are
commonly found in the N. of England, etc. In Germany the first brood
consists of 5—6, and the second of 4—5, according to Rey.* In colour and
markings a good deal of variety exists. Typical eggs somewhat resemble
these of the Yellow Wagtails, but are as a rule paler in colour. They are
generally of some shade of buff or stone colour, faintly marbled with
yellowish or greyish brown. Occasionally a set with distinct markings is met
with, and it is not uncommon to find a blackish hair line at the big end.
Exceptionally a set resembling miniature eggs of the Pied Wagtail occurs;
while E. W. Blagg found a nest with 5 eggs in Staffordshire, which were
a beautiful warm pink with pale reddish markings and red hair lines
when fresh, and Meade-Waldo states that brick red eggs are frequently
met with in the Canary Isles, sometimes together with a single white
egg. In Ireland R. J. Ussher has taken eggs almost white, and also
with bold reddish brown and underlying grey markings on a white ground.
White eggs have also been recorded from Yorkshire (Zool. 1904, p. 315).
The shell is very thin and delicate, without noticeable gloss.

In England and Wales the eggs are usually laid between April 15
and the beginning of May, often in the last week of April; but occasionally
a pair may be found breeding at the beginning of April, or even in the
last days of March. If the first nest be taken the hen begins to lay
again after an interval of a week, and occasionally a second brood is
reared, in which case the eggs are laid early in June. In some districts
of the Continent however, two broods appear to be usually brought off.
Thus in Germany the first eggs are laid in the latter half of April, and
those of the second brood in early June; but Jackel records an egg laid
in Bavaria on March 19 — an exceptionally early date. In Greece Reiser
has recorded nearly fledged young at the beginning of April, but the
more usual time for eggs is the end of March or early April, while the
eggs of the second brood are laid in the latter half of May. In the
Canaries eggs may be found through March and April.

Average of 100 eggs (61 by Rey and 39 by the writer), 18.81 ><14.27
mm., Max. 21.7 >< 14.3 (Cumberland) and 19.1 >< 15.1, Min. 17 =< 14.1
and 19.1><12.7 mm. Average weight, 114 mg. (Rey); of 36 eggs, 112
mg. (Bau). 22 eggs from Tenerife are about the same size, averaging
18.6 >< 14.2 mm. (Kénig). 15 full eggs from Ireland average in weight
1.952 g (Foster).

[Besides the common European form of this species treated of
above, M. boarula boarula L., in Asia the Eastern Grey Wagtail, WU.

* C. Sachse has recorded a clutch of 7 eggs.

167

boarula melanope Pall. replaces it, but the boundaries of the two races
are not yet clearly defined. Six eggs (one of which is bright pink in
colour) from the British Museum average 18.8><14 mm. In Madeira
and the Azores a third form, M. boarzula schmitzi Tsch. is resident.
Average of 19 eggs (9 by Padre Schmitz and 10 by the writer)
19.4 >< 15 mm.]

81. Pied and White Wagtails, Motacilla alba L.
Geographical Races.
a. Pied Wagtail, M. alba lugubris Temm.
Plate 18, fig. 25—29 (Herts).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XXV, fig. 2, a—c. Hewitson,
etd pl xk fe ts i Rd. ly pl Sexxy fies 1 nde pr
XLI, fig. 1, 2. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 14 (2 figs.); id Col. Fig., pl. 58.
Frohawh, Br. Birds, I, pl. III, fig. 91. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 1—6.

British Local Names: Dishwasher, Penny Wagtail, Nanny Wash-
tail; Grey Hemplin, Watty (Lake District), Whipjack (Kent). N.-Wales:
Brech y Fuches; 8S. Sigl digwt. Manx: Ushag-vreck.

Foreign Names: Germany: Trauer-Bachstelze. Helgoland: Swart-
rogged Lungen. Sweden: Engelska sddesdrla.

Motacilla lugubris Temm. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 538. Dresser,
Birds of Europe, III, p. 239; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 197. Saunders,
Man. p. 121. MM. alba lugubris Temm. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna,
p- 301.

Breeding Range: The British Isles; also in N. W. France and
occasionally in Holland and on the Norwegian coast.

The Pied Wagtail is very generally distributed over Great Britain
and Ireland and on most of the adjacent islands. There is reason to
believe that it has occasionally bred in the Shetlands, and it is resident
in the Orkneys, but is only a straggler to S. Kilda, and is absent fom
the Outer Hebrides. It nests on Skye and on most of the inhabited
Inner Hebrides.

In Scandinavia this race has been met with on a few occasions in
S. Sweden, and probably bred there in 1895. In Norway it is also
recorded as having nested in the Jaederen, Stavanger and Bergen districts.
Hitherto it has not been found breeding in Denmark, but O. Leege met
with a pair nesting in the E. Frisian Islands in 1906, and in Holland
it occasionally interbreeds with M. alba alba, and has nested in S. Holland.
Koch asserts that it has once bred in Miinster (Westphalia), but the
statement is hardly credible. Its scarcity in the Channel Islands is remark-

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

168

able, and recent observations as to its distribution in N. W. France are
much to be desired; as well as confirmation of the statement that it
occasionally breeds in the 8. W. of France.

The favourite breeding haunts of this bird are in the neighbourhood
of farm houses, or old buildings, sometimes at some distance from water;
also the neighbourhood of ponds, chalk pits or old brick fields. It is
not confined to low ground, but also haunts the hill sides up to 1500 ft.
in Wales (Forrest). The nest is very often placed in a hole in a wall
or building, or in thick ivy, but is also frequently built in a hollow in
a bank by a stream or road side or in a crevice of rock. In some districts
the crowns of pollarded willows are a favourite site; while on Scotch
lochs I have seen nests among the loose stonework of the landing stages,
within a few inches of the water. Sometimes the nest is built against
a tree trunk (especially when covered with ivy), or in the crotch of a
bough, as much as 10 or 12 ft. from the ground, while at other times
it may be met- with in wood stacks or stone heaps. A good many
instances have been recorded in which the old nest of some other bird
has been adapted for nesting purposes (see Zool. 1904, p. 421 and 1905,
p. 33), and probably those which N. Wood describes on branches of
laurels were built inside old nests of Blackbirds or Thrushes.* In E.
Anglia it is often placed in the furze walls of the lambing enclosures,
and also in hollows of thatch. Among the more unusual breeding sites
the following may be mentioned: — in flower pots inside greenhouses,
in trucks or underneath the metals on railway lines, in a boat, on the
ground in a turnip field, etc. The size of the nest varies according to
the situation, and is sometimes very bulky, while in other cases it merely
consists of a lining. Almost anything is used for the foundation, twigs,
moss, roots, grasses, dead leaves etc., loosely put together, while the
inner lining generally consists chiefly of hair, with sometimes feathers or
bits of wool, upon grasses, roots, etc. The hen when incubating is very
wary in approaching the nest, but will often sit very closely in spite
of noise and bustle around her. Diameter of cup, 2% to nearly 3 in.,
depth 1% to 1% in.

5 or 6 in number. Nests with 10—11 eggs have been found in
Nottinghamshire twice (J. Whitaker) and the Dove Valley once (F. H.
Sikes), but were in all probability the produce of two hens. In colour the
ground is bluish or greyish white, evenly freckled with small spots and
occasionally streaks of leaden brown, with numerous underlying markings
of pale violet grey. A rather scarce variety is marked with good sized

* See however R. H. Read’s note in the Zool. 1905, p. 33.
+ Cf. Ussher, Birds of Ireland, p. 35.

169

blotches, chiefly at the big end; while another uncommon type has the
numerous markings of a much warmer brown than usual, recalling the
brown variety of the eggs of M. alba alba figured by Seebohm (Col.
Fig. pl. 58). Pure white eggs have also been taken in Shropshire.

Two broods are reared in the season as a rule: the first clutch
being generally laid towards the end of April or the early part of May,
while the second is generally to be found about the second or third
week in June in the Midlands. Occasionally a third brood is reared
(Cf. Zool. 1878, p. 28, 1903, p. 313), and possibly the exceedingly late
nests with fresh eggs which are sometimes met with even as late as the
first week of August belong to this category. Incubation is performed
chiefly by the hen, and lasts according to W. Evans 13—14 days.

Average of 100 English eggs (64 by Rey and 36 by the writer),
POslo->< Ibs mm:, Max 22:2>< 15 and 21 >< 16.5, Min. 18'o>-< 143
and 19.8><14.2 mm. Two dwarf eggs in the Brit. Mus. from Hants
measure 13 ><11 and 12.3><10 mm. Average weight, 137 mg. (Rey).
Average weight of 4 full eggs, 2 g. (Foster); of 16,2.309 g. (R. H. Read).

b. White Wagtail, M. alba alba (L.).
Plate 18, fig. 19—23 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XXV, fig. 1, a—c. Hewitson,
Ill. Ed. I, pl. XLI, fig. 3, 4. Baedeker, Tab. 35, fig. 12. Taczanowski,
Tab. LVIII, fig. 1. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 14 (2 figs.) id. Col. Fig.
pl os. = Krohawk, Bro) Birds, I. pk MN; fig; 92, Dresser, pk. —,;
fig. 7—12.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Konipas bilyj. Denmark: Hvid Vipstjaert.
Finland: Valkea vdstdrakki. France: Lavandiere. Germany: Weisse
Bachstelze. Helgoland: Blii Lungen. Holland: Witte Kwikstaart. Hun-
gary: Bardzda billegetdé. Iceland: Mariatla. Italy: Ballerina. Lapland:
Pestur. Norway: Linerle. Poland: Pliszka biala. Portugal: Lavandeira.
Russia: Bieloe Trjasoguska. Sweden: Sddesdrla. Spain: Lavandera.

Motacilla alba (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 548. Dresser, Birds
of Europe, III, p. 233; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 200. Saunders, Man. p.
123. WM. alba alba (L.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 302.

Breeding Range: Iceland and Europe generally, with the exception
of the British Isles, and apparently also the islands of the Mediterranean.

The British Isles are annually visited by flocks of this race on their
northward migration, and a few pairs remain to breed, generally in
maritime counties, such as York, Lincoln, Suffolk, Kent, Sussex, the Isle
of Wight, Devon, and the coast of N. Wales, but also occasionally inland
(Middlesex, Cambs., Hunts., Northants. and Bucks.). Instances of inter-

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental-
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

170

breeding with M. a. lugubris have also been recorded from Norfolk,
Suffolk, Oxon, Hants, and Cumberland.

In Iceland this is a tolerably common bird, and is generally to be
found in the neighbourhood of houses. It has been recorded also from
S. Greenland and Jan Mayen, but is not known to have bred there.
It is believed to have nested occasionally on the Faerées, but is chiefly
known there as a passing migrant. Over the whole of the European
continent it is very generally distributed, avoiding only the forest dis-
tricts and the mountain tops beyond the limits of human habitation.
Northward it is found in Norway up to the N. Cape, and in Russia
along the Murman coast and the shores of the Arctic Ocean, breeding
near every group of Lapp huts. Probably it nests also on Kolguey, but
is absent from Novaya Zemlya. E. of the Urals it is replaced by other
forms. In Switzerland it is found in the mountains up to about 6000 ft.,
as well as in the plains. In the Iberian peninsula it is abundant in the
N. but has only been recorded once or twice as breeding in the southern
provinces. It was not observed during the breeding season in Corsica
or Sardinia by Whitehead, Wharton or Brooke, but some remain to nest
in Italy, although a large proportion are winter visitors only. In the
Balkan peninsula it is found as far south as the mountain ranges of
Greece, and has bred at Naxos, in the Cyclades. It is also numerous
in 8. Russia and the Crimea. [In the E. Mediterranean Stenhouse found a
pair breeding off the Syrian coast, while Tristram took the nest in
Galilee, and Kriiper states that it is common in Asia Minor. Some
appear to remain in Egypt throughout the summer. |

In breeding habits it closely resembles M. alba lugubris, and is
quite as variable in its choice of a nesting site. Holes in banks, walls,
or trees and wood stacks are perhaps the most favoured spots, but in
the sand dunes of Holland it breeds under shelter of a clump of marram
grass, and has also been recorded as nesting in Sand Martins’ holes, on
a strawberry bed, in an old hulk in harbour, in a waggon, on pollarded
willows, in crevices of rocks, under eaves of houses, in an old Fieldfare’s or
Thrush’s nest, and in a nesting box in Lapland etc. The nest also resembles
that of the preceding race, but the lining material varies according to the
locality. Thus in N. Russia Seebohm found Reindeer hair and spiders’
cocoons, while in Iceland pony hair or feathers, and on the Continent,
wool, cow, goat or horse hair, pigs’ bristles and feathers are all utilized.

Usually 5 or 6 in number, rarely 7, while 8 have occasionally
been recorded for the first brood: the second consisting of 4 or 5. They
are said to be a trifle bluer in tint in a series when compared with
those of M. alba lugubris, but are practically undistinguishable. Some
eggs show a dark hair line at the big end, and an egg from Holland

al

in the British Museum has the markings at the big end so thickly con-
gregated as to appear almost black. Occasionally a clutch is met with
which has warm brown or yellowish brown markings, and Dr. Ottosson
has a set beautifully spotted with red on a pinkish white ground, taken
in N. Iceland in June 1879.

In Iceland the breeding season is variable. H. H. Slater records
fledged young on June 11, an extraordinarily early date, when many
birds are only beginning to lay. In the extreme N. of Europe the usual
time is about the second or third week of June. In Central Europe
two broods are reared, and fresh eggs may be found from the end of
April to the beginning of July, while exceptionally eggs have been
found as late as the end of July and the beginning of October (Sachse),
and fledged young on September 7 (Rey). In Greece the first eggs are
laid about mid April.

Average of 100 eggs (72 by Rey and 28 by the writer),
2043>< 15 mm, Max. 224 ><i5 and 20><16:2, Min, 18><15 “and
21><14.4 mm. (Bau’s average for 58 eggs is rather less, 19.54>< 14.61 mm.)
J. A. Sandman records eggs from Karlé, 22.9><14.6 and 20.5><14.1 mm.,
and a dwarf egg in Rey’s collection measures 14><11.1 mm., weight
80 mg. The average weight is 136 mg. (Rey), 135 mg. (Bau). Average
weight of 6 full eggs from Sweden, 2.3 g. (R. H. Read).

[Other geographical races which breed in the W. Palaearctic region
are M. alba dukhunensis Sykes, which is found in W. Siberia and the
N. Caucasus and M. alba subpersonata Meade-Waldo, resident in W.
Marocco. |

[ MNIOTILTIDAE
Black throated Green Warbler, Dendroica virens (Gm.).
Pl. 23, fig. 15--17 (N. America).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XXII, fig. 3 (errore).

Breeding Range: Hastern N. America, from New England to Hudson’s Bay.
Has occurred on Helgoland once.

Usually built at the end of a branch of a pine tree, 30 to 50 ft. from the
ground, during the month of June. Materials: dry grasses and fibrous matter, lined
with hair and down.

Generally 4, but sometimes 5 in number, more or less marked with blotches
of brown and purple on a white ground. Measurements, 1712.8 mm., weight
92 mg. (Rey).

NECTARINIIDAE

Of this family only one representative breeds in the W. Palaearctic region, the
Jericho Sun Bird, Cinnyris osea Bp., which is common in the oases of the plain of
Jericho and also occurs in the lower Jordan valley. Tristram has described its
nesting habits and eggs in the Ibis, 1865, p. 75—6. |

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Nest.

Eggs.

British
Isles.

Nest.

172

CERTHIIDAE.
82. Tree Creeper, Certhia familiaris L.
Geographical Races.

a. British Tree Creeper, C. familiaris brittanica Ridgw.

Plate 26, fig. 13 (Suffolk. 29 IV.).

Eggs: Hewitson, I Kd. I, pl. XLIX, fig. 3; I Ed. I, pl. LIU,
fig. 2; II Ed. I, pl. LXII, fig. 2. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 11; id. Col.
Fig. pl. 54. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. III, fig. 88—90. .

British Local Names:. Tree Climber, Tree Runner. Welsh:
Yeropiedydd. Scotland: Woodpecker, Bark Speeler. Certhia familiaris
L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 468; Dresser, Birds of Europe III, p. 195
and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 192 (part.); Saunders, Man. p. 117. C. familiaris
brittanica Ridgw. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 320.

Breeding Range: The British Isles, with the exception of the
Orkneys, Shetlands and Outer Hebrides.

In Great Britain this unobtrusive little bird is very generally
distributed in almost all well wooded districts, more especially where
there is plenty of old timber, and in some localities, such as Devonshire,
Pembroke, etc. is plentiful. It is of course absent from the barren and
treeless districts; but in Wales it haunts the wooded hillsides up to about
1000 ft, and is resident as far N. as Caithness and EH. Sutherland on
the mainland, as well as on Skye, and some of the larger islands on
the W. coast of Scotland, such as Mull and Jura. It is also found on
the Isle of Man and Anglesea, and in all the wooded parts of Ireland.

This is very characteristic, and is usually placed behind a piece of
loose bark, in the narrow space between it and the trunk of the tree.
Occasionally it is found in some crevice or split in the trunk, and may
sometimes be placed within a foot or two of the ground, and at other
times as much as 30 or 35 ft. high, while Booth records one in the
roots of a dead stump, which was some distance below the ground level.
Old willows by the side of streams are very frequently chosen as
nesting sites on account of the structure of the bark. Another favourite
nesting place is behind the stems of ivy encircling a tree. Where the
timber is young or suitable sites are scarce the Creeper will nest in
buildings and outhouses, building in crannies between upright boards
or window ledges, behind loose plaster, or underneath eaves, and in
piles of timber. In Merioneth I have seen the nest in the interstices of
a loose stone wall in a wood, Macpherson records a similar case from
the Lake District, and Booth from Scotland, while in Ireland according

173

to Ussher it is not uncommon to find nests in holes of walls or piers,
and he met with one among the masses of decaying leaves in the middle
of an old cypress. In the New Forest it is said to have bred in a
Squirrel’s ‘drey’, and Lilford believed that Rooks’ nests were also utilized
for breeding purposes, and also records a nest in a bunch of dried herbs
in an outhouse! The lower part of the crevice is usually filled with
birch twigs, while the actual nest is built of moss, roots, grasses, etc.,
with fine twigs interwoven in the rim, and generally feathers, strips of
outer bark, or bits of wool in the lining. Other materials are sometimes
used: Borrer noticed one bird using the fibrous matter of asphalted felt,
and in another case found catkins of the Balsam poplar used as lining
to a nest built of the dry flower stalks of the Portugal Laurel. Though
rather apt to forsake while building or laying, the Creeper is not at all
a shy bird, as stated by some writers, but is quite indifferent to the presence
of man, breeding at times in the recesses of the woods and sometimes
in the immediate neighbourhood of houses and pathways, flitting back-
wards and forwards to the nest within a few feet of bystanders. A
remarkable instance of this is mentioned in the Birds of Sussex, p. 82,
where a nest is recorded in the hollow between the wall and the side
post of the door of an occupied cottage. Where suitable sites are scarce,
the same nesting place is sometimes used for many years.

Usually 6 in the first brood, but sometimes 5, while 7 have occa-
sionally been taken. Lilford speaks of 8, but probably the references to
clutches of 8 and 9 in the fourth edition of Yarrell and in Saunders’
Manual refer to Naumann’s statement that the first clutch in Germany
generally consists of 8 or 9 eggs, which however is not confirmed by
later observers.

They vary a good deal in appearance, some being heavily marked
with a zone of dark reddish brown spots at the big end, with a few grey
underlying markings, much resembling the eggs of the Crested Tits,
while others are faintly marked with a few pale red spots, generally
concentrated towards the big end. The shape is also very variable.

The usual time in England is towards the end of April or the
early part of May for first layings. The earliest date for a full clutch
of which I have any note is April 10, but from about April 25 to
May 10 is the best time, while the eggs of the second brood, which is
sometimes reared, may be looked for in June. Incubation lasts for 15
days from the laying of the last egg (W. Evans).

Average of 100 British eggs measured by the writer,
15.52 >< 12.09 mm., Max. 18 >< 12 and 16><13, Min. 14.2 >< 11.7 and
15.2 >< 11.3 mm. As will be seen, there is practically no difference in

Eggs.

Breeding
Season,

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

174

size between British and German eggs. Average weight of 20 eggs,
63 mg. Six full eggs weigh on an average 1,178 g. (Foster).

b. North European Tree Creeper, C. familiaris familiaris L.

Egg: Taczanowski, Tab. LX XX, fig. 2.

Foreign Names: Finland: Puukiipyd. Germany: Baumléufer.
Norway: Traekryber. Poland: Pelzacz zashornik. Russia: Pischzucha
Swertschok. Sweden: Trddkrypare. -

Certhia familiaris L. Dresser, tt. c. (part.) C. familiaris familaris
L. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 317.

Breeding Range: Scandinavia, Russia, Poland, E. Germany, and
Rumania. [Also across N. Asia.]

In Norway this race is found in the coniferous woods as far north
as Trondhjems fjord, while in Sweden it was found breeding in Lycksele
Lappmark (Westerbotten) in 1896. It northern breeding limit in the
peninsula is therefore about lat. 65°, but on the mainland it appears to
have a more restricted range. In Finland it is generally distributed,
and is common at Kuopio: in the Olonetz government Meves observed
it at Kargopol etc: Mejakoff records it from Wologda, and Sabanaeff
from the Urals as far as Pavada: southward it appears to be generally
distributed in the forests of the Baltic Provinces and Central and Southern
Russia, as far as the N. Caucasus, Prussia, Poland and Rumania. West
of the Oder and the Carpathians it is replaced by the next form, C. f.
macrodoctyla.

In breeding habits it resembles C. f. brittanica, but in nests from
the N. the paper like outer bark of the birch is much used as building
material, and hair is said to be found in the lining as well as feathers
and wool.

Generally 6 in number.

The first eggs are laid from about mid April in Scandinavia, and
early in May in the Baltic Provinces: the eggs of the second brood
being deposited in the latter half of June or early July.

Average of 26 eggs (18 from Sweden by Ottosson and 8 from
Sweden and Esthonia by the writer) 15.52 >< 12.9 mm., Max 17.1><12.3
and 15.5 >< 12.6; Min., 15><12 and 16><11.8 mm. Average weight
of 18 eggs, 59 mg. (Ottosson).

e. Long toed Tree Creeper, ©. familiaris macrodactyla Brehm
Plate 20, fig. 21—24 (Saxony).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XVI, fig. 10, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 43, fig. 2,4. (probably this race).

175

Foreign Names: France: Grimpereau. Germany: Baumldufer.
Hungary: Fakisz. Italy: Rampichino.

C. familiaris L. Dresser, tt. c. (part). C. familiaris macrodactyla
Brehm. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna p. 319.

Breeding Range: Central Europe, induding France, Belgium,
Switzerland, N. Italy, W. Germany and Austro-Hungary.*

This race is generally distributed throughout the wooded districts cCon-
of Central Europe in company with the next species (C. brachydactyla baa
Brehm), with which it is frequently confused. Much of the literature on
the subject is therefore unreliable, as the notes may apply to either
species. It is however tolerably clear that C. f. macrodactyla haunts
coniferous woods by preference, and in the Alps is found in the forests
from about 2400 or 3000 ft. up to the tree limit, whereas C. brachy-
dactyla is more at home in the plains and among willows by the water
side, and is rarely found higher than 3000 ft. In the Haute Engadine
C. f. macrodactyla has been observed as high as 5700 ft. In Holland
such specimens as have been critically examined belong to C. brachy-
dactyla, but C. f. macrodactyla has been recorded from Belgium and
the mountains of France, and is not uncommon in the Pyrenean forests.
In Italy it appears to be confined to the mountainous districts of the
north, and in Germany is ouly met with west of the R. Oder. It is
however found throughout Austro-Hungary, and has been recorded from
Bosnia and Herzegovina, but not from Montenegro or Bulgaria.

In nesting habits this race appears not to differ from those already yest,
described; but as a rule it does not breed more than about 18 ft. from
the ground, while the dimensions of the nest vary according to the size
of the cavity.

Although according to the older writers as many as 9 eggs were
occasionally met with, most modern writers agree in giving the usual
number of eggs in the first brood as 5—7, generally 6, and 4—5 in the
second. According to Deichler the eggs are as a rule less strongly
marked thau those of C. brachydactyla and not so elongated in shape,
but in a large series there is apparently much variation. It is moreover
worth noting than in Great Britain, where only one form is found, -there
is quite as much variety as in a series from Central Europe, where two
species occur.

Eggs.

The eggs of the first brood are generally laid in the latter part of Breeding
April or early in May on the lower ground, and those of the second eso.
during June. In some districts eggs are said to have been found at the

* It is not known yet which race inhabits the forests of Denmark.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

176

beginning of April, and in the highest forests of the Alps only one brood
is reared, and the eggs are not laid till June.

The series of eggs measured by Bau and Rey may include eggs of
other forms or of the next species, and therefore cannot be altogether
relied upon. Bau gives the average of 63 eggs as 15.6><11.9 mm.,
Max. 16.6 ><12.9 and Min. 14><11 mm: average weight 69 mg. Rey
gives the average of 100 German eggs as 15.6><12.1 mm., Max. 16.7><12.6
and 16><13, Min. 14.6><11: average weight 68 mg. Abnormal eggs
measure 19.7 >< 15.2 (weight 130 mg.) and 6.5>< 4.5 (weight 45 mg.)

d. Corsican Tree Creeper, C. familiaris corsa Hart.

C. familiaris corsa Hart. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 320.

Breeding Range: Corsica.

Thinly distributed through the coniferous forests among the
mountains. A nest found by the writer on May 26 was placed in the
dead stump of a pine, and contained 5 eggs, averaging 15.9><12.5 mm.,
Max. 16.4><12.7, Min. 15.5><12.3.

83. Short toed Creeper, Certhia brachydactyla Brehm. *
Geographical Races.
a. Mid-European Short toed Creeper, C. brachydactyla brachydactyla Brehm.
_ Egg: Baedeker, Tab. 43, fig. 3.

Foreign Names: Holland: Boomkruipertje. (See also under
C. familiaris macrodactyla.)

Certhia brachydactyla brachydactyla Brehm. Hartert, Vog. Pal.
Fauna, p. 323.

Breeding Range: Central Europe (France, the Low Countries,
Switzerland, Middle and West Germany, and Austria).

The exact distribution of this species is still very imperfectly known,
owing to the confusion between it and C. familiaris macrodactyla. In
Germany it is of rare occurrence in the eastern provinces (EH. and
W. Prussia and EH. Pomerania): in the middle and south it is fairly
numerous and is the common Creeper in the West, haunting usually
the districts wooded with deciduous trees, such as willows, alders and
poplars, rather than coniferous woods. All the specimens hitherto obtained
in Holland appear to belong to this species, and it is found also in
Belgium and in the great plain of France. In Switzerland it is met

* The name should of course be correctly ‘“Short-clawed”: there is no difference
in the length of the toe between this species and C. familiaris.

177

with on the low ground. and also on the slopes of the Jura up to about
1000 ft., but not higher, and it has also been recorded from Austria.
Usually behind loose bark, but ocasionally in holes of buildings,
under eaves etc. as in the case of C. familiaris. Hartert found a nest
near Wesel in a hedge, not far from the ground, in an accumulation of
dead leaves, stalks etc., and the late Dr. Kutter knew of a similar instance.
Generally 5 to 7 in number, but as many as 8 to 12 eggs are said
to have been found in one nest, probably the produce of two hens.
Deichler (Journ. fiir Orn., 1896, p. 449) asserts that the eggs
are distinguishable from those of the other species by stronger and
bolder markings, with a tendency to form a zone at the big end, like minia-
ture eggs of Hirundo rustica, whereas the eggs of C. familiaris as a rule
have the spots fainter and more evenly distributed, something like those
of Parus major. Probably the comparison of larger series of well authen-
ticated eggs will show that these differences are not constant, but at
present the material is insufficient to decide.
Probably similar to that of the other species, but in Switzerland,
where it inhabits lower ground, the eggs are naturally laid rather earlier.
Average of 16 eggs (12 by Deichler and 4 by Rey) 16.3><12.3 mm.,
Max. 16.9><12.1 and 15.9><12.6; Min. 15.9><11.9 mm. As far as can
be judged from such a small series, the eggs are more elongated in form
than in the case of C. familiaris. :

b. Southern Short toed Creeper, C. brachydactyla ultramontana Hart.

Foreign Names: Greece: Murmikologos. Italy: Rampichino.
Portugal: Trepadeira. Spain: Trepatroncos.

Breeding Range: The Iberian, Italian and Balkan peninsulas.

In the wooded parts of Portugal this bird is a very common resi-
dent, and is also found thronghout Spain, wherever old timber exists,
from the cork oak woods near Gibraltar to the wooded sierras of north-
ern Spain. In Italy it is also a common resident in deciduous woods
in the mountains, and in the Balkan peninsula is found in 8. Dalmatia,
Montenegro, and Albania, breeding generally in the oak forests in the
mountains, but also in small numbers in the wooded lowlands (von Fiihrer).
In Bulgaria it appears to be scarce, but is common in Macedonia, breeding
in the mountains and resorting to the low ground in winter. In Greece
it is very scarce, and nests in the highest mountain forests of the Pelo-
ponesus, Mid-Greece, and Euboea, but may possibly breed in Corfu.

Very little has been recorded with regard to the nesting habits of
this race, which however probably differ but little from those of allied

forms. An abnormal nesting site is mentioned by Camusso, in a bank,
12

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
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Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
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Nest.

Eggs etc.

Con-
tinental
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178

between stones placed against it as supports, about 18 in. from the bottom,
near Voltaggio in Piedmont.

The only eggs which I have been able to examine are 3 from
Southern Spain, all of which are well marked and decidedly smaller
than typical Creepers’ eggs, averaging 14.4><11.7 mm. The breeding
season in Spain is in April.

ec. Cyprian Tree Creeper, ©. brachydactyla dorotheae Hart.

C. brachydactyla dorotheae Hart. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 325.

Breeding Range: Troédos Range, Cyprus.

This bird is confined to the Pine forests of the Troédos range,
and is not met with lower than about 4000 ft. Guillemard obtained
specimens close to the summit (6500 ft.)

[The forests of the mountain region of N..W. Africa are inhabited
by the Moorish Tree Creeper, C. brachydactyla mauritanica Witherby;
while the race which is found in Asia Minor is known as C. brachydactyla
harterti Hellm.|

84. Wall Creeper, Tichodroma muraria (L.).
Pl. 20, fig. 25 (Andermatt, Switzerland, Rey coll.)

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfi. Taf. XVII, fig. 9 (errore): Baedeker,
Tab. 43, fig. 5; id. J. f. O. 1856; Tab. I, fig. Li. Seebohm, Bei Birds:
pl. 18: id. Col. Fig. pl. 54. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 31.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Soupdlek zedni. France: Oiseau
papillon, Pie de Murailles. Germany: Alpen-Mauerldufer. Greece: Tso-
panakos kékkinos. Hungary: Hajnalmadar. Italy: Piccio muraiolo. Poland:
Pomurnik Mentel. Russia: Stenolas. Spain: Aranero. Tichodroma muraria
(L). Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 207; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 194.
Saunders, Man. p. 119. MHartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 327.

Breeding Range: The mountain ranges of Central and Southern
Europe, from the Tatra and the Alps southward, and from the Hstrella
Mts. eastward to the Caucasus. [Also in the principal ranges of Asia
eastward to Mongolia.]

Although widely distributed in the more lofty mountain ranges of
Southern Europe, the Wall Creeper is nowhere common, and is generally
met with singly, or in pairs during the breeding season, on the face of
perpendicular rocks, deep gorges, etc. among the mountains. In the
Iberian peninsula it is found in the S. Nevada, 8S. de Antiquera and
S. de Gaitan in the south: Lilford met with it in the 8. de Guadarrama

179

and it is also undoubtedly present in the S. de Grédos. It is also said
to be resident in the Estrella range (Portugal), and is found generally
but not commonly along the Pyrenean Mts., and its outlying spurs, as
well as in the Cantabrian Mts. (Picos de Europa etc.). It occurs sparingly
in the Vosges, locally in the Jura, and also in the whole of the Alpine
system, from the Basses Alpes and the mountains of Savoie (and possibly
also in the Cevennes) in the west, through Switzerland and N. Italy to
the Tyrol, Carinthia, Styria etc. In Hungary and Galicia it is known
to breed in the Tatra and in other parts of the Carpathian Mts. It is
not common in the Apennines, and is only found in the higher parts of
the range. In the Balkan peninsula it is found in most of the higher
mountain systems, from the Transylvanian Alps, Servia, and Bosnia south-
wards as far as the Parnassus, where one of Kriiper’s collectors found
a nest with young. It is however much less numerous in Greece than
in the mountains of Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Bosnia. It has been
recorded from Sardinia, and may breed there, as well as in Sicily and
on Elba. In the Caucasus it is resident up to about 8000 ft. [In Asia
it is found from Palestine and Asia Minor eastward through Persia,
Afghanistan, Turkestan etc., to the Himalayas, Tibet and Mongolia. There
is no satisfactory evidence of its occurrence in the Atlas, but it is said
to have been once met with in Abyssinia. ]

Some interesting notes on the breeding habits of this bird are given
by Girtanner in the Verhandl. der St. Gall naturw. Gesells. for 1864
and 1868, with a coloured plate of the young bird in the nest*, and
in the Orn. Monatsschr. 1882, p. 274. It is generally placed in a cleft
or recess in some precipice or gorge, and is composed chiefly of moss
and bits of wool, interwoven with roots, a few grass stalks, and down;
while the inner lining is a felted mass of wool and hair of various animals,
with occasionally a feather or two or a little fine moss interwoven. The
outside diameter is about 6 or 7 in., while the cup measures about
3 or 3% in. in diameter and 14— 1+ in. in depth. While incubating the
hen is a very close sitter, being fed by her mate, and only leaving the
nest once in the day; during the later stages she cannot be dislodged
even when the entrance to the nest is struck by a stone (F. C. Keller).

~

Usually 4, but sometimes 5 in. number. They are fine grained,
slightly pointed ovate in shape, and are sparsely marked with fine, sharply
defined spots and specks of dark reddish or almost blackish brown,
chiefly at the big end, on a white ground. The surface of the egg is
dull, or only slightly glossy. Some eggs are almost devoid of markings.

* See also a very valuable article by F. C. Keller in the Zeitschr. fiir die ges.
Ornithologie, 1885, p. 329.
12*

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
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Measure-
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British
Isles.

180

In the Alps full clutches may be found from the beginning of June
to about the 26 of that month, but most eggs appear to be laid
between May 28 and June 10. In Carinthia Keller found full clutches
from May 25 to June 6.

Average of 31 eggs (13 quoted by Rey and 18 measured by the
writer) 20.84><14.85 mm., Max. 22.7><15.7, Min. 20><14. (Two eggs
in the British Museum, said to have been taken on Mt. Cenis, are
smaller than any others I have seen, measuring only 18.7 ><14 and
18.2><13 mm., and may be the produce of birds kept in confinement.).
Rey gives the average weight of 4 eggs as 137.5 mg., varying from
130 to 145 mg.. but an egg from S. Spain is said to have weighed only
100 mg. (Hocke).

85. Nuthatch, Sitta europaea L.
Geographical Races. ;
a. British Nuthatch, Sitta europaea britannica Hart.
Plate 26, fig. 14 (Surrey, 16. V. 04).

Eggs: Hewitson, I Ed. I, pl. XLIX, fig. 1, 2; If Ed. I, pl. LIV,
fig. 2; Ill Ed. I, pl. LXIl, fig. 4. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 12; id. Col.
Fig. pl. 54. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. Ill, fig. 83, 84. Dresser, pl. —,
fig. 39, 40.

Local Names: Nuthack, Nutjobber, Mudstopper, Woodcracker, Jar
Bird. Welsh: Cnocyll y cnau.

Sitta cesia Wolf. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 473. Dresser, Birds
of Europe, III, p. 175 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 188 (part.). Saunders, Man.
p. 118. 8S. europaea britannica Hart. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 332.

Breeding Range: The southern and central counties of England:
rare in the north.

The chief haunts of the Nuthatch are parks and wooded districts,
where the timber is allowed to grow to a good size. In localities of
this kind it is found throughout the greater part of England and Wales,
south of about lat. 55° N., but becomes very scarce or is altogether
absent in the extreme west, as in W. Cornwall, Pembroke, the shores
of Cardigan Bay, and Carnarvon. It is absent from the Isle of Wight,
Anglesea, aud the Isle of Man, but has penetrated to the inland counties
of Wales, (Montgomery, Radnor, and Brecon) and is not uncommon in
Carmarthen. North of lat. 55° the records become very scanty: in
Cheshire it is only found in the S. W., it is local and scarce in N. KE.
Derbyshire, Notts and Lincoln, but occurs in some of the older parks in
W. Yorkshire. It is said to have formerly bred in Northumberland,

181

Durham, and also in Lancashire, and individuals have been obtained in
the Lake district and the S. E. borders of Scotland, and it has been
recorded as an accidental visitor to Skye.

As a rule the nest is in a hole in a tree trunk, or in some large
branch, and is found at varying heights, occasionally not far from the
ground. When the entrance is too large it is plastered up by the birds
with clay or mud, which sets very hard, and most nests (but not all)
show traces of this mud daubing round the hole. The size and depth of
the nesting hollow are variable, and the nest itself consists of the laminae
of the inner bark of the Scotch fir, or fragments of the outer bark of the
silver birch,* as a rule in sufficient quantity to enable the bird to sit close
to the entrance hole. When pine or birch bark is not available dead
leaves of oak or beech are utilized, and some writers state that dead
grass is also met with occasionally. While laying is in progress, the
eggs are often scattered and even half buried in the nest lining, but are
collected together when incubation begins. The hole is sometimes a
natural one: at other times an old woodpecker’s nesting place is taken
possession of, and several cases are on record where a nest has been
found in a hole of a wall. Other abnormal sites are holes in sandbanks
or in Sand Martins’ burrows, in the foundation of an old Magpie’s nest,
and in the head of a downpipe from the spouting of a house; while the
well known nest from the side of a haystack from East Grinstead which
weighed 11 Ib., is familiar to visitors to the British Museum. Nest boxes
are also readily adopted, the lid being generally plastered down and the
bottom of the box being filled up with mud. Starlings frequently dis-
possess Nuthatches as well as Woodpeckers of their breeding places, but
Norgate has on two or three occasions found the mummified remains of
Starlings in Nuthatches’ nesting holes. >

The number of eggs is underestimated by most writers, and varies
from 5 to 11, but probably 5 to 8 is the usual clutch, although several
instances of 9 and 10 eggs in one nest have been recorded. On
May 19, 1906 A. G. Tomlinson found a nest in Berkshire with 14 eggs,
but a careful examination showed that some of the eggs were fresh and
others addled, so that in all probability the eggs were the first and
second layings of the same bird. As a rule the eggs in a clutch are
of the same type,** but there is considerable variation in a large series,
The normal egg is white, almost devoid of gloss, but not so dull as

* P. H. Bahr counted 1850 pieces of this bark in a single nest (Br. Birds,
1907, p. 122).

+ Zool. 1880, p. 44.

** Exceptions however occur sometimes: A. H. Evans has a white egg in an
exceptionally well marked set.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
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Measure-
ments.

Con-
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182

that of Parus major, boldly spotted with spots and blotches of dark and
light red brown and a few violet shell marks. Sometimes the markings
are evenly distributed, but they are generally thicker towards the big end,
and sometimes form a zone of confluent blotches. Occasionally a set is
met with in which the spots are replaced by fine speckles, while Norgate
took a set of 7 white eggs in Norfolk, in which only two showed faint
traces of markings.

Early clutches may be taken occasionally in the last ten days of
April, but the more usual time is in the first two or three weeks of May,
May 1—14 being perhaps the best time. The Nuthatch is apparently
a life paired bird, and in some cases at any rate, the eggs of a second
brood are laid about the end of June. While incubating the hen sits
closely, and by hissing and the use of her powerful beak seeks to deter
intruders. The period of incubation is probably about 13—14 days, and
a nest under observation by P. H. Bahr was completed in the short
space of 4 days.

Eggs of the British race are quite indistinguishable from those of
S. e. caesia, but are as a rule smaller than those of S. e. europaea.

Average of 100 English eggs measured by the writer, 19.2><14.32mm.,
Max, 21-55-14. and 20><165 Min: 16.5><13:5 and 194 ><13 2 sum
Average weight of 7 normal eggs, 130 mg. 12 full eggs average 2.308 g.
(R. H. Read).

b. Southern Nuthatch, 8. europaea caesia Wolf.
Plate 22, fig. 11—15 (Halle a S., Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XVII, fig. 16, a—b. Baedeker,
Tab. 43, fig. 6. Dresser, pl. — fig. 17.

Foreign Names: Denmark: Noddehakker. France: Torchepot.
Germany: Kleiber, Spechtmeise. Holland: Boomklever. Hungary: Csuszka.
Italy: Picchio muratore. Portugal: Trepadeira. Spain: Trepatroncos.
Sitta caesia Wolf. Dresser, tt. c. (partim). S. europaea caesia Wolf.
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 331.

This race is found in the wooded districts of E. Jutland and also
on Funen, where according to Winge S. ewropaea europaea also occurs.
It is also the representative race throughout Germany, with the exception
of E. Prussia, and is most numerous in the deciduous woods of the low
ground. Probably the Carpathians form its E. limit in Austro-Hungary,
and in the forests of Salzburg, Carinthia, the Danube valley and Tran-
sylvania it is not uncommon. In the Vorarlberg Bau met with it breeding
up to 3000 ft. In the Balkan Peninsula it occurs in the Dobrudscha,
and according to Dresser is very pleutiful in the oak woods of Wallachia
and Servia. In Montenegro it haunts the mountain forests and has been _

183

met with as high as 7500 ft., and in European Turkey is not uncommon,
while in Greece it is resident both in the oak and pine forests north
of the Gulf of Lepanto. In Italy and Sicily it is common and sedentary,
but is not found on Malta, Sardinia, or Corsica, nor has it been recorded
from the Balearic Isles. In Switzerland it is met with not only on the
lower slopes, but even in the Haute Engadine, and inhabits the woods
of the Low Countries and France. In the chesnut and beech forests of
the Pyrenees is also abundant, and either this, or possibly another local
race, is found in the principal mountain ranges of the Iberian peninsula
(Cantabrian Mts., 8. de Guadarrama, Grédos and Hstrella, S. Nevada
etc.) [Specimens were obtained by Olcese from the hills near Tangier
about 1883, and Loche recorded it from Algeria, but recent observers
have failed to meet with it.]

In nesting habits this form does not differ from the British race.
Old holes of the Great Black Woodpecker are not infrequently occupied
in Central Europe, and Rey once met with a hole excavated by the
bird itself in a very rotten willow trunk. The usual height is between
9 and 18 ft., but exceptionally nests have been found only 1: ft. above
the ground, and 75 ft. high. Notes by Bau in Z. f. Ool., XI, p. 106 (1901).

Generally 6 to 8 in number, less commonly 5 or 9, and indistinguish-
able from those of S. ewropaea britannica. A nest with 12 eggs was
found by A. Hintz in 1855.

Most authorities are agreed that only one brood is reared in the
year, though Girtanner thinks that two broods are sometimes brought
off in Switzerland. The breeding season is rather variable. Probably
Bau is correct in assuming that the older birds re-occupy the nests of
the previons year and lay first, while the younger hens, which have to
find and adapt to their needs other sites, breed two or three weeks
later. In Wallachia full clutches may be found in the first week of
April, while in Germany the usual time is from mid April to late in
May in the north, and from April 10 to mid May in the south. In Jut-
land the first eggs are laid in the last week of April.

A. Bau gives the average of 86 eggs as 19.7 ><14.4 mm., Max.
21.8 >< 15.1, Min. 17.6 >< 13.5 mm. Rey gives very similar figures:
average of 42 eggs, 19.9 >< 14.6 mm., Max. 22.25 >< 14.5, and 21.25 ><
15.25; Min. 17.5>< 14.8. Average weight 135 mg. (Bau); 132 mg.
(Rey).

ec. Caucasian Nuthatch, S. europaea caucasica Rehnw.

S. europaea caucasica Rchnw. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 333.
Breeding Range: The Caucasus.
Little is known of the distribution or habits of this short-billed

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest etc.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

184

race, except that Radde describes it as a not very numerous resident,
haunting the lower deciduous forest region, but occurring also in the birch
forest up to nearly 6000 ft. Two nests with eggs were found near
Lenkoran on May 7.

[Other allied forms are found in Asia Minor and W. Palestine,
(S. europaea levantina Hart.), and in the oak forests of S. W. Pessia
(S. europaea persica Witherby) |.

d. Scandinavian or Northern Nuthatch, 8S. europaea europaea L.
Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 43, fig. 7: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 13.
Foreign Names: Finland: Péhkindnakkeli. Norway: Spetmeise
Nodvdkke. Russia: Popolsen. Sweden: Notvdacka.

Sitta europaea L. Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 169 and Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 186. S. europaea europaea L. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna p. 329.

Breeding Range: Scandinavia, the Danish Isles and N. Russia.

In 8. Norway it is tolerably common in tracts of deciduous wood-
land, as far as the highest limits of the hazel and oak, as well as among
the birch forests on the west coast, and up to the Gudbrandsdal, south
of the Dovrefjeld. In Sweden it is generally distributed, but nowhere
very common, in the South up to about lat. 61°; and is also found in
Gotland, and in small numbers on Oland. In Denmark it is common
on Zealand, Laaland and Falster, and is said to occur also on Fiinen.
In Russia it is absent from Finland, but is said to have bred near Arch-
angel and to be not uncommon in the Vologda Government. Birds from near
Moscow are also described as having pure white underparts, but the limits
of this and the next form in E. Europe are not exactly known.

Apparently similar to that of other races. The eggs number 6 to
8 as arule, sometimes 9, while clutches of 10 have occasionally been met
with. They resemble those of other races.

In Denmark full clutches may be obtained from April 25 to late in May,
and about the same time in 8. Sweden, but not till May in Norway.

Average size of 52 eggs (22 by Ottosson, 26 by the writer, and
4 by Rey), 20.03 >< 14.92 mm. Max. 21.3><15.2 and 21.1 >< 15.3,
Min. 18.7 < 14.5 and 19.8>< 14.2. Average weight of 22 eggs, 134 mg.
(Ottosson, in litt.). The eggs of this form, though individually indistin-
guishable, appear on an average to be slightly larger than those of S. e.
cesia or britannica.

e. Homeyer’s Nuthatch, S. europaea homeyeri Hart.
S. europaea homeyert Hart. Hartert, Vogl. Pal. Fauna, p. 330.
Breeding Range: EH. Prussia, Russian Baltic Provinces, Poland,
Galicia, (? Crimea).

185

Tolerably common in EH. Prussia and in the Russian Baltic Pro-
vinces, as well as in Poland and on the plains of Galicia. Probably it
is this race which is also found in 8. W. Russia and the Crimea, but
at present its distribution is not exactly known. Little has been recorded
as to its breeding habits, but in the Baltic Provinces it is said to lay
6 eggs at the end of April.

f. Ural Nuthatch, 8S. europaea uralensis Glog.

S europaea uralensis Glog. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 330.

Breeding Range: The Urals. [Also Siberia].

According to Taczanowski’s measurements the eggs appear to be
decidedly small: 6 averaging 17.93 >< 13.66 mm., Max. 19 >< 14, Min.
173 >< 13.2.

86. Whitehead’s Nuthatch, Sitta canadensis
whiteheadi Sharpe.

Plate 26, fig. 15, 16. (Corsica, 26. V. 08, Jourdain.)

Eggs: Ibis, 1885, pl. II. Cat. Eggs Br. Mus., IV, pl. XIV, fig. 15.
Dresser, pl. —, fig. 23, 24. Nest: Ibis, 1885, p. 30.

Sitta whiteheadi Sharpe. Dresser, Birds of Europe, [X, p. 133;
id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 190. S. canadensis whiteheadi Sharpe. Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 335.

Breeding Range: Corsica.

Nothing has hitherts been recorded with regard to the breeding
of this interesting bird beyond the notes by Whitehead in the Ibis,
1885, p. 28. The writer however found it not uncommon locally in
coniferous forest at 3000 ft. above the sea, breeding in dead and
decayed pine trees.

Sometimes an old Great Spotted Woodpecker’s nest is used, while
at other times the hole is pecked out by the birds in rotten wood at
varying heights from 18 to 80 ft. The cavity is lined with strips of
the bark of the Mediterranean heath, mixed with moss and a few
feathers, so that the sitting bird is almost on a level with the entrance,
which is roughly circular. No clay or mud is ever used. As the nest
is always in a tree in the later stages of decay, and often at a
considerable height, to reach it is often attended with considerable
difficulty and danger.

Usually 5 or 6 in number, white, as a rule boldly and thickly spotted
and speckled with dark red, chiefly round the big end; but occasionally a
set is met with in which the markings are comparatively sparse. They
have but little gloss.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

186

Whitehead took fresh clulches from May 21 to the end of the month,
but in one case I found newly hatched young on May 26, although other
nests had fresh eggs on that date. The birds are quite devoid of fear,
and approach within a foot or so when the nest is being examined. The
cock can generally be called up by an imitation of the hissing sound
mentioned by Whitehead, which is the alarm note of this species.

Average size of 31 eggs collected in 1884 and 1908, 17.19><12.94 mm.,
Max. 18.5 >< 13:3, Mins 165< 12:5 ‘and 46.5 ><412:45mm.

87. Kriiper’s Nuthatch, Sitta krueperi Pelz.
Plate 26, fig. 17 (Asia Minor, Kriiper).

Eggs: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 19—22.

Sitta krueperi v. Pelz. Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 189; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 189. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 336.

Breeding Range: Asia Minor and the Caucasus.

