OL

SERIES.

:RST BOOKS OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ELEMENTS OF HERPETOLOG:

AND OF

ICHTHYOLOGY:

PREPARED FOR THE USE OF

SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES,

BY

W. S. \V. RUSCI1ENBERGER, M.D.

Surgeon in the U. S. Navy; ITello'w of the College of Physicians; lie
Member of the Philadelphia Medical Society ; Member of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Sec. &o.

FROIW THE TEXT OF

MILNE EDWARDS, AND ACHILLE COMTE,

PROFESSORS OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE COLLEGES
'- OF HENRI IV, AND CHARLEMAGNE.

•WITH PLATES.

PHILADELPHIA:

GRIGG & ELLIOT,

NT0. 9 NORTH FOURTH STREET,

1844.

j

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

CHEAP BOOKS,

PUBLISHED AND FOR SALE BY

GRIGG & ELLIOT,

No. 9, N. FOURTH ST., PHILADELPHIA,
And for Sale by Booksellers generally in the United States.

THE following books are particularly adapted for family reading, and we
do hope, as our political troubles are ended for awhile, that our friends will
now settle down to their " sober second thoughts," and as " knowledge is

wer," and "information capital," that instead of being satisfied with the
periodical trash of the day, they will store their minds with something
more solid, and for that purpose make a selection from the following list :

MASON'S POPULAR SYSTEM OF FARRIERY; comprising a
general description of the noble and useful animal the Horse, together with
the quickest and simplest mode of fattening ; necessary treatment while
undergoing excessive fatigue, or on a journey ; the construction and man-
agement of stables ; different marks for ascertaining the age of a Horse :
also, a concise account of the diseases to which the Horse is subject ; with
such remedies as long experience has proved to be effectual. By Richard
Mason, M. D., formerly of Surrey Co., Va. Ninth edition, with additions.
To which is added, a Prize Essay on Mules, and Jin Appendix containing
observations and recipes for the cure of most of the common distempers
incident to Horses, Oxen, Cows, Calves, Sheep, Lambs, Swine, Dogs, &c.
&c. Selected from different authors. Also, an Addenda, containing Annals
of the Turf, American Stud Book, Rules for Training, Racing, &c.

The publishers have received numerous flattering notices of the great practical
value of these works. The distinguished editor of the American Farmer, speak-
ing of them, observes — " We cannot too highly recommend these books, and
therefore advise every owner of a horse to obtain them."

THE STOCK RAISERS MANUAL ; a Guide to the raising and im-
provement of Cattle, being a Treatise on their Breeds, Management and
Diseases. By W. Youatt, author of a "Treatise on the Horse," with
numerous Illustrations. Complete in 1 vol. 8vo.

This work will be found of the greatest importance to Farmers and Cattle Rais-
ers throughout the United States, and should be in the possession of every Farmer,
as it is the most complete work on this subject ever published.

HIND'S POPULAR SYSTEM OF FARRIERY, taught on a new
and easy plan, being a Treatise on all the diseases and accidents to which
the Horse is liable. With considerable additions and improvements,
adapted particularly to this country, by Thomas M. Smith, Veterinary Sur-
geon, and Member of the London Veterinary Medical Society. In 1 vol.
12mo.

CHEAP BOOKS PUBLISHED BY GR1GG & ELLIOT.

LETTERS FROM A FATHER TO HIS SONS IN COLLEGE.

By Samuel Miller, D. D., Professor in the Theological Seminary, Prince-
ton, New Jersey.

The writer of this volume has had five sons trained and graduated in the College
of New Jersey. These Letters, not indeed precisely in their present form, but
in substance, were actually addressed to them. There is, probably, not one idea
contained in this manual which was not, during their course in the Institution, dis-
tinctly communicated to them, either orally or in writing. The influence of these
counsels on their minds, it is believed, was not wholly useless. May they prove
still more useful when presented in this revised and more public form.

THE IMPORTANCE OF FAMILY RELIGION ; with a Selection
of Hymns and Prayers, adapted to Family Worship, and Tables for the
regular Reading of the Scriptures. By the Rev. S. G. Winchester, A. M.,
late Pastor of the Sixth Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, ,and the Pres-
byterian Church at Natchez, Miss. In 1 vol. 12mo.

The subject is one of incalculable practical importance, and is treated in a mas-
terly manner. It contains an able, elaborate and highly instructive Essay on the
obligation, nature and importance of Family Religion; and we hope, ere long, it
will be found in the Library of every family.

BOOK OF POLITENESS.— The Gentleman and Lady's Book of Po-
liteness and Propriety of Deportment. Dedicated to the Youth of both
sexes. By Madame Celnart. Translated from the Sixth Paris edition,
enlarged and improved. Fifth American edition.

THE BEAUTIES OF HISTORY, or Examples of the Opposite
Effects of Virtue and Vice, for the use of Schools and Families, with
Questions for the Examination of Students. 1 vol. 12mo., with plates.

This work is introduced into our High School. It is particularly adapted for a
Class Book in all our male and female Seminaries, &c.

"We have received from the publishers, Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, a very neat
duodecimo volume, entitled ' The Beauties of History ; or, Examples of the oppo-
site effects of Virtue and Vice, drawn from real life.' After a careful examination
of this book, we can conscientiously recommend it to parents and teachers as a
most meritorious performance. There are here collected, within a narrow com-
pass, the most striking examples of individual virtue and vice which are spread
forth on the pages of history, or are recorded in personal biography. The noblest
precepts are recommended for the guidance of youth ; and in the most impressive
manner is he taught to conquer the degrading impulses which lower the standard
of the human character. We have not lately met with a volume which, in design
and execution, seemed so acceptable as this. The book, moreover, is handsomely
got up, and illustrated with wood engravings."

GRIMSHAW'S LADIES' LEXICON, and Parlour Companion; con-
taining nearly every word in the English language, and exhibiting the
plurals of nouns and the participles of verbs, being also particularly adapted
to the use of Academies and Schools. By William Grimshaw, Esq., author
of the Gentlemen's Lexicon, &c.

THE GENTLEMEN'S LEXICON, or Pocket Dictionary ; containing
nearly every word in the English language, and exhibiting the plurals of
nouns and the participles of verbs ; being also particularly adapted to the
use of Academies and Schools. By William Grimshaw, author of the
Ladies' Lexicon, History of England, of the United States, &c.

" TLie public are again indebted to the talents of Mr. Grimshaw, for the very
useful books which he has called ' The Ladies' and Gentlemen's Lexicon.' The
peculiarity and advantages of these works may be collected from the following

CHEAP BOOKS PUBLISHED BY GRIGG & ELLIOT.

portion of the preface. ' They differ from all preceding works of the kind in this,
that they exhibit the plurals of all nouns which are not formed by the mere addi-
tion of the letter S, and also the participles of every verb now generally used, and
unless accompanied by a particular caution. No word has been admitted which is
not now of polite or popular use, and no word has been excluded which is required
either in epistolary composition or conversation/ "

A DICTIONARY OF SELECT AND POPULAR QUOTATIONS,

which are in daily use : taken from the Latin, French, Greek, Spanish, and
Italian languages ; together with a copious collection of Law maxims and
Law. terms ; translated into English, with illustrations, historical and idio-
matic. Sixth American edition, corrected with additions. 1 vol. 12mo.

In preparing this sixth edition for the press, care has been taken to give the work
a thorough revision, to correct some errors which had before escaped notice, and
to insert many additional Quotations, Law maxims and Law terms. In this state
it is offered to the public in the stereotype form. This little work should find its
way into every family library.

MALTE-BRUN'S NEW AND ELEGANT QUARTO ATLAS;

containing forty coloured maps.

The Atlas is particularly adapted for Colleges, Academies, Schools, and private
families. There is no work that ever was published in this country which has
received more numerous and flattering recommendations.

THE AMERICAN CHESTERFIELD; or "Youth's Guide to the
Way to Wealth, Honor, and Distinction," &c. : containing also a complete
treatise on the art of Carving.

" We most cordially recommend the American Chesterfield to general atten-
tion ; but to young persons particularly, as one of the best works of the kind that
has ever been published in this country. It cannot be too highly appreciated, nor
its perusal be unproductive of satisfaction and usefulness."

SENECA'S MORALS— By way of abstract to which is added, a Dis-
course under the title of an After-Thought, by Sir Roger L'Estrange, Knt.
A new fine edition, in 1 vol. 18mo.

A copy of this valuable little work should be found in every family library.

THE DAUGHTER'S OWN BOOK; Or Practical Hints from a Fa-
ther to his Daughter. In 1 vol. 18mo.

This is one of the most practical and truly valuable treatises on the culture and
discipline of the female mind, which has hitherto been published in this country,
and the publishers are very confident, from the great demand for this invaluable
little work, that ere long it will be found in the library of every young lady.

GOLDSMITH'S ANIMATED NATURE, in 2 vols. 8vo., beautifully
illustrated.

" Goldsmith can never be made obsolete, while delicate genius, exquisite feeling,
fine invention, the most harmonious metre, and the happiest diction are at all
valued."

This is a work that should be in the library of every family, being written by
one of the most talented authors in the English language.

THE WORKS OF LAURENCE STERNE, in 1 vol. 8vo., with a
life of the author, written by himself.

The beauties of this Author are so well known, and his errors in style and
expression so few and far between, that one reads with renewed delight his deli-
cate turns, &c.

CHEAP BOOKS PUBLISHED BY GR1GG & ELLIOT.

JOSEPHUS'S (FLAVIUS) WORKS. By the late William Whiston,
A. M. From the last London edition, complete.

As a matter of course, every family in our country has a copy of the Holy Bible
— and as the presumption is, the greater portion often consult its pages, we take
the liberty of saying to all those that do, that the perusal of the writings of Jose-
phus will be found very interesting and instructing.

All those who wish to possess a beautiful and correct copy of this invaluable
work, would do well to purchase this edition. It is for sale at all the principal
bookstores in the United States, by country merchants generally in the Southern
and Western States.

SAY'S POLITICAL ECONOMY. A Treatise on Political Economy,
or the Production, Distribution, and Consumption of Wealth. By Jean
Baptiste Say. Fifth American edition, with Additional Notes, by C. C.
Biddle, Esq., in 1 vol. 8vo.

The editor of the North American Review, speaking of Say, observes, that
" he is the most popular, and perhaps the most able writer on Political Economy,
since the time of Smith."

BENNET'S (Rev. John) LETTERS TO A YOUNG LADY, on a

variety of subjects calculated to improve the heart, to form the manners,
and enlighten the understanding. " That our Daughters may be as polished
corners of the Temple."

The publishers sincerely hope, (for the happiness of mankind,) that a copy of this
valuable little work will be found the companion of every young lady, as much of
the happiness of every family depends on the proper cultivation of the female mind.

BURDER'S VILLAGE SERMONS, or 101 plain and short Discourses
on the principal doctrines of the Gospel ; intended for the use of families,
Sunday schools, or companies assembled for religious instruction in country
villages. By George Burder. To which is added, to each Sermon, a short
Prayer, with some general prayers for families, schools, &c., at the end of
the work. Complete in 1 vol. 8vo.

These sermons, which are characterized by a beautiful simplicity, the entire
absence of controversy, and a true evangelical spirit, have gone through many and
large editions, and been translated into several of the continental languages.
" They have also been the honored means not only of converting many individuals,
but also of introducing the Gospel into districts, and even into parish churches,
where before it was comparatively unknown."

" This work fully deserves the immortality it has attained."

This is a fine library edition of this invaluable work, and when we say that it

should be found in the possession of every family, we only reiterate the sentiments

and sincere wishes of all who take a deep interest in the eternal welfare of mankind.

NEW SONG BOOK.— Grigg's Southern and Western Songster; being
a choice collection of the most fashionable songs, many of which are ori-
ginal, in 1 vol. 18mo.

Great care was taken in the selection, to admit no song that contained, in the
slightest degree, any indelicate or improper allusions, and with great propriety it
may claim the title of " The Parlour Song Book or Songster." The immortal
Shakspeare observes —

''The man that hath not music in himself,
Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds,
Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils."

FAMILY PRAYERS AND HYMNS, adapted to family worship, and
tables for the regular reading of the Scriptures. By Rev. S. C. Winches-
ter, A. M., late Pastor of the Sixth Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, and
the Presbvterian Church at Natchez, Miss. 1 vol. 12mo.

CHEAP BOOKS PUBLISHED BY GRIGG & ELLIOT.

BYRON'S WORKS, complete in 1 vol. 8vo., including all his Sup-
pressed and Attributed Poems.

$3° This edition has been carefully compared with the recent London edition of
Mr. Murray, and made complete by the addition of more than fifty pages of poems
heretofore unpublished in England. Among these there are a number that have
never appeared in any American edition ; and tbe Publishers believe they are war-
ranted in saying, that this is the most complete edition of Lord Byron's Poetical
Works ever published in the United States.

COWPER AND THOMSON'S PROSE AND POETICAL WORKS,

complete in 1 vol. 8vo., including two hundred and fifty Letters, and sundry
Poems of Cowper, never before published in this country ; and of Thom-
son a new and interesting Memoir, and upwards of twenty new Poems, for
the first time printed from his own Manuscripts, taken from a late edition
of the Aldine Poets now publishing in London.

The distinguished Professor Silliman, speaking of this edition, observes, " I am
as much gratified by the elegance and fine taste of your edition, as by the noble
tribute of genius and moral excellence which these delightful authors have left for
all future generations ; and Cowper especially, is not less conspicuous as a true
Christian moralist and teacher, than as a poet of great power and exquisite taste."

THE POETICAL WORKS OF MRS. HEMANS, complete in 1 vol.
8vo.

?£r This is a new and complete edition, with a splendid engraved likeness of
Mrs. Hemans, on steel.

" As no work in the English language can be commended with more confidence,
it will argue bad taste in a female in this country to be without a complete edition
of the writings of one who was an honor to her sex and to humanity, and whose
productions, from first to last, contain no syllable calculated to call a blush to the
cheek of modesty and virtue. There is, moreover, in Mrs. Hemans' poetry a
moral purity, and a religious feeling, which commend it, in an especial manner, to
the discriminating reader. No parent or guardian will be under the necessity of
imposing restrictions with regard to the free perusal of every production emanating
from this gifted woman. There breathes throughout the whole a most eminent
exemption from impropriety of thought or diction ; and there is at times a pen-
siveness of tone, a winning sadness in her more serious compositions, which tells
of a soul which has been lifted from the contemplation of terrestrial things, to
divine communings with beings of a purer world."

THE POETICAL WORKS OF ROGERS, CAMPBELL, MONT-
GOMERY, LAMB, AND KIRK WHITE, complete in 1 vol. 8vo.

MILTON, YOUNG, GRAY, BEATTIE, AND COLLINS' POETI-
CAL WORKS, complete in 1 vol. 8vo.

HEBER, POLLOK AND CRABBE'S POETICAL WORKS, com-
plete in 1 vol. 8vo.

" Among the beautiful, valuable, and interesting volumes which the enterprise
and taste of our publishers have presented to the reading community, we have sel-
dom met with one which we have more cordially greeted and can more confidently
and satisfactorily recommend, than that, embracing in a single, substantial, well-
bound, and handsomely printed octavo, the poetical works of Bishop Heber, Ro-
bert Pollok, and the Rev. George Crabbe. What a constellation of poetic ardor,
glowing piety, and intellectual brilliancy ! Such writers require no eulogy. Their
fame is established and universal. The sublimity, pathos, and piety of all these
writers, have given them a rank at once with the lovers of poetry and the friends
of religion, unsurpassed perhaps by that of any other recent authors in our lan-
guage. A more delightful addition could scarcely be made to the library of the
gentleman or lady of taste and refinement. The prize poems, hymns, and mis-

CHEAP BOOKS PUBLISHED BY GR1GG & ELLIOT.

cellaneous writings of Bishop Heber, the -' Course of Time' by Pollok, and the
rich, various, and splendid productions of the Rev. George Crabbe, are among the
standard works, the classics of our language. To obtain and preserve them in
one volume, cannot but be a desirable object to their admirers." And it is to be
hoped it will be found in the library of every family.

A writer in the Boston Traveller holds the following language with reference to
these valuable editions :

. Mr. Editor — I wish, without any idea of puffing, to say a word or two upon the
"Library of English Poets" that is now published at Philadelphia, by Grigg &
Elliot ; it is certainly, taking into consideration the elegant manner in which it is
printed, and the reasonable price at which it is afforded to purchasers, the best
edition of the modern British Poets that has ever been published in this country.
Each volume is an octavo of about 500 pages, double columns, stereotyped, and
accompanied with fine engravings, and biographical sketches, and most of them
are reprinted from Galignani's French edition. As to its value we need only men-
tion that it contains the entire works of Montgomery, Gray, Beattie, Collins, By-
ron, Cowper, Thomson, Burns, Milton, Young, Scott, Moore, Coleridge, Rogers,
Campbell, Lamb, Hemans, Heber, Kirk White, Crabbe, the Miscellaneous Works
of Goldsmith, and other martyrs of the lyre. The publishers are doing a great
service by their publication, and their volumes are almost in as great demand as
the fashionable novels of the day, and they deserve to be so, for they are certainly
printed in a style superior to that in which we have before had the works of the
English Poets.

BIOLANDS NAT1JRAL HISTORY of Animals, Birds, Fishes, Rep-
tiles and Insects, illustrated with numerous and beautiful engravings. By
John Bigland, author of a "View of the World," "Letters on Universal
History," &c. Complete in 1 vol. 12mo.

&5~ This work is particularly adapted for the use of Schools and Families, form-
ing the most elegantly written and complete work on the subject of Natural His-
tory ever published, and is worthy of the special attention of the Teachers of all
our Schools and Academies.

BIGLAND'S NATURAL HISTORY OF ANIMALS, illustrated with
12 beautifully coloured engravings.

BIGLAND'S HISTORY OF BIRDS, illustrated with 12 beautifully
coloured engravings.

PERSIA. A DESCRIPTION OF. By Shoberl, with 12 coloured
plates.

These works are got up in a very superior style, and well deserve an introduction
to the shelves of every family library, as they are very interesting, and particularly
adapted to the juvenile class of readers.

CONVERSATIONS ON ITALY, in English and French, designed for
the use of Schools, Academies, &c., by Miss Julia S. Hawkes, in 1 vol
12mo.

55- This work is spoken very highly of by Miss C. Beecher, (who formerly
taught in Hartford, Conn., and who has done as much for the elevation of the
female character, and for education generally, as any other lady, in this country),
and has received the highest recommendation from our most distinguished Teach-
ers, and the American Press.

Miss Hawkes was for many years, and now is, one of the most accomplished and
distinguished female teachers in the City of Philadelphia.

SMILEY'S ARITHMETICAL RULES AND TABLES, for young
beginners.

This is the oest work of the kind now in print ; but teachers are particular!)
requested to examine for themselves.

CHEAP BOOKS PUBLISHED BY GRIGG & ELLIOT.

SMILEY'S ARITHMETIC, or the New Federal Calculator, in dollars
and cents. This work contains, among other important improvements,
Questions on the Rules and Theory of Arithmetic, which are considered by
teachers generally, very conducive to the improvement of the pupil.

Although a prejudice exists among some teachers in favour of the old works on
arithmetic, yet the very liberal patronage which this work has received, must be
considered as decisive evidence of the great estimation in Which it is held by most
of the instructors of youth. Upwards of 250,000 copies have been printed' and
sold. The sums being altogether in dollars and cents, gives it a decided preference
over any other arithmetic in use. The most distinguished teachers of our city
pronounce it superior to any other like work ; therefore the publisher sincerely
hopes this useful improvement will overcome the prejudice that many teachers
have to introducing new works, particularly those preceptors who wish to discharge
their duty faithfully to parent and child.

The editors of the New York Telegraph, speaking of Smiley's Arithmetic,
observe, " We do not hesitate to pronounce it an improvement upon every work
of that kind previously before the public, and as such recommend its adoption in
all our schools and academies."

A KEY TO THE ABOVE ARITHMETIC ; in which all the exam-
ples necessary for a learner are wrought at large, and also solutions given
of all the various rules. Designed principally to facilitate the labour of
teachers, and assist such as have not the opportunity of a tutor's aid. By
T. T. Smiley, author of the New Federal Calculator, &c. &c.

CONVERSATIONS ON CHEMISTRY; in which the Elements of
that Science are familiarly explained and illustrated by Experiments and
Engravings on wood. From the last London edition. In which all the
late Discoveries and Improvements are brought up to the present time, by
Dr. Thomas P. Jones.

All preceptors who have a sincere desire to' impart a correct knowledge of this
important science to their pupils, will please examine the present edition, as the
correction of all the errors in the body of the work renders it very valuable.

The eminent Professor Bigelow, of Harvard University, in noticing this work,
observes, '' I am satisfied that it contains the fundamental principles and truths of
that science, expressed in a clear, intelligible, and interesting manner. The high
character of the author, as a lecturer, and a man of science, will, I doubt not,
secure for the work the good opinion of the public, and cause its extensive adoption
among seminaries and students."

The learned Professor Silliman observes, that this edition is decidedly more
valuable than any preceding one.

CONVERSATIONS ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY; in which
the Elements of that Science are familiarly explained. Illustrated with
plates. By the author of " Conversations on Chemistry," &c. With con-
siderable additions, corrections, and improvements in the bo<ty of the work,
appropriate Questions, and a Glossary. By Dr. Thomas P. Jones.

The correction of all the errors in the body of the work, renders this edition
very valuable ; and all who understand the subject, consider it superior to any
other in use.

CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE. Being a complete Book of Lines,
for Carpentry, Joinery, &c., in I vol. 4to.

The Theory and Practice well explained, and fully exemplified on eighty-
four copperplates, including some observations, &c., on the strength of
Timber ; by Peter Nicholson. Tenth edition.

This invaluable work superseded, on its first appearance, all existing works on
the subject, and still retains its original celebrity.

Every Carpenter in our country should possess a copy of this invaluable work.

CHEAP BOOKS PUBLISHED BY GR1GG & ELLIOT.

AT-

bound.
stitched,
stitched.

bound,
stitched,
stitched.

bound,
stitched,
stitched.

bound,
stitched,
stitched.

bound,
stitched.

bound,
stitched.

sheep.

sheep.

WEEMS' LIFE OF GEN. MARION.
WEEMS' LIFE OF GEN. WASHINGTON.
LIFE OF ANDREW JACKSON.
GRIMSHAW'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND, -

" QUESTIONS TO Do., -

" KEY TO Do., -

" HISTORY OF ROME, -' -

" QUESTIONS TO Do., -

" KEY TO Do,, -

" HISTORY OF THE U. STATES, -

" QUESTIONS TO Do., -

" KEY TO Do., -

" HISTORY OF GREECE,

QUESTIONS TO Do., -

" KEY TO Do., -

" HISTORY OF FRANCE,

KEYS AND QUESTIONS TO Do.,

" HISTORY OF NAPOLEON, -

" KEYS AND QUESTIONS TO Do.,

THE YOUNG GENTLEMEN'S LEXICON, -
THE YOUNG LADIES' LEXICON,
MALTE-BRUN'S NEW COLLEGE AND FAMILY
LAS, with 40-icoloured Maps, 4to., -

VIRGIL DELPHINI,

HORACE DELPHINI,

HUTCHINSON'S XENOPHON, (with notes), -

TORREY'S FIRST BOOK FOR CHILDREN,

" PLEASING COMPANION, -

" MORAL INSTRUCTOR, -

MURRAY'S EXERCISES, 12mo., ....

« KEY TO Do.,

FIRST READING LESSONS.

GRIGG & ELLIOT'S

NEW SERIES OF

COMMON SCHOOL HEADERS,

NUMBERS FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD.

These books are particularly adapted for an introduction into the Schools
generally in the South and West; and- Teachers who feel a deep interest
in promoting the welfare of their pupils, will no doubt after a careful exa-
mination give them a preference over all other Readers now in use.

Public, private, and social libraries, anil all wlio purchase to sell
again, supplied on ilie most reasonable terms with, every article in the
Book and Stationary line * including new novels, and all new works
in every department of literature and science* All orders will be
thankfully received and promptly attended to»

bound,
bound,
bound,
bound,
stitched.

- half-bound.

- half-bound.

- half-bound.

- half-bound.

Plate 1.

Reptiles.

RUSCHESTBEHGER'S SERIES.

FIRST BOOKS OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ELEMENTS OF HERPETOLOGY,

AND OP

ICHTHYOLOGY:

PREPARED FOR THE USE OF

SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES,

BY

W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M.D.

Burgeon in the U. S. Navy ; Fello-w of the College of Physicians ; Hon.

Member of the Philadelphia Medical Society ; Member of the

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Sec. Sec.

FROM THE TEXT OF

MILNE EDWARDS, AND ACHILLE COMTE,

PROFESSORS OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE COLLEGES
OF HENRI IV, AND CHARLEMAGNE.

WITH PLATES.

PHILADELPHIA:
GRIGG & ELLIOT,

NO. 9 NORTH FOURTH STREET,

1844.

ENTERED according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1841, by
W. S. W. RtrscHENBERGER, M. D., in the Clerk's Office of the Eastern
District of Pennsylvania.

CHAMBER OF THE BOARD OF CONTROLLERS,
OF THE

PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

FIRST SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA.
Philadelphia, December 14th, 1841.

At a meeting of the Board of Controllers of the Public Schools
of the First School District, of Pennsylvania, held at the Con-
trollers' Chamber, on Tuesday, December 14th, 1841, it was

RESOLVED : That the " First Book of Natural History, pre-
pared for the use of Schools and Colleges, by W. S. W. Ruschen-
berger, M. D.," be introduced into the Grammar Schools, to be
used therein at the discretion of the Visiting Committees.

THOMAS B. FLORENCE, Secretary.

From the minutes.

STEREOTYPED BY J. FAG AN.

PRINTED BY T. K. AND P. G. COLLINS, PHILADELPHIA.

CONTENTS

$&4

FOURTH BOOK OF NATURAL HISTORY

REPTILES.
LESSON I.

General Characters. — Form. — Skeleton. — Motion. — Nervous System. —
Senses. — Nutrition. — Apparatus of Digestion. — Blood. — Respiration. —
Lungs. — Temperature. — Secretions. — Eggs. — Classification.

LESSON II.

Order of Chelonians, or Tortoises. — Organization. — Division into four
Families. — Land Tortoises. — Fresh water Tortoises. — River Tortoises.
— Sea Tortoises. — Tortoise Shell : its use.

LESSON III.

Order of Sauria.— Organization. — Classification.

Family of Crocodilida. — Circulation. — Habits — Crocodiles properly so called
— Alligators.

Family of Lacertinida. — Characters. — Monitors. — Lizards.

Family of Iguanida.— Characters. — Dragons. — Iguanas. — Basilisks.

Family of Geckotida. — Characters. — Habits.

Family of Chamseleonida. — Characters. — Common Chameleon.

Family of Scincoidea. — Characters. — Scinques. — Fossil Saurians.

Order of Ophidia, or Serpents. — Characters.

Family of Anguina. — Characters.

Family of Serpentia, or True Serpents. — Coluber. — Boa. — Venomous Ser-
pents.— Rattle Snake. — Trigonocephalus. — Vipers.— Naia, or Asps. —
Effects and treatment of the bites ot Vipers, &c.

Family of Nuda. — Characters.

LESSON IV.

Order of Batrachia. — Organization. — Classification.

Family of Anoura. — Metamorphosis of Tadpoles. — Habits. — Frogs. — Tree-

Frogs — Toads.— Pipa.

Family of Urodela. — Salamanders, or Water Newts.
Family of Branchifera. — Axolotl. — Menobranchus. — Proteus. — Siren.
Family of Apoda.— Ceecilia.

CONTENTS OF FOURTH BOOK OF NATURAL HISTORY.

LESSON V.

FISHES.

Class of Fishes. — General Characters. — Form. — Integuments. — Skeleton —
Muscular Apparatus. — Swimming -Bladder. — Senses. — Apparatus 01
Digestion. — Circulation. — Respiration. — Animal Electricity. — Habits. —
Fishing. — Classification.

LESSON VI.

Order of Acanthopterygians. — Family of Percoides, (Perches, Rockfish.) —
Family of Mulloides, (Red-Mullets, Flying-fishes.) — Family of Mailed-
cheeks. — Family of Scienoides, — Family of Sparoides. — Family of
Menides. — Family of Squamipennes. — Family of Labyrinthiform
Pharyngeals. — Family of Scomberoides, ( Mackerel. — Mackerel
Fishery. — Tunny. — Sword- Fish, &c.

LESSON VII.

Order of Abdominal Malacopterygians. — Division.

Family of Cyprinoides. — Carp. — Gold-fish. — Gudgeon. — Tench, See

Family of Esoces. — Pike. — Exocets, or Flying-fishes.

Family of Siluroides. — Electric Silurus, &c.

Family of Salmonides. — Common Salmon. — Salmon Fishing. — Trout. — •

Smelt.
Family of Clupese. — Herrings.— Herring Fishing. — Shad. — Sardines. —

Anchovies, &c.

LESSON VIII.

Order of Subbrachian Malacopterygians. — Family of Gadoides. — Cods.—
Common Cod. — Cod Fishery. — Whiting. — Hake. — Ling.

Family of Pleuronectes. — Organization. — Plaice. — Turbot. — Sole. — Family
of Discoboli.

Family of Echeneis. — Remora, or Sucking-fish.

Order of Apodous Malacopterygians. — Eels. — Common Eel. — Sea Eel.—
Gymnotus Electricus.

Order of Lophobranchians. — Organization. — Hippocampus.

Order of Plectognathi. — Organization. — Diodon. — Trunk-fish.

LESSON IX.

Division of Cartilaginous Fishes, or Chondropterygians. — Organization.
Order of Sturiones. — Sturgeons.. — Caviar — Fish-glue.
Order of Selachii. — Sharks. — Saw-fish. — Rays. — Torpedo.
Order of Cyclostomi. — Lampreys. — Myxines.

PREFACE.

The Fourth of the Series of First-Books of Natural History, treats of
Reptiles and Fishes, two classes of the Animal Kingdom, which are vastly
useful to man, affording him inexhaustible supplies of excellent food. Be-
sides being useful, they are deeply interesting in a physiological point oi
view, illustrating as they do, in their ecpnomy, many of the important vital
functions of our own organization. In them we see how the allwise, and
benevolent Creator has wonderfully adapted their structure to the circum-
stances under which they were destined to breathe, and have their being ;
and at almost every step we might pause to admire the surpassing wisdom
of Him who made them such, and bow down in gratitude for the bounties
showered upon us, every where in this boundless and beautiful creation.
But had we given place to reflections of this nature in the course of our
little work, we should have far exceeded our limits, and probably obscured
the sketch we wished to draw clear and intelligible.

Some objection may be made perhaps to the systematic names and tech-
nical words, which have been necessarily used without immediate explana-
tion. To meet this difficulty, a copious glossary, with the etymologies and
pronounciation of the words, has been added, which will facilitate the young
reader, and prepare the way to more extensive reading on the subject. It
will be seen that many of the words which have been explained in the
glossaries of preceding books of the series, are also found in the present
volume. This repetition renders each book, to a considerable extent,
available by itself, and obviates the necessity of recurring from one to the
other for the explanation of words. All persons who are desirous of acquiring
a knowledge of Natural History, are not acquainted with the Latin and
Greek languages ; therefore, the words from the latter have been printed in
italics, in preference to using the proper Greek characters, and the omega,
where it occurs has been designated thus, 6.

As in the preceding volumes, I have not confined myself exclusively to
the works of MM. Edwards and Cornte, the chief sources from which the
materials of these Primers have been derived ; but I have freely availed
myself also of the labours of Cuvier, T. Rymer Jones, and others.

It is not designed that the questions at the foot of the page shall be
answered by repeating the text from memory ; the pupil should be able to
give the facts in his own language, and sliow he understands the subject.

The plates were engraved by Mr. G. Thomas, No. 37 South Third Street,
Philadelphia.

Philadelphia, July, 1842

HERPETOLOGY.

LESSON I.

GENERAL CHARACTERS. — Form. — Skeleton. — Motion. — Nervous
System. — Senses. — Nutrition. — Apparatus oj Digestion. —
Blood. — Respiration. — Lungs. — Temperature. — Secretion. —
Eggs. — Classification.

CLASS OF REPTILES.

1. That part of Natural History which treats of Reptiles, is
termed Herpetology, — from the Greek, erpeton, a creeping thing,
a reptile, and logos, a discourse.

2. The CLASS OP REPTILES comprises those oviparous verte-
brate animals that have cold blood, an aerial respiration, and an
incomplete circulation. They have lungs like mammals and
birds ; but their circulatory apparatus is always so arranged
that a part of the venous blood mingles with the arterial, without
having passed through the respiratory organ, and in general,
this mixture takes place in the heart, which has a single ventricle,
into which both auricles open.

3. In their general form, reptiles bear a closer resemblance to
mammals than to birds ; but in this respect they vary very much.
The head is almost always small, and the body much elongated,
(Plate I, Jig. 1, 6, and 7.) ; sometimes they are entirely without
extremities, or only possess vestiges of them ; but most of these
animals have four paws, formed for walking or swimming.
Ordinarily, their extremities are too short to prevent the body
from dragging on the ground, and, instead of being parallel to
the axis of the body and moving in this direction, they generally
stand out from the side and move from without inwards, perpen-
dicularly to the axis of the body, an arrangement very unfavour-
able to locomotion ; most reptiles seem to creep rather than walk,
from which circumstance they derive their. name.

1. What is Herpetology ?

2. What are the general characters of those animals that are comprised
in the Class of Reptiles?

3. What class of animals do Reptiles more closely resemble in their general
form ? What is the position of their extremities ? From what circumstance
do they derive their name ?

22 SKELETON.— MOVEMENT.

4. The skeleton in reptiles is composed of almost the same
bones as those we have already seen in mammals and birds r
but it often happens that some among them are entirely wanting :
serpents, for example, have no extremities, nor have they any
sternum ; and frogs have no ribs.

5. The head, in the arrangement of its" bones, resembles that
of birds more than that of mammals ; the cranium is small ; the
fare is generally much elongated, and the lower jaw is suspended
from a tympanic bone, which is placed between it and the cranium.
In general, the head is articulated with the vertebral column
by a single tubercle (or condyle,) which has many facettes, and
possesses only very slight mobility.

6. The structure of the vertebral column differs extremely in
the different reptiles : in serpents it is very long and very flexi-
ble ; in frogs it is very short and slightly moveable ; and in tor-
toises its middle part is united so as to form a single bony piece.

7. Generally, the ribs are very numerous ; in serpents, they
exist through almost the entire length of the body ; the same is
the case in certain reptiles resembling lizards, while in others,
these bones are merely rudimentary, or entirely wanting. In
tortoises, they are soldered, as it were, to each other ; and with the
dorsal portion of the vertebral column, form the great shield or
buckler which covers the backs of these animals, and which is
called carapax.

8. Without being as much developed, the bones of the shoulder
are very analogous to those of birds. The anterior extremity
consists of an arm composed of a single bone, the humerus ; a
fore-arm consisting of a radius and ulna, generally distinct from
each other, and a hand which is sometimes in the form of a fin,
and sometimes resembling a foot.

9. The movements of reptiles, are, in general, less active, and
less sustained than those of animals with warm blood, as might
be anticipated from the more limited character of their respira-
tion; for there always exists an intimate relation between these
two functions. Their muscles receive less blood, and are of a
whitish tint; and it is also remarked that these organs preserve their
irritability for a longer time after they have been removed from the
influence of the nervous system.' In warm-blooded animals, the

4. What is the character of the skeleton in Reptiles?

5. What is the general character of the head in Reptiles ?

6. Is the structure of the vertebral column the same in all Reptiles ?

7. What is the character of the ribs in Reptiles ?

8. What is the character of the anterior extremity of Reptiles?

9. Why are the motions of Reptiles less active than those of mammals
and birds ? What are the characters of the muscles of Reptiles ?

NERVOUS SYSTEM. 23

destruction of the brain and spinal marrow, or the section of a
nerve is at once followed by a complete paralysis, either general
or local, and, very soon after this phenomenon occurs, it becomes
impossible to excite muscular contraction, by pricking or other-
wise stimulating the affected parts. In reptiles, on the contrary,
the faculty of moving under the influence of stimulation, is pre-
served under similar circumstances, for a very long time ; for
example, the tail of a lizard detached from the body, continues
to move for several hours, and we may often see a tortoise that
has been apparently dead for several days, move its limbs when
the muscles are stimulated by pricking them. We may conclude
that, in these animals, the division of the physiological labour and
localization of the different functions of the nervous system, are
not carried so far as in mammals and birds, and hence there is a
less intimate dependence of the different parts of the economy
upon each other.

10. The encephalon of reptiles is but little developed ; the sur-
face of the brain is smooth and without convolutions. The two
hemispheres are oval, more or less elongated, and internally
hollowed by a single ventricle. The spinal marrow, compared
with the brain, is very much developed, and it is also remarked
that the nerves are larger, proportionally to the volume of the
central parts of the nervous system, than in the superior animals.

11. Most reptiles have no special organ of touch, and the
nature of their integuments prevents their tactile sensibility from
being much developed. It is true, that in some of them the skin is
entirely naked, and the epidermis is scarcely distinct ; but, for the
most part, it is covered by a thick epidermic layer, composed of
horny or bony plates which are more or less hard. In reptiles
with a naked skin, and an epidermis of moderate consistence, it
is frequently detached and renewed ; and, in those animals where
it is most consistent, it becomes detached, at different seasons of
the year, to give place to a new epidermis ; sometimes this kind
of moulting is partial, or at least, the epidermis only falls off in
flakes ; but at other times it is entirely detached, and preserves
the form of the animal upon which it grew. Serpents shed their
coats in this way several times in the course of the year.

12. The eyes are ordinarily small, but in their structure, are
like those of mammals and birds ; but there is rarely found in
them any prolongation or fold of the retina resembling thepccten.

10. What is the general character of the Encephalon ? What is remark-
able in the nerves of Reptiles ?

11. Have Reptiles an organ of touch ? Is the epidermis permanent in
Reptiles ?

12. What is the general character of the eyes of Reptiles? Have they
any eye lids ?

24 ORGANS OF SENSE.

The orbits are incomplete, and generally there is a third eye-lid
which is semi-transparent, and moves transversely.

13. The structure of the ear is less complicated than in the
superior animals. The external ear is almost always entirely
wanting ; there is no auditory canal, and the tympanum is on a
level with the head and exposed, or concealed beneath the skin.
The organ of smell is but little developed ; the nasal fossae are
generally very small, and the pituitary membrane — the lining
membrane of the nose — presents few, or no folds.

14. Most reptiles swallow their food without chewing it, and
their sense of taste appears to be very dull. The tongue is some-
times thick and fleshy ; but, in general, it is thin, dry, very pro-
tractile, and often bifid ; it sometimes becomes an organ of pre-
hension, the play of which is very remarkable.

15. Few reptiles live exclusively upon vegetable matter.
Almost all of them are carnivorous, and, with some exceptions,
they hunt living prey which they generally swallow whole : the
selection of the animals upon which they feed, is, in a measure,
regulated by the dimensions of their mouth. Most of them drink
but little, and they can fast for a very long time without incon-
venience.

16. The mouth is deeply cleft, and generally armed with teeth,
which are sometimes found in the palate as well as in the jaws ;
they are almost always of a conical form, and, in general, in
place of being lodged in alveoli, they are soldered, as it were, by
their base to the bone that sustains them. In some reptiles that
are without teeth, the jaws are covered by a horny plate, the
edges of which are trenchant, like the beak of a bird ; but they
never have fleshy and moveable lips like mammals.

17. Glandular organs in considerable numbers ordinarily
surround the mouth of reptiles, and pour into it either a gluey
humor or saliva ; sometimes there are also glands, very closely
resembling salivary glands, which secrete a violent poison.

18. As it is not necessary for their food to remain in the
mouth for mastication, a veil of the palate would have been, in
general, useless, and, in fact it rarely exists. In most of these
animals, the pharynx is not distinct from the mouth, and often

13. Is the organ of hearing the same in Reptiles as it is in mammals?
••« Is the sense of smell acute or otherwise ?

,* 14. Have Reptiles a strong sense of taste ? What is the character of the
tongue ?

15. Upon what do Reptiles generally feed ? Do they drink much ?

16. What is the form of the teeth of Reptiles ? Where are they situate ?
Do they exist in all Reptiles ?

17. What is the character of the glands found about the mouth ?

18. Have Reptiles any veil of the palate ? What is the character of tho
pharynx ? What are the general characters of the digestive organs ?

CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 25

there is not a well defined line of demarcation between the
(Esophagus and stomach, which is simple and various in form.
The intestines are short and without a ccecal appendix ; the large
intestine differs little from the small, and terminates in a cloaca.
The liver is generally voluminous, and there is a gall bladder,
pancreas, and spleen.

19. The blood of these animals is red, and its globules are
elliptical. Their volume is much greater than in mammals and
birds, and the number of them is considerably less. The dispo-
sition of the circulatory apparatus varies; but there- is always a
direct communication between the vascular system of red
(arterial) blood, and the vascular system of black (venous) blood,
so that these two liquids mingle with each other, and the organs
receive only blood, imperfectly arterialised by the act of respiraton.
The heart is almost always composed of two auricles, (or/, og,)
which empty into a single ventricle, (r.)
Therefore, the arterial blood coming from
the lungs and received in the left auricle,
(or/.)> and the venous blood coming from *~^
different parts of the body into the right

auricle, mingle in a common ventricle, (r.) | 'fffl^.^ Fig 1.

One part of this mixture returns by the
aorta to the different organs it is des-
tined to nourish, and another goes to
the lungs, through the pulmonary arte-
ries (ay;,) which rise immediately from
the common ventricle or from the aorta itself.* It appears that
in crocodiles, the heart is the same in form as it is in birds and
mammals, and a partition separates the right ventricle from the
left : therefore the arterial does not mingle with the venous blood ;
but there is a particular arrangement of the arteries which effects
this mixture at a short distance from the heart, and the vessels

* Explanation of the Figure. — Heart and principal vessels of a tortoise, —
c, ventricle, — od, right auricle, which receives the blood from the great
venous trunk, (re,) and pours ft into the ventricle, (v) ; — Off, left auricle,
which receives the arterial blood coming from the lungs by the pulmonary
veins, (vp) and also pours it into the ventricle; — ag,ad, the two aortas which
arise from the single ventricle, arid which, after being carried backwards,
unite to form the vertical aorta, (av) ; — oc, branch of the right aorta which
furnishes the carotid, brachial arteries, &c. — ap, apt the two pulmonary
arteries, the common trunk of which arises from the ventricle along side of
the aortas. The arrows indicate the course of the blood.

19. What is the colour of the blood in Reptiles? How does their circu-
lation differ from that of mammals ? What is the course of the circulation
in Reptiles?
2

26 RESPIRATION.— TEMPERATURE.

of all the posterior half of the body only receive imperfectly
arterialised blood. Until lately, it was believed that, in other
animals of this class, (the Batrachians,) there was, on the con-
trary, but a single ventricle, but it has been demonstrated to be
otherwise.

20. Respiration is carried on with little activity in reptiles ;
most of these animals consume but little oxygen, and can be
deprived of it for a long time without becoming asphyxiate.
Temperature exerts the greatest influence over this function, and
in the warm season, the necessity of breathing is more vividly
felt than in winter. A frog, for example, deprived of air in the
summer, perishes in less than two hours ; while in winter, it will
continue to live for several days. In some reptiles, there are
branchiae (gills,) during the early period of life ; but the lungs are
soon developed, and then the branchiae disappear, so that the same
animal has at first an aquatic, and afterwards an aerial respira-
tion : there are some even that preserve these organs throughout
life, and which, having lungs at the same time, are completely
amphibious ; but most reptiles have lungs only. We must not
conclude however, that their respiration is exclusively aerial ;
for, in many of these animals, the skin is also a respiratory organ,
and can act on the air dissolved in the water as well as upon the
oxygen of the atmosphere. In some reptiles, this cutaneous res-
piration is even so active as to be, under certain circumstances,
sufficient for the maintenance of life.

21. The organization of the lungs is not favourable to great
activity of respiration ; their air cells are very large, and conse-
quently the vascular surface designed for contact with the air,
is but of little extent. They are not lodged in a peculiar cavity,
the thorax not being separated from the abdomen by a diaphragm,
and the air is renewed in them with less facility and less regu-
larity than in the superior animals.

22. Reptiles are all cold blooded animals, that is, they do not
produce sufficient heat to maintain a temperature above that of
the atmosphere. Their whole body is warmed or cooled at the
same time with the surrounding medium, and the changes of
temperature which they experience powerfully influences all their
functions. A temperature of about one hundred, to one hundred
and twenty degrees of Farenheif s thermometer, is promptly fatal

20. What is the character of respiration in reptiles ? How is it influenced
by different temperatures 'f Is it always carried on by the means of Jungs.

21. How do the lungs differ in organization and situation from the sarue
organs in mammals?

22. Why are reptiles called cold blooded animals ? What are the effects
of temperature on the vital phenomena of reptiles ?

DIVISION OF THE CLASS OF REPTILES.

27

to most of these animals, and cold tends to abase all vital pheno-
mena in them. In winter most of them cannot digest substances
taken in the stomach, and they do not take food. Their respi-
ration is also lowered in the most remarkable manner. A frog,
for example, which, in summer, dies from asphyxia in less than
two hours by the complete deprivation of atmospheric air, or
even by strangulation, can, in the cold season, resist asphyxia
for several days, and live for many months without taking air
into the lungs, but solely by the assistance of cutaneous respira-
tion. Reduction of temperature often induces in reptiles, a
lethargic state, analogous to that of hibernating animals.

23. Except the production of poison in certain serpents, the
secretions of this class of animals are not particularly remarkable.

24. Having no means of suckling their young, reptiles are re-
produced like birds, by the means of eggs. In some instances, the
eggs are hatched before they are laid, and the animals in which
this phenomenon takes place, are said to be ovoviviparous.

25. This Class is composed of four great natural divisions,
namely : 1st. The Tortoises ; 2d. the Lizards, and other reptiles
resembling them in organization; 3d. the Serpents ; and 4th.
the Frogs and other reptiles of analogous structure. These
four Orders are designated under the names of Chelonia, Sauria,
Ophidia, and Batrachia. The principal characters which distin-
guish them may be seen in the following table :

(Orders.)

r Covered by a ~\

.

carapax. (Jaws

without teeth, and > CHELONIA.

No metamorpho-
sis. Respiration al-
ways aerial. Bran-
chiae never. Body
covered by scales,

Having
extremities ;
moveable
eyelids.

furnished with a
horny envelope.) J

Without cara- "1
pax. (Jaws armed j

rings, or a carapax.

with teeth, and >• SAURIA.

without a horny

i

. envelope.) J

Without extremities; generally ) n
. without moveable eyelids ; teeth. { L

More or less transformation in early life ; respiration ~|
at first aquatic, and effected by the aid of branchiae, then I g ACHIA
w j aerial and pulmonary. Skin naked, without carapax or j
l_ scales ; no nails; almost always having extremities. J

23. Are the secretions of Reptiles remarkable in any particular ?

24. By what means are Reptiles re-produced ?

25. Into how many orders is tho class of Reptiles divided ? How are
these orders designated'/

28 TORTOISES.

LESSON II.

ORDER OF CHELONIANS, or TORTOISES. — Organization. — Division
into four Families. — Land Tortoises. — Fresh water Tortoises.
— River Tortoises. — Sea Tortoises. — Tortoise Shell: its use.

ORDER OF CHELONIA.

Fig. 2. ii Fig. 3.

GREEK TORTOISE.

1. Tortoises are recognised at first sight by the curious defen-
sive armour with which nature has provided them. A double
shield envelopes all parts of their body, except the head and neck,
the four paws and tail, which in general, may be also concealed
in this species of solid box.

2. When studying the mammalia, we mentioned some animals
that have the body protected by a sort of shell. The Armadillo
furnished an example ; but that armour, formed only of aggluti-
nated hair, or by a particular modification of the epidermic layers
of the skin, in no wise resembles the double shield of the Tor-
toises; for the latter is composed of bones, which are widened,
and intimately united to each other ; the carapax, (2.) or upper
shell is formed by the union of the ribs and dorsal vertebra? ; the
plastrum, (3.) or lower shell, is the sternum. Consequently,
these organs are a portion of the skeleton which, instead of being
lodged in the substance of the soft parts, has become superficial,
and is only covered by a thin, dry skin.

3. The bony frame of tottoises, to present this unusual dispo-
sition, must be, of course, extremely modified : still, we find in

1. What is the most striking featbre of Tortoises ?

2. What is the essential constitution of the upper, and of the lower sheil
of Tortoises?

3. How does the skeleton of a Tortoise differ from that of a mammal ?

STRUCTURE OF TORTOISES. 29

it, the same pieces which compose the skeleton of the higher
vertebrate animals; except that many of these pieces are
changed in form and size.

4. When we examine the carapax of a Tortoise, (Fig. 4,)
we see that it is formed of a considerable number of bony
plates, united to each other by sutures, and that

eight of these plates occupy the middle line, on
each side of which, sixteen form a longitudinal
row, and twenty-five or twenty-six surround
the whole, like an oval frame It is then difficult'
to recognise the nature of these bones ; but,
if we examine the carapax on its inferior sur-
face, -we at once see (Plate l,Jig. 3.; that the
middle pieces are simply dependencies of the
dorsal verted, (vd.) In fact, we find be-
neath it, the body of each one of these bones of
its ordinary form, as well as the vertebral canal''
for the lodgement of the spinal marrow ; but the superior portion
of the parietes of the ring, which constitutes this canal, instead of
having, as is usual, the form of a transverse bony band, separated
by a space from its fellows, and being surmounted by a spinous
process, is here widened like a disk, and without any interrup-
tion is continuous with the analogous plates belonging to the
vertebra which precedes, and that which follows it. Each of
these dorsal vertebrae, in this way rendered immoveable, sustain
a pair of ribs as in man, and other vertebrata ; but these ribs
are widened so as to touch each other throughout, or nearly
throughout their whole length, and join each other by sutures (<•.) ;
the marginal pieces, which articulate with the extremity of the
ribs, and in a degree surround the carapax, evidently represent
the sternal portion of these bones, which, in mammals, remain
always in a cartilaginous state ; but in birds, they are completely
ossified. They also remain cartilaginous in some Tortoises, and
many of them laterally support themselves by the edges of the
sternal plastrum.

5. The sternum of Tortoises presents an extraordinary
developement ; it extends Irom the base of the neck to the
origin of the tail, and covers the whole inferior surface ot
the body, (Fig. 5.) The pieces which enter into its compo-
sition, are nine in number, and, instead of being placed in
a row as in mammals, with a single exception, they are
arranged in pairs, and soldered or articulated with each other,

4. What is the Carapax ? How is it formed?

5. What is the Plastrum ? How is it constituted ?

2*

30 STRUCTURE OF TORTOISES,

^^ so as to form a great oval plate. Some-

Fig. 5. jjJE| times this shield is entire, and solid through-

out its whole extent, sometimes it is divided
into three portions, the anterior and posterior
of which are slightly moveable, and other
times it is hollowed in the centre like a frame ;
and, it is fixed on each side to the carapax,
either by a broad bony prolongation, or by
cartilages, and it is through a sort of slit, or
opening left betwixt these two shields or shells,
in front and behind this articulation, that the
'head, extremities, and tail, are protruded.

6. The carapax and plastrum are only covered by the ordi-
nary skin of this animal which is ordinarily scaly. No muscle
is inserted into their surface, and consequently the muscles of the
neck and extremities are attached to the interior of the trunk.
The shoulder, instead of being sustained by the external parietes
of the thorax, is lodged in the interior of this cavity ; and the
pelvis, so to speak, is contained in the cavity of the abdomen ;
and the marginal pieces of the carapax are advanced beyond the
base of the neck and tail, so that these parts seem to project from
the same cavities.

7. The cervical vertebrae, (vc.) far from being immoveable as
they are in the back, are so articulated with each other as to
permit, in general, of extended movements, similar to those of
the neck of a bird. Their number is ordinarily eight, and their
articular surfaces are alternately convex and concave, instead of
being plain as in mammals. In some tortoises the neck is not
retractile ; in others, it can be completely folded beneath the
carapax, either by bending downwards on itself, or to one side.

8. The head of Tortoises is small compared with the body,
and the cranium is small compared with the head. Generally,
it is flattened, and widened posteriorly by large temporal fossae,
which are ordinarily concealed beneath a bony arch. The upper
jaw is solidly fixed to the cranium, and is entirely immoveable.
The square, or tympanic bone, which supports the lower jaw, is
articulated, in the same manner to the adjoining bones, and forms
the larger part of the vicinity of the frame of the tympanum ;
the lower jaw is composed of a great number of bony pieces :
there are six on each side.

6. Are there any muscular attachments on the external surfaces of the
carapax and plastrum ? Is the shoulder on the inside or outside of the chest?

7. Do the cervical vertebrae move freely on each other or not ? What is
their usual number ?

8. Is the upper jaw of Tortoises moveable ? How is the lower jaw articu-
lated with the skull 'f Does the lower jaw consist of a single bone or more ?

STURCTURE OF TORTOISES.

31

Fig. 6.

9. The bones of the shoulder (o.) articulate on one side with
the vertebral column, and with the sternum on the other, so as
to form a sort of ring betwixt the carapax and plastrum, through
which pass the oesophagus and
trachea.* We here observe
three branches, which often
unite solidly with each other
at an early age, and which
converge and form by their
union, the articular cavity of
the humerus. One of these
bones, (o.) suspended to the
vertebral column, is evidently
the scapula ; the second, which
is directed backwards, is ana-
logous to the coracoid bone of cs
birds, and the third, which
descends to join the plastrum,
is the representative of the
clavicle, or at least, the acro-
mion process of the scapula,
with which this bone ordi-
narily articulates.

10. The pelvis (b.) resembles the ring formed by the bones
of the shoulder.

1 1. The extremities are not very remarkable in the disposition
of their bony frame. They are always short ; sometimes they
are truncated at the end, and at others flattened and elongated
into a paddle ; and in all, the fingers are only slightly moveable,
and in general, they are not very distinct externally.

12. The skin that covers the body of these animals sometimes
preserves its softness, and is not covered by scales ; but in almost
all of them, it is furnished with a horny layer, of very great con-
sistence. These scales form large plates on the carapax and
plastrum, the arrangement and aspect of which vary according
to the species ; those which cover the carapax of a species of

^Explanation of the Figure.— Skeleton of a Tortoise. (The sternal plas-
trum removed to show the interior of the thorax) : — t, the head, — we, cervical
vertebrae, — vd, dorsal vertebrae, — c, the ribs, anchylosed with the dorsal ver-
tebrae to form the carapax, — cs, sternal portion of the ribs, or marginal pieces
of the carapax, — o, scapula, — c/, clavicle, — co, coracoid bone, — 6, pelvis, —
/, femur, — <t, tibia, — p, fibula. — </, caudal vertebras.

9. What is the peculiarity of the connexion of the bones of the shoulder
with the vertebral column ?

10. What is the arrangement of the bones of the pelvis?

11. What is the general character of the extremities 1

12. What is Tortoise shell ?

32

STRUCTURE OF TORTOISES.

Sea Tortoise, are remarkably beautiful, and are employed in the
arts under the name of Tortoise shell.

13. The eyes of Tortoises are protected by three lids like those
of birds. The tympanum is large, but ordinarily concealed be-
neath the skin, and the nostrils are pierced through the extremity
of the muzzle.

14. As we have already stated, these animals are unprovided
with teeth, and their jaws are furnished with a horny envelope,
with cutting edges, like those of birds. Some live on marine
plants, and others on small animals as well as vegetables. They
require little nourishment, and they have been known to pass
months, and even years without eating.

15. The elevator muscles of the jaw are very powerful, and
when a Tortoise has seized hold of any thing in the mouth, it is
almost impossible to get it away. The tongue is more compli-
cated in its structure than that of most Reptiles : it is thick, and
studded with tiliform papilla?. The stomach does not seem to
differ from the neighbouring parts of the digestive tube, except
that it is rather larger ; the intestine is of moderate length, and
has no ccecum ; the liver is voluminous.

16. The lungs are very large, and lodged in the same cavity

with the other viscera,* (Fig. 7.) The
mechanism by which the air enters them
is entirely different from that of other
animals in which the thorax is dilatable.
The parietes of this cavity being im move-
able in most Tortoises, the air is forced
into these organs by the action of the
mouth. The jaws being closed, the animal
lowers the hyoid bone, which enlarges the

Fig. 7.

cavity of the mouth, and the air having
entered through the nostrils, the posterior
nares are closed, and then raising the hyoid
bone, as if to swallow, the air thus in-
closed, is forced to descend through the
trachea. Therefore, the animal breathes
by a sort of deglutition.

* Explanation of the Figure. — Viscera of a Tortoise — m, the jaws, — A,
the hyoid bone, — o, the oesophagus, — t, the trachea, — />, p, the lungs, — c, the
heart and principal vessels, — /, the liver, — i, the intestines, — cl, the cloaca, —
ov, the ovaries, — ca, c«, the carapax.

13. Have Tortoises any eye-lids ? What is the character of the ear ?
Where are the nostrils situate ?

14. Upon what do Tortoises feed ?

15. What is peculiar in the tongue of Tortoises ? What is the character
of the stomach and intestines ?

16. How do Tortoises breathe ?

LAND TORTOISES. 33

17. Tortoises lay eggs with a hard shell, which they deposit
in the sand or earth, in some situation exposed to the sun, to
cause them to be hatched. The males are generally smaller than
the females, and are ordinarily recognised by the plastrum which
is slightly concave. The duration of life in these animals is very
great : authentic instances are known of land Tortoises that have
lived a hundred and twenty years, even two hundred years, and
some cases of a still greater age are related.

18. The habits af these animals vary, and these differences,
which coincide with the modifications of their structure, has
caused them to be divided into four principal families. Their
chief characters may be seen in the following table:

(Families.)

f largo, truncate at the end, and formed for "1
walking only, and having the toes united in a }• LAND TORTOISES.
common mass as far as the nails.

(incomplete. Cara- ")
pax furnished with V POND TORTOISES.
scales. j

complete. Carapax

covered by a soft skin

M

RIVER TORTOISES.

flattened, in the form of large swimming

paddles, and not having the toes externally }- SEA TORTOISES.

distinct.

19. The LAND TORTOISES, — Teshido,— ( Plate I, fig. 1, and 2.)
have feet formed for walking only ; their legs are, as it were,
truncate, and their toes are short, and united to the nails ; their
number is five in front, and four behind. The carapax is very
much vaulted, and they can draw the head, tail, and extremities,
completely within their shell. They live in the woods, or in
places well furnished with herbage : they never go into the water,
but often inhabit its neighborhood. Most of them feed chiefly on
vegetables, and terrestrial mollusks. They make a kind of bur-
row, and in temperate climates pass the winter in a state of
hibernation. Their eggs are generally spherical and furnished
with a hard shell ; the female deposites her eggs in a hole, and
seems to take no care of her young. The most common Euro-
pean species is the Greek Tortoise, — Testudo grceca, — which is

17. By what agency are the eggs of Tortoises hatched ? How does the
male differ from the female? What is the duration of life in Tortoises ?

18. How is the order of Tortoises divided?

19. How is the family of Land Tortoises charade- ised ? What are the
habits of Land Tortoises ? Where is the Greek Tortoise found ?

34 FRESH WATER TORTOISES. ^

yellow, spotted with black, and about six inches long; it inhabits
Greece, Italy, France, and the large Islands of the Mediterranean.
In Italy, and Sicily, this species is eaten.

20. THE FAMILY OF POND TORTOISES, (or Fresh Water Tor-
toises,— Emys.) — much more numerous than the preceding, forms
a sort of connecting link between the Land Tortoises, and those
that are essentially aquatic ; it is composed of Chelonians that
commonly live in marshes, and can swim, but yet differ very
little from the preceding in their organization. They are chiefly
distinguished by the conformation of their paws. The toes, five
in number, are distinct, moveable, furnished with hooked nails,
and united at their base by a palmate membrane of greater or
less extent ; but these characters are not always clearly marked.

21. As in the Land Tortoises, the carapax is, in general,
entirely solid and oval in form ; but instead of being elevated, it
is more or less depressed. The neck is almost always longer
than in the preceding, and presents remarkable variations in its
conformation. In some, it is cylindrical, and surrounded by a
loose skin which permits it to be entirely drawn within, and at
the middle part of the carapax, while in others, it is a little
flattened, and covered by a close cutaneous sheath, which adheres
to the muscles, so that it can only be folded laterally on the body.
Almost all of them can conceal their paws between their shells, and
like the preceding, they have but four nails on the hind feet.
Their motions are^not as slow as those of the Land Tortoises,
and they swim with considerable facility. Their chief food con-
sists of fluviatile mollusks, batrachians, and annelides : they are
found on the margins of lakes, marshes, and rivulets, in which
the current is not rapid.

22. The genus of Cistudes belongs to the division of fresh
water Tortoises, with a retractile neck : it is distinguished by the
sternum which is furnished with twelve plates, and divided into
two nearly equal parts, both moveable, and by the short tail.
The European Cistude, or Mud Tortoise, — Tcstudo europceo, —
has a depressed carapax, tolerably smooth, blackish with yellow
points, and about six inches long. It inhabits stagnant waters,
at the bottom of which it loves to keep buried in the mud. On
the approach of the cold season, it retires into holes, to hibernate.
It is found in the south of France ; but it is particularly common

20. What are Pond Tortoises ? How are they distinguished from Land
Tortoises ?

21. What are the characters of the Pond Tortoises? Where are they
found ?

22. What are the characters of the European Cistude ?

SOFT-SHELLED TORTOISES. 35

in Greece and Italy. Its flesh is used as food, and it is reared
for that purpose, with bread, young vegetables, &c.

23. Some fresh water Tortoises have the sternal plastrum
divided into two flaps, which they can at will, by a moveable
articulation, close against the carapax, when their head and ex-
tremities are drawn in, so as to inclose themselves in a box ; this
peculiarity has obtained for them the name of Box-tortoises.

24. There are some fresh water Tortoises, on the contrary,
that cannot enclose themselves within the shell. Amongst these
is the Snapper, — Testudo serpentina, — which is readily distin-
guished by its long tail, which is studded with sharp crests. It
is found in the warm parts of the United States.

25. The FAMILY OF RIVER TORTOISES, (or Soft-Shelled Tor-
toises,)— Trionyx,— differ from all the preceding in the conforma-
tion of their paws, which are designed for swimming, but are
entirely unsuited for walking. The paws are very*much depressed,
and the toes, although very distinct, and more or less moveable,
are joined as far as the nails by broad flexible membranes. The
carapax is very much spread out, and almost flat, unprovided with
scales, covered only by a skin which is soft, and entirely cartila-
ginous throughout its border, which structure has obtained for
them the name of Soft-skelled 7Jortoises; the neck is generally
elongated and protractile ; the nostrils are prolonged into a sort
of little trunk ; the jaws are trenchant, and furnished with a fold
of skin, which resembles lips ; the limbs are short, and supplied
with only three toes. To these external characters are added
other anatomical peculiarities ; for example, the carapax has no
marginal pieces, and the sternal plastrum is not ossified in the
middle.

26. These animals are essentially aquatic, and inhabit the
rivers and lakes of the warmest regions of the globe : they swirn
with great ease, and remain on land only at night ; they are very
voracious, and feed chiefly on reptiles and rishes.

27. The Nile supports one species of these Tortoises, which
is useful to Egypt by devouring a great number of young croco-
diles the moment they are hatched; it is the Tyrse, — Trionyx
cegyptiactis, — of Zoologists. Another species, which inhabits the
rivers of South America, is remarkable for its ferocity, and for
the delicacy of its flesh.

23. What are Box -Tortoises ?

24. What is the Snapper ?

25. What are the characters of the Sofl-Shelled Tortoises ?

26. What are their habits?

27. What is the Tyrse ?

36 SEA TORTOISES.

23. The FAMILY OF SEA TORTOISES, — (Turtle)— Ckelonia. —
The Tortoises that live in the sea, differ from all others, both in
their conformation and habits. Their flattened paws, which are

really paddles, are only suited for
Fig. 8. swimming, and their toes, which
are closely pressed together, and
enveloped in the same membrane,
are entirely immoveable. Only the
two first toes of each foot have
nails, and these fall off at a certain
time ; and the anterior extremities,
in place of being of nearly the same
length as the posterior, are more
than twice as long. The carapax
is arched and cordiform ; and near
the edge of this shell, the ribs are
not widened and soldered together,
and, as in the preceding family, the
sternum is in the form of a frame open in the centre. The
nostrils are not prolonged into a trunk, but are surmounted by
a fleshy mass, which acts like a valve, in closing these openings
when the animal puts its head under water. The edges of the
beak are very trenchant, and the upper mandible is hooked.

29. These tortoises feed principally on marine plants, and only
leave the water in the laying season: they swim with great
facility, and they are sometimes met several hundred leagues from
land, floating on the surface of the sea : they appear to be able to
sleep in this way, and they also dive very well. At the laying
season, they leave their habitual haunts and resort to the shores
of some desert island, to deposit their eggs in holes which they
dig upon the beach. During the night the females leave the water
for the purpose of laying; they drag themselves on the beach
beyond the line of high tide, and with their anterior extremities
excavate a hole about two feet deep in which they deposit their
eggs in regular ranges, and cover them with sand, which they
level off so carefully as to leave scarcely a trace of their labour.
The operation over, they return immediately to the sea. The
number of eggs is very considerable; sometimes as many as two
hundred, and the laying is repeated two or three times a year.
After exposure to the sun for fifteen or twenty days, they burst,
and the young, which are not yet provided with shell, imme-
diately make for the sea. Generally, they find difficulty at first

28. What are the characters of Sea Tortoises ?
2S). What are their habits ?

MARINE TORTOISES. 37

in plunging into it, and, before reaching it, they often become the
prey of carnivorous birds, which seem to await the moment of
their birth to feast upon them. They have also to dread vora-
cious fishes and crocodiles, which assemble in the same places for
the same purposes ; the most part of those which escape their
numerous enemies, acquire very considerable dimensions: they
have been known to measure fifteen feet in circumference, and to
weigh from five to six hundred pounds.

30. Marine tortoises are found in all warm seas; they abound
about the West Indies, and particularly about a small archipelago
near the main, known under the name of Tortugas.

3 1 . Among these Tortoises, we distinguish the CHELONIA, in
which the carapax is covered with horny plates or scales, and the
SPHARGIS, which have only a coriaceous skin. The most common
species of the first of these genera, are the Green Tortoise,
(Turtle); the Caret, or Hawks-bill Turtle; and the Caouane. Only
one species of Sphargis is known, the Luth.

32. The Green Tortoise, — Testudo viridis, — is recognised
by the plates, thirteen in number, and not arranged like tiles,
that cover the disk of the carapax, which is fawn colour,
with a number of brown spots, glazed green. It is found in the
Atlantic ocean, and feeds chiefly on a plant known to botanists
under the name of zostera marina, : it lays twice a year, about the
months of May and June, and the total number of its eggs is
about two hundred and fifty. Its length is sometimes from six
to seven feet, and its weight from seven to eight hundred pounds.
This species differs very little from other marine Tortoises,
frequenting the same places, and is found on the coasts of Africa,
and in the Asiatic seas. The flesh of all these Chelonians is very
much' esteemed. In England particularly it is very much sought
as a luxurious dish, and to supply the London market, vessels
are despatched to the Indian seas, and on certain coasts parks
have been established for the preservation of Sea Tortoises. The
fat of these animals, although of a greenish hue, which may be
at first unpleasant, has a very delicate taste, and their eggs are
equally esteemed.

33. The Caouane, — Testudo caretta, — as in the Green Tortoise,
the carapax is covered by plates simply placed together, but the
number of these scales on the disk is fifteen instead of thirteen.

30. Where are marine Tortoises found ?

31. How are Sou Tortoises classified ?

32. What are the characters of Green Tortoises ? Upon what do they
feed?

33. What is the Caouane?

3

33

MARINE TORTOISES.

The head is also larger, and its colour is brown or deep chestnut.
It inhabits the Mediterranean, as well as the Atlantic ocean ; it
does not attain the same size as the preceding. Its length is about
four feet, and its weight from three to four hundred pounds. It
is very voracious ; its food consists chiefly of mollusks, and its
flesh is not good. Its fat is burned for light.

Fig. 9. 34. The Hawks-bill Turtle— (the

Caret) — Tcstudo imbricata, — ( Fig.
9.) is the most' interesting species
of this genus ; because it furnishes
the tortoise shell. It is readily dis-
tinguished by the arrangement of
the horny plates of its carapax,
which, in place of being simply
joined together, are extended back-
wards, one over the other like the
tiles or shingles of a roof; we count
fifteen on the disk ; the colour is yel-
lowish marble with a deep brown.
The jaws are strong, elongated and
curved towards the extremity, but
without teeth on the edges ; the ex-
tremities or fins, like those of the caouane, are provided with two
nails, while in the Green Tortoise there is but one. Its size
scarcely exceeds one third of that of the last named Chelonian ; it
feeds chiefly on marine plants, but also eats Crustacea, mollusca,
and small fishes. It is met in the Indian ocean as well as in the
American seas, and, in the laying season, resorts to the same
localities as the preceding species. At the Tortugas, for example,
it arrives in June, and lays a second time in August. The total
number of its eggs is about two hundred : they are said to be
good food ; but the flesh of this Tortoise is bad, and it is only on
account of its shell that it is sought.

35. The scale or shell which covers the carapax of the Hawks-
bill is a substance which is extremely analogous to horn, but
which is neither fibrous nor lamellar like it ; it is as transparent ;
its hardness is greater, and it is capable of receiving and preser-
ving the most beautiful polish ; and it is very much esteemed in
the manufacture of toys, &c. Each one of these Tortoises fur-
nishes, on an average, from three to four pounds of these large
scales, and to detach them, it is only necessary to expose the
carapax before burning coals. It is' brought to market without

34. What is ihe Hawks-bill Turtle? For what is it most valued ?

35. What is To: toise shell ? How is it obtained ?

SAURIANS. 39

any other preparation, and is known as rough tortoise shell, which
is afterwards manufactured in the same manner as horn. By
softening it by the action of hot water, and afterwards pressing,
it can be spread out, soldered or moulded into any required shape.
What is termed rww, or cast shelly is obtained by agglutinating,
by a similar process, the scrapings and powder, detached from the
ordinary shell, in fashioning, or giving it the desired dimensions.
36. The marine Tortoises, designated under the name of
SPHARGIS, have no covering composed of horny plates, but one
of a coriaceous skin, similar to leather. Only one species is
known, the Luth, which is found in the Mediterranean, and the
Atlantic ; it attains seven or eight feet in length.

LESSON III.

ORDER OP SAUEIA. — Organization. — Classification.
FAMILY OP CROCODILIDA. — Circulation. — Habits. — Crocodile*

properly so called. — Alligators.

FAMILY OF LACERTINIDA. — Characters. — Monitors. — Lizards.
FAMILY OP IGUANIDA. — Characters. — Dragons. — Iguanas. —

Basilisks.

FAMILY OP GECKOTIDA. — Characters. — Habits.
FAMILY OF CHAMJELEONIDA. — Characters. — Common Chameleon.
FAMILY OF SCINCOIDEA — Characters — Scinques — Fossil Saurian*.

ORDER OP OPHIDIA, or Serpents.— Characters.

FAMILY OF ANGUINA. — Characters.

FAMILY OF SERPENTIA, or True Serpents. — Coluber. — Boa. —

Venomous Serpents. — Rattle Snake. — Trigonocephalus

Vipers.— Naia, or rfsps. — Effects and treatment of the bites
of Vipers, #c.

FAMILY OF NUDA. — Characters.

ORDER OF SAURIANS.

1. The order of Sauria comprises all reptiles that resemble
lizards in their general conformation. Animals of this order
always have an elongated body, terminated by a tail of greater
or less length, and provided with extremities, which, with some
exceptions, are four in number.

36. How are the Tortoises of the genus Sphargis characterised?
1. What is the general character of animals included in the order of
Sauria ?

40 . ORGANIZATION OF SAURIANS.

2. Their extremities are short, and placed unfavourably for
rapid movement. In general, they are wide apart, and directed
outwards at a right angle with the body, so that they cannot
sustain the weight of the trunk : most of these reptiles drag the
belly and tail on the ground. The toes, which are very distinct,
and ordinarily five in number, terminate in sharp, curved nails ;
sometimes they are very long and slender, at others, widened,
and furnished beneath with folds variously arranged, and at other
times again, united by palmate membranes, which modifications
are in conformity with the animal's mode of life.

3. The skeleton has no important remarkable peculiarity. The
number of vertebrae is very variable, particularly in the caudal
region : there always exist moveable ribs which often protect the
abdomen as well as the thorax. The sternum is never wanting.
The shoulder is ordinarily formed of three bones, (a scapula, a
clavicle, and a coracoid bone,) united in a kind of ring, so as to
envelope the anterior part of the chest, and all concur in the
formation of the cavity designed to lodge the head of the humerus.
The pelvis is also composed of three pieces, and is joined to the
sacrum, which consists of two vertebra.

4. The skin of these animals is always covered by a thick and
unequal epidermic layer, which forms scales or plates of greater
or less size.

5. The mouth, which is deeply cleft, is without fleshy lips ; it
is armed with teeth, generally of a conical form, that serve to
seize and hold their prey, but rarely to grind their food. They
are often found in the palate, as well as in the two jaws. The
food of Saurians consists essentially of animal substances ; the
digestive canal is ordinarily quite short ; in general, the stomach
is scarcely distinguishable from the oesophagus ; but sometimes
it has the form of a more or less globular pouch.

6. The disposition of the circulatory system, varies in these
animals ; in general, the heart is but imperfectly divided in its
ventricular portion, so that the venous blood and arterial blood
mingle in its interior ; but in crocodiles, the separation between
the two halves of this organ is complete, and the mixture of the
two kinds of blood takes place only in the descending aorta.

7. The lungs, in general, are large, and extend more or less
into the abdomen. The air is renewed in them by the same

2. What is the character of their extremities ?

3. What is remarkable in the skeleton of Sauria ?

4. What is the character of the skin of Sauria?

5. What is the character and situation of the teeth in Sauria ?

6. Is the circulation of the blood the same in all Suuria ? What are its
general characters ?

7. How do the Saurian's breathe ?

DIVISION OF SAURIANS. 41

mechanism as in mammals and birds, that is, by the alternate
dilatation and contraction of the cavity of the thorax, effected by
the action of the ribs.

8. The order of Saurians may be divided into six families,
namely: Crocodilians, Lacertians, Chameleonians, lguanianst
Geckotians, and Scincoidians, which may be distinguished by
the following characters :

SAURIANS,

Certain fossil reptiles, which cannot be classed in any one of
the above families, are also referred to this order : some of them
were formed for swimming exclusively, and others for flight.

8. What is tbe division of the order of Sauria 1
3*

CROCODILES.

CROCODILE OF THE NILE.

FAMILY OF CROCODILIANS.

9. Crocodiles differ in so many respects from other Saurians,
that many authors think they ought to constitute a separate

f JQ order. Their internal

organization seems to
place them as a con-
necting link between
reptiles and the higher
vertebrata. They are
very easily recognised
by their laterally com-
pressed tail, and by their
toes, five before, and four behind, all of them more or less united
by membranes, which is indicative of aquatic habits.

10. The most remarkable peculiarity in the structure of these
animals, is the disposition of their circulatory system : it is such
that the whole posterior part of the body receives only a mixture
of arterial and venous blood, while the head is supplied with pure
arterial blood. The heart has four cavities, two auricles, and
two distinct ventricles, as in mammals and birds. The arterial

blood, coming from the lungs, passes
from the left auricle into the ventricle
of the same side, which in its turn, sends
the blood into the aorta, (Fig. 11.) The
[..ap venous blood, received into the right ven-
tricle, finds no direct passage into the
left ventricle, as is the case in other rep-
tiles ; but it does not all go to the lungs,
as it does in the warm-blooded verte-
brata ; for, alongside of the pulmonary
arteries, (op.) is found another vessel,
(a.) which also arises from the right ven-
tricle, and which, after bending back-
wards behind the heart, terminates in the

Explanation of Fig. 11. — Heart and great vessels of a crocodile: —
t?, t), veins which bring the blood from different parts of the body to the right
auricle of the'heart, (od,) — w£, the two ventricles which are separated inter-
nally by a paitition, — ap, the two pulmonary arteries which go from the
right ventricle to the lungs, — a, the vessel which arises from the same ven-
tricle, and empties into the descending aorta, — vp, pulmonary veins which
convey the arterial blood from the lungs to the left auricle, (og,} from which
it descends into the left ventricle, and directly enters the aorta, (ao,) and the
two arteries, (c, c,) which are distributed to the head, &c.

9. What are the general characters of the crocodiles ?
10. What are the peculiarities in the circulation in crocodiles ?

Fig. 11.
ap c c a

vp

CROCODILES. 43

descending aorta, (ao.) It follows, therefore, that at every con-
traction of the heart, one portion of venous blood is sent to the
lungs, and another portion is mingled with the arterial blood ;
but this mixture takes place in the interior of the aorta, below
the point of origin of those branches, (c,c.J which this vessel
sends to the head and anterior part of the trunk, so that these
parts receive pure arterial blood, while all those, the arteries of
which arise posteriorly to the point of junction between the aorta
and the vessel coming from the right ventricle, receive only a
mixture of red and black blood.

11. The lungs of Crocodiles do not extend into the abdomen,
like those of other reptiles, and are separated from its viscera by
a sort of imperfect diaphragm. It is also to be remarked, that
the canal through which the air penetrates to these organs, can
be completely separated from the mouth by letting down a fold,
analogous to the veil of the palate in mammals, an arrangement,
which permits them to remain under water, with the mouth open,
to await their prey, without interrupting their respiration. And
their nostrils, which open at the extremity of the muzzle, are
closed by valves.

12* Their mouth is cleft beyond the ears, and the lower jaw is
prolonged backwards beyond the cranium, which makes the upper
one seem to be moveable ; but it only moves with the cranium.
There is, in each jaw, a single row of very strong, pointed teeth,
planted in distinct alveoli. The tongue is fleshy, flat, and attached
to the lower jaw, very close to its edges, and hardly distinct from
it, which led the ancients to believe that it was entirely wanting.
The stomach is in the form of a rounded pouch.

13. The skeleton also, has several peculiarities. The cervical
vertebrae rest one on the other through the medium of small
false ribs, which renders lateral motion difficult. Besides the
ordinary ribs, there is found, between the muscles of the abdo-
men, analogous bones, which protect the viscera without extend-
ing to the dorsal spine ; these reptiles are the only Saurians that
want clavicles, properly so called.

14. Crocodiles are large animals; their back is covered by
large, square, very strong scales which are carenate (ridged,) in
the middle. The tail has a similar covering, and is furnished on
top with a strongly notched crest which is double at its base ; the

11. What are the peculiarities of the respiratory organs in Crocodiles?

12. Do Crocodiles move the upper jaw ? What is remarkable in the lower
jaw ? What is the character of their teeth ? Have Crocodiles a tongue ?
What are its peculiarities ?

13. What are the peculiarities of the skeleton ?

14. What is the character of the integuments of Crocodiles ?

44 CROCODILES.

plates on the belly are thin, smooth, and square, and arranged in
transverse bands.

15. These large and powerful animals inhabit the hottest parts
of both continents, and ordinarily keep in fresh water rivers and
lakes. Their gait is usually slow ; though they can swim with ex-
treme rapidity, and run very swiftly in a straight line, but, owing
to the disposition of the vertebra of the neck, it is difficult for them
to change their direction : hence, it is easy to avoid them by turn-
ing or running around them. They are very carnivorous, and
formidable even for man. They cannot swallow in the water ;
but they generally drag their prey there to drown, and, it is said,
they deposit it in some hole to putrify before eating it.

16. These animals, notwithstanding, they are so formidable,
and so well furnished with protective armour, have foes to dread,
and these enemies are feeble insects, a sort of ant, which intro-
duce themselves into their mouth, in immense numbers, the
moment they go on shore, and torment them with their stings ;
but, what is very singular, little birds often come to deliver them
from this scourge, and enter their great mouth without fear, in
pursuit of the insects. This fact, observed by Herodotus, and
afterwards treated as a fable, has been confirmed in modern times,
by Geoffrey Saint Hilaire, who accompanied the Emperor Napo-
leon in Egypt. A species of Plover performs this interesting
service for the crocodile of the Nile, and in the West Indies, the
Tody has a similar habit.

