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ELEMENTS

OF THE

PHILOSOPHY OF PLANTS.

ELEMENTS

OF THE

PHILOSOPHY OF PLANTS

CONTAINING

THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC BOTANY;

NOMENCLATURE, THEORY OF CLASSIFICATION, PHYTOGRAPHY ;

ANATOMY, CHEMISTRY, PHYSIOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY,

AND DISEASES OF PLANTS :

WITH A HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE, AND
PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS.

BY
«

V. .'- i-. ■ •

A. P. DECANDOLLE and K. SPRENGEL.

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN,

EDINBURGH:

PRINTED FOR WILLIAM BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH ;
AND T. CADELL, STRAND, LONDON.

1821.

p. Nbill, Printer, Edinburgh.

TO

ROBERT JAMESON, Esq. F. R. S. E.

UEGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH,

KEEPER OF THE MUSEUM, PRESIDENT OF THE WERNERIAN SOCIETY,

&C. &C. &C.

WHOSE ZEALOUS AND ENLIGHTENED LABOURS

HAVE SO GREfVTLY CONTRIBUTED TO THE ADVANCEMENT

OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THIS COUNTRY ;

THIS WORK

IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED

TRANSLATOR.

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

xirfVERY person acquainted with the recent history of
Botany, must have been struck with the remarkable
fact, that there does not at present exist in this coun-
try any work which embraces all the speculations and
views which that science has now opened up ; or in
which its higher branches are treated in a man-
ner suited to their importance. Much has lately
been done for elucidating the Anatomy, Chemi-
stry, Physiology, and Diseases of Plants ; and the
travels of those enlightened and indefatigable men
who have recently traversed the globe in all direc-
tions, with the view of illustrating its Natural His-
tory, have thrown the most instructive and pleasing
light on the laws which regulate the distribution of
vegetables over the face of the earth. But the facts
and speculations which have originated in these la-
bours, have hitherto remained scattered throughout
the various occasional works in which they first ap-
peared : in many cases they continue buried in the
obscurity of foreign languages ; and the student who

Vlll PREFACE.

wishes to become acquainted with every thing of im-
portance that has lately been done for the elucidation
of this field of inquiry, is forced to explore his way
amidst intricacies and thickets, not less formidable
than those which were traversed by the men who first
gleaned from the great book of Nature the manifold
riches of tlie vegetable kingdom.

The work of Willdenow, which has hitherto
been the chief introduction to the study of the Phy-
siology of Plants, has now lost almost all its value. —
It never was remarkable either for the philosophical
spirit which it displayed, or for the powers of arrange-
ment by wliich its materials were disposed ; and by
the recent progress of the more advanced branches of
the science, it has been rendered more capable of mis-
leading and perplexing the student, than of serving
even as an introductory treatise to more correct spe-
culations.

Several otlier works upon tlie same subject have
lately been given to the public ; and those which have
proceeded from the pen of the distinguished Presi-
dent of the r^innean Society, are confessedly re-
markable, both for the correctness of the facts and
views which tlicy contain, and for the scientific ele-
gance which pervades all their descriptions. But
these seem to be the only qualities which the author
was desirous to secure for his works. To the merit of
being complete elucidations of all the higher prin-
ciples and discoveries of the science, they make no

PREFACE. IX

pretensions ; and, certainly, there is no other work
hitherto puhlishecl in this country, which can he con-
sidered as surpassing these in that higher species of
merit to which allusion is now made.

At the same time, it is evidently a matter of much
importance, that a complete and well executed sys-
tem of Physiological Botany should exist. The vege-
tahle world comprehends many of the most interest-
ing and beautiful productions of T^'^ature ; and beside
those who are professedly engaged in the study of
these productions, there are so many persons who take
an interest in some one or other of the forms which
the vegetable v/orld assumes, and which we have at
all moments before us and around us, — that there is
perhaps no part of science in which the want of just
and comprehensive views must be more generally or
constantly felt.

To execute such a work, however, requires talents
which are not always found united in the same person.
Its successful accomplishment requires, in the first
place, that he who devotes himself to it should be ac-
quainted with a vast body of knowledge, whicli can now
only be acquired by the study of innumerable works,
which are often diffxcult to be jirocured, and laborious
in the perusal, — with a multitude of facts of the most
interesting kind indeed, but whicli arc either buried
in the obscurity of volumes that have long been laid
aside, or which lie dispersed among the occasional pro-
ductions of those Travellers and Natural Historians,

X rREFACE.

who have lately done so much for the improvement
of this part of science. We expect of any person who
should undertake a work of this description, that he
should be gifted, in the second place, with that sound
judgment in matters of speculation, which may pre-
vent him from being led aside, by the very beauty of
the facts which he has to disclose, into theories that
are rather amusing or adventurous than well found-
ed ; that he should cherish, in short, that truly philo-
sophical spirit which spurns equally the contracted
views of vulgar minds, and the fanciful reveries of
men of genius and enthusiasm. We expect of him,
in the last place, that he should not only think sound-
ly and philosophically, but that he should also have
the kindred talent of disposing his reasonings in the
most luminous order, and that his work should imi-
tate the great system of nature, of which it professes
to illustrate a part, by having all things well arranged,
and in due proportion.

The Translator of the work which is now offered
to the public, is not expressing his own conviction
merely, but that of men much better qualified than
himself to form a correct opinion upon this subject,
when he ventures to claim for this Treatise all the ex-
cellencies which the qualities now enumerated are ne-
cessary to secure. The extent of reading which has
been gone through for obtaining the materials of tlie
work, may be seen from the list of authors prefixed
to its more important chapters ; and perhaps there is

PEE FACE. Xl

no work on the Vegetable World that displays more
varied or instructive information. With respect to
the second qualification already mentioned, it may al-
so be maintained, that the philosophical views exhi-
bited in the work are no less sound than they are fre-
quently ingenious and original ; and that in no one
part of the performance is it possible to discover a
trace of that visionary mode of considering facts and
appearances, which has been unjustly represented as
belonging to all German writers. Nor is the merit
of the work less distinguished with respect to the
powers of arrangement which it displays ; — condensa-
tion and perspicuity, indeed, are among its most
striking excellencies, — so that it bears, in all respects,
evidence of having proceeded from men, who not only
knew their subject extensively and well, and who
thought justly on all its parts, but of men who were
in possession of the best means of conveying their in-
formation with effect, or who had made the higher
laws of composition their study.

The Translator cannot feel any hesitation in speak-
ing warmly of a work, which appears to him to be
marked by such excellencies. He ventures, indeed,
to believe, that its essential merits will speedily be re-
cognised ; and he has no doubt that its influence will be
considerable, both in enlarging the views of those who
are prosecuting Botany as a science, and in spreading
just notions respecting the structure and distribution

XU PRE FACE.

of vegetable bodies, among all the liberal and en-
lightened classes of the community.

The reader must have already perceived, that the
work is the joint production of two authors, the first
three parts being extracted from the " Theorie Ele-
mentaire de la Botanique," of DeCandolle, publish-
ed at Paris 1819, and all the rest being furnished by
Sprengel, who superintended the publication of
the whole. The separate merits of the style of these
two authors may not perhaps be discernible in the
translation ; but in the original these merits are
strongly marked ; and, as De Candolle is distin-
guished by the subtlety, the flexibility and metaphy-
sical cast of his expression, Sprekgel seems to pos-
sess a style, occasionally abrupt indeed, but always
luminous, condensed, and bearing evident marks of a
mind of no common powers.

Respecting the merits of the translation, it is not to
be expected that any thing should here be said : —
fidelity and perspicuity are all that have been aimed
at, and with the attainment of these the Translator
would be satisfied. But, in a work involving so many
technical terms, and so much recondite learning, — in
which the views exhibited are sometimes such, as
even well informed botanists were not fonnerly ac-
quainted with, — and in which, along with many facts
borrowed from microscopical observations, there are
occasionally reasonings as subtle as any that are to
be found in our most ingenious systems of metaphy-

PKEFACE. - Xiii

sics, — ill ail attempt to present such a work in a new
dress to the public, the Translator cannot but be diffi-
dent, lest inaccuracies may sometimes have gained ad-
mittance both into his definitions of terms, and into
liis statements of reasonings. He ventures, at the
same- time, to hope, that these inaccuracies may be
but of little moment, — that they are not such as in
any instance to affect materially the meaning of any
passage, — and that, as they are not likely, therefore,
to mislead the inexperienced inquirer, they can easily ^
be corrected by those whose information is more pro-
found and accurate.

SPRENGEL'S PREFACE.

In my " Introduction to the Knowledge of Plants,"
it was my object to promote a knowledge of the vege-
table world among the public at large, — and I may
venture to say, that the result has surpassed my ex-
pectations. But the progress which the Itigher and
scientific knowledge of plants has lately made, seem-
ed to demand an introductory Treatise for the use of
students, which, embracing the discoveries that have
recently been made throughout the whole extent of
the science, might supply the place of the introduc-
tory work of WiLLDENOW, which has now become
completely useless. With the help of the latest edi-
tion of De Candolle's " Theorie Elementaire de
la Botanique," published at Paris 1819, I flatter my-
self that I have been able to present to the public
such a work. But only the first three parts of this
treatise, namely, the Nomenclature, the Theory of
Classification, and Descriptive Botany, are to be con-
sidered as extracts from the book of my excellent
friend. All the rest is my own ; and the reader will
perceive that I have used my utmost exertions to ful-
fil well the task I had undertaken.

CONTENTS.

Page

Introdctction, - - - - *

PART I.

NOMENCLATURE,

CHAP. I. General Principles, - - 5
CHAP. II. Characteristic Expressions for Forms

AND Qualities, - - 10

I. Measure of the Parts, - - ib.

II. Colours of the Parts, - - 14

III. Surface of the Parts, - - 18^

IV. Universal Forms, - - 22
V. Insertion, or Relative Position, - -f 30

VI. Direction of the Parts, - « 37

VII. Simplicity, or Composition of Parts, - 41

Vin. The Manner in which an Organ terminates, 47
IX. Duration of Plants, and of their Individual

Parts, - - - 48

CHAF. III. Names of the Organs, - * 50

I. The Root, - - - ib.

II. The Stem, - - - 51

III. Buds, Leaves, and Parts connected with them, 53

IV. Inflorescence, - => 57

b

XVUl CONTENTS.

Page

V. The Flower, - - - 62

VI. The Nectaries, - - 67

VII. Sexual Parts, - - - 68
VIII. The Fruit and Seed, - - 72

PART II.

TAXONOMY, OR THE THEORY OF CLASSU
FICATION.

CHAP. I. General Obseevations, - - 81

CHAP. II. Artificial Classification, - 84

View of the Linnean System, - 87

CHAP. III. On the Mutual Connections of Plants, 95

I. Idea of Species, - - ib.

II. Idea of a Genus, - - 9^

III. Idea of Tribes and Families, - 102
CHAP. IV. On the Natural Arrangement in Ge-
neral, - - - 104

CHAP. V. Theory of Natueal Classification, 112

I. Comparison of Organs, - - ib.

II. On the Means which Nature affords for ena-

bling us to know Organs, and thereby to

avoid mistakes, - - 1 1 6

A. Of Abortive Organs, - 118

B. On Change and Degeneration of Parts, 121

C. On the Union of Organs, - 123
HI. On the Different Points of View under which

an Organ, or a System of Organs, may be
considered, - - ISO
IV. On the Determination of the Value of Cha-
racters, - - 137
CHAP. VI. Natural Arrangement of Families, - 138

PART III.

PHYTOGRAPHY, OR DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY.

I. Of the Generic Name, - - 145

II. Of Trivial Names, - ^ 149

CONTENTS.

XIX

III. Delineation of Characters,

A. On Generic Clmracters,

B. On Specific Characters,

IV. Description of Plants,
V. Synonymy,

VI. On the Form of Botanical Works,

A. Monographs,
VII. Floras,

VIII. Descriptions of Gardens,
IX. Plates of Plants,
X. General Works,
XI. On Collections of Plants,

Page
151
152
154
157
161
163
ib.
164.
166
167
168
169

PART IV.

PHYTONOMY, OR ON THE STRUCTURE AND
NATURE OF PLANTS.

CHAP. I. Phytotomy, or Anatomy of Plants,
I. On the Structure of Plants in general,

A. On Cellular Texture,

B. On the Sap-Tubes,

C. On the Spiral Vessels,
II. On the Structure of Roots,

IIL On the Structure of the Stem,
IV. On the Structure of Buds,
V. On the Structure of Leaves,
VI. On the Structure of Blossoms,
VII. On the Structure of the Sexual Organs,

CHAP. II. Pytochemy, or Doctrine of the Compo-
sition OF Plants,

i. General Remarks, -

ll. On the Common Sap,
III. More Intimate Constituents of Vegetables,

CHAP. III. Proper PhytoNomy, or on the Life of
Plants.
I. Effects of Stimuli,
II. Other Proofs of the Higher Life of Plants,

173

ib.
175
176
177
181
184.
191
195
205
212

218

219
22S
229

233
246

XX

CONTENTS.

Page
CHAP. IV. On the Distribution of Plants upon

THE Earth, - - 263

CHAP. V. History of the Distribution of Plants, 276
CHAP. VI. On Malformations and Diseases of

Plants, ... 283

€HAP. VII. History of Botany, - - 298

I. Ancient History till the Revival of Science, ib.

II. First Establishment of Scientific Botany, 304

III. First Establishment of the Doctrine re-

specting the Structure and Systematical

Arrangement of Plants, - - :^09

IV. Events preparatory to the Linnaean Refor-

mation, - - - 315

V. The Linnaean period, - - 318

VI. Recent History of Botany - 323

PRACTICAL PART.

lSS I.

1.

Hippuris vulgaris, L.

2.

Agardhia cryptantha,

II.

3.

Circaea lutetiana, L.

4.

Salvia brasiliensis.

in.

5.

Poa trivialis, L.

6.

Tontelea trinervia.

IV.

7.

Asterocephalus canescens.

V.

8.

Phyteuma spicatum, L.

9.

Gentiana Pneumonanthe, L

10.

Viburnum Opulus, L.

VI.

11.

Leucoium vernum, L.

VII.

12,

Trientalis Europaea, L.

VIII.

13.

Vaccinium Oxycoccus, L.

IX.

14.

Butomus umbellatus, L.

X.

15.

Pyrola secunda, L.

XI.

16.

Asarum Europaeum, L.

XII.

17.

View of the genus Rubus,

343
346

347
349
350
35S
354^
357
360
362
366
368
370
373
37G
378
381

CONTENTS.

XXI

CLASS XIII.
XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.

18.

19.

20.
21.

22.
23.
24.
2.5.
26.
27.
28.

29.
30,
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.

37.
38.

39.
40.
41.

42.
43.
44,
45,
46.

Papaver dubium, L.
Galeobdolon luteum, Huds.
Alectorolophus Crista galli, M. B.
Teesdalia nudicaulis, R. Br.
Erysimum cheiranthoides, L.
Geranium rotundifolium^ L.
Lathyrus tuberosus, L.
Hypericum montanum, L.
Thrincia hirta. Roth.
Cirsium eriophorum. Scop,
Arnica montana, L.
Calcitrapa stellata, Lam.
Calendula officinalis, L.
Echinops sphaerocephalus, L.
Ophrys myodes, Jacqu.
Sparganium simplex, Huds.
Salix caprea, Z. - .

Atriplex patula, L.
Bleclmum boreale, Sw.
Botrychium Lunaria, Siv.
Cinclidotus fontinalioides. Pal. Beativ.
Jungermannia trilobata, L.
Lecanora saxieola, Ach.
Scytosiphon intestinalis/L^w^6.
Ceratostoma fimbriatum. Fries.
|Spathularia flavida, Pers.
Craterium pyriforme, Ditmar.
Botrytis polyspora. Link.
Fusidium gryseum, Umk.

Page

393

395

598

402

405

407

410

413

416

420

423

426

429

431

432

436

439

444

447

449

451

454

456

458

459

461

462

463

ib.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE I.

Fig. 1. The chalaza of the Citron, opposite to the umbilicus,
(Sect. 120.)

2. Cotyledons with the radicle. Seeds destitute of albu-

minous substance. The embryon erect, (121, S83.)

3. Section of Cardamon seed, having the umbilicus turn-

ed upwards. The mealy albuminous substance is
dotted. The vitellus is marked by lines. Within
this lies the embryon, having its upper (in this case
its lower) end bent into a hooked shape, (121, 385,
386.)

4. Seeds of Cardiospermum Halicacahim with the heart,

shaped strophiolus, (120.)

5. Thick fleshy cotyledons wound within one another,

(121.)

6. Achenium of Centaurea ruthcnica, with its bristly

pappus and lateral iimhilims, (109, 120.)

7. Silicle of Thlaspi hursa^ (114.)

8. Galbulus of Thuia orientalis^ (116.)

9. ^ii'o\)\\us o{ Alnus incana, (116.)

10. Section of the seed of Strelitzia reg'ma. The albu-

rainons substance is fmcly dotted : the embryon is in
the centre, unevolved. A red tomcntum forms the
strophiolus, (strophiolus stuppeus, 25, 120, 121.)

11. Section of a grain of Wheat, in the upper end of

which is the superficial unevolved embryon lying on
the scuidhiin, by means of which it is connected

XXIV EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

with the albuminous substance which is denoted by
the hned portion, (121, 386.)
Fig. 12. Pencil-shaped pappus of Leyssera capillifolia.

13. Seed of Epilobium angustissimum, with its hairy

coma, (109.)

14, 15. Achenium of Laserpitium latjfolium, with four

membranaceous wings, and the intervening cavi-
ties, (109.)

16. Legume of Vicia consentina, (114.)

17. Tailed utriculus (arillus Linnaei) of Geranium Bo-

hemicum, (109.)

18. Lovientum o^ Hedysarum coronarium^ (1^4.)

19. AVinged seed of Tritonia flava Ker, (109.)

20. Section of the seed of Mirab'dis Jalappa. The em-

bryon in the circumference marked by lines. The
albuminous substance in the centre, (28, 121.)

21. Capsule of Mauj-andia antirrhimjlora Willd. It

has double sides : the exterior side is composed of
five regular valves ; the interior displays two com-
pletely dissimilar, irregular loculi, the larger of
which shews the rudiments of four loculi in the
four projections of the side. The placentation is
central. There are properly, therefore, two united
capsules, the larger of which shews the intended
quadrilocular structure of the capsule of this fami-
ly in its first rudiments, (110, 111, 185, 189, 192.)

22. Achenium of Asterocephalus Caucasius. IMembra-

naceous pappus. Five bristles proceeding from
within, (§ 109, page 354.)

23. Apple wuth five loculi, (115.)

24. Seed of Anona squamosa L. The albuminous sub-

stance is formed into plaited wrinkles, (albumen
ruminatum, 26.) Tlie small embryon lies at the
upper part, in a cavity of the umbihcus.

25. 26. Craterium pyriformc Ditm. One of the Gas-

tromyci, (page 462.)
27, 28. The sporidia of the former, with the tufty tex-
ture, (119j pnge 72.)

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. XXV

Fig. 29. Agaricus amanlta, with tlie volva, the annulus, and
the pileus, (88.)

30. Hymenlum of Geoglossum virlde Pers. with the the-

cge sporophorae, and intervening sap-tubes, (119,
page 461.)

31. Botrytis polyspora Link. The bushy, branchy

flocci are externally set with sporae. One of the
Nematomyci, (119, page 463.)

32. Fusidewn gryseum Link. Fusiform sporae, (119,

page 463.)

33. The radicle oi Erysimum Meracifolium lying on the

back of the cotyledons (Cotyledones incumbentes),
(38, p. 405.)

34. The radicle of Sinapis nigra lying between the co-

tyledons (Cotyledones accumbentes), (38.)

35. Berry of Basella rubra. Snail-shaped enibryon,

(41.)

36. Sarcobasis of Ochna squarrosa, (85, 105.)

37. Bilocular capsule of Justicia paniculata, with the

hooks on the dissepimentum, (120.)

38. Silique of Leiccoia, with the seeds on both sides,

(114.)

PLATE II.

Fig. 1 . Hymenium of Peziza cerea Pers. The sporidia con-
tain eight sporae, (119, p. 459 )

2. Apparent seeds ofSoIerina mccata Ach. (118, p. 456.)

3. Leconera straminea Ach. (118, p. 456.)

4. Grimmia controversa Hedw. with its calyptre cleft la-

terally, (88.)

5. Perichaetial leaves of Neckera distkha Hedw. (88.)

6. Club-shaped, reticulated, apparent antherae of Gyni-

nostomum pyriforrae, with the pistilla and sap-
tubes.

7. Exterior pcristomium of Hypnum alopccurum.

XXV EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Fig. 8. Interior peridomium of tlie same plant, (117.)

9. Capsule of Aspidiuin spinulosiim Sw. with its notch-
ed ring and rough seeds, (117.)

10. Indusium of the same Fern, fringed on the margin

and studded widi glands, (88.)

11. Y\o\vcY?> o^ Jponogcton distachys Thunb. Appen-

dages for the petals, (90.) Heptandria.

12. Flowers of Chironiafriitescens. Stamina perigyna,

(35.) Corolla infera ; germen superum, (34.)

13. Twisted anthera? of the same plant, (41.)

14. Phylica cricoid es ; folia sparsa, re vokita^ sessilia, lan-

ceolate. Flores fasciculati, (29, 38, 40, 44, 84.)

15. Calyx corollina of the same plant, ciliated (51, 90.),

the antheras under nectarilymata^ (102.) These
scales may also be called petals. The filaments
are united with the calyx corollina, (191, 192.)

16. Urceolatc corolla of Arbutus unedo, (31.)

17. Bilocular antherae of the same plant with spurs.

The filaments ciliated, (334.)

18. Oxalis purpurea Jacqu. The pistilla are shorter

than the interior, but longer than the exterior fila-
ments, (380.)
19- Oxalis macrostyVbs Jacqu. The pistilla are longer
than the exterior and interior filaments. The ex-
terior filaments are always shorter than the inte-
rior, (203, 205, 380.)

20. Five pistilla, having their extremities set with stig-

mata, and their lower parts with glands. Perhaps
the collectores, (341.) Connate ovaria of Oxalis
macrostylis, (107, 189.)

21 . Flowers of Agaihosma pubescens Willd. Beside the

five principal petals are five subordinate fringed
bodies, — abortive filaments. Of the five filaments,
three are higher than the two others, (175, 185,
203, 205.)

22. Similar abortive filaments.

23. ^'cilcd stigma of Lobelia dhcohvy (106.) The an-

EXPLANATION 01 THE PLATES. XXVli

therac connate. The fruit inferior to the calyx,
and connected with it, (34.)
24. l*olIen of Amaryllis regincv^ (335.)

PLATE III.

Fig. 1. Male and female (lowers of Phyilanthus epiphyllan-
thus W, out of their buds. The apparent flower-
stalk is an abortive leaf. The male flowers have
abortive pistilla, (174.) The three filaments are
united in one pillar. Ou their base are nectareous
glands, which are wanting in the female flowers,
(138, 187.) Of the six flower-stalks, the interior
alternate with the exterior, and the former may
therefore be considered as petals, (196.)
'^l. Piqueria trinervia Cav. The common calyx, antho-
dium or perichnium, consists of four leaves, and
contains four florets, (87.)

3. A single floret, the rim of which has five lobes. The

stigma cleft. Sy7igenesia ccqualis, (137.)

4. Racemus of Ottonia anisum. Neue Entdeck., i. s.

S55, (84.)

5. A single floret of the same. At the base of the stalk,

a fringed scale or bractca. No corolla. Four bi-
locular antherae. Spherical germen, with a four
cornered stigma, iSQ.)

6. Crassula spathulata. The ovaria superior to the ca-

lyx and corolla. These alternate with the filaments,
the latter parts with the petals, and these last with
the teeth of the calyx, (34, 196.)

7. Schmidtia suhtUis Trattin. Two glume-valves en-

close two hypogynous filaments with moveable an-
thera?, a proportionately very large germen, and two
simple linear stigmata, (35, 40, 198".)

8. Capsules of Targioma hypophfjlUi^ surrounded by a

notched ring, and furnished with caiemda^ as they
had never before been observed. Its affinity with

XXVlll EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Jungermannia and Marchantia is thus established,
(109, 278.)
Fig. 9. Correa alba Sm. with eight perigynous, unequal fila-
ments, and nectareous glands between them, (35,
(101.)
10. The germen of the same plant enlarged by its greater
maturity. The nectaries are divided, and embrace
the four two-seeded cocci (86, 109.) 5 which being
united form the quadrilocular fruit. That they
were originally separate is evident from the infe-
rior linear processes, which might be mistaken for
collectores, (178, 189,341.)

11. Flower of Acacia lophanta^ Willd. Monadelphia,

(131, 187.)

12. Urceolate corolla of Erica aggregata, with its four-

lobed margin. Neue Entdeck., 1. 270, (31.)

13. The sexual parts of the same plant after the corolla

has been taken away. The four-leaved calyx in-
ferior to the germen, (34.) Eight bent filaments,
inclosed in the corolla, and between them the nec-
tareous glands. Eight bilocular, unarmed, or awn-
less anthers, (11, 5Q^ 80.) The pistillum with the
four-lobed stigma, (188.)

14. The germen in particular: there appears a fivefold

division, as an evidence of the original numerical
proportion, (178, 199, 389-) The unripe germen
also is multilocular, and it is only when it is fully
ripe, that the individual capsules become so united,
that their dissepimenta become simple, and extend
from the central column, (178, 189, 192.)

15. Two lipped, ringent corolla of Salvia Boosiana, Jacq.

(96.)

16. Two filaments, with processes, %vhich seem to be two

other abortive filaments, (178.)

17. Gynobasis, along with the laterally projecting nec-

tary, and the four caryopscs standing on it. The
pistillum between these, with the divided stigma,

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. XXIX

the consequence of union, (85, 101, 105, 109, 188,
198", S02.)
18, 19. Antherae of Erica tenella Andr. (antheras cris-
tatse), with cristate appendages. Neue Entdeck.
1. 271, (31.)

20. Myccyporum tenuifoliuni Forst. The corolla with

its quinque-partite ciliated margin. Four filaments
of unequal length at the entrance of the tube of tlie
corolla. The original numerical proportion is in-
dicated by the segments of the corolla. Of the
five filaments one is abortive, (198*, 199.)

21. Quadrilocular drupe of the same plant, (112.)

22. Flower oi Ducliesnea frag\formis Smith. The calyx

has tripartite subordinate leaves. The hypogenous
filaments, in indeterminate number, are inserted on
the corollar integument of the calyx; Icosandria,
(35, 131.) The fruit arises from the enlarged re-
ceptacle, having its surface studded with granular
bodies.

23. Flower of Barleria Jlava Jacq. The calyx consists

of four unequal segments, of wliich the two exterior
are much larger than the other two, and the upper-
most is so much dentated, that it is impossible not
to perceive the original tendency towards a fivefold
division. The tubular corolla has a quinque-par-
tite margin, two of the lobes of which are reflex,
and the other three are emarginated. Of the five
filaments which there ought properly to be, and
which sometimes do appear, only two commonly
come to perfection, (178, 181, 389.)

24. Flower of VeltJieimia viridifoUa Y^J. A calyx co-

roUina, with the filaments inserted in it : these are
hypogynous. The germen is superior. The pistil
bent downwards, (35, 43, 90.)
516. Indications of the spiral vessels on the superficial cel-
lular texture of Sphagnum obtusifoUum, (278.)

XXX EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE IV.

Fig. 1. Punctured tubes and jpiral vessels of the root oi'
CissamjK-los Pnrcira L., (276, 277.)

2. Section of the buds of the common Alder, (304.)

3, 4. Simple buds of the Tulip-tree, with the three fol-

lowing series, (304.)

5. Buds of the common Ash, (ib.)

6. Buds of Mespilus ^-landulosa, (ib.)

7. Buds of Salisbui'ia adiantifolia Sm., (ib.)

8. Buds of the Guelder-Rose bush, (243.)

9. Leaf of Gymnostomum ovatum, the nerve of which

passes into two processes (nervus lamellatus), (49.)

10. Columna genitalium of Bletia TancarvUlc^ R. Br.

At its upper part the column is shaped into the
clinandrium of Richard, on both sides of which the
staminodia stand. The clinandrium has under it
the rostellum, which again has the stigma strongly
shaded under it, with which it is closely connected.
The anther is consequently epigynous.

11. Four connected masses of pollen of the same plant,

(107.)

12. The four loculi of the clinandrium, in which the

pollenous masses are contained, (107.) I have not
found the partition any where so distinct as it is
here figured.

13. Flower of Malva umhellata, Monadelphia. The

veins in the petals are spiral vessels, (324.)

14. Section of the same flower ; the tube of filaments

united with the corolla : expanded below, the fila-
ments and corolla being of the same nature, (191.)

15. Pollen of the same plant, (107, 335.)

16. Flower of Pogostemon plectranthoides Desfont. The

corolla is almost reversed (resupinata) : for the fila-
ments are bent downwards, whilst in the related
genera they stand erect. The undivided lip is pro-

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. XXXl

perly the superior one, that with three lobes the
inferior. The long ciliated filaments are of the
didynamia structure : the pistillum is divided, (43,
187.)
17, 18. r'lower of Buttncra cordata. Quinque-partite,
open calyx. Five lunulate petals, furnished at
their upper part with two auriculae, and be-
tween them with a long slightly ciliated bristle.
Five filaments with bilocular anthera?, between
which and the pistillum a fivc-lobed fringe
stands, the lobes of which are emarginated, and
carry the nectaries on their outer-side, (101.)
19- Spiral vessels and sap-tubes of Marantha lutea Jacqu.
(276, 277.)

PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Spiral vessels and sap-tubes of Alpinia nutans Rose.,.
(276, 277.)
% Slits of the epidermis of the leaves of Hyacinthus, with
the cellular texture lying under them, (310, 311.)

3. Vasa scalaria of Lycopodium clavatum, with the inner

bark, (282. 297.)

4. Tubes with interstitial spaces, and the sap-vessels

and radiating vessels of the wood of the Fii*, (273,
293.)

5. Sporophleum gramineum Nees. Miser. A doubtful

Inomycus.

6. Camptospormm glaucum Link. Micros. On the in-

ner side of an old Oak bark ; (Ehrenb. Sylv. MycoL
p. 11. ; Nees, Radix Plant Mycetoid. p. 5.)

7. Eurotium ep'ixylon Link., (Berlin. Mag. 3. s. 31.)

One of the Gastromyci.

8. Diatoma Jlahelhdata Jlirg. A Bacillaria, according

to Nitsch. Transition from the veijetable to the
animal kingdom.
9' Bacillaria vexillum.

XXXli EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

10. Strictures of Nodular'm fluviat'ilis l.yngb. Hydroph.

p. 99. t. 29., with the granular germs ranged in
the shape of a chahi.

11. Antliocoryn'unn of Suruhea Guianensis Aubl. Boyl.

Meyer. Fl. Esscqueb. p. 120, (86.)

12. The flower-bearing leaf-stalk of Turnera cuJieiformis

Juss., with two cup-shaped glands.

13. Flower of Pankiim Iciocarpon, (Neue Entdeck. 1.

s. 243.

PLATE VI.

Fig. 1. Tubers of Trevirania coccinea Willd., (288.)

2. Tubers of Triton'ia squalida Ker, (ib.)

3. Tubers of Ixia leucantha, (ib. )

4. 5. Flowers of Euphorhia Characias. Double an-

therae on the filaments, which are furnished with
a joint ; and the four pistilla, (138, 331, 333.)
C. Bughivillaa spectah'ilis Juss., with red coloured
bracteae, (177.)

7. The seven filaments of the same plant united at the

base, (191.)

8. Star-shaped scales on the leaves of Croton Eluteria,

(27.)

9. Panduraeform leaf of Solanum Belfort'iaiium Dunal,

(29.)

10. Star-shaped hairs of the same plant, (25.)

11. Cassia Jleccuosa, with its bent stem, pinnated leaves,

and ciliated stipula?.

12. Sanvagesia Adima Aubl., (Neue Entdeck. 1. 294,

with its root-shaped ascending stem, and bristly
pinnated stipula?, (42, 54, 109.)

13. 14. Flower of the same plant. Between the calyx

and corolla stand bodies of an intermediate na-
ture between filaments and nectaries, as in Par-
nassia. Three lobed capsule, (Neue Entdeck. 1.
295. 296.)

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. XXXlll

PLATE VII.

Eig. 1. Biinchy panicle of Hirtella glandiilosa (Neuc Ent-
deck. 1. s. 303.) Reflex bracteae. Bush of petio-
lated glands.
%. Ovate-oblong, somewhat pointed, leaf of the same
plant, full of veins.

3. The flower magnified. The calyx quinque -partite,

reflex, internally set with silky hairs. The corolla
fallen off". Five long, linear filaments. The pistil-
lum ciliated below. The dry berry set with rough
hairs.

4. The flower opened before the evolution. The fila-

ments convoluted.

5. Alyssum nehrodense Lin. (Neue Entdeck. 1. s. 286.)

shrubby stem, with rose-shaped aggregated leaves.

6. Elliptical silicle, crowned with the pistillum.

7. Inverted ovate leaf of the same plant, set with radia-

ted hairs. -

PLATE VIII.

Fig. 1, % CypMa serrata, (Neue Entdeck. 1. s. 274.)

3. The flower in particular.

4. The filaments not attached to one another.

5. Hydrocofyle plantaginea, (Neue 'Entdeck,!, s. 2S4.)

6. The fruit.

7. Section of the same.

8. 9. Notched pappus of Pteroma glabrata Thunb,

CORRIGENDA.

Page 9, line 24. /or lanceolate-shaped read lanceolate

10. — 3. /or points read extremity

62. — 14. instead of to read for

124. line 17. for of involucrum read of the cahx

239. — 25, /qt also read both

I'LATE 1

I

f M^^t,,;

PLATE 11

r L. .VI fc, J II

PLATE IV

PLATE V.

ri^ATE TI .

ri.ATE ATT.

PL, ATE TIK

PRINCIPLES

OP

SCIENTIFIC BOTANY.

INTRODUCTION.

JlSoTANY comprehends the knowledge of Plants. These,
like all other natural bodies, may be considered under a two-
fold aspect ; either in relation to their external properties, or
with a view to their internal structure, their nature, and the
causes of the phenomena which they present.

Botariy, accordingly, divides itself into two principal de-
partments, which, in our days, can no longer be separated,
since they mutually support and illustrate each other.

1. The Natural History of Plants, which has been exclu-
sively denominated Botany. This comprehends the know-
ledge of the external marks of plants, and the means of dis-
tinguishing them ; their Description, Determination, and
Classification. This department includes three subdivisions.

1 . The Nomenclature, {Glossolog'ie De Candolle, falsely
called Terminology). Under this subdivision, we include the
knowledge of the expressions, by which the different organs,

A

» INTRODUCTION.

of which plants are made up, and their properties, are desig-
nated.

2. Taaonomy^ or the Theory of the Classification of the
Vegetable Kingdom.

3. Phytography, or the Art of describing Plants in a con-
formable manner. As apphcations of this art, we must con-
sider Descriptive Botany^ or the technical representation of
all the essentially different forms'of the Vegetable Kingdom ;
and Botanical Synonymes, or the knowledge of the different
names under which plants are mentioned by writers. This
latter kind of knowledge has a necessary connection with an
insight into the fortune and progress of the science, as well as
with mere book-learning in this department. The history
and literature of Botany are lience essential requisites.

II. If we turn our attention to tlie internal structure, the
nature, and the principles of the plienomena of plants, these
lead us to the Natural Science, or Physics, of Plants ; which
has also been called the Physiology of Plants, Phytonomy, or
Phytology. This department again comprehends three prin-
cipal subdivisions.

1. The doctrine of the structure of plants; or what has
been called their Anatomy ; — the Organography of De Can-
doUe.

2. The doctrine of the composition of the constituent
parts of plants ; the Chemistry of Plants, or Phytochemy.

3. The proper explanation of the manner in which plants
originate, grow, form their parts, and propagate themselves.
This is properly the philosophical part of Botany, or the true
Phytonomy.

3.

To these two essential parts, we may add the following de-
partments of knowledge, as more or less connected with them,
or derived from them.

1. The before-mentioned History and Literature of Bo-
tany. These in no other science are so necessary as in this,
wliere we can only hope to attain a peifect acquaintance with

INTROpUCTJtON, 3,

the objects of our study, by being acquainted with their dif-
ferent names and representatives among writers, and where
every new step must be accomplished by a comparison of all
earlier observations. .. j ^ , f f v, , ., , ,

2. The Geography of Plants, or the examination of the
causes which determine plants to choose certain regions and
stations. This knowledge respecting the distribution of plants
is naturally enough included under the second great depart-
ment, or that which relates to the Physiology of plants. It
has of late begun to be studied with particular zeal, and is
fitted to afford the most important assistance in the Classifi'
cation of plants.

3. The knowledge of the Anomalies to which the forms of
the Vegetable Kingdom are subject ; to which belongs also
the doctrine of the Malformation and Diseases of plants. If
we consider these variations in their most comprehensive rela-
tions, their study is one of the most difficult, but it is also
one of the most instructive parts of Botany. The doctrine of
the diseases in particular, is called the Pathology of Plants.

4. The applications of these different parts of knowledge to
the arts and business of life are excluded from this Treatise ;
yet it cannot be denied, that these applications often reflect
an important light upon the science itself. The knowledge of
the officinal plants has. been called Medical Botany; the
knowledge of the plants which are employed in agriculture
and husbandry, is called CEconomical Botany ; that of the
plants which are useful in arts and trades, is called Technical
Botany ; and the knowledge of forest trees, is the Botany of
Forests.

4.

All these different branches of the science, or parts of Bo-
tany, are connected together in the closest manner. They
cannot well be treated or learned separately, without disadvan-
tage to the science ; and one chief cause of the interruptions
which are given to the progress of Botany, lies in the separa-
tion of these individual branches.

AS

4 INTRODUCTION.

Especially it ought to be most zealously inculcated, that
the applications of this science should only be taught or
learned after a previous study of its general principles. That
part of Botany which relates to forest trees, is as little capable,
as the medical department, of dispensing with the helps which
are afforded by the Nomenclature, the Classification, and the
Physiology of Plants.

PART I.
NOMENCLA TUBE.

CHAP. I.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

A ^-

jljlS all the departments of human knowledge and art, and
even all trades and occupations, have a multitude of peculiar
expressions, by which they designate certain things, proper-
ties, operations, and appearances ; and as, in Botany, amidst
the immense number of its different forms, every thing de-
pends upon our having a clear idea of these differences, the
necessity of a general agreement in the choice of expressions
for these different terms and properties is obvious ; since no
man will ever convey to another a distinct idea of any object,
if he either uses such expressions as that other person does
not understand, or if he employs them in a sense different
from that in which they are to be understood*

6.

The necessity of a general agreement imposes, no doubt, a
certain restraint, to which every person must submit; and
there has been no want of writers, both in our own and in
former times, who have entertained the idea of releasing them-
selves from this restraint, which to them was so oppressive ;
and who have, for this purpose, either indulged themselves

V NOMENCLATURE.

in a cerUiin negligence of expression, or have dared to choose
a language for themselves, which it was necessary to have
explained in a preliminary vocabulary. This practice is high-
ly reprehensible ; because it proceeds partly from ignorance
and disregard of the laws of the already recognised Nomen-
clature, and partly from conceit, arrogance, fondness for no-
velty, and national prejudice ; and because it creates unneces-
sary difficulties in the science, and affords it no essential ad-
vantage whatever.

At the same time, our reprehension is not meant to fall
u]X)n those who designate forms that are really different and
peculiar, by new and suitably selected expressions; because
the farther the knowledge of plants is extended, the greater
number of altogether new forms, or of such as were hitherto
misunderstood, do we discover; and these could only be de-
signated in a very defective manner, if we should confine our-
selves to the expressions that are akeady used for them.

7.
Nomenclature has its difficulties; but these would be un-
necessarily increased, by compounding terms to too great
an extent, or by applying them to the most subtle sub-
divisions of our ideas. Without making any breach on the
sohdity of the structure, it may be simplified and relieved,
by, on every occasion, consulting nature, and giving hfe to
our demonstrations by examples ; by considering many terms
as in general useful, without constantly repeating them in the
description of every part ; and by supposing the knowledge
of the learned languages to have been already acquired.

8.
The Nomenclature is of Latin derivation, because this lan-
guage is understood by the learned of all nations, and of all
times. This cannot be objected to, since the descriptions of
the plants are also given in the language of each particular
country. These descriptions, however, are not generally in-
telligible ; and as long as there is no agreement in the choice
of terms, they must also be defective in respect of certainty.

GENERAL PIUNCIFLES. 7

It is not to be expected that the Latin Nomenclature of
Botanists should always display the purity of the golden, or
even of the silver age, of Roman literature : because it is im-
possible to select such expressions only as are found in the
Roman writers of that period, as the designations of objects
which were altogether unknown to those writers ; yet it is to
be expected, that he who writes Latin, should neither mis-
take nor disregard the laws of grammar and of composition,
nor the spirit of the language in which he expresses himself.

9.

