m m RURAL TEXT-BOOK S E RIE S LEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE ARREN Akkllikk rBAI LEY EDITOR mp://www:archive-drg/d^ails/elementSofagr ELEMENTS OP AGRICULTURE »'-- ., -^^ X-^ . "firm e 6 ■ *»* • i>«<> *■*» **•!! Hftf'- • »-. S,.r. *»r. « • «•*•• .*•♦ A * c *'% .»c« *■ r «^ *<»li» « tv^ft* • •r» r r-«»ii u.« ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE BY G. F. WARREN PBOFKSSOB OF FARM MANAGEMENT AND FARM CROPS, NEW YORK 8TATK CQIiLBaa OF AGBJOULTURE, AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY THIRTEENTH EDITION THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 1913 All rights reserved s\ i\^ Ni'i' Copyright, 1909 By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Set up and electrotyped. Published. July, 1909 Reprinted January, March, April and June, 1910 December. 1910; June and October. 1911 January, February. June. 1912 January, July, 1913 U-l^ jOaount Pleacant ^stM J. Horace McFarland Company Harrisburg, Pennsylvania EDITOR'S PREFACE This book is designed for use in high-schools, academies, and normal schools, and in colleges when only a short time can be given to the subject. It is also hoped that it may be useful to the farmer or general reader who desires a brief survey of agriculture So far as I know, this is the first text-book of agri- culture appearing in North America in a generation, that is distinctly of high-school grade. More than fifty text- books of agriculture have appeared in the United States and Canada since Daniel Adams published his "Agricul- tural Reader" in Boston, in 1824, and J. Orville Taylor published his ''Farmer's School Book" in Albany and Ithaca, N. Y., in 1837. Nearly twenty of these appeared before the founding of the colleges of agriculture, on the land-grant act of 1862. A number of these early books were distinctly scientific in treatment, and were adapted to academies and other schools of the rank of our present high-schools. With the founding of the chain of agricultural colleges, the more full scientific treatment of the subject, so far as school texts are concerned, seems to have been reserved for these institutions, and the text-books became largely popular and elementary. This has been the epoch of the popularizing of science in the schools. The last of the extended and technical school texts appears to have been Pendleton's, in 1875. The large number of popular and •*.•_ Fig, 1. Sixty-five mayweeds — no two alike • * • • ,.« * V Fig. 2. Hybrid squashes. Croc knack upper row on the left, scallop lower row on right. The others are hybrids between these two CHAPTER II THE IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 6. Variation in Plants and Animals. No two persons are alike, nor are any two living things alike, be they plants or animals. Two corn plants grown side by side are dif- ferent in innumerable ways. They differ in height, in diameter, in size of leaves, amount of roots, size of ears, number of kernels, size and shape of kernels, size of em- bryo, chemical composition of kernels, etc. In fact, they differ in every characteristic that can be named. No two cows are alike. They differ in color, size, shape, milk- production, disposition. Some cows produce milk with 2 per cent of fat, and others as high as 8 per cent. Some can produce three times as much butter-fat as others from the same feed. No matter on what basis we make the comparison, we shall always find differences. (See Figs. 1, 3, 11.) 7. Law of Variation. Tne heights of many men of the same race and country were arranged in order by Gal- ton. Fig. 4 represents a line drawn over the heads of a thousand men when thus arranged in order of height. From this arrangement he found: (1) That the middle man represents the average height of all the men. (2) That the line drawn over their heads was nearly horizontal, except at the ends. (3) That near the upper and lower ends the changes r (5) 6 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE were rapid, that is, there are a few dwarfs and a few giants. In other words, the great majority of the men were of nearly the same height, being from a little over five feet to six feet. But there were a few extremely short ones and a few extremely tall ones. These principles apply when we consider any character of any living thing. Fig. 3. Variation in timothy heads. No two are aUke Fig. 5 shows the egg-production of 65 hens for a year. The number of eggs varied from none to 170. The number is too small to give a smooth curve, but the same general shape is indicated as that in Fig. 4. 8. Similar Produces Similar. It is often said that like produces like, but this is not strictly accurate. No two beings are aUke. The members of one family are usually similar in many ways, but no two are alike. In fact, the IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS -^=== ■ Fig. 4. Heights of a thousand men arranged in order. The great majority differ by small amounts. There are a few giants and a few dwarfs tendency to vary may be said to be one of the characters that is inherited. 9. Natural Selection. There is room in the world for only a small proportion of the plants and animals that begin life. A single corn plant usually has five hun- dred to a thousand kernels. If all were planted and grew, the entire world would soon be a corn-field. A morning-glory plant may produce several thousand seeds. A puff-ball produces millions of spores, each of which is ready to grow if given proper conditions. Since the total number of plants cannot greatly increase, it is evident that only a few of the hundreds or thousands of seeds produced by one plant can grow. All the others must be crowded out. If a thousand plants come up where there is room for but one, the strong will overshadow the weak ,60 ^ °° /■ ' Z 7'" :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::i: "^.::z.::::....::- - i; 3 lO 15 20 85 3d 33 '♦O *5 50 55 SO ^ Fig. 5. Egg production of 65 hens for one year. The number varied from to 170 8 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE and eventually kill them. These will in turn raise seed, ^nd the process will be repeated. Thus, the weak, the ill- adapted, are always being eliminated. This constant se- lection of the strongest, the ones adapted to the conditions under which they are to live, may eventually result in a changed type. There are countless examples of changes that were probably brought about in this way. 10. Sports, or Mutations. Sometimes a plant appears that is quite unlike its brothers. Usually, such a one does not have the power to transmit its qualities to succeeding generations. The offspring revert to the former type. Such a new form is also likely to be poorly adapted to the environment, so that it is quickly exterminated. But, occasionally, a sport may occur that is better adapted to the environment than the type from which it came, and that also has the power to impress its characters on its offspring. In such a case, it will crowd the old form out and give a new type in its place. Such a change might be rather rapid as compared with the ones produced by natural selection alone. The polled Shorthorn and Here- ford cattle are sports. Usually such sports are lost by breed- ing with the common type. 11. The Development of Weeds by Natural Selection. Our common weeds are a good example of the adaptation of plants to particular conditions. Nearly all of our bad weeds are natives of Europe. For centuries they have been growing in the cultivated fields, until each has developed certain characteristics that have enabled it to persist in competition with the crops and in spite of man's efforts to subdue it. Only a few of the native American plants are able to persist in cultivated fields; but these foreigners, IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 9 because of their development for just such conditions, are able to live. Possibly, in succeeding centuries we may have more of our native plants added to the hst of ''worst weeds." 12. De Candolle's Law. By the process of natural selec- tion, plants have become adapted to the cUmate in which they live, and have thereby become ill adapted to cHmates farther north or south. Seed of box elder (Acer Negundo) grown at St. Louis is not hardy in northern Iowa, although no botanical differences are observable. The American plum (Prunus Americana) is hardy in Nebraska; but when these trees are taken to Texas they winter-kill, because they start too early in the spring. Red cedars (Juniperus communis) grow from North Dakota to Tennessee; but when seed from either region is taken to the other the trees produced are not hardy. De Candolle, who made a careful study of the matter, concluded that native forms are not hardy when taken one hundred miles north or south of their source. This adaptation to climate deserves more attention than is often given to it. Northern varieties of apples, grapes, peaches, oats, and corn, are not usually adapted to southern conditions, nor are the southern varieties usually desirable in the North. The Baldwin apple, which constitutes the greater part of the New York apple or- chards, is not profitable in Delaware. The Ben Davis, which is the most important apple in Missouri, is not desirable so far north as New York. Alfalfa seed from southern Europe is not hardy in northern United States, but much of this seed is sold in New York. Corn does not mature properly when seed is obtained from a hun- 10 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE dred miles south. Much of the seed corn for northeastern United States is grown in Illinois and Iowa, but it does not always mature to the proper stage for making silage. It is sometimes good farm management to obtain seed from a climate where more vigorous seed is produced, or where it can be grown at less cost; but for most of our farm crops it is better to have the seed grown in the region where it is to be planted. If not so grown, it is usually advisable to secure it from a region that has a similar climate. 13. Artificial Selection. For centuries, man has been saving the best plants and animals. In this way, the changes have been much more rapid than they would have been if natural selection had acted alone. Corn and wheat are so changed from the original forms that there is a question as to what the original forms were. Probably the Indians had been selecting corn for centuries before Columbus discovered America. Artificial selection has often developed varieties that could not persist under natural conditions. We desire apples with much pulp and few seeds. Natural selection produced apples with little pulp and many seeds. In the time of Pliny, apples were so sour that he said they would turn the edge of a knife. Sour apples seem to have been best able to persist under natural conditions. In other cases, man has aided the natural develop- ment. The corn plant that produces few kernels, or that does not mature, is discarded by the farmer. The wheat that succumbs to rust is discarded. Cattle that do not thrive on the range are eliminated by the cattleman. Only within the last century has the improvement REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS 11 of plants been taken up in a scientific manner. The achieve- ments of these years have been remarkable. Much of this development has been due to an increased knowledge of the laws of heredity. REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS^ of Plants. Fig. 6 The essential parts 14. The Seed-Producing Organs shows the parts of a pea-blossom. are the stamens and the pistil. The stamens are made up of two parts, the filament and the anther. Their function is to bear the pollen grains which the anther contains. The pis- til has three parts, ovary, style and stigma. The ovary contains the ovules that are to be fertilized and that will then grow to be seeds. The stigma receives the pollen grains. The pollen grains start to grow when they come in contact with the stigma. This growth eventually reaches the ovules. The protoplasm of the pollen unites with the ovule, and a new plant is formed. We recognize this new plant as the embryo of a bean or kernel of corn. The parent plant furnishes the food for its first growth, and a supply is stored up to give the seed a start in Ufe when it separates from the mother plant. But the embryo is a new plant as soon as the pollen grain unites ^This subject is assumed to have been studied in botany. Only a brief review is given here. Fig. 6. Section of a pea blossom. S, sepal, one di- vision of the calyx; K, B, divisions of the corolla; Sta, anthers of the sta- mens; O, Sty, St, parts of the pistil ; O, ovary ; Sty, style; St, stigma. 12 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 7. Ear of corn that grew on an isolated stalk. Only a few kernels formed. Why? with the ovule. Thereafter, the parent plant has no influence on it except to furnish food. If an ovule is not fertilized, it fails to develop into an embryo. When shelHng peas, we often see small traces of peas two or three times as large as a pinhead. These were ovules that were not fertilized. If an ear of corn is to fill out, every silk must receive one pollen grain. Most ears of corn have a few missing kernels because some ovules were not fertihzed. The remarkable thing is that ears are so well filled. (Fig. 7.) 15. Sexual and Asexual Reproduction. When the new plant is formed by the union of two bits of protoplasm, it is called sexual reproduction. The two uniting proto- plasts are called gametes. If the gametes come from dif- erent plants, they are said to be cross-fertilized. If both pollen and ovule are borne in the same flower, it is self- fertilized. Many plants reproduce from stems, roots or leaves. Such reproduction is without sex, or is asexual. Potatoes are reproduced by the tubers. Quack grass and Johnson grass reproduce by root-stocks, or underground stems. Sweet potatoes reproduce by roots; willows grow from cuttings; white clover stems take root; wheat, oats, and barley form large clumps by stooling. Most of the farm plants that reproduce asexually also form seeds. The first experimental proof of sexuality in plants was made in 1691, but httle apphcation of this knowledge PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY 13 was made in the improvement of plants until within the last fifty years. 16. Artificial Crossing. It is a very easy matter to cross plants. The essential steps are: (1) Prevent undesired pollen from reaching the stigma. (2) Apply the desired pollen when the stigma is ready to receive it. Suppose it is desired to cross a Ben Davis and a Winesap apple. Shortly before the blossoms open, remove the stamens from several blossoms on one tree, say the Ben Davis, and cover with paper bags. Care must be taken not to injure the pistil. The petals may be removed if they are in the way. (Fig. 6 shows a pea blossom with petals and stamens removed.) When the blossoms on the tree are in full bloom, it is ready for the application of pollen. Jar a number of blossoms on the Winesap tree over a small dish, so as to get pollen from them. This may be appUed to the stigmas of the blossoms on the Ben Davis tree with a camel's-hair brush or with the finger. Cover with the paper bags to prevent other pollen entering. Remove the bags after the fruit is set. In the case of corn, the ears are covered with bags when the silks appear, and, later, pollen is appUed from the desired tassel. When two varieties or breeds of plants or animals are crossed, the new individual is called a hybrid.^ SOME PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY^ 17. Problems of Heredity. If a pollen grain from a red- flowered pea fertilizes an ovule from a white pea, some ^The word hybrid was formerly restricted to crosses between different species, but it is now commonly used to designate any cross. 2It may be desirable to omit paragraphs 17 to 19 unless the students are well advanced. 14 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE plants in succeeding generations will bear red blossoms and some white blossoms. In this, as in all inheritance, two problems are involved: (1) How the parent plant can impress its character on the gametes. (2) How the uniting gametes impress their characters on the new individual. How can the minute pollen grain of the pea carry the white color, the size of the vine, the shape of the pea, the earliness of the variety, and the innumerable other characters of the parent plant? How does this parent plant impress these characters on the pollen grain? These are questions about which there are many theories, but no one knows the answer. When two gametes unite to form a new individual, how do the characters represented by each of them unite? If one represents a red and one a white blossom, the new plant cannot be both red and white, — what color will it be? To these questions we now have partial answers. 18. MendePs Law.^ Mendel crossed a number of plants and studied the inheritance of contrasting characters in the hybrids. Only two of his experiments with peas are here mentioned. Two of the several characteristics which iGregor Johann Mendel was an Austrian monk, Abbot of Brunn. He was born in 1822, and died in 1884. In the garden of his cloister he con- ducted many experiments, particulariy with peas. He published a few papers from 1853 to 1865, but they attracted little attention and were soon for- gotten. But in 1900 they were discovered. Since then his work has been the most compelling force in plant and animal improvement. Nearly every experiment station has gone to work to improve plants, and to study the principles on which this improvement depends. His work differed from that of most students, in that he used large numbers, and so secured averages. When the laws of chance apply, no con- clusions are of any value unless large numbers are used. One might draw five yellow kernels of corn in succession from a dish containing half white. His conclusions would be entirely wrong. Only when he draws a large number of times, will he be sure to have approximately equal numbers of each. PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY 15 he studied were color of flower and shape of seed. He crossed red-flowered ones with those having white flowers, and crossed those having wrinkled or angular seed with those having round peas. Sixty blossoms were fertilized so that either the pollen or the pistil came from a pea that had the round seed, while the other gamete came from a plant that bore wrinkled seeds. When these hybrid seeds grew, they all produced round seeds. These round peas were planted, and in the next generation there were 7,324 seeds, of which 5,474 were round and 1,850 were angular, or a ratio of 2.96 to 1. When the angular peas were planted, they pro- duced only angular seeds, and continued so to do indefi- nitely. One-third of the round ones produced only round, and continued all round in later generations. The other two-thirds of the round ones, or approximately half of the whole number, produced both round and angular peas in the proportion of 3 to 1. Of these, the angular ones remained angular when planted, and one-third of the round ones remained round, while two-thirds again broke up into round and angular. Likewise he crossed peas with red flowers and white flowers. When the seeds were planted, all the plants bore red flowers. But in the next generation, of 929 plants 705 were red and 224 were white, a ratio of 3.15 to 1. The white ones produced only white in the future. One- third of the red ones produced only red, and two-thirds produced both red and white in the proportion of 3 to 1. From these and other experiments he drew the follow- ing conclusions: (1) It made no difference which way the cross was 16 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE made. When pollen from a red flower was applied to the stigma of a white flower, the succeeding generations were just the same as when pollen came from a white flower to the stigma of the red. (2) In the first generation the characters did not blend. He did not get a half-wrinkled pea. All were round and, similarly, all had red blossoms. The character that thus appears in the hybrid is called dominant, and the character that is not apparent is called recessive. (3) The gametes carried only one of two contrasting characters; otherwise it would not be possible to get a pure red and a pure white from hybrids. This is sometimes called the law of gametic purity. If we represent the red color by R and the white by W, a hybrid will be represented by RW. This is what he got in the first generation, but these all appeared red, this color being dominant. When seed from these was planted, the next generation gave three-fourths red and one-fourth white. But, since two-thirds of the red ones produced both red and white in succeeding generations, it is evident that they were hybrids. The proportions may, therefore, be expressed as follows: 1 R — 2 RW — 1 W One pure red, two hybrids also red, one pure white. The first three all appear ahke; the only way to tell their dif- ference being by their action in succeeding generations. A pollen grain of a hybrid is equally likely to carry the red or the white color. On the average, half of them will carry the red and half the white. Similarly, the ovules of a hybrid carry each color. When they unite, we may PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY 17 have^: (1) Red uniting with red; (2) red with white; (3) white with red; (4) white with white, or: 1 RR — 1 RW — 1 WR — 1 WW Since RW and WR are aUke, 1 RR — 2 RW — 1 WW If we suppose that each plant produces only four seeds, and that it follows the average, we should get the following results, starting with one hybrid: First Generation Second Generation Third Generation {Pure White Pure White Pure White Pure White {Pure White ged Hybrid Red Hybrid Pure Red rPure White I^ed Hybrid \lta^^ I Pure Red Red Hybrid. Pure Red IRW IRR — 2RW — IW rPure Red I Pure Red I Pure Red [Pure Red 6RR — 4RW — 6WW An interesting example of dominant and recessive characters is in eye color in man. Dark color is dominant over blue or light color. If a person has light-colored eyes, it is evident that the dark color is not present, else it would show. Those who have dark eyes may or may not 'The pea is a self-fertilized plant, mathematics is more complex. B With cross-fertilized plants, the 18 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE have the light color recessive. All children whose parents have light-colored eyes also have light eyes; but, if one or both parents have dark eyes, the children may have either color, depending on whether the dark-eyed parent has the light color recessive. The law of chance, on which all these results depend, may be illustrated as follows: Put equal numbers of white and yellow kernels of corn in a dish. Mix them up, then let two students each draw without looking. Mark down the result of each pair drawn. If a large enough number is used, the result will probably have a ratio very close to: 1 YY : 1 YW : 1 WY: 1 WW or, YY : 2 YW : WW When more than two characters are considered, Mendel found that each set of characters may be inherited inde- pendently of the others. If a tall, red-blossomed, round pea is crossed with a short, white-blossomed, angular one, we shall get the following forms, besides hybrids, in each character: Tall, white, round. Short, white, round. Tall, red, round. Short, red, round. Tall, white, angular. Short, white, angular. Tall, red, angular. Short, red, angular. But to get any one of these kinds with each of the characters pure would be a task for a professional breeder. When we consider that each plant has very many characters, we see what a complicated matter it becomes. The great majority of the new forms will be undesirable, but occasionally one may be good. We must PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY 19 remember that our new kinds need to be better than what we now have. It is not enough that they be different. There are cases in which Mendel's law does not seem to apply. Sometimes crosses do give blends, or inter- mediates. Perhaps this is because we do not know what unit characters are. 19. Application of Menders Law. Since the results of crossing give rise to such a miscellaneous array of forms, only a very few of which are desirable, it is evidently not a good practice for farmers to cross plants or animals of different breeds. This is a very common practice of American farmers, but certainly does not seem to be a wise one. A man will get his herd of cattle graded up to Shorthorn, then for some reason he changes to Hereford, then to Angus, then perhaps back to Hereford. The re- sult is a mongrel herd. It is much better to decide on a breed and then keep breeding to pure-bred sires of that breed. One will soon have a herd that is nearly pure-bred. Since we expect, not blends, but a recombination of char- acters, we shall not expect to get a plant of intermediate size by crossing a large one with a small one. Nor shall we expect moderate-sized horses because one parent is large and one small. We are much more likely to get an animal with bad proportions. We often see horses with the body of a trotter carrying the feet of a draft- horse and sometimes the head of a draft-horse. Many of the ungainly horses that are seen everywhere are the failures in attempts to get intermediates between distinct types. (See Fig. 2.) If one wishes to produce an entirely new type or breed, it is often desirable to cross unlike forms, in the hope of 20 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE getting desirable blends or new combinations of charac- ters. But this is done with the knowledge that the great majority will have to be discarded. The large number of poor ones is the price paid for a possible one or two su- perior ones. The farmer who is not a breeder does well to decide on what breed he wants, and then stick to it. Half-breeds are often good in the first generation; but this is what we should expect, because only the dominant ■characters are apparent. Mendel found that by crossing peas with stems one foot in length with those six feet in length he got hybrids six to seven and one-half feet in length — larger than either parent; but, in the next gen- eration, short forms reappeared. The succeeding genera- 6 1 y" *f / o/ y« 4 ^-=^-=' ^.^_,^. ^^:=^^ u^.. ^ r^ _^-*= 2 / */*■ / -| f 0 t > 20 30 ^ 50 60 70 80 90 lOOi Fig. 8. Yield in grams of 100 plants of Fife and Blue-stem wheat and of a hybrid between the two. (Adapted from Hays.) Yield of Blue-stem. Yield of Fife, x-x-x Yield of hybrid. tions are the ones that are likely to bring disappointment. If the half-breeds are to be sold to the butcher, crossing may be desirable. This agrees with common experience, that it is not wise to use half-breed animals as sires even if they do appear to be good. Fig. 8 shows the yield of one hundred plants of fife and blue-stem wheat and of a hybrid between the two. The STEPS IN BREEDING 21. hybrids do not average so good as the fife. Many of them are worse than either parent. The few good ones between o — o are of interest to a professional breeder; but the dis- cordant array is a strong argument against crossing as- a general farm practice. STEPS IN BREEDING There are three steps in improving plants or animals: (1) Increasing variation. (2) Selection of desirable forms. (3) Testing the power of the selected individuals ta reproduce their desirable characters. 20. Variation may be increased by any change in envi- ronment, as a change in food supply or climate. It is greatly increased by crossing. Only those who make a business- of producing new forms are likely to want to try to in- crease variation. For ordinary farm purposes, it is usually better to make selections from the innumerable varia- tions that already exist. 21. Selection is the most important step in all im- provement. In making selections, the primary use should always be of first consideration. It is the number of eggs produced, and not the feathers, that determines the real worth of a hen. Unfortunately, the prizes are usually awarded on the feathers. The amount of butter that a cow produces, and not the switch of the tail, is the pri- mary point in selecting a cow. The yield of corn, and not the peculiarities of the kernels, is the essential point. It is also necessary to remember that the individual is the unit to be considered. The hill of potatoes, and not the 22 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE single tuber, is the unit. The melon vine, and not the single melon, should be chosen. The good melon may have been the only one that the plant produced. Constant selection is necessary in order to keep any of our farm crops or animals up to their present standard. The breeder of pure-blood cattle who does not cull out many individuals is certain to run the average down. Our standard is the upper part of the curve of variation. If careful selection is not made, we will tend to get back to the average. Most of our plants and animals already exhibit more variation than we desire. Uniformity is often as important as an increase in the yield. A uniform herd of cattle is a better indication of good breeding than is a variable herd that may have some better individuals. Uniformity in size, color, and general appearance is of more importance in selling vegetables and fruit than is mere size or flavor. 22. Testing Hereditary Power. Testing the power to transmit the good qualities to the next generation is really further selection. Good individuals often fail to produce good ones. The best ears of corn have been selected for many years, and great improvement has been made. Much greater improvement would doubtless have resulted if the hereditary power had been tested, as explained in the ear-row test (Fig. 12). Dairy herds that have been carefully selected often come to be made up of the descendants of one cow; usually from a good cow, but not always from the best cow. It is not enough that a cow be a good one; she should be the mother of good cows. Fig. 9 shows a good example of such a cow. On the left is Prilly No. 40082 who produced \'-. '•■ 9 » m • • •• »4. IMPROVING FARM CROPS 23 25.20 pounds of butter in seven days. In the center is her daughter who produced 26.90 pounds in seven days. On the right her granddaughter who produced 30.03 pounds. The trotting horse called Messenger was not famous for his speed, but nearly every one of the best trotting horses of today has some of his blood. Not every attractive plant or animal is desirable. Much too often an attractive young male is placed at the head of a herd, only to find that a mistake has been made. Whenever possible, it is desirable that individu- als be selected because they have good offspring. IMPROVING SOME FARM CROPS 23. Plant-Breeding vs. Animal-Breeding. The plant- breeder has several advantages over the animal-breeder: (1) He can grow large numbers at small cost, and so have greater numbers to select from. He need save only one in thousands. The animal-breeder must work with fewer numbers, and save a larger proportion. (2) When superior plants are obtained, they can be rapidly multiplied. (3) Many plants can be propagated by asexual means, hence avoiding the reversion that comes from seeds. If a desirable hybrid is found, it is not given a chance to revert, but is propagated by buds, roots, or cuttings. Our varieties of apples, strawberries, and most other fruits, potatoes, and many flowers, would be lost if they had to be propagated by seeds. 24. Comparative Improvement of Different Crops. Those crops in which the individual has been handled by the 24 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 10. Twenty thousand timothy plants. Each grown from a single seed farmer have been most rapidly improved. Each ear ol corn is seen when husking, the differences have attracted attention. The result- ing selection has given the most striking ex- ample of improvement on a large scale. Pota- toes have been more rapidly improved than wheat. There are hun- dreds of named varie- ties of apples, but no varieties of timothy. Yet the differences between timothy plants are probably as great as the differences between varieties of apples. At Cornell University, there are about twenty thousand indi- vidual timothy plants growing in rows. There are many distinct types that will make very desirable varieties (Fig. 10). 25. Sugar-beet. The most striking example of rapid improvement due to the application of scien- tific principles is the sugar- beet. In a hundred years, the percentage of sugar has been increased from about 8 per cent to an average of 14 to 18 per cent. The Fig. ll. Two timothy plants growing , TT • J ^^^^ ^y side, showing difference in yield, average m the Umted Each one grew from a single seed. IMPROVING FARM CROPS 25 States was 14.9 per cent in 1907, and one field of twenty acres in Washington averaged 22 per cent sugar^. Less than a hundred years ago (1812), the first beet-sugar was manufactured for sale; now over half the sugar supply of the world comes from beets. Large firms have made a business of breeding beets. The method of improvement has been about as follows: When digging the beets, the workmen select the best- looking ones of medium size (one and one-half to two pounds), smooth and uniform, and that grow below the ground. These are stored for winter testing. In the winter they are tested for sugar and per cent of solids not sugar. A small core is bored out for the sugar test. This does not injure the beet for planting. The solid matter other than sugar makes the extraction of sugar more difficult. Those with a high percentage of sugar and low percentage of other solids are best. The beets are graded into different classes, based on the percentage of sugar, and are planted to raise seed. The seed produced by each of these beets is sown in separate rows, to test the reproductive power. New selec- tions for continuing the improvement are made from the best beets of the best rows. The remaining ones are used for growing commercial seed. The seed grown from beets with a high sugar content sells higher than that grown from the poorer classes. 26. Corn Improvement. The best ears may be selected from a crib, or from the field at husking time, or one may go into the field before husking and select good ears on good stalks that grew under normal conditions. A good lExperiment Station Record, Vol. XIX, p. 32. «Kr DrcMBi « crib naMQr 1mit» Iima good bM4iusi» tiA slidQ: ip«w ttttdvr «iWftidHy f^votftbl^t tOftdiHoas. 1% m^r iMive lErown ftlMi% wbMi no^ of U» planls |^w in ldUs» or it m^- haY« gioim Oft rielmr soU. IKlth aa(^ of UMSft BBiHltf^ of sfttodmi^ im know on^ h:iUf tb^ pMOftt«iS!^ Tbo pottw to IftliKie iKe 9>ood ear m;!^* ha\« eonft Bknbii sl«lks ^Ih very poor e<9ur^ It i$ BOCi condnctod in m7 by Yolo DoimI, n fatom^ l¥insa^CbMiiobiil»RY..«nx%tboiaiowintptMs: (Tbo IMPROVINO FARM CROPS 27 yields given are the averages of the two rows planted from eaoh ear.) Knr No. 1.. 2.. 3.. 4.. 5.. (I.. 7.. H.. !).. 10.. u.. 12.. la.. DuhUaU per ttoro . 60 . 40 . 42 . 20 . 70 . If) . liCi . M . 46 . 45 . 45 . 48 , :jo Ear No. 14., 15. 16. 17. IH., h)., 20., 21.. 22.. 23.. 24.. 25.. nuNheU pwr unra . 42 , . 35 , . 04 . 01 . 00 . 28 . 74 . 20 . 40 . 43 . 50 . 32 TIiIm tiiMo hIiowh tlio oxtroinely variable yielding ability of ours that iiro ai)i)anMitly all ^ood. No one would imagine that thoro would ho hucIi a diiTeronco. Tho best four ears wore 5, 10, 17, and 20. But thoHO woro all ^rowu adja,c(Mit to poor rows. It would not do to aavo seed from these good rows, because they will be Grossed with the ad- jacent poor rows. Seed Iroin them might, how- CVJM", !>(' used ill llic field planting. \\v. ; till li.iv(; parts of eaoh < mi ixcd from the spring planting. The following year, tho remnants of these four ears are planted in an isolated place, where they will not mix I.H of lldjliriMll n.\v ni :ni OftF- i^r llio (lilTor«tu'«< ill yiohilng IH thai lookt^tl tHiually auod. 28 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE with other corn. This patch will furnish seed for a small field the following year, and the third year there will be enough seed for a large area. Each year, particularly good ears may be selected from the best rows or from the main field, and the process continued. When one carries this process out carefully, his neighbors will likely desire the extra corn for seed. A trial conducted by the Iowa Experiment Station^ shows that variations in all characters occur. In 1905, seed from 102 of the best ears of corn was planted in an ear-row test. Records of yields, barren stalks, broken stalks, suckers, etc., were made for each row, showing the variations in the 102 ears, all of which appeared to be good. Variation in yield: Ear No. 75 yielded 91 bushels per acre. Ear No. 93 yielded 36 bushels per acre. Variation in number of broken stalks: Ear 54 had 64 per cent of the stalks broken and yielded 68 bushels per acre. Ear 85 had 8 per cent of the stalks broken and yielded 77 bushels per acre. Variation in number of barren stalks: Ear 19 produced 22 per cent barren stalks and yielded 51 bushels per acre. Ear 83 produced 1.5 per cent barren stalks and yielded 76 bushels per acre. Variation in number of suckers: Ear 106 produced 21 per cent of suckers, and yielded 78 bushels per acre. Ear 75 produced no suckers, and yielded 91 bushels per acr«, ilowa Bulletm No. 77. IMPROVING FARM CROPS 29 If one does not care to select corn so carefully, he may at least select the best ears and make a germination test. If corn is husked from the field, a box may be tied on the wagon into which the best ears are put. 27. Cotton may be improved in the same manner. Seed is saved from the best plants in the field. Rows are planted from each plant, and in each case half of the seed is saved. The yield from the different rows deter- mines which of the original plants were best able to trans- mit their good qualities. The remaining seed from the best original plants is then planted together, to grow seed for field use. 28. Other Cross-fertilized Plants may be improved in the same way: (1) Select the best. (2) Test the yielding power, saving a part of the seed from each plant. (3) Plant the remnants of seed from the best plants. Tobacco, rye and timothy are cross-fertilized plants. 29. Oats. Oats are commonly self-fertiUzed, so that a poor row beside a good one will not harm it. The third step can, therefore, be omitted. Save seed from the best plants from a field of oats, or, if the individual plants cannot be distinguished, save the best heads. The seed from each plant will need to be tested, to see whether it produces well. The plant may have been good because the soil where it grew was good. The seed may be planted in rows six to ten inches apart, and a rod or more long. If twenty-five heads were saved, rows 1 and 26 may be planted from head 1 ; rows 2 and 27 from head 2, etc. The best-yielding rows are 30 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE saved for seed. These will have to be raised another year before there will be enough for a field. The process may be repeated for further improvement. 30. Other Self-fertilized Plants may be improved in the same manner: (1) Select the best. (2) Test the yielding power. The seed from those that yield most is saved for field planting. Wheat, rice, peas, beans, are commonly self-fertilizing. 31. Potatoes are propagated by cuttings. The potato tuber is a much-enlarged underground stem. The eyes are really buds. Propagation in this way is asexual. When a good potato is secured, it is multiplied from cuttings. The only satisfactory way to improve potatoes by selec- tion is by hill selection. What is necessary for a good yield is good hills. If a large potato is selected from a bin of potatoes, it may have been the only good potato in the hill. If potatoes are dug by hand, the best hills may be saved while digging. If they are dug with a machine, the most promising hills may be dug by hand before dig- ging the field. The ones that produce the largest yield of desirable potatoes are saved for seed. Enough may be saved in this way so that they will produce seed for the entire field the second year following. It is also desirable to keep each hill separate and to plant separately. In this case, the ones that yield most are kept for the breeding plot. 32. How Often Do Potatoes Need to Be Grown from the Seed-ball? Potatoes also reproduce by seeds from the seed-balls. But the number of these seeds is now small. Probably, the potato that produced fewest seeds has been QUESTIONS 31 able to grow the best tubers. The statement is often made that potatoes must be renewed from the seed-ball fre- quently, in order to keep up their yield. If carefully selected and well grown, the present varieties would doubt- less maintain their yield indefinitely. When poor potatoes are planted and poorly cared for, they will surely deteri- orate. It is probable that new varieties will continue to be formed from the seed that are better than any of the present varieties, so that even if present varieties are im- proved they are certain to be displaced eventually. Old varieties cannot be renewed from the seed because pota- toes do not come true from seed. 33. Plant-breeding Farms. Farms whose business is the production of improved varieties of plants are now beginning to develop in different parts of this country. Several such establishments have been in operation for a number of years in Europe. In time, farmers will likely come to look to these farms for seed, as they now go to stock-farms for pure-bred stock. If improved seeds are really produced, they must be sold for an increased price. Improvement, such as can be practiced on any farm, as described in the preceding paragraphs, is not very ex- pensive. But to produce new types of plants that are better than anything else that now exists is expensive. When once produced, they are too valuable to be grown by one man only. QUESTIONS 1. What is protoplasm? 2. What are the worst ten weeds of the neighborhood? Look them up in the botany manual and see which were introduced from Europe. What are the characters of each that make it able to persist? 32 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 3. There are about 225,000 alfalfa seeds in a pound. About fifteen to thirty pounds is sown per acre. If twenty pounds is sown, how many seeds would there be on a square foot? Some good old fields do not have over five plants per square foot. Why is so much seed sown? If fields are available, count the number of plants on old and new seed- ings. Do the same principles apply in planting corn? To what other plants do they apply? 4. Why are the ears on a cornstalk not always filled out? 5. What part of the flower are the corn silks? Where are the other parts? To what are the silks attached? 6. What effect does wet weather at blossoming time have on an apple crop? What effect does dry weather at silking time have on the corn ears? "Why is a frost at blossoming time more injurious to peaches than one later? 7. What would be the proportion of red and white peas at the end of the fifth generation from the hybrid between them? 8. Why is the ratio in which hybrids break up not exactly 3 to 1 when dealing with small numbers? 9. Why do apples, peaches and potatoes not come true from the seed? 10. Are small potatoes as good as large ones for planting? 11. Are the kernels of corn from the tip and butt good for planting? 12. What crops, or new varieties of crops, if any, have been re- cently introduced into your region? 13. What seeds of farm crops are regularly shipped into your county? Where do they come from? Is the climate of the region from which they came similar to yours? LABORATORY EXERCISES 1. Variation in Plants. Materials. — A number of elm leaves for each student, or leaves of some other plant, two corn-stalks or other plants for each student. Try to find two leaves that are alike. Make a list of all the leaf characters, and tell how the leaves differ in each character. Make a list of all the characters of the two corn plants and state the differences: Number of leaves, height and diameter of stalk, number of parts in the tassel, number of ears, size and shape of leaves, number of ribs, length and diameter of ear, number of rows of kernels, color of kernels, color of cob, shape of kernels, size of embryo and endo- LABORATORY EXERCISES 33 sperm, taste of pith and kernels. These are but a few of the many characters that may be compared. 2. Galton's Law. Measure 100 or more plants of any kind, arrange the results in order and draw a curve representing the measurements. The height of 100 corn-stalks, length, weight, or circumference of 100 ears of corn, or any kind of measurements may be used. 3. Struggle for Existence. Materials. — An ear of corn for each student, also a purslane plant, pigweed or other weed with many seeds. How many kernels on the ear of corn? Count one row and multiply by the number of rows. How many seeds on the pigweed, or other plant? Count the seeds on a few branches and multiply by the number of branches. Begin with one kernel of corn, or one pigweed seed, and suppose that each grew and developed as these have done. How many would there be in three years? 4. Struggle for Existence. Field Trip. (1) Go to a weed "patch." Let each student take one square foot or more of area. Count all the plants on this area. How many are apparently not going to be able to form seeds? (2) Examine an impruned tree. What proportion of the branches have been killed by crowding out? Count the buds on a twig. How many can develop into branches? (3) If a woodlot where trees grow naturally is available, visit it. Find trees that have been killed. What proportion survive? Find those that are overshadowed, but that are still alive waiting for a chance. Compare their ages with the large trees. 5. Struggle for Existence among the Buds of a Potato. Materials. — Potato and dish of water. Place a potato in a glass of water so that the stem end touches the water, and allow it to grow. How many "eyes" start? After these have grown some time, cut them out and see if the others start. 6. The Flowers of Some Crops. Materials. — The flowers of such farm crops as grow in the neighbor- hood: Corn, oats, wheat, rye, rice, cotton, etc. Dried specimens may be used, but materials preserved in formalin are better; fresh material is the best. 34 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Find the stamens, anthers, pistils, stigmas, styles and ovaries of each. Make drawings of each. Compare the abundance of pollen in a self-fertilized plant, such as wheat, rice, oats, with its abundance in the cross-fertilized plants, as corn or rye. Why this difference? 7. Pollen Grains. Materials. — Same as for No. 6, and a compound microscope. Examine pollen grains of several crops with a microscope, using a one-sixth-inch objective (X about 400). Make a drawing of each kind. 8. Hybridization. Materials. — Growing plants about to bloom. Let each student cross-fertilize several flowers of any plants, pre- ferably crops. If possible, have the seed from each cross saved and planted. (See p. 13.) 9. Seed Selection. Materials. — A field of any crop approaching maturity. Each student to select ten plants for seed, giving reasons for the choice. 10. The Improvement of Some Crop. Let each student choose some plant which he is to try to improve during the next year: An ear-row test of com, hill-row test of potatoes, selection of carnations, or some other plant. If the school has land available, this may be done on the experimental grounds, or students may do the work at home. COLLATERAL READING Production of Good Seed Com, by C. P. Hartley. Farmers' Bulletin No. 229. (Each member of the class should have a copy.) A Successful Hog and Seed-corn Farm, by W. J. Spillman. Farm- ers' Bulletin No. 272, p. 12. Corn-breeding Work at the Experiment Stations, by J. I. Shulte. Yearbook, 1906, pp. 279-294. New Citrus and Pineapple Productions of the Department of Agri- culture, by H. J. Webber. Yearbook, 1906, pp. 329-346. New Tobacco Varieties, by A. D. Shamel. Yearbook, 1906, pp. 387-404. COLLATERAL READING 35 Sugar-beet Seed Breeding, by J. E. W. Tracey. Yearbook, 1904, pp. 341-352. Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection, by Herbert J. Webber. Yearbook, 1902, pp. 363-386. The Art of Seed Selection and Breeding, by A. D. Shamel. Year- book, 1906, pp. 221-236. • Plant-Breeding on the Farm. Farmers' Bulletin No. 334, pp. 5-9. Potato-Breeding. Farmers' Bulletin No. 342, pp. 10-14. Cereals in America, by T. F. Hunt. Pp. 14-25, 63-68, 185-200. Forage and Fiber Crops in America, by T. F. Himt. (See Index of crops.) Principles of Breeding, by E. Davenport. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 1-85, 53-80. In giving references, the following abbreviations are used: "Bureau of Plant Industry," "Bureau of Animal Industry," "Forest Service," etc., refer to bureaus in the United States Department of Agriculture. "Farmers' Bulletin" and "Yearbook" also refer to pub- lications by this department. Publications of state experiment sta- tions are referred to by the name of the state. "Iowa Bulletin No. 75" means Bulletin No. 75 of the agricultural experiment station that is located in Iowa. See Appendix, Tables 1, 2 and 3, fol* method of securing publica- tions. CHAPTER III PROPAGATION OF PLANTS Plants may be propagated by spores, by seeds, and by division. The most important methods of propaga- tion on the farm are by spores, seeds, and by several methods of division, such as creeping stems and root- stocks, tubers, cuttings, buds and grafts. Nearly all economic plants are propagated by means of seeds. 34. Spores differ from seeds in that they do not con- tain an embryo, or young plant. They are usually one- celled, or few-celled and microscopic. Only the lower orders of plants form spores. The flowering plants form seeds. Spores may be farmed sexually or asexually. The rusty margins on the underside of fern leaves contain spores. The dust of a puff-ball is composed of countless 0 0 spores. Corn smut, oat smut, oat rust, are •^^* masses of spores. Q^ This method of propagation is not of great Fig. 13. direct importance in agriculture, because only a corn smut few of these plants are of use to us. But spores highly » . magnified, are 01 great importance when we come to con- sider plant diseases, for nearly all such diseases are caused by plants that reproduce by spores. 35. Creeping Stems and Rootstocks. The branches of white clover take root, and so form new plants (Fig. 14). This enables it to persist many years in pastures where red clover is exterminated (36) PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 37 Buffalo grass is able to persist in dry regions by means of the branches that take root, somewhat Uke strawberry runners. The most important example of asexual reproduction is in grasses. All the perennial grasses increase by new 'p..^.^. ^f] Fig. 14. Branch of white clover showing the method of forming new plants stems, or culms, that arise from the nodes of the older culms. Usually the new stems come from the nodes that are near the ground, or below it. If the new stems are very short or sessile, the process is similar to the stooling in wheat and oats. More often a branch comes out more or less horizontally, either above or below ground, takes root at its nodes, and sends up one or more culms. Such a 38 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE horizontal branch is called a stolon. The leaves of a stolon that grows below ground are reduced to colorless scales. Such a stolon is called a rootstock. The new stem is at first a branch of the old one, but it often forms its own root- system, becomes independent, and in turn gives rise to stolons and culms (Fig. 15). The distance of the new culm Fig. 15. Blue grass showing the method of reproduction by underground stems, or stolons from the old one determines whether the grass is spread- ing, like blue grass, or tufted, like orchard grass and blue joint grass. (See Figs. 91, 92, and 95.) It is probable that all grass plants would die after the formation of seed were it not for this means of repro- duction. The plant that grows from a node apparently forms seed but once. But it may produce stolons and so continue the stand of grass. Botanists have classified PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 39 these plants as perennials, but they are a very different kind of perennials from alfalfa and trees. The grasses with long stolons, like blue grass, tend to form a dense sod, and are, therefore, best for pasture. The less strongly stoloniferous kinds, as timothy, are usually best for hay; probably because the dense sod developed by the strongly stoloniferous species contains so many stems that none of them can grow large enough to produce a good hay crop. 36. Roots. The edible portion of the sweet potato is an enlarged root. The potato plants are grown from these. The roots are put about an inch apart in hotbeds, with about four inches of dirt under them and two inches on top. The roots send up many sprouts from adventitious buds. When these shoots have reached the proper height, they are pulled. This permits the potato to send up more sprouts. The plants thus grown will have a good supply of roots of their own before they are pulled from the potato. Sweet potatoes are also grown from cuttings taken from the vines produced by the earUer plants. Occasionally, the potatoes are cut into pieces and planted like Irish potatoes. 37. Tubers. The field, or Irish potato, is a modified stem. The eyes send out branches, so it might be propa- gated in the same manner as the sweet potato, but this is not profitable. Irish potatoes are usually cut into two or m6re pieces for planting. The larger pieces have given the larger yields in most experiments. Of ninety-five experiments reported from various experiment stations, seventy-six found that half-potatoes yielded more than those cut to two eyes, 40 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE while nineteen secured greater yields from the latter. Thirty experimeijts considered the increased cost of seed of the half-potatoes over the two-eyed pieces.^ Twenty- two of these found a net income from the crop above the cost of seed in favor of the half-potatoes, and eight in favor of two eyes.^ The most profitable size of seed depends on the relative value of the seed and of the crop. The number of eyes per piece above two is of little consequence. Each eye contains a number of buds. The Fig. 16 Rose cutting showing depth to plant size of the piece determines the number of sprouts that it sends up. Only a small proportion of the buds sprout. Placing the potatoes in a well-lighted room some time before planting increases the yield. Sprouting in a dark room is harmful, as the sprouts produced are long and slender. If the potatoes are to be planted with a machine, the sprouts should only begin to appear before planting. For a few early potatoes, it is well to let the sprouts get iPotato tubers are commonly called seed. They are seed in an agri- cultural sense, but, of course, not botanical seed. 2 Samuel Fraser, The Potato. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 41 an inch long, and then plant by hand. The Rhode Island station found a gain of fifty-four bushels .per acre due to allowing potatoes to lie in a well-lighted room, at a temperature of 60 to 75 degrees Fahr., for four to six weeks. The seed is best cut the day of planting, but may be cut on rainy days shortly before planting, to save time. 38. Cuttings. Nearly all herbaceous plants and many woody plants can , j^ 1 (• X Fig. 17. Geranium cutting ready to plant be propagated from cut- tings. Alfalfa and clover plants may be so grown. Of course, this is not practical under ordinary circumstances; but alfalfa is sometimes propagated in this way by plant- breeders when they desire to multiply a desirable indi- vidual. Most of our house-plants are prop- agated by cuttings. In some cases the leaves will grow, but usually stems are taken. Cur- rants, grapes, willows, poplars, cottonwoods, are commonly propa- gated by cuttings. Fig. 18. Verbena cutting well rooted Grape CUttingS are 42 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE made from wood of the preceding season's growth, usually with three buds on each cutting. These are planted with two buds below the ground. Currant cuttings are usu- ally made about six inches long, and are set with one bud above ground. The hardwood^ cuttings are usually made in winter, and are heeled-in out-of- doors. They are sometimes packed in moist sand and kept in a cellar a little above freezing temperature, so that the ends become calloused over before planting. 39. Grafting. — Some plants do not readily form roots from the stems. These must be propagated from seeds, or by budding or grafting. All the tree fruits in America — apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries, oranges, etc. — are regularly grown from buds and grafts. Pecans and chestnuts are often grafted. 1 Hardwood cuttings are those made of the mature wood, as grapes, currants, etc., as distinguished from green cuttings, as geraniums. Fig. 19. A leaf-cutting of begonia, well started PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 43 Fruit trees have to be propagated in this way because they do not come true from the seed (page 23). It is also sometimes desirable to be able to take advantage of the pre- vious growth of a tree, rather than to wait for a new one to grow. Top -grafts in an old apple tree may begin to bear the second year. In most regions it takes ten or more years for a young apple tree to reach bearing age. The essential point in all budding and grafting is: that the cambium lay- ers be placed together and held there until they unite. The cambium layer is the y^- living and growing part between the wood and the bark. 40. Budding. A bud is cut as shown in Fig. 21. A T-shaped cut is then made in the plant to be budded, the bud is inserted and tied with rafha. The life history of a peach tree before it is planted in the orchard is about as follows: The pits are stored in moist sand or other material where they will freeze during the winter so that they will crack. These are planted in the spring. In June, or about September, the seedling tree is budded from a tree of the desired variety. The bud is inserted near the surface of the ground. After it has Fig. 20. A grape cutting and the same after one year's growth 44 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE started growth, the raffia is cut, and the top cut off above the bud. If the buds are inserted in the summer, they will grow during that season, but will not make a very large growth. Fig. 21. Fig. 22. A bud ready for insertion and the The bud in- T-shaped cut ready to receive it serted Fig. 23. The budding com- pleted These trees are called ''June buds." They are planted in the orchard the following spring. If the buds are inserted in the fall, they unite with the tree but do not start growth until the following spring. Having a larger root and a long season, they make much larger trees than June buds. It takes two years to produce them, but they are in much greater demand than June buds. Cherries and plums are propagated in the same manner as peaches. Apple trees are usually root-grafted by the nursery- man in the Middle West, but are budded in the East. In either case, the seedUng trees are usually produced by growers in the Middle West, who grow them for one year. These one-year-old seedlings are planted in the nursery and are budded the first spring. The trees are usually PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 45 After grown for two years in the nursery rows^-when they are ready for sale. 41. Root-Grafting. Seedling apples are grown for a year in a rich soil. They are dug in the fall. The root-grafts are made during the winter. After the fibers are removed from the roots, they are cut into pieces about two inches long. Smooth, one-year-old twigs of the desired variety are cut into about six-inch lengths called cions. A slant- ing cut is made on root and cion, and a slit is cut in each so that they will fit close together (Fig. 24). This makes three surfaces where the cambium layers rneet. being put together, they are wound with waxed cord. This holds the cambium layers so close together that they can unite. The wax on the cord holds it so that knots are unnecessary. The root -grafts are put into bundles of about fifty, and are packed in sand in a cool cellar. By spring the cambium layers should be well cal- loused. Peaches, cherries and plums are not often root- grafted. They do not heal so readily as do apples and .J^c, c1on?nd';fof unLd^ablT'na?-' ural size; D, Root-graft completed, much pears. reduced in size. 46 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 42. Top-grafting. This method is not very often used, except to work over large trees. For this purpose, limbs about one to two inches in diameter are sawed off. The cions are cut about four inches long, and are sharpened Fig. 25. Cion for a top-graft Fig. 26. Cions properly in- serted for a top-graft Fig. 27. A top-graft completed on both sides wedge-shaped. One is put in at each side of the branch, care being taken to keep the cambium layers in contact. To be sure of a good contact, the cions are set at a slight angle, and may be cut thinner on the inside. The ends of the branch and the split sides are all care- fully covered with grafting wax. Sometimes many varie- ties of apples are thus grown on one tree. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 47 43. Relationship of Cion and Root. Buds or grafts will seldom grow on roots of a very different kind. Apples will grow on pear roots, and pears on apple, but neither will grow on peach roots. Peaches will grow on plum roots. 44. Effect of Root on Cion. By grafting or budding, a sour apple may be grown on a root that would have produced a sweet apple. Early peaches may be grown on a root that would have grown late peaches. Many argu- ments have been made as to the effect of the root on the fruit. So long as the root is closely related to the cion, it has no appreciable effect on it. Fifty varieties of apples may be grown on the same tree, yet each will come true to its kind. This is what we would expect from the functions of roots. If the root furnishes the proper amount of soluble food from the soil, the top will not be affected. If the root does not furnish enough food, the tree may die or be dwarfed. Dwarf pear trees are secured by budding them on quince roots. Dwarf apple trees are produced by budding on the roots of the Doucin or Para- dise apples, which are dwarfs. SEEDS 45. Nature of Seeds. A seed consists of a young plant, or embryo, with a supply of food either in the embryo or surrounding it, all enclosed in the seed coats. The food is formed by the parent plant, and is stored up in the seed to give the young plant a start in life. Some seeds have a small amount of stored food, while others have enough to keep the young plant growing several 48 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Coafi Fig. 28 Section of a bean- seed showing the coty- ledon, plumule and cau licle which constitute the embryo. Food stored in the cotyledons. weeks without having to prepare much food for itself. As the seedUng develops, it gradually makes more and more of its own food, until finally the stored food is no longer needed. 46. Importance of Vigorous Germina- tion. The vigor of the embryo often Hm- its the crop that is to be grown. Some kernels of corn germinate promptly and vigorously, others germinate slowly and form weak plants, others fail to germi- nate at all. Often a seed will have vigor enough to start germination, but not enough to be able to establish itself in the soil. It is not enough that a seed germinate; it should germinate vigorously. 47. Germination Tests of Seed Corn. The Iowa Ex- periment Station examined 3,300 samples of seed corn for farmers in 1905. Of this number, an average of 19 per cent of the seed was entirely dead, and 21 per cent more was so weak as to be useless, leaving only 60 per cent of good seed. In the same year, counts of the number of stalks per hill were made in over one thousand corn fields. These showed an average of 66 per cent of a stand. ^ This may have been an unfavorable season, but every year there is an enormous loss in yield of corn because of dead seed or weak seed. The kernels on an ear of corn are usually about equally iJowa Bulletin No. 77 Fig. 29. Section of a kernel of corn. Food is stored in the cotyledon and in the endosperm which sur- rounds the embryo. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 49 vigorous. Hence a test of a few kernels taken from differ- ent parts of the ear will give a fairly accurate idea of the ear. Since it takes only about a dozen ears to plant an acre, it is a very easy matter to test every ear. And, since one ear plants so large an area, it follows that a single ear that germinates poorly may decrease the yield of corn several bushels. One of the most important, as well as one of the easiest ways to increase the yield of corn is to test the vigor of every ear before planting, and use for seed only those that show a good germination test. The germination test should be made before the spring work begins. Secure a box about two by three feet and six inches deep. Fill this half full of saw-dust, sand or soil. Take a white cloth a little larger than the box and, with a lead pencil, rule into squares about one and one-half inches each way. Number each square. Lay this cloth over the sawdust or other material, and tack to the box in a few places. Put enough sawdust into a sack, so that it will fit into the box, and cover it an inch deep. Moisten the sawdust of the box and bag. Lay out the ears of corn in rows on the floor or on shelves, and number them to correspond with the squares on the cloth in the box. Remove six kernels from each ear, taking them from different places on the ear. Put the kernels from ear 1 on square 1, those from ear 2 on square 2, etc. When all the kernels are in place, lay a Fig. 31. Ears of corn laid out for germi- nation test. (After Holden) 50 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE piece of cloth over them and cover with the sack. Keep the box in a warm place and moisten it if necessary. The kernels will germinate in four to six days. Remove the cover carefully so as not to disturb the kernels, and examine. Fig. 32. Germination test of different ears of corn. Discard ears 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 15, 20 Fig. 32 shows the result of such a test. The kernels from ears 1, 11 and 20 all failed to grow. One or more of those from ears 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 12 and 15 failed. The ears from which these came are all discarded. Kernels from ear 7 all germinated, but the growth is so weak that this ear is also discarded. While making this test, the very best ears may be selected for an ear-row test. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 51 48. Seed Analysis and Valuation. Corn seed is always pure seed, but with other farm seeds there is another factor to consider, — the amount of weed seeds and dirt. This is*more important with the small seeds, such as grass and clover, than with the larger seeds, such as wheat and oats. The small seeds are more Ukely to contain weeds, the weeds are more likely to escape notice, and are harder to remove from small seeds. A sample of seed may contain: (1) Live, or viable seed. (2) Dead seed. (3) Seeds of other useful plants. (4) Broken seeds, dirt, chaff, etc. (5) Weed seeds of the kinds common in the region. (6) Noxious weed seeds, even a few of which condemn the seed. 49. Germination Tests. Lay a moist blotter or a piece of moist cotton flannel on a plate. Count out one hundred seeds, just as they come. Put them on the blotter; cover with a piece of paper, and then with another moist blotter. Lay over this a piece of glass, or cover with an inverted plate. Keep in a moderately warm place, and examine from time to time. Remove the sprouted seeds, and count them to get the per cent of germination. Several samples may be tested at one time on a plate (Fig. 33). Fig. 33. Method of testing the germination of seeds 52 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 60. Purity and Germination Test. For a more careful test; a sample is weighed. It is then separated into: (1) pure seed; (2) inert matter — dirt, broken seed, etc.; (3) weed seed. Each of these is weighed. The germinating power of the pure seed is then found. The per cent of purity multiplied by the per cent of germination gives the per cent of live or viable seed. If a sample of alfalfa seed con- tains 90 per cent of pure seed, and 90 per cent of this germinates, it contains 81 per cent of viable seed. 51. What is the Cheapest Seed. The cheapest seed is usually the most expensive. The following analyses show the extremes of low-grade, low-priced red clover seed, and high-grade, high-priced seed:^ Price per 100 pounds Weed seeds Dirt, sticks, etc Red clover seed Red clover seed that germinated Number weed seeds per pound Actual cost of 100 pounds clover seed that germinated Red Clover Seed Low Grade High Grade $5.20 25.78% 26.16% 48.06% 18.26% 139,727 $28.48 $15.00 .09% 1.08% 98.83% 95.86% 150 $15.65 The seed that could be purchased for $5.20 per hun- dred pounds was nearly twice as expensive as the seed that cost $15 per hundred, because it contained so little live seed. The low-grade seed should not have been sown at any price, because of the weed seeds. If one sowed such seed at the usual rate of sowing, he would not only fail to get a good stand of clover, but would be sowing weeds. 1 Farmers' Bulletin No. 260 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 53 If one sample of seed contains 90 per cent of live seed and costs $9, and another sample contains 80 per cent of viable seed and costs $8, they would appear to be equally cheap. But the former sample is to be preferred, because, if a sample germinates poorly, we may expect Fig. 34. Poor clover seed contain- ing many weeds Fig. 35. Good pure clover seed that the same causes that killed many of the seeds weak- ened all the others. There is one case in which the cheaper seed might be best, and that is, if the other contained seed of some very serious weed that was not present in the cheaper kind. 52. Size and Weight of Seeds. Many experiments have been tried with large and small seeds, and with seeds of high and low specific gravity. In the majority of trials, the larger and heavier seeds have proved best. Usually the small seeds are lighter for their size, or have a less specific gravity, than the large seeds. Heavy cotton seed separated by an air-blast was grown in comparison with unseparated seed at Lamar and Harts- ville, S. C, in 1906.^ At each place, equal areas of about an acre were planted with each kind of seed. The average yields of cotton were: Heavy seed 1,106 pounds Unseparated seed 1,010 pounds I Farmers' Bulletin No. 285 54 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE At the Nebraska station, where equal weights of wheat were used for eight years, the Ught seeds gave practically the same yield as the heavy. Similar results were obtained in Ohio and Kansas. An ordinary fanning-mill is of use in removing weed seeds, and to some extent in removing the lightest seeds. It does not usually remove the moderately Ught ones. Probably the removal of the weed seeds is the most valu- able result. 53. Seed Testing Is Plant Selection. All seed selection, whether it be for germination or size and weight of seeds, is really plant selection. The seed is a plant. Its size and the vigor of its germination are some of the first evidences of its individual characteristics. Seed selection is one step in plant-breeding. 54. Storage of Seed. We must always remember that seeds are alive. It is true that they are dormant, and can stand some adverse conditions, but they are not immune from injury. One of the chief causes for the poor germi- nation of Kentucky blue grass seed is the heating during the curing process. Any seed that smells musty needs to be tested before being accepted. Seed corn is not hurt by freezing when it is very dry, but in many parts of the United States it will absorb enough water from the atmosphere so that freezing will damage it. Except in dry regions, the seed corn should be stored in a warm room. A good method of storing is to tie up with binder twine (Fig. 36) and hang in the attic. If there is danger of a frost before the corn is thor- oughly dry in the fall, the seed corn should be husked and hung up in a dry room before freezing weather. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 55 Light frosts will not hurt it while it is on the stalks. Seed corn should never freeze when moist. 55. Importation of Low-Grade Seed. The United States exports large quantities of clover seed, and imports smaller quantities of low-grade seed. One reason for this is that Canada and most of the European countries have laws Fig. 36. Method of drying seed corn. (After Holden.) for seed inspection. Screenings, very weedy seed, or seed of low vitality cannot be sold, but can be exported from those countries. We shall probably have laws for seed inspection in this country in the future. In the mean- time, every farmer will have to examine his own seed, or send it to the State Experiment Station for examina- tion. QUESTIONS 1. Make a list of all the important farm plants of your region and tell how each is propagated. 2. Do you know of any fruit trees that bear two kinds of fruit? 3. Give the life history of the apple tree from the time the seed ia planted until the tree is set in the orchard. 56 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 4. What time of year is it easiest to make willow whistles? Why? 5. What becomes of a nail that is driven into a tree? Why? 6. Do farmers in your region grow their own fruit trees? Grape- vines? Currant bushes? Would it pay them to do so? 7. What seeds are shipped out of your region for seed purpose? 8. What seeds are shipped into the region? 9. What bad weeds in your region have come with the seed? 10. How do the farmers of the region store their seed corn? 11. Is there any trouble in getting a good stand of corn? Was the stand good this year? Count the stalks in a short row and determine the per cent of a stand. 12. Which grow most rapidly at first, plants from large seeds like beans or those from small seeds like radishes? 13. Does the fanning-mill or air-blast separate seeds on the basis of weight or of specific gravity? 14. How long do some of the more important seeds of your section retain their vitality? (See Appendix, Table 4.) 15. What are the legal weights per bushel of a few of the more important products in your section? (See Appendix, Table 5.) LABORATORY EXERCISES 11. Spores. Materials. — Compound microscope, corn smut, oat smut or spores of any other kind. Examine the spores (X500). Make drawings of them. How do they produce new plants? 12. Relation of Habit of Growth of a Grass to its Value for Hay or Pasture. Field Trip. — What are the best pasture grasses in the region? Examine them to see whether they are strongly stoloniferous. The stolon always arises from within the leaf sheath; if it remains there, its growth is intravaginal. If it breaks through the leaf sheath, it is called extravaginal. Which way do the stolons of these pasture grasses develop? What are the best hay grasses of the region? Examine them in the same manner. 13. To Make Grafting-wax and Waxed String. Materials. — One pound resin, one-h&lf pound beeswax, one-fourth pound tallow, one ball of No. 18 knitting cotton. Larger or smaller amounts for classes above or below ten. LABORATORY EXERCISES 57 Pulverize the resin; melt all the materials together. Drop the ball of cotton into the melted wax. Remove in about five minutes, and you will have w-axed string ready for making root grafts. Pour the wax into cold water. Grease the hands and pull and work the wax until it becomes of a straw color. 14. Cambium Layer. Materials. — Twigs several years old taken from any tree. Make a drawing of a cross-section of the twig, and indicate: (1) The pith; (2) annual rings; (3) cambium layer; (4) bark. The cambium layer is the layer between the wood and the bark. It is this layer that breaks apart when the bark is removed. Why is the bark more easily removed in summer than in winter? How old is the twig? Why is there a ring at the close of each year's growth? Is the wood in the inner or the outer part of the ring the harder? 15. To Make a Root Graft. Materials. — Waxed string prepared in No. 13. Seedling apple trees one or two years old. Smooth, one-year-old twigs from apple trees of the desired variety. Let each student make about twenty-five or more root grafts ac- cording to directions (page 45). These may be taken home to be planted. They should be packed in sand and kept moist and cool until spring. The school can raise its own seedling apples, peaches, etc., or may get students to raise them. 16. To Bud a Tree. Materials. — Raffia, knives, growing trees. If possible, have impor- tant trees of the region. Cut the buds as shown in Fig. 21. Make the T-shaped cut through the bark of the tree. Lift the bark carefully and insert the bud. Tie firmly with raffia. 17. To Top-graft a Tree. Materials. — Saw, knife, chisel, hammer, grafting wax, apple trees or other trees. Perform the operation as directed (page 46). If possible, this should be done on a tree; but limbs of trees may be used in the labora- tory to teach the method if outdoor work cannot be given. 18. To Make Hard Wood Cuttings. Materials. — Stems of grapes, currants, willows, or other woody plants of the region. 58 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Make the cuttings as described (page 42). Each student should make a number of useful ones to be planted at home. 19. The Bean Embryo. Materials. — Beans soaked for a day, enough to supply each student with several. Make a drawing of the split bean showing the cotyledons, plumule and radicle. Indicate each part. How many parts are there to a bean seed? What is the function of each part? Which parts make up the embryo? In what part is the food stored? What parts come above ground when the bean grows? Is the plant monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous? 20. The Kernel of Corn. Materials. — Com soaked for a day in cold water, or for twenty minutes in hot water. Cut the tip from a kernel of corn and make a drawing of the cross section. Indicate the endosperm, cotyledons or scutellum, plumule (or radicle if cut very close to the top). Split a kernel of corn the narrow way and one the broad way. Make drawings of each and indicate the parts. Is the food stored in the embryo, as in the case of the bean? WTiat parts come above ground when the corn grows? Is the corn monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous? 21. Germination Test of Corn. Materials. — Germination box and fifty or more ears of corn. Make the test as described (page 49). Compare the appearance of ears that germinated well and that germinated poorly. Are there any ways of distinguishing them? Make cross-sections of kernels from each class. Compare the appearance of the embryos, or "chits." The more vigorous kernels usually have a bright, "cheerful" appearance, are plump and full at the tips, and have a large cream-colored germ. See how well you can determine the germination in advance by these characters. 22. Analysis of Clover Seed. Materials. — Balances weighing to centigrams or milligrams, and hand-lenses. Two samples of clover seed with the prices. Alfalfa, timothy or other small seeds may be used, Weigh out a one-gram sample of the seed. Separate it into: (1) pure seed; (2) inert matter, broken seed, dirt, etc.; (3) weed seeds. Weigh each. Make a germination test of the pure seeds as COLLATERAL READING 59 directed (page 51). Repeat for the second sample. Record the results in the note-book as follows: Second Sample 1 gram Weight of sample Weight of pure seed Weight of inert matter Weight of weed seed Per cent of purity Per cent of germination Per cent of pure viable seed .... Price per pound Cost per pound of pure viable seed If the school has a set of weed seeds, identify the kinds present and the number of seeds of each kind. Which sample of seed would it be best to purchase? Why? 23. Storage of Seed Corn. Collect a hundred ears of corn in the fall before it has been frozen. Store fifty in a dry moderately warm room. Leave the others in a corn- crib. Next spring make a germination test of each sample. COLLATERAL READING Seed of Red Clover and Its Impurities. Farmers' Bulletin No. 260. The Production of Good Seed Corn. Farmers' Bulletin No. 229, pp. 17-20. The Farmer's Interest in Good Seed. Farmers' Bulletin No. 111. Alfalfa Seed. Farmers' Bulletin No. 194. The Advantages of Planting Heavy Cotton Seed. Farmers' Bul- letin No. 286. Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agri- culture, Bulletin No. 186. The School Garden. Farmers' Bulletin No. 218. Forage and Fiber Crops in America. Pp. 15-23. Cereals in America. Pp. 197-201. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. Vol. I, pp. 131-152. CHAPTER IV PLANT FOOD "I dropped a seed into the earth. It grew, and the plant was mine. It was a wonderful thing, this plant of mine. I did not know its name, and the plant did not bloom. All I know is that I planted something apparently as lifeless as a grain of sand and that there came forth a green and living thing, unlike the seed, unlike the soil in which it stood, unlike the air into which it grew. No one could tell me why it grew, nor how. It had secrets all its own, secrets that baffle the wisest men; yet this plant was my friend. It faded when I withheld the light, it withered when I neglected to give it water, it flourished when I sup- plied its simple needs. One week I went away on a vacation, and when I returned the plant was dead; and I missed it."l 56. Elements Required for Plant and Animal Growth.