Radde received six specimens from Borshom in 1897, and
Lorenz records one shot near Kislowodsk in October. [In Asia Minor
it is plentiful in the coniferous woods, from near Smyrna eastward to
the Taurus, and probably also to the Giaour Dagh*. It occurs among the
upper limits of the oak forest, but is most plentiful in the pine belt,
and is not uncommon among the cedars and junipers up to the limits
of tree growth. ‘Tristram’s statement that it occurs in the gorge of the
Leontes in Palestine has not been substantiated by specimens. |

The nesting hole is usually excavated by the birds in the rotten
wood of a dead bough or an old stump, just behind the bark, and can
easily be exposed by breaking away the bark by the hand. Occasionally,
according to Danford, a deserted Woodpecker’s hole is utilized, but there
is never any attempt to plaster round the opening with mud or clay.
The height from the ground is very variable, usually from 1 to 12 ft.,
but occasionally as much as 20 ft. high or more. Within the hole there
is generally a foundation of filaments of juniper bark, but the lining
materials used vary greatly. Some nests are lined with goat’s hair, others
with fragments of cone seeds, while dry grasses, thistledown, and fur are
also used, and F. C. Selous found one thickly lined with feathers only.

Usually 5, sometimes 6, while 7 have occasionally been found.
They are a broad pointed oval in shape, with some little gloss, and are
profusely speckled and spotted with brownish red, and lilac shell marks,
chiefly towards the big end. In general appearance they are not unlike
handsomely marked eggs of Parus major. The shell is delicate and
fine grained.

* Danford, lbis, 1878, p. 10.

187

Probably from mid April to the end of the month is the best time ee

for eggs in Asia Minor, but full clutches have been found in the first
week in April on lower ground, and higher in the mountains eggs have
been taken occasionally late in May.

Average size of 63 eggs (58 measured by the writer and 5 by Rey),
17.14><13.08 mm., Max. 18.3><13 and 17.1><14, Min. 16><12.7 and
16.3><12.6 mm. According to Rey the average weight is 100 mg.

88. Rock Nuthatch, Sitta neumayer Michah.
Plate 23, fig. 18—22 (Smyrna, T. Kriiper).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. X VU, fig. 15, a—b. Baedeker,
Tab. 43, fig. 8. Dresser, pl. — fig. 25—27.

Foreign Names: Croatia: Kravarica. Germany: Felsen-Kleiber.
Greece: Tsopandkos. Montenegro: Lonéar.

Sitta newmayert Michah. Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 183; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 191. Sitta newmayer newmayer Michah. Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Pauna, p. 338.

Breeding Range: The Balkan Peninsula, from Croatia, Dalmatia
and the Balkans southward to Greece. [Also Asia Minor, probably as
far as the Caucasus. |]

In Dalmatia this bird haunts the rocky districts at a low elevation,
and has been also recorded from Croatia. In Herzegovina it is a well
known resident in the Karst region, and in Montenegro it is common
along the Adriatic coast and also in the subalpine region. Von Fiihrer
found it ranging as high as 5100 ft. It appears to be unknown in the
great plains of the Danube valley, but is recorded by Reiser among the
Balkans at a height of 6000 ft. on the extreme southern boundary of
Bulgaria. It is found in Albania and Macedonia, but Kriiper describes
it as less common on Olympus than in Greece. It is said to breed on
Corfu and is locally common in Greece, especially in Acarnania, but is
not found in the Cyclades. Radde describes a Rock Nuthatch as common
in the Little Caucasus, up to about 6000 ft., but rare on the S. side
of the Great Caucasus. [In Asia Minor it is one of the commonest
birds: but in Syria and Palestine it is replaced by a doubtfully distinct
pale race, S. newmayer syriaca Temm. (Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 338).
Other forms occur in Persia and Turkestan. |

Wherever found this Nuthatch is always a noticeable bird, its
rapidly repeated single loud call note attracting attention at once. It
is generally met with on rocks or boulder-strewn hillsides, and is very
rarely seen on trees. Its remarkable nest is found in caves or on the
face of precipitous overhanging rocks, and is as a rule not difficult to

eason.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

188

find, but occasionally it is built into a natural recess, and is then in-
conspicuous. It is a solidly built edifice of mud, with chalk stones and
bits of dung in places, whose walls vary in thickness from + to 1% in.,
somewhat irregular in shape, about 8 in. broad across the base and
about 24 in. in circumference The entrance, usually in the middle, is
funnel shaped, varying in extreme cases from 1 to 4 in. in length, but
generally about 23 to 34 in. long, and having an opening about 1+ in.
wide. Within these outer walls is placed a thick layer of some soft
material such as moss, goats’ hair, feathers, thistledown, etc. The
exterior surface of the nest is roughened by indentations of the birds’
bills, and wing coverts of varions species of beetles (Lydus, Chrysomela, etc.)
are often imbedded in the mud.

Usually 8 or 9, but occasionally 7 or even 10 in number. ‘In colour
they are pure white, in rare cases quite unmarked, but usually with rust
coloured blotches or spots, which are generally_more numerous towards
the big end. In shape they are very variable, and according to Reiser
great differences in shape have been noticed in the same clutch. As
a rule they possess more gloss than those of S. europaea.

In Greece the breeding season extends from the end of March or
early in April to the second week in May, but most eggs are laid in
the first half of April. In Asia Minor it is rather later, most eggs being
laid in the latter half of April or the first days of May, while in the
Herzegovina the latter part of May is the usual time. Only one brood
is reared in the season, and often the same nest is occupied year after
year. When the eggs have been taken, if the damage is slight, the
birds will repair the nest and lay again in it a second or even a third
time, but on the other hand one pair has been known to construct two
nests in a season, only using one for breeding purposes. When incubating
the hen sits very closely and may easily be taken on the nest.

Average of 100 eggs (49 by the writer, 33 by Rey, and 18 by Bau),
20.6 >< 15.25 mm., Max. 23><16.5, Min. 18.5 ><14.5 and 19><14.25 mm.
Seebohm states that the smallest eggs are scarcely larger than those
of the House Martin! Average weight according to Rey, 156 mg., but
Bau gives 164 mg. (varying from 148 to 175 mg.) as the average of
18 eggs.

PARIDAE.

89. Great Tit, Parus major L.
Geographical Races.
a. British Great Tit, P. major newtoni Praz.

Eggs: Hewitson, I Hd. I, pl. LXXXI, fig. 1, 2; II Ed. I, pl.

189

XXXI, fig. 1; Wi Hd. I, pl. XXXIX, fig. 1. Seebohm, Br. Birds,
pl. 9; id. Col. Fig, pl. 53. Frohawk, Br. Birds I, pl. II, fig. 71—72.

Local Names: Tom Tit, Oxeye, Blackcap, Billy Biter, Bee-eater,
Nope, Saw Sharpener; Hickmall or Hackmall (Devon).

Parus major L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 479; Dresser, Birds of
Europe, III, p. 79 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 161 (partim); Saunders, Man.
p. 103. P. major newtoni Praz. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 343.

Breeding Range: The British Isles.

This well known bird is common and generally distributed throughout
England und Wales, with the exception of the moorlands and higher
mountains. It is also common in the Isle of Man, and in the south of
Scotland, but becomes scarce in the north and probably rarely, of ever,
breeds north of a line drawn from Gairloch to Dingwall, although it
has been recorded as a straggler to Sutherland, Caithness, the Orkneys
and Shetlands. In the west it breeds in the wooded districts of the
Inner Hebrides, Islay, Jura, Mull, etc., and probably also on Skye, but
is absent from the Outer Hebrides. In Ireland it is a common resident,
breeding in every county, but avoiding the moors and boglands.*

Althongh frequently breeding in the neighbourhood of houses, the
Great Tit is a decidedly cautious bird, and always avoids observation as
much as possible while visiting the nest. After the young are hatched
their noisy cries soon disclose its position. The commonest sites are
holes in trees or walls, at varying heights, sometimes only an inch or
two from the ground or actually in it (Zool. 1874. p. 4076, 1884, p.
229, etc.), but generally a few feet above it. When natural holes are
scarce, all kinds of artificial openings are utilized: nesting boxes are
readily adopted, and letter boxes, pumps, inverted flower pots, beehives,
holes in ironwork or statuary, and old tin cans have all been made use
of from time to time. Stevenson records nests on the shelf of a three
cornered cupboard, and Ralfe one inside an old cannon’s mouth. In
rocky districts it is not unusual to find this bird breeding in holes and
crannies of cliffs, while other cases have been recorded where the nest
has been built among the foundations of old Squirrels’ dreys and old
or even occupied nests of Crow, Rook, Magpie or Sparrow Hawk, and
it has been known to breed in a Kingfisher’s hole (Zool. 1895, p. 71.)
All the sites mentioned above are however covered or roofed in to
some extent, yet occasionally it has been known to reline the nest of
some other bird, generally a Blackbird, Thrush, or Hedge Sparrow. An
open nest of this kind is figured in Nelson’s Birds of Yorkshire, p. 110.

* Macpherson records an instance of this species pairing in a wild state with
P. caeruleus obscurus (Vict. Hist. of Cumberland, I, p. 184.

British
Isles.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

190

The foundation of the nest consists chiefly of moss with a few bents
and roots. On this is placed a thick layer of felted hair or rabbits’ fur
and a depression is made in it, usually at one side and not in the middle,
in order to contain the eggs. While laying is in progress some of the
hair is pulled over the eggs and to a casual glance the nest looks un-
finished and empty. The bulk of the nest is very variable, depending
on the size of the cavity. Approximate diameter of cup 2% in., depth
1% in. Montagu states that the eggs are sometimes laid on chips at
the bottom of a hole in a tree without any nest.

The usual number of eggs varies from 7 to 11, but I have seen
6 eggs much incubated, and have known of several instances of 12 and
13 eggs, while A. W. Johnson and 8. Lewis have found nests with 14,
Coward records one with 15, and Bucknill one with 17, which latter
was probably the produce of two hens. Occasionally the eggs of some
other hole-breeding species, such as the Redstart, may be found in the
same nest, probably when the Tit has ejected the Redstart: and the two
species have also been known to breed side by side. The typical egg
is white, with very little gloss, marked sometimes sparingly and at other
times richly, with spots or small blotches, and a few fine speckles, of two
shades of reddish brown. Sometimes the underlying spots are almost
violet-brown in colour. A clutch of pure white eggs has been taken in
Hampshire.

The Great Tit is a life paired bird, and by far the greater number
of our residents only rear one brood in the year, as can easily be proved
by any one who will take the trouble to put up a good supply of nesting
boxes. Occasionally however, as in the case of some other birds, a
second brood is reared, but in one instance of the kind, where I had
the birds under observation, some, of not all, of the young of the first
brood were killed soon after leaving the nest. The first eggs are laid
about the end of April or the beginning of May, and fresh clutches may
be taken till about the end of the month, but the best time is about
the second or third week of May in the Midlands. When a second
brood is reared the eggs are laid in the latter half of June. An instance
of winter breeding is recorded in the Birds of Hampshire, p. 38. The
hen sits very closely and often refuses to leave the nest unless forcibly
removed, hissing, making a curious noise by the expulsion of air at
intervals, and using her sharp beak with effect. Incubation lasts 14 days
(W. Evans); 12—13 days (Steele-Elliott, Zool. 1900, p. 424).

Average of 100 English eggs measured by the writer, 17.98 >< 13.51
mm., Max. 20.5 >< 13.4 and 17.8 =< 14.7; Min. 16 >< 12.6 and 18.5 >< 12.5
mm. Average weight of 20 eggs, 104 mg. Average weight of 26 full
eggs, 1.677 g. (R. H. Read); of 8 eggs, 1.843 g. (N. H. Foster).

OT:

b. Continental Great Tit, P. major major L.
Plate 20, fig. 1—4 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XVIII, fig. 2, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 43, fig. 9. Taczanowski, Tab. LXIV, fig. 1. Dresser, pl. —, fig.
25—28.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Sjenica velika. Denmark: Musvitmeise.
Finland: Talitiainen. France: Mésange charbonniére. Germany: Kolil-
meise. Holland: Koolmees, Plakker. Hungary: Szénczinege. Italy: Cin-
ciallegra. Norway: Kjodmeise, Talgite. Poland: Sikora bogatka. Portugal:
Chapim. Russia: Sinitza kusnetschik. Sweden: Talgoxe, Talgmes. Spain:
Santa Cruz, Carbonero. Parus major L. Dresser, t. c. (part.) P. major
major L. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 341.

Breeding Range: Continental Europe, from the Arctic Circle to
the Mediterranean, except Greece [Also W. Siberia to the Altai.].

The range of this widely distributed bird extends over nearly the
whole of Europe. In Norway it is common up to lat. 64°, and breeds
sparsely up to the Arctic circle, while in Sweden it is found commonly
up to Norrland, and less frequently in the coniferous forests of S. Lap-
land. In Finland it is also numerous and is recorded as common in the
Vologda government, but is only a straggler to the high North, although
it has occurred on the Varanger Fjord. Over the whole of Middle
Europe it is found commonly wherever trees exist, but in the subalpine
regions it becomes scarce. Southward it is found in all the wooded
parts of the Iberian peninsula* and also in Italy, but is replaced ly
P. m. corsus in Corsica and Sardinia. In the Balkan peninsula it is
perhaps less common than in other parts of Europe, and is chiefly met
with in the hills, but the race inhabiting the plains of Greece has been
described as distinct. [In Asia it is found apparently from W. Siberia
to the Altai range.]

What has already been written with regard to the British form of
this bird applies equally well to the continental race. Leverkiihn and
others have recorded many instances in which the eggs of this bird have
been found in the same nest with those of other species, such as the
Blue Tit, Redbreast, Pied Flycatcher, Tree Creeper and Roller. (See
Fremde Eier im Neste, p. 105, and Zeit. f. Ool., VI, p. 13.). In E.
Prussia Hartert found it breeding in Woodpeckers’ holes.

Usually 10—12 in the first brood and 6—8 in the second, but
clutches of 14 (Kollibay), 15 (Herold, J. f. O., 1888, p. 435, and Wiistnei
and Clodius) and even 16 (Fatio) are said to have been found. They

* Whitaker (Birds of Tunisia, p. 135) attributes Spanish and Italian birds to
P. m. excelsus Buy.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments,

192

resemble those of the British race, and show considerable variation in
a large series, some clutches being white or nearly so, and others boldly
and handsomely marked. The eggs from one nest are generally much
alike. Most S. Spanish eggs are exceptionally richly marked, rivalling
Greek eggs in appearance.

Apparently two broods are usually reared on the Continent, the
second nest being at no great distance from the first. In 8. Spain the
first eggs may be found about April 10, while in Germany the usual
time is about the end of April or the beginning of May, and the eggs
of the second brood are found in June, but exceptionally eggs have been
met with early in April. In the Baltic Provinces they are not laid till
the second half of May, but in the milder climate of W. Norway from
the end of April onward.

Bau gives the average of 124 eggs from Central Europe as 17.2 >< 13.4
mm., Max. 19.7 <14.7, Min. 16><12 mm. and Rey’s average of 50
German eggs agrees closely: average 17.3 >< 13.5 mm., Max. 19.6 >< 13.3
and 17.6 >< 14.8, Min. 16.4><12.9 and 17><12.6 mm. Spanish eggs
are almost exactly similar in size. Bau gives the average weight as
105 mg., and Rey as 95.5 mg.

c. Corsican Great Tit. P. major corsus Kleinschm.

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XVIII, fig. 4, a—b (as P. lugubris).

P. major corsus Kleins. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 343.

Breeding Range: Corsica and Sardinia.

A common resident in both islands.

The eggs are 7—9 in number and vary much in markings. They
are laid in the second or third week of May. Average of 40 collected
by the: writer;~ 17-82.5< 13:76 mm., Max. 28.7 5< 13:7 “and 17s >< se
Mint) 17 S< 13,3 and 1729 S<13:2:

d. Greek Great Tit, P. major peloponnesius Parrot.

P. major peloponnesius Parrot. J. f. O., 1905, p. 547. P. major
aphrodite Mad. Hartert, t. c. (part.)

Breeding Range: Greece.

This small form has only recently been described by Dr. Parrot,
but is apparently barely distinguishable from the next race. In Greece
it is common in the plains, and breeds not only on the mainland, but
also in Corfu and the Cyclades. The first eggs, 8—9 in number, are
found at the beginning of April, but they may be obtained till late in
May or early in June. They resemble those of other forms, but some
are very freely and handsomely marked. Reiser gives the Max. of 31
eggs as 18.7 ><13.7 mm., weight 210 mg.; Min. 16.4>< 12.5, weight
175 mg. A clutch of 9 in the British Museum averages 18.16 >< 13.46 mm.

193

e. Cyprian Great Tit, P. major aphrodite Mad.

P, major aphrodite Mad. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 344 (part.)

Breeding Range: Cyprus.

Not uncommon where trees are to be found. Guillemard obtained
one near Kikko Monastery, at 4000 ft., and Glaszner found it breeding
early in May. Two nests, each with 7 eggs, found by him were placed
in a nest of Mirundo rufula on a cliff, and in a hole of a wall. Eggs
all brightly marked, but most of them show purplish grey underlying
markings in addition to the usual reddish brown spots. Average of
13 eggs (Hartert in litt.), 18.07 >< 13.6 mm., Max. 18.5><14, Min.
PTT <3.

[Some form of Great Tit is also resident in Asia Minor and Crete;
while in the wooded districts of N. W. Africa the representative form is
P. major excelsus Buvry, and P. m. blanfordi Praz. is found in Palestine
and Persia. |

90. Blue Tit, Parus caeruleus L.
Geographical Races.

a. British Blue Tit, P. caeruleus obscurus Praz.

Eggs: Hewitson, I Ed. I, pl. LX XVI, fig. 1; If Ed. 1, pl. XX XI,
fig. 2; II] Ed. I, pl. XX XIX, fig. 2. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 9; id.
Col. Fig. pl. 53. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. III, fig. 78—81. Dresser,
pl. —, fig. 45—48 and pl. —, fig. 41.

Nest: O. Lee, III, p. 70.

Local Names: Yom Tit, Blue Cap, Billy Biter, Pickcheese, Maup.
Welsh: Pela glas bach, Yswidw Mawr.

Parus caeruleus L. Newton, ed Yarrell, I, p. 483. Dresser, Birds of
Europe, III, p. 131 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 177 (part.) Saunders, Man.
p. 109. P. caeruleus obscurus Praz. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 348.

Breeding Range: British Isles.

In most parts of England this bird is very generally distributed,
and is the commonest Tit in many districts, although outnumbered in
others by the Great Tit. A few pairs are resident in the Isle of Man,
while in Scotland, though it is said to have bred in every county, it
becomes scarce in the extreme north, but has bred in E. Sutherland and
Caithness. It is also a resident in small numbers in Skye, but not on
the outer Hebrides, although it is known to inhabit the larger wooded
islands of the Inner Hebrides, such as Jura, Mull, etc. To the outlying
islands it is only a scarce straggler. In Ireland Ussher describes it as
the commonest and most widely spread of the Tits, breeding in every

county.
13

British
Isles.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

194

This is generally placed in a hole of a tree or wall, and the
opening is as a rule much smaller than that of P. major, while the
height from the ground is very variable. In one or two cases this bird
has been known to breed in a hole in a bank or gravel pit (Zool. 1874,
p. 4034, 1879, p. 219, etc.). At other times it nests in any suitable
hole or cranny in pumps, letter boxes, old water cans, railings, gate
posts, street lamps (where I have seen the old birds feeding their young
within an inch or so from the gas jet), or inverted flower pots, and even
in the crown of a cabbage plant (Zool. 1875, p. 4291). An empty
earthenware bottle is known to have been occupied almost annually
for nearly 100 years (Yarrell, ed. Newton, I, p. 486). Near Ludlow a
nest was found in a fire hydrant in the ground in 1900: Ussher describes
another in a human skull in the wall of a ruined church; and a third
was placed in the body of a dead Redwing in an apple tree (Birds of
Devon, p. 35). Several instances in which the nest has been built within
that of some other species are on record: it is known to have built an
open nest in that of a Blackbird at least three times, three times in old
Thrushes’ nests, once in a Greenfinch’s nest, and twice if not more, in
Hedgesparrows’ nests, in each case inserting a new lining of wool,
hair, etc. G. D. Rowley also records an open nest on the bough of a
fir tree (Orn. Misc. I, p. 73). Old holes of the Pied Flycatcher are
also sometimes occupied, and this species has been known to breed in
the foundation of an occupied Rook’s nest (Zool. 1876, p. 4749). The
size of the nest of course depends much on the capacity of the hole.
The foundation consists chiefly of moss and dead grass, lined with wool
and hair in varying proportions, and almost always many feathers. The
eggs are generally covered up before incubation begins.

The number of eggs laid is very variable. The usual number is
from 7 or 8 to 12, but occasionally much larger numbers are met with.
Three birds have been observed in attendance at one nest (as in the
case of the Long tailed Tit), and there is little doubt that the exception-
ally large clutches, from 17 to 20 and even 24 in number (Nelson,
Birds of Yorkshire, p. 113), are the produce of two hens. In colour
they are white, with little or no gloss, occasionally quite unmarked, but
usually finely spotted or speckled with light chesnut brown. The markings
show a distinct tendency to form a zone or cap at the big end.

As with the Great Tit only one brood is reared as a rule, and the
first eggs are laid at the end of April in the south, or during the first
fortnight of May in the Midlands, while it is rare to meet with fresh
eggs after the beginning of June. I have never known an instance of
two broods being reared by one pair of birds, but as this does occasion-
ally happen in the case of the Great Tit, it is possible that Dixon’s

195

statement may be true in exceptional cases, though it is certainly not
the rule. The hen sits even more closely than P. major and makes use
of the same means to deter intruders. Incubation lasts 13—14 days
(W. Evans). When feeding their young the parents have been observed
to visit the nest 43 times in half an hour (Birds of Cheshire, p. 58).

Average size of 100 British eggs measured by the writer,
15.34><11.89 mm., Max. 16.8><12 and 16.5><12.5, Min. 14><11.8
and 14.3><11.2 mm. Dwarf eggs measure 9><7.4 (Durham, A. W. John-
son) and 9.7><8.5 (R. H. Read). Average weight of 20 eggs, 70.4 mg;
19 full eggs average 1.064 g. (N. H. Foster).

b. Continental Blue Tit, P. caeruleus caeruleus L.
Plate 20, fig. 5—8 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XVIII, fig. 3, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 43, fig. 11.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Modrinka. Denmark: Blaameise,
Blaakop. Finland: Sinitviainen. France: Mésange bleue. Germany: Blau-
meise. Holland: Pimpelmees. Hungary: Kék czinege. Italy: Cinciarella.
Norway: Blaameise. Poland: Sikora modra. Portugal: Megengro. Russia:
Sinitschka lasorewka. Sweden: Blames. Spain: Hererrillo.

Parus caeruleus L. Dresser, |. c. (partim). P. caeruleus caeruleus L.
Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 347.

Breeding Range: Continental Europe, from 64° in Scandinavia
and 60° in N. Russia, but Spanish birds closely approach the Corsican
and Sardinian form.

This race is generally distributed over the greater part of the Conti-
nent, haunting chiefly deciduous woods on low ground, and becoming
scarce in coniferous woods and in alpine regions. In Scandinavia its
northern limits extend in Sweden up to about lat. 61’ N, and in Norway
along the W. Coast up to lat. 64°. In Russia it is not found N. of
lat. 60° in the E., but occurs in 8S. Finland and the Olonetz government,
and is said to have been obtained near Archangel. Southward its limits
extend to the Mediterranean, but probably the birds from the Iberian
peninsula will prove to belong to a distinct race. In Italy and to some
extent in Greece, it haunts the wooded mountain sides rather than the
plains, but is resident in Corfu and the Cyclades. [Also found in Asia
Minor and in Crete.

In nesting habits it resembles P. caeruleus obscurus. Where holes are
scarce it has been known to breed in old Magpies’, Crows’ and Squirrels’
nests, and Bau found a nest in a Sand Martin’s hole (J. f. Orn. 1871,
236), while Leverkiihn records one built over a deserted Hoopoe’s nest.

13*

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

196

The normal clutch varies from 8 to 11, occasionally 12 or 13, in
the first brood, and 6 to 8 in the second. They are indistinguishable
from those of other races.

In Scandinavia, near the N. limit of this bird, the first eggs are
laid in mid-May, but in the 8S. from the latter part of April to the
beginning of May. In Germany the eggs of the first brood should be
looked for at the end of April or early in May, and the second brood
in June or July. In Carinthia the season is rather earlier; from mid
April to May, and Keller once met with fledged young on May 4, while
in Greece Reiser noticed a bird slip into its nesting hole on March 4.

Average of 72 eggs measured by Bau, 15.3><11.7 mm., Max.
16.9><12.1, Min. 14><10.5. Rey gives the average of 44 eggs as
15:4>< 11.9 mm., Max. 17 >< 12;. Min. 14:3< 11.7 and 1555< Giles:
L. v. Boxburger records an egg 15.2 >< 12.8. Average weight, 73 mg.
(Bau); 69.7 mg. (Rey). :

e. Corsican Blue Tit, P. caeruleus ogliastrae Hart.
P. caeruleus ogliastrae Hart. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 349.

Breeding Range: Corsica and Sardinia.

On Corsica this race is tolerably common, and full clutches of
7—8 eggs may be taken from May 10—16 in the low ground, and later
in the hills. Average of 18 Corsican eggs: 15.06><11.87 mm., Max.
16 5< 12 and 15.2><12.3; Min, 14.32<193),and Ja>ail 4) Itois-also
fairly common in the mountains in Sardinia during the breeding season,
but not in the plains.

d. Pleske’s Tit, P. caeruleus pleskii Cab.

Egg: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 36.
P. caeruleus plesk Cal. Hartert. Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 351.

Breeding Range: Unknown. Occurs in N. and E. Russia in winter.

The breeding grounds of this race probably lie E. of those of
P. caeruleus caeruleus, perhaps in the Northern Urals or in N. E. Russia.
Dresser has a clutch of 3 eggs ascribed to this race which was taken by
Dr. Komar in Vologda on May 30, 1901. Measurements of 2 eggs:
15 >< 12 and 15.2><11.5. [From Marocco to Tunis the resident form
is the Ultramarine Tit, P. caeruleus ultramarinus Bp. (Eggs figured by
Baedeker, Tab. 43, fig. 12 and J. f. O. 1856, Taf. II, fig. 14; Dresser,
pl. —, fig. 1—3.). It is common N. of the Atlas, breeding in April
and May in old Bee-eaters’ holes, etc., and laying 4—8 eggs Average
of 13 eggs (5 measured by Rey and 8 by the writer), 16.1><12.25 mm.,
They are as a rule more heavily marked than European eggs. In the

197

Canarian group no fewer than four distinct forms are found, viz.,
P.c. degener Hart., which inhabits Fuertaventura and Lanzarote, nesting
in holes in the ground: P. c. teneriffae Less. in Tenerife, Gran Canaria
and Gomera, whose eggs, 4—6 in number (figured in Cat. Eggs. Br.
Mus. IV. pl. XIV, fig. 6) are spotted, chiefly at the big end, with dark
brown; average size of 39 eggs (2 by Kénig and 37 by the writer),
tol >< h2.4 mm., Max. 17 >< 12:4 and 16.3><13, Min. 14%>5<12.1 and
14.7><11.7 mm: P. c. ombriosus M-Waldo on Hierro, and P. c. palmensis
M-Waldo in the pine woods of Palma.]

91. Azure Tit, Parus cyanus cyanus Pall.

Geographical Races.
a. Western Azure Tit, P. cyanus cyanus Pall.
Eggs: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 6.
Parus cyanus Pall. Dresser, Birds of Europe, HI, p. 143 and Man.

Pal. Birds, p. 175. PP. cyanus cyanus Pall. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna,
p. 352.

Breeding Range: Eastern Russia [Probably also W. Siberia].

According to Menzbier this bird is extending its range in a southern
and south-westerly direction. Lorenz records it as breeding in the Moscow
government in small numbers, although unknown there 40 years ago.
In the Urals Sabanaeff describes it as a plentiful resident. Hastward
the exact limits of this and the Eastern form are not yet clearly defined.

Dresser describes a nest from the 8. Ural as composed of green
moss, intermixed with cowhair and lined with white hare’s fur.

White, sparsely spotted with dull red, chiefly at the big end.
Sabanaeff took a nest with 4 eggs on May 29, 1869.

Three eggs in Dresser’s collection measure 16><12, 16.1><11.7
and 16.2><11.7.

b. Eastern Azure Tit, P. cyanus tianschanicus (Menzb.)
Plate 20, fig. 13—16 (Amur).

Eggs: J. f. O. 1873, Tab. I, fig. 14. Cat. Eggs. Br. Mus. IV, pl. XIV, fig. 5.
P. cyanus tianschanicus (Menzb.). Hartert, Viég. Pal. Fauna, p. 353.

Breeding Range: HK. Siberia, W. to Turkestan, S. to Yarkand. Has occurred
in Europe in winter. Of the nesting habits of this race we have more information
than of the Western form. Dybowski describes it as breeding in old willows by
river banks, rarely in old Woodpeckers’ holes, and generally at a height of 18 in.

to 3 ft. from the ground. The nest is built of the fur of the White Hare and Squirrel,
together with a little grass. The Eggs are 10—11 in number, with scanty pale red

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Nest.

198

spots at the big end, and are found about May 20—26 in EK. Siberia. While laying
is in progress the hen covers the eggs when leaving them, and sits as closely as
other Pari. Average measurements of 15 eggs (6 by Dybowski, 5 by Rey, 2 by
Hartert and 3 by the writer), 16 X 11.84 mm., Max. 18.5 & 12.5, Min. 15.1 & 12 and
15.5 X11 mm. Average weight of 5 eggs, 74 mg. (Rey).

92. Coal Tit, Parus ater L.

Geographical Races.
a. British Coal Tit, P. ater britannicus Sh. & Dress.

Eggs: Hewitson, I Ed. J, pl. LX XX], fig. 3; If Hd. J, pl. XX XT,
fig. 4; III Ed. I, pl. XX XIX, fig. 4. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 9; id
Col. Fig. pl. 53. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. Ql, fig. 73—75. Dresser,
pl. —, fig. 31—34.

Local Names: Little Blackcap, Coalhood, Ground Tit. Welsh:
Penloyn.

Parus ater L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 489; Saunders, Man. p. 105.
P. britannicus Sh. & Dr. Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 93; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 165. P. ater britannicus Sh. & Dr. Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, 357.

Breeding Range: British Isles*, but absent from the Orkneys,
Shetlands, and Outer Hebrides.

The earlier writers on British ornithology describe this species as
rarer than the Marsh Tit, but at the present time it is in most districts
the commoner of the two, and in some parts of Scotland and Ireland
quite outnumbers the other Tits. Probably this is due to the increase
in plantations of conifers, which have a special attraction for this bird.
It breeds in every county in England, and though somewhat local, is
on the whole common throughout Scotland as far as Sutherland, but
is rare in Caithness. On the W. coast it is common on Raasay and in
the woods of Skye, and is found on the better wooded islands of the
Inner Hebrides, Eigg, Mull, Jura, etc., but not in the Outer Hebrides.
It occurs in the Isle of Man. and is common in Ireland, breeding, according
to Ussher, in every county.

Generally a hole in a tree or stump is chosen within a short dis-
tance of the ground; sometimes in a mouse or mole run at the foot of
some decayed old root, descending to a depth of one or even two feet
below the ground level, or in a bank side. It is also said to have been
found in a rabbit hole, and on two occasions I have found nests in holes
in the steep banks of gravel pits and once in a fissure of rock. Harvie

* Birds from the Spey Valley and the N. of Scotland show a tendency to
approach the Continental form.

199

Brown records one in a crack on a dry hill of peat by a burn in Suther-
land, and has seen others in the ground under fallen foliage etc. Holes
in stone or brick walls or stone faced banks are occasionally used, as
well as nesting boxes.* In fir woods where holes are scarce, the Coal
Tit has been known to excavate a hole in an old Magpie’s or Squirrel’s
nest (Nelson, Birds of Yorkshire, p. 110); and it has been recorded as
breeding in an old Thrush’s nest (Zool. 1896, p. 375). F. Bond described
an abnormal nest, something like a Long-tailed Tit’s, on a branch of a
fir tree, close to the bole (Zool. 1861, p. 7444) and similar cases have
been recorded of other species (Cf. Irby, Orn. Straits Gibraltar, 2 Ed.
p. 72, and Annals Scot. Nat. Hist. 1898, p. 180). The foundation of
the nest consists of moss, upon which is placed a thick layer of felted
wool and hair, generally rabbit’s fur. As a rule no feathers are used,
but Borrer and others have found nests freely lined with feathers. Such
cases must havever be quite exceptional.

The number of eggs is understated by most writers. The usual
clutch varies from 7 or 8 to 11, and sets of 9—10 are quite common,
while 13 have been found. Hancock (Cat. Birds Northumberland etc.,
p. 76) mentions an instance where 21 were discovered in one nest, but
these were of two types and were almost certainly laid by two hens.
While laying is in progress the eggs are covered in the absence of the
hen bird.

The first eggs are laid about April 20 in the S. of England, but
in the Midlands and North full clutches may be found after the first
week in May. The sitting bird behaves like the other Tits, hissing,
puffing, and sitting until lifted from the eggs. I think that only one
brood is reared as a rule.

Average size of 100 English eggs, measured by the writer, 15 >< 11.63
mm., Max. 16.1 >< 11.9, and 15.1 >< 12.1, Min. 13.8><10.7 mm. Average
weight of 20 eggs. 67 mg. 9 full eggs weigh 1.415 g. (N. N. Foster).

b. Continental Coal Tit, P. ater ater L.
Plate 20, fig. 9—12 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XVIII, fig. 6, a—b. Baedeker,
Tab. 43, fig. 10.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Sykora uhelnicek. Denmark: Sortmeise.
Finland: Mustatiiainer. France: Mésange noire. Germany: Tannenmeise.
Holland: Zwarte mees. Hungary: Fenyves czinege. Italy: Cincia mora.
Norway: Kulmeise, Sortmeise. Poland: Sikora sosnowka. Russia: Sinica
cernaja. Sweden: Svartmes. Spain: Herrerillo, Garrapinos.

* A nest in a box on a window ledge 26 ft. from the ground, is recorded in
the Zool. 1882, p. 234.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments,

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nost.

Eggs.

Breeding

Season.

Measure-
ments.

200

Parus ater lu. Dresser, t. ¢ (part.). P. ater ater L. Hartert, Vog. Pal.
Fauna, p. 356.

Breeding Range: Continental Europe, except in the 8S. E. (Crimea
and S. Caucasus).

This form is somewhat locally distributed over almost all Continental
Europe, haunting coniferous forests almost np to the tree limit, and in
the southern part of its range avoiding the plains altogether during the
summer months. Along the W. coast of Scandinavia it is found breeding
up to the Arctic circle, but in Sweden does not range farther N. than
lat. 64°. It is found in S. Finland, and has occurred N. of the Vologda
government, but only as a rare straggler. Southward it is met with
wherever extensive coniferous woods are found, as far as the Mediter-
ranean, and in Switzerland has been known to range as high as 5400 ft.

Similar to that of the British form. It is placed in a natural hole,
sometimes in a deciduous tree at the edge of a pine forest, or, as holes
are scarce in conifers, in a mouse or mole run in the ground, and
occasionally in a wall. Collett found a deserted nest in a Sand Martin’s
hole in Norway.

The first clutch usually consists of 8 to 11 eggs, and the second of
6 to 8; but 12, and on one occasion 14 (Baltic Provinces, J. v. Gernet)
have been recorded. They resemble those of P. a. britannicus.

Two broods are frequently reared, except in subalpine districts,
where the season is later. In Germany from mid April onward and
towards the end of June, while in Scandinavia few eggs are laid before
the end of April and early May. Definite information from southern
Europe is scanty, but Kriiper obtained eggs in Greece from May 23 to
June 12 in the mountains.

Average of 105 eggs (55 by Bau, 44 by Rey and 6 by the writer,
from Mid-Europe) 14.77 >< 11.60 mm., Max. 16.5><12.0, Min. 13.5><10.5
mm. Average weight, 63 mg. (Bau), 65 mg. (Rey).

e. Sardinian Coal Tit, P. ater sardus Kleinsch.
P. ater sardus Kleinschm. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 358.
Breeding Range: Sardinia. (Corsican birds apparently do not
belong to this race. Cf. Hartert ¢. c.)
The resident Sardinian Coal Tit is confined to the mountain forests,
where it is scarce (Brooke). Apparently the Corsican bird is a late
breeder, as nests were still empty at the end of May.

d. Cyprian Coal Tit, P. ater cypriotes Dress.
P. cypriotes Dress. Dresser, Birds of Europe, TX, p. 123 and Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 165. P. ater cypriotes Dress. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna,
p. 359.

201

Breeding Range: Cyprus.

This dark race is found in the pine forests in the mountains and
must be numerous in the Troédos range, where Glaszner found it nesting
in May in stone heaps, holes of walls etc.

Eggs 5, rather thickly spotted and blotched with reddish brown or
maroon, especially at the big end, where they form a zone. Average
size of 12 eggs (9 by Hartert in litt. and 3 by the writer), 16.13 ><12.6
mm., Max. 18.4 >< 12.6 and 18 >< 13.2, Min. 14.8 >< 12.5 and 15.5><12.

e. Crimean Coal Tit, P. ater moltchanovi Menzb.
P. ater moltchanovi Menzb. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 360.
Breeding Range: Mountain forests of the S. Crimea.

f. Caucasian Coal Tit, P. ater michalowskii Bogd.
P. ater michalowskti Bogd. THartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 360.

Breeding Range: S. Caucasus.

Resident in the mountain forests up to the tree limit. Eggs 8,
laid in May.

{In N. Africa two races are found, P. ater atlas Meade- Waldo,
which inhabits the forest region of the Maroccan Atlas from about 6000 ft.
up to the tree limit, and P. ater ledowct Malh. which is resident in the
forests of cork oak and Aleppo pine in northern Algeria and Tunis,
breeding in holes in the ground early in April and laying 8—9 eggs.
Eggs figured by Dresser, pl. —, fig. 35. Average size of 9 eggs taken
omeaprl: 7,15.) >4 19.4 mm., Max: 15:5>< 12.1, Min. 145 >< 12" PF.
ater phaeonotus Blanf. is resident in Persia and S. Transcaspia.]

93. Crested Tit, Parus cristatus L.
Geographical Races.

a. Scotch Crested Tit, P. cristalus scoticus (Praz).

Eggs: Hewitson, I Ed. I, pl. CX XXIII; Il Ed. I, pl. XX XI, fig. 3;
Il Ed. I, pl. XX XIX, fig. 3. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 9; id. Col. Fig.
pl. 53. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. I, fig. 82.

Nest: O. Lee, IJ, p. 104.
Parus cristatus L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 499. Saunders, Man.
p. 111. Lophophanes cristatus (L.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 151
and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 180 (part.) P. cristatus scotica (Praz). Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 365. ,

Breeding Range: Strathspey, Scotland.

Harvie Brown describes the breeding range of this interesting bird
in Scotland as restricted to an area about 30 miles in length, and varying

British
Isles

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments,

Con-
tinental
Europe.

202

from 7 to 10 miles in width, along the Spey valley, in Abernethy,
Rothiemurchus, and Dulnan, up to the base of the Cairngorms, above Loch
Morlich and Larig Ghrue and down the Spey valley to Ballindalloch
(Ver. Fauna of Moray Basin, I, p. 255; Tuy, p. 93). It is essentially
a haunter of the pine woods, or where conifers are mixed with hard-
woods.

The more usual sites are holes bored in dead and decayed pine
stumps or trees, sometimes in the cleft where a tree has been split, and
also in holes of fence posts, both iron and wooden. Nests have also
been found in decayed alder and birch branches (V. F. of Moray Basin,
I, 257 etc.), and O. A. J. Lee found one in the foundation of an old
Hooded Crow’s nest. Dry moss forms the foundation, on which is placed
a carelessly formed layer of deer’s hair lined with hare’s fur and some-
limes feathers or wool. Tufts of cotton grass are also met with at times.
The height from the ground varies from 6 in. to 8 ft., often 4 or 5 ft.,
and the hole is generally about 10 or 12 in. deep.

5 or 6, sometimes 7 or 8 in number, white, spotted chiefly at the
big end with rich chesnut red, frequently forming a zone or cap of
markings. Occasionally a nest is met with in which te markings are
almost obsolete, but as a rule the eggs of the Crested Tits are the hand-
somest of the family.

Most eggs are laid about the end of April or early in May, but
sometimes much earlier, as in 1894 Hinxman found a nest with nearly
fledged young on May 9.

Average size of 46 eggs from Strathspey, 16.07 >< 12.56 mm.,
Max. 17 >< 13, Min. 14.6 >< 123 and 1b.5 >< 12" mm:

b. North European Crested Tit, P. cristatus cristatus L.

Egg: Taczanowski, Tab. LXIV, fig. 4.

Foreign Names: Finland: Toéyhtétiiainen. Norway: Topmeise.
Poland: Sikora czubatka. Russia: Chochlataja sinica, Sweden: Tofsmes.

P. cristatus L. Dresser, t. c. (part.). P. cristatus cristatus L.
Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 363.

Breeding Range: Scandinavia, Russia, E. Prussia.

In Norway the range of this form extends to about lat. 64’ N.,
and as high as the limit of conifers extends in the mountains; while in
Sweden it is met with from mid-Angermanland to N. Skane. In Finland
it has been recorded from Pudasjarvi; and it is found in small numbers
near Archangel (Cholmogory) in N. Russia, while it is distributed
through the pine forests of the Baltic Provinces, Mid- Russia, Poland
and E. Prussia. Probably the Vistula and the Carpathians form the

203

boundary between this and the next race. It is not known to occur E.
of the Urals.*

Apparently does not differ from that of P. c. scoticus, the hole
being usually bored by the bird in the rotten wood of an old pine
stump. Russow states that in the Baltic Provinces it sometimes breeds
in old squirrel’s dreys, and Hartert has taken eggs from a similar site
in EK. Prussia.

Generally 5 or 6 in Scandinavia, and 5 to 7 in the Baltic Provinces.
Kolthoff records an instance where 9 were found. Some eggs are very
boldly and handsomely marked.

In Scandinavia it is an early breeder, beginning to nest late in
March, while the snow is still deep on the ground, and laying in the
latter half of April. In the Baltic Provinces a second brood may some-
times be found at the end of May or early in June. Pousar also states
that eggs may be found in §. Finland about this time.

Average size of 63 eggs (42 by the writer and 21 by O. Ottosson
im att.) 16.16 >< 12-68 mm., Max. 17.3 >< 12.6 and 17.2>< 13.5, Min:
14.4 >< 12.5 and 15.2 >< 11.6 mm. Average weight of 21 Swedish eggs,
70 mg. (Ottosson).

c. Mid European Crested Tit, P. cristatus mitratus Brehm.
Plate 21, fig. 6—8 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XVIII, fig. 10, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 43, fig. 17. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 7—-10. Krause, pl. —, fig. 1—42.

Foreign Names: France: Mésange huppée. Germany: Hauben-
meise. Holland: Kuifmees. Hungary: Biébos czinege. Italy: Cincia col
ciuffo. Spain: Capuchino.

P. cristatus L. Dresser, t. c. (part.). P. cristatus mitratus Brehm. Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 364.

Breeding Range: Continental Europe, W. of the Vistula (Weichsel)
and Carpathians.

This race is very generally distributed in those districts of Middle
and Western Europe where coniferous forests exist, westward of the
R. Vistula in Germany and the Carpathians in Austro-Hungary. In the
Balkan peninsula it is absent from Greece, but occurs in the mountain
forests of Montenegro and the Balkan range, and in Italy it is confined
to the spurs of the Alpine system and is not found in the Apennines.
It is plentiful in the woods of Arcachon. In the E. Pyrenees it is
common in the pine forest up to 5700 ft; and in the Iberian peninsul,
is not rare in Portugal, and is found in Spain not only in the mountains

* Radde however regards it as resident in the Caucasus, though scarce.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-

ments.

204

of Castile, but also in the extreme south, being numerous in the cork
woods near Gibraltar. Possibly however these birds may belong to a
different race. Northward its range extends to the fir plantations of
Jutland, where a few pairs breed.

Besides the usual situation in a hole of some decayed stump, this
bird is known to breed in old nests of Squirrel, Crow, Magpie, and the
larger birds of prey, such as the Goshawk. Sachse has also recorded
instances in which he found eggs or young in nests resembling those of
the Wren and Long tailed Tit, but with twigs woven into the exterior.
They may of course have been old nests of these birds, appropriated by
the Tits. In N. Italy, H. M. Wallis found a nest in a hollow log in a
wood stack, piled against a tree, and in Germany Walter discovered
young birds in a Kingfisher’s hole (J. f. O. 1881, p. 310). In the
Iberian peninsula most nests are placed in hollows in boughs of cork
oak or pine trees: Tait mentions one in a hole originally occupied
by the Spanish Green Woodpecker (bis, 1887, p. 184). Several
nests have also been recorded in the foundations of Kites’ nests.
During the process of excavation all the chips are carefully removed
by the parent birds.

Usually 5 to 7 or 8, but Bau gives 8—10 as the usual number of
the first brood, and 6—8 of the second. An instance of 12 eggs being
found in one nest is given in the Zeit. f. Ool. VII, p. 27, but here the
eggs were undoubtedly laid by two hens. They are not distinguishable
from those of other races.

Two broods are frequently reared: the first eggs being laid in April,
generally about the second or third week in the month, and the second
late in May or in June. In 8. Spain fresh clutches have been taken
on April 10, 25, and May 10.

Average size of 90 eggs (41 by Bau, 30 by Rey and 19 by the
writer) 16.34 >< 12.28 mm., Max.:17.8 < 12.9, Mim. 15.3 >< 12 and
15.9><11.8. <A very small egg which I took in Brabant measures only
14.3 >< 11.3. Average weight 82 mg. (Bau & Rey).

94. Lapp Tit, Parus cinctus Bodd.
Plate 23, fig. 24—27 (Kiistala, Lapland).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XVIII, fig. 8 (bad). Baedeker,
Tab. 76, fig. 17. Newton, Ootheca Wolleyana, Tab. XI, fig. 1—6.
Dresser, pl. —, fig. 43—46.

Foreign Names: Finland: Pistiitiainen. Lapland: Kada pya.
Norway: Laplands meise. Sweden: Lappmes.

205

Parus cinctus Bodd. Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 125; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 172. PP. cinctus Bodd. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna,
p. 365.

Breeding Range: N. Scandinavia, Lapland, and N. Russia. {Also
W. Siberia.]

In Norway this species is found from Hallingdal in the Langfjeld — Con-
(603°N) and the Dovre up to the limit of tree growth in the N., but on ee
the southern high fjelds is only met with in the pine forests above the
spruce belt. In Sweden its range is less extensive and it does not breed
S. of Lycksele, about 64° or 65° N. It is tolerably common in the forests
of Russian Lapland and the Kola peninsula, but its range does not extend
into Finland. It is however a common resident in the forests of the
Archangel government, and is found on the Petschora to within the
Arctic Circle, and also in the N. Urals. [Also in Siberia W. of the
Yenisei, but is replaced by the Eastern race, P. cinctus obtectus Cab. in
K. Siberia. }

The most usual situation appears to be in an old Woodpecker’s Nest.
hole in a conifer, but sometimes it is found in a cleft or natural hollow
and occasionally in a ‘tylla’ or nest box. The foundation consists of moss
and sometimes black lichens, on which is placed a thick layer of felted
hair, usually of the Lemming, Field Voles, or Alpine Hare, with occasion-
ally a few Reindeer hairs. Wolley has also recorded willow down and
feathers from the lining in exceptional cases, and noticed that some nests
were built upon those of the Redstart, from which the original owners
had been ejected.

Usually 6—7 in number, but 8 and 9 have been recorded. They fgzs.
are white, spotted with pale rusty brown, and as a rule rather sparsely
marked, and with rather finer and paler spots than most eggs of Tits.

In a large series however some sets will be found with much bolder
and darker markings than others.

The eggs are laid as a rule in the last week of May or the first Breeding
week in June. ee

Average of 125 eggs (63 by the writer, 37 by Bau, and 25 by Rey), Measure-
Groen. Max. 18:3 >< 12°5>= and 17.3 5< 13:5, Mm.15:3 >< 13 es
and 15.8><12 mm. Nordling records eggs 15.2 >< 11.8 and 16>< 11.6.
Average weight of 37 eggs, 87 mg. (Bau): Rey gives 82 mg.

95. Sombre Tit, Parus lugubris Temm.
Geographical Races.

a. Dalmatian Sombre Tit, P. lugubris lugubris Temm.

Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 43, fig. 14 (?).

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

206

Foreign Names: Germany: Trauermeise. Hungary: Gyaszos
czinege. Italy: Cincia dalmatina. Poland: Sikora zabo. Russia: Gaitscha
srjedigemnomorskaja.

Parus lugubris Natt. Dresser, Birds of Europe, HI, p. 121; id Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 171. PP. lugubris lugubris Temm. Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 368.

Breeding Range: From Istria, Slavonia, and 8. E. Hungary south-
ward to the Balkans.

This species differs from its congeners in being of an unsociable
disposition, aud seems to prefer rocky and broken ground with occasional
trees or shrubs to dense forest. Its distribution in Austro-Hungary is not
thoroughly known: it it said to have been met with in the Tatra and
the Carpathians, is found in the S. E. of Hungary, near Mehadia (Har-
tert), and certainly is not uncommon on the rugged hillsides of Transyl-
vania, while it- has been found in spring in Slavonia, and also breeds in
Istria, Dalmatia, Bosnia and Servia, but is not numerous. It is general
in the Karstregion of Herzegovina, and is the commonest Tit in the
wooded districts of 8. Montenegro. In Bulgaria it is also very generally
distributed and breeds, but the limits of this and the next race are not yet
ascertained, though it is said to be found in 8S. Russia by v. Nordmann.