Where the Latin language cannot be employed, where the
necessary compositions are cither foreign or adverse to the
spirit of that language, we betake ourselves to the riclier and
more pliant dialect of the Greeks. Only here also, the terms
must be chosen according to the laws of the grammar and
composition of that language. \'\''e must be on our guard
not to employ what have been called hybrid expressions, or
words compounded from both the learned languages, (as, lor
example, muscologia^ algologia^ ovdidea) ; or to exchange
customary and intelligible Latin terms for unusual, often
strange and falsely compounded Greek expressions.

10.

The first principle of Botanical Nomenclature is, That each
distinct form, and every different organ, be designated by a
peculiar expression. By follownig out this principle, all
wavering of ideas, all uncertainty of knowledge, is avoided.
In conformity with this law, we call the leaves of the branches
<and ^iQm, folia ; the leafy appendages of the leaves, st'qnda ;
the leaves in the neighbourhood of the flower, hracka ; |he
parts of the cover of the flower and of the calyx, scpala ,•
and, lastly, the divisions of the corolla, pctala. In the same
manner must the elliptical form of the leaves, the varied
rounding or tapering of their summits, be designated by pe-
culiar expressions.

We may easily, however, go too far in this procest=, by
assigning difierent terms to every small additional variety of

8 NOMENCLATURE.

an already well known form, to every insignificant aj^pendagc
or part of an organ. Much circumspection is necessary, not
to mistake the happy middle course.

11.

The properties of forms are expressed by adjectives or
participles. These have a different meaning according to
their different terminations.

1. Adjectives in atiis designate the presence of a certain
organ : radkatus, that which has a root ; Jbliatus, which has
a leaf. But this rule must not be understood as universal ;
because lanceolaius, ovatus, and many others, signify only a
resemblance.

2. Those which end in osus express an abundance of par-
ticular organs ; ncrvosus^Jbliosus, cicatricosus.

3. Adjectives in hnis and aceus denote the nature of the
organ. Thus, Jhltaceus means having the nature of a leaf:
radicinus denotes that w^hich has the consistence of a root.
A corolla calyeina is one which partakes of the nature of a
calyx. But there are many exceptions also to this mode of
expression, however much a general agreement is to be
wished.

4. When an organ is wanting, we put the Greek u priva-
tive before a Greek word, or the e before a Latin w^ord ;
(aphyllus, apetalifs, enervis, exstipulatus, eglandulosus).
Sdme hybrid expressions, however, have crept in, which we
must endure : for instance, aven'ms ; and also acauUs, where
the better term would be acavlus. In some instances, suh-
nidlus is placed immediately after mdlus : Margo mdlus,
subnullus. We often express the absence of certain organs
or foniis, although in an indefinite manner, by nudus or sim-
plex: thus, the Corolla is said to be nitdus; when it has no
calyx; the branches, nudi^ when they have no leaves: the
stalk, simj)lex, when it is destitute of branches. Finally, it
is usual, when an organ is wanting, to designate positively
the opposite property : thus, we say iiiermis, and muticus, in
opposition to spinosus, aculeatiiSy arisiattts, and cuspidahcs.

GENKRAL rJlINCIPLES. 9

When a part or a property is not distinctly evolved, or is
not seen, we say that it is ohsoletus in consjj'i cutis.

5. Smaller variations of form are expressed by diminutive
terminations; by the termination o'ides in Greek adjectives,
ot by tlie preposition sitb. This latter syllable particularly is
put before the word, where the property or organ is not
found every where in the same degree. We thus use the
phrase Jblium subdentatum, where the teeth in many positions
are not observable, or pass into the smooth margin. The ex-
pressions Jiirsutiuscidus, acutmsculus, oltusiuscidus, are also
frequently used ; as also are not imfrequently rhizdides, cdly-
coides.

6. When the property is present in a higher degree, we com-
monly use the superlative ; by which means, all particles ex-
pressive of abundance, as, valde, maxime, msigniter, arc
avoided. We thus say, integerrimus, spinoswsinius, acidea-
tissimus, glaberriimis.

7. The intermediate condition between two varying forms
is frequently expressed by the compounding of two adjec-
tives; thus, ohlongo-lanceolatus, 7'cpando-dentntiis^ palmato-
lohatus. But we fail in these compositions, when we put to-
gether words which exclude each other, which are co-ordinate,
and are therefore self-evident. Ell'ipticO'lanccolatus involves
a contradiction ; because the lanceolate-shaped leaf is pointed,
and the elliptical is symmetrically rounded at both ends,
Pubescenti-Jiirtdlus involves a contradiction, and, at the same
time, expresses subordinate ideas of the same class; because
hirius denotes long stiff hairs : Jiirtellus is therefore a non-
entity; but pubescentt-Jiirtellus is self-evident, and jmbescejis
alone were sufficient.

8. When we would express the reversed form of an organ,
we usually put the syllable ob before the adjective: thus, obt
ovatus, obcordatus, are very common. Obhuiccolaius can
scarcely be permitted, because the positive term spathidatus
is more definite. When an organ has the external shape of
another organ, without actually fulfilling the same purpose,
or even without having the same structure, we usually desig-
nate it as spuriuvi : we thus say,a7itherce spuria: of Tradescan-

10 NOMENCLATURE

tia; viargo thallodes spurius of Lecidea petraea; peridium
spurium of iEcidium.

12.

Terms taken from common life remain without any ex-
planation, when they are iLsed with no variation of their
usual meaning : otherwise, they must be more exactly defin-
ed. Thus, pilosus, in technical language, means something
different from the idea suggested by it in the usual written
language. In this latter use, it means the hairy condition in
general ; but, in the former, it denotes particularly the pre-
sence of soft hairs, somewhat bent.

CHAP. II.

CHARACTERISTIC EXPRESSIONS FOR FORMS AND
QUALITIES.

13.

We enumerate under this title, those terms which relate to
the properties of the organs, or parts of plants, and we seek,
especially, to make those terms general, in order to avoid all
repetition. It ought to be remarked, that we are only fur-
nishing an introduction to the comprehension of tlie works of
other writers, and that we do not, therefore, take upon \i^,
to answer for the correctness and necessity of every term.

I. Measure of the Parts.

14.

We call the measure of the parts absolute, when it lias a
reference, not to any comparison with other parts of the same
plant, but to some other commonly assumed scale. The mea-
sure is relative^ when we compare the extension of one part
Tvith the size of others, belonging to the same plant.

I oil I OKMS AND QUALITIES. 11

15.

The absolute measure may be best taken from the parts of
the human body, because these are universally present, and
are the same among all nations. If these parts be compared
with the fixed civil measure, we readily perceive that they
cannot, by any means, be determined with geometrical exact-
ness. But this exactness is the very thing which in Botany we
ought not to aim at, because organised bodies neither form geo-
metrical lines and figures, nor can be calculated according to
a geometrical measure. Where the measure of the human
body is not sufficient, we can only have recourse to a civil
scale : but, in this case, we can only form an a2)proximation
to the truth, and ought not to consider the individual exten-
sion as general.

16.

The smallest measure in Botany is the breadth of a hair,
(capillus, hence capillar} s). If this be compared with the
civil measure, it forms about the twelfth part of a geometrical
line. But we must not confound the term capillaris with
capillaceus, since this latter term signifies, according to the
rule formerly given, (§ II. 5.), having the nature or consist-
ence of a hair.

After the hair, follows the breadth of the white crescent
on the nail, which corresponds more or less with a geometrical
line. This measure is named Vinea, whence linearis ; which
term, when applied to surfaces, signifies, that they preserve
the same breadth throughout. It must not be confounded
with rmeatus, which may be translated, marked with lines,
or streaks.

To this succeeds the length of the nail of the finger ; (un-
guis^ whence unguicularia). This is about six lines, or half
an inch.

Next comes the breadth, or even the length of the outer-
most division of the thumb, (polldv, whence pollicaiis). This
forms exactly an inch ; hence it is called uncia, uncialis.

The length of the middle finger follows, or, which is I lie
same thing, the breadth of the hand reckoned from the

IS !N'OMEKCLATUEE

thumb. From digitus and palmus, we form digitalis and
palmaris : this last, however, must be carefully distinguished
from pcdmatus, which means, divided like the hand. The
measure of which w6 are now speaking, is about three
inches.

The small span (spiihama, whence spithameus) is the dis-
tance between the thumb and middle-finger, when they form
a span. This measure, in full grown men, is about seven
inches.

The great span (dodrans, whence dodrantalis) is the dis-
tance between the thumb and little finger, wheji they form a
span. It amounts to about nine inches.

The foot {pes^ whence pedalis) is the length of the sole of
the foot, when it is of a large size, or the distance of the
elbow-joint from the wrist. It is usually taken for a geome-
trical foot. But pedalis must not be confounded with peda^
tus^ which denotes the foot-shaped position of the leaves.

We next take the distance from the elbow-joint to the
point of the middle finger. This is called cubitus, whence
cubitalis ; its length is about a foot and a half

Next comes the lengtli of the arm, {bracliium, whence bf^a-
cJdalis : as also ulna, uhiaris'). This is reckoned about two
feet.

Lastly, there is the fathom, {orgya, orgyalis), or the dis^
tance of the points of the fingers, when the arms of a man
Are extended. This measure is taken from the length of a
man of large size : it is hence reckoned about six feet.

Whatever exceeds this measure, is reckoned in so many
fathoms or feet.

17.

It is an unaccommodating practice which has been adopted
by the French Natural Historians, of constantly employing the
decimal measure, -which is entirely unknown out of France, and
■which is particularly unsuitable to this purpose, on account
of the very great exactness with which its subdivisions are
given. We only state here, therefore, that the met7'e amounts
to three feet and something more than eleven lines ; that the

FOR FORMS AND QUALITIES. 13

decimetre is three inches and something more than eight Unes ;
the centimetre four Unes and a half; and the millimetre ex-
actly xV/o) o^ about half a line. This measure is not adopt-
ed by any other nation.

18.

The relative measure is taken by comparison with other
parts of the same plant. We say cequalis or cequans, major,
minor, longior, brevior, duplo, triplo major or minor. We
say also sicperanSy excidens^ ceqnans.

19.

We also frequently assume the relative size and extension;
from comparison, but without always naming the compared
parts. We thus name Calyx maximus, a calyx which, in
proportion to all the other parts of the plants, is very large.
We also usually say, rami, or peduncuU elongati, petioli bre-^
vissimi or abbreviati, stipula minima, folia angnstissima,
calyx ampliatus, planta pusilla ov pumila, arbor gigantea :
by which expressions every one knows what he is to under-,
stand.

The relative measure of the parts of one and the same or»
gan, determines their regularity or equality.

The parts of an organ are equal (aqualis), when they have
throughout the same measure and the same form. Inequality
(imequalifas), expresses the reverse. Like, {confirmis, simi-
lis), relates only to the correspondence of form ; unlike, (dis^
similis, and in Greek compounds lietero), signifies the oppo-
site quality. Variable, {varius, variabilis, mutabilis), relates
to the disposition of an organ readily to change its form.

An organ is called regular (regularis) the parts of
which shew a certain correspondence, but not a complete simi-
larity, of parts in size and form ; as when, for instance, larger
parts are interchanged widi those that are smaller. The
structure of an organ, again, is irregidar, when no corre-
.spondcnce of pari?, either in shape or size, is observable.

14 NOMENCLATURE

When plants of the same kind have different shapes, they
are said to be dispares; Dimorphus is the word apphed to
one and the same part, which has different forms in the same
plant. An organ is called difformis, when its shape cannot
be reconciled with the usual form of" the part.

II. The Colours of the Parts,

21.

As colour produces an impression upon the senses which is
universal, it cannot be precisely defined, nor can it be em-
ployed as a character of the invariable Species. It is chiefly
of use, therefore, in description. Yet we must put a great
value even on this, when vve are treating of the lower organic
bodies, where other characters fail, and v/here those derived
from colour are very stedfast.

22.

There are two colours, which have been usually considered
as essential, and which have, hence, been universally taken as
characters. These are the hoary^ (canus, incanus) ; the
weaker variety of which is called cariescens, and the greenish-
blue (glaucus), the weaker gradation of which is named
glaucescens.

Besides, it is usual, when the ordinary green colour of the
integument of the leaves fails, to express this simply by the word
coloured, (coloratus) ; and when there is a difference of colours,
as, for instance, on the two sides of the leaves, we employ the
word discolor, as in Cornus alba. The opposite is, therefore,
unicolor, that is, when the colours are of the same kind.

A difference of colouring is also expressed generally by the
words spotted (maculatus), variegated (variegatus), and by
the words notatus and sphacelatus. The former expresses a
dark spot ; the latter the swarthy discolorations, which are
yearly the consequences of the decay of the parts. We use
the word zonatus to express differently-coloured curved lines
upon a surface : mnrginatus signifies that the margin is dif-

FOR FORMS and.qualitip:s. 15

ferently coloured, or of another substance, (^ 28.) Round
spots, surrounded by a circle, are said to be ocellati. We al-
so use the words halonatus, halone cinctics.

23.

Among the many colours which appear in the vegetable
kingdom, the metallic are of least frequent occurrence.
Their various gradations have very properly been referred to
certain fundamental colours ; and the transitions from one
colour to another have been pointed out.

When there is scarcely any colour, and the parts are al-
most transparent, we use the words pellucidus, diaphanuSy
hyalinuSy agueus or vitreus. The opposite of this is opake
(opacus.)

The addition of the words sordide, intense, saterrime, pal-
lide, dilute, to colours, expresses the different gradations of the
dirty, the intense, and the pale colours.

1. The white colour (albus, in Greek compounds leuco-,)
has for its ground-tone the snow-white (niveus), which we
particularly observe, in its most beautiful state, in Camellia
Japonica. If the white colour is still very pure, but not so
clear as in the case already noticed, it is said to be candidus.
In Greek compounds this is expressed by the word argo-.
The white lilies afford the best example. If this last white
be united with a certain lustre, the term eburneus is used,
although but seldom.

If the lustre of the white colour is still more distinct, but
the colour itself not quite pure, we employ the term silvery ^
(argenteus, and in Greek compounds argyro-.)

A faded white passing somewhat into a bluish, is called
milk-white (Jadeus, and in Greek compounds galacto-.)

Indeterminate varieties of the white colour constitute the
whitish (albidus and albescens).

If the white colour passes into the grey, it becomes hoary
{canus, incanus), especially when the surface is spreckled with
a greater or less number of distinguishable hairs.

2. The grey colour (griseus) has its ground-tone in the
ash-grey {cinereus, and in Greek compounds tephro- and spn^

X6 NOMENCLATURE

Jo-). Its varieties are the lead-grey {plumhcus)y which ap-
proaches near to the bhiish; ami the smoke-grey {lubidosus),
which goes more into a brown. The mouse-grey al$o (rnwi-
iius) is a soiled variety of the brownisli-grey.

3. The black colour {n'lgcr) has as its ground-tone the full
or coal-black {ater). In Greek compounds we express this
bv the words mela- or melanv-.

If the black passes somewhat into a greenish, it is called
raven-black {pullus) ; if it passes into a brownish, it is called
pitch-black {p\ccus~).

4. The brown colour {hrunncus) has as its ground-tone
the chesnut-brown (hadius). If it falls more into the red, it
is reddish-brown (fiiscus, in Greek compounds jo/z^o-). If
it goes more into a yellow, it is liver-brown ; and when a mix-
ture of reddish is added, it becomes rust-coloured (ferrugi-
neus).

If the brown colour is pure and somewhat splendent, it is
said to be spadiceus. If it is quite dirty, and passing into
black, it is said to be smoky {fidigineus). If along with this
smoky state, it is also mixed with undefined shadings of co-
lour, it is said, generally, to be lurid {luridus').

5. The yellow colour {luteus, in Greek compounds xantho-,)
has as its ground-tone the golden-yellow {aureus^ in Greek
compounds chryso-). This is the same with the citron-yellow
^citrinus).

A paler shade is denominated, generally, Jlavus. More
exactly defined vaiieties are the wax-yellow (cerinus), the
sulphur-yellow (sidphureus), and last the straw-yellow (stra-
mineus)^ which approaches pretty much to the white colour,
and is hence denominated by a Greek compound ochroleucus.
The dark-yellow approaches either to the red or to the brown.
It is generally called taicny (fulvus). Dark-yellow, with
reddish-brown, is called hclvoliis. Aurantiacus, is dark-yel-
low, passing somewhat into a reddish. Saffron -yellow {cro-
ceu^) is the distinctly intermediate colour between red and yel-
low-

If the yellow is soiled and pale, it is called Isabella colour,
and ochre-yellow (ochreus). If along with its dirty appear-

roil FORMS AND QUALITIES. 17

ance it passes into a brownish, it is fawn-coloured {ccrvu
7ius).

6. The red colour {imber, in Greek compounds crythro-),
the ground-tone of which is carmine red {piiniceus), has
many gradations.

A i)ale clear red constitutes the rose-red {roscus). A still
paler tint, and somewhat soiled, is called incarnatus and car-
neus^ according to its different gradations. The former is
still a pure, but pale red : the latter, or the flesh colour, is
mixed \\\i\\ a yellowish tint. If the pale red falls still more
into the yeMow, it is called the tile colour (lateritius).

A pure red, which is clear and passes into yellow, is called
flame-coloured (Jiammeus)^ and also vermilion-coloured {ml-
niatu.s). Tile highest degree of it is the scarlet-red {coccu
7ieus).

If the red falls into a brownish, it is called clove-brozcn
{jccrampelinus), which is nearly related to the brown-red.

If the red passes into a dusky black, it is called blood-red
{fiangu'meus) ; and a complete similar mixture of pure black
and red produces the black-red {atro-purpiiixu^).

If the clear red has a slight shade of blue, it is called pur-
ple (purpiireus). If the mixture of blue and red is almost
equal, it is called violet-colour (violaceus) ; and the palest
shade of this is lilac Qilacinus).

7. The blue colour (ccdruleiis^ and in Greek compounds
cyaneo-') has as its ground-tone the Berlin-blue {cyaneus),
the most complete state of which is denominated sly-blue
(jazurcus).

The lavender-hXuQ. is a pale blue (c^esius) : it is mixed with
a little grey.

If the blue passes into the reddish, it approaches the violet
colour. It is expressed by the words jrwpureO'Cocr ulcus.

8. Lastly, The gi-cen colour (viridis, and in Greek com-
pounds chloro-) has as its ground-tone llic emcrald-gi*ecn
{sinaragdinus) .

Its varieties are chiefly the celavdine-grccn ; when mixed
with blue (uid arjh grev {bcr'dlus).

B

18 NOMF.NCLA'J'l'Rt:.

Glaucus is a mixture of blue and green. When it is a still
clearer o-reen, it is called aruginosus. Prasinus is a slight
variety of it, with which a little ash-grey is mixed.

A dusky green, mixetl with brown, forms the olive-green

til. The Snifucc of the Parts.

24.

The surface of the parts has sometimes no covering, and'
no })roniinent substances. It is- then called even (Iwvis). A
higher degree of this evenness is denominated &Jiming {niti-
dus. The liig-hest deo:ree, which exhibits the surface a.s a
mirror, is called lueid or splendent (luddus, spkndens) ; and
when there is at the same time a gloss upon the part, it is
said to be veniicosus. Opake {opacns) is the op{X)site of
lucid, as it is also of transparent, (23.)

The want of hairs, or of substances resembling hairs, con-
stitutes the surface smooth (glahei'.) The term mains is also
used, to express the want of hairs or of a covering.

Surfaces that are uniformly even are called ccqualnles:
tiiose that are not uniform, but which have pi ominences and
hollows, although they are at the same time smooth, are-said
to be incequahilcs,

25.

With respect to tlie hairs in particular, they are in general
called pubes, and pubescens denotes a gentle and almost indis-
tinguishable covering of hairs. Soft {mollis^ moIUssimus) is
nearly the same.

If the hairs are soft, somewhat long and bent, the covering
is said to be pilosus ; but it is denominated viUosus or shag-
gy, when the soft hairs stand parallel and erect.

When the hairs, again, have other hairs attached to them,
the idea of plumes is generated (plumosus). In Hieracmm
undulatnm^ Ait. the whole surface is covered with these. lu
Damplera^ R. Br. the hairs of the whole are plumose.

FOR FORMS AND QUALITIES. I9

Pencil-like (penicillatus) is that sort of hair wliicli has its
extremity completely set with small attached hairs. (Tab. I.
Fig. 12.)

When the soft hairs lie thick upon tiie surface, so that
they give it a silky or satiny lustre, it is said to be silky (se-
riceus) .

If the soft hairs are complicated, but yet so that the single
hairs can be distinguished, the covering is said to be woolly
(lanatus, lanuginosus).

Shag (Jomentum)^ and shaggy (tomentosus), denote that
the hairs are so thickly matted together, that the individual
hairs cannot be distinguished. The shag is commonly white
{tomentum album, candidum, niveum) ; frequently it is hoary
{t. canum, incanum) ; less frequently it is rust-coloured
{ferrugmewm) ; and still more rarely it is of a golden colour
{t. aureum).

Tufts (flocci) are short, thick, soft, irregularly hispid hairs,
as they appear upon the leaves of a great many kinds of Ve?'-
hascum^ and upon the corolla of Sccevola.

Stiff, very short hairs, make the surface hispid {hispidus).
When the stiff hairs are somewhat longer, the surface is
said to be rough-haired (Jiii'sutus). When the stiff hairs are
very long, the surface is said to be rigid Qiirtus).

When the stiff hairs stand singly, and resemble bristles,
the surface is said to be bristly (setosus). "When the stiff
hairs spring from a small prominence or knoll, the surface is
said to be strigose {stHgosus).

When hairs, considerably stiff, are crowded together in a
heap, the surface is said to be bearded (barhatm).

Stiff matted hairs form what is called stuppa or tow. The
filaments oi Dianella and Hypandra, R. Br., as also the abor-
tive buds of Acacia imdulata, W. are stuppece.

Small, star-shaped hairs constitute the piibcs stcllata. (Tab.
VI. Fig. 10. ; Tab. VII. Fig. 7.)

A coma is formed when long soft hairs arise from the base
of an organ, especially from the seed. Scmina comosa Ep'i-
lobii^ (Tab. I. Fig. 13.) See another meaning of the term (85.)

B2

20 no^iexci.ati'kt:.

26. '

Besides hairs, there are many other inequalities and rougli-
nesses of the surface.

Thus, the surface is said to be dotted {punctatus) when
fine small hollows or glands are observable on it. But those
transparent points, which do not form any peculiar hollows
on the surface, commonly receive the same aj)})ellation.

When the surface is beset witli such small inetjualities, as
can only be distinguished by the touch, and not by the na-
ked eye, it is said to be scabrous {scaber). Scahenimus cor-
responds with the next definition. In the lichens, a surface
is said to be Icprosus when it is scabrous, somewhat rent,
scaly, but also uniform.

Rough (asper) is the attribute of a surface w hen its inequa-
lities can be distinctly seen. Commonly they pass into short,
stiff hairs, and asperrimus is hence the same with Jiispidus.

Short herbaceous spines make the surface muricated (rni/-
rkatus).

Stiff points, lastly, form the prickly (ecJiinatus) surface.

Small, solid, visible inequalities make the surface granula-
ted {granulatus) ; and when the inequalities are larger, the
surface becomes warty {verrucosus and papillosus). AVhen
the Avarts are evidently filled v^'ixh air or water, the surface is
called ])ustular {papulosus). When they are very hard and
white, the surface is said to be callous {callosus). A coarse
granular substance is called grumose (grwnosa): Xylomtty
stromaia Spha7iaru?n variarum.

If the warts are considerably larger, the surface is denomi-
nated himched (iorosus, torulosus).

^Vhen the inequalities proceed from successive risings and
depressions, the surface is said to be Avrinkled {ingvsus). A
considerable size in these risings makes the surface blistery
(bullatus). If the depressions are nearly parallel or streaked,
as we see them in the seed of the Annwica^ they arc called run-
cinate {runcinatus\ (Tab. I. Fig. 24.) When the depres-
sions resemble small hollows, the surface receives different
names, according to the size and regularity of the hollows.
It ts called porous {poj'osus) when the hollows are indistin-

FOR romiS AXD QUAIJTir.F. 21

guishably small, so that they approach to the doited surface.
When they are larger, the surface is called scrohicidaie (.s'cro^
h'icidatus). When, in the last place, the hollows are conti-
guous, and have a regular structure, the surface is said to be
honeycombed (favosus^ alveolatus).

When the depressions are linear, they are called furroro
(sulci), and the surface is said to be furrowed (sidcatufi).

When the depressions are intersected by raised lines of a
net form, the surface is said to be reticulated (reticulatws)^
(Tab. VTII. Fig. 6, 7.) ; and when these lines run together
into distinct regular squares, tlie surface is called tessellated
(tessellatus). The surface is streaked (lineatus), when paral-
lel straight lines run through it, and are frequently elevated,
and frequently also of \'arious colours.

A part is said to be striated, when fine straight lines, which
project but a little, are seen running longitudinally on it.

Ringed {anmdatus) is commonly applied to a roundish or
tubular body, when it shews small circular prominences and
depressions ; Conferva muralis. If these rings go quite
through the body, like true partitions, the tube is called scp-
tata ; Puccinia, Didymosporium Nees.

Rifted (rimosus), is applied to a surface, when it has small
deep and regular clefts. When these form small fields, these
latter spaces are called areola;, and the surface is said to be
areolata {Lecideafumosa, atro-alba).

A furrowed surface, where the spaces between the furrows
are raised in folds, is said to be folded (plicaius).

Undulated (undidatiis) is a surface which rises and sinks
successively in gentle lines. When this bending and sinking
are very irregular, the surface assumes a crispid appearance,
(crispus).

27.

There are still some other apparently foreign substances,
which form a covering on plants. To these belong

Hoariness (pru'ma), which makes the surface hoary {pruU
nosus). It is a fine, commonly a bluish substance, which is

22 NdMETSCLATUKi:.

exhaled from the juices of the planl itself, and which can
commonly be wiped oft'.

Meal (farina) makes the surface mealy (farinosus)^ and
has a similar origin.

Substances still finer than those form Dust (pulvis), and
make the surface dusty {pulvej'aceiis).

Scales (squairia) are dry membranous substances, which
rise mostly from the surface ; they render it scaly (lejncbtus),
(Tab. VI. Fig. 8.) If they are flat, the surface is called
squaviulosa. If they lie upon one another, and are thickly
placed, we say, as in the lichens, that the surface is globose
{glohosus).

Chaff' (palea) is formed by large, commonly dryand point-
ed, skins, and renders the surface chaffy {paleaceus).

Gluten, which is likewise an exhaled juice, renders the sur-
face more or less glutinous (g-luthiosus-, or vhcosu-s).

IV. Universal Formif.

We here treat of such forms only as belong to all the parts,
and to which all others have a reference.

The completion of a certain form is expressed by the term
ejffiguratus. Thus, it is used with respect to the peristoma
of the mosses, and with respect to the lichens, where, for ex-
ample, in Lecanora fidgens, it expresses the lobed crust of the
margin, in opposition to the granular and uniform crust.

28.

The base of an organ or part refers always to the point,
by which it is inserted, and through which it derives its
nourishment.

The apex is the point or region which is opposed to the
base.

The axis is an imaginary or actual line, which proceeds
from the base to the apex.

The sides (latera) are the parts which lie on botii sides of
the axis

rOJl FOllMS AM) QUAlJTir.S. C3

The surface (pagina) is the extension of a part, and is
commonly divided into the upper and under surface.

The margin (margo) is the boundary which unites tlic two
surfaces. In a more common sense, when any thing is car-
ried from the sides to tliis part, it is called the circumference
or ray (amhitus, radius). That which lies in the circumfe-
rence is called radialis or pcriplie^'icus^ (Tab. I. Fig. 9.0.)
When the margin is perceptibly distinguished by its sub-
stance or colour from tlie central part or disc, the organ is
said to be marginated (margin at t/s)^ as the leaves of Saxifra-
ga aizoon, Bryum marginatum, and the fruits of many of the
lichens, (22.)

Lrmitate (limitatus), is, when the boundary is sharply
marked; as, for instance, in Lecidea g'eographiva, parasema^
and others.

The opposite of runitatus is expressed by ejf'usm^ {Stroma
Sph/eri/e se^pentis.)

The central part of the surface, in opposition to the cir-
cumference, is denominated the disc.^ (discus). But this word
is used equally with respect to leaves and flowers.

The limb (limbiis, or lamina), is used with respect to the
extended surfaces of flowers ; the former term, when the co-
rolla consists of but one petal, the latter, of more than one.

The keel (carina), is the prominent line or ridge on the
under side of a horizontal surface.

Angle (angulus), is the point where two lines or surfaces
meet one another. It is hence applicable as well to the cir-
cumference of the leaves as to the stem and stalk.

The sinus, means the curvilineal indentation between two
projecting angles. It is chiefly used with respect to the mar-
gins of the leaves.

Umbilicus^ is a depressed surface, surrounded by an ele-
vated margin.

Appendage (apophysis), is a smaller body attached to n
greater, which, in the capsules of the IMosscs, is ronmionlv
called i\\c crop, (struma).

24 xomi:nx'I.atuuk.

29.

In order tliat we niav be able to distinguish surfaces exact-
ly, we must attend to the following expressions.

Linear {I'mcarl^ § 16.), is, as was formerly remarked, a
surface uhicli preserves the same small dimensions through-
out, and is every where about the breadth of a geometrical
line.

Orbicular {orh'icidar'is)^ is a surface which has pretty near-
ly the form of a circle. If it deviates more or less from the
circular form, it is called roundish^ {sid)roiundus). The term
rounded {rotundatus) is also used, Avhen one part of the cir-
cumference approaches to the round form.

Ovate {ovaiu.s), is when a surface is rounded at the base,
but tapers towards the apex, and when its length is a little
greater than its l)readth.

Elliptical, or oval, {elUpt'icus, oval'is)^ is when the length
of a surface exceeds its breadth twice or thrice, and it is
cquall}' rounded at both ends. (Tab. VII. Fig. 6.)

Oblong {ohlongus), is a surface, the length of which ex-
ceeds the breadth more than three times, and which has its
ends variously defined. (Tab. VIII. Fig. 2. 5.)

Lanceolate {lanceolatus)^ is a surface which tapers gradual-
ly towards its apex, and is of considerable length.

Spathulate {spatlndatu.s), when a surface is rounded at the
apex, and tapers towards the base.

W^edge-shaped {amcaUis^ or cuneiformls), denotes proper-
ly a surface which terminates in a right line at the apex, and
tapers towards the base. It is usual also, without regarding
the apex, to designate this tapering alone, under the name of
the xvedgc-shapcd.

Tongue-shaped {lingulatu.s)^ or band-shaped {Ugulutus)^
denotes a surface of some length, with blunt ends, and paral-
lel sides.

Sword-shaped {cnsifoi'mi.s), is an oblong surface, one mar-
gin of which is hollowed, and the opposite one is elevated.

Sickle-shaped (Jalcatns)^ is a curved surface, one part of
which remains straight.

FOR FORMS AND QUALFIIKS. 25

Obovate {ohova(us), is tlic ovate form reversed, -with round-
ed apex, tapering base, and liaving the length but a little
more than the breadth. This form passes into the fan-shaped
(flahell'iformis)^ when the apex is much extended, and con-
vex.

Triangular (trlanrrular'ifi)^ is a surface, the sides of which
are nearly right-lined, and which meet in three angles.

Rhomboidal {rhombokleus), is a square moved forward, as
it were, at the top. Trapezoidal (trapezo'ideiis), is a surface,
the sides of which meet in four unequal angles.

Pandurse-form {pandiiraformls), is an oblong surface hav-
ing both its sides cut into a sinus. (Tab. VI. Fig. 9.)

Heart-shaped {cordatus)^ is when a surface is hollowTd at
the base, when this hollowing is rounded off at the sides, and
the apex tapers. The opposite is obcordaiiis, when the apex
of a surface has a heart-shaped hollowing and rounding-off,
and the base is tapered.

Kidney-shaped {rcn'iformh), is a surface of which the apex
is very broad and flat, the sides much rounded, and the base
emarginated.

Half-moon-shaped {semilunaius, lunulatus)^ is properly a
higher degree of the kidney-shaped, when the sides are drawn
to some length, and the apex is commonly sloped.

Arrow-shaped (sagittatus), when the sides terminate in two
straight-lined pointed lobes at the base ; and when these lobes
are sloped outwards, the surface is said to be spear-shaped,
{hastatus).

30.

When we attend not merely to the surfaces, but to the
substance of the organs, we make use of the following ex-
pressions.

Fleshy (carnosus), when a part is considerably thick and
soft, and has a fleshy consistence.

Membranaceous {memhranaccus), denotes the thin, but
commonly also the coloured character of the part.

Scariose (scariosus), when the membranes arc destitute of
sap, and commonly discoloured.

C(i XO.MKNCLATUKE.

Chartaceous (cfmrtaceus), is a firmer variety of the fornier,
as in tlie fruit-cover of the Notola^na, Vcnten.

Inflated {infatus), wlicn a part has thin extended sides,
and is internally hollow. Calyx inflatus Silenes Hermannin? ;
Faux hnjlata Dracocephah. An inferior degree of tliis is ven-
tricose, {ventricosu^i).

Crustaceous {critstaceiis^JragWhs)^ when a part is dry, and
is composed of small pieces or scales ; as in the Peridiae of
Physarum, and the fruits of Lcucopogon, R- Br.

Dry (cvsTiccus), is used chiefly with regard to fruits, and is
opposed to juicy, (pulposus^ or ,succulcntus).

Bony (osseus), or stony {lapideiis)^ denote the highest de-
gree of hardness ; as in the fruit of Scleria, Lithospermum,
Styphelia, and Ventenatia, Cav.

Cartilaginous {cartilagineus)^ is an inferior degree of hard-
ness, but which still allows the parts to be separated witli dif-
ficulty ; as the margins of many leaves, and the albuminous
parts of seeds.

Cork-like {suherosus), and spongy (spongiosiis)^ explain
themselves.

Leathery (coriaceiis), expresses the union of a certain de-
gree of hardness vnth elasticity, as in many leaves, and in the
corolla of many Styraceae.

Horny (corneus), is something harder than the cartihigi-
nous. It is applicable chiefly to seeds.

If we attend to the substantial configuration of the Organs,
we employ the following expressions.

A part is said to be round (teres, cijl'indriais), of whicli
the section is more or less circular. From the gradations of
this form, there arise the ideas of half-round {scmitere.s), and
roundish (teretktscidus). If the cylindrical body is very fine,
it is ca]\ed capillaceous (capHl(wcu.s\ 16.), or fil'iform, (JU'i-
formis) ; in which last case, the thickness may be somcw hat
greater, and the section does not always exhibit a circle.

Compressed {romprcS'ms)^ when the body has two flat sur-
faces, which meet in projecting angles. AV'hen these angle^

roil FOJi.MS AXi) QUA LIT IKS. 2?

are acute, and the surfaces parallel, the body is said to be
tivo-edged {cinceps).

Depressed {depressus)^ when the surface or centre of a body
is sunk : this, therefore, corresponds with the navel-form.

Gibbous (gibhus), when a section of the body displays ele-
vations of its surface in particular parts. The simple swelling
up of a body is expressed by tumidus.

When a section of the body displays angles, and we do not
pay any particular attention either to their ninnber or regu-
larity, the body is said, generally, to be angular {angulatus).
AVhcn the angles are acute, and the surfaces flat, the part is
said to be three-sided (triqucter), four-sided {tetraqueter).
When the angles are obtuse, and the surfaces even, the part
is called three-edged {trigonus)^ four-edged {tetragonus)^
five-edged (pentagonus), and so forth. When the sides are
sunk, we are accustomed, without regard to the acuteness or
obtusencss of the angles, to say, triangularis, quadrangula-
rlSf quinquangtdaris, and so on.

Deltoid (dcltoideus), when a section of the body is three-
sided, and when the body itself is not much longer than
broad.

Prismatic (prismatiais), when the body is somewhat long,
and, along with flat surfaces, has a considerable number of
angles.

Spherical (globosus, globulosus, spharicus, sphaermdeus),
when the body approaches more or less to the shape of a
sphere. Hemispherical (heinispharmis), when the body has
the form of a divided sphere.

An indefinite elevation is expressed by convexus', and the
opposite, the flat condition of a body, by planus, (44.)

Pear-shaped (piriformis), when the body has a thick, but
expanded summit, and tapers gradually towards the base.
To this is nearly related the turbinated shape (tu?'binatus).
In this case, the summit is commonly truncated, and the base
gradually tapers. This also is the form which is sometimes
called the reversed conical (pbconicus).

Conical (conicus), on the contrary, is when the section of
I he body is round, its apex tapering, and its base truncated.

il^ ^rOMENXLATURE.

pyramidal {pijramklatus^ pyj-amidaUfi), wlien tlie section
of the body is angular, its apex tapcrinf]r, and its base trun-
cated. A variety of" this is the mitrc-shapcd {mitrcrfonnh)^
resembling a niglit-cap ; which form is very common in the
calvptra? of Mosses, and is opposed to the obliquely-cut form,
(calyptra d'lm'id'icUa).

We arc also accustomed to derive the appellations of bodies
from their resemblance to various substances. Hence the
rule, That objects, either natural or artificial, which are sel-
dom met with, or, at least, which are not universally known,
ought not to be employed in comparing bodies. The most
usual expressions scarc^ely need anv more particular explana-
tion.

Mammillated {niammUlatus)^ is commonly a hemispherical
body, with a small wart upon its top.

Urceolate {itrceolatus), when the body is expanded at both
ends, and contracted in the mitldle. (Tab. II. Fi^. 16. Tab.
III. Fig. 12.)

Cotyloid {coft/lokleu.s), when the body is depressed in the
centre, and elevated at the margin. (Tab. V. Fig. 12.) A
slighter degree of this figure is called saucer-shaped (scutelli-
Jorm'is)^ a higher degree cup-shaped {scyphrformis)^ or cupola-
shaped {ci(pulatus). When the surface is scarcely concave,
it is called plate-shaped {pateU'iformls). This passes into the
disc-sliapcd (disciformis).

Lenticular (Icntkularis), is a body depressed both on the
\ipper and lower surface, and of which the circumference is
round. This is called shield-shaped^ when the upper surface
is raised, and the lower somewhat hollow. The higher degree
of the shield-shaped passes into the meniscoid {memsco'ideus).

The spiral form {trochlearis)^ I'esembles a screw, as in the
capsules of Helicteres. (See Spired is, § 37.)

SpindU^-shaped (fus/formis), is the conical form reversed,
with the lower end drawn out into a fine tapering form. But
we must distinguish this fro\n ft(sinns^ which denotes a cy-
linder, which t.-qx^rs at both ends. (Tab. 1. Fig. 31.)

FOR FORMS AND QUALITIES. 1>9

Capitate (capital us)^ when the bociy has a round thick end,
or is of a roundish stalk shape.

Cap-shaped {pileatus, jy'ilcjformis). This form is derived
from the capitate, when the top is expanded, or has a margin
which hangs down. A still greater expansion of the cap con-
stitutes the umbrella form {umhraculiformis). Necklace-
sliaped {monil'ifonms), denotes the connection of round or
oval bodies by threads, as in a necklace, — Acrosporium, An-
tennaria, Nees : Legumen Parkinsonian.

Club-shaped {clavatus) is when the body has a thick apex,
and a gradually tapering base.

Awl-shaped (.siibidatu.'iy, when a round body tajx;rs conical-
ly towards the point, and becomes extremely line.

Scobiform {scohrformis)^ as the fine long seeds of Lepto-
spermum and the Orchidia;.

Scymitar-shaped {acmacrfoi'mis)^ when a body, having com-
monly a section with three sides, has also a long projecting
edge, and a thick back.

Axe-shaped (dolabriformis), when the body is compressed,
rounded, obtuse, and becoming gibbous towards the apex.

Crested {ciistatus), when the body has erect, rough points.
Coiiib-shaped (pectinahis), on the other hand, is when a body
has its parts deeply cut, parallel to one another, and lying m
the same plane, (Tab. VI. Fig. 12.)

Pillow-shaped (^pulvinatus)^ when several individuals or
parts are so pressed together, that they form an eminence, a
small hill, or pillow.

Wing-shaped or winged {alatus), when the body has mem-
branous appendages on both sides, which go out from it in
the manner of wings. Semina alata Gladioli, (Tab. I. Fig. 19.)

Arched (fo7'7iicatus), when the body is concave on the un-
der side, but on the upper side is raised and arched. See
the upper lips of many of the Labiata?.

^- 32.

With respect to the cavities which are found in bodies,
many expressions have at different times been em])loyed to
denote them ; here we notice only the followino-.

30 NOMF.XC'LATUllE.

Concave (coiicaxyus), when one surface of tlie body is de-
pressed. A higher degree of this depression is denominated
hooded {cuculatus).

When the hollowing is performed in a straight line, and a
section of it is hemispherical, it is said to be channelled (cana-
ricidatufi).

AVhen the hollowing is continued throughout a considerable
length, and it shews an angular section, it is called boat*
shaped or Iccel-fihapcd {navicidatus^ and carinatus).

AVhen a body is hollow throughout its whole length, it is
called tuhc-sliapcd (tubidosi/.s, fistuloms). When the lower
and narrow part of the tube is gradually stretched into a very
wide circumference, the funnel-shape is produced {iJifundibu-
li/brmh).

Bell-shaped {campanidatus, campanifrn'mis), when the in-
terior hollow channel is closed at one end, and is somewhat
narrower in that part than at the other, where it is open and
expanded.