^ Of the seventy different chemical elements, only thirteen are usually found in plants and animals. These elements are: Oxygen Calcium Hydrogen Magnesium Nitrogen • Iron Carbon Chlorin Sulfur Sodium Phosphorus Silicon Potassium Only the first ten of these are considered necessary for plant growth, but the last three are always found in plants, and may serve some useful purpose. Manganese and one or two other elements occur, but are not essential. iL. H. Bailey. Junior Naturalist Monthly. February, 1903. 2If the class has not studied chemistry, a few elementary lessons on this subject should precede this chapter, see manual. (60) PLANT FOOD ' 61 Since all animals live on plants, either directly or in- directly, they are composed of these same elements. The salt and water that an animal uses only adds to the amount of sodium, chlorin, hydrogen, and oxygen that the plants furnish. If any one of the first ten elements is lacking, the plant will die. Of some, very small quantities are required, but this small amount is necessary. Many experiments have been performed to test this. Plants have been grown in distilled water to which all these elements but one have been added. Fig. 51 shows such a wheat plant which had all the elements of plant food except nitrogen. The same results are obtained when any nine are fur- nished, but the tenth omitted. The carbon is furnished by the air, so that is not put into the water. The legumes are also able to take nitrogen from the air under certain conditions. 57. Sources of Plant Food. For a long time no one knew where the plant got its food. Some argued that its food came from the air, and others thought it came from the soil. Only within the last fifty years has the question been entirely answered. We now know that a plant secures its food from both the soil and the air, — the larger part coming from the air. Oxygen and hydrogen, chemically united in the form of water, are taken up by the roots from the soil, but all water comes indirectly from the air. The carbon is obtained from the air by the leaves in the form of carbon dioxid. The nitrogen comes from the soil, except in the case of legumes, which are able to take nitrogen from both 62 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE the air and the soil (page 116). However, the ultimate source of all nitrogen is from the air. The nitrogen of the soil was obtained from the air (page 116). 58. Water, Dry Matter and Ash. If a plant is heated for some time at a temperature a little above boiling, the water is driven off. By weighing before and after drying, the percentages of water and of dry matter are determined. When the dry matter is heated very hot, a part of it burns and leaves ash. The ash contains all the potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, phosphorus, chlorin, sodium and silicon of the plant, and some of the sulfur. The ash, therefore, contains all the material that came from the soil, except part of the sulfur, and the nitrogen. 59. Relative Amounts of the Different Elements in Plants. Oxygen and hydrogen, chemi- cally united in the form of water, make up the largest part of all growing plants. Turnips, beets and pumpkins are about nine-tenths water. They contain a larger percentage of water than does milk. The per- centage of water is much less in hay or grain, but few plant products contain less than 10 per cent of water, even when air-dry. .Hydrogen and oxygen are also contained in other compounds of the plant. In these compounds they make up about 40 per cent of the dry matter. Carbon is next in importance. About half of the dry matter is carbon. Fig. 37. Composition of the potato: 1, Water; 2, compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, chiefly starch; 3, nitrogen; 4, all other elements PLANT FOOD 68 Nitrogen sometimes makes as high as 4 per cent of the dry matter. No other element occurs in nearly so large an amount, and the amount of most of them is very small indeed. It may not require over a pound of iron to grow an acre of hay, but this iron is absolutely necessary. How small a part of the plant's substance is obtained from the soil is shown by the following table. Only one pound in a hundred of turnips comes from the solid matter of the soil, and a little over 3 per cent of the grain of corn: Proportions of Different Elements in Plants Timothy Hay Water (hydrogen and oxygen) Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in compounds Nitrogen All other elements Corn Grain Green Com Fodder Turnips Per cent 10.6 86.1 1.6 1.7 Per cent 79.3 19.2 0.3 1.2 Per cent 90.5 8.5 0.2 0.8 Per cent 13.2 81.4 0.9 4.5 60. Elements Likely to Be Deficient in Soils. Since ten elements are absolutely necessary for plant growth, if any one of these does not occur in sufficient quantities, the crop will suffer. Hydrogen and oxygen (in the form of water), nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sometimes calcium, are not always available in sufficient quantities for the production of good crops. The other elements are practically always present in abundance. Water is most frequently the factor that limits the size of the crop. It is increased or conserved by irrigation, tillage and other farm operations. 61. Functions of the Different Elements. Some text- books of botany mention iron as the element necessary 64 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE for formation of chlorophyll, but it is no more necessary than phosphorus and magnesium, and probably all the other elements have to do with it either directly or indirectly. A farmer interprets a light green color as indicating a lack of nitrogen, — not of iron. Plants that have an abun- dance of manure, or nitrogenous fertilizers, are dark green, while those that do not have enough nitrogen are light green. An abundance of nitrogen promotes growth and leafiness in plants. Too much nitrogen makes oats gro\^ so rapidly that they are likely to fall down, hence, manure or nitrogen, in fertilizers, is not often applied on oats. A shortage of phos- phorus and potassium is more likely to show in poorly filled seeds than in lack of vigor of growth. But we cannot sep- arate out one particular element and say that it has one specific function and that one only. HOW THE PLANT GETS ITS FOOD * 62. Root-Hairs. Germinate some oats or clover seed as directed on page 51. Examine the young roots for root-hairs. The root is fairly covered with these minute hairs, as in Fig. 38. These hairs are not young roots. They are single- celled tubes that absorb the soil solution. Remove one of these seedlings, and see how easily these root-hairs are destroyed when handled. It would, of course, be very difficult to remove a plant Fig. 38. Root - hairs of a radish . These absorb most of the water for the plant. PLANT FOOD 65 from the soil without destroying them. The roots take some part in absorbing the soil solution, but the root- hairs do most of this work. 63. Osmosis. Tie a piece of parchment or a piece of bladder over the end of a thistle tube. Fill this with a strong solution of salt. Invert in water so that the height of the water and the solution are the same. Allow this to stand for some time and observe the result. The height of the water in the tube rises above that outside the tube. This shows that the water has passed through the membrane more rapidly than the salt solution. The water passes through the membrane more readily than the denser solution. Pare a potato and cut slices from it. Place some of these in water and some in a strong solution of salt. Examine in about an hour. The pieces in water will be found very plump and rigid. This shows that water passes into the potato faster than the sap passes out of it. The pieces in the salt solution will be flexible or wilted. This shows that the concentrated salt solution did not pass into the potato cells so fast as the cell sap was lost. The potato "wilts" when immersed in salt solution. The process of the interchange of fluids, either liquids or gases, through a membrane is called osmosis. Whenever a plant or animal membrane separates two solutions, there is an interchansre of the two. The less dense the solution, Fig. 39. Apparatus ready for osmosis experiment to show how root -hairs take in soil-water. 66 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE the more rapidly the water passes through the membrane. The solutions in the root-hairs are more dense than the soil solutions, hence more water passes into the root than passes out into the soil. If extremely strong fertilizer is used, the soil solution may be so concentrated as to. cause more water to leave the root than enters it. In this case, the plant will wilt and may be killed. An excess of any plant food in solution may thus kill plants. The alkali soils of arid regions often contain so much soluble material as to prevent the growth of plants. Some of the cell sap does pass from the roots to the soil. This cell-sap is slightly acid, so it helps to make more of the material in the soil soluble. The acidity of a root may be easily shown by pressing the root of a sprouting seed against blue litmus paper. If a plant w^ere a dead thing, the solution in the cells would eventually become of the same density as the soil solution, so that the moisture would pass out of the roots as rapidly as it passed into them. But the plant cells are alive. The leaves are constantly using such of the materials in the cell-sap as are needed for the manufacture of plant tissues. They remove the surplus water by transpiration. The transpiration keeps the cell-sap of the leaves and upper parts of the plant densest, so that the balance of osmotic movement is always upward. The plant foods are not taken up as elements, but in compounds. Nitrogen constitutes four-fifths of the at- mosphere, but it is in the form of an element. No plant can take up nitrogen except when it is combined with other elements. It is taken up in soil solutions in the form of nitrates. No solid particles can be taken up by PLANT FOOD 67 the roots. Only soluble materials can pass through mem- branes by osmosis. 64. Importance of Water. Water not only constitutes about nine-tenths of the growing plant, but it acts as the carrier of all the other food materials except the carbon. The enormous amount of water that passes through a plant in bringing the food from the soil was determined in Wisconsin by King, and is shown in the following table: Amount of Water Lost by Transpiration and Evaporation fo« Each Ton of Dry Matter in the Crop Corn 310 tons, equal to 2.64 inches rainfall Red clover 453 tons, equal to 4.03 inches rainfall Barley 393 tons, equal to 3.43 inches rainfall Oats 522 tons, equal to 4.76 inches rainfall Potatoes 423 tons, equal to 3.73 inches rainfall In producing a ton of clover hay, which is 85 per cent dry matter, 385 tons of water are lost by transpiration and evaporation. It will be seen that oats require more water than any other crop, a fact that is observed by farmers. 65. How the Plant Gets Its Food from the Air. Over half the dry matter of a plant is carbon. The small amount of carbon di- FiG. 40. Section of a leaf showing the breathing pores and intercellular spaces. The small dots are chlorophyll grains. oxid in the air, about three parts in ten thousand, fur- nishes all the carbon. With the air, the carbon dioxid passes into the intercellular spaces through the breathing pores, stomata, of the leaves. (Fig. 40.) When it is in 68 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE the intercellular spaces, it is still outside the cells where the food is manufactured. It passes through the cell- walls by osmosis. Within the leaf cells the carbon is re- moved and united with the nutrients brought up by the roots to form starch and other plant foods. The surplus oxygen passes back into the intercellular spaces by osmosis, and thence through the breathing pores to the air. THE MANUFACTURE OF FOOD MATERIALS 66. Carbohydrates. The most abundant food material that is built up by the plant is starch. This is a compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (CgH^QO^). Starch is formed only in sunlight, and then only by green plants. The chlorophyll plays an important part in its manufacture. Starch is insoluble, and hence cannot move through the cell walls. But the plant can readily change it to sugar and other soluble substances, so that it can be transferred. It can then be reconverted into starch. These changes are independent of light. The starch formed in potato leaves can be changed to sugar, transferred to the tubers below ground, and there reconverted into starch. When these tubers sprout the next year, the starch is again changed to soluble compounds. All these compounds are carbo- hydrates. Chemically, they are distinguished from other compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, in that they contain the hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the proportion of two to one, — that is the proportion of water (HgO). This is why they are called hydrates. Some of the other important foods that plants form are fats and protein. 67. Fats. The fats differ from starch and sugar iu hav- PLANT FOOD 69 ing a higher percentage of carbon. They are more con- centrated than starch. When burned, one pound of fat produces about two and one-fourth times as much heat as is produced by a pound of starch or sugar. One pound of fat is equal to about two and one-fourth pounds of starch or sugar as a food for plants or animals. 68. Protein is a term used to cover a large number of different compound?. They all contain nitrogen. They may be more properly called nitrogenous compounds. They are chiefly composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Most of them contain phosphorus, sulfur and other elements. 69. Plants the Only Source of These Foods. None of these compounds can be made in any way except by plants. A chemist cannot get the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen to unite, so as to form starch. Therefore, all animal life depends on plant life. 70. Stored Food. The food that is stored in a plant is nearly always in insoluble compounds, such as starch, oils, insoluble forms of protein. In this form it is less easily damaged. 71. Periods in the Life of a Plant. There are two rather distinct periods in the life of a plant: (1) The period of growth and formation of food; (2) the period of repro- duction. These stages are very marked in some plants, as turnips, that grow and store up food during one season, and that transfer the food to the seeds during the next season, and then die. With trees the stages are less marked. It is a well- known fact among fruit-growers that a good growth for 70 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE the formation and development of buds is necessary for a crop the following year. We grow much of the apple crop the year before we pick it. Food is stored in the twigs, so that the blossoms and fruit can have an avail- able supply for growth in the following season. One of the sure ways to kill any weed is to keep it cut off, so that it cannot have green leaves for starch forma- tion. It will eventually exhaust the stored food in the roots and starve to death. The asparagus crop is grown from food that was stored in the roots the preceding year. Many growers of aspara- gus fertilize the crop in the spring, thinking that it helps that year's crop. But, since the plant is not allowed to produce enough green top to prepare food, the fertihzer can bring no good results the year that it is applied. Field experiments have verified this conclusion. An asparagus bed was divided into two plots of one-half acre each. One-half was fertilized in the early spring and one-half was not. The fertilized area yielded 460 pounds, and the unfertilized 448.^ But, when the crop of the following year was measured, the fertilizer showed a marked result. The time to fertilize the asparagus crop is when cutting ceases, unless some material is used that needs time to decay. The crop is grown and stored in the roots the year before we harvest it. Many plants are killed or seriously weakened by the formation of seed. Rye is sometimes pastured during the first summer, and allowed to go to seed during the second year. But, if allowed to form seed the first year, it dies as the seed ripens. Red clover is much weakened by form- iDelaware Report 1902, p. 90. PLANT FOOD 71 ing seed. The stand of clover is much better maintained if the crop is cut for hay before the seed has ripened, unless the stand is kept up by the growth of new plants from seed that scatters in the field. 72. Effect of the Time of Harvesting on Composition. Annual plants take up nearly all their nitrogen and min- eral matter in their early stages of growth. But the starch and other organic compounds are more largely accumu- lated in the later stages. This is one reason why plants require so much available food in the soil during the early stages of growth. (See Fig. 90.) When spring wheat is half grown, it contains about 85 per cent of the total nitrogen that is required for the crop, and 75 per cent of the total mineral matter, but it con- tains only 40 per cent of the organic compounds. When clover is in full bloom, it contains as much dry matter as when ripe, and more nitrogen and mineral ele- ments. Slight amounts of these are returned to the soil in the later stages.^ Any condition that checks the growth of plants before maturity will, therefore, affect the composition of the crop. If dry weather or a lack of food supply check the growth of wheat, it will have a higher percentage of nitrogen and a lower percentage of starch than if it matured naturally. QUESTIONS 1. Why is the soil about a tree lifted? 2. How many tons of com, grain and stalks, is an average crop per acre in your community? Assuming the Wisconsin figures to apply, how many tons of water would be evaporated from the com leaves on an acre? iH. Snyder, Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life. Chapter 26. 72 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 3. Account for the sweet taste of germinating corn. 4. What difference in composition would you expect to find between wheat of the semi-arid regions and of the humid regions? Why? 6. Which most frequently limits the size of the crop in your com- munity, water or one of the other plant foods? 7. Which would be better for feed, the straw of oats cut when somewhat green or when ripe? Why? 8. Following a dew, a wilted plant often "freshens." Why? 9. Why should orchards be well cared for in the years when no crops are borne? 10. What allowance is made for water in buying ear corn in the early winter? 11. Why do stored potatoes shrink so much more than grain? 12. Explain the comparative effect of plants and animals on the amount of carbon dioxid in the air. 13. Of two seeds the same size, one an oily seed and one a starchy seed, which would probably grow more rapidly? Why? LABORATORY EXERCISES 24. The Percentages of Water, Dry Matter and Ash in Plants. Materials. — Balances weighing to centigrams, crucible or other small dish that will stand heating, corn grain, potatoes, some growing plant. Place each one in a weighed dish, heat a little above the boiling temperature for one hour or more. If the school has a drying oven, run it at 110° C. Weigh again, then bum by heating very hot and* weigh. Record the results as follows: Weight of dish , Weight of dish and specimen Weight of specimens Weight of dried specimens. . Per cent of water Per cent of dry matter .... Weight of dish and ash .... Weight of ash Per cent of ash LABORATORY EXERCISES 73 26. Osmosis. Materials. — Potato, thistle tube, parchment paper, bladder, salt. Perform the experiment described on page 65. 26. Root-Hairs. Materials. — Compound microscope, roots of oats, clover or other seeds germinated between blotters. (Page 64.) Examine the root-hairs and make drawings of them. How many celled are they? How do they differ from roots? 27. Stored Food in Twigs. During the winter collect some branches of trees two or three feet long. Place them in water, change the water occasionally. Note how much growth takes place. Where did the food material come from? What relation has this to orchard management? 28. Tests for Proteids. Materials. — Nitric acid, ammonia, seeds. All proteids (and a few other substances) are turned yellow by nitric acid. This is why one's fingers are made yellow when working with nitric acid in the laboratory. This yellow color becomes deeper when moistened with ammonia. Cut several cross sections of corn, beans and other seeds. Make the protein tests. Which part of the kernel of corn contains the most protein? Do beans or corn appear to contain the larger amount? 29. Tests for Starch. Materials. — lodin solution, seeds. Test corn, beans and other seeds for starch. Which part of the kernel of com contains most starch? 30. Microscopic Examination of Starch. Materials. — Compound microscope, iodin solution, corn, potatoes, etc. Examine sections of com and potatoes. (X about 500.) Make drawings of the starch grains. Compare the shapes and sizes from different plants. Notice how the grains are arranged in the cells. Add a drop ot iodin solution to the different slides and note the effect. 74 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 31. Starch in Leaves at Different Times. Collect leaves of plants in early spring and in late fall, preserve in alcohol. Also collect leaves at daybreak and in the afternoon, and preserve. Test each for starch. Explain the results. COLLATERAL READING Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life, by Harry Snyder. Physics of Agriculture, by F. H. King. Fertilizers, by E. B. Voorhees. Elementary Exercises in Agriculture. Office of Experiment Sta tions. Bulletin No. 186, pp. 17-26. A Secondary Course in Agronomy. Office of Experiment Stations, Circular No. 77, pp. 25-26. CHAPTER V THE SOIL "Fill a flower-pot with soft, dark earth and mold from the border of the wood, and carry it to the student of entomology and see if he can name one-half of the living forms of this little kingdom of life; or hand it to the botanist, well trained in the lower orders of plants, and see how many of the living forms which these few handfuls of dirt contain he can classify. Present this miniature farm to the chemist and the physicist, and let them puzzle over it. Call in the farmer, and ask him what plants will thrive best in it; or keep the soil warm and moist for a time, and have the gardener say of the tiny plants that appear as by magic, which are good and which are bad. Mark what all these experts have said, and call in the orchardist to tell you how to change dead, lifeless, despised earth into fruit; ask the physiologist to explain how sodden earth is transformed into nerve and brain." ^ 73. What Soil Is. Many persons look upon soil as ''dirt" — something to be avoided. It is almost invariably thought of as a dead thing; but it is teeming with life, and is full of activities of the most complex and interesting kinds. The almost universal idea of soil is that it is a collec- tion of small particles of rock that have been made fine by the process of weathering. Many books give this as the origin of soil. No crop could grow on a soil composed entirely of rock particles. An agricultural soil is made up of: (1) Small rock particles. (2) Soil water. (3) Soil air. iRoberts' "The Fertility of the Land," p. 1. (75) 76 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE (4) Decaying organic matter.-^ (5) Living organisms. There are very few soils that are capable of producing crops that do not have all these constituents. About the only exception is the class of soils that do not contain rock fragments. Muck contains little such material. Nearly all of its solid matter is made up of organic material. It is one of the most valuable soils for growing celery^ onions, and some other crops. A soil that is very deficient in water, air, living organ- isms, or decaying organic matter, will not produce good crops. ROCK PARTICLES 74. Amounts of Mineral Matter. The rock particles in most soils make up 65 to 95 per cent of the weight. The organic matter usually constitutes 2 to 5 per cent. Most of the remaining weight is water. The mineral matter furnishes the solid food. It also acts as a reservoir for holding the water. In the study of geography, we have learned how the particles of rock have become so small. The size of the particles has very much to do with the value of the land. 75. How the Size of Particles is Determined. If a soil is thoroughly shaken up with water and then allowed to settle a few minutes, the larger particles will be sepa- rated out. The rily water can be poured off and allowed to settle for a longer period, when the next larger particles will have settled to the bottom. If the rily water is again 'Organic matter is any material that is, or once was, an organism, or living thing, such as coal, wood, sugar, straw, manure, etc. THE SOIL 77 Fine travel •3% Coarse Medium Fine Band sand sand 3.3 % 4.3 % 37.8 % 21.5 % Fig. 41. Composition of a fine sandy loam poured off, we shall have the soil separated into three sizes of particles. Any number of divisions can be made in this manner.^ The finest soil particles are called clay, the next small- est silt. The larger particles are different grades of sand and gravel. The following table shows the mechanical analyses of three important soil types as separated by the Bureau of Soils: ■•^The common method of making the separation is to put the samples of soil in bottles of water, and shake for a day in a shaking machine. This separates the particles that are stuck together, A centrifugal machine is used to aid in making the separations, as it is more rapid than waiting for the particles to settle. The material is usually separated into three grades by means of water. The sands are further separated by means of sieves. Coarse Medium Fine Very fine Silt sand sand sand sand 58.2% 0.3% 0.4% 1.5% 3.1% Fig. 42. Composition of a clay loam 78 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Mechanical Analyses of Three Important Soil Types ^ Diameter of Particles Norfolk Sand Miami Silt Loam Wabash Clay Soil Subsoil Soil Subsoil Soil Subsoil 1 Fine gravel . . . Coarse sand . . . Medium sand. . Fine sand Very fine sand.. Silt mm. 2-1 1-0.5 0.5-0.25 0.25-0.10 0.10-0.05 0.05-0.005 0.005-0 % 3 15 22 38 10 8 4 % 3 16 21 37 9 8 5 % 0 1 1 2 8 73 15 % 0 71 19 % 0 1 1 3 7 49 37 % 0 0 1 3 18 48 Clay 40 The Norfolk sand is one of the leading truck soils of the Atlantic coast. A large part of the vegetables for eastern cities are grown on this soil. The Miami silt loam is one of the leading types of soil in the ''corn belt" of the Central West. The Wabash clay occurs along many of the river bottoms. It is used for corn, oats, cotton, and ha5^ Compare the analyses of these three soils and the crops grown. 76. How Soils Are Named. The soils that contain a large proportion of the finest particles are called clay. At the other extreme we have sands and gravels. Soils that are intermediate in texture are called loams. Those with a large proportion of silt particles, and not too much clay, are called silt-loams. These words are joined to de- scribe intermediate types. There are gravelly loams, sandy loams, fine sandy loams, clay loams, etc. Since many soils as thus named are very different in other respects, the Bureau of Soils prefixes another name to iSoil Survey Field Book, 1906. Bureau of Soils. THE SOIL 79 distinguish them. These names are usually names of towns near which the soils are first mapped.^ The local names used in any community are often misleading. In a region where nearly all the soils are sandy, a loam soil is usually called a clay; while, in regions where most of the soils are heavy clays, the same loam is likely to be called sandy. Soils are also named in many other ways. Glacial soils are those that were formed as a result of glcxciation, or the passage of the great ice sheet that once covered part of America. They occur in northern and eastern United States. Arid soils are those that do not receive a sufficient amount of rainfall to produce regular crops without irri- gation. They occur in the western half of the United States. Humid soils are those that receive sufficient rainfall to produce crops. 77. Importance of the Size of Soil Particles. The size of the soil particles influences the water-holding power of the soil, the amount of food that can be dissolved for plant use, the ease of movement of air and water, the growth of organisms in the soil, and the crop-producing power. 78. Relation of Size of Particles to Water. The rock particles of the soil can hold water on their surfaces only, hence the water-holding power of the soil increases when the surface area of the particles is increased. Dip a pebble in water and a film of water will remam on it when it is removed. Wipe the pebble and the water will be gone, because no water has soaked into it. If such ^Soil maps are based largely on the size of the particles, but origin, topography, agricultural value, and other factors, are considered. 80 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE a pebble is broken in two, it will have more surface area. It can now hold more water. The finer the material is broken, the more surface there will be, and the more water it will hold. The finest soil particles are extremely small — less than four hundred-thousandths of an inch in diameter. The total surface area in a cubic foot of such material would be very great. Such fine particles do not always act as individ- uals in holding water, some of the particles usually stick together. A cubic foot of soil grains having a diameter of one -thousandth of an inch (coarse silt) would have a surface area of 37,700 square feet. Four feet in depth of such a soil would have a water-holding surface of not less than 3.4 acres for each column of soil with one square foot of surface area.^ The water capacity of a soil is the amount of water that it will hold when all the free water is allowed to drain out. Some clay soils will retain about 40 per cent of water, that is, 100 pounds of soil may retain 40 pounds of water. A cubic foot of clay weighs about 80 pounds and could, therefore, hold about 32 pounds of water. Sandy soils may have a water capacity as low as 5 per cent. Plants cannot remove all the water from a soil. They die for lack of water long before the soil is absolutely dry. They can use a larger proportion of the water from a sandy soil than from a clay. King found that in a sandy soil whose water capacity was 18 per cent, corn was able to reduce the water to 4.17 per cent. In a clay soil whose capacity was 26 per cent, it succeeded in using the water iKing, The Soil, p. 73. THE SOIL 81 ddwn to 11.79 per cent.^ In this case, the sandy soil had actually been able to furnish more water for the growth of corn than had the clay. 79. Relation of Size of Particles to Plant Food. The rock particles are very slowly soluble. Soil water can act on the surface of the particles only. Since smaller par- ticles have more surface for a given volume of soil, they are able to furnish plant food more rapidly. The finer soils are usually more fertile, but are less easily managed. 80. Relation of the Size of Soil Particles to Air. About half the volume of a dry soil is air; that is, a cubic foot of such soil contains about half a cubic foot of air. The small particles of which a clay is composed do not pack so closely as do the larger sand particles, because they are lighter. Therefore, there is more pore space in clay than in sand. But the spaces in a sandy soil are larger, so that the air moves more freely; hence, such a soil is better aerated. 81. Size of Particles in Relation to Temperature. The temperature of the soil is influenced by its color, topog- raphy, humus content, and by several other factors But the chief factor is the water capacity. It requires about 20 heat units to raise the tempera- ture of 100 pounds of dry soil 1° Fahr. To raise the tem- perature of the same weight of water 1° Fahr. requires 100 heat units. But the effect of water is most striking when it evaporates. To evaporate 100 pounds of water requires 966.6 heat units. This explains why wet soils are always cold soils. Clay soils are cold chiefly because of the large amount of water that evaporates from them. iKing, TheSoil, p. 161. F 82 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE King took the temperature of a well-drained, sandy loiam and of a black marsh soil on five successive days, and found the sandy soil to average 7.5° Fahr. warmer, — a difference sufficient to have a very decided effect on crops. It is easy to see why gardeners desire a sandy soil for early truck crops. Few crops begin growth until the soil has a temperature of 45° to 50° Fahr. The best growth does not usually take place until the temperature is about 70° Fahr. Different crops differ much in the heat required. Some, like grasses, oats, onions, peas, will grow before the soil is warm enough for corn, beans, cucumbers, etc. 82. Size of Soil Particles and Crop Adaptation. The size of soil particles affects all the soil activities, and con- sequently must affect the crops that grow on the soils. Timothy will thrive on a heavy, clay soil on which apples, corn, and potatoes will give very poor returns. The sandy soils that are best for market-garden crops will raise very little timothy or wheat. Whitney states that a gram of soil contains two to twenty billion soil particles. He gives the following as the number of soil particles per gram of soils adapted to different crops: * Early truck 1,955,000,000 Truck and small fruit 3,955,000,000 Tobacco 6,786,000,000 Wheat 10,228.000,000 Grass and wheat 14,735,000,000 No person can comprehend such figures as these, but the comparison is the valuable point. The table shows how much coarser the truck soils are than the wheat soils. (See, also, page 78.) 83. Relation of Labor and Soil. Even if the clay soils would produce good truck crops, they would not be de- THE SOIL 83 sirable for truck-growers, because they are so difficult to work. For any crop that requires so much labor, one should have a soil that is easy to work. Sandy soils and other well-drained soils are not only easier to till, but the number of days on which they can be worked is much greater. Such soils can be tilled early in the spring and can be tilled quickly after rains. If one has a clay soil, he must spend much more time waiting for it to dry out. Hence, he cannot farm so large an area. For many kinds of farming, the ease with which soil may be tilled is of more importance than its fertility. 84. The Best Soils. The great advantages of clay soils are that they usually retain their fertility well, and will produce good grass. For general farm purposes, the medium- textured soils, sandy loams, loams and silt loams, are to be preferred. They are fairly easy to work and are adapted to a wide range of crops. For per- manent pastures and meadows, the clay soils are usually preferable. 85. Flocculation. When a silt or clay soil is. in good condition, many of the particles are united into compound par- ticles. Such a soil is flocculated. Good management of such a soil consists very largely in maintaining this Fig. 43. A clay loam soil as it appeared in the spring after having been worked too fine in the fall. Same soil as Fig. 42. 84 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE granulated condition. If such a soil is worked while wet, and if it then dries, it will be greatly injured, sometimes so much as to damage the crops for several years. Working a clay soil when wet makes ''bricks" of it. The crust that is formed on the surface of soil after rains is due to the breaking down of compound particles. If such a soil is too finely pulverized, it ''runs together" and bakes because the gianules have been broken up. (See Fig. 43.) The relative fineness of the soil is called its texture, just as the word is used in speaking of the texture of cloth. If a soil is composed of very small particles that are floc- culated, it may yet be of a coarse structure. Structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles. If the small particles are united, it is possible to have a soil of fine tex- ture and coarse structure. SOIL WATER 86. Importance of Soil Water. In an agricultural sense, the most important use of soil is to act as a store- house for water. The productiveness of a soil is Umited by the amount of water that the soil can hold, and by the extent to which growing crops are able to remove the water. The soil water is important, not only because it is the chief plant food, but because it acts as a carrier of all the other plant foods that come from the soil (page 66). Soil water is very different from rain water. It con- tains all the plant foods in solution. The solution is very dilute, but plants use a large amount of it. Plants will SOIL WATER 85 grow in well-water or water from a tile drain, if it is renewed often enough. Such water is free soil water. 87. Movement of Water in Soil. The chief ways in which water exists in the soil are as film water and as free water. The particles can hold a certain amount of water on their surfaces, just as one's hands remain wet when removed from water. Only a limited amount can be held in this way. If too much water is present, it will drop off. If more water is present in the soil than can be held as film moisture, it will fill the pore spaces between the particles. If there is an outlet, the free water will drain away and leave the film or capillary water. 88. Conservation of Moisture. The free water moves downward by gravity. The capillary water can move in any direction, because the force of adhesion between the soil particles and the water is strong enough to lift water, just as oil is hfted in a lamp- wick. After a heavy rain the soil may be filled with water. Gradually the free water drains away and leaves capillary water only. The surface soil loses some of its water by evaporation. This leaves it drier than the soil below. Some of the water of the lower layer of soil is then drawn up by capillarity to take its place, just as more oil is drawn up in the lamp- wick when that at the end of the wick is removed by burn- ing. In this way the water may be removed from the soil very rapidly, particularly when the weather is dry, warm and windy. ^ If there is not an abundance of rainfall, it is desirable to stop this movement of water to the surface to be evap- 1 Water also evaporates within the soil into the soil air. There is a constant movement of this air in and out of the soil, so that this aids in drying a soil. 86 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE orated. Any loose mulch, like straw, on the surface of the soil will accomplish this purpose. The capillary water moves very slowly through dry soil, so that one of the '"^"J^^S^^^- :^- Fig. 44. Footprints kept moist and dark-colored by the rise of capillary water best methods for preventing the evaporation is to form a dust mulch on the surface. One of the great benefits of cultivation is the formation of this dust mulch. When possible, the soil should be cultivated after every rain as soon as it is in proper condition for working. This culti- vation will break up the crust, break the capillary connec- tion, and prevent much of the evaporation. At the same time it leaves the soil in a loose condition, ready for the absorption of the next rain. When a moist soil is stirred, evaporation will first be increased, but as the loose soil becomes dry it acts as a Fig. 45. A foot print. The particles are kept closer together and therefore hasten the rise of water mulch to check evaporation. Hence, if rains are frequent, cultivation may keep the soil drier. In most of the United States, the rainfall during the growing months is not sufficient for the production of SOIL WATER 87 maximum crops. In the northern part of the country, this is particularly true during July and August. The tillage of the soil is therefore of great importance, as a means of absorbing and retaining as much water as pos- sible for use during the months when the demand for water is so great. When seeds are planted, it is very often desirable to increase evaporation, so that the seeds that are near the surface will be kept moist by the water as it rises to the surface. This is accomplished by packing the ground over the seeds by rolhng the field, or by packing it over the row only, as is done by a corn planter. (See Figs. 44, 45, 46.) The packing makes the pore spaces smaller so that the capillary movement of , 'ii u Fig. 46. A roller. Crushes clods and packs the water will be more the surface so as to keep the seed moist at rapid. the expense of increased evaporation. 89. Dry-Land Farming. Two-fifths of the United States is too dry to raise good crops without irrigation. (See Fig. 47.) Few crops can be grown successfully without twenty or more inches of rainfall. In the past few years, consid- erable attention has been given to a system of farming that attempts to save all the rainfall of one or more years for the use of a crop during the growing season. In this way, the rainfall of two years can be used for the produc- tion of one crop. Sometimes two crops are grown in three years. In this system, the land is kept tilled during the year when there is no crop, so that the rainfall may be 88 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 47. Annual rainfall in the United States. Areas receiving less than twenty inches must be farmed with special reference to the conservation of moisture, unless irrigated. quickly absorbed, and so that evaporation may be checked as far as is possible. Fair crops of wheat have thus been grown every other year with only twelve inches of rain- fall annually. Irrigation 90. Areas Requiring Irrigation. As stated above, two- fifths of the United States is too dry to produce regular crops without irrigation. If all the water that falls in this area were used for irrigation, only about one-tenth of the land could be irrigated. The total area now irrigated is about 10,000,000 acres. This is a little over one-thou- sandth of the arid area. Evidently we must ever have much arid land that is fit only for grazing, and large tracts w^ill always be too dry for any agricultural use. The im- portance of saving all the water is apparent. SOIL WATER 89 The earl}^ irrigation enterprises were very wasteful of water, but more care is now coming to be exercised. There are three sources of serious loss of water: losses at seasons of the year when the water in the streams can- not all be used, seepage from canals, and over-irrigation. These losses may be decreased by building reservoirs, and by using more care in constructing canals, and in applying water. 91. Storage Reservoirs. During a part of the year, the rivers carry enough water to irrigate much more land than can be supplied through the summer months. The flow of the Nile in September is thirty-five times that of June. To hold back a part of this water, the English built the Assuan reservoir, which extends up the Nile for a hundred miles. Forests in the mountains serve to hold back the water and so distribute it through the season. But reservoirs are also necessary. In India, 9,500,000 acres are irrigated from reservoirs, — an area equal to about five times the area of improved farm land in New Jersey. The United States Government is now building large reservoirs for storing irrigation water. The projects now approved provide for the irrigation of 1,909,000 acres, located in fourteen states. The total- cost is estimated to be $34,270,000, or about $18 per acre. The land thus reclaimed is sold to settlers, so that it more than pays the cost of the reservoirs and canals. The money can be used over again for irrigation of more land. After all the present reservoirs are completed, we shall have only one-fifth as large an area irrigated from them as is thus irrigated in India. 90 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 92. Seepage from Canals. Over half the water turned into canals in the United States is lost before it reaches the fields. In India, 47 per cent is lost from many canals.^ Some of this loss is due to evaporation, but most of it is due to seepage. If the water carries considerable silt, the losses are less. Silt is one of the greatest factors in making canals water-tight. Care in canal construction will also save considerable water. Seepage not only causes a loss of water, but it often injures large areas of land, because of the deposits of alkali by the water, or because of the rise of alkali with the evaporation of the water. 93. Over-Irrigation. This not only wastes water, but the excessive amounts are a detriment to crops. It also aids in spoiling the land by making the accumulation of alkali more rapid. It is more profitable to use moderate amounts of water and follow by tillage to prevent evap- oration. 94. Alkali. In arid regions, very little of the water drains away as it does in humid regions. Nearly all the water evaporates from the soil. The water contains small amounts of salts in solution and these are left by evaporation. The process is similar to the formation of salt lakes. The best remedy is drainage. By under-draining the land and flooding it, the salts may be carried away with the water. Some soils have such good natural under- drainage that artificial drainage is not necessary. If the land is flooded without drainage, the water sinks into the soil, and, as it rises, brings with it more alkali to be left near the surface. ^Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I, p. 422. SOIL WATER 91 Drainage 95. Best Amount of Water. Water is the most im- portant plant-food, — the one that most frequently limits the crops of the world. It is also the plant-food that frequently causes injury by appearing in too large quan- tities. For the best growth of crops, the water content of the soil should be maintained at about 50 to 60 per cent of the water capacity of the soil. (Laboratory Exercise, page 107.) If there is either much more or much less water, the growth of the plant is injured. Commonly the soil is saturated with water during the early part of the season, and later becomes too dry, so that the crop is injured by both extremes. 96. Harmful Effects of Too Much Water. The most serious result of having too much water in the soil is the exclusion of air, which is essential for plant growth and for the activities of the soil organisms (page 97). It also prevents plant roots from growing deeply into the soil, makes the soil cold and delays farm work. Since farm work cannot be done at the proper time, weeds are more likely to obtain a foothold. Wet land is nearly always weedy land. 97. All Soils Require Drainage. If a soil is not drained, the excess of water will prevent the growth of crops. Or, if there is no excess of water, salts and acids will ac- cumulate to such an extent as to kill crops, as in the case of alkali and marsh soils. Fortunately a very large pro- portion of the farm land is underlain by porous subsoil, so that drainage takes place naturally. Whenever the 92 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE natural drainage is not sufficient, artificial drainage has to be resorted to. Much of the sandy land on the Atlantic coast is too well drained. The soil is so open that truck growers often say that the rain falls faster after it strikes the soil than it did in the air. This region also contains the other ex- treme of marshes that are useless because too wet. Most farm lands lie between these extremes. There are some farms that need a complete system of tile drains^ placed 30 to 100 feet apart. But for each farm that needs so com- plete a system of drainage there are many that need par- tial drainage. Probably the majority of farms east of the Missouri river have one or more wet places that would be improved by tile drainage or surface ditches. The necessity for drainage depends much on the crop to be raised. Hay and pasture may do well on land that is so wet as to ruin corn and potatoes. 98. Effects of Tile Drainage During Drought. At first thought, we should expect that tile drainage would make the land drier during a dry time, and so cause plants to suffer from drought. As a matter of fact, exactly the opposite occurs. Tile drains remove the excess of water during periods of rainfall, so that the plant roots deeply. The roots are then deep enough to endure a con- siderable drought. The roots will actually be in more moist soil as a result of the drains, and will have a much larger amount of soil from which to draw water. The shallow-rooted plants in undrained soil are the first to suffer from drought. ^Tiles are hollow tubes about a foot long. They are made of clay and are burned like brick. They are laid end to end about two to four feet below tne surface of the ground. SOIL WATER 93 99. Kinds of Drains. The most universal kind of drains are the surface ditches. These are useful in many cases, but are not so desirable as under-drains where the latter can be used. Surface drains that are to be permanent should usually be made with sloping sides, so that they can be driven across. Stone under-drains are often made in regions where the land is stony. They require much more time for construction than tile drains. At the present relative prices of tile and labor it is probable that tiles are cheaper than stone. Poles and many other devices have been employed. 100. Laying Tile Drains. The method of laying drains can be learned from books, or better by seeing it done, or best by doing it. There are a few points that are often neglected. The tile should be hard-burned and should not be too small. It is doubtful whether tile smaller than three-inch should ever be used. Some manufacturers in Illinois — the state that uses the most tile — do not make any tile smaller than four inches. Their experience is that farm- ers who use these sizes are so well pleased as to buy more, while those who use the smaller sizes are less likely to be satisfied. It is much more difficult to lay small tile accurately, and they are much more likely to get out of place. A slight movement is sufficient to break the connec- tion of the openings. The small tile are more likely to fill up. If possible, the lower part of the line of tile should have a steeper fall than the upper part, so as to guard against filling up with silt. For the same reason, the outlet should always be above standing water. A map of the farm showing the location of drains should 94 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE always be kept. This will make it easier to locate any tile that fills up. It will also make it possible to lay ad- ditional tiles in the proper places. 101. Drainage as a Government Problem. Aside from the problem of drainage on the individual farms, there are many large swamp areas that can be reclaimed by co- operative effort. Professor Shaler estimates that there are over 3,000,000 acres of reclaimable sea-coast marsh land along the Atlantic coast of the United States. The draining of such land is a problem for the United States and state governments, just as is the irrigation of arid regions. It is probable that such lands could be sold for much more than the cost of drainage. The drainage of these areas will not only add to the amount of good farm land, but it will make the coast cities much more healthful. SOIL AIR 102. Importance of Soil Air. Most soils are about half pore space. That is, a cubic foot of dry soil would contain about half a cubic foot of air. As the water in soils increases the amount of air decreases, so that in a saturated soil there is very little air. Soil air is just as essential for the growth of farm crops as air is for animals. If water excludes all air from the soil, the crops will drown just as surely, if not so quickly, as a person drowns in water. There are some marsh plants that can grow in standing water, and rice can do so, but the usual farm crops would utterly fail under such conditions. Even rice requires some air in the soil, as do the submerged seaweeds, but in this case they are able to get air from the water. ORGANIC MATTER OF THE SOIL 95 Aside from its direct use to crops, soil air is essential in several indirect ways. When air is excluded from the soil, the beneficial soil organisms cease to be active. It is from the air in the soil that these organisms and the leguminous plants secure free nitrogen for the use of crops. Not only does the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen cease when air is excluded from the soil, but under these con- ditions the organisms that break down nitrogen com- pounds are very active, so that the nitrogen that was fixed is lost by being returned to the air. One of the first effects of having the soil too wet is the yellowing of the leaves. This appears to be due to the lack of nitrogen. Some soils are too well aerated, just as some are too well drained. Usually it is the same soils in each case. ORGANIC MATTER OF THE SOIL 103. The Uses of Humus. All productive soils contain decaying roots, leaves and animal life. This partly decayed organic matter is called humus. It is the humus that gives soils their dark color. Humus is necessary for the growth of good crops. Plants may be grown in fine sand if all the plant-food elements are suppUed. Under field conditions, humus is necessary if these foods are to be supplied for the successful production, of crops. Humus has many functions in soils. It increases the water-holding power, which is particularly important on sandy land. It loosens heavy soil and promotes aera- tion, which are of special importance on clay soils. It furnishes food for bacteria. These, acting on the humus, change nitrogen to nitric acid so that it is ready for 96 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE plant food. As humus decays, it also liberates carbon dioxid (carbonic acid gas). This acts on the minerals of the soil, making them soluble and ready for plant use. Another extremely important function of humus is that it encourages the growth of the bacteria that fix free nitrogen from the soil air, rendering it available as a plant- food. Dark-colored soils usually contain considerable humus. Such soils are usually fertile. The more air in the soil, the more rapidly the humus is decomposed. If a soil is saturated with water, the oxi- dation practically stops and organic matter accumulates. This is the way that peat and muck are formed. For crop-production, a moderate rate of decomposition is to be preferred. If too rapid, the supply is exhausted; if too slow, the plant does not receive enough food. 104. Humus of Arid and Humid Soils. In humid regions the soil is usually much darker colored than in the arid regions. The surface soil is much darker than the subsoil because of the presence of more humus. In arid regions the soils are so well aerated that the organic matter i& rapidly decomposed, leaving no difference in color of soil and subsoil. The subsoils in humid regions are not very productive, but in arid regions there is not much difference between soil and subsoil. This is a great convenience, for it makes it possible to level fields for irrigation. Some analyses have shown that, on an average, there is about four times as much humus in humid soils as in arid ones. At first thought, this would indicate a lack of nitrogen in arid regions. But the humus in arid regions is so much richer in nitrogen that the total amount present is not much less. LIFE IN THE SOIL 97 LIFE IN THE SOIL 105. Importance of Soil Organisms. As we have seen, soil is not a dead thing. It is much more than a collection of rock particles. It is teeming with life. Without this life the soil would never have been able to produce farm crops. If all the Hving things in the soil should die, the soil would soon fail to produce crops. Keeping the soil productive is very largely a matter of keeping these organisms thrifty. The roots and stems of plants furnish food for the bacteria and molds. The waste products furnish food for other bacteria. Eventually, the food is in a form available for crops to use again. So the material is worked over and over again. Any break in the link will affect all of the chain. If the organisms do not decom- pose the roots and stems properly, the new crops will suffer. If there is not enough humus in the soil, the bac- teria suffer and crops are immediately affected. Earthworms serve a useful purpose in the soil by help- ing to break down the organic matter. They also do much good by making the soil porous. A soil that is full of earth- worms is nearly always fertile. The molds help in breaking down the organic matter, particularly the woody matter; but the most important forms of life in the soil are the microscopic organisms, yeasts and bacteria. 106. Soil-Bacteria are very minute living things, — far too small to be seen with the naked eye. They are so small that they have to be magnified 500 to 1,000 times before they can be seen with a microscope. (See Fig. 48.) On an average, it takes about 25,000 bacteria placed end to end to.meas- 98 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE ure an inch. Of the very smallest ones, it takes about 150,- 000 to measure an inch. The small size of the bacteria is more than made up by the rapidity with which they multiply. They reproduce by sim- ple division, one individual divides _, into two. This division may take Fig. 48. The point of the -^ finest cambric needle. A par- place everv fifteen to thirty min- ticle or dust above the point ir j j and a mass of bacteria below, ^^gg under favorable couditious. If each divides into two every quarter of an hour, there will be an immense number of them at the end of a day, even if there were only one in the morning. The limit of food supply and other conditions prevent this rapid multiplication from continuing. Bacteria of many kinds are present in all soils, ranging from less than 28,000,000 per ounce of soil to many times this number. In fertile soils like gardens there are many bilhons per ounce. In a fertihzing experiment in New Jersey it was found that the plots that gave the greatest yields of asparagus also contained most bacteria. Often there is a relationship between the number and kind of soil-bacteria and fertility. Bacteria may seem to be too small to be of much con- sequence, but they are far from unimportant. We know how many contagious diseases are caused by bacteria, so that we must recognize their power. Perhaps you have come to look upon all bacteria as harmful, — things to be avoided. But, while certain ones cause tuberculosis, diphtheria and lock-jaw, many other kinds are useful to us. Bacteria are microscopic plants. We should look on them as we do on other plants. Some plants, as corn and cotton, are useful; others, Uke poison ivy, are to be LIFE IN THE SOIL 99 avoided. Probably we could not live were it not for the activities of the useful bacteria and yeast plants. "The different chemical changes produced by soil- bacteria are quite numerous. Some kinds are specialized for one series of changes, others for changes of a different sort. Some will attack by preference carbohydrates like starch or sugar, some will decompose woody tissue, some will cause the decay of proteins, some of fats, etc. This division of labor allows an effective decomposition of humus. Various gases and acids are produced in the course of decay, and help to decompose the rock particles in the soil and to render the mineral plant-food contained in them available. The insoluble protein compounds in the roots and stubble are broken down and their nitrogen changed partly to ammonia. The particles of ammonia, as they are thus generated by bacteria of many kinds, are at once pounced upon by a special class of germs whose function it is to change the ammonia into nitrate. Thanks, therefore, to the activities of many species of bacteria, the nitrogen locked up in the humus and in green manure is transformed gradually into nitrate, and is then quite suitable for the building of roots, stems, leaves and fruits."^ An equally important function of soil-bacteria is the fixation of free nitrogen from the air. This subject will be treated under Nitrogen in the next chapter. iNew Jersey, Bulletin No. 211, p. 19. 100 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE QUESTIONS 1. How are soils formed? 2. How do the soil particles become small? 3. Do stones "grow"? Why, then, are there more large ones to be picked from stony land every few years? 4. Which fall faster in the air or water, large particles or small ones of the same material? Why? Describe the material in the bed of a stream in its upper, middle and lower courses. Why this difference? Why do raindrops fall faster than the fog? 5. What soil maps has the Bureau of Soils made in your state? From these can you identify any of the soils in your region? 6. What is the relative surface area of a one-foot cube of stone and of the same stone divided into one-inch cubes? 7. What is the name of the force that holds the film of water on a piece of glass? What liquid does not stick to glass? 8. Why does wet clay stick to one's shoes? 9. How did the Jews make brick in Egypt? Would a dry soil make brick? Apply these principles to tillage. 10. What is the difference in taste of well water and rain water? Why? 11. How often should house plants be watered? How much should be applied each time? 12. Which is better, to water a flower-bed a little every day, or to give it more water less frequently? Why? 13. What crops of your region will grow best in wet seasons or on wet lands? Which ones will stand more drought? 14. What has Holland done to increase the area of farm land? How productive is this soil? 15. What human diseases would be decreased if our marshes were drained? Why? 16. What is a "dead furrow"? Why so named? 17. What is the difference in color of hillsides and bottom-land soils? Why? 18. If a bacterium divided into two every fifteen minutes, how many would there be at the end of four hours? How many at the end of a day? 19. What makes bread rise? 20. Where does a fence-post rot most rapidly? Why? 21. The statement is sometimes made that "tillage is manure." Why? LABORATORY EXERCISES ;'- . . ...lO*! 22. Account for the bubbles that come from a kettle before it begins to boil. What relation has this to water-plants? To fishes? 23. Which is heavier, sand or clay? Why do farmers call a clay soil "heavy"? 24. (For classes that have chemistry.) The red and yellow colors of soil are usually due to iron compounds. Ferric compounds cause the red colors; ferrous compounds cause the yellow colors. Why do some red soils have yellow subsoils? Explain the formation of red brick from yellow clay. What would you conclude of the aeration of a soil that has a mottled subsoil? LABORATORY EXERCISES 32. Origin of Soils. Field Lesson. — If the following points have not been studied in Physical Geography, one or more field trips should be devoted to them: Geological origin of the soils of the region. Evidences of this origin seen in the field trip. Find a rounded pebble; what rounded it? Find a "rotten" stone or a place where a rock is covered by a disintegrat-: ing rock; explain. Is the farm land rolling? Account for the low places. What part has the wind played in soil formation? Find some evidence of the work of earthworms, woodchucks, prairie dogs, or other animals in soil formation. Find evidence of the part played by plants in soil for- mation— decay of roots, leaves, etc. Cross a meadow or pasture. Are there any spots that are covered with weeds? Are the weeds there chiefly because they kill the grass or because the grass failed to grow? Notice that nature rarely leaves any permanently bare ground. Of what value are weeds in soil formation? If there are any steep hills in the region, notice the relative erosion on hillsides that are forested, tilled, pastured. What use is made of steep hillsides in the neighborhood? Do better crops grow on a hillside or at the foot of the hill? Why? Why are valleys generally fertile? Nearly all of these points that are adapted to the region may be answered in crossing any farm. 33. Field Lesson. Materials. — Rule, spade, six fruit-jars. Go to a nearby farm. Dig a hole about two feet deep. What is the color of the soil? Of the subsoil? Which is more compact? How deep is the soil? Find pieces of partly decayed roots and stems. What color are they? Which contains more of this organic matter, or humus, the soil l^Qi^^ll 'ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE or the subsoil? How does a farmer increase the amount of humus in the soil? Have each pupil rub samples of soil and subsoil between his fingers so as to become familiar with its texture. Fill one of the jars with soil and one with subsoil and cover each. Label each with the name and date. The samples are to be kept tightly covered for use in numbers 34 and 35. Similarly study and collect several different soils and sub- soils. If possible, compare good and poor soils. Also compare sandy soils, loams and clays. 34. Determination of the Per Cent of Water, Organic Matter and Mineral Matter in Soils. Materials. — Soil samples collected under No. 33, porcelain cruci- bles, balances. If the school does not have crucibles and laboratory burners, the soil may be dried over a stove and then burned in an iron shovel in a stove. If different members of the class take different samples, all those collected may be compared. Weigh the crucible. Put ten grams of the sample in it. Weigh before the water has time to evaporate much. Heat this a little hotter than boiling water, but do not burn it; one hour at 110° C. or five hours at 100° C. is about right. Weigh again. This gives the amount of water evaporated. Now heat to dull redness. After it is thoroughly burned for one hour, weigh. Compute and tab- ulate results as follows: Sandy Loam Clay Soil Subsoil Soil Subsoil Weight of crucible (grams) 10 10 10 Weight of crucible and soil (grams) Weight of soil (grams) . . . 10 Weight of both when dry (grams) Per cent of water Weight of both after burning (grams) Weight of organic matter Per cent of organic matter Per cent of mineral matter What change in color took place as the soil dried? Is the color of the soil changed by rain? What change is there in color after the soil was burned? After burning, only mineral matter remains. Compare this LABORATORY EXERCISES 103 burning with burning wood. What kind of soil contained more water? More organic matter? Do the surface or the subsoils contain more organic matter? 35. Per Cent of Air in Soils. Materials. — Beakers or jars, graduate, soil samples collected in No. 33. Put a measured amount of soil into each beaker. Pour in water from a graduate containing a measured amount of water until it just rises to the surface of the soil. How much water does it take in each case? Repeat this for a very dry soil. The amount of water required is an approximate measure of the air-space. We shall then have the air space in a dry soil and in those collected under field conditions. The dryer the soil the more air-space it contains. The total space in a dry soil is the pore-space. Record results for each soil as follows: Volume of soil Volume of water added Per cent of air-space 36. Soil Particles and Their Separation. Materials. — Two beakers, three fruit- jars, pan, samples of soil. (a) Put about a tablespoonful of sand m one beaker and clay in another. Shake each one and allow to settle. Which settles more rapidly? Why? Which would be deposited first when a swift stream is checked? Where in your neighborhood is there evidence of this sorting power of water? Did the glaciers thus sort soil? How could we separate the different-sized particles in a soil? (b) The day before this lesson is given, put about four tablespoon- fills of a loam soil in a fruit-jar and nearly fill with water. Cover. Shake occasionally. After standing a day, shake thoroughly. Allow to settle one minute. Pour the rily water into another jar; allow this to stand one hour. Pour off the rily water and evaporate by setting on a stove or over a flame. When dry (which will probably be for the next lesson), examine the dry separates. The part that settled out first is sand, the second is silt, and the finest material is clay. Examine them to find differences in texture. Which ones stick together? Would pure clay or pure sand make a good soil? Why? Save the materials for number 37. 37. Microscopical Examination of Soil Particles. Materials. — Compound microscope. Sand, silt and clay from No. 35 Examine the sand particles (X50), i. e., use the combination of eye- pieces and objectives that magnify fifty diameters. Mix the silt with 104 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE a little water and examine a drop (XlOO). Only a little of the silt is better than too much in a drop. Mix the clay with water and examine a drop of the slightly rily water (X500) . Have each student make a draw- lying of a few particles of each. Notice that the soil particles are real minute rocks and humus. Find black particles of humus and draw them. Find flocculated particles of clay, i. e., a number of particles united to form a compound particle. If such particles are not readily seen, a little clay soil moistened and a drop put under the micsrocope will show them. Do you see any reason for having the soil soak a day? Keeping a clay in good condition is largely a matter of keeping the particles thus flocculated or united into small crumbs. 38. One Effect of Humus and of Lime and of Freezing on a Clay Soil (for Humid Regions). Materials — Two quarts of clay, one-fourth pound unslaked lime, leaf mold or rotted manure, bottles or beakers. (a) An hour or more before the class . period, the lime should be nearly covered with water to slake it. Divide the clay into four equal parts. To the first two add water; to the third add water and about half its volume of humus; to the fourth add lime-milk. Make each into a ball and set aside to dry. If the weather is cold, put one of the first two where it will freeze. In a few days examine and see which is more mellow. What do you conclude as to the probable effect of working clay land when too wet? What is one value of organic matter in clay soil? What is one value of using lime on a clay soil? In what way do farmers add organic matter to their soils? (6) Put about a tablespoonful of clay in each of the two bottles Fill with water and shake. Add a little lime-milk to one bottle. Which one settles more rapidly? Why? Is lime used on soils in your vicinity? 39. Soil Solutions. Materials. — Four or more "slips" of Wandering Jew or Inch Plant (Tradescantia), two bottles, two crucibles, well water, rain water, or distilled water. (a) Evaporate some well water in one crucible and some rain-water in another. What is left in each case? What causes the inside of a tea-kettle to become coated? (6) Put two of these slips in each bottle, fill one with well-water and one with rain-water. Change the water about three times a week, until the results are secured. In which do the plants grow best? Why? LABORATORY EXERCISES 105 40. Water Capacity of Soils. Materials. — Air-dry sand, clay, loam, leaf-mold, or rotten manure, spring-balance, four tin cans or paint-cans with holes punched in the bottom, holes in the side, and string tied across for a bail. (a) Weigh each can. Fill two-thirds full, one with each of the three Boils, one with mixed clay and leaf-mold, one with mixed sand and leaf- mold. Add water until thoroughly wet. Let this drain off for about fifteen minutes. Weigh. Weight of can Weight of can and soil . . . Weight of soil Weight of both with water Weight of water . Per cent of water Sand Sand and leaf mold Loam Clay Clay and leaf mold The soil should be very dry before this experiment. It will still contain some water, so that the results will all be too low. Why does sand hold less water than clay? What effect on water capacity does the addition of organic matter have? Notice that the organic matter not only holds water on its surface, but all through it, like a piece of bread that soaks up water. Give two ways in which a farmer might increase the water-holding capacity of his soils. 41. Capillary Rise of Water in Soils. Materials. — Two small glass plates, three glass tubes three feet long, one and one-half to two inches in diameter, pan of water, cloth, and sand, loam and clay. Three lamp chimneys may be used in place of the glass tubes. (a) Fasten the two pieces of glass together by a rubber band. Put a little splint at one side and set on edge in water. Notice that the water rises between the plates and that it rises highest on the side where the plates are nearest together. Make a drawing of this. (b) Put a piece of cloth over the end of each tube and fasten with a rubber band or tie it on. Fill each with one of the soils. Set in the pan of water. In which does the water rise most rapidly? Record the results as follows: 106 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Time One-half hour One hour. . . . One day Two days . . . Height of water Sand Loam Clay Continue for about a week. In which does the water rise highest? Why? Notice that it rises highest between the plates where they were nearest together and rises highest in the soil that has the finest spaces. Compare with the rise of oil in a lamp-wick, ink in a blotter, etc. What is the object of compacting the soil over seeds when planted? In what different ways is this done? 42. Evaporation from the Soil. (Special Importance in Arid Regions). Materials. — Spring balance; three tin cans, holes punched in sides and string for a bail, the same as used in No. 39; soil, fine grass or straw. Fill each can nearly full of soil. Water each with the same amount of water. Cover the top of one with grass. Weigh. As soon as the surface is dry enough, stir the surface on one about an inch deep. Keep this et'rred. Weigh every school day for about two weeks. Date Bare Surface Cultivated Grass Mulch Weight Loss Weight Loss Weight Loss Which loses weight most rapidly? Why? What is one use of cul- tivation during a dry time? Notice that if we stir the soil when it is moist we hasten the evaporation in the part stirred. In dry weather this loose soil may act as a dust mulch to prevent evaporation. Tillage may, therefore, first hasten and then lessen evaporation. What would its general effect be in a wet season? In a dry season? Why is the soil under a board moist? LABORATORY EXERCISES 107 43. Drainage. Materials. — Two flower-pots with soil; two geraniums or other flowers growing in pots. Set one geranium in a dish of water. Plant corn in two other pots, and stand one in a dish of water. Keep water constantly in the dishes under the two pots, and water the other two in the usual way. Notice the effect of the excess of water on the geranium and on the germination and the growth of the corn. If the com in the wet pot grows, empty both pots and examine the roots. In which do the roots go deeper? What is the effect of flooding on field crops? On trees? Some crops will live on soils that are so wet that other crops would be killed. What ones? What kind of material underlies the soil in your neighborhood at depths of three to ten feet — sand, gravel, clay, rock? This can be answered by observing cuts in the roads. Is the soil naturally well drained? 44. Laying Tile Drain. If possible, practice laying a tile drain. For directions see King, Physics of Agriculture, pp. 286-328. 45. Temperature of Soils. Materials. — Four or more cigar-boxes or other small boxes, soil, thermometers, lime or chalk dust. Fill each box with soil. Water one box so as to keep it rather wet, cover the surface of one with lime, set these and a third one so that they will face the sun in a window. Set another so that it will not face the sun, that is, give it a "north slope." Take the temperature of each from time to time. A field trip may also be taken to get the temperatures of wet and dry soil, north and south slopes, tilled and untilled land. What effect does color have on temperature? Why? What effect does the water have? Why? Cut a square hole in a piece of paper. Hold this perpendicular to the sun's rays. Hold another piece of paper back of this. Measure the area covered by the sunshine. Now incline the second piece of paper and again measure the area of sunshine. Why does the slope affect the temperature? 46. Absorbent Power of Soil. Materials. — Tin can with holes in bottom, soil and manure. Mix water with the manure so as to get manure water. Fill the 108 . ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE tin can with soil. Pour on the water and compare the color of that which is poured on with that "which runs through. 47. Examination of Bacteria. Materials. — Compound microscope, magnifying about 500 to 1,000 diameters. Moisten some soil. Take a drop of the water and examine under the microscope for bacteria and other organisms. COLLATERAL READING Soils, by S. W. Fletcher. Physics of Agriculture, by F. H. King. The Soil, by F. H. King. The Fertility of the Land, by I. P. Roberts. Pp. 34-130. Bacteriology in Relation to Country Life, by J. G. Lipman. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I, pp. 323-531. Dry Farming. Farmers' Bulletin No. 329, pp. 10-15, and No. 262, pp. 15-18. Reclamation of Salt Marshes. Farmers' Bulletin No. 320, pp. 9-12. Management of Soil to Conserve Moisture. Farmers' Bulletin No. 266. CHAPTER VI MAINTAINING THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND 107. How Soils Become Productive. It has required untold ages for the soils of the world to be formed and to become productive. At first the particles of rock were capable of supporting only such plants as lichens and mosses. After generations of these plants died and added their material to the soil, it became possible for other plants to grow. For thousands of years the trees and leaves of the forests have fallen and decayed to form the forest soils. On the great western plains where ''corn is king," the grasses have grown for centuries and have fallen down to decay so that still larger grasses might grow. When such lands are first farmed, the crops are as large as the climate and culture will allow, for the soils are very rich. 108. How Rich Virgin Soils Become Less Productive. The first farming of a virgin soil has nearly always been grain farming. Grain is grown every year, with no pro- vision for keeping up the humus supply, either by means of barnyard manure or by plowing under material, even the straw in the wheat-growing sections often being burned. Little barnyard manure is produced, and that which is formed is either thrown away or is allowed to lose most of its value before being put on the land. Very few farmers in any part of America have yet learned to handle manure without losing one-half of its value. The (109) 110 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Fis. 49. Com crop on a farm that has raised little live stock for fifty years virgin soils are so productive that farmers nearly always make the mistake of thinking that they will always remain so. But the constant tillage exhausts the humus supply, and our virgin soils be- come less and less pro- ductive. The change is so gradual and is so ob- scured by the weather variations from year to year that the real state of affairs is often not reaUzed until the soil is so poor that it does not pay to farm it. Sooner or later every farmer must give attention to means of maintaining the productivity of the land, no matter how rich the original soil may be. Thirty to sixty years of grain farming usually exhausts a rich virgin soil to such an extent that grain farming no longer pays. It then becomes necessary to raise stock and use ma- nure or to plow under green-manure. Some- times commercial fer- tilizers are resorted to and these may pay for a few years, but sooner or later some provision for renewing the humus supply must be made, or the field must be temporarily abandoned to allow nature to renew the supply by growing weeds. Many fields in the Fig. 50. Com crop on a dairy farm near Fig. 49 MAINTAINING THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND \\\ older sections of the United States are thus abandoned for a few years to recuperate to such an extent that a small crop may be grown. A wiser way of farming would be to begin to raise animals for manure production before the soils become so exhausted. 109. Causes of Decreased Productivity. (1) The fer- tile surface soil may be carried away by erosion by wind or water. Probably more soil fertility is lost in this way than by cropping. This may be prevented by keeping the soil in sod, by keeping cover crops on it during the win- ter and by terracing the land as is done in the South. (2) The soil may cease to hold the proper moisture supply. This may be remedied by drainage and tillage;, and by additions of humus. (3) The soil may cease to be favorable for the develop- ment of soil organisms. This may be remedied as No. 2 and by the application of lime. (4) The nitrogen of the soil may be carried awa}^ in drainage water or may escape to the air by denitrification. Many conditions favor the activity of soil organisms that decompose the nitrogen compounds and allow the nitro- gen to escape as a gas. (5) The constant cropping may exhaust the available supply of some plant-food. Each crop removes a certain amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash. In time this may Hmit the available supply. Usually it is not a shortage of the absolute amount of such food in the soil,, but a shortage of that which the plant can secure in solu- ble form. This may be remedied by drainage, tillage, additions of humus, hme, fertiUzer and manure. (6) The exhaustion of the humus supply is usually 112 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE the fundamental cause for decrease in crop yields. This affects crops in many ways. It may result in an unfavor- able physical condition of the soil that will Hmit the crop when there is no shortage of food. The soil may ''bake" or it may lose its water-holding power. Since the humus furnishes the nitrogen by its decomposition and encourages the fixation of free nitrogen, the exhaustion of humus will be accompanied by a shortage of nitrogen. Or because of the lack of humus the mineral elements may not be rapidly enough dissolved, although present in abundance. In such a case the addition of phosphoric acid or potash might increase the crop, but it would usually be wiser to supply humus so as to render available the food that is already in the soil. Many soils are losing their fertility in all of the ways mentioned above. 