Most of the nests which have been found were in holes of old
trees at varying heights, but from the habits of the bird it is probable
that it also nests in crevices of rocks. (Danford describes that of P. 1.
anatoliae as constructed of dry grass and lined first with wool and
afterwards with feathers.)

Probably 5 to 7 in number. The few examined have been of the
usual Parinetype, marked sparsely with fine red brown spots.

In Transylvania fresh eggs have been taken in the first half of
April, while in Herzegovina Kadich gives the end of April or beginning
of May as the usual time, and in Montenegro y. Fiihrer met with re-
cently fledged young from mid May to mid June, and Kollibay in S.
Dalmatia on May 19.

Average of 7 eggs from Transylvania (coll. Dresser) 18.57 >< 13.84,
Max. 19>< 13.6 and 18.8 =< 14, Min. 18.2 >< 13.3.

b. Greek Sombre Tit, P. lugubris lugens Brehm.
Plate 23, fig. 23 (Grece, Kriiper).
Eggs: Reiser, Orn. Bale. HI, Taf. Ill, fig. 5, 6. Dresser, pl. —,
fig. 43.
Foreign Name: Greece: Kleidonas.
P. lugubris lugens Brehm. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 368.
Breeding Range: Southern part of the Balkan Peninsula.

207

In Greece this form is found in most districts, especially near the
coast, thongh not very numerous anywhere. For details see Reiser,
Orn, Bale. Il, p. 176—178. It has also been recorded from Zante and
Cerigo. How far its range extends into Turkey is not known, but pro-
bably it is found thronghout Macedonia.

Usuaily placed low down in a hole of a tree, such as the olive or
ash. Details of the construction of the nest are still lacking.

Apparently 5 to 8 in number, but Kriiper remarks that they are
fewer than is usual with the Paridae. They are white, sometimes al-
most unmarked, but usually rather sparsely marked with fine reddish spots.

Two broods appear to be generally reared, and according to Kriiper
the first eggs are laid at the end of March or the beginning of April.
Lindermeyer however states thut the young are hatched in March, and
fresh eggs have been found as late as early June.

Average of 22 eggs (11 by Reiser, 4 by Rey and 7 by the writer),
eos <la-o5 mm, Max, 19 >< t4-and-17.7 =< 14.4. Min. 86:6 >< 1275:
Average weight of 11 eggs, 101 mg. (Reiser); of 4 eggs, 80 mg. (Rey).

{In Asia Minor a third race, P. /. anatoliae Hart. is found. Egg
figured by Dresser, pl. — fig. 44. Average size of 6 eggs, 17.05 ><
13.5 mm. PP. 1. hyrcanus Sar. & Loud. ranges to the 8. shores of the
Caspian and the Elburz range.|

96. Marsh Tit, Parus palustris L.
Geographical Races.

a. British Marsh Tit, P. palustris dresseri Stejn.

Hggs: Hewitson, I Ed. I, pl. LX XVI, fig. 2; Il Ed. I. pl. XXXII,
fig. 1; Ill Ed. I, pl XL, fig. 1. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 9; id. Col. Fig.
piss. Hrohawk, Br. Birds; 1. pl. UU, fie: 76, 77.

Local Names: Willow Biter, Blackcap, etc. (generic). Welsh:

Yswidw Uwyd fach.
Parus palustris L. Newton, ed Yarrell, I. p. 495. Dresser, Birds of
Europe, HI, p. 99 and Man. Pal. Birds p. 167 (part.). Saunders,
Man. p. 107. P. palustris dresser. Stejn. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna,
p. 373.

Breeding Range: Great Britain, except in N. Scotland.

The study of the Britsh Marsh and Willow Tits is attended with
especial difficully owing to the close resemblance between them. (for
the distinctions between the two species see Brit. Birds 1907, p. 44.)
The glossy-black headed Marsh Tit is apparently rather locally distri-
buted thronghout England and Wales, but in some districts, such as-the

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208

N. W. Coast of Wales, it is decidedly rare, and is not found on Ang-
lesea or the Isle of Man. Although as a rule much less numerous than
the other Tits, it is common locally. e. g. in parts of Pembroke and Kent.
In Scotland the records from the Spey valley and the Forth area appear
to refer to the Willow Tit, but probably the present species breeds lo-
cally up to about lat. 56°, and possibly in other localities S. of the
Grampians. :

Placed in holes in the decaying wood of old willows and alders,
less often in oaks, hazels, apple trees, etc., and frequently in dead stumps
or holes in bank sides, and occasionally in fence or gate posts. Some
nests are in natural holes of varying depth, others (which may however
prove to be the work of the Willow Tit) are neatly cut out by the
birds to a depth of 6 or 8 inches, ending in a circular chamber, larger
than the entrance. The Marsh Tit occasionally breeds in nesting boxes,
while an abnormal nest is said to have been found built in the fork of
of a tree overhanging the water in Lanark (Annals Scot. Nat. Hist.
1898, p. 180). The foundation of the nest consists of moss, with a fel-
ted layer of rabbits’ fur or willow or thistle down as lining, but no fea-
thers. The parents remove the chips while excavating the nest hole.

Usually 7 or 8, sometimes fewer, while sets of 9 to 11 and even
12 have been recorded (Zool. 1894, p. 345, 429 etc.). As very few of
the eggs in collections are properly authenticated, it is uncertain whether
the variation which appears to exist, is due to confusion between this
species and the Willow Tit. Some eggs are white, others sparsely
spotted with dull reddish, or boldly marked with dark reddish brown.
The eggs have been found covered, in the absence of the hen while
laying was in progress.

In the Midlands the clutch is generally complete about May 8, and
towards the end of April in the 8. of England. Like other Tits the
hen sits very closely, ‘puffing’, and refusing to move. <A second brood
is apparently sometimes reared late in May or in June.

Average size of 47 eggs, 15.63 =< 12.25 mm., Max. 16.6 >< 13.2,
Min. 14.5 >< 12.2 and 15>< 11.8 mm. Average weight of 12 full eggs,
1.153 g. (R. H. Read). These figures however require confirmation.

b. Scandinavian Marsh Tit, P. palustris palustris L.
Egg: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 37.
Foreign Names: Norway: Sumpmeise. Russia: Sinitza bolotnaja.
Sweden: Kdarrmes.
P. palustris L. Dresser, t. c. (part.). P. palustris palustris L. Hartert,
Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 370.

209

Breeding Range: Middle and south Scandinavia, Baltic Provinces
and EK. Prussia.

In Norway it is common in the southern and western parts up to
about lat. 64° N., while in Sweden it is found from the extreme south
up to lat. 62° N., but is unknown on Gotland, although a few pairs
occur on Oland. It is also not uncommon in E. Prussia and the Russian
Baltic Provinces, and is probably the form found on the Danish islands.

Substantially built of moss, mixed with grasses, and lined with
felted hair or fur, with sometimes a few feathers, in a natural hole
of a tree.

6 or 7 to 9 in number, of the usual Parine type. As will be
seen from the measurements given, the eggs are generally more elongated
in shape than those of P. atricapillus borealis.

In the Baltic Provinces laying begins at the end of April, and in
Scandinavia it is an early breeder, eggs being laid about the second
week of May, and young being on the wing early in June.

Average size of 44 authenticated eggs measured by Dr. Ottosson
(an ltt.) 16.22 >< 12.3 mm., Max. 17.4><12.2 and 17.2>< 12.8, Min.
14.6 >< 11.1. Average weight 72 mg. (84—51 mg.).

e. East European Marsh Tit, P. palustris stagnatilis Brehm.

Eggs: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 38—39.

Foreign Name: Hungary: Barat czinege.

P. palustris stagnatiis Brehm. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 371.

Breeding Range: Hungary, Galizia, S. Russia, the Balkan Penin-
sula, etc. [Also Asia Minor.]

In Hungary it is met with chiefly in the mountain forests, rather
than in the plains, while in the Balkan peninsula it becomes decidedly
scarce, and has not been recorded from Greece. In nesting habits it
probably resembles the other forms.

d. Mid-European Marsh Tit, P. palustris communis Baldenst.
Plate 21, fig. 9—12 (Leipzig, Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XVII, fig. 7, a, b. Baedeker,
Tab. 43, fig. 13.

Foreign Name: Germany: Swmpfmeise.
P. palustris L. Dresser, t. c. (part.). P. palustris communis Bald. Hartert,
Vos) Pal: Fauna, p..372.

Breeding Range: Mid-Germany, Switzerland, Austria, W. Hungary
and Croatia.

This form is found throughout Germany, except in the Rhine valley
on the W., and in E. Prussia, where it is replaced by other races. In

Switzerland it is generally distributed up to about 3300 or 3600 ft.
14

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210

Bau has recorded an instance of breeding in a hole in the ground,
near Berlin, and nesting boxes with small entrance holes are sometimes
occupied, but as a rule it does not differ in habits from the British form.
Bau gives the usual number of eggs as 6 to 9, but in Switzerland
according to Fatio the number sometimes reaches 10 or 12, and an
instance of 15 is recorded, probably the produce of two hens. The eggs
are laid towards the end of April or early in May, while Fatio states
that a second brood is sometimes reared in July.

Bau gives the average of 54 eggs and Rey of 32, probably in most
of not all cases, of this race. Mean average (86 eggs), 15.91><12.13 mm.,
Max. 17><12.1 and 16.8><12.7, Min. 14.9><11.5 mm. Average weight,
70 mg. (Bau), 67 mg. (Rey).

e. West European Marsh Tit, P. palustris longirostris Kleinsch.

Foreign. Name: France: Nonnette. :

P. palustris longirostris Kleins. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 373.

Breeding Range: France, the Rhine valley, Belgium and Holland.
(2? Perhaps Spain).

In Holland it is somewhat local, but perhaps most numerous in
the Province of Utrecht. Little is known as to its distribution in France,
but in the Rhine Provinces it is not uncommon. (Some form of Marsh
or Willow Tit occurs in the Iberian peninsula N. of the Cantabrian range
and also in the 8. Nevada).

f. Italian Marsh Tit, P. palustris italicus Tsch. & Hellm.

Foreign Name: Italy: Cincia bigia.

P. palustris italicus Tsch. & Hellm. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 374.

Breeding Range: Italy.

Chiefly found in the pine forests of the mountainous districts of
Piedmont and Venetia, but also occurs, though less commonly, in the
Apennines. Arrigoni states that it has been recorded from Sardinia, but
this needs confirmation, and it is only known as a rare winter visitor
to Sicily.

97. Willow Tit, Parus atricapillus L.

Geographical Races.
a. British Willow Tit, P. atricapillus kleinschmidti Hellm.
Plate 26, fig. 18.
Parus salicarius Brehm. Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 168 (part.). P.
atricapillus klenschmidti Hellm. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 378.
Breeding Range: Great Britain.
The distribution of this form in Great Britain is still almost unknown,
as until 1897 it was confused with the British form of the Marsh Tit.

211

Since the publication of Dr. Hartert’s article in the Zool. 1898, p. 116,
specimens have been recorded from Middlesex, Sussex, Bucks, Northants,
Gloucester, and Kent, while the specimens obtained by Mr. W. Evans in the
Spey, Tweed, and Forth basins also belong to this form. If, as seems pro-
bable, the long drawn ‘chay, chay, chay’ is characteristic of this species,
it will probably prove to be generally distributed and locally common.

The few nests which have been identified as belonging to this bird
appear to be placed in holes bored by the birds themselves, or at any
rate considerably enlarged by them. They have been found in the decayed
wood of old alders, willows, etc, at varying heights from the ground,
extending from 6 in. to 1 ft. in depth. The nest itself is a very scanty
affair, consisting chiefly of moss. Mr. A. Dixon noticed that the chips
were left lying untidily below the nest hole, and not removed as is
usually done by the Marsh Tit (field, May 21, 1904).

7 to 9 in number. At present I have not been able to examine
enough eggs to enable me to judge whether they differ consistently from
those of the Marsh Tit. Eggs from Kent and Sussex have bold, rich
markings, tending to form a zone at the large end.

Full clutches about May 10 in the S. of England, but in Strathspey
from May 10 to 16.

Average size of 17 English eggs, 15.27 ><12.4 mm., Max. 16.1><13.1,

Min. 14.4 >< 11.6.

b. Mid-German Willow Tit, P. atricapillus salicarius Brehm.
P. salicarius Brehm. Dresser, l. c. (part.). P. atricapillus salicarius Brehm.
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 376.

Breeding Range: Mid Germany and Austria.

This form is now known to exist in many parts of Germany, but
not in large numbers, and appears to prefer coniferous woods, especially
pine forests, not only in the plains but also in mountainous districts.
In some districts it has been met with as high as 3000 ft.

The nest is usually made in some rotten stump, and is excavated
by the birds themselves.

ce. Rhenish Willow Tit, P. atricapillus rhenanus Kleinschm.

Diagrams of nest, egg, etc: Kleinschmidt, J. f. O., 1903, Taf. V.
(no letterpress).
P. atricapillus rhenanus Kleins. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 377.

Breeding Range: The Rhine Valley: probably also France and
the Low Countries.

This race has been met with from Worms and Mainz down the
Rhine to Wesel, and also in Holland, where it is by no means scarce

(Orn. Jahrb. 1906, p. 204). Its westward range is still unknown.
14*

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212

Its breeding haunts appear to be willow thickets by rivers, swampy
woods etc., where it excavates a hole in some decayed stump. The nest
is scanty, like that of other races of this species. Probably the eggs
are laid in the latter half of April, as Kleinschmidt found one in the
oviduct of a hen bird on April 12.

d. Northern Willow Tit, P. atricapillus borealis Selys.
Plate 20, fig. 17—20 (Karl6, J. A. Sandman).

Eggs: Baedeker, J. f. O., 1856, Tab. II. fig. 13; id. Tab. 43, fig. 16,
Dresser, pl. —, fig. 40—42.

Foreign Names: Finland: Hémottwainen. Norway: Nordisk Meise.
Russia: Gaischki, Puchliak. Sweden: Talltita, Grames.

P. borealis Selys. Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 107. P. salicarius
Brehm. Id., Man. Pal. Birds, /. ¢. (part.). P. atricapillus borealis Selys.
Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 378. E

Breeding Range: Scandinavia, E. Prussia, Baltic Provinces, Fin-
land and N. Russia.

In Norway it is found haunting the coniferous woods and the ad-
joining birch region throughout the whole country to EH. Finmark, but in
Sweden its range is more restricted, and it is not found in Skane or
Blekinge in the S., nor northward of lat. 642°. In E. Prussia it breeds
occasionally in Masurenland according to Hartert (see also Falco, 1907,
p. 72), and is the commonest Tit in the Baltic Provinces, and also in
Finland. In Lapland Wheelwright found it breeding near Quikjock and
it also occurs in the Kola peninsula as far as the tree limit, but only
in small numbers. It is replaced in the EH. of the Archangel Government,
by P. atricapillus baikalensis (Swinh.) but is common in Olonetz and
Vologda. It has recently been recorded from England (Gloucestershire, 1908).

The nesting hole is apparently always bored, or at any rate enlarged,
by the birds themselves in a rotten tree. The entrance hole is about
6 or 8 in. long, and becomes wider at the bottom, where the eggs are
laid on a bed of fine strips of juniper bark or fibres of decayed willow
or alder. No moss, hair, or feathers are used.

Usually 8, sometimes only 7, while 9 to 11 and even 12 have
occasionally been found. They are as a rule decidedly shorter and more
rounded in shape than those of the Northern Marsh Tit, and perhaps
the spots are rather redder, but cannot be distinguished with certainty.

The eggs are laid at the end of April in the Baltic Provinces and
a second brood is said to be raised there in June: in 8. Scandinavia
they are laid about mid-May and about a week later in the extreme N.
and in Finland. The eggs are covered up till incubation begins (Zool.
1877, p. 198).

213

Average of 49 well-authenticated eggs by Ottosson, in litt., Measure-
15.28 =< 12.10 mm., Max. 16 >< 11.8 and 15.6 >< 13.1, Min. 14.8><12.1 ™™*
and 15.5><11.5 mm. Average weight, 68 mg. (80—55 mg.). -Mean
average of 106 eggs, including also 31 by Rey, 15 by Sandman and 11 by
the writer, 15.52 >< 12.17 mm., Max. 17 =< 12.4 and 15.8 >< 13.1, Min.
14.8><12.1 and 15><11.4 mm. Average weight, 74 mg. (Rey).

e. Carpathian Willow Tit, P. atricapillus assimilis Brehm.
P. atricapillus assimilis Brehm. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 379.
Breeding Range: The Carpathians, Transylvanian Alps, and
mountains of Bosnia and Servia.
Inhabits the high lying coniferous forests and probably does not
differ in habits from other raecs.

f. Alpine Willow Tit, P. atricapillus montanus Bald.

Foreign Names: Germany: Alpenmeise, Bergmeise.

P. borealis Selys and P. salicarius Brehm (part.). Dresser, l. ce. P. atricapillus
montanus Bald. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 380.

Breeding Range: The Alpine system.

This race is found in the coniferous forests of the Jura and Alps
from about 3000—3600 ft. to the tree limit, and is resident in the
Engadine at 6000 ft. The nest is placed in holes of trees or in mouse
runs, and contains 6—10 eggs, which are laid in May or June. Fatio
describes them as measurnig 14.5—16 >< 11.5—12.5 mm.

(Another form, P. atricapillus bianchu (Sar. & Hirms), has been
recorded from Pskov in W. Russia in Winter, but its home in the
breeding season is not known.)

g. Siberian Willow Tit, P. atricapillus baikalensis (Swinh.)
P. atricapillus baikalensis (Swinh.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, \p. 380.
Breeding Range: NE. Russia. (Also Siberia to the Sea of
Okhotsk and N. Japan). This is the form which is found in the E. of
the Archangel Government and was recorded by Seebohm and Harvie
Brown from the Petschora.

98. Long tailed Tit, Aegithalos caudatus (L.)

Geographical Races.
a. British Long tailed Tit, HZ. caudatus roseus (Blyth).

Eggs: Hewitson, I Ed. I. pl. LX XVI, fig. 3; If Ed. I. pl. XXXII,
fig. 2; III Ed. I, pl. XL, fig. 2. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 9; id. Col.
Fig. pl. 53. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. Il, fig. 69. Dresser, pl. —,
fig. 19—21, pl. —, fig. 42.

Nest: O. Lee, I, p. 84 and 86.

British
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Nest.

214

Local Names: Bottle Tit or Jug, Featherpoke, Long tailed Pie or

Capon, Bumbarrel, Mumruffin, Miller’s Thumb. Weish: Lleian gynffon
hir, Pwd, ete.
Acredula caudata (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 504. A. rosea (Blyth).
Dresser, Birds of Europe, III. p. 63; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 158. Saunders,
Man. p. 101. Aegithalos caudatus rosea (Blyth) Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna,
p. 384.

Breeding Range: The British Isles, and W. France.

In all the wooded parts of Great Britain this bird is very
generally distributed in varying numbers, but is naturally absent from
the barren and wind swept districts and the higher mountain ranges
and is on this account local in N. Scotland, and parts of Wales and
Ireland. It is also somewhat uncertain in its appearances, being plentiful
in one season and scarce the next. Its favourite haunts are on semi-
cultivated land, where whitethorn bushes grow freely. In Ireland it
breeds in every county, and is numerous in districts suited to its habits.
It also breeds on some of the larger islands of Scotland, such as Islay,
Mull, and Skye, and also on the smaller islands such as Raasay, where
plantations exist.

There is little doubt that this race is found in W. France, and
Hartert states that specimens from the Pyrenees in autumn and winter
are indistinguishable from British birds. Possibly it breeds N. of the
Cantabrian range in Spain.

Very often the nest is built in some thorny bush or hedgerow
within a few feet of the ground, especially in whitethorn, blackthorn,
furze, holly or brambles; but it is also found at various heights
in lichen covered oaks and apples, in conifers, and in the N. of
Scotland in birches, generally not more than 30 ft. frem the ground,
but occasionally as high as 50 ft. (Zool. 1882, p. 188). It has also
been known to nest in ivy against a wall, at the top of a spruce,
14 ft. high, and among creepers, while Nelson records an instance
of breeding within an old Magpies’ nest, lined with moss and lichens
(Birds of Yorks, p. 107). It is generally ovoid in shape and is most
wonderfully built of mosses (Hypnum), woven together with cob-
webs and a few bits of wool or hair. The outside is covered with
lichens, and the inside profusely lined with feathers, over 2000 having
been counted from a single nest. The opening is high up, and ‘in rare
cases is said to be covered with a loose flap. An interesting account
of the method of building will be found in Oswin Lee’s Brit. Birds’
Nests, I, p. 80. The time occupied in building seems to vary a good
deal, some birds completing their work in 12—14 days, while others
take three weeks over it. They are not shy, and are easily watched

215

to the nest while building; both sexes displaying much anxiety when it
is closely approached.

Usually 8 to 12. Much larger clutches occasionally are found: 13,
15, 16, 18, 19 and even 20 have been recorded. It must however be
remembered that many instances of 3 birds in attendance on one nest
have occurred: Bonhote found 4 birds in one nest with eggs, and 7
and even 9 birds are said to have been seen together. (Cf. Zool. 1849,
p. 2567 etc.) In these latter cases however it seems possible that what
were taken for old birds were in reality the young of an earlier brood.
The eggs vary a good deal, some being dull unspotted white, others
finely freckled or spotted with light chesnut, especially at the big end.

Nest building begins in March, while the trees are still bare, and
exceptionally early nests have been found ready for eggs by the middle
of the month, but in most cases the full clutch is not laid till mid April
in the S. or the end of April further N. A second brood is often reared
later in the year, but the nests are are not so easy to see on account
of the foliage. Incubation begins before the clutch is completed, and
both sexes roost in the nest at night.

Average of 100 British eggs (60 by the writer and 40 by Rey in
litt.) 14.17 >< 11 mm., Max. 15.1><11.8 and 15><12, Min. 13.2><10.7
and 14>< 10.1 mm. An abnormally long egg measures 17.2 >< 10.5
(coll. A. W. Johnson). Average weight of 20 eggs, 51.5 mg.

b. White headed Long tailed Tit. H. caudatus caudatus (L.).
Plate 20, fig. 26—30 (Halle a S., Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XVII, fig. Il, a—d; Baedeker,
Tab. 43, fig. 19 [? perhaps ewropaeus]. Taczanowski, Tab. LXIV, fig. 6.
Dresser, pl. —, fig. 18.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Sykora mlynarik. Finland: Pyrstétiainen.
Germany: Weissképfige Schwanzmeise. Norway: Langhelet Meise. Poland:
Raniuszek bialoglowi. Russia: Chwostowka. Sweden: Stjertmes.

Acr. caudata L. Dresser, Birds of Europe, Ill, p. 67 and. Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 157 (part.). 4. caudatus caudatus (L.) Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 382.

Breeding Range: N. and E. Europe as far W. as mid-Germany.
[Also Siberia to N. Japan.]

In Norway it is rather sparsely distributed, but is most numerous
in the eastern part, and has been found as far N. as the Saltdal (lat.
67°). On the fjeld its range extends as high as the subalpine zone. In
Sweden it is also rather scarce, but breeds from Skane up to about
lat. 62° or 63°. A few pairs also breed in Finland, and in the Baltic

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216

provinces it is common, while it is also recorded from Orlof and the
Perm government in N. Russia. The exact limits of its westward and
southward range in the breeding season cannot yet be clearly defined,
but it breeds in many districts in E. Germany, and also in Denmark,
and apparently is found also in Austro-Hungary. [Eastward its range
extends to Japan.|

Like that of the preceding race. An abnormal retort-shaped nest
from Denmark is figured in Dresser’s Birds of Europe.

Accounts vary considerably as to the number usually laid: probably
the first laying usually consists of 9—12 eggs and the second of 6—8,
while exceptionally clutches of 14 to 18 have been recorded. They do
not differ in appearance from those already described.

In E. Germany finished nests have occasionally been found in mid
March, but usually laying begins about April 1, and full sets may be
taken from about April 10 to early May, and about a week later in the
Baltic Provinces and Scandinavia, while the second brood may be looked
for in Germany in June.

Average size of 73 eggs from EH. Germany (33 by Rey, 20 by Kollibay
and 20 by the writer) 13.95><10.91 mm., Max. 16><12, Min. 12.8><10.2
and 13><10 mm. Ottosson (in litt.) gives the average of 47 Scandinavian
eggs as 14.17 >< 10.79 mm., Max. 15.1 > 11.3 and 14.4>< 11.4, Min.
13.3 >< 10.8 and 14.2><9.9 mm. Average weight, 51 mg. (Rey.)

e. Continental Long tailed Tit, H. caudatus europaeus (Herm.).

Foreign Names: France: Mésange a longue queue. Holland:
Staartmees. Italy: Codibugnolo. Acr. caudata L. Dresser, 1. ¢., part. Aeg.
caudatus europaeus (Herm). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 384.

Breeding Range: N. and EH. France, the Low Countries, W.
Germany, Switzerland, and the N. Italian and Balkan Peninsulas.

The breeding range of the different forms of Long tailed Tit in
France needs investigation, but it is probably this race which is found
in the eastern part of the country, except in the extreme 8. It breeds
also in Holland and Belgium, and in W. Germany, Switzerland, N. Italy,
and the Danubian principalities, Bosnia, Servia, Rumania and Bulgaria.
Some individuals show much more white on the head than others, and
are only to be distinguished from Scandinavian birds by their smaller
size and shorter and more compact feathering.

In nesting habits it does not differ from other races. 19 eggs
(5 measured by Hartert and 13 by the writer), from Holland and the
Rhine valley, average 14.15 >< 11.02 mm. in size; Max. 15.3><11.2
and 14.6>< 11.5, Min. 12.8>< 10.4. Average weight of 6 Dutch
eggs, 53 mg.

217

d. Crimean Long tailed Tit, . caudatus tauricus (Menzb.).
AG. caudatus tauricus (Menzb.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 385.
Breeding Range: The Crimean peninsula.
Menzbier describes this race as found in the forests of the
Yaila range.

e. Macedonian Long tailed Tit, . caudatus macedonicus (Dress.).
Acredula macedonica Salv. & Dr. Dresser, Birds of Europe, IX, p. 111
and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 160. dg. caudatus macedonica (Dress.). Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 385.

In Greece this race has been recorded from Mt. Olympus (Thessalia)
and the Othrys range on the EH. side and in Acarnania on the W., but
does not occur in the Peloponesus. In Turkey specimens have been
obtained as far N. as Monastir. Little is known as to the nidification
of this race, but Reiser found a perfect egg in the oviduct of a hen
killed on March 4.

f. Irby’s Long tailed Tit, H. caudatus irbii (Sh. & Dres.).

Foreign Names: Italy: Codibugnolo. Portugal: Rabilongo. Spain:
Mito.
Aer. wrbu Sh. & Dr. Dresser, Birds of Europe, Il, p. 105; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 159. Aeg. caudatus wbu (Sh. & Dr.). Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 386.

Breeding Range: The Iberian Peninsula, Corsica, S. France, and
Italy, except in the extreme N., but not in Sardinia or Sicily.

In Spain it is very local, but common in the Gibraltar cork woods,
and is also found on the foot hills of the S. Morena, near Aranjuez etc.
It is apparently absent from the district N. of the Cantabrian rauge
(where the resident form may prove to be roseus), but occurs locally in
Portugal. It is also met with in the 8. of France, and according to
Sharpe has been obtained near Paris, while in Corsica it is not un-
common, and is also resident on Elba. In Italy it is sedentary in the
Middle and Southern provinces, but in summer occurs on passage and
is also found breeding in the North, as far as Venice in the E. and the
Riviera in the W. After the breeding season it becomes nomadic in its
habits, and has occurred in the Tyrol ete.

Generally placed some 15—16 ft. from the ground in thorny Smilax
round tree trunks in 8. Spain, and among brambles, bushes, or in branches
of olive and myrtle trees in Corsica. In construction it resembles that
of other races.

Usually 7 in number, occasionally as many as 9, and indistinguis-
hable from those of other forms.

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Eggs may be taken in Andalucia from February 20 to early April,
while in Corsica Whitehead took full clutches on April 20 and May 23,
and in Italy most eggs appear to be laid in April.

Average of 18 Corsican eggs: 14.14 >< 10.77 mm., Max. 15.5 >< 11,
Min. 13><10.3mm. Three Spanish eggs are larger, averaging 15.5 >< 12.3 mm.,
Max. 16)5) >< 02:1, Min. 15 >< 12.3’ mm.

g. Sicilian Long tailed Tit, EH. caudatus siculus (Whit.).
Acr. sicula Whit. Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 160. 4. caudatus sicula
(Whit.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 386.

Breeding Range: Sicily.

According to Whitaker (Zbis, 1902, p. 54) it inhabits the wooded
inland districts, and breeds in the higher mountain forests, rarely if ever
descending below 2100 ft. Two nests were found in forks of olive trees
about 8 ft. from the ground, with half fledged young in June, probably
second broods.

h. Caucasian Long tailed Tit, EH. caudatus major (Radde).

Acr. caucasica (Lor.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, IX, p. 113; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 159. 4. caudatus major (Radde). MHartert, Vog. Pal.
Fauna, p. 486.

Breeding Range: The Caucasus.

Lorenz records this bird from the northern slopes, and Radde from
the Talysch lowlands and the Tiflis district. Fledged young were ob-
tained from the end of May onward in Transcaucasia.

j. Turkish Long tailed Tit, ©. caudatus tephronotus (Giinth.)

Egg: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 22.
Acr. tephronota (Giinth.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, HI, p. 75; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 160. 4. caudatus tephronotus (Giinth.). Hartert, Vog.
Pal. Fauna, p. 387.

Breeding Range: KE. Turkey (Constantinople district). [Also Asia
Minor to the Taurus and the S. shore of the Caspian in Persia.]

In Europe the range of this black-throated race appears to be
confined to the district adjoining the Bosporus, where it is not uncommon,
and in Transcaucasia (Talysch). [On the Asiatic side it is found in Asia
Minor as far as the Taurus, and also to the southern shores of the
Caspian. |

Little has been recorded as to its breeding habits, which however
are said not to differ from those of the British race. Robson describes
the nest as usually placed in a yew tree.

Average size of 3 eggs taken by Robson, 13.76 >< 10.86 mm., Max.
14><11, Min. 13.6>< 10.6. They are laid in March or early April.

219

99. Penduline Tit, Anthoscopus pendulinus (L.).
Geographical Races.

a. Western Penduline Tit, A. pendulinus pendulinus (L.).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfi., Tab. XVIII, fig. 13, a—b. Baedeker,
Tab. 43, fig. 20. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 11.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Moudivlacek. France: Mésange rémiz.
Germany: Beutelmeise. Hungary: Figgd czinege. Italy: Pendolino.
Poland: Remiz. Russia: Remess. Spain: Pajara moscon.

Aigithalus pendulinus (l.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, Ill, p. 159; id.
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 183. Anthoscopus pendulinus pendulinus (L.). Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 389.

Breeding Range: E. Spain, 8. France, Italy, Hungary, the Balkan
peninsula, Poland and 8. Russia. In Germany only sporadically. [Also
Asia Minor].

In Spain it has only been definitely recorded as breeding in the
neighbourhood of Valencia, but is probably locally distributed in small
numbers in the southern and eastern provinces, as Arévalo states that
it has been recorded from Seville, Granada, New Castile, and Gerona.
It is also locally common in 8. France (the Rhone delta etc.), while
it occurs in small numbers in Italy in the district drained by the R. Po,
and also commonly in Tuscany, as well as the southern provinces, and
Sicily, but is not recorded from Apulia. In Switzerland it is said to
have bred once or twice, and sporadic instances of nesting have been
reported from various parts of Germany, e. g. Silesia (as recently as
1900—02), and with more or less probability also from Magdeburg,
Gotha, Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, etc. In Austro-Hungary it appears
to have decreased in numbers in the Danube valley and is rare in
Transylvania, but not uncommon in Slavonia. In the Balkan peninsula
it is found in suitable localities (such as the Scutari Lake, the Utowo-
Blato, the Danube valley, the Dobrudscha, etc.) as far 8. as Greece,
while in Russia it is found in Poland, and is common in some districts
of the 8., especially Kiew, but does not appear to range N. of about
lat 54°, while in the E. it is replaced by the Caspian race.

Usually built on thin twigs of willows, or in some districts on
tamarisks, and less frequently on poplars, alders, elms or birches. It is
placed on the ontside of the tree, often overhanging a river or swamp,
but sometimes by a roadside away from water, and varies in height
above the ground generally from 6 to 30 ft., but sometimes as high as
60 ft. It is beautifully constructed of the down of willow catkins, or
other vegetable down, such as cotton grass, or even flax, woven together
with fibres of Purietaria, irregular in shape, but something like a flask,

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Measure-
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220

completely domed, and thickly woven at the bottom, with one or some-
times two openings.* Some observers maintain that these latter nests are
unfinished, and it is an undoubted fact that the cock in some cases
continues to work at the funnel shaped entrance after his mate has
begun to sit. Double nests have occasionally been met with. Giglioli
and von Fiihrer estimate the time employed in building at 12 to 15 days,
while others, probably from observations on young pairs, place the period
at a month at least. The nest is whitish grey in colour, sometimes tinged
with brown, and is about 5 to 8 in. high and 3 or 4 in. wide, with a
funnel 14 to 33 in. long. The birds continually utter an anxious note
as long as any one remains near the nesting place.

Usually 6 or 7 in number, sometimes 8, while Goebel once found 10.
They are pure white, without gloss and very delicate. The remarkably
elongated shape is very characteristic.

In the nothern part of its range eggs are rarely laid before June,
but in Montenegro v. Fiihrer took 24 nests between May 15 and June 10,
and Giglioli states that in Tuscany the eggs are laid about mid April,
and the young are on the wing by mid June, while in Bulgaria both
fresh eggs and young birds have been found on May 20. In Asia Minor
however, fresh eggs may be taken in the middle of May. Incubation
lasts 14 days, and both birds roost in the nest.

Average of 67 eggs (51 by the writer and 16 by Reiser)
15.73 >< 10.63 “mm;, Max. 18 >< 11 and 16:2 5<113, Mim 14216;
(These figures agree closely with Goebel’s average of 76 eggs from Kiew,
15.75 =< 10.5 mm.). Average weight of 16 eggs, 68.7 mg., varying from
55 to 90 mg. (Reiser).

b. Caspian Penduline Tit, A. pendulinus caspius (Poelzam).

Egg: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 12.

44, castaneus Severtz. Dresser, Birds of Europe, II, p. 165; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 184. Anth. pendulinus caspius (Poelz.). Hartert, Vég.
Pal. Fauna, p. 390.

Breeding Range: The basin of the Lower Volga.

The nothern limit of this race appears to be the Orenburg
government. It is exceedingly common on the lower reaches of the
Volga, and Bogdanow also found it plentiful in the delta of the Terek,
while Radde records it from Tiflis and Lenkoran in Transcaucasia, and
found it breeding near Hrivan.

In breeding habits it resembles the Western race. Eggs are laid
in mid May in Transcaucasia, and vary from 5 to 7 in number.

* Wool is also occasionally but rarely, used.

221

Average of 67 eggs (61 by Rey and 6 by the writer), 16.03><10.76 mm., Measure-
Max. 17.7><11 and 16.2><11.3, Min. 14.5><10.5 and 15><10 mm. ™™™*
Average weight, 67.8 mg. (Rey).

100. Goldcrest, Regulus regulus (L.).
Geographical Races.

a. British Golderest, R. regulus anglorum Hart.

Eggs: Hewitson, I. Hd. I. pl. LXXXVII, fig. 1, 2; Il. Hd. I.
pl. XXX, fig. 1, 2; UL. Hd. I., pl. XX XVII, fig. 1, 2. Seebohm, Br.
Birds, pl. 11; id. Col. Fig. pl. 53. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. II, fig. 46—48.
Dresser, pl. —, fig. 1.

Nest: O. Lee, I. p. 30.

Local Names: Golden crested Wren, Tom Thumb. Manx: Ushag
fuygh. Welsh: Dryw bach y coed, Dryw ben aur.

Regulus cristatus K. Ll. Koch. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I. p. 449. Dresser,
Birds of Europe, I. p. 453, and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 91 (part.) Saunders,
Man. p. 57. &. regulus anglorum Hart. Hartert. Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 396.

Breeding Range: The British Isles.

On the mainland of Great Britain this bird is found in all wooded British
districts from which conifers are not altogether absent. It is also resident ™'*
in the Isle of Wight, Anglesea and the Isle of Man; and has bred in
Skye, Raasay, Islay, Higg, Mull, etc. where plantations exist, but is absent
as a breeding species from the Outer Hebrides, Orkneys, and Shetlands.
There is little doubt that the increase of plantations has caused a consid-
erable extension of its breeding range in Scotland and also in Ireland,
where it is now resident in every county wherever trees exist.

The beautifully built cup-shaped nest is generally suspended like Nest.
a hammock from the under surface of the end of a bough of some
coniferous tree, generally a spruce or silver fir, or a yew, occasionally
a Scotch fir, cedar, larch, or deodar; and less frequently in an ever-
green bush, such as juniper or cypress. When the spruces are small
the nest is sometimes placed among the topmost twigs, instead of being
suspended, and similarly built nests have been found in whitethorns and
evergreen oaks, while in exposed districts or where conifers are scarce,
it will nest among the ivy round the stems of deciduous trees and in
furze bushes. One found in the Isle of Man was built under a witch’s
broom on a birch, and Ussher records a nest underneath and almost
touching a Hooded Crow’s nest! The principal material used is green
moss, with occasionally a little wool and a lichen or two affixed to the
ontside. It is worked together by means of spiders’ webs, and wool and
horsehair are also sometimes used in small quantities, while the inside

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
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222

is warmly lined with feathers, which project over the rim of the nest.
The height from the ground varies considerably: when built in evergreen
bushes it is often only a few fcet high, and Hewitson records one in a
juniper 1 ft. above the ground: on the other hand in firs or other trees
it is often 20 to 40 ft. high. When beginning to build the birds are
shy and apt to forsake, but after the eggs are laid they show great
confidence. The hen sits very closely and when disturbed will often
approach within a foot or two of the intruder. The depth of the cup,
about 13 in., is almost equal to the internal diameter.

Usually 7 or 8 to 9 or 10, but instances of 11 and even 12 eggs
have been recorded. The ground colour is sometimes white, sometimes
linged with pale ochreous, but never with the pinky red tinge found in
eggs of fh. ignicapillus. The spots of reddish or ochreous brown are
generally concentrated towards the big end, and sometimes form a con-
fluent zone or cap. Exceptionally clutches have been recorded distinctly
spotted with reddish on a white ground.

In England a few cases have been known in which the eggs have
been laid about the end of March, but the most usual time for full
clutches is from April 26 to May 11 for the first brood, while second
broods may be looked for at the end of May or early in June. In
Scotland the breeding time is very similar, except that few if any birds
breed before mid-April, but in Ireland Ussher has found a nest with
4 eggs as early as March 14, although most birds breed in April, laying
a second time towards the end of May.

Average of 100 British eggs, measured by the writer, 13.61 ><
10.22 mm., Max. 14.6><9.6 and 14><11, Min. 12.2><10 and 13.6><9.5 mm.
Average weight of 20 eggs, 37 mg. N. H. Foster gives the average
weight of 14 full eggs as 745 g.

b. Continental Golderest, R. regulus regulus (L.). j
Plate 21, fig. 17—20 (Styria).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XIX, fig. 7, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 51, fig. 1. Taczanowski, Tab. XX XIX, fig. 1. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 2.

Local Names: Woodcock Pilot, Herring Sprat.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Krdalicek obecnyj. Denmark: Gultoppet ‘
Fuglekonge. Finland: Hippidinen. France: Roitelet huppé. Germany:
Gelbkopfiges Goldhahnchen. Holland: Goudhaantje. Hungary: Sdargafejii
kirdlyka. Italy: Regolo. Norway: Fuglekonge. Poland: Krélik czubaty.
Russia: Korolek zeltogolevy. Sweden: Kungsfogel.
hk. cristatus Koch. Dresser, Birds of Europe, Il, p. 453 and Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 91 (part.). BR. regulus regulus (L.). Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 394.

223

Breeding Range: Continental Europe, from the limit of conifers
to the Mediterranean, excepting the Iberian Peninsula.

This race is pretty generally distributed over the greater part of
the Continent wherever coniferous or mixed woods are to be found. In
Norway its northern limit appears to be lat. 67° N. on the W. coast,
but in E. Finmark it has been recorded from Vadsé (lat. 70°), and ranges
up to about 68° in Swedish Lapland. In Russia it is found in Finland
as far as the limits of coniferous woods, and is common in the Olonetz
government, but becomes scarcer in that of Vologda, althongh recorded
from the Urals by Sabanieff. In southern Europe it has not been found
breeding S. of the Pyrenees, although not uncommon in some parts of
that range. In Italy it is chiefly an inhabitant of the mountains, but
is said to be found in Sicily; while in the Balkan peninsula it is doubtful
whether it ever breeds in Greece, but it is resident in the mountain forests
of Macedonia and Albania. In 8. Russia its range extends to the Crimea
and the Caucasus. [Formerly it was believed to occur in Algeria, but
recent records are wanting: it is however found in Asia Minor.]}

Does not differ from that of 2. r. anglorum, and like it, is placed
by preference in a fir, less often in a juniper or other evergreen bush.
It is not uncommon to find nests built year after year in the same tree,
sometimes on the same bough.

As already described, varying in number from 7 or 8 to 12. In
central Europe there are two broods, the first eggs being laid about the
end of April and the second brood late in June, but in the N. the
breeding season does not begin till May.

Average size of 107 eggs (51 measured by Rey, 47 by Bau and
9 by the writer), 13.42 >< 10.12 mm., Max. 14.2 >< 11, Min. 12.1 >< 9.7
and 12.3><9.2 mm. Average weight, 40 mg. (Rey); 38 mg. (Bau).

e. Corsican Goldcrest, R. regulus interni Hart.
Rh. regulus winternt Hart. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 396.

Breeding Range: Corsica and Sardinia.

In Corsica it is fairly common in the mountain forests (Whitehead),
but is apparently scarce in Sardinia.

[In the Western group of the Canaries is found the Tenerife Gold-
crest, &. regulus teneriffae Seeb. The eggs are figured in the J. f. O.,
1890, Tab. VIII, fig. 9; Cat. Eggs Br. Mus., IV, pl. XIV, fig. 10, and
Dresser, pl. —, fig. 3. The nest is found in Erica arborea as well as
in pine woods. Eggs, 5—8 in number and like those of the other
races. Average size of 30 eggs (27 by the writer and 3 by Kutter)
13.78 >< 10.66 mm., Max. 14.7 >< 10.2 and 14.2 >< 11.5, Min. 13> 10.6

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224

and 14><10. Average weight of 5 eggs, 38 mg. R. regulus azoricus
Seeb. is resident in the Azores, while Lt. regulus tristis Pleske is found
from Transcaspia to EH. Turkestan. |

101. Firecrest, Regulus ignicapillus (Temm.).

Geographical Races.
a. European Firecrest, R. ignicapillus ignicapillus (Temm.).
Plate 21, fig 21—24 (Altenkirchen, Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XIX, fig. 6, a—b. Hewitson,
1. Eds 1 pl) LAXXVO, fig: 3; I Ed. ft, pli XX, tierra de
pl. XX XVIII, fig. 3. Baedeker, Tab. 51, fig. 2. Taczanowski, Tab. LIV,
fig. 1. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 11; id. Col. Fig. pl. 53. Dresser,
pl. —, fig. 4, 5.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Kralicek ohnivyj. Denmark: Rodtoppet

Fuglekonge. France: Roitelet a triple bandeaw.~ Germany: Heuerkdpfiges
Goldhdhnchen. Holland: Vuwrgoudhaantje. Hungary: Tiizesfejti kirdlyka.
Italy: Hiorrancino. Poland: Kralik zniczek. Portugal: Estrellinha.
Russia: Korolek krasnogolovoit. Spain: Reyezuelo.
Regulus ignicapillus (C. L. Brehm). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 456.
Dresser, Birds of Europe, I], p. 459; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 93.
Saunders, Man. p. 59. &. ignicapilla ignicapilla (Temm.). Hartert, Vog.
Pal. Fauna, p. 398.

Breeding Range: Europe, south of the North and Baltic Seas.
[Also in N. Africa and Asia Minor.}

In the Iberian peninsula Irby records it as a common resident in
the cork woods of Algeciraz, and probably it will be found to breed in
the pine forests of other districts, though hitherto it has only been
recorded as a visitor in the winter months. In the Pyrenees and the
pine woods of the Landes it is common, and is said to have bred as
far N. in France as Rouen (Viellot). It has not been known to nest
in the Low Countries or Denmark, and is a somewhat local and scarce
summer visitor to the coniferous woods of N. and E. Germany, but is
plentiful in some districts of the south and west. In Poland and Lith-
uania it is scarce, and its distribution in 8S. W. Russia is still imperfectly
known, but it is found throughout Austro-Hungary and in Switzerland.
It is resident in the Italian and Balkan peninsulas, and probably breeds
in Greece, though the nest has not yet been found there. In the
Mediterranean it is found on Mallorca, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily,
while some species of Regulus also occours on Cyprus. [In N. Africa
it is common in the cedar and ilex woods of the Little Atlas and Aurés

ranges, and is commoner than the Goldcrest in the Taurus range in Asia
Minor (Danford).|

225

In nesting habits it closely resembles the preceding species, building
a similar but perhaps slightly smaller and more compact nest of green
moss, woven togcther with hair and spiders’ webs and lined with feathers.
Like that of the Goldcrest, it is generally suspended beneath the tip of
a branch of a fir, well sheltered and hidden by the branching twigs at
varying heights. Occasionally a nest is found in a juniper bush, only
a few feet from the ground, and it is usual to find the same trees
occupied year after year. Diameter of cup. 14 in., depth 1% in.

Usually 7 to 9, occasionally 10, while instances of 11 and even 12
are said to have occurred. ‘Typical eggs are easily distinguishable from
those of the Goldcrest by their warm pinkish tinge, which is very
noticeable after they have been blown. C. Sachse took one clutch with
a white ground and small red spots like a small Wren’s egg, but more
glossy. As a rule however there is not much variation.

In Germany the eggs of the first brood are laid early in May
(according to Sachse about 8 days later than those of the Goldcrest),
while second broods may be found at the beginning of July. In the
Pyrenees the eggs are laid about the end of April and the young are
on the wing in the fourth week of May, while in Andalucia they are
still earlier, and Irby records young flying on May 15.

Average of 100 eggs (71 by Rey and 29 by the writer),
13.57 >< 10.28 mm.,. Max. 14.3 >< 10.5 and 13.8>< 11, Mim. 12.5 >< 10:3
and 13.5><10. Bau records an egg 12.9><8.9 mm. Average weight
38.5 mg. (Rey); 37 mg. (Bau).

(In Madeira another form, FR. ignicapillus madeirensis Vern. Hare.
is found in the mountains. Its eggs are figured by Kénig, J. f. O., 1890,
Tab. VII, fig. 8; Cat. Eggs Br. Mus, IV. pl. XIV, fig. 9, 12; Dresser,
pl. —, fig. 6, 7. Its chief haunts are the hillsides covered with giant
Heaths and Arbutus. The eggs are 4—6, generally 5, in number, marked
with reddish spots, chiefly at the big end on a whitish ground. Average of
18 eggs (16 measured by the writer and 2 by Kutter), 14.32 >< 11.1 mm.,
Max. 15.4>< 11.2 and 14.6><11.5, Min. 13.3>< 10.4 mm. Weight of
2 eggs: 55 and 50 mg. (Kutter). The breeding season apparently falls
in June, and the remarkable nest is not unlike that of Hr. coelebs.|

102. Bearded Tit, Panurus biarmicus (L.).
Geographical Races.
a. Western Bearded Tit, P. biarmicus biarmicus (L).
Plate 21, fig. 13—16 (Norfolk Broads).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XVUI, fig. 12, a, b. Hewitson,
i fidet, pl DX XX, ig. 4; Wa del, pl: XX XI dig. 35 1), aid. I,
15

Nest.

Eggs.

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Season.

Measure-
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British
Isles.

Con-
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226

pl. XL, fig. 3. Baedeker, Tab. 43, fig. 18. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 12;
id. Col. Fig. pl. 53. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I. pl. II, fig. 68. Dresser,
pl. —, fig. 13—15. Krause, pl. —, fig. 1—42.

Nest: O. Lee, II. p. 136: Turner, Home Life of Marsh Birds,
pl. XVII—X XI.

British Local Names: Reed or Marsh Pheasant. Foreign

Names: Bohemia: Sykora vousata. Denmark. Skjoeg-meise. France:
Mésange & moustaches. Germany: Bartmeise. Holland: Baardmannetje.
Italy: Basettino. Spain: Bigotudo.
Panurus biarmicus (L.). Newton, ed Yarrell, I. p. 511. Dresser, Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 158. Saunders, Man. p. 99. Calamophilus biarmicus (L.).
Dresser, Birds of Europe, III. p. 49. P. biarmicus biarmicus (L.). Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 403.

Breeding Range: E. Spain, France, 8. E. England, Holland,
and Italy. ; ;

Although this interesting bird is known to have bred formerly in Lincoln,
Huntingdon, Cambridge, Suffolk, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and probably also
in the Thames valley, its haunts are now restricted entirely to the Broads of
Norfolk*. For many years there has been a steady decrease in the number
of resident birds on the Broads, and Mr. J. H. Gurney estimated the
number of nests in Norfolk in 1898 at only 33, but probably this estimate
was too low, and of late there has been a decided increase! in numbers,
due to protection. Interesting details as to its present and former dis-
tribution will be found in Mr. Gurney’s papers in the Trans. Norf. and
Norw. Nat. Soc. VI. p. 429 (1899), and Zool. 1900, p. 358.