17. The family of crocodilida is composed of three genera,
namely : Crocodiles properly so called, Caimans, or J%lligatorst
and Gavials:

simply notched on 1

each side to receive ! CROCODILES

the fourth tooth of j Properly so called.

s §

£

wide, and the
whole head 4
oblong ; the
upper jaw

the lower jaw. J

with a hole on each ^
side to receive the ! p

fourth tooth of the f
L lower jaw. J

slender, and very much elongated, ^ GA VIALS.

18. CROCODILES PROPERLY so CALLED, — Crocodilus, — have an
oblong and depressed muzzle, unequal teeth, and the upper jaw

15. What regions do Croc6diles inhabit?

16. What are the great enemies of Crocodiles ?

17. What genera compose the family of Crocodilians ?

18. What are the general characters of Crocodiles properly so called?
Where are they found ? What are their habits ?

ALLIGATORS. 45

notched on each side to receive the fourth lower tooth, when the
mouth is shut. The most celebrated and longest known species,
is the Crocodile of the Nile, an animal that is sometimes twenty-
five, and even thirty feet in length : it is bronze green, spotted
and marbled with brown above, yellowish green below, and is
distinguished by the square plates nearly equal in size, which
form six rows along the back. We find from Senegal to the
Ganges, and even beyond it, Crocodiles very similar to that of the
Nile, which seem to be only varieties of this species. Formerly
this reptile descended the Nile to its delta, and according to Pliny,
passed the four winter months there, in caverns ; but in our time,
it never quits Upper Egypt, where it does not hibernate. The
Ancient Egyptians, particularly the inhabitants of Thebes, and
the environs of the lake Moeris, rendered great honours to these
reptiles ; they even made them objects of religious worship, and
embalmed their dead bodies. At Arsinoe, the priests raised one
of these reptiles, which they kept in a temple, and adorned with
jewels, and fed with great care.

19. Crocodiles properly so called, also exist in America : the
Caiman of Saint Domingo, and other parts of the West Indies,
belongs to this genus, and has received the name of Crocodilus
acutm, or sharp nosed Crocodile, from the form of its head : it
has four rows of plates on its back, and its length sometimes
exceeds sixteen feet. It is a fierce and dangerous animal. At
birth, the young are from nine to ten inches long, and growth
continues for twenty years.

20. The CAIMANS, or ALLIGATORS, are readily distinguished from
Crocodiles properly so called, by the disposition of the fourth tooth
of the lower jaw, which, when the mouth is closed, is lodged in
a hole, and not in a notch of the upper jaw. Their hind feet, in
place of being notched on the external edge, and palmate to the
end of the toes, are unprovided with notches, and are only semi-
palmate. Many species are known, but all seem to belong to
America. One of them, the Pike-nosed Alligator, — Crocodilus
lucius,— inhabits the southern parts of North America, and,
during the season of ice, buries itself in the mud, and remains
benumbed until the return of a milder temperature. In Guiana
and Brazil, there is another, the Spectacle Alligator, — Crocodilus
sclerops, — so called from the ridge which unites the projecting
edges of the orbits in front. Like other Crocodiles, the last lays
its eggs in the sand ; but covers them with straw or leaves, and
instead of abandoning them, defends them courageously ; it is
from twelve to fifteen feet in. length, and rarely attacks man.

19. Are there any Crocodiles in America ?

20. How are Alligators distinguished from Crocodiles?

46 MONITORS.— LIZARDS.

21. The GAVIALS differ from the two preceding genera in
their very long slender muzzle, as well as in their teeth, which
are nearly equal. They are only met with on the eastern con-
tinent. The most common is the Gavial of the Ganges, —
Lacerta gangetica, — which is said to attain thirty feet in length,
but is not dangerous either to man or large animals ; it feeds
exclusively on fishes.

FAMILY OF LACERTIANS.

22. The Lacertians have five distinct toes on all their feet,
armed with nails; the tongue is thin, extensile and terminated by
two threads : their scales are arranged in transverse and parallel
bands around the tail, and under the belly, some have teeth in
the jaws only, and others have them also in the palate. The first
form the tribe of Monitors, and the second that of Lizards.

23. The MONITORS generally have a laterally compressed tail,
like that of the Crocodile. Monitors properly so called are
recognised by the small scales that cover the head, limbs and
whole body. Two species are found in Egypt : one, the Monitor
of the ]\ile, — Lacerta nilotica, — is five or six feet long, and is
seen sculptured on the monuments of the ancient Egyptians ;
the other, called the Land Monitor of Egypt, on account of its
terrestrial habits, is common in the deserts, in the vicinity of that
country.

24. Other Monitors, called Sauvegardes, have the top of the
head furnished with angular plates ; and the belly and tail are
covered with large rectangular scales.

25. The TRIBE OF LIZARDS, is composed of Lizards properly
so called, and some similar genera, in which the palate is armed
with two rows of teeth, and the tail is cylindrical. Most of them
are also distinguished by a sort of collar, placed under the neck
and formed of a transverse range of large scales, separated from
those of the chest, by a space covered only by granulations. In
general, they have also, under each thigh, a longitudinal series of
projecting pores, and the whole top of the head is armed with a
bony shield, which is covered by large horny plates.

26. LIZARDS PROPERLY so CALLED, — Lacerta, — have the top of
the body covered by small scales similar to granulations, while
beneath the belly they have large transverse plates. These

21. How do Gavials differ from other Crocodiles ?

22. What are the general characters of the Lacertians?

23. How are Monitors recognised ?

24. What are Sanvegardes ?

25. What are the general characters of the tribe of Lizards ?

26. How are Lizards properly so called characterised ? What are their
habits ? Upon what do they feed ? Are they poisonous ?

IGUANIANS, 47

animals are agile, light, and elegant in form ; they feed princi-
pally on insects, and prefer living prey. In summer they eat a
great deal ; but they can easily support a fast of several weeks
in summer, and four or five months in winter ; when held in cap-
tivity, they generally refuse to take food ; yet they bite at every
thing presented to them, and close their jaws with considerable
force. In our climate they pass the winter benumbed in holes,
and their movements are active in proportion as the temperature
is more elevated ; they love to warm themselves in the sun even
in midsummer, and they are often seen stretched on a stone bask-
ing in the sunshine. Many fables have been attached to these
animals ; some have pretended, without any reason, that they are
venomous ; others, without foundation, assert that they show a
true attachment for man, and give him warning when a serpent
is about to bite. A great many species are known.

FAMILY OF IGUANIANS.

27. The Saurians composing this family have very nearly the
same general form as the Lacertians: they also have a long tail,
free and unequal toes, &c.; but their tongue is fleshy, thick, not
extensile, and only notched at the end.

28. The mouth presents the same modit^cations as the pre-
ceding family : sometimes they have teeth in the palate as well
as in both jaws ; sometimes there are only two ranges of teeth
in the upper jaw.

29. Among the first are ranged the STELLIOS; they have the
tail surrounded by large scales, which are often spiny; the
AGAMIANS, in which the scales on the tail are imbricatet (that is,
having the scales lying over each other like shingles on a roof,)
and not verticillate, (that is, not arranged in a circle, around a
centre) ; the DRAGONS, &c. The last are distinguished from all
other reptiles by a species of wing formed on each side by a deep
fold of the skin. These appendices resemble the wings of a bat ;
but instead of being supported and set in motion by the extremi-
ties, they are altogether independent of them, and are sustained
by the first six false ribs which do not surround the abdomen,
but are extended horizontally in a straight line. The animal
uses these wings as a parachute, to sustain itself in the air when
it leaps from branch to branch ; but it cannot use them with
sufficient force to fly like a bat or a bird. These singular reptiles,

27. What are the general characters of the Iguanians?

28. What are the modifications met with in the mouth ?

2!). What are Stcllios ? What are Agamians ? How are the Dragons
characterised ?

48 IGUANAS— BASILISKS.— ANOLIS.

which inhabit India, realize to a certain extent the fable of flying
lizards, or serpents, spoken of by certain ancient writers ; but

Fig. 12.

DRAGON.

the Dragons of zoologists, instead of being formidable animals,
like those of the poets, are of very small size, and only attack
insects.

30. As examples of Iguanians with palatine teeth, we will
mention, IGUANAS PROPERLY so CALLED, BASILISKS, and ANOLIS.
The first are covered by small imbricated scales, and have a
crest of pointed scales along the back. There is also observed
beneath the throat, a pendent and compressed dew-lap. Several
species are known which inhabit America ; one, four or five feet
in length, is common in all the hot regions of the New World :
it lives mostly on trees and feeds on fruits, leaves, &c. Its flesh
is reputed delicate, but unwholesome.

31. The BASILISKS, — Basiliacus, — have along the back and
tail, a continued, elevated crest, which is supported by the
spinous processes of the vertebrae ; they feed on grains, and
inhabit Guiana.

32. The ANOLIS, — rfnolius, — which also belong to America,
are distinguished by the conformation of their toes, the antepe-
nultimate joint of which is furnished on the under part, with an
oval, striated disk, by the assistance of which these reptiles
cling to the surface upon which they climb. Many of them pos-
sess the power of changing the colour of their skin.

To the family of Iguanas also belongs an enormous reptile,
called Mosasaurus, the fossil bones of which have been found at
Maestricht.

30. What are Iguanas properly so called ? What are their habits ?

31. What are Basilisks?

32. How are the Anolis characterised ?

^ GECKOS —CHAMELEONS. 49

~FAMILY OF GECKO HANS.

33. The Saurians designated under the collective name of
Geckos^ are nocturnal animals, dull and heavy in appearance ;
their walk is crawling, and their squat and flattened form is in
striking contrast with that of most of the reptiles we have here-
tofore mentioned. Their head is wide and depressed ; their eyes
are very large, and very prominent ; their jaws are armed all
round with a single row of small teeth ; but there are none in the
palate. Their tongue is fleshy, and not extensile ; the body is
studded above by small granular scales, among which are larger
tubercles, (the whole resembling shagreen,) and covered beneath
by flat, imbricated scales ; their feet are moderate in size, and their
five, almost equal toes, are ordinarily widened throughout, or in
part, armed with retractile nails, and furnished beneath with a fold
of skin, by the aid of which they adhere to bodies upon which they
walk. This conformation of the toes enables them to walk easily
on the smoothest walls, and even upon ceilings. During the day,
they conceal themselves in obscure places, and, at night, more
especially, they seek spiders, and other animals upon which they
feed. The ugliness of these reptiles is extreme, and we are
assured, that the contact of their feet on our skin, often excites
a sort of inflammation : they are everywhere objects of aversion,
and they are charged with being venomous, but this opinion is
not sustained by positive proof.

The Geckos are very numerous, and disseminated throughout
the warm parts of both continents.

FAMILY OF CHAMELEONS.

34. The Chameleons, — Chamceleo, — are Fig, 13.
distinguished from all other Saurians by their

toes, which are five in number on all their feet,
but divided into two opposable parcels or bun-
dles, an arrangement which makes these ani-
mals essentially climbers, destined to live on
the branches of trees, (Fig. 13.) A number
of peculiarities of organization separates them
from all the reptiles we have thus far con-
sidered. Their tail, round and prehensile,
serves them as a fifth extremity, in suspend-
ing themselves from branches, and aids them
in their slow and awkward movements. Their

33. What are Geckos ? What are their general characters?

34. What are the distinguishing characters of Chameleons ? Upon what
do they feed ? How does the Chameleon change its colour ? What are the
peculiarities of the skin in Chameleons ?

4

50 CHAMELEONS.

eyes, which are very large and very projecting, are almost entirely
covered by the skin ; the light reaches them only through a little
hole, situate opposite to the pupil, and these organs move alto-
gether independently of each other. Their mouth is armed with
small tri-lobed teeth, and their tongue, fleshy and cylindrical, is
extremely extensile : they can dart it out of the mouth to a dis-
tance that sometimes exceeds the length of the body, and they
use it to seize living insects upon which they feed. Their body
is compressed, and the back is ridged, or, as it were, trenchant,
and the skin is covered by small scaly granulations. These
singular animals are celebrated for their faculty of almost instantly
changing colour; and, if we believe the ancient writers, they even
possess the power of assuming successively, the hues of all the
objects by which they are surrounded, in order to conceal them-
selves more effectually from their enemies. The observations of
naturalists have already robbed the history of the Chameleon of
the fables with which it was -loaded ; and, although the faculty of
changing its colours, in this manner, has been denied, it has been
ascertained that it really undergoes the most remarkable changes,
being sometimes almost white, sometimes yellowish, at other
times green, reddish, and even almost black, either entirely or
only on parts of the body. These changes are particularly
observed, when the animal is excited either by anger or by
heat. When it has remained for some time in a dark, cold
place, it is almost white, and warming it, or stimulating it,
causes it to assume a bottle green, or vinous red hue, which-
often becomes so intense that it appears to be almost black.
For a long time, these changes were attributed to the greater
or less distension of the very large lungs of this animal, and
to corresponding modifications in the quantity of blood se,nt
to the skin; but we are assured, there is no necessary relation
bt-tvveen these phenomena ; and dissection of the skin teaches us
that we must seek the cause of these variations of colour in the
particular mode of the structure of this membrane. We find, in
fact, that it contains different colouring matters, some of which
can sometimes rise to the surface, and in a degree mask the
others, and at other times retire, and become hidden beneath the
superficial pigment.

35. Only a single genus of Saurians, possessing the above
described organization, is known ; but many species of Chame-
leons have been ascertained. One of them, very common in
the neighbourhood of Algiers, is met with from Spain to the
Indies.

35. How many genera of Chameleons are known ?

SCINCOIDS.

51

FAMILY OF SCINCOTDEA.

36. The Saurians which compose this family are recognised
by their short feet, their tongue, which is slightly or not at all
extensible, and by the equal, and ordinarily im-
bricated scales, which cover the body above and

below. Some of them are spindle-shaped, and

others have the body so much elongated, and the

tail not very distinguishable from it, (Fig. 14.) Fi9- 14<

that they resemble serpents. In many, the feet

are too short to serve for locomotion, and there

are some in which one pair of extremities, either

the anterior or posterior, is entirely wanting.

The Scincoidea evidently form the connecting

link between the Saurians and Ophidians.

37. Among the Scincoidea we place the
ScmauES, the SEPS, the BIPEDES, the CHALCIDES,
and the BIMANA. In the two first genera there
are four feet, and in the Seps the body is more
elongated, and more vermiform than in the
Scinques. The Bipedes, (Fig. 14.) and Chal-
cides, want the anterior extremities, and the
Bimana have the fore feet only.

38. Long previous to the epoch of the crea-
tion of man, there existed on the surface of the

globe, a great number of gigantic reptiles, the bones of which
are found in a fossil state. Among these Saurians, the race of
which is extinct, are found Lacertians, resembling Monitors, that
must have been from thirty to forty feet in length ; but many of
these lost animals are particularly remarkable for their anomalous
structure. In England, near Honfleur, and in other localities,
we find in the very ancient formations, the remains of many
species of two genera of Saurians, whose broad feet, in the form
of battledores, indicate that these animals were entirely aquatic.
They are designated under the names of PLESIAOSURUS, and
ICTHYOSAURUS. And another reptile, (Fig. 1 5.) still more extra-
ordinary, has been discovered in some of the ancient layers of
the earth. According to the structure of its bony frame, we see,
like the bat, it must have been capable of walking and flying ;
for its posterior extremities, and all the toes of the fore feet, with
a single exception, are formed in the ordinary way ; but the
second toe of the anterior extremities is more than twice as long

36_ How are the Scincoidea characterised?

37. What are the divisions of the Scincoidea?

38. What is the Pterodactylus ?

PTERODACTYLUS.

Fig. 15

as the body, and probably sustained a fold of skin, fitted to
perform the functions of wings.* To indicate this singular con-
formation, the generic name of PTERODACTYLUS has been given
to these fossil Saurians.

ORDER OF OPHIDIANS, OR SERPENTS.

39. We ordinarily group with Serpents, or Ophidians, all rep-
tiles that have a cylindrical, elongated body, without extremities ;
but in order that the classification of these animals may represent
the modifications introduced by nature in their organization, and
indicate the degree of physiological importance of these diffe-
rences, it becomes necessary to separate from the serpents, some
apodous reptiles in which respiration is at first branchial, then
pulmonary, as it is in ordinary Batrachians. On the other hand,
the passage between the Saurians and Ophidians is so gradual,
that the limits between these two orders are somewhat arbitrary.
Some naturalists even think, they should not be separated, and,
according to others, it would be proper to range in the division
of Saurians, those reptiles that, by their internal organization,
are removed from the common type of Ophidians, and approach
that of the Scincoidea.

40. The apodous reptiles, which are in a manner intermediate
between the Saurians and the Serpents properly so called, are

* The dotted line indicates what it is presumed, was the outline of the animal.

39, What description of reptiles belong to the order of Ophidians.

40. What are the general characters of the Angues? What are their
habits? Upon what do they feed ? What aru Glass-Snakes ? What are
the characters of the common Angue of Europe ?

STRUCTURE OF OPHIDIANS. 53

the SNAKES, or ANGUES, — rfiiguina. They are easily distinguished
by the imbricate scales, which cover the body like those of
the Scincoidea; they also approximate the Saurians by the
presence of three eye-lids, organs that are not found in true
serpents. The tongue is fleshy, and but slightly extensile, and
the bony skull possesses the same conformation as that of the
Scinques; and we find beneath the skin of most of these animals,
vestiges of a pelvis and shoulder bones. On the other hand, they
resemble true serpents in the general form of the body, and in
the small size of their lungs. They are very mild animals, and,
when taken hold of, do not attempt to bite. Their mouth is
small, and armed with teeth like those of the Scincoidea ; they
feed on different insects and terrestrial mollusks, and entirely
conceal themselves in holes, and are torpid in winter. Their
tail, like that of lizards, breaks with the greatest facility, and
some Angues stiffen themselves so much when taken that the
body breaks, which singular circumstance has obtained for them
the name of Glass-snakes. The Common JLngue of Europe, —
rfnguis fragilis, — is about a foot long, and its tail, which is
obtuse, and like the rest of the body, is of the same length as the
latter. Its scales are smooth and shining ; it is blackish beneath,
and of a yellowish lead colour above, with three black bands,
which, as it advances in age, change to a series of points, and
finally disappear ; it has no external tympanum. It digs subter-
raneous galleries, and produces its young like vipers, in which
the eggs are hatched before they are laid.

41. The TRUE SERPENTS, — Serpentia, — possess no internal
trace of anterior extremities : they have no vestige of sternum
or shoulder ; but many of them have, beneath the skin, rudi-
ments of posterior extremities, which sometimes show themselves
externally, in the form of a small hook. The skin is furnished
with scales, which, in general, are small, and imbricate above,
and in the form of broad quadrangular plates beneath : they
have no tympanum, and their eyes appear to be entirely without
lids ; for they are only covered by a sort of single and immove-
able veil, which is set in, like a watch-glass, in front of the orbit,
and which permits the passage of light.

42. The vertebra and ribs, by themselves, form almost the
whole skeleton of serpents. Their number is very considerable ;
in the viper we count 198 vertebrae; in the Boa, 304; and in the
Ringed Snake, 316. The form of these bones is nearly the same
throughout the column, and their mode of articulation is very

41. What kind of eye-lids have true Serpents? What are the general
characters of Serpents ?

42. What bones are most numerous in the skeleton of Serpents ?

54 STRUCTURE OF OPHIDIANS.

remarkable : the anterior part of the body of each vertebra pre-
sents a rounded semi-spherical tubercle which is received in a
corresponding cavity on the posterior face of the vertebra next
to it. This mode of articulation explains the movements of the
body of these animals, which, in general, are executed laterally,
and not from above downwards; in fact, the spinous processes
which prevail along the back are ordinarily so disposed as to
prevent the vertebral column from bending very much in this
direction. The ribs surround a large part of the circumference
of the trunk, and are wanting only on the caudal vertebrae. The
first pair are smaller than the others ; but they commence at the
head, so that these animals have no neck. We count in some
instances as many as 250 pairs.

43. Serpents are essentially carnivorous ; they can endure
abstinence for a long time ; but, in general, when the opportunity
occurs, they gorge the stomach with such a quantity of food,
that, during digestion, they remain in a state of greater or less
torpor : they do not chew their food ; but their mouth is armed
with hooked teeth, suited for retaining their prey. Their tongue
is very extensible, and terminates in two long, semi-cartilaginous,
and very moveable filaments. The digestive canal is very short,
and the stomach is merely a slight dilatation of this tube.

44. The circulation is carried on in the same manner as in
Tortoises and Saurians, except Crocodiles. The heart is com-
posed of two auricles and a single ventricle, incompletely divided
into two cavities, from each one of which arises an aorta, which
joins its fellow behind this organ. The lungs are very unequal
in size, and generally one of the two is entirely atrophied, while
the other is very large, and prolonged into the abdomen, above
and beyond the stomach and liver : it is in the form of a large
membranous sack, in the interior of which are found great poly-
gonal cells. The air is renewed in them by the motions of the
ribs and abdominal muscles, nearly in the same way as it is in
saurians and birds. Probably, it is in part owing to the position
of the lungs that serpents become torpid after a copious repast ;
for, every time they swallow a prey of large size, this organ must
be compressed, and the pulmonary circulation impeded.

45. The structure of the head varies in these animals. Some-
times the lower jaw, the two branches of which are solidly united
in front, is supported on a tympanic bone, which is itself immedi-

43. Upon what do Serpents feed ? Do they chew their food ? What is
the character of their digestive organs ?

44. What are the peculiarities of the circulation in Serpents? What is the
character of their respiratory apparatus? Why are Serpents torpid after a
full meal ?

45. IB the structure of the head the same in all these animals ?

STRUCTURE OF OPHIDIANS.

55

Fig. 16.*

ately articulated with the cranium, as in Saurians and Chelonians ;
but, in general, the tympanic bones are moveable.

46. The true Serpents with im moveable tympanic bones also
have the upper jaw fixed to the cranium, and the mouth but little
dilatable, (Fig. 16.): they form the small

family of double walkers, — Jlniphisbcena.) —

so called from their faculty of moving equally

well, both forward and backwards. Those

that form the genus of Amphisbaena have

the body surrounded by circular ranges of

small quadrangular scales, like certain Scincoids ; the others.

called TYPHLOPS, have small imbricate scales, and at first sight,

resemble earth worms. These Ophidians inhabit the warm coun

tries of both continents : some of them are blind.

47. True Serpents having moveable tympanic bones, form a
more numerous family Some of them resemble the preceding in
the cylindrical form of the head and body, and in the smallness of
their scales. The mouth is less dilatable than in other ophidians
of this division ; for the tympanic bone is directly articulated to
the cranium, while, in the last, it is suspended to a mastoid bone
which is itself moveable. The genus of Tortrix, possesses this
kind of organization.

48. In all the ORDINARY SERPENTS,
we have yet to mention, the mouth
is so formed as to enable the ani-
mal to swallow bodies larger than
itself. The two branches of the
lower jaw are not united, and the
kind of peduncle which sustains
them ( the tympanic bone, Fig.
17, £.) is not only moveable itself,
but is suspended to another portion

I7.t

n

* Explanation of Fig. 1 6. — The bony head of an Ophidian of the division
of Amphisbaena.

^Explanation of Fig. 17. — Bony head of a Rattlesnake, — c.the cranium,
— ma. the mastoid bone which articulates by one extremity, with the
cranium, and by the other, supports the tympanic bone, (*.) — mi. the lower
jaw suspended from the tympanic bone, — n. the vomer and nasal bones, — TO.
the moveable upper jaw bone, — pi. one of the pterygoid bones (portions of
the sphenoid,) the internal of which is continuous with the palatine arches,
— p, pe. palatine teeth. — d. the poisonous fangs.

46. What are Amphisbaenae ? '

47. What is the organization of the head in the genus Tortrix ?

48. What peculiarities in the structure of the head enable certain Serpents
to swallow bodies larger than themselves ?

56 STRUCTURE OF OPHIDIANS.— BOAS, ^

of the temporal bone, called mastoid bone, (ma.) which is also
separate from the cranium, and attached to this bony case by
ligaments and muscles only ; the branches of the upper jaw are
not fixed to the intermaxillary bone except by ligament, which
permits them to separate more or less; the palatine arches also
participate in this mobility. Another character, peculiar to this
group, is the existence of sharp teeth, curved backwards, planted
in these arches as well as in the upper and lower jaws.

49. In other respects the armature of the mouth varies, and
these differences are of great importance ; for they coincide with
the existence or absence of an apparatus for the secretion of an
active poison, which the animal 'uses to kill the prey it bites.
Ordinary serpents are therefore divided into venomous serpents,
and serpents which are not venomous.

Fiq. 18.* 50. The NON-VENOMOUS SERPENTS, are re-

cognised by their teeth, no one of which is
moveable or hollowed by a canal or gutter ;
they are all fixed, and they form in the mouth
four nearly equal ranges above, (Fig. 18.)
and two below.

5J. Those serpents that have the under
part of the body and tail furnished with a
single band of transverse scales are described
under the name of Boas; and we give the
collective name of Colubers to those in which
the under part of the tail is covered by plates
im in pairs, divided on a middle line.

52. The division of BOAS is composed of Boas properly so
called, of Erix, &c.

53. The BOAS PROPERLY so CALLED, have a compressed body,
a prehensile tail, a hook on each side of the anus and small scales
on the back of the head at least. The largest serpents known,
belong to this genus ; certain species attain thirty and even forty
feet in length, and manage to swallow deer, and, as we are
assured, even oxen. They are unprovided with venom, but,

* Exportation of Fig. 18. — The bony head of a Non-venomous Serpent
seen from below : — c. the cranium, — im. the intermaxillary bone, — m. the
maxillary bones, — p. the palatine bones.

49. Is the mouth, in all ordinary Serpents, armed in the same way ? How
are ordinary Serpents divided ?

50. How are the Non-venomons Serpents recognised?

51. What are Boas ? What are Colubers?

52. How is the division of Boas divided?

53. What are the characters of Boas properly so called ? What are their
habits ? To what part of the world do Boas belong ? What is the Divine Boa?

J30AS.-PYTIIONS. 57

possessing great agility, and prodigious strength, they are not
the less formidable. Concealed in the grass, or suspended by
its tail from the branches of a tree in a pathway, or on the
bank of a rivulet, the Boa watches an opportunity of seizing its
prey, which it surrounds in its folds, and presses so strongly,
that the animal is soon stifled, and its bones crushed. When
the Serpent has, so to speak, kneaded its victim, it bathes it
in slaver, and, enormously dilating its jaws, slowly swallows it.
We are assured, that several days are required to swallow an
entire animal, eaten in this way, and that a part of it is
already digested before the whole has entered the mouth of the
reptile. After a repast of this kind, Boas remain motionless in
some retired spot, exhaling a foetid odour. It is then easy to kill
them, and it appears, their flesh is not a disagreeable aliment, for
certain Indian tribes feed upon it. During a very long time, the
greatest confusion pervaded the history of these great serpents,
which were confounded with the Pythons. It was believed they
were found in Africa and Asia, as well as in America ; but it now
seems to be certain, that they are peculiar to the western conti-
nent. The most celebrated species owes its name to an error of
this kind. It was called the Divine Boa, because what was said
of certain large Colubers, which the negroes of Mozambique
make objects of religious worship, was attributed to it. It seems
that the Brazilians and even the ancient Mexicans, rendered it
similar honours. This enormous reptile, which is also called the
Boa Constrictor, inhabits the warm and humid parts of America ;
its head is covered with small scales to the end of the muzzle, and
it is easily recognised by a sort of chain-links, formed along the
back, of hexagonal blackish spots, and others of a yellowish colour.
Two other species, which inhabit the same countries attain nearly
the same size : the Boa anaconda, and the Boa aboma.

54. The division of COLUBERS includes the Pythons, the Colu-
bers properly so called, and many other genera."

55. The PYTHONS, are, as it were, the representatives of the
Boas in the old world : they attain the same gigantic size, and
are also furnished with hooks near the anus : they have narrow
ventral plates ; but those beneath the tail are double instead of
being simple. It is to be remarked, however, that some of these
serpents have the first, others the second plates of the tail simple,
which seems to establish a gradual passage betwixt these two
genera, the distinction of which, in other respects, is founded upon
unimportant particulars. Be it as it may, to the Pythons must be
referred all that has been said of the Boas of Africa and Asia.

54. What genera are included in the division of Colubers ?

55. What are Pythons ? What are their characters ?

58 COLUBERS.— VENOMOUS SERPENTS.

56. The COLUBERS PROPERLY so CALLED, — Coluber, — have the
head covered by large plates, (Fig. 19.) and neither fossettes on

Fig. 19. tne sides of the muzzle, nor hooks near the

anus. The number of these Serpents is
immense; the most common in France,
(frig. 19.) is the Ringed Snake,— Coluber
natrix, — it is ash-coloured with black spots
along the flanks, and three whitish spots
form a collar around the neck. Its length
is about three feet ; it is found in the neigh-
bourhood of stagnant waters. It swims
with ease, and lives chiefly on insects, mol-
lusks, and frogs ; it does not attempt to bite,
COLUBER. except when very much irritated, and the

wound it inflicts is by no means dangerous. It is eaten in many

French provinces. /

57. VENOMOUS SERPENTS are provided with a particular gland,
situate on each side of the head, which pours out the poison that
it secretes, by an excretory duct, the extremity of which empties

into one of the maxillary teeth
of the upper jaw. This gland,
(Fig. 20, g.) is placed beneath
the temporal muscles, so as to be
compressed when they contract,
and this tooth which is larger
than the others, is sometimes per-
forated by a canal, and at others,
simply has a gutter on one side ;

RATTLE SNAKE. but in either case, its duct is in

communication with the excretory canal of the venomous gland,
and serves to pour the poison into the bottom of the Wound made
by the tooth itself. This liquid is a most violent poison. It is
neither acrid nor burning, and only produces a sensation on the
tongue analogous to that occasioned by a fatty matter, and may
be swallowed with impunity ; but, introduced into a wound, in
sufficient quantity, it causes death with frightful rapidity.

* Explanation of Fig. 20. — Poison apparatus of a Rattlesnake : — g. the
venomous gland, the excretory canal of which empties into a large moveable
tooth, (c,) — m. the elevator muscles of the jaw which partly cover the gland
and compress it, — s. salivary glands along the edge of the jaws, — n. the
nostrils, beneath which is seen the fossette, or pit, which distinguishes these
serpents and trigonocephali from the vipers.

56. What are the characters of Colubers properly so called ? What are
the characters of the Ringed Snake ? What are its habits ?

57. What peculiar apparatus distinguishes the venomous Serpents ? What
are the properties of their venom ?

VENOMOUS SERPENTS. 59

58. Its energy varies according to the species, and according
to the condition of the serpent. The same species seems to be
more dangerous in warm than in cold or temperate climates, and
the effects are serious in proportion to the quantity of poison
poured into the wound : these animals are more formidable when
they have fasted for sometime, and the poison has accumulated in
considerable quantity in the glands where it is secreted, than
when they have just bitten several times, and only a small
quantity of the liquid is left. It is remarked also that their poison
does not act in the same manner on all animals. It appears that
to Leeches, Snails, the Asp, the Coluber, and Angue, the venom
of the Viper, for example, is not poisonous, while it kills all warm
blooded animals, Lizards, and the Viper itself, with great rapidity.
In general, the quantity of poison necessary to cause death is,
all things being equal, large in proportion to the size of the
animal wounded ; thus, when the hundredth part of a grain of
the poison of a Viper is sufficient to kill a Sparrow, it would
require six times as much to kill a Pigeon.

59. This poison, to act on the animal economy, must be
absorbed and carried into the circulation : therefore, in cases of
bites of venomous serpents, we should hasten, by appropriate
means, to prevent this absorption, so as to gain time to extract
or destroy the poison, deposited at the bottom of the wound.
Compression of 'the veins above the wound, between it and the
heart, and the application of a cupping-glass over the wound
itself, are the most appropriate means of retarding the absorption
of the poison ; but, to remove all danger completely, we should
enlarge the wound, and cauterise the bottom of it, either with a
red hot iron, or with some energetic caustic. Several internal
remedies have been much vaunted, such as Ammonia, or Vola-
tile Alkali, Arsenic, &c., but these means, though sometimes
useful, should not inspire great confidence. The Indians of South
America attribute still greater virtues to a plant of that country,
known under the name of Guaco, or fllicania guaco; they assure
us that not only the application of the leaves of the Guaco to the
bite of the most venomous serpents prevents all deleterious effects,
but also that innoculation with the juice of this plant prevents
these animals from biting persons so prepared. In support of
this opinion the observations of Vergas, a Spanish author, and
of Mutis are cited ; and the celebrated and learned traveller,
Baron Humboldt, thinks, according to some experiments, that

58. Is the venom of Serpents equally active under all circumstances ?
When is it most to be dreaded ?

59. What is the hest mode of treating a person who has been bitten by a
poisonous reptile ?

60 VENOMOUS SERPENTS.

the Guaco may impart to the skin an odour which is repugnant
to the serpent and prevent it from biting.

60. SERPENTS WITH MOVEABLE, VENOMOUS FANGS, are the most
formidable. The fangs, (Fig. 20, c.) situate in front of the
mouth, are isolated, very sharp, and pierced by a small canal,
which opens near their extremity ; they are fixed on very small
maxillary bones, (Fig. 18, im.) and these bones being supported
on a long pedicle, are very moveable, so that when the animal does
not wish to use them, they are folded backwards, and lie concealed
in a fold of the gum, and when required on the contrary, they
are erected. There is one of these long teeth on each side, and
behind each one, there are many germs to replace it, in the event
of its being broken in a wound ; but the intermaxillary bones
support no other teeth, and, consequently, we find in the upper
part of the mouth, only two rows of palatine teeth, instead of
four rows, as in Colubers.

61. The head of these serpents is generally wide behind, and
their aspect is more fierce than that of the preceding. They are
all ova-viviparous, that is, they are born alive, because their eggs
are hatched before they are laid. Hence the name of Viper.,
which is a contraction of viviparous, is given to most of them.

62. The most remarkable genera of this division of venomous
Serpents, are the Crotalus, Triyonocephalus, Viper, and ]\aja.

Fig. 21. 63. The RATTLE SNAKES, — Cro-

talus, — owe their name to a sin-
gular apparatus which terminates
the tail, and which distinguishes
them from all other Ophidians. It
consists of a series of horny
scales, loosely fitting into each
other like a nest of boxes, which
move, vibrate and sound, when
the animal moves its tail, (Fig.
21.) The number of these scales
increases with age ; it seems there
is an additional one after each
moult, and that they are formed
by the epidermis of the Serpent,
turned upon itself like the finger
of a glove, and retained at the
extremity of the tail. This in-
strument vibrates with extreme

RATTLE SNAKE.

60. What are the peculiarities of the fangs, in venomous Serpents ?

61. What is the origin of the name of Viper?

62. What are the chief genera of the division of venomous Serpents ?

63. What peculiarity gives name to the Rattle Snake?

VENOMOUS SERPENTS.

rapidity, an I thus produces a noise sufficiently loud to be heard
at a distance of several fathoms.

64. Rattle Snakes attain a length of five or six feet, and even
more : they inhabit America, and are celebrated for the violence
of their poison. In general, they do not bite except when pro-
voked, and they rarely attack animals too large for them to
swallow. Notwithstanding that their food chiefly consists of birds,
squirrels, &c., they do not climb upon trees. It was believed
for a long time that they possessed the power of stupifying their
victims by their breath, or even charming them by their gaze,
and thus forcing them to enter their mouth ; but it is only the
extreme terror they inspire in small animals, which confounds
them so much as to prevent their flight, causing them to perform
irregular movements, and even to fall into the jaws of their
enemy. These serpents ordinarily keep themselves coiled
spirally, near a watering-place, frequented by small mammals.
There they tranquilly wait, until some victim presents itself, and,
when within reach, they spring upon it with the rapidity of
lightning. In parts of North America, where the winter is
rigorous, they are benumbed during winter, and, we are assured,
that during the cold season, their bite is not dangerous. In
Cayenne, and other warm countries, they are never benumbed.
Negroes eat their flesh.

65. Many species of Rattle Snake are known : most of them
have the head covered with scales like those on the back ; that
which is most common in the United States, is brown, with
irregular, transverse, blackish bands; that of Guiana has lozenge
shaped spots, bordered with black. Both are about six feet in
length.

66. The TRIGONOCEPHALI are distinguished from the preceding
by the absence of the rattle ; but like them they have the fossette
or pit, behind the nostrils. Some of them have simple, sub-
caudal plates, like the Boas and Rattle Snakes ; others have the
tail furnished beneath with double plates like the Colubers, and
most Vipers. They equal the Rattle Snakes in the violence of
their poison, and most of them inhabit the western continent.
The most celebrated species is the Yellow Trigonocephaliis, also
called the Yellow Snake of the West Indies, and Lance-headed
Viper, — Trigouocephalus lanceolatus. This reptile is very com-
mon in Martinique and the neighbouring Islands. It lives among

64. What are the habits of the Rattlesnake ? Where are Rattle Snakes
usually met with?

65. Is there more than one species of the Rattle Snake ?

66. How are the Trigonocephali distinguished from Rattle Snakes? What
fc the Lance-headed Viper ? Where is it found ? What are its habits ?

5

VENOMOUS SERPENTS.

sugar-canes, where it feeds on rats, and causes the death of many
slaves. Its length is from six to seven feet, and it is extremely
active; it climbs the highest trees in pursuit of its prey, and
springs like lightning, not only on birds and other small animals
upon which it ordinarily feeds, but also on large animals, and
even on man.

67. The VIPERS, — Vipera, — differ from the venomous serpents
just mentioned, by the absence of the pits behind the nostrils.
Fig. 22. Many of them have been frequently

confounded with the Colubers, on
account of their double, sub-caudal
plates, and some of them having the
head furnished with large plates like
the latter; but most all Vipers have
the head covered by small imbricated
HKAD OF A VIPER. or granular scales, (Fig. 22.) The

Common Viper, — Viper a benis, — possesses this latter character.
It rarely exceeds two feet in length, (Fig. 23.) and is generally
brown with a double row of transverse, black spots along the
back, and another row upon the flank ; but fiym 23.

these spots are often united, forming zig-zag
bands. One of 'these Vipers is sometimes
named the Asp, in some parts of France, but
it should not be confounded with the true Asp
of the ancients. It inhabits the mountainous,
stony and woody districts of temperate and
Southern Europe. It feeds on mice, moles,
young birds, reptiles, and even insects and
worms. During the cold season, these reptiles
remain benumbed in holes, where several are
often found twined together. They are most
frequently seen on the first fine days of spring,
warming themselves in the sunshine ; but when
the weather becomes very hot, they are rarely
met. They produce from twelve to twenty-five young ones at
each birth, which do not acquire their full size until they are six
or seven years old. Of all the venomous reptiles of Europe, the
common Viper is the most dangerous ; even in the climate of
France, its bite may cause the death of a man in a few hours,
and kill small animals in a few minutes. The quantity of poison
it generally pours into a wound is not sufficient to be fatal to
man.

67. How are Vipers distinguished from the venomous Serpents just spoken
of? What arc the characters of the common Viper? What are its habits?

VENOMOUS SERPENTS.

63

Fig. 24.

68. The Little Vipert— Vipera cfierscea, — which is common in
the north of Europe, and which is also found in the Pyrennes,
has upon the head three plates somewhat larger than the scales
surrounding them. It is about six inches long; but its poison
is very violent.

69. The Vipera illyrica, inhabits the south of Europe, and is
distinguished from the common Viper by a small soft horn,
covered with scales, that it has on the end of the muzzle ; and
the Ht/rnetf Viper, — Coluber cerastes, — of which the ancients
often speak, is recognised by a small horn placed on each eye-
brow. It is found in the burning sands of Egypt and Syria.

70. The NAJA resemble the V'ipers, except that their head is
always furnished with plates, and the anterior ribs can be erected
and carried forward, so as to dilate this part of the trunk into a
kind of disk, which is more or less wide, (/%. 24.) Two species
of this genus are known ; the Spectacle Snake, and the Asp of
Egypt..

71. The Spectacle Snake, (or
Cobra Capello of the Portuguese
in India,) — Coluber naja, — owes
its name to a black line, in form
of a pair of spectacles, traced upon
the extensible part of its neck. Its
length is about four feet ; its bite
is extremely dangerous, and it is
very fierce: nevertheless, Indian
jugglers teach it to execute cer-
tain movements, in time, to the
sound of a flute, and employ it
to astonish the public ; to increase
the sale of their pretended specific
against the venom of this reptile,
they permit themselves even to be
bitten by the serpent, somewhat
tamed, however; but they take

the precaution previously to extract its poisonous fangs.