110. The Limiting Factor in Crop Growth. When all plant-foods are supplied in abundance, if the temperature is too low or too high, it becomes the limiting factor and determines the yield. If all other conditions are favor- able, but there is not enough sunshine, the crop will be limited by this factor. A shortage of water or any other plant-food may be the Umiting factor. The other plant- foods that often Hmit the crop are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and lime. These foods are rarely needed to the same extent. If nitrogen is most deficient, the addition of nitrogen will increase the crop; but we may reach a point where a second element is necessary. Sup- pose that the weather and all other conditions are such as to allow a crop of 100 bushels of corn, but that the phosphoric acid supply is so short as to limit it to 70 MAINTAINING THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND 113 bushels, and that the nitrogen supply limits it to 40 bushels. The crop will then be 40 bushels. In growing such a crop, the farmer does not make use of all the favor- able conditions; his crop is Umited by the ''weakest link." In such a case, the addition of a certain amount of nitrogen to the soil may bring the yield up to 70 bushels. Then the phosphoric acid must be added if a greater yield is to be obtained. 111. The Amount of Plant-Food in the Soil. Forty- nine analyses of soils in different parts of America showed an average of 3,000 pounds of nitrogen, over 4,000 pounds of phosphoric acid and over 16,000 pounds of potash per acre. By multiplying the average yield of crops (Appendix, Table 14) by the composition (Appendix, Table 6) we obtain the amount of food removed by each crop. The average wheat crop of the United States for the past ten years (1899 to 1908) has been 13.8 bushels. This, together with the straw, removes about 14.5 pounds of nitrogen, 10.6 pounds of phosphoric acid and 14 pounds of potash per acre. The average surface soil would therefore con tain enough nitrogen for 200 crops, phosphoric acid for 400 and potash for 1,000. But many soils do not contain so much plant-food as this, and in the great majority of cases the food is too slowly available to produce maximum crops. 112. Value of Chemical Analyses of Soils. The chemi- cal analysis of soils does not tell what fertiUzers are needed. The almost universal opinion is that a chemist can analyze the soil and tell what it needs. The analy- sis may tell how much food there is in the soil, but it 114 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE cannot tell how much of this the plant is able to get. A soil may contain enough phosphoric acid for a hundred crops, and yet the addition of phosphoric acid may be beneficial, because the plant may be unable to get this food in soluble form. A chemical analysis is of some value. It shows the maximum limitations of a soil. It is quite desirable to know how great a store of the plant-foods there is in a soil, in order to provide a permanent agriculture. If there is potash enough for a thousand years, we may still add it in the fertihzers, if it pays, but we should certainly try to find some way of unlocking that which is already in the soil. But, if a soil contains potash enough for only 50 crops, we may well plan to add this food every year. Some of the peaty soils in Ilhnois contain only enough potash for 41 crops of corn, each yielding 100 bushels. These soils give greatly increased yields when potash is added. In general, muck soils are deficient in potash. The gray silt loams of southern Illinois contain in the surface soil enough phosphoric acid for 70 such crops of corn, and enough potash for 1,900 such crops. ^ Evi- dently one should try to draw on the supply of potash that is in the soil, and should add phosphoric acid. These soils were once so productive that southern lUinois was called ''Egypt," but they are now very unproductive. By the use of lime, phosphoric acid and legumes, these soils are easily made to produce good crops once more. Most of the soils in Illinois are deficient in phosphoric acid. 113. Materials Used as Fertilizers. The oldest and best ^Illinois, Bulletin No. 123 MAINTAINING THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND 115 fertilizer is barnyard manure. Growing plants have also been plowed under for many centuries. Usually these plants have been weeds, but sometimes crops are sown for the purpose of green-manuring. The Indians taught the first settlers in America how to grow corn and to use fish as a fertilizer. ''According to the manner of the Indians, we manured our ground with herrings, or rather shads, which we have in great abundance and take with ease at our doors. ''You may see in one township a hundred acres together set with these fish, every acre taking a thousand of them, and an acre thus dressed will produce and yield as much corn as three acres without, fish." Fish are still in common use along the Atlantic coast, and dried fish and fish scraps are sold as fertilizers. Salt (NaCl) was sometimes applied to land, but this is not considered to be a wise practice because it does not contain the elements that are likely to be deficient. Any good effects of salt are probably due to chemical action or to the action of salt in helping to dissolve other ele- ments in the soil. Many such substances have been used, but they are not now used so much as formerly. The purchased fertilizers that are most commonly used are mixtures containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. The materials for making these fertilizers are usually obtained from slaughter-houses, or are mined from the earth. The use of fertilizers in the United States has rapidly increased, and the area on which they are used is con- stantly extending westward. Little is yet used west of the Mississippi river. In 1879, farmers in the United States 116 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE spent $29,000,000 for fertilizers, in 1889, $38,000,000 and in 1899, $55,000,000. NITROGEN 114. Sources of Soil Nitrogen. All soil nitrogen comes from the air. There is no nitrogen in the rocks except when these rocks contain the remains of plants and ani- mals. The amount of nitrogen in the soil usually decreases very rapidly with the depth. The great inexhaustible source of nitrogen is the air. Nearly four-fifths of the air is nitrogen. There are about 35,000 tons of this gas over every acre of land. But no farm plants are able to take it from the air above ground. We may have sickly, yellow plants, starving to death lor nitrogen while immersed in this inexhaustible supply. Since nitrogen is the most expensive of the fertilizing materials, costing about 18 cents per pound when purchased in commercial fertilizers, we may well be interested in getting the supply in the air into compounds that are available for the growth of crops. At the rate it must be paid for in commercial fertilizers, there are some ten miUion dollars' worth above each acre of land, — if it could be used! 115. Nitrogen in Rainfall. A small amount of nitrog- enous compounds are brought down with the rain and snow. Usually this does not amount to over two or three pounds per acre per year, while about 40 pounds are re- quired to produce a fair wheat crop. 116. Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria on Legumes. Some of the oldest writings refer to the fact that pea-like plants have some effect on the soil that benefits following crops. Only in the last fifty years has this fact been explained. NITROGEN 117 1 2 3 Fig. 51. (1) Wheat grown without nitro- gen, all other foods supplied. (2) Clover grown without nitrogen. (3) Clover without nitrogen, but inoculated with legume bacteria. Until that time the Chinese explanation that ''beans are good for the soil" was as good as any. In the last fifty years many investigators have worked on the subject, and it has been demon- strated that when le- gumes have certain bac- teria present on their roots they are able to grow in soils that do not contain any nitrogen. The free nitrogen of the air in the soil has been proved to be the source of their supply. If the right kind of bacteria are not present, a legume cannot grow without nitrogen in the soil. No other farm plants are able to obtain nitro- gen in this way (Fig. 51). Peas, beans, clover, alfalfa, peanuts and vetches are some of the legumes. Look at the roots of any of these plants and you will find small bunches on them. On clover they are a little larger than a pinhead (Fig. 14), but on beans the nod- ules are as large as small sweet peas. (Fig. 52). These nodules are caused by a certain kind of bac- Fig. 52. Nodules in which the nitrogen-fix- terium (PseudomonaS radl- ing bacteria live on the roots of a bean 118 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE cicola) that enters the roots of the legume. These bacteria are able to use the free nitrogen of the soil air. After they have used the nitrogen, it is left in compounds that the plant can make use of, so that a legume can grow with no Fig. 53. Nodulea on the roots of hairy vetch nitrogen in the soil it other conditions are favorable. The legume roots furnish a home for the bacteria and in return are supplied with nitrogen. These bacteria do not hve on the roots of any other farm crops. Most soils contain the bacteria, so that all we need to do is to sow the legume seed; but, if the bacteria are ab- sent, we must sow them also. In much of the eastern part of the United States, bacteria need to be suppHed for the growth of alfalfa. The best way of supplying them is to scatter a bushel or more of soil from a successful alfalfa field on each acre of land that needs to be inoculated. Soy-beans, cowpeas and vetches often need to be inocu- lated when they are grown on a soil for the first time. Legumes are also able to take nitrogen from the soil NITROGEN 119 compounds in the same way that other plants do. They require much more nitrogen than other plants do, and have two ways of obtaining it. It is very hard to determine what proportion of the nitrogen in a legume comes from the air and what pro- portion comes from the soil. It is certain that a con- siderable part comes from the air under usual farm conditions. One German investigator grew twenty-eight successive crops of lupines (a legume) on the same land with no nitrogen added. But, in spite of the removal of these crops, the field gained in nitrogen. We can readily see how important it is to have some legume Uke alfalfa, clover, or cowpeas in a crop-rotation. 117. Fixation of Nitrogen without Legumes. During the last few years, a great deal of attention has been given to legumes as a source of nitrogen. But the fixa- tion without legumes is probably a more important source of nitrogen. Lipman grew millet in boxes of soil that had been given different treatments.^ In all cases, the amount of nitrogen in the soil was determined at the start, and that in the soil and crop was determined at the end. A few of his results follow: (1) No fertilizer used, no crop grown, soil kept bare, a gain of 1.02 grams of nitrogen. (2) No fertilizer used, millet grown; slight gain of nitrogen. (3) One gram of nitrogen added to the soil in the form of nitrate of soda, millet grown; a gain of 3.73 grams of nitrogen. (4) One gram of nitrogen added in the form of barn- ^New Jersey Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 180 120 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE yard manure, millet grown; a gain of 10.48 grams of nitrogen. The soil that was kept bare contained a gram more nitrogen in the fall than it did in the spring. There was a slight gain when millet was grown. When a gram of nitrogen was added in the form of nitrate of soda, the crop and soil contained 3.73 grams more nitrogen than were present in the fertilizer and soil at the beginning. But, when barnyard manure was used, there was a gain of 10.48 grams — ten times as much nitrogen as was added in the manure. These gains came from the air. The nitrogen was fixed by organisms acting independently of legumes. (Millet is not a legume.) Certain conditions greatly favor the activities of these important organisms. The soil should be well aerated and drained, and it must contain sufficient lime and humus. The striking results with the barnyard manure are proba- bly due to the humus that it contains, and perhaps partly due to the organisms that it brings with it. This partly explains why fertilizers alone cannot take the place of manure. 118. Importance of Grasses. Grasses do not have the power of obtaining any nitrogen from the air, but when land is left in sod there is usually a considerable gain in nitrogen. A field at Rothamsted, England, was left to grow up to weeds and grasses for twenty years. No legumes were grown on it, but there was a gain of over forty-four pounds of nitrogen per acre per year — enough to much more than grow a good crop each year.^ Every farmer knows that a field that has been in sod for a few years produces much better crops when it is i-The Book of the Rothamst«d Experiments, by A. I). Hall, p. 139. NITROGEN 121 plowed up. This is partly due to the humus added by the decaying roots, and is undoubtedly partly due to the fixation of nitrogen. Probably the humus has much to do with the nitrogen fixation. In the regions where soils have been so farmed as to become unproductive, the fields are commonly abandoned for one or more years, then they will produce crops again. Where the soils are not quite so far exhausted, one or two tilled crops are grown and are then followed by hay a few years, after which small crops can once more be raised. The same principle should be appHed in regular farming. Under most conditions, the land should be in sod one to three years out of every five. The poorer the land, the more time it should be in sod. If legumes can be com- bined with this sod, so much the better. The same results may be accomplished in other ways, as by plowing under green-manure crops. 119. Losses of Nitrogen from Soils. There are other organisms in the soil which accomplish the opposite re- sults. They act on nitrogen compounds and break them up so that the nitrogen escapes into the air as free nitro- gen. This is called denitrificntion. When manure is left in loose piles, much of the nitrogen is lost by denitrifica- tion. Nitrogen may also be lost by being made soluble too rapidly, in which case it may leach out of the soil. The humus in a sandy soil is likely to be burned out so rapidly that the nitrogen may be lost in this way. Soils in Minnesota that were kept continuously in grain lost 146 pounds of nitrogen by the destruction of organic matter for each 25 pounds that was removed in 122 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE crops. ^ It is evident that these soils will become unpro- ductive if the one-crop system continues. The better aerated the soil, the warmer the climate, and the more the land is tilled, the more rapidly the humus will be exhausted. The ideal condition is to have the humus decompose just rapidly enough to supply the crop with nitrogen. If it burns out too rapidly, we may keep the land in sod more of the time, apply manure, or plow under crops to keep up the humus supply. 120. Forms of Nitrogenous Fertilizers. Nitrogen is added to the soil in the form of barnyard manure, sodium nitrate, ammonium sulfate, potassium nitrate, dried blood, tankage, hoof meal, steamed bone, dried fish, linseed-oil meal, cottonseed meal, and in a number of other forms. 121. Nitrate of Soda (NaNOg). Sodium nitrate, or Chile saltpeter, is the most common nitrogenous fertilizer. Beds of it occur along the western coast of South America, particularly in Peru and Chile. As it is taken from the earth, it contains about 50 per cent of nitrate of soda. This is purified, so that when put on the market it is usually 96 per cent pure. It contains an average of about 15.6 per cent of nitrogen, and costs about $60 per ton, or about 19 cents per pound for the nitrogen contained. This salt is very soluble and is in a form that plants can take up at once. It should be applied only where plants will soon make use of it; otherwise it may leach out of the soil. 122. Ammonium Sulfate {^B.^^ ^^4.)- This sub- stance is a by-product from the manufacture of gas and coke. It contains about 20 per cent of nitrogen. The 1 Minnesota, Bulletin No. 53 PHOSPHORUS 123 nitrogen in this form is a little cheaper than it is in the form of sodium nitrate. It is not so desirable as the nitrate because it tends to make the soil acid. If used continu- ously, Hme must also be used unless the soil is rich in lime. Nitrate of soda has a slightly opposite effect. 123. Dried Blood, Tankage and Bone Meal are products from the meat-packing houses. Tankage is made up of all kinds of waste material from the slaughter-houses. The names of the others indicate their origin. They con- tain 5 to 15 per cent of nitrogen. Good dried blood con- tains about 14 per cent. These products have to be acted on by soil bacteria before the nitrogen is available for crop growth. There is less danger of loss of nitrogen than in the case of sodium nitrate. These forms are particularly desirable for fall-sown crops. Some farmers who mix their own fertiUzers use about half of the nitrogen in the form of dried blood and half in the form of nitrate of soda. This seems to be a good practice. PHOSPHORUS 124. Forms of Phosphorus Fertilizers. The chief forms of phospnorus fertilizers are barnyard manure, dissolved phosphate rock, bone meal, dissolved bone, tankage, Thomas slag. 125. Phosphate Rock. This rock is found in many parts of the United States, particularly in the Carolinas, Florida and Tennessee. It is sometimes called South Carolina rock. The deposits are remains of marine life. As the rock is mined, it is about 50 per cent tricalcium phosphate (Gag (P04)2). The rock is sometimes finely 124 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE ground and sold as a fertilizer under the name ''floats.'* There is an increasing amount of floats used, particularly in the central west, where the soils contain considerable amounts of organic matter. But most of the rock is treated with sulfuric acid so as to render it soluble. The product is called acid phosphate, or dissolved rock. In this form it contains about 14 per cent of phosphoric acid,^ and costs about $14 per ton in New York City. When applied to the soil, it reverts to the original in- soluble form. Being soluble when it is applied, it is distributed in the soil moisture. When it reverts it is deposited on the outside of innumerable soil grains. This gives a larger area exposed to the action of soil water, so that it will dissolve and supply plants faster than it would in the finely ground form. 126. Bone. Bones are sometimes finely ground to form bone meal, or treated with sulfuric acid to form dissolved bone. They are also used as bone ash, steamed bone meal and bone black. The amount of phosphoric acid varies from 18 to 36 per cent. Good bone meal contains about 4 per cent nitrogen and 22 per cent phosphoric acid. 127. Thomas Slag. This material is a by-product from the manufacture of steel. It is not used to a very great extent in America at present. It is not acid in its nature and so has an advantage over acid phosphate. It is sometimes called "basic slag." iThe composition of phosphatic fertilizers is usually given in terms )f phosphoric acid (P2 O5). Such a compoimd does not exist in fertilizers, 3ut it furnishes a basis for comparison. Phosphoric acid costs about four and one-half to five cents per pound. The composition of potash fertilizers is also expressed in terms of a substance that does not occur in the fertilizers, potash (K5O). In both cases it would be much more desirable to have the composition expressed in terms of elements, phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). An effort is now being made to change to this system, but it has not , yet been generally adopted. POTASSIUM 125 POTASSIUM 128. Forms of Potassium Fertilizers. The chief ferti- lizing materials carrying potassium are barnyard manure, muriate of potash (KCl), sulfate of potash (K2SO4), kainit and wood-ashes. 129. Kainit, Muriate of Potash and Sulfate of Potash. Kainit is mined in Germany in the same way as rock-salt. It was probably deposited in the same way. It was while trying to get salt that kainit was found. It contains salt and other minerals with about 12 per cent of potash (K2O). Kainit is used as a fertilizer in Germany, but is not much used in this country because it contains too many im- purities on which to pay freight. Nearly all the potassium used in America is potassium chlorid, or muriate of potash (KCl). This is manufac- tured from the kainit. It contains about 50 per cent of potash (K2O). It costs about $45 per ton, or about 4.5 cents per pound of potash. Sulfate of potash (KgSO^) is also manufactured from kainit. It costs about one cent per pound more for the potash than in the form of muriate. It is used in cases where the muriate is not desirable. The muriate usually injures the quality of sugar beets and tobacco. 130. Wood-Ashes. Hardwood-ashes contain 2 to 10 per cent of potash and average 5 to 6 per cent. They also contain 1 to 2 per cent of phosphoric acid and about 34 per cent of lime (CaO). If the ashes are leached, most of the potash is removed. Soft wood-ashes contain less potash than those from hard wood. Coal-ashes contain almost no plant-food. 126 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE LIME 131. Functions of Lime. Lime is usually spoken of as a soil amendment rather than as a plant-food, because its chief value when added to the soil does not seem to be as a plant-food. A deficiency of hme in the soil seems to show in other ways before there is really a shortage of lime as food. Lime helps to improve the physical con- dition of some soils. It corrects acidity. It helps to liber- ate other plant-foods. Perhaps its most important effect is its influence on soil organisms. If there is not sufficient lime in the soil, the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen cannot go on properly, nor can the Hberation of nitrogen from the humus. The addition of lime to the soil so favors the preparation of nitrogen food that its effect is often the same as the addition of nitrogen. If a soil is deficient in Hme it is unwise to go on farming it until this deficiency has been corrected. The other fertilizers or barnyard manure cannot be used most economically if there is not sufficient lime. On the other hand lime does not take the place of these fertilizing materials. 132. Relation of Crops to Lime. There is a very decided difference in the lime requirements of different crops. Alfalfa and clover need more lime than do any of the other common farm crops. (See Fig. 97.) These may show a benefit from the use of lime when timothy, corn and wheat are not helped. Timothy may fail for lack of lime where red-top thri\es. Alfalfa, clover, lettuce, beets", cantaloupes, onions, timothy are more sensitive to acid conditions than are soy-beans, cowpeas, red-top and watermelons. LIME 12T 133. How to Tell the Need of Lime. One of the most common indications of the need of hme is the failure of red clover on soils where it once grew. This is generally due to the exhaustion of lime. If red clover fails and red-top thrives we should certainly make a test of hme. Clover sometimes fails because of the root-borer^ but, in this case, it does not fail until it has produced the first crop of hay. In some regions it fails because of disease (anthracnose), but, in this case, it makes a good growth until the disease attacks it. If clover and alfalfa produce good crops, lime will not be needed. An easy test for the need of lime is to lay off a plot four rods square in the field. Apply a bushel of Hme on half of the plot and apply manure on half of it in the other direction. We then have lime and manure alone and together as compared with no treatment. The hme is likely to have a greater effect the second year. 134. Forms of Lime. Lime occurs in the earth as limestone rock or calcium carbonate (CaCOg). When this is burned, carbon dioxid (COg) is given off and we have left quicklime (CaO). This is the lime that is used in plastering. When this Hme is w^ater- slaked to form plaster, it takes up water and we have calcium hydrate, waterslaked lime, or hydrated lime (Ca (OH)j^. When this is put on the walls as plaster it dries out and becomes white. As it loses water, it takes up car- bon dioxid from the air and the calcium carbonate is LI ME > a Fig. 54. Experiment to deter- mine whether lime is needed 128 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE again formed. When quicklime air-slakes it also takes up carbon dioxid from the air. Similar changes take place when it is used on the soil. QuickUme, calcium oxid (CaO) is the most common form of lime used for agricultural purposes. Usually a poorer grade is used than for plastering. When this is applied to soil, the same changes take place as in the case of plastering. The lump lime is sometimes finely ground so that it can be applied by machinery. Limestone rock is sometimes finely ground and is applied to the soil. Some firms slake the lime with water and sell the hydrated lime. This is also a powder. Fifty-six pounds of quicklime (CaO) are equal to 74 pounds of hydrated lime, or to 100 pounds of ground limestone or air-slaked Ume. The quicklime, or hydrated lime, should not be applied within a week of the time of planting crops, because it is sometimes so caustic as to injure young plants. Ashes contain about one-third lime. Gypsum or land plaster (CaSO^) also contains lime, but it is not so good as other forms because it contains sulfuric acid. The use of it is rapidly decreasing. 135. Application of Lime. From 500 pounds to one ton (6 to 30 bushels) per acre is usually enough to apply at one time. The application may need to be repeated in a few years. Formerly much larger appUcations were made. There are many conflicting reports as to the benefit of lime. Many regions have taken it up, dropped it, and later come to use it once more. The explanation is that with the amounts applied there was enough to last a con- siderable time. COMPLETE FERTILIZERS 129 COMPLETE FERTILIZERS 136. Cost, Valuation and Analyses. Fertilizers that are purchased by farmers are usually made up of a mixture of some of the materials previously described. Such fer- tilizers usually contain nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. They are commonly used without much regard for the needs of crops on the particular soil. They are subject to inspection in a number of states and must be labeled with the per cent of each plant-food that they contain. In Vermont, in 1908, the result of this inspection showed that the average selling price of mixed fertiUzers was $31.24 per ton, but the materials for mixing them could have been purchased at retail in Boston or New York for $20.75. Evidently there is a considerable loss to farmers in purchasing complete fertilizers. Not only are the fertiUzers likely to be ill adapted to their needs, but the prices are too high. The difference between $20.75 and $31.24 per ton covers: (1) The cost of mixing. (2) Cost of transportation. (3) Storage, commission to agents, dealers, etc. (4) Selling on credit, and bad debts. A careful farmer should always avoid the last two expenses, so far as possible. At the average retail prices in New York City in 1908, nitrogen cost 18^ cents, phosphoric acid and potash each cost 4^ cents per pound. The farmers have paid much more than these prices. According to the figures above they must have paid 25 cents per pound for nitrogen and 6 cents for potash and for phosphoric acid. 130 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE A fertilizer containing 2 per cent nitrogen, 10 per cent phosphoric acid and 8 per cent potash is often spoken of as a 2, 10, 8 (two, ten, eight) fertiUzer. An approximate way to estimate the value of a fer- tilizer in dollars per ton is to multiply the per cent of nitrogen by four and add the per cents of phosphoric acid and potash. This estimates nitrogen at 20 cents per pound and phosphoric acid and potash at 5 cents each per pound. (Prove this rule.) These are higher than the New York prices, but lower than the farmers pay for complete fertilizers, and allow a considerable margin for freight. A 2, 10, 8 fertilizer would therefore be worth approximately 4X2+10+8=$26 per ton. The labels on fertilizer bags are often confusing, and are doubtless intended to be so. The following is a copy of such a label, and at the right are the facts reduced to their simplest terms: Per cent Nitrogen 0.82- 1.64 Nitrogen as ammonia 1.00- 2.00 Soluble phosphoric acid 6.00- 7 00 Reverted phosphoric acid 2.00- 3.00 Insoluble phosphoric acid 1.00- 2.00 Total phosphoric acid 10.00-12.00 Bone phosphate of Hme 22.00-25.00 Available bone phosphate of lime . . 18.00-20.00 Available phosphoric acid 8.00-10.00 Potash 4.00- 5.00 Equivalent to sulfate of potash 8.00-10.00 Per cent Nitrogen 0.82 Available phos- phoric acid . . .8.00 Potash 4.00 The higher percentages in the guarantee mean nothing. A guarantee of 4 to 5 per cent of potash is a guarantee of 4 per cent; it would be the same if it said 4 to 50 per cent. Nor do the numerous equivalents mean anything, except for comparison, as that .82 per cent of nitrogen is equiva- lent to 1 per cent of ammonia. COMPLETE FERTILIZERS 131 Farmers are also likely to be misled by the names applied to the fertilizers, as potato specials, corn specials, etc. One firm in Vermont sold three kinds of fertilizer under thirty-three different names! One firm in New York sells two grass fertilizers, one analyzing 1, 7, 2, and one 9, 6, 6. They must be for different kinds of grass, or more likely they are for two different kinds of farmers. The former fertilizer is cheap, thus pleasing some persons, the latter is adapted to grass, thus pleasing others. 137. Home Mixing of Fertilizers. It is not a difficult matter to mix fertilizers at home. The proper proportions may be put together on a tight barn-floor and be shoveled over a few times. If any of the ingredients are lumpy, these should be put in first and the lumps crushed. Fer- tilizer agents argue that the mixing is better done at the factories. This may be true, but field experiments have shown that the home-mixed ones produce as good crops and are much cheaper. Sometimes a grange purchases enough materials for a carload or more of fertilizer. The mixing is then done at the factories at little or no expense. Suppose that it is desired to make ten tons of a 2, 7, 8 fertihzer. How much nitrate of soda (15.5 per cent), acid- phosphate (14 per cent) and muriate of potash (50 per cent) will be required? This will require 20,000 X .02 = 400 pounds of nitrogen, 20,000 X. 07=1, 400 pounds phos- phoric acid and similarly 1,600 pounds of potash. To furnish these amounts will require: 400h-0.155= 2,581 pounds of nitrate of soda 1,400h-0.14 =10,000 pounds of acid phosphate 1,600-^-0.50 = 3,200 pounds of muriate of potash 15,781 132 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE This lacks 4,219 pounds of weighing ten tons, but it has all the plant-food called for. One can put in this much dirt for filler, but it would be simpler to merely use three- fourths as much per acre as was planned. If such a fer- tilizer were purchased ready-made, one would have to pay freight on this much useless material. 138. How to Determine What Fertilizer to Use. Grass crops and most crops whose yield depends on the total vegetative growth, are more likely to need nitrogen than are ordinary crops. On the Cornell University farms, fertilizers gave little benefit when used on oats, corn or wheat, but, when nitrate of soda was applied on timothy, i< increased the yield from one and one-half to three and three-fourths tons per acre. (See Fig. 55.) Leguminous crops are more likely to need phosphoric acid, potash and lime than are other crops. (See Fig. 97.) If Ume is needed, phosphoric acid is also very likely to be needed, because most of the available phosphorus is in combination with lime.^ There may, however, be plenty of lime and not enough phosphorus, for the great store- house of lime is limestone. In a general way we may say that nitrogen promotes leafiness, while phosphoric acid and potash have more to do with seed-production. This may help in determin- ing what fertilizer to try, but must not be relied upon too much. More important than any of these points is the value of the crop. High-priced crops may be profitably ferti- Uzed when it would be folly to fertilize low-priced ones. A truck crop may be worth $200 per acre on the same farm where a corn crop is worth $20. If a certain fertilizer 1 Wisconsin Research Itnllpfin I. Nothing ,590 ll)s. hay i»or aero (VK) ll)H. nitrate Hoda 32() acid phosphate HO muriate potaHh 7,590 Ibj. hay per acre 3'->(l lbs. nitrate Hoda 320 acid ph«)sphate K) muriate potash 7,110 lbs. hay per acre Fio. 55. Timothy hay responds to fertihzers, particularly nitrate of soda I^M k.il .jii 1 l^^Ei^.^_^^^^^B P* N^ ll 1 1 ^^^^^^^^HR^^wT!^ w 1 pn ■ I^^^^HpHIV' ▼ T *>.-/<^ ,.. ^ "->-^i:A «^^ tej ■i ^.. ...... J ■ ■i H 20 tons manure 7,420 lbs. hay per acre 10 tons manurrt 4.359 lbs. hay per acre Nothing 2,230 lbs. hay per aore Fio. 5b Timothy hay responds to barnyard manure COMPLETE FERTILIZERS 133 will increase each crop 10 per cent it will mean a gain of $2 per acre on the corn and $20 per acre on the truck. One might pay $10 for such a fertiUzer if he is raising truck crops, but could not afford to use it on corn. Fig. 57. The crop to be grown is as important as the soil, when deciding on a fertiUzer. Floats are of little value for oats but best for rape. (See Fig. 58) Contrary to the common opinion, fertiUzers are usually not profitable on very poor land. Such land usually needs humus, and often needs other treatment before it will pay to use fertilizers. About forty farmers in New York have reported trials of nitrate of soda for the production Fig. 58. Rape is best with floats. Compare with Fig. 57 of timothy hay. In very few cases has it paid if the field did not yield at least one and one-fourth tons when un- treated, and in very few cases did it fail to pay when the unfertiHzed area yielded over one and one-fourth tons. 134 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE It seems to be very nearly as easy to double a yield of one and one-half tons as to double a yield of one-half ton. In the former case, the gain will be three times as much as in the latter. The profitableness of a fertihzer is very much a matter of season. In general, the best results are secured in favorable seasons. A fertihzer that pays in a good season may not pay in a season of deficient rainfall. In deciding on a fertilizer practice to be followed, one should consult the State Experiment Station to learn whether there are any fundamental deficiencies of the soils of the region. ''On practically all Ohio soils that have been for any length of time in cultivation — possibly excepting the mucks — phosphorus must be supplied be- fore the maximum yield of any crop can be attained. The longer the land has been in cultivation the greater the need of phosphorus, but many comparatively new soils will respond to it."^ Phosphoric acid seems to be deficient in nearly all of the soils from the Appalachian mountains to the Mississippi river. After one has obtained all the public information •concerning the region it is best to make trials of the most likely combinations on small areas of the farm. For this purpose, we should select as uniform a place in the field as possible, and one that is neither better nor poorer than the average. Even such trials must be accepted with caution. For instance, at the Ohio Station, where trials have been conducted on the same land for fourteen years, the first season was abnormal ; potash gave an increase in yield of wheat and phosphoric acid decreased the yield. lOhio. Circular No. 79 BARNYARD MANURE 135 But all the later years have shown that phosphorus was most needed and potash least needed. BARNYARD MANURE 139. Importance of Manure. Over half a century ago a French scientist declared that one of the most important lessons for the farmer to learn was how to. produce good barnyard manure and to use it rationally; that the funda- mental question was and would remain the manure ques- tion. The older our farm lands become, the more truth we see in his statement. In many parts of America the manure is thrown away. In regions where thousands of dollars are spent for fertilizers, a half of the value of manure is usually lost before it is applied to the land. Figured at the price that the plant-food in manure would cost in fertilizers, the amount produced in the United States is worth $2,353,000,000^ per year. The value of the corn crop in 1908 was about two-thirds this amount, $1,601,000,000. 140. Value of Manure. The value of manure is often figured on the basis of what the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash would cost if purchased in commercial fertiUzers. The plant-food in manure is less soluble than that in fertilizers ; on the other hand, this method does not give any value to the humus, which is a very important part of the manure. Field trials usually show that this is a fair method of comparison with fertilizers, particu- larly when the lasting effects are considered. Truck- growers in New Jersey, who buy both manure and ferti- iFarmers' Bulletin Ny of the Land, p. 192. 3Farmers' Bulletin No. 192, p. 20. 142 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE a ton of well-rotted manure is worth more than a ton of fresh manure. The trouble is that after exposure there are so few tons. One farmer who looked over these figures remarked that he hauled 200 loads of manure to a pile beside a field in the spring, and that when he came to spread it in the fall, he had 60 loads. $2.15 $2.96 $4.80 Manure exposed in yard. Stail manure. Stall manure and acid phosphate. Fig. 60. Relative values of crops grown from stall manure and from an equa? quantity of manure left exposed in yard and from stall manure reinforced witfcl 23 cents' worth of acid phosphate per ton. At the Ohio Station, manure exposed three months in an open barnyard lost one-third of its fertilizing value. This manure was used on crops and was found to be 27 per cent less effective than the same amount of manure that had not been thus exposed (Fig. 60). As manure is exposed under the eaves in barnyards, it certainly loses much more than half of its value. But merely being under cover is not a sure preventive of loss. Unless it is kept moist and compact, it will ferment, and a large part of the nitrogen will pass off into the air. The ideal way to care for manure is to spread it on the land as fast as it is made. One can keep a wagon or manure-spreader on which the manure is thrown each day. When a load is ready, it is hauled to the field and spread at once. This is not so difficult as at first appears. It saves the labor of handling the manure twice, — once to BARNYARD MANURE 143 throw it out of the barn, and once to put it on the wagon. When the tilled land is all in crops, it can be spread on the pastures or meadows, so that there is nearly always a place to put it. If manure cannot be hauled in this manner, the next best way is to have a covered barnyard or shed where all the manure is put and in which stock is kept. The stock will pack the manure and keep it moist — conditions that Fig. 61. Manure exposed under the eaves where it loses 30 to cent of its value are essential for preserving it. If it is kept tramped and moist, and if the shed has a cement floor, there will be practically no loss. A cement floor under steers in Ohio was half paid for in one year by the saving of manure. When manure is kept in this way, it should be hauled out during the winter and spring. During the summer, when the stock are at pasture, it will dry out and ferment, and much of the nitrogen will escape to the air. If it could be kept moist, this loss could be avoided. 144 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE To prevent losses from manure, it is necessary: (1) To use absorbents to retain all the liquid part. (2) To spread it on the land as soon as possible. (3) If it cannot be spread at once, keep it under cover, tramped and moist, and on a cement floor, if possible. Various materials are used with manure to help to re- tain the nitrogen and to reinforce the manure at the same time. Kainit, gypsum, acid phosphate and floats are most commonly used. Of these, acid phosphate and floats are best, unless the farm is in particular need of potash. Any of these substances tend to retain the nitrogen that might escape to the air as a result of fermentation. They do not prevent much of the losses due to leaching. About 40 pounds of acid phosphate, or twice this amount of floats, may be mixed with each ton of manure as it accumulates. At the Ohio Station 40 pounds of acid phosphate, worth about 30 cents, was used with each ton of manure. This pro- duced a ten-year average increase in crops to the value of $4.57 for each ton of manure above the cost of the acid phosphate. It practically doubled the benefits from each ton of manure. This is doubtless due in part to the saving of nitrogen, and in part to the need of phosphoric acid on this land. 145. Application of Manure. A good place to apply manure is preceding the corn crop. It is also desirable as a top-dressing for grass land. Unless there is some reason for not doing so, the manure should be applied on the most valuable crop that is being raised, — corn, cotton, potatoes, truck, etc. On fairly fertile land it is not best to apply it directly to the small grain crops, as oats, wheat, barley, as they are likely to make too rank a growth. BARNYARD MANURE 145 Fig. 62. An expensive way to apply manure Thrown in piles and spread as in Fig. 63 On the new lands of the West, manure sometimes injures crops when it is plowed under, chiefly because it causes the land to dry out. On such lands the use of manure should not be con- demned. It should be appHed as thinly as possible as a top-dressing on grass lands, where it will help to retain the moisture. When it is plowed under, it will then be so well rotted as to do no harm. Sometimes it is best to let it become well rotten before applying on such land. Small appUcations frequently made are much better than heavy applications less frequently. The application should, if possible, be thin enough so that the entire farm may be covered in three to five years. Manure may be ap- pUed at any time. The sooner it is on the land the better. It is better to apply it in the fall or winter than to store it until spring. It is much better to apply it in the spring than to Fig. 63. An expensive way of applying manure. This manure was pitched out of the barn onto a pile, pitched from the pile onto a wagon, pitched from the wagon to the ground, ana pitched around in the field to spread it — • handled four times. (See Pigs. 62 and 65 .^ 146 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 64. Spreading manure directly from the wagon, a better method than that shown by Figs. 62 and 63. wait till fall. It is sometimes feared that applications when the ground is frozen or when there is snow on the land may result in loss, but experiments have not shown this to be serious. The K __ smaller amount of farm work during the winter also makes this a desir- able time to spread ma- nure. The best method of applying manure, when large amounts are to be hauled, is to use a manure- spreader (Fig. 65). These are too expensive to use on very small farms. The chief advantages of a manure-spreader are that it saves labor and will distribute the same amount of manure over more land and spread it more evenly. If a spreader is not used, the manure should be spread from a wagon, and it may be desirable to go over it with a brush-harrow or spike- tooth harrow to secure an even distribution. It should certainly not be thrown into small piles in the field and then spread, as this involves handling it once more than is necessary. In conclusion, it may be said that the chief means of maintaining the fertility of the land are the rotation of crops, including grass and leguminous crops in Fig. 65. Spreading manure with a manure spreader. This manure was pitched from the stable to the spreader — handled once only. (See Fig. 63.) BARNYARD MaNURE 147 the rotation, and the use of stable manure — which in- volves the keeping of stock. GREEN-MANURE 146. Crops are sometimes grown for the purpose of plowing under as green-manure. Rye, buckwheat, cow- peas, crimson clover, are frequently grown for this purpose This is a desirable practice when the land is very deficient in humus. So far as possible, such crops should be grown without extra labor. Crimson clover or cowpeas may be sown in corn or cotton at the last cultivation with little expense except for seed. In regions too far north for these plants rye is often used. It should be plowed under in the spring before it has made enough growth to exhaust the water of the soil, and when green enough to rot readily. It is not often wise to make a regular practice of plow- ing under crops that are worth harvesting. It will be better to feed them to stock and use the manure. If one is trying to get worn-out land to produce, or under certain conditions where stock cannot profitably be kept, the practice may be followed regularly, and by many means catch crops too small to harvest, but worth plow- ing under, may be procured. One is likely to be deceived as to the amount of material that is being added to the soil by the practice. Green crops are about 70 to 75 per cent water, which is likely to deceive one as to the amount of organic matter. Some of the best potato growers plow under a clover crop every three years for keeping up the humus supply. The potatoes are grown on the sod and are heavily fertilized. 148 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Are fertilizers used in your region? If so, what fertilizers produce the best results? 2. How long has the land been cropped? Are the farms as pro- ductive as formerly? 3. How do the farm practices on the most productive farms differ from those on the least productive? 4. What care is taken of the barnyard manure to prevent losses from leaching, from fermentation, and from escape of the liquid portion? 5. On what crops is manure used? Is it needed more than formerly? Will it pay to care for it better than formerly? 6. If fertilizers are used, what is their composition and cost? Would it pay to buy the separate materials and mix them at home? 7. What wild legumes are common in the region? 8. Wheat and oats can be grown in water cultures, yet they turn yellow when grown on wet land. Why? 9. What are the three leading crops of the region? What is an average yield of each? How much nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash would each crop remove from an acre per year (Appendix, Table 6)? 10. Get the present prices of dried blood, nitrate of soda, acid phosphate and muriate of potash, also the freight rate from the town where you would purchase them. If these cannot be had, use the following prices, which are f. o. b. in New York City, September, 1908. Freight rate to Ithaca, less than car-lots, 18 cents per hundred. Dried blood (10 per cent) $39 per ton Nitrate of soda (15 per cent) 52 per ton Acid phosphate (14 per cent) 12 per ton Muriate of potash (50 per cent) 41 per ton Assuming that it is desirable to apply 1,000 pounds per acre of a 3^, 8, 10 fertiUzer on eight acres of potatoes: (a) How much nitrate of soda, acid phosphate, and muriate of potash must be purchased? (b) How much would it cost, including freight? (c) How much of the mixture as made by a farmer would need to be applied per acre? {d) On how much material is freight saved? 11. Assuming that it is desirable to apply 200 pounds per acre QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 149 of a 2, 10, 4 fertilizer on fall-sown wheat, work problems a, h, c, d, as oil preceding page, but use half the nitrogen in the form of dried blood. 12. In a three-year rotation of corn, wheat and clover at the Ohio Station, eight tons of manure were applied on the corn on certain plots. No manure was used on the wheat or clover. These crops got the bene- fits of the manure that was left in the soil. Stall manure and that from the barnyard were used, and were reinforced with different fertilizers. The following are results on a few plots: Plot 7 14 15 16 17 Treatment Nothing Yard manure and floats . . . . Stall manure and floats Nothing Yard manure and acid phos phate Stall manure and acid phos phate Nothing Nothing , Yard manure Stall manure Nothing Average yield per acre Ck)ra 10 years Grain Stover Bus. 38.86 59.85 63.08 33.04 60.07 64.90 32.50 33.97 51.29 58.79 37.84 Lbs. 2,263 3,347 3,630 2,047 3,288 3,534 2,014 2,058 2,918 3,372 2,341 Wheat 6 years Grain Straw Bus. 11.49 24.21 25.82 10.24 24.65 25.55 9.44 9.61 18.20 19.73 9.93 Lbs. 1,425 2,627 2,828 1,193 2,615 2,800 1,115 1,105 2,071 2,237 1,209 Hay 6 years Lbs. 2,443 3,818 4,52^ 1,754 3,513 4,439 1,672 1,626 2,441 3,140 1,977 Notice that each third plot is a check plot, to eliminate differences due to the variations in soil. It is assumed that the change from one check plot to another is gradual. Check plot 1 yielded 38.86 bushels of corn, and check plot 4 yielded 33.04 bushels. The difference is 5.82. We assume that the soil is getting poorer as we pass froir plot 1 to plot 4. If in the width of three plots it has decreased 5.82, we sup- pose that it would decrease one-third this amount or 1.94 in one plot. If untreated it is, therefore, assumed that plot 2 would have yielded 36.92 bushels and plot 3 would have yielded 34.98 bushels. In order to check the work we may subtract the 1.94 again and we should have 33.04. But plot 2 did yield 59.85 bushels, hence the treatment must have produced an increase of 22.93 bushels. Similarly fill out the fol- lowing table. It may be easier first to make a table of probable yield?, of each plot if not treated. 150 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Increased Yields Due to Manure and Fertilizer Plot 15 16 Treatment Yard manure and floats ... Stall manure and floats .... Yard manure and acid phos phate Stall manure and acid phos- phate Yard manure Stall manure Average increase per acre Corn 10 years Grain Bus. 22.93 Stover Wheat 6 years Grain Straw Hay 6 years If com is worth 40 cents per bushel, wheat 70 cents, hay $8 per ton, stover $3, and straw $2, fill out the following table: Value of Increase Due to Manure and Fertilizer. Plot Treatment Total value of increase Cost of treatment per acre"- Net value of in'ireasb Per acre Per ton oi manure 2 3 5 Yard manure and floats Stall manure and floats Yard manure and acid phosphate $128 128 2 24 2 24 6 Stall manure and acid phosphate . 15 16 Yard manure Stall Manure . PROBLEMS FOR CLASSES THAT HAVE STUDIED CHEMISTRY 13. Write the reactions when: (1) Limestone is burned; (2) quick- lime is water-slaked; (3) plaster dries out; (4) when quicklime air-slakes. 14. Find the comparative amounts of lime (CaO) in limestone, quick-lime and water-slaked lime. ^Cost of the acid phosphate and floats per acre LABORATORY EXERCISES 151 15. Complete the following reaction which takes place in the manufacture of acid phosphate: Caa (P04)2+2H2S04+2H20=? The resulting mixture is acid phosphate. About what proportion of it is land plaster or gypsum? 16. A 2, 8, 10 fertilizer contains what per cent of NH3? Of P? Of K? 17. Muriate of potash that is 80 per cent pure (80 per cent KCl) would be stated as what per cent potash (K2O)? 18. Nitrate of soda that is 96 per cent pure would contain what per cent of N? LABORATORY EXERCISES 48. Examination of Fertilizers. Materials. — Small samples of different fertilizing materials. Describe each. Test each with litmus paper, to see which are acid and which are alkaline. 49. Absorption of Manure by Soils. (For humid regions.) Materials. — One quart of barnyard manure, can of soil, perforated bottom. Let the manure soak in water for a day or two, to get manure-water. Pour this through the soil. Compare with the water that comes out at the bottom. 50. Losses of Manure. Materials. — Two hundred pounds or more of manure, scales. Weigh the manure, leave it in a pile outdoors for several months; weigh again. 61. Mixing Fertilizers. Materials. — Fifty pounds or more of several fertilizing materials. Mix these in the proper proportions for problem 10 or 11. 52. Fertilizer Trial. Materials. — One-fourth acre or more of farm land; separate ingredi- ents for fertilizers. Lay off the field into plots one-fortieth, one-twentieth, or one- 152 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE tenth acre each, taking care to have the plots as uniform as possible. Treat the plots as follows: Plot 1. Nothing, check. Plot 2. Nitrate of soda, at the rate of 160 pounds per acre, 4 pounds for one-fortieth acre, etc. Plot 3. Acid phosphate, 320 pounds per acre. Plot 4. Nothing, check. Plot 5. Muriate of potash, 80 pounds per acre. Plot 6. Nitrate of soda, 160 pounds; acid phosphate, 320 pounds. Plot 7. Nothing, check. Plot 8. Nitrate of soda, 160 pounds; muriate of potash, 80 pounds. Plot 9. Muriate of potash, 80 pounds; acid phosphate, 320 pounds. Plot 10. Nothing, check. Plot 11. Nitrate of soda, 160 pounds; acid phosphate, 320 pounds. muriate of potash, 80 pounds. Plot 12. Barnyard manure, 10 loads or tons per acre. Plot 13. Nothing, check. If there is not room for so many plots, the first five may be omitted. Raise a crop of corn, cotton or potatoes according to the region. In the fall, harvest and weigh the crop, in order to see which fertilizer is most profitable. / If the school does not have land available for such an experiment, some farmer nearby will probably furnish it. Correspond with the State Experiment Station, and an experiment better adapted to the community n^ay be arranged for. COLLATERAL READING Commercial Fertilizers, Farmers' Bulletin, No. 44. Barnyard Manure, Farmers' Bulletin No. 192. Home Mixing of Fertihzers. Farmers' Bulletin No. 222, pp. 5-9; No. 225, pp. 7, 8. Lime and Clover. Farmers' Bulletin No. 237, pp. 5, 6. Use of Commercial Fertilizers. Farmers' Bulletin No. 259, pp. 56. Leguminous Crops for Green-Manuring. Farmers' Bulletin No. 278 Renovation of Worn-out Soils. Farmers' Bulletin No. 245. The Conservation of Natural Resources. Farmers' Bulletin, Ng 327. COLLATERAL READING 153 Consei'vation of Soil Resources. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 342, pp. 6-10. The Maintenance of Fertility. Ohio Bulletin, No. 182. The Maintenance of Fertility (Barnyard Manure). Ohio Bulletin No. 183. How to Determine the Fertilizer Requirements of Ohio Soils- Ohio Circular No. 79. The Fertility in Illinois Soils. Illinois Bulletin No. 123. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. Vol. I, pp. 454-513 Soils, by S. W. Fletcher. Th3 Fertility of the Land, by I. P. Roberts Soils and Fertilizers, by Harry Snyder. Fertilizers, by E. B. Voorhees. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE TO PAGE 138 Since the humus of soils has so much influence on crop yields, the amount of dry matter or humus-making material of the feed that is- recovered in the manure is of great importance. In one test with a horse, 47 per cent of the dry matter of the feed was recovered in the manure. In a test with a steer, 55 per cent was recovered. The dry matter of the manure is probably more valuable than the same amount of material plowed under as straw or hay. It is safe to assume that half of the humus-making material is recovered in the manure. If the manure is allowed to rot, some of this material is lost. In several tests where it was exposed six months, about half of the dry matter was lost. Just as it is usually wise to feed animals to get manure rather than to depend entirely on commerical fertilizers, so it is usually wise to feed animals to get humus rather than plow under crops. If the manure is properly handled we will still have about three-fourths of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, and half of the humus-making material. CHAPTER VII SOME IMPORTANT FARM CROPS 147. Relative Importance of the Different Crops of the World. If under the one word grass we include all the hay and pasture plants, then the most important crop of the world is grass. But this is a collection of a number of different plants. The most valuable single plant of the world is wheat. The potato is second in value and corn third. There are now more pounds of corn grown than of wheat, but the wheat is worth more per pound, so that its total value is still greater than that of corn. It will be noticed that the two crops whose total yields lead all other crops are natives of the new world. The dis- Potatoes 284 Com 218 Wheat 207 Oats 114 Rice 107 Rye 81 Barley 62 Fig. 66. The world's crop production for the year 1906 in billions of pounds.^ covery of America was much more than the discovery of more land. Of these two crops, corn has attained the greatest development in America, but the potato has at- 1 Yearbook, United States Department ot Agriculture, 1907. Bushels of wheat multiplied by 60, com by 56, potatoes by 60, oats by 32, rye by 56, barley by 48. (154) SOME IMPORTANT FARM CROPS 155 tained greater prominence in Europe than in its native land. Of the cereal^ crops, the leading one in Europe is wheat; in Asia, rice; in South America, wheat; in North America, corn. 148. Relative Rank of the Different Crops in the United States. In 1899, the census value of corn was over one- fourth of the value of all crops — all plant products — in the United States. The forest crops are second in value; then follow in order: cotton, hay, wheat, oats, potatoes, barley and tobacco. None except those listed has an annual Corn 1,132 Forest Prod- ucts 850 Cotton 590 Hay 587 Wheat 503 Oats 293 Potatoes 161 Barley 70 Tobacco 61 Fig. 67. Crops of the United States, Average values in millions of doilara for the five years 1903 to 1907. Forest products for 1906 only. ^ value as great as $25,000,000. The diagram shows the comparative values of these crops. The values given do not include the value of the corn-stalks or the straw of wheat and oats, or the value of the wood used as fuel. See Appendix, Table 11 for comparative values of different agricultural products. The crop yields are given in Table 14. ^A cereal is a grass grown for its edible grain. 2Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture, 1907, and Forest Service Bulletin No. 77. 156 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE CORN 149. Historical. Corn is a native of the New World. It is thought to have originated in Mexico, and to have been carried north and south by the Indians. The Indians had grown it for many centuries before America was discovered. They were raising better crops of it than some farmers now raise. They taught the first settlers how to grow it. Had it not been for the corn that the Indians shared with them, the early settlers would have died of famine. Had it not been for corn, the settlement of the middle West would have been long delayed, and it is even conceivable that this region might not now belong to the United States. Had it not been for the increased wealth and population of the North, which was due to corn, it is possible that the Civil War might have ended differ- ently. Corn and cotton have had more to do with the his- tory of America than has ''taxation without representa- tion." In fact, there would have been few people to tax at the time of the Revolution had it not been for these crops. The botanical name of corn is Zea mays. It is often _ called maize, or Indian corn, in order to distinguish it from corn as the word is used in Europe. Wheat, barley, and other small grains are there spoken of as corn. The word is used much as we use the word grain. Probably most Americans think of Indian corn when the word corn is read in the Bible, but we must remember that in those days the Indians were probably the only people who knew this crop. 150. Corn Crop of the World. Over three-fourths of CORN 157 the world's corn crop is grown in the United States. Nearly half of the world's crop is grown in the seven states of Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana and Ohio. These are the corn-surplus states. It is these seven states that furnish nearly all of the corn that is sold off the farms on which it grows. Corn occupies one-third of the area in crops of all kinds in the United States, other than pasture. About one-third of the farms raise wheat, but over four-fifths of them raise corn. 'If the corn crop of the United States for 1906 had been placed in wagons, 50 bushels per load, and allowed 20 feet of space for each wagon and team, the train of corn would have reached nine times around the earth at the equator.^' ^ The United States has no rival in corn-production. Argentina ranks second, but it produces only about one- fifteenth as much as the United States. Argentina still has a considerable area of undeveloped land that is adapted to corn, but it is not probable that its production will ever equal that of the United States. 151. Relation of Climate to Corn-production. As has been stated in previous chapters, climate is a much more important factor in crop-growth than is the soil. The regions that have similar cUmates have similar plants the world over. In order to produce the best yields of any crop, it is necessary that the rainfall, temperature and sunshine all be adapted to that crop.. For its best growth, corn requires a high temperature during the growing season, long days of bright sunshine, and a large amount of rain during the ^Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, p. 403 158 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE hottest weather. The ''corn -belt" of the United States seems to be the largest area in the world where these climatic features are favorable, and where the land is level enough for economic corn-production. Even here there are probably no seasons when corn does not suffer to some extent from unfavorable weather. 3 14 » u ,« IS : / \ • 1 1? \ /'/ 1 \ ^-- if l/ '*"- .\ Y» NO RM/> ; \ A ^* / ( i Y 1 1 1 1 ^ t // •■-v^ 1 / # 1 0 \ \;^ V 1 1 It \\ f ^ Jl \\\ 1 f \ * 1 f, Fig. 68. Rainfall for June, July and August and yield of com per acre.* Average yields of com 1888 to 1902. Average rainfall for June, July and August. It is, of course, the temperature of the growing season rather than the temperature for the year that limits the corn crop. Nearly nine-tenths of the corn of the United States is grown in regions where the July temperature is between 70° and 80° Fahr. More is grown in the warmer part of this region than in the colder part. The amount and intensity of sunshine is also important. ^Yearbook, 1903, pp. 215-224 CORN 159 Few persons realize that there is much more sunshine in lUinois than in Louisiana during the summer months. Not only are there more hours of daylight, but the sunshine is much more intense. When rains come, they are usually of short duration and are followed by bright sunshine. The glaring sunlight of the middle West is one of its natural resources — worth more than gold mines. In the corn-belt of the United States there does not seem to be any very definite relationship between varia- tions in temperature from year to year and the corn crop. But there is a very decided relationship between rain- fall and yield. Again, it is not the rainfall of the year, but that of the growing period, that is most important. The rainfall of western England is 37 inches per year. That of Lincoln, Nebraska, is 27 inches. Yet the latter rainfall is better adapted to corn, because 16 inches of the year's supply falls in May, June, July and August, while in England only 11 inches falls during these months. The summer rainfall is deficient in most parts of Europe and Asia that might otherwise be adapted to corn. Fig. 68 shows the relationship of rainfall to yield of corn. It will be seen that the line representing the rainfall for June, July and August is almost parallel with the line represent- ing the yield per acre. 152. Why We Raise Corn. Where corn thrives, it pro- duces about twice as much food per acre as is produced by any of the other grains. This, together with the Hmited area of land with a corn cUmate, makes the farms in our corn-belt very high in price. It also makes it possible to grow corn in many regions that are not best adapted to it. A half-crop of corn may produce as much food as 160 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE a full crop of other grains. The demand for wheat as human food and for oats as horse food, makes these grains sell for higher prices per pound than corn. Average Crops in the United States for Five Years (1903-1907). Average yield Pounds Total digestible food per acre^ Value per acre Corn Wheat Oats Potatoes Cotton Bus. 27.5 13.9 30.1 95.9 1,540 834 963 5,754 Pounds 1,298 694 636 1,001 $11 99 10 80 10 00 53 35 20 70 Another reason for growing corn is that it is a tilled crop. It is very desirable to have a tilled crop in the rotation, in order to free the land of weeds and secure the other benefits that come from tillage. Since corn pays better than oats in most parts of the United States, why should we raise any oats? Oats are really not a competitor of corn. A farmer can raise all the corn that he can care for and raise oats besides, as the work does not come at the same time. Some persons have wondered why American farmers give so much less atten- tion to potatoes and root crops than do the farmers of Europe. These crops compete with corn. They occupy the same place in the rotation as corn, and require work at the same season of the year. In Europe, the cUmate and cheaper labor are both favorable to these crops, so that they can drive corn out. In this country, we raise few root crops or potatoes except for human food. Our climate makes corn a cheaper stock food. A farmer should ^ Total food here includes the digestible protein-f-carbohydrates-|-2jX fat. (See page 286.) CORN 161 grow a sufficient variety of crops so that he will be em- ployed as much of the year as possible. He must then pick the most profitable crop for each season. In the South there are two crops that can compete with corn; they are cotton and tobacco. 153. Types of Corn. There are six types of corn: (1) Pod corn (Zea tuni- cata) ; (2) soft corn (Zea amylacea) ; (3) pop-corn (Zea everta); (4) sweet corn (Zea saccharata); (5) flint corn (Zea indurata) ; (6) dent corn (Zea inden- lata) . The pod corn is characterized by having husks around each ker- nel. It is interesting, because it is thought to be the type from which the others were derived. The scales at the base of each kernel of common corn are probably the husks much reduced in size. Soft corn is not grown in North America except as a curiosity. Its endo- sperm is all soft white starch. Pop-corn is character- ized by its small size, its very hard kernel and con- sequent habit of popping. Fig. 69. Good ears of flint corn. Grown for grain in the It IS the other extreme from northeastern states. 162 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE soft corn, as its endosperm is practically all hard, horny- starch. Sweet corn is grown chiefly for human food, either green, dried or canned. The corn-can- ning industry is now becoming very important. Flint corn is characterized by having the larger part of its endosperm hard. It is still the prevailing type of field corn in New York and New England. It is earlier than most of the dent varie- ties. Where the latter are successful, they will out-yield the flint. The dent types are nearly always grown for silage, and some of the earlier dent varieties are displacing the flint corn in many localities. Dent corn has both horny and soft endosperm. It is the presence of the soft endosperm that causes the shrinking when the grain ripens and results in the ''dent" at the top of the kernel. This is the type that furnishes nearly all of the world's corn crop. The flint corn is about as much of a curiosity in the corn-belt as is the pod corn. A large number of varieties have been developed. Some of the leading ones are the Leaming, Reid's Yellow Dent, and, for northern sections. Pride of the North. There seems to be no difference in composition of the dent and the flint varieties. The difference between hard Fig. 70. A good ear of dent com CORN 163 and soft endosperm seems to be chiefly a physical one, being the difference between ice and snow. When com- pacted, the endosperm is glossy, but when loose it is starchy. 154. Fertilizers for Corn. Corn is not a poor-land crop. On poor soils there are other crops, such as hay, oats, rye, buckwheat, that will give some thing of a yield when the soil is so poor that corn would produce Httle or no grain. Barnyard manure is nearly always applied on the corn crop. Some of the farmers in the northern states are coming to apply it with a manure-spreader on the meadows one year preceding the corn crop. This seems to be a good practice. Commercial fertilizers do not usually give so good results with corn as with hay and the small grains. This is probably because these crops are planted earher, before the soil activities have Uberated plant-food, while corn grows at the season when the food of the soil is being prepared most rapidly. 155. Plowing for Corn. There seems to be no particular difference between fall plowing and early spring plowing on the average. In exceptional cases, one or the other may be best. In regions of deficient rainfall, it is desirable to plow in the summer or early fall, if possible, in order to have the land in condition to absorb and retain mois- ture. If the land washes badly, as in parts of the South, spring plowing is, of course, to be preferred. In most of the country, the labor question is of more importance than the soil differences. It is desirable to do as much of the plowing as possible in the fall, so as to have it out of the way of spring work. The earlier spring plowing can be done the better; of course, it should not be done until the soil is fit to work. 164 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 71. Early plowing enables the soil to take up and retain more moisture, and also increases the activity of the soil organ- isms, so that more plant-food is made available. The difference between early and late spring plowing is usually more than the difference between fall and spring plowing. Quiroga found that the surface two feet of soil on early-plowed land con- A good plow tained an average of 21 .49 per cent of moisture for the season, while on late-plowed land the average was 20.27 per cent. The soluble nitrogen in parts per milUon of dry soil averaged 4.51 for the early- plowed land and 2.83 for the late-plowed. The yields of corn were 59.6 bushels and 47.4 bushels.^ The early- plowed land had more moisture, more soluble nitrogen, and produced more grain. Early plowing usu- ally requires more labor in subsequent fitting of the land. If one is turning under clover, or other green-manure crop, the early-plowed land will also receive less additional humus. The proper depth for plowing varies with different conditions. Experiments have not yet shown the exact AQhio State University Bulletin, Series 8, No. 28 Fig. 72. A four-horse gang plow. One man can plow nearly as fast as two men with two- horse plows. CORN 165 relationship to these conditions. The trials thus far con- ducted have given best results with depths of four to six inches. In the humid regions, deeper plowing has been more successful than in the arid regions. Subsoiling^ is nowhere a common practice. Many trials of it have shown it to be unprofitable, with rare exceptions. In case one wishes to deepen the soil, it should not be done all at once. If sev- eral inches of the raw subsoil are turned up, it will injure the first few crops. It is better to plow one inch deeper each year until the de- sired depth is reached. In semi-arid regions the subsoil is usually not so different from the surface soil. On many soils the depth should be varied from year to year, otherwise a hard layer may form where the plow runs. When several teams are plowing on the same land, the plows should all be set at the same depth. If one plow runs an inch deeper than the others, it is much harder for this team than it would be if all plows ran at the same depth. ^Subsoiling is the break- ing up of the subsoil in the bottom of the furrow without bringing the subsoil to the sur- face. The subsoil plow follows j, 74 Buckwheat on land that wa the regular plow in the same , j 1 . 1:. _ j-„;„; i?:„ Ti furrow. plowed late. Farm adjommg tig. 74 Fig. 73. Buckwheat on land that was plowed early and well fitted 166 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 156. Fitting the Land After Plowing. Fall-plowed land is usually left without other working until spring. If heavy soil is fall-plowed and too finely pulverized, it is likely to ''run together."' (See Fig. 43.) Spring-plowed land should be dragged with a smooth- ing harrow or otherwise stirred before the clods become too dry to crumble read- ily. The drier the soil the more frequently this Fig. 75. Smoothing harrow. A good tool for should be doue. Under killing weeds and fitting land ^g^^j COUditioUS, the harrowing should be done on the day that it is plowed. If the weather is very dry, and particularly in semi-arid regions, it may be necessary to harrow within a few hours after plowing. One may stop in the middle of each half-day for this purpose. Usually the land should be harrowed with the smoothing harrow two to four times before planting. Sometimes it may be better to use the disk harrow. On stony land or on very hard soil the spring-tooth harrow may be used. This is really a cultivator. If corn is to be kept clean, it should be planted in a seed-bed that is free from weeds and that has been freshly stirred in order to kill any sprouting seeds. This gives the corn a chance to start even with the weeds. It is very foolish to plant on land that has germinating weeds, thinking to kill them after planting. It is better to delay the planting long enough to kill the weeds. 157. Planting. The selection of seed and germination tests have been previously discussed (pages 25 and 48). ''The Indian method of planting maize was to plant four grains in a hill four feet each way. This method they CORN 167 taught to the colonists."^ Most of the corn in the corn- belt is planted 3 feet 8 inches apart each way, with two to four kernels per hill. In the more humid parts, three stalks per hill is considered best. In the semi-arid regions or on poor land, two stalks is considered best. In the South, where the season is long and the soil often poor, much thinner planting is better. The rows may be placed five feet apart and a row of cowpeas planted between for soil improvement. Four kernels in a hill seem to give the same yield as if the same number are planted in drills, one kernel in a place. If rowed both ways, as is done by the check-row planter, the corn may be cultivated both ways and so kept clean much more easily. The check-row planters are not adapted to very uneven land or to fields Fig. 76. a check-row corn-planted Plants two that contain trees. For '"^^^ ^* ^"^"^^ ^^^ ^°^^ *^® ^°™ b°*^ ^*y^ these reasons, the corn in the northeastern states is mostly drilled. The higher cost of the check-row planter is also a factor. There are, however, many level farms that might profitably use this machine. In the semi-arid regions, a considerable part of the corn is planted with a lister. The lister is a sort of double plow that opens up a deep furrow and plants the corn in the bottom. As the corn grows, the cultivation gradually fills the ditch. Corn planted in this way in dry regions ^T. F. Hunt, Cereals in America, p. 231 168 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 77. A lister for planting corn in semi- arid regions yields as much or more than that planted with a check- row planter. The chief advantage seems to be in the re- duction of labor. The land does not need to be plowed for listed corn. This sav- ing in cost is of much im- portance when there is a possibility of a small crop. No matter how deep corn, wheat or oats are planted, they will send out their permanent roots at the depth that seems best for their growth in the particular soil. Fig. 78 shows some rye plants planted at different depths. By varying the length of the first internode, they have all started their permanent roots at the same depth, — in this case, seven-eighths of an inch below the surface. After the roots have developed from the node, the lower roots die if they have been planted too deeply. The plant can thus ''transplant" itself to the proper depth. In humid regions, one inch deep has usually given better yields of corn than deeper planting. It is usu- ally necessary to set the planter deeper than one inch, in order to have all the grain covered. A level seed-bed will make it much easier to Fig. 78. Readjustment of a rye plant when planted too deep. No matter how deep the seed is planted, the permanent roots are formed at the same depth. Too deep planting weakens the plant as shown on the left. Fig. 79. Field of corn on which a weeder was used before cultivating Fig. 80 Field of com on farm adjoining Fig. 79. Weeder waa nOt'iiSddr Other ' treatment was similar p'i''^^ )^i?i CORN 169 Fig. 81. A weeder. A good weed killer, better than a smoothing-harrow on stony- land. plant at the desired depth. The drier the region and the more sandy the soil, the deeper corn may be planted. The greatest danger of too deep planting is that a poor stand may result. 158. Tillage After Plant- ing. After the corn is planted it should be har- rowed once with a smooth- ing harrow, or with a weeder, and should be gone over again after it is well up. The best time to kill weeds is when they are just coming up, — when they appear to be insignificant. When they are large enough to attract attention, they are too large to be easily killed. If the land is well prepared and is har- rowed just before plant- ing, and is given these two harro wings after planting, it will be* well started on its way. In large fields of mellow soil this work may be done with a four-horse smoothing harrow that will cover 16 to 20 feet, so that the work may be done very rapidly. On stony land the weeder may be used. Corn treated this way will usually require three p,^^ §3. a good nding cultivator Fig. 82. An undesirable cultivator. Shovels are too large and the man is required to walk 170 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE cultivations. In some regions, as many as five may be needed. The ideal way is to stir the soil after each rain as soon as it is fit to work, and to maintain a loose, mel- low surface. In the middle West, the cultivation is most commonly done with a two-horse cultivator that finishes one row at a time. Wherever possible, two-horse cultivators should be used. One-horse cultivators were all right when men worked for 50 cents a day, but they should not now be used except for small areas on small farms, or where labor is still cheap and ineflBcient, as in the South. Perhaps there is no single point in the raising of corn that has been the source of greater loss than too deep cultivation. A large part of the roots of corn extend nearly horizontally for some distance within four inches of the surface of the soil. Deep cultivation cuts these roots so much as to injure the crop. The substitution of smaller shovels in recent years has done much to encour- age shallow culture. The first cultivation may be deeper than the later ones. The common practice of cultivating deep and throwing the dirt to the rows when the corn is ''laid by" is very undesirable. The old shovel-plow that digs off the surface soil, exposes the roots and leaves a hard surface exposed is much worse. The only excuse for these methods is to bury weeds in the row. These weeds should have been killed at previous cultivations or by the harrowing before or after planting. Sixty-one tests of deep cultivation at thirteen experi- ment stations gave an average yield of 9.8 bushels per acre less corn than shallow culture. In most cases, one to two inches has been called shallow, and four or more inches deep. Fio. 84. Distribution of com roots sixty days after planting. Notice the masa of roots that ^oi^d be cut off by a cultivator running four inches deep CORN 171 159. Harvesting. More corn is husked from the stand- ing stalks in the field than is harvested in any other way. The standing stalks are then commonly pastured during the winter. This is the cheapest m.ethod of gathering the giain, but the fodder is of more value wnen cut. In regions where feed is less abundant, the corn is usually cut for fodder or is put in the silo. Corn harvesters are very desirable, but are not profit- able unless one has a considerable area to cut. Zintheo^ figures that the interest and depreciation on such a binder is $22.50 per year, and that the twine and labor of cutting is worth 75 cents per acre. If one cuts only 10 acres per year, it would, therefore, cost $3 an acre, besides the shocking or hauling to the silo. If one cuts 20 acres, the cost would be about $1.90 per acre besides the shocking, which costs aboi t 45 cents. It costs about $1.50 per acre to cut a-nd shock by hand. If one has 20 or more acres per year to cut, it will probably pay to own a harvester, as the work can be done more rapidly and with greater independence, and the bundles are much easier to handle than the loose corn. For a less area, it will pay better to hire a neighbor who has a harvester, or do the work by hand; or a sled may be used. This seems to be the cheap- est of all methods, costing about $1.20 per acre, cut and shocked. 