When a narrow tube passes suddenly into a somewhat de-
pressed margin, but raised in the middle, it is said to be sal-
ver-shaped.

If the tube is so short, that it is scarcely attended to, but
the rim is very flat and expanded, the body is said to be
wheel-shaped.

If the tube is bent, pointed at one end, and expanded at
the otlier, it is said to be pnjboscis-shaped {prohosddeus). To
this belongs the shut and self opening cavity of some or-
gans {pars clausa et dcMscens). If the opening is very small
and round, it is said to be periusus^ as the fruit of Endocar-
pon tephroides. A small hollowing in the base is said also to
Ix* iwcidptus^ as in the seeds of the Anchusa.

V. Insertion, or Relative Position.

33.

The position of organs, or of their parts, is a vei'y variable
expression, which may be referred to several kinds of charac-

FOK FOH.MS AND QUALITIES. 31

ters, 1. We may consider the situation of parts, in reference
to the things whicli surround tliem. We thus call them
Jtoating\ submersed, buried. Of these we shall speak on an-
other occasion. 2. We may consider the situation of a part,
in relation to the organ which lies under it. This is called
tlie insertion {hisertio), which is either mediate or immediate.
Tlie mediate insertion supposes an intervening substance, by
which means a kind of articulation is produced. Such an in-
sertion, we observe, for instance, in the labia of some of the
Orchidea^, as in Dendrobium, Sw.

When we mean to signify, generally, that one organ rises
out of another, or is inserted on it, we form a derivative from
the name of the organ which serves as its support. We thus
say, radicaiis, caulinus, rameuSy petiolaris. These denote
that which springs from the root, from the stem, the branches,
or the leaf-stalks, or which is inserted on them ; Flores pe-
tiolares of Turn era cuneiform is, (Tab. V. Fig. 12.) We al-
so sometimes form words from the names of both the organs,
— from that which is inserted, and that which serves as tlie
support. We thus say calyciflorus, calycostemon, (when
the filaments spring from the calyx) ; gynandrus, (when the
anthers are set upon the pistillum) ; rhizanthus^ thalamic
JioruSy (when the flower is set on the receptacle.)

We also use the prepositions ep'i and hypo, to denote more
precisely the insertion. We thus say, epipetahis, liypophyh
lus, and so forth. Lastly, [the expressions dorsalis, lateralis,
basilaris, terminalis, are important. We signify by them
that an organ is inserted,, on the back, on the sides, on the
base, or on the summit.

We also attend to the situation, as it is in the centre, or
in the axis, (centralis, axilis), or out of the centre {excentri-
cus) ; and also to the tendency towards the centre, or from
the centre, (centrifugus, centripetus) ; which terms are espe-
cially employed respecting the situation of the cmbryon, and
its radicle in the albuminous substance.

32 XOMKXCLA'l riiK.

AVc may consider the insertion or situation of an organ, in
regard to tlie other parts by m hicli it is surrounded. AVe
thus say that a part is inierior {i}/fi'7U6), Avhen it is placed be-
low another. If this is the case -with the calyx, in respect oi"
the ovarium, it is said to be free {I'lhcr). But if the ovarium
is inferior, in respect of the rim of the calyx, it is then united
with the tube of the calyx. In this latter case, the calyx is
superior ; in the former instance, it is the ovarium. Tab. VIII.
Fig. 6, 7, the fruit is superior, the calvx inferior. Sec also in
Tab. VI. Fig. 13.

We are also accustomed to distinguish between mtrafoUa'
ecus and cxircifoliaceus. The latter term is used, ibr ex-
ample, respecting flower-stalks, which have no relation of po-
sition to the leaf-stalks, as happens in many kinds of Sola-
num. We also say of the stipula3 or appendages of the
leaves, that they are stipula hitrapeliolares, when they ap-
pear within the leaf-stalk. Flower-stalks are called ^;r^io/o5
opposite folios^ w^hen they spring opposite to the leaf-stalks, or
the leaves ; while, on the contrary, their usual oiigin is in
the axis of the leaves {axillaris).

Supra and irifra arc used respecting surfaces, st/peritc and
■infcrnt respecting lines. The former are also used respect-
ing the sui-faccs of the leaves ; the latter, respecting the stalks,
to denote their upper or lower part. Utrinque is used in both
senses : it may thus denote the two surfaces of the leaves, or
it may also mean the summit and base of the leaf

Sursum denotes a direction upwards, towards the summit ;
for which purpose we also employ anirorsum : the opposite
of which are retrorsiim, dcorstim. Panicum viride has its
involucella f<in\'!um and V. verticillatum dcorsum lusp'ula.
Valantia Apariney6Z?a antrorsum, Galium Aparine rctrorsum
nculcata. Antlcus and posticus, denote position before or be-^
liind another part. AVe also use anterior and posterior. In
Cryptostylis, the labellum is^06'/k7/7?? ,- in Genoplesiuni, Br.
the galea is antica.

FORMS AND QUALITIES. 33

35.

The position and insertion of the sexual parts, in relation
to one another, is of more importance, frequently difficult to
investigate, and by no means uniform. In general, we call the
stamina hypogyna, when, as in the Grasses, (Tab. III. Fig. 7.)
they rise from a lower surface than the female parts. Stamina
perigyna are those which spring from the same plane with
the female parts; (Tab. VIII. Fig. 4. Tab. III. Fig. 24,
Tab. IV. Fig. 14.) Commonly the former are united with
the corolla, pass downwards along with it, and thus show their
origin to be in the same plane with the female parts. But in
many of the Caryophylleae, one half of the stamina, in the
same plant, are hypogyna., the other hsM pei^igyna. In Silene,
Cerastium, Dianthus, and Saponaria, five stamina stand on
the receptacle, and therefore deeper than the ovarium : but the
other five are connected with the petals of the corolla, and
may be considered as perigyna.

Lastly, we call those stamina, or anthers, epigyna, which,
as in Cleone and in the Gynandriatae, are united with the
pistil, or with the columna gcnitalium ; (Tab. IV. Fig.
10—12.)

36.

With respect to the position of organs of the same kind,
we must attend to the following expressions.

Parts are said to be opposita, when they rise opposite to
one another, or lie directly before one another. In the former
sense, the word is used respecting leaves which spring from
opposite sides of the stem. In its latter acceptation, it is
commonly used respecting the petals of the corolla, in so far
as they stand directly before the leaves of the calyx ; or re-
specting the stamina, in so far as they stand directly before
the parts of the corolla. We also say that the partition of a
capsule is opposite (dissepimentum contrarium or opposihcm),
when it is placed perpendicularly to the valves of the capsule.
On the other hand, the partition is parallel, when, arising out
of the suture of the valves, it has the same direction with
them, (Tab. VII. Fig. 6.)

C

->* No:\n:xci.ATri?E.

Star-like (vcrticUlata^ .stellata)^ when several pai'ts in the
same plane, and with different direction^;, seem to rise from
tlie same }X)int.

Decussated {di'cussatu s) . The direction of organs is thus
designated, when, standing under or above one another, they
form with each other a right angle.

Cross-like (crudatus or crucifbrmis). This, on the other
hand, consists in the direction towards four opposite sides of
parts which lie in a horizontid plane.

Doubled {gemrnus or geminatus), when parts, which are
distinct, yet stand in the immediate neighbourhood of each
other.

Three-together (tomus), when the parts stand by threes in
the same plain. We perceive from this the meaning also of
quatermis, quhius^ &c.

37.

Alternate {aliernus^ alternans), when the parts either are
inserted, like steps, on the two opposite sides, or at least
when they stand not directly before, but between other parts.
The former occurs in leaves, the latter in the situation of the
petals of the corolla with respect to the divisions of the calyx,
or of the stamina with respect to the parts of the corolla.

Two-rowed {dlstichu.s), when, without regard to the oppo-
site or alternate insertion, the planes of the parts lie in one
surface.

On the other hand, we use the phrase in tzco dircctmis {bi-
fariam), when any property is observed on opposite sides,
with the same character. Thus, we say that the stalk of Ve-
ronica Chamaedrys is hifaiiam pilosus, because a line of hairs
springs from both sides of it. Thus, also, we say that the
leaves of Lycopodium complanatinn are hjfarlam connata,
lx?cause they grow in two opposite directions. We hence
perceive what is meant by quadrifarlam (in I.yco})odium al-
pinum), qiunquefariam (in Lycopodium annotinum), sexfu'
r'lavi (in Lycopodium dendroideum). It is thus said, respect-
ing the fruit of Nicotiana, Capsula ap'icc quadi^lfartam de-
hisce ns.

FOR FORMS AND QITALITIES. 35

In rows (serialis), when the parts follow one another, in a
certain order or train. We hence understand what is meant
by bi- and tri-seriatus.

Spiral (spiralis), when the parts form a spiral line around
the common axis ; (Tab. III. Fig. 25, Tab. V. Fig. 1.)
TrocJdearis is the same (13.), only applied to solid bodies.
Gyrosiis is used respecting level surfaces, as respecting the
fruit of Lichens.

Rose-like {rosaceus, or rosaceo-congestus), when the parts,
by their crowded position, form rosettes, as the leaves of
Bryum roseum and Alyssum nebrodense, (Tab. VII. Fig. 5.)

Radiated (radiatus and radians), when the parts are
placed like the spokes of a wheel.

38.

If no order be observed in the position of the parts with
respect to one another, they are called sparse (sparsa). If,
in addition to this, they are thickly placed, they are said to
be crowded (con/erta, or congesta). But the parts are called
aggregate, when several of them rise from one point : Intri-
cate (intricatus), when the parts are so heaped together that
their origin and direction are altogether undistinguishable ;
Hyplia Sporotrichi, Lin.

If they do not originate in exactly one point, but spring up
in the neighbourhood of each other, they are then said to be
fasciculated (fascicidata)\ and conglomerated (conghmerata),
when they have no peculiar support, but touch one another.

We also apply the expression compact (coarctatus), when
the parts, without regard to their origin, stand thick together.
We use also the word turf-like (caspitosus), respecting stalks^
or branches, which seem to stand thick together, and to grow
from one point.

When plants grow in distinct patches, they are called gre--
garitp, in opposition to soUtaria.

Parts are contiguous (contiguus), when their margins seem
to meet each other. Continuous {contimms), is a part which
seems to be one with some other part, or it is an individual
organ which goes on without interruption.

C 2

36 NOMENCLATURE.

Connivent (cojinivcns), when the parts, without being
connected, arc yet bent towards one another, as, for instance,
the anthera? of Cyphia serrata; (Tab. VIII. Fig. 3.)

Incumbent {inciimbens), when a part rests upon the sur-
face of another part, without being united with it, as the ra-
dicle on the cotyledons of Erysimum liieracifolium ; (Tab. I.
Fig. 33.) On the contrary, accumbent (accumhens)^ is used
when a part is placed upon the sharp edge of another, as the
radicle on the margin of the cotyledons of Shiapis nigra;
(Tab. I. Fig. 34.)

39.

The opposite of proximity is expressed by the terms distant
{dh'tans), remote {remotiis). Rare {rarus) is the opposite of
coiifertiis : Lax {laocus), the opposite of coardatus ; and a
higher degree of the former, when the pai-ts hang loosely
downwards in all directions, is commonly denominated diffw-
sus and flaccidus.

The opposite of contiguous is discrete (discrctus) ; (Tab.
VIII. Fig. 3. 4.)

40.

When one part is placed immediately upon another, it is,
in general, said to be sessile {scssilis). But of this there are
several varieties.

One part may form a joint with another ; it is then said to
be articulated {artkidatus) . It may grow along with it
(con?iatus)y or it may have a general connection with it (co-
lifrirns). When plain surfaces pass into one another, they
are said to be confluent (conjluentes')^ as in the IVuit of Li-
chens.

When one organ, with its lower surface, embraces an-
other, it is called amplexans, whence Folia amplexicaulia ;
and when this lower surface extends itself in the shape of
a saddle on both sides, the organ is called rkUng {cqii'itam).
When it descends, in the form of a sheath, around the other
body, it is called vag'inans.

When one organ is sunk into another, it is said to be im-

FOR FOllMS AND QUALITIES. 37

mersed {immersus)^sis the fruits of many Lichens ; or becldud
and nestUng (nidulatis^, as the seeds of the Melastonia in the
pulp of the berry.

When, along with the immersion, it projects a little, it is
called emergens, as the fruit of Lecidea lithyrga, from the
crust. When a part projects a little, without being directly
immersed, it is called prominultLS ; Nervi foliorum suhtus
proviinuli.

When a part of one organ runs downwards on the surface
of another, it is said to be decurrent (decurrens).

When leaves grow in such a manner around the stem, or
leaf-stalk, that they seem to constitute one substance with
them, they are called perfoliate {perjvliata)^ as in Lonicera
caprifolium, Bupleurum rotundifolium, and Jungermannia
coalita. Hook. (Mus. Exot. ii. t. 123.)

When several parts which are sessile, partly cover each
other, they are called imbricated {imhi'icatus).

When a part has a stalk, this is variously denoted, hy pe-
tiolatus, in leafy parts ; by pedunculatus and pedicellatus', in
blossoms and fruits ; and by stipitatus, in other parts.

Peltated (peltatus), is a part which has its stalk in the
centre, and not on the margin.

Versatile (versatilis), is a part which rests in such a man-
ner on the point of another, that it is inserted in one point
only, and is easily put in motion ; for instance, the anthera)
of the Grasses and other plants.

When one part is so loosely bound to another, that it is
held only by one small point or thread, but in every other
part is loose, it is called basi solutus, as the leaves of Sedum
reflexum, saxatile. The opposite of this is adnatus, as in the
leaves of Seduni se:j:angulare.

VI. Direction of the Parts,

41.

The relation of organs, with respect to the horizoq, is tjicir
direction.

:J8 NOMEXCLATURi:.

A part is called straight, when it proceeds in a straight
line. Upright (erect u^), when it stands more or less perpen-
dicular to the horizon. The higher degree of the straight
direction Is called stiff' {strictus), in which case a geometrical
straight line nearly is described.

Rigid, on the other hand, (r'lgidus), is a part which is in-
flexible, without having necessarily the straight direction.

The opposite of tlie straight direction is the bent (Jiexu-
osus), when the direction is removed on one side or the other
from the straight line, (Tab. VI. Fig. 11.) To this belong
the sul^ordinate definitions, crooked (infractus), when one or-
gan takes suddenly the opposite, or a quite different direc-
tion ; geniculated {geniculatus), when an organ changes
its direction, so as to form something like a knee ; twisted
(tortus, tortUis), when an organ is twisted round itself, or
changes its direction in a variety of ways, (Tab. II. Fig. 13.)
Tortilis denotes the capability, tortus the fixed convolution.

Twining (voIubiUs), when a part winds itself in a spiral
line around another part ; in which case, we observe whether
it is turned to the right or left side (dexti'ors^tm or sinistror^
sum). The former happens in Bryonia and Lonicera peri-
clymenum, the latter in Calystigia sepiuni. When a part is
twisted upon itself, it is said to be snail-shaped (cocJdeaius),
(Tab. I. Fig. 25.) ; and we attend then to the individual
turnings (anfractus).

When a part clings fast to another, and bends this way
and that, but without going round, it is called climbing
(scand^ns).

42.

The dii-ection, which is parallel to the horizon, is called
horizontal {horizontalis, patentissimus), in opposition to the
perpendicular direction {verticalis). That which makes an
angle with both lines, the perpendicular and the horizontal,
is called oblique {obliquus). But this is subject to tlie follow-
ing varieties.

When one organ simply approaches so near to another.

FOR iUKMS AND QUALITir-S. 39

that it has aJniost the siime direction with it, it is hiiid to ho
appressus.

When the upriglit direction is left {crectus), and the part
comes more towards the horizontal line, the direction is then
said to be spreading {patulus, patens), as in the branches of
Hirtelkglandulosa; (Tab. VII. Fig. 1.)

In this case, an angle of about 45'^ witli the horizon and
with the perpendicular is described. But we may continue
to call the direction upright, although there should be 5^0** of
variation from the perpendicular.

Divaricated (divaricatus), Avhen the direction is interme-
diate between the spreading and the horizontal, and even the
horizontal is frequently so named. But squarrose( sqicarro-
sus), is usually taken in a different sense, when parts, wliich
lie thick upon one another, raise their upper extremities on all
sides.

Diver gens expresses the varying direction in general ; in
particular, it is often taken for patent'issimus. AVhen long
branches diverge, and are divided in a forked manner, they
are said to be arm-shaped {brachiatus).

When a part is bent with its point towards tlie horizontal
line, it is said to be stooping or nodding {cemuus, nutans).
The latter is a higher degree of the former, and the direction
really changes then into the horizontal.

When an organ, especially a stem, lies upon the ground,
it is said to be procumbent (procumbeiis). When it is first
somew^hat upright, and then is turned down, it is called de-
cumbent {decumbens). When it is quite horizontal, it is said
to be prostrate [prostratus). To this order belong also the
terms creeping (repens), and rooting {radicans) ; (Tab. VI.
Fig. 12.)

An organ is called ascending (ascendens), when its lower
part lies flat, but its upper part is erect; (Tab. VI. Fig. 12.)

That which lies under the earth, is said to be liypogcms,
as the cotyledons of the Walnut and Horse-chesnut ; epigaius
is that which comes up above the ground, as the other coty-
ledons.

40 NOMENCLATUKE.

43.

When the direction is downwards, and under the horizon-
tal Hne, it is called pendulcnis {pendulus) when we refer to
the points of the part ; it is called rejiex {reflexus^ reclinatus^
and deflexus), when the direction of a part amounts to about
45° under the horizontal line.

Bent downwards {declinatu^), is when a part is bent to-
wards the horizon.

Inverted (hiversus), when the upper part becomes the
lower ; as when, for example, the embryo in the seed stands
with its radicle upwards. To this belongs also the reversed
direction {resupinatus)^ when the part which commonly is
uppennost, is found undermost. Thus the flowers are said
to be resupinate, when in the Labiatae the staminae are forced
down, and the lower lip has the form of the upper ; and in
the Leguminosae, when the vexillum, which on other occa-
sions forms the upper part, becomes the lower.

When the dii'ection of the parts is altogether to one side,
it is said to be partial {seamdus, liomomallus, lieteromallus).
When a property or form of an organ is observed only on
one side, this is expressed by Mnc ; Capsula hinc gibba.

44.

Something has been already said (26.) respecting the direc-
tion of surfaces ; but we find it necessary to mention the fol-
lowing particulars, as properly belonging to this depart-
ment.

Complicated {complicatus)^ when a part is folded into it-
self. Cwiduplicatus expresses the longitudinal folding; to
which belongs the term runcinatus (26.), only this term is
employed in a special sense.

Bent-back (revoluius), Avlien the margin or surface of a
part is rolled outwards or downwards ; (Tab. II. Fig. 14.)

Involute (involutus), when the surface or margin of a part
is bent inwards. Obvolute, when the parts are rolled round
one another. Convolute is nearly what we have already call-
ed snail-shaped; (Tab. I. Fig. 35., Tab. VII. Fig. 4.) This

roll FORMS AND QUALITIES. 41

is also called circimiatus, when we speak of threads and fine
tubes.

The opposite of all the various bendings is plain or evefi
(planus'), (30.)

VII. Simplicitf/, or Composition of the Parts.

45.

A part is called simple (simplea:), either when it is not di-
vided into separate parts, or when it proceeds without inter-
ruption ; or, lastly, ; when it has certain subordinate parts
placed only in one row.

Simple stalks are thus opposed to the branched ; simple
lines to those that are articulated ; simple covers, or calyces,
to the double or threefold, as also to the scaly.

46.

With respect to composition, we remark the following kinds
in the leaves.

A leaf is said to be compound (compositum), when it con-
sists, generally, of several distinct parts, which have a com-
mon stalk, or point of insertion. A simple leaf may be
deeply lobed, without being on that account compound, pro-
vided the substance of the leaf is still united in the base.
Hence there are transitions from the folium palmatum, or
hand-shaped, to the finger-shaped or digitatum. When two
leaves stand together on a common leaf-stalk, they are said to
be binate {hinatum^j or conjugate (jconjugatum), as in the
genus Zygophyllum. When three of them stand on a com-
mon leaf-stalk, the leaf is said to be ternate (jternatum), as in
clover. When there are five, they form the quinate leaf {qui^
natum). When there are seven, they form the septinate
leaf (septinatum). The two latter are said to be fingered
(digitatum).

42 XOMKXCLATURE.

47.

A leaf is called pinnated (pinnatian), when it consists of
several distinct leaves, which spring along the sides of a com-
mon leaf-stalk; (Tab. VI. Fig. 11.) The common leaf-
stalk is called the pctiohis communis, as also the axis and
rachis.

Pinnated leaves are classed according to the position of the
individual leaflets (pinnae). When these stand opposite to
one another {opposite pinnata), they are reckoned by pairs
(jugum), and the leaves are said to be two-paired, three-
paired, four-paired, and so forth {bl- tri- quadri-juga). At
other times, however, the leaflets alternate with one another
{alternatim pinnata). If the summit of the whole leaf termi-
nate with an unpaired leaflet, it is then said to be impari-piiv-
natum : when there is no unpaired leaf on the point, th(j leaf
is said to be abruptly pinnated (abrupte pinnatum).

When, between the proper side-leaves, smaller leaflets are
placed alternately, the whole leaf is said to be interrupted-
ly pinnate (jnter7upte pinnatum), as in Agrimonia Eupato-
ria. When the side-leaves run into one another, the leaf is
called decursivdy pinnate ^decursivl pinnatum), as in Sca-
biosa alpina.

48.

When the common leaf-stalk is divided in two parts, it is
said generally to be doubly compound (decompositum) ; and
when the division of the leaf-stalk is threefold, it is said to be
sup>er decompound {supra decompositum), as in Peucedanum
oflicinale.

Doubly pinnated (bipinnatum), is a leaf, of which the com-
mon axis is again set forth with pinnated leaves, as in Athy-
rium Filix fccmina. The leaves of the first order are then
caWed pinna, oy Jbliola partialia ; the leaves of the second or-
der pinnulcE oxfoliola propria.

Triply pinnate {triplicato-pinnatum or iripinnatuni), is a
leaf of which the common axis has a threefold subdivision.

FOR FORMS AND (iUALlTlES. 43

49.

The divisions of the Nerves of the leaves also belong to this
department.

Nerves, in general, are those visible continuations of the
leaf-stalk, or of the point of insertion, whici take place through-
out the length of the leaf The lateral branches of the nerves
are called Veins, which thus never run parallel with the axis,
but always form an angle with it.

When the nerve is divided at the base, we name the leaf
according to the number of the nerves, three-nerved, five-
nerved (tri-nervium, quinque-nervium) ; but when the side-
branches of the principal nerves do not spring directly from
the base, but arise first a little above it, so that they have
some of the substance of the leaf under them, the leaf is then
said to be triple-nerved, quintnple-nerved (trrpli- qumtupH-
nervium).

The veins and nerves often anastomose, or they are united
by side-branches {Vena anastomosantes, Anastornoses vena^
runi). In the Ferns this is particularly observed.

The Nerves are seen to have leafy processes (nervi lamel-
lati), in Gymnostomum ovatum, (Tab. IV. Fig. 9.) ; in Po-
lytrichum laevigatum Wahlenb., angustatum Brid. tenuirostri
Hook., and in some other mosses.

Tlie nerves are said to be excurrent {excurrentes), when
they go on to the apex. The opposite ai'e interrupted nerves
(jiervi ad medium, ad § evanidi). Some also employ the
phrase. Folia ruptinervia.

As the leaf-stalk commonly passes into the central nerve,
and two other nerves place themselves on the sides of it,
three and five nerved leaves are therefore the most conmion.
Two-nerved leaves appear almost only in the mosses, and
most distinctly in Neckera affinis. Hook. (Muse. Exot. ii.
t. 122.)

50.

In the division of branches and of stalks, the forked-shape
is the most common (rami, peduncidi dichotomi). In this

4)4 XOMKXCI.ATUllE.

case they are always divided into two. In the branches of the
Unibelhv, the first division is expressed by dichotcnnus, the
second by b'lfidus. Also i^eduncuU, rami trichotomi are not
unfrequent ; for instance, in the panicle of some of the
species of Avena.

A simple forked division is expressed by furcatiis.

51.

With respect to the iminterrupted continuation of an or-
gan, we find its simplicity subject to the following alterations
and reverses. We have already remarked (38.), that when
a part ))roceeds uninterruptedly forward, it is called cont'inuus.
In the Confervae, there are contracted parts (jstricturcE), which
are exceptions to this simplicity ; (Tab. V. Fig. 10.) In the
stem and branches there are knots (iiodi)^ swellings produced
by a crowding of substance, and which contain within them-
selves the means of increase. On the base of the leaf-stalk
also {Osteospermum moniliferuvi)^ similar knots appear.

When no indentation takes place at the margin of the
part, we have the idea of smooth-margined {integer rimiis)^
in which case there is thus also no interruption of the pro-
gress in a line.

Indentations of the margin are caused by teeth, notches,
and cirrhi.

Teeth are, in general, pointed projections on the margin.
The rim is called dentated (dentatus), when there are in-
terstices between these pointed projections ; but when the
teeth run into each other, the rim is said to be serrated (ser-
ratus)- Forms of nearly the same kind are, denticulated
(denticulatus), and serrulated {serridatus), (Tab. VIII. Fig.
3.) ; as also, coarsely dentated {grosse denta fits'), deeply,
unequally, equally, doubly, and obsoletely dentated (pro-
fimde, inaqualiter, aquaUter, duplicato, and obsolete denta-
tus). AVe say also, equally, unequally, sharply, hooked,
connivent, doubly, obsoletely serrated (regualifer, infpquali-
ter, argute, uncinato, connivcnti, dupUcato, obsolete s.er-
ruins).

FOR FORMS AND QUALITIES. 45

Notches are blunt rounded teeth. The margin is called
crenated (crenatus), when it has indentations of this sort.
Varieties of the crenated are \\\q fmely-crcnated {cremdatus),
and the crcnated-dentated (crenato-dcntatus)^ when the notch
is not completely rounded, but is not properly pointed.

Cilia are hairs, or bristles, which divide the margin. The
margin is then called ciliatus ; (Tab. VI. Fig. 11.) The
hairs frequently rise from sharp teeth, on which account the
margin is then said to be serrato-ciUatus. The hairs are
sometimes so stiff, and at the lower extremities so broad, that
they might be taken for spines or thorns. The margin is
then said to be ciliato-aculeatus, or spinoso-ciliatus. Some-
times the hairs have other round bodies, or glands, on their
points, the margin is then called gianduloso-cillatus ; (Tab.
VII. Fig. 1. 4.)

When fine fringes, in the form of cilia, extend themselves
from the surface, \hQ \(\e2i o^ fringed {JimhriaUis), is gene-
rated.

52.

With respect to the unseparated parts of a surface, we
have the following definitions.

Large unseparated parts, which are broad and rounded,
are called lobes (lohi). When they are small and pointed,
they are calledyrm^^^ {lacinia).

Hence we use the expression lobed {lohatus), when, in ge-
neral, there are lobes, without denoting their number ; thus,
also, three-lobed {trilobus), four-lobed {quadrilobus), and so
forth.

When a part has lacinia, it is said, in general, to be cleft
(laciniatus), when the number of clefts is not mentioned ;
but, when these are counted, we observe whether the cleft
proceeds to the centre, or almost to the base. In the former
case, we say of the part, that it is tri- quadri- qinnqu€-fidum.
If the clefts go almost to the base, we call the part tri- quadri-
quinque-partiius. This distinction is chiefly important re-
specting the calyx.

4G NOMENCLATURE.

If the clefts go as far as the central rib, so that the sub-
stance of the leaf is divided, we say, that it is sectus. We
say also, Jhlia trlsccta^ ternatlm secta^ and we call the cleft
parts segment a.

53.

The clefts themselves, or the interstices between the pro-
jecting parts, ai-e called ainus, when they form curved lines ;
hence a sinuated leaf {unciatum)^ is that which has bendings
of this sort on its margin.

Deep rents on the surface, when they are altogether irre-
gular, give the idea of torn, or rent [laceratus, or multifidus) ;
smaller irregular projections and rents render the part eroded
(erosus).

Angled {angulatus), w^hen the margin has projections
which are greater than teeth, but are not proper lobes. When
these angles come out very feebly, and often are undistinguish-
able, the margin is said to be repand {repandus).

Palmated {palmatus), is when the surface is lobed, or cleft,
and its clefts go commonly in five divisions to the under part
of the surfiice.

Pinnatifid {pinna iifidiis), when a surface has long parallel
lobes, or clefts, on both sides. It coincides frequently with
the decursive pinnatum (47-) Bipinnatifid {hipinnat'ifidum),
is when either the side-lobes are again pinnatifid, or when, in
a properly pinnated part, the side-leaves shew this half feather-
ing.

Lyre-shaped (Jyratus), is a pinnatifid surface, tlie high-
est unpaired lobe of which is rounded, and the side-lobes be-
come always the finer the nearer they approach the base.

Runcinate {runc'matus), again, is when the uppermost un-
paired lobe of a pinnatifid surface is jx)inted, and the side-
lobes hang down.

FOR FORMS AMD QUALITIES. 47

VIII. T]ic Manner hi ivh'ich an Organ is Terminated.

55.

We here attend to the apex of an organ. The termination
of an organ, as we formerly remarked (28.), is called its
apex (ope^r, seldom vertex). This is obtuse (obtusics), or
rounded (rotundatus) (29.), when it approaches, more or
less, to the round form. We also say, respecting solid
bodies, that they are thiclcened at the summit {apice incrassa-
tiis). To this belongs partly the club-form, (31.)

It is truncated (truncates), when it seems to form a
straight cross-line. It is bitten (pramorsti^^), when a curved
line seems to cross it.

It is retuse (retusus), when a slight curvature i;^ obser-
vable in the middle of the obtuse apex. When a sharp re-
markable curvature passes inwai'ds on the obtuse apex, it is
said to be emarginated {emarginatus).

A slight degree of obtuseness is expressed by ohtusiuscula ;
and the reverse of a sharp, or hairy apex, is called unarmed
{muticus).

- 56.

The pointed character is called generally acutus^ the slight-
er degree acutiusculus. Aeuminatus., again, denotes a long
projecting, highly-tapering apex. When this runs out gra-
dually into an apparently fine spine, it is called cuspidatus.

When the apex is somewhat obtuse, and a gentle tapering
suddenly takes place at the extremity, it is said to be ap'icu-
latus. Mucronatiis., again, denotes a rounded apex, with a
herbaceous spine standing on it.

When the long projecting apex is placed somewhat ob-
liquely, it is said to be rostratus, rostellatus^ which frequently
appears in the covers of the capsules of mosses.

The apex is also said to be bearded {arlstatus), when a
long projecting bristle terminates it. The aK'l-shaped apex
(apex subulati(s), is easily luidcrstood, from wliat uas said

48 NOMENCLATURE.

(31.) In like manner, tlie pricking-apex {apex pungens),
needs no further explanation.

IX. Duration of Plants, and of their Individual Parts.

57.

Persistent (perslstens), is the epithet given to a part, when
it continues to exist beyond the time at which, according to
the laws of vegetation, it ought to wither or fall. With
respect to leaves, this is also called their property of being
perennial {perennans), when they are observed to be always
green. Semper vb'ens has the same meaning.

There are also parts, which, towards the time of their pro-
bable fall or decay, grow with increased vigour. We then
use the terms accrescens^ or auctus. Every change from the
progress of vegetation, is denoted by the addition of demum,
or atate : Apothecia demum angidosa ; capsula atate aucta.

58.

The opposite of persistent is decaying, for which we have,
in the Latin technical language, two different terms.

An organ, or part, is said to be caducus, when it loosens
itself very speedily in a joint at the base, as the calyx of
Papaver and Chelidonium ; deciduus, again, is the term used,
when, without releasing itself at one joint, the part falls at the
same time with other neighbouring organs.

Decaying {marcescens, marcidus), consists in a withering
of the part, without a falling off. The disappearance of a
part is expressed by evanescens.

59.

With respect to the earlier, cotemporaneous, or later ap-
pearance of particular parts, in relation to others, the follow-
ing expressions are used. Parts are called early (prfecox),
when they shoot out, or come to perfection before others ;
coeval {coa^taneus), when this happens at the same time ;

FOR FORMS AND QUALITIES. 49

late {serotinus), when they appear later tlian others. These
definitions are important for distinguishing the Willow tribe.
Again, the female and male parts come to maturity at dif-
ferent times. In a great many plants, the anthera are
sooner ripe than the stigmata or pistillae. 1 his is called an-
drogynous dichogamy ; (Tab. II. Fig. 11. Tab. VI. Fig. 5.)
But when the female parts come to perfection sooner than
the male, this is called gynandrous dicJiogamy,

60.
Many organs, from internal laws, never attain their per-
fect state. They vary, in consequence, both in their form
and substance, and become unfit for their functions. These
are called abortive {abortivus), and their germs kre called
rudimenta.

61.

With respect to the absolute duration of plants, the fol-
lowing expressions are important.

Very evanescent (yugacissimus), when an organ scarcely
shews itself before it again disappears ; as happens in va-
rious blossoms. As also in Sporidia fugacia Ceratii Pers.
Hypha fugax Byssi. By means of some plants, we find the
hour of the day, whence they are called horarii. If they
shew themselves only for one day, they are called ephemeral
(ephemeri). If they appear only in the day-time, they are
called diu7iii ; if only during the night, nocturni ; during
the morning, matutini ; mid-day, meridiani ; after mid-day,
pomeridiani ; in the evening, vespertini.

62.
Their duration for a month is denoted by menstrnus ; for
tAvo or three months, by bi- tri-menstres.

If a plant dies the same year in which it sprung up and
blossomed, it is called an annual (planta annua), for whicli
the sign 0 is used.

Leaves and shoots of the present vcar are called horni ; of

D

50 NOMENCLATURE.

the past year annotini ,• aiul tlioso of the year before the
hist himi.

63.

When a plant springs up, and grows durhig the first year,
and during the second puts on fruit and dies, it is called a
biennial {biennis)^ the sign for which is i .

If a plant lasts several years, and every year sends out
new matter from its root, it is called perennial (perennis), the
sign of which is "U.

CHAP. III.

NAMES OF THE ORGANS.

L The Root

64.

The root (radix), is that part of the plant by which it
descends into the earth. It may be considered as a part of
the stem, which has been changed only by the covering of
earth.

But the root is distinguished from the radicle, or fibrils
of the root {radicula. fibrillar), which are branches, or fibres,
that descend from the principal root.

65,

A thickened root, in which we can commonly distinguish
the solid kernel from the softer surrounding matter, is called
a tuber (tuber) , (288.) The forms of these are so extremely
various, that they pass from the common spindle-form to the
perfectly spherical, the turbinated, and other forms ; (Tab.
VI. Fig. 1. 3.)

OF THE ORGANS. 51

A bulb (buldus), is a thickened, and commonly a spherical
or oval-shaped root, the solid central body of which is con-
tained within scales that lie upon one another, and between
which the stem, or shaft, rises ; (289.)

II. The Stem.
66.

Under the name Stem (tmnciis), we understand, generally,
that pai't of the plant which rises above the ground, and from
which all the other parts are evolved.

In particular, it is called the stalk (caulis), when it is more
or less of a herbaceous nature. A plant which has a stalk is
called caulescens ; one in which it is wanting, is called acmiUs.

67.

Tree-like stems (trimci arbor ei), and trees {arhot'es), arc
those plants which have a simple and woody stem.

In sections of woody stems we distinguish various parts,
which commonly lie in concentric layers within one another,
namely,

1. The rind (cortex), the outer part of which, covered by
the epidermis {epidermis), is for the most part brown, grey,
or of some similar colour ; the inner part is entirely cellular,
and of a green hue.

2. The inner bark {liher), is an apparently fibrous, whitc-
ish, and very flexible part, which lies under the rind.

3. The soft-wood {alburnum)^ or the layer of young wood,
which approaches nearer to the nature of the inner bai'k, by
its brighter colour and greater flexibility.

4. The wood {lignum), distinguished by its hardness and
cross-joinings, or bundles of rays {radii corticales).

5. And, lastly. The pith {medulla), apparently of an entirely
cellular structure, and in old plants either entirely gone, or
only remaining as a thin, almost inorganic, brown kernel ;
(291.)

D2

52 NOMEXCLATTRE.

68.

Shrubs {frut'tces)^ are those plants which send out several
\s(K)dy stems from the same root. For shrubs and trees, we
use the sign Tj.

Undershrubs {suffrutices)^ are those, the lower part only
of* wliose stems are woody, but whose u})per part, being of a
lierbaceous nature, dies every year.

69.

The place where the stem and root meet, has received va-
rious names. Young calls it the Iwies communis, or fundus
2)lantte. Lamai'k calls it the life-knot. Some denominate this
part 7'hizoma, or root-stock ; and also cormus, and caudex. De
Candolle calls this part the neck (coUum).

70.

In the different families, different names are used for the
stem and its paits.

In the Grasses, and Grassy Plants, it is called the straw
(culmus). In Ferns, Palnxs, and Fungi, it is called the
stipe {stipes) ; but tlie latter word is generally used to express
different parts.

A leafy stem is called generally ajrond (frons), especially
in imperfect plants. The frond of Lichens is either ci'ustay
when it is quite uniform, granular, or at least as if some
matter had been deposited on it ; or it is called thallus, when
it is leafy, lobed, or shrubby ; (Tab. II. Fig. 3.)

In the Fungi, we employ the term Hypha, when the stem
is very delicate; (Tab. I. Fig. 31. ; Tab. V. Fig. 5.)

71.

Branches {rami), are the divisions of the stem. Twigs
{ramuli), are the last and youngest branches.

Sarments {sarmenta), are those branches, or stems, whicli
lie upon the ground, and here and there send out roots.

Shoots {surculi), are the stems and branches of Mosses and
Jungermanniaj.

Sprouts {turiones), are shoots of the present year, which
are not completely unfolded.

or THE ORGANS. 53

III. Buds^ Leaves, and Parts cofmected with them.

72.

In most plants, especially of the lower kind, there are pro-
duced by a crowding together of the constituent parts, what
have been named the germs (ge?'mina, gcnigyl'i)- These arc
small spheres, or opake grains, which are collected together,
and from which new shoots or new individuals arise. When
they have grown somewhat larger, they are called propagines,
propagida ; and their union into something like small plots
is named sorasdm. The layer of cellular texture in which
these germs lie, is called lamina ,proligera^ especially in the
Lichens.

In higher plants the germs press so much upon one another,
that they commonly make their appearance enveloped by
scales, in the axes of the leaves. They are then called buds
{gemma) or eyes, (Tab. IV. Fig. 2. 8.)

73.

The forms of buds are extremely Taiious, (304.) Some of
them remain hidden under the epidermis, and are then only
small knots, composed of compact granular masses, or of
the substance of leaves, as in various tropical trees. Most
of the buds of trees belonging to the temperate zones, appear
as oval, pointed, or angular organs in the axes of the leaves.
In the Primus depressa, Pursh, two flower-buds stand one on
each side of the leaf-buds. They often take the appearance
of actual tubers, and even of small bulbs, as in Dcntaria huU
hifera, and most plants of the same species, wliere they ap-
pear between the blossoms. They are in their simplest form
in the Tulip-tree (Tab. IV. Fig. 3. 4.), and consist merely of
two flat scales lying upon one another, between which the fu-
ture leaf appears. At the base of the loaf-stalk, we see the
two scales of the buds of the second generation, and Ave tiius
often see from three to four generations included.

The scales of which buds are composed, lie commonly in
-such a manner upon one another, that one covers the half of

54 NOMENCLATURE.

each of the two that ai-e below it {germ'inat'io imbricatlva, in
Sahsburia adiantifoUa, Tab. IV. Fig. 7.), or they he riding
upon each other (G. equitativa, in tlie Common Ash, Tab. IV.
Fig. 5.) Tlie leaves always lie curled up in the buds, as in
the Elder (Tab. IV. Fig. i), and in the Snowball (Tab. IV.
Fig. 8.)

74.

The buds are either leaf-buds (gemmajbliijera), when no-
thing but leaves and leafy shoots spring from them ; or diey
are fruit-buds (gemvia Jhictifera), which produce both blos-
soms and fruit.

There is also a remarkable difference in the situation of
the parts which are included in a bud, (304.)

75.

A leaf (folium) is a green surface, w^hich, for the most part,
is spread out horizontally.

Leaf-stalk {petiolus) is the part by which the leaf is joined to
the stem or branches. There are transitions from the leaf-stalk
to the leaves, when the latter are abortive, and then the leaf-
stalks assume the form of leaves. With De Candolle, we
may call these intermediate forms phyllodia. They are seen
most distinctly in the Acaciae from New Holland, and in
Phyllanthus, (Tab. III. Fig. 1.) We even suspect, that
what are called leaves in Bupleurum, are nothing else but
such intermediate forms.

Transitions from leaves to roots are also observed in water
plants, when the undermost leaves ai'e much subdivided in
the form of hairs, and thus resemble roots. AVe observe this
in the Ranunculus of our streams, in Sium latifolium, in Nec-
tris aquatica, and many others.

76.

The axis {axilla)^ is the angle which a leaf or leaf-stalk
forms at its insertion with the stem or ])ranchcs. Axillaris
thus denotes that which springs from the axis of the leaves.