72. The Asp, which inhabits Egypt, — Coluber haje, — and
which is about two feet long, is also employed by the jugglers of
those countries to amuse the public. By pressing it with the
fingers on the back of the neck, they cause it to fall into a sort

COBRA CAPELLO.

68. What is the Little Viper ?

69. How is the Horned Viper recognised ?

70. What are the characters of the genus Naja ?
11. What are the characters of the Cobra Capello?

72. What are the peculiarities of the Asp of Cleopatra ?

64 VENOMOUS SERPENTS.

of catalepsy, which renders it stiff and immoveable, as if they
had changed it into a rod or stick. Its poison is very active, and
Galen relates that, at Alexandria, they resorted to the bite of
this serpent to abridge the punishment of criminals condemned to
death. It is unquestionably the Jl&p of Clenpatra. The ancient
Egyptians took it as the emblem of the protecting divinity of the
world, and sculptured it on their monuments, on opposite sides of
a globe. Its habit of erecting itself, when approached, led them
to believe that it watched the fields in which it was found.

73. Other venomous serpents with isolated fangs, called ELAPS,
have a mouth that is hardly dilatable ; and there are some, in
which the tail is compressed in the form of a paddle, whose
habits are aquatic. They form the genus of PLATURUS.

74. Among the VENOMOUS SERPENTS WITHOUT ISOLATED FANGS,
there are some which are scarcely distinguishable from the Colu-
bers ; their mouth is furnished above with four rows of teeth like
the non-venomous serpents without there being perceived, in the
place ordinarily occupied by the fangs, any thing of a nature in-
dicative of the existence of a venomous apparatus. In fact, the
excretory canal of the poisonous gland, in them, terminates in
one of the last maxillary teeth, which is somewhat larger than
the others, and simply furrowed by a gutter. Some of the
serpents of America and Africa possess this kind of organization.

75. There are also others which, with the armature of the
mouth very nearly like the last, have the first maxillary tooth
larger than the others, and pierced, like the moveable fangs above
mentioned, to conduct the poison. Some, known in India under
the name of Rock Serpents, have simple plates under the belly
and tail, and constitute the genus BUNGARUS. The others, called
HYDRUS, have the posterior part of the body and tail very much
compressed, and raised vertically, which gives them facility in
swimming : they are common in certain parts of the Indian seas.

73. What is the genus Elaps ? What is the genus Platurus?

74. What are the general characters of Serpents without isolated fangs ?

75. What are the characters of the genus Bungarus ? What are the
characters of the genus Hydrus ?

BATRACHIANS. 63

LESSON IV.

ORDER OF BATRACHIA. — Organization. — Classification.
FAMILY OF ANOURA. — Metamorphosis oj Tadpoles. — Habits. —

frays. — Tree-Froys. — Toads. — Pipa.
FAMILY OF URODELA. — Salamanders, or Water-Newts.
FAMILY OF BRANCHIFERA. — AxolotL — Menobranc/ius. — Proteus.

Streu.
FAMILY OF APODA. — Ccecilia.

ORDER OF BATRACHIANS.

1. The name Batrachian, (from the Greek, Batrachos, frog,)
is given to all reptiles that resemble frogs in their mode of 'organi-
zation. This fourth and last division of the Class of Reptiles,
brings us into the neighbourhood of the fishes ; for it is composed
of animals that, during the early period of their life, respire by
branchias, and resemble fishes in their habits and form, as well as
in their mode of organization, but which, with the advance of age,
undergo a true metamorphosis, and acquire characters common
to other reptiles. When in this transitory state, they are called
Tadpoles.

2. The branchiae of young Batrachians are placed upon the
sides of the neck, and are sustained by the lateral prolongations
of a cartilage which represents the hyoides. Sometimes they
are in the form of external feathery tufts, which float in the
water ; at others, they consist of filaments fixed along the hyoid
branches just mentioned, and covered by the integuments. In
proportion as the lungs become developed, in general, the bran-
chiae wither, and at last entirely disappear ; but this is not always
the case, and, in some reptiles, they remain throughout life, con-
jointly with the lungs.

1. What kind of animals form the order of Batrachians? What are Tadpoles?

2. What is the situation of the Branchiae in young Batrachians ? What
is their form ? Do they always exist throughout the life of the animal ?

5*

fifi

CIRCULATION OF BATRACHIANS.

Fig. 26.

I. tot

bri.

b 3. a

ap av

CIRCULATION OF A TADPOLE.

Explanation of Fig. 26— Principal blood vessels of the Tadpole of the Sala-
mander: — a. the artery which arises from the only ventricle of the heart;
it divides into six branches which go to the three pairs of branchiae, and
there ramify ; (they are called branchial arteries, ab.;} — br. the branchiae, in
which we see the distribution of the branchial arteries, and the origin of the
branchial veins, (vh.) which receive the blood after it has passed through
the lamellae of the branchiae ; those of the two last pairs of branchiae unite
on each side to form a vessel, (c.) which, by uniting with its fellow on the
opposite side, forms the ventral aorta or dorsal vessel, (av.} which is directed
backwards, and distributes the blood to most of the body ; the branchial vein
of the first pair of branchiae is bent forwards, and carries the blood towards
the head, (£,£.) ; — 1. an extremely small anastomosing branch, which unites!
the branchial artery and vein, at the base of the first branchiae, and which,
by afterwards becoming larger, permits the blood to pass from the first of
these vessels into the second, without passing through the branchiae ; — 2. a
small anastomosing branch which, in the same manner, establishes a com-
munication, between the artery and vein of the second pair of branchial ; —
3, a vessel, which, by a filament situate further in, also joins together the
artery and vein of the posterior branchiae ; — o. the orbital artery ; — ap. the
rudimental pulmonary arteries.

Fig. 27. ' *

CIRCULATION OF A TADPOLE, IN THE PROGRESS OF METAMORPHOSIS.

Explanation of Fig, 27. — The same parts in a Tadpole in which the
branchiae begin to lose their importance in respiration, and in which a part
of the blood goes from the heart to different parts of the body without pass-

CIRCULATION OF BATRACHIANS.

67

3. The apparatus of the circulation undergoes changes cor-
responding to those experienced by the organs of respiration.
The heart of Batrachians, like that of most reptiles, is composed
of two auricles and a single ventricle, from which arises a great
artery ; at its base, this artery is swelled into a contractile bulb,
and soon after bifurcates. When the animal breathes by bran-
chiae alone, the blood, forced by the ventricle, is distributed to
these organs, from which the greater part of it, goes to the
dorsal artery, the branches of which ramify in the various
organs. In fishes this liquid follows the same course. But when
the lungs are developed, the disposition of the circulatory apparatus
changes : there is established a direct communication between the
vessels which carry the
blood to the branchiae,
and those that receive it
from those organs, so that
it is not necessary for this
liquid to pass through the
respiratory apparatus to
reach the dorsal artery,
and, through it, the dif-

fer 1.

&r2

Fig. 28'

6r3.

3.

ap

ap

av

ferent parts of the body.
The artery, (Fig. 28, a.)
which arises from the ven-
tricle, and which could be
compared at first to a
branchial artery, then be-
comes the origin of the CIRCULATION IN A PERFECT BATRACHIAN.
dorsal vessel, and with it constitutes a true aorta, certain branches
of which, that go to the lungs, are developed at the same time,

ing through these organs ; the same letters indicate the same vessels as in
the preceding figure, and it will be observed that the anastomosing branches,
(1. 2. 3.) which, in the Tadpole, were capillary, and did not give passage to
a very considerable quantity of blood, are here of some size, and that they
seem to be continuous with the branchial vessels rather than with the arte-
ries coming from the heart. The pulmonary arteries are also much developed.
* Explanation of Fig. 28.— The same parts in the perfect animal, indicated
by the same letters as in Figs. 26. and 27. Here the vessels of the branchiae
have become rudimentary, and the pulmonary arteries much developed ; the
vessels which convey the blood to the middle branchiae are continuous, without
interruption, with those (c.) that receive this liquid after its passage through
these organs, and thus form an aortic cross, on each side of the heart.

3. What are the characters of the heart in Batrachians ? What are the
peculiarities of the circulation in Batrachians ? In what respect does the
circulation of Batrachians differ from that of fishes ? Does the aorta in
Batrachians circulate pure arterial blood ?

68

DIVISION OF BATRACHIANS.

SKELETON OF A FROG.

and establish a pulmonary circulation. Finally, the branchial
vessels are obliterated, and then the circulation is carried on
nearly in the same manner as it is in other reptiles. The venous
blood, returning from all parts of the body, is poured into the
ventricle by one of the auricles, and there mixed with the arterial
blood, coming from the lungs and poured into the same ventricle,
by the other auricle. This mixture enters the aorta; a small
portion goes to the lungs, but the largest part is distributed to
the different organs of the animal.

4. The skeleton of Batrachians presents remarkable peculiari-
ties ; in general, the ribs are entirely wanting, or are merely
rudimentary, for which reason pulmonary respiration cannot be

carried on by the

Fig. 29. ordinary mechanism ;

and in fact, the ani-
mal introduces air
into its lungs by a
species of deglutition.
It is to be observed,
also, that the skin of
these reptiles is not
covered with scales
like that of Saurians,
Ophidians, and most Chelonians, but is naked. Almost all Batra-
chians are without nails. Their eggs are enveloped only in a
gelatinous mass which swells very much in water, and they are
not generally fecundated until after they are laid.

5. This order is divided into four families, namely :
1st. The ANOURA, which, in their perfect state, have no tail,
and do not preserve their branchias, and are provided with four
extremities.

2nd. The URODELA, which also lose their branchia?, and acquire
extremities, but preserve the tail.

3rd. The BRANCHIFERA, which always preserve their branchiae ;
they resemble those Urodela in which developement had been
arrested while yet in the tadpole state.

4th. The APODA, or CECILIA, which also lose their branchiaB, but
never acquire extremities : until lately they were classed amongst
the Ophidians, under the name of Naked Serpents, or Nuda. °

4. What are the peculiarities of the skeleton of Batrachians ? What
is the character of their skin ?

5. How is the order of Batrachia divided ? What are the characters of
the family of Anoura, when perfect? What are the characters of the
family of Urodela when perfect? How is the family of Apoda charac-
terised ? What are naked serpents ? What are the characters of the
family of Branchifera ?

METAMORPHOSIS OF TADPOLES.

FAMILY OF ANOURA.

6 This family is composed of frogs, toads, and some other
reptiles having nearly the same form. In them the metamor-
phosis is more complete than in all other animals of this order.
When the young tadpole first leaves the egg, it resembles a
little fish, and can live only in water. Its head is very large, its
belly protuberant, and its body unprovided with extremities, is
terminated by a compressed tail, which afterwards becomes
elongated, and much raised : its mouth is still a small, scarcely
perceptible hole, and its branchiae consist only of a tubercle
placed on each side of the posterior part of the head. p. on
These appendages very soon become lengthened, and l^' *"
are divided into shreds, ( Fig. 30.) ; the eyes are percepti-
ble through the skin, and a transverse slit appears under
the neck, so as to form a sort of membranous operculum.
A little later, (Fig. 23, Page. 67.) the branchiae become
ramified, and the lips are covered by a sort of horny
beak, by the aid of which the animal fixes itself to vege-
tables, that form its chief food ; but this state does not T
last long. At the end of a few days the branchial fringes, which
float on each side of the neck, disappear, (Fig. 31.) and respira-
Fig. 31. tionis carried on by the assistance of small

vascular tufts, placed along four cartilaginous
arches, situate under the throat, and pertain-
TADPOLE. ing to the hyoid bone. A membranous tuu.c,

covered by the skin, envelopes these internal branchiae, to which
the water arrives by the mouth, passing through the intervals of
the arches of the hyoid bone ; finally, after having laved these
organs, this liquid escapes by one or two external slits, the situation
of which varies a little according to the species. The respiratory
apparatus, then, as we have said above, exactly resembles that
of fishes. Sometime after-

wards, the posterior extremi-
ties of the Tadpole show
themselves, and are developed
little by little, (Fig. 32.) ; they
attain considerable length be-
fore the anterior extremities
are perceived. The latter are
developed beneath the skin,
which they penetrate at a later
period, (Fig. 33.) About the

Fig. 32.

6. What reptiles compose the family of Anoura ? What changes do the
animals of this family undergo in early life ? What is a Tadpole ?

70 FAMILY OF ANOURA.

same time, the horny beak falls off, leaving the
jaws unencumbered ; the tail begins to waste
away, (Fig. 34.) the lungs are developed, and,
in proportion as these organs become more ex-
clusively the seat of respiration, the branchise
fade and disappear; the cartilaginous arches
which supported them are also in part absorbed ;
Fig, 35. arjd finally the tail entirely disappears. The
little animal assumes the form which it preserves
through life, and completely changes its regimen,
(Fi(j. 35.) From being at first herbivorous, it
gradually becomes exclusively carnivorous, and
in proportion as this- metamorphosis advances,
FROG. the intestinal canal, from being long, slender, and

spirally folded, becomes short, almost straight and swelled, to

form the stomach and colon.

7. The period of these changes varies, from about four to eight
weeks, according to the species, and it has been ascertained that
different circumstances may considerably hasten or retard, the
complete metamorphosis of the young animal. A deficiency of
heat and light, very much prolongs the duration of the tadpole
state.

8. Having reached their perfect state, the Anoura cease to be
aquatic animals; but most of them continue to live in the neigh-
bourhood of water and dive frequently in it. They cannot remain,
during the warm season, constantly in the water, even though
they come freely to the surface to breathe the air ; pulmonary
respiration is not then sufficient for them, and they require the
action of the air on the skin ; in winter, however, this cutaneous
respiration is not only sufficient to sustain life, but they can
remain several months in the water without coming into the air.

9. All these reptiles have a thick-set body, a flat head, the
muzzle more or less rounded, a very wide mouth, short fore feet
terminated by four toes, and the hind feet are longer, and some-
times possess the rudiment of a sixth toe. Their eyes are ordi-
narily furnished with three lids, but sink into the head, on slight
pressure; because the orbits art separated from the mouth only
by membranes. A cartilaginous plate occupies the place of a
tympanum, and causes the ear to show externally. The tongue

7. Is the time occupied in these changes the same in all species of Anoura?
What circumstance influences the time occupied in the metamorphosis ?

8. What are the habits of the Anoura? Is respiration carried on exclu-
sively by the lungs ?

9. What are the general characters of the Anoura ? How do they breathe ?
What is peculiar about the tongue?

FROGS.— TREE-FROGS. 71

is generally soft, and, contrary to what we see in most mammals,
it is fixed to the edge of the jaw only by its anterior extremity,
so that it can be folded backwards, or turned out of the mouth.
Finally, the skeleton of these reptiles (Fig. 29, Page 58.) is entirely
unprovided with ribs, and the inspiration of air can be effected only
by a movement analogous to that of deglutition, in which the
animal dilates the 'throat to fill it with air ; then, closing the poste-
rior nostrils with the tongue, contracts the muscles of the swallow,
and forces this fluid to enter the lungs: to throw one of these
animals into a state of asphyxia, it is only necessary to keep the
mouth open for a certain time.

10. The FROGS, — flana,— have the body more tapering than
the other Anoura; the hind feet are very long, very strong, and
more or less palmate, which enables them to swim and leap well.
The skin is smooth, and the males have on each side of the neck,
beneath the ears, a thin membrane which becomes inflated, when
they croak. They are distinguishable from toads by a row of
very fine, small teeth, all around the upper jaw. These reptiles
ordinarily keep on the banks of ponds and rivulets, and precipi-
tate themselves into the water on the slightest danger : they feed
only on living prey, and eat the larva of aquatic insects, worms,
small mollusks, and flies. In winter they bury themselves in the
mud, or in holes, and do not eat.

1 1 . We give the name of TREE-FROGS, — Hyla, — to Batrachians
which do not differ much from frogs, except that the extremity of
each one of the toes is enlarged, and rounded into a sort of viscous
pellet or ball, (/%. 36.) that p.

enables them to adhere to
bodies upon which they
climb, and to ascend trees.
Endowed with great sup-
pleness and agility, Tree-
frogs travel very lightly
on the most flexible bran-
ches. During the whole
summer they live, in this
manner, on trees, pursuing
insects ; but in winter they
retire to the bottom of the COMMON TREE-FROG.

water like frogs, and do not return again to the humid woods in
the spring, till after they have deposited their eggs. The common

10. What are the -general characters of Frogs? How are they distin-
guished from Toads ? What are the habits of Frogs ?

11. What are Tree-Frogs ? What are their habits ?

73 TOADS.

Tree-frog, — Rana arborea, — is of an apple green above, and pale
beneath, with a black and yellow line along each side of the body.

12. The TOADS, — Bufo, — have a thick-set body, covered with
warts, or papillae, from which exudes a viscid humor ; on each
side of the neck there is a large, projecting gland, (called parotid,)
full of pores, which secretes an acrid humor. Their hind legs
are not so much elongated as those of frogs, and they leap badly ;
in general they creep rather than walk, and, when surprised,
instead of taking to flight, they stop suddenly and inflate the
body so as to render it hard and elastic, and cause the skin to
pour out a white humor ; sometimes they endeavour to defend
themselves by biting ; but their mouth is unprovided with teeth,
and their bite is not venomous, as is generally supposed in the
country. These hideous and disgusting reptiles ordinarily con-
ceal themselves in shady, humid places, from which they do not
go out, except at night, or immediately after the warm and abun-
dant rains of summer. Like frogs, they feed on small mollusks,
worms, and living insects, but they are more terrestrial in their
habits ; they betake themselves, in summer only, to pools and
streams, where the females resort to deposit their eggs. In
countries where the winter is cold, they pass the season benumbed
in holes. Their respiration then becomes extremely limited,
and the contact of a very small quantity of air with the skin is
sufficient to maintain their existence. When placed in situations
where ordinary evaporation is very inconsiderable, they can live
in this way for a very long time. This explains how it is that
toads, which have been enclosed in plaster, or shut up in holes,
excavated in stones, are often found alive, after being many
months in confinement.

13. Curious experiments have been made with a view of ascer-
taining the fact, (which had been often observed, but generally
treated as fabulous by naturalists,) of the existence of living
toads in walls, in hollow trees, and even in the interior of rocks,
where they had probably remained for years, without being able
to escape. Labourers who work in quarries have often met
similar instances, on breaking blocks of stone, and they pretend
that the toad is found enclosed in the stone on all sides, as in a solid
mould, which would lead us to suppose that it had formed around
the body, and that the seclusion of the reptile dated from a very
remote antiquity; but this opinion is inadmissible, and every

12. What are the characters of Toads ? How are they distinguished
from Frogs ? What are their habits ?

13. How is it that Toads are enabled to exist, excluded from the atmos-
pheric air, shut up in rocks, hollow tree?, &c.?

PIPAS.— URODELA.

73

thing leads us to believe, that in such cases, the retreat of the
toad communicates externally by some hole which had been
accidentally closed, or had escaped observation.

14. The PIPAS are still more hideous than the toads : their body
is more flattened, the head triangular, their eyes very small, their
hind legs short, and their anterior toes split at the end into three
or four small points; the tongue is entirely wanting. The species
best known, which inhabits the warm and humid parts of South
America, is celebrated on account of the manner in which its

Fig. 37

young are developed. The male places the eggs on the back of
the female, who immediately takes to the water, where the skin,
irritated by the contact of these bodies, swells, and forms cells,
in which the young are hatched, and remain until they have
completed their metamorphosis ; then the mother returns to land.

FAMILY OF URODELA.

15. The metamorphosis of Batrachians of this family is less
complete ; for, in the perfect state, they still preserve the long
tail, which, in the preceding family, only exists in the tadpole.
At the time of escaping from the egg, they are without feet, and
respire by branchiae, which are in the form of tufts, and three in
number ; they are placed on each side of the neck, and float
externally. As in the Anoura, their extremities appear succes^
sively, but the fore feet make their appearance before the poste-
rior ; and, to complete the transformation of the tadpole, the
lungs are developed, and the branchiae disappear. In the adult
state, these animals have nearly the same form as lizards ; but
their head is flattened, and we do not perceive the tympanum

14. What are the characters of Pipas ?

15. What are the characters of the family of Urodela ?

6

74 TRITONS.— -SALAMANDERS.

externally. Both jaws, and the palate are armed with small teeth ;
their tongue is placed as it is in frogs ; the skeleton has rudimen-
tary ribs; and the number of their toes is four in front, and
almost always five behind. Some authors designate these animals
under the name of Salamanders.

16. TRITONS, or Aquatic Salamanders, are the most common
batrachians of the family of Urodela; they always preserve a
laterally compressed tail, (Fig. 38.) and pass nearly all their time

^,. 0~ in the water. The

most remarkable fac-
ulty possessed by
these reptiles, is the
astonishing facility,
with which they re-
pair any mutilation
CRESTED SALAMANDER, OR TRITON. (O which they may

be subjected. They not only replace the tail after it has been
cut off, as is the case also with lizards, but their extremities are
reproduced in the same manner. The same extremity, after
having been cut off, has been reproduced entire with its bones,
its muscles, its vessels and nerves, several times in succession,
and we are even assured that, in one experiment, the eye, after
having been extirpated, was reproduced in the space of a year.

17. Several species are found in the neighbourhood of Paris.
Sometimes the tadpoles become very large before losing their
branchiae A fossil, found in the schists of (Eningen, and be-
longing to a large species of Salamander, has excited a good
deal of interest; because, from a singular error, it was for a long
time regarded as the skeleton of a fossil man.

18. SALAMANDERS PROPERLY so CALLED, or TERRESTRIAL SALA-
MAMJERS in the perfect state, have a round tail, and only remain
in the water during their tadpole existence, or when they lay.
Their eggs are hatched before they are laid, and the young at
first have a compressed tail like ordinary tadpoles; they lose the
tail, and finish their metamorphosis very promptly. In the perfect
state, they inhabit shady, humid situations : they are ordinarily
found under stones, or in subterraneous holes. It was for a long
time believed that Salamanders had the power of resisting the
action of fire ; but this fable was without foundation ; except,
perhaps, that when the reptile is irritated, it sweats a milky

16. What are Tritons? For what are they remarkable?

17. What led to the belief that a fossil man had been discovered?

18. What are Salamanders properly so called ? How are they distin
guished from Tritons ?

BRANCHIFERA.— AXOLOTLS. 75

humor. This humor appears to be poisonous to feeble animals;
but the Salamander is not, as is supposed among certain country
people, an injurious animal.

19. There has been discovered in America, a large batrachian,
of the precise form of the Salamander, that has an orifice on each
side of the neck, but which, it is supposed, never has branchiae. It
is probable, however,that these organs do exist in the first periods
of life, but disappear at an early date, as is the case in the terres-
trial Salamander. These reptiles, which form the genus MENOPOMA,
inhabit the great lakes and rivers in the interior of South America,
The AMPHIUMA, which inhabit the same continent, possess the
same mode of organization ; but their body is excessively elon-
gated, and their extremities are but little developed. The number
of their toes varies from two to three, according to the species.

FAMILY OF BRANCHIFERA.

20. This family is composed of batrachians that always pre-
serve their branchiae, and resemble the tadpoles of batrachians
of the family of Urodela ; they have been regarded for a long
time as being in fact, the young of some large species of Sala-
mander ; but now, there is no doubt of their being perfect ani-
mals, and what is very remarkable, that possessing well developed
branchiae, they also have lungs, and are consequently completely
amphibious. These branchiae, which are placed in the ordinary
situation, have the form of tufts more or less ramified, and float
externally in the water. The lungs are sometimes provided with
a vascular net work as well developed as in any reptile, while in
others, their structure is very simple. The body of these animals
terminates in a long, vertical tail ; and their extremities are but
little developed, and often are partly wanting. Four genera are
known, namely ; the rfxolotus, the Menobranchus, the Proteus,
and the Siren.

21. The AXOLOTLS, — JlxolotMs, — in every respect resemble
the tadpoles of Salamanders,

that have acquired their fore
paws. Only a single species
has yet been discovered, the
rfxolotl of the Mexicans, —
Siren pisciformis, (Fig. 39.)
which inhabits the lake in the
midst of which* stands the
city of Mexico. AXOLOTL.

19. What are Monoporaa ? What are Amphiuma ?

20. What are Brauchifera? What are their general characters ? What
are the genera of this family ?

21. What are the characters of the Axolotls ?

76 PROTE A NS.— SIR ENS.— A PO DA.

Fiy. 40. 22. The MENOBRANCHUS, also have four feet ; but in-
stead of having four toes before, and five behind, they
Phave only four throughout.
23. The PROTEANS,— Proteus,— have but three toes in
front and two behind The only species known, —
Proteus angnhliis, — (Fig. 40.) more than a foot long, and
only as thick as the finger, is found in the subter-
raneous waters of some of the caverns of Carniole. Its
skin is smooth and whitish, its muzzle is elongated and
depressed, and its eyes are exceedingly small, and con-
~j cealed beneath the integuments.

24. The SIRENS, have anterior extremities only, and,
in the elongated form of their body, resemble eels.
Three species are known, one of which attains three
feet in length, and inhabits the marshes of Carolina.

FAMILY OF APODA.

JL'KU 1 li.UH.

25. The APODA, or CECILIA, as we have already stated, are
entirely without extremities, and, until lately, have been regarded
as Serpents ; but it has been ascertained that, in early life, they
have branchiae which show themselves through a hole on each
side of the neck. In the adult animal we find even the arches of
the hyoid bone, which served to sustain these organs. The body
is very nearly cylindrical. The skin is smooth and transversely
furrowed by annular wrinkles. At first sight, it appears to be
entirely naked ; but on dissection, we find in its thickness rows of
small and extremely thin scales, situate in these wrinkles. The
eyes which are very small, are concealed beneath the common
integuments, and sometimes they are entirely wanting. These
animals are completely apodous, that is, without feet, and their
skeleton, like that of serpents, has two long rows of ribs ; but
these bones are much too short to surround the trunk, and, on
the other hand, we remark, in the mode of articulation of the
vertebrae, and in the disposition of their jaws, many characters
which approximate them to the latter batrachians.

26. These reptiles, which establish a passage between the batra-
chians and Ophidians, inhabit humid and shady places, dig holes
in the ground, and seem to feed on vegetable substances as well
as on worms and small insects. They are found in South America,

The CLASS OF FISHES comes next in order.

22. What are the characters of Batrachians of the genus Menobrarichus ?

23. What are the general characters of the Proteans ?

24. What are Sirens ?

25. What are the general characters of the Apoda ?

26. Where are they found ? What are their hahits ?

ICHTHYOLOGY.

LESSON V.

CLASS OF FISHES. — General Characters. — Form.— Integuments. —
Skeleton. — Muscular Apparatus. — Swimming -Bladder. —
Senses. — Apparatus of Diyestion. — Circulation. — Respira-
tion.— JJuimal Electricity. — Habits — Fishing — Classification.

CLASS OF FISHES.

The fourth, and last Class of the Branch of Vertebrate Ani-
mals, comprises the Fishes : that part of Natural History which
treats of them, is termed Ichthyology, from the Greek, ichthus, a
fish, and logos, a discourse.

1. These animals, as every body knows, are destined to live
under water, and this circumstance has impressed upon them a
peculiar organization ; but the most important differences they
present, when compared with other vertebrata, consist in the
conformation of the apparatuses of respiration and circulation.
They never have lungs, and always breathe by branchiae only.
Their heart has but two cavities, and only receives venous
blood, which, after being in contact with oxygen, enters a dorsal
vessel, where no new motive force accelerates its course to
different parts of the body. Therefore, their circulation is not
as active as it is in the superior animals, and like that of reptiles,
their blood is cold. Their skin is naked, or covered with scales
only ; they have no mamma? like the mammalia, and are repro-
duced by the means of eggs ; their extremities are in the form of
fins.

2. The external form of fishes varies ; but their body is gene-
rally all of a piece. The head, which is of the same size of the
trunk, is not separated from it by a narrowing like the neck of
the superior vertebrate animals, and the tail, owing to its size at
the base, is not distinguishable from the rest of the body. Some
of these animals are entirely without fins ; but in most of them
we find a considerable number of these organs, some placed on
the middle line of the back or belly, and consequently unpaired
or singly, and others on the side, arranged in pairs. The latter

1. What are the general characters of Fishes? What is the peculiarity
of their respiration '( How does their heart differ from that of mammals ?

2. What is the general form of Fishes ? What is the situation of the
pectoral fins ? Where are the ventral fins placed ? What are dorsal fins ?
What 10 the situation of the anal fin ? What are the caudal fins?

6*

v

78 STRUCTURE OF FISHES.

represent the extremities of other vertebrate animals, the ante-
rior extremities which correspond to the arm in man, and the
wing in birds, are fixed on each side of the trunk, immediately
behind the -head, and are called pectoral fins, (Fig. 41, a.) The
abdominal extremities (6.) less distant from each other, generally

occupy the inferior
Fig, 41.* face of the body>

and may be placed
more forward or
backward, from be-
neath the throat to
the origin of the
tail : they are called
ventral fins. The
single or unpaired
fins occupy, as we have just said, the middle line of the body,
and are distinguished into first dorsal, (c.) second dorsal, (d.)
anal, (e.) and caudal fins, (/.) according to their situation on the
back, under the tail, or at its extremity. They are all nearly of the
same structure, and almost always consist of a fold of the skin,
sustained by bony or cartilaginous rays, very much in the same
manner that the wings of bats and dragons are sustained by the
fingers or toes, or by the ribs of those animals.

3. We also observe on the external surface of the body, large
slits placed, on each side, immediately behind the head, which
serve as an outlet to the water which has laved the branchiae :
they are openings of the gills. Generally, there is but one on each
side, and their anterior edge is moveable, and resembles a shutter.
Along the whole length of the body, on each side, there is a series
of pores which form what ichthyologists call the lateral line.

4, The skin is sometimes nearly naked, but is almost always
covered with scales. Sometimes these scales are in the form of
rough grains ; sometimes they are very stout tubercles, or plates
of considerable thickness ; but, in general, they are very thin
lamellae, covering each other like shingles or tiles, and let into
folds of the skin. They may be compared to our nails ; though
they contain more calcareous salts. The colours with which these
animals are adorned, are astonishing in their variety and bril-
liancy. Sometimes they can only be compared to the most glitter-

* Explanation of Fig. 41 — A common Perch, — a. the pectoral fin of one
Bide, — b. ventral fin, — c. first dorsal fin, — d. second dorsal fin, — e. anal fin, —
/. caudal fins.

3. What are the gill openings ? What is their use ? What is meant by
the lateral line ?

4. What is the character of the skin ? What is the nature of scales? How
do they obtain their colour ?

STRUCTURE OF FISHES. 79

ing gold or silver ; sometimes they present the richest tints of
green, blue, red, or black. The silvery matter which frequently
gives them such a beautiful metallic lustre, is secreted by the
skin, and is composed of a multitude of small polished plates.

5. The skeleton of fishes is ordinarily bony ; but in many of
these animals, it always remains fibre-cartilaginous, or cartila-
ginous, and in some, this frame possesses even less solidity and
remains absolutely membranous. In this respect, they form the
connecting link or passage between the vertebrate and inverte-
brate animals.

6. The bones never have a medullary canal, and the cartilage
which constitutes their basis is not like that of mammals and
birds ; for, when boiled in water, it does not yield gelatine.

7. The skeleton is composed of a head, to which is joined a
highly developed hyoid apparatus, serving for respiration ; a
trunk and extremities.

Fig. 42.*

" K J l> /«

SKELETON OF A PERCH.

8. The structure of the head is very complicated : we first
observe a middle portion, composed of a great number of bones
joined together by sutures, and forming a sort of immoveable keel
to which are suspended the bones of the jaws, cheeks, &c. This

* Explanation of Fig. 42. — Skeleton of a Perch: — a. the skull, — b. the
orbit, — c. the nostrils, — d. the intermaxillary bone, — e. the maxillary bones,
— -/. the lower jaw,— g. the snb-orbital bone, — h. the tympanic bone, and the
other bony pieces which separate the mouth from the cheeks, and support
the lower jaw, — i. the operculum, — j. the ante-operculum bone, — /. the
scapula, or shoulder blade, — m. the bones of the arm,— n. the coracoid bone,
— o. the pectoral fin, — p. the pelvis, — q. the ventral fin, — r. the vertebrce, —
*. the ribs, — t. the interspinal bones, — u. the bony spine of the first dorsal
fin, — v, the cartilaginous spine of the second dorsal fiu, — x. the anal fin, —
y. the caudal fin. __^

5. What is the nature of the skeleton of fishes ?

6. What is the character of the bones of fishes ? How does fish-bone
differ from that of mammals ?

7. How is the skeleton of fishes divided ?

8. What are the general characters of the head ?

80 STRUCTURE OF FISHES.

middle portion, the form of which is that of a pyramid with three
sides, with its summit directed forward, presents posteriorly the
cranial box, or skull, (Fig. 42, a.) in which is lodged the appa-
ratus of hearing as well as the brain. Its middle part is hollowed
out to form the orbits, (b.) and in front, we find pits which be-

SKELETON OF A PERCH.

long to the olfactory apparatus, (c.) There are bones which
correspond to those of the heads of mammals, but most of these
bones, in fishes, are composed of several pieces, which never
run together into one, as happens at an early age in the mam-
malia and birds.

9. At the anterior extremity of this portion of the head, we
find the upper jaw, which is sometimes immoveable, though it
generally preserves great mobility : on each side there is an
inter-maxillary bone, (d.) placed near the middle line, and a
lower jaw bone which extends laterally, and moves upon the
first. Besides these parts, we find a very considerable apparatus
designed to afford attachment to the branchiae, or to protect them,
composed in part of the hyoid bone, which is covered on each
side by a sort of cover or door, called operculum-, (/.) or gill-cover.

10. The vertebral column, (r.) which is continuous with the
head, is divided into two distinct portions, one dorsal, and the
other caudal. The body of the vertebrae has a peculiar form ; it
is hollowed before and behind by a conical cavity ; these two
hollow spaces are sometimes joined so as to form a hole, and the
double conical cavity arising from the junction of two neighbour-
ing vertebrae, is filled by a soft substance. The ring, destined to
form a passage for the spinal marrow, is surmounted by a spinous
process, and on each side there is a more or less distinct trans-
verse process, which, over the cavity of the abdomen, extends
outwardly, and articulates with the corresponding rib, but in the

9. Is the upper jaw moveable or not? What is the operculum ?
10. What are the characters of the vertcbrsB in fishes?

81

caudal portion of the spine, it is directed downwards, and often
forms, with its fellow of the opposite side, a ring, from the lower
part of which arises a long spinous process, similar to that which
is situate on the dorsal face of the vertebra.

11. The ribs are sometimes wanting; at other times, they
encircle the whole abdomen, and, in a small number "of fishes,
they are fixed to a series of unpaired or single bones, which
should be regarded as the sternum. They frequently sustain
one or two stylets which have an outward direction, and pene-
trate the flesh. Sometimes there are similar stylets arising from
the bodies of the vertebrae, and hence it is that, in certain genera,
such as herrings, fish-bones become so numerous.

12. On the middle line of the body, we also find a certain
number of bones, called inter&piwil, (Fig. 43, /. ) which gene-
rally rest upon the ends of the spinous processes of the vertebrae,
and, by their opposite ex- _,,.

tremities, artieulate with the

rays of the middle fins, (//.)

These rays are sometimes

pointed bones, called stinys,

or spines ; sometimes they

are stalks or stems bony

only at the base, formed of

a multitude of small articu-

lations in continuation, and HTTERSPINAL BONES.

often branched towards the end. These last appendages are

called soft, or articulated rays : they always form the caudal

fin, and sometimes there are no others.

13. The lateral fins, which represent the extremities, are
terminated by rays similar to those of the vertical fins, and
analogous to fingers. At the base of the pectoral fin we find a
series of from four to five small flat bones, comparable to the
bones of the carpus, which, in their turn, are attached to two
flat bones which seem to be the radius and ulna enlarged. This
apparatus is supported on a species of bony belt, situate' imme-
diately behind the gills, and on which the operculum applies : it
consists of a series of three bones, extending from the cranium
to the hyoid apparatus, and supports posteriorly a long stylet.
The principal piece that enters into its composition is that which
supports the fore-arm, which may be compared to the humerus,
(See Fig. 42, Page 80.) : it joins below with that of the opposite

11. What are the characters of the ribs ?

12. What are the interspinal bones ? What arc the riys of the fins ?

13. What parts of fishes represent the extremities of mammals ?

82 STRUCTURE OF FISHES.

side, and with a middle prolongation of the hyoid apparatus, and
is attached to the cranium through the medium of two bones,
which Cuvier considers analogous to the scapula; finally, the
stylet which arises from it, and is prolonged backwards upon the
ribs, is ordinarily formed of two pieces, and may be compared
to a coracoid bone.

14. The posterior extremity is less complicated; the rays oi
the ventral fin are supported by a single bone, generally trian-
gular, which often becomes attached in front, to the middle
junction of the bony belt of the pectoral extremity, and at other
times it is merely suspended in the flesh.

15. In cartilaginous fishes, the arrangement of the skeleton
differs from what has just been described. The head especially,
is much more simple in its structure.

16. The muscular apparatus is composed of muscles destined
to flex the vertebral column laterally, and also to move the tail;
they form the largest part of the mass of the body of fishes.
By striking the water laterally, by alternate flexions of the trunk
and tail, these animals communicate to their body, nearly the
whole of the rapidity they have in swimming. Their vertical

• fins serve to increase the extent of the species of keel or oar
they form, while the chief use of the pectoral and ventral fins,
in general, is to influence the direction of their course, and to
maintain the equilibrium of the animal.

17. A peculiarity of their organization, which is of great assis-
tance in swimming, is the existence of a sort of pouch filled with
air, and so placed that it can be compressed at will. This swim-
ming, or air-bladder, which is placed in the abdomen beneath the
dorsal spine, ordinarily communicates with the oesophagus, or
stomach, by a canal, through which the air contained in it, may
escape ; but this fluid does not seem to enter by that route ; it is
produced by secretion, the seat of which is in a portion of the
parietes of the reservoir itself, which is of a glandular structure.
By the motions of the ribs, this bladder is more or less com-
pressed, and, according to its volume, it gives to the body of the
fish, a specific gravity, equal, superior or inferior to that of the
water, and causes it thus to remain in equilibrium, to descend, or
ascend in this liquid. It is remarked that it is often wanting,
and that it is very small in those species that swim near the
bottom, or bury themselves in the mud.

14. What is the character of the posterior extremity?

15. Is the skeleton the same in all fishes ?

16. By what means do fishes move ? What is the use of the fins ?

17. What is the air-bladder in fishes ? What is the source of the air
contained in it ?

STRUCTURE OF FISHES. 83

18. In a small number of fishes, the pectoral fins are so very
much developed, as to enable the animal to sustain itself in the
air for a few moments, when it springs out of water. There are
some also, that by crawling, or by frequent leaps, are capable of
progression on land. It is asserted that some can climb trees ;
but instances of this kind, are very rare.

19. Fishes pass their lives almost entirely in providing for
their subsistence, or in escaping from their enemies ; their ex-
ternal senses seem to afford them only very du41 impressions, and
their faculties are of the most limited character.

20. Fishes are very stupid animals ; they have no remarkable
intelligence or instinct, and their brain, (Fig. 45, t.) is but little
developed ; it does not entirely fill the cavity of the cranium, and
is surrounded by a liquid matter of a fatty nature.

21. The ear of fishes, in general, is composed only of a vesti-
bule, surmounted by three membranous semi-circular canals,
suspended in the cavity of the cranium, on each side of the brain,
and to which waves of sound are communicated, only after they,
have set in vibration the common integuments and bones of the
cranium Generally, there is no appearance of an external ear.
Their eyes are ordinarily very large, and are unprovided with
true eye lids, and a lachrymal apparatus ; the skin which covers
them is transparent ; and the iris is silvery and immoveable, or
nearly so, and the cornea is almost flat, the pupil is very large,
and the chrystalline lens is spherical. The nasal fossae do not
open into the pharynx, as is the case in vertebrate animals that
breathe air. The tongue is never truly fleshy, and the sense of
taste is but little developed. Tact must be extremely obtuse.
In general, the skin of these animals is entirely covered with
scales ; sometimes, however, it is naked.