160. Corn Silage. One of the most important develop- ments in the use of corn in recent years has been the in- troduction of the silo. The firbt silo in America was built in 1879. Silos have come into general use in dairy sections during the past fifteen years. The entire corn-stalk and ^-Farmers' Bulletin No. 303 172 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE grain is shredded or cut into small pieces and stored in the tight silo. (See Figs. 143 and 144.) The silo prevents much of the loss of food. It makes it easier to handle the food, and makes the manure much easier to handle than if fodder is used. In northern sec- tions, larger varieties of corn can be grown for the silo than can be matured for fodder. Silage is more palatable than fodder, and the stock will eat more of it. The same amount of corn in the silo will produce more milk than it will if fed as fodder. The following table shows the quan- tity of milk produced from equal amounts of corn made into silage and fed as fodder:^ Pounds of Milk Produced Silage Fodder Gain Vermont^ 8,525 7,496 7,688 7,119 Per cent 11 Wisconsin^ ... 5 Any kind of green material may be preserved in the silo. Even dried corn fodder may be put in the silo, and sufficient water added to make it keep. Alfalfa, clover, soy-beans, cowpeas, are used for silage to some extent, but corn is the almost universal silage material. 161. Methods of Preserving Food and the Principle of the Silo. Heat and moisture are necessary for the growth of the bacteria and molds that cause decay. Hence, if a substance is sufficiently dried or is kept sufficiently cold, it will be preserved. These principles are used in ^The word fodder is used to include the stalks and grain. Stover is the stalks alone. 2 Vermont Report, 1891. ^Wisconsin Report, 1891. CORN 173 preserving meat and hay by dpying, and in preserving many articles by cold storage. Hay is well preserved by drying, but corn fodder retains so much water that when put in a barn or stack it will usually spoil. Certain sub- stances prevent the action of decay organisms. These preservatives are usually harmful to men and animals, so that this is not a very desirable method of preserving. Salt is satisfactory for preserving meat and some other things, because the harmful excess of it can be washed out. A fourth method of preserving is that used in can- ning fruit. This is the principle employed in the silo. By heating fruit so as to kill the decay organisms and then sealing it air-tight, so that no more can get in, it may be preserved indefinitely. In the early attempts to keep silage, it was placed in pits or tanks and sealed with earth or other material, and was cooked with steam. Later it was found to keep nearly as well when merely packed in the silo. Decay begins at once, and as a result the silage becomes very hot. This decay uses up the air in the silo and changes it to carbon dioxid. This process continues until the heat and the exhaustion of the air stop the decay. The silage will then keep indefinitely, provided no air can get into it. That on the top of the silo or near any leaks will spoil. As soon as the silo is filled, it is well to begin feeding from it. If this is not done, it may be covered with chaff and well wet down. Or the corn may be husked from the last that is put in and the silage itself act as cover; several inches on the surface will spoil. There should not be too much surface area per cow, or it will spoil while being fed. 162. The Silo. Any kind of material may be used for 174 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE building a silo. The essential point is that it be air-tight at the sides and bottom. Cement, stone, and brick are sometimes used, but they are all more expensive than wood. There are two common methods of wood con- struction. In one, vertical posts are sheathed on the in- side and outside — the sheathing acting as hoops to main- tain the circular position. The other type is more common. It is made of two-inch planks that are matched together and held by hoops in the form of a tank. The hoops may be tightened by means of burs. The foundation should be of cement. Wooden silos may be constructed com- plete for $1.50 to $2 per ton of capacity. The deeper the silo, the cheaper the construction for a given capacity, and the better the silage keeps, because that in the bottom is packed harder. A silo that is 32 feet deep will hold twice as much as one that is 20 feet deep. Ordinarily, a silo should be at least 24 feet deep. A silo is not likely to be profitable if there are not at least ten cattle to be fed. Each cow will eat about half a ton a month. The required capacity can therefore be figured from the number of cows. 163. Growing Corn for the Silo. When corn is grown for the silo, it is usually planted in drills and thicker than when grown for grain. The distance at which the total yield of grain is greatest is probably best. This results in some ''nubbins," but they are as desirable as large ears, provided the total yield of grain is not decreased. It is not desirable to plant so thick as to decrease the yield of grain. Corn should be cut for the silo when fully glazed. At this time the kernels will all be dented and a few of the CORN 175 lower leaves will be dead. The table shows that in the milk stage the corn weighs more than when glazed., but there is GO per cent more dry matter at the later stage. The difference is water. If put in the silo in the milk stage or when ripe, the corn does not keep so well as when glazed: Yield of Corn When Cut at Different Stages^ Stage of growth Fully tasseled Fully silked Kernels, milk stage Kernels, glazed. . . . Ripe Yield of corn per acre Tons 9.0 12.9 16.3 16.1 14.2 Water per acre Tons 8.2 11.3 14.0 12.5 10.2 Dry matter per acre Tons 0.8 1.5 2.3 3.6 4.0 The large weight in the milk stage deceives many per- sons as to the best variety to grow. Farmers in the North often grow a variety that does not become glazed before frost. Such a variety may grow very large, but the yield of dry matter will not be so great as that of a variety that matures to this stage before frost. The larger the variety the better, so long as this stage is reached. Even if the right variety is planted in northern United States, there will be short seasons when it will be in dan- ger of frosts. If there is danger of a frost, will it pay to cut the corn, or will it be better to wait for it to mature and risk the frost? The Vermont Station tested this mat- ter. Part of a field was cut October 7, when a frost was expected. The remainder was allowed to grow until October 23, when it was killed by a hard frost. The two iNew York State Station, Report, 18S9. 176 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Effect of Frost on Corn for Silage - Date cut October 7 October 23 Frost injury None Late milk 22,300 pounds 5,642 pounds Hard frosted Ripeness. . Glazed Yield per acre. 22,750 pounds 6,506 pounds Dry matter per acre The frosted corn gave 3 per cent less milk per 100 pounds of dry matter. The frosted corn gave 15 per cent more y'eld of dry matter. The frosted corn gave 12 per cent more n ilk per acre of corn. lots were fed to cows for comparison. The frosted corn was not quite so good feed, but there was 15 per cent more dry matter, and the result was 12 per cent more milk per acre of corn. It seems that one should try to avoid a frost, but that if corn has not matured it is better to risk a frost than to cut the corn much too green. 164. Feeding Silage. Silage is not much used where hay is very cheap. It is not used extensively for fatten- ing cattle, but experiments have shown that it is a good feed for that purpose. It is also good for sheep, but is not fed to horses. Its greatest use is as a food for winter dairies. There is some prejudice against milk from silage-fed cows. One of the largest milk firms in New York City refuses to buy silage milk. This prejudice does not seem to be warranted by the facts. Rotten silage or rotten hay may affect the milk, particularly if they are fed be- fore milking, so that the odors are in the air ready to be absorbed by the milk; but, under ordinary conditions, silage does not give the milk a bad flavor. The Illinois CORN 177 Experiment Station gave silage and non-silage milk to 372 persons to be tested without knowledge of its source. Sixty per cent preferred the siiage milk, 29 per cent pre- ferred the non-silage milk, and 11 per cent had no choice. 165. Uses of Corn. The chief use of corn is as a food for farm animals. The enormous meat-producing indus- try of the United States is based on corn, grass and alfalfa. A large amount of corn is also used as human food, par- ticularly in the South and in the regions where wheat is less plentiful. Many products are also manufactured from corn. It is the chief source of alcohol and whiskey. It is the cheap- est material in America for making denatured alcohol. Some of the products are malt liquors, glucose, corn starch, corn oil. Less important products are paper made from husks and stalks, explosives from the pith, packing for w^ar vessels from the pith, corn-cob pipes. The pith has the property of expanding when wet, so that it will stop leaks in a vessel when pierced. Some counties in Mis- souri grow a special variety with large cobs for corn- cob pipes. Some of the chief by-products are gluten meal and distilled grains, which are used as stock foods. The proportion of the corn that is fed to stock is much greater in states west of Chicago than it is in Illinois. This is because it is cheaper to ship the meat produced by a bushel of corn than it is to ship the corn. A bushel of corn will produce 10 to 11 pounds of pork. Instead of shipping five or six pounds of corn, a farmer can feed it to a hog and have only one pound to ship. (See page 357.) Less than 2 per cent of the corn crop of the United States is exported, while over one-third of the wheat crop is 178 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE exported, either as grain or as flour. This has an impor- tant significance. It means that nearly all of our corn is fed in this country, so that it results in manure-produc- tion for the maintenance of the productiveness of our farms. A relatively small amount of wheat is used for animals, so that wheat farms usually have too little manure to keep up the productivity. WHEAT 166. Importance of Wheat. Long before men began to record history, they learned to raise wheat. It is the most important human food and the one that is most universally liked. Europe 1,765 North America 760 Asia . . 446 South America 155 Austral- asia . . 64 Africa . . 51 Fig. 85. Wheat crop of the world in millions of bushels. Average for five years (1903-07). Nearly all of the wheat crop of the world is used as human food. This is not because it is not good for domes- tic animals, but because men prefer it to other grain, and hence make the price too high to allow of its general use as a stock food. The demand for it as human food is constantly increasing. As fast as men or nations become wealthy enough to afford it, they seem instinctively to demand ''white bread." The peasants of Russia and of parts of Europe are compelled to eat rye, barley, millet, etc., because they are cheaper; those of Asia eat rice, f. .-•^Ix^^^l m ■■ ? ^B ^1 ^^^^^H^ f, H - ^m ^^H f ^^IP ^^^^^^^^H # ^^^^ : SH^^^^H^H i ^K -'' ^^^^H 1? ^B ^^^H f ^^^^K ^«^^^H| 5- ^^^^VH %■ ^ ^^^^H i ^^^^■h|hhHjIm^ -^^^^H 4 '*' ' i9^l |HI| fl 1, ^^^H 1 i ^^^^1 ^^m^ , §■ r ^^^^^^1 1 1^1 * ■i l3 ^ ^^Ik ^^S HI 1 HI^Bii ^^^H t^A '« »'**■* • •'»• J) «•** #1. •1«4<* 4fl*^ "'>,. #404 '>^ WHEAT 179 but as soon as these people become wealthy enough they demand wheat. One reason why wheat is so highly esteemed is because it makes light bread and can be cooked in so many forms. This factor depends on the gluten that it contains. Chemically, wheat does not seem to be much better than some other foods, but it is prob- able that it contains s^me substance that makes it more palatable and healthful. Some recent investigations seem to indicate that this is the case. The wheat crop of the world is very differently dis- tributed from the corn crop. Europe produces twice as much as North America. Europe secures about twice the yield per acre, so that it is able to compete with Amer- ica in wheat-production. In this country, wheat is largely grown on new lands by a one-crop system. This usually ceases to be prof- itable after wheat has been grown 30 to 60 years, so that the wheat region continues to move westward. Considerable wheat is also grown in crop-rotation in the older sections. The regions that are now being exploited by wheat-production are western Canada and Argentina. 167. Types of Wheat. There are six rather distinct types of wheat from the commercial standpoint: soft winter wheat, semi-hard winter wheat, hard winter wheat, soft spring wheat, hard spring wheat, macaroni wheat. The wheats of the humid region are soft, those of the drier regions are hard. The hard spring wheats of the Dakotas and Canada and the hard winter wheats of Kansas and Nebraska are highly prized for flour. The best grades of flour are made from the hard wheats or from mixtures of these with the soft varieties. Durum 180 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE ^/^^^=^t^ Fig. 87. or macaroni wheat is the hardest of all. It is exported for the manufacture of macaroni and is coming to be used for flour. The introduction of the Turkish varieties has made the production of wheat profitable in Kansas, Nebraska and other states where the soft winter varieiies are not successful. Durum wheats will grow with even less rain- fall. The recent intro- duction of this type has added thousands of acres of semi-arid land A planker, for crushing clods ^^ ^j^^ ^\i^2X area. 168. Culture. Wheat lends itself to machine-farming better than most crops. Nearly all the ''bonanza" farms with their large machinery are wheat farms. Still, a large part of the world's wheat crop is cut with a hand sickle. Wheat is better adapted to short seasons than is corn, hence it grows farther north. It completes its growth before the severest sum- mer droughts occur, hence it can grow in regions too dry for corn. Some of the best wheat soils are clay loams and clays — soils that are not best for corn. In regions fig where the climate is suit- able for corn, the loamy soils are devoted to corn, not because they will not raise wheat but because corn pays better. A spring-tooth harrow. Particu- larly useful on stony land OATS 181 Land for wheat is usually plowed, although it is some- times disked. Early plowing for fall-sown wheat is much to be preferred, on account of the control of weeds and conservation of the rainfall. Many experimental tests of drilling and broad-cast sowing have been made. The drilled wheat has almost invariably given better yields. The question of depth of planting, and advantages of fall and spring plowing have been discussed under corn. The same principles apply to growing spring wheat. OATS 169. Oats thrive best in a cool, moist climate. They will grow farther north than either corn or wheat. For both of these reasons, the oat crop of Europe is much greater than that of the United States. Oats will also produce something of a crop on land that is too poor to produce corn or wheat. Oats are usually given the least fertilizer of any crop in the rotation ; not because they do not respond to fertilizers, but because they will grow without them. Too much nitrogen in the soil is likely to make them lodge, hence manure or nitrogenous fertili- zers must be used sparingly. Many oats are used for the manufacture of oatmeal. They are highly esteemed for horse feed. The average price of oats in New York for ten years has been 1.12 cents per pound, while the average price of corn has been .96 cents per pound. The grain of oats costs still more. About one-third of oats is hull, which has about the same value as oat straw. If we exclude the hufl, the price of the grain in oats has cost about 75 per cent more 182 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE than corn. This difference is because oats are so much preferred as horse feed. Corn seems to be as good and much more economical for farm horses.^ A large part of the oats in America are grown without plowing the land. The pats are either cultivated or disked in on corn ground. This reduces the cost of production. These methods produce good crops in the corn- belt. Plowing is best on heavy soils. Oats are often mixed with other crops, such as Fig. 89. A disc-harrow hs^vXej and field peas. This is a common practice in New York and Canada. In these sections, the mixture gives a larger yield than any one alone. A common mixture is half oats and half barley. When peas are included, one bushel of each of the three are often sown per acre. MEADOWS AND PASTURES 170. Cultural Methods. The hay and pasture plants were the last to receive attention from mankind, and are yet the crops that are likely to be poorly treated. It is sometimes said that a good farmer can be told by his pasture. This is because the pasture is the last thing to receive attention. If his pasture is cared for, everything else must be. The grasses and clovers are usually sown with small grain. In New England they are often sown with corn. Some farmers plow the land for the grass crop and seed ^Ohio Bulletin No. 195 MEADOWS AND PASTURES 183 without a grain crop. In humid regions, good stands are usually secured when seeded with rye or wheat, and fairly good stands with barley, but when seeded with oats, the stand of grass is likely to be poor. This is be- cause the oats take so much water from the soil (page 67), because they shade the ground so much, and because they are cut later in the season. The small grass and clover plants are likely to be smothered out or to be killed by drought. The drier the year or the region, and the poorer the land, the more injury the grain crop does. Some farmers fit the land again and seed after the removal of oats. When seeded with winter wheat or rye, the grass seeds are usually sown in the fall and the clover seeds sown in the spring. The grass plants respond to nitrogenous fertilizers. (See Figs. 55 and 56.) Nitrogen promotes vegetative growth; and it is vegetative grov/th, and not seed, that Fig. 90. Timothy hay was cut at the time indicated, cattle were allowed to eat at will. They preferred that which waa cut when the seed was just formed. Missouri Experiment Station. is wanted for hay. Another reason why the grasses respond to nitrogen is because they grow so early in the spring, before the soil organisms are sufficiently active to supply the nitrogen. Top-dressing of meadows is usually 184 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE profitable if there is a good stand of grass and if there is sufficient rainfall. There is no use in supplying fertilizers for a four-ton crop when the climate or the stand of grass limits the crop to one ton. The price of hay is also an important factor. In the northeastern states,' nitrate of soda at the rate of 100 to 200 pounds per acre may be profitably used for the production of timothy. In New York, the use of this material usually seems to be profita- ble if the untreated land will yield a little over a ton of hay. It is ap- plied as soon as the grass starts growth in the spring. Many farmers f^W^^v'^'\iM\llWllEli ^^® ^^^^ ^-pplyiiig manure on the hmMmmiMmM^ . meadows preceding corn rather than on the corn crop. This seems to be a good practice when it can be spread thinly, as is done with a manure spreader. The corn crop does not seem to be much poorer and the hay is greatly benefited. Probably the bacterial activity that is favored by the sod (page 120) and manure (page 119) prepares food for the corn crop. 171. Timothy {Phleum pratense). The most important hay plant in America is timothy. The chief timothy region is north of the city of Washington and east of the 100th meridian. Timothy has a number of desirable characters that make it popular. The seed is cheap. It grows well and produces a good yield of good hay the year after it is sown. It is easily killed by plowing. No other grass is so Fig. 91. Timothy plant grown from a single seed — A bunch grass. MEADOWS AND PASTURES 185 well adapted to growth in rotation with other crops. The first two crops are better than the later ones, unless the land is rich or is made so by fertilizers. It thrives best in a good soil with a good rainfall. It is primarily a hay plant, but, since the seed is cheap and since it produces a fair crop the first year, it is used in nearly all pasture mixtures. In permanent pastures it is usually displaced by other grasses in a few years. The seed weighs 45 pounds per bushel. About 10 to 15 pounds is sown per acre. 172. Kentucky Blue-Grass {Poa pratensis). The most important pasture grass in America is Kentucky blue- grass. It is of little value as a hay plant. It grows Fig. 92. Kentucky blue-grass, grown from a singls seed. Strongly stoloniferous. Compare with Fig. 91 throughout the timothy region, but reaches its best de- velopment a little south of the best timothy section. It is very strongly stoloniferous (page 38) and will run out most other plants on good soils. It takes two to three years for it to reach full development, hence it is seldom sown alone. It is an early grass, starting growth early and heading out early. It also grows well in the fall. 186 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE In midsummer it makes a poor growth. The seed is ex- pensive and is often poor in quaUty. The method of cur- ing the seed is such that it is often spoiled by heating. V ^ One to ten pounds per acre are ^ ^^L ^^^^ ^^ seeding pastures. It is ^ ^^M sometimes adulterated with Canada blue -grass {Poa compressa), also called wire grass. The latter is a less desirable grass, except for very poor soils. 173. Red-top {Agrostis alba) is second in importance to timothy as 2 a hay plant. It does not make as (1) Kentucky blue- popular a hay as timothy. If much grass. (2) Canada blue-grass ^ *^ '' of it is mixed with timothy hay, the price is reduced. The chief value of red-top is that it will grow on soils that are too wet, too acid, or too poor for the growth of timothy. It is a shallow-rooted, strongly stoloniferous plant. It will produce hay or pasture the year after seeding. The seed is not expensive and is usually good. Recleaned seed weighs about 35 pounds per bushel. About 15 pounds is sown per acre. 174. Awnless Brome Grass (Bromus inermis) has been introduced from the plains of Russia recently. It is strongly stoloniferous and will produce one or two good €rops of hay, after which the sod becomes too dense for hay and is adapted to pasture. It makes a very pala- table pasture grass. It has proved its value in the semi-arid regions. In the East, it has not been thoroughly tested, but seems promising. 175. Tall Meadow Fescue (Festuca elatior) is a MEADOWS AND PASTURES 187 ''bunch" grass, about as stoloniferous as timothy. It requires about three years to form a good sod. It is adapted to good land. The seed is not always good or pure, and is expensive. It is subject to rust, the same rust that Fig. 94. Awnless brome grass attacks oats, but it is a good pasture grass under many conditions. 176. Orchard Grass (Dactylis glomerata.) is a tall^ tufted grass. It is adapted to deep, rich soils, as it roots deeply, yet it grows on poor soils to some extent. It is often desirable in a pasture mixture. The high price of seed and the seed adulteration seem to be the chief causes for its limited use. 177. Bermuda Grass {Capriola dactylon) is probably the best pasture grass for the South. It is very strongly 188 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE stoloniferous. The seed is very scarce and high in price. It is sometimes grown from cuttings planted several feet apart. 178. Johnson Grass {Sorghum halepense) is one of the best hay grasses of the South. It has one very serious objection: it is a bad weed in cultivated land. For this reason, some of the states have laws against sowing it. It now seems that there are methods by which it can be successfully eradicated. If these methods prove practical, it will become a popular crop rather than a weed. 179. Alfalfa {Medicauo saliva) . Alfalfa, or lucerne, is probably the oldest hay plant now grown. It came from Media to Greece, 490 B. C. The genus name refers to the origin in Media. How long it was grown in Media no one knows. It has been grown in New York for one-hundred years. But its effective introduction into the United States was from Chili to California, about 50 years ago. Its distribution has been particularly rapid during the past 25 years. 180. Value of Alfalfa. The table on next page shows the total number of acres of different kinds of hay and total yields, in 1899, according to the Twelfth Census: Fig. 95. Orchard grass Fig. 96. Alfalfa blossoms MEADOWS AND PASTURES 189 Comparison of Hays Grown in the United States in 1899 Acres Yield Yield per acre Digestible nutrients per acre Digest- ible protein per acre \lfalfa .. 2,094,000 4,104,000 31,302,000 5,221,000 5,167,000 35,624,000 2.5 1.3 1.1 2,673 1,214 1,091 609 Clover 177 Cultivated grasses ^ 62 It will be seen that from half the area alfalfa gave a little more total yield than clover. Its composition being better, it gave over twice the digestible nutrients per acre. Its value is sometimes overestimated. It has almost the same composition as wheat bran. This has led to the common statement that it is as valuable as wheat bran. This is not true. It is always unsafe to compare the feed- ing values of grain feeds with hay on the basis of com- position only. The coarser feeds are harder to digest. Feeding trials in milk-production on a commercial scale, at the New Jersey Experiment Station, showed that when bran cost $22.50 per ton, the hay was worth $16.50 as a substitute for it. In this case, alfalfa hay was worth a little over two-thirds as much as bran. One-sixth of the cultivated area of Argentina is planted to alfalfa. It is said that on land where eight acres of native grasses were required per steer, one acre of alfalfa is sufficient. 181. Culture of Alfalfa. Alfalfa has a long tap-root, mAich longer than any other farm crop, therefore the character of the subsoil and drainage are of much im- ' Figured as timothy. 190 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE portance. It is especially adapted to warm climates, is alkali-, drought- and heat-resistant. It grows throughout the warm season if there is sufficient moisture. Hence, it is possible to get two or three crops in Ontario, Canada, while in Arizona eight crops are often harvested. Failures of alfalfa are usually due to one of the follow- ing causes: drought, lack of drainage, weeds, lack of manure, lime or inoculation. Sometimes failure is due to poor seed or to dodder. Alfalfa is most hkely to succeed on a porous, well- drained soil, but it is successful on some clay soils. It is not a poor-land crop. If the soil is not rich, an appUcation of 10 to 20 tons of manure should be made before sowing it. It is more sensitive to acidity than any other farm crop. Probably half of the soils east of the Mississippi river require lime for best success with alfalfa. It is a tender plant when young, and is not likely to be successful if sown with a nurse crop unless all other conditions are very favorable. Nearly all experiments have shown that it is safest to sow it alone. If the rainfall and soil are just right, it may be successful when sown with wheat, oats, or barley but there is much risk in sowing it this way. Fig. 98 Weeds.— Left, limed; right, not limed Fig. 97. Influence of lime on alfalfa and weeds on a farm where lime was needed. Where limed there was no room for weeds; when not limed the weeds were able to run out the alfalfa. MEADOWS AND PASTURES 191 Fig. 98. Influence on alfalfa of seeding in oats when other conditions were unfavor- able. On the left is the alfalfa from a square rod seeded in oats, on the right seeded alone. When other conditions are favorable thr nurse crop does less damage. shows an instance where entire failure resulted from sow- ing with OMts. When conditions are more favorable it may persist in spite of the oats. If seeded alone in the spring, the weeds are likely to injure it. It is, there- fore, best to sow it in late summer or early fall. Experiments in nearly all of the states east of Colorado have shown this to be the best time. Where small grain or potatoes come off the land in time, it may be sown after these crops. As far north as New York, it is usually best to summer- fallow the land. It is then manured and Hmed in the spring when plowed, if these treatments are necessary, and is kept harrowed and free from weeds until about August 1. If this cannot be done, it may be seeded with grain in the spring and the grain cut for hay. In order to be sure that the seed is alive, a germina- tion test should be made (page 51). The seed is some- times adulterated with bur clover, yellow trefoil and sweet clover. Dodder is the worst weed in the seed. Of 399 samples examined by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1907, about half (191) contained dodder. Seed should, if possible, be purchased from regions where dodder is least prevalent. Before buying seed, a sample should be examined for dodder seed. The beginner should sow at least 25 pounds of good seed per acre. Older growers whose soils are in condi- 192 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE tion for alfalfa may sow 20 pounds, or less. In some sec tions as low as 10 pounds are sown. Inoculation is absolutely necessary for success. Inocu- lation may take place naturally or may have to be applied. Soil from sweet clover will inoculate alfalfa. Most of the cases of natural inoculation appear to be due to the pre- vious growth of sweet clover on the soil. Common clover soil does not inoculate alfalfa. West of the Mississippi river, inoculation is not so often required; but, east of it, probably half of the soils require inoculation when alfalfa is sown for the first time. Even in fields that require inoculation for success, a few plants usually become inoculated from some source. These usually look large and dark green as contrasted with the small yellowish uninoculated ones. If such a field is planted and reseeded, it is often well inoculated. It is, therefore, often desirable to make a new trial on ground where alfalfa has thus failed. Peas, beans, peanuts, clover, do not often require inoculation. So far as we know, alfalfa and soy-beans are the only legumes that require inocuation in New York. Alfalfa requires it on most soils, and we have not yet seen any soy-bean nodules where the soil was not in- oculated. Many examinations have shown clover to be inoculated in all cases, even on soils where it does not grow well. Several methods have been developed for inoculating legumes, but the best method is to take soil from a field that has grown inoculated plants of the desired kind. One or more bushels of this soil can be scattered on an acre of land. This is an easy and inexpensive method. MEADOWS AND PASTURES 193 Alfalfa should be cut for hay when about one-tentb of the heads are in blossom. If allowed to stand longer, the hay is poorer, and the succeeding cuttings are de- creased. 182. Red Clover is the most important legume in eastern United States. There are two varieties, — the common, medium or June clover (Trifolium pratense), and the mammoth, sapling or pea- vine clover (T. pratense per- enne). The former is smaller and about a month earlier than the latter. The mammoth clover matures with timothy, which is a point of 2;reat advan- ^ ^ " Fig. 99. A red clover plant, tage in hay-making. The two it does not reproduce except from kinds cannot be distinguished by their seeds, hence the difficulty in always getting the desired kind. Red clover requires good soil. There are many farms that are now too poor to grow it. The soil should be well drained and should not be acid. The first steps in getting clover on most farms where it fails are applications of lime and manure. The root-borer usually kills most of the clover the second year, but it does not prevent the production of the first hay crop. Clover seed is about four times as expensive as timothy. Four quarts are usually sown per acre. The seed weighs 60 pounds per bushel. Clover hay usually sells for about two-thirds as much as timothy. Therefore, farmers usually sell timothy, and 194 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE feed the clover and mixed hay. The chemical analysis of clover hay would seem to make it as valuable as timothy. It is better for cattle and sheep, but is not desirable for horses. This is probably the reason for the low price. Clover seems to be chiefly responsible for the disease of horses called heaves. It is said that heaves does not occur in regions where clover is not used. 183. Alsike Clover {Trifolium hyhridum). This was formerly thought to be a hybrid between red and white clover, hence its specific name, hybridum. It is not now considered to be a hybrid. It is smaller, earlier, and more decumbent than red clover. Its greatest use is to grow on soils where red Fig. 100. A white clover plant grown from a single seed, showing spreading habit clover fails or does poorly. It will grow on soils that are too wet or too dry for red clover. It will grow on more acid soils and on poorer soils, is less subject to disease, and is less severely injured by the root-borer. In the county where the writer lives, it is the only clover sown on the poorest and most acid soils. On the fairly good MEADOWS AND PASTURES 195 soils, it is mixed with red clover. On the richest soils, red clover is often sown alone. 184. White Clover (Trifolium repens). This plant is so small that it is of no value for hay purposes. But it is a very desirable pasture plant. It supplements Ken- tucky blue-grass for pasture, as red clover supplements timothy for hay. White clover stems spread about on the ground and take root, so that a single plant may pro- duce many plants. (See Figs. 14 and 100.) The other clovers do not have the power to spread except from the seed. White clover will grow on poorer soils than either of the other clovers. A few pounds of it should be sown in pasture mixtures for permanent pastures. 185. Mixtures of Grasses and Clovers. Alfalfa is usu- ally sown alone. The other grasses and clovers are com- monly used in mixtures. Mixtures for hay should mature at the same time. For pastures, they should mature at different times. A plant that does not thrive alone on the soil will be of little value in a mixture. The advantages of a mixture are that the roots of dif- ferent plants do not occupy the same areas of the soil; hence the soil may be more fully used by growing deep- and shallow-rooted plants together, as red clover and timothy. Some seasons favor certain of the plants and some favor others; when red and alsike clover are sown with timothy, the clover is sometimes chiefly red and sometimes, on the same farm, chiefly alsike. In most fields there are irregularities of soil; by sowing a mixture, each soil variation will be covered with the type that thrives best on it. In pastures, a mixture will furnish grasses that grow at different seasons of the year. 196 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE thus furnishing more uniform pasture throughout the season. For hay production, where the meadows are left for one to three years, a good mixture to be sown per acre is: Timothy 15 pounds Mammoth red clover 6 pounds Alsike clover 4 pounds Such a seeding will usually produce hay that is half clover the first year and nearly clear timothy in later years. If the land is very poor, 10 pounds of timothy, 5 pounds of red-top and 4 pounds of alsike may be used. On the poorest, most acid soils, red-top should be sown alone. For pastures on good land a mixture something like the following may be used. This may be cut for hay for two years and used for pasture thereafter: Timothy 10 pounds Mammoth red clover 4 pounds Alsike clover 3* pounds White clover 2 pounds Kentucky blue-grass 3 pounds Tall meadow fescue 2 pounds Orchard grass 2 pounds If the land will produce alfalfa, two pounds of this should be included. The blue-grass and white clover will usually be the most prominent plants after a few years. For pasture on land that is very poor or acid, it will not pay to spend so much for seed unless fertilizers are used. Some mixture like the following may be used: Timothy 5 pounds Red-top 5 pounds Alsike clover 5 pounds White clover 2 pounds Fig. 101. A good pasture in New York, thirty years old. Cared for as suggested on page 197 » ', Fia. i02. ^ T'ie coposite side of the same hill as Fig. 101. The cows have developed this pasture by exterminating the plants that they like and saving the weeds for seed. MEADOWS AND PASTURES 197 Any of the other plants that will grow on the land should be included. Such a pasture will soon be chiefly red-top and white clover if the land is very poor. Professor Roberts, who developed the Roberts' pas- ture (Fig. 101), recommended 5 pounds of timothy, 6 pounds of red clover, 4 pounds of alsike, and 3| pounds each of Kentucky blue-grass, red-top, orchard grass and tall meadow fescue. A good mixture for a lawn is timothy, 10 pounds; red-top, 10 pounds ; blue-grass, 20 pounds, and white clover, 5 pounds per acre. The timothy and red-top will make a cover while the blue-grass and white clover are becoming estabhshed. In arid regions, native buffalo grass makes a good lawn. 186. Management of Permanent Pastures. Temporary pastures are usually the second or later year's growth on land that was seeded for hay, using only timothy and clover. Too frequently a permanent pasture is made by neglecting such a field. In time, blue grass and white clover will appear, but in the meantime numerous weeds will also have become established. As stock graze in the pasture, they select the plants that they like and allow the undesirable kinds to grow and produce seed. This is really the cultivation of pasture weeds. The results are easily seen by looking at the per- manent pastures that one sees in almost any community. If one is to maintain a good pasture, the weeds that the cow saves for seed must be cut and the desirable plants must be encouraged. The weeds should be mowed each year before they have gone to seed. This can be done at hay-making time, during rainy weather. Occasionally, 198 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE some more seed should be scattered on the bare places. Sometimes it is well to go over the pasture in the spring with a cutaway harrow or disk. On most farms a top- dressing of manure or fertilizer will be needed every three to five years. Coarse, strawy manure, or any kind of rub- bish that is undesirable for the regular fields may be scattered on the bare spots in the pasture. COTTON By CHARLES H. ALVORD Pitrfessor of Agriculture, Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas 187. Importance of Cotton. Cotton is the most im- portant fiber crop grown. It is valuable not only for the fiber or hnt which it produces, but for each pound of lint there is also produced an average of two pounds of seed, which is valuable for manufacturing purposes and also as a food for live stock. Thread manufactured from cotton Hnt is used in manufacturing all kinds of cloth, from the coarsest ducking, used in making tents and sail-cloth, to the finest quality of ''lawn." Its use is in- dispensable to the comfort of the human race, and there is no similar material produced in sufficient quantity to substitute for any very great percentage of it. If the farmers of America should cease growing cotton, there would be no other available material with which to clothe the people of this country. Because of its great import- ance to the industrial welfare of the people, this plant is famiUarly called ''King Cotton." The total farm value of the cotton lint and seed produced in the United States in 1907 was estimated at $675,000,000, and of this amount $482,000,000 worth of cotton and cotton-seed products COTTON 199 were exported.^ Galveston and New Orleans are the great cotton ports of this country, the shipments from Galveston alone amounting to over $100,000,000 worth of cotton per year. The estimated annual production of cotton in the world in 1906 was about 21,000,000 bales, each weigh- ing 500 pounds. Of this vast amount, over three-fifths was produced in the United States, south of a line drawn from Norfolk, Va., to Memphis, Tenn., and west to Oklahoma City and El Paso, Texas. This means that the world is dependent on this section of the United States for its cotton, and indicates the great possibilities which can be attained by the farmers of the South who carefully cultivate this crop. 188. Historical. The cotton plant is of very ancient origin, antedating all recorded history. It is supposed to have originated in India, but China may have been its original home.^ It is spoken of in ancient history as tree wool. The people of India acquired great skill in the weaving of cloth from the fiber of the cotton plant. An- cient historians and travelers mention plants similar to cotton in the various countries of southern Asia and Africa, and it is also known that Columbus and other ex- plorers who visited the western hemisphere found native cotton growing in the West Indian islands and in South America and in the territory now controlled by Mexico. 189. Development in the United States. Cotton was first cultivated in the United States in the colony of ^Yearbook United States Department of Agriculture, 1907, pp. 15 and 22. 'Cotton is mentioned as a tribute from southern China to the ruJer 3,000 years before Christ. Thesis in Cornell University Library, by Koliang Yih. 200 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Virginia in the year 1621. It has always been the chief money crop of the farmers of the southern states, and is so closely identified with the prosperity of the people that the welfare of all kinds of business depends very much upon the success of the cotton crop. For a great many years, Mississippi was the chief cotton-producing state, but within the last ten years the opening of new lands in western Texas and Oklahoma has greatly ex- tended the area of land devoted to cotton culture. Cotton occupies the same place in the southern states that Indian corn occupies in the central states of the Mississippi valley, and both crops seem peculiarly adapted to the United States. Barley, wheat and oats are grown all over the world, but corn and cotton are not grown in other countries so extensively as they are in the United States. 190. Habits of Growth. In the tropical countries there are perennial types of cotton, some kinds growing 20 or more feet in height; but iu the United States all of the varieties are annual, growing in the form of a small shrub two to eight feet in height, depending on the variety, the amount of rainfall during the summer, and the pro- ductiveness of the soil. The plant is very tender when it first appears above the ground, but, if the weather is warm, it grows robust very rapidly. The tap-root extends deep into the soil, and the stalk above ground becomes tough and woody. There are many branches, called pri- mary and secondary. The primary branches are longest near the ground. The flower-buds appear in the axils of the leaves on secondary branches, and are called ' 'squares." The flowers are large in size and are short-lived, lasting only one or two days. When first opened, they are a white COTTON 201 or pale yellow. The second day they turn somewhat red in color and soon drop off, leaving a small boll which contains the seed. This boll continues to increase in size until the seeds which it contains mature. It then breaks open and the soft white lint which surrounds the seed is exposed. The boll contains three to five compartments. When it breaks open, each compartment opens separ- ately. The seed and lint contained in each separate com- partment is called a ''lock." Each lock contains six to ten seeds. 191. Types of Cotton.^ Sea-island cotton is adapted to low, moist soil and a humid atmosphere. Experiment station reports indicate that certain varieties of sea- island cotton have been grown west of the coastal plain, and in irrigated sections, but, for the most part, the cul- ture of this type is limited to regions adjacent to the coasts of Georgia, South Carolina and Florida. This cotton has a naked, black seed, and flowers that are yel- low when they first open, but gradually turn purple. It does not produce so much lint per acre as the upland cotton, but, because of its greater length and fine quality, it sells for a higher price per pound. There are two accepted types of upland cotton — G. herhaceum and G. hirsutum. These types include all the varieties which are commonly called short-staple cotton. The flowers are white or pale yellow when first opened, and turn to a reddish tinge. The seeds are covered with ^Cotton belongs to the family of plants called Malvaceae and to the genus Gossypium. There are many species belonging to this genus among the most important of which are the upland cotton (G. herhaceum and hir- sutum), sea-island cotton {G. Barbadense), tree cotton (G. arboreum) and India cotton (G. neglectum). Of these only the upland and sea-island cottons are cultivated in the United States. 202 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE fuzz and are green in color. They are flattened somewhat and oblong in shape, and about the size of a white navy- bean. Because of the fuzz or lint left- on the seed, they are somewhat bulky, weighing 33 pounds to the measured bushel. The lint which sur- rounds the seed is ex- ceedingly fine in texture, and varies in length from seven-eighths of an inch in upland cotton to two and one-half inches in sea-is' and cotton. Some varieties of upland cot- ton have been selected for long fiber. When the lint produced averages over one and one-fourth inches in length of fiber, it is called '^ong staple." The longer fibers are much more valuable than the shorter ones, and '4ong staple" sells for a higher price in the market. Other desirable qualities of the Unt in addition to length are (1) fineness, (2) strength, (3) uniformity of color. 192. Breeding and Selecting Cotton. From the fore- going paragraphs, it will be noted that the cotton plant may be greatly changed and improved by careful selec- tion and breeding. Selection is comparatively a simple matter, but, because of cross-fertilization, which probably Fig. 103. An early, rapid fruiting, pro- ductive type of cotton plant, with low fruit limbs, short joints and continuous growing long fruit limbs. Leaves removed. (After Bennett.) COTTON 203 often occurs, the breeding of cotton is more difficult. Because of the fact that the cotton stalks are a burden to the soil, exhausting its moisture and plant- food, and a bother to the farmer when it becomes neces- sary to get the land in condition for the suc- ceeding crop, it is desir- able to produce the maximum number of bolls per acre on the least possible amount of stalk. Some types of cotton have the fruit branches set close to- gether and the bolls close to each other on the branch. Fig. 103 shows cotton of this kind and represents a very desirable type. There are four primary limbs set close to the ground and the inter- nodes are short. It has been determined ^ that cotton of this type will blossom earlier than cotton in which the internodes are long. Early blossoming, with consequent eary fruiting, is especially desirable in localities where the boll weevil attacks the cotton. A late-maturing undesir- able type is shown in Fig. 104. The size of the bolls is an important factor in determining the yield of cotton. In ^Texas Experiment Station Bulletin No. 74. Fig. 104. A late, slow fruiting, unproduc- tive type of cotton plant, with high fruit limbs and long joints. Leaves removed. (After Bennett.) 204 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE some instances, it has been stated that large bolls are always associated with late maturity, but recent experi- ments^ indicate that large bolls can be produced on the early maturing, short-jointed type, and greatly increase the total yield, provided a maximum number of bolls is maintained. The percentage of Unt to seed is of importance. At present the average is about two pounds of seed to one Fig. 105. (1) Big Boll. (2) Small Boll. (3) and (4) Short fruit limbs. (5) Cluster type fruit limb. (After Bennett.) of lint, or 33 J per cent of the total weight; but samples are often found in which the amount of lint will run as high as 40 per cent. In the selecting of cotton for breeding and improve- ment, careful attention should be given to securing plants of early fruiting type and medium size, not over five feet high, with many bolls of large size and high per- iTexas Experiment Station Bulletin No. 7& COTTON 205 centage of lint. With the seed carefully selected from individual plants, the breeding operations may be con- ducted in the same manner as described for corn (see p^ge 25). Professor Bennett, of the Texas Experiment Station, recommends the following types of cotton: For Early Fruiting. — The first fruit-limbs must be low — not higher than the fifth joint above the seed-leaf joint. Primary or wood limbs must be low — the first not above the fifth joint, and not exceeding four in number. For Rapid Fruiting. — The joints on the main stem, fruit limbs and primary limbs must be short — not to exceed two or three inches is preferable. Fruit limbs should grow in succession at each joint of the main stem and pri- mary limbs, and should be continuous in growth for con- tinuous fruiting. For Product' veness. — The bolls should not be less than one and one-half inches in diameter. The ratio of lint to seed cotton should not be less than 33J per cent. The rate of growth is very important; and, therefore, the larger the plant of the type, the greater is its inherent rate of growth, its earliness, rapidity of fruiting and yield. Early opening of the bolls is not important in escaping the weevil. In states farther north, it is of importance in escaping the early frosts. It is not invariably a measure of the early setting of fruit. 193. Relation of Climate to Cotton. Cotton is a warm- weather plant and needs a comparatively long-growing season. Its growth may be divided into two periods, — the vegetative or growing period, and the fruiting period. This does not mean that the plant stops growing when it 206 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE begins to fruit, but that it should make its most rapid growth during the first period, and attain nearly maxi- mum size. Sea-island cotton requires 90 to 100 days for the growing period, and 80 to 90 days for the fruiting period. The early-maturing type represented in Fig. 103 should require only about 70 days for the first period. It is desirable that the vegetative period shall be short and the fruiting period as long as possible. Warm, moist weather, with warm nights and gradu- ally increasing heat, are desirable during the period of growth. For the fruiting period, dry weather with oc- casional showers is desirable. An excess of moisture in the soil at this time will cause the stalk to grow too large and retard the proper development of the bolls. 194. Cotton Soils. Cotton develops best on a clay or sandy loam soil, with a clay subsoil at a depth of about two feet. On bottom land, enriched by occasional over- flows, there is a tendency for the stalks to grow very large, and they sometimes become so tough that they must be chopped down with axes before the land can be cleared and plowed for the succeeding crop. Good cotton land should be well drained, but sufficiently retentive of moisture to insure the crop against injury by drought. To increase the water-holding capacity of the soil, there should be a higher percentage of organic matter than is usually found in cotton fields. This can be secured by planting peanuts or some bush variety of cowpeas between the cotton rows, and plowing them under with the cotton stalks after the cotton has been picked. This is not yet a common practice. Bur clover grows well in the southern states in the winter, and can be used as a COTTON 207 cover crop following the cotton, to be plowed under the following spring. 195. Preparation of the Soil. Early fall plowing is always advisable, especially when cotton is to follow cotton. There are three marked advantages in plowing under stalks and weeds in the fall: (1) Organic matter is added to the soil ; (2) boll-weevil and boll-worm, and other in- sects are destroyed ; (3) the seeds are destroyed which produce the volunteer cotton on which the boll-weevil feeds after the regular crop has fully matured. Where the growth of stalk is very large, it may be necessary to clear the stalks from the land and burn them, but on soils of average productivity the stalks should be cut and turned under. It is common practice on many cotton farms to plant cotton on land that grew cotton the previous season. The soil is prepared for planting by using a small, one- FiG. 106. A corn and cotton stalk cutter. To ' Fig. 107. A "middle-buster" for cut the stalks before plowing cotton fields horse turning plow, going twice between each two rows, throwing the dirt to the center, and leaving the cotton rows which are then broken up by a plow called a mid- dle-burster, y/hich throws the dirt to each side. This forms the land into narrow beds, or ridges, with furrows 208 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE between, and on these ridges the seed is planted. The chief objection to this plan is the expense of the labor. In modern systems of farming, the amount of horse power utiUzed per man should be increased as much as possible. 196. Fertilizers for Cotton. When the seed of the cotton plant is used on the farm for feed, and only the lint is sold, very little plant-food is removed from the farm. If manure could be saved and returned to the land, there would be little occasion to use commercial fertiUzers. On farms in the South, however, the accumulation of manure is much more difficult than in the northern states, because of the fact that the cattle and work stock are not often kept in barns, but are out in the open pastures. Experiments at various stations indicate that the nitrogen content of the soil can be maintained by the growing of cowpeas, peanuts, and clover or alfalfa, in rotation with corn and cotton. At the Texas station, no benefit was secured by the use of potash, but an application of 200 pounds per acre of acid phosphate, about two weeks before the seed was planted, produced earUer blossoms and a greater yield. At the Georgia station, it was found that when organic ni,trogen, cottonseed meal or tankage was used, it should be applied about two weeks before the seed was planted; and the same recommendation was made with reference to applications of potash and phosphoric acid. It was also recommended that 16 to 20 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda should be applied with the seed. The following suggestions may be helpful in applying fertilizer to cotton on average soil : COTTON 209 (1) If the cotton is grown after cotton without rota- tion with a legume, more nitrogen will be needed. (2) Potash and phosphoric acid will be needed unless liberal applications of bai:nyard manure are applied. (3) Potash will make the plant hardier and more able to withstand the attacks of fungous diseases. (4) Phosphoric acid increases the yield of lint and tends to produce early fruiting. (5) When plants are small and dwarfish and not well fruited, apply complete fertiUzer. (6) When the plants are of average size, but not well fruited, apply acid phosphate. (7) If the leaves are dropping off before the fruit is well formed, apply potash.- (8) Mix the fertilizer with the soil underneath the row or bed. Broadcasting fertilizer for cotton tends to produce late maturity. 197. Planting and Cultivating. The method of prepar- ing the soil for planting depends largely on its texture and the drainage conditions. On wet lands, poorly drained, the best practice is to plant the seed on beds thrown up about four feet apart. On soil that is well drained and in the drier sections, level preparation of the ground is advisable. The soil should be well compacted, with just sufficient loose dirt on the surface to cover the seed. The results of various trials at different experiment stations indicate that four feet is the best average distance be- tween the rows, and 12 to 18 inches is the proper distance between the plants in the row. On rich bottom-land soil this may result in crowding the plants so that the lower branches are too much shaded. If this is true, it would be 210 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE better to select a smaller-growing type of cotton. Early planting is strongly advised in all localities, and the quantity of seed should be sufficiently large to insure absolute certainty of a stand. For early planting, not less than 30 pounds of seed per acre should be used. As soon as the plants are well established in the soil and all danger of frost is passed, the excess number of plants should be removed by chopping out the inter- vening spaces with a hoe, leaving vigorous plants about 12 to 16 inches apart in the row. Following the chopping, a cultivator should be run close to the row, so as to throw some dirt toward the plants. The cultivation of the cot- ton should be shallow and frequent, and continued until the plants begin to mature bolls, and later, if necessary, to prevent a crust forming. If the preparation of the land was thorough and the soil has been well tilled up to this time, the crop can be laid by with an assurance that there is a sufficient quantity of moisture and available plant- food to mature the bolls. 198. Harvesting. The cotton crop is harvested by hand. Various attempts have been made, from time to time, to build a mechanical cotton-picker, and some very credit- able machines have been produced, but they have not come into general use. The problem is a difficult one be- cause of the leaves and trash that are more or less mixed with the cotton by the machine. Cotton-picking is the negro's hoUday vacation, and where there is a large percentage of colored people, there is usually little difficulty in getting sufficient labor to harvest the crop. They pass rapidly through the fields, deftly picking the locks from the open bolls, and placing them in a long COTTON 211 sack which they drag behind them. The cotton is usually picked by the hundred pounds. An average picker can easily pick 200 pounds of seed cotton per day. 199. Marketing. The seed cotton is carried from the field to the cotton-gin, where the lint is separated from the seed. The seed cotton is unloaded from the wagon by means of a suction tube about eight inches in diameter, the end of which is placed close to the cotton. Through this tube the cotton is carried to the **gin stand," where it passes over small, fine-toothed, circular saws, which rotate at a very high rate of speed. These saws remove the lint from the seed, which is returned by mechanical conveyors to the wagon, or carried into the house used for the storage of seed. From the ^^gin," the cotton comes out in great sheets of snowy whiteness, and is formed by a powerful hydraulic press into a very compact bale weighing about 500 pounds. This bale is covered with a coarse, heavy bagging, and is held together by strong iron bands. These bales are so compact that they are often left out in the rain for months without serious injury. 200. Grades of Cotton. Cotton is graded and sold ac- cording to the quality of lint, as shown by a sample taken from the bale. The variety of cotton has nothing to do with its market classification, but it depends much more on the development of the plant. The accepted standards for the grading of cotton are, from the best to the poorest: (1) Fair; (2) middUngfair; (3) good middling; (4) middling; (5) low middling; (6) good ordinary; (7) ordinary. Each of these grades is divided into subdivisions which merge one grade into the other. Middling is the accepted standard for all short-staple 212 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE upland cotton of good quality, and all prices are quoted on this basis. Cotton offered for sale is worth more or less per pound according to the grade as compared with mid- dling. 201. Cotton Seed. Cotton seed, which was formerly considered worthless, is now held in high esteem as a food for live stock, and for manufacturing purposes. It is fed to cattle and sheep extensively, and, in a limited way, to horses and mules. It is not used to any extent as hog- feed, because of the fact that when fed in liberal quan- tities it is liable to kill hogs. The oil mills use large quantities of seed in the produc- tion of cotton oil and cottonseed cake. The former, in the form of cottolene, is extensively used as a substitute for lard. A ton of cotton seed will produce approximately: 40 pounds of linter, or short fiber, which has adhered to the seed after ginning. 800 pounds of hulls. 800 pounds of cake, which is ground into meaj. 280 pounds of crude oil. 89 pounds of trash and dirt. The crude oil obtained from the cotton seed is refined and sold in different grades. The better quahties are used as substitutes for lard and olive oil, and in the manufac- ture of oleomargarine. Cotton oil has many valuable qualities. It has been used to some extent as an adul- terant, and on this account has acquired a bad repu- tation; but it has merits of its own that justify its use as an article of human food, to be sold under its true name. Cottonseed meal, hulls and linters are the by-products resulting from the extraction of the oil from the seed. COTTON 213 The cotton seed, after the lint has been removed, is crushed, and the ''meat" is separated from the hull. This meat is cooked at high temperature by steam, and later sub- jected to great pressure, which expresses the oil and leaves the residue in the form of a cake, which is ground into meal. A different method of extracting the oil from the seed is used by a very few mills. In these the hulls are not separated from the meat, and the oil is expressed without cooking. The cake that is left by this process has more oil than that which is cooked. Cottonseed meal mixed with hulls makes a very de- sirable feed for dairy cows and fattening steers. One ton of cottonseed meal contains three times the amount of digestible protein contained in one ton of wheat bran. This does not mean, however, that it is worth three times as much as wheat bran for feeding purposes, for what it gains in percentage of protein it must lose in the per- centage of carbohydrates or other material. In feeding the meal to dairy cows, it is best to limit the amount fed to about two to three pounds to each cow per day. If addi- tional grain is desired, add wheat bran, rice poUsh, or corn chops to the ration. The nitrogen contained in the cottonseed meal makes it a valuable fertilizer, and it is much used for this pur- pose, although it would be a more profitable practice to feed the meal to dairy cows and carefully save the manure for application to the soil. If this is done, about three- fourths of the fertilizing value of the meal will still be retained in the manure. It is very desirable that more live- stock be kept in the South. 214 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE The fertilizing constituents of cottonseed meal and its value per ton as a fertilizer are as follows: Lbs. in one ton Value Nitrogen 135.8 $27 16 Phosphoric acid 57 6 2 88 Potash 17.4 87 $30 91 202. Fungous Diseases and Insects Affecting Cotton. Cotton is, for the most part, a robust plant; yet, where it is continuously cultivated on the same soil it becomes subject to certain parasitic and fungous diseases. These diseases, when present in a field, develop very rapidly, and the curative measures resorted to are not very effec- tive. When cotton is grown in rotation with corn and some legume, which occupy the soil for one or two seasons and build up the organic matter and nitrogen content of the soil, very little trouble is experienced with para- sitic or fungous diseases. The two insects most troublesome in the cotton fields are the Mexican boll-weevil and the cotton-boll worm. Both of these can be retarded to some extent by early planting, and such methods of culture as will hasten the crop to maturity. (See Figs. 135 and 136.) The boll-weevil, as its name indicates, originally came from Mexico, and in ten years' time it has spread over all of central and eastern Texas and western Louisiana, advancing at the rate of about 50 miles per year. It is estimated that the annual loss to the farmers of Texas occasioned by the boll-weevil is over $25,000,000. Far- mers' Bulletin No. 189 of the United States Department of Agriculture states that ''there is not even a remote COTTON 215 possibility that the boll-weevil will ever be exterminated," and also "that it will eventually be distributed over all the cotton-belt." The weevil appears in early summer, and first attacks the buds, or squares, which are blasted by the attack and soon drop off. If any of the blossoms escape the attack of the little insect, the bolls develop unmolested during the early season; for, as long as the insects are not very numerous and the buds continue to form, it attacks them only. It is thus readily seen that the hope of the farmer, in infested districts, must rest in an endeavor to produce a crop early enough in the season to form a large per- centage of bolls before the weevil appears. It is also of much importance that the fields be cleared in the fall and plowed. If cattle can be turned into the cotton field after the picking is finished, they will undoubtedly destroy a great many weevils, but the fall plowing of the land should not be neglected. Frost destroys the weevil to some ex- tent, and its winter hibernating places should be broken up. It is also advisable to burn the grass around the borders of the fields, and to destroy all "volunteer cotton" on which the weevil might live. The boll- worm stands second in importance as a menace to the cotton crop, but experience teaches that this insect is also beaten by an early crop. The boll-worm feeds on many other plants besides cotton, and it does not usually appear in the cotton fields until corn and other crops have so far matured as to be no longer attractive to it. If the attack of the boll-worm should be especially severe, the dusting of the plants with Paris green may be resorted to. Two applications at intervals of ten days will be re- 216 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE quired. In considering methods of control for any of these pests, it should be remembered, that prevention is much better than cure, and that those conditions of soil culture which tend to destroy the insect pests will at the same time produce a strong, vigorous, early crop, which will be well out of danger before the insects ap- pear in very great numbers. These conditions may be summarized: (1) Plow the land deep in the fall. (2) Select seed from early-fruiting plants. (3) Use fertilizers that 'tend to produce vigorous plants and early fruit. (4) Plant early and use plenty of seed to insure a ''stand" (not less than one bushel per acre). (5) Cultivate the land shallow and very thoroughly during the early growth of the plant. THE WOOD CROP 203. Forests of the United States. 'The forests of the United States cover an area of about 699,500,000 acres, or more than 35 per cent of the surface of the country. Before so large a part of them were destroyed, they were, perhaps, the richest on the earth, and with proper care they are capable of being so again. Their power of repro- duction is exceedingly good. "In the northeastern states, and as far west as Minne- sota, once stretched the great white pine forest from which, since settlement began, the greater part of our lumber has come. South of it, in a broad belt along the Atlantic and the Gulf coasts, lies the southern pine forest, whose Fig. 108. Destructive lumbering. The slash enabled fire to complete the ruin Fw. 109. Conservative lumbering. Young growth saved, brush piled to prevent fire • • ^ « •. ,»_>J«* w THE WOOD CROP 217 most important tree, both for lumber and naval stores, is the southern yellow pine. In the Mississippi valley lies the interior hardwood forest of oaks, hickories, ashes, gums, and other hardwood trees. It is bordered on the west by the plains, which cover the eastern slope of the continental divide until they meet the evergreen Rocky mountain forest which clothes the slopes of this great range from the Canadian line to Mexico. Separated from the Rocky mountain forest by the interior deserts, the Pacific coast forest covers the flanks of the Sierras, the Cascades, and the coast ranges. Its largest trees are the giant sequoia and the great coast redwood, and its most important timber is the fir. 204. The Settler and the Forest. "When the early set- tlers from the Old World landed on the Atlantic coast of North America they brought with them traditions of respect for the forest created by generations of forest protection at home. The country to which they came was covered, for the most part, with dense forests. There was so little open land that ground had to be cleared for the plow. It is true that the forest gave the pioneers shelter and fuel, and game for food, but it was often filled with hostile Indians, it hemmed them in on every side, and immense labor was required to win from it the soil in which to raise their necessary crops. Naturally, it seemed to them an enemy rather than a friend. Their respect for it dwindled and disappeared, and its place was taken by hate and fear. "The feeling of hostiUty to the forest which grew up among the early settlers continued and increased among their descendants long after all reason for it had disap- 218 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE peared. But even in the early days far-sighted men began to consider the safety of the forest."^ 205. The Relation of Forestry to the Nation. 'The great industries of agriculture, transportation, mining, grazing, and, of course, lumbering, are each one of them vitally and immediately dependent upon wood, water, or grass from the forests. The manufacturing industries whether or not wood enters directly into their finished product, are scarcely, if at all, less dependent upon the forest than those whose connection with it is obvious and direct. Wood is an indispensable part of the material structure upon '^i^hich civilization rests; and it is to be remembered always that the immense increase of the use of iron and substitutes for wood in many structures, while it has meant a relative decrease in the amount of wood used, has been accompanied by an absolute increase in the amount of wood used. More wood is used than ever before in our history. Thus, the consumption of wood in ship-building is far larger than it was before the dis- covery of the art of building iron ships, because vastly more ships are built. Larger supphes of building lumber are required, directly or indirectly, for use in the construc- tion of the brick and steel and stone structures of great modern cities than were consumed by the comparatively few and comparatively small wooden buildings in the earlier stages of these same cities. It is as sure as anything can be that we will see in the future a steadily increasing demand for wood in our manufacturing industries. 206. Forest Policy for the Future. ''When wood, dead or alive, is demanded in so many ways, and when this iGifford Pinchot, Bulletin No. 24, Bureau Forestry, Part 2, pp. 81-83 THE WOOD CROP 219 demand will undoubtedly increase, it is a fair question, then, whether the vast demands of the future upon our forests are likely to be met. You are mighty poor Ameri- cans if your care for the well-being of this country is limited to hoping that that well-being will last out your own genera- tion. No man here or elsewhere is entitled to call himself a decent citizen if he does not try to do his part toward seeing that our national policies are shaped for the advan- tage of our children and our children's children. Our country, we have faith to believe, is only at the beginning of its growth. Unless the forests of the United States can be made ready to meet the vast demands which this growth will inevitably bring, commercial disaster, that means disaster to the whole country, is inevitable. If the present rate of forest destruction is allowed to con- tinue, with nothing to offset it, a timber famine in the future is inevitable. Fire, wasteful and destructive forms of lumbering, and the legitimate use, taken together, are destroying our forest resources far more rapidly than they are being replaced. It is difficult to imagine what such a timber famine would mean to our resources. And the period of recovery from the injuries which a timber famine would entail would be measured by the slow growth of the trees themselves. Remember that you can prevent such a timber famine occurring, by wise action taken in time; but, once the famine occurs, there is no possible way of hurrying the growth of the trees necessary to re- lieve it."^ 207. National Forests. On June 30, 1908, the United States government owned 165 national forests with an ^Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United States, before the Amer- ican Forest Congress. Circular No. 35 Bureau of Forestry, pp. 6, 7. 220 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE area of 167,976,886 acres. The establishment of these forest reserves is chiefly due to President Cleveland and President Roosevelt. The object is not to prevent trees from being cut. Forestry cuts trees and grows trees, just as farming grows crops and harvests them. The government reserves will furnish much more lumber than would be produced if the reserves were lumbered over in the usual manner, which leaves the forest practically ruined and allows fires to complete the destruction. The chief object of the reserves is to protect the drain- age basins of the streams that furnish water for irriga- tion. This also prevents destructive floods and furnishes a constant supply of water for water power. It also pre- vents the destruction of the soil that occurs when moun- tain sides are deforested. In such a case, it often takes but a few years to wash away the soil that it has required centuries to form. The reserves also maintain a constant supply of wood and timber. A number of states also own forest lands. Nearly every civilized government owns forests. But the government reserves in the United States cannot go far toward furnishing our future lumber supply. The great bulk of our forest lands belong to individuals. Most of the lumber supply must be furnished by private citizens. 208. Forests and Climate. Forests do not have a very great influence on the heat of the surrounding region. They modify the wind for short distances. Contrary to popular opinion, they do not have any appreciable effect on rainfall. Their great influence is in holding back the waters that fall and so regulating the flow of streams. THE WOOD CROP 221 Destruction of forests results in floods and dry rivers. The severe floods of the Ohio river of recent years are due to the deforested mountain lands that it drains. The water all .runs off rapidly instead of being held back. The losses caused by the floods direct and as a loss of water power would pay for reforesting the mountains. Possibly it is the fact that forests at the source keep up the summer flow of streams that has led to the errone- ous conclusion that forests increase rainfall. Or, perhaps, the error came from the observation that where forests occur there is usually a good rainfall. The rain is the cause of the forest not the result of it. 209. Conservative Lumbering. This differs from ordi- nary lumbering in that: (1) The forest is treated as a crop that must produce successive and regular harvests, rather than as a mine to be exhausted once for all. (2) Small trees are not cut when they are needed to renew the growth. (3) Attention is given to keeping the stand neither too thick nor too thin. (4) The tree weeds, broken and diseased trees, are removed to make room for good trees. In ordinary lum- bering, the tree weeds are the ones that are left to reseed the area. (5) Lumbering is conducted in such a way as to injure the young growth as little as possible. (6) In some cases, seeds or young trees are planted. This is expensive and is usually not necessary if a forest is well handled. (7) The forest is protected from fire. 222 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 210. Forest Trees Are Now a Profitable Farm Crop. Neglected as they are, the farm wood-lots of many farms in northeastern United States produce $2 to $10 worth of wood per year from each acre. As an example, a farm on the hill lands of southern New York consists of 100 acres, 30 acres of which is in timber. This wood-lot was cut in 1907 for the third time in 90 years. Each time it has been cut with entire disre- gard for the future. The third cutting on the 30 acres sold for $2,100, standing. In spite of the present high price of lumber, no attention is given to the future in this cutting. Young trees that are scarcely worth cutting, but that would be valuable in 10 to 20 years, are cut. Those that are too small to cut are broken down. This is the almost universal practice, in spite of the high profits that come from such a wood-lot. After '^skinning" the wood-lot, the entire farm of 100 acres, with buildings, was sold for $1,400. This farm would not rent for $1 an acre, as indicated by the selling price. But, in spite of the owners, it has grown $70 worth of wood per acre since the last cutting 30 years ago. If the $1 per acre rent were placed at compound interest it would not amount to $70 at the end of 30 years. In other words, the wood land pays better than the farm land. If the wood land were given a very little attention in cutting, so as to maintain a stand of the best kinds of trees, the returns could easily be doubled. This instance is typical of large areas of land in northeastern United States. 211. The Farm Wood-Lot. Many farms should make a business of raising lumber, railroad ties, telephone THE WOOD CROP 223 poles or posts for sale. With the present prices, the wood- lot is often the most profitable part of the farm, and future prices promise to be much higher. Nearly every farm should have a wood-lot to furnish posts, fuel and repairs for home use. The majority of farms have some land that is practically use- less, and this land is usually the best for trees. A little attention to planting good seeds or seedling trees, and to cutting out the poor kinds, will often trans- form these waste areas into very profitable woods. In the central West, there are many creeks and draws that are too steep or too wet or wash too much to be used for farm purposes, but that furnish an ideal place for trees. On farms where none of these conditions exist, a wood-lot may often be desirable near the buildings as a windbreak. If a small grove is planted, it will also furnish posts. As a general thing, trees should not be planted between fields or in fields. A row may be grown along the public road, because they make the place more attractive. It is very often desirable to change the shape and size of fields. Trees along fence lines prevent this. They also sap the land for many feet. This land is usually worse than lost, for it is generally farmed each year and both seed and labor are lost. If left in sod, the loss is less. Flo. 110. White pines coming into a pas- ture. On this land trees pay better than the poor pasture. 224 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE The writer lived for many years on a quarter-section^ of land in Nebraska that had a strip of trees all around the outside and had one row of honey locust across the farm. This row of honey locust trees one-half mile long ruined a strip about four rods wide and injured considerably more. At the end of about 25 years they were cut for posts. They required the use of four acres of land for most of the time. If this land had been rented for cash rent at $2.50 an acre, and the money put at com- pound interest at 5 per cent, it would have amounted to $487. Probably the posts were not worth $200. On the same farm there were groves of honey locust and catalpa, cottonwood and box elder. All these were very profitable. Not only are the trees along a fence line a great nuisance, but this is not the place to grow good trees. Such trees branch so much as to give more brush than lumber. Trees are social beings. Many pubUcations have recommended such planting. A recent bulletin^ presents a plan for a model farm of 160 ^A section of land is one mile square; a quarter-section is one-half mile square, and contains 160 acres. 2 Farmers' Bulletin No. 228. Fig. 111. An unsatisfactory fence- post. The wire spoils the tree and the tree spoils the fence. THE WOOD CROP 225 acres in Kansas or Nebraska that has a belt of trees around the outside of the farm and has four rows and one belt of trees running across the farm. This requires two and one-half miles of trees running across the fields, besides two miles around the outside of the farm. The rows across the fields will soon spoil four rods of land which amounts to 20 acres. The row around the outside will soon spoil two rods of land or 8 acres. This would make 28 acres occupied by trees. If grass is grown next to the trees, a partial crop may be secured. These trees are designed as a windbreak, but it is doubtful whether the wind ever will do as much harm as the trees. Another object of the trees along the fields is to act as fence -posts. But a tree is a most unsatisfactory post. The trees grow completely around the wire. The staples and wire in the tree make it unfit for sawing. A fence stapled to trees is nearly always distorted. The swaying of the trees, even large trees, spoils a wire fence. The sap from the trees rusts the wire so that it breaks. Even if trees are along a fence-Une, it is better to set posts than to use the trees. The wood-lot should very rarely be used as a pasture. Stock destroy the leaf mulch that is so essen- tial for the trees. They keep down seedling trees and Fig. 112. Trees in a pasture. The stock prevent a good growth of timber and the trees prevent a good growth of grass. Better re« move the stock or the trees. 