In Spain this species is common on the Albufera de Valencia, and
is also said to occur in the lagoons of N. E. Catalonia: in France it is
plentiful in some parts of the Camargue and near Narbonne, and is said
also to be found near the mouth of the Gironde. It is very local in
Italy, but numerous in certain districts, such as the lagoons of Venetia
and the R. Po, and suitable localities in Tuscany, Campania and Sicily.
In Holland it is not resident, but breeds in fair numbers in N. and 8.
Holland, Friesland and Overijsel during the summer months, and according
to Dubois also breeds in N. W. Belgium. In Germany it is now no
longer resident, but was formerly found in the marshes of the N. from
E. Friesland to Holstein and Mecklenburg. Probably also it was this
race which formerly nested on the Mansfelder See in Saxony and in
Thuringia.

Usually placed among the stems of reeds or coarse vegetation not
far from the outer edge of the reed bed, in swampy ground, and from
6 in. to 1 ft. above the water level. Booth mentions a nest built into

* A pair or two apparently survived in S. Devon as late as 1888.

227

the roots of a tussock of rushes, in a field of marsh hay. In wet
seasons the nests are liable to be submerged, in which case a second
nest is built on the top of the old one. As a rule the nest is neatly
concealed, but on a still day the movements of the parent bird when
flushed can be detected by the rustling and swaying of the reeds stems,
and the site approximately located. The materials used consist chiefly
of dead leaves of reeds, sedges, or sometimes flat grasses, with a lining
of the flowery tops of the reed and finer grass leaves. A feather or
two is not unfrequently found in the lining, and J. M. Goodall found a
nest lined with white down, probably that of a call Duck. The cup of
the nest is about 2/ in. in diameter. It is usual to find the same locality
occupied by a breeding pair year after year.

Generally 5—7 in number, occasionally 8 or 9. Instances have
been recorded where 10, 11 and 12 eggs have been found in a single
nest, but there is little doubt that they are the produce of two hens.
Booth relates an instance where a hen whose mate he had shot, proceeded
to lay in the nest of another pair not far away, which already contained
6 eggs, till 11 had been laid. In confinement they will also lay together
without quarrelling, and are very prolific. Thus two hens kept by J.
Young laid about 50 eggs in one season! He observed that after laying
the lining was pulled over the eggs on leaving the nest by the hen, as
in the genus Parus. Possibly it is owing to this that one or two eggs
may often be found completely buried in the lining of the nest. They
are quite characteristic: white, with some gloss, sparsely marked with
fine scrawls, streaks and spots of liver brown. In shape they are a
rounded ovate, some eggs being almost spherical.

In Norfolk nesting begins in March, and the first eggs are laid
about April 7 or 8, but chiefly in the third week of the month. (In
1903 M. C. H. Bird found a nest with 3 eggs on April 3, and a nest
from which young had flown has been seen at the beginning of May).
There is no doubt that three and possibly four broods are reared in a
season under favourable circumstances, as young have been seen still in
the nest in September both in England and Holland, and Booth found
eggs on August 16. Both sexes incubate, and the duration of the period
is about 14 days.

Average size of 106 Norfolk eggs (83 by the writer and 23 by Rey),
17.29><13.91 mm.; Max. 19><15, Min, 14.5><13.2 and 15.8><13 mm:
Average weight, 108 mg., varying from 95 to 135 mg. (Rey).

b. Eastern Bearded Tit, P. biarmicus russicus (Brehm).

Egg: Taczanowski, Tab. LIV, fig. 2.
P. hiarmicus russicus (Brehm). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 405.

ily

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Nest, Eggs
etc.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

228

Foreign Names: Hungary: Bajseos ceinege, Seakallas cemege.
Russia: Usataja Siniza.

Breeding Range: Austro- Hungary, the Danube Valley, and 8.
Russia. [Also Asia Minor, Persia, etc., E. to Manchuria.]

This race is a common summer visitor to the reed beds in the
lakes and rivers of Austro-Hungary, and is also plentiful in the Dobrudscha
and Bessarabia. Reiser also records it from a marsh on the coast of
BE. Rumelia, and on the W. side of the Peninsula Lilford met with it
on the Albanian side of the Scutari Lake, but it has not been observed
there since. It is also found in S. Russia, and is resident in the low
lying marshes near the estuaries of the Terek and Kur in Caucasia. [In
Asia its range extends from Asia Minor eastward to Manchuria. |

In its breeding habits it resembles the western race, and the eggs
are also similar in type, but those examined are slightly larger on an
average. Thirteen eggs from the Velencze See average 17.47 < 14.06 mm.
(Coll. F. C. Selous, May 7 and 30).

LANIIDAE.

103. Lesser Grey Shrike, Lanius minor Gm.
Plate 8, fig. 10—17 (Hungary).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XXI, fig. 4, a—d. Baedeker,
Tab. 52, fig. 4. Taczanowski, Tab. XX XVIII, fig. 2. Seebohm, Br.
Birds, pl. 11; id. Col. Fig. pl. 54. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 17—20. Krause,
pl. —, fig. 1—36.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Tuhyk mensi. France: Pie-griéche
d’Italie. Germany: Grauer Wiirger. Greece: Kephalas. Hungary: Kis
drgébics. Italy: Averla cenerina. Poland: Dzierzba czarnoceelna.
Russia: Sorokoputh.

Lanius minor Gm. Newton, ed Yarrell, I, p. 205. Dresser, Birds of
Europe, III, p. 393; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 236. Saunders, Man.
p. 149. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 416.

Breeding Range: S. and Mid-Europe, from the Baltic to the
Mediterranean. [Also Siberia to lat. 57°; Asia Minor, and W. Turkestan.]

This Shrike is a summer visitor to Europe, migrating southward
in August and September. Although very common in the Rhone delta,
it is only a rare straggler to S. W. France, and is absent from the N.,
as well as in the Iberian Peninsula. It has not been recorded from
Corsica, and Salvadori’s statement that it is common in N. Sardinia is
probably a mistake. It is somewhat irregularly distributed in Italy and
Sicily, but is not uncommon in some districts, such as the Po valley; and

229

is also found in the low ground of Switzerland. It does not breed in
Belgium or Holland, but occurs throughout Germany with the exception
of the district N. W. of the Elbe (Hannover and Westphalia). Its
numbers however vary considerably from year to year. Althongh
locally common, and not rare in H. Prussia and Silesia, it is scarce
in 8S. Bavaria, Baden and Wiirttemberg. In the Russian Baltic Pro-
vinces it is not rare in Kurland and its range extends to W. Livonia,
while in 8. Russia it is a plentiful species and is found in Caucasia up
to about 5000 ft. It is a characteristic species of Austro-Hungary, and
is extraordinarily numerous in some parts of Hungary, extending its
range southward to Styria aud Dalmatia. It is the commonest Shrike
in Montenegro and is also plentiful in the Danube valley (Rumania,
Dobrudscha etc.), but is apparently now rather scarce in Grecce.

In middle Europe this bird is especially partial to avenues of Nest.

poplars and other trees by the roadsides, but is also found breeding in
deciduous woods, parks and orchards. Here it places its nest at a
height of 10 to 25 ft. from the ground, sometimes on the fork of a
bough close to the main stem, and in the case of small trees, occasionally
at the very top. In the S. of Europe it is frequently built in an olive
tree. A characteristic feature of the nest is the use of fresh and green
plant stems, especially clover. A few twigs are built into the foundation,
while various flowering plants, often aromatic, are woven into the structure,
such as Gnaphalium, Thymus, Capsella bursa pastoris, Stachys, Filago
etc. Internally it is also lined with feathers and at times with roots,
wool and hair. Diameter of cup, 2i—3? in., depth 1:—2 in.

From 4 or 5 to 7 in number, aud as a rule easily distinguishable
from those of other Shrikes by their more distinctly bluish green ground.
They are generally boldly blotched with two shades of colour, olive
brown and underlying pale greenish brown. These markings tend very
frequently to form a zone. Exceptionally a clutch of eggs may be found
with creamy white or yellowish ground spotted with brown and violet.
Krause figures five eggs of this type from Brandenburg.

In Greece the eggs may be found in the latter half of May, but
in the Danube valley the best time is at the end of May and early in
June, and in Germany the breeding season is about the same time,
though even here clutches have been taken in mid-May, so that the
period does not vary much. Incubation is performed by both sexes and
is said to last 15 days. The birds are not shy, and are always on the watch
to drive away crows or magpies from the neighbourhood of the nest.

Average of 100 eggs (57 by Rey, 37 by the writer and 6 by Blasius)
25.1 =< 18.24 mm., Max. 28.2 >< 20, Min. 23><17 and 23.3><16.6 mm.
Hartert records an abnormally large egg, 29 >< 19, and Reiser another,

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

230

28.8 >< 18.7; while Bau mentions a very small egg, 22.5><17. Average
weight, 257 mg. (Rey): 281 mg. (Bau).

104. Great Grey Shrike, Lanius excubitor L.
Geographical Races.

a. Northern Great Grey Shrike, L. excubitor excubitor L.
Plate 24, fig. 1—6 (N. Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfi., Tab. XX XI, fig. 1, a—d. Hewitson,
1 kd.....pl. CVI, fig; 15 01. Wd. 1p. XV, ies dg A a ee
fig. 1. Baedeker, Tab. 52, fig. 1. Taczanowski, Tab. XX XVIII, fig. 1.
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 11; id. Col. Fig. pl. 54. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 6—8.
Krause, pl. —, fig. 1—36.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Tuhiyk Sediwy. Denmark: Graa
Tornskade. Finland: Isompi-Lepinkdinen. France: Pie-griéche. Germany:
Grauwiirger. Helgoland: Groot Verwoahrfink. Holland: Klopekster.
Hungary: Nagy Grgebics. Italy: Averla maggiore. Norway: Varsler.
Poland: Dzierzba srokosz. Sweden: Stérre Tornskata.

Lanius excubitor L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I. p. 199. Dresser, Birds of
Europe, UI, p. 375; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 228. Saunders, Man. p. 147.
L. excubitor excubitor L. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 418.

Breeding Range: Continental Europe, excepting the Iberian,

Italian, and Balkan Peninsulas and S. Russia.

In Scandinavia and N. Russia this bird is only a summer visitor,
and is nowhere very common. In Norway scattered pairs are met with
even in the birch region of E. Finmark, but it is scarce in the 8. of
the country, while in Sweden it is perhaps least common in the N.
In Russia its eastern limit appears to extend beyond the Urals to the
lower part of the Ob valley (lat. 673°). It is very scarce in the Russian
Baltic Provinces, and has not been recorded of late years as breeding
in Denmark, but is fairly generally distributed throughout Germany in
suitable localities as a resident or partial migrant, though always local.
On the moors of Brabant and Belgium it is not uncommon, and is found
in small numbers in most parts of France excepting Brittany, Poitou,
and the Mediterranean district. In Switzerland it breeds not only in the
plain but also in the valleys up to heights of 4000 and even 5500 ft.
in the Alps and Jura. A few pairs appear to breed in the valleys on
the Italian side of the Alps, while in Austria and Hungary it is tolerably
common, and has been known to breed in Carinthia.

The haunts chiefly affected by this bird are the edges of forests,
clumps of trees on moorlands, and orchards. Here it chooses a site
which provides a wide outlook, and generally builds its nest at a con-

231

siderable height above the ground. A favourite site is far out on the
horizontal bough of a big oak, but frequently a fruit tree in an orchard
is utilized, and in Brabant it often builds in a pine. Occasionally nests
have been recorded in big thorn bushes, and on one occasion on the
ground in a bush in Saxony! but this last site is of course quite ab-
normal. In northern Europe the nest is generally placed in a birch,
It is a bulky and characteristic structure, consisting of a foundation of
twigs or heather stems, but chiefly composed of dead grasses and moss
or leaves, lined with roots, bits of wool and hair, with a thick layer of
feathers, which give an untidy look to the nest. Flowers of Achillea
mulefoliwm are also sometimes used. It is deep and warm, measuring
about 3+—4 in. across the interior, and 2}—-3 in. in depth. The cock
bird occupies some commanding perch in the neighbourhood of the nest,
and shows considerable courage in driving away birds of prey, crows, etc.,
especially after the young have been hatched. In some cases the same
locality, and it is said even the same site and nest, is occupied year
after year.

Usually 5 to 7 in number, but clutches of 8 have been occasionally
recorded from Central Europe, and a nest with 9 eggs was found by
S. A. Davies on the Muonio River in 1904. They are not subject to
much variation, and have but little gloss. The ground colour varies from
greyish or very pale greenish grey to greyish buff, blotched and spotted
with darker and lighter olive brown and underlying markings of purplish
grey. As a rule the markings tend to form a zone or cap at the big
end. Krause figures a clutch from Transylvania, with a distinctly green
ground, like the eggs of L. minor.

In mid Europe the eggs are generally laid during the last fortnight
of April or early in May*. If these are taken a second clutch is laid
two or three weeks later, and often a third, but as a rule this Shrike
is single brooded. OC. Sachse however records one case where 4 eggs
were found on June 17 after the young of the first brood of the same
birds had flown. In Lapland the breeding season is much later, and the
eggs are laid late in May or early in June. Incubation is said to last
15 days, and the hen is a close sitter.

Average size of 117 eggs from Germany, Holland etc. (42 by Rey,
38 by Bau and 37 by the writer), 26.28>< 19.28 mm., Max. 30.5 =< 19
and 28 >< 20.5; Min. 23><18.9 and 25.1><18 mm. Average weight
283 mg. (Rey); 302 mg. (Bau). Lapland eggs are slightly larger:
average of 34, 26.9><19.7 mm., Max. 29.5><19.5 and 28.5 >< 20.5;
Min. 26 >< 19 mm. (Wasenius).

* Seebohm’s statement that in Brabant the eggs are not laid till late in May
is erroneous, and the nests brought to him were obviously second layings,

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Kurope.

Nest.

Eggs.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

232

b. Homeyer’s Grey Shrike, L. excubitor homeyeri Cab.

L. excubitor homeyeri Cab. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 420.

Breeding Range: S. Russia and the lower Danube. [Also W.
Siberia. |

This race appears to be sparingly distributed through 8S. Russia,
but nowhere common, from Moscow southward to the Black Sea. It is
known to have bred in Kazan, Charkow, Astrakhan and Uralsk. Pro-
bably its range extends also to Rumania and Bulgaria, though according
to Reiser definite proof is still wanting. (Hastward it is found in Siberia
as far as the Yenesei.)

A full description by H. Johansen of a nest near Tomsk will be
found in the Ornith. Jahrbuch, 1900, p. 28.

The 7 eggs taken by Johansen averaged 28.3 >< 19.8 mm. in size:
Max. 29.5 >< 20 and 28.2 >< 20.2, Min. 27.3 >< = 5. They were some-
what incubated on May 6

¢. Southern Grey Shrike, L. excubitor meridionalis Temm.
Plate 24, fig. 7, 8 (Malaga).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XX XI, fig. 3, a, b. Baedeker,
Tab. 52, fig. 3. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 15, 16.

Foreign Names: France: Pie-griéche meridionale. Portugal:
Picanso. Spain: Alcaudon real.

L. meridionalis Temm. Dresser, Birds of Europe, HI, p. 387; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 234. L. excubitor meridionalis Temm. Hartert, Vog.
Pal. Fauna, p. 424.

Breeding Range: The Iberian Peninsula and Provence.

In the Iberian Peninsula this Shrike occurs locally in suitable
districts throughout the 8. and E., but has apparently not been observed
in the N. W. Its favourite haunts are wild, uncultivated districts, over-
grown with patches of scrub and a few trees. In such localities it is
not uncommon, especially in Andalucia, Granada, Murcia and Valencia.
In France it is resident in the Provinces bordering on the Mediterranean
eastward to Nice, and has occurred along the Pyrenean range and in
the S. of the conntry. It has also been met with singly along the
north-western coast of Italy (Liguria, Tuscany etc.).

In Spain many nests are placed in the middle of thick, bramble
covered, or thorny bushes, sometimes not more than 2 or 3 ft. from the
ground, but generally higher. Sometimes however the nest is placed on
the bough of a small tree, much like that of the Mistle Thrush at home,
and in such cases is rarely more than 8 or 10 ft. high. It is a bulky,
rather untidy-looking structure composed of a few twigs and large quan-
tities of coarse grasses, lined with finer grass and a few feathers.

233

Feathers, bits of rag, lichens, and generally bits of cudweed are woven
into the exterior of the nest. When built on to a bough some clay is
also used as a foundation. The internal diameter varies from 3+ to 5 in.
In the Camargue this bird is said to be partial to isolated fir trees.

Usually 4 to 6 in number, but 7 have occasionally been met with.
As compared with eggs of the Northern form, the spots are as a rule
of a much richer and warmer brown. Sometimes the spots are evenly
distributed, but well zoned eggs are not uncommon, and some clutches
have very bold zones of rich brown on a very light stone coloured ground.

Somewhat irregular, for the first eggs may be found in the second
week of March, while on the other hand many pairs do not breed till
mid-April, and where the birds have been disturbed, fresh eggs may be
taken late in May, and even in early June.

Average of 117 eggs (92 by the writer and 25 by Rey) from Spain,
27.55 >< 19.57 mm., Max. 30.1 >< 20.1 and 26 >< 20.5: Min. 24 >< 18.2.
Average weight, 298 mg. (Rey).

[Of the other forms of Great Grey Shrike, the following occur in
the W. Palaearctic region. a. Algerian Grey Shrike, LZ. excubitor
algeriensis Less. Has occurred in Italy. The egg is figured in the Cat.
Eggs Brit. Mus. IV. pl. XII. fig. 16. Breeds in N. Marocco and Algeria,
and nests in thorny bushes, laying 4—7 eggs, as a rule, but not
always, paler than those of the northern form. Average of 39 eggs
(24 by Koenig and 15 by the writer), 26.57 >< 19.31 mm., Max. 29 >< 20:
Min. 24> 17. Average weight of 13 eggs, 262 mg. (Kénig)*. The
breeding season is irregular, as eggs may be found from early in April
to early in June. b. Canarian Grey Shrike, L. excubitor koenigi Hart.
(Plate 34, fig. 12—15). Breeds in the Canaries. Eggs 4—6, generally
rather warm in colouring, may be found from March onward. Average
of 66 eggs measured by the writer, 25.46 >< 19.26 mm., Max. 28.2 >< 19.3
and 27.3><20.7; Min. 23><19 and 25><18.2. Average weight of
15 eggs, 268 mg. c. Pallid Grey Shrike, L. e. elegans Sw. replaces the
Algerian Shrike 8. of the Atlas in Algeria and Tunis. (Eggs figured in
J. f. O., 1896, Tab. VI, fig. 6, a-f.) Average of 81 eggs (39 by Konig,
33 by Hrlanger, and 9 by the writer), 25.81 >< 19.25 mm., Max. 28 >< 20
and 25><21; Min. 22><17. Average weight of 39 eggs, 267 mg.
(Kénig). They resemble those of L. e. algeriensis, but vary considerably.
d. Dodson’s Shrike, Z. e. dodsonti Whit. is found in Middle and South
Marocco and also appears to range into Tunis along the mountains.
e. Palestine Grey Shrike, ZL. e. auchert Bp., breeds from the Red Sea
and Palestine eastward to Persia and Beluchistan. (Egg figured in Cat.

* The measurements and figures in Rey’s work under ZL. algeriensis refer to
L. e. koenigi.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measgure-
ments

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

234

Eggs Brit. Mus. IV, pl. XII, fig. 14.) The eggs, 4—5, sometimes 6 in
number, vary greatly in’ character, sometimes being very pale and at
other times boldly blotched and spotted like those of L. e. meridionalis.
Average of 56 eggs from Palestine measured by the writer, 26.66 >< 19.47 mm.,
Max. °30'S< 19 “and! 27 ><°21/2>) Min. “24:57><99:3" and 26.458:
f. Przewalski’s Shrike, L. e. preewalskii Bogd. which inhabits Turkestan,
the Desert of Gobi, etc., occurs in 8S. E. Russia in winter occasionally.
(The American Great Grey Shrike, Z. e. borealis Vieill. (Plate 42, fig.
5—10) inhabits the northern parts of N. America, and its supposed
occurrence in the Old World is erroneous.) ]

105. Woodchat, Lanius senator L.
Geographical Races.

a. European Woodchat, L. senator senator L.
Plate 24, fig. 1O—19 (Magdeburg, Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XX XI, fig. 8, a—f. Hewitson,
Pd, 1, pl. CVIN, fig. 23: Tl Md. Tepk XV; te: 2; dubia! plexes
fig. 2. Baedeker, Tab. 52, fig. 5. Taczanowski, Tab. XX XIX, fig. 2.
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 11; id. Col. Fig. pl. 54. Frohawk, Br. Birds,
I, pl. Ill, fig. 109. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 18—25.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Tuhyk rudohlavyjy. Denmark: Réd-
hovedet Tornskade. France: Pie-griéche rousse. Germany: Rotkdpfiger
Wiirger. Greece: Kephalas. Helgoland: Road-héaded Verwoahrfink.
Holland: Roodkoppige Klaauwier. Hungary: Vordsfegu gébics. Italy:
Averla capirossa. Poland: Dezierzba rdzawokarceysta. Portugal: Picanso.
Russia: Sorokoput. Spain: Alecawdon. Sweden: Rodhufrade tornskata.
Lanwus auriculatus P. L. 8. Miill. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 215.
Dresser, Birds of Europe, HI, p. 407; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 246. J.
pomeranus Sparrm. Saunders, Man. p. 153. L. senator senator L.
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 434.

Breeding Range: Continental Europe, 8. of the N. Sea, Denmark,
and the Baltic. [Also N. Africa.]

The Woodchat is said to have bred on two occasions in the Isle
of Wight, and there is some reason to believe that it has also nested
in Hants on at least one occasion.

It is a very common summer visitor to all the countries bordering
on the Mediterranean, and in some districts the breast of the male forms
a conspicuous spot of white on the top of almost every bush. In the
Iberian peninsula it is abundant except in the northern provinces, and
is also numerous in Italy on the low ground, especially in the S., and
is one of the commonest birds in the olive groves of Greece. It breeds

235

commonly on Sicily, and also on Malta and the Balearic Isles. North-
ward it is found, though in diminishing numbers, as far as Normandy;
while it is not uncommon in Brabant, and occurs locally in Germany,
especially in the 8. and W., though decidedly scarce in the N. Further E.
its distribution is less exactly known, but it is found in the Black Sea pro-
vinces of Russia and also in the Caucasus. [Also in Asia Minor and the
Barbary States, though some authors regard the N. African race as distinct
(ZL. senator rutilans). In Crete and Cyprus it is decidedly scarce. |

In the great Kuropean plain this bird haunts park lands, copses,
orchards, etc., and places its nest on the fork of a bough of some tree,
generally not less than 12 or 15 ft. from the ground. It is neatly built
of roots, stalks, moss, lichens etc., with a few twigs in the foundation,
and lined with wool, finer grasses, hair, or feathers. Flowering plants
are also frequently interwoven (Capsella, Veronica, Stellaria, etc.) In
southern Europe the nest may be found occasionally in bushes only a
few feet from the ground, as well as in olive, ilex, pine, orange and
other trees. Here frequently cudweed (Gnaphalium luteo-albwm) is largely
used as building material, the plants being pulled up by the roots
and woven together.* Diameter of cup 27 in; depth, 1;—2 in.

Usually 5—6, occasionally 7 in number. They bear a strong
resemblance to those of ZL. collurio, although there is less variation in a
series, and the type with a distinctly red ground is not found in ZL.
senator. The ground colour is usually pale greenish, occasionally brownish
yellow, and more rarely cream colour or almost white. One clutch from
Greece (Brit. Mus.) has a pale blue ground, and one or two sets have
a salmon pink ground, though not so deep as in the reddest eggs of
L. collurio. The markings are usually in the form of a zone round the
large end, and consist of greyish brown spots and underlying shell
markings of grey or lilac.

In mid-Europe the eggs are laid in May, often about the middle
of the month, but in Brabant seldom before the 25th. In S. Spain
many nests may be found with eggs in the last weeks of April, but
even there some birds do not lay till mid-May. In Greece Kriiper
gives mid-May as the average date for eggs. The birds are not
at all shy, and the hen sits closely. Incubation is said to last for
14—15 days.

Average of 100 European eggs (73 by Rey and 27 by the writer),
P28 Solos mim. Max, 27 >< 17 and /23.9S< 17.8; Min, «21 ><15.9
and 22,1 >< 15.7. Reiser records abnormal eggs measuring 29.1 >< 15.5,
24.6 >< 18.3, 20><15 and 19>< 15.1. Average weight, 191 mg. (Rey).

* In Tunisia Whitaker states that the nests are often studded over with the
flowers of Hvax pygmaea.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Nest.

236

Konig gives the average size of 23 N. African eggs as 23.74 >< 17.17
mm., weight 207 mg.

b. Sardinian Woodchat, L. senator badius Hartl.
L. senator badius Hartl. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 437.

Breeding Range: Corsica and Sardinia.

An abundant summer visitor to the low lying districts of these
islands, nesting generally in the cork trees at 8 to 20 ft., during the last
days of May and early in June.

Nest built of lichens, flowering grass heads, roots and a few twigs:
lined with fibres and a few feathers. The hen sits very closely. White-
head found one clutch of salmon coloured eggs out of about 20 nests
examined. The 5—6 eggs are rather large: 31 measured by the writer
average 23.66 >< 17.46 mm., Max. 26><17.5 and 22.2><18.2, Min.
22.2 >< 18.2 and 22.3 >< 16.6. :

[Palestine and S. Persia are inhabited by another race, L. senator
niloticus (Bp.), the eggs of which are figured in the Ibis, 1905, pl. XI,
ite. 4, 7.|

106. Masked Shrike, Lanius nubicus Licht.
Plate 62, fig. 1 (Smyrna, 1. V. 06).

Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 52, fig. 7. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 26—28, 31.
Lanius nubicus Licht. Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 417; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 247. MHartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 438.

Breeding Range: Formerly in Greece, but now extinct there.
[Also Asia Minor, Cyprus, Palestine and 8S. W. Persia.]

Formerly this species appears to have been a regular summer visitor
to the country near Athens, but according to Reiser there is no definite
record of its breeding since 1864. It is included in the British list,
an adult male having been obtained in Kent on July 11, 1905. [It is
plentiful in Asia Minor, and is the commonest Shrike near Smyrna.
Guillemard found it breeding on the northern side of Cyprus, and it is
also not uncommon in the wooded parts of Palestine and in the oak
woods of Fars, in S. W. Persia.]

The nest is very neatly and strongly built, and often has frag-
ments of rag, thread, etc. woven into the exterior, while the interior is
lined with fine roots or fibres. It is only about half the size of an
average nest of DL. minor or L. senator. Selous describes the nest as
usually built in an olive tree, 8—10 ft. above the ground, on a thick
branch, in the same situation that a Mistle Thrush’s nest might occupy.
Kriiper however frequently found nests half covered by pendant foliage
on an upright bough in olives, pomegranates etc. The parent birds are
much shyer and more retiring in their habits than most Shrikes.

237

According to Kriiper it is double brooded, laying 6—7 eggs in the
first brood, and 4—5, sometimes only 3, in the second. A clutch of 8
eggs is said to have been taken in Greece. They are very characteristic
of the species, although Shrike-lke in type, having the ground colour
creamy buff (in rare instances very pale, almost white) and a zone of
umber brown blotches or spots and purplish grey underlying shell marks
round the big end. They vary less than most Shrikes’ eggs, but a set
from Palestine has a distinctly reddish ground (Brit. Mus.), and both
markings and ground colour differ in intensity.

In Palestine eggs may be found from April 10 onwards: Witherby
found fresh eggs in Persia on April 20, while Kriiper gives the average
date for the first brood near Smyrna as mid-May; and the second in June,
but some birds begin to lay at the end of April and eggs have been
taken as late as July 4.

Average of 100 eggs from Palestine and Asia Minor measured
by the writer, 20.73 >< 15.73 mm., Max. 23>< 16.5 and 22><16.6,
Min. 19 < 15.2 and 20.5 >< 14.4.

107. Red backed Shrike, Lanius collurio L.
Plate 25, fig. 1—17 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XX XI, fig. 9, a—f. Hewitson,
ia Pop, i ie 3s Ed! 1 / pl XV, fie. 3) 4; Ti Bde tpl Xow
fig. 3, 4. Baedeker, Tab. 52, fig. 6. Taczanowski, Tab. XL, fig. 1, 2.
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 11; id. Col. Fig. pl. 54. Frohawk, Br. Birds,
I, pl. HI, fig. 104—108. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 1—5. Krause, pl. —,
fig. 1—36. Nest: O. Lee, IV, p. 16.

British Local Names: Butcher Bird, Pope, Nine killer, Flusher.
Welsh: Y cigydd cefn goch.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Tuhyk obecny. Denmark: Tornskade.
Finland: Pienempi lepinkdinen. France: Ecorcheur. Germany: Rot-
rlickiger Wiirger. Greece: Aetomdchos. Holland: Graawv Klaawwier.
Hungary: Tovissziro gébics. Italy: Averla piccola. Norway: Rédrygget
Tornskade. Poland: Dzierzba cierniokret. Russia: Sorokoput Ivolan.
Sweden: Brunryggad Tornskata.

Lanius collurio L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 209. Dresser, Birds of
Europe, III, p. 399; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 237. Saunders, Man. p. 151.
Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 439.

Breeding Range: Great Britain, Europe from 64° N. to the
Cantabrian Mts., Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily (?), and the N. shores of the
Mediterranean. [Also Asia Minor and N. Palestine to N. Persia.]

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental-
Europe.

Nest.

238

The distribution in England of this summer visitor is somewhat
irregular, but it is generally to be met with on bush covered commons
and waste lands in the midland and southern counties of England and
Wales, 8. of lat. 53° N. It is however only a rare visitor to Cornwall,
and is scarce in Pembroke, but is not uncommon on the Merioneth
coast. In Lincolnshire it is rare, and is only a very local visitor in
small numbers to the northern counties, though it breeds occasionally in
W. Yorkshire, Lancashire, and the Lake District. It has been known
to nest on Anglesea, and a few pairs appear to extend their range
occasionally to S. E. Scotland, as for instance in 1893, when a pair
bred in Lanark. It does not breed in Ireland.

In the Iberian peninsula this species breeds only in the N., in
Catalonia, Aragon, and the country N. of the Cantabrian range. Tait
found a nest on the R. Minho, on the border of Pertugal and Galicia.
It apparently reaches Europe on migration via Italy. A few pairs are
said to breed in the wooded parts of Sicily, and it is not uncommon
on the hills of Sardinia and in Corsica, but is scarce in 8. Italy. In
the Balkan peninsula it is found as far S. as the middle region of the
higher mountains of Greece but not in the plains, and in the Caucasus
Radde states that it has been observed at a height of 6300 ft. as well
as in the low ground. Over the whole of middle Europe it is generally
distributed and in some districts very common. In Scandinavia it has
occurred in Sweden up to lat. 64°, and is common in the Christiania
district of Norway, while it is also numerous in the Russian Baltic
provinces and is found in Finland as far as Kuopio, and in Russia up
to about lat. 64°.

(In Asia Minor it is a mountain haunting species, and was only
found breeding on Hermon and Lebanon in Palestine by Tristram. It
is also found in Transcaspia and N. Persia, but probably the birds from
Transcaucasia to E. Persia belong to the race described by Buturlin as
L. collurio kobylini, if really distinct. |

Large for the size of the bird, and generally to be found in thorn
bushes, clumps of briars and brambles, low and thick, or straggling high
hedges, ete. On the Continent it is also frequently found in thick young
conifers, and occasionally among the lower boughs of medium sized trees,
especially oaks. Collett mentions a nest on a large root among high
grass! It is not uncommon to find the nest close to a road or well
used path. The usual height is about 3—5 ft. from the ground, but
some nests are not more than a foot or so above it and others have
been found as high as 9 and even 12 ft. The materials used are
generally bents, stalks, roots, etc., with a good deal of green moss,
while fine roots, wool, hair, and down are used for the lining. Some

239

nests from the Continent and Corsica are much more slightly built and
contain no moss. Diameter of cup, 2i—3 in., depth nearly 2 in. The
same locality is often resorted to year after year.

Usually 5—6, sometimes only 4 and occasionally 7, while a clutch
of 8 is said to have been found. They are very variable in colouring,
but may be classified according to the ground colour, which varies from
pure white to creamy, brownish, greenish, and pinkish. Exceptionally
sets have been met with bright greenish and deep reddish ground. The
three commonest types are the pink, green and cream, but the proportion
varies according to the locality. A clutch of white eggs taken by Major
Harington is entirely without markings, but as a rule the eggs are rather
sparingly spotted with some shade of brown or red, with underlying
blotches and spots of leaden grey, which often tend to form a zone.
Eggs with a pink or red ground have almost invariably warm sienna
brown or red spots, and those with a greenish ground are marked with
umber. The shape is usually rather a blunt, rounded oval, and the
texture fine, with slight gloss.

Although a few pairs both on the Continent and in England begin
to lay about mid May, the majority have full clutches towards the end
of May and early in June. Only one brood is reared, but if the eggs
are taken, the birds will lay again three or four times if necessary. The
breeding scason in Greece and Corsica is apparently no earlier than in
Middle Europe, but on Mt. Hermon Tristram took full clutches on May 16.

Rey gives the average size of 360 eggs as 22.1 >< 16.4 mm., Max.
25><16 and 22.6><18.3, Min. 18.3><15 and 22.2><14. Average
weight 186 mg. The largest ‘double’ egg measured 26.5 >< 19.3 (250
mg.) and the smallest dwarf 15.7 ><12 (80 mg.). Average weight of
22 full eggs, 3.239 g. (R. H. Read).

Isabelline Shrike, Lanius cristatus isabellinus H. & E.
Plate 24, fig. 9 (Kuldja).

Eggs: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 6, 7.
Lanius isabelliuus H. & KE. Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 413: Man. Pal. Birds,
p. 238 (part.) LL. cristatus isabellinus H. & E. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 444.

Breeding Range: Steppes of Mongolia and S. Dauria to Dzungaria and E.
Turkestan. One specimen obtained on Helgoland, Oct. 25, 1854.

In breeding habits it resembles its allies. Rey gives the average of 9 eggs as
; 22.84 & 16.86 mm., Max. 24.5 x 17.3 and 23.9 & 17.6, Min. 21.3 16.9 and 22.2 16.1.
Eggs from the S. of the Issyk Kul, probably of this bird, average 20.6 < 16.1 (Hartert).

[The eggs of L. cristatus cristatus L. (Plate 25; fig. 18—22, Siberia) are also
illustrated in the Ibis, 1905, pl. XI, fig. 6, 9. Rey gives the average of 31 eggs as
21.92 X 17.69 mm., Max. 25 x 18, Min. 20.3 16.8; Average weight of 5 eggs, 190 mg.
L. cristatus phoenicuroides (Sch.) breeds in Transcaspia, Turkestan etc. (Egg figured
in Br. Mus. Cat. Eggs, IV, pl. XIII, fig. 4; Dresser, pl. —, fig. 8—10.) Radde’s

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

240

Shrike, L. bogdanowi (Bian.) has been recorded from the E. Kirghis steppes and
Transcaspia. Eggs figured in Dresser, pl. —, fig. 11, 12, 16, 17; Ibis, 1905, pl. XI,
fig. 1—8. Another species which breeds in the W. Palaearctic region is the Hooded
Shrike, Telophonus senegalus cucullatus (Temm.), which is found in Marocco, Algeria,
and Tunis. Eggs figured by Dresser, pl. —, fig. 32, 33 (not in B. M. Cat. Eggs,
IV, pl. XIII, fig. 10, which probably represents an egg of L. algeriensis). The eggs »
of this genus are of quite a different type to those of Lanius, being streaked and
spotted with sienna and grey on a dull white ground. One egg measures 26.3 X 18.3 mm.]

AMPELIDAE.

108. Waxwing, Bombycilla garrula (L.).
Plate 8, fig. 5—9 (Lapland).

Eggs: Proc. Zool. Soc., 1857, pl. CX-XII (nest and eggs). Nau-
mannia, 1858, Taf. I, fig. 5—8. J. f. O., 1859, Tab. I, fig. a, b. Rev.
et Mag. de Zool., 1860, pl. 2, fig. 4. Ibis, 1861, pl. IV. Baedeker,
Tab. 52, fig. 20. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 11; id. Col. Fig. pl. 54.
Ootheca Wolleyana, Tab. X, fig. 1—25. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 29, 30,
34, 35.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Brkoslav. Denmark: Sidensvands.

Finland: Tilhi. France: Jaseur de Bohéme. Germany: Seidenschwane.
Helgoland: Siedenswenske. Holland: Pestvogel. Hungary: Csonttolla
madar, Italy: Becco frusone. Lapland: Péllje rastis. Norway: Sidens-
vans. Poland: Jemiolucha jedwabniczka. Russia: Swiristiel. Sweden:
Sidensvans.
Ampelis garrulus L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 523. Dresser, Birds of
Europe, III, p. 429; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 249. Saunders, Man.
p. 155. Bombycilla garrulus garrulus (L.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna,
p. 456.

Breeding Range: N. Scandinavia, N. Finland and Russia. [Also
the Arctic Zone of Asia and N. America, but S. to lat. 51° in the
Rocky Mts. |

Although Bjérkmann previously to 1842 described the eggs of this
bird accurately, his description of its breeding habits is quite at variance
with the facts, so that the whole credit of the discovery of the nesting
of the Waxwing is due to John Wolley and his devoted assistant L.
M. Knobloch. Full details may be found in the Jbis, 1861, p. 92—106,
Ooth. Wolleyana, I, p. 212—239, so that it is unnecessary here to repeat
them. The first full clutch was taken on June 11, 1856 by Knobloch
in Kemi Lappmark, and 29 eggs were obtained during that season. In
1857 Wolley himself took a deserted nest on June 16, but only five
nests were discovered by his collectors in spite of the utmost exertions.

1, 2 Black Vulture, Vultur monachus L.

A. Reichert, jain,

1—4 Common Buzzard, Buteo buteo (L.). 5—8 Rough legged Buzzard,
Buteo lagopus (Britnn.).

1—4 Sedge Warbler, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus (L.). 5—8 Aquatic Warbler, A. aquaticus (Gin.).
9—13 Great Reed Warbler, A. arundinaceus (L.).
14—17 Marsh Warbler, A. palustris Bechst. 18—21 Reed Warbler, A. streperus (Vieill.).
22-93 River Warbler, Locustella fluviatilis (Wolf.).

0

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69

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Stone Curlew, Oedicnemus oedicnemus L.

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: Phe rst an ef Mer. Joie. habe pies a ihirthar addition to the |
ues aha ‘on Oology now in progress. The letterpress is excellent. and gives
ay ( Piha fully detailed account of the nest and eggs of: each form,’ with references
aot 8 plates already published, — ‘and besides, what. is even ‘more ‘important }
i a We nowadays, a sketch of the breeding range of the different races that be y
./ 2 |° been hitherto described. We may. prefer the 12th ‘edition of ‘Linnaeus’s ©
; a) ih AG ‘Systema Naturae’ to the 10th, and may be not inclined to follow the author — sy
“closely as “regards nomenclature, but there ean. be only one opinion as to
_ |) ‘the necessity’ of an. exact knowledge of the Various. geographical races; at

maf and should their nests and: eges prove to differ, this should assuredly” be A}
|} made known. Moreover, any such differences. as, ‘exist should be reckoned —

aR their full’ worth in deciding the difficult question of, ‘the validity of the. | %
“various races. . . . Among the mary useful points in ‘the work ‘we may 7
“notice the lists of local British and foreign names of the birds, the references if “g
' to other forms: the: range. of which abuts. ‘upon the: European ‘area,’ | the oe i
Oe t “measurements of the eggs, and the determination of the approximate weight |
ie ie lof. the shells... Tt. is’ of course impossible, £0. avoid occasional slips, SS
) ~ but the comparative insignificance and infrequency of these ‘inaccuracies. ‘only.
strengthens our opens of the pest ert ih x Jourdain’ Ss work,” Pie
| Ibis, 1908, p. 722. f
| - So far as we are able to judge from the ast cee ‘this work has:

APY od

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ia, oh ‘season, etc. — and. gage geal: of Hanae ore ‘beparcic as ‘vel, |
: ~ first hand knowledge on the’ part. of” the author. The work’ is. to. e
uy pe A | completed in about 10) parts, containing ‘some: 140 oloured plates, and
|” | promises to be: an excellent one in all’ veapecta,” ‘
| Natural History, 1906, Px LORS : ee,
| “We have now before us’ the first part of Mr. Tcuiedain's ‘pibloatgOn Parr:
ae This is announced to be completed in’ about ‘ten parts, containing about. Po) |
'» 4 one hundred and forty coloured plates. Geographical races are fully recognized |
en ant described, and. the nomenclature recommended \ ‘by. the Fifth ‘International ’ 3
ee Lente posh has been adopted. ‘This pace’ contains biaioga

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241

In the following year however great numbers bred in the district,
and 150 nests containing 666 eggs were taken by Knobloch and _ his
assistants. In the same year Dresser found a nest with fledged young
on the island of Sandén, 27 miles from Uleaborg, and Keitel also ob-
tained over 20 eggs near the Muonio River, and since that date the
eggs have been taken in varying numbers almost annually. The breeding
range of this species is now known to extend from the extreme N. of
Norway (Varanger Fjord and R. Tana) to about lat. 65° in Sweden,
while there is some evidence that a few pairs may breed sporadically
even in the 8. of Norway, but confirmation of this is needed. In Fin-
land its southern limit is probably the Kuopio district, while in N.
Russia Pleske describes it as common in the Olonetz governement, N. of
L. Onega and by the White Sea, and it is also known to breed in the
Archangel government. [It is also found in Siberia and Alaska, as well
as along the Rocky Mountains to about 51°. For details see Macoun,
Cat. Canadian Birds, p. 556].

Usually found in swampy forest, in conifers (spruce generally but
sometimes in Scotch fir or birch), at a height of about 9—15 ft., though
in stunted birches it has been known to nest only 4 ft. from the ground.
The usual breeding site is not in thick forest, but in somewhat open
spaces, among young or stunted trees. Sometimes the nest is placed
close to the trunk, but usually out on a bough. The foundation consists
of dry spruce twigs, and the materials are generally dark lichens (Usnea)
interwoven with a little grass. Occasionally a little down, a feather or
two, or a little Reindeer hair, are found in the lining. The whole nest
is about 7 in. across, while the diameter of the cup is about 3 in. and
2 in. deep.

Usually 5 or 6 in number, occasionally only 4.* In a large series
there is considerable variation in shape and size, but most eggs are a
somewhat rounded oval. The ground colour is ashy grey as a rule,
sometimes ashy blue, and at other times tinged with olive brown. Occa-
sionally it is so light as to be almost white. The markings consist of
rounded spots of black, or dark blackish brown sometimes with blurred
edges, sparsely distributed over the surface, with underlying blotches or
spots of lavender grey. In rare instances bold streaks are found and a
clutch in the Cambridge Museum has the markings almost obsolete. An
occasional tendency to erythristic colouring is also rarely met with.

Extends from the beginning to nearly the end of June in Lapland,
but most eggs are found during the second week of the month.

Average size of 100 eggs (64 by the writer, 25 by Rey, and 11 by
Westerlund), 24.03 >< 17.29, Max. 28.3 >< 18 (Cambr. Mus.) and 24.8 >< 18.8,

* One nest with 7 eggs was brought in by Wolley’s collectors.

16

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

242

Min. 21.1 >< 16.3 and 25>< 15.7. <A dwarf in the Cambridge Museum
is only 16 >< 13.5 mm. Rey gives the average weight as 208 mg.

[BRACHYPODIDAE.

Dusky Bulbul, Pycnonotus barbatus (Desf.)

Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 76, fig. 15. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 1,2.

Pycnonotus barbatus (Desf.). Dresser, Birds of Europe, III, p. 353; id. Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 222. P. barbatus barbatus (Desf.). Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 460.

Breeding Range: Marocco, Algeria and Tunis. Doubtfully recorded from
S. Spain.

The range of this bird appears to extend further S. in Marocco than in Algeria
or Tunis, where it is confined to the coutry N. of. the Atlas. It breeds in low trees
or in large bushes, building a nest of roots, grasses, etc., with creeping plants woven
into the exterior and lined with finer roots. Near the coast of Marocco it haunts
gardens and orange groves, but in the Atlas it occurs in the moist woods up to
7000 ft., and in the scrub covered hills of Tunis. The eggs are 3—4 in number,
thin shelled, pinkish white in ground colour, irregularly marked with deep red-brown
and varying shades of purplish grey over the whole surface. The breeding season
is rather late, and eggs may be found in the latter part of May and in June.
Average size of 17 eggs measured by the writer, 24.35 x 16.91 mm, Max 26 X 17.2
and 24.6 X 18.5, Min. 22.117 and 24 x 16.4.

In middle Egypt another very distinct race, P. barbatus arsinoe (Licht.) re-
places this form, and in Palestine from the Taurus to the Sinai peninsula, a second
species, the Palestine Bulbul, P. capensis xanthopygos (H. & E.), is found in gardens
and wooded districts. Eggs: Plate 36, fig. 5—8 (Beirut); J. f. O., 1879, Taf. 1,
fig. 4,5; Dresser, pl. —, fig. 3, 4; Cat. Eggs. Br. Mus. III, pl. X, fig. 19 (var.).
This bird was formerly erroneously supposed to occur in the Greek Archipelago.
The small and neatly built nest is placed on the fork of a tree and covered exter-
nally so as to mutch the adjoining bark. The eggs, 3—4 in number, are variable in
colouring, but are generally spotted and streaked irregularly with chocolate red,
shading into crimson, and underlying purple grey on a greyish white ground. Some
eggs have very bold blotches of colour, while the egg figured in the Br. Mus. Cat.
Eggs has the dark markings altogether wanting and is covered with dense lilac mott-
lings. The breeding season is early, for some have already young in March, while
others do not lay till late in April. Average size of 45 eggs (20 by the writer,
17 by Rey, and 8 by Le Roi, Hartert and Miller), 24.14 « 16.82 mm., Max. 28.8 X 17.1

and 25.1 X 17.7, Min. 21.8 X 16.6 and 23X15. Average weight, 173 mg. (Rey);
183 mg. (Le Roi, 3 eggs).]

MUSCICAPIDAE

(including Sylviidae, Turdidae and Timeliidae).
109. Spotted Flycatcher, Muscicapa striata (Pall.).
Plate 37, fig. 7—14 (Germany): 41, fig. 9 (Anhalt, 2. VII. 70).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. X XIX, fig. 7, a—c. Hewitson,
I, Ed. 1, (pl. Vill, fig: 2,935 Heo Bd: 1p eV he. ae

243

pl. XXI, fig. 1. Baedeker, Tab. 52, fig. 11. Taczanowski, Tab. XLI,
fig. 1. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 9: id. Col. Fig. pl. 51. Frohawk, Br.
Birds, I, pl. III, fig. 111—113. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 1—5. Nest: O. Lee,
Ill, p. 108.

British Local Names: Beam, Wall, Post, Rafter, or Bee Bird,
Cherry Sucker, Wall Robin or Chat. Welsh: Cylionydd, Gwybedog.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Lejsek sedwy. Denmark and Norway:
Graa Fluesnapper. France: Gobe-mouche gris. Germany: Grauer Fliegen-
fanger. Holland: Vliegenvanger. Hungary: Sztirke légykapo. Italy:
Piglhiamosche. Poland: Mucholowka szara. Portugal: Taralhio. Spain:
Papa moscas. Russia: Pienka. Sweden: Gra Flugsnappare.

Muscicapa grisola lL. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 220. Dresser,
Birds of Kur., Il, p. 447; id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 253. Saunders, Man.
p. 157. MM. striata striata (Pall.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 475.

Breeding Range: The British Isles and Continental Europe,
except N. Finmark, the Murman coast and N. EH. Russia. [Also N. W.
Africa, but W. Asiatic birds belong to another race, MW. striata newmanni
Poche. |

This familiar little summer visitor is generally distributed in all the
wooded districts of Great Britain, but becomes scarce in the N. of Scot-
land, and does not breed in the Outer Hebrides or the Shetlands. It is
said to have nested in the Orkneys, and has certainly done so in Suther-
land and Caithness, as well as in Skye and some of the wooded islands
on the W. coast of Scotland, such as Mull and Jura. It breeds in
Anglesey and the Isle of Man.; and has been known to nest in every
Irish county, though somewhat local and not common there.

It is found in suitable localities throughout the Continent, except in
the extreme N. of Norway and N. Russia. In the former country it is only
absent from that part of Finmark N. of lat. 70°, but in Russia it breeds
in the Kola Peninsula up to 682°, and is common near Archangel, but
appears to be absent from the eastern part of the Archangel government.
Southward its range extends to the Mediterranean, and it is also com-
mon on the islands, nesting at a considerable height in the mountain
forests of Corsica and Sardinia. {In N. Africa it breeds as far S. as
lat. 31° in Marocco, also in the mountains of North Algeria and Tunisia,
and probably also in Tripoli. Hartert ascribes the Palestine bird to
M. s. newmanni |

In England this bird is one of the latest migrants to arrive, and
is generally met with in gardens, parks, edges of woods, etc., appearing
to prefer the neighbourhood of houses. It is however equally at home
high up in the mountain forests of Corsica, breeding in crevices of the

16*

British
Tsles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

244

broken pines, many miles from any human habitation. In its choice of
a nesting site it shows great adaptability. Most nests are placed in a
recess or hollow of some kind and partly sheltered from above, but the
sites are very variable. Some are placed in a hollow or against the
trunk of a tree, supported by the outgrowing twigs, others on projecting
beams, on trellis work, or even in or under spouting on houses, while
many nests are placed on branches of fruit trees or creepers trained to
walls and in holes of walls. A common site is on the hinge of an out-
house door; and a good many instances are on record in which the nest
of some other species of bird has been taken possession of or built upon.
Among these we may mention the Song Thrush, Mistle Thrush, Black-
bird, Dipper, Goldfinch, Chaffinch, Hawfinch, Swallow and House Martin.
The wisps of flood wrack on trees near rivers are sometimes used as
breeding places, and occasionally a nest has been found in a hedge,
elder, gorse, or holly bush, in a standard rose tree, or on a ledge of rock.
In default of more natural sites the bird has been known to nest in a
cup, on a stove (see Yarrell, I, p. 222), inside lanterns, dried hedgehog’s
skin, or skull of fallow deer, etc. These nesting places are often occu-
pied for many years in succession, and sometimes the remains of the old
nest are re-lined and made to do duty again. Where alternative sites
are available, the same nest is seldom used twice in one season. The
amount of material used varies according to the site, but generally the
nest is composed of moss, with a few stalks and roots, and sometimes
cobwebs, lichens, and strips of honeysuckle bark, while the lining con-
sists generally of hair, sometimes wool, rabbit down, and fine roots, with
occasionally a feather or two.* Few birds will brook more interference
with their nesting arrangements, and Gurney (Zool. 1858, p. 6238) gives
an extraordinary instance of pertinacity in choice of a breeding place.