22. Ordinarily fishes are very voracious, and are not very
particular in their choice of food. The species which live chiefly
on vegetables, are very few in number; they are almost all
carnivorous, and devour each other.

23. Fishes sometimes have teeth, not only in the jaws, but also
in all the bones that surround the cavity of the mouth, and that
of the pharynx ; at other times they are entirely wanting. These
teeth never have roots, and their form varies very much, parttcu-

18. Are fishes capable of progression, when out of water ?

19. Are the senses of fishes very acute?

20. What is the character of the brain in fishes ?

21. What is the character of the ear in fishes ? What are the peculiari-
ties of the eye ? What are the peculiarities of the nasal fossae ?

22. Upon what do fishes generally feed ?

23. What is the character of the teeth of fishes ?

84

STRUCTURE OF FISFIES.

larly those that are found on the pharyngeal bones, and which
serve to grind the food when on its way to the oesophagus.
They have no true salivary glands ; the oesophagus is very short.

Fig. 45.* p

ANATOMY OF A PIKE.

24. The other viscera of the digestive apparatus, (Fig. 45.)
are lodged in the abdomen, which is lined by a peritoneum, and
separated from the cavity containing the heart by a sort of
diaphragm, (s.) In some fishes, (chiefly the cartilaginous fishes,)
the abdomen communicates externally by two openings, situate
upon the sides of the anus, so that the peritoneum is continuous
with the skin.

25. The stomach, (i.) is in general, very distinct ; that part
which corresponds_ to the large intestine, is not much larger than
the small intestine; and there never is a ccecum as in mammals.
The liver, (m.) is generally large, and of a soft texture ; the
position and size of the gall-bladder, (•».) vary ; the place of the
pancreas is almost always supplied by two tubes of a peculiar
tissue, placed around the pylorus ; the position of the anus varies
much ; sometimes it is found under the throat, and at others, at
the base of the tail. The kidneys, (p.) are very voluminous, and
extend along both sides of the vertebral column, the whole length
of the abdomen. Their excretory ducts terminate in a sort of
bladder, the opening of which is posterior to the anus.

* Explanation of Fig. 45. — Anatomy of the viscera of a Pike : — a. the
nostrils, — b. the cavity of the mouth, — c. a part of the lower jaw, — d. the
tongue, — e. the branchiae, or gills,—/, the arch of the palate, or roof of the
mouth, — p. openings through which the water passes from the mouth to
the branchiae. — h. the oesophagus, — t. the stomach, — j. the intestine, — k.
the anus, — m. the liver, — n. the gall-bladder, — o. the duct of the gall-bladder,
— p. the kidneys, — q. the urinary Madder, — r. the heart, — s. the diaphragm,
t. the brain, — u. the spinal marrow, — v. the swimming-bladder or air-
vessel.

24. Where are the chief organs of digestion situate?

25. What are the general characters of the digestive organs?

CIRCULATION OF FISHES. 85

26. Digestion seems to be carried on very rapidly, and the
chyle is absorbed by numerous lymphatic vessels, which empty,
by many trunks, into the venous system, near the heart.

27. The blood of fishes is red; the globules are elliptical in
form, and of considerable size.

28. The heart (Fig. 45, r.) is placed under the throat, in a cavity,
separated from the abdomen by a sort of diaphragm, (.<?,) (as we
have just said,) and protected by the pharyngeal bones above, by
the arches of the branchiae on the sides, and generally by the
humeral cincture behind. It is composed of an auricle, which
receives the venous blood collected in a large sinus (a kind of
large vein) situated near it, and of a ventricle placed below, and
giving origin, at its anterior extremity, to a pulmonary artery,
the base of which is inflated, and constitutes a contractile bulb.
This vessel soon divides into lateral branches, which are dis-
tributed to the gills, and the blood, after traversing these organs,
goes to the head through another vessel, which also runs along
the arches of the branchiae. There these canals send some
branches to the neighbouring parts, and unite to form a great
dorsal artery, which is directed backwards, beneath the spinal
column, and sends branches to all other parts of the body. But all
the venous blood does not go directly into the sinus mentioned
above ; that of the intestines, and some, other parts, before
returning to the heart, is carried through the liver by the vena
porta.

29. We see now that the blood, in passing through the circu-
latory circle, entirely traverses the respiratory apparatus as in
mammals and birds, but it only passes o/tce tkrouqh the heart,
which must render its progress slower. The heart itself corres-
ponds in its functions to the right half of the same organ in the
superior vertebrate animals.

30. Respiration is effected by means of the air which is always
found dissolved in the water, and takes place on the surface of a
multitude of very vascular and projecting lamellae, attached to
the external edge of the branchial arches. Generally, there are,
on each side, four branchiae each composed of two rows of
elongated lamellae. In most of the cartilaginous fishes there are
five, and, in the lamprey, we find seven. In almost all the bony

2fi. Is the digestion of fishes very rapid ?
27. What is the character of the blood in fishes 1

23. What is the situation of the heart ? What are the peculiarities of
the circulatory apparatus in fishes 1

29. In what particulars does the circulation of fishes differ from 4hat of
mammals and birds ?

30. How is respiration effected in fishes ?

7

86 ^RESPIRATION OF FISHES.

fishes, these lamella? are simple, and only attached at their base ;
in a small number, they are, on the contrary, ramified, and in the
form of tufts ; finally, in most cartilaginous fishes, they are
attached to the skin by their external edge, as well as to the
arches of the branchiae by their internal edge.

31. The water necessary for respiration enters the mouth, and,
by an act of swallowing, passes through the slits, left between the
branchial curves or arches, and in this way reaches the branchiae,
laves their surfaces, and then escapes through the openings of the
gills. We see, in fact, the animal open its mouth, and elevate the
operculum alternately. In fishes, in which the branchiae are
free on their external edge, one of these openings on each side
is sufficient ; but, when the branchiae are fixed, there is required
as many openings as there are spaces betwixt the branchiae.
Consequently, we are made acquainted with the arrangement of
the respiratory apparatus by simply inspecting the external
openings.

32. Fishes consume a very moderate quantity of oxygen, some
however, are not content with what is dissolved in the water,
and visit the surface, from time to time, to breathe the air. There
are some indeed that swallow it, and by causing it to pass
through the intestine, convert the oxygen into carbonic acid.
When fishes remain out of water, they generally perish very
quickly from asphyxia, not for the want of oxygen, but because,
the branchial lamellae, being unsustained by the water, are effaced,
and do not permit the blood to pass readily through them, and
because these organs, by drying, become unfitted for performing
their functions : therefore, those fishes that perish most promptly
from exposure to the air, have widely open gills, which facili-
tates evaporation from the branchiae, while, those that resist this
exposure best, have these openings ver}' narrow, or even possess
some receptacle in which they preserve water for moistening
these organs.

33. As we have already stated, fishes produce scarcely any
hrat: but some of them possess the singular faculty of producing
electricity, and of giving very powerful shocks to animals that
touch them. The Torpedo, the Silurus, and a species of Gym-
notus. are of this kind, and what is very remarkable, the confor-
mation of the electric organ differs in each one of them.

31. How do the gills receive the supply of water necessary for the respira-
tion of tithes ?

32. Do fishes require a large quantity of oxygen for the purposes of res-
piration ? Why do fishes quickly die when out of the water?

33. Do fishes p-odnce much animal heat ? Do all fishes possess the faculty
of producing electricity?

HABITS OF FISHES. 87

34. To the simultaneous developement of an incalculable
number of eggs, deposited in the same place, and the instinct
that induces different fishes to follow each other, we must
attribute the assemblage of certain species, in immense and close
legions, called by fishermen, skoals of fish. In fact, we cannot
well term these assemblages, companies or societies; the indi-
viduals composing them do not aid each other; from having the
same necessities to satisfy, they keep in the same locality, or
abandon it, and if we sometimes observe one among them
followed as a leader, it probably arises from a tendency to
imitation which always accompanies the first dawnings of reason.

[ It may be astonishing- to some to speak of the reasoning of a fish, an
animal that is proverbial for its stupidity; but if we study the habits of
these beings in our fish-ponds, wo shall see that, when they swirn tranquilly;
without any determined aim, they pass side by side, without seeming to pay
attention to the motions of their companions : but, if one of them suddenly
perceiving a bait, hastens its course, and swims swiftly in a determined
direction, we frequently observe that the other fishes, even those that are
placed so as not to perceive the object of attraction, at once follow in the
crowd to profit by the discovery. Now, this instinct of imitation resembles
simple reasoning, it is true, but aonsecutive. M.iy we not suppose that
these animals attribute the rapid course of their companion to some circum-
stance of a nature to interest them also, to the discovery of some danger
they ought to avoid, or to some bait he rushes to devour, and it is for this
reason they hasten in pursuit / And is not this the case every where, even
among men ; and is not the instinct of imitation, which produces so many
good and evil actions, a consequence of this tendency to profit by the results
of the observation or judgment of another, and to attribute to the actions of
those who seem to be moved by a' powerful impulse, an object that it would
be equally desirable for all to attain ? ]

35. Whatever it may be, these animals thus assembled in
troops, often make long voyages, either to gain the open sea, or
to ascend rivers, or to change their latitude. Certain fishes lead
an almost sedentary life, and always remain in the same locality
where they were born ; others are always roaming, and a great
many of these animals make periodical voyages of greater or
less extent. In the cold season, they ordinarily approach the
coast, or enter rivers, and in this way make long passages.
Every year, about the same period, shoals of migratory fishes
arrive in the sam^ places, and it is generally believed that .many
of these species regularly migrate from the north towards the
south, and from the south towards the north, pursuing a deter-

34 How do you account for those vast assemblages of various kinds of
fish, termed Shoals ?

35. Are the habits of all kinds of fish the same ? Are the same fishes
always found in the same localities ?

REARING OF FISHES.

mined route ; perhaps it would be more correct to believe that
when they disappear from the shore, they only retire to the great
depths of the sea.

36. According to their habits, fishes are divided into marine
and fluviatile ; there are some too, that alternately frequent salt
and fresh water, and the nature of this fluid seems to exercise
less influence upon them than is generally believed ; for some
essentially marine fishes, have been successfully reared in reser-
voirs of fresh water.

The number of these animals is immense, and, as they furnish
man a wholesome and agreeable aliment, fishing is ah important
branch of industry among the most savage as well as among the
most civilized people.

The Romans, who, after the loss of their liberty, displayed
such boundless luxury in the table, did not confine themselves to
sending fishing vessels to the neighbouring seas, and to receiving
fishes from the lonians, inventors of the fish-car, which is a kind
of floating reservoir for keeping fish alive ; but better to secure
the supply, the wealthiest citizens constructed immense fish-ponds,
filled with sea-water, in which they deposited the most delicate
fishes of Sicily, and even of Greece and Egypt. The first person
who built one of these great depots was Lucius Muraena, so
named, from the care he took of the Muraena or eels : he had
numerous imitators, and was even surpassed in his follies by
Lucullusj who cut through a mountain near Naples, to introduce
the sea- water into his ponds, and hollowed the rocks, which sur-
rounded them, into caverns, to afford his fishes a cool retreat
during the heat of summer. Other great personages of the ancient
capital of the world, prided themselves on possessing fishes so
tame as to suffer themselves to be touched ; we are assured, that
Crassus was more distressed upon losing one of his eels, than
upon the death of his three children ; and history relates the
curious circumstance of a Roman lady going into mourning on
account of the death of a favourite Muraena : to give an idea of.
this strange taste of those degenerate Romans for fish of every
kind, we will mention a supper given to the Emperor Otho by his
brother, at which there were served two thousand plates of rare
fishes.

" Pliny relates, as a fact, that one Vedius Pollio, a particular
friend of Augustus, took delight in throwing his slaves in the
eel-vats, for the pleasure of seeing them torn to pieces and

3G. What is the division of fishes according to their habits ? Does the
quality of the water whether salt or fresh, exercise much influence upen
fishes ?

CLASSIFICATION OF FISHED Pf)

devoured On a particular occasion, the Emperor honoured
Pollio with his company, at a brilliant entertainment, at which a
slave unfortunately happened to break a costly crystal vase.
The unfeeling master, in a paroxysm of fury, exclaimed to the
other attendants, — "Away with him to the Mursenae." The poor
wretch, almost dead with horror, fell at the feet of the Emperor,
beseeching that he might be permitted to die some death less
terrible ! Astonished at the sudden and strange circumstance,
Augustus made speedy inquiry into this extraordinary mode of
punishment, and when he fully understood the savage cruelty,
disposition, and practice of Pollio, ordered at once, all the remain-
ing vessels broken before his face : — directed the reservoirs to be
filled up, — gave freedom to the plead ing slave, and only consented
to spare the life of the murderer, his master, in consideration of
his former regard." — Natural History of the Fishes of Massa-
chusetts, by Jerome V. C. Smith, M. D.

Modern times have not witnessed similar follies ; but neverthe-
less, for many maritime people, fishing has not been the less a
source of great wealth. At one period, which is not very remote
from our own, this branch of industry employed one fifth of the
total population of Holland, and in the herring fishery alone, that
country covered the whole North Sea with her vessels. In
England, it subsisted a considerable number of good and hardy
sailors, and even in France, where it is of less importance, there
are from thirty to forty thousand fishermen, about one third of
whom venture as far as the coasts of Iceland and Newfoundland.
And in the United States a very large number of people derive
their living from the various fisheries.

37. The immense CLASS OF FISHES is naturally divided into two
series, the Osseous and Cartilaginous fishes, which differ from each
other, not only in their skeleton, but also in a great number of
other characters The modification of the structure of the
branchias, the disposition of the mouth, and the nature of the
fin-rays that sustain the dorsal fin, as well as the position of the
ventral fins, furnish naturalists^with the basis for the division of
the two groups into orders, as may be seen in the following
table :

37. What is the first division of the Class of Fishes? What parts of
these animals afford the means or basis of classifying them 7

7*

90

DIVISION OF THE CLASS OF FISHES.

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OSSEOUS FISHES. 9t

LESSON VI.

ORDER OF ACANTHOPTERYGIANS. — Family of Percoides, (Perches,
Rock-Jish.)— Family of Mulloides, (Red Mullets, Flying-fishes.)
— Family of Mailed- cheeks. — Family of Scienoides. — Family
of Sparoides. — Family of Menides. — Family of Syuamipennes.
— Family of Labyrinthiform pharyngeals. — Family of Scorn-
beroides, (Mackerel. — Mackerel Fishery. — Tunny. — Sword~
Fish, £c.)

DIVISION OF OSSEOUS FISHES.
ORDER OF AC ANTHOPTE R YGII.

1. The Order of Acanthopterygians is easily recognised by the
disposition of the branchia3 and upper jaw, and by the spinous
fins. Three fourths of the fishes known, belong to this group ;
but these animals resemble each other in so very many respects,
that in spite of the numerous differences we remark among them,
we can only separate them into several natural families, all of
which we are obliged to place in the same order

2. The first fin-rays of the back are always bony and spinous,
(Fig. 46.) When there are two dorsal fins, these spinous rays
only sustain the first; and p^ 45

when there is but one of
these organs, they sustain at
least its anterior portion;
and we sometimes find them
entirely free or separate.
Generally there is also a
bony ray to each ventral
fin, and frequently the anal
fin has some spines for its first rays.

3. This order is divided into six natural families, the most
remarkable of which are, the Percoides, the Mulloides, the Mailed-
cheeks, the Labyrinthiform Pharyngeals and Scomberoides.

4. The FAMILY OF PERCOIDES, (or fishes that resemble a Perch)
is composed of fishes that have an obtong, more or less com-
pressed body, covered with scales, which are generally hard ;
the mouth large, and armed with teeth, situate upon the front of
the vomer, and almost always on the palate bones as well as thfe
jaws, the branchial arches and pharyngeal bones ; the operculum,
or the bone situate immediately anterior to it, and therefore called
pre-operculum, or ante-operculum, is dentate or spiny on its edge ;

1. How is the Order of Acanthopterygians distinguished ?

2. What is the character of their dorsal fins ?

3. How is this order divided ?

PERCHES.— ROCK-FISH.

and the fins are always seven or eight in number. They have
no beards upon the chin ; in general, they are adorned with
beautiful colours, and their flesh is very agreeable food.

5. Most of these fishes have the ventral fins attached beneath
the pectoral ; those in which this arrangement occurs are known
under the name of Thoracic Percoides: they are sub-divided
into two groups characterised by the number of the soft rays of
the ventral fin, which is five in the one, and seven in the other.
Among the first are those that have seven branchiostegous rays,
(the small, thin, and elongated bones which sustain the gill-mem-
brane, situate beneath the operculum, and serving to complete
the external parietes of the branchial cavity,) two dorsal fins,
and all the teeth very fine and close, like the pile on velvet ; they
are the Perches, the Rock-Fuk^ &c.

6. The PERCHES, — Perca, — are distinguished by their smooth
tongue and by the spines and teeth on their opercula : they
inhabit fresh water. The Common Perch, — Perca flumatilis, —
(Fig. 47.) which is greenish, with vertical, blackish bands, and

Fig. 47. tne ventral and anal

fins red, is found
throughout Europe,
as well as a great
part of Asia, and the
United States. It
inhabits lakes, rivers,
and running streams,
COMMON PERCH. and avoids salt, or

brackish water, and ordinarily keeps at a depth of two or three
feet. These fishesdo not swim in numerous shoals ; they feed on
• worms, insects and small fishes : they spawn in the month of
April, and their eggs are joined together by a viscid matter in
long cords, which interlace among reeds, &c.

7. The ROCK-FISH, or STRIPED BASSE, — Perca labrax, — is a
sea-fish that has the tongue covered with asperities, and the
opercula somewhat different, but which, in other respects, closely
resembles the Perches. On the sides are parallel lines, like nar-
row ribbons, eight in number, which give it the name of Striped
Basse ; the scales are large, of a metallic lustre, and the oper-
Ailum is serrated in the middle plate. This fish abounds on our
own coast, and is much esteemed as an article of food.

4. How is the family of Percoides distinguished ?

5. What are Thoracic Percoides ?

6. What are the characters of the Perches ? What are the characters of
the common Perch ? What are its habits ?

7. What are the characters of the Rock-fish or Striped Basse ?

MULLETS.— FLY I NG-FISTT. 93

8. The FAMILY OF MULLOIDES differs but little from that of the
percoides, but is easily distinguished from it, by the large scales
with which the whole body of these fishes is covered, and by two
long cirri or beards which hang from under the lo\ver jaw. It
is composed of the Mullets properly so called, of which two
species are found in Europe, namely: the Red Mullet, and
Surmullet.

9. The Red Mullet,— Muflus barbatus,— has the body and tail
red, even after the scales have been removed ; its size is ordinarily
from eight to ten inches. It lives in many seas, particularly in
the Mediterranean, and is much prized for the excellent taste of
its flesh. It is celebrated on account of the pleasure which the
Romans took in contemplating the changes of colour it displays
while dying. Exorbitant prices were paid for Mullets of extraor-
dinary size, and at entertainments, they were brought to the table
alive, and cooked before the eyes of the guests.

10. The Surmullet, — Mullus surrnuletus, — is larger than the
Mullet, and is longitudinally striped yellow ; it is more common
in the ocean, but its flesh is less esteemed.

11. The FAMILY OF MAILED-CHEEKS, — Buccce loricate, — is
recognised by the manner in which the sub-orbital bones are pro-
longed to the opercula and protect the cheeks.

12. In this family are placed the Fying Fishes, — Dactylopterus,
— in which the pectoral fin-rays are very numerous, and united by
a membrane so as _|^« 43 f

to form very large

pectoral fins, (Fig.

48.) which they use

as wings, to sustain

themselves in the air

when they spring

out of water, in the

hope of escaping

from their enemies. FLYING-FISH OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.

Voyagers meet with them in the Mediterranean, but particularly

in the tropical seas ; they swim in numerous shoals, which the

bonita and other voracious fishes, fiercely pursue, and when, to

escape this danger, they spring into the air, another, not less

great, awaits them ; for a host of sea-birds, such as the Frigate

and Phaeton, also pursue them, and embrace this opportunity^

8. How is the family of Mulloides distinguished?

9. What is the Mullet?

10. What is the Surmullet ?

11. What are the characters of the family of Mailed-cheek?

12. What are the characters and hdbits of Flying-fishes?

94 SCIENOIDES.— SrAROIDES.— SQU\MIPKNTNES.

pounce upon them. These fishes cannot go very far in this way;
because the drying of the membrane which unites the rays of the
pectoral fins forces them soon to fall back again into the sea.

J3. The FAMILY OF SCIENOIDES resembles the Percoides, but
is distinguished from them by the absence of teeth on the vomer
and palate. Tn general, the bones of the cranium and face are
cavernous, and the muzzle is more or less inflated. Almost all
the fishes of this group are good to eat, and many of them are
exquisite. To this family belong the Umbrina, which is a large,
good fish, the Corvina which is found in the Mediterranean, and
the Drum-fishes or Pagonias which inhabit our own coast ; the
last are remarkable for the noise they make, which is compared
to that of a drum.

14. The FAMILY OF SPAROIDES has neither the inflated muzzle,
nor spiny operculum of the preceding; but the palate is free of
teeth, and the body is covered with scales of greater or less size,
and the mouth is not protractile.

1 5. In the first tribe of this family, called Spams, we find on
each side of the jaws, round molar teeth, in form of paving stones,

Fir 47 (F*9" 4^0 i sometimes there are also, in front of the
jaws, two cutting incisor teeth, almost similar to
those in man, (it is the case in the Sargns,) some
species of which live near the Mediterranean coasts:
at other times, we only find in front, some conical
or blunt teeth. The Daurades, — Chrysophr is, — are
TEETH OF A recognised by this latter character, and by the exis-
SARGUS. tence of at least three rows of molar teeth in the
tipper jaw. The Common Daurade is frequent on the coast of
Britany, as well as in the Mediterranean. Its body is oval, and
its mouth is furnished with four rows of molar teeth above, and
five below. It derives its name from its golden colour.

J 6. The small family of MENIDES is composed of fishes that
very much resemble the Sparoides, but which are distinguished
from them by the mouth, which is very protractile, and, at the
will of the animal, converted into a tube.

17. The FAMILY OF SQUAMIPENNES is recognised by having the
soft, and sometimes the spinous part of the dorsal and anal fins
covered by scales, and difficult to distinguish from the mass of
the body, which is compressed and also scaly. Some of the
Scienoides also have the fins incrusted with scales: but they

13. What arc the characters and habits of the Scienoides?
14 How is the family of Sparoides characterised ?

15. How arc the Danrades recognised?

16. How are the Menides distinguished from the Sparoides ?

17. What are the characters of the Squamipennes ?

SHOOTING-FISH.— ANAS AS. 95

never have the teeth in the form of flexible bristles as in most of
the Squamipennes, and their inflated muzzle is often sufficient to
distinguish them.

18. The Squamipennes, in which the jaws are furnished with
several ranges of teeth, similar in conformation and arrangement
to the hairs of a brush, have been united under the name of
CHJETODON. Their mouth is very small, and the dorsal and anal
fins are so covered with scales that it is difficult to distinguish them
from the body : they are very numerous in the seas of hot
regions, and very remarkable for the beauty and variety of their
colours.

19. The CASTAGNOLES, — JJrama, — and the ARCHERS, — Toxotcs,
&c. differ from the Chaetodons in many respects, particularly in
having teeth on the vomer and palate. The first have the muzzle
very short, the forehead vertical and a very small number of
spinous rays concealed in the anterior portion of the dorsal fin :
they inhabit the Mediterranean. The Archers, or shooting fishes
have the forehead very oblique, and the dorsal fin very far back,
armed with strong spines, and not covered by scales. The com-
mon species, — Toxotcs jaculator, — inhabits the Ganges, and the
seas of India ; it is celebrated on account of the manner in which
it projects drops of water on insects that frequent aquatic plants,
in order to throw them down and feed on them. They thjrow a
drop three or four feet high, and rarely miss their aim. This
singular instinct is common to a species of Chaetodon that inhabits
the same places.

20. The FAMILY OF LABYRINTHIFORM PHARYNGEALS, is a small
family remarkable for possessing very complicated ceils above
the branchiae. These cells, enclosed beneath the operculurn and
formed by the lamellae of the pharyngeal bones, serve to retain a
certain quantity of water which keeps the branchiae humid, when
the animal is exposed to the air, and enables it to live in this way
for a considerable time: these fishes are in the habit of leaving
the rivers and pools, their ordinary abode, and going to con-
siderable distances by crawling on the grass or on the land.
Those that possess this labyrinthiform apparatus in the highest
degree of complication, and which have received the name of
ANABAS, not only remain a long time out of water, but also, as
we are assured, climb trees. Most of the fishes of this family
inhabit India and China.

18. What are the Chaetodous ?

19. What are Castagnoles ? What are the characters of the Shooting-

20. What are the characters of the Labyrinthiform pharyngcals ? What
are their habits ?

96 MACKERELS.

21. The FAMILY OF SCOMBEROIDES is the most important of this
order ; it comprises many fishes of considerable size, the taste
of which is excellent, and the fecundity so inexhaustible, that, in
spite of the continued destruction to which they are subject, they
return yearly in immense legions to the same localities, and
offer themselves as a certain prey to the activity of fishermen, and
to the industry of those who make it a business to prepare and
preserve them. The Tunny, the Bonita, and Mackerel, which
are so useful to man, and form a type of this family, are easily
distinguished from other Acanthopterygians ; but many of the
species that are naturally grouped around them possess none of
the marks which make them known, and establish such close
relations with other families, that the limits of the latter are diffi-
cult to define. In general, the Scomberoides have very small
scales, and a large part of the skin smooth ; they have neither
spines nor teeth on the pieces of the opercula ; their vertical fins
are not scaly; the tail, and the caudal fin especially, are ordinarily
large and very vigorous. Most of them have the sides of the
tail carinate or armed with scales in form of a shield ; and in
many, the posterior rays of the second dorsal, and anal fins, are
separated, and form so many fake fins, or spurious fins.

22. Those which possess these last characters, and have the
dorsal fin continuous, form the tribe of SCOMBER. Their body is
in the form of a spindle, the tail is short, and more or less carinate
laterally, but not armed with shields, and the caudal fin is very
large : they are excellent swimmers. This family includes the
Mackerel, the Tunny, the Sword-Fish, &c.

23. The MACKERELS, — Scumbe? , — are distinguished from the
other Scomberoides by the uniformly small and smooth scales
with which the body is covered, by two small cutaneous crests
situate upon the sides of the tail, and by a vacant space that sepa-
rates the two dorsal fins.

24 The Common Mackerel, — Scomber scombrus, — has a blue
back, marked with undulating black stripes, and five false fins.
It is a migratory fish, and at certain seasons abounds on the
coasts of the United States, and Europe. The importance of
the mackerel fishery may be estimated from the fact that in the
state of Massachusetts, no less than 308,462 barrels were packed
during the year 1830. On the western coasts of England, this
fishery is conducted with nets at night by torch-light ; the fisher-

21. What are the characters of the Scomberoides ?

22. What are the characters of the tribe of Scomber?

23. What are the characters of Mackerel?

24. What are the characters of the common Mackerel?

BON IT A. 97

men spread themselves over several leagues and cast their nets,
which are sometimes more than a league in extent, in the direc-
tion pursued by the shoals of mackerel. The meshes of the net
are of a size to receive the head of a moderate sized fish, but
arrest it by the fins, and when it endeavours to extricate itself,
its gills become entangled, and it is held prisoner. Mackerels are
also caught by the hook and line.

25. The genus of Ttnuuj, — 77i;y/m?/s? — is closely approximated
to that of the Mackerel, from which it is distinguished by a sort of
corselet around the thorax formed of scales which are larger and
not so smooth as those on the rest of the body.

26. The Common Tunny, — Scomber thynnus, — resembles the
mackerel in the general form of its body; but it is rounder, and
attains a larger size ; in general, its length is three or four feet,
but sometimes it attains to more than fifteen. This fish is some-
times seen in the ocean; but it abounds especially in the Medi-*
terranean ; at certain periods it coasts along the shores in innu-
merable legions, and gives rise to very important fisheries, which
have been carried on in the Mediterranean from the remotest
antiquity, and constitute a chief source of the wealth of Provence,
Sardinia, &c One of the most remarkable modes of taking the
Tunny, is by what is termed the Madrayup. This name is given
to a sort of labyrinth constructed of nets stretched out vertically
in the sea, and so arranged as to form a series of chambers, open
from the land side by a sort of door, and united by another net
which bars the passage and arrests the tunnies in their periodical
course along the shore. These fishes at first pass between the
shore, and the chambers destined to receive them ; but, arrested
by the net mentioned above, they turn towards the high sea, and
enter the Jabyrinth where they become confounded, and fall an
easy prey.

27. On the coast of the United States they do not run in shoals.
They are occasionally taken in baiting other more common fishes.
In Europe, the flesh of the Tunny is very much esteemed, it
resembles beef, and is preserved either by the aid of salt, or by
boiling and immersing in oil.

28. The Bonitdi — Scomber pelamyS)— -celebrated on account
of its pursuit of Flying-fishes in the tropics, is a species of Tunny,
which may be recognised by the longitudinal brown stripes with
which its belly is marked.

25. How is the genus Tunny distinguished from that of Mackerel ?
2G. What are the characters of the common Tunny ?

27. Are Tunnies caught in the waters of the United States ?

28. What are the characters of the Bonita?

98 SWORD-FISH.— PILOT-FISH.— RIBBON FISH.— SURGEON.^

29. The Tribe of Sword-fishes, is distinguished from all

p. ,g other fishes of the same family, by
the beak, or long sword-like point,
which terminates the upper jaw,
(Fig. 49.) and forms a powerful
weapon with which these fishes
SWORB-FISH. attack the largest marine animals.

30. The Sword-fishes properly so called, — Xiphias, — are
without ventral fins, and the prolongation of the muzzle is
flattened horizontally, and is cutting like a broad sword blade.
But one species is known, — Xiphias gladius, — which is often
fifteen or even more feet in length ; it is more common in the
Mediterranean than in the Atlantic. The flesh, which is white
and compact, is delicate. This fish is not uncommon near our
own coasts, and is often taken with the harpoon.

< 31. Another tribe, called Centronotus, is characterised by the
absence of the membrane that unites the rays of the first dorsal
fin, which consequently remain free. Among other fishes be-
longing to this tribe is the Pilot-fish, — (Naucrates, or Scomber
duct or,} — so called from its habit of following vessels, to seize
what may be thrown overboard, and also from the habit attributed
to it, of conducting the Shark, which, directed by the same instinct,
also very frequently accompanies vessels at sea with great perse-
verance. They have a fusiform body, very small scales, nearly
the same as the mackerel, and cartilaginous carinae on the sides
of the tail like the Tunny. The common species is about a foot
long.

32. The FAMILY OF T^ENIOIDES is composed of Acanthoptery-
gians, which approximate the Scomberoides ; they also have
very small scales, but are distinguished by an extremely elongated
body, very much flattened on the sides, the form of which has
obtained for them the name of RIBBON-FISHES.

33. The FAMILY OF THEUTYES also resembles the Scomberoides.
It is composed of a small number of fishes, the body of which is
compressed and oblong, with a small mouth, but slightly, if at
all protractile, and armed in each jaw, with a single row of
cutting teeth ; the palate and tongue are without teeth, and there
is but one dorsal tin. The Theutyes are herbivorous. The
ACANTHURI, called Surgeons, on account of a large, moveable

29. How is the tribe of Sword-fishes distinguished?

30. What are the characters of the Sword-fish properly so called ?

31. What is the Pilot Fish?

32. How are the Tsenioides distinguished ?

33. What are the characters of the family of Theutyes? What are the
Acanthuri ?

MALACOPTERYGIANS. 99

spine, sharp as a lancet, which they have on each side of the
tail, with which they inflict severe wounds on those who impru-
dently take hold of them, belong to this family.

34. The FAMILY OF MUGILOIDES, is distinct from all the pre-
ceding, and is characterised by an almost cylindrical body,
covered with large scales, a slightly depressed head, and short
muzzle, a transverse mouth armed with extremely fine teeth,
two separate dorsal fins, ventral fins attached behind the pectoral,
&c. They constitute a single genus, the Mullets, — MUGIL,--
which are much esteemed.

LESSON VII.

ORDER OF ABDOMINAL MALACOPTERYGIANS. — Division.

FAMILY OF CYPRINOIDES.— Carp — Gold-Jish.-*— Gudgeon.— *Tenck,

FAMILY OF ESOCES. — Pike. — Exocets, or Flying -fishes.

FAMILY OF SILUROIDES. — Electric Silurvs, fyc.

FAMILY OF SALMONIDES. — Common Salmon. — Salmon Fishing. —

Trout. —Smelt.
FAMILY OF CLUPE^I. — Herrings. — Herring Fishing. — Shad. —

Sardines, — Jlnchovies, fyc.

ORDER OF MALACOPTERYGII ADD OIYIIN ALES.

1. This division is composed of Osseous Fishes that have the
upper jaw moveable, simple pectinate branchiae, the fin-rays car-
tilaginous : their ventral fins are suspended beneath the abdomen
and behind the pectoral fins, without being attached to the bones
of the shoulder.

2. It is composed of five families, namely : the Cyprinoides,
comprising those fishes that resemble Carp; the Esoces, or
Pikes, &c.; the Siluroides; the Salmonides, the type of which is
the common Salmon ; and the Clupece, or Herrings, and other
fishes having the same organization. They may be distinguished
by the following characters :

34. What are the characters of the family of Mugiloides ?

1. What are the general characters of the Abdominal Malacopterygians ?

2. How is this order divided ?

100

FAMILY OF CYPRINOIDES.

I f Without an

g adipose fin on

the back.

f Margin of
the upper jaw
formed almost
entirely by the
intermaxillary
bones.

(Families.)

f Mouth small, weak, ")
and often unprovided j
with teeth, except j> CYPRINOIDKS
around the pharynx. |
Body scaly. J •

Mouth large, and
armed with strong,

pointed teeth.

Body ordinarily

covered with very

small scales.

Margin of the upper jaw formed in
the middle by the intermaxillary bones,
and on the sides by the maxillary bones.

Body scaly.

Having an f Body scaly, -i. .....

adipose fin on<{
the back.* ^ Body unprovided with true scales,

ESOCES.

-,

SALMONIDES.

}• SJLUROIPES.

* We give the name of adipose Jin to any fin that is not sustained by fin-
rays, and only consists of a fold of skin filled with fat.

3. The CYPRINOIDES, — (Cyprinidce,) — have a slightly cleft
mouth, weak jaws, most frequently without teeth, and a scaly
body, without an adipose dorsal fin. They are the least carnivo-
rous of the fishes.

4. One of the principal tribes of this family is the CYPRINUS,
which is composed of fresh-water fishes, and includes the Com-
mon Carp, the Gold-jish, the Barbel, the Gudgeon, the Tench,
&c. This group is characterised by the absence of teeth in the
jaws, by the existence of a single dorsal fin, and ordinarily the
scales are large. Most of these fishes feed on grains, herbs, &c.
They have in the back part of the mouth a masticatory apparatus
for crushing their food.

5. The Carps, — Cyprinus, — are distinguished by their long
dorsal fin which, as well as the anal, is provided with a more or
less strong spine for the second fin-ray.

6. The Common Carp, — Cijprinus carpio, — is found in all
Europe, but has not yet been met with in the United States. It
delights in tranquil waters, and is easily reared in rivers and ponds;
the duration of its life is very long, and it is exceedingly prolific.

3. What are the characters of the family of Cyprinoides?

4. What are the characters and habits of the tribe of Cyprinus ?

5. How are the Carps distinguished ?

6. Where is the common Carp found ? What are its habits ?

Stt.— GUDGEON.— TENCH.— BREAM. 101

When young, the growth of Carps is very rapid, and at six years
old they weigh about three pounds ; they often attain three or
four feet in length. During the winter, they bury themselves in
the mud, and pass many months without eating.

7. The Golden Carp, or Gold-fish, — Cyprinus auratus, — is
reared in garden ponds, and vases, on account of the beauty of
its colours, which are a mixture of black, a beautiful golden red
and silvery white.

8. The Barbels, — Barbus, — resemble the Carps, but their
dorsal fin is shorter. The Coj/imon Barbel, — Cyprinus barbus,
— abounds in clear running waters, and sometimes attains more
than ten feet in length.

9. The Gudyeons, — Gobio, — also resemble the Carps; but
they have no bony spine, (Fly. 50.) in the anterior part of the
dorsal and anal fins ; the mouth

is surrounded with cirri, or
beards. There is one species
which abounds in the rivers of
France, and though small, is
much esteemed for its taste. GUDGEON.

10. The Tenches, — Tinea, — in addition to the characters of
the Gudgeons, have very small scales, and very short cirri. The
Common Tench, — Cyprinus tinea, — inhabits stagnant waters in
France ; it is generally of a yellowish brown, attains about a foot
in length, and is less esteemed than the Carp.

11. The Breams, — Mramis, — have neither spinous fin-rays
nor cirri ; their dorsal fin is short, but the anal is long. Two
species are found in France. In the United States they are
small.

1 2. The Shiner, — Cyprinus crysolencas, — is among the smallest
of fresh-water fishes, being usually less than an inch in length.
Shiners are the prey of their larger neighbours, and the sport of
school-boys, who angle for them with a crooked pin.

1 3. The Minnow, — Cyprinus atronasus, — is another of the very
small fishes, scarcely exceeding an inch in length. It is found
in the brooks in every part of New England and the Middle
States.

7. What is the Gold-fish ?

8. What are Barbels 1

9. What are the characters of Gudgeons ?

10. How are Tenches characterised ?

1 1. What are the characters of Breams ?

12. What is the Shiner? •

13. What is the Minnow ?

8*

102 ROACH.— SUCKER.— PIKE.

14. The Roaches, — Leuciscus, — form several species, all of
which are small. The Common Roach, — Leuciscus vulyaris, —
acquires seven or eight inches in length, and is remarkable for
its brilliant scales, which are easily detached ; they are silvery on
the sides, and under parts of the body. The nacreous substance
which gives them this metallic appearance, is employed in the
arts for the manufacture of false pearls.

15. The Suckers, or Loaches, — Cobitis, — have^ mouth unpro-
vided with teeth ; but it is surrounded by lips fitted for sucking.
Their head is small ; the body is elongated, covered with small
scales, and enveloped in a mucosity or slime ; their ventral fins are
very far back, and over them is found a single small dorsal fin.

16. The FAMILY OF ESOCES, which comprises the Pikes and
analogous fishes, has no adipose fin ; it is distinguished from the
preceding by the conformation of the mouth, and the existence
of teeth.

17. The PIKES, — JEsoz,— are recognised by their oblong, obtuse,
broad, depressed muzzle ; they have but one dorsal fin which is
placed opposite to the anal, (Fig. 51.) and nearly the whole
entrance of the mouth, as well as the jaws, are full of teeth.

The Common Pike, — Esox
lucius, — is found in the
fresh waters of Europe and
North America. It is less
common in the south than
P1KE> in the north, and is every

where sought for its flesh, which is savoury, and of easy digestion.
It is the most voracious and most destructive of all the fresh
water fishes ; it devours with avidity, frogs, young ducks, and
all the fishes that come in its way. It often seizes animals larger
than itself, and its presence in a pond is sometimes enough to
depopulate it in a short time. Pikes four or five feet long, are
not rare in the great lakes of northern Europe, and one of still
larger size has been seen. In 1497, a Pike was caught at
Kaiserlautern, near Manheim, which was nearly nineteen feet in
length, weighing three hundred and fifty pounds. This gianf
was as remarkable for its great age, as for its size : for then
was found upon it a gilt copper ring bearing this inscription .
" I am the first fish that was thrown into this pond, by the hands
of Frederick II. October 5, 1230;" it was consequently, at least

1 4. What are Roaches ? For what purpose are their scales used ?

15. What are the characters of Loaches?

16. What fishes compose the family of Esoces?

17. How are the Pikes chaiacterised ? What are the habits of the com-
mon Pike ?

ELECTRIC SILURUS. * 103

two hundred and sixty seven years old. The growth of these
fishes is very rapid ; the first year they are often ten or eleven
inches in length, and in the second, fifteen.

The Sea I'ike, — Esox belong — also known as the gar -fish,
spit-fish, and bill-fish, belongs to this family.