226 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE sprouts. In general, it is best not to mix trees with crops or with the pasture, except as a few trees may be desired as shade for stock, or as a windbreak. 212. What Trees to Plant. The following are some of the desirable trees for posts: Hardy catalpa {Catalpc. speciosa) makes one of the best fence-posts and grows very rapidly on good land. It is adapted to rich, deep soils south of the 41st parallel. Black locust makes a very desirable tree where it is not ruined by borers. Chestnut is one of the fastest-growing, good post trees for northeastern United States. Osage orange is probably the best post material. It is a slow- growing, drought-resist- ant tree, adapted to regions south of the 41st parallel. Some of the trees adapted to the semi- arid regions are bur oak, hackberry, black locust, white elm, Russian mulberry, osage orange, red cedar, western yellow pine. Jack pine. White pine, Norway spruce, chestnut, are among the best trees for planting in regions where the white pine once grew. For other regions and the numerous other trees and combinations of trees, see Bureau of Forestry Circular No. 30. Several states are growing young forest trees and furnish- ing them at cost so as to encourage planting. Forest lands should not be taxed in the same manner as farm land. Fig, 113. A black-locust grove. Contrast with the brush in the background on an adjoining farm. • ••» ORCHARDS 227 ORCHARDS 213. Setting Trees. In digging, the roots of trees are often broken and the bark at the ends is often torn off. Before planting, all such roots should be cut back, making clean wounds that will heal readily. The more roots on a tree the better. At best, a transplanted tree retains only a small fraction of its roots. On the other hand, the branches should ordinarily be cut back or removed. The tree will soon be larger if this is done. People usually leave too much top and too little roots. It is well to remember that roots can quickly grow a top, but that a top can never take the place of roots. If too much top is left, the leaves will dry the tree to death. Trees should not be allowed to lie around in the sun and wind before planting. The roots should never be allowed to dry more than is necessary. If the roots are coated with clay, they should be dipped in water before planting. Holes should be a little larger than the roots require, so that it will not be necessary to coil the roots into the hole. Trees should usually be planted about two inches deeper than they grew. The most important point in planting a tree is firming Fig. 115. Peach trees pruned for planting, a, unpruned; h, slightly pruned; c, four-inch stubs left; d, one-inch stubs; e, pruned to a whip. Trees that were pruned like d and e when set, were largest in the fall. 228 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE the soil around the roots. If the soil is thrown in on top of the roots and then merely stepped on, there will be a hollow space under the center of the tree. The soil should be packed under and around the roots firmly. The upper layers of roots should be lifted up, so that they will come out in their natural direction, with the soil below them packed firmly. The last four inches of soil should be left loose to absorb the rain and act as a mulch. Com- monly, trees are set in exactly the opposite manner — • loose soil at the bottom and packed soil on top. It must be remembered that roots take up their water by osmosis. Only when they are in most intimate contact with the soil particles are they able to absorb the soil water. If the region is very dry, the soil should be kept stirred or mulched, so that no weeds can grow. 214. Tillage of Orchards. Formerly, people thought that orchards were able to take care of themselves; but, with the advent of commercial orcharding, many men have come to till the orchard as regularly as they do the other crops. Trees make nearly all of their growth before the sum- mer months. It is at this season of the year that they require the most food and moisture. In New Jersey, in latitude 40° 30', the writer found that nearly all the or- chard trees had completed their twig growth by the last of June. In this latitude, tillage should begin as early as possible, and should stop by the middle of July. A cover crop may then be sown, or the weeds may be allowed to grow. In tilling orchards, great care must be taken not to bark the trees. Such injuries are very serious, while the ORCHARDS 229 little grass or weeds that grow near the trunk are of no consequence. Under any ordinary circumstances, a few feet of untilled land about the base of large trees does no harm. Apple orchards will stand more abuse than most kinds of trees, so that they are frequently grown in sod. They should ordinarily be tilled. The effects of tillage are strikingly shown in New York state. Five hundred and sixty-four orchards in Orleans county, containing 4,881 acres, were examined. The average yields and incomes from these orchards for five years are shown below :^ Yield Per Acre of Tilled and Sod Apple Orchards, Five-Year Averages (1900-1904), Orleans County, N. Y. Tilled ten years or more Tilled five years or more Tilled over half of preceding five yeai Sod over half of preceding five years Sod five years or more Sod ten years or more Average Average yield income BU8. 327 $182 274 138 225 113 222 107 204 108 176 87 The sod orchards that were used as pastures for hogs or sheep were better than the average, but not so good as the tilled ones. There are, of course, many conditions under which tillage is not desirable, such as orchards on steep hillsides. 215. Spraying Orchards. Spraying is now a regular practice of the best fruit-growers, but the majority of orchards are still unsprayed. The particular treatment varies with the kind of fruit and the region. Peaches and iNew York (Cornell) Bulletin No. 229. 230 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE plums are seldom sprayed unless they are infected with the San Jose scale. In many regions, apples are commonly sprayed three times, — once just before the blossoms open, once just as the petals fall, and again 10 to 14 days later. The mixture used is three to four pounds of copper sulphate, four to six pounds of Ume, and one-half pound of Paris green in 50 gallons of water. (See page 263.) The effects of spraying apple trees in Orleans county, New York, in 1904, were as follows: Unsprayed, $92 average income per acre. Sprayed once, $116 average income per acre. Sprayed twice, $127 average income per acre. Sprayed three times, $139 average income per acre. 216. Pruning. Pruning is neces- sary in order to thin the top, other- wise the competition among the branches injures all of them. The main branches of a fruit tree should be so arranged as to prevent splitting. Trees that are to stand many years should be so pruned as to preserve sound trunks. This is of less conse- quence with short-Uved trees Hke the peach. Correct pruning depends on a knowledge of the cambium layer. The hving and growing part of a tree is the cambium layer. This is a tissue that Hes on the outside of the wood Fig. 116. A bad crotch. One of the limbs should be removed or the tree will be likely to split. ORCHARDS 231 jb'iG. 117. Broken trees, the result of crotches and beneath the bark. From its outside it produces bark and from its inside it produces wood. It is the layer of young, tender cells that makes the bark ''slip" so readily in early spring. A layer of new cells grows on the outside of a tree every year. The cells that grow in the fall are thicker- walled than those that grow in the spring. This makes the wood darker in color, so that a ring is formed at the end of each season's growth. It is these annual rings that enable us to tell the age of a tree. The sap of a tree passes up through the outer layers of wood, the sap wood, while the elaborated food is distributed through the cambium layers. The outer bark and the inner wood of a tree are dead. This dead inner wood is protected by the cambium layer, so that fungi and bacteria cannot reach it. When a limb is cut off, or if the bark is removed, the dead cells are exposed. These cannot heal the wound. The cambium layer around the edges must grow over it. The safety of the tree depends on having it heal over before it becomes infected with molds. If the wound is large and is not treated, some decay fungus is almost certain to become established before it heals over. The tree may then heal over and look all right, but the fungi will continue to grow and will result in a decayed or hollow trunk. A hollow tree usually continues to grow all right, as the inner 232 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 118. Most of the apple trees in the northeastern states are killed in this way. (See Figs. 119 and 120.) wood has no use except to support the tree; but, sooner or later, it is certain to be blown down (Fig. 118). A great majority of the trees in forests and orchards die because of rotten trunks that give way during a wind. In order to prevent ,, trunks from rotting, care should be exercised not to hurt trees with machinery or to allow them to be in- jured by stock. They should be pruned when young, so as to avoid the necessity of removing large limbs. If such limbs have to be removed, they should be cut in the manner that will make them heal fast- est. All large wounds should be painted, so as to protect the wood until it heals over. Wounds heal most rap- idly when cut parallel with the branch, and as close to it as possible. This makes a much larger wound; but it is in line with the cambium layer and heals in less time, as Fig. 119. The decayed hole where a J V . . limb was removed. The wood-destroying proved by experiments. fungi caused the tree to break, Fig. 118. ORCHARDS 233 Occasionally a sound tree starts to split, par- ticularly if crotches were allowed to develop when the tree was young. Such a tree can often be saved by the use of bolts. A band put around a tree will girdle it, but a bolt put through it will do no appreci- able damage. Some- times it is better to put a bolt through each branch and connect them with a chain. Fig. 120. Inside of the broken limb show- ing the decay that entered through Fig. 119. The same tree as Fig. 118. SHADE TREES 217. The planting and care of shade trees can be deducted from the princi- ples of planting and prun- ing orchard trees as given above. The indiscriminate wounding of shade trees is the usual cause of death. Where trees are likely to be injured by horses, they should be protected by wire guards around the Fig. 121. A long stub left in pruning. The wound cannot heal. The tape shows how far the trunk is hollow. The tree will soon blow over. 234 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE trunks. Some person who knows no better is certain to hitch to the tree sooner or later, if it is handy. The indiscriminate cutting of tree-tops and the use of trees as anchors for telephone lines should not require much :i'!f-;/?l ^^.'-. .t- FiG. 122. The wrong way to make the cut Fig. 123. The right way to make the cut comment. The telephone is more important than the trees, but we should have both. THE FARM GARDEN 218. The crop froni a vegetable garden of one-half acre at the University of Illinois had an average value of $105 for five years. During this time, the average ex- THE FARM GARDEN 235 pense for seeds, insecticides and labor was $30.^ Every farmer should have a family orchard and a garden, not only for pleasure, but for profit that results from a saving on living expenses. The garden should be large enough to be plowed and worked with a team. All cultivation should be given with horses. This will require a Uttle more area for the same produce, but land is cheaper than hand labor. One reason why farmers' gardens are so poor is that so much dependence is placed on hand labor which cannot be given. A half-acre to an acre next to the house should be set aside for the garden, on most farms. If it is not all needed, it may be filled in with pumpkins, roots or corn for the stock . On most farms, the garden should be fenced with poultry-tight wire. The grapes, raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries, currants, winter onions, rhu- barb, asparagus, straw- berries, and other perennials, should be placed in full rows at one side. These rows should be six to eight feet apart. While they are young, a row of vegetables may be raised between them. When they are grown, the land may be plowed between the rows and kept tilled. Such plants as blackberries should be confined to solid rows about two feet wide. This allows for regular horse cultivation between rows. Tillage ilUinois Bulletin No. 105 Fio. 124. The right and the wrong way to brace a crotch 236 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE is necessary to produce the best fruit, particularly in dry years. If all perennials are at one side, the remainder of the garden will be straight for plowing. The rows of vege- tables should be at least two and one-half feet apart to allow for continued cultivation with a horse or team. Cultivation should be so frequent that weeds will never get started. In this way, little hand labor will be required. The soil should be generously manured. It is not profit- able to raise so valuable a crop on poor land. If any part of the farm is short of manure, let it be the cheapest crop. It will pay to save seed of most of the plants, as the seed will be surer to grow and will be cheaper than buying it. The garden and orchard should contain every kind of fruit and vegetable that will grow in the region and that the family likes. There should be enough varieties to cover the season. The season may be prolonged by bringing vegetables into the cellar. Full-grown green tomatoes may be kept for about two months by wrapping them in paper. The writer has had them in December in New York. Watermelons will keep some time. Celery may be transplanted to the cellar and kept watered. It will then grow new shoots that are of the finest quality. If one be- comes interested, he will find many ways of adding to the usefulness and pleasure of the garden. A small hotbed, perhaps four by eight feet, will grow several crops of lettuce and radishes and also plants for the garden. A hotbed is a simple affair. Old boards may be used to make a tight frame, which is about 24 inches QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 237 deep on the north and 18 inches deep on the south. This is filled with firmly tramped horse manure that is just beginning to heat. It is covered with about six inches of good soil, and is then ready for the window-sash. Before making such a hotbed, one would do well to buy the sash and make the bed to fit it. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Make a study of Appendix Tables 11, 13 and 14. 2. What are the average crop yields in your region? How do they compare with the averages for the United States? 3. What are the average yields on the best farms of the region? Why are these higher than on the average farm? 4. What crops in your county are most valuable? Which ones occupy the most area? 5. What is a low barometer area? What relation has this to storms? 6. Can rain be made by explosives or by other means? 7. What use can a farmer make of the United States weather maps? 8. How long in advance can weather conditions be foretold? 9. Can plants or animals foretell the weather? 10. Is there a compensating cycle in the weather? Is there any truth in the statement "March comes in like a lamb and goes out like a lion; or, if it comes in like a lion, it goes out like a lamb?" Does a pleasant January indicate a disagreeable February? 11. Does the moon affect crops? 12. Does the climate of a region change in a man's lifetime? If not, why do so many persons think that it does? 13. What is the average annual rainfall in your county? What part of this falls during the growing period? 14. What is the average temperature of the year? Of the growing months? 15. What is the average date of the last killing spring frost? Of the first killing fall frost? How many days are there between frosts? 16. At what date may each of the leading crops be safely planted in the region? 17. What is the length of a June day in Louisiana? In Illinois? In Manitoba? Of what importance is this to farmers? 238 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 18. Is yours an important corn-growing region? Why? 19. What are the best post trees of the region? Are trees grown for lumber? If so, which are best? 20. What effect does girdling a tree have? 21 What is a knot? 22. What is quarter-sawn lumber? In what other ways is lumber sawn? 23. How can the age of a tree be determined? 24. Will mulching the soil or tilling it affect the time of blossom- ing of a tree? 25. How many bushels of ear corn will a wagon box 2 feet deep, 3 feet wide and 11 feet 9 inches long hold? How many bushels of shelled corn will it hold? How much will the load weigh in each case? (See Appendix, Table 18.) 26. A man has plowed a strip 6^ rods wide with furrows 30 rods long. How many acres has he plowed ? How many turns has he made if the plow cuts 14 inches ? 27. How many tons of hay will there probably be in a mow that is 15 X 30 feet and that contains 10 feet of hay that has settled all winter ? (See Appendix, Table 18.) LABORATORY EXERCISES 53. Score Card for Dent Corn. Materials. — Several samples of corn, five or ten ears in a sample. Use the score card on page 278 of "Cereals in America," or the following, deducting for imperfections in any of the points. Points Maturity and market condition 20 Seed condition 20 Shape of kernels 20 Uniformity 15 Weight of ear 10 Color of grain and cob 5 Length of ear and proportion 5 Butts and tips 5 100 54. Depth to Plant Corn. Materials. — Corn and box of soil, or a garden. - Plant ten kernels of corn at each of the following depths: one, two, four and six inches. How many days does it take for the corn to come up in each case? Which plants are most vigorous? After it LABORATORY EXERCISES 239 4 Rods has grown three weeks, take it up and make drawings of the roots in each case. At what depth have the permanent roots appeared? Has the depth of planting influenced this? 55. Visit to a Flour MiU. Visit a flour mill, or other similar manufacturing enterprise. Learn as much as possible of the processes, and write a description of them. 56. Good and Poor Flour. Materias. — High-grade flour and cheap flour. One teacup- ful of each for five students. Moisten the flour just enough to make dough. Work it between the fingers, and then wash it until the starch is washed out. You will then have a sticky mass of gluten. Com- pare the color of the gluten in high- and low-grade flour. How many inches will each stretch before it breaks? Why does the high-grade flour make lighter bread? Why does corn or rye not make as light bread as wheat? 57. To Determine the Influence of Fertilizers on the Yield of Timothy Hay. Materials. — Field of tim- othy, 20 pounds nitrate of soda, 7^ pounds acid phosphate, 3| pounds muriate of potash, 500 pounds (about one-fourth load) of barnyard manure, 22 stakes, tape-measure. Arrange- ments can probably be made to have some student conduct the experiment at home. Lay off ten plots, side by side, each one rod by four rods. Check No fertilizer 5 pounds nitrate of soda 5 pounds nitrate of soda 2i pounds acid phosphate Check 5 pounds nitrate of soda li pounds muriate cf potash 2i pounds acid phosphate li pounds muriate of potash Check 5 pounds nitrate of soda 2i pounds acid phosphate li pounds muriate of potash i-load, about 500 pounds cf Tianure Check 1 10 240 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Apply fertilizers early in the spring, as shown in the diagram. The fertilizers for each plot are weighed out and mixed together, then sown broadcast by hand. These applications are much higher in nitrogen than those commonly used on other crops than hay. Make notes on the growth of hay throughout the season. When the hay is ready to cut, run a binder twine from stake to stake to keep the plots separate, mow each plot with a scythe. Loop up the hay with a rope and weigh with a spring balance. Fill out the following table: Plot Treatment Yield Rate of yield per acre Apparent increase Value of increase Cost of treat- ment For method of making calculations see page 149. A similar experiment is outlined for corn, cotton, or potatoes on page 152. 58. To Determine the Best Method of Growing Alfalfa for Regions East of the Missouri River. Materials. — Six-tenths of an acre of land, 12 stakes, 6 bushels of lime, 15 pounds (one-fourth bushel) of alfalfa seed, soil from an alfalfa field, or from a place where sweet clover grows. Plots as small as one square rod may be used. In this case, only one- sixteenth as much land and materials are needed. Unless the land selected is very rich, manure should be applied to all the plots at the rate of about ten loads per acre, or six loads for this area. Plow the land early in the spring. Lay off a plot 8 by 12 rods and drive a stake every 4 rods, as in the figure. 1 2 LIME 3 SOIL 4 LIME AND SOIL 5 SOIL 6 LIME A.VD SOIL VSow alone Sow with barley or oats LABORATORY EXERCISES 241 Apply six bushels of lime to plots 2, 4, and 6. This is at the rate of tweuty bushels, or about 1,500 pounds per acre. Inoculate plots 3, 4, 5, and 6 with soil from an alfalfa field, or from a place v/here sweet clover grows, using about one or two bushels Sow one-third of the alfalfa seed on plots 5 and 6, with about seven quarts of barley or oats. Continue to harrow the other plots until all weeds are subdued, then sow the alfalfa alone, two months before the first frost is likely to come, — August 1 in the latitude of Chicago. In regions where the season is long enough, potatoes may take the place of the fallow. The plots may, of course, be of any size. The above areas are large enough to answer the questions. If one desires to plant a larger area the following year, he will know the best method to use, and will have soil for inoculation purposes, if inoculation proves to be necessary on the farm. 59. Field Lesson on Legumes. Find as many kinds of legumes as possible. Learn the common name of each. Learn to distinguish the different clovers. Red clover, by the white spot on the leaf; alsike, by the absence of this spot, smaller size, different colored blossoms; white, by still smaller size and un- branched flower-stalks. Dig up each legume carefully and find the nodules. Make a drawing of each kind of nodules. What legumes require inoculation in your region? 60. How to Plant a Tree. On Arbor Day, or at some other time, plant a tree according to the directions on page 227. 61. Crop Production. Let each student select a farm crop, and leam all that is pos- sible about the crop and its production, and write a complete discussion from the preparation of the land to marketing the crop. Other mem- bers of the class may write up the methods used in the neighborhood on some important crop, with suggestions for improvement. 242 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE COLLATERAL READING Farmers' Bulletins, Nos.: (Select those that apply to the region). 233. Root Systems of Field Crops, pp. 5-11. 149. Shrinkage of Farm Products, pp. 10-15. Corn. 81. Corn-growing for the South. 199. Corn-growing. 253. The Germination of Seed Com. 292. The Cost of Filling Silos. 303, Corn-harvesting Machinery. 313. Harvesting and Storing Corn. 317. Increasing the Productiveness of Corn, pp. 17-22. Shrinkage of Corn in Cribs, pp. 22-26. Meadows and Pastures. 66. Meadows and Pastures. 72. Cattle Ranges of the Southwest. 102. Southern Forage Plants. 147. Winter Forage Crops for the South. 339. Alfalfa. 237. Lime and Clover, pp. 5-7. 260. Seed of Red Clover and Its Impurities. 323. Clover Farming on the Sandy Jack-Pine Lands of the North. 271. Forage-crop Practices in Western Oregon and Washington 312. A Successful Southern Hay Farm. Cotton. 36. Cotton-Seed and its Products. 48. The Manuring of Cotton. 217. Essential Steps in Securing an Early Crop of Cotton. 302. Sea-island Cotton. 314. A method of Breeding Early Cotton to Escape Bollwee- vil Damage. 326. Building up a Run-down Cotton Plantation. Tobacco. 60. Methods of Curing Tobacco. 82. The Culture of Tobacco. 83. Tobacco Soils. 343. The Cultivation of Tobacco in Kentucky. COLLATERAL READING 243 Forest Trees. 134. Tree-planting on Rural School Grouuds. 173. Primer of Forestry. 262. Planting White Pine in New England, pp. 31-32. 276. Suggestions for the Management of the Farm Wood-lot, pp. 29-32. Circulars of the Bureau of Forestry, Nos.: 3D. Exhibit of Forest Planting in Wood-lots at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. 36. The Forest Service. 97. The Timber Supply of the United States. 117. Preservative Treatment of Fence-posts. 130. Forestry in the Public Schools. 138. Suggestions to Wood-lot Owners in the Ohio Valley Region. 145. Forest Planting on the Northern Prairies. There are publications among the Farmers' Bulletins on nearly all the other farm crops. The following are a few of the references, arranged in alphabetical order: Apples, Nos. 113, 153, 161, 208, 233, 243, 247, 283. Asparagus, Nos. 61, 233, 259. Basket Willow, No. 341. Beans, No. 289. Broom-corn, No. 174. Buckwheat, No. 267. Cana- dian Field Peas, No. 224. Celery, Nos. 133, 282. Cowpeas, Nos. 309, 318. Citrus fruits. No. 238. Cranberries, Nos. 176, 178, 221. Cucum- bers, No. 254. Emmer, Nos. 139, 277. Flax, Nos. 27, 274. Hops, Nos. 115, 304. Kafir corn, No. 288. Maple-sugar, No. 252. Millet, Nos. 69, 101, 168. Milo, No. 322. Onion, Nos. 39, 149. Peach, Nos. 33, 80, 208, 276. Pineapple, No. 140. Potato, Nos. 35, 149, 244, 251. Rape, Nos. 78, 164. Raspberries, No. 216. Rice, Nos. 110, 305. Sor^ ghum, Nos. 135, 246, 288. Soy beans, Nos. 58, 309. Strawberries, No. 198. Sugar-beet, Nos. 52, 92. Sweet Potatoes, Nos. 129, 273, 324. Tomatoes, No. 220. Many more references to these crops, and references to nearly all other crops, may be found in the Index to Farmers' Bulletins, Circular No. 4, of the Division of Publications. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II. Index. Cereals in America, by T. F. Hunt. Forage and Fiber Crops in America, by T. F. Hunt. The Potato, by S. Eraser. Corn Plants, by Sargent. Cotton, by Burkett & Poe. CHAPTER YIII ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS The chief enemies of farm crops are weeds,- insects, and diseases caused by parasitic plants. A number of the larger animals, such as ground-squirrels, crows and gophers, are sometimes injurious. WEEDS 219. What Is a Weed? A weed is often described as a plant that is not wanted. The worst weed in a corn-field may be corn; that is, if corn is planted too thick, the corn plants crowd each other so that the extra ones may do more harm than is done by common weeds. Johnson grass is a valuable hay plant in the South, but it is so hard to kill that it is a very bad weed. 220. Value of Weeds. Weeds are a benefit, in that they force men to till the land and often compel crop-rotation. The farmer then secures the many other benefits that come from rotation and tillage. But many weeds are of direct value. The best plants in pastures are sometimes those that are weeds elsewhere. One of the great uses of weeds is to renew worn-out soiL In all ages some men have farmed in such a way that the soil has become unproductive. When soil becomes too poor to grow crops, the hardy weeds will still grow on it, and as they decay will gradually build up a productive (244) Fig. 125. A good spray rig for a small orchard Fio. 126. Oats sprayed for killing mustard on the left, unsprayed on the right ■ '■'♦•J WEEDS 245 soil. Many fields in the older parts of the United States have been abandoned at times to recuperate under this slow process. With good farming, such a condition will never arise. But, until our farming is much improved, we may be thankful that the weeds will reclaim land after man has exhausted it. 221. The Control of Weeds. The first consideration in the great majority of cases should be to secure conditions that will favor the growth of the crop. Many crops will grow so vigorously as entirely to smother out the weeds, if conditions are favorable. But, if the conditions are not just right for the crop, the weeds may overshadow it. There is always strong competition between hay and small- grain crops and the weeds. A very sUght treatment may give the one or the other the upper hand. Fig. 97 shows how lime produced this difference with alfalfa. The appUcation of Hme on this particular soil controlled the weeds, not because it hurt the weeds, but because it caused the alfalfa to grow so vigorously as to leave no room for weeds. The orange hawkweed is very serious in some old worn-out pastures, and farmers are wondering what to put on to kill it. The real trouble is that the soil is so poor for grass that almost any more hardy plant can crowd it out. An application of barnyard manure and more grass seed is the real remedy. 222. The Control of Weeds in Tilled Crops. The time to kill weeds by tillage is before they secure a foothold. Just as the stored food in the weed seed is exhausted and before it has become well rooted, a weed is very easily killed. If we wait until it has become rooted, it may be too late. Figs. 80 and 81 show this difference. In one 246 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE case, the corn-field was gone over with a weeder before the weeds were troublesome, just as they were coming up. In the other case, the farmer waited until the weeds were large enough to attract attention. It was then too late to kill all of them. 223. Subduing Land That Is Badly Infested with Weeds. Some farms are so badly infested with weeds that special treatment becomes necessary. Such land may be summer- fallowed, that is, kept bare and tilled all one year. This will usually subdue any weed, but often is not profitable, as the season's crop is lost and the tillage is expensive. There are several ways of conducting a short fallow with- out the loss of a crop. The land may be plowed immediately after harvesting a crop of hay or small grain, and be kept stirred the remainder of the season; then grow a tilled crop the following year. Such treatment will usually clean the land fairly well. This short fallow may sometimes be reversed. The land may be plowed in the fall or spring, and be kept stirred until time to sow a crop, such as buck- wheat or millet. The next year a tilled crop may be grown. The tillage will kill many weeds, and such a crop as millet will choke out weeds. 224. Spraying for Wild Mustard. Nearly any soluble chemical will kill plants if applied in strong solutions. Even plant foods, such as nitrate of soda, will kill plants if enough is applied. A solution may often be used that is strong enough to kill certain weeds, and yet not strong enough to harm certain crops. The most important application of this principle for the control of weeds is in the case of wild mustard. This plant is easily killed by spraying with a solution of iron WEEDS 247 Fig. 127. Wild mustard the proper size for spraying sulphate or copper sulphate. One hundred pounds of iron sulphate or 12 pounds of copper sulphate may be used in 50 gallons of water. In either case, about 50 gallons is sprayed on an acre. It is necessary to have the spray hit all the land. This is accomplished by using one of the field-spraying out- fits with plenty of nozzles. (See Fig. 126.) With a prop- erly equipped ma- chine, 10 to 20 acres may be sprayed in a day. The spraying is best done on a bright, clear day, and should be done when the mustard has six to eight leaves. Mustard may then be killed in any of the cereals, or in peas, without hurting the crops. Beans, potatoes, and cabbages must not be sprayed with this mixture, as these crops would be killed. 225. Control of Weeds in Walks. In walks, tennis- courts and some other places, any plant is a weed. We can then use a treatment that kills everything. Salt may be used. Carbolic acid or sodium arsenate are more lasting in their effect. A 3 per cent solution of carboUc acid or a 2 per cent solution of sodium arsenate is about right. In either case, about eight gallons will be needed per square rod. Such treatments should not be given under trees, as the trees as well as the weeds are likely to be killed. 248 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE THE DISEASES OF PLANTS By H. H. WHETZEL Professor of Plant Pathology, Cornell University Plants, like animals, are subject to many different kinds of diseases. Most of the diseases of plants are caused by insects or by plant organisms, chiefly fungi or bacteria. Some flowering plants, as the dodder, also cause diseases in other plants. Bacterial Diseases 226. Characteristics of Bacteria. Bacteria are the smallest of all known plants. They are to be found almost everywhere on the earth, inside and outside the human body, in milk and water, and even on the dust particles of the air. Like all plants, they grow only where food and moisture are present. Some produce diseases in animals; some cause diseases in plants. By far the most of them are harmless or beneficial. Bacteria are among the simplest of plants. They have neither root, leaves, nor flowers, but consist of single cells made up of living protoplasm enclosed within a cell-wall. They are usually spherical, rod-shaped or spiral in form. They are commonly slightly attached to each other in pairs, chains or clusters. Many are surrounded by a muci- laginous substance, which may aid in their distribution. Some are motile, being propelled through the liquid in which they live by long whip-like appendages (flagella). Like all plants, they take their food in solution by diffusion through their cell-walls and protoplasm. They multiply very rapidly, reaching maturity and dividing directly into PLANT DISEASES 249 two, often in half an hour. Some species form spores by which they may pass through periods of dryness or other unfavorable conditions without dying. No spore- forming species is known to cause disease in plants. 227. An Example of a Bacterial Disease. The most common and destructive disease of pears, apples and quinces is a bacterial one commonly known as fire-blight or pear-blight. It occurs on other wild plants of the apple tribe, and occasionally on plum trees. The symptom of the disease so well known to every fruit-grower is, chiefly, the sudden death of the blossoms or tips of the growing twigs. These leaves turn black and cling to the twigs after the other leaves have fallen. Some- times, especially on pear trees, the disease runs down the limbs, often killing the entire tree. Cankers are formed on the limbs and bodies of trees about the base of blighted spurs and watersprouts. Frequently the fruit is affected, turns brown, and shrivels upon the tree. The organism that is responsible for this disease is Bacillus amylovorus. The bacterium lives over winter in Bacteria Ja?cau?e pear bUtiht. some of the cankers on the trunks of ^^^^^ whetzei.) the trees. In the spring, sticky, milky drops, containing numbers of bacteria, ooze out from these hold-over cankers. Bees and other insects carry the bacteria from these cankers to opening flowers and tips of growing twigs. Here they are introduced into wounds made by the insects. They multiply rapidly, and in ten to fourteen days the flowers or leaves begin to show the characteristic blight. 250 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE The control of this disease is not easily accomplished. The bacteria kill or blight the young shoots on the body or larger limbs, passing from these to the bark about their bases. Here they form the cankers in which they pass the winter. These cankers offer the most hopeful point of attack. With a sharp knife, remove the canker, cutting well back into the healthy bark. Scrape out the diseased bark, cleaning the wound thoroughly. Sponge the wound with corrosive sublimate solution, one part to 1,000 parts water. When dry, paint thoroughly with heavy lead oil-paint and keep painted until healed over. The diseased limbs and twigs in pear trees should be re- moved promptly whenever discovered, and frequent in- spections should be made. Always disinfect cut surfaces; this is absolutely necessary for success. Among the bacterial diseases of plants may be mentioned bacterial blight of beans, cucumber wilt, crown gall of apples, peaches, pears, etc., soft rot of turnips, black rot of cabbage, and many others. . Fungous Diseases 228. Characteristics of Fungi. Fungi are very different from bacteria, though they too are plants. Their vege- tative portion consists of branching, root-like threads called mycelium (Fig. 129). Many of them are sapro- phytes,— ^that is, they live on dead or decaying plant or animal remains. Others are parasites, which means that they take their food from the tissues of living plants or animals. Fungi, as well as bacteria, differ from the plants with which we are commonly famihar, in the absence of PLANT DISEASES 251 the green color due to chlorophyll. Fungi take their food from the substance in or on which the mycelium is grow- ing, by diffusion of the soluble substances through the cell-walls and protoplasmic lining of the mycelium. Many fungi secrete enzymes that dissolve cellulose and other substances, making them available for ab- sorption; these secretions often kill the protoplasm of the host, thus compel- ling it to give up nutri- tious solutions to the parasite. Others send spe- cialized branches of myce- Uum (haustoria) into the host cells. These absorb the food substances that come to these cells. Eventually, they cause the death of the host cells. Sometimes the irritation of the parasite causes a response on the part of the host in the form of knots, sweUings, etc. A good example of this is seen in the black-knot of plums and cherries. During their vegetative stage, fungi multiply by means of various kinds of asexual soores cut off from the myce- hum. This method of reproduction corresponds to the multipHcation by sprouts, sets, bulbs, etc., of the higher green plants. Many fungi are also known to form sexual spores called oospores, ascospores or basidiospores, accord- ing to the group in which they occur. These sexual spores Fig. 129. The bread mold fungus. (Whetzel) 252 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 130. Brown-rot Healthy peach above diseased below. correspond more nearly to the seeds of higher plants, both in method of formation and in function. 229. An Example of a Fungous Dis- ease. One of the most common fun- gous diseases is the brown-rot of stone fruits, although apples, pears, etc., are also more or less subject to it. It is most destructive on peaches and plums. The chief symptom of this disease is the appearance of a brown rot in the fruit, either while it is still green, or at the time of ripening. As the disease progresses, the entire fruit becomes involved. Tiny gray pustules, or spore masses, break through the skin, and spores by the thousands are cut off in long chains to be scattered by the wind to other fruits, there to reproduce the rot. The rotted fruit soon shrivels and dries, to form the wrinkled mummies that cUng to the trees through the winter, or fall to the ground beneath. With the warm spring rains, the mummies on the trees give rise to new masses of spores. These are carried by the breeze to the blossoms and green fruits, and again give rise to the rot. The mummies that fall to the ground usually produce the sexual spores (asco- FiG. 132. Spores of spores) in long, slender sacs (asci), eight brown-rot, and a germ- • i mi i inating spore. spores in each sac. These sacs are borne Fig. 131. Brown- rot. The mummies that carry the dis- ease over winter. PLANT DISEASES 253 OP the inside of a cup, several of which may grow up from each half-buried mummy. The spores are ejected from the sacs into the air, to be carried to blossoms, where they cause blight and start the summer development of the disease. Thus in two ways this parasite may continue its existence from year to year. No satisfactory method of controlling it is known. Some promise of success is given by Scott's so-called self-boiled lime and sulfur mixture, which has recently been used as a summer spray for this disease on peaches.^ 230. Other Fungous Diseases. The apple scab lives over winter on the fallen leaves. It ordinarily attacks the young apples and leaves at about the blossoming time. One spraying just before and one immediately after blossoming are most important for its control, but it is usually neces- sary to spray three times in order to secure clean fruit in regions where the scab is serious. Potato scab is planted with the potato. It also lives over winter in the fields where scabby potatoes grew. It may be controlled by soaking the potatoes for one to two hours in a mixture of one pint of formaHn to thirty gallons of water, after which they are spread out to dry and are ready to cut for planting. Thirty gallons of the solution is sufficient for treating about twenty bushels of potatoes. After treatment, the potatoes must not be placed in the old crates or bags, as they would become re-infected. They should be planted on land which did not grow scabby potatoes, if possible. The treatment may be of some bene- fit, even if it is necessary to plant on scab-infested land. ^W. M. Scott, Self-Boiled Lime and Sulfur Mixture as a Promising Fungicide. Bureau Plant Industry, United States Department of Agri- culture, Circular No. 1. 264 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Oat smut is carried by the seed and may be controlled in the same manner, using one pint of formalin to fifty gallons of water. The oats are sprinkled with this solu- tion until they are moist enough to nearly pack in the hand. Shovel into a pile, cover and leave two hours. Spread out to dry before sowing. Or they may be dipped in the solution. Stinking smut of wheat can be controlled by seed treat- ment. Corn smut cannot be controlled, because the disease lives over winter in the fields and is blown about by the wind. The various rusts of the grain plants cannot be controlled. Rotation of crops aids in controlling nearly all diseases. The bhght of potatoes may be controlled if the plants are kept coated with Bordeaux mixture, to prevent the entrance of the fungus. About five sprayings are commonly given. In rainy seasons it sometimes pays to give more. Parasitic Flowering Plants Relatively few flowering plants live as parasites upon other plants. Perhaps the most common and destructive of these are the dodders, which Hve on many wild plants and on some of our cultivated ones, such as clover, alfalfa, etc. The dodder stems are long yellow strands with no leaves, growing in mats over their host plants. They twine about the host and send haustoria or suckers into their stems, from which they secure water and food substances. Dodder seeds are usually small and are carried with the alfalfa and clover seeds. The best way to control the parasite is to secure seed from a field that does not contain dodder. The seeds of some species of dodder may be separ- ated out by sieves. INSECTS 255 INSECTS 231 Importance of Insects. Insects seem to be the form of life that is peculiarly adapted to this world. About 95 per cent of all kinds of animals are insects. In actual numbers of individuals they are still more in the lead. Many of these insects hve at our expense, and in spite of our efforts to subdue them. The cotton-boll weevil, chinch- bug, grasshopper, San Jose scale, codUng moth, potato beetle, and many others are well-known crop pests. It has been estimated that insects destroy about $700,000,000 worth of crops per year in the United States. It is well worth while for the farmer to learn something of the life and habits of insects, in order that he may prevent some of this loss. However, we must not come to think of all insects as harmful; many of them are very useful. Bees are the first of which we think. These and other insects are of use in carrying the pollen for certain crops. Other insects are useful because they live on the harmful kinds. 232. What an Insect Is. All insects have six legs in their mature stage. This feature distinguishes them from spiders, which have eight legs, and from milUpedes and centipedes, which have many legs. A caterpillar appears to have more than six legs, but those at the rear end are not true legs, as will be seen by examining one. When the caterpillar changes to a butterfly or moth, only the six true legs remain. The body of an insect is divided into three parts that are usually quite apparent: head, thorax and abdomen. A wasp shows these parts very clearly. 256 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 233. Stages in the Life of an Insect. Many- insects have four dis- tinct periods in their life. At different stages they look so unlike that one would never sus- pect that they were the same individual. Fig. 133 shows how a common house-fly looks at dif- ferent ages. The first stage is the egg. From this the maggot hatches. This is called the larva stage. When the fly maggot becomes full-grown, it changes to the "pupa 2 3 Fig. 133. Stages in the life of a house-fly: 3, larva ; 1, pupa; 2, mature fly. (After Howard.) Fig. 134. Stages of the codling moth: a, the moth or adult insect, slightly enlarged; 6, the egg, greatly enlarged; c, the full-grown larva, slightly enlarged; d the pupa, slightly enlarged; e, the pupa in its cocoon on the inner surtace ot a piece of bark, reduced about one-half; /, moth on bark and empty pupa skin from which it emerged, about natural size. TFrom Simpson.) INSECTS 257 Fig. 135. Codling moth larva and its work. (Farmers' Bulletin No. 283) stage. The pupa appears to be inactive and is sometimes referred to as a resting stage, but this is far from true. Great transformations are taking place inside the pupa skin. The wings are develop- ing and the entire appearance of the body is changing. After these changes are complete, the fly appears in the mature stage. The pupa stage lasts five to seven days, and the larva stage about as much longer, so that a new generation may be started every two weeks. A single female lays 120 to 160 eggs. It is easy to see why flies be- come so numerous in late summer. Each mosquito, codling moth and cotton-boll weevil passes through these four stages. Some insects do not pass through all these stages. Grasshoppers and some other insects grow continually from the time they hatch until they are mature. Some plant- lice are born alive, so that > « -f J^ "^ 6 they do not pass through ^ „ ., •^ ^ ° Fig. 137. Mature cotton-boll weevil, the different stages. (After W. D. Hunter.) Fig. 136. Cotton-boll weevil larva at left; pupa at the right. About five times natural dize. (After W. D. Hunter.) 258 ELEMEI^TS OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 138. Egg of codling moth on apple 234. The Control of Insects. One cannot intelligently combat an insect without knowing its life history. For years we have been trying to kill mature flies. Now we are coming to know that one of the best means of limiting their numbers is to keep the horse manure hauled out, as it is in this that the flies grow. The effective way of controlUng mosquitos is not to try to kill the mature ones, but to eliminate the rain- water barrels and stagnant water, where they develop; or, if this cannot be done, place oil on the water to kill the "wrig- glers." The codling moth lays its egg on the apple. The time to kill it is when the young worm takes its first meal. If we wait until it has entered the apple, it is too late. There must be some poison on the apple when the worm begins to eat. The apple maggot can- not be controlled in this way because the small fly that lays the egg punctures the skin and places the egg in the apple. The best way to control such a pest is to have the fallen apples all eaten by hogs or sheep. The corn root-worm is very serious in some of the Fig. 139. Apples just right to spray for codling moth corn states. It does not INSECTS 259 live on other crops. Therefore, it may be easily controlled by rotating crops. Few insects cause so much loss in America as the chinch bug. It is most harmful in wheat fields, but often migrates from the wheat to corn and other crops and there continues its ravages. There are no satisfactory remedies except rotation of crops. We can never hope to exterminate any insect. The best we can hope for is to limit the numbers so that serious damage will be prevented. 235. Chewing and Sucking Insects. Orchards, potatoes and many vege- tables are now commonly sprayed for the control of insects. There are two general classes of insects so far as spraying is concerned: those that chew their food and those that suck the juices of the plant. Potato beetles and cabbage worms eat the foliage. All that is necessary in order to kill them is to put some poison, such as Paris green, on the leaves. The San Jose scale, chinch bug, and plant lice suck the juices of the plant. They cannot eat poison. To try to poison them would be like trying to poison a mosquito by placing poison on the hand. A mosquito would merely insert his bill and eat to his satisfaction without getting any of the poison. In order to kill these, it is necessary to spray with a contact insecticide — one that kills when it gets on their bodies. Fig. 140. Ahnost too late to spray for codling moth 260 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE SPRAYING FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS AND DISEASES 236. Common Fungicides and Insecticides. There are two general classes of enemies for which treatment is given: Fio. 141. San Jos6 scale. Natural size on the left; much enlarged on the right. A sucking insect. (After Howard and Morlatt) fungi and insects. Those materials that are used for de- stroying fungi are called fungicides; those that are used against insects are called insecticides. The following list gives some of the chief materials of each kind : SPRAYING 261 Fungicides Bordeaux mixture Sulfur. Copper sulfate. Potassium sulfide. Ammoniacal copper carbonate. Formalin. Lime-sulfur. Corrosive sublimate Insecticides Poisons Contact Remedies Paris green. Lime-sulfur Arsenite of soda. Sulfur Arsenite of lime. Whale-oil soap. Arsenate of lead Kerosene emulsion. Hellebore Crude petroleum Soluble oils Carbolic acid. Hydrocyanic acid gas. Carbon bisulfide. Tobacco. It will be seen that, in general, one material is not of much value for both insects and fungi. Lime-sulfur is a good fungicide and contact insecticide. In some other cases the same remedy does good for both insects and fungi. Bordeaux mixture repels the flea-beetle on potatoes, and the striped cucumber- and melon-beetle, so that it is of some value against these insects; and Paris green is of some value as a fungicide; but generally we must not expect one remedy to be of value against more than one of the three classes of enemies. Many of the supposed failures in spraying are due to the use of the wrong remedy. 237. Spraying for Fungi. The standard remedy for fungous diseases is Bordeaux mixture. This is made of copper sulfate and lime. It is the copper sulfate that kills the fungi. But if it is used alone it will also injure the foliage. The lime prevents most of this injury. As we 262 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE have previously learned, the fungi are small plants that live on our crops. We might say that there are two kinds of weeds that we have to control, — those that grow on the ground and those that grow on our crops. For the one kind we cultivate, for the other we spray. Fungi must be killed by a fungicide that hits them. It is just hke spraying for wild mustard. We can apply a spray that is so strong as to kill the mustard, but that is not strong enough to harm the oats. If we applied it too strong, the oats would also be killed. So, in use of the Bordeaux mixture, we can use it strong enough to kill the fungi without hurting the tree or crop. Certain trees, as peaches and plums, are so tender that it is very difficult to spray without killing the leaves also. Certain weather conditions favor the growth of fungi, just as certain kinds of weather favor the growth of corn, but weather cannot create the one any more than the other. Close, damp days, with frequent showers, are favorable for the growth of most fungi. Another essential in spraying for fungi is that we spray before they enter the host plant. When a fungus seed (spore) grows and gets inside the plant, it is too late to spray. Spray on the outside of a leaf does not hurt a fungus that is already inside. Ordinarily it is some time after the fungus has gained entrance before the disease is apparent. We must, therefore, know the life history of the particu- lar fungus, know when it is likely to enter the plant, and spray before that time. However, it is sometimes worth while to spray when the j&rst plants show a disease, if we have not started earlier. In this way, some of the crop may often be saved. Spraying is insurance, — it should be SPRAYING 263 done before the disease is apparent. Some years we may- spray for a disease that does not develop seriously, but the profits on the years when diseases are bad will usually be much more than enough to pay for the apparent loss of labor. However, there are very few years when spraying does not give some benefits. Another essential in spraying for fungi is thoroughness. If Paris green is put on a potato plant, even if only part of the leaves are hit, the potato bugs maybe poisoned. If the poison is there, the bug will probably eat a poisoned leaf tomorrow if he does not get one today. But when we spray for fungi, only those leaves that are hit are protected, and the unsprayed leaves furnish a place for the disease to enter. 238. The Preparation of Bordeaux Mixture. Several strengths of the spray are used, as follows: Copper sulfate — Two, three, four, five or six pounds. Quicklime — An equal number of pounds. Water — 50 gallons. For plants with tender foliage, two pounds of lime and two of copper sulfate are used; for apples and pears, about three to four pounds of each; for potatoes, six pounds. The copper sulfate is dissolved and the lime slaked separately. The copper sulfate is then diluted with nearly all the water before the Hme is added. If the concentrated solutions of lime and copper sulfate are put together, they form a thick, curdled mass that will not stir up readily when the water is added. The mixture is all right if either the lime or the copper sulfate is diluted before adding the other, or each may be diluted with half the water. The former method is usually most convenient. 264 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE If much spraying is to be done, a stock solution will save time. For this, fill a barrel with water and weigh out one pound of copper sulfate for each gallon. Suspend this in a bag in the top of the barrel and it will all dissolve. Instead of weighing it for each tank of spray, we can then take out as many gallons as we desire pounds. Two pounds may be dissolved in each gallon, if desired. The lime may also be slaked in quantities. The lime settles, and we cannot be sure when we have enough by measure, so that if we use a stock solution of lime we should also use the potassium ferrocyanide test. This is desirable, anyway. Potassium ferrocyanide makes a yellow solution. If a drop of it is added to a solution of copper sulfate, it turns a brick-red. If lime enough is first added to neutralize the copper sulfate, the drop remains yellow. About a half more lime is usually added after the copper has been neutralized. For spraying small gardens, stock solutions may be kept in large bottles and the proportionate amounts used. 239. Poisons. Paris green and arsenate of lead are the most common poisons. Five ounces to a pound of Paris green are used in fifty gallons of spray. Or one to four pounds of arsenate of lead may be used. The arsenate of lead never hurts the foliage, so that it may be used in any strength. Paris green sometimes causes injury if used too strong, or if used without lime. Paris green is also used to dust on plants, either alone or with lime. 240. Contact Remedies. The chief use of contact reme- dies is to kill the San Jose scale. For this purpose, the trees must be sprayed while dormant, because any spray that is strong enough to kill the scale will also kill the leaves. SI-RAYING 265 Lime-sulfur spray is most commonly used. It is usu- ally made about as follows: Quicklime 15 pounds Flowers of sulfur 15 pounds Water 45 gallons The sulfur and lime are boiled in a part of the water for about one hour. The remainder of the water is then added and the spray is ready for use. The lime-sulfur spray is also a good fungicide. It will control peach-leaf curl, and will take the place of Bor- deaux mixture when this is needed on dormant trees. Numerous preparations of soluble oils are also on the market. Many of these are good. Clear oil is not often used, as it is likely to injure the trees. The soluble oils are diluted with water, so as to avoid this danger. Kerosene emulsion is used for killing plant lice when the trees are in foliage, and is also used on dormant trees. To make it, use: Kerosene 2 gallons Soap ^-pound Water 1 gallon Dissolve the soap in hot water, add the kerosene and churn thoroughly until a creamy emulsion is formed. For use on dormant trees, dilute with 10 to 20 gallons of water. For kiUing plant lice on foliage, dilute with 40 to 60 gallons of water. 241. Combined Insecticides and Fungicides. The in- secticides and fungicides may often be combined. In most cases, it pays to put Paris green or other poison with Bordeaux mixture, as in spraying apples, pears, potatoes, etc. But this combination must not be expected to kill 266 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE plant lice or other sucking insects. There is no generally used spray that combines the three purposes — fungicide, poison, and contact remedy for sucking insects. To be successful in spraying, one must know what he is spraying for, and apply the right spray at the right time. Apples are commonly sprayed about three times, once just before blossoming, once just after the petals fall, and once about two weeks later. Bordeaux mixture and a poison are com- bined. Potatoes are commonly sprayed about five times, beginning when the plants are about six inches high and repeating every one to two weeks, using Bordeaux and poison. The particular treatment, of course varies in different sections, because the weather and enemies differ. For details in any section, one should apply to the State Agricultural Experiment Station. QUESTIONS 1. What are the worst ten weeds in the neighborhood? What is the character that makes each one a bad weed, that is, able to live in spite of man? How may each one be most easily controlled? 2. What are the worst plant diseases in the region? How may each of these be controlled? 3. In how many ways do bacteria differ from the plants with which you are most familiar? In how many ways do fungi differ from these plants ? How do bacteria differ from fungi ? 4. How do spores differ from seeds? 5. In what ways may the spores of disease-producing fungi be carried to the plants which they infect ? 6. Explain how spraying the leaves of the potato with Bordeaux for late blight increases the yield of tubers. 7. Explain why spraying pear and apple trees will not control fire blight. Why is the removal and treatment of the hold-over cankers the first step to be taken in controlling this disease ? LABORATORY EXERCISES 267 8. What are the most serious insect pests in your county? How may each be controlled? 9. What are the most useful insects in the region? Do insects, do more harm than good? 10. Complete the following reaction which takes place in preparing Bordeaux mixture: Cu SO4 + Ca (0H)2 = ? 11. What plants are commonly sprayed in your county? What spray is used? When is it applied? What is the cost of the sprayer? The cost of the materials? Of the labor? Does the spraying pay? LABORATORY EXERCISES 62. Bacteria and Molds. Materials. — Three test tubes, cotton, boiled potato or fruit (apple- sauce is good); three'apples, one partly decayed. Fill each tube about one-third full of apple-sauce or boiled potato. Plug each one with cotton. Set one aside. Put the other two into a pail of water and boil for half an hour. After boiling, set one tube aside with the cotton undisturbed. Take the cotton from the third tube and leave it out for half an hour or more, then put it in again. Leave these for a few days and see what happens. Account for the difference. Is it desirable to leave canned fruit open a few minutes before covering, after cooking? Why? Prick one of the sound apples in several places with a pin which has been sterilized by holding it in a flame. Put the pin into the rotten apple and then into the other sound apple Repeat this in several places. Set the two sound apples aside for about a week. What happens? What is one value of the skin to an apple? Why should fruit be picked and handled with care? 63. Bacteria. Materials. — Compound microscope magnifying 500 to 1,000 diam- eters, if the school has such a microscope or can secure the use of one temporarily. Examine some stagnant water, or some water in which seeds or bread have been standing for a day or so. This will contain many forms of bacteria and other living things. Most of the bacteria are small, short rods. In many cases there are longer rods made up of two or more plants fastened end to end. Each of the plants is a single cell. They multiply by the simple division of each plant into two, 268 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE They may reach their full growth in less than an hour. Make drawings of the different forms. 64. Bread Mold. Materials. — A slice of stale bread, several glasses or jars, magnify- ing glass, compound microscope. Moisten a piece of bread slightly and place in one of the jars or tumblers, and keep covered. In about a week the bread will probably be covered with black mold. Examine with the lens, notice the white, moldy growth — the mycelium of the fungus. The mycelium corresponds to the roots, stems and leaves of other plants. It takes its food from the bread. The fungus requires heat, moisture and food for its growth, but does not require light, because it is a saprophyte. Notice that the dark color is due to black specks attached to the mycelium threads; these are spore cases. Each one is called a sporangium. Some of these are white. These are the young, or unripe ones. These spores corre- spond to seed, while the sporangium corresponds to a pod. Make draw- ings of all the parts. Mount some of the fungus in a drop of water and examine with a compound microscope. Make drawings of mycelium, sporangium and spores. (See Fig. 129.) 65. Transformations of an Insect. Bring in cabbage worms, caterpillars and other insects, and place in jars in the laboratory. Feed with the proper plants and watch the transformations. Make drawings of each stage in the life of at least one insect. For this work a terrarium is very desirable. It is a box with glass sides and cover that can be conveniently opened and closed. 66. A Study of a Grasshopper. Supply each student with one or two grasshoppers (or other mature insects). How many divisions in the body? How many legs does it have? What difference is there between the hind legs and the other pairs ? How many wings are there ? Do all insects have this number of wings? How are the wings folded? What differences between the outer and the inner pair? To what part of the body are the wings attached? The legs? Find the antennae (feelers). Examine the jaws. Do they move in the same way that yours do? If you have a com- pound microscope, see whether you can find the divisions of the compound eyes. Make drawings. LABORATORY EXERCISES 269 67. Preparation of Bordeaux Mixture. Materials. — Half a pound of copper sulfate, half a pound of quicklime, five cents worth of potassium ferrocyanide. Two-quart fruit-jars. A measure marked in ounces. Dissolve the potassium ferrocyanide in a two-ounce bottle of water and label "poison." Prepare a stock solution of copper sulfate by dissolving the half- pound in a two-quart jar of water. This will be at the rate of one pound per gallon. Slake the lime and then dilute to two quarts. 1. Place three ounces of the stock solution of copper sulfate in one two-quart jar; fill nearly full of water, then add a little of the stock solution of lime and test by adding a drop of potassium ferrocyanide. If there is enough lime, the drop will remain yellow. If there is not enough, it will turn a brick-red. About a half more lime than the test requires should be used. This will probably take about three ounces of the stock solution of lime if it is well stirred. Set aside to compare with 2, 3 and 4. 2. Put three ounces of the stock solution of lime in a second jar and fill nearly full of water; then add three ounces of copper sulfate. 3. In a third jar, put three ounces of copper sulfate solution and fill half full of water. In a fourth, put three ounces of lime solution and fill half full of water. Pour these into another jar at the same time. 4. Put three ounces of copper sulfate solution into a jar, then add three ounces of lime solution and add water to fill the jar. Set these four jars side by side. The material will gradually settle. Measure the height of each one and fill out the following table: Condition when mixed Height of column At beginning End 30 minutes 1 hour 1 day 1. Copper sulfate dilute 2. Lime dilute 3. Both dilute 4. Neither dilute Why does the material settle more rapidly in one than in another? Which mixture would clog a spray nozzle most ? Which would be most evenly distributed by spraying? 270 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Shake the mixture which proves best and allow it to settle again, making note of the time required. Compare this with the time that it took the first mixture to settle. Would it be desirable to use old Bor- deaux mixture ? How much of the above stock solution of copper sulfate would be required to make one gallon of a 2 : 2 : 50 (2 pounds copper sulfate, 2 pounds lime, 50 gallons water) spray? Fifty gallons of a 4 : 4 : 50 spray? COLLATERAL READING Farmers' Bulletins Nos.: 28. Weeds, and How to Kill Them. 279. A Method of Eradicating Johnson Grass. 188. Weeds Used in Medicine. 334. Vitality of Weed Seeds in Manure, p. 18. Weed Seeds in Feeding Stuffs, pp. 18, 19. 345. Some Common Disinfectants. 243. Fungicides and Their use in Preventing Diseases of Fruits 305. Injury by Bordeaux Mixture, pp. 12, 13. 127. Important Insecticides. 227. Lime, Sulfur and Salt Wash, pp. 19-22. 281. Soluble Oils for the San Jose Scale, pp. 17, 18. 329. Preparation of Soluble Oils, pp. 26-28. 244. Fumigation of Nursery Stock, p. 11. 259. Disease-Resistant Crops, pp. 15, 16. 237. Apple-growing in New York, pp. 8-11. 267. Apple Bitter Rot, pp. 21-23. 283. Spraying for Apple Diseases and the Codling Moth in the Ozarks. 91. Potato Diseases and Treatment. 316. Potato Scab, pp. 11, 12. 320. Potato Spraying, pp. 22, 23. 219. Lessons from the Grain Rust Epidemic of 1904. 250. The Prevention of Wheat Smut and Loose Smut of Oats. 132. Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat. 231. Spraying for Cucumber and Melon Diseases. 223. Miscellaneous Cotton Insects in Texas. 290. The Cotton Bollworm. 344. The Boll Weevil Problem. 333. Cotton Wilt. COLLATERAL READING 271 47. Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. 209. Controlling the Boll Weevil in Cotton Seed and at Gin- neries. 211. The Use of Paris Green in Controlling the Cotton Boll Weevil. 126. Insects Affecting Tobacco. 172, Scale Insects and Mites on Citrous Trees. 264. The Brown-tail Moth and How to Control It. 275. The Gipsy Moth and How to Control It. 155. How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. 221. Fungous Diseases of the Cranberry. 178. Insects Injurious to Cranberry Culture. 284. Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape East of the Rocky Mountains. 99. Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. 59. Bee-keeping. 54. Some Common Birds. 196. Usefulness of the American Toad. 297. Methods of Destroying Rats. 335. Harmful and Beneficial Mammals of the Arid Interior. The Cereals in America, and Forage and Fiber Crops in America The more important enemies of crops are discussed. See table of contents and index. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 35-53, 110-118, and index. CHAPTER IX SYSTEMS OF CROPPING One of the first farm-management questions to be considered is the kind of crops to grow and the order in which they shall be grown. 242. The Choice of Crops. The choice of crops is much more than a question of which crops will sell for the most per acre, or even which will produce the most net profit per acre. Corn may pay better than oats, yet it may be wise to continue to grow oats. One can raise all the corn that he has time to grow and raise some oats besides, because most of the work on the oat crop comes at a time when the corn crop does not require attention. Barley, oats and spring wheat require work at about the same time, so that a farmer usually chooses one from these. Rye and v/inter wheat are also competitors, but neither one interferes much with the work of raising spring grains. The general principle is that a farmer should have work for the entire year. Each day he should do the kind of work that pays best on that day, although it may be much less profitable than work that he might do at some other time. The same principle applies in all occupations. While a small number of crops is better than a single crop, yet it is not well to have too many nor to have too small areas of each. In order to grow potatoes profitably, one usually needs to have considerable special machinery, such as a planter, a digger, and a sprayer. One cannot (272) SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 273 afford to have these \7ith0ut a considerable area. The interest and depreciation on these machines will likely amount to $25 to $50 per year, an amount that is too high a tax for a small area to carry. The same may be said of special machinery for small orchards and for many other crops. These remarks do not apply to the raising of small quantities of vegetables and fruits for home use. With the exception of some very specialized types of farming, some crops that are to be fed to animals should be grown in order to keep up the fertility of the land. In choosing what crops to grow, it is well to follow the practice of the best farmers in the section until one gets started. Changes may then be introduced gradually. 243. The Rotation of. Crops. Rotation means that the crops grown on each field are changed from time to time. Practically every farmer does change crops occasionally. Still, we have farms on which nothing but cotton has been grown for years; others, on which no crop but wheat has ever been planted. Sooner or later, all farmers will come to practice some rotation. If no other system is followed, the land will be abandoned for a time to grow weeds, which is a primitive kind of rotation. The present practices are haphazard, but some of the best farmers in all sections are coming to more or less definite systems. We do not usually speak of the haphazard changes a» crop-rotation. 244. Crop-Rotation and Diversified Crops. The advan- tages of having a variety of crops are often confused with the advantages that come from crop-rotation. Diversi- fication of crops keeps the laborer employed the year 274 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE around; it provides for cash crops and crops to feed; it prevents total failure when one crop fails. All these advantages may be had when each of the several crops grows on the same field continuously. 245. Advantages of Crop-Rotation. The rotation of crops (1) helps to control weeds, insects and fungi; (2) it provides for keeping up the humus supply on each field; (3) it may provide for the growth of grass and legumes on each field; (4) it often saves labor; (5) it keeps the land occupied with plants a greater part of the time; (6) it allows the alternation of deep- and shallow-rooted crops; (7) it may provide for a balanced removal of plant- food; (8) it is possible that toxic substances may be de- stroyed; (9) it systematizes farming. (1) Nearly every crop is accompanied by certain kinds of weeds that are able to grow with it. The weeds that thrive in small grain are usually quite different from those that thrive in meadows. If small grain is grown continu- ously, the land is likely to become very weedy. These particular weeds are likely to be easily killed by cultiva- tion. Wild oats are a serious pest in the grain fields in Minnesota, but if crop-rotation is practiced they readily disappear. Such weeds as daisies may be bad in hay land, but are not serious in corn. The opposite is true of pig- weeds. Similarly, there are many diseases and insects that live on one crop but that are not harmful to another. The soil may become infested with potato-scab or corn- root-worm, but crop-rotation will check either. (2) If crops are not rotated, those fields that are con- stantly in tilled crops will have their humus supply ex- SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 275 hausted, and the numerous evil results that follow such exhaustion will be brought on. The control of weeds, diseases and insects and the maintenance of the humus supply are the most important reasons for rotating crops. (3) If crops are rotated, we may have legumes and grass on all the fields occasionally. As we have previously learned, these crops are important in keeping up the pro- ductivity of the land. (4) Labor is often saved by crop-rotation. Grasses are sown in small grain, so that the land needs but one fitting for two crops. Oats are often disked in on corn land without the land having to be plowed. In Minnesota and some other states, the disking is better than plowing, both for oats and for the grass seeding in oats. It is often convenient to be able to work land at times when it could not be done if crops were not rotated. (5) By crop-rotation the land may be kept occupied more of the time. Grass seeded in oats occupies the land after the oats are cut. If corn follows grass, the land may have the benefit of the grass cover until plowed for corn. Where the season is long enough, it is possible to rotate crops so as to grow more than one crop in a year. One of the best rotations for the South provides five crops in three years. (6) Deep- and shallow-rooted crops may be alternated, thus allowing the use of different layers of soil. (7) Formerly it was thought that the chief reason for rotation was that plants use the different plant-foods in different proportions, so that when the soil became exhausted for one crop it might contain the kind of food that the other crop required. As a matter of fact, the 276 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE PASTURE 24. 71 A. OATS 19.13 A. BARLEY 14 70 A. OATS 19 04 A CORN 12.86 A. Fig. 142. Fields on a 160-acre farm in Minnesota increased yields result- ing from crop-rotation will cause the removal of more of each kind of plant-food than will be taken from the field by the smaller yields that are secured if any one crop is grown con- tinuously. However, the fact that different plants do use the plant- food in different pro- portions may be of some importance. (8) It is thought by some persons that each plant gives off certain substances through its roots that are toxic, or poisonous, to that plant, but that may not be harmful to some other crop. This theory has not yet been accepted by all investigators. (9) Crop -rotation systematizes farming. It does not make farm- ing more complex or make more fields, as some have supposed. Thought is required in getting the system es- tablished. The farm Fig. 143. Same farm as Fig. 142, with the vTr.r,-rT -^^^A +^ U^ «^ fields arranged for a five-year rotation (Minne- may need to be re- sota Bulletin No. 109.) FIELD "A* - 27 ACRES 1 '05- '06- PASTURE OATS FARMSTEAD :g^: E^N 8 ACRES 69- '10- MEADOW 'ASTURE FIELD *B' FIELD 'C" FIELD *D" FIELD 'E' 27 ACRES 27 ACRES 27 ACRES 27 ACRES 135 - GRAIN '05 - GRAIN '05 -CORN '05 -OATS '06 - PASTURE '06 - MEADOW '06 ■ GRAIN '06- CORN '07 - OATS '07 - PASTURE ■07 -MEADOW '07 -GRAIN '08 - CORN '08 - OATS '08- PASTURE '08- MEADOW '09 - GRAIN t)9 - CORN '09 -OATS '09-W&TURE/ '10 -OATS ' '10 - MEADOW 'ID ■ SRAIN '10 -CORN PERMANENT MEADOW "••.'"'■ 14 AC ^ES iJ SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 277 arranged when the work is begun. After a systematic rotation is established, it simpUfies the farming. Figs. 142 and 143 show how the re-arrangement of fields and the establishment of a rotation have simplified a farm lay-out. Formerly there were more fields, and each year the crop- ping scheme had to be worked out. 246. Profits from Rotation. Crops differ in necessity for rotation. At Rothamsted, England,^ where experi- ments have been conducted for fifty years, it has been found possible to grow good crops of roots, turnips, mangels, etc., without rotation, if the land is properly fertiUzed. Wheat and barley were improved by rotation. Legumi- nous crops failed entirely if grown continuously on the same land. Wheat was grown in a four-year rotation for forty- eight years, giving twelve crops of wheat and thirty-six crops of other kinds. The average yields of wheat for the twelve years compared with the yields for the same years on land continuously in wheat, were as follows: Continuous wheat, average yield, 12 crops, 12.4 bushels per acre. Wheat, in 4-year rotation, average yield, 12 crops, 28.6 bushels per acre. A similar experiment with barley gave the following results: Continuous barley, average of 12 crops, 1,735 pounds per acre. Barley in rotation, average of 12 crops, 2,960 pounds per acre. 247. Crop-Rotation and Crop-Failure. Sometimes the grass seeding may fail, or frosts or rains may spoil a crop. These emergencies can be met without interfering with the rotation. If a grass seeding in grain fails, it may be *The Book of the Rothamsted Experiments, by A. D. Hall. 278 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE re-seeded in the fall. If a frost kills a crop, it may be re-planted, or, if too late, a catch-crop may be put in for that year and the rotation continued the next year. 248. Variation of Crop Areas. An objection to rota- tion is that it fixes the area of each crop each year. Some persons think that a farmer should watch the market and vary the areas of different crops to meet the market demands. Usually it is very unwise for a farmer to enter this field of speculation. The real business practice for most men to follow is to decide on what crops pay best from year to year. Decide on the proper acreage of each. Fix the rotation, and then raise the same area each year, regardless of prices. If the original selection is wise, this practice will have every- thing in its favor. It will use a constant supply of labor and machinery, rather than have equipment idle every other year as the farmer oscillates, usually just in time to miss rather than meet the high prices. 249. Examples of Rotations. A five-year rotation of corn, oats, wheat, grass two years, is practiced by many of the best farmers of the northern states. This re- quires that the farm be divided into at least five fields. Corn, oats, wheat, each occupies one-fifth of the farm. One-fifth is in clover and timothy one year old, and one-fifth in timothy, as the clover is usually not very abundant the second year. On many farms in this sec- tion there is a permanent pasture. If there is none, one of the meadows in the rotation is used as a pasture. In this rotation, manure is usually put on the corn, and some fertiUzer may be used on the oats and the wheat. The grass and clover are seeded in the wheat. With the SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 279 present prices of hay, it will often pay to use a nitrogenous fertilizer on the grass land if there is not enough manure. Such farms usually sell dairy products, hay and wheat; and buy grain feeds. Many variations are made in this system. One of the commonest is to allow the grass to stand for more than two years. Where potatoes are profitable, they may replace half of the corn; then oats will follow both of these crops; otherwise, the rotation is unchanged. The potatoes fur- nish an additional cash crop, and usually add to the profit if the soil is satisfactory for them. The following three-year rotation is practiced in sev- eral potato sections that have light soils: Potatoes, wheat or oats, clover and timothy. This allows one-third of the farm to be in potatoes each year. The second crop of clover is plowed under and sometimes the entire hay crop. The grain and hay are usually sold. Little stock is kept and commercial fertilizers are purchased in large quantities. A good rotation for the corn-belt is corn two years, oats, clover and timothy. Wheat may take the place of oats. The grass may be left two or more years, and may be used as a pasture if there is not a permanent one. For regions where alfalfa is successful, this crop may be grown four years, and followed by corn two years and small grain one or two years. For cotton farms, the most highly recommended rotation is: First year, corn with cowpeas planted between the rows or sown broadcast at the last cultivation; second year, oats, after which a crop of cowpeas is grown; third year, cotton. In starting this system, the best third of 280 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE the farm is planted to cotton. In a few years, this rotation will produce more cotton than could be grown on the entire farm without rotation. QUESTIONS 1. What rotations, if any, are followed in your county? 