Occasionally 4, but usually 5 and rarely 6 in number. When a
second brood is reared the number seldom exceeds 3—4. The ground
colour varies from reddish or yellowish white to pale greenish blue or
sea green, which however soon fades. Some eggs are freckled all over
with fine red-brown spots and underlying purplish brown markings so
as to obscure the ground, others have these markings concentrated into
a cap or zone at the big end, while a third type is sparsely marked
with fine spots or bold blotches, and sometimes a set is found with a
blue ground and entirely devoid of markings. A curious variety in which
the colouring matter of the markings is concentrated into one big dia-
gonally placed cap, is figured on Pl. 41. There is little or ‘no gloss on
the eggs.

* In towns cigarette papers and wax matches have been used as nesting
materials.

245

This varies little: most eggs are found at the end of May or early
in June. In the Mediterranean they may be met with from May 22,
and about mid June in the high N. Incubation is performed by the
hen, and lasts 14 days, while the young remain in the nest about 12 days
after hatching. When a second brood is reared the eggs are laid early
in July or occasionally as late as the beginning of August.

Average of 100 eggs (58 by Rey and 42 by the writer), 18.35 ><
13:83 mm., Max. 21.3 >< 14.3 and 19.6 < 15.1, Min. 16.4 >< 13.5 and
17.1 >< 13.2. Bau gives the average of 84 eggs as 18.4 < 13.6 mm.
Average weight, 115 mg. (Rey); 133 mg. (Bau). Average weight of
9 full eggs, 1.990 g. (N. H. Foster).

Brown Flycatcher, Muscicapa latirostris Raffl.

Hees: J. f QO... 1873) Pak oT fie. 16:

Alseonax latirostris (Raffl.). Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 352.
M. latirostris Raffl. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 477.

Breeding Range: EH. Siberia to Lake Baikal, Corea, Japan, N.
China and the Himalayas as far W. as Chamba, and apparently occa-
sionally in India. Has once occurred in Kent (May 21, 1909). C. In-
gram (Ibis, 1908, p. 140), describes the nest as a neat, lichen covered
cup, usually placed on the horizontal branch of a tree, close to the bole.
Eggs, 4 to 6, but usually 5, pale greyish green, occasionally unmarked,
but generally very faintly clouded or washed round the obtuse end with
light red. In Japan they are laid about the third or fourth week in
May, but in June in Siberia. Average size of 6 eggs (Taczanowski),
16.7 >< 13.5 mm.

110. Pied Flycatcher, Muscicapa atricapilla L.
Geographical Races.

a. Common Pied Flycatcher, M. atricapilla atricapilla L.

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. X XIX, fig. 9, a, b. Hewitson,
ehids, pl VL) fies 15H. Kd., pl XVI, fig./2 >) UO Wid; ypl: EXT fie. 2.
Baedeker, Tab. 52, fig. 12. Taczanowski, Tab. XLI, fig. 2. Seebohm,
ir? Birds; | pl69);) id. ‘Colt Wig!' pl. 52.7) Wrohawk, Br. Birds; 1, pli
fig. 110. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 7,8.

British Local Names: Coldfinch (obs.). Laal Magpie (Cumber-
land). Welsh: Gwybedog du a Gwyn.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Lejsek cernohlavy. Denmark and
Norway: Broget Fluwesnapper. Finland: Mustakirjava parmaalintu. France:
Gobe-mouche noir. Germany: Trauer Fliegenfdnger. Holland: Zwaart

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

246

graauwwe Vliegenvanger. Hungary: Kormos légykapo. Italy: Balia nera.
Poland: Mucholéwka zZalobna. Portugal: Papa moscas. Russia: Mucho-
lowka, Spain: Cerrojillo. Sweden: Svart-och-huit Flugsnappare.

Muscicapa atricapilla L. Newton, ed Yarrell, I, p. 229. Dresser,
B. of. Europe, III, p. 453 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 254. Saunders, Man.,
p. 159. MM. atricapilla atricapilla L. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 480.

Breeding Range: Hurope, from 70° in Scandinavia, 65° in Fin-
land and 57° in the Urals, south to Spain, Italy, and Austro- Hungary:
locally in Great Britain.

The main breeding grounds of this species in Great Britain lie in
N. and Mid-Wales, and the N. of England, especially the Lake District
and the W. Riding of Yorkshire. In the Midlands and southern counties
many isolated instances of nesting are on record, but though some of
these are undoubtedly authentic, there is little doubt that many of them
are due to confusion caused by mistaking the blue unspotted type of
Pied Flycatcher’s egg for that of this species. In Wales it is scarce
along the N. coast and absent from Anglesey, but occurs locally in the
other counties except in the S. and S. W. It is most plentiful in
Merioneth, but is also not uncommon in the Usk and Wye valleys, and
in many localities in N. Wales, as well as in Salop. In Yorkshire it
breeds in some numbers in certain valleys of the W. Riding, and in
smaller numbers in the N. Riding, while the Lake District is one of its
main haunts. In Northumberland and Durham it is scarce, but it occa-
sionally breeds in Scotland S. of the Forth and Clyde, and has been
recorded as nesting in Kircudbright, Dumfries and Midlothian. Hargitt
obtained eggs from Inverness in 1864, and in 1890 and 1891 it probably
bred in the Moray area.

In Scandinavia its nesting limit extends to nearly 70° N., and on
the Norwegian fjeld it breeds as high as the birch region, but in Fin-
land its range does not extend beyond 65°, and in the Urals only to
57° N. Over the Continent it is generally distributed in suitable localities,
but is only locally common, and occasionally absent. Its southern limit
extends in the Iberian peninsula at least to Beira, and the elm avenues
of Aranjuez. Von Homeyer states that it breeds in the hills of the
Balearic Isles, but it appears to be of rare occurrence in Sardinia and
is only found on passage in Corsica. In Italy it becomes rare in the
southern provinces, but in the N. is found nesting in the plains as well
as in the mountains. There appears to be no record of its breeding in
the 8. Balkan peninsula, where it occurs on migration only, but appa-
rently a few pairs nest in the lower Danube valley.

This species is generally found breeding not far from running water,
and where holes for nesting purposes are available. For this reason it

247

is often noticed haunting old oaks or beeches, using natural hollows or
Woodpecker’s old holes, but will also breed in rotten stumps, sometimes
quite close to the ground. Holes in walls of loose masonry, or in the
gable end of an empty barn are also favourite sites, while nesting boxes
are frequently made use of, especially in Scandinavia. The nest is slight,
composed generally of a few dead leaves as foundation, upon which the
cup is formed of bents, moss, roots and fragments of the outer bark of
the Honeysuckle, lined with fine roots or sometimes Luzula. A few
feathers, hair, and wool are said to be occasionally found in the lining,
and cobwebs are also used at times. (As the same nesting sites are often
occupied for many years in succession, it probably pairs for life.) The
height from the ground varies from a few inches up to 30 ft. or more.
There are instances on record in which eggs have been laid in Blue
Tits’ nests, and also in which this species and the Redstart have been
found laying together.

Usually 6 or 7, sometimes only 5, but 8 and even 9 have been
known to occur. They are of a very delicate pale blue, thinner shelled
and of finer grain than those of the Redstart.

Some eggs are said to show traces of fine reddish spots, but such
cases must be exceedingly rare.

In Great Britain the earliest clutches may be found by mid-May, but
the best time is the last weeks of May and the first days of June. Only
one brood is reared, but second layings may be found in the latter half
of June when the first clutch has been taken. The hen sits very closely
and will sometimes allow herself to be lifted by hand from the eggs,
and when flushed from the nest is soon driven on again by the cock.
Incubation lasts about a fortnight.

Average size of 100 eggs (39 by Rey and 61 by the writer),
iSsG>< 13.44 mm, Max: 19.3 >< 13.5 and\1S >< 14.2; Min. Voir >< 1a6
and 17 ><12.1. A double egg in Reys collection measures 21.7 >< 15.3
and weighs 150 mg., while two dwarfs measure 16 >< 11.1 and 14.8>< 12.3.
Rey gives the average weight as 92 mg., and Bau as 89 mg. Average
weight of 18 full eggs, 1.591 g. (R. H. Read).

b. Caucasian Pied Flycatcher, M. atricapilla semitorquata Hom.

Muscicapa semitorquata Hom. Dresser, B. of Europe, IX, p. 173
and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 256. WM. atricapilla semitorquata Hom. Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 483.

Breeding Range: The Caucasus, Asia Minor, Persia.

Radde states that it breeds in the lower Aragwa valley, near Tiflis,
and also met with it up to 4000 ft. It apparently also nests in the

Eggs.

Breeding.
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

248

forests of the Kirghis steppes and in Transcaspia and is also common in
the valleys of the Elburz Mts. Nordmann also describes it as very
numerous on the E. coasts of the Black Sea.

A clutch of 6 eggs from the Caucasus averages 18.1 >< 13.24 mm. in
size@:)( Max. 18:5 >< 13.3iand)/18.2.>< 13:5; Minny 17.6 Sas.

[In the mountain forests of Algeria and N. Tunisia another race,
M. atricapilla speculigera Bp. is found locally.]

111. Collared Flycatcher, Muscicapa collaris Bechst.

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. X XIX, fig. 10, a, b. Baedeker,
Tab. 52, fig. 13. Taczanowski, Tab. XLII, fig. 2, 3. Dresser, pl.—,
fig. 9, pO):

Foreign Names: Denmark: Hvidhalset Fluesnapper. France:
Gobe-mouche a collier. Germany: Halsband-Fliegenschndpper. Hungary :
Orvis légykapé. taly: Pigliamoche a collare bianco. Russia: Mucho-
lowska belosheyka. Sweden: Halsbands-Flugsnappare.

Muscicapa collaris Bechst. Dresser, B. of Europe, III, p. 459 and
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 255. MHartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 483.

Breeding Range: Gotland: Central Europe, but rarely in France,
and absent from the Iberian and the S. of the Italian and Balkan Penin-
sulas; extending EH. to 8S. Russia.

This bird is closely allied to the preceding species and the females
are not easily distinguishable, but it appears to be spora-dically dis-
tributed in the breeding season over much the same districts, except that
its range does not extend so far to the N. and W. In Scandinavia it
has been recorded from Oland, southern Skane and near Goteborg, and
is known to breed regularly on Gotland and probably also on Borgholm
and Ottenby. In Germany it nests sporadically in small numbers, and :
is most numerous in the 8. W., Bavaria, Baden, Hesse to Brandenburg
and Silesia, and in France a few pairs are said to breed in Savoie, and
also in Holland and Belgium. There is little evidence of its presence in
Spain or Portugal, but in Italy Arrigoni states that it breeds in the
mountains of Venetia, Lombardy, Piedmont and Liguria, in the Tuscan
Apennines and possibly in Calabria. It is found sparingly in Switzer-
land, Styria, Carinthia, Moravia, Galizia etc., and occurs regularly on
passage in Greece, while in Russia it is said to breed fairly commonly
in the Crimea and also in the Uman district, and has been recorded as
far N. as S. Petersburg, Moscow and Kazan. [It occurs also in Asia
Minor, Persia and Palestine, but has not been proved to breed.]

_ Similar to that of M. atricapilla: frequently placed in natural holes
of trees, especially beech and oak, but also sometimes in old Wood-

249

peckers’ holes and even in a nesting box (Rey). The materials used,
chiefly dry grasses, do not differ from those used by the Pied Flycatcher,
and the holes may be found at any height from 2 to 25 ft., but usually
fom Ss ‘to “7 {t.

Usually 6 or 7, but clutches of even 8 and 9 are said to have
been found. They are like those of the preceding species, but no spotted
eggs have been recorded. Bau says that the texture of the shell is
somewhat smoother and more glossy and when fresh has a somewhat
transparent and waxy appearance.

In Gotland about June 1, but in Styria eggs have been found on
May 9, though this is an exceptionally early date and the usual time is in
the latter part of May. The hen sits very closely, but leaves the nest
about 6 or 7 am., and may then be watched on. When the young are
hatched the parents are so assiduous that the nest is easily found.

Average of 45 eggs (23 by the writer, 12 by Ottosson and 10 by
Bau), 17.25 =< 13.34 mm., Max. 18.5->< 14 and 17.8 >< 14.7; Min.
15.6 < 12.6 and 16><12.5. Bau gives the average weight of 10 eggs
as 89 mg. Seidensacher gives the weight of unblown eggs as 1.522 to
1.651 g.

112. Red breasted Flycatcher, Muscicapa parva Bechst.
Plate 37, fig. 5, 6 (Central Europe).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. X XIX, fig. 8, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 52, fig. 10. Taczanowski, Tab. XLI, fig. 3. Seebohm, Br. Birds,
ple Ovid. Colt: Kig:, pl. 524 Dresser, pl: —, fig. 11,12.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Lejsek malj. Germany: Zwerg-
Fliegenschnapper. Hungary: Kis légykapo. Poland: Mucholowka rdzawka.
Sweden: Lilla Flugsnappare. Russia: Malaya Mycholovka.

Muscicapa parva Bechst. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 224. Dresser,
B. of Europe, III, p. 465 and Man. Pal. Birds p. 256. Saunders, Man.
p. 161. M. parva parva Bechst. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 485.

Breeding Range: Russia, 8. of lat. 61°, Denmark, Riigen, and
sporadically in Germany (except in the extreme W.), Poland, and Austro-
Hungary. [Also in W. Siberia.|

There is no proof at present that this bird has nested in S. and
S. E. Sweden, but is not unlikely that it does so. It is however said
to have bred in Denmark, and is met with on Riigen and sporadically
in many parts of Germany; but is absent from the extreme W., while
in Russia it is not uncommon in the Baltic Provinces and certainly breeds
on the R. Swir (Olonetz government). Apparently its range extends
through Central Russia to W. Siberia and the Caucasus, and in some

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Meagure-
ments.

250

parts of the country, such as the forests of the Kiew government, it is
common. In Bohemia (the Elbethal) it is fairly numerous, and is known
to breed in every part of the Austro - Hungarian monarchy, but is not
found south of the Alpine chain in Italy, though in the Balkan penin-
sula it apparently breeds in Bulgaria, but not in Herzegovina, Montenegro,
Macedonia or Greece. [Also in W. Siberia, but E. of the Yenesei it is
replaced by M. parva albicilla Pall.|

The favourite haunts of this species are beech forests or mixed
woods, especially where there is a thick undergrowth, and it is seldom
found in pine forest. The nest is by no means invariably in a hole, like
that of the Pied and Collared Flycatchers, but is often built close to
the trunk on a bough, or where there is an outcrop of small twigs, and
has also been found exceptionally in a hole in a rock, in an old stump
and in the side of a strawstack! The height from the ground is very
variable: occasionally a nest may be found only 3 ft. from the ground,
but it is generally higher, and according to Bau is often 15 to 25 ft.
high, though other writers give 5 to 10 or 12 ft. as the usual height.
The building materials are moss (Hypnum), grass stalks, and sometimes
a few twigs or bud cases of the beech, lined scantily with hair, and
interwoven with cobwebs. Breadth of cup about 50 mm., depth 35 mm.

The usual number is 5 to 6, but in some districts 7 are said to
have been found. In character they are generally compared to miniature
Robin’s eggs, but are not unlike some types of Spotted Flycatcher’s eggs.
The ground colour is very pale bluish green, closely freckled with rusty
brown.

It is a summer visitor to its breeding haunts, arriving in the first
half of May and generally laying during the first fortnight of June.
Occasionally an early clutch may be found towards the end of May.
Only one brood is reared, but if the first clutch is destroyed a second
is laid late in June.

Average size of 100 eggs (48 by the writer, 46 by Bau and 6 by
Rey), 16.62 >< 12.68 mm., Max. 18.2 >< 13.1 and 17.5 >< 13.4; Min.
14.6 < 12.3 and 15.8><12. Goebel gives the average of 271 eggs as
16.6 >< 13.2, Max. 18 >< 14, Min. 15 >< 12 and 16><11.5. Average
weight of 271 eggs, 72 mg. (Goebel); of 46 eggs, 75 mg. (Bau). A
double egg measured 21.5 >< 12 (Goebel).

251

113. Chiff Chaff, Phylloscopus collybita (Vieill.).

Geographical Races.
a. Western Chiff Chaff, P. collybita collybita (Vieill.).
Plate 28, fig. 6—10 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XIX, fig. 10, a—c. Hewitson,
Retail pl CX Vi, he, he! Bids, By pl OO VIN ite ae TE dy I
pl. XXXVI, fig. 4. Baedeker, Tab. 19, fig. 8, 9. Taczanowski, Tab.
XLVII, fig. 3. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 10; Col. Fig. pl. 53. Frohawk,
Br. Birds, I, pl. Il, fig. 4951. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 15, 16. Howard,
Br. Warblers, pl. II, fig. 19—24. Nest: Lodge, Pictures of Bird Life, p. 366.

British Local Names: Chip-chop, Choice and Cheap, Featherpoke.

Welsh: Siff saff. Foreign Names: France: Bec-fin véloce. Germany:
Zilpzalp, Weiden-Laubvogel. Helgoland: Liitjswart-futted Fliegenbitter.
Holland: Tyjif-tjaf. Italy: Lut piccolo. Portugal: Folosa. Spain: Almen-
drita, Mosquilla.
Phylloscopus collybita (Vieill.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 437. Dresser,
B. of Europe, II, p. 485 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 97. P. rufus (Bechst.).
Saunders, Man. p. 67. P. collybita collybita (Vieill.). Hartert, Vog. Pal.
Fauna, p. 501.

Breeding Range: The British Isles, except N. Scotland: Con-
tinental Europe, from mid Germany and Italy westward, Sicily and
Sardinia. [Possibly also in N. Algeria.]

In England the Chiffchaff is a tolerably common summer visitor
in wooded districts, although its numbers vary from year to year. It is
plentiful in the Devonian peninsula, and common in the Midlands, but
is scarce in E. Anglia and prefers low lying and well wooded districts,
so that it is practically absent from the Pennine chain and its outlying
spurs, as well as from many of the uplands and mountains of Wales.
It breeds in Anglesey and in the Isle of Man. In Scotland it is scarce,
but has bred in the Forth and Clyde districts and occurs annually in
fair numbers on the E. side, south of the Firth of Forth, and on the W.
side, S. of Dumbarton. Northward of these districts it appears to be
only an occasional straggler. In Ireland it is locally very common and
breeds in all woodlands.

In France it is generally distributed in fair numbers in wooded
districts and also in the Low Countries. In Germany the limits of
this and the next race are as yet undetermined, but it is probably
found throughout Germany except in the eastern provinces. In the
S. of France it is resident throughout the year, as is also the case
in the Iberian peninsula. In the E. Pyrenees it is found in summer

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

252

up to over 4000 ft., and is abundant in parts of Portugal. A great
part of Spain is unsuited to its habits, but it is found breeding as
far 8S. as the cork woods of Gibraltar. In Italy it is found in the
breeding season chiefly in the mountains, from Calabria northward, and
is said to nest in the hills of Sicily and Sardinia, but is apparently absent
from Corsica. [In N. Algeria Witherby found a nest which he ascribed
to this species. |

Much controversy has raged as to the position of the nest, but
undoubtedly the normal site is some little distance from the ground,
though occasionally it has been found actually upon it. In the British
Isles it is usually found among brambles, ferns, rank vegetation, etc., or
in bushes, such as holly, yew or laurel, especially where dead leaves
have accumulated. It is sometimes built in ivy on a wall, on trellis
work, or in gorse bushes. A nest found in Derbyshire was placed some
10 ft. from the ground on trellis against the wall of a house, and Nelson
mentions one at the end of a pine branch, 9 ft. high, but these sites
are unusual, and the majority of nests are from a few inches to 3 or
4 ft. from the ground. In character the nest differs from that of the
Willow Warbler, being as a rule more bulky and containing many more
dead leaves in the substructure. Moss, stalks, dry grasses, roots, and
sometimes lichens are also used, and the interior is warmly lined with
feathers. Interesting notes on the courtship of this species will be found
in Howard’s British Warblers, pt. 2.

Usually 6 in number, but clutches of 5 and 7 are sometimes found.
The egg is white, more glossy than that of the Willow Warbler as a
rule, and finely spotted towards the big end with dark purple brown
spots. Frequently the small end is almost unspotted, and occasionally
perfectly white eggs are found. Occasionally the spots show a tendency
to the red brown type of marking, but many supposed Chiffchaffs’ eggs
of this type are in all probability only Willow Warblers’ eggs. Some
violet shell markings are generally present.

In the southern counties the earliest clutches may be taken at the
beginning of May, but in the Midlands seldom before the 12 May, and
in Northumberland usually at the end of the month. Some birds un-
doubtedly rear two broods, but many late nests are only second layings
of birds which have lost their first clutch. In the case of birds which
I had under observation an interval of from 3 to 4 weeks elapsed bet-
ween the first and second layings, a remarkable divergence from the
habits of other passerine birds. In Germany the eggs are found in May,
and second layings early in July (Rey). In Spain the breeding time in
the S. is about April 20 (Chapman). Incubation lasts about 13 days,
and the young remain 15 days in the nest (Howard).

253

Average size of 34 eggs from the British Isles measured by the wee
writer, and 66 from Germany by Dr. Rey, 15.45 >< 12.09, Max. 17.7>< 12.6 ,
and 17.1 >< 13.7; Min. 13.3 >< 10.8 mm. A double egg measures
19.2 >< 13.6 mm. Average weight of 16 full eggs, 1.010 g. (N. H. Foster),
while Rey gives the average weight of blown eggs as 62 mg. and Bau
as 51 mg.

b. Scandinavian Chiff Chaff, P. collybita abietinus (Nilss.).

Foreign Names: Finland: Tynnyriintu. Hungary: Csil-csal
Fiizike. Norway: Gransanger. Russia: Tenkowka. Sweden: Gran-
sdngare.

P. collybita alietina (Nilss.) Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 503.

Breeding Range: Scandinavia, H. Germany, Austro- Hungary,
N. Balkan Peninsula, and Mid-Russia.

In Scandinavia the Chiffchaff haunts the subalpine zone, especially ee
where deciduous trees prevail. It is found not uncommonly in Norway
up to lat. 65°10' and was recorded by Collett from lat. 67° in 1876,
It is however absent from 8. Sweden and but rarely breeds in Denmark.
In Germany it is the representative form in H. and W. Prussia, Pomerania
and Silesia, and in Austro-Hungary occurs in the Danubian valley and
is common in Transsylvania. In the Balkan Peninsula it is common in
Montenegro, but is only met with in winter or on passage in Greece
and Macedonia. It appears to breed in N. and Mid Finland, but in N.
E. Russia is replaced by P. c. tristis, although not uncommon in the
Baltic Provinces and Poland. Eastward its range extends to the Perm
Government, and the valley of the middle Volga, but in the 8. E. it
apparently occurs only on passage, and has not been proved to breed
in the Caucasus, though it often occurs there.

The nesting habits do not differ from those of the W. race, and Ba
the eggs are also similar. The clutch consists usually of 6 eggs, but in
Norway 8 have been found (Collett). The average date for full clutches
is from mid May to early June. Average size of 27 eggs from Silesia,
15,1 =< 12 (Kollibay): 16 eggs from Poland average 15.1 >< 12.2
(Taczanowski).

Europe.

Eggs.

c. Siberian Chiff chaff, P. collybita tristis Blyth.
Plate 22, fig. 10 (Altai, 21. V.).

Eggs: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 13, 14.

Phylloscopus tristis Blyth. Dresser, B. of Europe, II, p. 477 and
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 98. P. collybita tristis Blyth. Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 503.

Breeding Range: N. HE. Russia [Also W. Siberia to Transbaikalia].

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments,

254

In European Russia the range of this bird extends from the Pet-
schora valley eastward, while southward it is found as far south as Perm
(Meves) and the Middle and Southern Urals. [In Asia it is found
throughout Siberia as far E. as Transbaikalia, in the Altai range, and
as far S. as the Karakorum Mts., Ladakh (J. Bomb. N. H. S. XVII,
p. 112), and Gilgit (Jdis, 1881, p. 65).]

Seebohm and Popham describe nests from the Yenesei valley as
being hollows in the wisps of flood wrack left stranded in the willow
bushes after the submergence of the floods, and warmly lined with
feathers of the Willow Grouse and Capercaillie. Some nests were
however found close to the ground in willow and alder thickets or
among rank vegetation. They varied in height from 4 ft. to only a few
inches above the ground.

In N. Siberia 4 to 5 is the usual number but sets of 6 and 7 have
been sent from the Altai. They much resemble those of P. collybita
collybita, being finely spotted with dark red, chiefly at the big end.

It appears to be a late breeder on the Yenesei, the eggs being
laid about the end of June or early in July, but eggs from the Altai
range are dated May and June.

Average of 64 eggs measured by the writer, 14.97 >< 11.9 mm.,
Max 19 >< 11.2 and 15.5>< 12.6 Min., 14>< 11.4 and 19>< 11.2. Rey
gives the weight of 1 egg as 55 mg.

[In the Canaries are found two more forms of Chiffchaff: P. colly-
bita canariensis Hartw. on the Western islands of the group, Tenerife,
Gran Canaria, Palma and Hierro: and P. collybita exsul Hart. on
Lanzarote. P. c. canariensis lays only 3 to 4 eggs as a rule, occasionally 5,
which are either white or sparsely marked with fine brown spots. They
are laid in March and April, and 48 average in size (30 by Koenig and
18) by. the: writer); 15.52: >< 12.05 mm.,; Max.,17 >< 12.5, Mimj135\>< a2
and 16 ><11.5.]

114. Plain Brown Willow Warbler, Phylloscopus neglectus
Hume.

Geographical Races.
a. Caucasian Plain Brown Warbler, P. neglectus lorenzii (Lor.).
Nest: Lorenz, Beitr. Orn. N. Kaukasus, Taf. II, fig. 2.
Phylloscopus neglectus lorenzit (Lor.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 506.
Breeding Range: The Caucasus.

Lorenz describes the nest of this bird, which he found near Kis-
lowodsk at about 4000 ft., as of the usual Phylloscopine type, built of

255

coarse stalks and lined with finer grasses and a layer of feathers of
Chough and Thrush as well as some hair. It contained 5 eggs on
May 26, white, marked with dark red brown spots and a few streaks.

b. Hume’s Plain Brown Warbler, P. neglectus Hume.

P. neglectus Hume. Dresser, B. of Europe, IX. p. 79 and Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 98. P. neglectus neglectus Hume. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna,
p- 506.

Breeding Range: Transcaspia, Turkestan, Persia and Kashmir.
Sarudnoi has recorded this race from Transcaspia, Russow and Sewerzow
from Turkestan, and Witherby found it breeding in 8. W. Persia (Farzistan).
He describes the nest as 2 ft. 6 in. from the ground between two thick
bushy boughs of a small bush, neatly woven of grass and well lined with
feathers. The eggs were 4 in number, and pure white in colour.
Incubation had just begun on April 28. Average size of 3 eggs,
15 >< 11.36 mm. Col. Ward (Journ. Bomb. N. H. S. XVIII, p. 461)
also records 4 eggs taken at Kargil, Kashmir, on May 28 and again on
June 22.

115. Willow Warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus (L.).
Geographical Races.
a. Common Willow Warbler, P. trochilus (L.).
Plate 28, fig. 1—5 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfi. Tab. XIX, fig. 9, a—c. Hewitson,
Bde pl CX Ve fle 1) 2, I, NdeI pl xX Villy, fie. 3,450 Bde kr
pl. XXXVI, fig. 1,2. Baedeker, Tab. 19, fig. 7. Taczanowski, Tab. LI.
fig. 3. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 10; Col. Fig. pl. 58. Frohawk, Br.
Birds, I, pl. I, fig. 52—54. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 8—10. Howard, Br.
Warblers, pl. Il. fig. 25—27, 31, 32. Nest: O. Lee, I, p. 66.

British Local Names: Willow Wren, Peep. Manx: Drein vane.
Welsh: Dryw Felen. Foreign Names: Bohemia: Budnicek vetst. Denmark
and Norway: Léfsanger. Finland: Uunilintu. France: Powillot-Fitis. Ger-
many: Fitis-Laubsdnger. Helgoland: Liit) Fliegenbitter. Holland: Fitis.
Hungary: Fitisz fiizike. Italy: Lui grosso. Poland: Gajowka pierwiosnka.
Portugal: Folosa. Pussia: Penotschka. Spain: Mosquitero. Sweden: Lofsangare.
Phylloscopus trochilus L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 432. Dresser, B. of
Europe, I, p. 491 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 94. Saunders, Man. p. 69.
P. trochilus trochilus (l.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 507.

Breeding Range: The British Isles and Continental Europe,
except N. Scandinavia and Russia, where it is replaced by the next race.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

256

Although outnumbered in a few districts by other species, for
example by the Wood Warbler in W. Merioneth and by the Chiffchaff
in W. Pembroke, the Willow Warbler is by far the most numerous
and widely distributed member of its genus in the British Isles, and its
pleasant little descending song may be heard in the spring in almost
every part of the country up to the fringe of the moorlands. It has
even been met with in the hills as high as 1500 ft. It breeds on the
Isle of Man and on all the wooded islands of the Inner Hebrides, is
found locally in the Lews and has bred on Barra, while in 1901 it was
recorded as nesting in the Shetlands, and perhaps also breeds in the
Orkneys. In Ireland it has been recorded as breeding in every county.

It inhabits almost the whole of the Continent, but is replaced in
N. E. Russia (from the Petschora to Orenburg) by the Arctic form,
which apparently occurs also in Finmark. Towards the Mediterranean
it becomes scarcer, but breeds near Gibraltar, though rare in the plateau
of Central Spain, and apparently does not nest in the Balearic Isles or
Corsica, although a few breed in the mountains of Sardinia and Sicily,
while it is also absent in summer from the Balkan Peninsula, south of
Bosnia and Montenegro, and 8. E. Russia. [It has not yet been proved
to breed in Marocco or Algeria, although suspected of having done so.]

The neatly domed nest, with opening at the side, is often placed
in growing grass in a hedge bottom or bank side, as a rule on the
ground. Occasionally however it may be found a foot or so from the
ground in seedling conifers, bushes or whins, and still more rarely at a
considerable height. Von Hugel found a nest 16 ft. from the ground
in a fir, and another 14 ft. high is recorded in the Birds of Lancashire,
Other occasional sites are in trellis or among ivy on a wall, in old nests
of other birds, such as Redbreast, Spotted Flycatcher, etc., among heather
on edge of moors, in a strawberry bed, etc. The nest is generally well
concealed, and often only found by the bird flying off when disturbed.
It is built of grasses and stalks, interwoven with green moss, occasionally
of dead bracken, lined with finer stalks and roots or a few horsehairs
and almost invariably a thick lining of feathers. I have however seen
two nests which undoubtedly belonged to this species and which did
not contain a single feather. The Willow Wren is much attached to
its eggs, and has been known to continue to sit after the nest has been
removed bodily or partly destroyed.

Usually 6—7 in number, sometimes 5 and rarely 8. Prof. Salter
found a nest in Wales with 12 eggs (Zool. 1894, p. 345). Three very
distinct types are found. In the first the egg is covered with fine freckles
of light reddish brown: in the second the markings consist of blotches
of light chesnut; while in the third type, the egg is spotted rather

257

sparingly with much darker sienna brown. Of these three types the
second is much the rarest; while occasionally pure white eggs are found,
sometimes in the same clutch as normally marked eggs. The markings
are generally evenly distributed over the surface, and eggs of the first
two types show very little gloss.

In England the earliest clutches are found about the end of April
in the S. of England, and a week or two later in the Midlands and N.
of England. In Germany the breeding season commences early in May.
and in S. Spain in the second week of April, but in Finland not till
late in May. Fresh eggs may be taken in June and July in small
numbers, but though second broods may occasionally be reared, these
are most probably only second or third layings. Incubation lasts 13 days.

Average of 100 eggs (73 by Rey and 27 by the writer),
sies< 12-38 mm., Max. 17.3 >< 12:7 and, 16.6 ><134 Min; 13.5 ><ie2
and 14.2 >< 10.9. Dwarf eggs measure 11.7 >< 9.4 and 10.6 >< 8.5.
Average weight, 62 mg. (Rey): of 16 full eggs, 1.164 g. (N. H. Foster).

b. Aretie Willow Warbler, P. trochilus eversmanni (Bp.).

P. trochilus eversmanni (Bp.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 509.

Breeding Range: N. E. Russia. [Also in Siberia, E. to the
Kolyma delta. ]

This form, which occurs on migration on the EH. coast of Great
Britain) is apparently found in the N. of Norway (Finmarken), and it is
probably also this race which is common along the Murman coast. In
the Archangel Government it is common in the Petschora valley and is
also found along the Ural range as far S. as Orenburg. [In Siberia it
breeds on the Ob, Yenesei, Boganida, Lena and Kolyma.]

The nest resemples that of the southern form, while the eggs,
which are usually 5 or 6, sometimes 7 in number, are usually of the
light reddish freckled type. They are generally laid in the last 10 days
of June or early in July. 21 eggs measured by the writer from the
Petschora and Kolyma, average 15.52 >< 12.19 mm. Max. 18 >< 12.3
ama (L722 >< 12.53, Min.) 14.3 >< 12) and. 15:1 s< 11.6.

116. Green Willow Warbler, Phylloscopus nitidus Blyth.

Geographical Races.
a) Bright Green Willow Warbler, P. nitidus nitidus Blyth.

Philloscopus nitidus Blyth. Dresser, B. of Europe, [X, p. 83 and Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 101. P. nitidus nitidus Blyth. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna,

p. 510.
17

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest. Eggs
etc,

Con-
tinental
Hurope.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

258

Breeding Range: The Caucasus, and perhaps the Crimea. [Also
Transcaspia to the W. Himalayas.| Recorded from Helgoland.

Although Lorenz found this bird breeding in the valleys of Cis-
caucasia, he does not appear to have taken any nests and the eggs are
still undescribed. It has been recorded from the Crimea in winter and
may breed there. [In Asia Sarudnoi records it from Transcaspia, and
probably it is found from Bokhara and perhaps Persia to the W.
Himalayas. |

b. Greenish Willow Warbler, P. nitidus viridanus Blyth.

Foreign Name: Russia; Panoschka-zelenaya.

P. viridanus Blyth. Dresser, B. of Europe, IX, p. 87 and Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 101. P. nitidus viridanus Blyth. MHartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna,
p. 510.

Breeding Range: Russia (Baltic Provinces to Perm) and W.
Siberia.

Although formerly supposed to breed only in the HE. of European
Russia, the range of this bird is now known to extend to the Russian
Baltic Provinces (Ehstland, Livland, N. Kurland) and possibly even to EH.
Prussia, where an example has been obtained in June. Poljakow records
it from the Olonetz Govt., and Sabanaejeff from Jaroslaw, and it has also
been met with in Moscow, Kazan, Perm, Ufa and Orenburg. Meves
observed unfledged young being fed by the parents in the Urals near
Tjubuk. [E. of the Urals its range extends through Turkestan, Kashmir
and W. Siberis to the Tian Shan and Altai ranges. |

The only accessible information with regard to the breeding of this
bird in Kurope is contained in Menzbier’s paper in the Ornith. Jahrbuch,
1898, p. 1. Three nests found by Teplouchoff stood on the ground or
close to it. They were built of green moss, held together by thin grass
blades, and contained inside (presumably as lining) a certain amount of
wool. In Asia Brooks found an empty domed nest on a hillside in
Kashmir at about 11.000 ft., and Stuart Baker found one with 3 eggs
inside a crevice between loose stones by a roadside. It was large and
globular, loosely built of moss and a few dead leaves and lined with a
mass of white goats’ hair. Height about 8 in., breadth 53 in. Osmaston
also describes a domed nest, thickly lined with hair, on a hillside as
that of this bird.

Usually 3—4 in number. An addled egg found by Teplouchoff
was white, and 4 eggs in my collection from Turkestan are similar
to those described by Stuart Baker, being white and almost without
gloss, short oval in shape with very fragile shells. Dresser has however

259

a clutch from the Irtish valley, some of which are faintly marked with
reddish. Breeding season, late in May and early in June.

Average of 7 eggs (4 by the writer and 3 by Stuart Baker), faa
14.59 >< 11.41, Max. 15 >< 12.2, Min. 14.2 >< 11.7 and 14.7 >< 10.4.

117. Bonelli’s Warbler, Phylloscopus bonelli (Vieill.).
Geographical Races.
a. Western Bonelli’s Warbler, P. bonelli bonelli (Vieill.).
Plate 22, fig. 7—9 (Styria).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XIX, fig. 12, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 19, fig. 6. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 17, 18.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Budnicek horn. France: Bee - fin
Bonelli. Germany: Berg-Laubvogel. Hungary: Bonelli HMizike. Italy:
Li bianco.

Phylloscopus bonellai (Vieill.). Dresser, B. of Europe, I, p. 503 and
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 96. P. bonella bonella (Vieill.). Hartert, Vig. Pal.
Baume, ps 513.

Breeding Range: The mountain ranges of S. W. and Central
Kurope, but replaced in the 8S. E. by the next form. [Also in N. W.
Africa. |

Bonelli’s Warbler is generally distributed throughout the hilly parts Con-
of the Iberian Peninsula, from Gibraltar to the Cantabrian range and “?°"'*
the Pyrenees. It also occurs in the hillsides of southern and western
France up to about lat 463 on the W. coast, and is said also to be
found near Metz and Paris. In Belgium Aplin records meeting with a
pair near Dinant, while it is distributed over the whole of the Alpine
district, and is especially common on the southern slopes of the Jura.
In the Engadine it breeds up to nearly 6000 ft. Northward its range
extends into Lothringen, Wiirtemberg, Bavaria and N. E. Bohemia
(Riesengebirge). It is found locally in Lower Austria and also in the
Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, etc., and is not uncommon in the hills of N.
Italy, but becomes local in the 8., and only occurs on passage in Sicily.
It is not recorded from Corsica, and only on passage from Sardinia, but
is found in the Balearic Isles. [In N. Africa it breeds in the Atlas
range up to 5000 ft, and also in certain wooded mountains of Algeria
and Tunisia, but has apparently a very restricted range. |

Less carefully concealed that that of the other Leaf Warblers, the Nes.
nest is generally built on the ground in a slight depression, and is of
the type usual in this genus. It is usually placed on a sunny hillside
wooded with conifers, beeches or oaks, and is built of dead leaves, dry

grasses, bents and a little moss, lined with fine bents, roots and a few
Wi

Europe.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest etc.

260

hairs, but no feathers. Occasionally it is built among ferns or growing
plants at some little distance from the ground. The song of the male
is distinctive: it resembles that of the Wood Warbler to some extent,
but is shorter, consisting only of 3 or 4 notes, constantly repeated,
without the long drawn ‘Whiou, whiou’, which the Wood Warbler
introduces at intervals.

Usually 5 or 6, sometimes only 4 and rarely 7 in number. They
are much like those of the Wood Warbler, being thickly spotted with
dark liver brown of different shades, sometimes with a violet tinge, on
a white ground, with little or no gloss.

In Central Europe it is a late breeder, and eggs may be found in
the last 10 days of May and early in June, but in S. Spain the season
is somewhat earlier, probably about the second and third weeks in May.
Tristram took eggs in Algeria between May 20 and June 4, but apparently
has not recorded them in his notes on Algerian ornithology. Only one
brood is reared, but second layings may be found late in June occasionally.
Incubation lasts about 13 days.

Average of 69 eggs (54 by the writer, 10 by Rey and 5 by Bau),
15:23) 5< 13°33, Max. 17 S<. 13.1 and’ 13 31626," Mine 4 a
14.8 >< 11.2. Average weight of 10 eggs, 69 mg. (Rey), of 5 eggs,
69.6 mg. (Bau).

b. Eastern Bonelli’s Warbler, P. bonelli orientalis (Brehm).

P. bonelli orventalis (Brehm). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 514.

Breeding Range: The mountains of the Balkan peninsula: possibly
also Bukowina, Transsylvania and the Crimea. [Also Asia Minor,
Palestine and probably Cyprus. |

This is the only Phylloscopus which is known to breed in Greece.
Reiser describes a nest found by him with young on May 26. 1898 as
the first record for Greece, but Kriiper took eggs as far back as May
10, 1880, not far from Athens and also in the Parnassus. Its range is
evidently very imperfectly known at present, for it is not recorded by
Mac Gregor from Macedonia or by Reiser from Bulgaria or Montenegro
although Kadich describes it as common in the warmer valleys of
Herzegowina. It has occurred in E. Hungary in August and probably
breeds in Transsylvania. It is also said to breed in Bukowina and has
been recorded from the Crimea. [In Asia Minor it is tolerably common,
and breeds in Palestine, and possibly also on Cyprus.]

Probably in its breeding habits it does not differ from the western
race. The eggs are apparently laid in Greece about May 10. Average
size of 6 Greek eggs, 15.53 =< 12.55, Max. 16.3 >< 12.6, Min. 14.5 =< 13
and 16.2 >< 12.2.

261

118. Wood Warbler, Philloscopus sibilatrix (Bechst.).
Geographical Races.
a. Northern Wood Warbler, P. sibilatrix sibilatrix (Bechst.).
Plate 28, fig. 11—14 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XIX, fig. 11, a—d. Hewitson,
mba Lol CX VIN, fe. 2) 3510 Kd. 1, pl. XVI: figs tT ae E
pl. XXXVI, fig. 3. Baedeker, Tab. 19, fig. 5. Taczanowski, Tab. LI,
fees: Seepohm; br. Birds, pl. 10; id. Col. Wig., pl 53.) Wrohawk
Br. Birds, I, pl. II, fig. 55. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 11, 12. Nest: O. Lee,
Hp. 36.

British Local Names: Wood Wren, Oven Bird, Yellow Wren.
Welsh: Dryw Felen. Foreign Names: Bohemia: Sykavka. Denmark
and Norway: Grénsanger. France: Pouwillot sifflewr. Germany: Wald-
laubstinger. Helgoland: Giihl Flegenbitter. Holland: Fluiter. Hungary:
Sisegé fiizike. Poland: Gajéwka swistunka. Russia: Beresowka. Sweden:
Groénsdngare.

Phylloscopus sibilatrix (Bechst.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 427. Dresser,
B. of Europe, II, p. 497 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 95. Saunders, Man.
p. 95. P. sibilatrix sibilatrix (Bechst.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 515.

Breeding Range: The British Isles and Continental Europe, ex-
cepting N. Scandinavia and N. Russia, where it is absent, and the
Mediterranean basin, where it is replaced by a somewhat doubtfully
distinct race.

This is the latest to arrive of the Leaf-Warblers in our islands,
and is also the most local in distribution. A few pairs are generally to
be found wherever woods of deciduous trees (especially beech and oak)
are to be met with, and in some parts of England and Wales, such as
the woods of Northumbria and W. Merioneth it is exceedingly plentiful,
quite outnumbering the Willow Warbler locally. On the other hand it
is practically unknown in W. Cornwall and W. Pembroke, and is every-
where rather irregularly and locally distributed. It has bred in the Isle
of Man, and has apparently increased its range in Scotland of late years.
Its northern limits appear to be S. E. Sutherland, Caithness and W. Ross,
while A. C. Chapman has recorded its presence in treeless N. Uist!
(Cf. V. F. of N. W. Highlands etc., p. 64 for details of increase in
Scotland). To Ireland it is a very scarce visitor, but has been known to
breed in Queens Co. and Galway, and is observed annually in Co.
Wicklow.

Though absent from Norway, it occurs in Sweden, up to about
lat. 63°, but only in S. Finland. It is however exceedingly common in
the forests of N. Germany and in the Baltic Provinces, extending

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding

Season.

Measure-
ments.

262

eastward to Archangel, and the Kazan Government. It is also distributed
over middle Europe, but towards the basin of the Mediterranean appears
to be replaced by the Southern race, although the boundaries of the
two forms are not yet defined. Apparently however the Northern form
does not extend further S. than the middle of France and the Alpine
and Transsylvanian chains.

Placed generally on a hillside partly covered with bracken and
wooded thinly with deciduous or mixed timber. It is built on the ground
and is not easy to see, as the materials used, dead grasses, bracken and
perhaps a little moss, are difficult to distinguish from the surroundings.
It is of course domed and the opening is somewhat flattened, while the
interior is neatly lined with fine grasses, and occasionally, but not always
a few horsehairs. Feathers are never used. Exceptionally Aplin has
recorded a nest in a diagonal cleft across the face of a large boulder:
another, without a dome, was built under shelter of a tree root, while
in a third case a pair are said to have bred some distance down an
rabbit hole! Rey states that in the German forests most nests face east,
but this does not apply to the broken and hilly country where this bird
often breeds with us. The song of the male is not much guide to the
position of the nest, but the hen can often be put off the eggs by
beating, and is generally feeding between 6 and 7 am. Her alarm note,
a high pitched, ‘Tee, tee’, is characteristic, and she can easily be watched
on again to the eggs.

Generally 6 or 7 in number, sometimes only 5, while 8 have oc-
casionally been found. They are thickly spotted and finely speckled with
dark red brown, with a slight purplish tinge and sometimes ashy violet
shell markings can also be distinguished. In some sets a good deal of
the white ground is visible, but generally the markings are evenly dis-
tributed, frequently tending to form a zone or confluent blotches at the
big end. They can only be confused with those of Bonelli’s Warbler,
which are however slightly smaller on the average.

The time appears to vary little and the last ten days of May and
the beginning of June appear to be the best time for full clutches both
in the British Isles and Mid-Europe, but a few pairs may be found with
eggs by the middle of May. Only one brood is reared in the season.
Incubation lasts about 13 days.

Average of 100 eggs (67 by Rey and 33 by the writer), 15.87>< 12.39 mm.,
Max.'18.3.5<) 03) and 17/5) >< 13.5. Min. .14.4- >< 12> ,and) 15,2) >is
A dwarf egg measures only 12.4><9.7 (Coll. R. H. Read). Average
weight of 42 eggs, 72 mg. (Rey). R. H. Read gives the average of
17 unblown eggs as 1.227 g.

263

b. Southern Wood Warbler, P. sibilatrix erlangeri Hart.

Foreign Names: Italy: Zw verde. Portugal: Folosa. Spain:
Mosquita.

P. sibilatrix erlangert Hart. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 516.

Breeding Range: Not clearly defined, but probably the countries
forming the basin of the Mediterranean in Europe, and N. W. Africa.

This race, barely distinguishable by the yellower colouring of the Con-

male, is apparently found breeding in small numbers in the cork woods ce
of S. Spain, though over the greater part of that country it is only
known as a migrant, and rarely occurs in Portugal. It also is the
representative form in 8. France, but specimens from the Pyrenees have
not been critically examined. In Italy it breeds in the hilly districts of
the N. and Central Provinces, but not in the 8., and though it has
been recorded in Sardinia, I can find no proof of its breeding there.*
In 1909 I met with a single pair which were evidently breeding in S.
Corsica, but was unable to find the nest. In the Balkan Peninsula it
is found from Dalmatia to Servia, but only occurs on passage in Greece.
It is uncertain which form is found in the Caucasus. [There seems little
doubt that it breeds in N. W. Africa, from Marocco to Tunisia, although
no nests appear to have been recorded.]

Apparently in their breeding habits the southern birds do not differ Nest, Eggs
from those of the northern race. ant

119. Eversmann’s Warbler, Phylloscopus borealis (Blas.).
Plate 34, fig. 20 (Siberia).

EKggs: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 19, 20.

Phylloscopus borealis (Blas.). Dresser, B. of Europe, UH, p. 509 and
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 99. P. borealis borealis (Blas.). Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 517.

Breeding Range: Finmark and N. Russia. [Also N. Siberia.]
Has occurred at Fair I. and Suleskerry.

Collett has given an interesting account of the breeding of this Ren
bird in Finmark (bis, 1886, p. 217). He found it nesting in scattered xurope.
pairs among the stunted birch woods along the valleys of the larger
rivers flowing into the Porsanger, Tana and Varanger Fjords. In N.
Russia it occurs along the Murman coast of the Kola Peninsula, and
has been obtained on the N. shore of L. Onega, while Meves also met
with it breeding in the Onega valley. Eastward it is found in the
valleys of the Dwina, Mezen and Petschora and apparently reaches the

* Probably Brooke’s note in the [bis for 1873 refers to Bonolli’s Warbler, as
Bonomi does not mention the Wood Warbler

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Dis-
tribution.

264

N. of the Perm Government. [In Asia its range extends right across the
northern part of the Continent to the Kolyma delta, Korea, Ussuria and
Kamtschatka. |

Apparently this bird does not arrive at its breeding haunts in
Finmark and the Murman coast till the latter part of June, when~-the
monotonous song of the cock may be heard all day among the birch
trees. The nest is placed on the ground on wooded slopes: it is domed
and loosely built of dry grasses and stalks with some moss, on a foun-
dation of dead birch leaves. The lining consists of fine grasses only,
without any hair or feathers. The cock sings at some distance from
the nest, and does not show any anxiety with regard to it.