OF THJb: ORGANS. 55

The remains of the leaf-stalks often leave scars or warts on
the stem and branches. These are called cicatrices or ver-
ruca:.

The remains of leaves, and of the scales of buds, aie called
rmmnta.

77.

The sheath is the cylindrical prolongation of the leaf, by
which it wraps itself round the stalk.

The place where the sheath passes into the leaf is called
the opening {os vagina)^ and here a leafy membrane, for the
most part white and semi-transparent, is usually found, which
in the Grasses is called Ugula.

In some of the Cyperoideas and Palms, the interstices of the
cleft-sheath are connected by fibrous net-work {reticulum).
This is the case, among others, in Schoenus ustulatus, ca^
pillaceus Thunb. thermalis, and Burmanni, Vahl., which
grow together at the Cape.

Stipule {stlpuld) is a leafy part, which grows in the neigh-
bourhood of the leaves, or of the leaf-stalks. There are
forms of this kind, however, which have very little of a leafy
nature, and are rather membranaceous or feathery, as in Sau-
vagesia, (Tab. VI. Fig. 12. 13.)

The roll (pchred) is commonly a cylindrical membrane, the
upper part of which is open, and which surrounds the leaves
or leaf-stalks. It appears as a peculiar organ in the Poly-
goneae and Cyperoidege.

Smaller leaves on the leaf-stalk are called cmriciihE ; hence
a Folium auriculatum has these appendages either on the
leaf-stalk, or at the base. When there are two appendages
bent downwards, one on each side of the Imse of a digitated
leaf, it is said to be pedate (pedaiiini).

Smaller leaflets, under the shoots of the Jungcrmannia;,
arc called amphigastria.

79.

Other subordinate parts oi' plants are called by I^innanis

supports ox fulcra^ because some of them serve to fasten ihr

2

56 NOMENCLATURE.

plant to others. But all the parts which come under the name
by no means desers'e it.

The tendril {cirrhufi) is a filiform, and for the most part
bent body, by which the plant clings to other objects. It is
distinguished sometimes by its origin out of the leaves or leaf-
stalk (Jhliares, petiolare.sj, sometimes by the number of the
leaves which grow under it. Hence cirrhi diphylli, tetra-
phylli, and so forth.

Absorbent warts {haustoria) are spungy bunches, which
supply the place of roots in some parasitic plants, and by which
they attach themselves to other plants.

80.

Among what have been called the armour of plants (anna),
we place the spines {sphid)^ or woody and sharply pointed
processes, w^hich spring from the wood itself, or generally
from the internal parts. They appear not only on the stem
and branches, but also on the leaves and calyx.

Prickles (aciilei), again, are similar stiff, and prickly
points, which rise only from the epidermis, and are taken off
along with it.

The a^vn (arista), we have already noticed, (56.) It is
a hair-shaped and stiff prolongation of the body. The bristle
(seta), is distinguished only by its smaller length, and in some
instances by its being a continuation of the nerves.

The hook (hamus, uncus) is a bristle or prickle, bent at
the point. The double hook (glochis) is a bristle or prickle,
with reflex subordinate branches at the point. Hence we see
the meaning of the terms uncinatus, hamosus, and glochi-
datus.

The opposite of these different kinds of armour is express-
ed by inermis and mutlcus, in reference to the points.

81.

Scales (squama) are for the most part roundish or pointed
anembranaceous parts.

Olands (glancUtlfc) are granular, commonly transparent

OV Tlii: OllGANS. 57

bodies, containing peculiar juices. They are of a roundish
or bowl shape, (Tab. V. Fig. 12.)

On and near the leaves there arise peculiar flask-shaped
organs, which separate fluids, as in Cephalotus and Nepen-
thes. In this instance, as well as in Sarracenia, where the
whole concavity of the leave has such organs, they are ol)-
served to have peculiar covers. Willdenow called them As-
cidia.

Air-bladders (ampiilla:) appear on Utricularia and Aldro-
vanda.

IV. Iriflorescence.

82.
Inflorescence {injloj'escentld) is all that which belongs to the
situation and arrangement of the flower, or the wviy and man-
ner in which flowers grow. To leave nothing unexplained,
we must first settle the idea of a flower (Jios). This is the
name given to the whole apparatus, by which impregnation
and propagation are accomplished, although, in common con-
versation, we give this name only to the coloured coverings
of the sexual parts. There are flowers without a corolla,
and even without any cover, (Tab. III. Fig. 4, 5.) ; but there
can be no flower without sexual organs ; on which account
the flowers of the Mosses are doubtful, and in the Ferns and
Lichens they cannot be admitted.

83.

The support of the flower is called the Jlower-stalk (pechiri^
cuius) ; and the small stalks, which are in the neighbourhood
of a principal flower-stalk, are called pedicclU. The name
racliis is applied in the case of spikes and panicles, to denote
the common stalk.

Marshall of Biberstein uses thecopodium, and Ilofl'man spcr-
mapodophorum^ to denote the receptacle continued do\\'n-
wards.

In many families, the flower-stalk receives other names,

58 NOMENCLATURE.

when it Is also the fruit-stalk. When it springs immediately
from the root, and bears flowers only without leaves, it is
called the shaft {scapus).

In the Mosses the fruit-stalk is called seta., in the Lichens
podetium. In the Gastromyci and Nematomyci, the part
which supplies the place of the fruit-stalk is called stroma,
and also suhiculum (ccpJudoplionim, Nces.) If we consider
the fruit-stalk of Calycium as a stroma, there is still another
part under the fruit, (Jiypostroma, Mart.)

84.

The name spike or ear {spied), is given to that mode of
inflorescence in which stalkless flowers are arranged on a
common axis. The spike may be simple or compound. In a
simple spike, the lowermost flowers are first evolved, and then
follow by degrees those higher up. But when the spike is
compound, the evolution takes place in a reversed order.

Spicula in the Grasses, is that mode of inflorescence in
which several flowers are contained within a common calyx.

The catkin {amentum) is a spike, which, instead of flowers,
contains only scales, as in Willow, Hazel, and Poplar.

The spadix is a spike with a thick juicy axis, which con-
tains either very small blossoms, as in Acorus and Saururus,
or only sexual parts without any covering, as in Arum and
Calla.

Sometimes we call the crowded spikes, whose flowers are
separated by coloured bractea?, strohili, as in Origanum. On
other occasions this word has a different meaning.

AVhen flowers without stalks, or with short stalks, stand in
descending rows around the stem, this is called a who7'l {ver-
ticillus). Such is the usual inflorescence of the I^abiatae.
Frequently the flowers are only on one side, and form then
the half-whorl {verticiUi dimidiati), as in Medusa officinalis.
The flowers of a whorl, however, are not always without
stalks.

When stalkless flowers are crowded together on the end of
a common stalk, they form a head {capitfdum) ; but when
the individual flowers which are thus crowded together have

Oi TllJ; ORGANS. 69

Stalks, a fascicule (fasciculus) is formed. Of the former,
Arrneria vulgaris is a common example; and of the latter,
Dianthus barbatus.

A ball {glomerulus) is an irregular collection of flowers
with stalks. We hence speak of conglomerated Jlower-stalks
(pedunculi glomerati), when these are collected together, of
different lengths, into one heap.

The associated fruit-capsules of Fenis, upon the back of
the frond, form the sorus,

A bunch (racemus) is an inflorescence, where from one
common principal stalk undivided flower-stalks arise. When
the lower ranges of these are so much lengthened, and the
upper so shortened, that the flov/ers seem almost to be placed
in one horizontal plane, it is called a cojymb (corymhus).

The umbel (umbella) is that inflorescence, where the subor-
dinate stalks extend themselves in a ray shape, on the sum-
mit of a common flower-stalk. When these subordinate stalks
are again divided, the umbel is called compound.

The panicle (panicula) is an inflorescence, where the sub-
ordinate stalks of a common principal stalk are again divided.
When these are condensed, it is called a thyrse {thyrsus)^
and when the flowers seem to lie in one plane, it is called a
cyme {cyma).

85.
The receptacle (recepfaculum), is that expanded part of the
fruit-stalk which bears the parts of fructification. This part
is also called discus hypogynus, when, like a disc, it bears the
sexual parts. When it is swelled up, it is called gymhasis and
sarcobasis, (105.) In the compound flowers, the expression
clinanthium has been lately proposed, to express the same
idea. It is of much importance how far we extend this idea
of the receptacle, because the separation of the sexual parts
is connected with the separation of the receptacle. If we
admit the separation of the sexual parts in Euphorbia and
some other Tricocca, we must necessarily regard the small
stalk which bears the germen, as a sign of the separation of
the receptacle. We also find the two receptacles, which other-

60 NOMENCLATURE.

wise are separated, running togetlier in Xanthium hamotha-
lamum ; and the attempt at this separation in Flaveria and
Brotera, as also in Calycera, Cav. is very distinctly marked.

86.

Bractea are those leafy parts which appear in the neigh-
bourhood of the flowers, and which have either a different
form or a different colour from the other leaves ; (Tab. VI.
Fig. 6.) But when they cannot be distinguished from the
other leaves either by the form or colour, they are called,
from their station, foral leaves (Jhlia Jloralia). In the Ane-
mone, the leaves which stand immediately under the blossom,
liave been called involucres (hivolucra), although they are
only foUa Jloralia.

When the bracteae are collected together above the flowers,
and contain either abortive blossoms or none, they form the
tuft (coma). There is another sense of this word noticed
(2.5.)

Besides the bracteae, there is another remarkable part in
Surubea? Aubl. (Tab. V. Fig. 11.), where a club-shaped,
coloured, and forked body sits horizontally on the flower-
stalk, and as it were rides on it. It has been lately called an-
thoxorynium. In Ruyschia clusiaefolia, Jacq. Amer. Tab. li.
Fig. 2, there is a similar form, but not cleft.

87.

The spathc (spatha), is formed by one or more bracteae-,
which enclose the flowers of the Coronariae, Iridefe, and other
related plants, and which are either leafy or membranaceous.
The individual bracteae which compose the spathc, have
been very improperly called valves (valva).

Covers of flowers, which stand at a distance from them, arc
called generally perianthia.

To this class belongs, in particular, the involucrum which
occurs in umbelliferous plants.

If the inflorescence of compound flowers be regarded as
one bimch of flowers, the common cover receives the muue of

OF THE ORGANS. 6l

calyx communis^ antJiodium, and periphoraiitJdmn, according
to Richard ; and j^erklinmm according to Cassini ; (Tab. II.
Fig. 2. 3.) The bracteae which stand on the base of this
bunch are then called the outer calyx (caly cuius, or, accord-
ing to Cassini, involucrum).

88.

In tlie Grasses, the exterior covering of the flowers is call-
ed the glume {gluma calycina, according to Panza, perista-
chium).

In the Ferns, the membrane which covers the fruit, and
which in some genera, encompasses it like a bowl, is called the
veil (indusium) ; (Tab. II. Fig. 5.)

In the Mosses, the leafy coverings which surround the
apparent sexual parts, are called perichatium ; (Tab. II.
Fig. 5.) The calyptre (calyptra), is the interior membra-
naceous, and often hairy covering of the ovarium, which, when
the fruit is ripe, bursts in a cross direction, or is longitudinal-
ly cleft, and for the most part continues till the opening of
the fruit.

Similar calyptrae of the flowers appear m Marcgravia, As-
cium, Schreb. and Thylacium, Lour. Also in Calyptranthus,
Sw., Eucalyptus, Herit., Endesmia, Br. Pileanthus Labill.,
and Lecythis, we find deciduous or permanent covers, which
pass over the sexual parts.

In sponges there is a soft, open cover, which rises from
the root-knot, and is called wrapper {volva) ; as also the ring
(annulus) which divides and covers the stalk ; and when
these are reduced to threads, there is the cortina ; (Tab. I.
Fig. 29.)

In the lower fungi, the cover of the germ and seed, which
for the most part is spherical, is called the peiidium ; (Tab. L
Fig. 25. 28., Tab. V. Fig. 7.)

89.
The proper cup (calyx) is the external, and commonly green
cover of the sexual parts, which can either be easily distin-
guished from the internal coloured parts, or which passes in-

6a NOMENCLATURE.

to them, when it is called calyx corollinus. This last we find
m the Polygoneae, Chenopodeju, and many other plants ; and
in Sesuvium, the separation of the two covers is so much in
the act of taking place, that they seem to be merely attached
tt) «ach other.

The separate pai-ts of the calyx are called sepaJa.

V. The Fhwer,

90.

The interior, coloured, and for the most part short-lived
cover of the parts of fructification, is called the corolla (corol-
la). This, as was formerly mentioned, often passes into the
exterior cover, and in particular it is called cwolla calychia^
when it has indeed an integument resembling the calyx ; but
is still entirely a corolla. This is the case in the Liliaceae
and Coronariae. There is often merely a simple appendage
to the corolla, in some scattered leaves, as in Aponogeton ;
(Tab. II. Fig. 11.)

91.

The corolla consists either of one or of several distinct parts.
The division of the corolla may be known by looking at its
base, and observing whether its parts are connected with each
other or whether they are distinct.

When the parts of the corolla are separate, they are called
petala ; and from this we perceive the meaning of the terms
Ji-, trU, tetra-, penta^, and polypetala corolla.

When the parts of the corolla are connected with each
other, they are called lobes {lobi)^ segments (laci7ua), or lips
(labia), which expressions have been partly explained already
and will be more fully defined.

A corolla, of which the parts are united, forms a tube (^w-
bns) or the hollow cylinder, which unites the parts : the ex-
panded lobes form the border (limbus) ; and the junction of
this, with the former, is called the throat (faux).

OF THE ORGANS. 63

93.

In a polypetalous corolla, the smaller part of the petals,
which often resembles a stalk, is called the nail (unguis),
and the expanded part is called larnina^ (28.) When the
ungues stand thick together, they also form a tube, the en-
trance to which, in like manner, is called the throat. The
scales, which in some of these plants protect the entrance,
constitute the corona faucis, as in Silene.

94.

The corolla is often arranged in several rows ; we have thus
an interior and exterior corolla {cm^olla interna et externa),
as in the Contortae, particularly Eustegia, in Sauvagesia, and,
as some think, in the Grasses. What in these last has been
called, in the Linnaean acceptation, the^Corolla, is only an ex-
terior cover, which, in contradistinction to the gluma calycinay
is named gluma corollina. It is divided, like the former, in-
to valves {valva), of which there are commonly two : they
have been lately called stragula, and the valves paleas.
Within this gluma corollina, there ai'e found, in most of the
Grasses, but not in all of them, two very small, delicate, and
transparent leaflets, resembling often a tuft of hairs, and
springing immediately from the sexual parts. These seem
to form the true corolla. Linnseus called them, falsely, nec~
taria. They have also been called lodictda; (Tab. III.
Fig. 7.), (101.)

95.

We must also pay some attention to the regularity or irre*
gularity of the corolla.

It is impossible to give technical names to the infinitely
varied forms which here present themselves. The general
varieties of form have also been already noticed (31. 32.), so
that we need only to apply them to the corolla. We shall,
therefore, notice only at present the distinct forms of the ir-
regular corolla.

Of these the simplest is, undoubtedly, the tongue-shaped
(corolla ligtdata), which, in the Aristolochiae, changes into

64 NOMENCI-ATURE.

tlie tube-form ; in compound flowers, it appears as a half
flowret {semi-Jlosculus) ; and in the Orchidege, as a small lip
{lahdlum). In the latter, the highest upright and open
leaves are, notwithstanding their colour, the calyx. The la-
bellum, in the Orchideae, extends downwards into an obtuse or
pointed sack, which is called the spur {calca?^) ; whilst an-
other small sack (perula), is formed by the prolonged base of
the calyx.

96.

A very frequent species of irregular corolla, is the ringent
and labiated {ringcns and labiata). We not only find this
form in what are called the Labiatae, but in many of the
Iridea^, Liliacea^, and Coronarije. In this case, the corolla
is composed, as it w ere, of two lips, one higher and the other
lower Qahium siiperhis and iriferius). The interval be-
tween both is here also called the throat {Jhux).

If the two lips are so closely set to each other, that we
cannot see into the interior of the corolla, such a corolla is
said to be personate, or masked {per sonata, larvatd). The
elevated and arched part of the lower lip, receives the name
of the palate {palatum). The upper lip, especially when it
is arched, is called the helmet {galea).

97.

Compound flowers {Jlores compositi), are those which are
crowded together upon a common receptacle, and surrounded
by a common cover. They are particularly distinguished
from the aggregated flowers {Jlores aggregati), by the fol-
lowing circumstances : that in the former the antherae are
united with the flower, in the latter they ai'e free ; that in
the former there are five, in the latter four antherae ; that
in the former there are two stigmata, in the latter but one ;
lastly, that in the former the embryo is placed upright in the
middle of the albuminous matter, and in the latter it is in-
verted, whilst the albuminous matter itself is consumed.

In compound flowers, the tube is the principal form ; the
tongue-form appears to be more imperfect, but very common.

OF THE OIIGAXS. G5

Still less common is the ringent, which, however, lias been ol>-
served in one whole family in South America.

98.

In the Polypetalous corolla, we also attend, for the purpose
of defining its shajx", to its resemblance to some generally
known ibrni. We thus say that a corolla is rose-bhaped,
j)ink-shape(l, or lily-shaped {corolla rosea, caryophyllacca^
i'diacea).

To this class belongs also tlie Papilionaceous corolla {co-
rolla papU'tonacca). It consists of four parts, the upper ex-
panded part, or tlie standard {veaclllum) ; the two lateral
parts or the zvlngs (cda), and the lower boat-shaped part, or
the keel {carina). These four parts consist sometimes of but
one piece, as in clover. In other cases, the keel consists of
two parts, or it is entirely wanting, as in Tamarind us, and
Amorpha. In many of these papilionaceous flowers, as in
Plymena^a, a more perfect resemblance between the parts of
the corolla takes place, and they a]:)proach, by this means, to
the regular form.

99.

We must attend to the situation and folding of the flower
before its evolution. These are called Estivation. It is witli
respect to flowers, what the interior structure of the leaf-buds
is to the leaves. We observe,

1. An testivatio valvaris, when the parts of the corolla,
before evolution, only touch one another with their margins,
like the valves of the capsule. We observe this, for instance,
in compound flowers.

2. The astivatio contorta. Here the parts of the corolla
stand so obliquely, that they cover the margins of each other.
This estivation is remarked principally in the family of the
Contortas, which hence derive their name, because, even after
their complete evolution, they still retain the oblique position
of the parts of the corolla, as may be seen in Vinca, Xerium,
and Arduina. We also observe this estivation in Pinks.

E

66 NOMENCr.ATURE.

3. JEsi'watio huluplicativa, wlien the parts of the corolla
are bent inwards, and touch each other with the folds of their
margins, as the margins of the valves in the capsules of Vio-
lets. We observe this estivation in some of the Clematida?.

4. yE^tivatio alter nativa^ when the parts of the corolla
stand in two or more rows, in such a manner that the interior
row is covered partially and alternately by the exterior. This
is observed in most of the Liliacea?.

5. jEstivatio (pdncunciaUs^ when, of five parts, two are ex-
terior, and two interior, and the fifth covers the interior with
one of its sides, and is again partially covered by the exterior,
as we observe in the calyces of roses.

6. ^Esthatio vexillaris. This takes place in the papilion-
aceous flowers ; the standard covers the three other parts.

7. JEstivat'iO cocJikaris^ when one part is larger than the
others, and, bending itself into a spoon-shape, it incloses them.
This is the case in Aconitum, in some of the Personatae, and
in Antholyza.

8. JEstivatiO iuibricativa, when the parts stand in several
rows, and the exterior and shorter parts cover only the base
of the interior, as we observe in the common calyces of the
compound flowers.

9. jEstivatio convolutiva, when the exterior part is bent,
and incloses the interior, this again the following, and so
forth, as we observe particularly in the cruciform flowers.

10. JEstivatiO plicativa, when all the parts are folded into
one another, without any particular order, as we observe in
the Poppy, and in the Needhamia of Br.

And, lastly, we must observe, what seems to make an es-
sential difference between the corolla and the calyx, that their
estivation is completely different ; for example, the astivatio
of the calyx of the Garden Pink belongs to No. 5., and that
of its corolla to No. 2.

100.

We must yet further notice, with respect to the corolla, its
time of full blow (aiitJiesis). AVe mean by this, the point of
time wlien the parts of the corolla, as being the organs of

OF THE ORGANS. 67

fructification, have completed their evolution. We can de-
termine this jx)int, by observing the emptying of the pollen
out of the opening antlierae. As the direction and position
of the parts are different, before and after this point of time,
we readily perceive the meaning of the expressions aide, and
jjost anthesin.

VI. The Nectaries.

101.

Nectaries (nectaria), are all those organs formed within, or
near the flower, which secrete a honeyed juice.

This term has been employed too loosely by Linnjpus, and
his followers, to denote all the parts of a flower, exce})t the
corolla and antheras. Hence the interior double corolla of
Narcissus, Sauvagesia, and such like plants, has been fre-
quently taken for nectaries. Also the fine transparent scales,
which immediately surround the sexual organs of the Grasses,
have been improperly called by this name, (64.)

It is often, indeed, a matter of doubt what parts shall re-
ceive this name, especially when we attend to the nectaries
of Parnassia and Sauvagesia. These last stand around the
corolla, which is at least an unusual position, although not
properly contrary to rule, (Tab. VI. Fig. 13.) ; because in
Cymbidium alvifolium of Swartz, the nectary is found com-
pletely without the calyx, on the base of the ovarium.

In general, we must say that that which secretes honey
is a nectary ; on which account neither abortive anthera?,
nor false petals, can be designated by this name.

Even situation determines this matter. Commonly we must
seek the nectaries in the bottom of the corolla, and they thus
stand, for the most part lower than the anthera^ (331.)
They frequently are united with the receptacle, and often
with the ovarium; (Tab. III. Fig. 10. 13. 14.; Tab. IV.
Fig. 18.) Not unfrequently they are united with the fila-
ments ; but they can scarcely appear higher than the anthera\

E2

68 NOMEXCLATUr.E.

102.

Beside tlie proper organs for secreting the honev, there
are other parts wliich preserve it, the nectarothedr. These
are cavities, sacks, or spurs {calcar). These parts belong
often essentially to the corolla.

There are other organs which serve for protecting the ho-
ney. These are called nectar'ilymata, and are formed either
by tufts of hairs, as in the Geranium, or by scales and subor-
dinate leaves, as in Phyhca, (Tab. II. Fig. 15.) ; or, lastly,
by the situation and direction of the petals themselves.

Lastly, We must not overlook the 7iectarostigmata. These
are, for the most part, coloured parts, lines, or spots, which
lead to the proper nectaries, as we see them marked out in
Pelargonia especially.

VII. Sexual Parts.

103.

Sexual parts are those organs which serve for the propa-
gation of the plant.

As in all the higher forms of organized nature, we observe
two sets of organs, the one of which, as being the active and
impregnating, are called the male organs, and the other, as
being more passive and adapted for being impregnated, are
called the female iiarts ; we distinguish also, according to
this idea, the male and female parts of plants.

The time at which plants arrive at the full exercise of their
functions is called puberty ; before this time, they are called
hnpiiheres, and afterwards effbeta.

Dichogamy consists in that arrangement, by which the sex-
ual organs come not at once, but after one another, to ma-
turity. The dichogamy is androgynous, when the antherae
come first ; and gynandrous, when the stigmata come soonest
to maturity. The former is the case in Tropa?olum, the
latter in Euphorbia, (331.) '

A flower is called neutral {neuter), when no sexual or-
gans are produced in it; it is called hermaphrodite {herma-

OF THE ORGANS. CO

phroditus), when both the sexual parts are contained in the
same cover, and for these last we employ the sign ^. A
plant is called androgynous (androg?/7ius), when the male
and female parts are separated from one another, but grow
upon the same common stalk, in the same ear, in the same
bunch, and so on.

A plant, again, is called mmioscms, whicli contains male
and female flowers separated from one another, but upon the
same plant ; it is called dio^cius, when the separate sexual or-
gans appear upon different plants; and, lastly, it is called
polijgamus^ when sometimes male, sometimes female, and
sometimes hermaphrodite blossoms appear.

104.

As the female parts appear first, we must begin our account
with them.

The Germen (germen, ovarium), is the rudiment of the fu-
ture fruit. It is distinguished into the Simple and Com-
pound. In the Cherry, for example, the germen is simple ;
in Sage, it is made up of four compartments. In the germen
we discover the beginnings of the future seed, like small eggs
(ovula), which are frequently more numerous than die per-
fect seed.

105.

The germen rests upon the bottom of the calyx, or it is
supported by a fruit-stalk. From this, or from the calyx,
there often arises a fleshy elevated support, which is called, in
general, gynobasis, (Tab. III. Fig. 17.) ; and when this sup-
port, during the ripening of the fruit, swells powerfully, it is
called sarcohasis ; (Tab. I. Fig. 36.) To this belongs tlie
juicy swelling of the receptacle in the Strawberry, and the
related Genera; (Tab. III. Fig. 22.) In the umbelliferous
plants, Hoffman calls this part stylopodii^i,

106.

The pistil (pistilhim, stylus), is the part which proceeds
upwards from the germen, or it is the prolongation of this

70 NOMENCLATURE.

organ, and bears the scar, or stigma. The pistilknn is often
entirely wanting, as in the Poppy: it often rises, not from
the top of the germen, but from its base, and on its sides, as
in the Labiataj and Hirtella, (Tab. VII. Fig. 3.) : it is sel-
dom hollow, commonly it resembles a solid })illar, which might
be confounded with the filaments, if we did not attend to the
usual central jx)sition of the pistillum, and to its strength,
which is usually somewhat greater than that of the fila-
ments.

The stigma (stigma), is that part of the pistillum which
has a soft spungy structure, and is destined to the reception
of the impregnating principle. It is by no means always
found on the top of the pistillum, for in the Caryophylleae it
is placed longitudinally on the side of the pistillum. In the
Iris, it forms a small fold under each of the three divisions of
the pistillum, which in this species resembles the petals of the
corolla. The softer and more spungy the surface is, and the
richer in fine warty matter, the more certainly may we re-
gard it as a true stigma. Nor is it necessary, with Richard, to
give to the stigma of the Orchideae a peculiar name, gi/nizus,
(properly gynixus), because the idea upon which this name
is founded is applicable to all families. The stigma in the
Lobeliae lias a peculiar veil (indusium), which covers it, be-
fore it has attained its perfect state, (Tab. II. Fig. 23).

107.

The male part consists, in common plants, of two organs,
namely, the filament {Jila7nentum), and the anther (anthcra) ;
and these, when they are taken in connection, constitute the
stamina. The filaments have the same origin with the co-
rolla ; and, in innumerable plants, are closely united with it.
In the Canna, Scitamineae, Calothalamus Liibill., and some
species of Thalictrum, they evince, by their colouring and
breadth, their approach to the nature of the corolla.

The fertilising dust {pollen), is contained in the anthera?,
and has, for the most part, a resemblance to small globules,
but it often varies from this form.

OF THK one; ANN, 71

When an anther consists of several horizontal conipait-
ments, the cellular texture, which connects the compartments,
is called connective (connectivum) ; (Tab. II. Fig. 2. 3.)

There are remarkable variations from these forms, liow.
ever. In the Contortse, particularly the Asclepiadete, we ob-
serve two bodies of a club-shape, and waxy nature, wliich are
bound together by a peculiar knot, and stick under the folds
of the common column of imjwegnation. In the Orchidea*,
too, we find some masses of a granular substance (massa
granulosa, Liste7'ia, Epipactis), or of a substance composed
of globules of a definite number, (from two to four, Limodo-
rum. Tab. IV. Fig. 11.). These masses are often united by
distinct threads, but they are always connected into pairs, by
means of a small spherical body {retinaculum). These masses
of pollen are deposited in peculiar cavities of the common pil-
lar of impregnation {columna genltalium, or clhiandrium
gynostemii, Richard), and are commonly covered by a project-
ing part of the pillar {rostelhim gynostemii), (Tab. IV. Fig.
12.) This pillar, which supports both the anthers and the
stigma, has two longitudinal appendages, which seem like so
many abortive filaments (staminod'mm, Richard). The mass
of pollen, also, is frequently divided, in these plants, into two
longitudinal valves (massce sectiles, Orchis), and are connect-
ed with the retinaculum by particular tails (caudicula).

There are other anthers of a compound form, some of
which seem to be more completely unfolded than the others.
Thus, Melastoma contains five large anthers, coloured like
the corolla, which bend down the filaments, that seem to liavc
joints in their centre, into a curved line. Five other yellow
coloured anthers have no jointed filaments. Similar forms arc
observed in Cassia, Hofmannseggia Cav. Anthonotha Pal.
Beauv., in Solanum cornutum, hcterodoxon, Fontanesianum,
and rostratum Dunal.

Abortive anthers are called cffa-t^, as in the Heterostemon
Desfont.

NOMEXCLATUKE.

\1II. The Fruit and Seed.

108.

The fruit {frnctus)^ in a general sense, is every thing tliat
contains seed.

Fruits are hence usually divided into simple {slmflices),
compound {composit'i, or carpella), that is, when a single
flower-stem, having several pistills, produces several fruits,
as the Ranunculus, Clematidae, and Thalictra ; and aggre-
gate {aggregati)., when the fruits of several flowers are aggre-
gated into one common fruit, as is the case with some of the
Urticeae, Anoneie, and with the Mulberry. The term carpU
dium has been proposed for this kind of growth.

In the fruit, it has been usual to distinguish more particu-
larly the pcr'icarplum from the proper seed. The former is
the cover by which the latter is surrounded.

109.

Actording as the pericarps are too thin, simple, and small,
to be distinguished from the seeds, or separate themselves
more obviously from them, we apply the phrases of nalced
needs (semina nuda)^ or seeds surrounded by a cover {peri-
carpus tectai). But more correct observation teaches us, that
no seed is wholly naked, or destitute of a covering ; en which
account those called angiospermla must embrace but a very
small proportion.

What have been called pcrf'ccthj naled seeds, are only
such as are surrounded witli a simple covering of a peculiar
kind. These are now called carijopses {caryopsis), as in the
Grasses.

Achenium, again, is an apparently naked seed, which yet,
beside its proper cover, has a calyx overspreading it, as is the
case widi the Composita^ and partly with the Umbellata' ;
(Tab. I. Fig. 14. 15. ; Tab. VHI. Fig. 8.) Both these ap-
parently naked seeds are called, by De Candolle, carpella.

When the seed is loosely siuTounded by its cover, a blad-
der {ulriculus) is formed, as in the Amaranths, and the

OF THE ORGANS. 73

Plantago species. In the Geranium, the loose bladder spring-
ing up laterally terminates in a bill-shaped appendage, which
fixes itself to the pistil ; (Tab. I. Fig. 17.) Cocculi in cau-
dam longam terminati, GcTrt. Linnaeus called this part, im-
properly, arillus.

When a fruit of this kind is furnished with a membrana-
ceous wing, it is called samara, as in the Elm, and partly in
the Maple.

On these simple fruits appear appendages, which serve
for their dispersion. Small chains {catenida:), are attach-
ed to the seeds of the Jungermanniae, Marchantiae, and
Targionia hypophylla, (Tab. III. Fig. 8.) Thread-shaped
appendages, under the name of tails (cauda), are found in
the fruit of Clematis and Puccinia. Hairs, which spring
from the base, form the tuft (coma), as in Epilobium ; (Tab.
I. Fig. 13.)

Further, the pappus {pappus) is an important part, being
the remnant of tlie covering calyx, which still continues in the
achenia of the Aggregatae and Composita?. It is bristly
(setaceus), when it consists of stiff hairs ; (Tab. I. Fig. 6.)
hairy (pilosus, capillaris), when it consists of soft long hairs ;
awned (aristatus), when the bristles are thick below, and
long ; plumose (plumosus), when the hairs are beset with
smaller hairs; pencil-shaped {pencillatus), when small hairs
stand on the top of the hairs, (Tab. I. Fig. 12.) ; chaffy
(paleaceiis), when dry membranes crown the seed ; (Tab,
VIII. Fig. 8.)

In the caryopses and achenia of the Umbelliferous plants,
the peculiar sap-vessels, under the external membrane, are
called vittas. The ribs of the fruit are caWedjitga, or costtz ;
the hollows, or small valleys between them, are called vaU
licula.

110.

Pericarps are divided according to their compartments,
their valves, and their partitions.

Compartments (loculi), are the chambers, or divisions of
the vessel containing the seed ; hence wc say, bilocular, trilo-

3

74 NOMENCl>ATURE.

cular (hilocular'is, triloadarls). A kind of compartment, which
opens with a certain elasticity, is called cocaim, whence the
Euphorbia?, and similar plants, are called tricoccdc^ because
their fruits have three such compartments.

Valves (valvcE), are the side-pieces, or exterior walls of the
compartments, into which the pericarp is divided. Hence a
fruit is called bivalve, trivalve {bivalvis, trwalvis).

Partitions {dissepimentum), are the interior walls of the
compartments. They are often formed, as in the Andro-
medae, by the valves turned inwards. They are then called
dissepimejita valvar'ia, and valvas septiferas.

We must also notice the suture {suturd). This is the place
in which two valves are united. The suture properly, there-
fore, points out the springing of the fruit from valves ; but
the genus Eucledium Br. has distinct sutures, and yet the
fruit does not spring ; and Bunias, in the unripe fruit, sliews
sutures which disappear during the ripening. The opening
of the valves often takes place from above to the middle
of the fruit (semivalves fructus) ; they often also open from
below, as in the Orchideae and Triglochin.

Ill,

An uncommonly important part is that which has been
called the placc7ita {placenta, or reecptaculum), which cither
stands like a free column in the middle, or is formed by the
thickening of the partitions, or even by the bending in of the
valves; (Tab. I. Fig. 21). At the same time, every column
that is observable in the fruit is not the placenta. In the
capsules of the Mosses, for instance, we observe an entirely
free central column ; but the seeds are fastened to the walls
of the capsule. The way and manner in which the placenta
is formed is called placcntatwn.

In the Umbellatas Hoffman has called the column ftperma-
podium.

112.

A nut {nucv)^ is a fruit with a shell, which docs not burs-t
of itself This shell is often surrounded liy an external tough

2

or THE ORGANS. 75

covering, which is called navcum. Almonds and Hazel-nuts
present examples of this.

But if the nut be surrounded by a juicy or fleshy covering,
it is called a drupe (drupa), as in Plums and Cherries, and
Myoporum ; (Tab. III. Fig. 21.)

113.

A berry (bacca) is a juicy fruit, which contains one or
more seeds imbedded in the sap or juice. Grapes and Goose-
berries are common examples ; (Tab. I. Fig. 35.)

114.

A legume {legitmen) is a long fruit with two valves, tlic
seeds of which are fixed on one and the same suture, but alter-
nately upon the two valves; (Tab. I. Fig. 16.) The legume
has commonly but one compartment; in Astragalus it has
two, and in Kennedia, Vent, it has several.

A loment {lomentum) is a legume, which is divided cross-
ways into cells, as in Hippocrepis and Ornithopus ; (Tab. I.

Fig-18)

A silique (siliqua) is a long, two-valved fruit, the seeds of
which are fixed to both sutures, as in Rape, Cabbage, and
Stocks; (Tab. I. Fig. 38.)

A small silique (siUcuIa) is properly a silique, which is
not much longer than broad, as in Thlaspi and Camelina,
(Tab. I. Fig. 7.) ; but improperly the nuts of Bunias and
Crambe also are so called, although they have neither sutures
nor valves.

The follicle (foUlcidus) is a long, one-valved fruit, which
opens only in one suture. It is found in the Contorta', in
Paeonia, Cimicifuga, and Butomus.

Ehrhart has given the name Pyxklluyn to an utriculus
with one seed, which bursts crosswise, as in Plantago and
Amaranthus. We also find the phrase Capsula drcumscissa
applied to this.

76 NOMENCLATURE.

115.

A capsule (capsuJa) is every dry fruit M'hich does not
fall under the preceding or following article.

When it is surrounded by a fleshy covering, it is called an
apple {poimtrn) ; (Tab. I. Fig. 23.) We must distinguish
the pumpkin (pcpo) from this kind. The latter name is
given to a fleshy fruit, the seeds of which are fastened in the
interior circumference. Also the fruit of the iVgruma? (Au-
rant'unn^ De Cand.) is a peculiar, fleshy, and inflated fruit,
•whicli can easily be divided into several membranaceous com-
partments.

116.

Fruits are often collected together in numbers. The Um-
bellatae and Rubiacea? bear double nchenia ; the Labiata^
and Asperifoliae bear a fourfold fruit ; and five stand together
in the Geranium.

Aggregated fruits are found in a great many plants, where,
by the s>velling of the receptacle, their union is promoted.
In the Annoneae, for example, the single seeded kernels {py-
rena or acim) arc collected together in the sw ollen receptacle.
In the Fig, a soft fleshy covering unites together many cary-
opses. In the Mulberry several juicy utriculi are united in-
to one.

The strobile {sfrohilus) of the Pines and Proteae consists
also of utriculi, which stick under bracteae that are very in-
volved and hard, and which together form a ball ; (Tab. I.
Fig. 9.) AVhen these bractea? swell and flow together, they
form the galhulus of the Cypress, Thuia, and even of the
Juniper; (Tab. I. Fig. 8.)

117.

The fruits of imperfect plants must also be considered. In
Ferns the membranaceous and spherical reservoir of the seed
is called the capsule. In the true Ferns, we observe a joint-
ed ring (^anmthis), by the elasticity of which the ca})sule is
thrown off*; (Tab. II. Fig. 9.) In the Mosses also, the fruit
has been called a Capsule, although some use the expression

OF THE ORGANS. 77

theca for it. We distinguish also the operculum^ wliich, when
the fruit is fully ripe, loosens itself all round. This loosen-
ing is often assisted by a fringed ring {cinnulus fimhriatu.s)^
which is placed horizontally between the operculum and ca})-
sule, and by its elasticity throws off the operculum.

The mouth of the Moss capsules {os, stoma) is the upper,
circular part, which is either naked (nudum), or is furnished
with teeth, cirrhi, and membranes, which arise from the pro-
longation of the capsular partitions, and are called peristmni^
iwi; (Tab. II. Fig. 7 8.) Sometimes also a membrane,
which in Polytrichum and some others is called cprphragmay
passes across the mouth of the capsule.

118.

In Lichens, the whole thallus is capable of producing gra-
nular germs, destined for propagation. Yet there are opothc-
cia, which contain apparent, frequently twin-seeds, in peculiar
layers; (Tab. II. Fig. S.) Formerly the various forms of
these apothecia were furnished with peculiar names, ^\hich,
however, are no longer in use. Lirella is a linear longitudi-
nally opening apothecium, as in Opegrapha.

Trica are closed, twisted seed-beds, of a black colour.

Thalamia are close round seed-beds, in the substance of
the leaf, surrounded by a pecuhar membrane, within which
the seeds are enclosed in peculiar bags.

Tuhercula are close, roundish or spherical seed-beds, whicli
project from the leaf.

Cephalodia are highly coloured, roundish, open, and com-
monly stalked apothecia, covered with a seed-bed, which
passes off like a powder.

Orbillai arc flat, slightly coloured, open fruits, without a
raised margin, covered with a thin seed-bed.

Scutella are open, circular, hollowed fruits, the margin of
which is formed by the substance of the leaf.

Patella are open, flat or elevated fruits, without a raised

7B NOMENCLATURE.

119.

In the Fmigi, the fruit is generally called j^eridia ; (Tab.
I. Fig. 25.) More particularly, however, the bladders which
contain the seeds or germs {spor^), are called sporidia. They
are also called theca: sporophora ; (Tab. I. Fig. 30., Tab. II.
Fig. 1.) Their reservoir, in certain groups of Fungi, is call-
ed perithecium ; and when the peridia are included in a dis-
tinct case, this latter is called .sporangium ; (Tab. V. Fig. 7.)
When the lines or hairs on which the spone of Fungi sit, are
collected together in tufts, this sort of tuft is called capilli-
tium ; (Tab. I. Fig. 28.)

In the proper Sponges, the germ-bladders, or seed-ljlad-
ders, form a peculiar covering, or a layer, which is called hy-
menium; (Tab. I. Fig. 30., Tab. II. Fig. 1.)

120.

On the seed itself, we remark, in the first place, what has
been called the iwibiUcns, hihim, cicatr'icula, or a hollow
part commonly found in the base, but often also on the sides,
by which the seeds are fastened, and from which the germ
proceeds; (Tab. I. Fig. 4. 6.)

The umbilicus, in many plants, particularly in the Legu-
minosae, is covered by a warty substance, which is called stro-
pMolus or stroph'iola. In Urania and Strelitzia, this strophio-
lus is a heap of beautifully coloured, intermingled, and stiff
hairs; (Tab. I. Fig. 10.) From the umbilicus proceeds the
fwuculus iimhUiccdis ov podospermmm, a thread which effects
the insertion of the seed.

A leafy or solid expansion of the funiculus umbilicalis
frequently surrounds the seed, and is known by the name of
arillus. In the Nutmeg, the mace is nothing else but this
arillus. In the Oxalideae, this membrane has a certain elasti-
city, by means of which the seeds are pushed forth. In
Euonymus, and m fresh Coffee-beans, this arillus can be very
distinctly seen.