2. What rotations were formerly followed and how is the practice changing ? 3. What changes should be made? Why? Ask the opinions of the best farmers; also consider what you have read on agriculture. LABORATORY EXERCISE 68 Planning a Cropping System. Visit a farm near the school and learn what crops were grown on each field last year and what crops the owner expects to grow next year. Make a sketch of the farm, showing the present arrange- ment of fields, approximate areas of each, and write in the present crops. The entire class should go over each field to see the present conditions. Each student should later make a map of the farm, showing the arrangement of fields that he considers best. Give the crops for each field for five years, or long enough to get the rotation established. It will usually take two or three years to get the rotation going regularly. COLLATERAL READING Farmers' Bulletins Nos.: 337. Cropping Systems for New England Dairy Farms. 144. Rotation of Crops, pp. 8-11. 98. Suggestions to Southern Farmers, pp. 38-46. The Fertility of the Land, by I. P. Roberts. Chapter XV. Soils and Fertilizers, by H. Snyder. Pp. Ill, 112, and 230-240. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 88-109, and index. The Cereals in America, by T. F. Hunt. Pp. 74, 209, 294, 329, 348, 361, 388, 405. The Forage and Fiber Crops in America, by T. F. Hunt. Pp. 344- 346. • • • • • •• t m Fig. 144. Cutting com for the silo Fio. 146. Filling a silo CHAPTER X FEEDS AND FEEDING 250. Importance of Animal Food and Work. ''It is estimated by competent authority that over 45 per cent of the food consumption of the better classes in the United States consists of animal products. Taking into account the relatively higher prices of these materials, it seems safe to estimate that fui'y half the amount spent for food by the average well-to-do family goes for the purchase of meat, eggs and dairy products. Moreover, whatever, in the Ught of recent discussion, may be our attitude toward vegetarianism, or our judgment as to the neces- sary proteid supply, it is certainly a fact, however we may explain it, that those peoples are, as a whole, m^ost efficient which consume a reasonable proportion of animal food ''These enormous sums spent for meat represent to a considerable extent the indirect utilization through the animal of farm products which would otherwise have no nutritive value for man. This is true on the one hand of the leaves, stems, husks, pods, etc., of our vari- ous farm crops — ^the so-called coarse fodders — and, on the other, of those manufacturing by-products which accumulate in the preparation of grains and other raw materials for human consumption. By feeding these products to our domestic animals, we utilize for feeding man or performing his work a portion of their stored-up (281^ 282 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE energy, which would otherwise be practically an entire waste. Of course, surplus edible products are also utilized in stock-feeding, and, in this country, very largely so. This, however, can only be regarded as a temporary phase of our agriculture. While, on the fertile soil of the corn- belt, it is often found more profitable to convert corn into beef or pork than to market it directly, as the density of population and the demand for breadstuffs increases, the stock-feeder will be more and more constrained to the use of the cheaper by-product feeds in place of grain. From the economic point of view, then, it is highly im- portant that that portion of our national wealth repre- sented by these inedible products should be utiUzed to the best advantage, yielding a greater aggregate profit to the producer and a more liberal supply of animal food to the consumer."^ COMPOSITION OF FEEDS For feeding purposes, the chemist determines the composition of feed in terms of water, ash, protein, ether extract or fat, crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract, the last two together making up the carbohydrates. 251. Water. The chemist places a small quantity of the finely ground feeding-stuff in a small dish and weighs it. The sample is then placed in an oven, where it is dried at a temperature of 212° Fahr. for several hours, or until it no longer loses weight. It is then weighed again, and the difference between the two weights is the water that the food contains. The balance on which this work is * Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 84 COMPOSITION OF FEEDS 283 done is so delicate that a thimbleful of corn meal can be weighed with a smaller percentage of error than is usual when a wagon load of corn is weighed on good wagon scales. All food materials, no matter how dry they may appear, contain a considerable amount of water. The grains usually contain about 10 per cent of water. Hay con- tains 10 to 20 per cent; pasture grasses about 75 per cent; green corn and silage about 80 per cent. 252. Ash. The chemist next burns the sample until the charcoal is all gone. The remainder is ash. The amount of ash in different feeds is variable. Corn contains 1.5 per cent; wheat, 1.8 per cent; wheat bran, 5.8 per cent; timothy hay, 4.4 per cent; clover hay, 6.2 per cent; alfalfa hay, 7.4 per cent. 253. Protein. The protein is not determined directly. In order to find the amount of it, the percentage of nitro- gen is found and this is multiplied by 6.25, because it has been found that the average protein substance contains about 16 per cent of nitrogen. The method of finding the percentage of nitrogen is too complicated to be con- sidered here. The amount of protein is highest in legumes. It is more abundant in seeds than in the stems of plants. Alfalfa hay contains 14 per cent; timothy, 6 per cent; wheat, 12 per cent; wheat-straw, 3.4 per cent; peas, 20 per cent; corn, 10 per cent. 254. Ether Extract or Fat. The dry feed is treated with ether, which dissolves out the wax, chlorophyll and fat. The largest amount of the extract, particularly in grains, is fat. It is, therefore, commonly spoken of as fat. although a more accurate term would be ether extract* 284 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Corn is very high in fat, containing 5 per cent; wheat contains 2 per cent. 255. Crude Fiber. The crude fiber is found by boiling the feed first in a weak acid and then in a weak alkaU. These dissolve all of the softer substances and leave the insoluble crude fiber behind. It consists, for the most part, of the cell-walls or framework of the plant. The amount of crude fiber is greatest in the coarse feeds. The stalks of corn contain 20 per cent, the grain only 2.2 per cent. 256. Nitrogen-Free Extract. What is left of the organic matter of the plant after taking out the above substances is called nitrogen-free extract. It is determined by sub- tracting the ash, protein, crude fiber and fat from the total dry matter. It contains starch, sugar and a number of other substances. The crude fiber and the nitrogen- free extract together make up the carbohydrates. 257. Composition of Feeds and Products Compared. Notice the similarity in composition between the foods or raw materials and the animal body. It is evident that one cannot hope to secure a protein product without using a protein feed. Raw Materials — Foods Com Timothy hay Alfalfa hay. . Clover hay . Clover, green Water Ash Digestible protein Per cent Per cent Per cent 10.6 1.5 7.9 13.2 4.4 28 8.4 7.4 11.0 15.3 6.2 6.8 70.8 2.1 2.9 Digestible fat plus carbohydrates divided by 2.25 Per cent 34.0 20.7 18.8 17.6 1.3 FUNCTIONS OF FOOD MATERIALS 285 Finished Products Well-fed ox. . . Well-fed sheep Well-fed swine Fat swine. . . . Hen Eggs Cow's milk. . . Water Ash Protein Per cent Per cent Per cent 54 3 4.8 15.8 53.7 3.3 14.8 53.9 2.7 13.9 42.0 1.8 11.0 55.8 3.8 21.6 65.7 12.2 11.4 87.2 0.7 3.6 Fat Per cent 7.1 13.2 22.5 40.2 17.0 8.9 3.7 FUNCTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT FOOD MATERIALS 258. Water. Water in food serves the same purpose as that which the animal drinks. It is, therefore, not considered as having any value. A feed that is moist may be more palatable than a dry feed. Water is the food that all animals require in largest quantities. It not only serves as the carrier of food in the animal body, but makes up the larger part of the body itself. The great importance of an abundance of good water for all animals is not always sufficiently considered. 259. Ash. The ash is chiefly of use in the formation of bone, but it doubtless has other important functions. A mixed feed usually contains sufficient ash, so that the ash has been ignored in calculating the value of feeds. Possibly, when we learn more about it, we will give more attention to it. There are several cases in which the deficiency in ash is very important. The cereals in general and Indian corn in particular are deficient in ash. The legumes con- tain, high percentages of ash. Hogs fed on corn alone are likely to be very weak-boned. To correct the shortage 286 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE of ash, they may be fed Hme or wood-ashes, tankage or bone meal. If fed on corn and alfalfa, the shortage of ash is made up. Hens always require more lime than is contained in their feeds. The striking reason for this is seen when we compare the composition of eggs and corn. The eggs contain 12.2 per cent ash, the corn only 1.5 per cent. Hens are, therefore, commonly fed cracked oyster shells. Possibly one reason why the Kentucky horses have such good bones and feet is the high ash content of the feed that they get in the blue-grass pastures. It is very probable that the ash food of colts in the corn- belt should be given more consideration. 260. Protein. There are a large number of compounds that are classed together as protein. The gluten of wheat, lean meat, white of egg, the curd of milk, are protein com- pounds. All the protein compounds contain nitrogen. They are not all of equal feeding value. The protein compounds make the basis of the bones, muscles and other tissues. They are also used, to a limited extent, as fuel to keep the body warm, but this is not their important function. 261. Fats. The fats in food serve the same purpose to the animal as do the carbodydrates. Fat is more effec- tive than carbohydrate. It has been found that if a pound of fat is burned it gives 2.25 times as much energy as is furnished by burning a pound of carbohydrates. We therefore say that a pound of fat is approximately equiva- lent to 2.25 pounds of carbohydrates as food for a seed or as food for animals. 262. Carbohydrates. The starch and sugar compounds are the most important carbohydrates. Crude fiber or DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDS 287 cellulose is a less efficient one.^ The carbohydrates form only a very small proportion of the body, — less than 1 per cent.. Their chief function is to furnish energy for keeping the body warm and for movement. They are also important as a source of animal fat. The animal can change the carbohydrates to fat, and the body fat can be used as a source of energy when the food does not supply enough. The fat is a reserve source of energy. DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDS 263. Feeds Differ in Digestibility. No feed can be entirely digested. A part of the food material is never taken up by the body. The proportion of digestible material is quite different in different food materials. The propor- tion also varies with the kind of animal and with the particular individual. The ruminants, or cud-chewing animals, cattle, sheep and goats, all digest their food about equally well. Horses digest 11 to 12 per cent less than ruminants. Average Digestibility for Ruminants Fat Wheat bran Com Timothy hay Clover hay . Alfalfa hay. . Wheat straw Crude Nitrogen- Protein fiber free extract Per cent Per cent Per cent 79 22 69 76 58 93 48 52 63 62 49 69 74 43 66 11 52 38 Per cent 68 86 57 62 39 31 ^The carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The pro- portions of hydrogen and oxygen are the same as in water (HjO), hence the name. That is, there are two atoms of hydrogen for each atom of oxygen. There are a large number of different carbohydrate compounds. The composition of starch is GgHi206, of cane sugar Ci2H220n, of grape sugar or glucose CqIIi2^6- 288 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE It will be seen that 79 per cent of the protein of wheat bran is digested, while 21 per cent passes through the animal unused. But only 11 per cent of the protein in wheat straw is digested. In general, the grain feeds are much more digestible than roughage — hay, straw, etc. 264. Digestible Nutrients in Feeds. By combining the above table with the table of compositions, we can get the amount of digestible material in each food: Protein Crude fiber Nitrogen- free extract Fat Composition of corn. Per cent 10.3 76.0 7.8 Per cent 2.2 58.0 1.2 Per cent 70.4 93.0 65.5 Per cent 5 0 Digestibility of corn Digestible nutrients in com., . . 86.0 4.3 Corn contains 10.3 per cent of protein, of which 76 per cent is digestible; or it contains 7.8 per cent of diges- tible protein. Similarly, it contains 1.2 per cent of diges- tible crude fiber and 65.5 per cent of nitrogen-free extract. These are added to give the amount of digestible carbo- hydrates, or 66.7 per cent. This is the manner in which Appendix table 8 is calculated. 265. Effect of Time of Harvesting on Digestibility. When hay ripens, much of the food material is trans- ferred to the seeds. These seeds are so small and hard that they are not digested by the animal, hence, hay that is cut when ripe is not very digestible. (Fig. 90.) In the case of corn, the seed is digestible, hence the total product averages higher in digestibility as the plant ripens. The total product is also much more per acre. Therefore, we cut hay plants when green and grain crops when ripe. MAINTENANCE AND PRODUCTIVE VALUES 289 MAINTENANCE AND PRODUCTIVE VALUES The animal uses the energy of its food for three pur- poses: For maintenance of Ufe, for external work, and for fattening or the production of eggs, milk, or other product. 266. Maintenance. Even while at rest, many parts of the body are active. To maintain this activity, requires a supply of energy in the feed. If feed is withheld, the animal will use the substance of its own body to keep up the life functions. When the supply in the body is no longer available, the animal will die. 267. External Work. When the demands for main- tenance are met, the animal may use the extra energy for carrying loads. The energy stored in the- body may also be used for this purpose, but if this is done the animal gets poor in flesh. 268. Production. An excess of food above the main- tenance requirement may also be used to store up meat or fat in the body, or for the formation of wool, milk or eggs. 269. Energy Lost in Digestion and in Production. Formerly, it was considered that the maintenance values of the feeds were in proportion to the total digestible nutrients. We still compare foods on this basis in com- puting balanced rations, because we do not have any better means of comparison at the present time. Armsby^ has studied a few feeds in order to determine how much of the energy is available for maintenance and for production. For these investigations he constructed ^Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 84 290 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE an apparatus known as the respiration calorimeter. There are only three such instruments in the world, and this is the only one used for experiments on domestic animals. The apparatus is so constructed as to enable the operator to keep an exact debit and credit account with the animal. He determines the weight, chemical composition and energy content of the feed given. He then determines the amount of matter and of energy carried off in the visible waste products, and in the gases carried off by the lungs and skin and by fermentation in the digestive tract. Finally, the apparatus is a calorimeter, — ^i. e., a heat measurer, — ^by means of which the amount of heat given off by the animal is determined. Having thus ob- tained a complete record of the income and outgo from the body, it is easy to compute whether the animal has stored up any of the matter and energy of the feed, or whether he has been living in part on his own tissues. In this manner, Armsby found that the following amounts of the energy of the food were set free in the animal, or were digested: Timothy hay 44 per cent Com meal 77 per cent These figures represent the percentage of digestibility of these particular samples of feed with the particular animal used. With different lots of feed or a different animal, they might be different. A part of this material is lost in digestion, so that it is not all available for maintenance. The percentages of the digested materials available for maintenance were: Timothy hay 63 per cent Com meal .' .* 78 per cent MAINTENANCE AND PRODUCTIVE VALUES 291 Or 28 per cent (44 per cent of 63 per cent) of the original energy value of timothy hay is available for maintaining the animal, and 60 per cent of the energy of corn is thus available. When the animal stores up the energy of these feeds, there is a still further loss. The percentages of the diges- tible material that could be stored up were: Timothy hay 33 per cent Com meal 53 per cent Or 15 per cent of the energy of timothy was available for storing up in the body and 41 per cent of the energy of corn was thus available. These results agree with common experience, that timothy hay is fairly good for maintaining a steer, but is very unsatisfactory for fattening. They may be sum- marized as follows: Values per 100 Pounds Containing 15 Per Cent "Water Heat of combustion Heat of combustion of ma- terial digested Maintenance value Productive value for fatten- ing : Corn meal Therms i 170.9 130.8 102.0 69.7 Per cent 100 77 60 41 Timothy hay Therms 175.6 77.7 48.9 25.9 Per cent 100 44 28 15 270. Comparison of Concentrates and Roughage. It will be seen, in the above comparison, that the losses in each step are much greater for timothy than for corn meal. It will not do to compare the values of these two ^ A Therm is a thousand large calories. That is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1,000 Kilograms of water 1* Cen- tigrade. The unit here need not be considered, as only the comparative figures or percentages are important. 292 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE feeds on the basis of digestible material. This would make the timothy worth 58 per cent as much as the corn meal, whereas it is worth only 48 per cent as much for maintenance, and 37 per cent as much for production. Clover hay contains about two-thirds as much diges- tible material as oats, but the clover is much harder to digest. Zuntz calculated that the net nutrients, after allowing for the amount used in chewing and digestion, were about one-third as much for clover hay as for oats.^ Similar results have been obtained by other investigators. (See Appendix, Table 9.) We thus see that it is not safe to compare hay feeds with grain feeds on the basis of digestible nutrients. It is approximately correct to compare feeds of the same class on this basis. Hay may be compared with hay and one grain with another without very great errors. BALANCED RATIONS 271. Food Requirements of Different Animals. Animals must be fed very differently for different kinds of work. The kind of feed that is adapted to producing wool, eggs, milk or muscular work is not the kind that is best adapted to fattening an animal or to maintaining it when not producing. If we expect a product that contains a high percentage of protein, as milk or eggs, we must feed a protein diet; otherwise, it will be absolutely impossible to keep up the production. Very many experiments have been conducted in order to determine what is the best proportion of the different J- Farmers' Bulletin No. 170, p. 41. BALANCED RATIONS ' 293 nutrients, and how much of each is required. These experiments have been summarized in feeding standards. 272. Carbohydrate Equivalent of Fat. As we have previously learned, the fats and carbohydrates have the same function, but fat is 2.25 times as effective as carbo- hydrates. One hundred pounds of corn contains 66.7 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and 4.3 pounds of diges- tible fat. This is equivalent to 76.4 pounds (66.7 + 4.3 X 2.25) of carbohydrates. This is the manner in which the carbohydrate column in Appendix, Table 8, is calculated. 273. Nutritive Ratio. One hundred pounds of corn contains 7.9 pounds of digestible protein and the equiva- lent of 76.4 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, or it contains one pound of digestible protein for each 9.7 pounds of carbohydrates. This is called the nutritive ratio. 274. Feeding Standards. The commonly accepted feeding standards are given in Appendix, Table 7. As an example, if we look up the standard for horses heavily worked, we will see that the standard ration is 26 pounds of dry matter, 17.6 pounds of which is diges- tible, containing 2.5 pounds of protein and 15.1 pounds of carbohydrates. This gives a nutritive ratio of 1:6. If the horse weighs over 1,000 pounds, the ration would be increased proportionately. 275. Computing Rations.^ To illustrate how these tables may be used, we will examine a system of feeding cows, which is followed in some diary sections. Timothy hay constitutes the greater part of the coarse fodder. Oats are about the only grain grown. Corn is purchased and i Adapted from Cornell Bulletin No. 154, by J. L. Stone 294 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE ground with the oats, in about equal weights, to make ''chop," which is fed with the hay. The cows will not vary greatly from 1,000 pounds live weight. While these cows are in full flow of milk in the spring before pasture is ready, they are fed about 20 pounds of hay and 8 pounds of chop per day. Turning to the table, we find that 20 pounds of hay, 4 pounds of oats and 4 pounds of corn contain digestible nutrients as follows: Dry matter Protein C. H. and fat Total Nutritive ratio 20 pounds hay 4 pounds oats 4 pounds com .... 17.36 3.56 3.56 .560 .368 .316 9.320 2.272 3.056 9.880 2.640 3.372 Total 24.48 24.00 1.244 2.5 14.648 13.4 15.892 15.9 1:11.8 Wolff's Standard. . . 1: 5.4 Upon comparison of the nutrients furnished by this ration with Wolff's standard, as given in the table, it is discovered that, while the dry matter and total nutrients are not far out of the way, the protein is much too small, the carbohydrates and fat are somewhat too great, while the nutritive ratio is far too wide. This result might readily have been foreseen had we paused a moment to note the nutritive ration of each of the three foods entering into the ration. They are, timothy hay, 1 : 16.6; oats 1 : 6.2; corn, 1 : 9.7. Neither of them is as narrow as the standard, and it is impossible to com- bine them into a ration that is approximately balanced. As corn is a purchased product, the natural suggestion is that the corn should be replaced by some food having a high proportion of protein, or, in other words, a very BALANCED RATIONS 295 narrow nutritive ratio. Consulting the table, it is found that among such are linseed meal, cottonseed meal, gluten feed, malt sprouts, buckwheat middhngs, etc. For the northeastern states, buckwheat middhngs is usually- reasonable in price. It is suggested to substitute it for corn in the ration. Again, taking the figures from the table, we have: Dry matter Protein C. H. and fat Total 20 pounds timothy hay 4 pounds oats 17.36 3.56 3.49 24.41 .560 .368 .880 1.808 9.320 2.272 1.824 9.880 2.640 4 pounds buckwheat mid- dhngs 2.704 Total . 13.416 15.224 Nutritive ratio, 1:7.4 While this ration is much improved over the previous one and will produce a more abundant flow of milk, it is still too wide to produce the best results. If the timothy hay is reduced two pounds, and two pounds of cotton- seed meal put in its place, we get: Dry matter Protein C. H. and fat Total 18 pounds timothy hay 4 pounds oats . 15.62 3.56 3 49 1.84 24.51 .504 .368 .880 .744 2.496 8.388 2.272 1.824 .888 8.892 2.640 4 pounds buckwheat mid- dhngs 2.704 2 pounds cottonseed meal. . . 1.632 Total 13.372 15.868 I^utritive ratio, 1:5.4 296 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE This ration corresponds very closely to the standard, and, while the purchase of the cottonseed meal will add somewhat to the expense, still it is the experience of care- ful feeders that the increased production will pay. The same result may be obtained by using other feed- ing stuffs having a narrow nutritive ratio. The question is hkely to be raised, which of the various feeding-stuffs offered in the market may be used most economically in supplementing the home-grown foods to produce a balanced ration? This question is best answered by for- mulating properly balanced rations containing each of the foods under consideration; and, by assigning the actual market value per pound to each of the constituents of the ration, its cost is readily ascertanied and the cheapest may be selected. 276. Another Method of Computing Rations. The total amounts of nutrients required are sometimes used instead of the above method. Cows require about 24 pounds of dry matter per day per 1,000 pounds of Uve weight. At least 16 pounds of this should be digestible, and 2 to 2.5 pounds should be digestible protein. This is an easier method of calculating but gives practically the same results. It will be seen that only the last one of the three calculated rations in the preceding section meets this standard. 277. Cautions in Using Balanced Rations. The nutritive ratio may vary somewhat from the standard without serious results. Cows have produced good results on feeds with a ratio as wide as 1 : 8, but most successful dairy- men use a ration with more protein.^ One pound of pro- 1 Virginia Bulletin No. 169. BALANCED RATIONS 297 tein for 6 to 7 pounds of carbohydrates is usually better. It is possible to prepare a ration that will fit the stan- dard and yet not be satisfactory. The standards are guides but not laws. They do not do away with skill in feeding, but will help in deciding on the feeds. One might feed cows all cottonseed meal for the grain ration, but the cows would not do well. Cottonseed meal is constipating in effect. Wheat bran and oil meal are laxative. One can prepare a ration for horses including clover hay, but clover is not the best for horses. This is why it sells for less than timothy. It is better than timothy for feeding cows. Not all cows of the same size will need the same amount of feed. Some may be harder to keep and some may be giving larger quantities of milk. It is well to balance the ration and then adapt it to the different animals by feeding larger or smaller quantities. 278. Comfort of Animals. Armsby has found that a steer produces 30 to 50 per cent more heat when standing up than when lying down. This heat, of course, comes from burning up of food. Evidently it will pay to pro- vide comfortable quarters and a good bed for animals. This does not mean that the barn should be warm. Fat- tening animals produce so much heat in digestion that they are more comfortable in cool stables. All feeding experiments with steers have shown cool, dry stables to be best. Cows need warmer quarters, as they are not fattening, and are not using so much carbohydrates. Regularity in feeding is also of great importance. 279. Relation of the Individuality of the Animal to Profits. Some animals will not produce profitable results, 298 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE no matter how they are fed. It is necessary to have a good animal, well fed, for good returns. Either condition without the other will result in a financial loss. 280. Condimental Foods. Numerous condimental stock foods are advertised. These are guaranteed to make hens lay, cows give milk, or pigs get fat. The basis of nearly all of these is some common feed. Other ingredients are salt, fenugreek, gentian, ginger, sulfates of iron, and soda, pepper, sulfur, charcoal, etc. Substances that counteract each other are sometimes included. Some of these substances have a tonic effect and may at times be needed, but it is rarely desirable for animals or men to take tonics all the time. If we desire to feed any of these, they can be purchased at a drug store and at a very small fraction of the cost in patent foods. Numerous feeding experiments have failed to show the value of these feeds. If one desires to use them, he had best get a prescription from a veterinarian, or write to the State Experiment Station, and save his money for some useful purpose. . QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Why does a person need more clothing while sleeping than while sitting? 2. How much protein would there be in the milk of a cow that gives 30 pounds per day? What other needs would the cow have for protein? About how much would, therefore, be required per day? 3. What would be the nutritive ratio of the following ration? (See Appendix, Table 8.) Com silage 40 pounds Clover hay : 10 pounds Com meal 3 pounds Wheat bran 3 pounds Oil meal (old process) ,,.,,-, 1 pound COLLATERAL READING 299 How many pounds of dry matter would it contain? How many pounds of digestible material? Would it be a good ration? Will it satisfy the conditions given in paragraph 276? 4. A man has corn stalks, clover hay and com. He can buy wheat bran at $22 per ton, gluten meal at $20, and oil meal at $30. Which ones shall he buy in order to make a balanced ration for cows? What will the nutritive ratio of the feed be? Will this ration satisfy the conditions in paragraph 276? 5. Prepare a ration for fattening steers that weigh 1,200 pounds each, using alfalfa and com. 6. Prepare a ration for a farm horse at moderate work, using timothy hay, corn and oats. 7. Prepare a similar ration for a farm horse while at rest. 8. How much of each feed will it take for a year for a team of horses each weighing 1,500 pounds, supposing that the team works half of the time? 9. What are the common feeds of your region? For what purpose are the animals fed? Prepare rations for them. 10. Find out exactly what some persons are feeding. Find the nutritive ratio, total dry matter and digestible matter in the ration, and see whether it agrees with the standards. If not, how may it be improved ? COLLATERAL READING Farmers' Bulletins Nos.: 22, The Feeding of Farm Animals. 170. Principles of Horse-Feeding. 186. Rations for Laying Hens, pp. 23-27. 202. Home-Grown Protein for Dairy Cows, pp. 22-24. 222. Weight Per Quart of Feeds, pp. 17, 18. Grain Rations, pp. 18, 19. Horse Feeding, pp. 17-24. Silage for Cows, pp. 31, 32. 225. Mineral Matter for Chickens, pp. 26, 27. 233. Condimental Feeds, pp. 21, 22. Methods of Feeding Skimmed Milk to Calves, pp. 22-25 Animal Food for Ducklings, pp. 25, 26. 251. Cheap Dairy Rations, pp. 26-30. Cottonseed Meal for Hogs, pp. 30-33. 300 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 262. Beet Molasses and Pulp, pp. 19-23. Feed Lots, pp. 23-25. 276. Tankage and Bone Meal for Hogs, pp. 21-24. Grinding Corn for Hogs, p. 25. 305. Laxative Properties of Wheat Bran, pp. 16, 17. Emmer as Feed, pp. 17-19. Roots and Cabbages for Stock Food, pp. 19-24. 316. Horse-Feeding Tests, pp. 22-30. Supplements to Com for Hogs — Tankage for Hogs, pp 25-30. 320. Protein Content for Forage Crops, pp. 13-17. 329. Importance of Mineral Matter in Feeds, pp. 22-26. 346. The Computations of Rations for Farm Animals by the Use of Energy Values Human Foods. 74. Milk as Food. 85. Fish as Food. 93. Sugar as Fooa. 121. Legumes as Food. 128. Eggs and Their Uses as Food. 142. Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. 182. Poultry as Food. 249. Cereal Breakfast Foods. 298. The Food Value of Corn and Corn Products. 281. Corn as Food for Man, pp. 18-22. Feeds and Feeding, by W. A. Henry. The Feeding of Animals, by W. H. Jordan. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 56-119, CHAPTER XI THE HORSE 281. Substitution of Horse Power for Man Power. In 1830, it required an average of three hours of time for each bushel of wheat grown; in 1896 it required ten min- utes. In 1850 it took four and one-half hours to grow, harvest and shell a bushel of corn; in 1899, it required forty-one minutes.^ This saving of time has been due to the substitution of machinery drawn by horses for human labor. According to the last census (1900), we had twenty- one million horses in the United States, or one horse to each four persons. In Great Britain there is one horse to twenty-six persons; in France, one to ten; in Germany, one to thirteen. In America, we have gone farthest in the substitution of brute force for human energy. Human labor is the most expensive of all labor, even if the person be a slave. One horse, properly directed can do the work of ten men, while his ''board and room" on the farm cost about half as much as that of one man. The farm boy who drives a good four-horse team to a gang-plow is doing as much work as if the horses were replaced by forty men. In the West, the farmer is no longer content to use a single team in his farm operations when it is possible to use larger numbers. The four-horse gang-plow and four- horse harrow have rapidly replaced the two-horse machines. * Yearbook United States Department of Agriculture, 1897, page 600 (301) 302 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE There are many parts of the country in which similar methods can be used. In this way one man can do the work that would require many men under European conditions. Because we make our labor count for so much, we are able to make farming an attractive business, rather than a peasant's drudgery. We have wasted our lumber, our coal, our soil fer- tility; but, we have used human energy more economi- cally than it has ever been used before. The older nations are saving of everything but human time. As a nation, we are extremely saving of time, but wasteful of every- thing else. Perhaps each hemisphere should learn econ- omy from the other. The extensive use of horses has had a great influence on our national character and history. The boy who trains a colt gets a lot of training himself. It makes a man expand as he learns to manage a spirited horse. The less intelli- gent races cannot manage horses well. They prefer the thick-skinned, stubborn ass. 282. Types of Horses. There are five chief purposes for which horses are raised: (1) For speed, as trotters and runners; (2) for sport or for fashion; (3) for family driving; (4) for farm purposes; (5) for draft purposes, usually in cities. The first three classes are usually of much the same general type. They are smaller and more active than draft horses. There are no breeds of horses that are especi- ally adapted for farm use. The best draft horses for city ustj are usually too heavy for general farm purposes. The horses of the other classes are usually too light. Too little attention has been given to farm horses. HORSES 303 Very often the chief reason why a horse is a farm horse is because he is not one that would bring a good price in the city. As labor becomes more expensive, we can afford to give more attention to the character of the farm horses. 283. Draft Horses and Horses for Speed. There are many contrasts between draft horses and those that are kept for speed. Many of these characters are contra- dictory, so that we can never hope to have horses that are best for both speed and draft purposes. The following table shows some of the contrasts: Trotter or roadster General appearance: high, lithe, active. Head and neck long, graceful, thin, light, little crest. Large nostrils. Eyes full, bright, intelligent. Long sloping shoulders. Front feet near together. Body deep up and down. Flank high. Legs rather long. Hoofs smooth, polished, no creases; not too flat. Fetlock joint not too short nor too erect. Draft Horse Low, massive, plump. Short, thick, broad neck, with a crest. Same. Same. More upright. Far apart. Roimd, with well-arched ribs. Not so high; should not be "wasp- waisted . " Not so long; not over half height. Same, except flatter and larger. May be shorter and more erect. The hind legs of a greyhound and jack-rabbit have powerful muscles. The front legs are relatively weak. This is the case in all quadrupeds that are noted for speed. It has been said that the chief use of the trotter's front feet is to get out of the way of the hind ones. About all that they have to do is to support the front part of the body. An animal that is desired for speed needs good 304 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE lungs, good digestive organs and organs of circulation, with powerful hind legs and other parts developed as they are necessary to support these needs. The trotter does not want to be loaded with extra head and neck, nor size of front quarters. He needs large nostrils, because Fig. 146. The speed type. Dan Patch, l:55i they must allow the passage of abundant air. His shoul- ders need to be sloping, flank high, legs rather long, all for the same reason — ^to give freedom for long steps. The front feet need to be near together to correspond with the body and to be out of the way of the hind feet. The body should be deep up and down to make room for the powerful lungs. If the fetlock joint is too short and erect, the jar when the foot strikes the ground is too HORSES 305 great; the longer, less erect one gives chance for more spring. The whole conformation of the typical draft horse is heavier. The greyhound build gives way to the round Fig. 147. The draft type. Baron's Pride, a noted Clydesdale body, shorter legs with powerful but slower-moving muscles. He does not need a body adapted to the long steps of the trotter. While his hind legs are the stronger, yet he uses his front legs very much in pulhng, therefore the entire front quarters have a good development. The broad breast puts the front feet far apart. Horses weighing 1,500 to 1,600 pounds are classed as Hght draft horses. Those weighing 1,600 to 1,700 are 306 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE medium weight. Those weighing over 1,700 pounds are heavy draft horses. The heavier horses bring the higher prices. When a team cannot pull a load, it is the feet that give way. They shp because there is not friction enough to hold them. This explains why a horse can pull more when a man is on his back. It gives him more weight so that he can stick to the ground. On dirt roads, horses "dig their toes in," so as to help in getting a foothold. On pavements they cannot do this, but the sharp shoes help. This is one reason why such heavy draft horses are desired in cities. One way to make a horse heavier is to have the whiffletree low down, so that the tugs pull down on the horse's back and hold him to the ground. If the doubletree is put under the wagon tongue, the team can pull a heavier load. In his book on 'The Horse," Professor Roberts tells of an experiment with a 1,500- pound horse hitched to a post and puUing on a dynamom- eter (a large spring balance). When the whiffletree was fastened six inches from the ground, the horse pulled 2,310 pounds; when two feet from the ground, 1,980 pounds; when three feet, 1,732 pounds. This is one reason why horses draw a walking plow easier when the tugs are rather short, but here there is another reason in that the short tugs lessen the friction on the bottom of the furrow. With a driving horse, the load is Hght, so the whiffle- tree should be high. Then, in driving, we do not want any additional weight on the horse's feet, because rapid driving is very hard on the feet and legs. Perhaps some of you have seen hansom cabs in cities. These are two- HORSES 307 wheeled and the driver sits at the back, so that the thills pull up on the horse and support part of his weight. They are awkward-looking vehicles, but they save the horse's feet very much when driving on hard pavements. Appearance is the chief point in coach horses, and such horses are larger and plumper than roadsters. Coach horses have high knee action and travel up and down rather than reaching out, as do trotters. 284. Breeds of Horses. The leading breeds of horses in America are as follows: Draft Breeds — Carriage and Coach Horses — Percherons, from France. Hackneys, from England. Clydesdales, from Scotland ' French coach Belgian, from Belgium. Grerman coach. English Shire, from England Suffolk Punch from England. Roadster Breeds — American trotter, developed in America. American saddle horse, developed in America, — mostly in Kentucky and Virginia. English Thoroughbred, developed in England. Something of the relative popularity of the different breeds is indicated by the number of stalhons in Wis- consin in 1908. There were 267 either pure blood or grade Percherons; 43 Clydesdales; 28 Belgians; 26 Shire; 115 Trotters; 73 of all other known breeds.^ The Percheron is seen to be the favorite draft breed. This breed is considered to be superior to other draft breeds in bone and feet, and in style and finish. They are said to be more active and more intelligent than the i Wisconsin Bulletin No. 1 58 308 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE other draft breeds. Their color is quite variable. Black and mottled gray seem to be the most popular. The Clydesdales are said to lack in circumference of body and in weight. They are also said to have poorer constitutions. They have a heavy growth of hair on the fetlocks. This distinguishes them from all other breeds except the Shire. It is also one of the objections to the breed. Drivers do not like this mass of hair, which gets clogged with mud on our poor roads. The English Shires are nearly like the Clydesdales. They might be called Enghsh Clydesdales. The Belgians and Clydesdales have not been so popular In America as the Percherons. The chief reason is probably that the latter breed is more active. The Hackneys and coach horses are not much raised in America, although they seem to be gaining ground. Our coach horses are usually large grades that contain considerable of the trotting blood. The American trotter and American saddler are the distinctly American productions. They are the best of their kind in the world. From selected members of these breeds, the Department of Agriculture is now trying to develop a breed of American carriage horses. The Indian pony and bronco are also distinctly American. They have many valuable characteristics, but they seem destined to extinction. 285. How to Tell the Age of a Horse. One of the first questions that is always asked when one wishes to buy a horse is the age. This is because the age is so important in determining the value. Every farmer should be able to estimate the age of a horse. HORSES 309 The teeth usually furnish a fairly accurate indication of the age until a horse is ten years old. Horses have two sets of teeth, the first or temporary set and the second or permanent set, similar to the two sets in human beings. There are three pairs of nippers or front teeth on each jaw. These are the ones that indicate the age. The new teeth have deep cups or indentations in their centers. As the teeth are used, they wear down and the cups disap- pear. It takes about three years for a cup to disappear from the nippers of the permanent set of teeth on the lower jaw, and about twice as long on the upper jaw. ColL — A colt gets its center nippers at about one week of age. By the time it is a month old, it has all three pairs. The cups in these teeth gradually disappear and are usu- ally gone at about two years. (Fig. 148.) At about two years and nine months, the center pair of permanent teeth appear. Up to this time, the general appearance of the colt is usually as accurate an indication of its age as are the teeth. Three Years. — At three years, the permanent pair of center nippers will be up and ready for use. They will have deep cups, and are much larger than the temporary teeth. If the colt is a male, two small tusks will appear at about this Fig. iso. The lo wer nippers at time. Mares do not have tusks (Fig. 149). four years of age Fig. 148. The lower nippers of a colt two years old Fig. 149. The lower nippers at three years of age 310 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE / Fig. 151. Side view at four years of age Fia. 152. Lower nippers at five years Four Years. — At four years, the second pair of permanent nippers are just ready for use, and the cups in the center pair are about one-third gone. (Fig. 150.) Five Years. — At five years, the third pair of nippers are present and just meet. The cups of the center pair are about two-thirds gone. (Fig. 152.) Six Years. — The cups in the center pair have disappeared, or nearly so. Those in the second pair are about two- thirds gone. The third pair are up and in full use. Seven Years. — At seven years, the cups are gone from the second pair of nippers. There is then a notch in the upper tooth where it overlaps the lower one. (Fig. 156.) Eight Years. — At eight years, the cups are gone from all the nippers of the lower jaw. We then look at the nippers of the upper jaw. The cups will then be present in the center pair, but will not be deep. (Fig. 157.) Nine Years. — The cups in the cen- ter pair of nippers of the upper jaw have disappeared, but they are still present in the second pair, and fairly deep in the third pair. Fig. 155. m ^r mi ade view at six yeans Ten Years. — The cups are gone from. Fig. 153. Side view at five years Fig. 154. Lower nippers at six years HORSES 311 the second pair on the upper jaw, but are still present in the third pair. Old Horses. — The cups in the teeth usually all disap- pear at about eleven years. After this, the shape and direction of the teeth give some indication of age. Notice the angles at which the teeth meet in Figs. 151, 153, 156 and 159. The shapes of the end of the teeth also change. Compare Figs. 148, 154, 157, and 158. In very old horses, white hairs usually appear around the nose, eyes and elsewhere. The back- bone is likely to be curved downward, and the animal does not stand squarely on its legs. The age of a horse that is over twelve is usually less important than the condition. The vigor and activity are then of more importance than the years. Irregularities in Teeth. — Some horses do not wear their teeth as fast as others, so that they may have an irregular mouth. Horses that have dense, hard bones and hoofs sometimes appear younger than they are. 286. Care of Horses. There is space here to call attention to only a few points that may be of use on the farm. A fundamental principle that is often forgotten when feeding horses is that the horse's stomach is small, — unlike that of a Fig. 157. Lower nippers at eight years Fig. 158. Lower nippers of an old horse Fig. 159. Side view of nippers of an old horse 312 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE COW or sheep. The horse cannot use as much bulky food as a cow. Farm horses are quite commonly fed too much hay, particularly if they are used on the road. The driving horse should not have so much hay as is fed to the farm team. When teams are regularly working, it is best to feed them only about one-fourth of the day's ration in the morning and one-fourth at noon, and feed half the ration at night, when they have time to eat and digest it. If a horse is not warm, it is better to water before feeding. The water then passes on to the intestines and makes room for the feed in the stomach. If a horse is very warm, it should not be watered or fed until it cools off. Dusty Hay is one of the worst things for horses. It is the chief cause of heaves. Clover is much worse than timothy in this respect. Timothy is always to be preferred for horses, while clover is better for cows or sheep. If dusty hay must be fed, it should be sprinkled before feeding. Usually, it will pay to buy good hay for the horses and make some other use of that which is dusty. Care of the Legs. — When a team comes in with muddy legs, they should be rubbed down or washed, particularly in cold weather. Horses, as well as men, can get rheu- matism. In general, it is well to devote more time to the legs, even if the back is neglected. Bits. — When the bits are colder than freezing, they should be warmed by putting them in water, even freez- ing water, or by taking them into a warm room. It is not the direct effect of cold that hurts, but the frosty bit freezes to the tongue and mouth and may tear the skin. If one doubts this, he should touch the tip of his tongue HORSES 313 to a piece of iron that is colder than freezing. He will probably never forget the experience. Sore Shoulders. — Many farm horses suffer with sore shoulders. This can nearly always be prevented. The collar should fit. It should be kept clean. The shoulders should be washed in salt water at noon and evening if there is danger of sore shoulders. Sometimes a collar that fitted early in the season ceases to fit when the horse gets thinner. There are a few points that are often discussed under the head of cruelty to animals, and that are not always understood. Clipping. — Driving horses sometimes have their hair clipped in the winter. Clipping of horses can do no harm; in fact, it is a positive comfort, provided the horses are well blanketed. I notice the athletes who run in the winter wear only the thinnest clothing, and run with bare legs when the thermometer stands below zero. They are warm enough while running, and the moment they stop they are covered with overcoats and blankets. So with a clipped horse; he is more comfortable while going. The only danger is that he will not be well blanketed when he stops. A Uvery horse should not be clipped, because some of the promiscuous drivers will let him suffer; but a nice carriage horse that is always well cared for is not harmed. Blinders that come close to the head are very objec- tionable, but those that stand out from the head do no harm. It is frequently desirable to have some shield that will keep the horse from watching every move of the driver. Over-check. — The purpose of the ''over-check" is to raise 314 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE the nose of d trotter, so that in a race the air will have a straighter course from the nostrils to his lungs. When fractions of a second decide the race, this is important. We have copied this kind of check-rein from the race- track. It is not at all suited to ordinary driving, but if not too tight it is not so serious. Docked Tails. — Many city persons desire that their driving horses have docked tails. This practice is probably no more painful to the horse than is dehorning to a cow, but the latter practice is humane when we consider how much hooking it eliminates. The usefulness of the prac- tice justifies it. Once in a long time, a horse is docked because it uses its tail to hold the lines while it runs away, but this is not common. Perhaps the greatest harm to a docked horse comes when it is no longer a ''high stepper," and takes its place on some peddler's wagon, where it becomes a feeding-place for flies. The important point is not this particular example, but the point of view that is back of it all. The primitive idea of beauty seems to be a distorted body. The savage paints his body, wears rings in his ears and nose, and carves out various other improvements. There was a time when men spent much time in training trees into odd shapes, or trimmed them into grotesque forms. A remnant of the same idea of beauty leads men to trim dogs' ears to the desired shape, and to the docking of horses' tails. Some day we will come to appreciate the beauty of a tree that grows in its natural shape, the beauty and symmetry of a whole horse, with its full, flowing mane and tail. It is a hopeful sign that few men who drive their own horses think the bobtail is beautiful. HORSES 315 It is admired mostly by those who deal with horses second- hand. 287. Training Horses. Because of the high esteem in which the horse is held, we are likely to over-estimate his intelligence. When we consider the matter without sentiment, we must admit that the horse is a rather stupid animal. The horse appears to have little affection for men or other animals, and cares little for our admiration. The dog will do almost anything to please his master, and is always keenly appreciative of a word of commen- dation. These emotions are of the greatest importance in training dogs, but we must not expect them to have much value in training horses. The horse seems to have very limited reason, — much more limited than that of a dog. On the other hand, the horse has a remarkable memory. If a horse is con- quered by ropes or straps, he does not seem to understand that he could run away when these are removed. If he is tripped with a rope at the same time that he feels the pull on the bit, he seems to rernember the fall ever after and to associate it with a pull on the bit. Since a horse has such a good memory and so little reason, we should use extreme care in training him so that each step will go all right. A single runaway may be remembered forever, and spoil the horse. We should, therefore, take no chances, and should trust the horse as little as possible. A horse should be trained to stand still while being harnessed and hitched up, and until the word to start is given. If this training is not given when the colt is first used, it will be very hard to acquire later. 316 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Very few words or signals should be used, and these should always be used to mean exactly the same thing, and the command should be carried out. Whoa should always mean to stop; it should not mean to go slowly or to get ready to stop. Steady is the word to use if we wish to go more slowly. Back should always mean to move backwards. Many drivers use it to mean to stop. A horse should never be allowed to start without the spoken word. If getting into the wagon is the signal for starting, we should not blame the horse if he starts before we are all ready. He is obeying our command if he starts as soon as he hears the step on the wagon. If we wiggle the Hues to make him start, we must not blame him for starting when we pick up the lines. Such words as whoa-back are impossible commands. While I was writing one of these chapters, a man who was cul- tivating in the garden under my window, gave the fol- lowing command: Come here! Where are you going! Whoa-back! Get up there! Whoa! Whoa! The horse merely stepped around on a few more vegetables. The word should precede any severe pull on the lines, as the command should precede the punishment for diso- bedience. Some persons pull on the hues when they want a horse to go faster. The team that ran away and ran harder the more it was held in, but that stopped when the pulling ceased, was trained in this manner. 288. Rules of the Road. When two vehicles meet, each one should turn to the right, and give more than half of the road. If one of the vehicles has a heavy load and cannot readily turn out, the hghter one should go around. The heavy load should stop if the passing is difficult QUESTIONS 317 If one desires to pass a vehicle going in the same direc- tion, he should turn to the left. Courtesy demands that the slower-moving vehicle turn to the right to aid in pass- ing; however, the law does not require this in most states. When crossing streets in cities, one should turn corners as indicated in Fig. 160. That is, one remains close to the curb if this keeps him on the right side of the street (6). But, when making a turn Fig. leo. as in a, the street is crossed before the tuming*'^stree?cor?. . . ^ , . . , IT • ers when driving in turn IS made. This avoids colhsions. a city. QUESTIONS 1. How long since horse- power began to be used generally in seed- ing grain? In corn-planting? In harvesting and mowing? In bind- ing grain? In carrying bundles? In raking? In cutting corn? In lifting hay from wagons to stacks? (Ask some of the older farmers.) 2. Are there any farm operations in your county in which more horses per man are now used than were formerly used? In what other operations can the number of horses per man be profitably increased? 3 How has the number of horses per man and acres per man and per horse changed during the past thirty years? (See Appendix, Table 16.) 4. What breeds of horses are kept in your county? Which breeds are most numerous? 5. How many commands or other words does a well-trained dog understand ? How many does a cat understand ? A horse ? 6. Which will a horse obey more quickly, a word or a touch? Will he move quicker if told to "get over," or if slapped? 7. Where is a horse's knee joint? Which way does it bend? Where is the hock joint? Which way does it bend? 8. Can a horse sleep when standing? 9. What does it indicate if a horse rests one of his front feet? One of his hind feet? 10. How are the legs placed when a horse lies down? How does a horse get up? How does a cow get up? 318 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 11. When a horse starts after standing, what foot does he put forward first? What foot moves next? When he trots, do the feet on the same side move together, or do lefts and rights go together? What is the order in pacing? 12. What is meant by "forging?" By "over-reaching?" 13. What does it mean to say that a horse is 16 hands? 14. Why do low-wheeled wagons pull harder than high-wheeled ones ? Under what conditions are low wheels desirable ? When ar« high wheels preferable? 15. Why does a plow draw easier when the tugs are short? LABORATORY EXERCISES 69. Age of Horses. Practice telling the age of horses by their teeth, page 308. 70. Proportions of the Horse. Materials. — Two or more horses. Measure, prepared as follows: A piece of board 18 inches long and two inches wide is nailed at right angles to a similar piece four feet long. Mark off the long piece in one-inch lengths, beginning at the inside. Strap an ordinary carpenter's square so that it moves freely on the stick. (Fig. 161.) Take the following measurements of two or more horses (see Fig. 162 for method of measuring) : 1. Length of head, from tip of lips to top of poll (a-b) 2. Length of the neck, from top of withers to poll {a-c) 3. Height of the shoulder, from the top of the withers to the point of the elbow ic-d) .... 4. Depth of the body, from the middle of the abdomen to the middle of the back {J-g) . . 5. Width of the body, from one side to the other . . 6. Length of the body, from point of elbow to buttock {d-k) 7. Height at withers (c to ground) 8. Height at rump {h to ground) 9. "Daylight" under body (m to ground) Names of Horses LABORATORY EXERCISES 319 If the horse has good proportions, measurements 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 will be nearly the same. Measurements 6, 7, and 8 will be nearly equal, and will each be two and one-half times the length of the head. If *r- ^L -> ^ ! i i i i I ! ! 1 i Ji^fC^^^^i« ;;ii;{i-'.j 1 ? 1 ■*■ Fig. 161. Instrument for measuring horses. Four feet long and eighteen inches wide. (M. W. Harper.) the horse is a draft horse, the "daylight" under the body (measure- ment 9) should not be over half the height. If a roadster, it should be over half the height. 71. Score Card for Horses. (Adapted from M. W. Harper.) Materials. — One or more horses. Each student to fill out the score card for one or more horses. The object of a score card is to aid one in making a systematic ex- FiG. 162 A well-proportioned horse: a, poll; 6, lips; c, withers or shoulder tops; a, point of shoulder; e, chest; f, back; g, abdomen; h, hips; /, rump; k, buttock; I, knee; n, fetlock joint. amination. There are so many points to be considered in judging any animal that one who has not had many years of experience will omit some if he does not have a list of them. 320 h:LEMENTS OP AGRICULTURE Score Card for Horses For draft For driving Scale of points §.§ Is CO 1 11 II a General, Appearance: Draft 45; Driving 47. Age. — Estimated years 15 9 8 1 4 5 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 1 2 8 •• 8 6 10 3 10 5 5 2 1 1 1 1 . 3 3 2 1 2 8 Actual years . Height. — Estimated hands Actual hands Weight. — ^Estimated pounds Actual pounds .... Form. — For draft, low, massive, symmetri- cal; for driving, high, lithe, indicative of • ■ Action. — Step, smooth, quick, long; trot, Temperament. — Lively, pleasant Head and Neck: Draft 5, Driving 6 Head. — Lean; length, two-fifths height of withers; width of forehead, more than one-third length of head. For driving, smaller, carried higher and more hori- Muzzle. — Fine; nostrils large; lips thin; teeth sound .... Eyes. — Full, bright and intelligent Ears. — Short, clean, fine, directed forward; Neck. — Pyramidal, muscled; throat clean, fine; windpipe large. For draft, neck shorter, thicker, more horizontal Forequarters: Draft, 19; driving, 19. Shoulders. — Long; point of shoulder to point of withers equals length of head. For draft, shorter and more upright. . . Knees. — Clean cut, wide, deep, strongly supported • • Canons. — Vertical, 9 to 10 inches long, lean, wide; tendons well attached. For driving, longer Fetlocks.— Wide, thick, clean, free from Pasterns. — Angle 45°, fetlock to ground, 7 to 8 inches. For driving, long, sloping. For draft, short, more upright Feet. — Round, even size, horn dark-colored, dense; sole concave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel vertical, one -half COLLATERAL READING Score Card for Horses, continued 321 Scale of points For draft g2 For driving 12 b;3 Body: Draft, 10; driving 9. Chest in general. — High, long. For draft For driving wide, half height of horse higher Withers. — Clearly defined for driving Breast. — For driving, high, projecting. For draft, broad and muscular. Ribs. — Long, round curvature, Back. — Straight, short, muscular; shoulders to haunch equals length of head. For driving, longer Loin. — Wide, short, thick, strongly joined to hips Underline. — Long; for draft, flank low. . Hindquarters: Draft, 21; driving, 19. Hips. — Level, wide in proportion to other parts; for draft, smooth; for driving, more prominent Tail. — Set and carried high; long, full, fine. Thighs. — For driving, long. For draft, shorter, more horizontal, muscular. . . . Hocks. — Clean cut, large, straight, deep. For draft wider, Canons. — 11 to 12 inches long, otherwise as for front legs Fetlocks. — As above Pasterns. — As above; angle, 60° Feet. — Compared with above, more oval more concave; heels higher, more sep arated; walls more vertical Total 100 100 COLLATERAL READING Market Classes of Horses, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No 37. The Preservation of Our Native Types of Horses, Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular No. 137. The Horse, by I. P. Roberts. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, by C. S. Plumb, pp. 1-166. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 415-510. For references on feeding, see page 299. m?^~ Fig. 163. The dairy type. Fig. 164. The beef type. A Hereford cow (322) CHAPTER XII CATTLE 289. Forms of Beef and Dairy Cattle. Just as there are two distinct types of horses, the roadster and the draft horse, so there are two distinct types of cattle, — the dairy and the beef breeds. In both cases, there are many common animals that do not belong to either class. As a horse cannot be best for both speed and draft pur- poses, so a cow cannot excel for both meat and milk. A few cattle are bred for both purposes. These are called dual-purpose breeds, but none of these breeds is exten- sively raised, as they cannot compete with either the dairy or the beef breeds. The effort to develop a great dual-purpose breed must always fail. The following table gives some of the contrasts between the beef and the dairy form: Dairy Beef Form Wedge-shaped. Rectangular. Head Small, long, narrow. Small, but thicker. Eyes Bright, prominent. Same. Muzzle Mouth and nostrils Same. large. Neck Fine, medium Short, thick. length, thin. Shoulders Thin, lean; bony. Heavy, well-fleshed, wide between front legs, wide on top just behind shoulders. Back Crooked. Straight Loin (back) Not fleshy. Broad, thick, fleshy. Flank High. Low. Thighs Thin. Full, heavy. Udder and milk veins. Large, prominent. Not prominent. Skin and hair Soft, pliable. Same. (323) 324 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Both types of animals need good digestion, good lungs and good circulation. These are indicated by large abdo- men, well-developed chest, soft, pUable skin, and general vigorous appearance. The dairy animal is wedge-shaped. In Fig. 163 the top and bottom lines approach each other in the forepart of the body. If viewed from above, the side lines also approach. The beef animal has a much better development of the fore-quarters. The top and bottom lines are parallel. The animal is shaped Uke a brick set on edge. The neck, shoulders and thighs of a dairy cow are thin and lean. Her loin is also lean. Her hip and tail bones are promi- nent. If she used her food in developing these parts, it would be at the expense of milk-production. But all these parts need to be well developed in a beef animal. The highest - priced cuts of meat come from the loin. The back should, therefore, be broad and full. The thighs and shoulders should be full and heavy. The dairy animal needs a large udder and large milk -veins that extend from the udder about half way along the abdomen and there enter it. If these veins are large, they indicate a large flow of blood from the udder. This is necessary if much milk is to be produced. 290. Care of Beef and Dairy Cattle. Beef and dairy cattle require very different care, so much so that men in dairy regions rarely know how to handle beef cattle, and the few dairymen in beef-producing regions usually do not know how to care for dairy animals. Dairy ani- mals need to be warmly housed in well-ventilated barns, and need much attention. Beef animals require much less attention. Careful experiments by Armsby and the CATTLE 325 experience of feeders indicate that fattening steers do better in dry, open sheds, that are well bedded, than in warm barns. In general, fat animals do not need so warm quar- ters as do lean ones. The feed requirements are also quite different. (See Appendix, Table 7.) 291. Breeds of Cattle. The leading breeds of cattle in America are: Shorthorn, or Durham, from England. Hereford, from England. Polled Hereford, developed in the United States. Aberdeen- Angus, from Scotland. Galloways, from Scotland. Polled Durham, developed in the United States. Diial-purpose Breeds — Shorthorns (milking strains). Devon, from England. Red Polled, from England. Dairy Breeds — Holstein-Friesian, from Holland. Jersey, from the Island of Jersey. Guernsey, from the Island of Guernsey. Ayrshire, from Scotland. Dutch Belted, from Holland. Brown Swiss, from Switzerland. Shorthorns were one of the first breeds to be widely introduced into the United States. They are more widely distributed than any other breed of cattle. The early introductions were mostly of a dual-purpose type, but there has been a constant development toward better beef quahties and a loss of milking qualities. At the present time there are relatively few dual-purpose Shorthorns. 326 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Still, the breed ranks above the other beef breeds in milk-production. The desirability of having hornless cattle led to the development of the Polled Durham breed in the United States. Some of these were secured by collecting and breeding hornless Shorthorns that ^^. , - ..M \ »i Fig. 165 The beef type. A famous Shorthorn bull appeared from time to time as sports. Those that were developed in this way are called ''double standard/' because they are eligible to record in both the Shorthorn and the Polled Durham herdbooks. Others were developed by crossing Shorthorns with native polled cattle. These are single standard, not being eligible to record in the Short- horn herdbook. Shorthorn cattle are more variable in color than any other breed. They may be pure red, pure white, mixed red and white, or roan. CATTLE 327 Herefords were not much known in the United States until about 1880. They gained their first popularity on the ranges, where they stood the hardship well, and proved to be able to transmit their good qualities to half-breed offspring. Later, they have gained favor because of their early development. Mature animals weigh about the same as Shorthorns, but the calves and yearlings are heavier A typical dual-purpose Shorthorn cov. than Shorthorns. The Herefords are very uniform in color, with white heads and red bodies with white markings. Aberdeen-Angus cattle attracted little attention in this country until about 1885. Since that time they have .come to be one of the important breeds. They are horn- less, and about 95 per cent of the calves are hornless when they are crossed with horned cattle. The breed is black and has a smooth coat. Galloways are another breed of black hornless cattle. They can usually be told from the Angus by their longer hair and coarser bones. During the winter, their long, shaggy Qoats give a high value to the hides fov robQ§, 328 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE They are good grazing, hardy cattle, a little slower to mature than are the Angus. There are a considerable number of Red-Polled cattle in the United States, and some Devons and a few Brown Swiss, but none of these breeds has gained the prominent place that is occupied by the preceding ones. The Ameri- can demand seems to be for either dairy or beef breeds, and not for dual-purpose animals. Holstein-Friesian cattle are spotted black and white in color, which distinguishes them from most other breeds. They are probably the most widely distributed dairy breed, and are the leading dairy breed in northern Europe and in America. They are larger than the other dairy breeds, and can consume more rough feed. They are the most popular breed for supplying milk for our large cities, because they give more milk than any other breed of cattle. The milk is light in color, and contains a lower percentage of fat than that of some other breeds. But some individu- als in the breed give rich milk. The milk is high in per cent of soUds not fat. The large size of the Holsteins makes them of more value for beef than are the other dairy breeds. They cannot compete with the regular beef breeds, but their veal calves make a valuable by-product. The New York Agricultural Experiment Station tested the milk from a large number of animals with the follow- ing result: Per cent of fat Holstein-Friesian 3.4 Ayrshire 3.6 Skorthorn 4.4 Devon 4.6 Guernsey 5.3 Jersey 5.6 CATTLE 329 Jersey cattle are usually gray or fawn-colored. They can be distinguished from Guernseys by their black noses. They developed in the little island of Jersey, that is only Fig. 167. Jersey cow eleven miles long and six wide. They are held in high esteem for the richness of their milk. They do not stand exposure and other adverse conditions quite so well as do the Holsteins, and have not been able to compete Fig. 168. A two-year-old Jersey bull with this breed in milk-production. But they have been able to hold their own where butter is made or where cream is sold. It is the most popular dairy breed in America 330 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE except in the neighborhood of large cities, where the Hol- steins outnumber the Jerseys. Guernsey cattle are similar to the Jerseys in many respects. Like the Jerseys, they have been handicapped by the Hmited numbers in their original home, so that importations could not be so rapid as has been desired. They are usually yellow or orange in color, with white spots. The nose is flesh-colored, which distinguishes them from the Jerseys. They are sUghtly larger than the Jerseys. Their friends claim that they give more milk. They are gaining in popularity in America. Ayrshires developed under more severe climatic con- ditions, and are very active and hardy. They are not well known in America outside of New York and New England. 292. Pedigrees. The breeders of each breed of pure- bred stock have organizations for keeping the records of breeding of the individuals and for advertising purposes. Each animal that is born is eUgible to record in the herd- book, provided both its parents are recorded, and unless disquaUfied for some defect. A record of an individual, showing, the parents, grandparents, etc., as far back as the record has been kept, is called a pedigree. Americans have been foremost in keeping up these books, because we attach so much importance to pedigrees. No herd- books were kept in Holland until our desire for pedigrees made them necessary. Both Jersey and Holstein herd- books were first established in the United States. We have always given more attention to pedigrees than is given in Europe. In this country, no animal is eligible to record unless both parents are recorded. In CATTLE 331 England, an animal that is fifteen-sixteenths Shorthorn is eligible to record. It is very doubtful whether any harm comes of this practice; but it is rather absurd for us to import such animals, when we refuse to record our own high grades with an equal amount of Shorthorn blood. Any animal that is eligible to record in a herdbook is called a pure-blood or thoroughbred. The latter word used to be applied to a particular type of running horses, but it is now commonly used to mean any pure-bred animal. A cross between a pure-bred animal and com- mon stock is called a grade. If an animal is three-quarters or more of one breed, it is called a high-grade. An animal that is a cross between two pure-bred animals of different breeds is called a cross-bred animal. 293. Value of Pedigrees. Pure-bred animals are valu- able, because when bred with common mixed stock they are usually able to impress their characters on the off- spring,— ^they are prepotent. They have been bred to a single type so long that their characters are more firmly fixed, and they are usually able to overcome the less stable characters of common stock. Many grade animals are as good as pure-bred ones except that they are not so Hkely to transmit their good qualities. (See Mendel's law, page 19.) Not every animal with a pedigree is worth keeping. The individual should be a good one and should have good ancestors for two or three generations. Previous ances- tors are of much less consequence. Too often we have paid high prices for animals simply because they carried a pedigree. A pedigree in itself is merely a record of 332 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE parentage. The mere fact that the record is written does not prove that the individual is good. 294. Advanced Registry. One of the most hopeful developments of the system of registry is the taking of performance records. It is not the mere Ust of ancestors, but their records and the record of the individual, that are of most value. The Holstein-Priesian Association has been most active in this work. Cows are milked for a week or more under the supervision of an official repre- sentative of an agricultural experiment station, and the milk is tested for butter-fat. In order to be admitted to advanced registry, a mature cow must give 12 pounds of butter-fat — equivalent to 14 pounds of butter — per week. A graduated scale is provided for young cows. Provision is also made for yearly records; these are much more reliable. There are many objections to a record for one week only. One can now look up the advanced registry records of the parents and offspring of an animal. (See Fig. 9.) The highest record thus far is 28 pounds 3 ounces of butter-fat, or nearly 33 pounds of butter,^ in one week, made by Colantha 4ths Johanna 1849. This is the world's butter record at the present time.^ Another Holstein cow produced over 15 tons of milk in a year. The Jersey and Guernsey Associations also have sys- tems of advanced registry. The principle of performance records should be intro- duced with other pure-bred stock as rapidly as possible. ^The Holstein-Friesian Association calculates 0.8 of a pound of butter- fat as equivalent to a pound of butter. Good butter will not carry 20 per cent of water. The factor 0.857 pounds is nearer correct. That is, add one- sixth to the butter-fat to get the butter that it will make. This is the method used above. ^The Holstein-Friesian Yearbook, Vol. VIII, p. 320. CATTLE PRODUCTS 333 295. Grading Up a Herd. When one begins raising any kind of stock, he can soon develop a good herd from common stock by using a good pure-bred sire of the desired kind. One will soon have high grades that are nearly as productive as pure-bred animals. The use of pure-bred sires should be continued, in order to prevent reversion. If one has money enough, he may begin with pure- bred animals. If he has not plenty of capital, it is wiser to begin in the above manner, and then change to pure- breds if desired. CATTLE PRODUCTS The most important cattle products are milk, meat, and leather. The by-products are almost innumerable, including fertiUzers, combs, hair for plastering, brush handles, buttons, glue, etc. Chicago is now the greatest beef market in the world. A large number of the beef cattle are raised on the ranges and shipped to the corn- ^^'^^-r-^ belt to be fattened. But / ^ neck\ chucAprimeof RiJf 0"^^ """use/ /mw\ an mcreasmg number are ^ — ^^^tUecAatMrt^^^^ being fattened on the Y"^^ — plateV"--C / ''s"*"!'^ ranges. The art of feedmg VjiSHm7_iii^tfAgt!^ cattle so as to secure the \U if^ best me at- production, -^^^^^^^^^^^^M J i i 1 i • Fig. 169. Comparative prices of the dif- and, at the same time, ferent cuts of beef. Chicago retail dealer's make a profit, is a highly method of cutting. (Farmers' Bulletin 71.) developed business. The different cuts of beef and their relative values are indicated in Fig. 169. From this we can see the importance of the shape of the beef type. 334 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE The total value of milk and its products is even more than the value of the beef produced in the United States. Milk ■ 296. Composition of Milk. Milk contains much more nutriment than is commonly supposed. A quart of milk contains about the same amount of nutriment as three- quarters of a pound of beef. A quart of skimmed milk contains as much nutriment as two-fifths of a pound of beef. Milk is not only a good food, but it is a cheap food as compared with meat and eggs. One hundred pounds of good milk contains about: 87 pounds of water. 4 pounds of fat. 5 pounds of milk sugar. 3.3 pounds of casein and albumen. '0.7 pounds of mineral matter. 297. Clean Milk. Milk is an excellent breeding place for germs of all kinds. It also absorbs odors from the air. These facts make it an extremely perishable product. As the de- mand for milk in- creases, there is a con- stantly increasing de- mand that the milk shall be clean. There are a number of con- ditions that are essen- FiG. 170. A clean dairy barn. Note cement ^ial if milk is tO keep floor, tight ceiling, deep gutter, and driveway for hauling out manure. swect and clean: CATTLE PRODUCTS 335 Fig. 171. ^*«Sl Milk pails. Compa the chances for dirt i<> drop into the different pails. Typhoid fever is The cows must be healthy. The feed must be good. The barn must be clean and light, with plenty of win- dows, smooth walls and ceilings. The feeding must be done after milking, and opera- tions that stir up dust should not be performed near milking time. The cows must be clean. The milker must be a healthy person. The water-supply must be good, often carried from infected wells. The utensils must all be sterilized with scalding water. A small-top, hooded milk pail should be used. As soon as the milk is drawn, it should be cooled so as to check the growth of the bacteria that make it sour. The milk should be kept sealed and cool until it is used. It may be spoiled after it reaches the consumer just as easily as before. If exposed uncovered in cities, it is more likely to take up disease germs than in the country, because the city dust contains so many germs. 298. Commercial Forms of Milk. In order to kill a large proportion of the bacteria in milk it is often pas- teurized, or heated ten to thirty minutes at temperatures of 180° to 150° Fahr., and then quickly cooled. Such milk will keep sweet longer than if not treated, and is safer to drink. It is very much better to have the milk so clean that it will keep until used and be safe without being pasteurized. 336 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Certified Milk is produced to supply the demand for the highest grade of clean, safe milk. It is produced by special agreement under strict regulations prescribed by milk commissioners. Veterinarians, bacteriologists, and physicians are usually called upon for inspection of the milk and its production and handling. Standardized Milk is that which has been so mixed as to give a required percentage of fat. Condensed Milk is formed by evaporating a consider- able part of the water. This may be sweetened with cane sugar or be unsweetened; in either case, it is put up in sealed cans, in which it will keep for years if properly put up. Milk Powder or Milk Flour. — There are several methods of evaporating milk to a powder that is so dry that it will keep; a part of the fat is removed before evaporation. This powder can be shipped in flour barrels, or in other convenient packages. There are now several firms pro- ducing this powder. It may be dissolved in water to form a fair quality of milk. 299. Babcock Milk Test. This is one of the best methods of determining the amount of fat in milk.