Apparently 6 or 7 in completed clutches. Very few authentic eggs
are available for comparison, but two sets in Messrs. Dresser’s and
Bunyard’s collections show a good deal of the white ground and are
sparingly marked with bold spots of dark red brown. The clutch taken
by Seebohm on the Yenesei is very different in character, being spotted
with faint reddish or pink, but the nest was similar to those found by
Collett.

Collett estimated the dates for the first eggs in the three nests
found by him as July 9, 10 and 11 and probably the usual time is from
the last week in June to the second week of July.

Average of 7 Lapland eggs, 16.38 =< 12.7 mm., Max. 17.1 >< 12.7
and 16.9 >< 13, Min. 15.7 >< 12.5. Seebohm’s clutch of 5 eggs averages
16.26 >< 12.5.

120. Yellow browed Warbler, Phylloscopus superciliosus (Gm.).

Eggs: Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 10; id. Col. Fig. pl. 53.

Phylloscopus superciliosus (Gm.). Newton, ed Yarrell, I, p. 443. Dresser,
B. of Europe, Hl, p. 469 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 104. Saunders, Man.
p. 61 (part.). P. superciliosa swperciliosa (Gm.). Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 518.

Breeding Range: Siberia, from the R. Ob to the Sea of Okhotsk,
and 8. to lake Baikal.

This bird is of frequent occurrence in W. Europe on the autumu
migration. Its breeding haunts are among the woods of the Siberian
valleys. Finsch has recorded it from the R. Ob; Seebohm, Popham and
others have found it very common on the Yenesei, and it is also known
to occur on the Lena, Kolyma, and many other rivers east to the R.
Anadyr. It is apparently absent from Kamtschatka, but is found in the
Stanovoi Mts., and is small numbers in Corea, as well as in Transbaikalia,
Kultuk, S. E. Mongolia etc.

265

Neatly concealed among the moss on the ground in the Yenesei
valley, and built of dry grasses like the other Leaf Warblers’ nests,
neatly lined with reindeer and roedeer hair. In Dauria Dybowski found
the nest in Rhododendron scrub.

These are 5—7 in number, white, thickly spotted at the big end,
in the form often of an irregular zone of dark and lighter red brown
markings. Seebohm found eggs on June 26 on the Yenesei.

Average size of 4 eggs in the Brit. Museum, 14.8 >< 11.2 mm.

[A southern form of this species, Hume’s Yellow browed Warbler, P. super-
ciliosus humei (Brooks), breeds in the Altai and Tian Shan ranges, Turkestan, and
Kashmir (Eggs figured in Br. Mus. Cat. Eggs, IV, pl. X, fig. 5, 6, and Dresser, pl. —,
fig. 21—23). For nesting notes by Brooks see Ibis, 1872, p. 24, etc. The eggs,
usually 5 in number, laid late in May or early in June, are like those of the N-
race, and 44 measured by the writer average 14.23 X 11.2 mm. in size: Max. 15.2 11.2
and 14.7 12, Min. 13.2 X 11.2 and 14.1 X 1041]

121. Pallas’ Willow Warbler, Phylloscopus proregulus (Pall.):
Plate 34, fig. 11 (Alexander Mts.).

Rees Jot Osi. Pat Ty figs 10:

Phylloscopus proregulus (Pall.). Dresser, B. of Europe, [X, p. 73 and
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 105. Saunders, Man. p. 63. P. proregulus prore-
gulus (Pall.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Pauna, p. 523.

Breeding Range: E. Siberia, from the R. Lena to the Pacific,
and N. to the Stanovoi range, but replaced by P. p. newtoni S. of the
great deserts of E. Asia.

This bird has occurred once in Norfolk as well as on Helgoland
and in Orenburg in E. Russia. Its breeding haunts are in the mountain
forests of KE. Siberia, from L. Baikal to the Stanovoi range. Dybowski
found it nesting in Dauria on the boughs of old moss covered pines,
close to the trunk, generally about 9—12 ft. from the ground. The
materials used were green moss and dry grasses, while the nests were
domed and lined with feathers and hair.

From 5 to 6 in number, spotted with dark red, generally in the
form of a zone round the big end, and a few ashy shell markings on a
white ground, and little or no gloss.

Dybowski found eggs in mid June. He states that the hen begins
to sit as soon as the first egg is laid; so that sometimes fresh and in-
cubated eggs may be found in the same nest. The hen is a very close
sitter and can be caught on the eggs.

According to Dybowski the eggs vary in size from 15 >< 10.5 to
14><11 mm.

Nest.

Eggs etc.

Measure-
ments.

Dis-
tribution,
Nest, etc.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season

Measure-
ments.

Dis-
tribution,
etc.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

266

[The southern race, P. proregulus newtoni Gaetke, breeds in the Himalayas
from Kashmir to Butan and also in Chuanche and Gansu. Hgg figured, Dresser,
pl. —, fig. 24. Captain Cock describes the nest as domed partially and built of moss
and lichens, lined profusely with feathers and fragments of thin birch bark, and
placed on boughs of pine trees from 6 to 40 ft. above the ground. Kggs 5, like
those of the N. race. Average size (!0 eggs) 13.82 & 10.77, Max. 14.2 < 11.3,
Min. 135 X 11 and 14 < 10.8. Breeding season, end of May and early June in
Kashmir. Phylloscopus subviridis (Brooks), has once been obtained in H. Russia.
It breeds in Afghanistan, Kashmir, etc. Cf. Ibis, 1909, p. 124.]

122. Radde’s Bush Warbler, Herbivocula schwarzi (Radde).

Lusciniola schwarz. (Radde). Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 127. Saunders,
Man. p. 73. Herbivocula schwarzi (Radde). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna,
p- 530.

Breeding Range: From mid Siberia EH. to Ussuria and Saghalin.
(Has once occurred in Lincolnshire, Oct. 1, 1898).
The range of this species is stated by Pleske to extend from Kul-
tuk, on L. Baikal to Ussuria and Saghalin, but Godlewski records it as
singing in early August between Irkutsk and Tomsk. Schrenk met with
it on the Amur, and Nicolski in the forests of 8. W. Saghalin.

It arrives at its breeding haunts early in June, and haunts thick
serub, but as yet no information is available with regard to its nest and
eggs, which are still unknown.

123. Cetti’s Warbler, Cettia cetti (Marm).
Plate 21, fig. 27—30 (Andalucia).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Taf. X XI, fig. 3, a, b. Naumannia,
1858, Taf. 2, fig. 5, a—i. Baedeker, Tab. 19, fig. 24. Dresser, pl.—,
fir. 35, 36, 41, 42. Krause, pl. —, fig. 1—36.

Foreign Names: France: Bouscarle. Greece: Aedonaki. Italy:
Rusignuolo di fiumi. Portugal: Rouwxinol bravo. Spain: Mascareta.
Cettia cettii (Marm.). Dresser, B. of Europe, II, p. 639 and Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 137. C. cetti cetti (Marm.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 537.

Breeding Range: The Iberian, Italian and Balkan Peninsulas,
S. France, and the Mediterranean Islands; probably 8. Russia. [Also
N. W. Africa and Asia Minor: has occurred in Sussex, May 12, 1904.]

This short winged and skulking species is widely but locally dis-
tributed in the Iberian peninsula wherever there are thick bramble brakes
or tamarisks close to the banks of rivers and streams, and also in the
swamps, especially where there are bushes growing, from the Bay of
Biscay to the Mediterranean. It is found also in southern France N,
to the Indre Department, but more especially in those bordering the

267

Golfe du Lion. In N. Italy it is very scarce, but breeds in Liguria,
Tuscany and Campagna in suitable spots, and is apparently only of
accidental occurrence in the 8S. It is recorded from Mallorca, plentiful
in the low ground in Corsica and in Sardinia, and, locally common in
Sicily. In the Balkan peninsula it is found in Dalmatia, Herzegowina,
Montenegro, and in small numbers in the valley of the lower Danube,
while it is also known to be resident in Macedonia, Albania, and Greece.
Here it is to be met with not only in the plains, but also by the brush
grown watercourses up to 3500 ft. Probably it is also this form which
occurs in S. Russia, the Crimea and the Caucasus; and it is certainly
resident in Crete, Cyprus, Asia Minor, and Palestine. It breeds in
Tunisia and Algeria north of the Atlas, and also in Marocco.

The usual site for the nest is among the trailing branches of
bramble thickets, often interspersed with Smilax, in swampy woods or
overhanging watercourses and among tamarisks near the banks of rivers:
In the latter site the nest may be found without difficulty, and is usually
not far from the ground, but among brambles it is often placed over
the water and is curiously inconspicuous, and difficult to find. In the
open swamps and marshes some birds nest among the coarse vegetation»
suspending the nest like a Reed Warbler’s, from the stems of adjacent
marsh plants such as Willow Herb. The nest is very neatly made and
recalls those of the Tree Warblers, being somewhat conical in shape
and very deep. It is built of dead grasses, leaves, and bits of sedge,
mixed with plant down and roots, harmonizing well in colour with dead
brambles, and the deep and neatly hollowed cup is lined with fine
grasses mixed with down, and horsehair or feathers in varying quantities.
Externally it has rather an untidy look, and might easily pass for an
accumulation of flood wrack. Rough dimensions are: depth 43—6 in.,
diameter of cup, 2— 2+ in, depth of cup, 2—2tin. Although the bird
is difficult to observe on account of its skulking habits, its presence is
easily detected by the extraordinarily loud, ringing notes of its brief song.

Almost always 4 or 5 in number. In most collections eggs may
be seen varying in colour from pale brick red and pink with a dull
purplish tinge, to deep brick red and rich mahogany brown. Unfortun-
ately the colour is fugitive, and the paler eggs are often merely faded
specimens. Many eggs show more or less distinct zones of darker specks
rund the big end. The amount of gloss varies, but is not as a rule great.

In S. Spain and Corsica the last week in April and the beginning
of May are the best times for the eggs of the first brood, while those
of the second are found at the end of May and early in June. In Asia
Minor Kriiper found the first clutches in the latter part of April and
two broods are also reared there.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-

ments,

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

268

Average of 100 eggs (85 by the writer and 15 by Rey). 18.03 >< 13.90,
Max.) £9.6)5< (14:3) and 1185 >< 14.5, “Mins 17 >< 13.5,,ands Wj i) 3:
Rey gives the average weight as 94 mg., and Bau as 92 mg. [An Eastern
form of this species, C. cett cettioudes Hume, which breeds in Trans-
caspia, the Kirghis steppes, Turkestan and N. Persia, lays similar but
apparently rather larger eggs, if one may judge from the few specimens
examined. Average of 4 eggs from Persia, 20 >< 14.5.]

124. Moustached Warbler, Lusciniola melanopogon (Temm.).
Plate 28, fig. 22—25 (Dinnyés, Hungary, V. 92).

Eggs: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 19—21.

Foreign Names: Germany: Jamariskensdnger. Hungary: Fiile-
miile sitke. Italy: Forapaghe castagnolo
Lusciniola melanopogon (Temm.). Dresser, B. of Europe, I, p. 605 and
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 128. LZ. melanopogon melanopogon (Temm.). Hartert,
Voég. Pal. Fauna, p. 540. ;

Breeding Range: E. Spain, Italy, Sicily, Hungary and possibly
also the Balkan Peninsula. [Also said to be resident in Lower Egypt.]

The breeding range of this species is not yet thoroughly worked
out, but there seems little doubt that it is resident in the lagoons of
E. Spain, such as the Albufera of Valencia, and possibly also in the
province of Gerona, although wrongly identified eggs have been sent
from Spain as those of this bird. Crespon regarded it as resident in
Gard, in southern France, but it has not been reported by more recent
visitors to the lower Rhone. It is however known to breed in fair
numbers locally in Italy, especially in the Maremma of Tuscany and the
Roman Campagna and possibly also in Liguria and Venetia. In Sicily
Lynes found it breeding plentifully at a small lake near the E. coast
(Pantana di Lentini) and it has also been recorded from Messina as
resident. It breeds in considerable numbers in Hungary in reed and
sedge grown morasses and lakes, and possibly also in Dalmatia and
Bosnia. In Greece although it has been met with in the winter, it has
not yet been proved to breed. [Shelley obtained specimens at Damietta,
and believed it to be resident there, but confirmation of the statement
is needed. |

On the Velencze Lake the nest is generally built underneath the
knots tied by the fishermen by binding the heads of the reeds together
as beacons, and neatly suspended by basket handles. Where such sites
are not to be found it breeds among the rushes, sedge or old reeds,
from 1 ft. to 2 ft. 3 in. above the water. In Sicily Commander Lynes
describes the nests as sometimes placed in small bushes growing in
shallow water, or among bases of reed clumps at edges of clearings. The

269

nest has been compared to those of both Reed and Sedge Warbler: it
is built of dead grasses, roots, fragments of sedges from the floating
scum and bits of tamarisk down, etc., lined neatly and smoothly with
grasses, bits of reed flower, and sometimes a feather or two is woven
in. Some nests have quite a large number of feathers of Purple Gallinule,
Water Rail, and Little Bittern in the lining. Dimensions: depth from
3 in. upwards, diameter 34 in., diameter of cup, 1#—2 in., depth 12 in.

Usually 4, occasionally 3 or 5, and 6 have occasionally been found
in Hungary. They closely resemble those of the Sedge Warbler, but
when fresh have generally a greenish tinge and are as a rule lighter in
colour. The fine speckles of olive brown and ashy shell markings are
evenly distributed over the surface, generally showing the pale greenish
(or occasionally light yellowish brown) ground, but in a few cases are
so thick that the ground is quite obscured. Many eggs have a black
hairstreak at the big end.

In Hungary the eggs may be taken from mid-April onward to the
end of May and even in June, and two broods are reared. In Sicily
Lynes found young on the wing and fresh eggs (presumably second
broods) on June 6—8. Both sexes take part in incubation.

Average of 86 eggs (45 by the writer and 41 by Rey), 17.86 ><13.12,
Maza Sas and: 18.3°>< 14.1, Mim 16-3 s< 2233) and) bh S102:

Average weight, 83 mg. (Rey); 85 mg. (Bau).

[The Eastern form of this species, LZ. melanopogon mimica Mad.
breeds from the Volga delta and the Kirghis steppes eastward to Persia.
The eggs do not differ from those of the Western form.|

125. River Warbler, Locustella fluviatilis (Wolf).
Plate 29, fig. 22, 23 (Breslau, 20. VI. 81 and 15. VI. 86).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. X-XI, fig. 6, a—c (errore); Taf. IC,
fig. 11, a, b. Heckel, Verh. d. Z. B. Ver., Wien, 1852, Taf. fig. 1—3
and Naumannia, 1853. Taf. II. Baedeker, Tab. 19, fig. 19. Taczanowski,
Tab. XIV, fig. 1. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 33, 34, 39, 40.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Rakosnik riéni. Finland: Virtakerttw.
Germany: Fluss-fohrsdnger, Fluss-Schwirl. Hungary: Berki tiicsikmadar.
Poland: Gajowka strumenidwa. Russia: Retschnaja kamyschefka.
Locustella fluviatilis (Wolf). Dresser, B. of Europe, Il, p. 102 and Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 135. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 547.

Breeding Range: Germany (chiefly in the E.), Austro- Hungary,
and Russia N. to about 60°, but everywhere local.

In Germany the River Warbler has long been known to inhabit
certain marshy districts in the E. provinces, such as E. Prussia (especially

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

270

near the Kurische Haff), Pomerania, Mecklenburg, Brandenburg locally,
Posen, Saxony (near Leipzig) and Silesia (the Oder, Neisse, Bart-
schniederung etc.). It is also recorded from Anhalt, Thiiringia and Bavaria
(near Erlangen), while recently specimens have been obtained in W.
Germany also at various points on the Rhine (Cf. Le Roi, Végel Rhein-
provinz, p. 274). In Austro-Hungary it breeds in Moravia, Lower Austria,
Hungary (in some numbers locally), Galizia, probably Transsylvania, and
certainly Croatia and Slavonia. In Russia its northern limit extends to
the middle of Finland and about 60° N. in the Urals; while southward
it ranges through mid-Russia (common near Moscow and 8S. Petersburg),
the Baltic Provinces and Poland, and E. to Orenburg and Perm, but
Pleske thinks that it only visits S. Russia on migration; although it has
been obtained in the Crimea early in August. (Cf. Lindner, Ornith.
Monatsschr., 1897, p. 214 for further details).

Well concealed, like those of the other-Locustellae, and placed
either on or not more than 18 in. from the ground, generally in thick
willow or other bushes, especially when overgrown with rank grass, not
always in the neighbourhood of water. The reeling note of the male is
louder than that of the othcr members of this genus, and somewhat dis-
syllabic in character. The nest is built of coarse grasses and leaves of
reed and is rather loosely constructed on a foundation of a few dead
leaves, with a lining of finer grasses and roots and sometimes a little
horsehair. Height 3—3% in., outer diameter, 43 in., diameter of cup,
23 in., depth 13—1# in.

Usually 5, sometimes only 4 and rarely 6. They vary considerably
in colour, shape and especially in size. The ground colour is white,
sometimes tinged with pink and showing some little gloss, while fine
spots of reddish brown, greyish red, or brown are distributed fairly
evenly over the surface, together with a few ashy shell markings. At
the big end there is often a tendency to form a zone, and the spots
are often a little bigger.

In Germany from the beginning of June to the end of the month
is the usual time. The earliest dates of which I have notes are, one
from Hungary with eggs on May 15, and one with young from Uman,
Russia, about June 7; but these dates are exceptional, and few eggs are
found before the end of May. The hen is not a close sitter, and does
not as a rule allow herself to be surprised on the nest, but slips off
quietly when approached.

Average of 100 eggs (79 by Hartert, 18 by Rey and 3 by the
writer), 20.4 >< 15.12, Max. 22.3><16 and 20.9>< 16.8, Min. 18 >< 14.
Average weight of 18 eggs, 124 mg., varying from 102 to 142 mg. (Rey).

271

126. Savi’s Warbler, Locustella luscinoides (Savi).
Plate 28, fig. 15—17 (Hungary).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. X XI, fig. 12; IC, fig. 12, a—c.
Hewitson, II Ed. I, pl. XXV;* III Ed. pl. XXXI, fig. 2. Naumannia,
1853.) Lat. Il, fig. 6. Baedeker, Tab, 19, fig. 20.. Taczanowsla, Tab.
XLVI. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 10; id. Col. Fig. pl. 52. Frohawk,
br: Birds/)f, pl. I, fig.’ 64. Dresser, pl. —, fig: 31; 32),37,. 38.

British Local Name: Mght Reeder (obs.). Foreign Names:
Bohemia: Rakosnik slavikovy. France: Fauvette des Saules. Germany:
Nachtigall - Rohrsdnger. Holland: Nachtegaal- Rietzanger. Hungary:
Nadi tiicsdkmadar. Italy: Salciajola. Poland: Brzeczka. Russia: Kamy-
schefka solowpnaja.

Locustella luscinoides (Savi). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 389. Dresser,
B. of Europe, Il, p. 627 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 136. Saunders, Man.
p. 91. L. luscinoides luscinoides (Savi). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 548.

Breeding Range: Continental Europe W. of the Rhine, Holland,
Italy, Sicily, Austro- Hungary, Poland, Mid- and 8. Russia, and the
Danubian States; formerly in the English Fens. [Aso N. W. Africa,
and possibly Lower Egypt.|

Formerly this bird bred in the Cambridgeshire fens (Milton, Burwell,
and Wicken fens) as well as in Huntington (Wood Walton), and Norfolk
(Surlingham and probably other broads). Details will be found in
Newton’s article, but here it is sufficient to state that the last British
nest was taken in Norfolk in 1856. It is also said on very slight evi-
dence to have bred in Essex and other counties.*

In Spain it is not uncommon locally in the marshes of the lower
Guadalquivir, and also in certain lagunas of southern Andalucia, while
it is said to have bred at the Albufera (Valencia), and near Coimbra in
Portugal. In France it appears to be confined to the Camargue, the
marshes of the lower Loire, where it is common, and probably the
Garonne. In Holland it is commoner than is generally supposed, breeding
in the reed beds of the Maas, on the Naarder Meer and in the wilder
parts of Friesland. In W. Germany its presence in the Rhine Province
was only recognized in 1904. In Austro- Hungary it breeds in Galizia
and is very common in some of the marshes of the great Hungarian plain,
and also nests in Croatia, Slavonia and Transsylvania. In Russia it is
confined to the central and southern districts, from Poland E. to Oren-
burg and the mouth of the Volga, where it is common, and 8S. to Odessa,
but apparently not the Caucasus. In the Balkan states it is not un-

* It may possibly have revisited Norfolk in recent years, but at present there
is not enough evidence to warrant more than this suggestion.

British
Tsles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

272

common in the Danube valley, while in Italy it is exceedingly local, but
occurs in suitable districts of Lombardy, Venetia and Aimilia, as well
as in Tuscany (Massaciuccoli), and Sicily (Catania). [It also breeds in
Algeria: possibly in Marocco, while Shelley says it is resident in the
Fayim, though it is more likely to winter there: and according to Se-
vertzow nests in Turkestan. |

The approximate site of the nest may be located to some extent
by the actions of the singing male bird, which utters its monotonous
reel from the top of high reeds in the vicinity, with widely opened bill
and swelling throat. It is however very difficult to find, being always
hidden from above, sometimes but little above water level among masses
of broken down reeds, and at other times among the big clumps of
dead and matted sedges, perhaps 18 in. above the water, but only to be
found by laboriously parting the thick mass of dead vegetation. The
nest itself is smoothly and neatly rounded internally, and has been well
compared to that of a miniature Rail or Waterhen. According to Newton
the material used is the dead leaf of Glycervum, but some nests appear
to be built of fragments of dead, brown, reed and sedge leaves.

Usually 5, sometimes 4 or 6. They are oval in shape, closely
speckled all over with fine spots of grey brown, less frequently reddish
brown, and violet shell markings, on a ground, which is sometimes hardly
visible, of greyish white, sometimes with a faint reddish tinge. Occa-
sionally a blackish streak is found at the big end, where the markings
are generally thickest, and often an egg is found with a distinct zone.

In central Europe eggs may be found from about the middle of
May to early June, but in England and Galizia few eggs have been
taken before the end of May, while in Andalucia Irby says that the
breeding season is rather variable, but took 13 nests (all with eggs
except one) between May 4—13. Some birds however nest much earlier,
for I found a nest with young a few days old on April 30 in the Marisma.
Wodzicki says that both sexes take part in incubation and sit very
closely. From the difference in the nesting dates it seems probable that
in some cases two broods are reared.

Average of 100 eggs (96 by the writer and 4 by Hartert), 19.68 >< 14.55,
Max. 21.5 >< 15 and 20.7 >< 15.4, Min. 17.5 >< 13.6. Cerva records a
dwarf, 17>< 8. Average weight of 8 eggs, 108 mg.

[A paler Eastern form, L. luscinoides fusca Sev.), breeds in Trans-
caspia and Turkestan. |

273

127. Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler, Locustella certhiola (Pall.).
Plate 34, fig. 16, 17 (Darasun, Dybowski).

Hggs: Taczanowski, J. f. O., 1873, Taf. I, fig. 4, 5. Dresser,
pl. —, fig. 22—24.
Locustella certhiola (Pall.). Dresser, B. of Europe, II, p. 633 and Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 133. MHartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 550.

Breeding Range: Siberia, from Tomsk and the Yenesei E. to
the Amur mouth. Has occurred on Helgoland (1856), and the Rockabill,
Ireland (Sept. 28, 1908).

Seebohm found this bird frequenting the marshes and swampy
woods in the wide river meadows by the Yenesei, and more recently
Johansen has recorded it from Tomsk, while Dr. Theel met with it up
to lat. 62° N. It also breeds in the Altai district; in Transbaikalia,
where Dybowski obtained eggs, near Irkutsk (Radde), and according to
Przewalski very commonly in Ussuria as well as in the Hoang-ho valley.

Built close to the ground in a tussock of grass in wet and moss
grown meadows with a growth of long grass. Sometimes it is described
as built on a hummock of moss, but well concealed by the grass. It is
usually found by the sitting bird flying off close to the feet of the
passer by.

Usually 5, less often 4 or 6 in number. They are thickly covered
as a rule with very fine and almost confluent pinkish brown specks,
which generally form a zone at the big end, and occasionally a dark
hair streak. In some eggs the colour appears to be a uniform brownish
pink, perhaps because the ground is completely obscured, but the colour
is rather fugitive.

In the Baikal district from mid June onwards, but in early June
in Ussuria and the Amur, where fledged young were found early
in July.

Average size of 16 eggs (9 by Taczanowski and 7 by the writer),
18.88 >< 13.76, Max. 19.7 >< 14 and 19>< 14.2, Min. 18.3 >< 13.3.

128. Grasshopper Warbler, Locustella naevia (Bodd.).
Geographical Races.
a) Western Grasshopper Warbler, L. naevia naevia (Budd.).
Plate 28, fig. 18—21 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. X- XI, fig. 8, a—c. Hewitson,

P Wide linpl) BX hie 3 Tb Edit, pl.) XX Vy fig. 13" TE Ed. 1) pl: 2 XO

fig. 1. Heckel, Naumannia, 1853, Taf. Il, fig. 4, 5. Baedeker, Tab. 19,

fig. 21. Taczanowski, Tab. XLV. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 10: Col.
18

Dis-
tribution.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

274

Fig. pl. 52. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. Il, fig. 63. Cat. Eggs. Br. Mus.,
IV, pl. VIII, fig. 21 (var.). Dresser, pl. —, fig. 25—30. Howard, Brit.
Warblers, pl. Il, fig. 7—18.

British Local Names: Reeler, Cricket Bird. Welsh: Y. Troellwr

bach. Foreign Names: Bohemia: Rékosnik zeleny. Denmark: Busk-
sanger. France: Becfin locustelle. Germany: Heuschreckensénger. Holland:
Sprinkhaan - Rietzanger. Hungary: Réti tiicsokmadar. Italy: Forapagle
macchiettato. Poland: Trziniak swierszczyk. Russia: Swertschok. Sweden:
Gr dshoppsangare.
Acrocephalus naevius (Bodd.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 384. Locustella
naevia (Bodd.). Dresser, B. of Europe, II, p. 611 and Man. Pal. Birds,
p. 131. Saunders, Man. p. 89. ZL. naevia naevia (Bodd.). Hartert,
Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 551.

Breeding Range: The British Isles, and Continental Europe, south
of the Baltic and about lat. 62° in Russia, but absent from S. Spain,
S. Italy, and the Balkan Peninsula, and replaced by the Hastern race in
S. EK. Russia.

The numbers of this species in a district vary considerably from
year to year, and while in one season it may be almost plentiful, next
year perhaps not a single pair will be found. It is moreover every-
where local, partly no doubt owing to the necessity of suitable breeding
sites. It is fairly though irregularly distributed throughout England and
Wales, but is scarce in Cornwall, and is perhaps most numerous in the
valleys of Durham and 8. Northumberland, on the Solway littoral, and
in the Broad district. It is by no means confined to the low ground,
but also haunts the heather covered slopes of the Pennines, and the
Welsh hills up to about 1500 ft. It is found also in Anglesey, and in
the Isle of Man. In Scotland it is found sporadically over the counties
S. of the Firths of Forth and Clyde, but only sparingly further N.,
although it has been recognized not only in N. Argyll, but as far as
Arisaig on the W. coast, in the Moray district, on the Upper Forth
and in the Tay area. In Ireland it is more general, and is locally common,
except on the western seaboard.

In the Iberian peninsula although occurring on passage in some
numbers and probably wintering in the S., there is no reason to believe
that it breeds 8S. of the Cantabrian range. Northward of this it is not
uncommon and is found in suitable districts in most parts of France,
more especially in the N. W. Though scarce in Belgium, it is found
in Holland near the coast as well as in Brabant, and may be met with
locally throughout the great plain of central Europe. In Denmark it
only breeds in the S8., and has been obtained in Scandinavia only in
Jaedderen and near Kristiania. Eastward it is found in the Baltic

275

provinces, in Finland in one or two localities only; was recognized by
Meves in the Onega district, and breeds regularly in the S. Petersburg
Government. In 8. E. Russia it is however replaced by the next race.
In Austro-Hungary it is known to breed in most parts, Bohemia (rarely),
Lower Austria, Hungary (locally common), Galizia, Transsylvania, Sla-
vonia, W. Tyrol, etc. In Switzerland it chiefly haunts low ground, but
is occasionally met with in valleys up to about 4500 ft., while in Italy
it is absent from the southern provinces, but breeds in Trentino, Veneto
and Lombardia and has been noticed in spring in Liguria, Nizzardo and
Piemonte.

Generally most carefully concealed, and often so hidden by long
grass and scrub that it can only be found after most painstaking search,
even when the site is approximately known. In the broads of Norfolk
it often utters its reeling note from a reed, like Savi’s Warbler, breeding
close to the water, but inland many pairs nest on dry hillsides, where
there is good cover, far from any water. On the slopes of the Pennines.
I have met with it in long heather on the fringe of the moors; and osier
beds, plantations of saplings with long grass, water-meadows, commons
and tangled hedge bottoms, are all likely spots. As a rule the ‘reel’ may
be heard between 8 pm. and a few hours after sunrise, but also at times
in the middle of the day. (For interesting notes on the courtship and
breeding habits H. E. Howard’s British Warblers, Pt. I, p. 1—25,
should be consulted). The nest usually rests in a grass tussock, close
to the ground, but occasionally as much as 18 in. or 2 ft. above it,
among thick brambles or undergrowth. On the continent it is said to
be sometimes placed in a cornfield, but in the British Isles only in the
adjacent hedge bottoms. A little moss, a few leaves, and bits of bracken
have been found in the foundation, but the actual nest is built almost
entirely of dead leaves of grasses and some stalks, and is fairly substantial,
but not particularly neatly constructed. Outer diameter about 4 in.,
diameter of cup 2—24 in, depth 1:—2 in. In this nest the hen sits
with beak and tail pointing almost perpendicularly upwards, but is not
easy to see, as the nest is generally quite hidden from above by rank
grass or scrub.

ford

Typically 6, but sometimes only 5. Most books give 7 as found
occasionally, but I can only find one nest recorded with this number.
They are generally thickly and uniformly speckled with very fine reddish
brown spots on a creamy or pinkish white ground, and have little gloss.
Sometimes the spots form a zone usually at the big end, and a purple
or almost black hair streak is also not infrequently met with. Violet
grey shell markings are not always present, but are sometimes conspicuous.
In one very pretty variety in A. W. Johnson’s collection there is a zone

18*

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

276

of pink spots round the big end on a creamy ground: while J. M. Goodall
has a set with bold purplish red blotches (figured in Howard’s British
Warblers, pl. U, fig. 7), and R. J. Ussher took a somewhat similar set
in Ireland.

The earliest dates recorded appear to be May 12 in the S. of
England, and May 14 in the northern counties, but the great majority
of eggs are taken between May 25 and June 5. Late nests may be
found in July and even up to Aug. 6 (Nelson), but as O. Grabham
states that no fewer than 30 eggs have been taken from a single pair,
it seems probable that many supposed second broods are really only
second or third layings. Ussher however states that a second brood
may be found late in July or early in August in Ireland. Incubation
lasts about 16 days (Howard), and is performed by the hen, who sits very
closely and when flushed generally runs like a mouse for some distance,
only taking wing to the nearest cover. The young leave the nest during
the day when only a few days old and forsake it altogether about the
ninth day, before they can fly.

Average size of 100 eggs (63 from England by the writer and
37 from the Continent by Rey) 17.64 >< 13.59, Max. 20.3 >< 14.2 and
19.1 >< 14.8, Min. 16.1>< 12.5. The English eggs are as usual slightly
larger than the German. Average weight, 94.5 mg. (Rey); 96 mg. (Bau).

b. Eastern Grasshopper Warbler, L. naevia straminea Seeb.

Locustella straminea (Sev.). Dresser, B. of Hurope, LX, p. 652 and Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 132. JL. naevia straminea Seeb. Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 553.

Breeding Range: From the Urals (Orenburg) and the Caucasus,
EK. to Transcaspia, Turkestan and the Altai range. Possibly also in the
Himalayas.

Probably differs little in habits from the Western race, but little
seems to have been recorded on the subject. Lorenz found it up to
about 4500 ft. on the N. side of the Caucasus, and Severtzow says that
in the Pamirs he met with it at the end of July on brook swamps at
nearly 15,000 ft., where it was probably nesting. Three eggs taken in
the Tian Shan range by Ottosson’s collector resemble those of the Western
race and average 17.86 >< 43.7 mm. in size.

129. Temminck’s Grass Warbler, Locustella lanceolata (Temm.).
Plate 34, fig. 19 (Transbaikalia).
Egg: Cat. Eggs Br. Mus., IV, pl. IX, fig. 9.
Locustella lanceolata (Temm.). Dresser, B. of Europe, II, p, 617 and
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 132. Hartert, Vig. Pal. Fauna, p. 553.

277

Breeding Range: Onega R., N. Russia (Meves). Has occurred
near Cattaro, Nov. 1907. [Also Siberia from Tomsk to Kamtschatka,
N. Yezo, Saghalin and the Kuriles. |]

The only instance in which this bird has been obtained in Europe
during the breeding season took place on July 9, 1869 near Possad on
the R. Onega, when Meves shot a singing male bird. When Pleske’s
account of its distribution (Ornithographia Rossica, p. 629) was written,
it was not known to breed W. of Kultuk, near L. Baikal, but has now
been recorded from Tomsk by Johansen and has probably been over-
looked.

After arriving in its breeding haunts about mid June, the male Nest.
‘reels’ nearly all day. The nest is built in marshy places, on a moss
hillock overgrown by coarse grass and sheltered from above by a grass
tussock. It is well concealed and as the bird sits close, is very hard to
find. The materials used are dry grasses and stalks as a rule, but leaves
of Vaccinium or Moss may be used in the exterior. Outer diameter,

37 in., cup 2% in., broad and 17 in. deep.

Eggs 5, thickly marked with reddish brown on a rosy ground with ess.
grey shell markings, especially towards the big end. They are laid to-
wards the end of June.

Average size of 4 eggs taken by Dybowski, 17.4>< 12.95, Max. Messure-
17.8 >< 13: Min. 17 >< 13 and 17.4 >< 12.8. A clutch of 6 eggs from rin
the Baikal district taken by Ruckbeil, and ascribed to this bird, are
slightly larger, averaging 17.9 >< 13.8, but can only belong to this species
or L. fasciolata (Gray). One egg weighs 90 mg. (Rey).

130. Great Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus arundinaceus (L.).
Geographical Races.
a. European Great Reed Warbler, A. arundinaceus arundinaceus (1.).
Plate 29, fig. 9—13 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. X XI, fig. 5, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 19, fig. 10. Hewitson, II Ed. I, pl. XXXII, fig. 3, 4. Taczanowski,
Tab. XLII, fig. 1. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 10; id. Col. Fig. pl. 52.
Howard, Br. Warblers, pl. I, fig. 25—34. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 43—46.
Nest: R. B. Lodge, Pictures of Bird Life., p. 227.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Rdakosnik velkij. Denmark: Rérdrossel.
France: fousserolle. Germany: Drossel-Rohrstnger. Holland: Groote
Karakiet, Rietljster. Hungary: Nddirigd. Italy: Cannareccione. Poland:
Treciniak droedéwka. Portugal: Chinchafoes. Russia: Trostjanoidrosd.
Spain: Carrizalero. Sweden: Trastsdngare.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

278

Acrocephalus arundinaceus (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 364. Dresser,
B. of Europe, II, p. 597 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 119. A. turdoides
(Mey.). Saunders, Man. p. 83. <A. arundinaceus arundinaceus (L.).
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 556.

Breeding Range: Middle and South Continental Europe, from
the Baltic and Gulf of Finland to the Mediterranean, and from Andalucia
E. to Orenburg, but replaced by the Caspian race in S. EH. Russia.
[Also in N. W. Africa, Asia Minor and W. Siberia.]

It is very curious that a species, which breeds in such numbers
on the opposite side of the Channel and whose northern range extends
to the Gulf of Finland, should only be a rare accidental visitor to the
British Isles. It is abundant in the reed beds of Portugal, and in the
S. of Spain, but becomes very scarce in the plateaux of the interior,
although it is found in the lagoons of the E. coast. In France it is
fairly general in all suitable ground and is very common in some parts
of Holland and Belgium. In Germany it is most numerous in H. Prussia,
Pomerania, parts of Silesia, the Mark, Mecklenburg, Brunswick and the
lower Rhine, but becomes scarce in Schleswig, although a few pairs
have been found breeding in Denmark. In Switzerland it is confined to
the low ground, and in Italy is found in the marshy districts of the N.
and Central Provinces, but is scarce in the 8., although not uncommon
in the lakes and marshes of E. Sicily. Corsica and Sardinia are only
visited on passage. Eastward it is found in almost all parts of Austro-
Hungary where reed beds exist, in Poland, the Baltic Provinces to the
islands in the Gulf of Riga and to about lat. 57° N. in the Urals. In
the Balkan Peninsula it is common in the Danubian states, and breeds
in the marshes of Herzegowina, Albania and in Corfu, but apparently not
in Macedonia, while only a small proportion stay through the summer
in Greece. [Also breeds in W. Siberia (Johansen), Asia Minor, probably
in Palestine, and in some numbers in N. W. Africa, especially in parts
of Algeria. |

The presence of this bird in reed beds is very easy to detect on
account of its extremely loud and rather harsh song, which becomes
almost deafening when uttered simultaneously by a dozen or more males.
Unlike most bird songs, it can be very accurately represented by words,
Karra, karra, karra; karee (or Keeit) karee karee; charra, charra,
charra, etc. The nest is a copy on a larger scale of that of the Reed
Warbler, but is even more neatly constructed. It is built round 3 to
5 reed stems growing close together at heights varying as a rule from
2 to 4 ft. above the water, which it almost always overhangs. One nest
only have I seen which was well concealed among rank marsh vegetation
(not reeds), and within a foot of the water. Occasionally however nests

279

are found among the twigs of Willow or Sallow bushes both in Germany
and Italy, as much as 7 or 8 ft. from the water, or even at some dis-
tance from it. One is recorded in the J. f. O., 1881. p. 313, as being
12 ft. above the ground. In shape the nest is cylindrical, built of leaves
of grasses, reeds and sedges, with roots interwoven, and reed blossoms
worked into the foundation, lined with stalks, reed blossoms, or plant
down and sometimes a few horsehairs or a feather or two, forming a
deep cup. Height about 54—6+ in., outer diameter, 4—435 in., inner
diameter, 2% in.

Generally 4 or 5, sometimes 6, and occasionally only 3 in number.
In appearance they approach to the Marsh Warbler type, but are of
course much larger. The ground colour is as a rule bluish or greenish
sometimes with an olive tinge, very boldly blotched (especially towards
the big end) with dark umber brown or blackish brown. There are
generally some smaller spots as well, and underlying shell spots and
blotches of ashy grey or paler olive. A pretty variety has a distinctly
blue ground: another has only a few fine grey and black spots, sometimes
in a zone, on a whitish ground: while a third variety has a cap of dark
umber shading into a belt of pale olive at the big end, on a greyish
white ground. In shape they are a somewhat blunt oval and show little
gloss as a rule.

This varies to some extent according to the season, and the result-
ant growth of the reeds, and some pairs will be found nesting a fort-
night or so before the majority. In Holland the best time for eggs is
about the second week in June, and about mid June in E. Germany,
but clutches may be taken there occasionally as early as the third week
in May. In N. Italy full sets may be taken from May 19, and in 8.
Spain from about May 15. Incubation is said to last 14 days, and the
young soon leave the shelter of the nest, climbing with extraordinary
activity among the reed stems while still unfledged. Only one brood is
reared in the season.

Average of 100 eggs (60 by Rey and 40 by the writer), 22.56 >< 16.24,
Max. 24:8 >< 16.3 and 23 >< 17.2, Min: 20:9 >< 16.2 and 21.2 >< 16:3:
These measurements are however sometimes exceeded: abnormally long
eggs measure 26.2 >< 15 (coll. H. M. Wallis), 25.5 >< 16, etc. Average
weight, 178 mg. (Rey).

b. Caspian Great Reed Warbler, A. arundinaceus zarudnyi Hart.
A. arundinaceus zarudnyi Hart. MHartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 558.

Breeding Range: The mouth of the Volga and the Kirghis
Steppes. [Also Transcaspia and Turkestan. |

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

280

Apparently does not differ in habits from the Western form. Average
size of 5 eggs, 23 >< 15.5 mm.

[Still further KE. is found A. arundinaceus orientalis (T. & S.), breeding in China,
S. E Siberia and Japan, which lays smaller eggs. Average size of 28, 21.04 15.24,
Max. 22.5 15.5 and 22 & 16.2; Min. 20 & 14.8 and 21.1 14.5. In Egypt, the
Red Sea district and Palestine, another allied species breeds. the Clamorous Reed
Warbler, Acrocephalus stentoreus stentoreus (H. & HE.) Eggs figured in J. f. O.,
1868, Taf. II. fig. 2 and Heuglin, Orn. N. O. Afrika, Taf. XLII, fig. 13—15. They
are similar to those of the European treat Reed Warbler: average size of 4,
21.9 X 16.05. An Eastern form of this species breeds from Transcaspia to India
and Ceylon, A. stentoreus brunnescens (Jerd.). Eggs figured by Dresser, pl. —,
fig. 47, 48. Average size of 8 eggs, 21.96 « 15.45.]

131. Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus streperus (Vieill.).
Plate 29, fig. 18—21 (Saxony).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XX], fig. 7,0, e, f (rest —= A. palustris).
Hewitson, I Ed. I, pl. LXX, fig. 1; II Ed. I, pl. XX V7 ie 3 Sid
I, pl. XXXII, fig. 1 (2 = palustris). Baedeker, Tab. 19, fig. 11—15.
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 10; id. Col. Fig. pl. 52. Frohawk, Br. Birds,
Eph, fig. 56).57. Cat. Eggs Br. Mus, TV, pl. VIN) fig.) 20\\(var2):
Howard, Br. Warblers, pl. I, fig. 13—18. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 7—9.
Nest: O. Lee, IV, p. 56.

British Local Names: Reed Wren or Sparrow. Welsh: Aderyn
y cyrs. Foreign Names: Bohemia: Rakosnik obéeny. Denmark: Rér-
sanger. France: Rousserolle éffarvatte. Germany: Terch-Rohrsdnger.
Holland: Kleine Karakiet. Hungary: Cserregé poszata.. Italy: Cannaiola.
Poland: Trzcionka. Russia: Trostnikowaja Kamyschefka. Sweden: Rér-
sdngare. Spain: Pinzoleta.

Acrocephalus streperus (Vieill.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 369. Dresser,
B. of Europe, II, p. 567 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 117. Saunders, Man.,
p. 79. A. strepera strepera (Vieill.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 560.

Breeding Range: England, 8. Sweden, and Continental Europe
S. of the Baltic, but eastern limit in Russia as yet uncertain.

Owing to the fact that this bird is chiefly confined in the breeding
season to the reed grown banks of sluggish streams or still water, it is
necessarily somewhat local everywhere, and is entirely absent from moun-
tainous districts where the streams flow rapidly and there are few or no
reeds. It is however quite common in some favoured spots, especially
in the 8. and 8. E. Counties of England, many pairs nesting within a
short distance of one another. It does not breed in Cornwall and is
scarce in Devon, except at Slapton. It is also absent from the 8S. W.
Counties of Wales, but breeds in Brecon (Langorse Lake), and in a few
localities in N. Wales, where however it is scarce as well as very local.

281

It nests in some numbers in the meres of Salop, Cheshire and Stafford-
shire, but only in the Trent valley in Derbyshire, and very locally in
Notts, although there are a few records of its breeding in Lancashire
and it is supposed to have nested in Cumberland. On the E. side, though
scarce in Lincolnshire, it certainly breeds in Yorkshire, especially in the
E. riding, while a few pairs are to be found in the N. and W., and it
has bred once in Durham according to Tristram.

On the Continent the northern limit of this species extends to the
S. shores of Lake Wener in Sweden and the southern Russian Baltic
Provinces, while its eastern range extends to Volhynia and Kiew, where
it is common. Either this or the Eastern form, A. strepera macronyx
(Sev.) also occurs on the Lower Volga and the Kirghis Steppes, but the
limits of the two forms are not yet defined. It breeds wherever suitable
marshy breeding places are available over the greater part of Europe,
south to Andalucia, Italy and Sicily, but not in Corsica and Sardinia, and
also breeds in the Balkan Peninsula to Greece and Thessaly. [No eggs
have yet been taken in N. W. Africa, but Hartert believes that it breeds
on Lake Fetzara, Algeria; and Kriiper records it from Smyrna.|

Characteristic: usually built among reeds at a height of from one
to three feet above the water level. Occasionally it may be found among
coarse marsh vegetation in England, and in Andalucia Irby noticed many
nests on dead stems of Willow herb, while in some districts many nests
are built among osiers or in the branches of other trees and bushes, up
to 10 or even 20 ft. from the ground. Lilacs, snowberries, alders, elders,
and laurels are often chosen for this purpose, and though in some cases
the nest is built over water, it has also been found found at considerable
distances from the nearest stream. In shape the typical nest is somewhat
cylindrical and deep internally, so that the bird has been known to in-
cubate eggs when the wind has been strong enough to blow the reeds
almost to the water’s edge. The materials used are chiefly dry grasses,
fragments of duckweed, and old reed flowers, lined with fine grasses or
reed tops and occasionally a feather or two, a bit of wool and a little
horsehair. The cock accompanies the hen while building, but does not
share the work, and in suitable spots it is usual to find several pairs
nesting not far from one another.

Usually 4, sometimes 5 and very rarely 6 in number. They are
greenish white in ground colour, blotched and marbled, sometimes closely
and occasionally sparingly with dark olive brown and ashy grey, while
some markings are so dark as almost to be called black. Another but
much scarcer type has an almost pure white ground, boldly spotted with
brown or greenish brown. Major Proctor has two sets of this type, which
have only pale markings of greenish grey and lilac. Some eggs show

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

282

rich brown caps at the big end, and in others the markings are entirely
of smoky brown without a tinge of green.

The first eggs are laid in England during the last ten days of May,
but the breeding season is rather variable and many birds do not lay
till early June. This is also the case in Central Europe, but in Anda-
lucia eggs mey be found quite early*in May. When the first laying is
taken the birds build again at once, and a second and if necessary a
third clutch may be found at intervals of about ten days. As fresh eggs
and young have frequently been found in August, it is evident that a
second brood is sometimes reared, in the south of England at any rate.
Incubation lasts 13—-14 days (Naumann) and is apparently performed
by the hen.

Average of 100 eggs (55 by Rey and 45 by the writer), 18.2 >< 13.62,
Max. 21.4>< 14.2 and 19 >< 14.6, Min. 16.3 >< 12.4. A dwarf egg mea-
sures 14.7 >< 10.8. Average weight, 90.5 mg. (Rey), 89 mg. (Bau). Average
weight of 20 full eggs, 1.633 g. (R. H. Read).

[The Eastern form, A. strepera macronyx (Sev.), apparently breeds
from Transcaspia and Turkestan to Baluchistan and the Altai.]

132. Marsh Warbler, Acrocephalus palustris (Bechst.).
Plate 29, fig. 14—17 (Halle a Saale).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XXI, fig. 7, a, b (and d)* He-
witson, III Ed., pl. XXXII, fig. 2.* Baedeker, Tab. 19, fig. 16. Tac-
zanowski, Tab. XLII, fig. 2. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 10; id. Col. Fig.
pl. 52. Frohawk, B. Birds, I, pl. UU, fig. 58—60. Howard, Br. Warblers,
pl. I, fig. 19—24. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 10—12. Nest: Kearton, Br. Birds’
Nests, p. 466.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Rakosnik bahni. Denmark: Sumpsanger.
France: Rousserolle verderolle. Germany: Sumpfrohrsdnger. Holland:
Bosch-Rietzanger. Hungary: Enekes nddiposzdta. Italy: Cannaiola ver-
dognola. Poland: Lozéwka. Russia: Kamyschefka.

Acrocephalus palustris (Bechst.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 373. Dresser,
B. of Europe, Il, p. 573 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 118. Saunders, Man.
p. 81. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 562.

Breeding Range: S. England, and Continental Europe, 8. of the
Baltic and about lat. 59° in Russia, but scarce in 8. Italy and absent
from the Mediterranean Isles and Greece. [Perhaps S. to Palestine.]

Until recently the breeding range of this species was supposed to
be restricted in England to Somerset, Gloucester, Oxford and Cambridge,
but later observations prove that it a visitor in small numbers to

* Figured as Acrocephalus streperus.

283

Kent, Sussex, Surrey, Hants, Wilts, and Worcester. Possibly it also
breeds in Norfolk, and it will probably be recorded sooner or later from
Dorset and Berks.

On the Continent it is pretty generally distributed in suitable localities
south of the Baltic, but it not numerous in Denmark. In Russia its northern
limit extends to Reval in Ehstland, and the Governments of Twer, Jaroslaw,
Kazan and Orenburg. It is known to breed in France south to the Pyrenees,
but the evidence as to its status in the Iberian peninsula is very conflicting.
There are however three clutches of eggs from the Malaga district in the
British Museum, one of which was obtained from H. Saunders; although
in his Manual he says that as yet no specimens are forthcoming from
the Spanish Peninsula, contradicting statements in the Jbis, 1871, p. 215
and Dresser’s birds of Hurope. It is scarce in 8. and Middle Italy, rare
on passage in Sardinia and absent from Corsica, while in the Balkan
Peninsula although it breeds plentifully as far south as Macedonia it is
still not definitely recorded from Greece. It is rare in the Caucasus, but
apparently is found in Transcaucasia and also in the Volga delta. |Recently
Schmitz reports having taken the nest in Palestine, and Loche met with
it in Algeria, where it may breed, though proof of this is still lacking.]