Small hooks (I'et'macula) are observed on the seeds of the
Acanthea?, by whose elasticity the opening of the capsule and
the ejection of the seed is favoured ; (Tab. I. Fig. 37.)

OF THE ORGANS. 79

In the seeds of many of the Leguminous plants, a small ca-
vity a})j)ears imder the umbilicus, called mic?-0])i/k, but its
use is unknown.

Chalaza is the place in the interior membrane of tlie
seed, where the funiculus umbilicalis passes into the seed.
Sometimes this is at a distance from the umbilicus, and it is
even, as in the seed of the Citron (Tab. 1. Fig. 1. 2.), placed
opposite to it.

121.

When we open the seed, we find the embryon either sur-
rounded by albuminous substance {albumen, peiispermium,
endospermium)^ or this substance lies in the centre of the
curved embryon, as in some of the Polygonea? and Caryo-
phylleae ; or it lies on the side of it, as in the Grasses and in
the grains of Corn ; (Tab. I. Fig. 3. 11. 20.) But this sub-
stance is often entirely wanting, that is, when the future plant
being already perfectly evolved, fills the seed ; (Tab. I. Fig.
1. 2.)

Seeds which have albuminous substance are called albiimi-
nosa, and those which want it exalbuminos^.

In some imperfect seeds, there is an intermediate body be-
tween the albuminous substance and the embryon, which in
the Grasses is called scutellum (Tab. I. Fig. 11.), and in the
Scitamineae viteUus, (Tab. I. Fig. 3.) In the latter it sur-
rounds the whole embryon.

The embryon, or future plant, is either unevolved, when it
resembles a small point, or a short thread ; or it is evolved,
and then we distinguish on it the two seed lobes {cotylcdones)^
the plant itself {plumida), and the root (rostellum or r adieu-
la) ; (Tab. I. Fig. 1, 2. 5.) The direction of the last, com-
monly towards the umbilicus, may, however, be either ujv
wards or downwards, according as the seed is placed. In the
former case the embryon is called inverted (inversus), be-
cause it has the opposite direction with respect to the fruit,
but not with respect to the seed. In the latter case, the em-
bryon is said to be erect (erectus), (195.)

( 81 ) .

PART II.
TAXONOMY,

OR THE

THEORY OF CLASSIFICATION,

CHAP. I.
CxENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

122.

JL HiRTY thousand species of plants are at present known
upon the earth. This number might be encreased to fifty
thousand, if all the plants which are still . undescribed in the
great collections were known. And if we suppose the cen-
tral regions of Asia, Africa, and New Holland, to have been
once as well explored, as many of the countries of Europe
have already been, we may consider it as extremely probable
that there are above a hundred thousand species of plants up-
on the Earth. Every one of these species has its native
Country, its Name, Form, Properties, and Uses. The
knowledge of these must have an important influence, both
upon the dfevelopement of the human mind, and upon the pro-
gress of trade and useful arts. But who shall clear up for us
this immense study ? To what guide shall we trust ourselves
in this frightful labyrinth ? How shall we able, not only to
become acquainted with the particular Natural History of
each plant, but to find out what others who have preceded
us have observed respecting the plant that is before us, and

F

82 TAXONOMY.

to know whether or not the observed form be an entirely new
one, which no individual before us had observed ? This
most important service is perlbrmed for us by what has been
called the Metlwd ; that is to say, the Scientific Arrangement
and Division of Plants, either according to one common prin-
ciple, or according to Families and Groups, tlie common marks
of which have been learnt.

Botanists have always been so much convinced of the im-
portance and utility of such an arrangement, that they have
regarded the knowledge of the laws of this arrangement as
the highest object of their exertions.

123.

As long as a small number only of plants were known, the
necessity of classification was not felt. But the more that
native plants have been studied, since the beginning of the
sixteenth century, the more has the necessity of such a me-
thod pressed itself upon our attention ; and however imperfect
the first attempts of Lobelius and Bauhin were, every unpre-
judiced person must confess, that the principle upon which
they proceeded, that, namely, of arranging plants, as Nature
has done, is the only right principle.

In general, the various methods may he divided into the
Empirical and Scientific. Tlie former are at the same time
the most ancient. They are founded, not upon nature and
upon essential forms, but upon accidental things. The Al-
phabetical Arrangement of Plants, — or their division according
to their Uses, as when, for instance, the edible vegetables, the
orchard-trees, the forest-trees, and the ornamental plants, are
collected into distinct assemblages, — these are some of the
Empirical Methods.

Although Scientijic Classifications have a reference to the
nature of the objects, there is, how ever, a multitude of views
which may furnish the foundation of such a division. No
person has pushed further the attempt to find out, and even
in some degree to complete, the manifold methods, according
to the various properties and parts of plants, than the immor-
tal Michael AcJanson^ who lias proposed no fewer than five-

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 83

and-sixty different classifications. Among these there are some
which are founded simply upon the Stature, others upon the
Thickness or Substance, and others again upon the Colour,
the Smell, the Taste, and similar properties.

124.

In assuming the parts and properties of plants, as prin-
ciples of Classification, we must, in every instance, make a dis-
tinction between essential parts, and those that are accidental
or less essential. The former are such organs as have an in-
timate connection with the purpose of vegetation : less essen-
tial forms, again, are those which have a more distant con-
nection with the purpose of vegetation. If we seek this pur-
pose in the propagation of plants, — and it seems undoubtedly
to consist in this, — then the seed and fruit, and also the flow-
er, which in most plants precedes the fruit, are the parts
which furnish the most important ground of Scientific Classi-
fication.

But, with respect to these, we may proceed in two ways.
We may regard the determinate relations of these essential
parts as the only Principle; and without considering other
properties and distant organs, we may employ the former only
as the principle of classification. In this case, we sketch an
Artificial System ; that is to say, an arrangement of plants ac-
cording to one common principle.

But we may consider the relations of essential parts, in
their joint connection with other organs and their properties ;
and we may proceed in this way so far, as universally to avail
ourselves of resemblances and agreements, without binding
ourselves exactly to one and the same leading principle. We
then follow a Natural Method^ which cannot be called a Sys-
tem, because it is destitute of unity of principle.

F2

84 TAXONOMY,

CHAP. II.

ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION.

125.

If, now, we would either study the nature of plants them-
selves, or would learn their uses, in both cases, we feel the
necessity of having names assigned to them ; because with-
out names, we can neither make ourselves intelligible to
others^ nor find out what others have remarked concerning
them. The Nomenclature of Plants is the first object of the
artificial arrangement. The second is to give them their
place in some order or other, and beside plants that are al-
Feady known ; because without this, the bare knowledge of
names would be completely useless^

126.
When we find a plant, the simplest way of discovering its
name, and finding its place in the system, is to look into the
great Registers, or Scientific Catalogues, unless, in a complete-
ly empirical way, we betake ourselves to the turning over of
plates, which consumes much time, and yet often does not
lead to our object. But in order to be able to use those scien-
tific catalogues, or artificial systems, we must know the prin-
ciples according to which they are formed ; we must possess
the art, or have acquired the address, of regarding, with re-
spect to every plant, only the relations ; and of keeping in
our eye tlie organs, upon whose diversity the artificial system
proceeds.

127.

The Artificial Method, or the System, must necessarily as-
sume, as the grounds of classification, such parts only as are

ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION. 85

invariable; so that all those things which are changed by
propagation, are justly excluded from the principles of the
system. The Duration of plants, their Stature, their Taste
and Smell, even sometimes their Colours, and also their situa-
tion and time of flowering, are all things and relations which
we must consider variable; whilst, on the other hand, the
Forms and Numerical Proportions of the parts of fructifica-
tion, are seldom subject to change. These, therefore, must
constitute the principle of classification.

128.

We must especially employ, as the grounds of classifica-
tion, such organs, as, besides their constancy and invariable-
ness, are also found in the greatest number of plants ; and,
when it is possible, such parts too as are easily observed, and
which appear at the same time.

But the two latter requisites are of less importance than
the first; and cannot always, according to the nature of
things, be obtained. There are a great many plants, whose
essential parts are so small, and lie so hidden, that they can
be discovered only by the aided eyes, and after previous, of-
ten troublesome, preparation. The finer differences in the
structure of the Mosses, Fungi, and other imperfect plants,
cannot be observed without powerful magnifying glasses.
The situation of the embryon and of its parts in the seed,
can only be exhibited by particular preparation. But as
these relations are among the most stedfast and important,
we must avoid no labour to become acquainted with them ;
and no system can be reproached for paying regard to those
parts and relations.

The same remark applies to the want of cotemporaneous
growth. It is impossible to determine a plant with cer-
tainty, before its vegetation has come to maturity ; because
then only are all the essential parts unfolded, and a plant
which has been observed for years, without being seen to
bloom, or to carry fruit, cannot be defined with certainty,
and in a scientific manner. Especially the ripening of the
fruit is to be waited for ; because, as we shall see, important

86 TAX0N031V.

changes often take place in the fruit and seed, wlien they
are passing from an unripe into a mature state.

129.
The permanent relations of the parts which constitute the
foundation of the system, must be strongly and distinctly ex-
pressed in the nomenclature. Those designations of properties
and relations, which are also called Characters, must, as much as
possible, be positive, and must not consist merely in negation,
or in the assignation of absent properties, (for we may wish
to denote, by definite oppositions, what the characters ex-
clude). But even in this case, the absent properties may
easily be expressed positively. When, for instance, the chaf-
fy leaves of the receptacle are taken into the one character,
the naked receptacle properly takes its place in the other, as
the opposite of the former. If in one Genus it be important
to notice that the antherae grow together^ then the other Ge-
nus is distinguished by having its organs standingy'r^f .

130.

An artificial system, in order to be useful, must have as
many subdivisions as are demanded by the essential diffe-
rences of the principal organs. Too few divisions oblige us
to place together too great a number of different plants, and
thus the investigation of particular plants is made very diffi-
cult. But the arrangement must be made according to cer-
tain general properties or relations of the parts, in order that,
by seeking out the general division, \yc may pass with greater
ease to the particulars which it contains.

131.

If we examine by these principles the artificial systems
which have been hitherto devised, we shall find the most cele-
brated of them, that which Linnaeus proposed, to possess a
decided superiority, not only because it is consistently derived
from one simple principle, but also because the author of it,
by means of a new nomenclature, has given to his terms the
greatest distinctness of meaning.

ARTIFICIAL CLxVbSll ICATlON. 87

But it will be necessary to present the whole system in one
Tabular view, before we proceed to pass judgment upon it.

Viezv of the LmntEun System.
I. Plants whose parts of fructification are manifest, Phane-
rogaviia.

A. Antheras and pistilla upon the same receptacle, Mo-
noclinia.
* Antherae and f lamenta free.

a. Filaments of equal length, Isostemones.

1. One anther. Class 1. Monandria.

S. Two anthers, %. Diandria.

3 Three, 3. Triandria.

4. Four, 4. Tetrandria.

5. Five, 5. Pextandria.

6. Six, 6. Hexandria.

7. Seven, 7. Heptandria ;

(Tab. VI. Fig. 7.)

8. Eight, 8. OCTANDRIA.

9. Nine, 9. Enneandria.

10. Ten, 10. Decandria.

11. Twelve to twenty, 11. Dodecandria.

12. Twenty and more anthers, but the filaments

upon the sides of the calyx, Class 12. Ico-
sandria; (Tab. III. Fig. 22.)

13. Twenty and more anthers, but the filaments

on the receptacle or corolla, Class 13. Po-

LYANDRIA.

b. Filaments of unequal length, Amsosteniones.

14. Two longer than the other two. Class 14.

DiDYNAMiA ; (Tab. III. Fig. 22., Tab. IV.
Fig. 16.)

15. Four longer than the two remaining ones,

Class 15. Tetradynamia.
'** Filaments united

16. Into one bundle. Class 16. jMoNADKLrniA .

(Tab. III. Fig. 11., Tab. IV. Fig. 14.)

88 tax()N():mv.

1 7. Into two bundles, or one free, the others united,

Class 17. DiADELrniA.

18. In more than two bundles, Class 18. Polv-

ADELPHIA.

*** Anthers united

10. Among ^themselves, Class 19. Syngenesia;
(Tab. III. Fig. 2.)

20. With the pistillum, Class 20. Gynandria ;

(Tab. IV. Fig. 10.)
B. Antlierae and pistilla on different receptacles, Didmia.

21. On the same plant. Class 21. Mon(ecia.

(Tab. III. Fig. 1.)

22. On different plants. Class 22. Dioecta.

23. Sometimes separate, sometimes united, Class

23. Polygamia.
II. Plants whose parts of fructification are hidden, or
which want them. Class 24. Cryptogamia.

132.

From this view it is evident, that the relations of the
parts of fructification afford the foundation of arrangement.
These relations consist in the Number, the Insertion, the Dif-
ference of Length, the Union and the Separation of the male
parts, as well considered in reference to themselves, as in
respect to the female parts. A preference is given to the
male parts, which is less founded in nature, than apparently
rendered necessary by the circumstance that, besides being
commonly in greater number, they present also more varieties.
Nature seems, upon the whole, to have given less constancy
to the Numerical proportion, than to the Forms, the Situation,
the Union, and the different Lengths of the sexual parts.
The finding of plants in those catalogues which have been
arranged after this system, is very much aided by the simpli-
city of the principle; yet, in such researches, we must attend
to all the other relations, beside the number of the parts.

133.

In judging of this system, we cannot speak of its want of
conformity to nature, because, from the very fact of its being

ARTiriC lAl. CLASSiriCATIOX. 89

an artificial system, it renounces the pretension of presenting
naturally related groups. Therefore, it exposes this system
to no well founded reproach, that the affinities of Nature are
torn asunder, and the most dissimilar genera of plants
brought totjether. The Grasses are thus scattered through
several classes : tlie Labiatae are found in two ; the Cheno-
podeae, the Rubiaceae, the Palms, and many other families, in
several classes. Every artificial system, from the very cir-
cumstance of its assuming one simple principle, founded on
the relations of a few essential parts, must depart from Na-
ture.

i34.

But the first well founded objection which may be made
to this celebrated system, consists in this, — that in many of the
classes more regard is paid to natural affinities, than the arti-
ficial structure of the system, and the unity of its principle
permit. If ^1 Monadelphous plants must be referred to the
sixteenth Class, so must also a great number of the Diadel-
phous ; and the Meliea? and the Malpighiea? must be trans-
ferred from the tenth, and even from the eighth and fifth
Classes, into the sixteenth. If attention had not been paid to
natural affinity, all the single flowered plants, having their an-
thers united, ought to stand in the nineteenth Class,

135,

A second objection, and one of the most important, is, tliat
a greater value is placed upon numerical proportions, than
is ever observed to be justified by Nature. There are ge-
nera of plants, such as Valeriana, Stellaria, Ehcxia, and in-
numerable others, which observe so little steadiness in the
numerical proportions of the male parts, that Linnaeus must
necessarily have been perplexed, when he wished to assign to
these genera a definite class. He used, in such cases, to fall
upon three plans.

In some genera, he remarked, in the Jirst place, wliat nu-
merical proportion was established in most of the species.
When, for example, among nine Convallaria^, whicli were

90 TAXONOMY.

known to him, he observed six or seven species to have six
anthers, and the other two or tliree species to have only four,
he placed the genus in the Sixth Class, but referred, in what
he called the Key to his Classes, or in the Preliminary Gene-
ral Index, when speaking of the fourth class, to the Genus
Convallaria in the sixth. By this means the investigation
was completely facilitated. But it has happened, that later
discoveries have exhibited a multitude of species, in which
the subordinate numerical proportion has become the prevail-
ing one, in so much, that w^e must now transfer many plants
from the class in which Linna?us placed them into another.
This has happened with Verhena^ which Linntcus placed in
the second class, but which later botanists have justly placed
in the fourteenth. Thus also Bocrhavia, which Linnaeus
placed in the first class, is now transferred, on account of the
greater number of its species which have two anthers, into
the second. With respect to Rhexia, it is doubtful whether
it belongs to the eighth or tenth class, because we find nearly
as many species with eight as with ten anthers.

In the second place, Linnaeus was accustomed to observe,
among several species of the same genus, which of them was
most common, and was produced in greatest abundance ;
that, according to these circumstances, he might detennine
its place in the system. Thus he decided with respect to
Lythrum^ the most common species of which, namely Ly-
thrum salicaria, has from twelve to fifteen anthers, whereas,
in other cases, the number is far smaller. But even here
Linnaeus was not consistent ; at least the most common species
of Euonymus is almost always observed to have four an-
thers, although the genus stands in the fifth class. Defective
observation, also, often led him into mistakes, which have
been propagated to our time. Thus Ruppia stands in the
fourth Linnaean Class, although no such numerical proportion
can be discovered in it. We thus also find Calla in the
seventh class, and yet the number of the filaments is wholly
indeterminate and fluctuating. We shall speak of Eupliorb'ia
upon another occasion, when we shall shew that it holds a
very unsuitable place in the eleventh class.

ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION. 91

Lastly^ The founder of this system, when he remarked a
fluctuating numerical proportion, was accustomed to set such
a value upon the first flower, (Jlos primariu.s), that according
to it he determined the place in his system. Thus the Garden
Rose has always ten filaments in the first flower, and in the
others eight ; hence Linnaeus placed it in the tenth class.
When tlie flower-top of Adooca unfolds itself, the first blos-
som is seen to have eight anthers, the following ones ten, and
Linnaeus accordingly attached it to the eight class.

1S6.

A third well founded objection which may be made to this
system, is foimded on the value which is laid in it on the dif-
ference of sex ; a difference which, considered in itself, is so
fluctuating, that we see it strikingly displayed, not only in
species of the same genus, but even frequently in different
plants which belong to the same species. The whole three-
and-twentieth class, and a great part of the genera which
stand in the one-and-twentieth and two-and-twentieth, shew a
separation of the sexual parts, which is completely destitute
of constancy. Thus some of the species of Hordeum are po-
lygamous, others hermaphrodite. The same thing happens
with respect to the different species of Acer. In numberless
genera, which Linnaeus referred to other classes, we find
monoecious, dioecious, and polygamous species, as the com-
mon examples of Rumex and Rhamnus shew.

137.

Beside these difficulties and deficiencies which the Classes
of the Linnasan system present, it cannot be denied, that
some well founded objections may be made with respect to
the Orders which it admits. In the first place, it fails here
completely in unity, since sometimes one and sometimes ano-
ther principle of the order is assumed. For the most part,
attention is paid to the number of the Pistils, but instead
of pistils, sometimes the germen, and not unfrequently also
the stigma is taken, so that we often are not in a situation to
find the Order. Not tp mention, that in the fourteenth class

2

92 TAXONOMY.

the fruit is improperly called naked, because it presents
Caryopses with a smiple covering, and frequently even Nuts.
In the fifteenth class, the idea of a silicula causes some diffi-
culties in the first Order, because in many genera we observe
true nuts without the power of bursting.

Similar exceptions may be made to the orders of the nine-
teenth class. No doubt this arrangement promises much at first,
because in the first order of the nineteenth class, Syngenefiia,
Folygamia aqualis, the flowers have all equally good seed,
and are all hermaphrodites. In the second order, S. P. su-
'perf.ua, the flowers on the margin are only female, those in
the centre hermaj)hrodite, but they are all equally fruitful.
In the third order, *S'. P, frtistranea, the flowers on the mar-
gin are neutral, or the pistillum is abortive, but the flowers in
the centre are hermaphrodite, and alone bear perfect seed.
In the fourth order, S. P. necessaria, the relation is exactly
reversed : the central flowers, which are commonly male, are
abortive, and only those on the circumference, which are for
the most part female, bear perfect seeds. Lastly, in the fifth
order, S. P. segrcgata, every flowret has also its separate
calyx, although they all stand upon a common receptacle.

To this division it may be objected, that very often the
frustranea, in the same genus, coincides widi the crqual'is ;
for in Bidens and Centaiirea, for example, a neutral ray of-
ten makes its appearance, and often fails. The same thing
happens in some genera of the siiperflua, where Anthem'is,
Anacyclus, and Pyretlirum, sometimes lose the ray. But
these objections affect every other division of this class in an
equal degree ; for the Cynareae pass into the Radiatse, and
vice versa. In like manner we might notice, respecting the
segregata, that what has been called their pccidiar calyx, is
often nothing else but chaffy leaves, as we also see them in
many genera of the remaining orders,

138.

These, and similar defects, induced the founder of this
system, during his later years, to think of some improvements
on it.

ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION. 93

This necessity seems to be most urgent in regard to the
sexual parts, as the principle of the classes from the twenty-
first to the twenty-third. The later scholars of Linnaeus as-
sure us, that he wished to leave out the twenty-third class as
altogether unnecessary. It was reserved, however, for Sir
James Edward Smith, the worthy inheritor of the Linnaean
treasures, to propose the happiest alteration* This consists in
recognising the difference of sex as then only essential, when
it manifests itself by an actual difference in the structure of
the female, male, and hermaphrodite flowers ; w hen thus the
male-blossoms, as in the Oak, stand in catkins, but the fe-
male flowers are insulated. This difference, not of sex alone,
but also of forms, is called by Smith didinia ; and he accord-
ingly rejects from the twenty-first, twenty-second, and twenty-
third classes, all the genera, in which no such correspondence
between the difference of sex and the difference of form takes
place. Hence among others, the genera Acer, Vtratrnm,
Hydrocharis, Stratiotes, Sagittaria, and so forth, are placed
much rather according to the number of their filaments, tlian
according to their difference of sex.

139.

Less fortunate attempts to improve the Linnaean systemi
have been made by Thunberg, Suckow, llebentisli, and
lately by Claude Richard. According to Thunberg's plan,
the Gynandria is removed, and is brought, with peculiar im-
propriety, under the second class. He also rejects Monoccia^
Dioecia, and Polygamia, whilst he classes all these plants ac-
cording; to the numbers of their anthers. Otliers have thrown
away the Monadelphia and Diadelphia, and have acknow-
ledged the numerical proportions as the only principle of clas-
sification. But by these means the difficulties have only
been made greater, and some classes have been overloaded
with genera, so that their investigation has been rendered
much more troublesome.

Richard's later proposal is founded partly on a pretended
better division of the Polyandria and Icosandria, from wliich
he separates a new class, Hysterandria, in which the fihuneIlt^*

94 TAXONorvrv.

stand on the gcrnicn, and are tlicrefore epi^ynous ; pardy on
tlie assignation of new names to the Syngenesia, Polygamia,
and Cryptogamia, namely, Synantlieria, Anomalaecia, and
Agamia, which are very superfluous. And, lastly, he forms
from the Linna?an Monogamous plants in the Syngeneeia,
a peculiar class which he calls Symp)iijmndria. All these
changes seem to fail of answering their purpose.

140.

Beside the I.inna^an, there are some other artificial sys-
tems, the most important and best known of which must be
here noticed. The nearest in principle and value to the Lin-
naean, is that which Gleditch proposed in 1764. It is founded
entirely on the situation of the filaments, and the more there-
fore may be said for it, the more constant this situation and
insertion are. The filaments, according to this system, stand
either on the rece})tacle, {thalamosteviones), or in the corolla
(petalostemones), or on the calyx {calycostemones), or, lastly,
on the pistil {stylostemoiie.s), or no filaments are found, or they
are hidden. Nevertheless, the small number of divisions
which this system allows, are a disadvantage to it ; and a
multitude of subordinate divisions must again be made, ac-
cording to the Linnacan system, by which means the value of
the former is much diminished.

However, Borckhausen (1792), and Monch (1794), on the
principle of the system of Gleditch, have published pecu-
liarly acute treatises, which evince as much a fine talent for
observation, as for just criticism.

141.

Older attempts to form artificial systems have been found-
ed on other essential parts beside the male organs. Casalpi-
nus (1583), Morison (1683), Paul Hermann (1690), and
Boerhaave (1720), divided plants simply according to the dif-
ferences of their fruit, without regarding natural affinities.
They were called Fructista. To these belongs Joseph Gart-
ne?', in later times, although he has never completed the plan
of his system.

ARTIFICIAI> CI.ASSIFICATION. 95

Others, as Rhnnus (1690), Liidwig (1750), and Tourne-
Jbrt (1700), regard the corolla only in classification ; whilst
Rivhms attended to the number and regularity of the parts,
Tournefort to the general form of the corolla, and John Ray
(1682), connected the fruit with the corolla. All these Co-
roll'istcE^ as they were named, paid, however, a constant regard
to the natural affinities.

It is scarcely worth while to mention the unsuccessful at-
tempts of Antony Magnol (1720), to class plants according
to their calyx, and of Saiivage (1751), to arrange them ac-
cording to their leaves. We are far from considering every
artificial system as just as good as another, because we find
some fault with them all. Our opinion on the contrary is,
that the Linnaean system, with the improvements which Smith
has proposed, is best adapted to the instruction of beginners.

CHAP. III.

ON THE MUTUAL CONNECTIONS OF PLANTS.
I. Idea of Species,

142.

By Species [species), we understand a number of plants,
which affree with one another in invariable marks.

In this matter every thing depends upon the idea of inva-
riableness. When an organ, or a property of it, is changed
neither by difference of soil, of climate, or of treatment, nor
by continued breeding, this organ or property is said to be
invariable. When, for instance, we have remarked during
centuries, that the Centifolia has always unarmed leaf-stalks,
we say correctly, that this property of the Centifolia is inva-
riable.

90 Taxoxomv.

When we express these invariable properties in words, \^e
give the S))ecih'c Character {character specificiis).

143.

This idea proceeds on the supposition, that the species which
we know, liave existed as long as the earth has had its present
form. No doubt there were, in the preceding state of our globe,
other species of plants, which have now perished, and the re-
mains of which we still find in impressions in shale^ slate-clay,
and other floetz rocks. Whether the present species, which often
resemble these, have arisen from them ; — whether the great
revolutions on the surface of the earth, which we read in the
Book of Nature, contributed to these transitions, — we know
riot. What we know is, that from as early a time as the
human race has left memorials of its existence upon the earth,
the separate species of plants have maintained the same pro-
])erties invariably.

To be sure, we frequently speak of the transitions and
crossings of species ; and it cannot be denied that some-
thing of this kind does occur, though without affecting the
idea of species which we have proposed. We must, there-
fore, understand this difference.

144.

We perceive the Transitions of a Species, when it loses or
changes die properties, which we had considered as invariable
in the character. Thus, it would be a transition, if we had
stated as an invariable character of winter wheat (Triticum liy-
hcrnum)^ that it was biennial, and had an ear without awns ;
and if we should remark, that by frequent reproduction, and
by very different treatment, it began to assume awns, and, when
sown in spring, came to maturity during the same summer.

But this shews only that our idea of the difference between
the two kinds of grains had been incorrect ; for it is the uni-
versal rule, that the character does not constitute the species,
but the species the character. Species, then, only appear to
undergo transitions, when we have considered an organ or a'
property as invariable which is not so.

MUTUAL CONNECTIONS OV 1>I.ANTS. 97

The case is similar with respect to tlie Crossing of' Species.
By this we understand such changes as arise from the mutual
impregnation of two related species. It cannot be denied
a kind of bastards are thus produced : they are called hy-
brid plants (plants Jiyhrida). They occur most common-
ly among plants which are cultivated. Thus, in the ge-
nus Pyriis^ Priinvs, as also among the species of Grain, and
in the kitchen vegetables, there are a considerable number of
real hybrids, which do not lose their properties even by re-
production. But most of these plants are productions of art,
and Nature seems to prevent the mutual impregnation of re-
lated species in more ways than one, although these are not
completely understood by us, (332.)

145.

All properties of plants which are subject to change, form
either, a Subspecies (subspecies)^ or a Variety (varietas). By
the former we understand such forms as continue indeed
during some reproductions, but at last, by a greater difference
of soil, of climate, and of treatment, are either lost or changed.
When the different Cabbage species receive the same treat-
ment in the same climate, they continue to be frequently re-
produced, without changing their appearance. But we can-
not on this account maintain, that Cauliflower would retain
the same favourite form in very different climates, and under
a complete change of treatment. It at last changes so much,
that it can scarcely be distinguished from the Common Cab-
bage. This, therefore, is a subspecies. Varieties again do
not retain their forms during reproduction. The variable
colours, — the very variable taste, and other properties of the
kitchen vegetables, the ornamental plants, and the fruit-trees,
shew what varieties are ; and the Scientific Botanist must there-
fore be particularly attentive to distinguish permanent species
from the variable subspecies, degenerate plants, and varieties.

146.
To this discrimination belongs, above all things, a careful,
continued, and unprejudiced observation of the whole vegeta-

G

98 TAXONOMY.

tion of the same plant during its different ages, and amidst
the most different circumstances which have an influence on
it. When, for instance, in the common Lotus corniculatus,
on whatever soil it may grow, we uniformly observe that
it has a solid stem, even and erect divisions of the calyx,
and expanded filaments, we must of necessity distinguish, as
a particular species from it, another form which grows in
bogs and in watery meadows, which has a much higher, and
always hollow stalk, the divisions of its calyx spread out into
a star-shape and hairy, and which has uniformly thin fila-
ments; and we must name this latter species either Lotus
uUgmosus with Schkuhr, or Lotus major with Scopoli and
Smitli. As, on the other hand, the Pimpinella Sax'ifraga
grows sometimes quite smooth, and sometimes, in woods and
shady meadows, considerably hairy ; as it displays sometimes
simple and small stem-leaves^ sometimes half and even doub-
ly pinnated leaves ; and as these forms vai'y according to the
situation of the plant and during reproduction, we cannot
regard these forms by any means as distinct species, but we
must view them as corruptions.

We see, that, in order to decide respecting the idea of a
species, an observation of many years, and of much accuracy,
is often required; and that the cultivation of plants, from
the most different climates, in botanical gardens, is in the
highest degree necessary for their discrimination.

II. Idea of a Genus.

147.
By a Genus we understand the sum of the species which
agree in certain constant properties of the essential parts.
When we compare several species of Roses vnXh one another,
we soon find that they have all certain common marks, and
that it is hence an easy matter for every person, who perceives
their sum of corresponding properties, to say that he has a
Rose before him.

MUTUAL CONNECTIONS OF PLANTS. 99

148.

But we must confess, that there is an important difference
in genera, according as they are founded on an agreement in
the properties of most of the pails, or only in the marks of
a few essential organs. When the former is the case, we re-
cognise a Natural Genus. We then observe correspondences
in structure, in external appearance, in situation ; often in the
form of the roots, the leaves, the buds, in the subordinate
parts, or in the armour and supports ; sometimes even in the
composition of the sap, in the colours, in the smell and taste.
Such natural genera are, for example, those of the Rose,
Wheat, Stocks, Willows, and innumerable others.

Artificial Genera, again, are those which, though they want
a correspondence in external appearance, shew the same for-
mation of the essential parts. Whenever the preference has
been given to the organs of fructification as the essential or-
gans, we must then be permitted to connect the agreement
of these with the idea of a genus. Indeed, such genera are
by no means adapted to strike the eyes of every person ; nay,
in a Natural arrangement of plants, we might even very pos-
sibly overlook them. But when Art has once reared a sys-
tem, she must necessarily assume constant differences in the
essential parts, as foundations for the discrimination of ge-
nera. If the innumerable plants which are known to us as
Umbellatae, and which agree more or less in their external
marks, were not marked out as peculiar genera by such fine
and scanty characters of the essential parts, it would be con-
trary to all scientific ideas, to unite them into one common
genus, which would then include within it innumerable species,
with important differences in die fruit, and in the other es-
sential parts.

149«.
There are here two opposite errors to be avoided. If we
fall into the one, we then seek to simplify all things, and col-
lect the most different forms into a few great genera. The
less progress the knowledge of plants has made, the more are
we disposed to lose ourselves in this error. Indeed, when we
attend to the number of species which I.innipus knew, we

G 'I

100 TAXONOMY.

cannot assert that he would have formed fewer genera than
his followers liave made ; but as he put less value upon the
fruit in par ticulai* than was proper, many of his genera are
too comprehensive, not to be separated with advantage. Who-
ever should receive the Finiiaria or Folijpodiu7n of Linnaeus
even now, in their entire latitude, would evidently overlook
the most important and essential differences, and strive for
simphcity at the expence of Science, and even of Nature.

The second error leads to too fine a discrimination of insig-
nificant marks, which might well furnish the foundation for
constructing a species, but can never be approved of as generic
characters, unless we would ultimately make as many genera
us there are species.

1495.

Wc are naturally led to ask, how we may most securely
avoid both these errors. It cannot be denied, that the power
of separating important from unimportant circumstances, and
of being as little misled by fancy as by refinement, in connect-
ing or separating things which ought not to be connected or
separated, is a talent which is either born with some indivi-
duals, or acquired to a great extent by practice. This talent
belongs to some Botanists in so high a degree, that we may
safely trust ourselves to their glance, and to their discrimi-
nation. Others, with the best intentions, have never been
able to acquire the talent, especially as they seem to believe
that refinement is the only requisite for the construction of
species aiid genera.

150.

In the first place, in order to avoid these errors. Genera
must be founded on such characters, as, compared with one
another, have an evidently uniform value. Thus, when a
certain number of genera have already been distinguished from
one another by the difference of one character, we may with
propriety avail ourselves of new differences of the same, to
construct nc\v genera ; since the organ or property must, m
all similar cases, have a uniform value. If we have thus
once begun to distinguish the Umbellatae bv the form of their

MUTUAL CONNECTIONS OF PLANTS. 101

fruit, and the Syngenesistae by their pappus, we cannot, in
the former case, associate a winged with a solid fruit, noi*, in
the latter, a pinnated pappus with one diat is bristly.

It is much to be wished, that in all classes, or in all tribes of
plants, we had such characters as have a constant value, and
which could hence be employed in the formation of new gene-
ra. But that this is by no means the case, we see, in particular,
from the numerical proportion in very many genera and fa^
milies ; that is to say, this proportion is often of so little value,
or it fluctuates so much, that we cannot employ it for the dis-
crimination of genera. It is also obvious, that the character,
taken from one organ, cannot be applied to several families.
Important as the inflorescence is in the Grasses, we cannot use
it for the discrimination of genera in other families.

151.

The second rule, by following which we may avoid the
above-mentioned errors, is, that as much as possible natural
genera should be constructed, and, when that cannot be ac-
complished, artificial genera ; but that the variation of form
and of proportion in one part, ought not to be considered as
sufficient for the construction of a genus, unless this diff*erence
be also expressed by other marks. " The character does not
constUnte the genus^'' is a very wise saying of the founder of
Scientific Botany. A genus is not on this account firmly esta-
blished, because one or another difference of structure occurs
in individual parts, but because the plants actually exhibit
striking differences in their whole vegetation. We might
easily, by giving to a genus a very circumscribed character,
be able to separate fi'om it all the species, and to unite them
to new genera, which have not that circumscribed character ;
but it is the business of Art, to evolve a more c()m{)rehensive
and generally availing character, so as to shew the value of
the principle. That the genus forms the character.

152.

Lastly, we must remark, that the further tlio knowledge* of
plants is extended, the more do we find that many great gc-

102 TAX0N03IY.

nera, in the natuial arrangement, are not correctly placed, —
that ihcy ought much rather to be considered as Famihes, and
their subdivisions raised to the nmk of genera. This has hap-
pened in our days \\iih the genera Lkhe?i, Fucus, and Pro-
ica, whicli have justly been ex})anded into several genera, ac-
cording to fixed characters.

153.

Many genera consist of such numberless species, that it is
much to be wished they were separated into a greater number
of genera. But so long as Nature shews a correspondence
in essential parts, we dare not separate what she has united.
The genera Aster, Erica, Mescmhi'ijantliemum, Salvia, and
some others, thus justly remain undivided, and we must only
endeavour to arrange the species in such a manner as is
required by their natural correspondence.

This arrangement into divisions or sections, is as necessary
in numerous genera, as the arrangement of the genera them-
selves accorchng to a certain principle of affinity. Not only
the outward view of the ari'angement, but the investigation
of it, is generally relieved by this means. Many of these sec-
tions, if we were to carry our distinctions to a great length,
especially in the genera Convallaria and Polygonum, might
become as many genera, especially as they are separated from
each other not merely by numerical proportion of pai'ts, but
by other marks. Sometimes we give peculiar names to these
sections, as the genus Polygonum is divided into Atraphexoi-
dae, Bistorta?, Persicaria?, Polygona, and Helxinae. Otherwise
these sections are denoted by the signs {^, * or -f-.

III. Idea of Tribes and Families.

154.

As in the animal kingdom there are related genera which
form tribes, as the Cetaceous Animals, the ]\[arsh Fowls, and
the Graminivorous Animals, we also find in the vegetable
world a multitude of related genera, which together form

xMUTUAL CONNECTIONS OV I'LANTS. 10.'i

either Tribes (tribns) or Families. Every person admits
that the different species of Grain, the Palms, Ferns, and
common Fruit-trees, are such Tribes or FamiUes.

155.

But we distinguish these two ideas from one another in
this way ; that by a Tribe we understand a smaller number
of related genera ; a Family, again, denotes the sum of all
the genera, which agree in one or more essential parts : a fa^
mily may thus consist of several tribes. If, for example, we
assume all the species of Grasses as one family, then this con-
sists of the Hordeacege, the flowers of which are placed on a
spike, — of the Avenaceae, which flower in panicles, and have
a twisted awn, — and so forth. The names of these tribes, as
the examples we have given shew, are commonly borrowed
from the principal genus, to which a termination is given, ex-
pressive of the resemblance. We hence say, the Cyperoidere,
Orchideae, Junceae, Aroideae, Jasmineas, Gentianeae, and so
on. We proceed, in the same manner, in giving names to
Families. But these are, with as much propriety, denoted,
usually, by general names, which have a relation to the prin-
cipal property. We thus derive the Ferns, Sarmentaceae,
Coronariae, Labiatae, Asperifoliae, Cruciatae, Composite, Ag-
gregate.

156.

The laws which are followed in the construction of Gene-
ra, have the same importance in the establishment of Tribes
and Families ; for, fundamentally, the latter are nothing but
genera, and our only concern, therefore, is to separate them
from one another by constant characters, and to be able to
mark out their connections with one another.

104 TAXONO.MV.

CHAP. IV.
ON THE NATURAL ARRANGEMENT IN GENERAL.

157.

The solution of the last mentioned problem, tliat, namely,
of marking out the connections of families with one another,
and of so arranging them with respect to each other as Nature
has arranged them, is the object of Method, or the Ideal after
which Science is incessantly striving, and to which she has re-
cently approached nearer than she ever did before, without
having yet perhaps completely reached it.

To present more distinctly the meaning of this problem,
let us think of two nearly related families, for instance, the
Musci frondosi and the Musci hepatici. Along with gene-
ral correspondences, we find also differences, which must be
so marked, that we may perceive which of the two families
stands higher or lower, — which of the two shews at once the
greatest number of organs, and the greatest perfection in
these. Let us next ask further, respecting these families, to
Avhat others they stand contiguous. In the foregoing ex-
amples, we shall see the Musci frondosi passing into the Ly-
copodeae, and bordering on the Ferns ; the Musci hepatici,
in several forms, approach the Ilomallophyllae, and through
them the Lichens ; the Lichens pass in several shapes into
the Funffi, which at last resolve themselves into the most im-
perfect of organised bodies, the Coniomijci and Nematomyci.

158.
When we have in this manner denoted the connections of
families and their differences, we are frequently led to inter-
mediate forms, which still more strongly establish the alliance.
Between the Musci frondosi and hepatici is the Aiidreaca ;
between the MuaciJYondosi and the Ferns are some species

ON THE NATURAL AKRANGEMENT. 105

of Tnchomanes ; between tlie Musci hepatici and tlie Lichens
are Riccia and Enchcarpon ; between the Lichens and Fungi
are Calkium^ Stilhum, and Oj}egrap]ia ; — all evidently inter-
mediate forms. If we could shew similar intermediate forms
throughout the whole of the vegetable kingdom, it might then
be likened to a chain, the links of which were in every instance
connected, and where no proper separation of the parts could
be perceived. On the one hand, this account seems to be
daily more and more confirmed by recent observations. The
Compos'ita; and Lobelieae have lately been united by the genus
Brunon'ia^ in such a manner, that this genus may be consi-
dered as their intermediate form.

But, on the other hand, we must recollect, that although
Nature makes no leaps, yet she does not appear to proceed
uninterruptedly from inferior to higher degrees of perfection,
but that her forms are repeated in several families ; and if we
take the whole together, we shall commonly find, that of two
nearly related families, the one is the more perfect in many
respects, but that in other respects again it is by much the
least perfect. If, for instance, we compare the Musci hepa-
tici with the Ferns, the latter, by their frequently shrub-
by growth, resembling that of Palms, and still more by the
complete state of their spiral vessels and slits, shew a consider-
able degree of perfection. The Musci frondosi, again, although
they want these distinctions, shew not only doubly formed
sexual parts, but the leaves ^^hich cover these parts are often co-
loured in the manner of a corolla. These are marks of a higher
perfection, which is wanting in the Ferns. In the same man-
ner, we shall find throughout the whole vegetable kingdom,
that the growth with two separate cotyledons, and the con-
sumption of the albuminous substance, by the formation of
the embryon, are proofs of a higher perfection. But there
are not only tribes and families, which, along with their more
perfect formation in other respects, yet retain the albuminous
substance, as the Caryophyllea?, Portulacea^, and Aizoidac,
but among what have been called the lower plants we often
remark a degree of completeness and perfection in the forms,

106 TAXONOMY.

as in the Scitamineae, Orchidea% and Coronariae, which must
often lead us into error in arranging these vegetable tribes.