^ It is one of the greatest aids to the development of dairying. It enables the dairyman to determine which are his best cows. It enables the creamery to pay its patrons justly. It has greatly facihtated advanced registry systems. The method of making the test is described in the labora- tory exercises. ^The Babcock milk test was invented by Dr. S. M. Babcock, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. In order that it may be furnished at the least possible cost, he receives no royalty from its manu- facture. DISEASES OF CATTLE 337 300. Dairy Records. Every dairyman should keep records of milk-production of the different cows, in order that he may know which ones pay. Many cows do not pay their board. These are often obscured by the profits that come from the good cows. The opinion of the farmer as to the relative merits of the cows is usually not correct. A spring balance, weighing pounds and tenths of pounds, with a sheet of paper beside it, will enable one to weigh the milk quickly. It may be weighed at every milking, but, if this is too much work, the following method will give a fairly accurate compari- son: Weigh the milk for three days at the beginning of each month. The sum of the weights, multiplied by ten will give the year's production. Take samples from each cow for the Babcock test in the second, fourth and seventh months after the cow freshened. Each time take samples for two days. The average of the three tests will give the ap- proximate per cent of fat. Fig. 172. Weighing the milk to find which cows pay SOME DISEASES OF CATTLE 301. Tuberculosis is one of the most serious diseases of cattle. It not only causes great loss in cattle, but is even more serious with hogs that are fed on the milk 338 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE from tuberculous cows. Such milk is dangerous for human food. It is believed that people, especially children, are often infected in this way. Sixty-nine per cent of the cattle that were condemned by government meat-inspec- tors at slaughter-houses in the United States in 1907, were condemned because of tuberculosis. Of the 105,879 hogs that were condemned, 65,618 were for tuberculosis. Of the 436,161 parts of hog carcasses that were con- demned, 364,559 were for tuberculosis.^ All these losses are borne by the farmer. The packers have to pay enough less for the live animals, so as to make good the loss of the condemned ones. A far greater loss is caused by the low production and slow growth of diseased ani- mals on the farm. When tubercle bacteria live in different animals, they become somewhat changed. The bovine and the human forms of tubercle bacteria are slightly different, but they are now believed to be the same species of organism. Cattle inoculated with the human form have been given tuberculosis. Apes, inoculated from cattle, contract the disease as readily as when inoculated with germs from men." The opinion now generally accepted is that little of the pulmonary tuberculosis in man is due to infec- tion from milk, but that about half of the glandular cases are of the bovine type. By glandular cases is meant the cases of tuberculosis of intestines, bones or other organs, aside from lungs. It is evidently not safe to use cows' milk that contains the germs. The danger is much greater for children than for grown persons. Even though ■^Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 1907, p. 20 ^Experiment Station Record, Vol. 18, p. 478 DISEASES OF CATTLE 339 the chances may be small, human life is too valuable to be risked unnecessarily. (See page 350.) The old opinion was that tuberculosis in man cr ani- mals was inherited. We now know that it is an infectious disease that is rarely inherited. It is also sometimes attributed to dark, dirty stables, but these are not the cause. A filthy stable can no more produce tuberculosis if the germs are not present, than can a fertile field pro- duce a corn crop if no corn is planted. The disease will spread more rapidly in dark, unsanitary barns, just as corn will yield more on good land. Many of the cattle that come from the ranges of Nevada, and that never were in barns, are tuberculous. We must distinguish between the germ which is the cause, and the surroundings which favor its growth. One of the chief sources of the spread of the disease is the creamery. Milk from many herds, some of which are diseased, is mixed at the creamery, and the skimmed milk is returned to the farm for feeding calves or hogs. And these animals are infected. To prevent this loss, the milk must be pasteurized, as is now done in the cream- eries of Denmark. The other important source of infection is the purchase of diseased animals. To guard against this, one who has a sound herd should not add animals that are not tuber- culin-tested. Even tested animals are not safe if they come from badly diseased herds. One should always buy from a sound herd if possible. Animals usually do not show signs of the disease until they are in the last stages. Fortunately a method has been found by means of which diseased animals may be 340 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE discovered. This is by the tubercuUn test. The tempera- ture of the animal is taken at intervals for a day. Tuber- cuUn is then injected under the skin. If the animal has tuberculosis, the temperature will rise a few degrees during the following day. A number of cautions have to be observed in making the test and interpreting results. The work should be done by a good veterinarian, or by an exceedingly careful and well-trained farmer. Some persons have feared that tuberculin would pro- duce the disease. It is prepared by allowing tubercle bacteria to grow in a liquid usually containing beef extract. Before it is used, it is twice heated and twice filtered, any one of the four operations being sufficient to remove or kill all germs. No injury comes from its intelligent use. It is sometimes desirable to keep diseased animals for breeding purposes. The calves are removed as soon as born and all milk is pasteurized before being fed. In this way a healthy herd has often been developed from a dis- eased one. The two herds must be kept separate at all times. If a large part of a herd is diseased, the animals that do not react are not removed, as they are likely to develop the disease later. This method of developing a sound herd is named the Bang method, after its originator. 302. Milk Fever. One of the serious diseases of dairy cows is milk fever. It attacks the best animals. Formerly, it was the great obstacle in the way of developing superior cows. It has been found that the disease can be easily cured if air is pumped into the teats so as to distend the udder. After each quarter is filled, the teat is tied so as to hold the air in it. The only danger is that bacteria may be introduced into the udder. The apparatus must DISEASES OF CATTLE 341 be carefully sterilized. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 206, gives details of the method. 303. Black-Leg. This is a very serious infectious disease caused by a certain bacillus. It is not transmitted by direct contact, but comes from infected soil. Animals that die from it should be burned. The losses from this disease have been very serious and widespread. Vacci- nation will prevent most of the loss. A vaccine for this purpose is furnished by the United States Department of Agriculture. 304. Texas Fever. One of the most serious obstacles to the development of the live-stock industry in the South is the Texas fever. The direct cause of the disease is a microscopic animal parasite (protozoan) that lives in the blood. But it is not transmitted directly from one animal to another. It hves a part of its life in the body of the cattle tick. Cattle contract it from the ticks and in no other way. The parasite passes a part of its life in the cow and a part in the tick. This is similar to the method in which malaria and yellow fever are transmitted to people by means of mosquitos. Cattle that are born in the South usually become immune to the disease by infection when calves. When northern cattle are taken South, they almost invariably die with the disease. When southern cattle are driven North, they mark their passage by killing the northern animals with the disease. For many years the southern states have been quarantined for this reason. Northern cattle, taken South, are sometimes inoculated, so as to produce mild cases and cause immunity. Another method that is now being tried is to eliminate the ticks. 342 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE These spend a part of their life on the ground. By rotating pastures, they may be eliminated. To make this method effective, it must be taken up by states or counties, and these sections would have to establish a quarantine against the surrounding infected area. Details of this subject are given in Farmers' Bulletin No. 258. QUESTIONS 1. What are the leading breeds of dairy cattle in your county? What breeds are gaining in numbers? Why are they preferred? 2. What effect does better feed have on the per cent of fat in the milk? Farmers' Bulletin No. 225, p. 18. 3. Do thunderstorms make milk sour? Why does milk sour? 4. If there are creameries or milk stations in the county, on what basis do they pay their patrons ? What effect does this have on the breed of cows kept and on the quality of the milk? 5. About how much is the average yield in pounds or quarts per year of the cows of the region? (Obtain opinions of farmers.) How much do some of the best cows produce? How much profit is there on an average cow? On a poor cow? On a superior cow? 6. If beef cattle are raised, what are the leading breeds? Why are they preferred? 7. Are the beef cattle of the section raised in the region or shipped into it for fattening? Why? 8. At what age are the beef cattle usually marketed? Are they marketed at the same age as formerly? If not, why? 9. What are the chief feeds of beef and dairy cattle of the section? 10. Who in your county are raising pure-bred animals of any kind? LABORATORY EXERCISES 72. Score Card for Dairy Cows. Materials. — One or more cows. Each student to fill out the score card. The form here given is a slight modification of that used at Cornell University. LABORATORY EXERCISES 343 Score Card for Dairy Cows S Points deficient Scale of points 1 QQ 1 General Appearance: Weight. — Estimated pounds; actual pounds. . Form. — Wedge-shaped, as viewed from front, side and top. . Form. — Spare, as indicated by prominent joints and clean bone and lack of muscular development along ribs and loins .... Quality. — Hair fine, soft; skin mellow, loose, medium thickness 5 8 8 6 6 3 5 2 1 10 4 4 2 20 10 2 4 100 Constitution. — Vigorous, as indicated by alert expression, evi- dently active vital functions, and general healthy appearance Head and Neck: Muzzle. — Clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large ' Eyes. — Large, bright Face. — Lean, long; quiet expression Neck. — Fine, medium length; throat clean; light dewlap . ., Fore and Hindquarters: Withers. — Lean, thin. Shoulders. — Angular, not fleshy Hips. — Far apart; not lower than spine ) ■• Thurls. — High, wide apart J Thighs. — Thin, long Body: Chest. — Deep, low; with large girth and broad, well-sprung ribs Abdomen. — Large, well supported, with moderately high flank Back. — Lean, straight, chineopen. Tail. — Long, slim, with fine switch •• Loin. — Broad level . . • Milk-Secreting Organs: Udder. — Large, long, attached high and full behind; extending far in front and full' quarters even Udder. — Capacious, flexible, with loose, pliable skin, covered Teats . — Convenient size evenly placed Milk Veins — Large tortuous large milk wells Total , 73. Scoring Beef Cattle. If beef cattle are very important in the neighborhood, use the following score card in judging two or more animals. Or a score card may be obtained from the State College of Agriculture. The following score card is used at the University of Illinois for judging beef cattle 344 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE that are kept for breeding purposes; a different card is used for fat cattle. Score Card for Beef Cattle Standard of excellence Per. feet score Weight. — According to age Estimate pounds; actual pounds Form. — Straight top and underline; deep, broad, low set, compact, symmetrical Quality. — Hair fine; bone fine but strong; skin plia ble; mellow, even covering of firm flesh, free from rolls; features refined, but not delicate; stylish. . Constitution. — Chest capacious; brisket well devel- oped; flanks deep; bone strong Condition. — Thrifty, well fleshed, but not exces sively fat; deep covering of firm flesh Disposition. — -Quiet, gentle Color and markings . — According to breed Muzzle. — Mouth and nostrils large; lips thin Eyes. — Large, clear, placid Face. — Short, quiet, expressive Forehead. — Broad, full Ears. — Medium size, fine texture Neck. — Thick, short; throat clean, according to breed Shoulder vein. — Full Shoulder. — Covered with flesh; compact Brisket. — Well developed; breast wide Dewlap. — Skin not too loose and drooping Legs. — Straight, short, set well apart; arm full, bones smooth, strong, being neither too coarse nor too fine Ribs. — Long, arched, thickly fleshed Back. — Broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed. Loin. — Thick, broad Flank. — Full, even with underline Hips. — Smoothly covered; width in proportion with other parts Rump. — Long, level, wide and even in width; tail head smooth, not patchy Pin bones. — Not prominent, width with other parts Thighs. — Full, fleshed well down to hock Twist. — Deep, plump, indicating fleshiness Legs. — Straight, short, set well apart; bones smooth, being neither coarse nor too fine m proportion Total . 10 10 10 100 Student's score No. 1 No. 2 Corrected score No. 1 No Animal Date Student. LABORATORY EXERCISES 345 74. The Babcock Test for Butter-Fat in Milk.^ By R. A. Pearson, formerly Professor of Dairy Industry, Cornell University Materials. — A hand-power centrifugal tester, at least two milk test-bottles (Fig. 173), one pipette to measure the milk (Fig. 174), one acid measure (Fig. 175), about one pint of sulfuric acid with specific gravity between 1.82 and 1.83, a few ounces of milk, and some hot water. All the necessary apparatus and acid can be purchased for about $5 from any dairy supply company. They can be ordered through a hardware dealer. Sulfuric acid is sold also at drug stores. Sampling the Milk. — The milk to be tested should be thoroughly mixed just before the sample is taken, to make sure that the fat or cream is evenly distributed. This can be best done by gently pouring back and forth between^ two vessels several times. The milk should be neither very cold nor hot. Place the small end of the pipette at the center of the milk and suck the milk up above the 17.6 cc. mark. Quickly put the index finger over the upper end of the pipette, and by releasing the pressure allow the milk to run out until its upper surface is even with 17.6 cc. mark when the pipette is held straight up and down. Place the point of the pipette a short distance into the test-bottle neck, holding it against the glass, and with both pipette and bottle at an angle (Fig. 176). Remove the finger to allow the milk to flow into the bottle. Be sure to get every drop of the milk, taking care to drain the pipette and to blow the last drop into the bottle. A little practice should make any one proficient with the pipette. It is best always to make this test in duplicate; hence, two bottles are needed for each lot of milk. Using the Acid. — The acid is very strong and must be handled with great care. If any gets on the hands, face or clothing, it should be washed off quickly, and water should always be ready for this purpose. Do not leave the acid where young children can get it. * Cornell Rural School Leaflet Fig. 174 Pipette or milk measure 346 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 176. Putting the milk into the test bottle. The pi- pette is held at an angle with the test bottle and its point against the inside of the neck. After all the samples of milk to be tested have been measured, the acid should be added. Fill the acid measure to the 17.5 cc. mark with acid that is neither very cold nor hot. Pour this into the bottle with the milk, holding the bottle in a slanting position. The acid will then carry- down any milk left in the neck and follow the glass surface to the bottom of the bot- tle and form a layer under the milk. Hold the bottle by the neck and give it a circular motion for a few minutes, mix- ing the milk and acid until no milk or clear acid is visible (Fig. 177). By this time, the contents will be dark-colored and hot. This change is due to the acid dissolving all the solid constituents of the milk except the fat, which it does not affect. Whirling the Bottles. — The bottles are whirled to separate the fat so that it can be measured. They should be hot when whirled. If necessary, they may be heated by standing in hot water before being put into the machine. A steam machine is easily kept hot when in use. Other kinds should have boiling hot water placed in them. Place the bottles in the machine so that each one will have another directly opposite, to keep the machine in balance. Whirl the bottles five minutes at the proper speed for the machine in use (Fig. 178). Then stop it, and, with the pipette or other convenient means, add hot water to each bottle until the contents come up to the bottom of the neck. Whirl two mintues. Add hot water enough to bring the top of the fat nearly to the top of the graduations on the neck of the bottles. Whirl one minute. The fat should then form a clear column in the neck of the bottle. Reading the Percentage. — Keep the fat warm so that it will be in a fluid condition. Hold the bottle by the upper end of the neck, letting M k § 1 :,^ R\''" \niL~^-- . Fig. 177. Mixing milk and acid. A rotary motion with the bottle not pointed toward the face. Fig. 178 Whirling the samples LABORATORY EXERCISES 347 it hang in a perpendicular position, on the level with the eye. Read the mark or graduations at the extreme top and bottom of the fat column. The difference between these is the percentage of fat in the milk. Most test-bottles are made to read as high as 10 per cent. Each percentage has its number marked on the glass and there are five small spaces, each representing .2 per cent between these principal marks. Thus, if the top of the fat column is even with the third short mark above the 7 mark, the top reading would be 7.6; and if the bot- tom is half way between the first and second short marks above the 3 mark, the bottom reading would be' 3.3; the difference is 4.3, which is the percentage of fat or number of pounds of fat in 100 pounds of the milk tested. Notes. — One cc. means one cubic centimeter, or about twenty drops. If the fat column is clouded with white specks, probably the acid was not strong enough, or not enough was used, or the heat was not high enough. If the fat column is clouded with dark specks, probably the acid was too strong, or too much was used, or the heat was too great. Always keep the acid bottle closed when not in use or the acid will lose strength. Remember that it is a poison and corrosive. Points to he Especially Noted in Making the Babcock Test} — (1) Be sure to mix the sample of milk thoroughly before drawing it out with the pipette. (2) When measuring a sample of milk with the pipette, keep the index finger dry. (3) When measuring a sample of milk, keep the mark on the pipette on a level with the eye. The same precaution should be observed when reading the per cent of fat after the test is completed. (4) Do not try to measure a sample of milk by trying to draw the milk just to the mark on the pipette. Draw the milk above the mark, as directed. (5) When adding milk or acid to the test-bottle, slant the bottle. The liquid will then run down the lower inside of the neck of the bottle, and will not be forced out by outcoming air. (6) Do not hold the bottle so that its mouth points toward your- self or any one else. The action of the acid upon the milk produces great heat. This heat often causes the contents of the bottle to spurt out violently. J-H. E. Ross in Cornell Rural School Leaflet 348 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE (7) After adding the acid to the milk, shake the bottle thoroughly until the contents become quite dark in color. (8) After using the pipette, wash it thoroughly, preferably in hot water. This will tend to prevent the transmission of disease germs from the mouth of one person to another, should any such germs be present. (9) The tester should be firmly fastened to a solid bench or table. (10) The person operating the machine should give his or her whole attention to it, and not allow his fingers or clothing to get in the path of the bottle cups. (11) Remove all objects from the vicinity of the tester. This will prevent their being hit by the bottle cups when the machine is in motion. (12) If acid is spilled upon anything, pour on plenty of water, and then add some, alkali, such as lime or baking soda, to neutralize the acid. (13) Do not leave the acid bottle uncorked. (14) Keep all glassware perfectly clean. (15) After washing the glassware, rinse it thoroughly in clean water to remove soap powder. The soap powder and the acid form a violent chemical reaction. 75. To Determine the Amount of Solids in Milk. Weigh a sample of milk. Evaporate to dryness and weigh again. Determine the per cent of dry matter. Fill out the following table: Weight of dish Weight of dish and milk Weight of dish and evaporated milk Weight of dry matter Per cent of dry matter in milk Per cent of solids not fat (per cent of dry matter minus per cent of fat) 76. Comparison of Methods of Cream Separation. Materials. — Milk-testing outfit as for No. 74, but with special bottles for skimmed milk; skimmed milk from a cream separator; skimmed milk that stood in shallow pans, and some that stood in long cans. Determine the per cent of fat left in the skimmed milk in each case. If a cow produces 6,000 pounds of milk in a year, and if butter-fat is COLLATERAL READING 349 worth 25 cents per pound, how many dollars worth of fat would be lost per year in each case? 77. Methods of Churning. Materials. — Milk-testing outfit as for No. 76. Buttermilk from different homes or factories, with a record of how the churning was done. Determine the per cent of fat lost in the buttermilk in each case. 78. To Determine the Effect of Prompt Cooling on the Souring of Milk. Divide a sample of new milk into two parts. Cool one by setting in ice water or very cold water, or with an aerator and cooler. After it is cooled, place both samples under the same conditions. WhicL sours first? COLLATERAL READING Farmers' Bulletins Nos.: 71. Essentials in Beef-Production. 233. Beef vs. Dairy Types for Beef, p. 22. 25] . Indoor vs. Outdoor Feeding of Steers, pp. 22-25. 106. Breeds of Dairy Cattle. 55. The Dairy Herd: Its Formation and Management. 124. Beef and Dairy Types as Related to Beef-Production, pp. 28-30. 149. Effect of Exposure on Milk-Production, pp. 28-31. Profitable and Unprofitable Cows. Bulletin No. 114, pp. 21-26; No. 190, p. 14; No. 162, p. 24. 151. Dairying in the South, 349. The Dairy Industry in the South. 183. Meat on the Farm; Butchering, Curing and Keeping. 184. Marketing Live Stock. 201. The Cream Separator on Western Farms. 29. Souring of Milk and Other Changes in Milk Products. 42. Facts About Milk. 63. Care of Milk on the Farm. 74. Milk as Food. Clean Milk. Bulletin No. 227, pp. 24-28; No. 273, pp. 23-30; No. 210, pp. 26,*27; No. 73, pp. 3, 4; No. 296, p. 5; No. 169, pp. 5, 6. 166. Cheese-making on the Farm, 350 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 241. Butter-making on the Farm. 350. The Dehorning of Cattle. 258. Texas, or Tick Fever, and Its Prevention. 206. Milk Fever. 351. The Tuberculin Test of Cattle for Tuberculosis. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, by C. S. Plumb. Pp. 175-332. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 4-44, 122-162, 176-272, 301-382. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE TO PAGE 339 It has been shown that only a few of the cows that have tuberculosis have their udders infected. From this the erroneous conclusion has often been drawn that milk from such cows is not likely to be infected. Tuberculous cows expel tubercle bacilli mainly with the excreta from their bowels, but also with material slobbered or discharged from their mouths and noses, and in some cases bacteria are contained in the milk. The most serious source of danger to milk is from the manure that gets into it. A hair that falls into the milk may look clean, but it may carry small particles of manure, and if the cow has tuberculosis this manure is quite likely to contain the germs of the disease. As well as being a strong argument for healthy cows, this is an additional reason for keeping milk clean — it is not merely a matter of sentiment. Work done at the Experiment Station of the Bureau of Animal Industry has shown that cows, seemingly in good health but which had reacted to the tuberculin test, were expelling myriads of tubercle bacilli from their bowels. Analysis of milk supplied to a certain city dis- closed that fully one sample in twenty was infected with tubercle bacilli. Experimental work carried on with butter showed that the germs will remain alive and virulent in the ordinary salted butter for nearly six months. Hogs that eat manure from tuberculous cattle are almost certain to become infected.^ 1 United States Department of Agricultiire, Yearbook, 1908, pp. 217-226. CHAPTER XIII SHEEP 305. Types of Sheep. There are two more or less antago- nistic uses for sheep, just as there are for cattle or horses. We raise sheep for wool or for mutton. The type of sheep that produces the most valuable wool (Fig. 180) has a conformation much Uke that of a dairy cow. The type that produces the best mutton (Fig. 182) has much the same form as the beef animal. It is very diffi- cult to improve either the wool or the mutton qualities without lowering the other. Our common breeds are classified as follows: The h!ad of The herd {American Merino Rambouillet or French Merino Delaine Merino ^Southdown Shropshire n. Middle wooled J Hampshire Down Oxford Down ^Dorset Horn r Cheviot J Cotswold I Leicester ^Lincoln 306. Breeds of Sheep. Merinos are probably the most widely distributed breed of sheep. They are the best (351) III. Long wooled. 352 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE A pair of American merinos wool-producers. They yield heavy fleeces of very fine, short wool, that is used for the finest and most expensive woolen goods. The breed is small in size and lacks the vullness that is requisite for the best mutton production. They are hardy and are good grazers, and will thrive in larger flocks than will some of the other breeds. The Merinos originated in Spain, but most of their improve- ment has been accomplished in other countries. Many different types have been developed in different countries. The leading types are the American Merino, Delaine Merino, and Rambouillet. Fig. 181. A pair of Delaine merinos SHEEP 353 Thd American Merinos produce the finest and heaviest fleece of any breed of sheep. They are small in size, and do not produce a high quaUty of mutton. Their bodies are covered with large folds of skin. These wrinkles are an inconvenience in shearing. They are not very prolific. The average number of lambs raised for each hundred ewes is very low. The heavy wool growth seems to make too heavy demands for the best reproduction. Fig. 182. Shropshire ewe Fig. 183. Shropshire ram Several types of Delaine Merinos have been developed in efforts to correct the faults of the American Merino. The Delaines are larger and produce a better quality of mutton. They do not have so many wrinkles and vare more prolific, but their wool is not so good. Rambouillets were developed in France. They are the largest Merinos and the best ones for mutton, although they do not rank with the mutton breeds. They are very hardy and are popular on western ranges. Shropshires are one of the most popular of the mutton breeds. They have nearly black faces and legs, and are hornless. They are especially noted for their prolificacy. 354 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 184. Dorset-horn ram Nearly 12,000 ewes in England in a year raised an average of 168 lambs for each hundred ewes. They are especially adapted to good lands and good pastures, and are very popular in the East and Middle West. On the ^^^^^^^^^-r—"-^'"— range they are not so hardy as the Merino breeds. Next to the Me- rinos, they are the most numerous breed in America. Southdowns are an- other popular mutton breed. They have gray- ish brown or reddish brown legs and faces and are smaller than the Shropshires. Their wool is finer and more valuable, but they are less proUfic. Other breeds of the same general class that are raised in America are the Oxford Down and the Hampshire Down. The Horned Dorset has attracted considerable at- tention in sections where winter lambs are produced, as it is claimed that a large proportion of its lambs will be early enough The wool is not of the best Fig. 185. Cotswold ewe for the winter market, quality. Cotswold is the only coarse-wooled breed that has SHEEP 355 attained much prominence in America. About twenty- five years ago, it was prominent, but the Shropshires are now most numerous in the sections to which it is adapted. 307. Sheep Industry in America. Sheep-growing first developed in eastern United States. Large numbers of Merino sheep were kept for wool-production. As the number of sheep on the ranges of North and South America and Australia increased, and as the cotton-production increased, the price of wool became so low that there was little profit in the sheep industry, even on the ranges. Most farmers in the eastern states went out of the sheep business. Later, the demand for mutton increased, and we now have an increasing number of sheep in the East and Middle West. Two of the obstacles that have stood in the way of the sheep industry are fencing and dogs. Many farmers, who might otherwise keep sheep, do not do so because their farms are fenced for cattle. Others fear the dog nuisance, not only for the actual loss of sheep, but because of the annoyance that such troubles cause. The present prices of fencing materials make it possible to fence the sheep in and the dogs out, so that there is little danger. There are many farms in the eastern states that are naturally adapted to sheep-production. These farms promise to be the center of a large sheep industry in the future. There are many hill farms in these sections that are now being little used, and that can be made profitable sheep farms as soon as the western ranges are unable to supply the demand for sheep. One of the obstacles in the way is the small size of the farms. It will usually require 356 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE several of the present farms to make one that is large enough for sheep-production. COLLATERAL READING Farmers' Bulletins Nos.: 96. Raising Sheep for Mutton. 119. Establishing a Flock of Mutton Sheep, pp. 23, 24. 159. Scab in Sheep. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 592-633. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, by C. S. Plumb. Pp. 333-454. CHAPTER XIV SWINE Hogs rank second in total number and third in total value of farm animals in the United States, being exceeded in number by cattle, and in value by horses and cattle. The totals in 1908 were as follows:^ Horses and mules. Cattle Swine Sheep Number 23,816,000 71,267,000 56,084,000 54,631,000 Value $2,284,469,000 1,495,995,000 339,030,000 211,736,000 308. Distribution of Hogs. Hogs are almost universally distributed as scavengers to eat the waste material from the farm and the kitchen. The commercial production is centered in dairy sections and in the corn-belt. In dairy sections that produce cheese or butter, the hogs are a by-product, being fed on the whey and skimmed milk. In the corn-belt, they are a by-product of fattening steers. Here they eat the corn that is wasted by the steers and that which the steers do not digest. Large numbers are also grown in the corn-belt independently of other stock. It is cheaper to ship hogs than to ship the corn that is required to grow the hogs. About five to six pounds of corn are required to grow a pound of hog. The weight to be shipped is, therefore, much less if the corn is fed. If alfalfa ^United States Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 1908 (357) 358 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE or other coarse forage is fed, the difference in the cost of shipment of the feed and of the animal is still greater. The same principle appUes in the production of beef, but does not apply to milk, because the latter product is perishable. The farther corn has to be shipped, the more important this matter becomes. We expect to see a city's milk-supply produced near the city, but expect to see the meat-supply produced where feed is cheapest. The follow- ing table shows that this is what occurs: Illinois . . Iowa . . . Nebraska Bushels of corn, 1908 298,620,000 287,456,000 205,767,000 Value per bushel on the farm $0 57 52 51 Number of cattle other than milch cows 2,056,000 3,842,000 3,200,000 Number of swine 4,438,000 7,908,000 3,904,000 Nebraska produces about two-thirds as much corn as Illinois, but produces nearly as many hogs and a half more beef cattle. Iowa has less corn than IlUnois, but has about twice as many hogs and beef cattle. This shows that meat-production is most important where corn is cheapest. 309. Breeds of Hogs. The most important breeds in the United States are Poland-China, Berkshire, Duroc- Jersey and Chester- White. Breeds of less importance are the Cheshire, Large Yorkshire, Tamworth, Victoria, Small Yorkshire, Hampshire, Essex and Suffolk. Nearly all of our important breeds of cattle and horses come from Europe, but all of the more important breeds of swine, except Berkshire, originated in this country. The Poland-China were developed in Ohio; Duroc- Jersey in New York and New Jersey; Chester- White in Pennsyl- SWINE 359 Fig. 186. The lard type. A Poland-China vania; Cheshire in New York; Victoria in Indiana; Hamp- shire probably in Kentucky. All of the other breeds mentioned were developed in England. One of the chief reasons for the development of our own breeds of swine is that the English breeds are not the Fig. 187. The bacon type. A large Yorkshire best for feeding on corn. Corn is relatively rich in oil and starch, and deficient in protein. This leads to the produc- tion of fat hogs — ^the lard type. In England, a leaner type is more profitable — the bacon type. Their mixed foodS;, 360 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE containing a greater proportion of protein, make the pro- duction of the bacon type profitable. This type is also much grown in Canada, where the Large Yorkshire is one of the most important breeds. Relatively few of the bacon type of hogs are grown in the United States. The following points will aid in distinguishing the breeds: The Poland-China are black with white markings, and have drooping ears. The Berkshire are about the same color, but have erect ears. The Essex are black, with erect ears, but have no white markings. The Hampshire are black with a belt of white around the body. The Large Yorkshire, Small Yorkshire, Cheshire and Suffolk are all white, with erect ears. The Chester- White are white, with drooping ears. The Duroc-Jersey are cherry-red, chestnut or yellowish red, with drooping ears. The white breeds are more prominent in the northeastern states and Canada. They are said to be less desirable in the intense sunshine of the corn-belt. Poland-China are the most numerous breed in the corn-belt. The chief com- plaint against them is that they are so fine-boned as to lack in vigor, and that they do not raise large enough litters of pigs. The Duroc-Jersey have been increasing in numbers, and are said to be more prolific and more vigorous than the Poland-China. Both of these breeds and the Berkshire are popular. 310. Care of Hogs. Not many years ago, the common practice was to keep hogs in small pens that of necessity became muddy. This practice is still common in many sections of the country. But, where hogs are grown in large numbers, the importance of pastures is now recognized. For cheap production of pork, as well as for the health QUESTIONS AND COLLATERAL READING 361 of the hogs, there should be plenty of pasture. When corn is the only grain feed, the pasture is also of value in fur- nishing the mineral matter that the corn lacks. The more succulent plants are better than the drier grasses. Alfalfa is the most popular pasture for hogs. Alfalfa hay is also fed in winter. 311. Hog Diseases. Hog cholera is the most serious obstacle in the way of hog-production. It is particularly serious in the corn-belt. Entire herds of hogs are often lost with it in a few weeks. Recent experiments have shown that the disease may be prevented by vaccination.^ Tuberculosis is also a serious disease. It is often con- tracted from infected milk. (For a discussion of the extent of this disease and its prevention, see page 337.) ^United States Department of Agriculture Yearbook. 1908, pp. 34, 321-332. QUESTIONS 1. What are the most numerous breeds of hogs in your county? Which breeds are increasing in numbers? 2. What are the common feeds for hogs in your community? About how much of each is fed per day for each 1,000 pounds of live weight? Find the nutritive ratio of this ration and compare with that given in Appendix, Table 7. For the production of the lard type of hog, the ration does not need to contain so much protein as the standard. 3. What is the price of corn and of hogs? Find the comparative price per pound of each. Will it pay better to feed the corn or to sell it? COLLATERAL READING Farmers' Bulletins Nos. : 100. Hog-Raising in the South. 272. A Successful Hog and Seed Corn Farm. 133. Profitable Crops for Pigs, pp. 27-29. 296. Grinding Corn for Hogs, p. 25. 362 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 329. Hogging Off Com, pp. 21, 22. 315. Supplements to Com in Hog Feeding, pp. 25-29. Forage Crops for Hogs. — Bulletins : No. 56, pp. 6, 7; No. 84, pp. 18, 19; No. 97, pp. 15, 16; No. 124, pp. 25-27; No. 305, pp. 24, 25; No. 331, pp. 1-24; No. 334, pp. 20-22. Tankage and Bone Meal for Hogs. — Bulletins: No. 169, pp. 29, 30; No. 296, pp. 21-24; No. 315, pp. 28-30. Feeding.— Bulletins: No. 22; No. 92, pp. 20, 21; No. 97, pp. 13-15; No. 133, pp. 26, 27; No. 144, pp. 24, 25; No. 210, pp. 30, 31; No. 251, pp. 30-32; No. 305, pp. 25-28. Hog Cots.— Bulletins: No. 273, pp. 11-14; No. 296, pp. 27-29; No. 334, pp. 31, 32. 87. Fecundity of Swine, pp. 23, 24. 222. Market Classes and Grades of Swine, pp. 24-32. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, by C. S. Plumb. Pp. 467-554. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 644-681, and Index Figs. 188, 189. Barred Plymouth Rocks,— a general-purpose breed. .PiqbI 190, 191. Single-comb White Leghorns,— an egg breed. CHAPTER XV POULTRY 312. Importance of Poultry. Poultry-raising is often looked upon as a small business. But we are likely to underestimate the value of farm products because they are scattered over so wide a territory and the proceeds are distributed among so many people. A much smaller industry that is concentrated gives the impression of being larger. The total value of all poultry raised in the United States in 1899 was $137,000,000 and the value of the eggs produced was $144,000,000. The total value of these products was nearly equal to the combined value of all the iron, coal, gold and silver that were mined in that year.^ Yet the value of the poultry products is only sixth among the agricultural products, being exceeded by corn, beef cattle, dairy products, cotton, wheat and swine. 313. Breeds of Poultry. Turkeys, geese, ducks, pigeons and squabs are of considerable value, but are of small importance when compared with chickens. The varieties of chickens are almost innumerable. There are four gen- eral classes: (1) The meat breeds, or Asiatic class — Brahma, Cochin and Langshan. ^Twelfth Census of the United States: Coal, $160,000,000; gold, $33,- 000,000; silver, $66,000,000; iron ore, $33,000,000. A large amount of jKJultry products consumed on farms is omitted from the census reports, as is the value of such products produced in villages. (363) 364 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE (2) The general-purpose breeds, or American class — Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, etc. (3) The egg breeds, or Mediterranean class — Leghorn, Minorca, Black Spanish. (4) The ornamental breeds — Polish, Game, Bantam, etc. The meat breeds correspond to the beef breeds of cattle. The egg breeds are smaller and more active, and corre- spond to the milk breeds of cattle. The meat breeds origi- nated in Asia. They are very superior for meat-production, but are such poor layers that they have never become very popular in America. There are a number of varieties of Plymouth Rocks, — Barred, Buff, White, etc. Of the Wyandottes, the chief varieties are White, Silver and Buff. All of these origi- nated in America and all lay brown eggs. The Barred Plymouth Rock is the most widely dis- tributed and most popular variety in the United States. It is large enough for fair meat-production and is very good for egg-production, nearly equal to the Leghorn. It is a quiet breed and so causes little trouble on the farm. The hens will incubate their own eggs, which is an essen- tial consideration where incubators are not used. The White variety is the most numerous of the Wyan- dottes. It is much hke the Plymouth Rock in form and utility. The White Leghorns are the most popular of the egg breeds. They are medium-sized, active birds. They lay white eggs, and large numbers of them. They are a non- setting breed, and are more difficult to control, so that they are not so popular as the Plymouth Rocks or Wyan- dottes on farms where only a few hens are kept. They POULTRY 365 are most numerous in the territory surrounding New York City, where white eggs sell for more than brown ones. In Boston, the brown eggs are more in demand. 314. Feeding of Poultry. There are a number of points in which the poultry ration should differ from that of other farm animals. Chickens require over twice as much feed as is required for the same weight of cattle, and this food must be largely grain. This makes the requirement of net nutrients much more than twice that of cattle. The nutritive ratio should also be very narrow, as the high protein product requires a feed high in protein. Laying hens require one pound of protein for about 4.8 pounds of carbohydrates. (See Appendix, Table 7.) About one-third of the grain ration should be ground and fed dry in a hopper, the whole grain being scattered in straw, so that the birds will have to exercise in getting it. The ground feed should be at hand during the after- noon, so that the fowls can eat as much of it as they care to after they have eaten the whole grain which is scattered in the Utter. If fed in this way, they will not overeat on dry ground feed. The exact mixtures will vary with the section of the country. It is essential for good results that chickens have some animal food. This may consist of the insects that they catch, of meat scrap, or skimmed milk. About 10 to 15 per cent of the ration should be animal food. Egg-production requires large amounts of lime, so that this must be supplied in some form. Cracked oyster- shells are commonly used. Since the hen has no teeth, grit must be available for grinding the food. Usually the oyster-shells do not furnish as much grit as is desirable. 366 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE An abundant supply of fresh water is essential for hens, as it is for all other farm animals. A combination that has proved satisfactory at the Maine Experiment Station for laying hens, is: Four quarts of corn, two quarts of wheat, two quarts of oats for the whole grain per day for 100 Plymouth Rock hens. The dry mash was made of a mixture of 200 pounds of wheat bran and 100 pounds each of corn meal, wheat middUngs, gluten meal, linseed meal, and meat scrap. This is fed in the hopper as mentioned above. The following mixtures are used at the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University: Young chickens from three weeks old to maturity. — Grain mixture: 200 pounds of finely cracked corn, 300 pounds of cracked wheat. Ground feed: 400 pounds corn meal, 400 pounds wheat bran, 400 pounds wheat middlings, 400 pounds meat scrap, 100 pounds oil meal, 25 pounds bone flour. Pullets and laying hens. — Grain ration: 200 pounds cracked corn, 200 pounds wheat, 100 pounds oats (for pullets use 300 pounds of wheat). Ground feed: 600 pounds corn meal, 600 pounds wheat middUngs, 300 pounds wheat bran, 500 pounds meat scrap, 100 pounds oil meal, 100 pounds alfalfa meal. Fattening ration: All ground feed, 100 pounds corn meal, 100 pounds wheat middUngs, 100 pounds oat flour, 30 pounds meat scrap. 315. Poultry Houses. The details of construction are given in some of the references at the end of this chapter. There are a few general principles that apply in all regions. Sunlight should reach every part of the house, if pos- POULTRY 367 sible. If the south side is nearly all made up of windows and open front, this purpose will be accomplished. The win- dows should be high, so that the light can reach the back part of the house. The house shown in Fig. 192 has an Fig. 192. Cross-section of a hen-house open front that admits sunlight and air. It can be closed by lowering the curtain. In summer, the same curtain serves as an awning. The window admits light at the few times when the curtain is closed. The floor should always be dry. This is best accom- plished, as shown in Fig. 192, by using an elevated floor underlaid by gravel or cinders. Cement floors do not need to be over two inches thick for hen-houses, as there is little weight to support. Such a floor is usually not expensive. u 1 J t- ^Q' 193. Front view of hen-house. Crosa- Each hen should have section shown in Fig. 192 368 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE about five square feet of floor space. The height does not need to be great. The only reasons for having a house more than a few feet high are so that the sunlight can enter, and so that persons can walk through the houses. Hens need plenty of fresh air. If the house is tight, so that the wind will not blow through it, and with the platform under the roosts, as shown in Fig. 192, the cloth curtain will not often need to be closed. For very cold weather there is a second cloth curtain that comes down in front of the roosts. All interior parts, as roosts, nests, etc., should be port- able, so that they may be quickly removed for disinfecting the house. QUESTIONS 1. Make a sketch of a hen house adapted to your region. 2. What diseases of poultry are most common in the section? What is done to control them? 3. From feeds used in the region, prepare a ration for 100 laying hens, each averaging 3.5 pounds in weight. (See Appendix, Tables 7 and 8.) 4. How are eggs sometimes tested by egg-dealers? LABORATORY EXERCISES 79. The Parts of an Egg.l Materials. — One lens, and facilities for boiling eggs. Each pupil should be supplied with two eggs, if possible; have one with a light shell, the other with a dark shell, two saucers; one drawing pencil; one box of colored lead-pencils, and a knife. An egg-tester can be made by placing a lamp in a box with a hole, slightly smaller than the egg, cut through the side. Or, the egg may be held up to a similar hole in the curtain of a darkened room. In either case, look through the egg toward the light. ^Adapted from J. E. Rice, in the Cornell Rural School Leaflet, Vol. 1 No. 2. LABORATORY EXERCISES 369 (1) Strength of the egg shell. — Let each student hold a hard- shelled egg between the clasped hands, the ends of the egg in the hollow of the hand, and try to break it. Observe the great strength of the egg, due to the arrangement of the particles of the shell in an arch similar to the stones or bricks in the arch of a bridge. (2) The contents of an uncooked egg.— (a) Break a fresh, uncooked egg in a saucer by separating the shell in the middle. Observe the ''germinal disc," which appears as a light-colored spot usually to be found on the upper surface of the yolk. The germinal disc contains the life principle of the egg. Being on the upper surface, it remains in close contact with the source of heat during natural incubation. (b) Note the ''chalaza," or the whitish cords of denser albumen on the sides of the yolk toward either end of the egg. These cords of denser albumen serve to keep the yolk properly suspended within the albumen. Thus the chick which develops on the upper surface of the yolk is protected from injury, if, through rough handling, it should come in contact with the shell. (c) Note the transparent, watery appearance of the albumen (white of the egg). The albumen supplies the food by which the chick grows within the shell, in liquid form. (d) Examine the shell and note the air-space usually found near the large end. Observe the two tough membranes, best seen at the air-space where the membranes separate. The air-space furnishes a readily available supply of fresh air to the embryo chick. The two membranes prevent the too rapid evaporation of moisture through the pores of the shell, but allow oxygen to enter the egg and carbon dioxid to pass out. (e) By placing a section of the shell under the lens, indentations or pores in the shell may be observed. These thinner parts permit the gases to pass through the shell more readily. If the pores of the shell are closed by oil, varnish, dirt or broken egg, the chick will be smothered. (/) Note the pigment of the shell, which gives to each egg its char- acteristic color. Observe how the first eggs laid for a brood are more pronounced in color, and how the color pigment decreases with each egg that is laid, due to exhaustion of the supply. 370 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE (3) The stnicture nf a boiled egg. — Crack the large end of a hard-boiled egg carefully. Remove the shell, piece by piece, to avoid tearing the shell membrane. (a) Observe the air-space and the two membranes, which are separated with difficulty. Note that the outer membrane is the thicker and tougher. (6) Cut the egg lengthwise through the middle. Observe the lighter-colored, flask-shaped center of the yolk, and the darker yolk arranged around it in concentric layers. Note the "germinal vesicle," or "germinal disc," at the upper part of the hght yolk. Observe that the yolk is at one side and not in the center of the white of the egg. Note also that the germinal disc is on the upper side of the yolk. This is because the yolk is lighter in weight than the albumen, and hence floats. The germinal disc on the surface of the white yolk is lighter than the dark yolk. Snyder gives the chemical composition of the dry substance of the inside of the egg as: p^^^^.^ p^^ Albumen (white of the egg) 88.92 .53 Yolk 20.62 64.43 It will be seen that there is a large amount of fat in the yolk and almost no fat in the albumen. Fat is lighter than albumen, hence rises to the surface. This may be observed in practice by holding a fresh COH^-^"' Fig. 194. Section of an egg egg in front of an egg-tester and noting the tendency of the yolk to float upward. This tendency of the yolk to float to the surface makes it necessary to turn eggs frequently when they are kept for hatching, otherwise the COLLATERAL READING 371 yolk will rise until the germinal disc comes in contact with the shell membrane. It will then become dry by evaporation and adhere to the membrane. If the egg is then turned the germ will be killed. (4) Make a drawing of the longitudinal section of the egg, showing: (a) The shell and its pores. (6) The two shell membranes turned back from the shell, (c) The air-space, (d) The three layers of albu- men, (e) The vitelline membrane surrounding the yolk. (/) The vitellus contained within the vitelline membrane, (g) The white yolk and the dark yolk, showing its concentric layers, (h) The germinal disc, (i) The chalaza ("hammock cords"). COLLATERAL READING Farmers' Bulletins Nos.: 287. Poultry Management. 51. Standard Varieties of Chickens. 64. Geese and Ducks. 182. Poultry as Food. 200. Turkeys. 225. Turkeys, pp. 21-25. 236. Incubation and Incubators. 281. Incubation, pp. 24-28. 309. Incubation, pp. 24-26. 128. Eggs and Their Use as Food. Poultry-House Construction. — Bulletins: No 225, pp. 27-31; No. 227, pp. 28-32. Poultry Appliances. — Bulletins: No. 244, pp. 25-29; No. 316, pp. 30-32; No. 317, pp. 28-32. Feeding.— Bulletins: No. 84, pp. 19, 20; No. 97, pp. 16, 17; No. 122,pp. 25, 26; No. 225, pp. 26, 27; No. 305, p. 28. 122. Weight of Eggs of Different Breeds, pp. 24, 25. 114. Floor Space Necessary per Hen, pp. 18, 19. Preserving Eggs— No. 103, pp. 17, 18; No. 273, pp. 17-19; No. 296, pp. 29-31. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 525-587, and Index. CHAPTER XVI FARM MANAGEMENT 316. What is Farm Management. It is not sufficient that a farmer raise large crops or fine animals, or that his farm appear attractive. He must so organize his busi- ness into a single unit that it will pay as a whole. He must see that his personal and household expenses do not exceed his net income. He must have a sufficient knowledge of business deaUngs so that he can conduct his transactions in a business-like way. The study of this class of questions is called farm management. Some of the details that each prospective farmer must consider are: With my capital and personal quahfications, where shall I locate? What type of farming shall I take up? Shall I buy or rent? To what extent may I safely borrow? What farm shall I choose? How shall I arrange the fields, buildings and fences? What system of farming shall I follow? What stock and equipment shall I buy, and how much will they cost? How shall I secure labor and how manage it? What records and accounts shall I keep? What shall I sell and where and how shall I sell it? What income may I expect? How will this compare with other occupations? (372) FARM MANAGEMENT 373 These and many more similar questions must be answered by the successful farmer. He may not formulate the questions, but he considers them, nevertheless. It is manifestly impossible to consider all these ques- tions in a book of this size. Only the choice of a farm, the farm labor question and farm accounts will be consid- ered, and these but briefly. THE CHOICE OF A FARM The most important business transaction that a farmer makes is the purchase of a farm. The score card on page 385 gives some of the points that need to be considered before purchasing. There are so many points that one is Ukely to forget some unless he has a list of them. While discussing these points, some other questions may be considered, as the arrangement of fields. 317. Size of Farms. If one has sufficient capital, he should not buy too small a farm. The exact size will vary with the type of farming. Investigations in New York have shown that for general farms and dairy farms those farmers who have about 200 acres make much more than those with smaller areas. The most profitable apple farms also average larger than the smaller ones, 109 acres being the average size of a number of profitable ones, and 89 acres the average size of less profitable ones. There are a number of reasons why the man with a fair-sized farm has an advantage. There are many farm operations that require two or more men for economical work. The small farm needs as much machinery as a large one. Either it must be under-equipped or else the 374 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE machinery will not be used to good advantage. Idle ma- chinery means lost money. A small farm also necessitates too small fields, and these require much more time for tilling and more fencing, for the area. The larger farm gives a chance to make a profit from the labor of more men, if their labor is well directed. These remarks do not apply when we are considering the very large farm. In this case, there must be a manager who does not do field work, and his salary must be paid. With such establishments, the interest of the men is usu- ally not kept up, and this alone is usually sufficient to cause a loss. The most efficient and most profitable farm is usually one where the owner works with the men, and has as many men working as he is able to manage without having to stop work himself. By. working with the men, the amount accomplished is often doubled. 318. Shape and Location of Fields. The shape of fields has an important bearing on the time required to till them. Odd-shaped fields are very undesirable. Narrow fields or small fields require more labor and more fencing.. A ten-acre field, 40 x 40 rods, requires 40 rods less fence than a field that is 20 x 80 rods. If this fence is kept up per- manently, it will probably cost at least five to ten cents per rod per year for depreciation and repairs, depending on the kind of fence; in addition there is interest on the extra money invested. At five cents per rod, the difference would be two dollars per year. But this is a fair rate of interest (5 per cent) on $40. The square field is, therefore, worth $40 more, or is worth $4 more per acre.^ ^The value of a farm is determined by its earning power. It should earn a reasonable rate of interest, here assumed to be 5 per cent on the value. If a farm earns $2 more per year every year, or if a change in it reduces expenses by $2 every year, the value of the land is %A0 more. FARM MANAGEMENT 375 The distance of the fields from the barn is also of very great importance in determining the value of the land. All the time that is lost in passing back and forth from distant fields must be charged against the earning power of the land. If it costs $1 per acre in lost time to go to a field, and if the interest rate is 5 per cent, then a field near the barn is worth $20 per acre more. 319. Topography is usually most important in its effects on the ease of cultivation and on the use of farm machinery. If the land is too steep, it interferes with or may prevent the use of harvesters, manure spreaders and gang plows. In some sections, the most serious results of steep hill- sides is the erosion. In all sections' there is some loss of the productive surface soil. In many cases the direction of the slope is important. The four-year average yield of apples in a township in western New York was 43 bushels greater on easterly than on westerly slopes.^ The difference is mostly due to the strong west winds. 320. Soils. The physical properties of soils are even more important than the fertility. The expense of labor is very much more on some soils than on others, not only because of the ease of tillage, but because of the number of days of possible labor. If one can begin spring work a few days earlier and can go out after it rains a little more promptly, it may make a number of acres difference in the area that can be farmed. The physical properties also affect the possible kinds of crops and the danger of loss of soil fertility. The natural fertility is more important than the tem- porary condition, that is, it is better to buy a soil that is iNew York Cornell Bulletin No. 226, page 326 376 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE naturally rich, but that is a little out of condition, than it is to buy one that is naturally poor, but that has been so fertiUzed that it is temporarily rich. The drainage and freedom from stumps, stones, weeds and waste land must also be considered. In general, one can buy a farm that is in good condition cheaper than he can improve one that is not in good condition. Cleared fields do not often sell for enough more to pay for the cost of clearing. Fertile fields do not often cost as much more than poor ones as it would take to bring up the poor land. 321. Neighbors. The neighbors are much more than a social question. With them one must '^change work.'' They furnish a market for surplus stock. They may fur- nish inspiration that results in profits. They decidedly affect the selling value of a place. It is usually of great importance to have the neighbors in the same kind of business. Good apples raised out of an apple region do not sell for what they are worth. A breeder of Jersey cows will find marketing difficult if his neighbors all raise Holsteins. Buyers will then come to the neighborhood for Holsteins, not for Jerseys. Such a man had better move, or change his breed. Purchasers always want to go to a neighborhood that is full of the desired article. The same principle applies in manufac- turing. Some towns become centers for one article, others for another. Both buyers and skilled laborers are thus easier to secure. Each individual contributes to adver- tising the community, and in turn receives the benefit of all the other advertising. If one develops special markets for his products, all these points may not apply; but they apply to most farmers. FARM MANAGEMENT 377 322. Improvements. It is nearly always cheaper to buy a farm with improvements than it is to improve one, provided one can secure the buildings and other improve- ments that are satisfactory. One exception is in the case of paint. A coat of paint nearly always increases the selling price more than it costs. 323. Other Factors Affecting Farm Values. There are a large number of other items of great importance that can only be mentioned here. Climate, healthfulness, dis- tance to market, roadways, markets, shipping facilities, mail delivery, telephone, churches, schools, granges, water supply, taxes, and many more factors, affect the value of the farm and the profits that can be made from it. 324. Working Capital. Finally, it must be said that one should, if possible, have a fair-sized farm, and, at the same time, have sufficient capital to equip it. For most types of farming, the equipment and suppUes will call for half as much money as is invested in the farm and improvements. For some kinds of farming, as truck- growing, more working capital is needed, and for some, as grain-farming, less is necessary. One of the common causes of failure in city or country is the investment of too much of the caoital in fixed forms. FARM LABOR If mankind consumed all that it produced, there would be no wealth. If a country is wealthy, it indicates that human energy is used effectively. The more effectively labor is used, the higher-priced it becomes. The more efficient farmers become, the fewer we need. If one man 378 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE produces more than formerly, an increased city popula- tion can be supported. At the same time, the farmers' wants will become greater, and more men will be needed to make his machinery, pianos and furniture. Cities are, therefore, a necessary result of good farming. The average farmer just about makes farm wages besides interest on his capital. His labor is his chief in- come. He is, therefore, as much interested in having farm labor high as are his hired men. Whether farm labor is high or low makes little difference with the farm-labor problem. The real problem is to use help to a better ad- vantage than it is used by the average person, otherwise there is little or no profit in employing men. If labor is cheap, farm products will also be cheap, and the problem of making money by hiring remains exactly the same. The man who does not use labor effectively will lose money by employing help whether wages are high or low. One of the most important points in efficient direction of labor is in so managing it that there is work at all times. To do this, one must plan ahead, and it is usually necessary to keep lists of work for rainy days, lists of things to be brought from town, etc., so that there will be as little lost time as possible. Machinery repairs and much work about the buildings that is often done in good weather could just as well have been done long before during bad weather had it been thought of. Hired men in the North are usually looking forward to farm ownership. It is often possible to interest such men in the plans of the farm by discussing plans with them. In deaUng with all human beings, it is well to remember that, as a general rule, judicious commendation is better FARM MANAGEMENT 379 than criticism. At times, criticism is necessary, but it should not be constant or it will destroy interest. The hired man is no exception to the rule. Some men are worth twice as much as others, but wages are fairly uniform. By paying 20 per cent more one may often secure a man who is worth nearly twice as much. One of the means that has accompUshed most in the past few years is in the use of larger machines and more horses per man. (See Appendix, Table 16.) On the average, the value of staple products is measured by the cost to produce them. The world price of wheat is probably very close to the cost of production and trans- portation. One community may produce it at a loss and another make more than farm wages. If this law is true, a farmer may make more than farm wages by working harder; by locating where the cost is below the average; choosing a farm that will produce out of proportion to the cost; locating near a market, and thereby gaining on transpor- tation; increasing the production out of proportion to the cost; decreasing labor or other cost without a proportion- ate decrease in crop; foreseeing future conditions and preparing to meet them; locating where the standard of Uving is higher than his own. Many foreigners succeed in America more by their lower standard of living than by any other means. Studies in New York seem to show that the most profitable farms spend more than the less profitable, but that they spend so efficiently as to get a greater return for each dollar spent. This is the way in which many of our most success- ful American farmers have succeeded — ^not by decreasing expenses, but by spending wisely. 380 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS One of the most important questions of farm manage- ment is that of records and accounts. It is by studying the results of well-kept records that one is able to extend or retrench on the different parts of the business, so as to make more money in the future. 325. Kinds of Accounts to Keep. Records of different cows for the dairyman have been discussed under cattle. The farm map, showing drainage lines, maps showing varieties of trees in an orchard, etc., are necessary on many farms. If all business is not done on a cash basis, it becomes necessary to keep records of accounts that are owed or that are due. It is also very desirable to keep a record of the cost and receipts from at least the leading factors in the farm business. An account may be kept with cows, potatoes, poultry, horses, etc., showing on which we are making or losing money. 326. Methods of Keeping Accounts. One may merely make a Hst of his property at the end of each year, with values. Such a hst is called an inventor5^ The difference between the inventories at the beginning and the end of the year is the gain or loss. This is the most important single record to keep. It does not show what caused the gain or loss, but shows the net result. A loss may have been due to large personal expenses, or to cows or potatoes. while all other sections of the business may show a profit. In order to show where the gains and losses occurred, we must keep a work report and a ledger. It is not neces- sary to keep any other books. A convenient form of work report is ghown on page 381. FARM MANAGEMENT 381 1909 Work Report Man, hours Horse, hours April 1... April 2... April 2... April 3... April 3... Hauled manure to corn field Hauled manure to corn field (Smith) . . Hauled wood for household (self) Plowed for corn (Smith) 1 7 8 8.5 36 16 14 24 Hauled wood for household (self) 17 1909 Work Report, — Chores Horses Cows Poultry Household April 1 April 2 April 3 Hrs. Min. 1 25 1 20 3 30 Hrs. Min. 3 30 2 30 4 15 Hrs. Min. 15 1 15 15 Hrs. Min. 2 30 It combines a work report and diary of farm work. A second page in the same book may be used for a record of the time spent in doing chores. At the end of the month, the total time is charged in the ledger to each of the accounts. This requires very little time to keep, and little time for posting the results. If one does not care for the diary, the entire report may be kept in the second form, adding such headings as corn field, orchard, oat field, potatoes, etc. Two accounts from a ledger are given on pages 382 and 383. A few entries are made to show the method. Ledger accounts kept in this way are complete, so that no day- book or journal is necessary. For explanation of the prin- ciples ot accounting, see the Farmer's Business Handbook, or the Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. The systems there given use a daybook-journal, which the writer does not keep and does not consider to be essential. 382 1909 ELEMENTS OE AGRICULTURE Cash Dr. April 1 Amount on hand April 10 1 calf April 15 1 cow April 15 12 dozen eggs April 15 3 tons hay * -t- * * * * April 30 2,405 pounds milk $342 25 10 00 45 00 2 40 27 00 30 06 1909 Cows Dr. April April April 30 April 30 April 30 April 30 1910 March 31 1910 April 1 Inventory 1 calf, Bessie 74983 — pure-bred Jersey 150 hours labor, April, @. 15 cents 40 hours horse labor @> 10 cents Hauling milk 3 tons hay, from hay field ****** Interest on capital (average of inventories) (^ 5 per cent Use of dairy buildings Balance — gain (red ink) Inventory. $480 00 37 00 22 50 4 00 2 40 24 00 25 50 50 00 $1,524 30 206 16 $1,730 46 $530 OG fARM MANAGEMENT 1909 Ca8h April 7 1 calf ($35; express, $2) April 8 Household supplies April 8 Horses shod April 8 70 pounds clover seed ****** April 30 Hauling milk (paid Johnson) April 30 Wages for April (John Smith) 383 Cr. $37 00 3 00 1 20 12 00 2 40 30 00 1909 Cows Cr. April 10 April 15 April 30 1910 April 1 April 1 1 calf, Delia 's, seven-eighths Jersey, to John Doe, for cash 1 cow, Delia, to James Brown, for cash 2,405 pounds milk, April, @ $1.25 ****** Estirtiated value of manure for year Inventory (written in red ink) $10 00 45 00 30 06 120 00 530 00 $1,730 46 384 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. If there is both sandy and clay land in your community, how soon after a rain can each be tilled? How many days difference is there in the spring? 2. To what extent does topography of farms in the community affect erosion, winds, the use of machinery? 3. How much more time will it take to raise ten acres of corn on a field one-half mile from the buildings than to raise an equal area adjacent to the buildings? How much more would the nearer land be worth per acre? 4. What area will a six-foot binder cut during a harvest period of twelve days, working twelve hours a day? (Obtain estimates from farmers.) 5. When must one begin plowing a 40-acre field with a 14-inch plow in order to have it completed by October 1? (Obtain estimates from farmers.) 6. How many farmers in your community keep accounts to show the gain or loss on different crops, or on the farm business as a whole? In answering the following questions, study Appendix Tables 14-17. 7. Which has increased more rapidly, the population or the area of farm land? 8. Has there been any decided change in the area of improved land per farm during the past fifty years? 9. What changes in the total value of farm property and in the value per farm? In the value per acre of farm land? 10. What changes in the value of farm implements per farm and per acre? Compare with question No. 13. 11. Is the value of live stock per farm increasing or decreasing? 12. Are the values of farm products per farm and per acre increas- ing or decreasing? 13. How are the number of acres and number of horses per male worker changing? 14. Is the per cent of rented farms increasing or decreasing? Is it increasing in your community? Why? 15. How do farm wages compare with those formerly paid? Are the wages in your community higher than in 1900? Are the farmers more or less prosperous than at that time? 16. How are the farm crop yields per acre and values per bushel changing? LABORATORY EXERCISES 385 17. Which crop shows the most rapid increase in total production? 18. How do the present prices of farm animals compare with those formerly paid? Which kind of animals are increasing in total number most rapidly? LABORATORY EXERCISES 80. Choice of a Farm. Fill out a score card like the following, for one or more farms'; Score Card — Economic Value of Farms Size — 1 . Adapted to kind of fanning Fields — 2. Shape and size 3. Nearness to farmstead Topography — 4. As affecting ease of cultivation 5. As affecting production 6. As affecting loss of fertility • Fertility — 7. Natural , 8. Condition Physical Properties of the Soil — 9. As affecting economy of cultivation ) 10. As affecting number days of labor j 11. As affecting loss of soil fertility 12. As affecting kinds of possible crops Drainage — 13. Natural ) 14. Artificial j Condition — 15. Freedom from stumps, stones, weeds, waste land, etc Climate — 16. As affecting animal- and crop-production 17. As affecting number of days of labor Healthfulness — 18. As an economic factor Location — 19. Distance to market 20. Roadways 21 . Local markets 22. Shipping facilities 23. Neighbors as an economic factor 24. Labor supply of neighborhood 25. R. F. D., telephone, trolleys, etc 26. Churches, school, grange, etc., as economic factors. . Taxes — , 27. Per cent on cash value Stand- ard for a gene- ral farm 20 30 30 30 10 20 80 40 40 40 50 30 20 40 10 30 30 10 Points defioieut 386 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Score Card — Economic Value of Farms, Continued Areas in acres Price asked Price per acre Price per acre [excluding waste land] . Estimated value Which farm would you prefer to buy? . Stand- ard for a gene- ral farm Points deficient Water Supply — 40 10 60 60 30 20 Improvements — 29. Site of farmstead 31. Other buildings . Additional Scores for — 34 Total score . . — Name Date DIRECTIONS If the points are not properly distributed for the kind of farming to be followed, assign what you consider to be correct. The total need not be exactly 1,000. No points are assigned for climate. This should be considered when judging farms in different regions or at different altitudes, or when topography or proximity to water make a difference in the chmate of the farms that are being compared. The number of points assigned to each subject is not the limit but is suggestive. Deduct more than the total number when it seems advisable. For instance, dis- tance to market may absolutely disqualify a farm if one wishes to sell milk, while it is much less important for a grain, hay or sheep farm. Similarly, there are con- ditions that may call for higher deductions on any of the points. Credits for excep- tional values, such as superior fences, large orchards, probability of increase in value, etc., may be added under number 34. 81. Farm Inventory. Make an inventory of all the property on a farm, not including household articles. What per cent of the capital is in real estate? In machinery? In each of the other important items? 82. Farm Accounts. Enter a set of farm accounts for a part of a year, and balance the books. (See Laboratory Exercises in Farm Management, by Warren and Livermore.) 83. Farm Accounts. Keep an account with chick^is, horses, garden, or some crop, and determine the profit or loss. LABORATORY EXERCISES 387 84. A Farm Problem. A farm problem involves the application of all the principles learned in the study and practice of agriculture to the management of a par- ticular farm. It corresponds to the plans and specifications and financial estimates that an architect makes for a building. Such a plan will require a considerable amount of time and thought, but it is well worth while. Such a problem may be written up by the following outline: (1) Description of the farm, — location, areas, fields, soils, previous crops, buildings, fences, roads, markets, etc. (2) Inventory of property on the farm. (May be replaced by a list of things necessary.) (3) Proposed system of management. The chief features of the plan outlined for at least five years. (4) Crops (for given year): (a) Crop, field, area, estimated yield per acre; total yield. To be filled out for each field. (6) Cash crops. (c) Crops for feed, concentrates — roughage — bedding. (d) Crops saved for seed. (5) Food for stock: (a) Cows, horses, hens, etc., each itemized per animal, and total. (6) Total food required, (c) Food to be purchased. (6) Animal products: (a) Products of wool, milk, lamb, colts, etc. (b) Products sold. (7) Receipts itemized. (8) Expenses itemized. (9) Inventory at end of year, allowing for depreciation, increases in value, etc. (The depreciation and losses of horses and cows is usually about 15 per cent; of chickens, 40 per cent; of tools, 12 to 15 per cent.) (10) Financial results: Balance equals receipts, less expenses. Farm income equals balance, plus or minus change in inventory. Labor income equals farm income, minus interest on capital, or 5 per cent on average of two inventories. If a tenant farm, labor income of tenant. Percentage on investment made by landlord. In a similar way, estimate may be made for a series of years. 388 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 86. Plans for a Farmstead. Make a plan, showing the arrangements of farm buildings as you think they should be arranged on some farm. (For exercise on arrange- ment of fields, see page 280.) 86. Plans and Estimates for Farm Buildings. Make a plan for a small farm building, a bill of lumber and other materials required to make it, and estimate the cost. 87. Business Forms. Make out an order for goods, a contract with a hired man, a lease, a note, a receipt. COLLATERAL READING Forest Service, Circular No. 159. The Future Use of Land in the United States. Farmers' Bulletins Nos. : 242. An Example of Model Farming. 245. The Renovation of Wom-Out Soils. 272. A Successful Hog and Seed Com Farm. 280. A Profitable Tenant Dairy Farm. 299. Diversified Farming under the Plantation System. 310. A Successful Alabama Diversified Farm. 312. A Successful Southern Hay Farm. 325. Small Farms in the Corn-Belt. 326. Building Up a Run-Down Cotton Plantation. 337. Cropping Systems for New England Dairy Farms. 355. A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm. 347. The Repair of Farm Equipment. 62. Marketing Farm Produce. 126. Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. ■ Laboratory Exercises in Farm Management, by Warren and Liver- more. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. 1, pp. 133-322; Vol. IV, pp. 215-239, and Index of all volumes. The Farmers' Business Hand-Book, by I. P. Roberts. How to choose a Farm, by T. F. Hunt. Farm Management, by F. W. Card. The Farmstead, by I. P. Roberts. CHAPTER XVII THE FARM HOME Farming is one of the few occupations in which the business and the home are united. So close is this union that the distinction between the business and the personal and household matters is not often thought of. Of the many things that have to do with the making of a com- fortable farm home, we shall here consider only three points, — the arrangement of the grounds, the type of buildings, and the modern conveniences. 327. The Farmyard. The first essential for an attrac- tive farmyard is neatness. After this, a little attention to planting will accomplish the rest. Nothing is more attractive than a good lawn, add to this a few trees and shrubs and flowers, and nearly any farmyard will be attrac- tive. The shrubs should be planted in groups in the corners, around the house, and to serve as screens to shut off unde- sirable views. Scattered, aimless planting is not effective. Flower beds should also be placed at the sides and in cor- ners, so as to keep the center of the lawn open. Such an arrangement is not only attractive, but it also makes the care of the lawn much easier. Compare Figs. 196 and 197 in this respect. At the same time, over-planting should be avoided. The farmyard should not be a pattern of city properties, unless it is the country home of some city man who is able to hire a gardener to take care of it. The farm home should be attractive, but not ostentatious. (389) THE FARM HOME 391 328. The Farmhouse. The type of house that is suited to the city is wholly out of place in the country. The superabundance of gables and strikina; shapes may not be conspicuous in a city, but in the country they give an appearance of lack of dignity. A house that is to stand alone must have strong lines. City houses are almost always too tall to look well if standing alone. When flanked by equally tall neighbors, they may look better than low buildings, but when set off by them- selves the appearance is entirely changed. It is much like a forest tree that ap- pears well when surrounded by tall trees, but that looks like an exclamation point when standing by itself. 329. Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home. As soon as a farmer becomes able, he should have water piped into the house to supply the kitchen and bathroom. This not only saves hours of labor for the farm women, but it adds to the comfort and health of the family. In some cases, water from a spring may be piped into the house, or a reservoir may be estabhshed on a hillside, or a hydraulic ram may pump up the water. Usually an elevated tank or an air-pressure system must be used. The air-pressure system costs more than the elevated tank, but it can be put in a cellar so as to prevent freezing, Fig. 196. Scattered planting of trees pruned in artificial shapes. An open lawn would present a better appearance. 