The favourite haunts of this species are osier beds, and swampy
ground overgrown with rank vegetation, such as meadow sweet (Hpi-
lobium), or nettles, and bushes, but it is by no means confined to such
spots and may also be found breeding in hedge bottoms, dry ditches, etc.,
at the edges of fields at a considerable distance from water. The nest
somewhat resembles that of the Warblers in appearance and is shallower
than those of the other Acrocephali, but is recognizable by the ‘basket
handles’ by which it is attached to the stems of the surrounding vege-
tation. It is generally from 2 to 4 ft. above the ground, and is built of
dry grasses, lined with fine rootlets and a few horsehairs. The diameter
of the cup is about 2—2: in., and the depth about 2 in. The cock
usually sings in the neighbourhood of the nest till the work of building
begins, when the song almost ceases for a time.

Although it has been stated that the number varies from 5 to 7,
all the authentic records with which I am acquainted agree in placing
it at 4 to 6. The bluish or greenish or greenish white ground is more
conspicuous than in typical Reed Warblers’ eggs, and the markings are
more scanty and bolder, and consist of irregular spots and blotches of
olive brown and underlying violet grey, with ocasional small spots or
streaks of almost black. Characteristic fine specks of olive brown are
also nearly always present.

In the south of England most eggs are laid during the second or
third week in June, while in Switzerland Bau says that the usual date

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding.
Season.

Measure-

ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

284

is from 10 to 15 June. Mc Gregor took a clutch in Macedonia on May
21 and Schmitz reports eggs in Palestine on April 14, but in Germany
and Holland eggs are rarely found before the first week of June. Only
one brood is reared, and incubation lasts 13 days (Bau), 14—15 (W.
W. Fowler), and is performed by the hen, who is relieved by the cock
for part of the afternoon.

Average of 130 Continental eggs (54 by Rey, 45 by Bau and 31 by
Hartert), 18.83 >< 13.67. The largest eggs recorded appear to be 21.5 >< 14
(Noack) and 17 >< 14.8 (G. v. Boxberger): Min. 17 14.8 (L. v. Box-
berger) and 18 >< 10 (Hartert). Dwarf eggs measure 10.5 <9, 11 >< 9 ete.
Average weight, 100.4 mg. (Rey). British eggs average a little larger,
19.13 >< 13.8 mm.

133. Blyth’s Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth.
Plate 26, fig. 19 (Altai.).

Eggs: Cat. Eggs Br. Mus., IV, pl. LX, fig. 1, 4. Dresser, pl. —,
fig. 4—6.

Foreign Names: Finland: Vutakerttu. Russia: Ssadowaja Malinofka.
Arrocephalus dumetorum Blyth. Dresser, B. of Europe, I, p. 561 and
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 116. MHartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 563.

Breeding Range: Chiefly in N. E. Russia. [Also W. Siberia to
the Himalayas and the Altai range.|

In Europe the range of this species is confined to Russia, where
it has been met with as far west as the S. Petersburg government, while
probably its northern range extends to Archangel, and its southern limit
beyond the governments of Novgorod, Twer, Moscow, Tula, and east to
Orenburg. [In Asia it is found in W. Siberia, Transcaspia, Turkestan,
the Altai range, Bokhara, and the Himalayas.]

Hulton and Anderson describe Indian nests as domed, with an en-
trance at the side and built in thick bushes: built of coarse dry grasses
and lined with finer bents, but rather loosely put together. On the other
hand Pleske quotes Bianchi and others as having taken nests in Russia
resembling those of the Marsh Warbler, built of stalks and leaves of
grasses, with some admixture of leaves, down or cobwebs, and lined
with hair in small or large quantities. Diameter of cup, 2—2? in.,
depth 14—14 in. The song of the male is rich and the alarm note a
Sharp) ick teks:

Usually 4 or 5, occasionally 6. They are very variable: some eggs
are pale pink in ground colour, blotched or spotted irregularly with
violet grey and pinkish brown: others are white, similarly marked with
olive brown and violet: a third type is also white, with fine rufous specks,

285

while a fourth is closely mottled with violet grey, umber brown and
perhaps a blackish spot or so and has the greyish ground almost obscured.
There is a fair amount of gloss.

Eggs may be found in Russia from about the second week of June ape
to the end of the mouth, but earlier in the Himalayas.

Average of 52 eggs (28 by the writer and 24 by Pleske), 17.6 >< 13.7, peace
Max.) 19:5) >< 015) Min. 16.2°>< 13.2and) 17.5) >< 12.75:

134. Paddy-field Warbler, Acrocephalus agricola Jerd.
Plate 22, fig. 30 (Turkestan).

Eggs: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 1—3.

Acrocephalus agricola Jerd. Dresser, B. of Hurope, II, p. 559 and
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 115. A. agricola agricola Jerd. WHartert, Vig. Pal.
Fauna, p. 564.

Breeding Range: 8. E. Russia. [Also from Transcaspia 8S. to
E. Persia, HE. to Nepal and the Altai range. Replaced in China by
A. agricola concinens (Swin.)]

Like the preceding species this bird is only known to breed in ©»-
Europe within the boundaries of Russia, but has a different range, being ae
chiefly confined to the S. and 8. E. Pleske states that it breeds in the
Crimea, the Kirghis steppes and the Astrakhan district, Orenburg and
Perm. It may possibly also be found breeding in the Dobrudscha, as a
specimen was obtained there on April 18. [In Asia its range extends
from Transcaspia, Turkestan, and the Altai range to Tsaidam, Tibet, and
the Himalaya range, while southward it has been found breding at Seistan
in K. Persia.]

Generally built in marshes among reeds and other water plants, Nest.
and attached to them like the nests of the Reed Warblers, which they
much resemble. Davidson describes nests found in Kashmir as solid
cups, from 1 to 3 ft. above the water, built of rough grass, with an
intermixture of reed fibre and catkins, lined with finer grasses and some-
times a feather or two. This agrees with descriptions of nests from the
Kirghis steppes, about 5 in. high, inner diameter 1% in., depth 2+? in.,
but differs widely from Brooks’ account of an empty nest in a rose bush.

In Kashmir generally 4, but 5 have been recorded from other kggs.
districts. Some eggs are said to resemble those of the Reed Warbler,
and are blotched and spotted all over with greenish brown and pale
grey and a few very dark specks, on a greenish grey ground. Kashmir
eggs on the other hand show much more of the white or bluish white
ground, and are only sparingly marked, chiefly at the big end, with olive
brown and underlying grey. They show hardly any gloss.

Europe.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

286

The eggs are laid in June as a rule: Sarudny took eggs at Seistan
on June 2 and on the Kirghis steppes they have been found on June 7,
but in Kashmir Davidson found 7 nests with eggs on June 22 and
Rattray took eggs on the 19th.

Average of 20 eggs (18 by the writer and 2 by Pleske), 17.14 >< 12.93,
Max 13'S < 13-1 vandl'7.6's< 14, Mia. V6 S213:3 and WG) Sie

135. Sedge Warbler, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus (L.).
Plate 29, fig. 1—4 (Denmark).

Kegs: Thienemann, Fortpfil. Taf. X XI, fig. 10, a—c. Hewitson,
LHd. 1. pl. LD XeX, fie. 2; I Ed. pl. X XV) feo. id) pleas
fig. 3. Baedeker, Tab. 19, fig. 17. Taczanowski, Tab. XLVII, fig. 2.
Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 10; id. Col. Fig. pl. 52. Frohawk, Br. Birds,
I, pl. Il, fig. 61,-62. Howard, Br. Warblers, pl.-l, fig. 7—12. Dresser,
pl. —, fig. 16—18. Nest: O. Lee, III, p. 144.

British Local Names: Sedge Bird or Chat, Chamchider, Mock
Nightingale. Welsh: Dryw yr hésg. Foreign Names: Bohemia: Mysak.
Denmark and Norway: Sivsanger. Finland: Ruokokerltu. France: Bec-fin
des joncs. Germany: Schilfrohrsdnger. Holland: Rietzanger. Hungary:
Foltos sitke. Italy: Forapagle. Poland: Rokitniczka. Russia: Kamy-
schefka. Sweden: Sdfsdngare. Spain: Buscarla.

Acrocephalus schoenobaenus (L.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 376. Dresser,
B. of. Europe, II, p. 597 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 123. MHartert, Vég.
Pal. Fauna, p. 566. A. phragmitis (Bechst.). Saunders, Man. p. 85.

Breeding Range: The British Isles and Continental Europe, ex-
cepting the extreme N. and the three southern peninsulas. [Also in
Asia E. to the Yenesei, and possibly N. W. Africa.]

Very generally distributed in England and Wales, except on the
high lying moorlands and mountains. In Scotland it becomes less numerous
in the N., although increasing its range in Moray and now plentiful in
Dee, and is rare in W. Ross and very local in Sutherland, being every-
where confined to ground below about 800 ft. It is found in the Isle
of Man and some of the Inner Hebrides, has bred in Skye and occurs
in Barra, and also breeds in the Orkneys, but not in the Shetlands. It
is one of the commonest Irish birds, somewhat unevenly distributed, but
breeding in every county (Ussher).

Its distribution in Scandinavia is curious, for it is rare in 8. Norway,
but commoner further N., ranging up to lat. 70°, while in Sweden it is
chiefly confined to the middle and 8S. In Russia it is tolerably common
in §. Finland, while a few pairs reach N. Finland and Lapland, and
it has even been recorded from Enare and the Kola peninsula. Further

287

eastward it ranges to Archangel, and lat. 68° on the R. Petschora. It
is unnecessary to trace its distribution throngh Central Europe, as it is
found in all suitable breeding ground. To the southward there is no
definite record of its breeding in the Iberian peninsula, and it occurs on
passage only in Corsica and Sardinia, but it is locally common in Italy,
but becomes rare or absent in the southern provinces and Sicily. In
the Balkan peninsula also it is found in Greece only on passage, but
breeds abundantly as far S. as Macedonia; and though possibly only met
with on migration in the Crimea, it said to nest locally in the Caucasus.
[In Asia it is found up to 67° on the Ob and Yenesei, as well as in
the Altai and N. Turkestan, while there is reason to believe that it may
breed in Algeria and Tunisia. |

Although generally it shows a preference for marshy spots and the
neighbourhood of water, yet occasionally this species may be met with
breeding in hedgerows and among coarse vegetation some considerable
distance away from it. It is often built close to the ground, although
in hedges it is frequently found 4 or 5 ft. high and exceptionally has
bred as much as 10 ft. above the ground in Yorkshire, Rutland and
N. Wales. It is often well concealed by rank grass or other vegetation
and it is as a rule much flatter than the Reed Warbler’s nest, and not
suspended, althongh in one or two cases it is said to have built a sus-
pended nest like its congener. The materials used are moss and dead
grass as a foundation, with walls of stalks and bents mixed with willow
down, thickly lined with hair as a rule, sometimes a few feathers or
flowering grass tops. Diameter of cup, 1s _m. The work of nest building
is performed by the hen only.

As a rule 5 or 6, but 7 are occasionally found. In general appe-
arance they resemble the rather larger eggs of the Yellow Wagtails,
being so finely and thickly speckled with varying shades of ochreous
brown or greyish brown that the yellowish or greyish ground is some-
times hardly visible and the eggs appear to possess an almost smooth
greyish brown surface. At other times the markings form a more or less
distinct zone. Streaks and smudges of very dark brown often occur at
the big end, or almost black hairstreaks like those found on the eggs
of the Yellow and Grey Wagtails. A scarce and beautiful variation is
the pink type, which has occurred in several districts, while white eggs
have also been found, sometimes with a few blackish markings.

The usual time for full clutches in Great Britain varies according
to locality from about May 20 to June 10. In Scandinavia the eggs
are laid in early June and in Central Europe from mid May to the end
of the month or early in June. Exceptionally clutches have been taken
as early as May 9 in Lancashire and there is no doubt that second

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

288

broods are sometimes reared, for young are not infrequently found in
the nest in August, and even in September. In an incubator the eggs
hatched on the 15th day (W. Evans), and the young leave the nest
when about 10 days old (H. EK. Howard).

Average of 100 eggs (51 by the writer and 49 by Rey), 17.73 >< 13.45
mm., Max. 20.5 >< 13.2 and 19.6 >< 15, Min. 15.7 >< 13.4 and 17.2 >< 12.4.
Dwarf eggs measure 12.2 >< 9.2, 12.8 >< 9.6 etc. Average weight, 102 mg.
(Rey), 99 mg. (Bau).

136. Aquatic Warbler, Acrocephalus aquaticus (Gm.).
Plate 29, fig. 5—8 (S. France).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. X XI, fig. 11, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 19, fig. 18 (errore). Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 10; id. Col. Fig., pl.
52. Howard, Br. Warblers, pl. I, fig. 1—6 [? 2]. Dresser, pl. —,
fig. 13—15.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Rakésnik vodii. Denmark: Vandsanger.
France: Fauvette des marais. Germany: Binsen-Rohrsdnger. Hungary:
Csikosfejii sitke Italy: Pagliarolo. Poland: Gajéwka wodniczka. Russia:
Kamyschewka wertyawaja. Spain: Arandillo.

Acrocephalus aquaticus (Gm.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 380. Dresser,
B. of. Europe, Il, p. 591 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 122. Saunders, Man.
p. 87. A. aquatica (Gm.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 568.

Breeding Range: Central and southern Europe, 8. of the Baltic,
but apparently wanting from the Iberian and Balkan peninsulas.

[Although it is by no means improbable that it has bred in the
British Isles, there is as yet no satisfactory evidence that it has done so].

The evidence as to the breeding of this species is far from satis-
factory. In some cases it has probably been confused with the Sedge
Warbler, or overlooked altogether. Saunders doubts its breeding in Spain,
yet Irby’s work contains a reference to a nest found by Verner in Anda-
lucia. It does however certainly nest in France, somewhat sparingly in
the Camargue, and locally in suitable spots further N., especially in the
départements of Somme and Nord, La Brenne etc. A few pairs breed
in the Low Countries, and in some parts of N. Germany, such as the
Mark Brandenburg, it is locally common, and in Silesia it is not un-
common, while it nests sparingly also in Schleswig-Holstein, 8. Jutland
and Zealand. In 8. Germany it is generally rarer, but is common in
Poland, E. of the Weichsel, and ranges EK. to the middle Urals (lat. 56°),
but evidence from S. E. Russia is unsatisfactory. It is sparingly distri-
buted in Switzerland, but has been found nesting at over 3000 ft. It is
found in Galizia and is not rare locally in Hungary, but is apparently

289

not found 8. of the Danube, although it breeds in Herzegowina and
in Italy it is said to range S. to Sicily and to be common in Lombardy,
Venetia and Tuscany. Brooke stated that it bred in the marshes of
Sardinia, and Wharton records it from N. HK. Corsica in late April, but
later records are lacking. [Tristram records it as breeding in Algeria,
but eggs taken there resemble Reed Warbler’s somewhat, although he
does not mention that species, and though it probably breeds in N. W.
Africa, confirmation is desirable. ]

The few descriptions of the nest available depict it as generally
built among grass grown willow bushes or clumps of sedges, not far from
the ground and seldom more than 18 in. above it in swampy ground,
on banks of streams etc. The nest is said to be rather smaller and deeper
than that of the Sedge Warbler, built of grasses and bents, with cobwebs
and plant down interwoven, and lined usually with horsehair and some-
times a few feathers. It also generally contains macerate leaves.

Vary in number from 4 to 5 or 6. As far as one can tell from
the small series of thoronghly authentic eggs examined, they cannot be
distinguished with any certainty from the eggs of the Sedge Warbler,
which they closely resemble. The ground colour is pale greenish yellow,
closely speckled with stone coloured or brownish yellow, varying in depth
of colour, but usually light, and sometimes darker at the big end or for-
ming a zone of darker markings. Shell smooth.

Said to breed about a fortnight earlier than the Sedge Warbler by
Naumann: in Poland from mid May (‘Taczanowski), and in Switzerland
from mid May to early June.

Average size of 52 eggs (17 by the writer and also by Hocke, 11 by
Proctor and 7 by Blasius), 17.11 >< 13.01, Max. 18.3 >< 14 and 17.5 >< 15,
Min. 15 >< 13.7 and 17.6 ><11.8 mm. Bau gives the average of 36 eggs
as 16.7 >< 13, and the average weight as 88 mg. They are thus smaller
and lighter on the average than those of the Sedge Warbler.

137. Icterine Warbler, Hippolais icterina (Vieill.).
Plate 28, fig. 26—29 (Leipzig).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XIX, fig. 13, a—d. Baedeker,
Tab. 19, fig. 1. Taczanowski, Tab. LI, fig. 1. Seebohm, Br. Birds,
pl. 10; id. Col. Fig., pl. 52. Dresser, pl. —,. fig. 25—28. Howard,
ibe, Warblers,” pl. El tig. 34°35,

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Sedmihldsek. Denmark and Norway:
Bastard Naktergal. Finland: Kultarinta. France: Bec-fin a poitrine
jaune. Germany: Gartenspotter. Holland: Spotvogel. Hungary: Gecze.

19

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Nest.

290

Italy: Canapino maggiore. Poland: Gajowka szczebiotliwa. Russia: Ljesnaja
Malinowka. Sweden: Gulbréstad sangare.

Hypolais icterina (Vieill.). Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 360. Dresser,
B. of Europe, U, p. 521 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 107. Saunders, Man.
p. 75. Hippolais icterina (Vieill.). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 570.

Breeding Range: Continental Europe, except N. Scandinavia and
Russia, W. France, and the Iberian and Balkan peninsulas. [Also W.
Siberia and probably Algeria.|

[Although it is a fact that one (or more) species of this genus has
bred on several occasions in the S. of England, there is no definite proof
as yet, beyond the presence of eggs which might belong to this species
or H. polyglotta.| It is remarkable that it should be so little known in
England, for its range extends in Norway up to lat. 674°, well within
the Arctic circle. In Sweden it is chiefly confined to the southern part
and the islands of Gotland and Oland, but is found up to about lat. 63°,
while in Finland it occurs as far as Kuopio and in N. Russia ranges
to Archangel and lat. 57° at least in the Urals. Its southern limit in
Russia coincides with that of the birch, but isolated instances of its
occurrence have been recorded from the N. Caucasus, Crimea, Odessa etc.
Throughout middle Europe it is generally distributed in fair numbers, but
becomes scarce S. of the Danube valley, although a few pairs breed in
Bulgaria and Montenegro and it is tolerably common in 8. Dalmatia.
In Italy it is generally distributed and is said also to nest in Sicily, but
has not been found breeding in Sardinia or Corsica. In France it is
only found in the EH. and 8., and is absent from the N. W., from the
mouth of the Garonne and the départements Charente, Vienne, Cher,
Nievres and Seine et Marne almost to Calais (L. Bureau). In the Low
Countries, Denmark and Germany it is common and has twice bred on
Helgoland. [The nest has been taken in W. Siberia about 57° N. and
74° E., and it is almost certain that it breeds in Algeria and Tunisia,
for Hartert shot a female in N. Algeria with enlarged ovary on May 24.]

The neatly constructed nest is generally placed in the fork of slender
twigs of some shrub, such as syringa or lilac; sometimes in a tree or tall
hedge, as a rule between 4 and 8 ft. high, but sometimes as much as
30—40 ft. from the ground and occasionally only a foot or two above
it. It is rather deep, and firmly built, but very light. The materials
vary according to locality, but generally consist of vegetable down, dry
grasses, sometimes bits of wool, lichens or moss, interwoven with fine
strips of birch bark, fibre or roots, and lined with grasses, roots and
a few hairs. In some cases (especially in the N.) feathers are used in
the lining. Birch bark is freely used to decorate the exterior as a rule,

291

so that the nest looks very white.* A typical nest measures 3% in. high
and 3% in. broad; diameter of cup, 2% in., depth 1% in. Hach pair has
its own district, and the extraordinary song of the cock at once calls
attention to the locality.

Usually 4 or 5, sometimes 6 in number, with the characteristic dull
rose coloured ground, varying in depth somewhat and sparingly marked
with sharply defined black spots and streaks with an occasional hair line.
Greyish shell markings are also sometimes met with. They can generally
be distinguished from eggs of H. polyglotta by their larger size, but vary
a good deal in this respect.

In middle Europe eggs are occasionally found at the end of May,
but as a rule not till early in June, while in Scandinavia the usual time
is about mid June, sometimes not till the end of the month. Incubation
is performed by both sexes in turn for 13 days., the male bird sitting
during the afternoon (Naumann).

Average size of 142 eggs (95 by Rey and 47 by Bau), 18.35 >< 13.4,
Max 20.6 >< 13. and 19 >< 14.05 Min 7 <3 vand) 16.2 > ta aa
Average weight, 91 mg. (Rey); 92 mg. (Bau).

138. Melodious Warbler, Hippolais polyglotta (Vieill.).
Plate 15, fig. 7—9 (Madrid, Spain).

Eggs: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 29, 30. Howard, Br. Warblers, pl. II,
fig. 33.

Foreign Names: France: fuwvette polyglotte. Portugal: Folosa.
Italy: Canapino. Spain: Almendrita de verano.
Hypolais polyglotta (Vieill.). Dresser, B. of Europe, Il, p. 517 and Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 108. Saunders, Man. p. 77. AMippolais polyglotta (Vieill.).
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 571.

Breeding Range: The Iberian peninsula, France (except in the
N. HE.) and Italy. [Also N. W. Africa.]

[Like the preceding species this bird has also occurred in England
in spring, and there is reason to believe that it has bred occasionally,
but further confirmation is required. Cf. bis, 1897, p. 627 etc.]

In the Iberian peninsula this species is common, but on the whole
less numerous than the W. Olivaceons Warbler. It is fairly well distri-
buted over the greater part of Spain and Portugal on suitable ground,
except N. of the Cantabrian range, where it has not yet been recorded,
but is more common in the southern and eastern provinces than in the

* Rey met with two nests in a large rookery which were almost covered with
Rooks’ feathers.

19*

Eggs.

Breeding
Season,

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Egas.

Breeding
Season.

Measgure-
ments.

292

central plateau. In France it is said by Bureau to be found everywhere
except in the N. H., and is only absent from the following départements,
Somme, Pas-de-Calais, Nord, Aisnes, Ardennes, outer Meuse, Meurthe
et Moselle, Vosges, Haut Sadne and Doubs. In Italy it is somewhat
irregularly distributed, but is probably found along the western side, and
is not uncommon in Tuscany, while it is found in Venetia and up to
S. Tyrol, as well as in Sicily. It is absent however from Sardinia and
Corsica, and is only a straggler to the rest of Europe. [In N. W. Africa
it breeds in Tunisia, Algeria, and Marocco, at least as far as the Rio
de Oro on the W. Coast.]

The favourite haunts of this bird in 8. Europe are wooded gullies
and watercourses, or banks of rivers, though Lynes occasionally also
found it nesting in cistus scrub on the hillsides. In Algeria Hartert
found it frequenting tamarisks and beds of huge nettles. It builds its neat
nest in bushes of -all kinds, willow, alder, oleander, arbutus, broom, etc.,
generally from 3 to 5 ft. from the ground. The nest is compactly and
smoothly built of dry grasses and willow catkins or thistledown, with a
dead leaf or two woven in., and is lined with down, long rootlets and
a few hairs or rarely a few feathers. Diameter of cup nearly 2 in.,
depth, 13—1! in. The song of the male is sweeter and less forced than
that of the Icterine.

In Europe 4 or sometimes 5, while 6 are said to have occurred
rarely, but in N. Africa the clutch consists sometimes of 3 only. The
eggs have the same rose red ground as the Ieterine’s, but are often
brighter in tint and generally smaller, while the markings are similar.,
but the surface is dull and without gloss.

Although a few pairs have eggs in S. Spain by May 12, the
majority do not lay till about May 20. Apparently two broods are reared
and the eggs of the second hatch may be looked for about the third
week of June. In Algeria eggs have been taken after the third week
in May.

Average size of 100 eggs from Spain and Algeria measured by the
writer, 17.72 >< 13.22, Max.'19.2 ><.13.6 and 18.6 >< 14.5, Min. 16:1 >< 13
and 17> 12.3 mm. ‘Weights of 3 eggs, 90, 80 and 80 mg. (Koenig).

139. Olive-tree Warbler, Hippolais olivetorum (Strickl.).
Plate 22, fig. 26 (Greece).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XIX, fig. 14, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 19, fig. 3. Taczanowski, Tab. LI, fig. 1. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 31, 32.

Foreign Names: Greece: Stritstda, Tirtirh. Italy: Canapino
levantino.

293

Hypolais olivetorum (Str.). Dresser, B. of Europe, II, p. 527 and Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 109. Hippolais olivetorwm (Str.). Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna,
p- 572.

Breeding Range: The Balkan peninsula, locally (Dalmatia, Greece
and the Archipelago). [Also Asia Minor and N. Syria.]

Although not universally distributed this species is common in many
parts of Greece, especially on the low ground and foot hills, where olive
groves prevail. Kriiper also records it from Naxos and Erhard from the
Cyclades. It is however very scarce in Macedonia and has only once
been obtained in Bulgaria, but its distribution in the Balkan peninsula
is probably still imperfectly known, for it is now known to be locally
common in the Gulf of Cattaro, in 8. Dalmatia (Kollibay), and also
breeds in Montenegro (v. Fiihrer). [In Asia Tristram found it nesting
in N. Palestine and Kriiper describes it as tolerably common near Smyrna.
Tristram’s breeding record from Algeria is erroneous. |

It is an extraordinarily wary and shy species, spending its time in
the tops of the olive trees, where it would be very difficult to detect
if it were not for its loud and rich but rapid and monotonous song, which
is frequently uttered while in motion. The nest is neatly built among
the smaller twigs of an olive or other tree, sometimes as low as 1 ft.
from the ground, but usually from 2 to 9 or 10 ft. high. It is built of
grasses, roots, gnaphalium stalks, mixed with down and covered exter-
nally with cobwebs, lined with yellow down and a few roots or hairs.
Diameter of cup, 34—4 in., depth 14—2 in. Lindermayer states that it
is built in about 12 days: in Greece it is generally found in olives, but
also in pomegranates, almonds, laurels, figs, mulberries etc., and in Dal-
matia commonly in oak forest. Here Grossmann noticed in a summer
when the foliage was devoured by caterpillars, that it bred in large
colonies of some hundred pairs, a pair nesting in almost every tree.

Sometimes 3 but more usually 4. The ground is a much paler
and more delicate rose than that of the Icterine’s egg, which otherwise
it closely resembles, although that of the Olive-tree Warbler is larger
and heavier. The rounded black spots are sparingly distributed and
rarely show any tendency to a zone. The surface is without gloss.

It is a late arrival in its summer haunts, seldom laying before the
last days of May and early June in Greece, although clutches have been
taken at the end of the third week of May. Dalmatian clutches are
dated June 11 and 15, and in Asia Minor Selous took clutches at the
end of May.

Average of 100 eggs (42 by the writer, 29 by Reiser and 29 by Rey),
20.12 >< 14.77. Max. 22.5 >< 14.7 and 20.5 >< 15.7, Min. 17 >< 13.5 mm.
Rey gives the average weight as 127 mg. and Reiser (29 eggs) as 117 mg.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Rurope.

Nest.

Eggs.

294

149. Olivaceous Warbler, Hippolais pallida (H. & E.).
Geographical Races.
a. Eastern Olivaceous Warbler, H. pallida pallida (H. & E.).
Plate 22, fig. 27, 28 (Attica, Greece).

Eggs: Thienemann: Fortpfi. Tab. XIX, fig. 15, a—c. Baedeker,
Tab. 19, fig. 4. Reiser, Orn. Bale. III, Taf. III, fig. 10—12. Dresser,
pl. —, fig. 35, 36.

Foreign Names: Greece: Tirtirli-homichros, Myvochdphtes.
Hypolais pallida (H. & E.). Dresser, B. of Europe, II, p. 537 and Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 110. Hippolais pallida pallida (H. & H.). Hartert, Vog.
Pal. Fauna, p. 574.

Breeding Range: The Balkan peninsula, Greek Islands and Crete.
[Also Asia Minor, Palestine, Egypt, and EH. to Persia as well as N. to
Transcaspia. |

In Europe this race is confined to the Balkan peninsula, where it
is the commonest Warbler in the southern part. In Greece it is very
generally distributed on the low ground, breeding in the valleys and not
ranging higher than the limit of the olive. It is also plentiful on the
Greek islands, especially on Naxos, and on Crete. Northward it becomes
scarcer in Macedonia, but is the characteristic Warbler of Albania and
is very common in 8. Dalmatia, 8S. Montenegro, and in the coast region
of Herzegowina, and has been recorded from Bulgaria and E. Roumania.
[It breeds abundantly in Egypt and Nubia, as well as in Palestine, Meso-
potamia, Asia Minor and Cyprus; while its range also includes Persia,
Transcaucasia, Turkestan, Bokhara and Transcaspia. |

In Greece the nest is generally found among the drooping outer
boughs of the olive, concealed by the pendent leaves, but in Montenegro
it is found in wild pomegranates, willows and tamarisks, rarely higher
than 3 ft., and in Cyprus among brambles and bushes near streams. In
Egypt many nests are built in clumps of flowering plants or shrubs. The
nest is a typical Tree Warbler’s, built of fine grasses, roots, fibre and
strips of bark, mixed with down of various kinds and bits of wool, the
whole being compactly woven together, and lined with wool, down and
fine roots, with an occasional feather or horsehair. Diameter of cup,
1% in, depth 14—2 in.

Generally 4, sometimes only 3, while 5 are said to occur very
rarely. They are quite, without gloss and have a pale greyish ground,
sometimes with a slight reddish, violet or yellowish tinge, and dark blackish
brown spots (generally rounded) and specks, with occasional streaks or
hair lines at the larger end. Reiser obtained a variety with a single
large blackish spot on a flesh coloured ground.

295

In Greece eggs may be taken from mid May to early June, and peer
after the first week of May in Cyprus, while in Asia Minor from May 12 =
to the beginning of June, and from the beginning of May in Persia.
Incubation is performed by the hen alone and lasts 13 days (Reiser);
during the whole day the cock sings in the neighbourhood of the nest.

The hen sits very closely and may be touched as she sits (D. Bate).
Only one brood is reared, and the parents migrate south at the end of
July from Greece.
Average of 105 eggs (63 by Rey, 26 by Reiser and 16 by the pee

Wnlten), 7.36><.13.33, Max 19'5 >< 13.6 and 17 >< 14, Min. 15.9 >alzis
and 17><12.1 mm. Average weight 80 mg. (Rey); 79.7 mg. (Reiser).

b. Western Olivaceous Warbler, H. pallida opaca Cab.
Plate 32, fig. 15—17 (Spain).

Eggs: Baedeker, Tab. 19, fig. 2. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 33, 34.
Foreign Name: Spain: Pinchahigos.
Hypolais opaca (Licht.). Dresser, B. of Europe, I, p. 531 and Man. Pal,
Birds, p. 110. Aippolais pallida opaca Cab. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna,
p: O75:
Breeding Range: S. and E. Spain. [Also N. W. Africa, N. of
the Atlas. |
In Spain, although locally very common, this species appears to Con-
be confined to the southern and eastern provinces, and apparently does 7°")
not penetrate to the high plateau of the interior or the N. It breeds
at least as far W. as Huelva, but has not been recorded from Portugal,
and is common in parts of Andalucia, Murcia and Valencia. As a
straggler it has occurred in the Riviera and perhaps also in S. France.
[In N. W. Africa it is a common summer visitor to the well watered
districts of Marocco, Algeria and Tunisia, N. of the Atlas range, but
in the oases of S. Algeria is replaced by a paler form, H. pallida
reisert Hilg.|
In Spain the nest is generally placed in trees or bushes near river Nett.
banks, as a rule from 4 to 15 ft. from the ground, but one found by
me in a garden in Jerez was nearly 30 ft. high. It is woven round the
forking twigs, and its built of thistle and other downs, together with fine
roots, grasses etc., lined with down or sometimes bits of wool and a few
hairs. I have seen feathers also used occasionally. The cock is not shy
and sings very persistently near the nesting place. Diameter of cup,
1i in., depth 14—2 in.
From 3 to 5 in number, but generally 4, while 6 are said to Esgs.
have occurred in Spain. In colour they have a greyish white or dove-

Europe.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments,

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

296

coloured ground, and are spotted, sometimes boldly and sometimes only
lightly, with blackish brown. As a rule the markings are rather larger
and bolder than in the Hastern race, but many clutches are quite in-
distinguishable, and both are equally devoid of gloss.

In Spain the best time is about the second week in June, but I
have seen an exceptionally early nest with eggs on May 13, and clutches
are not infrequently found at the end of May. In N. Africa the breed- —
ing season begins earlier, and eggs may be found in May and June.

Average of 100 eggs (87 by the writer and 13 by Rey), 18.69 >< 13.51
mim: Max: ; 20:1)>< 13.6 and 20 >< 15.) (Mim. yo>< 13) and! Si Saat:
Average weight, 92 mg. (Rey). [A third form, H. pallida reiseri Hilgert,
is found in the Oases of 8. Algeria.]

141. Booted Warbler, Hippolais caligata (Licht).
Plate 22, fig. 29 (Kirghis Steppes).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Taf. X XI, fig. 9 (errore). Dresser,
De ie 8) ed

Foreign Name: Russia: Kamyschewka milowidnaja.

Hypolais caligata Licht. Dresser, B. of Hurope, H, p. 541 and
Man. Pal. Birds, p. 113. Hippolais caligata (Licht). Hartert, Voég. Pal.
Wauna, p. 575.

Breeding Range: East Russia, from Olonetz east to Perm and
south to Astrakhan. [Also W. Siberia to the Yenesei, Transcaspia, Tur-
kestan and Kashmir. | :

This bird is a summer visitor, whose northern limit extends to the
Latscha Lake in the Olonetz Government (Meves), while it is not un-
common in Moscow and Tula and also in the district between the rivers
Oka and Volga. Eastward it is found in the Perm and Orenburg Go-
vernments on the 8S. W. slopes of the Urals, while it is distributed through
the basin of the middle Volga southward to Saratow and the Kirghis
steppes in the Astrakhan Government. [In Asia it is now known to
be found in Transcaspia, Turkestan, the Altai range, Bokhara, and W. Si-
beria up to at least 61° N. in the Yenesei valley and H. to Krasnoyarsk,
as well as in Kashmir.]

Sarudny writing from the Orenburg district, describes the nest as
built either close to or actually on the ground in dry meadows overgrown
with Caragana and Astralagus bushes, generally on the edge of a thicket
or in single bushes in valleys. Nests from other sources are built in
twigs like those of other Tree-Warblers. They are neatly built of grasses,
stalks etc., lined with finer materials, such as fine grasses, horsehair, willow
and duck down, etc. Average width of cup 2—2% in., depth 14—1+ in.

297

From 4 to 6 in number, long oval in shape and decidedly smaller Eggs.
than those of other Tree Warblers. When fresh they are pale pink,
with blackish spots, chiefly at the big end, and a few purplish shell
markings. There is practically no gloss on these eggs.

In middle Russia the usual time for full clutches is about June 8, Breeding
while in Orenburg the first eggs are found at the beginning of the month ne |
and the young are fledged early in July.

Average of 45 eggs by the writer, 15.57 >< 12.24, Max. 17 >< 13 Measure-
and 15 >< 13.5, Min. 14>< 11.3. Rey gives the average weight of one fear
clutch as 70 mg.

[Two other species of Tree Warbler occur in the W. Palaearctic region,

Upcher’s Warbler, Hippolais languida (H. & K.), and Sykes’ Warbler, H. rama (Sykes).
The eggs of Upcher’s Warbler are figured in the Cat. Eggs Br. Mus., IV. pl. X, fig. 2;
Dresser, pl. —, fig. 37, 38. Breeding Range: Palestine, Persia, Transcaspia, Turkestan,
Baluchistan and Afghanistan. The nest is a neat cup with cobwebs and down inter-
woven and is placed in bushes from 3 to 6 ft. from the ground. Eggs, 4 to 5 in
number, delicate mauve when fresh, are marked with small spots and streaks of deep
chocolate brown and are like those of H. olivetorwm, but slightly smaller. In S. Persia,
the eggs were nearly hatching at the end of May, but Tristram found eggs on Her-
mon as late as June 4. Possibly this was a second brood as eggs are said to have
been taken there at the end of April. Average size of 16 eggs by the writer,
19.04 & 13.8, Max. 20.4 & 14 and 20 X 14.5, Min. 18.2 14 and 18.5 13.2. Eggs
of Sykes’ Warbler are figured in P. Z. S., 1874, pl. LXXIX (nest); Dresser, pl. —,
fig. 39—42. Breeding Range: Transcaspia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Persia Turkestan
S. E. Mongolia, Kashmir and Sind. Nest: usually about a foot from the ground in
tamarisk, saxaul or other bushes, built of bents and sedge with a lining of fine grasses,
down, horsehair etc. Eggs, usually 4 or 5, sometimes 6 and even 7 in number ex-
ceptionally. They are dull white with a faint greenish or greyish tinge, and are
covered with a tracery of nearly block lines as well as the usual markings and often
have a well marked zone. Breeding season according to Russow, May 25 — June 1.
Average size of 20 eggs by the writer, 14.78 & 12.41, Max. 16.6 & 12.5 and 163 X 13,
Min. 14.7 X 12 and 15.2 < 11.8.]

142. Barred Warbler, Syivia nisoria Bechst.
Plate 27, fig. 20—23 (N. Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Taf. XX, fig. 3, a—c. Baedeker, Tab. 51,
fig. 14. Taczanowski, Tab. XLVIII, fig. 1. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 10;
id. Col. Fig., pl. 52. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 45, 46.

Foreign Names: Bohemia: Pénice vlasska. Denmark: Brystvatret
Sanger. France: Fauvette eperviére. Germany: Sperber-Grasmiicke. Hel-
goland: Kat-Unger. Hungary: Karvalyposzdta. Italy: Bigia padovana. Poland:
Pokrywka jarzebata. Russia: Podoreschnik. Sweden: Hékfdrgad sdngare.
Sylvia nisoria (Bechst.). Dresser, B. of Europe, H, p. 435 and Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 73. Saunders, Man. p. 51. 8S. nisoria nisoria (Bechst.).
Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 578.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

298

Breeding Range: Central Europe, S. of the Baltic and Gulf of
Finland and KE. of the Rhine, but absent from the 8. of the Italian and
Balkan Pensinsulas. [In W. Asia it is replaced by S. nisoria mere-
bachert Schal.]

In Scandinavia it is found in S. Sweden in Skane, Blekinge, S.
Kalmar lan, Oland, and Gotland, and perhaps also in Asker in Norway.
In Russia it breeds on Drumsé near Helsingfors in Finland and its
northern limit extends to the Governments of S. Petersburg, Jaroslaw
and Kazan, but only in small numbers, though it becomes more numerous
in middle Russia and ranges 8. to Bessarabia, Poltawa, Charkow, the
Crimea, and in smaller numbers even to Astrakhan and the N. Caucasus.
In Germany its distribution is irregular and it is absent from some
districts, but is found locally HK. of the Rhine valley, and is not scarce in
Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Saxony, Anhalt and Pomerania, and is es-
pecially common in Prussia, but local in Silesia, and fairly common in
the South, thongh always local. It is tolerably common in Austro-Hungary,
but has not been proved to breed in Switzerland, and nests in the N.
and N. E. provinces of Italy, and in the Balkan peninsula in Montenegro,
Dalmatia, Bulgaria and the Dobrudscha, where it is locally common.
In France it is of very rare occurrence, but breeds in small numbers in
Holstein and Denmark. [The range of the Asiatic form, S. n. merzbacheri
Schal., may extend from Asia minor to Persia and Turkestan, but needs
defining. |

As arule this species haunts the outskirts of woods, commons, and
rongh ground overgrown with bushes, such as blackthorn, rose, bramble etc.
The nest is generally well hidden, from 1 ft. 6 in. to 6 ft. from the
ground, but has been found exceptionally as high as 25 ft. Two or
three pairs may often be found nesting not far from one another. The
rather flat nest is somewhat roughly built externally, but is a typical
Warbler’s, built of grasses and roots, with some cobwebs or down inter-
woven, and lined with horsehair and sometimes fine roots. Bau notes
that it frequently breeds close to the Red backed Shrike, and that the
alarm notes of the two birds are very similar.

Usually 5, but occasionally 6 or only 4, which latter number is
often found in second layings. The ground colour is pale yellowish,
milky white or greyish, closely speckled with pale leaden or brownish
grey. In some eggs the markings are very faint and barely visible, while
in others they are darker and form a zone. Hartert found one set near
Pillau with large red brown spots and streaks. Generally they show a fair
amount of gloss.

In Sweden from the last week of May to mid June: in Germany

299

during the second half of May and exceptionally as early as May 8 (Rey).
Bau says that incubation lasts 14 days and that the male relieves the
female during the mid-day hours, while the young remain in the nest for
another fortnight.

Average of 113 eggs from Germany (Rey), 21.07><14.41, Max.
22.8><15.6 and 22.5><16.3, Min. 19.5><14.5. Double egg. 23.9><17.2:
dwarf, 12.5><10. I have seen an egg 23.2><16.6. Average weight,
158 mg. (Rey).

143. Orphean Warbler, Sylvia hortensis (Gm.) [S. orphea auct.]*
Geographical Races.
a. Western Orphean Warbler, S. hortensis hortensis (Gm.)
Plate 27, fig. 25 (Spain).

Eggs: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 37—39 (not typical). See also p. 300,
note. Nest: R. B. Lodge, Bird Hunting, p. 55.

Foreign Names: France: Caravasse. Italy: Bigia grossa. Spain:
Canaria, Pinzoleta.

Sylvia orphea Temm. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I. p. 423. Dresser, B. of
Kurope, II. p. 411 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 85. Saunders, Man. p. 45.
S. hortensis hortensis (Gm.) Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 580.

Breeding Range: S. W. Europe. [Also N. W. Africa.]

In the Iberian peninsula it appears to be confined to the southern
half of the country in Portugal, and breeds abundantly in Algarve. In
Spain it is found in all the central, eastern and southern districts, and
is very common in the wooded hills and olive groves of Andalucia. In
France it is entirely absent from the N. W., although it is said to breed
sparingly in La Brenne, but occurs in south and mid-France and in small
numbers as far as Luxemburg and Metz. A few pairs breed in W.
Switzerland, near Geneva and in the Valais. In Italy it breeds chiefly
in Liguria, Piedmont and Lombardy, but also occurs in Venetia and
near Firenze. It is said also to be found, though rarely, in Sicily, but
not in Corsica or Sardinia, and Homeyer only met with one in the Bale-
aric Isles. [In Africa it breeds commonly in the wooded parts of Al-
geria and Tunisia, but becomes scarce in Marocco, though some cer-
tainly breed in the Maroccan Atlas and also in Tripoli.]

Generally built among the branches of medium sized tres, such as
olives, oaks, cork-oaks, pines, oranges, etc., usually near end of a branch
at a height of about 8 to 15 ft., but sometimes not more than 4—5 ft.

* An unfortunate change which may produce much confusion in the future,
but rendered necessary by the adoption of strict priority.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

300

high in bushes. Rey found a nest in tall Erica near Lisbon and Koenig
found one in Juniperus oxyderus in Algeria. It is a typical Warbler’s
nest, fairly neat and compact, built of stalks of grasses and weeds,
interspersed with bits of down, and lined with fine roots or grasses and
sometimes fibre or a little hair. Diameter of cup 28—2i in., depth
1i—1} in.

Usually 4 or 5, sometimes only 3. Noble records a nest with 7
fresh eggs, which must have been the produce of two hens. They
vary in shape but are typically of a rounded oval, with a very pale
greenish white ground when fresh, which however fades in time to al-
most pure white, and are marked with very dark umber brown spots,
streaks, and an occasional scrawl, generally softened at the edges like
brand marks, and also marked with paler umber blotches and small spots
and ashy shell markings. Most of the spots are concentrated towards the
big end. Oates describes the eggs as very glossy, but this does not agree
with my experience of Spanish eggs and probably refers only to those of
the next race.

In 8. Spain eggs may be found from the beginning of May onward,
but the best time is about the middle of the month. Rey gives the
breeding season in 8. Portugal as extending from the end of April to
the end of June. S. of the Atlas range in Tunisia the breeding season
begins earlier in April. Though eggs may be obtained till early in June
it seems doubtful whether two broods are reared in Europe, as stated by
Arrigoni. R

Average of 100 eggs (81 by the writer from Spain and 19 by Er-
langer from Tunisia) 19.01><14.41, Max. 21.5><14.5 and 19><15.5; Min.
17.5><13.6 and 20.3><13.2. An abnormally large egg (not a Cuckoo’s)
measures 22.3><17.3. Average weight of 9 Spanish eggs, 118 mg.
Koenig however gives the average of 11 eggs from Algeria as 127 mg.,
which seems unusually heavy. Rey has a dwarf egg either of this or
the next form, 11><9 mm.

b. Eastern Orphean Warbler, S. hortensis crassirostris Cretzschm.
Plate 27, fig. 24, 26, 27 (Greece).
Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Taf. XX, fig. 1, a—c. Hewitson,
Ill Ed., pl. XX XV, fig. 3. Baedeker, Tab. 51, fig. 10. Seebohm Br.
Birds, pl. 10; id. col. Fig. pl. 52 [Possibly some of the above figures
may apply to the W. race, as localities are not given]. Reiser, Orn.
Balc., II, Taf. Il, fig. 7—9. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 40,41 (? 41,42).
Sylvia jerdoni (Blyth). Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds, p. 86. S. hortensis
crasstrostris Creta. Hartert, Vog Pal. Fauna, p. 581.

301

Breeding Range: From Herzegowina and 8. Dalmatia to Greece.
[Also Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, Turkestan, Afghanistan and N. W. India].

In the Balkan peninsula this race is common in 8. Dalmatia and
Herzegowina and is found near the Lake of Scutari in Montenegro. It
probably breeds also in Albania and is not rare on Olympus, while it is
widely distributed in Greece, not only on the low ground but also in the
mountains, and is very common in the Parnassus, and is also found in the
Cyclades. In 8S. Kussia and the Crimea the evidence of its occurrence is
unsatisfactory. |It breeds in the wooded districts of Palestine, and is
common in Asia Minor, occurs in the mountains of 8. Persia, in Turkestan,
S. Afghanistan (common near Quetta) to Gilgit and the N. W. Provinces
of India. ]

Although the bird is of a skulking disposition, the nest is generally
easy to find, being often placed near the top of a small bush, or else
about 6 to 12 ft. high in some small tree. It is fairly substantial for
a Warbler’s nest, built chiefly of bents, dry stalks of Gnaphalium, grasses
and a little down or a few hairs.

Usually 4 or 5, but Selous found several clutches of 6 in Asia
Minor. As a rule they are easily distinguishable from those of the W.
form, as was originally pointed ont by Baldamus. Typical eggs have a
very light greyish or greenish ground, almost white, and are sparingly
marked, chiefly at the big end, with small spots of greyish or brownish
and ashy shell markings. The dark brown spots and brand marks of
Spanish eggs are generally absent, although one or two sets have been
found with brown blotches. Reiser describes a variety as resembling the
the type of Mot. alba. There is generally more gloss than in Western eggs.

Arriving in Greece and Asia Minor about the end of March or
early in April, eggs may be found from the end of April onward, but
mostly about the third week of May: while in Syria the season extends
from May 6 to June 6. In 8. Persia Witherby found eggs on May 17.
Kriiper’s observations show that apparently the hen alone incubates, the
cock singing his powerful song some distance off.

Average of 100 eggs (78 by the writer and 22 by Reiser), 20.02><14.92,
Max. 23.3><15.1 and 20.6><16.5, Min. 18><14.4 and 20.4><14.1. They
are therefore larger as a rule than Spanish and African eggs. Average
weight of 21 Greek eggs, 137.8 mg, varying from 115 to 180 mg.

144. Garden Warbler, Sylvia borin (Bodd.) [S. hortensis auct.]
Plate 27, fig. 1—5 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Taf. XX, fig. 2, a—e. Hewitson,
PEa) i pk MA ed: pl XVI ie. 3: TT Wd.) pl) XXXIV, fig. 3, 4:

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments,

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

302

Baedeker, Tab. 51, fig. 11. Taczanowski, Tab. XLIX, fig. 1. Seebohm,
Br. Birds, pl. VOs\ad. “Col. (Wigs pl.’ 52 5Cat. Hees. br Mus. EVe ae
VIII, fig. 13. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I. pl. Il, fig. 42—44. Dresser, pl. —,
fig. 16-18. Howard, Br. Warblers, pl. III, fig. 13—18. Nest: O. Lee,
IV p. 44.

British Local Names: Nettle creeper, Peggy (gen.). Foreign
Names: Bohemia: Pénice slavikowa. Denmark and Norway: Havesanger.
Finland: Lehtokerttu. France: Fauvette des jardins. Germany: Garten-
grasmiicke. Helgoland: Grii Unger. Holland: Tuinfluiter. Hungary:
Kerti Poszata. Poland: Pokrywka ogrodowa. Russia: Travnik. Sweden:
Hiickstngare. Spain: Pinzoleta.

Sylvia salicaria (L.), Newton, ed. Yarrell, I. p. 414. Dresser, B.
of Europe, II. p. 429. SS. hortensis Bechst. Dresser, Man. Pal. Birds,
p. 78. Saunders, Man. p. 49. S. borin borin (Bodd.) Hartert, Vég. Pal.
Fauna, p. 582: a

Breeding Range: The British Isles and Continental Europe, ex-
cepting the extreme N. of Scandinavia and Russia and the S. Italian and
S. Balkan peninsulas. [Also N. W. Africa and W. Siberia.]