159.

To this must be added, that there are a multitude of sepa-
rate genera, and even of entire families, which cannot at pre-
sent be arranged with respect to others. The genera Bego-
nia^ CynomGrium^ Datisca, and Nepenthes^ for instance, are
completely unknown in their affinities ; and it thus remains
doubtful, whether the Caryophylleae are not more properly
connected with the Chenopodea?, than with the Liliaceas and
Myrteae.

160.

We here already perceive one of the difficulties which the
Natural Order presents in instruction. For as several gene-
ra stand quite insulated in this order, — as others have some
properties of one family, and others have the marks of a dif-
ferent family, — as the situation of families with respect to one
another is not pointed out by nature, but is the work of hu-
man genius, — we must confess that such a method, from its
uncertainty and difficulty, is by no means fitted for begin-
ners, however elevating to the human mind the study of those
alhances may be, — however much it sets all the powers of the
mind in activity, — and however much it is to be wished that
this species of knowledge should constantly be making pro-
gress.

161.

The difficulty of the natural method is still greater, when
w^e look for some bond, or, what is the same thing, for
some common form, which may unite the natural families
with each other, and lead us to their arrangement. If we
take this leading principle from one or a few ever so essen-
tial parts, we in fact do nothing else but connect an artificial
system with the natural arrangement, and this arrangement it-
self can no longer be called a natural one. We may employ,
as our principle, the form and situation of the embryon,

ON THE NATURAL AKUANCiKMENT. 107

the shape of the fruit, the insertion of the filaments, or any
other relations of the organs we please, but such a principle
cannot be employed throughout but in a constrained and ar-
tificial manner. This objection strikes even at the very cele-
brated, very ingenious, and in many respects the immortal
work, which Jussiku has published. Hence there remains no
other plan but that of arranging the tribes and families accord-
ing to the sum of related characters in the greater number of
their parts. But as, in this operation, a great deal depends
upon a peculiar glance of the obserser, the objects of which
frequently cannot be distinctly stated in words, fluctuation
and uncertainty are here unavoidable ; and the more com-
pletely all the marks are collected, the more impossible is it
to impress upon the mind of the learner the sum of these
characters.

In the last place, the comprehensive survey of the Natural
Method necessarily requires the knowledge of such genera,
tribes, and families, as are only accessible to him who has
either accomplished himself by travel in foreign countries, or is
in possession of a very rich collection of plants, and at the
same time has access to one of the best botanic gardens.
Without these assistances one could scarcely become acquaint-
ed with the Anoneae, the Guttiferge, the Sapoteae, and many
other families.

162.

If with all this vve compare the artificial system, nothing is
more easy than, during' the very first lesson, to produce exam-
ples from all the classes ; nothing more easy than to obtain a
view of the subdivisions of this system. It would be difficult
to find any other system better adapted to instruction than
the Linngean. But besides the objections which were before
stated, the study of this system, if the attention of the stu-
dent be limited wholly to it, has the great disadvantage, that
it produces a partial and confined way of viewing things,
which must necessarily estrange the mind from the higher
object of science. Accustomed to view the relations of the
sexual parts as the most important of all others, and to consi-

108 TAXONOMY.

der plants only under this point of view, we come to believe,
in the end, that this is the object of science. We become sa-
tisfied to thrust the plants that come in our way into the
ranks which the Linnaean Classes furnish, and we neglect the
relations of the remaining organs. The mind becomes unac-
customed to consider Nature in her greater relations, and a
real distortion seizes the understanding, from the habit of as-
sembling together the most dissimilar things, and of separa-
ting; from one another the most closely related bodies.

To avoid those evils, we must begin, as soon as we have
obtained a competent knowledge of the common plants ac-
cording to the Linnaean svstem, to study the Natural Method.
The Cryptogamous Plants, as they have been called, force us
as it were to have recourse to these ideas of natural affinity.
Because here, where no artificial system is of any avail, we
must necessarily pay regard to general relations, to resem-
blance of structure and of outward appearance, and to the
sum of the other marks, in order to be able to arrange these
plants. As every person perceives the necessity of a natural
arrangement of these lower plants, wherefore should the study
of relationship be confined entirely to these, and not be ex-
tended also to the higher plants ?

163.

That Linnaeus himself viewed his artificial system in a
right manner, is evident from a great multitude of passages,
where he rates the value of the natural method very high,
and views this arrangement as the last object of Botany ; —
where he expressly asserts, that only imperfectly instructed
botanists set a small value upon this method, but tliat all ac-
complished natural historians regard it as the highest aim of
their labours ; — where, when he was only thirty years of age,
he promises to dedicate his whole life to the formation and
perfecting of the natural method ; — where he solicits all able
botanists to make common cause with him in securing the
great purpose of a scientific knowledge of the affinities of
plants ; and where he expressly says, respecting tlie artificial
aiTangement, that it is merely an expedient of necessity, and

ON THE NATURAL ARKANCiKMENT. 109

must, on all occasions, yield to the natural arrangement. We
find those passages as well in the Classlhus Planturum^
t. 484. and 487. as in the Philosophia Botcmica, § 77. Even
in the latter days of his life, he read ingenious lectures re-
pecting what he named Ordines naturales^ which lectures
have been published by Giseke, at Hamburgh, 1792. These
natural orders are formed without any particular bond, and
Linnaeus used to compai-e them with the different sections
upon a land chart. According to this idea, we find in Giseke's
edition such a land chart, where indeed very many regions
stand quite insulated, but where also the conterminous boun-
daries of many are correctly marked. That the Palms are
conterminous, through the genera Cycas, Zamia, and Nyssa,
with the Ferns, and on the other side with the Hydrocharideae ;
that the latter are related through the Juncea? with the Ca-
lamariae, and Cyperoidae, and on the other side with the
Ensatse or Irideae ; that the latter are conterminous w ith the
Orchideae, and these with the Scitamineas ; all this, and a
good deal more, is very correctly stated in that chart.

Even in his artificial system, the putting together of genera^
according to their natural affinities, — a peculiarity of his sys-
tem which we have already blamed, — is a proof of his predi-
lection for the natural arrangement.

164.

Even during the life of Linnaeus, Michael Adanson pro-
posed a natural method in his Families ihs Planter, Paris
176S, which contains an inexhaustible treasure of observations
respecting the essential characters of families, and of innu-
merable genera. It wants indeed a principle of arrangement,
many of the genera are imperfectly constructed, and, with
capricious obstinacy, are improperly named ; but the se-
ries of families is for the most part derived from nature.
Thus to the Boragineae or Asperifoliae, succeed the Labiatae,
then the Verbencae, the Personatae, the Solaneae, the Jasmineae,
the AnagaUideae, the Salicariae, the Portulaceae, the Sedeae,
the Alsineae, and so forth. Besides, in this arrangement, at-
tention is paid to every thing, — even to the finest parts of the

HO TAXONOMY.

fruit and seed ; and those recent times, the improvements of
whicli liave been derived from the labours of Adanson, have,
in many instances, only been able to confirm his observations.

165.

By Joseph Gartner's single work on Fruits and Seeds, an
entirely new light has been cast uyon the natural method, by
which a multitude of obscurities have been cleared up, and
affinities have been discovered, where they were before sought
for in vain. In this way, and by treading in the footsteps of
Jussieu, De Candolle, Richard, Batsch, Correa de Serra,
and Robert Brown, we may hope to afford essential advan-
tage to science, whilst we are searching out every where rela-
tions and affinities.

It cannot but happen, that the farther progress we make,
the greater number of families will be discovered ; because in
particular tribes we shall ever be noticing such distinct as-
semblages as separate themselves properly from the families
to which they had formerly been ascribed. If Jussieu reck-
oned only a hundred families, we must now be acquainted
with nearly a hundred and fifty. The Dilleniete, Pittospo-
reae, Tremandreae, Combreteae, Cunoniae, Rhizophoreae, Ha-
loxageae, Atherospermeae, Hackhouseae, are examples of later
families, which Brown has established by well-founded inves-
tigations.

166.

In a few words we shall notice the analytical method which
Lamark proposed, forty years ago, as a middle path for
avoiding the inconveniencies of the artificial system, as well
as the diflSculties of the natural method. He remarked, that
the procedure of the human mind, in the investigation of
plants, was of such a kind as leads us to divide the whole
vegetable kingdom into two principal departments, the cha-
racters of the one of which are always completely exclusive of
the marks of the other. Each of these two may again be se-
parated into other two divisions, and this mode of dividing
may be continued, until we have at last only two species to

OF THE NATURAL ARRANGEMENT. Ill

compare together and to distinguish. Whilst in this plan
we are confined by no method, we actually exhaust the re-
gion of possibilities, at the same time that we are studying
realities. Yet the circumstantiality and discursiveness of
these investigations are objections to the plan. No person lias
pursued it with more ability and success, in later times, than
Gaudin, in his Agrostohgia Helvetica, 1811. When, for
example, he wishes to teach us to distinguish the species of
Festuca, he first attends to the leaves, whether they are all
bristly, or whether the stalk-leaves be smooth ; then to the in-
tegument of the leaves, whether it be very short and truncated,
or very prominent ; next he attends to the spicula?, whether
they be oval or oblong, with a^vns or without them ; lastly, to
the awns themselves, whether they be as long as the spicidae,
or longer.

For facilitating the diagnosis of individual species, the ana^
lytical method is very useful ; but it requires too great an ex-
pence of time and labour to be used on every occasion in the
examination of plants. If, for instance, we wish to deter-
mine a Myrtle, we must first ask whether it belongs to the
division of plants with distinct sexual parts, or with those that
are hidden ; whether it be monoclinous or diclinous ; whe-
ther the sexual parts stand free or are united, to what organ
they are fixed, in what number they are present; whether
the seeds have albumen or not ; what situation the plumula
has with respect to the umbilicus and the cotyledons ; still
further, how the corolla is fashioned, how its estivation takes
place, whether the plant be a tree or an herb, what is the
formation of its leaves, and their situation in the buds, and
so forth. The answer to these questions depends on inqui-
ries, which always lead to certain, comprehensive, and useful
knowledge. They are also applicable to every system, but
for elementary instruction they are in every case too dis-
cursive.

112 TAXONOMY.

CHAP. V.

THEOKY OF NATURAI. CLASSIFICATION.

167.

To the Theory of Natural Classification belong essentially
the three following particulars. In the Jirst place, we must
be acquainted with the relative importance which belongs to
organs, compared with one anotlier ; in the secwid place, we
must know the circumstances which might lead the observer
to mistake the true nature of organs ; and, in the third place,
we must be able to estimate the importance which may be
attached to each of the points of view, under which an organ
may be considered.

I. Campariso7i of Organs.

168.
As in organic bodies every part has its relative import-
ance, so this importance can have a reference only to the
function for which it is destined, and not to things to which
it stands in no relation. In classification, therefore, the de-
gree of importance of every organ, can be estimated only in
relation to those organs which have a reference to the same
function.

169.

But as the functions of the vegetable kingdom are of two
kinds, namely, nourishment, which relates to the maintenance
of the individual, and propagation, which relates to the main-
tenance of the species, so each of these functions, considered
by itself, must have an equal importance ; and a classification,

2

NATURAL CLASSIFICATIOX. 113

which is founded upon one of these two great functions of
the vegetable kingdom, must necessarily be as natural as that
which has a reference to the other function.

This principle, indeed, is opposed by the conjmonly recei-
ved idea, that the parts of fructification are properly the
most essential and important. It is opposed by the general
practice of the founders of systems, who regard only the ])arts
of propagation, and derive from them the principles of ar-
rangement ; but this happens principally because we usually
find fewer differences in the organs of nourishment, and be-
cause, in order to discover these differences, dissection is pre-
viously required. Hence, in order to proceed securely to
work, and not to throw unnecessary difficulties into the study,
we must view the Organs of Fructification as the chief basis
of Classification.

170.

As in an organised body all the parts ha\e a mutual in-
fluence, and are connected with one another, important differ-
ences in the organs of one function must of necessity draw
along with them differences in tlie structure of the parts
which belong to another function ; and it is a very important
principle, that the entire structure of plants is different when
important alterations are found in the seed. Plants, whose
seeds contain an unevolved embryon and rich albumen, have a
completely different internal structure of stem, leaves, flowers,
and commonly even a different numerical proportion, from
plants, whose seeds contain a completely developed embryon,
and have little or no albuminous substance.

In many instances this has even an influence on the nature
of the secreted juices, because these derive their character
only from the nature of the separate organs. Thus the co-
loured juices in the Hypericea? and Guttifene, the milky juice
of the Euphorbias, and the aromatic ingredients of the La-
biatae, are well known examples of this influence of natural
affinity even on the constitution of juices. The theory of
medicines may, in this view, derive advantages from the na-
tural arrangement of plants.

II

114 TAXONOMY.

But it is a matter of consistency, when we admit the nature
of the secreted juices among the characters, to understand the
existence of pecuHar organs and vessels, which secrete and
contain these juices. If we have not yet completely ascer-
tained the internal structure of these organs, we are justified
in assuming it, when, instead of the organs themselves, we
exhibit their productions, namely, the nature of their secreted
juices.

171.

But it is not enouoh to know, that the org-ans deserve more
attention than their products ; in every function we must
know the means to be employed for estimating the import-
ance of the organs. Sometimes reason, and sometimes obser-
vation, are these means.

Reasoning can only be employed when we know the use of
an organ ; then we obtain, by a simple exercise of reason, an
idea of its importance. If we attend to the organs of propa-
gation, these are evidently of more importance than their in-
teguments. If we compare together the sexual parts, both of
these parts are alike indispensable ; but the male organs per-
form their part for but a very short time, and in this respect
may be compared to the stigma, which disappears after im-
pregnation. But as the female organ, beside this short-lived
part, contains another, for which all the other parts are con-
structed, it is plain that the female organ is of more import-
ance than the male, and that the part of it which lasts is of
more importance than that which passes away. As, farther,
in the permanent female organ, the integument, or the fruit,
may be separated from the seed, and exists but for it, the
seed has thus a higher value than the fruit. And when,
lastly, we divide the seed into the embryon and the albuminous
substance, or, in the want of the latter, when we distinguish
between the cotyledons and the young plant, then the latter
has a greater value than the other parts of the seed. If these
conclusions are just, we have then the following degrees in the
importance of these organs. In the 1^^ place stands the em-
bryon, the ultimate object of the whole vegetation, 2. The

NATURAL CLASSIFICATION. 115

parts of the seed. 3. The fruit. 4. The filaments and an-
thers, the latter of which must be more important than the
former, because the former exist but for them. 5. The nec-
taries, which, when they are present, essentially promote
fructification. 6. The interior cover of the sexual parts, or
the corolla. 7- The calyx, or exterior cover.

172.
There is a second mean of determining the value of or-
gans, which, however, although very instructive in certain re-
spects, is liable to more objections. We may consider any
part of fructification as having so much the greater import-
ance, according to the number of species in which it is found.
By following this rule, we obtain nearly the same results as
from the former ; because the object of vegetation is in all
cases affected, when the same means are not in operation. The
seed, or germ-grain, is universally present, even in the lowest
plants. The individual parts of the seed cannot be so com-
monly distinguished. All plants have not fruit; but more
shew fruit than sexual organs. Of these organs, the female
parts, even those which are shortest lived, are found in more
plants than the male parts; since even in the Homalo-
phyllae, and Musci hepatici, there are pistils and stigmata,
where no anthers have yet been shewn. Anthers occur more
commonly than filaments. We dare not decide whether nec-
taries or corollge appear most frequently ; since as many
flowers wanting the corolla have nectaries, as there are nec-
taries without the former organ. As little can we affirm that
the corolla appears more frequently than the calyx, because,
in numberless cases these integuments pass into each other.

173.

A third mean of judging respecting the importance of or-
gans, consists in observing how far a certain oigan is more or
less constantly united with the structure of definite and gene-
rally received vegetable tribes. If, for example, we had to
determine whether the stipulse or spines are most im})ort-
ant, we must give the preference to the former, because there

II '2

116 i'AX(>N():»iv.

is a niultitucle of families in which the stipulaj are a constant
appendage of vegetation ; for example, the Rubiacea?, Mal-
vaceae, Leguminosa?, Amentaceae ; whilst spines may be pre-
sent or wanting in a great many families, without making any
perceptible difference ; for instance, in the Rosacea^, Legu-
minosae, and so forth. In the same manner, the constant
absence of an organ, in certain families, is of more moment
than its accidental appearance, when it is wanting in other
related forms. Thus the Grasses, so far as we know, have
never nectaries, as they also never have compound leaves.

II. On the Means ichich Nature affords for enabl^ig us ta
Ji'?WTc Organs, and therchij to avoid mistakes.

174.

In all iuquirie& nito the history of plants, it is an object of
the highest importance thai we should have a correct idea
respecting the purport and nature of any organ, because then
only can we flatter ourselves with the idea of having obtained
a propel' insight into the economy of plants. This department
of the study has made remarkable })rogress in our days, since
men began to iree themselves from the fetters of the schools,
and from the prejudices of authority. The great Founder of
Scientitic Botany frequently mistook the nature of organs, es-
pecially when he saw nectaries, where none are and never can
be. Audit is not long since it was believed, that in the Ferns
there w^ere anthers in very various organs, which, however,
have a very different purpose.

The first thing that we have to do, in order to become ac-
quainted v/ith the nature of an organ, is to endeavour to find
out whether it really performs the functions, to which, by its
form,, it seems to be destined.

Even when the form varies, we must be determined by the
function to assign to the organ a definite nature. It is well
known how different is the form of nectaries, and how great
a variety takes place in the structure of filaments. If, how-
ever, the function be really the same, we must explain their
nature upon a common principle. Rut he who permits himself

to be led, hy the mere similarity of fbni), to suppose Uial,
therefore, the organs are ahke, has fallen into a mistake
which may give occasion to important errors.

Experience teaches us, that when, from some peciiiiaritv ol"
structure, a function cannot be performed by tlie oi-o-an com-
monly destined for that purj)ose, another organ supplies its
place. As the proboscis of the Elephant performs the ])art of
a hand ; as the tail of the Kangaroo, although fashioned like
other tails, serves the animals as a bone ; so in the Acacia of
New Holland, the leaf-stalks supply the place of leaves
Thus, also, those leaves of water plants, which grow under
the water, are divided in the manner of rf)()ts, and seem to
perform a siniilar function

175.

There is yet another law to be understood, t(^ ena!)le us to
judge properly respecting the Nature of Organs. In innumer-
able instances, there appear forms similar tt) those which are
connected with a definite function, but which do not fulfil
that function ; and Nature seems, in these instances, as in
the animal kingdom, to produce forms which are completely
useless, merely for the sake of a harmonious and symmetrical
stnicture. The appearance of filaments with empty anthers
in flowers that are altogether female, and of female parts in
flowers wholly male ; the structure of filaments in other
forms, where tliey resemble nectaries ; the false nectarothi cas
in such Orciiidea^ as have no nectaries ; these all are forma-
tions which can only be explained by tlie law of nature we
are now illustrating.

The third mean of knowing the Nature of an Organ, con-
sists in the dissection of its structure ; for which purpose pow-
erful magnifying glasses are frequently necessary. If we
wish to ascertain the existence of the integument jx)ssessing
the nature of the calyx, we must observe the continuation of
the epidermis with its slits in tliat integument, (S\2.) A
glandular and fleshy stnicture determines respecting the na-
tiu'e of nectaries, as a multitude of short absorbent warlK
leads to the belief of {ho existence of the stigma.

118 TAXONOMY.

By studying these relations, by carefully comparing the
structure with the function, we arrive at a sure knowledge of
the nature of organs.

176.

Mistakes in this respect are committed, when we overlook
three things, namely, the Abortion, Alteration, and Union of
Organs. Respecting all these three phenomena of nature
we must now give a more particular account.

A. Of Abortive Organs.

111.

The abortive state of an organ is often the consequence of
an imperfect evolution. The cause lies not unfrequently in
unfavourable weather, in an unfertile soil, and in other acci-
dents. We thus see that fruit is not completely formed,
when the soil is arid. But the circumstance of most import-
ance is, that abortion arises very often from a law of Na-
ture, in consequence of which one part is evolved at the ex-
pence of another ; and this latter part, therefore, remains im-
perfect. We every day see a remarkable example of this in
many species of Violets, where some blossoms, in which the
corolla is chiefly unfolded, fall off, without leaving any fruit,
whilst other flowers, which had not a corolla, set perfect fruit
The beautiful colouring of the bracteae of Buginvillaa, leaves
no distinct evolution to the corolla ; and in our Melampyrum
nemorosum and cristatum, the flowers do not expand on the
upper parts, where the beautii'ully coloured bracteae seem to
supply their place. It is a law of Nature, which remains
constant even in entire families, that half of the filaments
are abortive, or that the loculi of the fruit, originally des-
tined undoubtedly for the reception of seed, remain partly
empty. In the Acantheae and Sapotea% we find the pheno-
mena of abortive filaments as a law of these families. In the
Rhamneae, Palmae, Sapindeac, and many other families, the
abortion of the individual loculi of the fruit is constant ;
and who can have compared our Gaura biennis, in the

NATURAL tT.ASMJTC A riOX. Jlfj

State of the unripe germen, and of" the ripe fruit, witliout re-
marking, that the former contains several ovula, whilst the
latter always incloses but one seed. In the Siliculosae, as in
Crambe, Cakile, and Myagrum, we always find empty abor-
tive loculi. Is it further necessary to multiply examples,
by calling to recollection the common Snow-ball, and Hydran-
gea liortensis^ where the abortive state of the sexual parts
affords opportunity to the evolution of the beautifully colour-
ed integuments of the flower ?

178.

A question naturally arises, in what \\ ay \\q may avoid the
mistakes to which such abortion may lead. For this purpose,
we propose the following means. 1. We must examine the or-
gans in all their proportions, even in those that are most differ-
ent. It cannot but happen,*that during sucii examination a re-
turn to the symmetrical or natural structure will be observed.
These symmetrical proportions are oiten the natural ones,
and art has merely produced the abortive state, by evolving
one organ at the expence of another. The Snowball of our
gardens bears perfect flowers when it grows wild. It is fre-
tjuently art itself, or a luxuriant growth, which produces
this return to the original structure. As, for example, the
appendages to the filaments of Sage are abortive filaments,
the plant, like other Labiatge, should properly have four fila-
ments. In fact, we observe, that, in many species of this ge-
nus, the oblique processes of the filaments carry anther-shaped
bodies; and in Salvia ghd'mosa, we find these, during moist
summers, passing into true anthers. When we compare with
these Stachytarpheta and Westringia, v/e see very distinctly
the two abortive filaments, which also, in the last named ge-
nus, bear empty anthers.

But in every case it is important to observe the organs at
their first appearance, whilst they are as yet unrestrained in
their structure. Thus, we must examine (and this is one of
the most important rules for the botanist) the loculi of the ova-
rium in its unripe state, in order to determine respecting the
true nature of the ripe fruit. When we examine a spine in

120 TAXONOMY.

its first appearance, we perceive that it was intended to have
been a branch, which has only proved abortive, and which,
notwithstanding, even as a spine, bears leaves, and, in Euplior-
hia heptagona, sometimes flowers and fruit.

179.

2. To avoid mistakes, we also often follow analogy or in-
duction. When a form is C(>mmon to several families, we
cannot mistake its sign, even when it seems to fail. Thus,
as the Orchideae are related to the Scitamineac and Iridea?, we
find in the former the sign of the three male organs, in the
two lateral appendages of the column of fructification, or the
Staminodia of Richard. In like manner, the two fibres,
which Gratiola carries beside the fruitful filaments, will ap-
peal* to be abortive filaments, when we compare them with
the other Scrophulari?e, which sdltnetimes have four fruitful
filaments, and sometimes, in addition to these, even a fifth.

The same analogy which leads us from genus to genus, ex-
plains also one species by another. As in the Lcea we con-
sider the cleft scales, with which the filaments are inter-
mingled, to be abortive filaments, because in the nearly re-
lated genus Alelia ten filaments have perfect anthers ; we
also conclude that Polijgoiium amphihmm, which has only
five, and Polygonum persicaria^ which has only six filaments,
have lost the rest by abortion, because several species of tlie
same genus possess eight filaments.

180.
From abortion principally arise the many irregularities in the
structure of plants ; because we may suppose that the original
formation of natural bodies is regular. When we thus find
unhnportant irregularities in the organs of a plant, we may
suspect that there are plants in which these irregularities as-
sume a more marked aspect, — tiiat there are others where
these organs are completely a])ortive, — and othei's in which
complete regularity takes place. The usual form of the pa-
pilionaceous flower is very irregular in D'lmorpha ; th/:," vexil-
lum and carina in Amorpha are completely abortive ; and m

NATLKAL CLASSIFICATION. 121

Tamarindus, Hz/menaa, ParMnsonia^ and even Cassia^ the
papilionaceous blossom assumes the appearance of pretty re-
gular four-leaved flowers.

181.

Another effect of abortion is, that an organ, which has com-
pletely altered its form, becomes incapable of performing its
function. It is then either altogether superfluous, and re-
mains only as an ornament (175.), or it performs the function
of another organ, whose form it has taken,— as the expand-
ed filaments of Canna and Tiialictrum petaloideum supply
the place of the petals of the corolla.

The usual effect of abortion, in which another part is en-
larged at the expence of the abortive part, has been partly
noticed already. We thus see the fruit swell and be».-ome
better flavoured, when the seed is abortive. Thus, in the
Acacia of New^ Holland, the compound form of the leaves is
only remarked during the earhest growth of the plant. Af-
terwards the leaves become abortive, and in their stead the
leaf- stalk is evolved to such a degree, that, along with the
form, it assumes also^ the function of leaves.

In fact, attention is every day more carefuUy directed to
the laws of abortion ; because by them we are able to explain
a great multitude of phenomena in the vegetable world, and
of otherwise incomprehensible varieties of form ; and because
excellent apphcations of these laws can be made to the phy-
siology of animal bodies.

B. Oil Chmige and Degeneration of Parts.

182.
It is an important law of the whole vegetable kingdom,
that from every individual part of a j)lant, every other may be
evolved. In animal bodies of a perfect structure, this is not
possible in the natural state, because the internal structure of
the individual organs is much mere conijjound and various.
It is only in the sickly state of the higher animals that niustie

122 TAXONOMY.

is changed into cellular texture and fat ; or the common mem-
brane of the vessels into the substance of bone. But in plants
this change takes place the more readily, the nearer the organs
stand to one another in the process of formation ; so that the
roots may become stem and branches, — these again may be
changed into roots, — leaves may become leaf-stalks, and the
reverse, — the calyx may become corolla, and the filaments
mav change to petals ; and even in some cases the fruit may
again push out leaves, and from the receptacle new branches
may spring up.

183.
In tlie formation of one part from another. Nature pro-
ceeds in such a way, that she first renders the parts compact
and simple, when she intends to give them an extended and
compound form. The root-leaves are naturally more simple
than the follo^\^ng stem-leaves, and these again are the sim-
pler the nearer they stand to the flower. When hindrances
to this compacting of the part occur, the consequent exten-
sion must also undergo a change, and hence we see many al-
terations arise.

184.

These alterations, when we attend to the substance of the
part, may be arranged under the five following classes.

1. The parts become prickly, as happens in the branches
of Fruit-' rees, — the stipulae of the Acacia, — in innume-
rable leaves, — in the calyx even,— and, in one instance,
the Cerviera De Cand. a genus of the family of the Ru-
biaceae, in the petals of the corolla.

52. The parts become lengthened out into a flexible fibre,
which, when it is cui'\'ed, is usually called cirrhus. It
is well known, that the leaf-stalks of Vetches, and of the
species of Lathyrus, are thus extended into cirrhi ; as
also that the flower-stalk of the Vine and of the Passion-
flower uniformlv undergo this alteration. The transi-
tion of the stipulfE in Smilax, and of the nerves of the
leaves in FhtgeUaria and Nepenthes, into cirrhi, is less

NATURAL CLASSIFICATION. 133

known. Even the petals of the Strophanthus De Cand.
and the filaments of Hirtella resemble twisted threads.

3. The usual fibrous or rounded form of particular parts, may
also become of a leafy nature, and thus conceal their ori-
ginal form. The branches of Phyllanthus, and even of
the Cactus species, are of a leafy structure ; and, in the
former, the flowers seem to be set on the margin of the
leaves, whilst it is only the expanded and leafy flower-
stalks which bear them. We have already remarked,
that the nerves of the leaves of some species of Poly-
trichum are fashioned into lamellae. In the same man-
ner, it is not unusual for the filaments to expand them-
selves, and, in the Irideae, even the pistils from this ex-
pansion assume the appearance of petals.

4. Parts that are naturally green and juicy, often become
dry and membranaceous {scariosus). This is most fre-
quently observed in the calyx-scales of compoimd flowers,
and in the calyx of the single florets, which we consider
as a pappus.

5. Lastly, It very often happens, that membranaceous or
leafy parts become fleshy, as we every day see in the re-
ceptacle of the Strawberry and Raspberry. Thus, also,
the one-seeded berries of the Anonese unite by the swell-
ing of the receptacle into a single juicy fruit ; and, in
like manner, the strobilus of the Juniper, by the swell-
ing of the scales and their union, takes the form of a
juicy berry. In the Hoveniu dulch-, even the flower-
stalk, after the time of blossoming, becomes juicy, well
flavoured, and of a beautiful red colour.

C. On the Ufiion of Organs.

185.

Every person knows that there are instances in which two
fruits, two branches, and even two trees, are united with one
another. But there is a law of nature which regularly pro-
duces this junction ; namely, when similar organs have a dis-
position not only to hang together, but whvu they cannot pro-

124 TAXONOMY.

ceed in their growth without passing into each other. Thus
we see leaves grow together, winch, in the Lonicera?, constitute
under the flower an entire leaf, so that we say they have com
plctely united. Thus we every day see in the Umbellata^, two
fruits united, which only separate when they are fully ripe. In
the same manner, we find the parts of the involucra of many
Umbellatae growing together, especially in the species Bijpleio-
rum and Seseli^ so as to lead us to the conclusion, that the ca^
lyces of compound flowers are nothing else but united involu-
cra,— as is proved by their transition into leaves in the calyx
of Biiphthctlmvm^ in the Acmella of Richard, in the Georgia^
Wild, and in the Sigesheckia. The distinction between 7Va-
gcqyogon and Urospermum^ Scop, also leads us to the same
conclusion, because in the latter the parts of the calyx are
united into one body, whilst in Tragopogwi they are disjoined.
In these examples, therefore, it is evident that a union of the
leaflets of involucrum takes place, rather than that the calyx
deserves to be considered as a single and independent body.

186.
What has now been said of the calyx is applicable also to
the corolla. There is a regular union of the usually-sepa-
rated parts of the corolla, of which we have obvious examples
in some papilionaceous flowers, particularly in Trifolium^
and even in the vexillum of the Lotus. In like manner,
many monopetalous flowers may be regarded as made up
of parts that originally stood free ; and it is evident in what
manner the forms of Cyphia and Pliyteuma pass into imi-
tations of the corolla in the other Campanulea?.

187.
A similar disposition to united growth belongs to fllaments,
whose analogy to petals strikes every person upon an atten-
tive consideration. When we consider, that among papiliona-
ceous flowers and leguminous plants, the numerous tribe of So-
phoreae have free standing filaments, whilst the tribe of Spar-
tcfe have them united into one bundle, both tribes will ap-
pear to be related to the Diadelphous plants, because we ob-
serve frequent transitions from the one tribe to the other.

XATCHAL CLASSIFU'ATIOX. 125

Crotalar'ia and Abrus shew, in the empty cleft on the hack
of the cvHnder of the filament, this disposition to the separa-
tion of the one filament, which, in proper diadelphous plants,
we see standing single, whilst in Dipteryx^ Schrcb., the junc-
tion of the filaments is incomplete, and in Dalea and Petalos-
temon they are less united with each other than with the })arts
of the corolla. Are not these instances proof sufficient that the
union of the filaments presupposes an original disunion of them?
Do we not every day, in many of Caryophylleae, perceive the
filaments standing free, whilst in others (Dianthus, Sapona-
ritty Silene, and Agrostemma,) they are attached to a ring
surrounding the pistil, or are united with the petals ? The
tribe of Chenopodeae, to which belong Illecebrum, Herniaria^
Gomphrena, and others, shew the same thing. The fila-
ments in Iresine, Paronychia, Tourncf., Anychia, Hern'ia-
7'ia, and Bosea, stand free. In Adiyranthes, Illecebrumy
Gomphrena, and others, they are united.

188.
What has been said of petals and filaments is also appli-
cable to pistils ; that is to say, we are often forced, when we
see a simple pistil, to consider it as made up of several : other-
wise it would be difficult to understand in what way many
plants have several pistils, whilst some nearly related to them
have but one. It may here become a question, whether Mespl-
lus monogyna be the only original species, or whether there be
not many other species, which have from two to three, four
and five pistils. When in most of the Grasses we regularly
perceive two pistils, it is extremely probable, that the few, as
Nardus, Cenchrus, Lygeum, and Spartina, which are mo-
nogynous, have their one pistil made up of two that are
united. This is still farther confirmed by observing, that the
number of the pistils corresponds with the number of lo-
culi in the germen. If there be but one pistil, the num-
ber of loculi in the germen corresponds with the number of
stigmata ; and it is probable that oi-iginally there were as
many pistils as stigmata. Lastly, in a cross section of a strong
pistil, as for instance in any of the Cactus species, we observe

126 TAXONOMY.

that there is not merely one canal in its axis to the germen,
but that several such passages stand in a circle, and pro-
bably represent as many united pistilla. When we obsei'\'e
how the four caryopses of the Labiatae and Asperifoliae sur-
round the single pistil, we cannot but believe that the latter
part is made up of four individual pistils, especially when
we attend to the almost complete separation of the stigma, —
the distinct coherence of two individual pistils in the Perilla, —
the deep disunion of them in the Thymhj'a, in EcJiium and
EcMochilon Desfont., — and, above all, when we attend to the
four divisions of the stigma in Cleonia and Coldenia.

189.

Lastly^ we must apply this idea of an union of parts even
to the fruit. What we mean is, that caryopses, in indefinite
numbers, are more original than capsules with many loculi ;
that the latter must be considered rather as a collection of
united simple capsules, and that when, in a simple fruit, we
observe a certain irregularity, we may safely suspect that ori-
ginally there were several loculi, but that they have become
abortive and united.

We may prove this account by striking instances. Eyery
person knows that the fundamental genus of the Ranuncu-
lese, from which they take their name, contains caryopses in
indefinite numbers, which are also found in Myosurus, Ane-
mone, Thalictrum, and so forth, but which pass in Xan-
thorrhiza into the single-seeded utriculus, and in Aconitum
and Paoniu into capsules which open laterally. On account
of the relationship of Nigella to those plants in other respects,
we must consider its fruit also as single capsules, which open
laterally, and which are only a little united at their lower
parts. Now, when we observe a capsule with five loculi
in Vallea Mut., which is evidently a Ranunculus, nothing
is more natural than the conclusion, that in this case, as
well as in Nigella, there have been five simple capsules which
have here undergone a union. If we attend to the fun-
damental genus, from which the Diosmeae have their name,
we find it carrying five pointed caryopses, surrounded by an

NATURAL CLASSIFICATION. 127

arillus, which bursts by an internal elasticity. The Meli-
cope Forst. has a similar fruit, only that, in this case, the
capsules have but one seed. In the Corraa Sm. we find
a capsule of many loculi, derived undoubtedly from four
single capsules which have been united ; (Tab. III. Fig.
9. 10.) We all know that the fundamental genus of the Mal-
vaceae contains numerous capsules placed in a circle. The
same arrangement takes place in Sida and Lavatera. Hi-
hiscu^, again, has a capsule of many loculi, which is only
distinguished from the former fruits by the circumstance,
that in the one case the seeds are separated by a simple, and
in the other by a double partition. In illustration of the last
stated principle, I produce the striking instance of the Linnaa.
Its relation to the Loriicera, Hallera, Schradera, and espe-
cially to the Triosteicm, and even to the Sambucus, is obvious ;
and it belongs, therefore, to the Caprifoliae. Now, these have,
for the most part, fruit with three loculi and three seeds.
Linnaa also carries a berry with three loculi, but when it is
fully ripe, we always find but one seed, and the other two
loculi are united with the one which bears this seed. The
Poly galeae have commonly a germen of two loculi, but the
ripe fruit contains only one seed. The case is the same in the
Phillt/rea and Rytidea Decand. Three or four seeds are
here united, so that the situation of the embryon is changed
and pressed to one side.

Lastly, The opinion of Brown does not seem to be without
foundation, that the caryopses of the syngenesious plants,
which we always see simple, have originally been double ;
because, in some species, we see very distinctly two lateral
funiculi umbilicales, which would not be there if the seed
were simple. The divided pistil points, as we have former-
ly hinted, to the same conclusion; (Neue Entdeck. I. s. 171.
172.)

190.

Respecting the Union of Organs we may establish the fol-
lowing laws. The importance of this union of the pai'ts of
fructification increases with the difficulties that are presented to

128 TAXONOMY.

its accomplishment, because the more numerous the obstacles
which are to be surmounted, the more powerful must be the
cause which overcomes them. But these difficulties may be
founded cither in the consistence of the organs, or in their de-
gree of analogy. Fleshy })arts are easily united. Such a junc-
tion is accordingly of no great importance ; and when, there-
fore, a capsule has sometimes the consistence of a berry, as in
Hypericum^ Androscemum, and Bacdfcrum, we are not jus-
tified in considering this phenomenon to ])e of so much con-
sequence that a generic distinction can be founded on it.

The analogy of parts facilitate their junction. That si-
milar parts should be connected is of so little consequence,
that we perceive the filaments, in particular, to be connected
at their base innumerable times, without on that account ar-
ranging the plants in the Monadelphia Class. In the same
manner, filaments and petals, calyx and corolla, may very
well be united, without any great difficulties being surmount-
ed. But between the germen and the corolla, between the
corolla and the filaments, there is no particular analogy, and
hence we find these parts seldom united. But when they are,
this phenomenon is of considerable importance. In the same
manner we consider the junction of the calyx with the fruit,
and the union of the two sexual parts, as at least more im-
portant than the union of the nectaries with the filaments and
sexual parts.

191.

The union of different organs of fructification is the more
important, the more intimately it is connected with very
great changes in the general symmetry. This observa-
tion limits some of the ibregoing remarks. With respect to
the connection between the corolla and the calyx in particu-
lar, this may take place in two ways. If the petals alternate
with the parts of the calyx, then they are commonly uni-
ted only at their base, and the general symmetry is not there-
by destroyed. But if the petals stand directly before the
parts of the calyx, then the junction may be complete, of
which we see a remarkable example in Sesiivium. In this

NATUKAL CLASSIFICATIOX. 129

case the general symmetry is completely changed, and this
phenomenon is of very great importance.

If the filaments do not cling to the corollar integument of
the calyx, then the calyx cannot be united with the germen.
But if the filaments are fixed in the corollar integument of the
caly.x, then the calyx may either stand free, as in the Melas-
tomeae, or may be united with the germen, as in the Pomacea*.

When similar parts are united at their base", they always
shew a disposition to be more expanded at their lower part ;
and we may safely presume that they are not united, when
we observe that they become narrower towards the base.
Hence the Myrsineae, although they have a very deeply di-
vided corolla, are not at all inclined to produce polypetaloius
flowers.

192.

Lastly, The difference of numerical proportions may often
be explained both from the abortion and from the imion of
parts. When we compare two related plants, one of which
has five, the other ten filaments, either the former has taken
its character from an abortion of filaments, or the latter from
the union of two flowers. Although the Grasses have com-
monly three anthers, we sometimes see Grasses of the Hex-
andria Class, as if they had sprung from the union of two
belonging to the Class Triandria ; an idea whicli is strikingly
confirmed by the structure of the Ehrharta. In like man-
ner we often remark, that plants which have usually six fila-
ments, exhibit twelve of them, as happens in Lytlirum, On
tlie other hand, Hexandria Plants may lose a part of their
filaments, and appear as if they belonged to Tetrandria, of
which the genus Convallaria is a striking instance. Those
of the Class Tetradynamia, are perhaps originally of the
Class Decandria, and the four petals are to be regarded as
altered filaments, as in Thlaspi Bursa we sometimes observe
this return to the original structure.

1.'30 TAXONOMY.

HI. (}n the diffiriut Points of' View under which an Organ y
or a System of Orgaji.f, may be considered.

193.

In order to seize these points of view, we must examine
as well the internal symmetry of an organ, as its relations to
other organs, or to the whole plant. Our attention, there-
fore, must be directed to the presence or absence of the or-
gan,— to its situation and relative position, — to its numerical
proportion, — to its size, — its external form, — its duration, — its
uses, — and to its sensible properties.

194.

In this examination, the most important matter is, that we
should be convinced of the presence or absence of an organ.
We must endeavour to avoid the errors which may arise
from abortion or union of parts. Especially we must put
more value on the positive characters, which express the pre-
sence of an organ, than on the negative, which indicate its
absence.

195.