18. EXOCETS, (or Fly ing -Fishes, as they, as well as the
Dactylopterus, (Page 93.) are also commonly called,)— Exocetus,
— belong to the same family as the Pikes, and are recognised at
first sight by the excessive length of their pectoral fins, which
are .long enough to serve them as wings, and sustain them for a
few seconds in the air. They swim in shoals, and are pursued
by legions of voracious fishes, to escape from which they spring
out of water ; but they soon fall again, because their wings only
serve them as a parachute ; and, while on their aerial course, they
become the prey of sea-birds, as well as of sharks and other fishes.

19. The FAMILY OF SILUROIDES differs from all other abdo-
minal malacopterygians, in the absence of true scales. The skin
is naked, or furnished with bony plates. The dorsal and pectoral
fins have almost always, a strong articulated spine for the first
fin-ray, and, as in the next family, there is often one adipose fin
posteriorly; and the mouth also has some peculiarities of
structure.

20. Most of these fishes belong to the tribe of SILURUS, which
is recognised by the naked skin, by the mouth cleft at the end of
the muzzle, and by a strong spine that, in general, constitutes the
first ray of the pectoral fin, which is articulated with the shoulder,
and so arranged, that it can be approximated to the body, or
raised perpendicularly to it, and thus used as a dangerous
weapon. The Si/uri properly so called, have a small fin on the
fore part of the back, sustained by rays. One species of this
genus, the only one in France, is the largest fresh water fish of
Europe. Its length ordinarily exceeds six feet, and its weight
is often three hundred pounds. The Cat-fish belongs to this
tribe.

21. The Malapteruri differ but little from the Siluri, from
which they are distinguished by the absence of a rayed fin on
the back, and by some other characters. The famous S Hunts
clectricm of the Nile, is the only species belonging to this
division : like the Torpedo and Gymnotus, it possesses the power

18. What are the characters and habits of the fishes ot the genus
Exocetus?

19. What are the characters of the family of Silurcides ?

20. What are the characters of the tribe of Silurus ?

21. What are the characters of the Silurus elcctricus? Where is the
electric organ situate ?

104 ' SALMON—SALMON FISHERY.

of giving strong electric shocks ; it appears that the seat of this
faculty is in a peculiar tissue, situate between the muscles and
the skin, and having the appearance of a fatty cellular structure.
This tish which inhabits the Senegal as well as the Nile, is
eighteen or twenty inches in length. The Arabs call it raasch,
which signifies thunder.

22. The FAMILY OF SALMONIDES, of which the Salmons are the
type, are characterised by a scaly body, and a first dorsal fin
with soft rays, followed by a second which is small and adipose,
that is, formed of a fold of skin filled with fat, and without rays.

23. The most interesting genus of this family, is that of the
Salmons, — Sal-mo, — which have the mouth more completely
armed with teeth than any other fish ; they are naturally
voracious, and ascend very far up rivers to deposit their eggs ;
their body is almost always spotted, and their flesh is much
esteemed

24. The Common Salmon, — Sahno salar — is the largest species
of the genus ; its flesh is red, its body elongated, and flattened
laterally, and it often attains six feet in length. It is found in
great numbers in all the Arctic seas, whence it ascends rivers in
large shoals every spring. It swims with great rapidity, and can
clear at a leap, obstacles in its passage, twelve or fifteen feet in
height. When they fall in with a cave, or some other place
favourable for spawning, they deposit their eggs in a. hole in the
sand, and then permit themselves to be carried by the current to
the sea, where they go, to acquire strength to return again the
following year. Young salmons are therefore born in the rivers,
but their growth is rapid, and when they attain the size of about
twelve inches, they descend to the sea like the adults.

25. The salmon fishery, in many countries, forms a very im-
portant branch of industry. In Norway, as many as 300 of these
fishes have been caught at a single cast of the net ; and in the
river Tweed as many as 700 ; the time selected for catching
them is when they ascend rivers to spawn, for after they have
deposited their eggs and are on their way to the sea, they are
lean, and their flesh is of little value. In general, this fishery is
conducted with nets stretched across the river, and so arranged,
that the salmons are caught in the meshes : but sometimes, in
Scotland, for example, they are taken with a spear or harpoon.
They are also caught with a hook and line.

22. What are the characters of the family of Salmonides?

23. What are the general characters of tlie genus of Salmons ?

24. What are the characters of the common Salmon? What are its habits ?

25. What is the mode of catching Salmon ?

TROUT.— SM ELT.— GRAYLING. 105

26. The Salmon Trout, — Salmo trutta,—](ke the salmon has
reddish flesh, and the caudal fin crescent shaped : but it has on all
the under parts of the body, a great number of black spots, ocellate,
or in form of an X ; it sometimes weighs eight or ten pounds.

27. The Common Trout, — Sulmo fario, — has the caudal fin
but little notched, and its flesh is white: (Fig. 52.) it is also
distinguished by the brown spots on the back, and red spots sur-
rounded by a bright circle on ^, 52

the flanks, which are on a

ground, the shade of which

varies from white and golden

yellow, to a deep brown. It is

commonly from twelve to fifteen

inches in length, weighing about

a pound; but it is sometimes

met with of larger size. It inhabits rivers in the northern

parts of Europe and the United States. Many other river

Trouts are known, which are chiefly found in lakes and mountain

streams, and which vary in their size and colours in each locality ;

some naturalists regard them as different species, and others look

upon them as simple varieties, resulting from age, food, and the

quality of the waters in which they dwell.

28. The SMELTS, — Osmerus, — also belong to the family of
Salmonides ; they differ from the preceding in the almost total
absence of teeth on the vomer, in the number of the branchios-
tegous rays, which is eight in place of ten, and in the absence of
spots on the body. They are caught in the sea at the mouths of
large rivers; their flesh is excellent. The Common Smelt, —
Osmerus eperlanus, — is small : it is ornamented with the most
dazzling silvery and light green tints. The skin is so exceedingly
thin that, under the microscope, the blood may be seen circulating
in the cutaneous vessels.

29. The GRAYLINGS, — Thymallus, — have jaws like the Trout;
but the mouth is but slightly cleft, and the teeth are very fine.
They have the habits of the Trout, and their flesh is equally
esteemed. The Common Grayling, — Salmo thymallus, — is striped
blackish longitudinally : it attains a size of eighteen inches, and
in the spring, ascends several rivers of France and Italy. It is
especially met with in the pure, limpid waters of the mountains
of America and Switzerland.

26. What are the characters of the Salmon Trout?

27. What are the characters of the common Trout ? Where is it found ?

28. What are Smelts? What are the characters ui' the common Smelt ?

29. What are the characters of Graylings ?

106 HERRINGS.

The family of Salmonides comprises a great number of other
genera.

30. The FAMILY OF CLUPEJE has no adipose fin like the pre-
ceding ; the upper jaw is formed, as in the trouts, in the middle,
by intermaxillary bones without pedicles, and on the sides by the
maxillary bones. The body of these fishes is always scaly, and
most of them ascend rivers.

31. The most important tribe of this family is that of the
HERRINGS, characterised by narrow, short, intermaxillary bones,
and by the inferior edge of the body being compressed, the scales
of which are so arranged as to form notches like the teeth of a
saw. These fishes are remarkable for the fineness and great
number of their bones, as well as for the peculiarities of their
branchial apparatus.

32. HERRINGS PROPERLY so CALLED, — Clupea, — have a mode-
rate sized mouth, without a notch in front.

33. The Common Herring, — Clupea harengus^ — is ordinarily
eight or nine inches in length, the head small and compressed,
the mouth slightly cleft, the lower jaw longer than the upper, the
inferior edge of the body slightly carinate, the scales large, and
slightly adherent, the back bluish, and the belly silvery. It in-
habits the northern seas, and arrives every year in innumerable
legions upon different parts of the coasts of Europe, Asia, and
America, but does not go very far south of the fortieth degree
of north latitude. Some naturalists suppose that all herrings
periodically retire beneath the ice of the polar seas, and set out
from this common retreat in an immense column, which, dividing,
spreads along almost all the coasts north of the parallel above
named ; but this distant emigration, and this common rendezvous
in the arctic regions, are far from being demonstrated, and there
is reason to believe that such is not the case.

34. In the months of April and May, herrings begin to appear
in the waters of the Shetland Islands, and towards the end of
June, or in July, they arrive in incalculable numbers, forming
vast and dense shoals, which sometimes extend over the surface
of the sea for several leagues, and hundreds of feet in thickness.
In September, they arrive on the coasts of Great Britain. From
that region they cross the Atlantic in a south westerly direction,
and make their appearance on the coast of Georgia, about the

30. What are the characters of the Family of Clupeae ?

31. What are the- characters of the tribe of Herrings?

32. How are Herrings properly so called distinguished?

33. What are the characters of the common Herring ?

34. Where are Herrings found ?

SARDINES. 107

last of January; detachments then begin to move eastward, and
by the end of April, the whole American sea-board is lined with
them.

35. The herring fishery is one of great importance. It occu-
pies every year entire fleets, and formerly, it was carried on with
still greater activity. About the middle of the 17th century, the
Dutch employed not less than two thousand vessels, and it is
estimated that eight hundred thousand persons, in the two
provinces of Holland and West Friesland, derived their living
from this branch of industry alone. The Norwegians, the Ameri-
cans, the Scotch, the English, and even the French embarked in
this fishery in considerable numbers, and though its importance
is now considerably lessened, it is still a great source of wealth
to the people bordering the northern seas.

36. This fishery is ordinarily conducted with nets five or six
hundred fathoms in length, the lower edge of which is loaded
with lead, while the upper edge is made to float on the surface by
means of buoys ; the meshes are just large enough to receive the
head of a herring as far as the gills, but not allow the pectoral fins
to pass. The fish, in endeavouring to overcome the obstacle that
this great vertical partition opposes to its passage, is thus meshed,
and, not being able to advance or recede, owing to the gills and
fins, he remains a prisoner, until the fishermen draw the net on
board. This is termed a gill-net. The number of herrings,
taken in this way, is sometimes so great, that the net bursts under
their weight. Generally this fishery is carried on at some distance
from the shore, and, for this reason, the herrings are salted on
board. It is a prejudice to suppose that the herrings caught on
our own coasts are interior to those that fall into foreign nets.

37. The Sardine, — Chipea sordino, — is a small species of
Herring, celebrated for the great delicacy of its flesh. It inhabits
the Atlantic, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean. During winter
it keeps in the depths of the sea; but about the month of June it
draws near the shore in immense shoals. As many as forty, and
even fifty thousand have been caught at a single cast of the net.
Sardines are caught in the same way as Herrings, but the meshes
of the net are smaller, and the fishermen, to attract the fish from
time to time, throw into the sea, a peculiar bait, which is prepared
from cod-fish eggs. From the mouth of the Loire to the ex-
tremity of Britany, this fish abounds every summer, and gives

35. Is the Herring fishery important ?

36. How are Herrings caught ? What are the qualities of American
Herring ?

37. What are Sardines ? How are they caught?

108 SHAD.— ALEWIFE.— ANCHOVY.

rise to productive fisheries: along the coast there are a great
number of establishments for the preparation and preservation of
Sardines.

33. There are many other species of Herring, among which
is the Pilchard, which does not differ much from the Sardine, ex-
cept that it is larger ; the Spraf, which is smaller than the Herring,
is also salted or pickled, and the White-bait, a very small fish of
the most beautiful silver colour, with a black spot on the end of
the muzzle.

39, SHADS, — JHosa>— are distinguished from Herrings properly
so called, by a notch in the middle of the upper jaw. The Corn-
mow S/iacl, — *fllosa vidgaris, — which attains three feet in length,
and has no visible teeth, inhabits the sea, and in the spring ascends
rivers in numerous shoals. At this period their flesh is excellent;
but when the fish is caught at sea, it is dry, and possesses an
unpleasant taste.

40. The Jllewifc, — Clupea vernalis, — holds a place between the
shad and the herring, possessing the general characteristics of both.
Its habits bear a striking resemblance to those two fishes; it ascends
rivers to deposit its spawn, and afterwards retires to the ocean.
It is found chiefly in the rivers of New England.

4t. The ANCHOVIES, — Eiigruidis, — also belong to this family;
but they differ from the herrings in the mouth, which is cleft far
behind the eyes, in their gills which are more open, and in some
other characteristics. The Common .Anchovy, — Engranlis encra-
sickolus, — is three or four inches long ; the back is brown, and
the flanks and belly silvery ; it is found in the Mediterranean, as
well as on the western coasts of France and Spain, in almost all
parts of the North Atlantic Ocean, and in the Baltic Sea. At a
certain period of the year, which varies in different localities, it
leaves the high sea and approaches the coast to spawn, when it
becomes the object of an important fishery. To catch it, the
French fishermen provide themselves with nets, which are about
two hundred feet in length, and twenty-five or thirty in breadth,
and assemble four boats, one of which carries the net, and the
others furnaces, in which they make a bright fire ; this fishery is
carried on in dark nights from April to July; they station them-
selves about five miles from the coast ; and when the anchovies,
attracted by the light, are assembled in large numbers around a

38 What other fishes belong to the genus of Herrings?

39 What is the characteristic difference between the Shad and Herrings ?

40. What is the Ale wife?

41. What are Anchovies? What are the characters of the common
Anchovy ? How are Anchovies caught?

FAMILY OF GADOIDES. 109

boat thus illuminated, the net is cast into the water, and laid out
so as to surround the assembled fishes ; this done, the fire is sud-
denly extinguished, and the anchovies alarmed, in seeking to
escape, are taken in the net. They are preserved with salt, after
removing the head and intestines.

The family of Clupeae embraces a great number of other genera,
many of which possess remarkable peculiarities, but our limits
will not permit us to describe them.

LESSON VIII.

ORDER OF SUBBRACHIAN MALACOPTERYGIANS. — Family of

Gadoides. — Cods. — Common Cod. — Cod Fishery. — Whiting. —

Hake. — Ling.
FAMILY OP PLEURONECTES. — Organization. — Plaice. — Turbot. —

Sole. — Family of Discoboli.
FAMILY OF ECHENEIS. — Remora.
ORDER OP APODOUS MALACOPTERYGIANS. — Eels. — Common Eel.—

S'a Eel. — Gymnotus electricus.

ORDER OP LOPHOBRANCHIANS. — Organization. — Hippocampus.
ORDER OP PLECTOGNATHI. — Organization. — Diodon. — Trunk-fish.

ORDER OF MALACOPTERYGII SUBBRACHIATI.

1. This Order is distinguished from other Malacopterygians
by the situation of the ventral fins, which are placed beneath the
pectorals, the pelvis being suspended immediately from the bones
of the shoulder.

2. The Subbrachian Malacopterygians constitute four families,
namely : Gadoides, Pleuronectes, Discoboli, and Echeneis.

3. The FAMILY OF GADOIDES is composed of Subbrachian
Malacopterygians in which the body is a little compressed, and
symmetrical, in which the ventral fins are sharpened to a point,
and attached under the throat; they are covered wilh soft, small
scales ; most of them live in cold or temperate seas, and they
afford to man an abundance of a good and wholesome food. In
this family are placed the genera of Cod, Whiting, Ling, &c.

1. What are the characters of the Subbrachian Malacopterygiana ?

2. Into what families is this order divided .?

S. What are the general characters of the flunily of Gadoides ?
9

110 COD.— WHITING.

4. The CODS, — Gadus, — are distinguished by the existence of
three dorsal, and two anal fins, and a cirrus at the end of the
muzzle or snout. The most important species of this genus is
the Cod properly so called, — Gadtit morrhua, — a fish two or
three feet long, with a gray back spotted yellowish, and a white
belly. Cods are found in greatest abundance in the ocean be-
tween the fortieth and sixtieth degrees of north latitude. On the
coasts of Norway, in the neighbourhood of Iceland, and espe-
cially in the waters of Newfoundland, they are found in incalcu-
lable numbers. During winter, they retire to the depths of the
sea ; but in the warm season, the necessity of casting their spawn
and of providing for their subsistence, causes them to approach
the shore, and fathomable waters. In some localities, the cod-
fishery is conducted with seines four or five hundred feet in length,
but generally they are caught with a hook and line, baited with
herring, the gills of cod-fish, &c. A skilful fisherman may catch
in this way, four hundred cod-fishes in a day. The fish is prepared
in different ways for preservation ; when simply salted, it is known
in commerce as green cod ; when dried without being salted, it
is stockfish ; and when salted and dried in the sun, it is called
dry cod. The tongues, salted or pickled with the swimming-
bladders, are much esteemed, and known under the title of
tongues and sounds. " The sound or swimming-bladder oi the
cod-fish, if rightly prepared, supplies an isinglass equal to the
best Russian, and applicable to all the uses for which the imported
is employed." The liver yields a large quantity of pure, limpid
oil, cod-liver-oil, which, in many respects, and for most purposes,
is superior to the commonly used fish-oil.

Catching and preparing cod-fish are very important branches
of maritime industry. About twelve thousand French, and a
very much larger number of English and American fishermen are
yearly engaged in this business.

5. The WHITINGS, — Merlangust—have the same number of
fins as the cod, but no cirri. The Common Whiting, — Gadus

Fig. 53. merlanyvs,— (Fig. 53.) which is

about a foot long, silvery beneath,
reddish gray or olive above, may
be recognised by the upper jaw
being longer than the lower: it
inhabits European seas, and is

COMMON WHITING.

4. How is the genus of Cods recognised ? What is the Cod properly so
called ? Where are Cods found ? How are they caught ? What is Stock-
i sh ? What are longues and sounds ?

5. What are the characters of the common Whiting'

HAKE.— LING.—PLAICE. 111

much esteemed for the lightness of its delicate flesh. On the
coast of Britany it is salted and dried like the cod.

6. The HAKES, — Merluccius, — have no cirri, and differ from the
cods in the number of their fins ; they have but two dorsal fins,
and one posterior to the anus. The Common Hake, — (if adits
mcrluccius, — is from one to two feet in length, and sometimes
much longer ; the back is brown gray ; the anterior dorsal fin
pointed ; lower ja\v longest. The Hake is taken in great numbers,
both in the Mediterranean and Atlantic ; it is usually found in
pursuit of mackerel shoals ; when salted and dried, it receives, in
the north, the name of stock-fish, which is also applied to the cod.

7. The Lings, — Lota,— have a greater or less number of cirri,
and the same fins as the Hakes. They are almost as numerous
as the cod in the northern seas. The Common Ling differs from
other Gadoides in the almost cylindrical form of its body, in its
depressed head and habits : it is the only fish of this family that
ascends rivers into fresh water. Its flesh is mucn esteemed.

8. The FAMILY OP PLEURONECTES, comprises what are vulgarly
called the Flat-Fishes; these animals have the body very much
compressed laterally, and very much elevated vertically ; but what
especially distinguishes them is a want of symmetry in the head,
a character which is not observed in

any other vertebrate animal, (Fig.
54.) Both eyes are placed on the
same side, which is always upper-
most when the animal swims, and is
always deeply coloured, while the
opposite side is always whitish. The
two sides of the mouth are unequal,
and it is rare to find both pectoral fins FLAT-FISH.

perfectly alike ; the dorsal fin extends along the whole back ; the
anal fin occupies the lower part of the body, and the ventrals seem
to be continuous with it in front, as they are almost united one
to the other. They want the swimming-bladder, swim on the
side, and seldom quit the bottom.

9. The principal genera of this family, are the Plaice, the
Turbot, and the Sole.

10. The PLAICE, — Platessa, — have in each jaw, a row of
cutting, and obtuse teeth ; most generally, the pharyngeal bones

6. How are Hakes characterised? What are the characters of the com-
mon Hake ?

7. How are Lings characterised?

8. What are the peculiarities of the family of Pleuronectes ?

9. What are the principal genera of this family ?
10. What are the characters of Plaice ?

112 PLAICE.— FLOUNDER.— HOLIBUT.-TURBOT. _

are furnished with teeth like pebbles ; the dorsal fin extends as
far forward as a point above the upper eye, leaving a naked
interval between it and the caudal fin ; their form is rhomboidal,
and most frequently their eyes are on the right side.

11. The Common Plaice, — Platessa platessa, — is easily recog-
nised by six or seven tubercles, forming a straight line on the
right side of the head, between the eyes, and by the pale yellow
spots which relieve the brown on the same side of the body ; it is
three times as long as it is high, and its scales are thin and soft.
Its flesh is very tender and much esteemed : its weight sometimes
reaches sixteen pounds. It is common on the coasts of France,
and abounds on those of Holland.

12. The Flounder, — Platessa flesiis, — resembles the common
plaice, but only has small granules between the eyes, and has a
small rough button at the base of each ray of the dorsal and anal
fins. It inhabits our coast, and ascends rivers. In many indi-
viduals the eyes are on the left, instead of the right side of the head.

13. The Limande, or Dah, — Platessa Limanda, — has a pro-
jecting line between the'eyes, and a body which is comparatively
higher than it is long. Its scales are rougher than in any of the
preceding species, from which circumstance it has derived its
name, (from Lima, a file) ; the teeth are straighter; and the side
upon which the eyes are placed is light brown with some faded
brown and whitish spots.

14. The Holibut, — Hippoglossus vulgaris, or Platessa Hippo-
glo*sn8, — has the form and fins of a Platessa, but the jaws and
pharynx are armed with teeth, which are most commonly strong
and pointed. The eyes are on the right side. It is a voracious
fish, and is found in the northern seas, and our own coast. It is
taken with a line, and sometimes weighs five hundred pounds.

miis' — has a rhomboidal body, almost
as high as it is long, and studded on
the brown side with small tubercles;
the eyes are close together, and there
is a projecting crest between them.
It is probably the most valuable of
the flat-fishes, and excepting the
TURBOT. holibut, grows larger than any of

the others. It is highly prized in England. It is also met with

on our own coast.

11. How is the common Plaice recognised ?

12. How is the Flounder characterised ?

13. What are the characters of the Limande?

14. What are the characters of the Holibut?

15. What are the characters of the Turbot?

SOLE.— SUCKL\(;-FISH. 113

16. SOLES,— Solea, — have an oblong body, a round projecting
snout, the dorsal extending from the mouth to the anal fin, and
the mouth distorted and armed with teeth on one side only. The
Common Sole, — Platessa solea, or Solea vulgaris, — is olive brown
on the right side and grayish on the left. It is found on our own
coast, chiefly at the mouths of rivers, and is an excellent fish.

17. The FAMILY OF DISCOBOLI is composed of a small number
of Subbranchian Malacopterygians, which have the ventral fins
united in form of a disk. It includes two genera, in which are
placed the Lump-Fish, and Lump Sucker.

18. The FAMILY OF ECHENEIS, formed of a single genus, is re-
markable among all fishes for a flattened disk, which covers the

p. -g head, ( Fig. 56. ) it is composed of a certain
number of moveable, transverse cartilaginous
plates, standing obliquely backwards, by the
assistance of which, the animal can attach itself
to different bodies to which it applies this singular
instrument By this means, it often attaches itself
to rocks, to vessels, and to other fishes, particu-
DISK OF A iarly to the shark. A species, which lives in the
REMORA. Mediterranean and the Atlantic, has been long
celebrated under the name of Remora, or Sucking-Fish, (Fig. 57.)
and its history is loaded jC. 57.

with fable. It was pre-
tended that this fish lived
by a species of suction,
which it exerted by means

of the disk, (Fig. 56.) THE REMORA.

above mentioned, and the power of arresting the fastest sailing
vessel in her course, was attributed to it. A species, similar to
the preceding, is very common in the waters of the Isle of France,
and it appears that, on the coast of Caffraria, it is employed in
fishing, setting it off in pursuit of fishes, and drawing it in by a
line attached to the tail, as soon as it has fixed itself to its prey.

ORDER OF MALACOPTERYGII APODA.

19. All the fishes of this order have an elongated form, a thick,
soft, and but slightly scaly skin ; but their chief characteristic is
their want of ventral fins. They form a single natural family,
ANGUILLIFORMES, which is composed of the tribe of eels, gymnotus,
&c. &c

1 6. What are the characters of Soles ?

17. How is the family of Discoboli characterised?

18. What are the characters of the Remora ?

19. How are Apodous Malacopterygians characterised ?

y *

114 EELS.

20. -Fishes of the tribe of Anguilliformes, have a long, slender
body, and the scales, as it were, incrusted in a thick, fat skin ;
the operculum is small, surrounded by the branchiostegous rays,
in form of a circle, which are enveloped in the skin, and open
very far back by a hole or sort of tube, an arrangement which
affords better protection to the gills, and enables these fishes to
remain sometime out of water without perishing.

21. EELS, — Mnrcena, — are characterised by having pectoral
fins, and the openings of the gills beneath them. Those which
have the dorsal and caudal fins prolonged around the end of the
tail, so as to form a pointed caudal fin, are designated under the
name of EELS PROPERLY so CALLED, and are again subdivided into
COMMON EELS, and CONGER EELS, according as the dorsal fin
commences far from, or near to the pectoral fins.

22. Common Eds, — Jlnguilla, — are too well known to require
description. Their colour varies acording to age, and, as it
appears, according to the quality of the water in which they dwell.
Those that inhabit limpid waters have a greenish back, striped
brown, and a white or silvery belly, while those that are caught
in the mud are ordinarily blackish brown above, and yellowish
beneath. Eels are very voracious and extremely agile; they
swim equally well backward and forward, and their skin is so
slippery that it is difficult to hold them. During a great part of
their life they inhabit fresh water, and frequent ponds and seas,
as well as rivers By day, they almost always keep buried in
the mud or lie concealed in holes, they excavate near the shore.
These holes are sometimes very extensive, and lodge a great
number of eels; but, in general, their diameter is small, and they
open externally at both ends, which enables the animal to
escape more readily when threatened by danger. When the
season is very warm, and the stagnant waters of the pools
begin to putrify, the eels leave the bottom and conceal them-
selves in the herbage of the shore, or even cross the land in
search of a more favourable locality : they can, in fact, crawl on
the ground like serpents, and remain a considerable time in the
air without perishing. Ordinarily they make these singular
journeys during the night; and when it is extremely dry, they
bury themselves in the mud, and continue there until the water
returns. The length of time they can remain there without
perishing is surprising. These fishes have been known to remain

20. What are the characters of the Anguilliformes?

21. How are Eels characterised ?

22. What are the characters of common Eels ? What are their habits '
Are they natives of salt or fresh water ?

ELECTRIC EEL. H5

for months and even years in the mud of dried up pools, or in
holes destitute of water, and nevertheless, regain their activity, the
moment they were placed in their native element. This is not
the only circumstance under which these fishes display their re-
markable tenacity of life. They may be deprived of their skin,
and their viscera, and be cut in pieces, without depriving the
trunk of their body of the power of yet moving for some time.
In early life, they inhabit the sea, and in the spring the young
eels ascend rivers to dwell in fresh water, which, when full
grown, they abandon to deposit their eggs in the sea.

23. The name of Conger Eels is applied to eels that differ very
little from common eels, except that they are of large size, and
always dwell in the sea or salt water.

24. MUR^ENJE PROPERLY so CALLED, — Mnrcena, — are entirely
without pectoral fins, and their branchiae open on each side by a
small hole. The most celebrated species is the Murcena helena,
which attains more than three feet in length, and is marbled
throughout with brown and yellowish ; it is widely spread over
the Mediterranean, and was very highly esteemed by the
ancients. The Romans reared them in great numbers, in their
magnificent fish-ponds, decorated them with jewels, and taught
them to come at the sound of their master's voice. Hirrius was
the first to consecrate fish-ponds exclusively to muraense, and
he caused six thousand of these fishes to be served up at an
entertainment, given to Ca3sar when he was named dictator.

25. The GYMNOTI, which have the gills partially closed by a
membrane, but opening in front of the pectoral fins, also belong
to this order. The Gymnoti properly

so called, — Gymnotiis,—have, like the
other fishes of this division, a ventral
fin, which extends under the greater
part of the body, but they want the
fins at the end of the tail, and their
skin is without perceptible scales.
They inhabit the rivers of South
America, and one of them, the Elec-
tric Eel, — Gymnotus electricm — (Fig.
58.) is celebrated on account of the

23. What are Conger Eels ?

24. What are the characters of M uraenee properly so called ? What are
the characters of the Muraenae helena ?

25. What are the characters of the Gymnoti properly so called ? What
are the characters of the electric Eel ? Where is it found ? What are its
habits ?

116 ELECTRIC EEL.

violent electric shocks it has the power of communicating at will,
and in the direction it pleases. This fish acquires five or six feet in
length, (Fig. 58.) ; its body is elongated, and of the same size
throughout, and its skin is imbued with a gluey matter : it is very
common in the small rivulets and lakes, and met with here and
there on the immense planes situate between the Cordillera, the
Oronoco, and Banda-Oriental, and it is also found in the Apure,
Oronoco, Meta, &c The electric shocks which it gives, are
sufficiently powerful to knock down men and horses, and the
Gymnotus resorts to this means of defending itself against its
enemies, and to kill at a distance, fishes upon which it feeds ; for
water, as well as metals, transmits the benumbing shock of this
singular animal, in the same manner that the lightning rod con-
ducts the electricity of the clouds from the atmosphere to the
earth. Its first discharges of electricity are generally feeble; but
when it is irritated and agitated, they become more and more
powerful, and are then terrible. When it has thus given repeated
shocks, it becomes exhausted, and requires a greater or less
period of rest before it regains its power. It is said, that it
employs this time in charging its electric organs, and that the
Americans avail themselves of this circumstance to capture it
without danger. To catch the gymnoti, they drive into the pools
inhabited by these fishes, wild horses, which, receiving the first
shocks, are soon benumbed, and thrown down or even killed ;
then they obtain the exhausted gymnoti with nets, or a harpoon.

26. The electric apparatus of the gymnotus extends all along
the back and tail, and consists of four longitudinal fasciculi, com-
posed of a great number of membranous plates, which are
parallel and very close together, and arranged almost horizontally
and united by an infinity of other smaller lamellaB placed verti-
cally crosswise : the little prismatic and transverse cells, formed
by the junction of these lamenae, are filled by a gelatinous matter :
the whole apparatus is supplied with very large nerves.

ORDER OF LOPHOBRANCHII.

27. This order is distinguished by the branchiaa, which, in
place of being pectinate, that is, having the form of comb-teeth,
as is ordinarily the case, are divided into small round tufts,
arranged in pairs along the branchial arches. They are enclosed
under a large operculum, which is attached on all sides by a
membrane, leaving only a small hole for the escape of water,

26. What is the situation of the electric apparatus of the Gymnotus?
What are fhe characters of this apparatus ?

a?. What are the characters of the order of Lophobranchii ?

HI PPOC AMPUS.— DIODO N. 117

an d in its thickness we find only vestiges of branchiostegous
rays. These fishes are also recognised by the mail-like plates
which cover the body, and render it almost always angular.
They are generally small.

28. To this order belongs the
Hippocampus, (Fig. 59.) the body
of which is laterally compressed,
and more elevated than the tail ;

on curling up, after death, the HIPVOCAMPU8.

head and trunk bear some resem-
blance to the neck of a horse in miniature, which has obtained
for this little fish the common name of Sea-horse.

ORDER OF PLECTOGNATHI,

29. The fishes composing this group form the connecting link
between the ordinary and cartilaginous fishes, as much by the
conformation of their jaws, as by the tardy consolidation of their
skeleton. Their chief distinctive character is, that the maxillary,
is solidly fi^ed upon the side of the intermaxillary bone, which
alone forms the jaw, and that the palatine arch articulates with
the cranium, in a manner which renders it immoveable. More-
over, their opercula and branchiostegous rays are concealed be-
neath a thick skin, which leaves externally only a small branchial
slit ; they have no true ventral fins ; and they have only vestiges
of ribs. This order comprises two families, recognisable by t'.ie
opening of their mouth, namely : the Gymnodontes, and the
Sclerodermi.

30. In the FAMILY OP GYMNODONTES, there are no apparent
teeth ; but the jaws are furnished with a species of ivory beak,
internally divided into plates, which represent the teeth It
includes the Dindon, the Tetradon, the Mole,&c.

31. The DIODON has received this name, because the jaws,
being undivided, have each but a single piece, while in the
TETRADON, tHfcy are divided in the middle by a suture, so as to
present the appearance of four teeth : two above, and two below.
These two genera of fishes have the faculty of swelling them-
selves up like a balloon, by swallowing air, -and thus distending
a first, very extensible stomach, which occupies the whole length
of the abdomen. This peculiarity has obtained for them the

28 What is the Hippocampus ?

29. What are the characters of the order of Plectognathi ?

30. How are Gymnodontes characterised ?

31. How does the Diodon differ from the Tetradon? What are the
peculiarities of these two genera ?

118 SUN-FISH.— TRUNK-FISH.

common names of Swell-Fish, Porcupine- Fish, Balloon-Fish,
Blower, &c., and furnishes them with a means of defence ; for,
when the skin is distended, the spines with which it is armed,
become every where erect, and bristle the whole surface of the
body ; and when they are thus swelled, they turn over, the belly
corning uppermost, and they float on the surface of the sea with-
out the power of directing their course. They are found in the
tropical seas, and on the North American coast.

32. The SUN-FISHES, or MOLES, — Cephalitis, — sometimes called
Moon- Wishes, resemble the Diodon, in the arrangement of their
jaws ; but their body which is compressed, and of a strange
shape, has no spines, nor is it susceptible of inflation ; and their
tail is so short ^nd so high vertically, they appear like fishes
having the posterior part cut off. One species, which sometimes
attains more than four feet in length, weighing over three
hundred pounds, inhabits the coast of France.

33. The FAMILY OF SCLERODERMI, is easily distinguished by
the conical or pyramidal snout, prolonged from the eyes, and
terminated by a small mouth, armed with a small* number of
distinct teeth. The skin is generally rough, or covered with
hard scales.

34. Some of them, named BALISTES, have a compressed body
covered by a scaly or granular skin, but not osseous : they have
eight teeth generally trenchant, arranged in a single row in each
jaw, and two dorsal fins. They are found in great numbers in
the torrid zone.

35. Others, called TRUNK-FISHES, — Ostracion, — have, in place
of scales, (Fig. 60.) regular, bony compartments or plates, united

Fig. 60. into a kind of inflexible coat of mail,

which covers the head and body, so
that they can only move the tail, the
fins, the mouth, and a kind of small
lip, around the edge of their gills,
which pass through ^loles in this
TRUNK FISH. cuirasse ; each jaw is armed with

ten or twelve conical teeth. They are found on the coast of
the United States.

32. How are Sun-fishes characterised ?

33. How is the family of Sclerodermi distinguished ?

34. How are the Balistes characterised?

35. What are the characters of Trunk fishes?

STRUCTURE OF CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. 119

LESSON IX,

DIVISION OF CARTILAGINOUS FISHES, OR CHONDROPTERYGIANS. —

Organization.

ORDER OP STURIONES. — Sturgeons. — Caviar. — Fish-glue.
ORDER OF SELACHII. — Sharks. — Saw-Jish* — Rays. — Torpedo.
ORDER OF CYCLOSTOMI. — Lampreys.

DIVISION OF CHONDROPTERYGII, OR CARTILAGINOUS
FISHES.

The Chondropterygians differ in many respects from all the
fishes we have spoken of, and are less uniform in their structure.
Some of them have organs even more complicated than the last,
and approximate more to the reptiles, while others form a sort of
connecting link, between the vertebrata and inferior classes of
animals.

1. Their skeleton is essentially cartilaginous: it is not formed
of bony fibres, and the calcareous matter that hardens on its
surface, is only deposited in small grains. Sometimes the skeleton
is only membranous, and it is always more simple in its confor-
mation than that of the osseous fishes. It is also remarked, there
is a resemblance between it and the cartilaginous skeleton of the
tadpole. The cranium is not divided by sutures, and is composed
of a single piece, shaped in other respects very much like the
skull of an ordinary fish. The uppei jaw is formed of pieces
analogous to the palate bones and vomer ; the maxillary and
intermaxillary bones do not exist, or are found only in a rudi-
mentary state, concealed beneath the skin. The lower jaw is
constituted of one piece on each side, and the opercular apparatus
is, in general, entirely wanting. The vertebral column is some-
times formed, in a great part, of a single tube, pierced on each
side for the passage of nerves, but not divided into distinct
vertebras ; frequently too, the bodies of the vertebrae are pierced
through and through, so that the gelatinous substance, which tills
the spaces betwixt these bones, forms a continuous cord. The
disposition of the bones of the shoulder, of the pelvis, and fins,
varies. The hyoid apparatus, which supports the branchiae, is,
in general, much the same as it is in ordinary fishes; but,
towards the termination of this series or division, the branchial
arches are wanting, and the branchiae are only attached, on the

1. What are the characters of the skeleton of cartilaginous fishes? Is
there any thing peculiar in the arrangement of their branchite ?

120 STURGEONS.

internal side, to the parietes of a membranous canal. Remark-
able modifications in the mode of organization of these organs
are observed. Sometimes the branchiae are free on the external
edge, as in the osseous fishes ; sometimes, on the contrary, they
are attached by both edges, and this difference furnishes a basis
for the division of cartilaginous fishes into two groups : the
Chondropterygians with free branchiae, which constitute a single
order, and the Chondropterygians with Jlxed branchiae^ which
form two orders, the Selachii, and Cyclostomi.

ORDER OF CHONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS LIBERIA
OR STURIONES.

2. The Sturiones, or Chondropterygians with free branchiae,
of which the Sturgeon is the type, resemble ordinary fishes in the
disposition of their gills, as well as in their free branchiae ; they
have, on each side, a single branchial opening, furnished with an
operculum, but which wants the rays.

3. The STURGEONS, — Jlcipenser, — have the general form of
osseous fishes, and, in the structure of their skeleton, form the
connecting link between them and the Chondropterygians;
for many bones of their head and shoulders are completely
hardened and, as it were stony on the surface. Their upper
jaw is composed of the palate bones solidly attached to the maxil-
lary bones, and vestiges of intermaxillary bones are found in the
substance of the lips. The body is more or less covered with
plates imbedded in the skin in longitudinal rows ; their mouth is
small and unprovided with teeth ; the dorsal fin is situated be-
hind the ventral, and above the anal fin ; the caudal fin surrounds
the extremity of the tail, and has a projecting lobe beneath.
These fishes are generally large, and endowed with very con-
siderable muscular strength : they easily stem the most rapid
current, and can strike violent blows with their tail ; but their
habits are ordinarily peaceful, and they are formidable only to
small, or badly armed fishes ; they feed on herrings, mackerels,
sometimes salmons, and they have been seen to root in the mud
with their nose, in pursuit of worms and mollusks. In the spring
they ascend certain rivers from the sea, often in numerous shoals,
to deposit their eggs. Their fecundity is very great ; we are
assured that 1,500,000 eggs have been found in one female that
weighed 278 pounds, and in another, weighing 2800 pounds, the
eggs by themselves, weighed 800 pounds. The young ones

2. What are the characters of the Sturiones ?

3. What are the characters of Sturgeons ? What is Caviar ? What is
Ichthyocolla?

STURGEONS. 121

appear to seek the sea very early, and remain until full grown.
The flesh of most of these fishes is agreeable, and there is pre-
pared from their eggs a food, which is very much esteemed in the
north of Europe, known under the name of caviar ; and it is
chiefly from their swimming-bladder thatfah-glue, or ichthyocolla
is prepared.

4. Many species of sturgeons are known ; they are found in
western Europe and North America ; but it is particularly in the
great rivers of the eastern part of Europe, and the north of Asia,
that they abound, and give rise to important fisheries. The
Common Sturgeon, — Jlcipenser aturio, — is six or seven feet long,
with a pointed snout, and five rows of strong, spiny plates : it
enters the large rivers of France about the month of April, and
ascends in numerous shoals, the Danube, the Don, and many
other streams that flow into the Caspian Sea. This species is
found in the waters of the United States. The Hausen, or
Great Sturgeon, — JlcApemer huso, — ( Fig. 61.) which attains
from twelve to fifteen feet in length, and often weighs more
than twelve hun-

dred pounds, and
sometimes even as
much as three
thousand is some-
times seen in the ''HI
Po : but generally, THE GREAT STURGEON.
it only frequents the Danube, the Don, the Volga, and other rivers
which empty into the same seas. It enters them in shoals, from
the end of winter, and, immediately after spawning, returns to
the sea, where it is soon followed by its young. Its flesh is less
esteemed than that of the common sturgeon ; but it is chiefly
from its eggs and its swimming-bladder that caviar, and ichthyo-
colla are prepared. It is distinguished from the last by its blunter
tubercles or plates, its shorter .snout, and smoother skin. The
Sterlet, or Little Sturgeon, — Jlcipeitser pygmceits, — which seldom
exceeds two feet in length, and which has its plates arranged in
more numerous rows than the preceding species, also inhabits
the rivers which flow into the Black and Caspian Seas : its flesh
is said to be delicate ; it is probably the elops and acipenser so
celebrated among the Romans.