In England this species is generally distributed, but its numbers
vary in different seasons and in some districts of S. England it is much
less numerous than the Blackcap (e. g. Berkshire, where the proportion
is about 1 to 10), while on the other hand in the Midlands and N. it is
decidedly more plentiful. In Cornwall it is confined tho the valleys of the
Tamar and Lynher and is scarce in N. Devon; while in Wales it is
scarce and local along the N. coast from Carnavon and Anglesey to N.
Flint and Denbigh, becoming commoner in wooded valleys further S.,
but absent from Pembroke, though known to breed in Cardigan, Brecon,
Radnor and Glamorgan. In Scotland it is by no means general, but is
commoner than the Blackcap in some of the southern areas (Solway,
Forth and Clyde), and has bred in Tay, but is only of accidental occur-
rence in Dee and on the Outer Hebrides, and apparently absent from the
mainland N. of the Great Glen. In Ireland its distribution is curious,
for it visits localities in all four provinces, though very local and little
known. It has however been proved to breed in Fermanagh, Sligo,
Roscommon, Longford, Down, Kerry, Clare, and Tipperary, and probably
in other districts also.

In Scandinavia the Garden Warbler has been found breeding up to
70° N. in Norway and to 67—68° in Sweden. In Russia its N. range
includes S. and Mid. Finland, the Olonetz Government, the Archangel
district and to lat 62° in the Urals. South of these localities it seems
to be generally common as far as Caucasia and the Crimea, though scarce

303

in Transcaucasia. It is also of general occurrence in suitable country
over the whole of central and W. Europe. Southward its range extends
to 8. Spain and Portugal and Irby records it as nesting in the Gibraltar
cork woods, but in Italy it is chiefly known on passage, though a few
pairs breed in the hills of the Po valley and in the Apennines and it
is said to nest in Sicily, but it is absent from Corsica, and rare on
migration in Sardinia. In the Balkan peninsula it breeds in Montenegro,
Herzegowina, and Hpirus (Lilford), but is not known to nest in Greece,
Macedonia and apparently Bulgaria, except in the hills of the Dobrudscha.
Although for the greater part of its range it chiefly haunts low ground,
it ranges up to 5500 ft. in the Pyrenees, and 3000 ft. in the Car-
pathians and Caucasus. [In N. W. Africa Irby states that it nests near
Tangier, Hartert states that it breeds in considerable numbers near Ham-
mam Meskoutine and Algiers, and Whitaker believes that it must bréed
in Tunisia: eggs ascribed to this species from Gafsa are however those
of S. hortensis (orphea auct.) In Asia it is found in W. Siberia to
Krasnoyarsk, and also in Transcaucasia, while it has been obtained in
Persia in May, and is said by Tristram to breed in Palestine, though this
requires confirmation. |

Generally placed lower down in bushes than that of the Blackcap,
and often found in gardens, shrubberies etc. The usual height is from
1 ft. 6 in. to 6 ft., but exceptionally nests have been found 10—14 ft.
from the ground in trees. Several nests have been found in tall ferns,
while others are recorded in rows of peas, among tares in fields, in ivy
on walls, and often in gooseberry or currant bushes. Perhaps the most
remarkable site is that recorded by von Homeyer from Hiddensée, at the
bottom of a deep hole in sandy ground, probably an old mouse hole!
The nest is slightly constructed of long dead grasses and stalks bent
round, lined with finer grasses and a few hairs. It is rather more sub-
stantial than that of the Blackcap. Diameter of cup abont 2i—2¢ in.
depth. 18 in.

Usually 5, occasionally only 4 or rarely 6 in number. They are
generally but not invariably to be distinguished from Blackcap’s by
slightly larger size, greater gloss, lighter surface markings and distinct
grey shellmarkings, while the distinctly red type rarely if ever occurs.
Probably the few cases in which it is said to occur are due to errors
in observation. Ground colour, either pure white or yellowish or pale
greenish, spotted and blotched sometimes with light shades of olive and
brown, sometimes also with darker markings and soft edges. One variety
is almost white; another has big yellowish patches on a white ground,
a third has brand spots like a Waxwing’s egg on a greyish ground (Rey)

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

British
Isles.

304

and others have zones of small spots round the big end. As the hen sits
very closely identification is not difficult and is indispensable.

Although eggs have been taken as early as the middle of May and
once on May 9 in 8. England, the usual date is towards the end of the
month or early in June. Rey says in Germany eggs are seldom found
before May 10: often up to the end of June or July. In Spain Irby
found eggs on May 10. Only one brood is reared and the late nests are
apparently those of birds which have been robbed. Incubation lasts 13
days: Bau says the male relieves the hen in the middle of the day.

Average of 100 eggs (50 by Rey and 50 by the writer), 20.05><14.69,
Max. 23><14.8 and 19><16, Min. 18><14.6 and 19><13.4. A double egg
measures 23.8><16.4 (Rey) and dwarfs measure 14.5><12, 16.2><13.2 ete.
Average weight, 140 mg. (Rey.)

145. Blackcap, Sylvia atricapiila (L.)
Plate 27, fig. 11—15 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XX, fig. 1, a—d. Hewitson, |
Bde tepl XLT fg. 3; Tl Bde pls OX Vil fies 123 TL idl ee eve
fing. 1,2, Baedeker, Tab. 51, fig. 12. Taczanowski, Tab XLVIII, fig.
2. Seebohm, Br. Birds, pl. 10: id. Col. Fig. pl. 52. Frohawk, Br. Birds,
Pl fie. 38-41 | Cat.) Hees | bre. Mas... DV ole (MT titers ne
Dresser, pl. —, fig. 19—21, Howard, Br. Warblers, pl. III, fig. 1—12.
Nest: O. Lee, IV. p. 126.

British Local Names: Blackcap Peggy, Coal Hoodie. Welsh:
Penddu. Foreign Names: Bohemia: Cernohlavek. Denmark and Nor-
way: Munk. Finland: Mustapdd-Kerttu. France: Hauvette a téte noire.
Germany: Moénch-Grasmiicke. Holland: Zwartkop. Hungary: Baratka
poszata. Italy: Capinera. Poland: Pokrywka czarnogtowka. Portugal:
Tutinegra real. Russia: Tschernogolowku. Spain: Pulverilla. Sweden:
Svarthufvad Sdngare.

Sylvia atricapilla L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I. p. 418. Dresser, B. of
Kurope, Il. p. 421 and Man. Pal. Birds p. 84. Saunders, Man. p. 47.
S. atricupilla atricapilla (L.) Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 583.

Breeding Range: The British Isles, Continental Hurope (except
the high North), and the Mediterranean Islands. [Also the Cape Verde
Isles, the Azores and in N. W. Africa, Asia Minor, Palestine and W.
Persia. |

In England this species is on the whole generally distributed but is
much commoner in some of the home counties than further north, and
is scarce in W. Cornwall, Lincolnshire and the Solway coast; while in

305

Wales it is not common in Pembroke and rare also in the greater part
of Carnarvon and Anglesey. In Scotland it is chiefly confined to the
areas of Solway, Tweed, Clyde, Forth and Tay, but is not so common as
the Garden Warbler. It has also bred once in Dee, occasionally in
Moray, and also in W. Ross, as well as on Jura, while it is reported
as having bred in the Orkneys and once tried to do so in the Shetlands.
In Ireland it is widely, but very sparingly distributed, and is commonest
in Wicklow, but has bred also in Dublin, Kildare, Cavan, Fermanagh,
Sligo, Galway, Mayo, Tipperary, and probably several other counties.

In Scandinavia it is only sparingly distributed to about lat. 66° in
Norway and middle Sweden, and on the Dovre and Fille fjeld ranges
as high as 3800 ft. It is not scarce in Finland, but has not been found
further N. than between Uleaborg and Tornea, and reaches to 62° on the
Dwina, the Wiatka government, and about 60° in the Urals. [Hast of
the Urals it becomes rare, but has been recorded from Omsk]. South
of these limits the Blackcap is generally distributed in suitable localities
throughout the Continent to the Mediterranean, where it is resident; breed-
ing in the Alps up to 5500 ft., in the Caucasus to 6600 ft., while in the
E. Pyrenees it has been found nesting up to 3200 ft. It also breeds in
most of the Mediterranean islands, the Balearic Isles, Corsica, Sardinia,
Sicily and Cyprus. [Also nests in the Cape Verde Isles, the Azores and
N. W. Africa, but only N. of the Atlas range, and is replaced by S. atri-
capula heineken Jard., in Madeira and the Canaries: while its range ex-
tends to Asia Minor, Palestine, Transcaucasia, and in small numbers to
W. Persia. |

Although on the average the nest is placed rather higher than that
of the Garden Warbler, this is by no means always the case, and Rey
found near Leipzig that out of some 200 nests examined nearly all were
lower. Nests 10 to 12 ft. high have occasionally been found in England
and in Andalucia I have taken eggs quite 25 ft. from the ground. But
the usual site is among undergrowth, brambles, briars, honeysuckle, ete.-
in woods, young plantations or country lanes: sometimes in bushes, espec-
ially the snowberry, or hollies', alders, and rhododendrons. It is also
said occasionally to be placed among long matted grass and nettles close
to a tree. The nest is slightly built, neater than the Garden Warbler’s
and rather lighter, composed of stalks and bents, lined with finer grasses,
roots and often (but not always) horsehair. Other materials sometimes
used are honeysuckle bark, moss, wool, cobwebs and cocoons. Diameter
of cup about 2 in., depth about 1i—1é.

Usually 4 or 5, but in the Mediterranean district, sometimes only 3,
and clutches of 6 occur now and then, especially in N. Europe. They
vary considerably, but the ground colour is generally some shade of

20

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments,

306

pale buff or stone, clouded and blotched with yellowish brown and grey
shellmarks, while usually there are also much darker spots, streaks and
scrolls of sepia to sienna brown, with indistinct edges. Some varieties
are almost white, either without markings, or faintly marked with grey
or fine red specks. The well known red variety has a distinctly pale
salmon pink ground with reddish brown or pinky red markings. Though
rare in England, it is not uncommon in some parts of the Continent and
Rey estimates the proportion of red clutches in Germany at about 6 per
cent. Transition stages also occur between the red and brown types.

In Germany the breeding season lasts from the beginning of May to
July and two broods are often reared. In the 8. of England clutches may
occasionally be taken in the last days of April, but in the Midlands and
northern counties the second half of May is the best time, and on the
borders few pairs lay before the first week in June. In the S. of Spain
eggs have been taken by the middle of March: In my opinion only a
small proportion of British breeding birds can be double brooded. Full
and interesting accounts of the courtship of this species will be found
in Howard’s British Warblers, pt. 3, p. 5. Incubation lasts about 15
days (Howard); the cock frequently taking part, and both birds sit very closely.

Average of 100 eggs (50 by Rey and 50 by the writer), 19.3 <14.56,
Max. 21.5><15 and 20.6><15.5, Min. 17><13. Abnormal eggs measure,
24.2><16, 22.9><15, 14.7><12.1, 12.9><11, etc. Average weight of 14 full
eges, 2.22 g. (R. H. Read); blown eggs average 131 mg. (Rey).

{In Madeira and the Canaries another subspecies is found, S. atri-
capilla heineken Jard. (Eggs figured in Cat. Eggs B. Mus, IV pl. VIU,
fig. 10: Dresser pl. —, fig. 20.) The eggs of this race are laid in April
and are subject to extraordinary variation, being frequently boldly mar-
ked with reddish brown spots and grey shell marks on a white ground,
or finely spotted with blackish and pale violet. The clutch usually con-
sits of 3 or 4 eggs: average size of 25 (17 by Koenig and 8 by the
writer), 19.06><14.17, Max. 21><15 and 20><16: Min. 17><13 and 16><12.

146. Whitethroat, Sylvia communis Lath.
Geographical Races.
a. European Whitethroat, S. communis communis Lath.
Plate 27, fig. 6—10 (Germany)

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortfl. Tab. XX, fig. 6,a.—d. Hewitson. I Ed. I,
pl. XLH; Il Ed, pl. XXVII, fig. 4: II Ed. pl. XX XV, fig. 1, 2. Baedeker,

In order to avoid discrepancies in nomenclature between the text and plates,
the remaining four plates will be issued in later parts of this work.
F. C. R. Jourdain.

307

Tab. 51, fig. 9. Taczanowski, Tab. XLIX, fig. 2. Seebohm, Br. Birds,
pl. 10; id. Col. Fig. pl. 52. Frohawk, Br. Birds, I, pl. II, fig. 32—34.
Cat. Hegs B. Mus.; IV, pl. VIII, fig. 11. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 1—3.
Howard. Br. Warblers, pl. III, fig. 25—36. Nest: O. Lee, II, p. 62.
British Local Names: Peggy, Nettle Creeper, Splitstraw. Welsh:
Llwydfron. Foreign Names: Bohemia: Pénice popelavd. Denmark:
Tornsanger. Finland: Harmaakerttu. France: Babillard grisette. Ger-
many: Dorn-Grasmiicke. Greece: Tsirobdkos. Holland: Grasmusch.
Hungary: Mezer poszdta Italy: Sterpazzola. Norway: Graasdnger.
Poland: Pokrzywka popielata. Russia: Sawirucha. Sweden: Tornsmygg.
Spain: Pinzoleta.
Sylvia rufa (Bodd.) Newton, ed. Yarrell, I, p. 406. Dresser, B. of Ku-
rope, II, p. 377. S. cinerea Lath. Id. Man. Pal. Birds, p. 74. S. cinerea
Bechst. Saunders, Man. p. 41. S. communis communis Lath. Hartert,
Vég. Pal. Pauna, p. 586.

Breeding Range: The British Isles; Europe, except N. Scandi-
navia and N. Russia. [Also N. W. Africa and Asia Minor.]

Next to the Willow Warbler this is by far the commonest and
most generally distributed of our British Warblers, and is found through-
out England and Wales, except on the high moorlands and mountains.
In Scotland it is also common and has extended its range of late years.
On the E. side it is found in fair numbers in suitable localities in the
Moray area, and ranges at least to the Dornoch Firth and is thinly
distributed along the E. coast of Sutherland; while on the W. side it
haunts the valleys of W. Ross. It breeds on Skye and in many of the
Inner Hebrides, and was first recorded with certainty as breeding in
the Outer Hebrides (Barra) in 1900. In Ireland it is very plentiful and
general.

The northern limit extends in Norway to about lat. 65°, and in
Sweden to about lat. 62°, and on the fjeld the. Whitethroat ranges as
high as the conifer limit. It inhabits S. and Mid-Finland to [jo and
Kuopio, and eastwards breeds near Archangelsk and up to about lat.
63° N. in the Urals. The limits of this race and S. c. icterops in 8. E.
Russia are not easy to define, but the EH. form certainly replaces this
in Transcaucasia. In the Balkan, Italian, and Iberian peninsulas it is
found breeding to the extreme south locally; it also nests in Sardinia,
Sicily, and possibly in Corsica and Cyprus. Over central Europe it is
generally distributed and in the Alps is found commonly up to 3600 ft.,
and exceptionally to 5400 ft. [It breeds also in N. Algeria and Tunisia
(Whitaker); and it is common in Asia Minor.]

Generally placed quite low down, often almost touching the ground
12*

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental

Rurope.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

308

in small bushes overgrown with rank grass, among coarse vegetation,
nettles, etc., in hedgerows and bramble thickets. Exceptionally cases
have been recorded of nests at a considerable height: one 12 ft. high
in a whitethorn and one 16 ft. high in an elder are mentioned in the
Zoologist for 1875 and 1876. The nest varies in the amount of mate-
rial used and is sometimes very slightly built, but always has a noticeably
deep cup. It is built chiefly though not entirely, by the male, and is
constructed of dry grasses and a few roots, well lined with horsehair
which is nearly always black, and strengthened with cobwebs and frag-
ments of down or wool. The male usually builds one or more incomplete
nests in addition to that actually used. Diameter of cup, 2s in.; depth
13—2 in.

Usually 4 or 5, sometimes 6 in number, but a clutch of 7 eggs of
the pink type is said to have occurred in Yorkshire. Remarkable vari-
ations in colour occur at times. Typical eggs have a greenish or stone
coloured ground, and are finely speckled with ochreous and leaden spots
or blotches, but sometimes the brownish markings take the form of large
blotches and occasionally dark caps or zones are found, and their colour
ranges from oil green, olive, umber and ochreous to bluish black. The
scarce erythristic type has a pink or salmon coloured ground and is
marked with red-brown and grey spots, while among the more remark-
able varieties may be mentioned, (a) pure white, unmarked; (b) pale
bluish, unmarked; (c) bluish white, with a few ashy markings; and (d)
two wonderful sets in the Rey collection, not unlike Marsh Warblers’
eggs, blotched with dark brown and dark ash on a pale blue ground.

In S. England nests may be found from the beginning of May,
though generally later, while in the Midlands eggs are not laid till mid
May, often not till the last week. In Germany from May 7—10 to
the end of July (Rey) and apparently two broods are reared. Most of
our English birds are single brooded, though exceptionally eggs may be
found in July and even young in August. In Scandinavia the eggs are
usually laid early in June. Curiously enough the breeding season in the
Mediterranean Basin is not particularly early, and in Greece the eggs
are laid in May and about May 12 in Andalucia. Incubation lasts 11—12 days
as a rule, and the young remain about 11 days in the nest. Howard’s obser-
vations on the habits of this species (Br. Warblers, pt. 4) should be
consulted.

Average of 100 eggs measured by Rey 18.1><13.8, Max. 20.3><14.8
and 18.2><15, Min. 16><13.2 and 17><12.6. Bau’s average for 66 eggs
is 18.8><13.9. A dwarf egg measures 15><7 (R. H. Read). Average
weight of 14 full eggs, 1.905 g. (N. H. Foster). Rey gives the average
weight of blown eggs as 114 mg. and Bau as 113 mg.

309

b. Eastern Whitethroat, S. communis icterops Ménétr.

Eggs: Dresser, pl. —, fig. 4.

Sylvia communis icterops Mén. Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 587.

Breeding Range: Caucasia. [Also from Palestine and Trans-
caspia E. to Persia, Turkestan and W. Siberia.]

In the Caucasus it breeds up to 6000 ft. but the limits of the two
races are not yet clearly defined. In Palestine it is a plentiful resident,
but the W. form occurs also in autumn. From Transcaspia and Persia
its range extends eastward through Turkestan and W. Siberia to the Altai
range and the R. Yenesei.

In breeding habits it resembles the western race, but the eggs are
extremely variable and clutches of the red type occur very frequently.
The greenish ground colour is often replaced by white or creamy, spotted
with ochreous and lead colour. In Palestine eggs are laid from the be-
ginning of April onward, and in Turkestan during May. Average size
of 17 eggs measured by the writer, 18.45><14.36, Max. 19.3><14.5 and
19><15, Min. 17.2><14.3 and 17.6><13.4.

147. Lesser Whitethroat, Sylvia curruca L.
Plate 27, fig. 16—19 (Germany).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Tab. XX, fig. 11, a d. Hewitson,
fia lo pl x; I) Ed: pl. XXXVI, fis: 5,6; Il Bd. ph: XX MV che.
4. Baedeker, Tab. 51, fig. 8. Taczanowski, Tab. L, fig. I. Seebohm,
Bry Birds, pl. 10; id. Col. Fig. pl: 52. Frohawk, Br. Birds, Ij) pl. I,
fig. 35—37. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 7—9. Howard, B. Warblers, pl. III,
fig. 19—24. Nest: O. Lee, IV, p. 158.

British Local Names: Peggy, Hazel Linnet. Welsh: Llwyd fron
fach. Foreign Names: Bohemia: Pénice podkkrovni. Denmark and
Norway: Graesmutte. Finnland: Hernekerttu. France: Bec-fin babillard.
Germany: Zawn-Grasmiicke. Holland: Braamsluiper. Hungary: Kis pos-
zata. Italy: Bigiarella. Poland: Pokrzywka piegza. Russia: Peresmeshka.
Sweden: Artsmygg. Spain: Parlanchin.

Sylvia curruca L. Newton, ed. Yarrell, I. p. 410. Dresser, B. of Europe,
II. p. 383 and Man. Pal. Birds p. 76. Saunders, Man. p. 43. S&S. cur-
ruca curruca (L.) Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 588.

Breeding Range: Great Britain and Continental Hurope, except
N. Scandinavia and N. Russia, and the Iberian peninsula. [Also Palestine,
Asia Minor, and Persia to the Caucasus. |

This species has a much more limited range in the British Isles
than the Common Whitethroat. As a breeding species it is unknown in

Dis-
tribution,

Nest. Eggs
etc.

British
Isles.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

310

Ireland, and in England and Wales is absent from Cornwall and very
scarce in Devon, only becoming common in E. Somerset and E. Dorset.
It is also practically unknown or only of extremely rare ocurrence in the
W. of Wales, from Anglesey and Carnarvon 8. to Pembroke and Car-
marthen. In the N. of England it is only thinly distributed in York-
shire and Lancashire, and only breeds occasionally in Durham and North-
umberland, while it is scarce and local in the Lake district. In Scotland
it is also decidedly scarce, and it is doubtful whether it is anything
more than an accidental visitor to any area N. of the Solway district,
although a nest (with 7 eggs!) is said to have been taken in W. Ross,
and it has visited Fair Island and the Orkneys on migration.

In Norway its northern limit is about 65° N., and in Sweden from
64° to 65°, while on the Dovre fjeld its vertical range extends to 3500 ft.
From the N. end of the Gulf of Bothnia it is thinly distributed in N.
Russia as far as Archangel and about lat. 60° -in the Urals. In 8. E.
Russia it appears to breed in the Caucasus, but the limits of the W. race
are not clearly defined and possibly these birds may belong to the next
race. Throughout the rest of the Continent it is fairly general, but be-
comes very scarce in 8. Italy and apparently is only a rare winter visitor
to the Iberian peninsula beyond the Pyrenees, except possibly in the
province of Gerona. On the other hand a few pairs breed in the pine
forests of the Greek mountains as well as in Macedonia. It is only a
scarce migrant to Sardinia, but Whitehead found it breeding in Corsica,
and the evidence with regard to Sicily is somewhat conflicting, though
it is said to nest there. Its numbers vary in different localities and in
some districts, such as Transsylvania, it is extremely abundant, far out-
numbering the Common Whitethroat. [In Asia Minor it is generally
distributed, but commonest in the mountains, and visits Crete and Cyprus
on migration, It also breeds commonly in Palestine according to Tristram,
and apparently in the mountains of Persia].

In England often found in thick hedges, bushes, shrubberies, etc.,
generally rather low down, from 2 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. from the ground.
The nest is smallish, built of dry stalks and grasses, lined with roots
and fibre alone in many cases, but sometimes horsehair is freely or
sparingly used. Cobwebs and down are also used to fasten the outer
material together. It is always much flatter than that of the Common
Whitethroat, but there is much variation in the amount of material used
and the thickness of the walls. Diameter of cup, 2—2i in., depth,
14 in. Rey records a nest built almost entirely of Hrica vulgaris in
Germany.

From 4 to 6 in number, usually 5, and quite characteristic. (Ten
eggs have been found in a nest, but were obviously the produce of two

311

birds). The ground colour is white or pale cream, sparingly blotched
and spotted, generally with a more or less distinct zone or cap at the
big end, with purple grey shell marks and surface spots varying from
pale brown to deep sepia. Many of the markings have softened edges
and some sets show a good deal of the white ground; while occasionally
a clutch may be found without any markings.

In England the first eggs are found towards the beginning of May,
and have been recorded at the end of April, but the more usual time
in the Midlands is from mid-May onward: on one occasion | found eggs
as late as July 12, but think it probable that one or two previous layings
had been destroyed and that it is not double brooded. In Germany
eggs are usually found from the beginning of May till June, and second
layings to the end of the latter month (Rey). The hen is a close sitter,
and the period of incubation probably lasts from 11 to 12 days; but
when laying or while building the nest is readily forsaken.

Average of 100 eggs by Rey, 16.5><12.6, Max. 18.7><13 and
17.7><14.2, Min. 14><12 and 15><11.5. A double egg (S. Derbyshire),
measures 22><12.2 mm. Average weight of 19 full eggs, 1.437 g (R.
H. Read); blown eggs average 85 mg. (Rey).

{In Asia the European race is replaced by the Eastern Lesser White-
throat, S. curruca affinis Blyth, which is found in Siberia (and accor-
ding to Pleske also in the Kirghis steppes) ranging E. to Transbaikalia
and Manchuria, and according to Whitehead and others, S. to the Kurram
valley and Kashmir. Suschkin has described the form from the 8. E.
Kirghis steppes under the name of S. c. halimodendri Suschk. A third
race, S. c. minula Hume, breeds in Transcaspia, Amu Darya, Afghanistan,
etc. Egg figured in Cat. Eggs B. Mus., IV, pl. X, fig. 3 (Afghanistan).
Average size of 11 eggs from the same locality, 17.93><12.9 mm. Dresser
figures eggs of 9. c¢. affinis Blyth from Kashmir on pl. —, fig. 10—12.
For nesting notes see Ibis 1880, p. 59; 1898, p. 16. An allied species,
the Himalayan whitethroat, S. althaea Hume, breeds in Transcaspia,
EK. Persia, Bokhara, parts of Turkestan, Gilgit, and N. W. Kashmir.
Eggs from Transcaspia figured by Dresser pl. —, fig. 5,6. The distri-
bution of these forms in W. Asia is however as yet very imperfectly
known and requires further study].

148. Desert Warbler, Sylvia nana (H. & E,).

Geographical Races.
a. Asiatic Desert Warbler, S. nana nana (H. & E.).

Sylvia nana (H. & E.). part. Dresser B. of Europe, LX, p. 648 and Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 79. S. nananana (H. & E.). Hartert. Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 590.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Dis-
tribution.

Nest.

Eggs etc.

Breeding
Season.

312

Breding Range: Transcaspia E. to Turkestan and Alashan: Persia,
Baluchistan and N. W. India. Has once occurred in European Russia.

Inhabits the bush grown steppes of Transcaspia and ranges E. through
Turkestan to Alashan. Loudon describes it as common in the Kara
Kum desert. Tristram says it is found at the S. end of the Dead Sea,
so probably it occurs in the N. Arabian deserts as well as in S. and E.
Persia, Baluchistan and the wastes of Sind, Bahawalpur and Rajputana to
the S. of the Punjab. Sarudny found a nest with young in a tamarisk
bush, which resembled a Reed Warbler’s. Eggs still undescribed.

b. Algerian Desert Warbler, S. nana deserti (Loche.)

Meese t. (On 1896, Pat, Vile hg. ot.

Sylvia nana deserti (Loche). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 591.

Breeding Range: The Algerian and Tunisian Sahara to Tripoli.
Has occurred once in Italy.

Hartert describes this bird as haunting the desert plains between
Tuggurt, Quargla, and Gardaia to the dunes betwen Biskra and Umasch
in Algeria: on Djebel Dekaris and near Galb-el-Assued in Tunisia and
near Oumsinerma in E. Tripoli.

Where the dunes are sparsely covered with small bushes and dwarf
shrubs of various species this delicate and beautiful species makes its home,
building a deep nest, not unlike that of a Reed Warbler in shape, in some
bush. Hartert describes the nest as about 33 ft. from the ground and
somewhat conspicuous. It is composed of grasses, stalks and leaves,
interwoven with Gnaphalium blossoms and softly lined with down, wool,
cobwebs or bits of thread. Diameter of cup, 2—2% in., depth 25—34 in.

Probably 3 in number. The ground colour is white or pale greenish,
spotted with pale olive brown and pale bluish grey shellmarks and fine
spots, chiefly at the big end. Size (2 eggs) 14><11 mm, weight 69 and
59 mg. (Koenig); three eggs in the Tring Museum measure 16.5><12.4,
16.2><12.4 and 15.4><12. (Hartert in litt.)

Koenig took a nest with two eggs on Apr. 13, and Rothschild and
Hartert found two empty nests, on which the birds were sitting on Apr.
14, but also found one with three eggs on May 6 at Hl Oued.

149. Riippell’s Warbler, Sylvia ruppeli Temm.
Pl. 26, fig. 20. (Asia Minor, F. C. Selous.)

Eggs: (The figures in Thienemann, Fortpfl. Taf. XXII, fig. 1, a,
b, and Baedeker, Tab. 51, fig. 13 are erroneous). Reiser, Orn. Bal.,
III, pl. Ul, fig. 3, 4. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 22—24.

313

Sylvia ruepelli Temm. Dresser, B. of Europe, II, p. 417 and Man. Pal:
Birds, p. 86. 8S. ruppeli Temm. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 592.

Breeding Range: Greece. [Also Asia Minor, Crete, Palestine
and probably Cyprus. |

In Greece this species has been recorded from several localities in
the Peloponesus (Messenia, Lakonia and Arcadia), and also in Acarnania
and Attica. It is however not common, but is no doubt often overlooked.
[In Asia Minor it is almost the commonest warbler near Smyrna, and
Danford says it is not uncommon on the hillsides near Anascha in the
Taurus. Tristram describes it as a scarce resident in Palestine. It is
a common summer visitor to Crete and breeds there, and probably also
nests in Cyprus. |

In the breeding haunts of this bird, the females are rarely seen
and are very skulking in their habits. The nest is placed in a bush of
some sort, and is not particularly hard to find. It is somewhat substantial
for a Warbler’s nest, and is built of bents and grasses, lined with horse-
hair.

Usually 4 or 5, pale greenish or greyish in ground colour, thickly
mottled all over with small yellowish or olive brown spots and under-
ling grey mottlings, sometimes so as to almost hide the ground colour
A tendency to a cap or zone at the big end is sometimes apparent. In
general appearance these eggs approach most closely to those of the
Spectacled Warbler.

Kriper states that on one occasion he found a full clutch near
Smyrna on April 7, and that the usual season begins in mid April, but
this may be a misprint for May, as the bird does not reach its nesting
quarters till very late in March, and Lynes found it beginning to build
in Crete about April 25, while Selous found many nests in Asia Minor
between May 14 and 28.

Average of 28 eggs (25 by writer and 3 by Reiser), 17.92><14,
Max. 19.3><14.6 and 19><14.8, Min. 17><13.3 and 17.5><13.2. Average
weight of 2 eggs, 85 mg. (Jourdain): of 3 eggs, 108 mg. (Reiser).

150. Sardinian Warbler, Sylvia melanocephala (Gm.)

Plate 22, fig. 19—23 (Provence).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Taf. XX, fig. 7, a, b. Baedeker,
Tab. 51, fig. 4. Taczanowski, Tab. LIII, fig. 1. Dresser, pl. —, fig.
25—29.

Foreign Names: France Fawvette mélanogéphale. Italy: Occhiocotto.

Dis-
tribution,

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

314

Portugal: Tutinegra dos vallados. Russia: Slavka chermogolovaja. Sar-
dinia: Cabu de moru. Spain: Palmerilla.
Sylvia melanocephala Gm. Dresser, B. of Europe, II, p. 401 and Man.

Pal. Birds, p. 83. S. melanocephala melanocephala (Gm.). Hartert, Vég.
Pal. Fauna, p. 593.

Breeding Range: S. Europe, in the countries bordering on, and
the islands in the Mediterranean. [Also in the Canaries, N. W. Africa
and Syria, where it is represented by local races.]

In the Iberian peninsula this species is chiefly confined to the pro-
vinces bordering on the 8. and E. coasts of Spain. Here it is plentiful
among the brush covered foothills and low ground, but does not penetrate
far into the central plateau. In Portugal it is chiefly confined to the S.,
and has not been recorded N. of the Douro: it appears also to be ab-
sent from the district N. of the Cantabrian range in Spain. In 8. France
though common in some parts of Provence, it was not observed in the
Camargue by Eagle Clarke; while in Italy its distribution is somewhat
irregular, and though a common resident near the Ligurian coast, the
Marches and Apulia, is only accidental in the Po valley. On the E. side
of the Adriatic it is found in S. Dalmatia, Herzegowina, Montenegro,
Epirus, and probably also Albania, but never far from the coast: while it
is also resident in Corfu, and in Greece, but only in small numbers. It
nests also in many of the islands of the Greek Archipelago. It is said
to breed also in Turkey, but the records from Bessarabia and Kiew in
Russia require confirmation. In the Mediterranean it is characteristic
and common in the Balearic Isles, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, and
Crete. [Probably it also breeds in Asia Minor, but it is best known
there as a winter visitor, and its very scarce and local in Cyprus. See
also note at end on the forms inhabiting the Canaries, N. W. Africa,
Syria etc.]

Usually placed from 2 to 4 ft. from the ground, often in a thick
bush in some sheltered spot close to a wall and well concealed, but
occasionally quite conspicuous. It is said sometimes to build in trees,
and in Malta generally nests in branches of carob trees, close to the
ground. The nest is neatly and substantially built, with thick walls: it is
composed of dead stalks and grasses mixed with bits of down, sometimes
also dead thistle leaves, lined in some cases with finer grasses and bents,
at other times with rootlets or horsehair. Diameter of cup 2—2s in.,
depth 1;—2 in.

Usually 4 or 5, sometimes only 3, while Lilford states that 6 have
been found. They vary in the most extraordinary way. Many eggs are
finely speckled all over with pale ochreous and ashy grey on a pale

315

stone coloured or yellowish ground. These eggs are not unlike White-
throat’s or Sedge Warbler’s and the ground varies to pale yellowish
green, while the spots sometimes form a zone and range to brown in
colour. The second principal type has a creamy white to bluish grey
ground and is sparingly and boldly spotted and blotched with leaden
shellmarks and brown or ochreous. This type is much less common and
some eggs are very handsome. The third type is erythristic, the ground
being creamy or very pale sienna, sometimes thickly and finely marbled
and speckled with sienna brown and grey shellmarks, and in rare in-
stances boldly blotched with deep sienna red. Eggs of the second type
bear some resemblance to the boldest type of S. curruca eggs, while the
third type approaches that of Locustella naevia. Erythristic eggs are not
at all uncommon in Spain, but appear to be unrecorded from Greece.

Like many residents in the Mediterranean area, it is an early breeder ene
and the first eggs may be found in 8. Spain and Malta about March
12—16, but the second half of April is perhaps the best time, although
probably 2 or 3 broods are reared in the season and fresh eggs may be
found throughout May and June and according to Hansmann, even in
August. The cock has been seen incubating by Irby and Lynes.

Average of eggs (61 from Spain and Corsica by the writer and Measure-
so oye key). 17.86 <13-6. Max. 19/3 S< 14/2 and 18/2 >< 14.5, Mins =
15.3 < 13.4 and 16.8 < 13.1. Average weight, 95 mg. (Rey).

[{n the W. Canaries a somewhat smaller race, S. melanocephala leucogastra
(Ledru) is found; while in Syria and W. Persia the representative form is Bowman’s
Warbler, S. m. momus (H. & E.). Average of 3 eggs from Persia, 17.57 X 13.1.
Possibly also the birds from N. W. Africa and the E. Canaries are subspefically sepa-
rable. From Marocco to Tripoli it is a common resident and is said occasionally
to breed in long grass in Algeria, but more usually in thorny bushes, from April
to July.

The Palestine Warbler, Sylvia melanothorax Tristr. breeds apparently only on
Cyprus, althongh possibly it may be found in Palestine, where Tristram obtained a
pair. Eggs figured by Dresser, pl. 106, fig. 3. The nest is built in low thorn bushes.
and the eggs, 4 in number, are laid in May. The ground colour is greenish, and
they are marbled and spotted with yellowish brown and violet grey shell marks,

sometimes showing a distinct zone at the big end. Average size of 12 eggs,
17.28 X 13.3. Max. 18.3 X 13.5 and 18 X 14, Min. 16.5 & 12.3.]

151. Ménétries’ Warbler, Sylvia mystacea Ménétr.
Plate 26, fig. 21 (Persian Gulf, A. G. Tomlinson).
Eggs: Cat. Eggs Br. Mus. IV, pl. X, fig. 4. Dresser, pl. 106, fig. 2.

Sylvia mystacea Mén. Dresser, B. of Europe, LX. p. 59. and Man.
Pal. Birds, p. 80. MHartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 595.

Dis-
tribution.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

316

Breeding Range: S. Caucasus and Transcaucasia. [Also from Persia
and Transcaspia to Afghanistan and Turkestan. |

This species was first recorded by Ménétries from the lower Kur
valley in Transcaucasia and Radde obtained specimens at Lenkoran,
while Ssatunin has more recently shown that its range extends further
in the S. Caucasus. [In Persia it is common in the Elburz range at
4000 ft. and is also found in the central and sonthern parts of the pla-
teau, while in 1908 A. G. Tomlinson found it breeding on the Kairun R.
and near Bussorah, at the head of the Persian Gulf. It is the commo-
nest warbler in Transcaucasia and also ranges HE. to parts of the valleys
of Syr and Amu Darya and N. Afghanistan.].

Generally low down in a bush, but sometimes 3 ft. from the ground
in scrub or in sapling date bushes. The nest is rather slight, built of
stalks and grasses, lined fine grasses and roots. (Sarudny describes it
as built of tamarisk twigs, bents, and down, lined finer bents, vegetable
filaments and a few horsehairs.)

From 4 to 5, very pale stone colour or with a faint greyish tinge,
finely spotted or marbled with underlying leaden shellmarks and ochreous
brown spots and fine specks, Four clutches examined show very little
variation, but Sarudny’s description, if correct, points to the existence
of other types.

Tomlinson took clutches on April 9 and 27, Witherby on May 2
and incubated eggs on May 31, the two latter at over 5000 ft.

Average of 18 eggs by the writer, 17.31 =< 13.1, Max. 18.2 >< 13.5,
Min. 16.3 >< 13.3 and 16.6 >< 12.5.

152. Subalpine Warbler, Sylvia cantillans (Pall.)
[S. subalpina auct.]

Geographical Races.

a. Western Subalpine Warbler, S. cantillans cantillans (Pall).

Plate 26, fig. 22 (red type, R. Guadiana, Commr. Lynes).

Eggs: Seebohm, Col. Fig. pl. 53 (red type).

Foreign Names: France: Bec-fin passerinette. Italy: Sterpazgolina.
Spain: Cagachin
Sylvia subalpina Bon. Dresser, B. of Europe, II, p. 389 and Man. Pal.
Birds, p. 81. Saunders, Man. p. 53. SS. subalpina subalpyna Temm.
Hartert, Vog. Pal. Fauna, p. 596.

Breeding Range: The Iberian Peninsula, S. France, Italy, occasion-

317

ally in Switzerland, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily. (Has once occurred
in 8. Kilda and once on Fair Island.)*

In Spain this species seem to be local, and chiefly confined to the
maritime provinces, from Catalonia to Andalucia, but it also occurs in
some districts of the central plateau, and Saunders obtained eggs near
Madrid. In Portugal it is common in the 8. (Algarve), but is apparently
absent from the N. of the country; though plentiful in the lower Gua-
diana valley (Lynes), In France it is found in Languedoc and Provence
and ranges northward into Savoie. In Switzerland it has bred occasion-
ally near Geneva, and once near Neuchatel, while in Italy, although
met with commonly in Tuscany and Liguria, it is rare in the Po valley,
Piedmont and Lombardy, but breeds in the southern provinces. In the
W. Mediterranean it is common in Corsica and the small islands lying
between it and Italy, and is also not rare in Sardinia and plentiful in
suitable localities in Sicily, but absent from Malta. To all these localities
it is a summer visitor only.

The nesting sites vary from 1 to 5 ft. above the ground, but usually
2—3 ft. high, sometimes in gorse, cistus, brambles, and myrtle bushes,
or else in sapling ilex and other trees. Most nests are rather slightly
but neatly built of dry grasses or bits of dead thistle leaves, lined often
only with finer bents, but sometimes also with horse or pig hair. The
structure is strengthened by cobwebs, and plant down is often inter-
spersed; and in some nests dark reddish brown fibrous matter is used
as lining material. Average diameter of cup 1i—2t in., depth 1i—13 in,

Almost invariably 3 or 4, but Lynes found a single nest in Spain
with 5 eggs. Almost all the eggs which I have seen from Corsica and
Sicily are of one type, being greyish or pale greenish white, finely speckled
and spotted, chiefly at the big end, with ochreous or umber and under-
lying inky violet or pale grey markings. There is a certain amount of
variation in depth of colour in the spots, and lightly marked eggs are
exceptional, while one set in the British Museum shows a great deal of
the white ground, and a distinct zone of dark spots is not uncommon.
From Spain however the erythristic type is very prevalent, with pinkish
white ground either spotted with reddish brown and lavender or boldly
blotched with deep chesnut red, chiefly at the big end. There is little
or no gloss.

The first eggs may be found in Sie from the second week in
April onward till early in June, so probably two broods are reared. In

* The statement in Dresser’s and other works, that this species breeds in the
Canaries, is due to an error by Bolle, who confounded it with S. conspicillata.
Cf. Koenig, J. f. O., 1890, p. 371.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Nest.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

Con-
tinental
Europe.

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

318

Corsica the earliest date appears to be the first week in May, and eggs
may be found at the end of the month, but in Sardinia Brooke records
young on the wing on May 12. Incubation must be usually performed
by the hen as Lynes only once found the cock on the nest.

Average of 69 eggs measured by the writer, 16.48>< 12.93, Max.
19.1 >< 13.7, Min. 15 >< 12.1. Average weight of 4 incubated eggs
(unblown), 1.555 g. (R. H. Read).

b. Eastern Subalpine Warbler, 8S. cantillans albistriata (Brehm).
Plate 22, fig. 16—18 (Parnassus).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl., Tab. XX, fig. 9, a, b. Baedeker,
Tab. 51, fig. 7, Dresser, pl. —, fig. 13—15. 8S. subalpina albistriata
(Brehm). Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 597. Cf. Dresser 1. ¢. partum.

Breeding Range: The Balkan Peninsula, in the 8. and W., the
Cyclades and probably Crete. [Also Asia Minor. ]

Along the rocky coast of Istria, Croatia and Dalmatia, where there
is cover, this is the first warbler to return in spring, and is a common
breeding species. It is also found in the scrub covered foot-hills of
Montenegro and the Karst district of Herzegowina, as well as in many
of the islands in the E. Adriatic. Probably it occurs also along the
Albanian coast, and in Greece seems to be pretty generally distributed in
the macchia zone on the bases of the mountains. Kriiper also records
it as breeding on Naxos and other islands in the Cyclades, while it
certainly visits Crete and probably breeds there. [In Asia Minor Kriiper
found it common in summer near Smyrna, but it has only once been
recorded from Cyprus, and has not been found breeding in Palestine. |

Resembles that of the previous race, and like it is placed in thick
bushes, sometimes quite close to the ground, and at other times a foot
or so above it.

Usually 4 or 5, much resembling those of the W. form, but in the
greenish type the markings are rarely dark and are generally evenly dis-
tributed, while the fine grey shell markings are characteristic. Erythristic
types eccur not infrequently but are less boldly and handsomely marked
than the finest Spanish eggs.

Kriiper once found eggs on April 20, but the more usual time is
from the beginning of May onward till early in June.

Average of 60 eggs (33 by the writer, 12 by Rey, 9 by Reiser and
6 by Kollibay), 17 >< 13.21, Max. 18.2 >< 14, Min. 15><13 and 16.4><12.
Average weight of 12 eggs, 93 mg. (Rey); 9 eggs, 84 mg. (Reiser).

[A third form, the African Subalpine Warbler, S. cantillans imornata

319

Tsch., inhabits N. W. Africa, breeding from Marocco to Tripoli, not only
along the coast but also up to about 7000 ft. in the mountains. Average
of 9 eggs taken by Koenig and Erlanger in Tunisia in May, 17.9 >< 13.55,
Max. 19 >< 14, Min. 16 >< 12. Average weight of 5 eggs, 94 mg. (Koenig).
For nesting notes see J. f. O., 1892, p. 398.]

153. Spectacled Warbler, Sylvia conspicillata Temm.
Plate 26, fig. 23 (Malta).

Eggs: Thienemann, Fortpfl. Taf. XX, fig. 8,.a, b. Baedeker, Tab.
51, fig. 6. Dresser, pl. —, fig. 32.

Foreign Names: France: Babillard a lunettes. Italy: Sterpazzola
di Sardegna. Spain: Friolencos. Sylvia conspicillata Marm. fide Temm.
Dresser B. of Europe, II, p. 393 and Man. Pal. Birds, p. 80. 8S. con-
spicillata conspicillata Temm. Hartert, Vég. Pal. Fauna, p. 598.

Breeding Range: Locally in Spain, S. Portugal, S. EH. France
and Italy; the islands in the W. Mediterranean. [Also N. W. Africa,
Palestine and probably Cyprus. |

In the Iberian peninsula this species is found commonly in Algarve Con-
in S. Portugal, but has only been recorded a few times from the rest of Eros
the country. In Spain however it is local in Sevilla, fairly common
in Granada, and also breeds in Murcia and Valencia, while according
to Lilford it is found also in the plains of the central plateau, not far
from Aranjuez. In France it breeds in the Camargue, but is confined
to the desert plains of the Crau and Bone, and is said to occur locally
in 8. E. France as far as Savoie. In Italy it is scarce and is chiefly
found in the S8., but is said to breed in the Roman Campagna as well
as in Calabria. In Corsica Whitehead found it nesting, and it is said
to be not uncommon in Sardinia and in the mountains of Sicily, while
is the commonest warbler in Malta. [In N. W. Africa it is common in
some districts, but local in Marocco and Algeria and more general in
Tunisia, while it is also found on Fuertaventura. In Palestine it is found
on the bare highlands of Judaea and the Jordan plain, while it is chiefly
known as a visitor on migration to Cyprus. Curiously enongh it has
not yet been recognized with certainty from Greeee or Crete.]

In the Camargue Eagle Clarke found a nest well hidden in a clump Nest.
of sea blite, while Whitehead’s nest was 3 ft. from the ground in heath
on a brush covered hillside. It is common among the low bushes in
the Salt lake district of Algeria, and in S. Tunisia von Erlanger found
many nests in the patches of scrub between cultivated land. They are

Eggs.

Breeding
Season.

Measure-
ments.

320

substantially built of grasses, interwoven with dead thistle leaves and
stalks of various plants and bits of thistle down, lined with fine ‘roots,
down, and a few horsehairs. Diameter of cup 21 in., depth 13—1# in.
The foundation is more solidly built than in the case of the other Medi-
terranean warblers.

Usually 4 or 5 in number, sometimes only 3. They are greenish
white, often closely freckled all over with fine spots of greenish grey or
greyish brown. Sometimes the markings tend to form a darker cap or
zone at the big end, and some eggs show pale leaden markings, or a
fine blackish hair line or two.

In Malta two broods are reared, for fledged young have been found
by March 24 (Stenhouse) and also in May and June (C. A. Wright),
while in Tunisia the season extends from the middle or end of March
to June (Whitaker). In Corsica and on the N. Shores of the Mediter-
ranean, where it is a summer visitor, the breeding season is probably
rather later, and the few nests of which I have records were taken
in May.

Average of 53 eggs (20 by Hrlanger, 14 by Bau, 14 by the writer
and 5 by Koenig), 16.71 >< 13.06; Max: 18.6 ><13.7; Minyibe<ae
The average of 109 eggs quoted in Dr. Hartert’s Vog. Pal. Fauna, p.
599, included measurements of 83 eggs from the Canaries by an oversight.
Average weight, 88 mg. (Bau).

[A darker race, known as S. conspicillata bella Tsth., breeds in Madeira, the
Canaries and the Cape Verde Isles. Eggs figured by Dresser, pl. — fig. 31, 33—36.
In Tenerife eggs may be found from March onward, but in some of the islands of
the Cape Verde group it breeds even in November! In nesting habits it does not
differ from the Hastern form, but Alexander found nests in lavender bushes as much
as 7 ft. above the ground. In Madeira Schmitz states that most eggs are laid in May
in the mountains and that the nest is always lined with wool and sometimes also with
roots. Average of 29 eggs from Madeira, 16.9 & 13.09, Max. 17.6 & 13.5 and 16.8 14,
Min. 15.5 & 11.5. Average weight of 16 eggs 70 mg. (Schmitz). Average of 83 eggs
from the Canaries (567 by Koenig and 26 by the writer), 16.31 X 1251, Max. 18x 12
and 17 X 18, Min. 15 X 12 and 17.1 11.5. The clutch is usually 4, less often 3 or 5.
Tristram’s Warbler, Sylvia deserticola Tristr. breeds in the Atlas and Aurés ranges in
N. W. Africa. Eggs figured in J. f. O., 1896, Taf. VII, fig. 2; nest and young, ¢. ¢.,
1895, Taf. Il. Meade-Waldo records it from the Atlas Mts. in Marocco, from above
the tree limit up to 9000 ft., while Koenig found it common in the Aurés range in
Algeria and Whitaker describes as not uncommon among the maquis covered hills
of N. Tunisia. The nest is generally placed in a rosemary bush, and is built of stalks
and bents interspersed with down and lined with flowers of Aerva javanica and
sometimes hair. The eggs are usually 4 in number, greenish white, with slight gloss,
thickly covered especially towards the big end with olive or dark brown spots,
blotches, etc., which sometimes form a zone. Eggs may be taken from the beginning
of May. Average size of 15 eggs (8 by Whitaker and 7 by Koenig), 15.6 X 12.47,
Max. 16 X 13, Min. 15 X12. Average weight of 7 eggs, 81 mg. (Koenig).]

1—12 Redshank. Totanus totanus (L.).

unus fuscus (L.)

«
c

shank, Tot

—10 Dusky Red

]

atin he

+

Se
a _

Wag

vi
rs *
:

1—8 Black-tailed Godwit, Limosa limosa (L.).

1—6 Whimbrey, Numenius phaeopus (L.)

bora a
wo 4
ated

Are

A Recher ty privy.

1—9 Noddy, Anous stolidus (L.).

105

wll, Larus melanocephalus Natt.

G

Adriatie

I—8

1—5 Great black backed Gull

, Larus marinus L.

121

122

impennis L.

1, 2 Great Auk, Alca

*

re