The situation and relative po.sition of parts is their most im-
portant point of view. This situation may either be consider-
ed simply with reference to the place of insertion ; or with re-
ference to the dissimilar organs which are attached to the
same place ; or, lastly, with reference to tfie similar organs
which arise in different places.

With respect to the first oi^ these ; the essential situation of
every organ is always so defined, that we understand its true
support ; that is to say, we understand what is the part by
which it is nourished, or from which it springs. To give an
instance, — the situation of the embryon must not be considered
in relation to the fruit, but to the umbilicus, or to the point
where the funiculus uml)ilicalis is inserted. In this sense
we observe that almost all embryons direct their radicle to-
wards the funiculus imibilicalis. AVhen we say, therefore,

3

NATURAL CLASSIFICATION. 131

that the radicle is directed upwards or downwards, it is the
same thing as if we said, that the seed stands upright, or hangs,
in relation to the fruit, downwards; (121.) Properly, there-
fore, this character has a reference, not to the situation of
the embryon, but to the situation of the seed, and its value is
not of the first but of the second rank.

The situation of the parts of the flower must always be re-
ferred to the receptacle, because they arise from it. But it
is often very difficult to determine the true position of these
parts on the receptacle ; and we sometimes only conjecture it
Irom the mutual junctions which take place, because we na-
turally take for granted, that organs stand nearer to one an-
other at their origin, the greater disposition they shew to
unite together.

196.

Still more important than their absolute situation is the po-
sition of different organs with respect to one another. We
must not only know that the filaments stand on the recepta-
cle, but also, whether they alternate with the petals, or are
set opposite to them, and stand before them. Especially, it
is of much consequence to consider the position of the parts
of the corolla and calyx with respect to each other, because in
this matter Nature pireserves a very particular regularity.
The most usual case, is that in which the filaments stand be-
fore the parts of the calyx, and alternate with the petals
and with the locuh of the fruit. There is no known in-
stance, however, in which the loculi of the fruit, the fila-
ments, and the parts of the corolla and calyx, all stand di-
rectly before or behind one another. The instances are rare
in which the parts of the corolla and calyx stand before one
another, and the filaments alternate with them ; or in which
the filaments, and the parts of the corolla, stand before one
another, and alternate with the parts of the calyx. The po-
sition of the stem-leaves also depends on the same principles.
The alternate position of the leaves is peculiar originally to
the imperfect and albuminous plants, — the opposite and

I 2

13'2 TAXONOMY.

\vhorl-sha|X}d position belongs to the higher, or to the albu-
minous plants. But there are many exceptions to this.

197.

It is very difficult to establish any fixed principles respect-
ing the value of numerical proportion. On the one hand,
Nature shews a regularity which cannot be mistaken in the
numerical proportions of many parts, as, for instance, in the
impregnating organs of the Orchidese and Liliaceae. On the
other hand, she seems sometimes to sport in such a manner
with numbers, that in many genera we scarcely find the same
number of filaments and pistils in ail the species. Astonish-
ing changes often take place, in this res}:>ect, from abortion
and union of parts. We shall endeavour to state some
rules on this subject.

198(7.

Numerical proportion appears to be more steadfast, and
consequently more important, the more scanty the number
is. It is on this account that the numerical proportion
of the anthers remains so steadfast in the Scitaminea?, Or-
chideae, and Grasses, and also in the Labiatae, because they
have only one, three, or four. Dodecandria Plants observe
much seldomer tlie same numerical proportion than those of
the Class Hexandria. But there are exceptions also to this
rule, of which Valerinna and Bocrhavia are well known in-
stances.

In the organs of impregnation, unity seems chiefly to be-
long, as a character, to the pistil. In most of the other parts
of fructification, unity appears only as a consequence of abor-
tion or union. This has been already remarked in the
Orchidese; it is equally evident respecting the Scitamineae,
because on both sides of the principal filaments, these com-
monly have two filiform processes, which, on account of the
resemblance of the plant in other respects to the Irideae,
lead us to suspect that they are properly two abortive fila-
ments.

NATURAL Cl.ASSlI'ICATIOX. 133

1986.
To know the true and absolute number of the organs of a
plant, we must trace them, with the help of the theory of
abortion and union, to the original type of the tribe or
family to which the plant belongs. When, for instance, I
remark that the Primulea? have almost all five parts in
their corolla and calyx, and live filaments, I cannot be led
into any mistake, although in the Trientalis and Tovaria I
commonly observe seven filaments. The original type is
five, to which our Trientalis sometimes returns. Also, the
four dissimilar filaments of Linde^mia, Lb?iosella, and Ccn-
tunculus, cannot occasion any mistake, since these plants ap-
pear as Primuleae in all other respects. The fifth filament is
here abortive, as it is also in the Personatae, Acanthea^ and
Bignonias. Among the Campanuleae, whose original number
is five, we yet find Canarina with six, and Micliauxia with
eight parts.

199.

We perceive from this, that it is a matter of more conse-.
quence to know the relative number, than the absolute num-
ber of parts. It is of more importance, in particular tribes, to
know, that the number of the filaments is twice or three times
the number of the parts of the corolla and the calyx, than to
be able to state the precise number. Tliis numerical propor-
tion, which the different parts maintain with respect to one
another, has often also an influence on the divisions of the
fruit, and even on the number of the seed. Thus in Alyssum
we observe a simple division of the silicula, four seeds, the
same number of parts in the calyx and corolla, and one
and a half times as many filaments. But in many genera
and families the number is altogether indefinite, especially in
the Ranunculea^ and Magnohae.

200.

In ill! regular flowers the relative number of the parts of
every system must be the first object of our examination ; but
in irregular flowers we must begin by examining the absolute

134 TAXONOMV.

numbers of every system, and, by deriving from them, the re-
lative number. Because, as irregular flowers arise from the
union or abortion of regular petals, the whole number is
evidently lessened, and can no longer stand in a fixed relation
to the parts of the calyx, or to the filaments. Therefore
the absohite number is here tlie first object of examination.

201.

The number of petals has a fixed proportion to the num-
ber ol' the parts of the calyx, when each of tliese systems has
but one row of parts. The relative numbers are less remark-
able and less applicable in these two organs, when they stand
in several rows. But in some cases this relation may be ex-
pressed by multiplication. In Nymphaa alba we reckon four
divisions of the calyx, four times four pistils, four times five
petals in two rows, and four times twelve anthers iti four
rows.

But as the petals themselves, as in Delphinium, NympluEay
Calycantlms, and several other genera, are evidently altered
filaments, the numbers of each row of the filaments maintain
a fixed proportion to the parts of the corolla and calyx.

202.

It is diflicult to state the numerical proportion of the locii-
li of the fruit. If the ovaria are placed in the shape of a whorl
around an imaginary axis, they often maintain a definite pro-
portion to the parts of the calyx and corolla, as in the Ge-
raniums, Diosmea;, and Junceae. But when the ovaria are
arranged in heads or ears, their number is for the most part
quite indefinite, and maintains at least no proportion to the
parts of the corolla and calyx. We see this very distinctly in
the Ranunculeae.

Now, as we have already remarked that capsules of many
loculi are to be considered as individual capsules that have
been joined together, what has been already said respect-
ing the whorl-shaped position of individual ovaria, is appli-
cable to capsules of several loculi, when the pistil stands
in their centre. But if the pistil be on one side, this is pro-

I
NATURAL CLAJSfsll ICATIOX. 13.5

bably a consequence of abortion or union, as we have al-
ready remarked of the Labiatae, and as in tlie Glt'dilschia
triacantha and Spartium scoparium wc often actually observe
two pistils more or less united.

The absolute size of organs is a very insignificant cir-
cumstance in the theory of classification. A more innx)rtanl
consideration is the proportional size of similar or dissi-
milar parts. Wc may assume the following rule as a funda-
mental law of vegetation. The parts of one and the same
system are by nature equal in size, and only become unecjual
from changes, which are more or less intimately connected
with the general nature of plants. We have already noticed,
that the Labiatae and Cruciform plants shew an abortion and
alteration of parts ; hence proceeds the want of uniformity in
the length of the filaments.

But, in general, the regularity or irregularity, and also the
similarityor dissimilarity, of the size of parts, depend very much
upon their position on the stem. If a flower stands alone at the
tip of a branch, where no other flower hinders its evolution,
it will necessai'ily be regular, even when it belongs to a fami-
ly with irregular flowers. Parnassia and Saiivagesia have
regular flowers, although they belong to the Resedeas with ir-
regular flowers. Asarum stands among the Aristolochiae, be-
cause it has always a stalk with but one flower. But let us
make the supposition, that around and near this blossom
others arise, it will then become a whorl, a head, an ear, or
an umbel. The uniformity is now overturned. The cen-
tral blossom continues regular, but those on the margin musl^
be irregular, as we every day see in the Umbellatae, the Ag-
gregatae, and in the compound flowers. Hence the most irre-
gular flowers never stand single, and never on the tip of the
branch, if we except some of the Orchideae. When in the
Labiatae flowers appear on the tip of a branch, even they
sometimes are regular, as is the case in Tcucrium campanula-
turn and some species of Galeops'is.

136 TAXOXO.AIY.

204.

From these considerations it follows, that in the theory of
classification all these irregular forms nuist be traced back
to their regular primitive form, even although this should be
of but rare occurrence. If we compare the Solaneaj with the
Personatae, the latter appear, from the irregularity of their
flowers, and the imequal number of their filaments, to be
completely distinguished from the former. But if we exa-
mine the fruit, the placentation, the situation of the embryon,
and the other relations of the flower, we find the greatest
agreement, and the transitions from Nkotiana to Hyoscya-
mus^ to Verbascinn, and to Cehia, strike every person ; for
in Verbascum the lobes of the corolla are often irregular, and
the filaments of unequal length. If we change but one fila-
ment in Verbascum^ it becomes Cels'm.

In general, we must observe, that an irregularity of parts
seldom appears in one organ, without being also apparent in
ethers. But the fruit is frequently an exception to this.

205.

The unequal length of the filaments is nevertheless some-
times connected with perfect regularity in the other parts, of
which we see daily instances in Phlox and Oxalis. Another
law prevails here, namely, that the parts of a svsteni are un-
folded successively, and not at once. Hence in Phlox in par-
ticular, there are some only of the filaments which have the
necessary length for enabling the anthers to impregnate the
stigma. In Oxal'm, there is more regularity, because exact-
ly one half of the filam.ents is longer than the other half.

206.

With respect to the connection of parts, the rule is, that
all organs which are united with their supports are persistent,
and all those which loosen themselves at their base are deci-
duous. In like manner, related parts, which have a suture,
open themselves ; whilst those which have no suture remain
shut. With respect to the internal structure of parts, we
find that the interruption of continuous structure arise? for

NATUKAL CLASSIFJCATIOX. l.'j/

the most part merely from chasms in the cellular texture.
Hence it appears, that such interruption is not of any great
moment. But in so far as the cellular texture is a part of
the whole body, and a great regularity is observed in this
interrupted or uninterrupted connection, such structure bo-
longs to the most important characters. It is as important a
character, that nuts and stony fruits do not burst in valves,
as that the calyx of the Papaverece is deciduous.

207.

The uses of organs and their sensible marks, as their co-
lours, smell, and taste, can only be so far important in Taxo-
nomy, as we can thence draAV conclusions respecting the in-
ternal structure of parts.

IV. On the DetenninatioiL of' Value of Chara.ciers.

208.
The determination of the value of characters, is in general
very simple. In this matter," we may take it as a rule, that the
value of a character stands in a compound pro}X)rtion to the
importance of the organ, and to the jx)int of view in which
we consider it. If the question relates to a single organ, the
characters stand in simple proportion to its variations. If the
question relates to a single variation, the characters are in the
same proportion as the importance of the organs. If we em-
ploy both these elements^ their union may afford similar or dis-
similar results. Characters are similar in three cases. 1. When
the same variation takes place with respect to two organs of
the same rank in one or two functions. 2. When two variations
of the same rank take place with respect to one or two or-
gans also of the same rank. 3. When the degree of inqx)r-
tance of an organ is correctly balanced by the value of the
variation. If, for instance, I compare the embryon, consider-
ed under its least important point of view, namely, its sensible
marks, with the nectary, under its most important point of
view, \\hich is its existence, then I obtain two anak^gous re-

Iii8 TAXONOMY.

«ults according to the theory, which may be employed also in
practice ; because a character which, considered by itself, has
a small value, may assume a very important value, if we con-
sider it witli respect to the whole organization of a tribe or
family. This character then becomes the sign of a permanent
internal variation of structure, which must be of great conse-
quence. The form of 'the leaves is in itself of small value in
classification ; but in the (irasses, for instance, it has a very
important significancy, because it is inseparably connected
with tlie internal organization. If we knew the internal
structure of all plants, these relations in many families, for
instance in the Rubiacea^, the Leguminosae, and the Ferns,
would be completely cleared up.

209.
If, in a tribe, we observe certain plants which are nearly
related to each other by their general aspect as well as by
their other characters, but which are distinguished from one
another by one mark, this mark cannot be of any great con-
sequence. In the Saxifrageae, the superior or inferior posi-
tion of the fruit, when the other characters correspond, is of
just as little consequence as the upright position of the em-
bryon in the Berberideae, where it is often also inverted. The
Aggregatae, again, are distinguished from Compound flowers
by this permanent character, among others, that in the for-
mer the embryon is inverted, in the latter it is upright.

CHAP. VI.
NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF FAMILIES.

210.

I. Plants of a cellular Structure. Scarcely proper Seeds.
Propagated by Spora^.

Fam. 1. Fungi. (Introd. II. Fig. 82.)

a. Conyomici, Nees von Escnbcck.

b. NematomycL

NATUllAI. ARRANGEMENT OF FAMILIES. Itid

c. Goniomyci.

d. Gastromyci.

e. Spongiae.

^ Myeolomyci.
2. LiCHENEs; (Anleit. II. V id. 51— 64.)
8. Algjs; (Do. 33—51.)

4. HOMALLOPHYLL^ ; (Do. 64 — 66.)

5. Musci iiEPATici ; True seeds. Double sex-

ual parts.

6. Musci frondosi ; (Do. 73 — 89)

II. Plants with Spiral Vessels and Slits. True Seeds.
The Sexual Parts not Double.

Fam. 7. Filices; (Anleit. II. Vid. 89—104.)

8. Pteroid.e; (Do. 104—107.)

9. Lycopode.e ; Uncommon sexual parts.

(Do. 107—110.)

10. Rhizosperm.e; (Do. 110—114.)

11. Naiad.e; (Do. 114—122.)

III. Plants with the Sexual Parts obvious, and of the
usual Form. The Spiral Vessels dispersed through the
Stem. The Embryon unevolved in the Albuminous Sub-
stance. The number three prevailing.

Fam. 12. Aroide.e ; (Anleit. II. Vid. 122—128.)

13. Cyperoid.e; (Do. 129—137.)

14. Grasses; (Do. 137—184.)

15. Restiace.e and Juxce.e ; (Do. 184 — 195.)

16. Palm.e; (Do. 195—209.)

17. SarmentacevE, (Dioscoreac, Smilacina?, Br.)

(Do, 219—231.)

18. Coronari.e; (Liliaceoe, Amaryllidca?.)

(Do. 231—256)

19. Iride.e; (Do. 256—261.)

20. Hyihiocharid/E ; (Do. 263.)

21. Alisme.e; De Cand. (Do. 266)

22. Scitamine.e; (Do. 270—277.)

23. Orchiue.e; (Do. 280-298.)

24. Muse,e; (Do. 278—279.)

140

TAXOXOMV.

IV. Plants with Sexual Parts obvious, and of the usual
Form. Spiral Vessels in Concentric Rings. The Embryon
more or less evolved. Numerical proportion variable.

A. Simple Floral Cover.

B.

m. 25. Stylide.e ; (An!

eit. II.

Vid. 298—300.)

26. Aristolociii.e ;

(Do.

300—302.)

27- Polygone.e;

(Do.

303—307.)

28. Chenopode/e ;

(Do.

307—320.)

29. Santalee;

(Do.

320—323.)

SO. Thymelce.e ;

(Do.

323 329.)

31. PlPERE^;

(Do.

123.)

32. Strobilifer.e ;

(Do.

209—219.)

33. Amektace.e;

(Do.

344—353.)

34. Urtice.e;

(Do.

353—362.)

35. Tricocc-e;

(Do,

363—375.)

36. Proteace.e;

(Do.

329—339.)

37. Laurin.e;

(Do.

339 342.)

38. Myristice.e;

(Do.

342—344.)

39. Plantagine.e ;

(Do.

376—377.)

40. Nyctagin.e ;

(Do.

377—382.)

Double Floral Cover.

Slumber five prevailing.

a. The Petals united.

41. Primule.e;

(Do.

383—390.)

42. Personate;

(Do.

390—406.)

43. Acanthe.^ ;

(Do.

407—411.)

44. BiGNONi^;

(Do.

412-418.)

45. Vitice.e;

(Do.

418—426.)

46. Labiat.e;

(Do.

427—443.)

47. Asi'ERIFOLLe;

(Do.

444—452.)

48. SoLANE.E ;

(Do.

452—460.)

49. CoNVOLVULEyE ;

(Do.

460—468.)

60. Jasmine.e;

(Do.

468-471.)

51. Gentiane.e ;

(Do.

471—479.)

52. Contort.e;

(Do.

479—496.)

53. Sapotk.e;

(Do.

497_502.)

54. Styrace.e ;

(Do.

505—507.)

55. Kuice.e;

(Do.

513—517.)

NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF FAMILIES. ]41

56.

57.
58.
59.
60.

73.
74.
75.
76.

77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.

89.
90.
91.
92.

CampanulE/E ; (Anleit. ii. vitl. 522 — 525.)

507-_583.)
583—588.)
589—590.)
591—595.)
595.)
617—623.)

509—513.)
617—522.)
525—527.)
596—617.)
623—645.)
646—650.)
650—658.)
658—666.)
666-669.)
670—672.)
672—675.)
675—678.)
678—680.)
680—682.)
682—690.)
690—693.)
693—695.)
695—700.)
700—707.)
707—711.)
711—724.)
725—730.)
730—736.)
736—740.)
740-773.)
774—777.)
779—789.)
789—793.)
793—797.)
797— 806.)

COMPOSIT.E ; (Do.

Aggbegat.€ ; (Do.

VALERIANE.f: ; (Do.

CucurbitacEve; (Do.

61. Passiflore.e ; (Do.

62. Cafrifoli.e; (Do.
b. The petals more or less free.

63. Rhododendre.e ; (Do.

64. Epacrid.e ; (Do.

65. Lobelle ; (Do.

66. RUBIACE.E ; (Do.

67. Umbelliferous plants; (Do.

68. Saxifrages ; (Do.

69. Terebinthace.e ; (Do.

70. RHAMNE.E ; (Do.

71. DiosME^ ; (Do.

72. Berberidee; (Do.
RuTACE.^ ; (Do.
Menisperme.e ; (Do.
Anones ; (Do.
Magnolle ; (Do.
Meli.e ; (Do.
Malpighle ; (Do.
AHORN.E ; (Do.
Sapinde^e ; (Do.
Onagri ; (Do.
Salicarle ; (Do.
Cruciform plants ; (Do.
Papavere^ ; (Do.
Ranuncule.e ; (Do.
Poly GALE /E ; (Do.

87. Leguminous plants; (Do.

88. Capparid.e ; (Do.
Guttifer.e ; (Do.
Agrum.e ; (Do.
Geranie.e ; (Do.
Malvacf.e; (Do.

142

TAXONOMY.

93.

Buthkere.e; (Anleit. II. ^

nd. 806— 811.)

94.

OcilNBiE ;

(Do.

811—813.)

95.

DlLLENIB^ ;

(Do.

813—815.)

96.

TlLIACE.C ;

(Do.

815— 8Jei.)

97.

Hermannie^;

(Do.

821—824.)

98.

Chlanace^e ;

(Do.

824—825.)

99.

CisTE^ ;

(Do.

825—826.)

100.

Resede^, De Cand.

;(Do.

777—778.)

101.

lONlDIiE ;

(Do.

827—829.)

102.

Caryophylle.* ;

(Do.

829-839.)

103.

Portulace.e ;

(Do.

839—842.)

104.

A1Z01D.E ;

(Do.

842—845.)

105.

Ceee.e ;

(Do.

845—847.)

106.

LoASE.f: ;

(Do.

847—848.)

107.

Myrte.e ;

(Do.

849—854.)

108.

Sede.e ;

(Do.

854—856.)

109.

Melastom.« ;

(Do.

856—859.)

110.

Rosace.* ;

(Do.

859—872.)

( 143 )

PART III.
PHYTOGRAPHY,

OR

DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY

CHAP. I.

ON THE NAMES OF PLANTS.

211.

T.

HE original names of plants are those by which they have
been designated in every country by common use. The most
ancient writers on botany have availed themselves of these
names only ; and as the common use of language is subject
to no rules, the same names were formerly given to the most
diiferent plants, when they had only a remote or accidental
resemblance, and quite different names were given to near-
ly related plants, to those even which belong to tlie same
genus. As more plants were discovered, greater perplexity
must have been felt respecting their names. A remedy for
this perplexity was endeavoured to be obtained, by furnish-
ing the names of known plants with such additions, as
might fit them for denoting new plants which bore a re-
semblance to them. Hence the names Canpphyllu^^ Ly-
simaehia, Consolida regalis^ NasUirtlumy Auricula jnuris^
and so forth, were not only assigned to an innumerable mul-
titude of different plants, but were accompanied with verbose
definitions of a more particular character, wliich on tlie one
hand rendered it impossible to ii\ them in tlie menoiN . and

144. ]>iiy'io(;«APHY.

on the other enlarged beyond all hounds the size of botanical
writings, and, as caprice ratlicr than law ruled in this matter,
multiplied the synonymes of every plant to an endless
length. In the middle of the seventeenth century, indeed,
Joachim Young, an ingenious philosopher in Hamburgh,
first attempted to introduce order into this chaos, by giving
laws, founded on correct views, to the nomenclature ; but his
writings became known for the first time almost a century after
his death, {Joach. Yungii Opuscnla hotanko-physka^ Cobtirgi,
1747, 4to.) ; and the herculean lalK)urs of Caspar Bauhin, re-
specting the older synonymes (^P'lnax Theatri hotanki, Basil,
1G71, 4to.), corrected and improved by Morison, (Praludia
hotanka ; Halluc'matwnes C Bauhinii in Pinace, Lond.
1669, 12mo.), continued till the eighteenth century to be the
onlv (juidin^r clew in the labvrinth of botanical nomenclature*

212.

Linnaeus earned for himself immortal honour, by inventing
what he called Trivial Names, in addition to the Generic
Names which several earlier writers (Ray, Plumier, Tour-
nefort), had established according to correct principles. In
this way every Species of plant was now designated by only
two invariable names, which could be easily retained, and
by means of which the acquisition of the science must have
been much facilitated.

To this nomenclature of Linna?us, it has indeed been ob-
jected, not without reason, that it serves only for enabling
us to retain the name of a plant, without denoting its essen-
tial properties. Hence Haller, and others, proposed various
plans for expressing the characters of plants in their names.
But these attempts failed, and, at any rate, could lay no
claim to general approbation, because their object was less to
facilitate the study, than to express a preconceived meaning.
The Linna?an Nomenclature must ever endure, because, with
about a thousand trivial names, and from two to three thou-
sand and a half of generic names, we are able correctly to
designate more than fifty thousand different species of plants*

DF.SCRIPTIVE IU)TAXV. 145

But we must now point out the laws, according to wliich
both the ffeneric and trivial names have been invented.

I. Of the Generic Xainc.

213.

The Generic name should be a substantive, and the Trivial
name an adjective. Hence adjectives, as generic names, are
objectionable. We allow many at present, because custom
has consecrated them, (Scabiom, Gloriosa, Impatums^ Fon-
tmalis)y but to form new names on this principle is not ])er-
mitted.

214.
Generic names, which have been employed by the most
ancient classical writers, are always to be preserved, provided
they do not stand in direct opposition to the other rules oi"
nomenclature, {Betida, Samolu.s, Hurmdus. and so forth.)

215.

The best generic names are those which express the cha-
racter of the genus in a single well-formed word. They are
compounded of Greek or Latin words, (Epilobhcn?, Cerato-
carpus^ LitJiospermu7n, Tragopogon). This rule is not
exactly attended to, when we attempt to express, in the ge-
neric name, such peculiarities as are not immediately con-
nected with the essential generic character. These have of-
ten an allusion to the general aspect of plants, to their situa-
tion, colours, and odier properties. {Lychnis^ Strat/o/r.s,
LmcJiitis, Adoxa, M'wndus^ Hijdrocharis, Fotamogcton).

216.
Generic names should contain positive information. Hence
all those are exceptionable which are foimded upon a resem-
blance to other genera, and which express this resemblance
by diminutives, or by syllables, either prefixed or added.

K

146

»IIYTOGllAriIV.

{IonkVui77i ^ Ampekypsisy Ricmoides^ AcetoseUa, Lypinaste?',
Orchidocarpus, Pseudorch'i.s).

On tliesc grounds gcnLTic names are to be rejected which
have been formed by transposition from others. GalpJihnia
instead of Midpighiu, Tcpesia for Pcfesla, and Maker nia for
Hcnnniniia^ have ahvady been admitted; but Mcoscluuin^
formed from Iscliamum^ instead of hchaminn, is not to be
endured.

' Names which have the same sound with others already in
use, are to be avoided. (Picria Lmir. and Picris, Castelia
Cav. and Casftia^ Turp. ; Dijsodia^ WUld. and Dysodiumy
Rich.)

917.

Generic names must be of Greek or Latin origin, because
these are the learned languages of which botanists avail
themselves. The orioinal national names are therefore ex-
ceptionable, which may be called barbarous, in so far as they
have no Latin termination. If diis rule is not observed, we
may commit as ridiculous mistakes as those into which Adan-
son fell, who adopted German, Dutch, and other names of
plants, as generic. (Gansblum, Kolman^ Chanterel, Amberboi,
Kreidek, Rulac^ Hondr-bessen.) However, several French
botanists follow him in this respect, by assimiing American,
African, and other barbarous names, as generic. (Harongana,
Lam. Icacoria, Jubl. PaypayrcHa^ Aubl)

However, in this respect, we must not be too strict, but must
endure such original names as have either been consecrated
by custom, or which have a Latin or Greek sound. (Cqffea,
Thea, Mum, Cadia, Scorzonera.) Linnaeus called these
names quasi modo gen'ita.

The formation of generic names must be guided by the
laws of the Latin and Greek lanfjuao^es, and therefore all
those are exceptionable whose composition is ungrammatical.
(Genosiris, Calyxhymenia, Aixtojcicon.)

Hence hybrid names, compounded from Greek and La-
tin, are exceptionable. {Caturus^ Laurryphyllus, Alternan-
thera.)

DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 147

218.
Generic names should consist only of one word, otherwise
the additional trivial name would make up three names. Yet
we have adopted many names formed on a different principle,
because they have been in immemorial use ; {Rosvutrinus^
Cornucopia, Sempervivicm.)

219.

Generic names should designate definite genera of plants.
They ought not, therefore, to be family names. (G7'amen,
Filix, Lichen.) These names, too, ought not to be taken
from other sciences and arts, especially not from other parts
of natural history, (Naias, Elephas, Natrix, Buprestis) : but
even here long use has its privilege ; {HcUotropium, Hyacm-
thus, Pastinaca, Tascus).

220.

As we are often at a loss for generic names, it is allowable
to borrow an allegorical name from mythology. This prac-
tice is allowable, but not to be imitated ; {Adonis, Narcissus,
Danais, Urania, Hecatea). To denote his perplexity, Lin-
naeus called a plant Quisqualis.

221.

From the earliest times it has been a custom to honour the
merits of great promoters of botany, by naming plants after
them. When neither flattery, nor other private views, lead
to this practice, it may be justified ; {MWiridatca, Eupafo-
rium, Cliffbrtia, Josephinia, Munchausia). But the prac-
tice is very reprehensible, when later botanists have sought,
by means of it, to do an agreeable service to their superiors,
or to make themselves acceptable to them ; (Ferdinaiida,
Napoleona, Bonapartea, Theodora, Carludovica, Jle.ran-
dra).

222.
To preserve, in this way, the memory of meritorious bo-
tanists, is a laudable custom, which nuist, however, be in-

K 2

1'4<S PHVTOGRAPHY.

telligently adopted, and not misused. We must be able,
in the first place, so to change tlie names as tliat they yhaW
be easily pronounced ; {Gunddld tor GimdMieimerio, Cras-
sinia for Krascheninikovia, Goodcnia for Goodenoughia).
The French s\llables dc and Jw, le and lu, are also to be
omitted; (Heriteria, Fontanesiu). Wui if these syllables
are a part of the name, they nuist be adopted into the generic
name ; {DuhamcUa^ Lapei/rousia, Desvauxm). It is only
to be regretted, that we are often at a loss how to pronounce
these names, and the study cannot surely be said to be faci-
litated, when it is intended that names such as Kn'ightia,
Kfiau/tvnia, Pahifoaia, Munnoz'ia, should be pronounced as
the English and Spaniards pronounce them.

There is a further evil in this kind of nomenclature, that
no person can form to himself any conception of the plant,
when he hears it called by a name which has been formed
from that of some botanist. No person can have an idea
attached to many names, borrowed from men who are either
altogether unknown, or have been distinguished but in a
small circle. There is a multitude of such names, the deri-
vation of which it is almost impossible to state. It is impro-
per to immortalize, in this way, men who have been known
in other departments of study, or who have gained but a
doubtful reputation. Adanson named Carrkldera, after the
wild enthusiast Carrkhter of lleckingen. Orihasia^ ^gine-
tia, Podaliria, Machaonia^ Hippocratia, Jvkennia, Aver-
rlioa, Fernelkiy Chaptalia, ai'e also objectionable on the same
grounds.

This honour may be shewn not only to botanical writers,
but also to celebrated travellers, who, by extending our
knowledge of the earth, have also enriched the science of
plants ; as also to artists, who have distinguished themselves
by excellent representations of plants ; on which account the
names Cookia, BuginvilldEa, Mogellana, Banera, Ehretia,
Turpinia^ Redutea, may be justified.

DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 149

II. Of Trivial Names.

223.

A fundamental rule in the construction of a trivial name,
is, that it be a descriptive word, short, and derived from the
Latin, or at any rate from the Greek language.

Latin trivial names are the best ; but many properties which
we wish to designate, cannot well be expressed in Latin ; in
which case we betake ourselves to Greek. Micranthiis may
be used indiscriminately wth parvijlorus^ and macrophylhis
with hng'ifolius ; but macrostemon and isostemoii are evi-
dently better than longistammeus and aqualistaminens. The
practice of those is to be blamed who employ Greek too
frequently in trivial names, when we have equally significant
Latin terms in use ; because the latter language is more ge-
nerally understood than the former. Cycloselis is a super-
fluous expression, since we have orhicularis and c'lncinnatus.

22%.

A second leading rule is, that the trivial names must be
as little varied as possible, so that synonymes may not be-
come infinite. The first trivial name must remain, even al-
though a better might easily be had. But there is an excep-
tion to this, when the wiiters who first employed the trivial
name denoted several different species of plants by it, or con-
sidered what was merely a subspecies to be a species. This
has happened with Ballota nigra, under which name Lin-
naeus included a completely different species during his bet-
ter days, from those which it had formerly denoted.

It is impossible at present not to urge the rule, tliat no
trivial name, but the Linnaean, ought to he pronounced or
written, without adding the authority to it ; because it hajv
pens that different plants have the same trivial name, and
because, without adding the autliority, no jx^rson can know
where to find more information respecting the plant. Nick-
era splacknoides, Schwagr. is a quite different plant from
A^. spl. Sm. : Pan'icum fasciculatum Sw. different fjoLP. that of

150 PHYTOGRAPHY.

Lam. ; Solanum scabrum Lam. Jacqu. Zuccagn. Mill. Ruiz et
Pav, Vahl., and Dinial, are six comjiletely different plants.

225.

Trivial names should be expressive ; they must either ex-
press the specific character, or denote generally some strik-
ing property, such as the general aspect of the plant, — its
resemblance to other plants, — its native country, — its situa-
tion,— its time of flowering, — the duration of its life, — its
smell, — taste, — and also its uses.

Resemblance to other plants is expressed by the termina-
tion oidcs, (which, however, must not be added to any Latin
name, as muscokles, riparioidcs) ; also hy Jbr mis , pseudoy or
by the name of the plants to which the species bears a re-
semblance ; {Begonia Urtica^ Veronica Anagallis, Satureia
Thymhrd).

226.

We see that the trivial name is commonly indeed an ad-
jective, but may sometimes be a substantive, and is then
written with a large initial letter. If it is an adjective, it
must confonn itself to the gender of the generic name, and is
always written small, unless the adjective be formed from the
name of the discoverer or propagator of the plant ; {jCarex
arenaria., Euphorbia Gerardianu). When the trivial name
is a substantive, we must not be offended if it sometimes has
the termination of an adjective, and does not correspond with
the gender of the generic name ; {Ilex Aquifolium, Erysi-
mum AUiaria).

AVe even allow trivial names to be sometimes barbarous,
because less strictness prevails here than with respect to
generic names ; {jCentaurea Crupina, Robinia Chamlagu).

227.
Trivial names should be short. We therefore avoid, as
much as possible, those which consist of two separate words,
or which are very much compounded and diflicult to be pro-
nounced. Some that are in common use are allowed, which,

DESCRIPTIVE KOTAXV. 1,51

however, we willingly abbreviate, as Thlaspi Bursa Pastona,
Hedysarum Caput galU, Lysimachla Linum utellatuvi.

III. Delineatmi qf'CJiaracter.s.

228.
Next to nomenclature, the delineation of characters is the
most important part of phytography. But we must under-
stand the method of delineating, and of correctly expressing
both generic and specific characters. This demands the ob-
servation of some general rules, which we are about to state.
The most essential requisite in a good character is, that it be
expressed in the generally understood technical language, and
neither contain undefined terms, nor comparisons with other
plants, or with other objects of nature and art. Comparison
and metaphorical expressions are objectionable on this ground,
that the character must give a positive acquaintance with the
object. But from this rule those terms of com})arison are
excepted, which are of common use in the artificial language.

229.

It is also a principal maxim in the delineation of characters,
that we should abstain from the introduction of all accidental
and non-essential things, because these lead only to confusion,
and are by no means invariable.

Into the character of genus and sj-^ecies mc must admit only
those marks which distinguish plants from those that are re-
lated to them. This may be done without instituting com-
parisons, which belong much rather to tlie descri])ti(m and
diagnosis. The sum of the mai'ks which are found in rela-
ted plants, must always be before us wliilst we are delineating
the character ; on which account it is impossible to give the
character of a new genus or species, unless we kiiow tiie plants
which have a similar nature.

152 riivTodJiAPJiv.

A. On Generic Characters.

230.
The generic character (character gener'iaifi) is the expres-
sion of the peculiar and invariahle marks by which a genus
of plants is distinguished from all others. This character
may be of three kinds.

1. It may contain a complete enumeration of all and each
of the marks which are found in the whole plant. It is then
called a Natural Character. Such a character must always be
very circumstantial, and it is so much the more difficult to
give it correctly, that in the organs of nourishment non-essen-
tial things may easily be confounded with such as are es-
sential.

2. The Artificial Character {character artificialis). This
contains only the marks of the organs of fructification, or,
where these are not distinct, the marks of those parts which
are subservient to propagation.

3. The Diagnostic Character {character factitius^ diag-
nosis). This consists in the selection of such marks only as
serve to distinguish one genus from another. This last cha-
racter facilitates, indeed, the acquisition of the knowledge of
plants, and renders it more sure; but when a genus is represent-
ed by itself, this character cannot possibly be sufficient. When,
f(jr instance, we merely state respecting Bronius^ that the
awn springs from the ridge of the valve, we can distinguish
Bromus from Festuca by this means, but the whole charac-
ter of the former demands something more, and we must, for
this purpose, pay attention both to the inflorescence, and to
the number of flowers on the ear.

231.

Every generic character must state shortly and distinctly the
conmion marks which })elong invariably to all species of the
same genus. No generic character, therefore, can be formed,
till we have compared together all the species. Inattention to
this rule is tb.e reason wliv verv manv oi the older characters

DESCUirriVE BOTANY. 153

are entirely useless, because they apply to but one or a few-
species. But if there be a correspondence in most of the
species, a difference of one or two species among a great num-
ber may take place, without inducing us to reject, on that ac-
count, the generic character. Commonly this difference is
taken into the character, especially a difference of numerical
proportion. As, for instance, in the genus Amaranthus, al-
most as manv triandria as pentandria species appear, it is
expressly stated in the character that there are either three or
five anthers.

232.

The generic character of the higher })Iants is borrowed
solely from the organs of fructification. And we begin with
the inflorescence ; we then proceed to tlie covers of the sexual
parts ; next to those parts themselves, and to the nectaries ;
after these, to the fruit ; and, lastly, to the embryon. All
invariable peculiarities of these organs, which are common to
all the species, compose the Generic Character. The general
aspect of the genus, — the formation of the root, stem, leaves,
and other parts, — the composition of the peculiar juices, — the
smell and taste, — are all things which are no doubt important,
and which may lead us to the formation of a genus, but they
cannot be taken into the generic character itself, unless we
would make it more circumstantial and natural. If, for instance,
we observe a herbaceous plant, which in its organs of fructifica-
tion shews almost the entire character of another genus, all the
species of which are trees, we are not allowed, at once, on this
account to view that herbaceous plant as a peculiar genus, and
to assume this difference into the character ; but this circum-
stance induces us to institute a closer examination of the es-
sential parts, that in them also we may discover marks of dif-
ference which correspond with the general aspect.

According to the gradation in the value of organs, which was
noticed in Sect. 171. and 172., we must not overlook even the
smallest parts of the fruit, but must minutely examine the si-
tuation of the embryon, — the structure of the cotyledons, of

2

154 PHYTOGRAPHY.

the vitellus, and other parts of tlie seed. Every person, in-
deed, cannot institute such an examination, because it pre-
supposes not only the presence of the ripe fruit, but peculiar
practice and dexterity. But these tilings must be noticed in
the generic character, unless the genus is not distinguished
from its related genera by its structure in these parts.

233.

In the lower plants, where few or no organs of fructifica-
tion are found, we the more readily betake ourselves to other
parts, and borrow the character from them ; because in many
families the whole plant contains within itself the germs of
propagation. Neither in the Lichens, therefore, nor in the
Alga^, and least of all in the Fungi, is it objectionable that
we admit the structure of the whole plant into the character.
We are even permitted, in these cases, to admit such diffe-
rences into the generic character, as can only be discovered
by the most powerful magnifiers.

234.

The shorter a generic character is, it is so much the bet-
ter ; because it is intended to impress itself upon the memo-
ry. On this account the diagnostic characters are chiefly to
be recommended to beginners, although in them there is a re-
ference to related genera. It must be understood, ho'>s^ever,
that natural characters are excepted from this rule.

The generic character is put in the nominative, and in it
we follow the order in which the parts are successively un-
folded.

B. On Specific Characters.

235.

The Specific Character ought to be the expression of all
the invariable marks by which one species is distinguished
from all others, (142.) It is called also the Phrase.

DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 155

It follows from this, that the character of a species whicli
is the only one of the genus, cannot be dehneated. Such
plants are rather explained by description.

236.

The specific character derives its elements from every
part of the plant, the properties of which are invariable.
The nature of the root, — the qualities of the stem and
branches, — the forms of the leaves, — the armour and sup-
ports,— the form of the calyx and corolla, — the relations of
the nectaries, filaments, pistils, ovaria, and fruit, — these are
the true elements of which the specific character is properly
compounded. Even the integuments of the parts nmst not
be neglected, in as far as they are constant.

237.

On the other hand, neither colour nor the size of parts,,
neither smell nor taste, neither the situation nor the frequency
of plants, belong properly to these elements. Nevertheless,
use may be made even of these things under certain circum-
stances.

Colour, in the first place, is taken into consideration, when
it is not only constant, but when, among a few characters, it
is also the most remarkable ; on which account, in the lower
plants particularly, the colour is very correctly defined. In
more perfect plants, we usually state merely that the parts
are diff*erently coloured, commonly by the words colof'atm,
maculatuSj and such like.

The measure and size of parts do not indeed properly
belong to the specific character, in so far as it is positively
expressed, because these qualities are subject to change. But
the relative size, or the proportion of the parts to one ano-
ther, is usually viewed as one of the most important ingre-
dients of the specific character. That the corolla projects
above the calyx, or is shorter than it, — that the filaments are
longer than the pistil, or the reverse, — that the leaf-stalks ex-
ceed the leaves in length, — all these things must be taken into
the specific character. It is also usual, when an organ, in rcla-

156 PHYTOGKAPHY.

tion to others, is very long, very large, or very short and
small, to express this simply by a superlative. We thus say,
pedunculi longissimi^ calyx maxinms^ and so on.

Situation can only be taken into the specific character
of the lowest organised bodies, as the Alg^e and Fungi. In
these we sometimes even take the profusion, or the insu-
lated growth of plants, as a specific distinction.