5. We give the name of Polyodon, — Spatularia, — to certain
fishes of the Mississippi river, which bear some analogy to

4. What are the characters of the common Sturgeon '/ What are the
characters of the great Sturgeon? Where is it found? What is the
Sterlet ?

5. What is the Polyodon ?

10

122 ORDER OF SELACIIII.

sturgeons : they are remarkable for an enormous prolongation
of the muzzle, to which its wide borders give the figure of a leaf.
The mouth is well cleft, and furnished with numerous small
teeth.

6. The Chimceras form a connecting link between the preceding
and the sharks, which they resemble in the general form of the
body.

CHONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS FIXIS.

7. The Chondropterygians with fixed branchiae, which form
the two orders of Selachii and Cyclostomi, possess a very re-
markable character in the arrangement of their respiratory
apparatus, which is common to them all. Instead of having the
branchiae free on the external edge, and suspended in a common
cavity, from which the water escapes by a single opening, they
have them, on the contrary, adherent to the integuments, so that,
for the escape of the water that laves them, there is required as
many openings as there are intervals betwixt them ; sometimes,
however, they empty into a common canal, which serves to
transmit the water externally ; and their cartilaginous arches, often
suspended in the flesh, are placed opposite to the external edges
of the branchiae. In other respects these fishes differ very much
from each other, and are divided into two orders, according as
they are provided with moveable jaws of the ordinary form, or
according as these organs are solidly united into an irnmove-
able ring, only suited for suction. The first are the Selachii, and
the second the Cyclostomi.

ORDER OF SELACHI1.

8. This order comprises the greatest number of cartilaginous
fishes, Rays and Sharks, for example. Their external form
varies ; they have pectoral fins ; ventral fins situate on the
abdomen near the anus ; five branchial openings in the form of
slits, on each side of the neck, or on its inferior face, and the jaws
are armed with teeth. In a great many of these fishes, there is
on the upper surface of the head, two openings, called vents, or
spiracles, which lead to the branchiae, and serve to carry off the
water, necessary to respiration, when the throat of the animal is

6. What are Chimseras ?

7. What are the characters of Chondropterygians with, fixed branchiee ?
What are the peculiarities of their branchiae ?

8. How is the order of Selachii characterised ?

SHARKS. 123

distended by a voluminous prey. Some of them are ovo-vivipa*
raws, and others lay eggs covered by a hard, horny shell. It is
divided into sharks, saw- fishes, rays, &c.

9. The SHARKS, — Sc/ualides, — constitute a large tribe, recog-
nisable by their general form, which differs but little from that of
ordinary fishes. Their body is elongated, the tail stout and
fleshy, and the pectoral fins of moderate size. Their eyes are
situate as usual, on the sides of the head; their muzzle presents
nothing remarkable, and the openings of their branchiae are
found upon the sides of the neck ; the shoulder bones are
suspended in the flesh, without articulating either with the
cranium or vertebral column, and the skin is rough and their
flesh coriaceous. Most of them attain a large size, and are very

1 voracious.

10. The Roussettes, — Set/Ilium, — are distinguished from other
Squali, by a short, obtuse snout, by the nostrils being pierced
near the mouth, and surrounded by a groove which extends to
the lip. These fishes are provided with spiracles and an anal
fin ; their dorsals are behind it, and the caudal is elongated, not
forked and truncated at 'the end; their branchial openings are
situate partly under the pectorals. There are two large species
on the coast of France, the Great Roussette, or Sea- Dog, —
Squalus canicula, — (Fly. 62.) which is

also found on the American coast, at-
tains three or four feet in length, and
the Rock- Shark, — Squalus catulus.
The skin of these fishes, which is
studded with a multitude of small,
stony tubercles, becomes very rough SEA-DOG.

on drying, and is then employed in the arts for polishing hard
bodies, such as ivory.

11. Sharks properly so called have the nostrils without a
groove, and situate under the muzzle, which is prominent. The
caudal fin is more or less forked. Some of them have spiracles,
and in others they are wanting.

12. The genus Carcharias, have no spiracles, and are pro-
vided with an anal fin ; their muzzle is depressed and the mouth
is strongly armed with pointed, trenchant teeth, which are gene-
rally dentate on the edges.

9. What are the characters of Sharks ?

10. How are Roussettes distinguished from other Sharks ?

1 1 . How are Sharks properly so called characterised ?

12. What are the characters of the genus Carcharias?

124

SAW-FISHES.— RAYS.

Fig. 63.

SHARK S HEAD.

13. The White Shark, — Squalus carcharias, — which attains
twenty-five or thirty feet in length, is celebrated for its ferocity.
Its vast mouth, (Fig. 63.) is furnished with triangular, moveable

teeth, the number of which increases with
age. In the young, we see but a single
row ; but, in the adult, we find six. The
strength of this fish is very great, and its
motions rapid ; its voracity knows no
bounds ; hence, it is among the most
dangerous animals. Men frequently be-
come the prey of sharks, and as many
as eight or ten tunnies have been some-
times found in its belly. £eals, tunnies,
and cods, are their ordinary food; but
they attack dead bodies, and even devour
each other. It appears they are found in
every sea ; but voyagers often confound
with the carcharias, other species of sharks
with cutting teeth.

14. The SAW-FISHES, — Pristis, — unite to the form of the
sharks, a body flattened in front, with branchial openings beneath,
as in the Rays, but they are especially distinguished by a very long
snout, depressed in form of a sword-blade, armed on each side
with strong bony spines, which are pointed and trenchant This
beak, from which they derive their name, is a powerful weapon,
with which they do not fear to attack the largest whales. The true
teeth of their jaws are like small pebbles, (Fig. 47, Page 94.)

15. The Common Saw-Jtshi— Squalus pristis, — which is found
in almost every sea, attains a length of twelve or fifteen feet. Its
skin is tuberculous, of a very dark gray on the back, ash-colour
on the sides, and whitish under the belly.

16. The RAYS, — Raid, — form a large tribe. Fishes of this
genus are recognised by their body being horizontally flattened,
and similar to a disk, a conformation which is principally due to
the disposition of their pectoral fins, which are extremely broad
and fleshy, and are joined to each other in front or to the muzzle,
and extend backwards on both sides of the abdomen, nearly to
the base of the ventral fins ; the eyes as well as the spiracles are
placed on the dorsal face : the mouth, the nostrils, and the open-
ings of the branchiae are on the ventral surface of the body ; and

13. What are the characters of the White Shark?

14. How are Saw-fishes distinguished?

15. What are the characters of the common Saw-fish ?

1 6. How is the genus of Rays recognised ?

TORPEDO. 125

the dorsal fins are almost always upon the tail, which is very
slender. This group is divided Into Rays properly so called,
Torpedoes, &c.

17, The Rays properly so called, — Raia,— have the body of a
rhomboidal form, a slender tail, fine teeth, &c. Our coast fur-
nishes many species, such as the Skate, Sting- Ray, &c.

18. The TORPEDOES, or ELECTRIC RAYS, — Torpedo, — have a
short, but fleshy tail. The body is smooth and in form of a
nearly circular disk, the anterior border of which is formed by
two prolongations of the snout, which, on each side go to join
the pectoral fins, and leave between these p- 54^
organs, and the head and branchiae, an oval

space ( Fig. 64. ) in which is lodged the
electric apparatus of these fishes. This appa-
ratus consists of a multitude of vertical, mem-
branous tubes, placed close together like the
cells of a honey-comb, subdivided by hori-
zontal partitions into small cells filled with
mucus, and supplied by numerous large
branches of the pneumogastric nerve. In these
singular organs is produced the electricity, by
aid of which torpedoes communicate electric
shocks to those who touch them, a faculty
possessed by the malapteruri, (Page 103.) and TORPEDO.
gymnoti, ( Page 115.) but which, in these last, is seated in a different
structure. These fishes are less powerful than the gymnoti, but
can nevertheless, benumb the arm of a person touching one of
them, and they probably resort to this means to obtain their
prey. Several species are found on the coasts of France.

ORDER OF CYCLOST3MI.

19. This last order of cartilaginous fishes is characterised by
the singular conformation of the mouth, and is composed of the
most imperfectly organised of all the vertebrate animals.

20. Their body, elongated, naked and viscid, is unprovided
with thoracic and abdominal extremities ; for both the pectoral

* Explanation of Fig. 64. — The Torpedo, or Electric Ray : — a. a portion
of the skin detached to show one of the electric organs, (6.)

17. What are the characters of Rays properly so called?

18. How are the Torpedoes characterised ? What is the nature of their
electric apparatus ?

19. How is the order of Cyclostomi characterised?

20. What are the characters of fishes of this order ? What are the pecu-
liarities of their respiratory apparatus ?

10*

126

LAMPREYS.

Fig. 65.

and ventral fins are wanting. Anteriorly, they terminate in a
circular, or semi-circular, fleshy lip, sustained by a cartilaginous
ring, formed by the solid union of the palatine and lower jaw
bones, or rather, cartilages. The vertebra are reduced to simple
cartilaginous rings, scarcely distinct one from the other, traversed
by a tendinous cord, and surmounted by a second ring which is
more solid, surrounding the spinal marrow. There are no true
ribs nor branchial arches ; the branchiae, instead of being pecti-
nate, present the appearance of sacks formed by the union of the
face of one branchia, with that of a corresponding branchia on the
opposite side. Sometimes this imperfect skeleton is not even
cartilaginous, but always remains membranous. The organs of
the senses are less complicated in structure than they are *in
ordinary fishes, They have no swimming-bladder.

21. The LAMPREYS, — Petromyzon, — are recognised by seven
branchial openings which are seen on both sides of the neck, by

their circular labial ring, armed with
several ranges of strong teeth, and horny
tubercles, (Fig. 65.); the tongue is also
furnished with teeth, and is carried for-
ward and backward like a piston, which
enables the animal to exert the faculty of
suction and use its buccal disk, not only
to suck up the juices upon which it feeds,
but to attach itself to solid bodies. The
skin of these fishes is raised up above and
beneath the tail in a longitudinal crest that takes the place of
fins, which are sustained only by vestiges of fin-rays. The water
necessary for respiration passes from the mouth to the branchiae,
by a canal situate under the oesophagus, and pierced laterally by
holes.

22. The Sea Lamprey, — Petromyzon marinus,— ( Fig. 66. )
which is two or three feet long, and marbled brown on a yellowish
ground, inhabits the coasts Fig, 66.

of France, and the United

States, and in the spring

ascends rivers to deposit its

eggs. It ordinarily preys on marine worms, and small fishes, or

fragments of dead bodies ; but it attaches itself to large fishes,

and succeeds in piercing their skin and devouring them. Its

MOUTH OF A LAMPREy.

SEA LAMPREY.

21. What are the characters of the Lampreys ? What is the structure of
their mouth ?

22. What are the characters of the Sea Lampreys ? What are their
habits ? What are the characters of fresh water Lampreys ? Where are
Lampreys found ?

MYXINES. 127

flesh is much esteemed. The Fresh Water, or River Lamprey,
—Petromyzon fluviatHis,— \s a smaller species, seldom exceeding
eighteen inches in length, and passes the greater part of the
year in fresh water lakes, which it abandons in the spring to
enter rivers. Its colour is dark olive above, and yellowish or
silvery beneath. It is found in the fresh waters of New England.
A third species is the small River Lamprey, eight or ten inches in
length ; it also inhabits fresh waters, and is distinguished from the
preceding by its dorsal fins, which are continuous or united,
instead of being distinct.

23. The Hag-jishes, — Myxine — have the maxillary ring entirely
membranous, and armed above by a single fang-like tooth, or they
are entirely destitute of teeth, while the tongue is armed on each
side with two horny plates deeply serrated, so that, at first sight,
they might be supposed to have lateral jaws, like articulated ani-
mals with which in fact, some authors have placed them ; in other
respects their organization is analogous to that of lampreys. Their
body is cylindrical, and furnished posteriorly with a fin which sur-
rounds the tail; their mouth is circular, surrounded by eight cirri,
and its upper margin is pierced by a spiracle which communicates
with its interior. They have no vestiges of eyes, and their body
is lubricated by a great quantity of mucus. Thus provided, the
Myxine, when it attacks its prey, uses its mouth like a cupping-
glass, and plunges its fang into its flesh ; and, thus securing a
firm hold, the lingual saws tear their way into its very vitals.
Some, called Heptatrennis, have seven branchial apertures on
each side of the neck; others, named Gastrobranchus, have on
each side, a canal, which receives, through particular holes, the
water coming from the branchia?, and empties externally by a
hole situated at about one third of the length of the body ; and
in others again, the branchial openings are arranged as in the
lamprey and heptatremus ; but the fleshy lip, which is unprovided
with teeth, is only semi-circular, and covers only the upper part
of the mouth which prevents them from using it as a means of
attaching themselves. These last myxines, which are named
rfmmocetes, have an entirely soft and membranous skeleton; they
keep in the mud of small streams, and have many of the habits
of worms, which they resemble also in form.

It may be well for the reader, who has followed us through
our first, second, third, and fourth books, to remark that we
began our account of the animal world, with a general description
of the most perfectly organized being, and we found man, inde-
pendently of his possessing an immortal soul, the most complete*

23. What are the characters of the Myxines ?

128 CONCLUSION,

and most wonderful of all animal structures. Without any other
reason, he is placed at the head of the great class of mammals ;
and it may be observed, as we advanced in our descriptions, that
the animals became less and less perfectly organised : the nervous
system, the respiratory and • circulatory systems grow less and
less perfect as we proceed. On reaching the reptiles, we discover,
for example, that their heart has lost one ventricle, and their
blood is cold ; and in fishes, we find it has also lost an auricle,
and consists only of a single auricle, and a single ventricle. In
the fishes too, we observe striking changes in the composition of
bone ; and the skeleton gradually loses its hardness, until we
come to the Myxines, where it is soft and membranous ; or, it
might be said, the internal hard frame called the skeleton, has
disappeared, and we are brought step by step, to the considera-
tion of soft animals without vertebrae ; but, nevertheless, they
are provided with organs suitable for maintaining the kind of life
with which they are endowed by the Omniscient Creator of all
things.

This concludes our account of the vertebrate animals, which
constitute the FIRST BRANCH of the Animal Kingdom, We
have next to consider the SECOND BRANCH, composed exclusively
of the Molluscous Animals, the study of which embraces Con-
chology, or the History of Shells.

END OF THE FOURTH BOOK OF NATURAL HISTORY.

GLOSSARY.

HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY.

ABDOMEN. — From the Latin, abdere,l
to conceal, The belly. The chief
viscera contained in the abdomen
are the stomach, intestines, liver,
&c. &c.
ABDOM'UIAL.— Relating or belonging

to the abdomen.

ABDOMINA'LEP. — Latin. Plural of ab-
dominalis. Relating to the abdo-
men. Applied to an order of fishes,
which have the ventral fins placed
beneath the abdomen. (See p. 99.)

ABOMA. — Systematic name of a spe-
cies of Boa, (Page 57.)

ABRAMIS. — The generic name of the
Breams.

ABSORP'TION. — From the Latin absor-
bere, to drink, to suck up. The
function of absorbent vessels, by
virtue of which they take up sub-
stances from without or within the
body.

AcANTHopTERv'ciAN.-From the Greek
akantha, a spine, and pteron, wing.
Applied to fishes that have bony
fin-rays.

ACANTHOPVERY'GII. — Latin. Plural of
acanthopterygius. Same derivation.
Name of the first order of the class
of fishes, given to them because
they have bony fins.

ACANTHU'RI — Latin. Plural of acan-
thu'rus. From the Greek, akantha,
a spine, and oura, tail. Generic
name of a kind of fishes vulgarly
called Surgeon, because they have
sharp, lancet-like spines on the
tail. (Page 58.)

ACI'PENSER — Latin. A Sturgeon.

ACUTUS. — Latin. Sharp- pointed. —
Acute.

ADI' POSE — From the Latin, adeps, fat.
Belonging or relating te fat.

Egyptian. Be-
longing to Egypt.

AGA'MIAN. — From the Greek a, priva-
tive, and gamos, marriage. Having
no sex. Applied to certain Lizards.

ALO'SA. — Generic name of the Shad.

ALVK'OLI. — Latin. Plural of alveolus.
Sockets of the teeth.

ALVE'OLUS. — Latin. The hole in
which a tooth is placed.

AMMOCETES.— From the Greek ammos,
sand. Name of a genus of fishes
that live in the sand or mud, (See
page 127.)

AMPHIB'IOUS. — From the Greek amphi,
double, and bios, life. That which
partakes of two natures, so as to
live in two elements ; as in the air
and water.

AMPHISB^NA. — From the Greek, am-
phis, both, and hainein, to move,
to walk. Walking both ways. The
Generic name of a serpent.

AMPHI'UMA.— Generic name of a kind
of Salamander.

ANA'BAS. — From the Greek, anabaino,
I ascend, I embark. Generic name
of a kind of fishes that crawl on
the land, arid live for a time out of
water. (Page. 95.)

A'NAL. — Belonging or relating to the
anus. The anal Jin obtains its
name from being near the anus.

ANA'LOGOUS. — From the Greek, ana,
between, and logos, reason. Having
some resemblance or relation,
though differing in essential par-
ticulars. Similar.

ANASTOMO'SIS. — From the Greek, ana,
between, and stoma, mouth. The
communication between two ves-
sels or nerves.

130 HERPETOLOGY ANt) ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.

AN ASTOMO'SE.— Vessel^ or nerves th:it
communicate with each other are
said to anastomose.
ANCHYI.OSED, — an-ky-los'-ed. From
the Gteek, a'jkule, stiif-joint. A
joint or aiticulation whica lias be-
come immoveable is said to be
anchylosed.

ANGUILLA. — Latin. An eel.

ANGUILLIFORMES. — From the Latin.
an<ruiUa, eel, and forma, shape.
Eel-shaped. Systematic name of
a tribe of fishes which are eel-
shaped.

ANGUI'NA. — Latin. Form* d from
anguis, a serpent. Systematic
name of a family of ophidians.

ANGUI'NUS. — Latin. Belonging or re-
lating to serpents.

ANGUIS. — Latin. A snake.

ANO'LIS. — A kind of saurian, called
anoli, in the Antilles.

ANO'LIUS. — Latin. Generic name of
the Anolis.

ANOU'RA. — From the Greek, a, or an,
privative, and oura, tail. Without
a tail. The systematic name of a
family of Batrachians.

ANTE-OPER CULUM. — A part of the gill-
cover, or operculum, which is be-
fbre the operculum proper. (See
Page 79.)

ANTEPENULTIMATE. — From the Latin,
ante., before, pene, almost, and
vltimus, the last. That which is
immediately before the next to the
last ; or, that which is immediately
before the penultimate.

A'NUS. — Latin. The fundament : the
inferior opening of the bowels.

A'ORTA. — From the Greek, aorte, a
vessel. The great primary artery
which conveys blood to all parts of
the body.

APO'DA. — From the Greek a, priva-
tive, and pous, (in the genitive
podosy ) foot. Footless ; without
feet.

AFO'DES. — Latin. — Same derivation
as apoda. Applied to an order of
fishes.

APODOUS. — Same derivation as apoda.
Without feet.

APPARA'TUS. — From the Latin, ad,
for, and parare, to prepare. A
collection of instruments or organs
for any purpose whatever. An
assemblage of organs.

ARBORE'A. — Latin. Belonging or re-
lating to a tree ; branched like a
tree.

ARCHES OF THK BRANCHIAE. — A sys-
tem of sm til bones joined together
by ligaments, which supports a
series of peciiniform vascular
fringes, constituting the gills of
fishes. Trie branchial arches, which
are generally four in number on
each side, are attached by one ex-
tremity to an intermediate chain
of bones, situated in the middle
line behind the hyoid bone, while
by their opposite extremity they
are connected by ligaments to the
under surface of the cranium.
They are perfectly flexible, and so
arranged as to prevent food taken
into the mouth, from being forced
out through the branchial fissures
with the issuing streams of water;
so that in reality, these pieces fulfil
in their way, the same office as
the epiglottis of mammals.

ARM'ATURE. — Armour. The arma-
tute of the mouth consists of the
teeth, &c.

ARTER'IAL. — Belonging or relating to
arteries.

ARTERIAL'ISED. — When venous or
dark blood, by the process of res-
piration, is converted into arterial
blood, is it said to be arterialised.

ARTE'RV. — From the Greek, aer, air,
and terein, to preserve, because, it
was anciently believed that the
arteries were filled with air like the
windpipe. The vessels which con-
vey blood from the heart to all parts
of the body, are called arteries.

ARTICULAR SURFACE. — The surface of
that part of a bone which forms an
articulation or joint.

ARTIC'ULATE. — From the Latin articu-
lus, which is the diminutive of
artus, a limb, which is derived
from arthron, a joint. To join or

HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 131

joint with. Also, to form words, to
otter.

ARTICULATION. — A joint.

ASPHYX'IA. — From the Greek, a, pri
vative, and sphuxis, pulse. With-
out pulse. Suspended animation.

ASPHYX'IATE. — In a state or condition
of suspended animation.

AT'ROFHIED. — From the Greek a, pri-
vative, and trophe, nourishment :
without nourishment. Wasted :
when the whole bulk of the body
is progressively and morbidly
diminished, or wasted, it is said to
be atrophied, or in a state of
atrophy.

ATRONA'SUS. — Specific name of the
Minnow.

AURA'TUS. — Latin. Golden.

AUR'ICLE. — From the li-atm, auricula,
which is the diminutive of aim's,
ear. A part of the heart is so
called from its resemblance to an
ear. Also applied to a part of the
ear.

AX'OLOTUS. — Latin. Generic name
of the axolotls.

AXOLO'TL. — Mexican. Name of a
kind of batrachian.

BALIS'TES. — Systematic name of cer-
tain fishes of the family of Sclero-
dermi, given to them by Artedi,
from their Italian appellation,
Pesce balestra, ( Cross-bow-fish, )
which is derived from a supposed
similitude between the motion of
their great dorsal spine, and that
of a cross-bow«

BARBA'TUS. — Latin. Bearded; having'
a beard.

BARB'US. — The generic name of the j
Barbels.

BASILIS'CUS. — Latin. A basilisk ; a
kind of saurian.

BATRACH'IA. — Ba-trak'e-a. Latin.
(Plural.) Balrachians.

BATRACH'IAN. — Ba-trak'-e-an. From
the Greek, batrachos, frog. A
name given to those reptiles which
resemble frogs in their mode of
organization.

BELO'NE. — Be lo'-ne. From the Greek
b clone, point of an arrow ; a kind

of fLh. Specific name of the Sea-
pike.

BE'RUS. — Specific name of the com-
mon viper, given by Linnaeus.
This name was only used by
authors of the middle century.

BI'FID. — From the Latin, bis, twice,
and findere, to split. Split or
divided into two separate parts.

BI'FURCATE. — From the Latin, bis,
twice, and furca, fork. To divide
or separate into two branches.
Divided or separated into two
branches.

BI'MANA. — Latin; formed from bis,
two, and manus, hand. Having
two hands. Systematic name of a
kind of saurian that has anterior
extremities only.

BI'PEDES. — Bi'-pe-des. Latin, plural ;
formed from bis, two, and pes, foot.
Having two feet. Applied to Sau-
rians that have abdominal exlremi-
ties alone.

BRACH'IAL. — Brak-'e-al. From the
Latin, brachium, an arm. Belong-
ing or relating to the arm.

BRA'MA. — Systematic name of the
Castagno'es.

BRANCH'I^;. — Brank'-e-ae. Latin, plu-
ral of branchia. From the Greek,
bragchos, throat. The gills of fishes.

BRANCH'IAL. — Brank'-e-al. Belonging-
or relating to the branchiae. Bran-
chial arches, see, ARCHES OF THE
BRANCHIAE. Branchial openings^
apertures for the passage of water
from the gill--.

BRANCHI'FERA. — Brank'-i-fe-ra. From
the Latin, branchiae, gil s, and fero,
I bear. Gill-bearing. Systematic
name of a family of batrachians.

BRANCHIIS. — Brank'-e-is. Latin, plu-
ral, (ablative.) Branchiis liberis,
with iree branchiae. Brunchiis
fixis, with fixed branchia?.

BKANCHIOSTE'GOUS. — Brank-i oste'-
gous. From the Greek, bragchia,
the branchiae or gills, and stegd, I
cover. Belonging or relating to
the gill-cover. The ffreat fissure
that exists on each side between
the head and shoulder of an osseous

132 HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.

fish, wherein the gills are situated, • CARI'NA. — Latin. The keel or hot-
is not closed merely by the oper- 1 torn part of a ship. A sort of
culur bones, but likewise by a broad ridge or elevation,
membranous expansion, called the CARI'NA. — Latin. Plural of carina.
Branchiostegous membrane, which ^CARI'NATE. — Marked with a carina
is adherent to the hyoid bon >, and or ridge.

assists in forming the great valve CARNI'VOROUS. — From the Latin care,
of the operculum. This mem- j (in the genitive, earn ?s,) flesh, and
brane is supported by a series of^ voro, I eat. Flesh eating; applied
slender bones, derived from thej to animals that feed' on flesh,
external margin of each branch offCA'ROTio. — The great arterial trunks,
the hyoid bone, and these ares which convey blood to the head
named from their office, the Bran-^ are called carotid arteries.
chiostegous Rays. <CAR'PIO. — Specific name of the com-

BUC'CVE. — Buk-say. Latin, plural of> mon carp.

bucca, cheek. Bucca loricata, CAR'PUS — From the Greek, Jcarpos,
mailed-cheeks. \ the wrist. That part which is be-

BUC'CAL,— Buk'-kal. From the Latin,
bucca, cheek. Belonging or rela-
ting to the cheek.

BU'FO. — Latin. A toad.

BUNGA'RUS. — Barbarous Latin. The
generic name of tfye Rock-snakes.

C^E 'CILIA. — Latin. ' Formed from
CfBctts, blind. Systematic name of
a kind of batrachian, which has
very small eyes, and sometimes
none.

CAIMA'N. — Spanish. Alligator.

CALCA'REOUS. — From the Latin, calx,
lime. Containing, or partaking of
the nature of lime.

CANIC'ULA. — Latin. A dog-fish.

CAP'ILLARY. — From the Latin, cap
illus, a hair. Small, hair-like
The capillary vessels, are the ex
tremely minute terminations of the
arteries, and commencing branches
of the veins.

CARAP'AX. — The systematic name o
the upper shell of tortoises.

CARBON'IC A'CID. — This is a i
which neither supports combustion
nor respiration. It constitutes an
essential ingredient in effervescing
drinks, such as those known unde
the name of soda-water, minera
water, &c.

CARCHAR'IAS. — From the Greek, car
charos, rude, snappish, wicked
The systematic name of ceitain
sharks.

tween the fore arm and hand.

CAR'TILAGE. — Gristle. A solid part
of the animal body of medium con-
sistence between bone and liga-
ment.

CARTILAGINOUS. — Partaking of the
nature of cartilage.

CAT'ALKPSY. — From the Greek, kata~
lepsis, detention, which is formed
from katalambano, I arrest, I hold;
because every kind of motion is
arrested in catalepsy. A stupify-
ing disease which suddenly seizes
an individual, causing him to re-
main in the situation in which he
wa«, at the moment of attack, and
imparting to the limbs the power
of retaining any position that may
be given to them, and depriving-
him completely of sensation and
voluntary motion, during the
paroxyism.

CA'TULUS. — Latin. Properly, a whelp,
a young dog. Specific name of a
shark.

CAU'DAL. — From the Latin, cavda,
tail. Belonging or relating to the
tail. The caudal Jin, generally
increases the length of the tail.

CAU'STIC. — From the Greek, kaid, I
burn. Articles which have the
property of burning or disorga-
nising animal substances, such as
pure potash, nitrate of silver, &c.
are called caustics.

HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. t33

CAIJ'TERISE. — The same derivation as
caustic. To bum with a cautery
or red hot iron. To apply caustic.

CAVK'RNOUS.-— Filled with small cavi-
ties or caverns, as a sponge.

CAVJ'AR, or CAVIARE. — A culinary
preparation, much used by certain
people, and made on the shores of
the Black and Caspian Seas, from
the roe or eg<rs of the sturgeon,
mixed with salt and other condi-
ments.

CEL'LULAR. — Composed of cells.

CENTRONOTUS. — Systematic name o
the pilot-fish.

CEPHALUS. — ke'-fa-lus. From the
Greek, kephale, head. Systematic
name of the sun-fishes, given to
them for their appearance of having
the posterior part of the bo ly cut
off.

CERASTES. — From the Greek, kcras, a
horn. Specific name of the horned
viper. ^

CER'VICAL. — From the Latin, cervix,
the neck. Belonging or relating
to the neck.

CHCETODON. — From the Greek, cheo,
I contain, and odontos, (genitive of
odous,} a tooth. Generic n;ime of
certain fishes of the family of
Squamipennes.

CHALCIDES. — From the Greek, clalkis,
a serpent with a head resembling
that of lizards. Generic name oi
a kind of saurian.

CHAM^E'LEO. — kam'-e-leo. From the
Greek, chamai, earth, and leon,
lion : (because it pursues flies, as
the lion does other animals.) Sys-
tematic name of the chameleons.

CiiAMiEi.E'oNiDjE. — From the Greek,
chamailedn, chameleon, and eidos,
resemblance. Systematic name o
animals that resemble chameleons

CHE'LONIA. — From the Greek, chelone
a sea-tortoise. Systematic name
of the order which includes the
tortoises.

CHER'S^EA. — Specific name of a viper

CHJM^'RA. — ky-me'-ra. A kind o
fish, so called, from the fantastic
figure it assumes when carelessly
dried.

11

CHONPROPTER'YGIAN. — kon-drop-ter'-
igian. From the Greek, chondros,
cartilage, and ptertiz, (in the geni-
tive, ptervgos,) fin or wing. Sys-
tematic name of fished with a car-
tilaginous skeleton.

CHONDROPTKRYGII. kon-drop-ter-i-ge-i.
Latin. Plural of chondropietygius.
Chondropterygians. Chondroptery-
gii branchiis Jixis, chondroptery-
gi.ins with fixed branchiae. Chon-
dropterygii branchiis tiberis, ehon-
dro,jterygians with free branchiae.

CHYLE. — kile. From the Greek c/m/os,
nutritious juice. A nutritive fluid
which is extracted from food by
the action of the digestive organs.

CHRYSO'PHRIS. — kris-o'-fris. From the
Greek, ctirusos, gold, and ophrus,
eye-brow. Golden eye-brow. Sys-
tematic name of the daurade, given
to itori account of a crescent-shaped
band of golden hue, which extends
from one eye to the other.

CIRRI. — Latin. Plural of cirrus.

CIRRUS. — Latin. A tu t, a beard, a
fringe. Applied to that which
hangs in form of mustache, or
beard, from the end and sides of
the mouth of certain fishes.

CI'STUDK. — From the Greek, kiste, a
chest, a coffer. Name of a kind of
tortoise. The box tortoise.

CLA'VICLE. — From the Latin, clavis,
key. The collar-bone, so called
from its resemblance to a key.

CLO'ACA. — Latin. A common sewer.
From the Greek, kluzo, I wosh.
The pouch at the extremity of the
intestinal canal, in which the solid
and liquid excretions are com-
mingled in birds, fishes, and rep-
tiles.

CLUPEA. — Latin. A shad.

CLUTEJE. — Latin. Plural of Clupea.

COBITIS. — Generic name of certain
fishe*. From the Greek, kobitis,
the name of an unknown fish.

CO'BRA CAP'ELLO — Portuguese. Cobra,
snake ; capello, a cawl, a hood :
hood-snake. Name of a venomous
serpent.

COECA, or C^CA.— Latin. Plural of
ooecum.

134 HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.

C<ECAL — Belonging or relating to the
coecum.

COCCUM. — From the Latin, coecus,
blind. The blind gut, so called
from its being perforated or open
at one end only.

COLON. — A portion of the large in-
testine.

COLUBER. — Latin. Name of a ser-
pent.

CONCHOLOGY. — kon-kol'-o-gy. From
the Greek, kogchulion, a shell, and
logos, a discourse. A treatise on
shells.

CO.NDYLE. — From the Greek, kondulos,
a knot, an eminence, a bump. A
small round eminence of bone
entering into the composition of
an articulation.

COR AGO! D. — From the Greek, Jcorax, a
wow, and eidos, resemblance. Re-
..embling the beak of a crow. Name
of a thick, short, process of bone,
situate at the anteriar upper part of
the scapula in man. In birds and
eptiles this process is represented
by a separate bone.

CORDIFORM. — From the Latin, cor,
(in the genitive, cordis) heart, and
forma, shape. Heart-shnped.

CORIA'CEOUS. — From the Latin, cori-
aceus, consisting of leather. —
Leathery. Formed of leather.

CORPUSCULE. — A small body, a par-
ticle of matter, an atom.

CORSELET — A light armour for the
front part of the body.

CRA'NIAL. — Belonging or relating to
the cranium.

CRA'NIDM. — Latin. The skull.

CROCODILIAN. — Of the family of
crocodiles.

CROCODI'LIDA. • — From the Greek,
krokodeilos, crocodile, and eidos,
resemblance. Systematic name of
the family of crocodiles.

CROCODI'LUS. — Latin. A crocodile.
According to some, from the Greek,
krohos, saffron, and deilos, fearful,
timid, because the land crocodile
is afraid of the sight and odour of
saffron : according to others, from
kroke, shore, and deilos, timid, be-

cause the water crocodiles fear the
shore, where men set snares for
them.

CRO'TALUS. — Latin. Formed from the
Greek, krotaleo, 1 make a noise.
Rattle snake.

CRYSOLENCAS.— Specific name of the
Shiner.

CUTA'NEOUS. — From the Latin, cutis,
skin. Belonging or relating to the
skin.

CYCLO'STOMI. — Latin. Plural of Cyc-
lostomus. From the Greek, kuklos,
circle, and stoma, mouth. Syste-
matic name of an order ol fishes.

CYPRINOI'DES. — From the Greek,
kuprinos, a carp, and eidos, resem-
blance. Systematic name of a
family of fishes.

CYPRINID^E. — Same derivation as
cyprinoides ; and applied in the
same way.

CYPRINUS. — Latin. A carp.

DACTYLOP'TERUS. — Dak-te-lop'-te-rus.
From the Greek? daktulos, finger,
and ptfron, wing Wing. fingered.
Systematic name of the tr.ue fly-
ing-fishes.

DAUKADE — French. Name of a fish.

DEGLUTITION. — From the Latin,
deglutire, to swallow. The act
by which substances are passed
from the mouth into the stomach,
through the pharynx and eso-
phagus.

DEN'TATE. — From the Latin, dens, a
tooth. Notched or toothed.

DIA'PHRAGM. — Di'-a-fram. From the
Greek, diaphragma, a partition. A
fleshy or muscular partition, be-
tween the cavity of the chest and
cavity of the abdomen.

DIODON. — From the Greek, dis, twice,
and odous, (in ihe genitive, odontos)
tooth. Systematic name of a
genus of fishes which have but
two teeth.

DISCOBOLI. — Latin. Plural of disco-
bolus, formed from the Greek,
diskos, a disk, and ballo, I throw.
A quoit-player. Systematic name
of a family of fishes whose ven-
tral tins form a disk.

HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 135

DORSAL. — From the Latin, dorsum, I EPIDEK'MIS. — From the Greek, epi,
the back. Belonging1 or relating upon, and derma, skin. The scarf,
to the back.

DUCT. — A canal, pipe, or conduit.

DOCTOR.— Latin. A leader.

ECHE'NEIS. — E-ke'-nice. From

Greek, echo, I hold, I stop, and \ Pike.

naus, ship: a ship-holder, an an- 1 EXCRETORY. — An excretory vessel, or

chor. Systematic name of a $ duct, is one which transmits the

skin; the cuticle.

ERIX. — Generic name of a serpent.
E'SOCES. — Latin. Plural of esox.
the I Esox. — Latin. Generic name of the

name

family of fishes, which the ancients >
supposed were capable of arresting
the course of a vessel under sail.

ELAI-S. — From the Greek, daps, or
elops, a particular serpent. Syste-
matic name of certain vipers.

ELKC'TRIC. — Belonging or relating to
electricity.

ELECTRIC'ITY. — From the Greek,
elektron, amber, the substance in
which this imponderable cause of
certain phenomena, was first ob-
served. The property which cer-
tain bodies, such as glass, wax,

fluid, secreted by a gland, either

externally, or into the reservoirs,

in which it has to be deposited.
EX'OCETUS. — Latin. Generic name

of a kind of flying-fish.
EXTENSILE. — Susceptible of being

stretched out or extended.
EXTREMITIES. — The limbs; the legs,

arms, wings, fins, 5cc.
FACETTE'. — French. The diminutive

of face. A small face: the articu-

lar facetie of a hone, is a small
circumscribed portion of its sur-
face.

sulphur, &c., acquire, by being FARIO. — Specific name of the com-

rubbed, of attracting or repelling $ mon trout.

each other. In a more modern \ FASCIC'ULI. — Latin. Plural of fasci-
culus.

and extended signification, the
power and action of a peculiar,
imponderable fluid, the accumu-
lation of which is manifested by
sparks, and by communicating to
the nervous system more or less
powerful sensations, and producing
effects analogous, if not identical
with those of lightning.

ELECTCRI'CUS. — Latin. Electric. Pos.
sessing electricity.

ELEVATOR.-Applied to muscles whose
function is to raise certain parts.

ELOPS. — Specific name of a fish.

ENCEPH'ALON. — En-kef'-a-lon. From
the Greek, en, in, and kephale, head.
The contents of the cranium : the
brain and spinal marrow are gene-
rally included in this term.

ENCRASICIIO'LUS. — En-cra-si-ko'-lus.
Specific name of the anchovy.

ENGRAU'LIS. — Generic name of the
anchovy.

EPERLA'NUS. — Systematic name of the
smelt.

EPIDER'MIC. — Belonging or relating
to the epidermis.

FASCIC'ULUS. — Latin. A little bundle.
FE'MUR. — Latin. The thigh bone.
FIBRO-CARTILA'GINOUS — Of the nature

of fibrous tissue and cartilage.
FIBULA. — The name of the long,

slender bone, situate at the outer

part of the leg.
FIL'AMENT. — From the Latin, fila-

inentum, which is the diminutive

ofjilum, a thread. A very small

fibre.
FI'LIFORM. — From the Latin,./i/u/n, a

thread, and forma, form, shape.

Thread-like.
FIN.— The limb of a fish by aid of

which it balances itself, and directs

its course.
FIN-RAYS — The rays or spfhes which

serve to sustain and spread the fins.
FJXIS. — Latin. (Ablative plural.)

Fixed.
FLESUS. — The specific name of the

Flounder.
FLUVIATI'LE. — Belonging or relating

to a river.
FLUVIATI'LIS.— Latin. Fluviatile.

136 HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.

FORMATION. — Any group of rocks, or
mineral substances, of similar char
acter and age, is termed a forma-
tion in geology.

FOSSA. — Latin. From fodio, I dig.
A cavity of greater or less depth,
the entrance (o which is always
larger than the base or bottom.

FOSSJE, — Latin. Plural of fossa. The
nasal fossa, are two large, irregu-
lar cavities, situate between the
orbits below the cranium, and be-
hind the nose. The nostrils. The
temporal fossa, are the depressions
of the temples on the sides of the
cranium, towards its anterior upper
part.

FOSSF.TTE'. — Fop-sett. French. A
little fossa; a pit, a dimple.

FOSSIL. — An organised body, found
buried in the layers or strata of
the earth, from a date, the anti-
quity of which we can fo m no
certain estimate ; most fossils ap- 5
pear to belong to periods even
anterior to the existence of the |
human race.

FRA'GILIS. — Latin. Fragile; easily
broken.

FUSIFORM. From the Latin, fusus, a
spindle, and forma, shape. Spindle
shaped.

GADO'IDES. — From the Greek, gadus, I
a certain fish, and eidos, resem-
blance. Systematic name of a j
family of fishes.

GADUS. — Generic name of the codfish. [

GANGE'TICA. — Latin. Belonging or
relating to the Ganges.