392 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE and has some other advantages. Air is pumped into an air- tight iron tank. Water is then forced in. The air-pressure will force all the water out. Some of the air is dissolved Fig. 197. Well-planted farm-yard. Trees at the sides, flowers in the corners and about the house, open lawn. Contrast with Fig. 196 in the water, so that more has to be pumped in occasionally to maintain the pressure. A reinforced concrete cistern is sometimes used instead of a tank. In either case, the water may be pumped by hand, by a windmill, or by an engine. The obstacle that usually deters farmers from installing a water system is the supposed difficulty of disposing of the drainage water. This is usually not a difficult problem. The bathroom fixtures and plumbing should ordinarily be installed by a plumber. All the outside work may be done with farm labor. The drain -pipe should extend THE FARM HOME 393 twenty to one hundred feet from the house, and should be made of four-inch sewer pipe with all joints closed by cement. This pipe may discharge into a cesspool that is merely a hole in the ground and that is walled with stone laid without mortar. Such an arrangement is satisfactory if the ground is very porous, and if no wells are within any possible range of contamination. The sewage should not be emptied directly into streams or ponds. If the land is not porous, or if there is any danger of contamination of wells, a cement collecting tank, or septic tank, should be provided. A tank 3x6 feet and 3 feet deep is large enough for a family of six persons. While Fig. 198. A dilapidated farmhouse made attractive by vines and flowers the sewage remains in this tank, the bacteria decompose the solids contained in it, so that it may be distributed by underground irrigation in a lawn or field. The inlet pipe should have a bend at the end so as to direct the water downward. The outlet pipe should slope upward so as not to allow the scum to run off, as this scum is filled with 394 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE the bacteria that are essential in destroying the sewage. The outlet pipe will need to be four to eight feet long for each person, depending on the soil. It is made of tile drain- Fig. 199. The city house in the country. A tall house standing alone on a hill, — conditions that demand a low house. Trees planted at the sides would help the appearance. Contrast with Fig. 195. pipe laid with a fall of one inch in sixteen feet. This pre- vents the water running to the lower end so rapidly as to cause a wet place there. The water seeps out the entire length of the drain. If the farm is tile-drained, the septic tank may be connected with the drainage system. The entire cost of such modern improvements, aside from the well or COLLATERAL READING 395 other water-supply, need not exceed $150 to $300. The writer knows of one system with an elevated tank in the barn, sink in the kitchen, bathtub, closet and wash-bowl in the bathroom, and a system of sewage disposal, complete, that was put in for less than $250. Nothing of equal cost will add more to the comfort of a farm home. Other con- veniences may be added as the means permit. LABORATORY EXERCISES 88, Water System for a Farmhouse. Make a plan for a water-supply, and sewage disposal, for some farm in the neighborhood. Obtain estimates of the cost of installing the system, including bathroom fixtures and kitchen sink. COLLATERAL READING Farmers' Bulletins Nos. : 126. Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. 134. Tree-Planting in Rural School Grounds. 185. Beautifying the Home Grounds (appUes to city homes mostljO- 270. Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home. 317. Conveniences for the Farm Home, pp. 5-10. 342. A Model Kitchen, pp. 30-32. 155. How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I, pp. 231-245; 278-323. The Farmstead, by I. P. Roberts. Farm Buildings, Sanders Publishing Company, Chicago. CEMENT OR STONE COVER ONE FOOT BELOW GROUND. Fjg. 200. A septic tank CHAPTER XVIII THE FARM COMMUNITY We commonly attribute success to the individual because our observations are usually confined to one neighborhood. If we compare different communities, we shall at once see that the success of an individual is as much dependent on the community as it is on himself. If the community secures a reputation for good products of any kind, every man shares in the rewards. If it becomes noted for poor products, even the good products will not sell well, because they come from a locality that has a bad reputation. A certain county fruit-growers' society subscribed funds to spray the neglected orchards of the county, because they could not afford to have any poor apples go out from that county. (See, also, page 376.) If one wishes to sell his farm, some of the first ques- tions asked are about the schools, churches, roads, and the moral standards of the people. Not long ago, the writer visited two sections of the same river valley. The soils, crops and railroads were equally good; but, in one neigh- borhood land was worth $30 per acre, and in the other, $50. The difference was wholly due to the moral standard of the community. One was composed of self-respecting farmers, in the other the chief interest of the young men was said to be in fast horses and whiskey. The prospective buyer is also influenced by the general appearance of the community. If the buildings are un- (396) THE FARM COMMUNITY 397 painted, the barns covered with patent-medicine adver- tisements, the roadsides full of weeds, the fences down, it indicates that the community is not prosperous. No matter how well some one man's place may look, a buyer will be afraid that there is some fundamental trouble with the region. He will ask himself whether the farms are so poor that their small returns have to be supplemented with an income from signboards. He will fear that the land is so poor that it takes all the farmer's energy to make a living so that he has no time to clean up. The community affects one's happiness as well as his profits. At the present time, the ideal in many farming sections is to make enough money so that one can move to town to live. One of the arguments that was presented in the central West to the Commission on Country Life, to show that farming was all right, was that the farmers were so prosperous that they were selling or renting their farms and moving to town. If the farm home and the farm community are all right, then the farm will be a place to live and die on, not merely a place to run away from. It is interesting to note the increasing number of city men who are retiring to farms at the same time that farmers are retiring to the towns. It is the duty of every loyal citizen to take an active part in improving his community. The best place to begin such an improvement is by cleaning up the roadsides and fence-rows, and keeping the farmyard neat and attrac- tive. But the interest should not stop here. The obUgations to the grange, the school, the church, are as positive as are the obUgations to keep the corn-field clean. It makes 398 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE no difference whether one belongs to all these organiza- tions or not. They affect the community, and a loyal citi- zen is interested in everything that affects the community. Cooperative organizations of many kinds are needed, if farmers are to be able to deal successfully with the city organizations. There are two ways in which one may be a leader in public work. One way is to be president of everything and do all the work alone. The other way is to help others to take the positions of responsibility, and remain more or less in the background. The strong leader is the one who gets other persons so interested that they will carry on the work even if he should drop out. A reasonable amount of time spent on these civic duties will not detract from the farm profits. If one does some of this public work, he is likely to be more alert, and because of the recreation that it gives, he will be better able to conduct his farm. If one does nothing but work, his senses will eventually become dulled, his interest in life lost, his step will become slower and his smiles less frequent because he misses the diversion of community life that all humanity requires. Occasionally, a man neglects his farm because of these interests, but this is not necessary. In fact, his influence in the community is usually lost if his farm is neglected. The ideal citizen is one who works quietly, doing those things that lie first at hand; one who keeps his own place neat and prosperous, and who is ever ready to assist a public enterprise without becoming officious. COLLATERAL READING 399 QUESTIONS (See Appendix, Tables 11, 12 and 13.) 1. What are the most important agricultural products in the United States? 2. Which agricultural products show the greatest net exports? Imports? Which class of articles are more discussed in framing tariff laws? 3. Of the imported products, which ones might our government encourage American farmers to produce? 4. Which kind of exports are more desirable for a nation, — animals, meat and butter, or grain and cottonseed? Why? 5. What agricultural societies or organizations are there in your region? What work is each doing? 6. What social, religious and educational organizations are there? ^Vhat kind of work does each do? 7. Are the farms looked upon as permanent homes, or do the farmers desire to move to town as soon as possible? COLLATERAL READING Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. IV. The State and the Farmer, by L. H. Bailey. Chapters in Rural Progress, by Kenyon L. Butterfield. Farmers' Bulletins Nos. : 327. The Conservation of Natural Resources. 340. Declaration of Governors for Conservation of Namral Resources. APPENDIX TABLE 1 Apparatus and Equipment Good work in agriculture may be done with very little equipment. It is desirable that the school be equipped for regular laboratory work in botany, chemistry and physics. Ordinarily, the same microscopes and balances that are used for botany and physics may be used in agriculture, so as to avoid the expense of duplication. The Babcock milk-testing outfit furnishes an apparatus to demonstrate centrifugal force to a class in physics. Such of the following equipment as is not already on hand is desirable for a class of ten: Two compound microscopes, magnifying to 500 diameters, to cost $18 to $25 each. Two balances, weighing to centigrams. One spring balance. Ten lenses or small magnifying glasses. (Students should own these.) One Babcock milk-testing outfit complete, with special bottles for testing skim-milk. May be purchased of the Creamery Package Manufacturing Co., Chicago, 111. One saw, square, hammer, etc. One graduate, 100 cc. Three thermometers. Three tall lamp chimneys, or large glass tubea. One dozen pint fruit-jars. One dozen quart fruit-jars. One-half dozen beakers (drinking-glasses may be substituted). One dozen four-inch flower-pots, with saucers, and one dozen six-inch. Four dozen test tubes. Six porcelain crucibles (iron spoons may be used). One gasoline burner or laboratory burner (a stove may be used). Ten tape measures. One set of samples of fertilizing materials. (400) APPENDIX 401 Fertilizing materials for exercises 52 and 57, if these are given. Six bushels of lime and 15 pounds of alfalfa seed, if exercise No. 58 is given. One pound of lime. One-half pound copper sulfate. One pound resin. One-fourth pound tallow. One ball No. 18 knitting cotton. Land, — any amount from one-fourth acre to a farm. If the school does not have chemical supplies, apparatus and chemi- cals for preparing nitrogen, oxygen, carbon-dioxid and hydrogen will be needed. (See a text book of chemistry.) Bottles, tin cans and other supplies may be brought from the homes by the students as needed. TABLE 2 Agricultural Library Fortunately, there are so many good bulletins on agriculture that a good library may be secured at little expense. The school should secure a complete set of the Farmers' Bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture. These may be obtained from the Congressman of the district or by writing to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. These bulletins should be bound or should be punched and tied into volumes, with manila covers. Regular binding, which will cost $6 to $12, is to be preferred. The teacher or members of the class may write for additional copies of such Farmers' Bulletins as are much used for collateral read- ing, so that each student may have his own copies of the important numbers. Ask the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, to place the school on the mailing list, to receive the monthly list of publications, and to receive the following: One copy of Circular No. 4, Division of Publication; Farmers' Bulletin Subject Index; one copy of the List of Publications for free distribution; one copy of the List of Publications for sale. Bulletins in the former list will be sent free to any address; those in the latter list may be purchased, or some of them may be secured from Congress- men. Write to your Congressman for such copies of the Yearbook of the Z 402 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Department of Agriculture as he may have for distribution, stating that they are for the school library. Write to your State Experiment Station (see page 403) for copies of available bulletins and reports, and ask to be placed on the mailing list. Write to the State Board of Agriculture, asking whether it has publications for distribution. Copies of a few good farm papers and country-life magazines are desirable for the reading-table. REFERENCE BOOKS The following books are referred to for collateral reading. As many of these as possible should be secured. If the school can spend only $20 for reference books, the writer would recommend the Cyclo- pedia of American Agriculture as containing the largest amount of information for the price. Most of the other books in the list should be purchased as soon as possible. Many other books are desirable if they can be afforded, particularly those that treat of important specialized ai^ricultural interests of the state. The exact order of purchase will depend on the type of farming in the region. List price 1. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, four volumes, by L. H. Bailey $20 00 2. The Principles of Breeding, by E. Davenport 2 50 3. Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life, by Harry Snyder. ... 1 25 * 4. Physics of Agriculture, by F. H. King 1 75 6. The Principles of Soil Management, by Lyon and Fippin . . 175 6. Soils, by S W. Fletcher. (Not so difficult as No. 5) 2 CO 7. First Principles of Soil Fertility, by A Vivian 1 CO 8. The Fertility of the Land, by I. P. Roberts 1 £0 9 Fungous Diseases of Plants, by B. M, Duggar 2 00 10. Bacteria in Relation to Country Life, by J. G. Lipman 1 50 11. The Cereals in America, by T. F. Hunt 1 75 12. The Forage and Fiber Crops in America, by T. F. Hunt 1 75 13. Manual of Gardening, by L. H. Bailey 2 00 14. The Principles of Fruit-growing, by L. H. Bailey 1 50 15. The American Apple Orchard, by F. A. Waugh 1 00 16. The Potato, by S. Frazer 75 17. Corn Plants, by Leroy Sargent 75 1^. Feeds and Feeding, by W. A. Henry 2 00 APPENDIX 403 List price 19. The Feeding of Animals, by W, H. Jordan. (More difficult than No. 18) $1 50 20. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, by S. C. Plumb 2 00 21. The Horse, by I. P. Roberts 1 25 22. The Farmstead, by I. P. Roberts 1 50 23. The Farmers' Business Hand-Book, by I. P. Roberts 1 25 24. Farm Machinery and Motors, by Davidson and Chase 2 00 25. Com, by Bowman and Crossley 2 00 2G. The State and the Farmer, by L. H. Bailey 1 25 The publishers are as follows : Nos. 1, 3, 5, 8, 10, 13, 14, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, The Macmillan Co., 64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York. Nos. 2, 9, 20, Ginn & Co., Boston and Chicago. No. 4, F. H. King, Madison, Wis. No. 6, Doubleday, Page & Co., New York City. Nos. 7, 11, 12, 15, 16, 24, Orange Judd Co., New York City. No. 17, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., New York City. No. 18, W. A. Henry, Madison, Wis. No. 25, Bowman and Crossley, Ames, Iowa. TABLE 3 Addresses of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations AND THE United States Department of Agriculture When not otherwise indicated, the college and experiment station are at the same place. Any letter addressed to the ''Agricultural Col- lege" or "Experiment Station," with proper post-office address, will reach the institulion. Alabama — Florida — Gainesville. College of Agriculture and Ex- Georgia — Experiment, periment Station, Auburn. Hawaii — Canebrake Station, Uniontown. Federal Station — Honolulu. Tuskegee Station, Tuskegee. Sugar Planters' Station — Hono- Alaska — Sitka. lulu. Arizona — Tucson. Idaho — Moscow. Arkansas — Fayetteville. Illinois — Urbana. California — Berkeley. Indiana — Lafayette. Colorado — Fort Collins. Iowa — Ames. Connecticut — Kansas — Manhattan. State Station, New Haven. Kentucky — Lexington. Agricultural College and Storrs Louisiana — Baton Rouge. Experiment Station — Storrs. Maine — Orona. Delaware — Newark. Maryland — College Park. 404 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Massachusetts — Amherst. Michigan — East Lansing. Minnesota — St. Anthony Park, St. Paul. Mississippi — Agricultural College. Missouri — College Station — Columbia. Fruit Station — Mountain Grove Montana — Bozeman. Nebraska — Lincoln. Nevado — Reno. New Hampshire — Durham. New Jersey — New Brunswick. New Mexico — Agricultural Col- lege. New York^ — State Station — Geneva. College of Agriculture and Cor- nell Experiment Station — Ithaca. North Carolina — College Station — West Raleigh. State Station^ — Raleigh. North Dakota — Agricultural College. Ohio — Experiment Station — Wooster. College of Agriculture — Colum- bus. Oklahoma — Stillwater. Oregon — Corvallis. Pennsylvania — State College. Porto Rico — Mayaguez. Rhode Island — Kingston. South Carolina — Clemson Col- lege. South Dakota — Brookings. Tennessee — Knoxville, Texas — College Station. Utah — Logan. Vermont — Burlington. Virginia — Blacksburg. Washington — Pullman. West Virginia — Morgantown. Wisconsin — Madison. Wyoming — Laramie . The United States Department of Agriculture is located at Wash- ington, D. C. One may address the Secretary of Agriculture, or write to one of the Divisions of the Department. The most important ones are as follows: Weather Bureau. Bureau of Animal Industry. Bureau of Plant Industry. Forest Service. Bureau of Chemistry. Bureau of Soils. Bureau of Entomology. Bureau of Biological Survey. Division of Publications. Bureau of Statistics. Office of Experiment Stations. Office of Public Roads. The most important addresses in Canada are: Dominion Department of Agri- Agricultural College, St. Anne de culture, Ottawa. Belle vue. Ontario Agricultural College, Agricultural College, Winnipeg. Guelph. APPENDIX 405 TABLE 4 Length of Time Seeds Maintain Their Vitalitt Average years Barley 3 Bean 3 Beet 6 Buckwheat 2 Cabbage 5 Carrot 4 Celery 8 Clover 3 Com 2 Cucumber, common 6 Eggplant 6 Flax 2 Hop 2 Lettuce, common 5 Millet 2 Muskmelon 5 Mustard 3 Average years Oats 3 Onion 2 Orchard grass 2 Parsnip 2 Peanut 1 Peas 3 Pumpkin 5 Radish 5 Rape 5 Rye 2 Salsify 2 Soy-bean 2 Squash 6 Timothy 2 Turnip 5 Watermelon 6 Wheat 2 TABLE 4a Quantity of Seed Per Acre Alfalfa (broadcast) 20-30 lbs. Alfalfa (drilled) 15-20 lbs. Barley 8-10 pks. Beans (field) 2-6 pks. Blue-grass (sown alone)... 25 lis. Brome grass (sown alone) 12-20 lbs. Buckwheat 3-5 pks. Cabbage f-1 lb. Carrot (for stock) 4-6 lbs. Clover (alsike alone) 8-15 lbs. Clover ("ed alone) 10-18 lbs. Com 6-8 qts. Corn (for silage) 9-11 qts. Cotton 1-2 bus. Cowpea 1-li bus. Flax 2-4 pks. Mangels 5-8 lbs. Millet 1-3 pks. Oats 2-3 bus. Potato 6-20 bus. Potato (recommended) . .15-18 bus. Pumpkin 4 lbs. Rape 2-8 lbs. Red-Top (recleaned) 12-15 lbs. Rice 1-3 bus. Rye 3-8 pks. Sugar Beets 15-20 lbs. Sweet Potato 1^-4 bus. Timothy 10-20 lbs. Timothy and Clover — Timothy 10-15 lbs. Clover 4-10 lbs. Turnip (broadcast) 2-4 lbs. Vetch (hairy), 1 bus. -f- 1 bus. small grain. Wheat 6-9 pks. Xq!»oraix 9^a 90TJ qgnog 880!JB!J0o SoSSs^cot (NOC M§(N 00 00 00 00 00 » 00 00 ■0»0«0 -lO -o to aj « I— (r^O iimi|||iiLe||| 408 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE TABLE 6 Fertilizing Constituents in 100 Pounds of Various Substances Acid phosphate Alfalfa, green Alfalfa, hay Ammonium sulfate . . Apples Apple pomace Ashes, average Ash of evergreen trees . Ash of hardwood trees Ashes, leached Barley ^.^Barley straw ean straw Beet, mangel Beet, sugar • Blood, dried Bone meal Brewers' grains, dry Brewers' grains, wet Buckwheat Buckwheat bran Buckwheat middlings Cabbage Carrots / Clover (red), green ^Clover hay Corn, grain Corn fodder, with ears Corn fodder, green, with ears Com stover Com silage Com cobs Cotton, lint Cotton, seed Cottonseed meal Gluten meal p. Guano, Peruvian Hominy feed Kainit Linseed meal Malt sprouts Milk, cows' Milk, skimmed Mixed hay Nitrate of potash Nitrate of soda Oat, grain Oat straw Pea- vine straw Potatoes Potassium, muriate of, 80 per cent . Potassium, sulfate of, 90 per cent . Pumpkin Rice Rice hulls 12.0 76.0 15.3 4.0 84.7 74.0 ' 5 .6 5.0 30.2 14.3 14.2 14.5 5.3 91.9 82.0 8.5 13.0 9.5 76.2 14.1 15.6 12.0 85.6 87.0 79.0 17.0 13.0 42.2 82.8 40.5 77.9 10.7 ib'.3 8.8 8.6 15.0 8.9 12.7 8.9 12.0 87.2 90.4 13.7 1.9 1.4 13.3 14.5 14.0 13.6 75.0 1.1 2.2 92.3 12.4 8.2 Nitrogen (N) .62 1.76 20.50 .05 .17 1.39 1.31 4.08 1.14 .19 .17 13.50 2.30 2.51 .62 1.23 1.18 3.52 .28 .12 .46 1.08 1.26 .40 .16 .27 .14 .37 .28 3.07 5.95 4.12 7.00 1.20 4.68 2.97 .53 .56 .99 13.09 15.7 1.47 .19 2.68 .14 .11 1.08 .58 Phosphoric acid (PgOg) 15.20 .15 .61 ".02 .01 1.53 2.50 3.50 1.51 .79 0.3 1.21 .21 .09 .08 1.35 17.60 1.61 .42 .69 .42 1.23 .22 .09 .15 .55 .57 .29 .11 .38 .11 .04 .07 1.02 3.04 .33 14.00 .98 1.66 1.74 .19 .20 .41 .28 .84 .35 .16 Potash .35 1.79 ' '.'li .03 5.13 6.00 10.00 1.27 .48 2.09 1.29 1.84 .38 .37 .77 .01 .20 .05 .30 1.27 1.14 .52 .26 .48 1.87 .37 1.40 .39 1.64 .37 .43 .64 1.16 1.58 .05 3.30 .49 12.80 1.37 1.99 .18 .19 1.32 45.19 1.77 l.Ol 1.02 .57 52.70 49.90 .14 APPENDIX 409 Table 6, continued Water Nitrogen (N) Phosphoric acid (PgOg) Potash (K2O) 9.7 10.0 13.4 7.1 12.5 11.8 14.1 1^.3 18.0 90.5 13.4 13.2 12.6 13.6 .71 1.97 1.58 .46 1.84 5.30 1.41 .44 1.64 .18 1.63 1.95 2.04 .06 .29 2.67 .86 .28 2.28 1.87 .33 .50 .92 .10 .87 2.69 1.35 .22 .24 Rice polish . . • • .71 Rve .58 Rye straw .79 T?vp hrnn . . 1.40 1.90 SoV'bean straw .... .77 1.41 Tobacco stems 2.82 .39 Wheat .55 Wheat bran 1.52 Wheat middlings .74 Wheat straw .63 TABLE 7 Feeding Standards Per Day Per 1,000 Pounds Live Weight ^ Digestible Dry Nutritive matter Carbohy- ratio Protein ?a.",tSl Total Pounds Pounds Pounds Founds Horses lightly worked 20 1 5 10 4 11.9 1-6.9 Horses moderately worked 24 2.0 12.4 14.4 1:6.2 Horses heavily worked 26 2.5 15.1 17.6 1:6.0 Milch cows, Wolff's standard . . . 24 2.5 13.4 15.9 1:5.4 Milch cows, when yielding daily . 11 pounds milk 25 1.6 10.7 12.3 1:6.7 16.6 pounds milk 27 2.0 11.9 13.9 1:6.0 22.0 pounds milk 29 2.5 14.1 16.6 1:5.6 27.5 pounds milk 32 3.3 14.8 18.1 1:4.5 Oxen at rest in the stall 18 0.7 8.2 8.9 1:11.7 Oxen moderately worked 25 2.0 12.6 14.6 1:6.3 Oxen heavily worked ... 28 2.8 14.8 17.6 1:5.3 Fattening cattle, preliminary period 30 2.5 16.1 18.6 1:6.4 Fattening cattle, main period . . 30 3.0 16.1 19.1 1:5.4 Fattening cattle, finishing period Breeding ewes, with lambs 26 2.7 16.6 19.3 1:6.1 25 2.9 16.1 19.0 1:5.6 Wool sheep, coarser breeds 20 1.2 11.0 12.2 1:9.2 Wool sheep, finer breeds 23 1.5 12.7 14.2 1:8.5 Fattening sheep, preliminary period 30 3.0 16.1 19.1 1:5.4 Fattening sheep, main period . . . 28 3.5 15.9 19.4 1:4.5 22 2.5 16.4 18.9 1:6.6 Fattening swine, preliminary period 36 4.5 26.6 31.1 1:5.9 Fattening swine, main period . . . 32 4.0 25.1 29.1 1:6.3 Fattening swine, finishing period Poultry, growing chickens* .... 25 2.7 18.9 21.6 1:7.0 . 1:4.0 Poultry, for egg-production' . . 65 8.2 39.4 47.6 1:4.8 Poultry, for fattening' .... 1:7.5 ^For discussion of these tables, see Henry's Feeds and Feeding, page 635. *From data furnished by J. E. Rice. 410 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE TABLE 8 Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds of Various Feeding-Stuffs^ Kind of feed Alfalfa, green Alfalfa hay Apples Apple pomace '. Barley, grain Bean straw Beet, mangel Beet, sugar Blood, dried Brewers' grains, dry Brewers' grains, wet Buckwheat bran Buckwheat, grain Buckwheat middlings Cabbage Carrot Clover (red), green Clover (red), hay Corn-and-cob meal Com fodder, green Corn fodder, dry Corn, grain . . Corn silage Corn stover Cottonseed meal Cowpeas Gluten meal Hominy chops Hungarian hay Linseed meal (new process) Linseed meal (old process) Malt sprouts Meat scrap Milk, cows' Skim-milk, centrifugal^ Skim-milk, gravity ...!.... Butter milk Whey.... Hay of mixed grasses .... Oat straw Oats, grain Peas, grain Peas-and-barley, green .... Peas-and-oats, green Pea-vine straw Pea-vine silage Potatoes Pumpkin, field Rye, grain Rye bran Rye straw Soy-bean Sugar-beet leaves Sugar-beet molasses Pounds of digestible nutrients I Total dry Carbohy- Protein drates 4- (fat X 2.25) Total 28.2 3.9 13.8 17.7 91.6 11.0 42.3 53.3 19.0 .7 18.8 19.5 23.3 1.1 16.4 17.5 89.1 8.7 69.1 77.8 95.0 3.6 39.7 43.3 9.1 1.1 5.6 6.7 13.5 1.1 10.4 11.5 91.5 52.3 5.6 57.9 91.8 15.7 47.8 63.5 24.3 3.9 12.5 16.4 89.5 7.4 34.7 42.1 87.4 7.7 53.3 61.0 87.3 22.0 45.6 67.6 15.3 1.8 9.1 10.9 11.4 .8 8.3 9.1 29.2 2.9 16.4 19.3 84.7 6.8 39.6 46.4 84.9 4.4 66.5 70.9 20.7 1.0 12.5 13.5 57.8 2.5 37.3 39.8 89.1 7.9 76.4 84.3 20.9 .9 12.9 13.8 59.5 1.7 34.0 35.7 91.8 37.2 44.4 81.6 85.2 18.3 56.7 75.0 91.8 25.8 68.1 93.9 88.9 7.5 70.5 78.0 92.3 4.5 54.6 59.1 89.9 28.2 46.4 74.6 90.8 29.3 48.5 77.8 89.8 18.6 40.9 59.5 89.3 66.2 31.1 97.3 12.8 3.6 13.2 16.8 9.4 2.9 5.9 8.8 9.6 8.1 6.5 9.6 9.9 3.9 6.5 10.4 6.6 0.8 5.4 6.2 87.1 5.9 43.6 49.5 90.8 1.2 40.4 41.6 89.0 9.2 56.8 66.0 89.5 16.8 53.4 70.2 16.0 1.7 7.7 9.4 16.0 1.8 7.6 9.4 86.4 4.3 34.1 38.4 27.0 2.5 14.1 16.6 '21.1 .9 16.5 17.4 19.1 1.4 6.5 7.9 88.4 9.9 70.1 80.0 88.4 11.5 54.8 66.3 92.9 .6 41.5 42.1 89.2 29.6 54.7 84.3 12.0 1.7 5.1 6.8 79.2 9.1 59.5 68.6 ^Adapted from Henry's Feeds and Feeding. APPENDIX 411 Table 8, continued Kind of feed Sugar-beet pulp . Timothy hay .... Turnip, flat .... Wheat, grain .... Wheat bran Wheat middUngs Wheat straw .... Pounds of digestible nutrients Total dry Carbohy- Protein drates + (fat X 2.25) Total 10.2 .6 7.3 7.9 86.8 2.8 46.6 49.4 9.5 1.0 7.7 8.7 89.5 10.2 73.0 83.2 88.1 12.2 45.3 57.5 87.9 12.8 60.7 73.5 90.4 .4 37.2 37.6 Nutritive ratio 1:12.2 1:16.6 1: 7.7 1: 7.2 1: 3.7 1: 4.7 1:93.0 TABLE 9 Production Values Per 100 Pounds of Various Feeding Stuffs The following table is computed according to Kellner (Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 84, Farmers' Bulletin No. 346). The figures in the last column give approximate comparative values of different feeds for producing gains in mature fattening cattle. A pound of timothy hay produces ^ as much gain as a pound of corn. Clover hay is |f as effective as oats. While these figures are for fattening cattle, it seems probable that they represent the relative values of these feeding stuffs for sheep and, probably, for horses, and for growth and milk-produc- tion as well as for fattening. They are unquestionably the best approxi- mation that we have of the comparative values of these feeds. (See page 289.) Total dry matter Total crude fiber Digestible Feeding stuff Proteids Carbohy. drates Fat Produc- tion value Green fndd^ and silage: Alfalfa Clover (red) Corn f9dder Corn silage Pounds 28.2 29.2 20.7 25.6 28.9 23.4 38.4 91.6 84.7 57.8 59.5 89.3 92.3 84.0 Pounds 7.4 8.1 5.0 5.8 9.2 11.6 11.8 25.0 24.8 14.3 19.7 20.1 27.7 27.2 22.3 29.6 Pounds 2.50 2.21 .41 1.21 1.33 1.44 1.04 6.93 5.41 2.13 1.80 8.57 3.00 2.59 7.68 2.05 Pounds 11.20 14.82 12.08 14.56 15.63 14.11 21.22 37.33 38.15 32.34 33.16 38.40 51.67 33.35 38.72 43.72 Pounds 0.41 .69 .37 .88 .36 .44 .64 1.38 1.81 1.15 .57 1.51 1.34 1.67 1.54 1.43 Therms 10.80 14.52 11.02 14 26 Hungarian grass Rye Timothy 13.14 10.31 17 80 Hay and dry coarse fodders: Alfalfa hay Clover hay (red) Corn fodder, field- 34.41 34.74 30.53 Corn stover Cowpea hay Hungarian hay Oat hay 26.53 42.76 44.03 36.97 Soybean hay Timothy hay 88.7 86.8 38.65 33.56 412 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE Table 9, continued Total dry matter Total crude fiber Digestible Feeding stuff Proteids Carbohy- drates Fat Produc- tion value Straws: Oat Pounds 90.8 92.9 90.4 11.4 9.1 21.1 9.5 89.1 89.1 84.9 89.0 88.4 89.5 24.3 91.8 91.9 91.8 90.8 90.1 89.8 88.2 88.5 Pounds 37.0 38.9 38.1 1.3 .8 .6 1.2 2.7 2.1 6.6 9.5 1.7 1.8 3.8 5.6 6.4 6.1 8.9 8.8 10.7 3.3 9.0 Pounds 1.09 .63 .37 .37 .14 .45 .22 8.37 6.79 4.53 8.36 8.12 8.90 3.81 35.15 19.95 21.56 27.54 29.26 12.36 11.35 10.21 Pounds 38.64 40.58 36.30 7.83 5.65 16.43 6.46 64.83 66 12 60.06 48.34 69.73 69.21 9.37 16.52 54.22 43.02 32.81 38.72 43.50 52.40 41.23 Pounds .76 .38 .40 .22 .11 ■;ii 1.60 4.97 2.94 4.18 1.36 1.68 1.38 12.58 5.35 11.87 7.06 2.90 1.16 1.79 2.87 Therms 21.21 Rye 20.87 Wheat 16.56 Roots, etc.: Carrots 7.82 Mangels ... . 4.62 18.05 Turnips 5.74 Grains: Barley 80.75 Com 88.84 Com-and-cobmeal . Oats 72.05 66.27 Rye 81.72 Wheat 82.63 By-prodticts: Brewers' grains, wet. Cottonseed meal .... Gluten feed, dry Gluten meal, Buffalo Linseed meal — Old process New process Malt sprouts 14.82 84.20 79.32 85.46 78.92 74.67 46.33 56.65 Wheat bran 48.23 TABLE 10 Average Weights of Different Feeding-Stuffs^ Feeding stuff One quart weighs One pound measures Barley meal Barley, whole Brewers' dried grains. . Com-and-cob meal . . . . Com-and-oat feed Com bran Com meal Corn, whole Cottonseed meal Distillers' grains, dried Pounds 1.1 1.5 0.6 1.4 0.7 0.5 1.5 1.7 1.5 0.5-0.7 Quarts 0.9 0.7 1.7 0.7 1.4 2.0 0.7 0.6 0.7 1.0-1.4 ^Farmers' Btilletin No. 222 APPENDIX Table 10, continued 413 Feeding stuff Germ oil meal Gluten feed Gluten meal Hominy meal Linseed meal, new process . Linseed meal, old process . . . Malt sprouts Oats, ground Oats, whole Rye bran Rye meal Rye, whole \Vheat bran Wheat, ground Wheat middlings (flour) . . . Wheat middlings (standard). Wheat, whole One quart One pound weighs measures Pounds Quarts 1.4 0.7 1.3 0.8 1.7 0.6 1.1 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.1 0.9 0.6 1.7 0.7 1.4 1.0 1.0 0.6 1.8 1.5 0.7 1.7 0.6 0.5 2.0 1.7 0.6 1.2 0.8 0.8 1.3 2.0 0.5 TABLE 11 Values of Leading Agricultural Products in the United States FOR THE Year 1899 Com $828,000,000 Animals sold 723,000,000 Hay and forage 484,000,000 Milk, butter and cheese 472,000,000 Cotton and cottonseed 371,000,000 Wheat 370,000,000 Poultry and eggs 281,000,000 Oats 217,000,000 Animals slaughtered 190,000,000 Miscellaneous vegetables 114,000,000 Forest products (i. e., by-products of the farm, not in- cluding the lumber industry) 110,000,000 Potatoes 98,000,000 Orchard products 84,000,000 Tobacco 57,000,000 Wool 46,000,000 Barley 42,000,000 Small fruits 25,000,000 Sugar-cane and products 21,000,000 Sweet potatoes 20,000,000 Flax seed 20,000,000 414 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE TABLE 12 Agriculture Compared with Manufacturing Total capital invested in manufacturing, 1899 $9,874,664,087 Total value of all farm property, 1899 20,514,001,838 Total horse power employed in factories, 1899 11,300,081 Total number of horses and mules on farms, 1899 18,276,551 Value of Imports and Exports for the Year Ending June 30, 1907 All agricultural exports $1,147,354,121 All agricultural imports 749,257,584 Balance of trade $398,096,537 All other exports 733,496,957 All other imports 685,163,841 Balance of trade $48,333,116 TABLE 13 Values of Agricultural Imports and Exports for Year Ending June 30, 1907 Imports Exports Cattle, live All other Hve animals Dairy products $565,122 3,779,160 5,832,035 83,206,545 12,768,326 41,534,028 71,411,899 5,370,181 8,337 396,095 4,060,371 129,836 22,104,235 $251,166,170 $34,577,392 6,625,688 6,633,226 Beef Hides and skins other than furs .... Lard 31,831,263 1,760,032 57,497,980 66,767,583 45,599,278 48,820 37,709 Pork All other packing-house products . . . Wool, and hair of the camel, goat, etc.. Silk All other animal matter 3,419,358 46,576,226 Corn and corn meal Wheat and wheat flour 122,389,785 All other grain and grain products ... Flaxseed, linseed oil and oil cake . . . Alcoholic liquors 15,433,139 16,869,972 3,314,578 $459,382,029 Amoimt carried forward APPENDIX Table 13, continued 415 Imports Exports Amount brought forward Cotton $251,166,170 19,930,988 41,239,538 66,536,072 61,884,704 9,742,883 92,806,253 11,883,168 14,241,109 14,578,980 78,231,902 13,915,544 26,059,985 53,040,288 $749,257,584 $459,382,029 481,277,797 All other vegetable fibers Cottonseed, cottonseed oil and oil cake Rubber 24,346,490 All other forest products 92,948,705 382,165 831,162 Nuts Susrar .... Bananas All other fruits, dried, preserved or fresh 17,206,267 376,467 4,989,417 Cocoa and chocolate Coffee Tea Tobacco All other vegetable matter Total 33,377,398 32,236,224 $1,147,354,121 416 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE TABLE 14 Crop Statistics for Continental United States ^ Corn Wheat Oats Barley Rye Average num- ber of acres 1867-1876... 1877-1886... 1887-1896... 1897-1906... 38,688,449 63,408,900 74,290,879 87,971,235 21,690,478 35,062,189 36.583,809 45,540,593 10.195.566 17,826,840 26,919,954 27,689,458 1,323.839 2.153.883 3.164.889 4.158.986 1,338,763 1,936,360 2,077,653 1,799,512 Average p r o - duction — 1867-1876... 1877-1886... 1887-1896... 1897-1906... Bushels 1,011,535,800 1,575,626.651 1,800,271,093 2,240,363.473 Bushels 258,407,900 436,726,976 464,093,443 631,181.626 Bushels 278,267.071 491,482.427 686,859,971 835,644.006 Bushels 29.735,169 48,137,782 72,117,116 108,684,958 Bushels 18,217,420 24,880,175 26,784,385 28,341,965 Average yield per acre — 1867-1876... 1877-1886... 1887-1896... 1897-1906... Bushels 26.2 25.1 24.0 25.4 Bushels 12.0 12.5 12.7 13.8 Bushels 27.5 27.8 25.5 30.1 Bushels 22.8 22.4 22.7 25.5 Bushels 13.6 13.0 12.9 15.7 Average total value — 1867-1876... 1877-1886... 1887-1896... 1897-1906... $457,000,523 625,623,878 633,694,378 869,575,310 $262,245,463 388.867,604 319,632,591 431.717,233 $103,401,326 157.859.103 193.005.251 246.936,311 $23,030,837 28,842,694 33,305,476 46.158,110 $14,094,508 15,454,005 14,487,116 15,444,264 Average value 1867-1876... 1877-1886... 1887-1896... 1897-1906... Per bushel. Cents 46.5 40.3 36.6 39.0 Per bushel. Cents 103.0 89.8 68.7 68.8 Per bushel. Cents 37.5 32.5 28.7 29.4 Per bushel Cents 78.3 60.9 46.6 42.1 Per bushel. Cents 76.0 62.8 53.6 54.3 ^Calculated from Yearbook United States Department of Agriculture. The average yields per acre and value per bushel as here calculated are the averages of the ten yearly averages. APPENDIX 417 TABLE 14 Crop Statistics for Continental United States Hay Potatoes Buckwheat Cotton Average number of acres 1867-1876 21,188,781 1,328,050 691,863 1877-1886 31,931,516 2,052,491 803,071 1887-1896 46,721,489 2,651,848 833,871 1897-1906 40,665 523 2,805,707 746,764 Average pro- Tons Bushels Bushels Pounds of lint duction — 1867-1876 25,837,580 119,028,570 12,056,270 1,592,672,300 1877-1886 39,379,146 157,550,905 11,396,686 2,711,681,000 1887-1896 56,276,752 200,401,101 12,656,297 3,768,380,100 1897-1906, 58,393,644 241,700,116 13,551,552 5,242,555,500 Average yield per Tons Bushels Bushels acre — 1867-1876 1.22 90.0 17.6 1877-1886 1.24 81.4 14.5 1887-1896 1.20 75.0 15.3 1897-1906 1.43 85.5 18.1 Average total value — 1867-1876 $292,436,319 $65,413,492 $8,837,488 $232,360,987 1877-1886 356,197,702 82,197,677 7,240,815 252,972,074 1887-1896 457,121,860 89,880,929 6,713,646 279,492,962 1897-1906 489.912,828 124,812,869 7,556,820 468,843,688 Per ton. Per bushel. Per bushel. Per pound. Average value Cents Cents Cents 1867-1876 Jll 44 56.4 72.4 13.9 1877-1886 9 15 51.4 65.0 9.3 1887-1896 8 21 49.0 53.5 7.5 1897-1906 8 45 52.2 55.6 8.7 Cane sugar Beet sugar Average production — 1867-1876 Pounds 134,936,928 241 586,016 491,266,048 633,712.352 Pounds 784 000 1877-1886 1,318,912 1887-1896 29,556,800 1897-1906 386,280,832 418 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE TABLE 15 Numbers axd Values of Farm Anialals in Continental United States Average Total number Average Total value Average Value per head Horses — 1867-1876 . 8,122,847 11,022,680 14,640,702 15,787,407 1,175,543 1,788,987 2,280,411 2,602 373 9,998,355 12,616,159 15,861,965 16,948,692 14,957.992 24,227,144 35,331,043 38,463,070 35.714.438 43,756,701 43,652,314 48,866.599 27.761.442 38,821,536 47,219,664 45,512,764 $516,776,357 693,368,517 859,623,091 877,903,759 92,287,376 128,281,822 158,260,797 176,754,293 283,515,175 336,001,308 360,505,202 487,693,745 265,992,932 475,656,436 562,422,695 713.738,958 80,586,544 97,979,426 94,192,051 134,085,793 126.707,584 196,704,251 237,864,737 265,059,503 S63 19 1877-1886 62 67 1887-1896 59 51 1897-1906 54 05 Mules— 1867-1876 77 66 1877-1886 71 02 1887-1896 09 55 1897-1906 Mil eh cows — 1867-1876 65 25 28 42 1877-1886 26 47 1887-1896 22 79 1897-1906 28 74 Other cattle— 1867-1876 17 69 1877-1886 19 12 1887-1896 15 96 1897-1906 18 98 Sheep — 1867-1876 2 27 1877-1886 2 23 1887-1896 2 15 1897-1906 2 72 Swine— 1867-1876 4 58 1877-1886 5 02 1887-1896 5 04 1897-1906 5 72 I TABLE 16 Various Statistics Showing the Progress of Agriculture in THE United States. (From Census Reports.) Total population Number of farms Acres of farm land Year Total Improved Average per farm Total Im- proved 1850 i860 1870 1880 1890 1900 23,191,876 31,443,321 38,558,371 50,155,783 62,622,2.')0 75,994,575 1,449,073 2,044,077 2,6r,9,985 4,008.907 4,.'S64,641 5,739,657 293,560,614 407,212,538 407,735,041 536,081,835 623,218,619 841,201,546 113,032,614 163,110,720 188,921,099 284,771,042 357,616,755 414,793,191 202.6 199.2 1.53.3 133.7 136.5 146.6 78.0 79.8 71.0 71.0 78.3 72.3 APPENDIX 419 Table 16, continued Year Value of all farm property Value of farm land with impro.vements, including buildings Average value of farm implements Total Value per farm Total Average per acre Per farm Per acre 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 $3,967,343,580 7,980,493,063 8,944,857,749 12,180,501,538 16,082,267,689 20,514.001,838 $2,738 3,904 3,363 3,038 3,523 3,574 $3,271,575,426 6,645,045,007 7,444,054,462 10,197,096,776 13,279,252,649 16,674,690,247 $11 14 16 32 18 26 19 02 21 31 19 82 $106 120 102 101 108 138 $0 32 60 66 76 79 90 Value of live stock Value of farm products not fed to live stock Year Total Average Total Average Per farm Per acre Per farm Per acre 1850 1860 1870 \^m 1890 10(X) $544,180,516 1,089,329,915 1,229,889.610 1,576,884.707 2,308,767.573 3,078.050,041 $376 533 462 393 506 536 $1 85 2 68 3 02 2 94 3 70 3 66 $1,958,030,927 2.212.540.927 2.460.107.454 4,739,118,752 $737 552 538 826 $4 80 4 12 3 95 6 63 Year Total expenditures for fertilizers Per cent of rented farms Number of Nmnber of acres of . y,ox^s\ per crops per j ^^^i^ male worker \ 1 Number of acres of crops per horsei 1880 1890 1900 $28,586,397 38,469,598 64,783.757 25.5 28.4 35.3 23.3 1.7 27.5 i 2.2 31.0 j 2.3 13.5 12.4 13.5 'Includes number of horses, mules and asses on farms. 420 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE TABLE 17 Average Wages of Farm Labors Per month Per day Per day during harvest Difference per day with and without board Year With board Without board With board Without board With board Without board 1866 1869 1875 1879 1882 1885 1888 1890 1892 1893 1894 1895 1898 1899 1902 $17 45 16 55 12 72 10 43 12 41 12 34 12 36 12 45 12 54 13 29 12 16 12 02 13 43 14 07 16 40 $26 87 25 92 19 87 16 42 18 94 17 97 18 24 18 33 18 60 19 10 17 74 17 69 19 38 20 23 22 14 $1 08 1 02 78 59 67 67 67 68 67 69 63 62 72 77 89 $1 49 1 41 1 08 81 93 91 92 92 92 89 81 81 96 1 01 1 13 $1 74 1 74 1 35 1 00 1 15 1 10 1 02 1 02 1 02 1 03 93 92 1 05 1 12 1 34 $2 20 2 20 1 70 1 30 1 48 1 40 1 31 1 30 1 30 1 24 1 13 1 14 1 30 1 37 1 53 $0 46 46 35 30 33 30 29 28 28 21 20 22 25 25 19 ^Bureau of Statistics Bulletin No. 26. TABLE 18 RULES Measuring Grain. — A bushel of grain contains approximately f cubic feet. To determine the capacity of a bin, find the number of cubic feet and multiply by |, or multiply by 8 and divide by 10. Measuring Ear Corn. — It requires about two bushels of ear com to make one bushel shelled. To find the capacity of a crib, find the number of cubic feet and multiply by | or ^-. Measuring Hay. — The quantity of hay in a mow is very hard to estimate accurately. The deeper the hay is, the harder it will be packed. Some kinds of hay are heavier than others, the longer it stands the more compact it becomes. Settled hay will usually weigh about five pounds per cubic foot. Or, 400 cubic feet will weigh one ton. Measuring Land. — The easiest way to calculate land measurements is to figure 160 square rods as one acre. A strip one rod wide and 160 rods long, therefore, equals an acre, as does a strip four rods wide and 40 rods long, or eight rods wide and 20 rods long, etc. A surveyor's chain is four rods long. It is divided into 100 links, so that all calculations are in decimals. Ten square chains equal one acre. Square Measure Equivalents Sq. in. 144= 1,296= 39,204= 6,272,640= Sq. ft. 1 9 = 272i= 43,560 = Sq. yd. Sq. rod Acre Sq. milo 1 30i= 4,840 = 1 160= 4,014,489,600=27,878,400 =3,097,600 =102,400=640= 1 INDEX Abbreviations, 35. Accounts, importance of, 380; kind to keep, 380; ledger, 382; methods of keeping, 380; milk record, 337; refer- ences, 388; work report, 381; Acid phosphate, 123; fertility in, 408. Addresses of colleges and experiment stations, 403. Age of horses, how told, 308. Agricultural colleges, addresses of, 403. Agricultural exports, 414. Agricultural imports, 414. Agricultural technology, defined, 2. Agriculture, compared with manufactur- ing, 414; defined, 1; divisions of, 2. Alfalfa, discussion of, 188; composition of, 284; culture, 189; digestibility of, 287; digestible food per acre, 410; digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408; for hogs, 360; history, 188; inoculation, 118, 192; lime for, 126; 190; production value as food, 411; references, 242; rotations with, 279; seed, number per pound, 32; seed, source and hardiness, 9; seeding rate, 32, 191, 405; seed references, 59; soils for, 190; value per ton, 189. Alkali, 90; result of canal seepage, 90. Ammonium sulfate, 122; fertility in, 408. Animal food, importance of, 281. Animal products, 284. Animals, composition of, 60. Angus cattle, 325, 327. Anther, defined, 11. Apparatus, 400. Apple, adaptation of varieties, 9; care of when not bearing, 70; crown gall, 250; digestible nutrients in, 410; dwarf, 47; fertility in, 408; maggot, 258; original form, 10; Paradise stock for dwarfing, 47; propagation of, 42, 44, 45; references, 243, 270; scab, 253; spraying, 265. Apple pomace, digestible nutrients m, 410; fertiUty in, 408. Apple worm. See Codling moth. Apples, weight per bushel, 406. Arsenate of lead, 264. Asexual reproduction, defined, 12. Ash, amount in feeds, 283; function of, in feeds, 285; how determined, 283. Ashes, lime in, 128; fertility in, 125, 408. Asparagus, references, 243; time to fer- tilize, 70. Ayrshire cattle, 225, 230; fat in milk, 328. Babcock milk test, 335; method of making, 345. Bacteria, described, 97, 248; impor- tance in soil, 97; relation to agricul- ture, 1. Balanced rations, discussion of, 292; cautions in using, 296. Bananas, exports and imports, 415. Barley, amount of water required, 67; as a nurse crop, 183; averages for ten-year periods in the United States, acreage, production, yield per acre, total value, value per acre, value per bushel, 416; crop of the world,. 154; digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408; manure for, 137; oats and peas, 182; production value as feed, 412; rotations with, 277; seed vital- ity, 405; seeding rate, 405; value of United States crop, 155, 413, 416; weight per bushel, 406; weight per quart, 412. Barley meal, weight per quart, 412. Barley straw, fertility in, 408. Barnyard manure. See Manure. Basic slag, 124. Bathroom, 391. (421) 422 INDEX Bean, blight of, 250; fertility in, 408; inoculation, 192; references, 243; seed vitality, 405; seeding rate, 405; weight per bushel, 406. Bean straw, digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408. Bedding, effect on manure, 138. Beef, production, 333; exports and im- ports, 414; references, 349. Bee-keeping, reference, 271. Beet, lime requiremsnt, 126; seed vitality, 405. See Sugar beet and Mangel. Begonia, propagation of, 42. Belgian horses, 307, 308. Berkshire hogs, 358, 360. Bermuda grass, 187. Birds, reference, 271. Bits, 312. Black-leg, 341. Black-knot, 251. Blight, fire, 249; potato, 254. Blinders, 313. Blood, dried, as a fertilizer, 123; diges- tible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408. Blossom, parts of, 11. Blue-grass, 185; reproduction of, 38; seed, cause of poor, 54; seeding, rate, 186, 196, 197, 405; weight per bushel, 406. Boll-weevil. Se» Cotton boll-weevil. Book-keeping. See Accounts. Bone meal, as a fertilizer, 123, 124; fertility in, 408; for hogs, 286. Bordeaux mixture, 261; preparation of, 263, 269. Botany, relation to agriculture, 1. Bran, weight per bushel, 406. Bread mold, 251. Breathing pores, 67. Breeding, chapter on, 5; cattle, 19, 21, 22, 23; farms, 31; horses, 19, 23; plant vs. animal, 23; references, 34, 35; steps in, 21. See Com, Cotton, etc. Brewers' grains, digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408; production value as feed, 412; weight per quart, 412. Brome grass, 186; seeding rate, 405. Broom-corn, references, 243. Brown-rot, 252. Brown-Swiss cattle, 325, 328. Brown-tail moth, references, 271. Buckwheat, averages for ten-year periods in the United States, acreage, production, yield per acre, total value, value per acre, value per bushel, 417; digestible nutrients in, 410; effect of time of plowing on, 165; fertility in, 408; for green-manure, 147; references, 243; seed vitality, 405; seeding rate, 405; weight per bushel, 406. Buckwheat bran, digestible nutrients in, 410. Buckwheat middlings, digestible nu- trients in, 410; fertility in, 408. Budding, 43. Buffalo grass, 37. Buildings, farm houses, 391; poultry, 366; references, 349, 362, 371, 388, 395. Bur-clover, 206. Butter, references, 350; value of, 413; world's-record cow, 332. Buttermilk, digestible nutrients in, 410. Cabbage, black-rot, 250; digestible nu- trients in, 410; fertility in, 408; seed vitality, 405; seeding rate, 405; worm, 259. Calcium carbonate, 127. Calcium, food for plants and animals, 60, 62. Calves. See Cattle. Cambium layer, 43, 231. Canada blue-grass, 186. Canada field peas. See Peas. Cantaloupe, lime requirement, 126. Capillary movement of water in soils, 85. Capital, importance of, 377; invest- ments in agriculture and manufac- turing compared, 414. Carbohydrates, fat equivalent of, 284; function of in feeds, 286; in feeds, 284; manufacture of, by plants, 68. Carbon, amount in plants, 63; food for plants and animals, 60, 61, 67. Carbonate of lime, 127. Carbonic acid gas. See Carbon. I I INDEX 423 Carrot, digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408; production value as feed, 412; seed vitality, 405; seeding rate, 405. Cattle, chapter on, 323; averages for ten-year periods in the United States, total number, total value, value per head, 418; beef and dairy contrasted, 323; breeding, 19, 21, 22, 23, 333, 337; breeds of, 322; care of 297, 324; com- position of, 285; computing rations for, 293; cottonseed for, 212; diseases, 337; exports and imports, 414; feed- ing references, 299; feeding standards, 292, 296, 409; fertility of food re- covered in manure, 138; grading up a herd, 333, 337; manure, composition and value of, 138, 139, 140; manure, feed recovered in, 138; milk of dif- ferent breeds compared, 328; num- bers of, 357, 418; origin of polled, 8; products, 333; rate of depreciation, 387; references, 299, 349; score cards, 342, 343; stables for, 297; types of, 323; value of, 357, 418; value of ma- nure, 138, 140. Celery, references, 243; seed vitality, 405. Cement floor, for poultry houses, 367; manure saved by, 143. Certified milk, 336. Cesspool, 392. Cheese, references, 349; value of, 413. Chemistry, relation to agriculture, 1. Cherries, black-knot of, 251; brown-rot of, 252; propagation of, 42, 44, 45. Cheshire hogs, 350, 359. Chester White hogs, 358, 360. Chestnut, grafting, 42. Cheviot sheep, 35. Chickens. See Poultry. Chinch-bug, control of, 259. Chlorin, food for plants and animals, 60, 62. Chocolate, exports and imports, 415. Choice of a farm, 372. Citrus fruits, references, 243, 271. Climate, effect of forests on, 220; for alfalfa, 190; for corn, 157; for cotton, 199, 205; .or oats, 181; for potatoes and roots, 160; for wheat, 180; ques- tions on, 237. Clover, alsike, 194; soils for alsike, 194; bur-, 206; composition of, 284; diges- tible food per acre, 189; digestible nutrients in, 410; digestibility of, 287; fertiUty in, 408; for horses, 312; green-manure, 147; inoculation, 192; lime requirement, 126; method of reproduction, 12; production value, as feed, 292, 411; red, 193; references, 59, 152, 242; reproduction of, 36; seed, good and poor, 52; seed mix- tures with grass, 195; seed vitality, 405; seed weight per bushel, 406; seeding rate, 193, 195, 196, 197, 405; time to cut, 70, 71; varieties adapted to pasture, 36; water requirement, 67; white, 195. Cion, effect of root on stock, 47. Clydesdale horses, 307, 308. Coal, weight per bushel, 406. Cocoa, exports and imports, 415. Codling-moth, life history and control of, 257, 258. Coffee, exports and imports, 415. Collateral readings, 3, 34, 59, 74, 108, 152, 242, 270, 280, 299, 321, 349, 356, 361, 371, 388, 395, 399, 401, 403; how to secure bulletins, 401; list of books, 402. Colleges, addresses of, 403. Concentrates compared with roughage, 189, 291, 411. Condensed milk, 336. Condimental feeds, 298. Com, chapter on, 156; averages for ten- year periods in the United States, acreage, production, yield, per acre total value, value per acre, value per bushel, 416; barren stalks, 281; breeding, 21, 25; broken stalks, 28; climate for, 157; composition of, 63, 284; composition at different stages of growth, 175; composition of dent and flint, 162; cost compared with oats, 182; cultivation, depth for, 170; dent, 162; digestible food per acre, 160; digestible nutriente in, 410- digestibility of, 287, 290, 291; dis- 424 INDEX tribution erf, 156; ears, ideal, 49; ear- row test, 26; exports and imports, 177, 414; fertility in, 408; fertilizers for, 132, 163; fitting the land for, 166; flint, 162; germination tests, 48; green- manure crops seeded with, 147; har- vesting methods and costs, 171; his- tory, 156; Ume requirement, 126; method of measuring in cribs, 420; method of testing germination, 48; method of storing seed, 26, 54; nativ- ity of, 154; original form of, 10; planting depth, 167 168; planting methods 167; planting rate, 166, 174, 405; plowing for, 163; pollination of, 12; pod, 161; pop, 161; production value as feed, 411; reasons for grow- ing, 159; references, 34, 59, 242, 300, 362; roots, 171; root-worm, 254; rota- tions with, 278, 279; score card, 238; stands, poor, 48; seed, storing, 26; seed testing, 54; seed vitality, 405; smut, 36, 254; soft, 161; suckers, 28; sweet, 162; time required to grow one bushel, 301; types, of 161; uses of, 177; value of the crop, 155, 413, 416; varieties, 162; varieties, composition of, 162; varieties for the silo, 175; water required, 67; weight per bushel, 406; weight per quart, 412. Corn-and-cob meal, digestible nutrients in, 410; production value as feed, 412; weight per quart, 412. Com bran, weight per quart, 412. Corn cobs, fertility in, 408. Corn fodder, defined, 172; digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408; production value as feed, 411. Corn, kafir. Corn meal, maintenance value, 290, 291; production value, 291; weight per bushel, 406; weight per quart, 412. Corn silage, discussion of, 171; digestible nutrients in, 410; effect of frost on, 175; effect on milk, 176; feeding, 176; fertility in, 408; production value as feed, 411; time to cut for, 174; vs. fodder, 172. Corn stover, defined, 192; digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408; production value as feed, 411. Cotswold sheep, 351, 354. Cottolene, 212. Cotton, chapter on, 198; averages for ten-year periods in the United States, production, total value, value per pound, 417; bale, size of, 211; breed- ing, 29, 202; climate for, 199, 205; crop value and yields, 155, 198, 199, 201, 413; cultivating, 209; diseases and insects, 214; exports and imports, 198, 415; fertility in lint, meal and seed, 408; fertilizers for, 208; grades, 211; green-manure crops with, 147; habits of growth, 200; harvesting, 210; history, 199; lint, per cent of, 202; marketing, 211; planting, 209; plowing for, 207; rotations with, 279; references, 35, 242, 270; seed, heavy vs. light, 53; seeding rate, 210, 405; soils for, 206. Cotton boll-weevil, 214, 257. Cotton boll-worm, 215. Cottonseed, products, 212; weight per bushel, 406. Cottonseed meal, 212; composition, 214; production value as feed, 412; weight per quart, 412. Cottonwood, propagation of, 41. Cows. See Cattle. Cowpea, as green-manure, 147, 206; inoculation, 118; digestible nutrients in, 410; lime requirement of, 126; production value as feed, 411; refer- ences, 243; rotations with, 279; seed- ing rate, 405. Cranberries, reference, 243, 271. Cream separator, references, 349. Cropping, chapter on systems of, 272. Crops, choice of, 272; diversified, 273; relative importance of, 154, 155. Crop rotations. See Rotation of crops. Cross-fertilization, 12. Crossmg plants, methods of, 13; when desirable. 19. Crown-gall, 250. Crude fiber, 284. Cucumber, beetle, 261; references, 243, 270; seed vitality, 405; wilt, 250. INDEX 425 Culm, defined, 37. Cultivator, 169. Currants, propagation of, 41. Cuttings, 41. Dairying. See Cattle and Milk. De CandoUe's law, 9. De-horning cattle, references, 350. Delaine merino sheep, 351, 352. Devon cattle, 325. 328. Digestibility, effect of time of harvest- ing on, 288. Digestible nutrients in feeds, 410; method of finding, 288. Diseases. See Plant diseases, Cattle, etc. Disinfectants, references, 270. Disk-harrow, 166. Distillers' grains, weight per quart, 412. Dodder, 191, 254. Dog, fencing to protect sheep, 355; intelligence of, 315. Dominant character, defined, 16. Dorset horn sheep, 351, 354. Double-tree, effect of height on draft, 306. Drainage, by the government, 94; effect during drought, 92; effect on temper- ature, 82; for removal of alkali, 90; kinds of, 93; laying tile, 93; necessity for, 91; references, 108. Dried blood. See Blood. Dry-land farming, 85, 87. Dry matter, how determined, 72. Ducks, reference, 371. Durham. See Shorthorn. Duroc-Jersey hogs, 358, 360. Dust mulch, 85. Dutch belted cattle, 325. Earthworms, 97. Eggs, as food, reference, 300; compo- sition of, 285; parts of, 368; value of, 363. Eggplant, seed vitality, 405. Embryo, defined, 11, 47. Emmer, reference, 300. English Shire horse, 307, 308 Environment, defined, 2, 3. Equipment, 400. Essex hogs, 358, 360. Ether extract. See Fat. Evaporation of soil-water, 85. Experiment stations, addresses of, 403. Exports, 414. Fanning-mill, value of, 54. Farm, best size of, 373; how to choose, 372; score card, 385; topography, 375. Farms, averages for ten-year periods in the United States, number of farms, total acreage, average size, average improved area, value of all farm property, value per farm, value of land, value per acre, average size of farms, average improved acreage, value of live-stock, average per farm, average per acre, value of products, value per farm, value per acre, per cent of rented farms, number of acres per male worker, number of acres per horse, average wages of labor, 418, 419, 420. Farm accounts. See Accounts. Farm buildings. See Buildings. Farm community, chapter on, 396. Farm home, chapter on, 389; references, 395. Farm house, modem improvements for, 391; type of building, 391. Farm income defined, 387. Farm labor. See Labor. Farm management, chapter on, 372; references, 388. Farm products, total value, value per farm and per acre, 419. Farm property, compared with that in manufacturing, 414; value of, 414, 419; value per farm, 419. Farm records. See Accounts. Farmyard, 389. Fat, defined, 283; cabohydrate equiva- lent of, 286, 293; compared with car- bohydrates, 68; composition of, 68; function of, 286; how determined, 283; in feeds, 283. Feeding, chapter on, 281; horses, 311; poultry, 365; standards, 293, 409; references, 299, 349. Feeds, chapter on, 281; balanced rations 292; cautions in using balanced ration. 426 INDEX 296; composition of, 282; computing rations, 293; condimental, 298; di- gestibility of, 287; effect of time of harvesting on, 71, 183; fertility of, recovered in manure, 138; functions of, 285; maintenance values of, 289; nutritive ratio, 293; production values of, 289, 411; references, 299; relative values of concentrates and roughage, 189, 291, 411; weed seeds in, reference, 270. Fences, for sheep, 355; trees for posts in, 225. Fertility of the land, chapter on, 109. See Soil fertility. Fertilization of blossoms, 12. Fertilizers, amount spent for, 116, 419; analyses, 129; cost, 129; effect of too strong, 66; estimating value, 130; for alfalfa, 190; for corn, 132, 163; for cotton, 208; grass, 132, 183; legumes, 132; oats, 132, 181; wheat, 132, 180; home-mixing, 131; materials used as, 114; references, 152, 153; valuation, 129; when and what to use, 111, 114, 132, 163, 181, 183, 184, 208. See Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Lime, Manure, Green- manure. Fertilizing constituents in various substances, 408, Fiber, crude, 284. Fields, arrangement of, 223, 276; shape and location, 374. Filament, defined, 11. Fire-blight, 249. Fish as food, reference, 300. Flax, seeding rate, 405; seed vitality, 405. Flax-seed, exports and imports, 414; value of crop, 413; weights per bushel, 406. Flea-beetle, control of, 261. Floats, 124; as reinforcement for manure, 144, 149. Flocculation, 83. Flowers, 389. Fly, life history of, 256. Fodder, See Com. Food, stored in seeds, 47. Forest, discussion of, 216; area in United States, 216; conservative management of, 221; destruction of, 217; effect on climate, 220; impor- tance of to irrigation, 89, 220; profits from wood lots, 222; references, 243 relation of the government to, 218 reserves, 219; trees to plant, 226 wood-lot management, 222. Forest products, exports and imports, 415; value of, 155, 413. Fowls. See Poultry. French coach horses, 307. Fumigation of nursery stock, references, 270. Fungi, attacking tree trunks, 231; description and control of, 250, 261. Fungicides, 260; references, 270. Fur, exports and imports of, 414. Galloway cattle, 325, 327. Gal ton's law, 5. Gametes, defined, 12; See Mendel's law, 14. Garden, management of, 235; profits from, 234; school, references, 371. Geese, references, 371. Geology, relation to agriculture, 1. Geranium, propagation of, 41. German coach horses, 307. Germination^ importance of vigorous, 48; method of testing, 48, 51. Germ oil meal, weight per quart, 413. Gipsy moth, references, 271. Gluten meal, digestible nutrients in, 410; fertiUty in, 408; from corn, 177; production value as feed, 412; weight per quart, 413. Grafting, discussion of, 42; root, 45; top, 46. Graf ting- wax, rule for making, 56. Grain, method of measuring in bins. 420. Grapes, propagation of, 41; references, 271. Grasses, discussion of, 182. Grass, and clover mixtures, 195; effect on soil fertility, 120; fertilizers for, 132, 183; reproduction of, 37; soils for, 82 See Meadows, Timothy, etc- INDEX 427 Grasshoppc.s ;ife history, 257. Green-manure, discussion of, 147, 206; crops for, reference, 152. Guano, fertility in, 408. Guernsey cattle, 325, 330, 332; fat in milk of, 328. Gypsum, 128; reinforcement for ma- nure, 144, 149. Hackney horses, 307, 308. Hampshiredown sheep, 351, 354. Hampshire hogs, 358, 359, 360. Harrow, 166. Haustoria, defined, 251. Hay, averages for ten-year periods in the United States, acreage, produc- tion, yield per acre, total value, value per acre, value per ton, 417; method of measuring, 420; value of the crop, 155, 413, 416. Heaves, 194, 312. Hens, composition of, 285. See Poultry. Hereditary power, testing, 22. Heredity, defined, 2; problems of, 13. Hereford cattle, 325, 327; origin of polled, 8. Hides, exports and imports, 414. Hogs, chapter on, 357; ash for, 285; averages for ten-year periods in the United States, total number, total value, value per head, 418; breeds of, 358; care of, 360; composition of, 285; cots, reference, 362; cottonseed for, 212; diseases, 337, 361; distribution of, 357; feeding standards, 409; feed- ing references, 299, 362; manure, amount and value per year, 139; numbers of, 357, 418; references, 299, 361; regions adapted to, 177; values of, 357, 418. Holstein cattle, 325, 329, 332; fat in milk of, 328. Home. See Farm home. Hominy feed, digestible nutrients in, 410; fertili'Ly in, 408; weight per quart, 413. Hops, vitality of seed, 405, references, 243. Horses, chapter on, 301; averages for ten-year periods in the United States, total number, total value, value per head, 418; age, how told, 308; amount pulled by, 306; ash for, 286; breeding of, 19, 23, 307; docking, 314; care of, 311; classes of draft, 305; clipping, 313; conformation for draft and speed, 303; corn for, 182; cotton- seed for, 212; draft and speed com- pared, 303; driving, rules of road, 316; effect of clover on, 194; effect of low double-tree on power, 306; feed- ing, 311; feeding references, 299; feeding standards, 293, 409; good proportions for, 318; heaves, 312; intelligence of, 315; importance of, 301; manure composition, amount, value, 139, 140; numbers of, 357, 418; number of acres per horse, 419; number per man, 301, 419; on farms vs. horse-power in factories, 414; over-check, 313; rate of depreciation, 387; references, 299, 321; score card for, 319; silage for, 176; sore should- ers, 313; training, 315; types, of 302; values of, 357, 418; weight for draft and speed, 305. Hot-bed, 236. House-fly, 256, 258. Humus. See Soil humus. Hungarian grass, digestible nutrients in, 410 ; production value as feed, 411. Hybrid, defined, 13. Hydrogen, food for plants and animals, 60, 61. Imports, 414. Improvement of plants and animals, 5. Indian com. See Com. Insecticides, 260; references, 270. Insects, discussion of, 255; beneficial, 255; control of, 258; damages caused by, 255; defined, 255; stages in life of, 256. Iron, amount in plants, 63; food for plants and animals, 60, 62. Irrigation, area irrigated, 88; areas requiring, 88; canals, seepage from, 90; dangers of, 90; in Egypt, 89; in India, 89; reservoirs, 89. 428 INDEX Jersey cattle, 325, 329, 332; fat in milk of, 328. Johnson grass, 188; control of, refer- ence, 270. Kafir com, references, 243. Kainit, 125; fertility in, 408; reinforce- ment for manure, 144, 149. Kentucky blue-grass. See Blue-grass. Kerosene emulsion, preparation of, 265. Labor, discussion of, 377; average wages, 420; saving, 82, 144, 160, 167, 170, 272, 275, 301, 373, 374, 375, 377, 378; supply, 376. Labor reports. See Accounts. Laboratory equipment, 400. Laboratory exercises, 32, 56, 72, 101, 151, 238, 267, 280, 318, 342, 368, 385, 395. Land, method of measuring, 420. Land plaster, 128; reinforcement for manure, 144, 149. Lambs. See Sheep. Larva, defined, 256. Ledger, 382. Legal weights per bushel, 406. Leghorn hens, 364. Legumes, as food, reference, 300; fer- tilizer requirements, 132; inoculation of, 118, 192; nitrogen fixation by, 116; nodules on the roots of, 117. Leicester sheep, 351. Lemons, references, 243, 271. Lettuce, lime requirement, 126; seed vitality, 405. Library, 401. Lincoln sheep, 351. Linseed meal, digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408; production value as feed, 412; weight per quart, 413. Lime, application of, 128; forms of, 127; for alfalfa, 190; how to tell the need of, 127; references, 152; weight per bushel, 406. Lime-sulfur spray, preparation of, 265. Limestone, 127. Listing corn, 167. Live-stock, importance of in maintain- ing fertility, 110; total value, value per farm and per acre, 419. Machinery, rate of depreciation, 387; value per farm and per acre, 419. Magnesium, food for plants and animals, 60, 62. Maintenance values of feeds, 289, 411. Maize. See Com. Malt sprouts, digestible nutrients in, 410; fertiUty in, 408; production value as feed, 412; weight per quart, 413. Mangels, digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408; production value as feed, 412; seeding rate, 405. Manure, discussion of, 135; amount produced per year, 139; application of, 142, 144, 184; composition of, 140; factors affecting value of, 138; fertility of food recovered in, 138; green crops for, 147; importance of, 135; lasting effects of, 136; liquid composition and value, 140; losses of, 140; pre- servation of, 143; references, 152; reinforcement of, 142, 144, 149, spreader, 144; value in the United States, 135; value per ton, 136, 140; value per year, different animals, 139. Maple sugar, references, 243. Meadows, discussion of, 182; method of seeding, 182; references, 242; rota- tions with, 278, 279; seeding mixtures, 196. Meadow-fescue, 186; seeding rate, 196, 197. Meat on the farm, reference, 349. Meat-scrap, digestible nutrients, in 410. Melon beetle, 261. Mendel, biographical notes, 14. Mendel's law, 14; summary of, 15; ap- plications of, 19. Merino sheep, 351. Meteorology, relation to agriculture, 1. See Climate. Milk, discussion of, 334; as food, 62, 334; as food, reference, 300; Babcock test of, 336, 345; clean, 334; certified, 336; composition of, 285, 334; con- densed, 336; digestible, nutrients in INDEX 429 410; effect of silage on, 176; fertility in, 408; flour, 336; of different breeds, 328; pails, 335; pasteurized, 335; powder, 336; records, 337; references, 300, 349: standardized, 336; test, 336, 345; value of, 413. Milk-fever, 340. Millet, references, 243; seed vitality, 405. seeding rate, 405; weight per bushel, 406. Milo, reference, 243. Modern conveniences for the home, 391. Mold, bread, 251. Mosquito, control of, 94, 258; life his- tory of, 257. Mules, averages for ten-year periods in the United States, total number, total value, value per head, 418. Muriate of potash, 125. Muskmelon, seed vitality, 405. Mustard, spraying for, 246; seed vitality, 405. Mutations, 8. Mutton, references, 356. Mycelium, defined, 250. Natural selection, 7; development of weeds by, 8. Neighbors, 376, 396. Nitrate of soda, 122; composition of, 408; effect on timothy, 132, 133. Nitrate of potash, composition of, 408. Nitrogen, amount in air, 116; amount in plants, 63; amount in rainfall, 116; amount in soils, 113; effect of time of plowing on, 164; effect on color of plants, 64; fixation with legumes, 116, 208; fixation without legumes, 119; food for plants and animals, 60, 61; forms of in fertilizers, 122; in manure, 136, 139, 140, 141; losses of, 121; losses from manure, 141; of food recovered in manure, 138; per cent of in protein, 283; relation to soil organisms, 97; sources of, 116. Nitrogen-free extract, 284. Nutrients, amount of in various feeds, 410. Nutritive ratio, defined, 293. Nuts, exports and imports, 415. Oats, 181; as a nurse crop, 183, 190; averages for ten-year periods in the United States, acreage, production, yield per acre, total value, value per acre, value per bushel, 416; breeding, 29; climate for, 181; cost compared with corn, 182; digestible food per acre, 160; digestible nutrients in, 410; fertiUty in, 408; fertilizers for, 131, 133, 181; ground, weight per quart, 413; planting depth, 168; pro- duction value as feed, 292, 412; references, 270; rotations with, 270; soils for, 181; uses of, 181; value of the United States crop, 155, 413; seed vitality, 405; seeding rate, 405; water requirements, 67; weight per bushel, 406; weight per quart, 413; world's crop of, 154. Oats-barley-and-peas, 182. Oat hay, production value as feed, 411. Oat rust, 36. Oat smut, 36; control of, 254. Oat straw, fertility in, 408; digestible nutrients in, 410; production value as feed, 412. Onions, lime required, 126; references, 243; seed vitality, 405; weight per bushel, 406. Oranges, propagation of, 42; references, 34, 271, 243. Orchards, discussion of, 227; planting, 227; pruning, 230; spraying, 229, 266; tillage of, 228; value of products, 413. Orchard grass, 187; reproduction of, 38; seeding rate, 196, 197; seed vitality, 405. Osmosis, definition and experiment, 65. Ovary, defined, 11. Oxford-down sheep, 351, 354. Oxygen, as food for plants and animals, 60, 61. Paris green, 264. Parsnip, seed vitaUty, 405. Pasteurized milk, 335. Pasture, discussion of, 182; adaptation of clover and grass varieties, 36, 39; management of, 197; references, 242; seed mixtures for, 196. 430 INDEX Peaches, brown-rot of, 252; danger in spraying, 262; propagation of. 42, 43, 45; references, 243. Peanut, inoculation, 192; seed vitality, 405. Pears, how dwarfed, 47; propagation of, 42, 45; references, 243. Pear-blight, 249. Peas, fertility in, 408; inoculation of, 192; seed vitality, 405; weight per bushel, 406. Peas-and-barley, digestible nutrients in, 410. Peas-and-oats, digestible nutrients in, 410. Peas-barley-and-oats, 182. Pea-vine silage, digestible nutrients in, 410. Pea-vine straw, digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408. Pecan, grafting, 42. Pedigreees, 330; advanced registry, 333; value of, 331. Percheron horses, popularity of, 307. Perennial, defined, 38. Phosphoric acid. See Phosphorus. Phosphorus, amount in soils, 113, 114; comparative effects of different forms, 133; deficiency in soils, 134; effect on seed formation, 64; food for plants and animals, 60, 62; forms of in fer- tiUzers, 123; in manure, 136, 139, 140, 141; losses from manure, 141; of food recovered in manure, 138; reinforcement for manure, 142, 144, 149; relation to Hme, 132. Physics, relation to agriculture, 1. Pigs. See Hogs. Pineapple, references, 34, 243. Pistil, defined, 11. Plants, composition of, 60; oeriods in the life of, 69; storage of food in, 69; the only source of starch, 69. Plant-breeding forms, 31. Plant diseases, discussion of, 248 con- trol of, 214. Plant-food, chapter on, 60; amount of, in soils, 113; deficiency in soils, 63; elements required, 60; how taken up, 64, 66, 67; sources of, 61. Plant lice, life history of, 257; contro of, 265. Plowing, depth, 164; spring vs. fall, 163; sub-soiling, 165. Plums, black knot of, 251; brown-rot of, 252; danger in spraying, 262; propagation of, 42, 44, 45. Plymouth Rock hens, 364. Poland-China hogs, 358, 359, 360. Polled Durham cattle, 325. Poplars, propagation of, 41. Population of the United States, 418. Potash. See Potassium. Potassium, amount in soils, 113, 114; defined, 11; effect on seed formation, 64; ferro cyanide, 264; food for plants and animals, 60, 62; forms of in fer- tilizers, 125; in manure, 136, 139, 140, 141; losses from manure, 141; muriate of, fertility in, 408; of food recovered in manure, 138. Potassium chlorid, 125. Potassium nitrate, fertility in, 408. Potassium sulfate, 125; fertility in, 408. Potato, area necessary for profit, 272; averages for ten-year periods in the United States, acreage, production, yield per acre, total value, value per acre, value per bushel, 417; breeding, 21, 30; composition of, 62; digestible food per acre, 160; digestible nutri- ents in, 410; flea-beetle, 261; fertiUty in, 408; method of reproduction, 12; nativity of, 154; planting, prepara- tion for, 40; planting rate, 405; pro- pagation of, 39; production value as feed, 412; references, 35, 243, 270; rotations with, 147, 274; seed, size to cut, 39; seed, storage, 40; seed, time to cut, 41; spraying, 266; value of, 155, 413. 417; water requirement, 67; weight per bushel, 406; world's crop, 154. Potato-beetle, control oi, 259. Potato-blight control of, 254. Potato scab, control of, 253. Potato, sweet See Sweet potato. Poultry, chapter on 363; as food, reference, 300; aah for, 286; breeds of, 363; feeding, 365; feeding stan- INDEX 431 dards, 409; houses, 366; importance of, 363; manure, amount and value per year, 139; products, value of, 363, 413; rate of depreciation, 387; references, 299, 371; yearly egg-pro- duction, 6, 7. Preserving food, methods of, 172. Production value of feeds, 289, 411. Propagation of plants, chapter on, 36. See, also, Cuttings, Seeds, Grafting. Protein, composition of, 69; defined, 283; function of, in feeds, 286; ho'v determined, 283; in feeds, 283; test for, 73. Pruning, 227, 230. Pupa, defined, 256. Pumpkin, digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408; seed vitality, 405; seeding rate, 405. Quince roots for dwarf pears, 47. Questions, 3, 31, 55, 71, 100, 148, 237, 266, 280, 298, 317, 342, 361, 368, 348, Radish, vitality of seeds, 405. Rambouillet sheep, 351, 352. Rape, fertilizer requirements, 133; rate of seeding, 405; references, 243; vitality of seeds, 405. Raspberries, references, 243. Rations, balanced, 292. Rats, methods of destroying, reference, 271. Recessive character, defined, 16. Records. See Accounts. Red-Polled, 325, 328. Red clover. See Clover. Red-top, 186; low lime requirements, 126; seeding rate, 186, 197, 405. References, list of, 401. See Collateral reading. Registry, 330; advanced, 332. Rice, fertility in, 408; references, 243; seeding rate, 405; weight per bushel, 406; world's crop of, 154. Rice bran, fertility in, 409. Rice polish, fertiUty in, 409. Road, rules of, 316. Root-borer, clover, 193, 194. Root-crops, why not more grown, 160. Root-grafting, 45. Root-hairs, 64. Roots, acidity of, 66; references, 242. Root-stocks, 36, 38. Rotation of crops, chapter on, 272; and manure supply, 140; advantages of, 274; defined, 273; examples of. 278; for control of insects, 258; references, 280; vs. crop diversification, 273. Roughage compared with concentrates, 189, 292, 411. Rubber, exports and imports, 415. Rusts, 254. Rye, as a nurse crop, 183; averages for ten-year periods in United States, acreage, production, yield per acre, total value, value per bushel, 416; digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 409 ; green - manure, 147 ; planting depth, 168; production value as feed, 412; seed vitality, 405; seeding rate, 405; weight per bushel, 406; weight per quart, 413; worlds' crop of, 154. Rye-bran, digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 409; production value as feed, 412; weight per quart, 413. Rye-meal, weight per quart, 413. Ry« straw, digestible nutrients in, 410; fertihty in, 409; production value as feed, 412. Saddler, 307, 308. Salsify, seed vitality, 405. Salt as a fertiUzer, 115. Saw-dust as bedding, 138. San Jos^ scale, control of, 259, 264. Score card for cattle, 242, 243; corn, 238; farms, 385; horses, 319. Seed, adaptation to climate, 9; change of, 9; analysis, 51; effect of size and weight on crop, 53; germination tests, 49, 51; importation of low grade, 55; low vs. high grade, 52; nature of, 47; purity tests, 52; storage of, 54; vitality, table of, 405. Seeding, rates per acre, 405. Selection, artificial, 10; characters to consider, 21; importance of, 21; nat- ural, 7. 432 INDEX Self-fertilization, 12. Septic tank, 393. Sessile, defined, 37. Sewer system for farm, 391 . Sexual reproduction, 12. Shade trees, 138. Shavings as bedding, 138. Sheep, chapter on, 351; averages for ten-year periods in the United States, total number, total value, value per head, 418; breeds of, 351; composi- tion of, 285; cottonseed for, 212; feeding standards, 409; fertilizing value of feed recovered in manure, 138; manure, amount and value per year, 138, 139; numbers of, 357, 418; opportunities in raising, 355; refer- ences, 299, 356; silage for, 176; types of, 351; values of, 357. 418. Shorthorn cattle, 325; fat in milk, of 328; origin of polled, 8. Shoulders, care of sore, 313. Shrinkage of products, reference, 242. Shropshire sheep, 351, 353. Shrubs, 389. Silage, materials for, 172. See Corn silage. Silicon as food for plants and animals, 60, 62. Silk, exports and imports, 414. Silo, 171, 173; cost of filling, reference, 242; principle of, 172. Smut, control of, 254. Sodium, food for plants and animals, 60, 62. Sodium nitrate. See Nitrate of soda. Soils, chapter on, 75; analysis, physical, 76; analysis, value of chemical, 113; best kinds of, 83, 375; composition of soils, 76; defined, 75; for alfalfa, 190; clover, 193-195; com, 78, 163; cotton, 78, 206; grass, 78, 82, 183-188; oats, 78, 181; tobacco, 82; vegetables, 78, 82; wheat, 82, 180; wood lot, 223; how formed, 109; how named, 78; man- agement of clay, 83; plant food in, 113, 114; references, 108, 152; rock particles of, 76; size of particles and crop adaptation, 78, 82; size of par- ticles and water capacity, 79, 80; warm and cold, 81; water capacity, determination of, 105; water capacity of clay and sand, 80. See, also, Irri- gation and Drainage. Soil air, importance of, 94; determina- tion of the amount of, 103. Soil-bacteria. See Soil organisms. Soil fertility, chapter on, 109; amount in soils, 113; causes of loss of. 111; how developed, 104; how lost, 109; importance of grass, 120; importance of legumes, 116. Soil humus, amount in soils, 96; im- portance of, 95. Soil organisms, 116-122. Soil particles, effect on labor, 82; floc- culation of, 83; importance of size of, 79-84; relation to crop adaptation, 78, 82; relation to water capacity, 79, 80; separation of, 76; size of and temperature, 81 ; surface area per cubic foot, 80. Soil water, best amount of, 91; com- position of, 84; conserved by early plowing, 164; conservation of, 85; how amount is determined, 72; importance of, 84; movement of, 85. Sorghum, references, 243. South Carolina rock, 123. Southdown sheep, 351, 354. Soy-bean, digestible nutrients in, 410; fertiUty in, 409; inoculation, 118, 192; lime requirement, 126; references, 243; seed vitality, 405. Soy-bean hay, productive value as feed, 411. Soy-bean straw, fertility in, 409. Spores, 36, 251. Sports, 8. Spraying, for insects and diseases, 258; for mustard, 246; profits, from 229; references, 270. Squash, seed vitaUty, 405. Stamen, defined, 11. Standardized milk, 336. Starch as food, 286; composition of, 68; how formed, 68; translocation of, 68. Stigma, defined, 11. Stolon, defined, 38. Stomata, 67. INDEX 433 Stooling, 12. Storage reservoirs, 89. Stover. See Corn. Strawberries, references, 243. Style, defined, 11. Subsoiling, 165. S ffolk hogs, 358, 360. Suffolk Punch horses, 307. Sugar, as food, 286; exports and im- ports, 415; references, 300. Sugar-beet, breeding, 24; breeding references, 35; digestible nutrients in, 410; fertility in, 408; per cent of sugar, 24; total production, 417; references, 243; seeding rate, 405. Sugar-beet leaves, digestible nutrients in, 410. Sugar-beet molasses, digestible nutri- ents in, 410. Sugar-beet pulp, digestible nutrients in, 411. Sugar-cane, total production, 417; value of crop, 413. Sugar maple, references, 243. Sulfate of ammonia. See Ammonium sulfate. Sulfate of potash, 125. Sulfur, food for plants and animals, 60, 62. Sweet potatoes, method of reproduction, 12; propagation of, 39; references, 243; planting rate, 405; value of crop, 413; weight per bushel, 406. Swine. See Hogs. Tamworth hogs, 358, 360. Tankage, as a fertilizer, 123; for hogs, 286. Tea, exports and imports, 415. Temperature of soils, 81, 82. Texas fever, 341. Therm, defined, 291. Thomas slag, 124. Thoroughbred, 307. Tile drains. See Drainage. Tillage of orchards, 228. Timothy, 184; breeding, 24; composi- tion of, 63, 284; digestibiUty of, 287; 290, 291: digestible food per acre, 189; digestible nutrients in, 411; fertility in, 409; fertilizer requirements, 132; for horses, 312; lime requirement, 126; maintenance value, 290, 291; pro- duction value as feed, 291, 411; seed vitality, 405; seeding rate, 185; 196, 197, 405; time to cut, 71, 183; varia- tion in, 24; weight per bushel, 406. Toad, usefulness of, reference, 271. Tobacco, exports and imports, 415; references, 34, 242, 271; soils for, 82; value of crop, 155, 413. Tobacco stems, fertility in, 409. Tomatoes, weight per bushel, 406; references, 243. Top-grafting, 46. Toxic substances, 276. Trees, how to plant, 227; shade, 233; treatment of wounds, 231. Trotting horse, 307, 308. Tuber, defined, 39. Tuberculin, 340. Tuberculosis, 337. Turkeys, reference, 371. Turnips, composition of, 63; digestible nutrients in, 411; fertility in, 409; production value as feed, 412; seed vitality, 405; seeding rate, 405; soft rot of, 250. Variation, 5; how increased, 21; law of, 5. Vegetables, farm garden, 234; soils for 82. Verbena, propagation of, 41. Vetch, seeding rate, 405. Victoria hogs, 358, 359, 360. Vitality of seeds, table of, 405. Walks, control of weeds in, 247. Water, amount in plants, 62, 63; as a plant food, 61; function in feeds, 285; in feeds, 282; in feeds, how deter- mined, 282; requirement of different crops, 67. See, also. Soil water. Watermelon, lime requirement, 126; vitality of seeds, 405. Water supply, 391. Weeder, 169. Weeds, control of, 70, 169, 245, 274; controlled by fertilizers, 190; defined. BB 434 INDEX 244; in pastures, 197; in walks, 247; reference, 270; spraying for, 246; value of, 244. Weights per bushel, 406. Wheat, discussion of, 178; amount ex- ported, 177; as a nurse crop, 183; averages for ten-year periods in the United States, acreage, production, yield per acre, total value, value per acre, value per bushel, 416; climate for, 180; composition of, 179; cul- ture, 180; digestible food per acre, 160; digestible nutrients, in 411; Durum, 179; effect of continuous cul- ture, 110, 121, 170; effect of rotation on, 277; exports and imports, 414; fertility in, 409 ; fertility require- ments, 132, 134 ; fertility removed by, 113; ground, weight per quart, 413; original form of, 10; planting depth, 168; production value as feed, 412; references, 270; rotations with 278, 279; seed vitality, 405; seed- ing, 181; seeding rate, 405; soil for, 82, 180; time to grow one bushel, 301; Turkish Red, 179; types and varie- ties, 179; uses of, 178; value of crop, 413; value of United States crop, 155, 416; weight per bushel, 406; weight per quart, 413; world's crop, 154, 178; yields with heavy and light seeds, 54. 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