GASTROBRANCHUS. — Gas-tro-brank-us.
From the Greek, gastcr, belly, and \
bragchia, gills. Systematic name
of a genus of cartilaginous fishes ;
because the openings of their gills
are situate under the belly.

GECKO. — rfame given to a species of
saurian of India, in imitation of
its cry.

GECKOTIDA. — From gecko, and the
Greek eidos, resemblance. Syste-
matic name of a family of saurians.

GECKOTIAN. — Applied to animals of
the family of geckotida.

GKLATI'NOUS — Partaking of the nature
of gelatine or jelly.

GENUS. — Latin. A kindred, breed,
race, stock, lineage, or family.

GE'NEKA. — Latin. Plural of genus.

GENE'HIC — Belonging or relating to
genus.

GEOLOGY. — From the Greek, ge, the
earth, and logos, discourse. The
study or description of the btructure
of the earth, and the changes which
have taken place in it.

GLADIUS. — Latin. A sword. Syste-
matic name of a sword-fish.

GLAND. — From the Latin, glans, (in
the genitive, glandis,} an acorn. A
simple, soft, friable, spongy part of
the body, which bears some resem-
blance to nn acorn. Applied to
those softish, granular organs, com-
posed of numerous vessels, nerves,
and a peculiar structure, which
form pr culiar secretions.

GLAND'ULAR. — Composed of glands;
resembling a gland.

GOBIO. — Generic name of the Gud-
geon.

GR.SCA. — Latin Greek ; Grecian.

GYMNODONTEs.-Jim-no-don-tes. From
the Greek, gumnos, naked, and
odous, (in the genitive odontos,)
tooth. Systematic name of a
family of fishes.

GYMNOTUS. — Jim-no-tus. Latin. The
generic name of the electric eel.

GYMNOTJ. — Latin. Plural of Gym-
notus.

HAJE. — Ha-jee. Specific name of a
coluber.

HAR'ENGUS. — Generic name of the
herring.

HE' LENA. — Specific name of a kind of
eel.

HEPTA'TREMUS. — From the Greek,
epta, seven, and trema, a hole or
perforation. Generic name of cer-
tain fishes of the order of cyclos-
tomi.

HERBIVOROUS. — From the Latin,
herba, grass, herb, and voro, I eat.
Grass-eating, herb-eating. Applied
to animals which feed on grass or
plants.

HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 137

HERPE'TOLOGY. — From the Greek, ICHTHYO'LOGIST. — Ik-the-o-lo-jist. —

erpeton, a creeping thing, a reptile,
and logos, a discourse. A treatise
on reptiles.

HEXA'GONAL. — From the Greek, ex,
six, and gonia, angle. Having six
sides or angles.

HI^ER'NATE. — From the Latin, hiber-
nare, to winter, to be in winter
quarters. Animals that retire and
sleep throughout the winter are
said to hibernate.

HIBER'NATION. — The act of hiberna-
ting. Being in winter quarters.

Hipro'cAMFos. — From the Greek,
ippos, a horse, and karnpe, crooked,
ness. Systematic name of the
sea-horse.

HIPPO'GLOSSUS. — From the Greek,
ippos, a horse, and glossa, tongue.
Systematic name of the holibut.

HU'MERAL CINCTURE. — A chain of
bones, forming a sort of belt,
which sustains the pectoral fin,
(anterior extremity) of fishes.

HU'MERUS. — The bone of the arm,
which is situate between the
shoulder joint and elbow.

Huso. — Specific name of a sturgeon-

HYDRUS. — Latin. A water-snake.

HYLA. — From the Greek, ule, a wood,
trees. Systematic name of the tree
frog.

HY'OID. — From the Greek, u, am
eidos, resemblance. Resembling
the shape or form of the letter U
The os hyoides, the hyoid bone, is
a very moveable bony arch, placec
horizontally in the substance o
the soft parts of the neck, at the
root of the tongue. It does not
articulate with any other bone of >

From the Greek, ichthust a fish,
and logos, a discourse. One skilled
in ichthyology.

ICHTHYO'LOGY. — Ik-the-o'l-o-je. From
the Greek, ichthus, a fish, and
logos, a discourse. A history of
fishes.

ICHTHYO'SAURUS. — Ik-the-o'-saw-rus.
From the Greek, ichthus, a fish,
and saura, lizard. Fish -lizard.
Systematic name of a kind of
fossil.

IcHTHYo'coLLA.-Ik-the-o'-colla. From
the Greek, ichthus, a fish, and kollu,
glue. Fish glue. A kind of glue
prepared from fishes.

I'GUANA. — Name of a kind of saurian.

I'GUANIAN. — Applied to saurians of
which the type is the Iguana.

I'GUANIDA. — Formed from the aborigi-
nal name, iguana, and the Greek
eidos, resemblance. Systematic
name of a family of saurians.

ILLY'RICA. — Latin. Illyrian ; belong-
ing or relating to Illyria.

IMB'RICATE. — Laid one over the other
like tiles or shingles.

INCI'SOR. — From the Latin, incido, I
cut. The teeth which occupy ttie
anterior part of the upper and
lower jaws, are called incisors, or
incisor teeth, because they are
used for cutting the food in the
manner of cutting instruments.

INTEGUMENT. — From the Latin tegere,
to cover. The skin. The cover-
ing of the body.

INTER-MAXILLARY. — From the Latin,
inter, between, and maxilla, the
jaw. Bones situate at the anterior
part of the upper jaw between its
two sides.

the skeleton, and is only con- ! INTERSPINAL — The interspinal bones

nected to it through the medium
of muscles and ligaments. The
general characters of the hyoid
bone, are the same in all verte-
brate animals. In fishes, its bran-
ches are composed of several
pieces, and give support to the
branchiostegous rays,
HroiDEs. — See hyoid.

n*

form a series of strong, dagger-
like bones, deeply implanted in the
flesh along the middle line of the
body of fishes', between the two
great, masses of lateral muscles :
their points generally penetrate
to a little distance between the
spinous processes of the vertebrae,
to which they are connected Hv -

138 HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.

ligamentous attachment; whilst to
their opposite extremity, which
may be compared to the hilt of
the dagger, the corresponding fin-
rays are affixed by a beautilul
articulation. Eacli interspinous
bone consists of two pieces united
by a suture; one portion represen-
ting the blade, the other the handle
of the dagger, to which we have
compared it.

INVERTEBRATE, — Without vertebrae ;
wanting the spinal column.

/'jus. — Th-dt part of the eye in which
the pupil is situate ; a vertical par-
tition between the anterior and
poslerior chambers of the eye.

I'RJDES. — Plural of iris.

IRRITABILITY. — From the Latin irritn,
I provoke. A power, possessed by
all living organized bodies, of be-
ing acted upon by certain stimu-
lants, and of moving responsive to
or consequently to such stimula-
tion. It is the ultimate vital
property.

I'SOLATEP. — From the Italian, isola,
'an island; (because one who is
isolated, resembles an island en-
tirely surrounded by water.) Sepa-
rated, alone, single.

JACULA'TOR. — Latin. A shooter, a
darter, a dart-flinger. Specific
name of a shooting-fish.

LA'BIAL. — From the Latin, lalium,
lip. Belonging or relating to
lips.

LA BRAX. — Greek. Specific name of
a kind of Perch.

LABYRTNTHI'FORM. — From the Greek,
laliurinthos, a labyrinth, and the
Latin, /ormo, form, shape. Syste-
matic name of a family of fishes.

LACE'RTA. — Latin. A lizard.

LACE'RTIAN. — Applied to animals re-
sembling lizards.

LACERTINIDA. — From the Latin,
locerta, a lizard, and the Greek,
eidos, resemblance. Systematic
name of a family of saurians.

LACH'RYMAL. — lak'-re-mal. From the
Latin, Lachryma, a tear. Belong-
ing or relating to-tears.

LAMELLA. — Latin. A little thin plate,
or piece.

LAMELLAE. — Latin. Plural of lamella.

LANCEOLATUS. — Latin. Lance-shaped.

LARVA. — Latin. A mask. An insect
after it has left the egg, and before
it assumes the form of a chrysalis,
is called a larva, because in this
state it is, as it were, masked.

LARVAE. — Latin. Plural of larva.

LARYNX. — From the Greek, larugx,
a whistle. The apparatus of vo ce.

LEuciVcus. — Latin. Generic name
of the roach.

LIBERIS. — Latin. ( Ablative plural.)
Free.

LIGAMENT. — From the Latin, li^are,
to tie. A name given to fibrous
structures which serve to unite
bones, and form articulations.

LIMAXDA. — From the Latin, lima, a
file. Specific name of a fish.

LornoBRAiNCHj'AN. — lo-fo-brank'-c-an.
From the Greek, lophos, a tuft, or
top-knot, and biagcfna, gills. Ap-
plied to fishes of the order of
Lophobranchii.

LOPHOBRANCH'II. — lo-pho brank'-e-i.
Latin. Plural of Lophobranchus.
Same derivation as the last. Sys-
tematic name of an order of fishes.

LORICATE. — Latin, (plural.) Loricate.
Armed with a coat of mail ; clad
in armour.

LOTA. — Systematic name of the Ling.

LOZKNGE-SHAPE.— Shaped like a lozenge,
which is a figure with four equal
sides, forming two acute and two
obtuse angles, thus; <>

Lu'BRicATE. — To make smooth or
slippery.

Lu'cius. — Latin. A pike.

MALACOPTKRY'GIAN. — From the Greek,
malac/ios, soft, and pteruz, fin. Soft-
fin. Applied to fishes that have no
bony fin rays.

MALACOPTERYGII. — Latin. Plural of
malacopterygius. Same derivation
as the last. Systematic name of
an order of fishes.

MALAPTE'RURI. — Latin. Plural of
malapterurus. Formed from mala,
much, pteron, fin, and red, I fall

HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 139

off. Imperfect fins. Generic name
of a fish of the family of siluroides.

MA'MMA. — Latin. The breast, pap,
or teat.

MA'MMA. — Latin. Plural of mamma.

MA'MMAL. — Any animal having teats
for suckling its young, is called a
mammal.

MAMMA'LIA.— From the Latin mamma,
breast. Systematic name of the
class of animals that suckle their
young.

MARI'NUS. — Latin. Marine ; belong-
ing or relating to the sea.

MAS'TICATORY. — From the Greek,
mastichad, I chew. Relating to
mastication, or the act of chewing
the food.

MASTO'ID. — From the Greek, mastos,
a nipple, and e.idos, resemblance.
A process or projection of the tem-
poral bone, (behind the ear,) is so
called, on account of its shape.

MAX'ILLARY. — From the Latin, max-
illa, a jaw. Belonging or relating

F to the jaws.

MAX'IMUS. — Latin. Greatest, largest.

MEMBRANE. — A name given to dif-
ferent thin organs, representing
species of supple, more or less
elastic, webs.

MEM'BRANOUS. — Belonging to, or par-
taking of the nature of a mem-
brane.

MENIDES. — From the Latin, mana, or
mena, a kind of fish. Systematic
name of a family of fishes.

MENOBRANCH'US. — me-no-brank'-us.
From the Greek, menos, strength,
and bragchia, gills. Systematic
name of a genus of batrachians.

MENOPOMA. — Generic name of a kind
of batrachian.

MERLANGUS. — Latin. Formed from

MOL'LUSCA. — From the Latin, mollis,
soft. Systematic name of a class
of animals without vertebrae.

MOLLUSK. — Any animal of the class
of mollusca.

MONITOR'. — Latin. Generic name of
a kind of saurian.

MORR.HUA. — Systematic name of the
cod-fish.

MOSASAURUS. — Systematic name of a
fossil saurian.

MOTIVE. — From the Latin, moveo, I
move. That which moves or causes
motion.

MUCOS'ITY. — A fluid which resembles
mucus, or contains a certain quan-
tity of it.

Mu'cous — Belonging or relating to
mucus.

Mu'cus. — Animal mucilage. A pecu-
liar fluid secreted by mucous mem-
branes.

MUGIL. — Latin. A mullet.

MUGILOI'DES. — From the Latin mugil,
a mullet, and eidos, resemblance.
Systematic name of a family of
fishes.

MUJLLOI'DKS. — From the Latin, mul-
lus, a barbel, a red-mullet, and
eidos, resemblance. Systematic
name of a family of fishes.

MIJLLUS. — Latin. A barbel, a red-
mullet.

MUR.BNA. — Latin. From the Greek,
muraina, a kind of fish resemb-
ling an eel. Systematic name of
eels.

MuR^'N^.~Latin. Plural of muraena.

MYXINE. — From the Greek, muxinos,
which is formed from muzo, I suck.
Systematic name of the hag-fish.

NACREOUS.— From the Spanish nacar,

mother of pearl,
mother of pearl.

Of the nature of

the French, merlan, a whiting. NAJA — Specific name of a serpent.

Systematic name of the whiting. $ NASAL. — Belonging or relating to the
MERLUC'CIUS. — Specific name of the ^ nose. NasaUbssse, (See FOSSAE.)

hake.
METAMOR'PHOSIS. — From the Greek,

meta, after, and morphe, form.

Transformation. Applied to the

organic changes which take place

in certain animals.

NAUCRA'TES.— From the Greek, naus,
a vessel, and krateo, I have power
over. Systematic name of certain
fishes.

NILOTICA. — Latin. Belonging or re-
lating to the Nile.

140 HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.

.. — Latin. Naked.
OCELLATE. — From the Latin, ocuZus,
an eye. Having marks resemb-
ling an eye.

OZsopiiAGUS.— Es-o'-fa-gus. From the
Greek, oiso, I carry, and phagein,
to eat. The gullet. The membra-
nous canal which conveys food
from the mouth to the stomach

OLFAC'TORY. — From the Latin, olfac-
tus, the >mell. Belonging or rela-
ting to smell.

OMNISCIENT. — From the Latin, omnis,
all, every thing, and scio, I know
All-knowing.

OPER'CULA. — Latin. Plural of oper
culum.

OPER'CULAR.— Belonging or relating
to operculum.

OPER'CULUM. — Latin. A cover, a
lid. A bony plate, which, in a
great m sny fishes, covers the gills.
The gill-cover. The little cover,
or kind of door, which closes the
entrance, or mouth of a shell.

OPHI'DIA. — From the Greek, ophis,
serpent. Systematic name of an
order of reptiles.

OPHIDIAN. — Any reptile of the order
of ophidia.

ORBIT. — From the Latin, orbis, a
circle. The circular cavities which
lodge the organs of vision, are
called orbits.

OR'BITAL. — Belonging or relating to
the orbits.

ORGAN. — From the Greek, organon,
an instrument. Part of an orga-
nised being, destined to exercise
some particular function ; for ex-
ample, the ears are the organs of
hearing, the muscles are the organs
of motion, &c.

ORGA'NIC. — Relating to an organ.

ORGANISED. — Composed of organs;
having a mode of structure.

ORGANIZATION. — The mode, or man-
ner of structure of an organised
being.

Os. — Latin. Bone.

OSME'RUS. — Generic name of the
smelt.

OS'SEOUS. — From the Latin, os, bone.

Bony, composed of bone.
OS'SIPIED — Applied to that which has

become bone.

OS'SIFICATION. — From the Latin, oa,
bone, and facere, to make. The
formation of bone. The process
by which bone is formed.

OSTRACION. — From the Greek, ostra-
kon, a shell, a scale Generic name
of the trunk-fish.

OVI'PAROUS. — From the Latin, ovum,
an egg, and parere, lo bring forth.
Animals that multiply by means of
eggs, are oviparous.

OVO-VIVI'PAROUS. — From the Latin,
ovum, egg, vivus, alive, and parere,
to bring forth. Animals that multi-
ply by means of eggs, which are
hatched before they are laid.

OX'YGEN. — ox'-e-jin. From the Greek
oxus, acid, sour, and gennao, I
engender. The generator of acid,
as it was believed to be exclu-
sively when this name was given
to it. A gas which constitutes
about one fifth of our atmosphere,
which is necessary to the respira-
' tion of animals, and consequently,
indispensable to animal life. But
it cannot be breathed alone for any
considerable time with impunity,
requiring to be mixed with about
four parts of nitrogen, (azote) as
is the case in our atmosphere to
render it suitable for respiration.

PALATINE. — Relating to the palate.

PAL'MATE. — From the Latin, palma,
the pa!m. Having the form of the
palm, from the toes or fingers be-
ing united by a membrane.

PAN'CREAS. — From the Greek, pan,
all, and kreas, flesh. All fleshy.
A gland deeply sealed in the abdo-
men, which resembles the salivary
gland in its structure, and has been
called the abdominal salivary gland.

PAPI'LLA. — Latin. A nipple. A name
given to small eminences, which
appear to be formed by the ulti-
mate expansion of the vessels and
nerves.

PAPILLA. — Latin. Plural of papilla.

HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 141

PARACHUTE. — From the Greek, para
against, and the French chute
fall* A machine somewhat in the
form of the top of an umbrella
used to moderate the descent o
those who ascend in balloons, ant
guarantee them against the effect
of a sudden fall.

PARI'ETKS.— Fiom the Latin, pnries
a wall. A name given to part
which form the inclosure — the
limits of different cavities of the
body.

PAROTID. — From the Greek, para
about, and ows, the ear. A large
salivary gland situated near th
ear is so called.

PECTEN. — Latin. A comb. A fok
or process of the retina, found in
some animals, is so called.

PECTENIFORM. — From the Latin,
pecten, a comb, and forma, form,
shape. Comb-t-haped ; like a comb.

PECTINATE. — Formed like a comb ;
having teeth like a comb.

PEC'TORAL.— From the Latin, pecltts,
(in the genitive, pectoris,') the chest,
the breast. Belonging or relating
to the chest.

f From the Latin, pes,

PED'ICLE. J (in the genitive, pedis,)

PED'UNCLE. ] foot. A little foot ; a
^ stem.

PELA'MYS. — Specific name of the
Bonita.

PELVIS. — The bony structure at the',
lower part of the trunk.

PERCA. — Latin, A Perch.

PERCOIDES. — From the Latin, perca,\
perch, and eidos, resemblance.
Systematic name of a family of
fishes.

PERITONEUM. — From the Greek, peri,
around, and teino, I stretch. A
serous membrane which lines the
abdominal cavity, and covers,
entirely, or in part, all the organs
contained in it.

PETROMYZON. — From the Greek petra,
rock, and muzo, I suck. Rock-
sucker. Systematic name of the
lampreys.

PHARYNGE'AL. — Belonging or relating
to the pharynx.

PHARYNGE'AN. — Applied to cestain
fishes.

PHARYNX. — From the Greek pTiarugx,
the pharynx. The swallow. The
superior opening of the ce-ophagus

PHYsio'LOGY.-From the Greek, phnsis,
nature, and logos, a discourse. The
science which treats of the func-
tions of animals or vegetables.

PITU'ITARY. — From the Latin, pituita,
phlegm. The lining membrane of
the nose is called the pituitary
membrane.

PISCIFORMIS. — Latin. Fish - shaped ;
formed like a fish.

PLAS'TRUM. — The inferior shell of a
tortoise.

PLATES'SA. — From the Greek, platus,
broad, flat. Systematic name of the
plaice.

PLATURUS.— Generic name of certain
ophidians.

PLECTO'GNATHI. — From the Greek,
plektos, twined, joined together,
and gnathos, jaw, cheek. Syste-
matic name of an order of fishes.

PLESIOSAURUS. — From the Gree1--,
pleisos, most, and saura, a lizard.
The systematic name of a fossil
saurian.

PLEURONKCTES. — From the Greek,
pleura, the side, and nectes, fin.
Systematic name of a family of
fishes.

PNEUMOGASTRIC. — From the Greek,
pneumon, the lung, and paster, the
stomach. The n line of a nerve
which is distributed chiefly to the
organs contained in the chest and
abdomen.

POLYO'DON. — From the Greek, polus,
many, and odous, (in the genitive,
odontos,) tooth. Name of a kind
of sturgeon.

PORTA — Latin. A gate.

POLYGO'NAL. — From the GreeJr, polus,
many, and gona, angle. Having
many sides and many angles.

PRK'HENSION. — From the Latin, pre-
hendcre, to lay hold of. The pre-
hension of aliments consists in

142 HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY .—GLOSSARY.

laying hold of, and conveying food
to the mouth.

PRE-OPERCULUM.— A part of the gill-
cover.

PRISTIS. — Latin. Generic name of
the saw-fish.

PROCESS. — From the Latin, procedo,
1 go before. An eminence of bone;
a bony projection.

PRO'TKUS. — From the Greek, protos,
first. Name of a particular reptile.

PROTRA'CTILE. — Susceptible of being
extended or stretched out.

PTERODA'CTYLUS. — From the Greek,
pteron, wing, and daktulost finger.
Name of a fossil.

PTER'VGOID. — ter'-e-goid. From the
Greek, pterux, wing, and eidos,
resemblance. Name of a bone
which is connected to the palate
bones.

PU'LMONARY. — Belonging or relating
to the lungs.

PUPIL. — The aperture of the iris,
through which the rays of light
pass, that have to paint the image
of an object on the retina.

PYGM.EUS. — Latin. Small, little,
dwarfish, pi^my.

PYLO'RUS. — From the Greek, pule,
gate, and ouros, a guardian. The
right orifice of the stomach.

PYTHON — From the Greek, puthon,
a serpent. Generic name of cer-
tain ophidians.

QUADRANGULAR. — From the Latin,
quatuor, four, and angulus, angle.
Having four angles or sides.

RADIUS. — Latin. A spoke. One of
the bones of the fore-arm, so called
from its shape.

RAIA. — ry-a. Latin. A ray-fish.

RANA. — Latin. A frog.

REG'IMEN. — From the Latin, regere,
to govern. The rational and metho-
dical use of food, and every thing
essential to life ; both in a state of
health and disease. It is often re-
stricted in its meaning to diet,

REMO'RA. — Latin. A hindrance. The
name of a fish.

REPTI'LE. — From the Latin, repere,
to crawl. An animal that crawls,

that drags itself along on its belly
like serpents and worms, Also
applied to animals that have legs
so short that they seem to crawl.

RESP'IRATION. — From the Latin, res-
piro, I take breath. A function
proper to animals, the object of
which is to place the materials of
the blood in contact with atmos-
pheric air, in order that it may
acquire the vivifying qualities that
belong to arterial blood. Aquatic
animals find sufficient air for their
respiration, mixed with, or dissolved
in the water.

RET'INA.— From the Latin, rete, a
net. The essential organ of vision,
situated within the eye-ball : on it
the images of objects are impressed.

RETRA'CTILE. — Susceptible of being
drawn back.

RHOMBOIDAL. — Lozenge-shaped.

SACRUM. — Latin. Sacred. The bone
which forms the posterior part of
the pelvis, and is a continuation of
the vertebral column.

SAI.AR. — Specific name of the salmon.

SALI'VA. — Spittle.

SALI'VARY. — Belonging or relating to
saliva.

SALMO. — Latin. A salmon.

SALMONI'DES. — Systematic name of a
family of fishes.

SARDINA. — Latin. A sardine.

SARGUS. — Latin. Name of a fish.

SAU'RIA. — From the Greek, sourer, a
lizard. Systematic name of an
order of reptiles.

SAURIAN. — Any reptile of the order
of sauria.

SAUVEGARDE. — French. Name of a
saurian.

SCAPULA.— The shoulder-blade.

SCHIST. — From the Greek, schizcin,
to divide. A sort of stone which
separates into leaves or plates like
slate, but not to the same extent.
A generic name given by geolo-
gists to all minerals which split or
divide into very thin plates.

SCIENOFDES. — Systematic name of a
family of fishes.

HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 143

r From the Greek, skig-

SCINCOIDKA. kos, a sort of crocodile,
< and eidos, resemblance.

SCINCOJDES. 1 Systematic name of a
(^family of saurians.

SCINQUE. — French. A kind of saurian.

ScLERODERMi.-skler-ro-dur-mi. Latin.
Plural of sclerodermus. From the
Greek, skleros^ hard, and dp.rma,
skin. Hard-skinned. Systematic
name of a family of fishes.

SCLEROPS. — skle-rops. From tlie
Greek, skleros, hard, and ops, eye.
Specific name of a kind of croco-
dile.

SCOMBER. — Latin. A mackerel.

SCOMBER OI'DES. — From the Greek,
skombros, mackerel, and eidos, re-
semblance. Systematic name of a
family of fishes.

SCYLLIUM — From the Greek, skullo,
1 tear in pieces. Systematic name
of the shark.

SKCRE'TION, — From the Latin, secer
nere, to separate. The organic
functions of the several glands, by
which they separate from the blood
the materials which they respec-
tively demand for their several
purposes : each organ according
to its peculiar structure, differs
from the rest, and hence we have
the formation of the different fluids,
as bile, saliva, milk, &c. &c. The
fluids thus elaborated, or separated
from the blood are also termed
secretions.

SELACHII. — se-lak-e-i. Plural of
eelachus. In the Greek, selachos.
An order of cartilaginous fishes.

SERPENTIA. — Systematic name of a
family of ophidians.

SERPENTINA. — Latin. Belonging or
relating to a serpent.

SERRATED. — From the Latin, serra, a
saw. Notched or toothed like a
saw.

SiLURoiPES.-From the Greek, silouros,
name of a particular fish, and eidos,
resemblance. Systematic name of
a family of fishes.

SILURI. — Latin. Plural of silurus*

SILURUS. — Latin. Name of a fish.

SINUS. — Any cavity, the interior of
which is more expanded than the
entrance ; in this respect, being
the reverse of fossa. Venous sinus
is a venous canal into which a
number of vessels empty.

SIREN, or SYREN. — From the Greek,
seira, a chain, from the supposed
strength of its charms. A fabu-
lous monster. Name of a kind of
batrachian.

SOLEA. — Latin. A sole.

SPAROIDES. — From the Latin, sparug,
a kind of fish, and the Greek, eidos,
resemblance. Systematic name of
a family of fishes.

SPARUS. — Latin. Name of a kind
of fish ; a dart.

SPATULARIA. — Systematic name of a
kind of sturgeon.

SPECIFIC. — Any medicinal substance,
to which is attributed the property
of curing one disease rather than
any other. It is doubtful whether
any such remedy really exists.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY. — Is the weight of
any body, solid or fluid, compara-
tively with the weight of an equal
volume of distilled water ; or, spe-
cific gravity is the gravity or
weight of two bodies, solid or
fluid, which possess different
weights when of equal volume.

SPHENOID — From the Greek, sphen,
a wedge, and eidos, resemblance.
A bone, situate on the middle line,
and at the base of the cranium.
It articulates with all the other
bones of the cranium, and
strengthens their union, acting
very much like the key-stone of
an arch.

SPINOUS. — Belonging or relating to a
spine.

SPIRACLE.— From the Latin, spirare,
to breathe. A breathing hole or
nostril in aquatic animals.

SPLEEN.— One of the organs of the
abdomen, the precise use of which
is not known.

SQUALIDES. — Systematic name of a
family of fishes.

SQUALL— Latin. Plural of squalus.

144 HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY.

SQUALUS. — Latin. A shark.

SQUAMIPENNES. — From the Latin,
squama, a scale, and penna, a
feather. Systematic name of a
family of fishes.

STELLIO. — Latin. A kind of saurian.

STERNAL. — Belonging or relating to
the sternum.

STERNUM. — The breast-bone.

STURIO. — Specific name of the com-
mon sturgeon.

STURIONES, — Systematic name of an
order of fishes.

STYLET. — Diminutive of style. A
slender process or needle-like pro-
jection of bone.

SuBBRACHiATi.-sub-brak-e-a-ti. Latin.
Plural of subbrachiatus. From the
Latin, sub, beneath, and brachium,
arm. Applied to an order of fishes
that have the ventral beneath the
pectoral fins, that is, the arms.

SUBBRACHIAN. — sub-brak-6-an. Ap-
plied to fishes of the order of sub-
brachiati.

SUBCAUDAL. — From the Latin, sub,
under, and cauda, tail. Applied to
that which is beneath the tail.

SURMULUS. — Latin. A surmullet.

SUTURE. — From the Latin, suo, I
stitch. A kind of immoveable
articulation or joint, in which the
bones unite by means of serrated
edges, which are, as it were, dove-
tailed into each other. The articu-
lations of the bones of the cranium
are of this kind.

TACTILE SENSIBILITY — The sensibility
which enables us to perceive im-
pressions through the means of the
sense of touch.

T.ENIOIDES. — From the Latin,/<ema,a
ribbon, and the Greek, eidos, re-
semblance. Systematic name of a
family of fishes.

TADPOLE. — From the Saxon, tad, toad,
and pola, a young one. The young
©f the batrachians are called tad-
poles.

TEN'DINOUS. — Belonging or relating
to tendon.

TEN'DON. — From the Greek, teino, I
stretch. Strong, white, fibrous

cords, which connect the muscles
to the bones which they move.
The tendons may be considered as
so many cords, for transmitting
the motion of the muscles to the
bones. They are sometimes vul-
garly designated under the name
of " leaders."

TESTUDO. — Latin. A tortoise.

TETRODON. — From the Greek, tetra,
four, and odous, (in the genitive,
oc/ontos,) tooth. Systematic name
of certain fishes.

THERMO'METER. — From the Greek,
thermos, heat, and metron, measure.
An instrument for measuring the
different degrees of heat or cold,
by means of the expansion and
contraction of the fluid, ( com-
monly mercury,) contained in it.

THEUTYES. — Systematic name of a
family of fishes.

THORACIC.— Belonging or relating to
the chest.

THORAX. — From the Greek, thorax,
the chest. The cavity destined to
lodge the chief organs of respira-
tion and circulation, the heart and
lungs. The chest.

TH YM A LLUS.— Systematic name of the
graylings.

THYNNUS — Systematic name of the
tunny.

TIBIA.— Latin. A flute. The largest
bone of the leg is so called.

TINCA. — Latin. A tench.

TISSUE. — From the Latin, texere, to
weave. The interlacement or union
of many things which form a body,
as threads of flax, silk, wool, &c.,
of which cloths and stufts are made.
From analogy, the term is employed
in anatomy, to describe the sub.
stances of which the organs of ani-
mals in general, and of man in
particular, are formed, and which
result from the interlacement of
fibres, ft is applied to different
kinds of organization of the body,
as, for example, the muscular tissue,
osseous tissue, meaning the struc-
ture of which the muscles and
bones are composed.

HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY:— GLOSSARY. 145

TORPEDO. — Latin. Numbness. Name
of a fish

TORTRIX. — Generic name of certain
ophidians.

TOXOTES. — From the Greek, toxotes,
an archer. Systematic name of
certain fishes.

TRACH'EA. — trak-e-a. From the Greek
trachus, rough, and arteria, an
artery, which is formed from aer,
air, and terein, to keep. The canal
which conveys air to the lungs.
The wind-pipe.

TRENCHANT. — Cutting.

TRIGONOCEPHALI. — tri-gon-o-kef-a-li.
Latin. Plural of trigonocephalus.

TRI'GONOCKPHALUS. — From the Greek,
treis, three, gonia, angle, and
Jcephale, head. Triangular head.
The systematic name of a serpent.

TRI'LOBED. — From the Latin, tres,
three, and lobus, lobe. Formed of
three lobes.

TRI'TJNYX,— From the Greek, treis,
three, and onux, nail. Having
three nails. Generic name of cer-
tain tortoises.

TRUNCATE. — Cut abruptly or square
off; cut short

TRUNK. — The body without including
the head and extremities.

TRUTTA. — Specific name of the trout.

TUBERCLE. — From the Latin, tuber, a
knot. A small knot, or projection.

TUBERCULOUS. — Composed of, or con-
taining tubercles.

TYMPANUM. — Latin. A drum. The
drum of the ear.

TYPHLOPS. — tif-lops. Greek. One
who is blind. Name of an ophidian.

ULNA. — The bone of the fore-arm,
which forms the prominence of the
elbow, during the flexion of that
joint.

UMBRINA. — Generic name of a fish.

URODELA. — Systematic name of a
family of batrachians.

VASCULAR.— Supplied with vessels.

VENA. — Latin. A vein. Venaporta,

a vein of the liver.
VENOUS — Relating to veins.
VENTRAL.— Prom the Latin, venter,
belly. Belonging to the belly.
12

VENTRICLE. — A name given to various
parts by anatomists.

VENTRICULAR. — Belonging to a ven-
tricle ; of the nature of a ventricle.

VERMIFORM. — From the Latin, vermis,
a worm, and/orma, form. Worm-
shaped : like a worm.

VERNALIS. — Latin. Vernal. Relating
to the spring.

VERTEBRA. — From the Latin, vertere,
to turn. This name has been
given to each of the bones, which,
by their union, form the vertebral
or spinal column, commonly called
the back bone.

VERTEBRAE. — The plural of vertebra.

VERTEBRAL. — Belonging or relating
to vertebrae.

VERTEBRATA. — Animals that possess
vertebrae. Systematic name of the
first branch of the animal kingdom.

VERTEBRATE. —Having vertebrae.

VERTICILLATE. — From the Latin, ver-
ticillum, a peg. Arranged in a
circle, like the leaves of certain
flowers around a stem-

VESTIBULE. — The first part of the
second cavity of the ear is so
called.

VIPERA. — Latin. A viper.

VIRIDIS. — Latin. Green.

VISCERA — Latin. Plural of viscus.

viscous. \ Glutinous,sticky,tenacioug

Viscus. — Latin. Any bowel, or en-
trail, or internal part, as the heart,
liver, lungs, brain, &c.

VIVI'PAROUS.— From the Latin, vivus,
alive, and pario, I bring forth.
Animals whose young are born
without being hatched, are said to
be viviparous.

VOMER. — Latin. A thin, flat bone,
which constitutes a part of the par-
lition between the nostrils.

VULGA'RIS — Latin. Common, vulgar.

XIPHIAS. — Latin. A sword-fish.

ZOOLOGY. — zoo-lo-gy. From the
Greek, xonn, life, and logos, a dis-
course. That part of Natural His-
tory which treats of animals.

ZOOLOGIST. — One skilled in, or devoted
to the study of zoology.

FIRST-BOOKS

OP

NATURAL HISTORY.

PREPARED FOR THE USE OF

SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES,

BY W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M. D.,

Surgeon in the U. S. Navy; Fellow of the College of Physicians; Hon. Member of tkt

Philadelphia Medical Society; Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences of

Philadelphia, c$-c., «$-c.

FROM THE TEXT OF MILNE EDWARDS AND ACIIILLE COMTE,

Professors of Natural History in the Colleges of Henri IV. and Charlemagne.

WITH PLATES.

The Books already issued have received the highest commendations from the most
tminent men of science and learning' throughout the country: — amongst whom are

Drs. Morton, Dunglison, Carson, Goddard, Pancoast, Sewall, Homer, Valentine
Mott, Bedford, Granville Sharp Pattison, Wm. Rush, J. W. Webster, Alban Goldsmith,
Thomas Harris, N. W. Cole, B. F. Bache, I. Parrish, Wm. Harris, W. E. A. Aiken,
J. K. Mitchell, Harvey Lindsly, R. Bridges, Frederick Hall, James O. Pond, Samuel C.
Smoot, Thomas Miller, Chandler R. Gilman, J. Augustine Smith, John A. W. Dunbar,
Nathaniel Potter, John C. S. Monkur, Samuel K. Jennings, Frank H. Hamilton, George
B. Wood,.Joseph Bullock, A. B. Cox, D. Egbert, J. Worster, B. S. Herndon, Wm. Elmer,
W. A. Clendennen, A. McWilliams, R. D. Mussey, John Styles, Thomas D. Mutter,
Thomas Stewardson, J. F. Brooke, W. H. Pile.

Hon. Levi Woodbury, Hon. Daniel Sturgeon, Hon. Samuel L. Southard, Hon. Jamea
Buchanan, Hon. G. C. Verplanck, Hon. Judge Hopkinson.

Bight Rev. Bishop Charles P. Mcllvaine, D. D.

Also, from Messrs. J. R. Chandler, R. Sterling, Hiram Ketchum, Wm. Biddle, S. S.
Griscom, John Frost, J. J. Smith, jr., Charles Atherton, S. S. Haldeman, Isaac Lea,
&c. <5cc., and from nearly all the leading reviewers throughout the country.

The original of the above named work was submitted to the " Royal Council of Publie
Instruction " in France; and after having it under deliberation, that learned body
decided upon its adoption for the use of Schools throughout France. Their decision
was communicated to the author by M. Guizot in a letter, of which the following is a
translation :

"MINISTRY OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

University of France.

Paris, Uth November, 1838.
GENTLEMEN :

The Royal Council, in its sittings of the 5th instant, have held your work entitled
First-Books of Natural History, under deliberation, which I have approved, and infor-
mation of which 1 have the honour of communicating to you: ii is expressed in the
following terms:

The Council, &.C., having examined the report which has been presented to it on a
work of M.M. Milne Edwards, and Achille Comte. entitled First-Books of Natural
History, decide that this work be adopted for teaching Natural History in the Colleges."
You are at liberty, gentlemen, to give this decision the publicity you may think
proper. For my part, I shall communicate it to the Rectors, that they may recommend
Hie use of the First- Books of Natural History, to the patrons and principals of the
folleges dependent on their academies.

Accept gentlemen, the assurance of my distinguished consideration;

The Minister of Public Instruction,

GUIZOT
M.M. MILNE EDWARDS & ACHILLE COMTE.'

PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION.

The necessity for a fifth edition of this volume, in less than one year after
fhe P-, blication of the first impression, is strongly indicative of the estimate
set upon the work by the public. The high praise which has been bestowed
upon it, by those whose opinions are most valuable, and the favor it has
met in various parts of the United States, have induced the publisher?, (at
considerable expense) to add engravings in the body of the book, illustra-
te e of the text, which has been carefully revised.

Though designed as a book for schools and colleges, it will be found well
adapted for the general reader ; and students of medicine will find it of use,
especially in the early part of their professional studies.

With the view of assisting the reader in understanding and remember-
ing the words used in a technical sense, their etymologies have been added
in the glossary. Many of these words are derived from the Greek ; and, in
as much as all persons who are in pursuit of knowledge, are not acquainted
with that language, the words from it have been printed in italics, in prefe-
*ence to using the proper Greek characters ; and the omega, where it occurs
has been designated thus, (6).

I wish those teachers, (who honor me by using this, or any other one of
my series of First-Books), to clearly understand, it is not my design that
the questions at the foot of the page shall be answered by repeating the
text from memory ; the pupil should be able to give the facts in his own
language, and show he comprehends the subject : — I wish my readers to
obtain knowledge, definite ideas of the subjects treated, and not to acquire
merely the words that are descriptive of them.

It is hoped that nothing is now wanting to render this little work a clear
concise, and axiomatic account of PHYSIOLOGY and ANIMAL MECHANISM, and
that it will sustain the favorable opinions which have been kindly expressed
of it W. S. W. R.

Philadelphia, May 15, 1842.

We regard the introduction of this work, into our public schools, among
the highest compliments it has received, for we feel sure that the gentlemen
who constitute the Committee for selecting books, possess too much discern-
ment and general knowledge, to pass" favorably upon works of inferior pre-
tensions. The following gentlemen composed the Committee for selecting
books for the use of Public Schools.

GEORGE M. WHARTON, ESQ.

THOMAS H. FORSYTH, Esa.

GEORGE EMLEN, JR., Esa.

FRANCIS LYONS, ESQ.

JOHN C. SMITH, ESQ.

HUSCHENBERGER'S SEBI3S,

FIRST BOOKS

OP

NATURAL HISTORY,

FOR SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND FAMILIES.

1. ELEMENTS OF

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

2. ELEMENTS OF

MAMMALOGY,

The Natural History of Quadrupeds.

3. ELEMENTS OF

OBNITHOLO G Y,

The Natural History of Birds.

4. ELEMENTS OF

HEBPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY,

TL, ??3iural History of Reptile^ and Fishes.

5. ELEMENTS OF

C 0 N C H 0 L 0 G Y,

Ti. Natural History of Shells and Mollusca.

6. ELEMENTS OF

E N TO MO LO GY,

The Natural History of Insects.

7. ELEMENTS OF

BOTANY,

The Natural History of Plants.

8. ELEMENTS OF

G E 0 LO GY,

The Natural History of the Back's Structure.

Six niimber* have been issued, and have already met with the most flatter-]
a reception ever extended to any work issued from the American press/
'< :e<j into the Public Schools of Pennsylvania, and in nearly all tl
isa seminaries of learning in the United States.