238.
The specific character is put in the ablative, and this is
done for the sake of brevity. But we must endeavour to
avoid putting two ablatives, one after the other, because this
may occasion mistakes. Instead of corolla cahjce majore, we
say, with more propriety, corolla calijcem cxcedcnte. Instead
of petiolis pedunculis breviorihus, it is better to say peduncii-
lis petiolos superantihus,

239.

The specific character must be compounded only of the
usual artificial terms. In general, it must contain neither un-
explained words, nor allegories, metaphors, nor any other
comparisons but those which are customary.

240.

The specific character must be positive, and therefore all
■negative expressions in it are objectionable. These last, pro-
ceeding upon comparisons with the nearest related species,
may very easily be expressed positively. Instead of non ra~
mosus, Ave say simplex ; instead of non tortilis, strictus, and
so forth.

241.

The specific character must be as easily comprehended,
and as short as possible. For giving an easy view of it,
it is important that the organs, whose properties are to be
stated, should always be placed first ; that these ]:)roper-
ties should not be separated by signs, and that the or-
gans only should be separated In* commas. Brevity retjuirt-^
that all particles shall be avoided as much as possible. The

DESCRIPTIVE BOTAXV. 157

particles msigniter, maxime and such like, are replaced by
superlatives. Subhide, raro, noimunquam, and such like,
are better expressed by the syllable sub, prefixed to the ad-
jective. It is of importance to brevity, that a property which
belongs to several organs should not be repeated with each
of them, but put at the end after the organs have been con-
nected by the enclitical conjunction que, (pcduncuUs pctiO"
Usque aculeatis.)

But the richer in species any genus is, the more necessary
is a circumstantial character.

242.
The order in which the elements of the specific character
follow one another is, that the properties which belong to
most of the species should be placed first, or that certain lead-
ing parts should be selected, in which the differences lie.
These, in the case of Roses, are the ovaria ; and, in the case
of Pinks, the lobes of the calyx.

IV. Descriptions of Plants.

243.

Good and complete descriptions of plants (adumbratianes)
may be compared to excellent pictures, and in one respect
they are even preferable to them, namely, in that, at less ex-
pence, they exhibit all the relations of parts as correctly to
the imagination, as pictures present objects to the external
sense. Hence he who reads with attention the description of
a plant which is utterly unknown, can represent to himself its
image so perfectly, that when he happens to see the plant, he
instantly recognises it. For this high value, descriptions are
indebted to an observance of certain fixed rules, which we are
now to state more particularly.

244.
A good description must, in the first place, be complete,
that is to say, it must so compreliend the whole of the essen-

158 - PHYTOGRAPHY.

tial parts and their relations, that nothing shall be omitted,
which is necessary for a coni}:)lete representation of the pecu-
liarities of the plant. Supei*licial descriptions, — of which
kind were those given by the first writers on botany, — have
for the most part a reference only to what was most striking
in the general habit of the plant, — to its obvious colours, its
size, and other properties, sometimes merely accidental. It
is often very difficult to guess from such descriptions, what is
the plant which the writer had in view. This difficulty is so
much the greater in the old writers, because their variable
nomenclature, and the distance of the countries, whose plants
are described, also prevent us from forming a correct judg-
ment.

245.
But descriptions may also be too full, when they express
common properties and such as belong to many species, or
when they dwell too much on the peculiarities of unessential
parts. In this case, the reader of such descriptions is per-
plexed by their too great exactness : he knows not in the end
which among the innumerable marks is the most distinguished,
and which are those that deserve most attention. To maintain
the happy middle course between too great circumstantiality,
and too rapid brevity, requires the union of an acute talent
for observation, genius, and sound judgment, — talents which
are seldom acquired, but are commonly innate, and which
constitute the proper botanical genius. Placing in the back
ground, or neglecting properties of less importance, we give
a prominent place to those which are subservient to die know-
ledge and discrimination of plants. Such descriptions are al-
ways the most instructive ; but when a person has no other
view, but that of delineating one plant, he is very apt to be
led into a useless prolixity.

246.
The order in which parts are described, is that pointed
out by their growth. But we often begin widi the general
aspect (habitus)^ in order to present the image of the plant

2

DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 159

before the eyes of the reader at the very first. Otherwise
we begin with the root, with the bulbs and tubers ; we then
proceed to the stem and branches ; next to the leaves, leafy
appendages, armour, and other subordinate parts ; we then
describe the integument ; we next pass to the inflorescence,
calyx, corolla, nectaries, male and female sexual parts ; and
lastly, we dissect the fruit and seed, with all their properties.
Some good writers have reversed this order ; at least, have
spoken first of the flower. But the reasons for maintaining
this order preponderate.

247.

In these descriptions, attention is paid to every thing that
is observable in the plant ; that is to say, not only the speci-
fic character, but a complete picture of the plant must be
given, on which account an exact delineation of forms, di-
mensions, integuments, and colour, smell, taste, and other par-
ticulars, may be introduced. But whatever serves to distin-
guish the plant, must be made especially conspicuous ; on
which account the diagnosis of two related species, carried
through all the parts, is often much more important than the
most careful and circumstantial description. But both me-
thods can be easily united, provided in our description we
make the discriminating marks particularly prominent.

248.

In description, we must on all occasions employ the usual
artificial language ; and when forms are so changed that the
usual expressions are not proper to denote them, it is better
to give a more extended description, than to designate these
forms by new and uncommon words.

In descriptions that are quite complete, it is of use to ar-
range the individual organs at intervals under one another,
and to ^vrite or mark in some other way the names of these
organs. To save space, the parts likewise are often suc-
cessively arranged, their names also being always expressed
in writing or print. Individual properties are in this case sc-

160 PHYTOGRAPHY.

parated by commas, which does not happen in drawing up the
specific characters. Colon and Semi-colon are made use of,
when the parts of the principal organs are to be described ;
for instance, in speaking of leaflets, after the principal leaf;
of petals, after the corolla in general ; of the partitions and
valves of the fruit, after the fruit itself

249.

Having finished the description, we proceed to give an ac-
count of the situation and duration of the plant, as also of
the use which is made of it in arts and trades. In as-
signing the station, correctness is chiefly to be recommended,
not only for facilitating the finding of plants, but also be-
cause the nature of a plant, and its discrimination from re-
lated species, depend partly upon this. The culture of
plants in Botanic Gardens may derive the most important ad-
vantages from such exact descriptions of their stations. No
advantage is derived from knowing that the plant grows in Af-
rica, A-merica, or New Holland ; but it is of the utmost impor-
tance to know under what degree of latitude, at what height
above the level of the sea, in what soil, and amidst what cir-
cumstances it grows. From these descriptions, which scarce-
ly any person has given so carefully as Humboldt, both the
natural historian of the vegetable world and the botanical gar-
dener may receive directions.

In stating the duration of plants, we often commit mistakes,
especially when plants have been reared in gardens ; because
many tropical plants, which in their native country are per-
ennial, become annuals in our cHmate, from causes which we
cannot explain. Hence, in the writings of the great botanists,
many errors are found, which can only be corrected by ob-
serving plants in their native countries.

DESCIUPTIVE BOTANY. I6l

V. Synonymy.

250.
By Synonynies we understand the different names wliich a
plant has received in botanical works, as also those which
different nations assign to it in their native dialects. Both of
these have inideniable uses. By the former not only learn we
to understand the different views with which writers have
described plants, but we find also references to plates, which
are often very desirable, and we are thus able to give a com-
])lete history of the plant. The knowledge of vulgar and
provincial names is often very useful for facilitating the find-
ing of plants in their native seats, and also for accjuiring a
knowledge of their employments and uses.

251.

Scientific synonymes should be complete, sure, and free
from superfluity. They are complete when no work is pass-
ed over, in which a more exact description, or distinguished
nomenclature, or a figure of the plant, is contained. It is
easy to perceive, that the use of a botanical library, as com-
plete as possible, is important for this purpose.

Synonymes are sure, when the cited places really treat of
the plants in question, and not of others. Innumerable errors
have crept into the science by the statement of false synonymes;
which errors can only be avoided by the most careful sitting
of these statements. It is of the first impcu'tance for obtaining
certainty, that no book should be cited, without having been
compared at the time when the plant was examined. No-
thing is more ruinous than to make a parade of borrowed
citations. We draw upon ourselves by this means the guilt
of propagating errors. We al-io proceed with certainty in re-
spect to synonymes, when we minutely comj)are the plant in
question with the description or figure.

Synonymes are redundant, when insignificant writings, or
such as throw no particular light upon the plant, are cjuoted.
Linnaeus gave a beginning to this evil custom, by raising

I.

162 PIIYTOGllAPIIY.

books destitute of merit into autliority ; and die more recent
editors ot" his works liave not only exacdy transcribed tliese
citations, but have added a great many others which are to
the last deoTee imimportant,- — by whicli means si)ace has been
occupied to no purpose. It is also quite superfluous to tran-
scribe the speciflc character, or the description of the plant,
from the cited works ; but it is of the utmost importance for
completeness, that we should admit, without abbreviation, the
occasionally diffuse nomenclature of Caspar Bauhin, Pluke-
het, and other older writers, because otherwise we cannot be
perfectly certain what is the plant in question.

252.

The order in which citations are made, is the chronologi-
cal; we must therefore be sufficiently acquainted with the
history of the science to know the successive times in which
writers appeared. Some indeed reverse the chronological
order, by putting the most recent works first, and the oldest
last. But it is much more ^suitable, and is attended with es-
sential advantages, to begin with the oldest writers, and pro-
ceed to the most recent. We thus avoid repetition, and best
become acquainted with the earliest discoverers of plants.

It may be asked, with what writers we should commence.
Linnaeus used to cite, out of the sixteenth century, only Clu-
sius, Dodona^us, and, although more rarely. Fox and Dale-
champ. He referred throughout to the Pin ax of Caspar
Bauhin. In later times it has been discovered, that those
who have been called the Fathers of Botany in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries, were acquainted with a much greater
number of plants than from Linnaeus^ citations could have
been believed. Brunfels^ Conrad Gesner, Tragus, aud Ta^
bernamontanus, have for some time been more industriously
consulted than formerly. But to go beyond the time of
Brunfels, and to extend synonymes to the books of herbaceous
plants used during the middle ages, — to the writings of the
Arabians, Romans, and Greeks, perhaps even of the Jews, —
is as troublesome as it is useless and superfluous. We
justly leave inquiries of this kind to the scholar, who studies

DESCPtlPTIVE BOTAXY. 163

the history of his science, and avail ourselves in some in-
stances of the results of his investigations.

253.

The necessary saving of room demands, that in citations
proper abbreviations should be employed. The names of
writers, who might be confounded with one another, are given
at greater length. The Gmelins can only be distinguished
by adding their Christian names. The younger Linnaeus is
commonly denoted by the addition of ^/. The cited works
themselves are denoted by intelligible abbreviations, which
should always be explained in a register. The number of
the pages in which plants are mentioned, is always given
without prefixing the superfluous letters, pag. or p. Plates
are referred to according to their number, with the prefixed
t. or tab.

The place of a description is marked by *. When we are
doubtful whether a synonym suits, we add an interrogation

(?)

254.
Vulgar names are of importance principally in the Floras
of particular countries. To these they should be appro-
priated, and it is a reprehensible waste of space, when in \
general works, or even in Floras, all barbarous names are pro-
duced. This is an employment which ought to be left to the
followers of Menzelius and Nemnich.

VL On the Form, of Botanical Works.
A. Monographs.

255,

By a Monograph we understand a complete accotmt of
any one family, tribe, or genus, nothing being neglected
which is necessary for a perfect knowledge of it. Such ac-
counts have i,n the highest degree promoted the progress of

L2

1(S4 PHVTOCiKAPHY,

the science, because attention, when hmited to one object, ob-
serves much more and better than when it is divided. Yet
this very Umitation of attention may give occasion to a certain
subtlety, or to too keen a penetration into particulars, and
many examples might be cited to shew, that the founders of
monographs are particularly easy to be induced to admit
more species than nature warrants.

256.
Monograplis should especially correct synonymes. It is
also very useful, when they present us with plates of new or
very difficult species. In this respect we can highly recom-
mend the labours of Jacquin respecting the Oxalidae and Sta^
peliae, Schkuhr on Reeds, Brown on the Contortae and Pro-
teaceae, De Candolle and Pallas on the Astragalae, Lambert
on Pines, Dunal on the Solaneae and Anoneae, Lehman on
the Asperifoliae, Humboldt on the Melastomae, Cavanilles on
the Malvaceae, Biria on Ranunculi ; Lyngbye, Turner and
Dillwyn, on Algae ; Hed^vig, Schwagrichen, and Hooker, oa
Mosses, and of the last author on Jungermanniae.

VII. On Floras,

257-
J No branch of botanical literature is more useful, and at
the same time more neglected than this. The Flora of a
country or region should contain an exact account of all wild
plants within the limits of that country or region. For a be-
ginner, therefore, it is the first, and one of the most impor-
tant aids for obtaining botanical knowledge. Confined to a
certain circle, the compiler of a Flora can study the peculiari-
ties of the plants of his region with diligence, distinguish true
species from subspecies, point out transitions, correct in this
way many errors, and lay the foimdation for a more correct
knowledge of plants. But there are a multitude of Floras
which contain nothing but a catalogue of names of pretend-
ed native plants of their region, with transcribed specific cha-

DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 165

racters, without in one instance correctly signifying the situa-
tions.

2.58.

If the first and most celebrated example of tliis kind is to
be followed, as it was given by Linnaeus in his Flora of Lap-
land, the qualifications for the undertaker of such a labour
must be of a yet higher nature.

First of all, it is necessary that the compiler should be ac-
quainted with the labours of his predecessors, — that he should
study them, correct the synonymes, and point out the changes
which vegetation has since experienced.

To this should succeed a general natural history of the
region, an account of the soil, the mountains, and particularly
of the mountain rocks which make their appearance there, —
of the meadows, forests, seas, marshes, }X)ols, and streams.
The degree of latitude, ard the height above the level of the
sea, are supposed to be known. It is only when such a pic-
ture has been sketched, that the reader can form to himself
a distinct idea of the nature of the region. The knowledge
of the mountain rocks is especially important, in order that
we may perceive how vegetation varies with them. For this
pvirpose, it will be very useful to institute a comparison with
the vegetation of neighbouring regions, or of such as lie in
the same latitude with the described region.

259.
The order in which plants are treated of, may either fol-
low the Linnaean System or the Natural Method. But, above
all, the compiler of a Flora ought to admit no plant which lie
has not himself found in its place, liecause, otlierwisc, innu-
merable deceptions, and such as are scarcely credible, will be
occasioned. He ought also never to transcribe the character
of genera and species, but to develope it himself according to
the examples lying before him. New species, which have not
yet been described, must be defined in the most careful man-
ner, and if possible, they should be figured. It will also be
of much use to beginners, that the properties of plant^^, and

166 PHYTOGKAPllY.

the distinguishing marks of doubtful or difficult species,
should be shortly and distinctly given.

260.
The synonomy of a Flora is properly confined to an account
of the best plates, and to a reference to preceding authors.
It is necessary to give the situations, especially of rare plants,
with much exactness, and this is best done in the language
of the country. Provincial names of plants are added, to
enable us, when necessary, to obtain explanations respecting
their situations from the inhabitants of the district. Lastly,
it will not be supei-fluous to describe the uses to which plants
are put. All these requisites have been fulfilled in the most
perfect manner by Linnaeus, in his Flora of Lapland. This,
therefore, is the model for all future attempts.

VIIL Descriptions of Gardens.

261.
Another branch of botanical literature consists of cata-
logues and descriptions of plants which are reared in gar-
dens. These catalogues are often merely registers, which
have been printed to promote the commerce of one garden with
others. In this case, nothing else can be required but that
the plants should be correctly and exactly named. New
species are either described in an appendix, as has been done
by De CandoUe, in his Catalogus plantarum Horti Motispeli-
ensis, 1813 ; or they are merely cited, their description being
left to future works.

262.
More circumstantial catalogues, like those which ^vc have
of the gardens at Kew, Copenhagen, and Berlin, contain
much that is superfluous indeed, because they frequently re-
peat well known specific characters ; but they are useful, part-
ly from giving more exact characters of new species, partly
from a more careful sifting of synonymes, and partly from

DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. l67

furnishing an account of the manner and time in which plants
were first introduced into the gardens. The Hm'tus Kewen-
sis, and Sweefs Hortus suhurhamis, are particularly distin-
guished by the first of these excellencies, as is Linna'us's
Hortus CUffortianus, by carefully chosen synonymes, and
Gouan's Hortus Monspelknsis, by uncommonly useful ac-
counts of the structure and other external peculiarities of
plants.

Plates of rare or new plants, which are reared in gardens,
are expensive undertakings. We justly admire the work-
manship and wealth displayed by the English, in the Hortus
Eltliamensis, in the Botanisfs Repository, the Paradisus
Londinensis, Botanical Magazine, Botanical Register, and
such like works; and of the French, in the Jar din de Cels,
and de la Malmaison. Even Germany may boast of its
Hortus Vindobonensis, Schonhrunnensis, and Berolineiisis,
although all these works, on account of their high price, can
be useful but to a few.

IX. Plates of Plants.

263.
Good plates of plants are among the best means of pro-
moting the progress of botany. When they represent the
form of the plant according to nature, and especially when
they develope the characters of the genus and species, even
to their minutest parts, they fulfil all that can be required,
especially when no such expence is laid out on them as ren-
ders their price too high. The fathers of botany, in the six-
teenth century, set an excellent example in this respect. Lo-
beUus, Clusius, Fox, and the Bauhins, used wood cuts,
mingled with the text, which gave very correct representa-
tions, at least of the general aspect of plants. Conrad Ges-
ner and Fabius Columna first used copperplates, which often
gave the characters of plants in a masterly manner. Morison
and Plukenet, in very small room, gave an extraordinary
iiumber of figures of very rare platits ; and Dillenius reached

16S PHYTOGRAPHY.

the very summit of art in his incomparable representations of
Mosses.

These examples of our predecessors should be imitated by
us ; and we should recollect, that science ought not to be
subservient to the luxury of the great, but should be commu-
nicated even to those who are destitute of wealth. Lehman,
also, in his Primuleye, and Hooker, in his Mosses, have
followed the laudable practice of giving their figures in
sketches merely, excellently shaded, by which means the
price is very much lessened. As, on the other hand, copper-
plates are given frequently of well known plants, but in a
style of excessive splendour, and at an expence which cannot
be afforded by a private person, we are forced to lament that
the science is rather retarded than promoted by this means.
Among these expensive copperplates we reckon Sibthorp's
Fbra Graca, Count Hoffmanseg's Flo7'a of Portugal^ and
the Jardin de la Malmaison.

We cannot advise the giving of figures of plants from
stone, because we have not yet been able, in this way, to ex-
press the finer parts. The same o])jection may be made to
impressions of plants in printing ink, of which Kniphoff has
published a great many.

X. General Works.

264.

General works on the vegetable world contain either an
enumeration of genera or of species. The former, which are
called Genera plantarum^ should exhibit the known genera,
and explain their characters, either according to an artificial
system, or according to the natui'al method. This has been
done in a masterly manner by Tournefort in his Institutiones
rei herbaria, by Linnaeus, Schreber, and Jussieu.

A complete enumeration of known species of plants, which
we call Species plantarum, has hitherto only been offered by
Linnaeus, Richard, and Willdenow. An excellent account
of Species, by Vahl, in his Enumeration was stopped in its

DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 169

commencement by his death. The latest attempts of this
kind are by De CandoUe and Schultes.

Excerpts from these Species plantm'um^ in which only the
characters, the best plates, and the native country, are given,
have been published by Murray and Persoon.

Whoever undertakes a new work of the same kind, has
duties to perform which ^ew scholars are qualified to fulfil.
For it is obvious, that labour alone will not do, nor the sim-
ple accumulation of the discoveries and remarks of others ;
but that, in the first place, an eye accustomed to the vegeta-
ble world for many years, an acute and incorruptible judg-
ment, and, above all, that which I have already (245) called
the botanical genius, is requisite for this purpose.

It is an indispensable quahfication that as many plants as pos-
sible should have been actually seen and examined. Travels
in foreign countries, — the use of great herbaries, — a very com-
plete library, — a well stocked garden, — and a general inter-
course with the first botanists of the age ; these are the requi-
sites to such an undertaking, without the possession of which
the whole will be nothing but a work of mere compilation,
and of little utility.

XI. On Collections of Plants,

Hedwig's Belehrung die Pflanzen zu trocknen und zu ordnen. Gotha, 1797,
8vo.

The most exact descriptions and best plates leave some-
thing still to be desired by him who wishes to have a perfect
knowledge of a plant. Hence the actual sight and examina-
tion of plants is the only mean of obtaining certain informa-
tion. Now, in order to have this examination at all times in
our power, w^e dry plants ; and this may easily be accom-
plished with most of them, — some very juicy plants and

170 PHYTOGliAPHY.

sponges excepted. Such a collection of dried plants is
called a Herbarium^ and the necessity of herbaries is so ge-
nerally felt, that beginners and accomplished botanists justly
consider them as their most important treasures. These trea-
sures, indeed, are subject, in certain circumstances, to waste
and destruction. But, under proper management, and with
careful attention, they last for centuries, as we still possess the
collection of Caspar Bauhin, and in part that of Burserius,
since the beginning of the seventeenth century ; I^Linn,
Amcc7i. Acad. I. 146.)

267.

The preparation of such a collection costs little labour, and
occasions a trifling expence, provided we can obtain a num-
ber of folios for this purpose, and are acquainted with some
expedients which must be emploved in the work.

Of these the principal is, that plants must not be laid
in while they are wet with rain and dew, but when they are
completely dry, and that they be put do^vn with all their ne-
cessary parts. Finer plants, which are not too j uicy, and too
much soiled, cannot be better dried than in folio sheets which
are subjected to some degree of pressure. In this case it is not
necessary that the paper should be inspected or changed, till the
plants are perfectly stiff and dry. AVhen there is a want of folios,
or when soiled or very juicy plants are to be dried, they are
placed between several sheets of blotting paper, and pressed
down with stones. But in this case they must be frequently
turned, and, in particular, must be defended from mouldi-
ness. The employment of a press for plants, with a screw,
cannot be recommended, because the pressure is too strong,
and cannot be gradually increased. Very prickly plants,
on the contrary, can only be subduejd in this manner.
Fleshy plants are placed for some time in boiling water, and
then dried in blotting paper. But in this case the forms and
colours are commonly lost. A dry heat is particularly de-
sirable in this employment ; on which account the drying of
plants always succeeds best in hot summers, in airy dwellingg,
in heated roomsj and even beside ovens.

DESClllPTlVi: BOTANV. 171

26S.
When tlie plants are dried, they are put, according to the
order of the system, or according to the natural method, in
whole sheets of writing paper ; on the first side of which the
name of the plant, its situation, and the time of its being laid
down, are marked. Subspecies, and several large parts of
the same plant, are placed in separate sheets. A hundred
and fifty, or two huncbed of such sheets are bound together
between pasteboard covers, on which the genera are marked
in the order in Avhich they have been inserted, and an exact
register of the whole is kept.

269.
The care with which such collections are kept is repaid
in no common degree. This care requires, in the first place,
that the plants should be most correctly determined, — that
the authorities for their names should be given, — and that, in
every case, it should be noticed from whom the plants have
been obtained, and, where it can be got, that the handwriting
of the sender should be subscribed. The collection must
also be defended from insects and moisture. The former of
these are not easily removed, especially in many families, as
in the Cynareae. But an industrious examination of the col-
lection, in the course of which the insects are killed, and, at
any rate, a solution of corrosive sublimate in spirit of wine, are
the best means of protecting it from these causes of destruc-
tion.

i

( 173 )

PART IV.
PHYTOXOMV,

OH

ON THE STRUCTURE AND NATURE OF PLANTS.

CHAP. I.

PHYTOTOMY, OR ANATOMY OF PLANTS.

Grew's Anatomy of Plants.

Malpighi, Anatome Plantarum.

Leeuwenhoek Opera.

Reichel de vasis plantarum spiralibus.

Bohmer de vegetabilium cellulose contextu.

Hill on the Construction of Timber.

Swagerman, in Verhandelingen van de Maatschappy. Te Harlem, Vol. XX.

Hedwig, Sammlung zerstreuter Abhandlungen, Th. 1. 2.

Krocker, Diss, de plantarum epidermide.

Comparetti, Prodromo di fisica vegetabile.

Sprengel, Anleitung zur Kenntniss der Gewachse.

Brisseau-Mirbel, Traite d' Anatomic et de Physiologic vegetalcs, Vol. I. 2.

Dessen, Exposition et defense de ma thcorie de I'organization vegetale.

Link, Grundlehren der Anatomic und Physiologic der Pflanzen.

Rudolphi, Anatomic der Pflanzen.

Trcviranus, vom inwendigen Bau der Gewachse.

Dessen, Beytrage zur Pflanzen-Physiologie.

Moldenhawer, Beytrage zur Anatomic der Pflanzen.

Kieser, Memoire sur I'organization des Plantes.

Dessen, Grundzuge der Anatomic der Pflanzen.

I. On the Structure of Plants in General.

270.
We must endeavour to trace the structure of plants io
certain primitive forms, which we find as well in the rudest

174 PIIVTONOMV.

beginnings of vegetables, as in all parts of perfect plants, and
into \vhich we can resolve all their organs.

These primitive forms may be reduced to three, the cell-
form, the tube-form, and the spiral form. We discover these
forms more or less in all vegetable bodies. But a closer
examination shews us, that some forms of a simpler kind lie
at the foundation of these, and that from them every organic
part proceeds. We must begin, therefore, with these latter
forms.

271.

Every organising fluid, when it is passing from the fluid
into the solid state, shews small spheres or vesicles, and spi-
culae or needle-shaped bodies of a diminutive size. The
former we refer to the disengagement of hydrogen, which, as
one of the constituents of water, is always the flrst to separate
itself from it, because it is httle soluble in water. Oxygen,
on the other hand, remains longer dissolved in water, and
accordingly the spicular and straight lined bodies which are
produced by it are more slowly disengaged, — as, in an electri-
cal process, negative electricity displays sparks and images of
a spherical shape, whilst positive electricity produces those
of a spicular appearance.

In the lowest organic bodies we find this simple spherical
structure, and they may now therefore be considered as be-
longing to the animal or vegetable world. The simplest Co-
niomyci, as well as the simplest infusory animalcuhe, have this
vesicular or spherical structure. Afterwards the spiculae,
threads, and tubes, which we find in the Nematomyci, become
associated with these spheres ; (Tab. V. Fig. 5. 7.) Treviranus
has lately exhibited these spherulae and tubes in the spawn of
frogs, in the cellular texture of the femoral muscles of the
mammalia, in the spinal marrow of frogs, and in the
nerves of the garden snail, (Vermischte Schriften, I. Tab»
14.) We find this same combination of spherulae and spi-
culae in every generative sap, as well as in every slimy fluid
of plants. From these, therefore, are evolved the peculiar
primitive forms of the vegetable world.

AXATOISrY OF PLANTS. 175

A. On Cellular Tcaiure.

272.

What we call cellular texture in plants is, no doubt, when
it is regular, somewhat similar to the cells of bees ; but
it is distinguished from them by the direction of the cells,
and especially by this, that it seems to be as frequently void
of all regularitv, or to be fashioned in a quite different
manner.

Where the cellular texture is present in a regular form, it
consists of spaces, which, when cut in a longitudinal and cross
direction, display six sides and six angles, and the entire cir-
cumference of which resembles a dodecahedron. These
spaces are chiefly distinguished from the cells of bees, by
being more drawn out in length. There is, however, another
form of the cellular texture, which seems to be more primi-
tive than this. That is, the vesicular or spherical, which
seems to arise from the juxtaposition of the primitive sphe-
rulae. It is easily conceivable that from this juxtaposition
interstices must remain, which, indeed, we see distinctly
enough, and which sometimes seem destined to serve im-
portant purposes in the future history of the plant.

The spherical cells become angular, when their sides touch
and attract each other in several points. Tliat a figure pre-
cisely hexangular should be formed from a circle, is partly a
consequence of the effort to be regular, which is the more
conspicuous in imperfect organic bodies, the nearer they ap-
proach to the productions of the unorganised world, whence
regular crystals appear in the products of certain Fungi and
Sponges ; and partly it arises from this, that the hexangular
form is, next to the circle, that which includes the greatest
space, with the smallest extension of its circumference. We
often see the spaces which remain between tlie cells, after
their form is thus completely changed, filled with peculiar
juices, and often these interstices supply the place of tubes,
and conduct the unprepared sap upwards.

176 PHYTONOMY.

273.

The sides of the cellular texture are, for the most part,
very thin, but yet completely impervious ; so much so, that
the communication of the sap from one cell to another can
only be explained by the supposition of an organic perspira-
tion. Yet there are exceptions to this. The cells of the
Epidermis are observed to have peculiar slits, (Tab. V.
Fig. i^.), of which we shall speak more particularly when we
treat of leaves ; and in Pines the extended cells are distinct-
ly observed to have gaps, which are surrounded by a pretty
high margin ; (Tab. V. Fig. 4.)

The function of the cellular texture is simply to contain
and to prepare the sap. It is not destined to conduct up-
wards the unprepared sap, because in the bark and in the
pith, both of which have a structure entirely cellular, the as-
cent of the sap is not perceived. There are, however, what
have been called sap-vessels in the cellular texture, but these
originally are nothing else but extended cells, which are
often stretched to a considerable length.

B, On the Sap-Tubes.

274.
The second primitive form of all plants is the tube-form,
appearing to the unassisted eye like straight-lined fibres.
But by magnifying them we perceive that these apparent
fibres have a real, though uncommonly small diameter ; that
they are therefore real tubes, which proceed for a consider-
able length with a cylindrical shape, and are sharply pointed
at both ends; (Tab. V. Fig. 1.)

275.

Apparently these tubes are the perfect state of the second
common primitive form of organic bodies, namely, the right
lined. Because, althovigh they more frequently occur than
the third or spiral form, they arc later in being produced,
and are first observed, as we have said, in the Nematomyci,

2

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 177

In more perfect plants they are found, for the most part,
in the neighbourhood of the spiral vessels : they constitute
the basis of trees, and a great part of the young wood,
and shew a toughness and a power of resisting violence,
which, considering their fineness, is astonishing. That they
arise from the first form, cannot be believed, because they
proceed directly from the generative sap, like fine straight
tubes, close to the spherulae. But the stretched form of the
cells is very like the tube-form. It is even undeniable that
it constitutes, especially in the lower organic bodies, the
transition-form from the cells to the tubes. In the fruit-stalk
of the Musci Hepatici and Frondosi we have not yet disco-
vered the proper tube-form, but only stretched cells, similar
to tubes, which apparently answer the purpose of these latter
bodies.

276.

The object of Nature, in the formation of tubes, seems
simply to be, by means of them to lead upwards the unpre-
pared sap. The similarity of the sap-tubes to hair-tubes
leads us to consider them as a physical contrivance, by which
the ascent of the sap is assisted, although the only principle
upon which these last act cannot obtain a place in this struc-
ture, (376.)

The pointed extremities of these sap-tubes present some
difficulty to this account. They lie with their ends oblique-
ly placed to one another, and the ascent would seem to be in-
terrupted by this position, if we did not here also admit the
organic perspiration of the sap through partitions which in
themselves are impervious.

C. On the Spiral Vessels.

This is called the spiral form, because originally it consists
of canals, the sides of which are entirely formed by spiral

M

178 PHYTOTOMY.

fibres, of extreme fineness. But we must distinguish this
form into the primitive and the derived.

278.

The primitive spiral-form consists of canals, the diameter
of which is almost of the same size throughout, and is from
the twelfth to the fiftieth part of a Hne, their sides being
composed of those winding fibres, which can easily be un-
rolled; (Tab. IV. Fig. 19.; Tab. V. Fig. 1.) We find an
instance of this form in some Confervae, in some of the Musci
Hepatici, (Tab. III. Fig. 8.) ; and especially in the cellular
texture which covers the surface of the Sphagnum obtusifo-
Hum; (Tab. III. Fig. 25.)

The fibres which, by their windings, form the sides of
the spiral canals, have so uncommonly small a diameter, that
we might suspect them to be any thing but hollow. Several
of them, however, especially in the Scitamineae, commonly
stick together, and in this way they are formed into bands ;
(Tab. IV. Fig. 19.) They are also easily unrolled, so long
as they are in their primitive state, because there is no con-
necting membrane, either external or internal, by which
they are united ; and this is the chief distinction between the
air-vessels of insects and the spiral-vessels of plants, that the
former have the winding fibres united by a peculiar mem-
brane, and that a soft cellular texture always surrounds
them.

279.
But a still more important circumstance essentially distin-
guishes the spiral-vessels of plants from the air-vessels of in-
sects. The former never divide into branches ; but where
they separate, a new pair always places itself on the sides of
the old ones, whilst the air-vessels of insects undergo every
kind of ramification, from their origin to their finest branches.
The primitive spiral-vessels are always in the company of the
sap-vessels, and are chiefly found between the bai'k and pith,
in the common plants, which are produced with two seed
lobes. But they appear later than the sap-vessels, and are

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 179

only first discovered when the young plant begins to shoot.
They are found also in the root, as well as in the stalk : they
partly compose the nerves and veins of the leaves and vessels
of the corolla : they are found in the stamina, in the pistilla,
in the fruit, and also in the funiculus umbilicalis of the seed.

280.
The interior canal of the spiral-vessels, in its natural state,
is always found free from M^ater. It is true, that if a piece of
wood be dipped in water, this fluid penetrates into the canal.
Also, when we permit coloured fluids to flow into the cut
branches of plants, these fluids become apparent in the sides
of the spiral canals ; but they are also seen, and still more
distinctly, in the neighbouring bundles of sap-vessels ; nay,
they penetrate in considerable quantity, even into the cellular
texture. AVe are not, therefore, entitled, from this entrance
of coloured fluids, to conclude respecting the natural con-
tents of these canals, because, in general, this penetration of
coloured sap does not succeed in a.i uninjured root.

281.
In spirsil canals, which grow rapidly, the fibres are often
torn in such a manner, that they fall together in the shape of
rings. These ring-shaped vessels, as they have been called,
are, therefore, an entirely accidental variety of the primitive
form of the spiral vessels ; and this is the more evident, be-
cause we find the same vessel in one situation as a spiral
canal, and in another as a ring-shaped vessel. This change,
besides, shews incontestibly, that the spiral vessels cannot
conduct sap, since they are often nothing else but rings at a
distance from one another, the circumferences of which are
every where and extensively separated.

282.

But an important and essential change of the spiral canal

is that presented by the Vasa scalaria. Under this name

are included those canals with transverse openings, which do

not at all shew the spiral winding of the fibres, and which

M2

180 PIIYTOTOMY.

cannot be unrolled ; (Tab. V. Fig. 3.) They are formed
by an original spiral vessel meeting with perpendicular fibres
in its sides, which fibres cross the winding lines longitudi-
nally, and unite them together. These perpendicular fibres
belong to the original structure of the spiral fibres, and are
by no means part of the neighbouring cellular texture, be-
cause, from the first, we see them as j^eculiar fibres, and
not as partitions or membranes ; and because, after a gentle
maceration, by which the cellular texture is destroyed, these
fibres last as long as the twisted fibres oi' the spiral canals
themselves.

But that this form is not accidental, but one which makes
part of the original vegetable structure, is evident from this,
that in certain families this appearance is so connnon, that in
the Ferns, in the Lycopodea?, and in Grasses, we perceive
scarcely any other. In young wood, too, this form appears
very early, although, in the first shoots, the primitive spiral
vessels, having a great resemblance to the pith, long preserve
their unchanged shape.

283.

A remarkable variety of the spiral form is that in which it
appears porous, punctured, or surrounded by a reticulated
covering. This also is an original, and by no means an acci-
dental form. It is most frequently observed in the roots,
and in the woody parts of plants ; (Tab. III. Fig. 25.)

The origin of these vessels may be explained in the same
way as that of the vasa scalaria ; that is to say, perpendicu-
lar fibres cross the winding fibres, and bind them together.
To this also is added the further circumstance, that, in the
instances we have mentioned, the spiral fibres often cling
more early together, and take the shape of bands, which being
crossed by the perpendicular fibres, form the net-work above
mentioned. Not unfrequently \\e observe particular parts
of these canals closely contracted, which gives to them the
appearance of bladders. We also sometimes remark oblique
fibres, especially in Sassafrass wood, which seem to be re-
mains of the original twistings of the threads. To the older
tubes, a soft and vesicular cellular texture frequently attaches

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 181

itself; (Kieser Mem. Tab. IX. Fig. 40.; Tab. XIV. Fig.
67.)

But it is characteristic of these punctured vessels, that they
are always larger in their diameter than the primitive spiral
vessels or the vasa scalaria, so that in many kinds of wood,
particularly in the Bamboo, and the common chair cane, wc
can see their sections with the naked eye. But not unfrc-
quently the pores of the sides are so regular, and the bladder-
form of this canal is so surprising, that we might be disposed
to suspect a transition to the porous cell-form, especially as
in our Pines, the latter varies so much, that, besides the
pores, spiral windings also appear, as in the Yew and the
Larch ; (Kieser''s Grundzuge der Anatomie der Pflanzen,
Tab. V. Fig. 47. and 48.)

284.

As, then, the spiral vessels, and all their varieties, are
uniformly found empty of fluids ; as they shew themselves
only in the higher plants, and constantly appear wherever a
strong shoot is sent out ; as they are always in the com-
pany of the sap- vessels ; as, in fine, they maintain, by their
constant diagonal direction, the middle situation between
the perpendicular and the horizontal ; — from all these con-
siderations we must suspect that they are the instruments of
the higher vital activity of plants, and that they are the or-
gans by which the sap-tubes suffer an external excitement to
the speedy propulsion of the sap.

II. Ofi the Structure of Roots.

285.
The internal structure of the individual parts of plants is
always composed of the three primitive forms which we have
now described. With respect to roots, in particular, they
consist, as was formerly (64.) stated, of the radix and radicle.
The latter, as being the organ appropriated to the absorption
of the sap, is furnished, for this purpose, in perfect plants.

182 PHYTOTOMY.

with a multitude of very fine fibrils, or hairs, which arc closed
at their extremities, (Reiser's Grundzuge dcr Anatomie der
Pflanzen, Tab. VI. Fig. 62.) These hairs in particular, with
their close and flaggon-shaped extremities, have a considerable
resemblance to the first appearances of the absorbent vessels
in the small intestines. As the former, like the latter, are
shut, we have in them a new proof of the organical perspira-
tion we have mentioned, and which takes place, notwithstand-
ing the peculiar impermeability of the partition. These
hairs are in immediate connection with the cellular texture of
the radicle; and as this first conveys the juice, that has been
absorbed, to the sap-vessels, it is evident that the unformed
fluids are already considerably changed, before they proceed
from the radicle into the root. The entire structure of the
radicle is protected by a fine cellular texture which surrounds
the sap-vessels in the centre.

On the ends of the radicle we often perceive drops of a
fluid, which is of a slimy consistence, and which, in all pro-
bability, has been derived from them.

286.
Some families of plants of the lower orders, the Ferns,
Palms, and Hydrocharida?, as also the Naiada?, instead of
these small hairs, have a spongy integument at the extremity
of the radicle. We observe it, in the form of a coif, or hood,
very distinctly in Lemna and Callitrkhe. This integu-
ment is not porous, but it consists of a very soft cellular
texture, which swells out in some small portions, but in other
respects is entirely closed. Here also, therefore, takes place
the absorbtion through the impervious partitions of the cellu-
lar texture.

287.
The radix, being the continuation of the stem into the earth,
has the same constituent parts with it, but with some differ-
ences, which are derived from the covering of the soil. Com-
monly the pith is wanting, and the centre of the root consists
of a woody kernel. Sometimes, however, it is hollow, and

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 183

pith is formed when the root is laid open to tlic air. The bark
of the root is richly stocked with peculiar juices, which the
more readily are collected in it, as the descent of the sap from
the stem into the root is favoured by the size of this latter part.
This direction of the root towards the centre of the earth,
is, without doubt, an effect of the common law of gravitation,
to which plants are partly subject, as they are fixed by their
lower extremity in the earth. This tendency, however, is
considerably modified by other circumstances, which originate
in the organization of the plant, so . that in many trees we
perceive fewer roots proceeding downwards into the soil, than
those which we observe running horizontally.

288.

TuberdeSy or tuberculous roots, are distinguished by their

greater thickness, and by their fleshy appearance, {Q5.^

They enclose within a cellular covering certain parts, in which

the cellular texture is much crowded, and from which the hio-h-

o

er forms, the sap-vessels and the spiral-vessels, take their orioin,
as being the beginnings of the future shoot. A root has,
therefore, the greater means of production, the more tuber-
culous it is ; and in many tubercles we can distinguish very
accurately, at fixed periods, the harder kerael, from which
the future shoots are to arise, from the surrounding soft cellu-
lar texture. Even in the higher parts of the stem similar
thickened parts occur, in which the power of propagation re-
poses ; since, universally, wherever the cellular texture is
much crowded, new sap-vessels and spiral-vessels arise as
the foundation of future shoots ; whence, in the stem and
branches, the transition from tubercles to buds is obvious.

289.
Bulbs appear above and upon the root, like more |x?rfectly
formed tubercles. They have, as their foundation, a solid
substance, consisting of extremely compressed cellular tex-
ture. From this substance spring the germs of the leaves
between scales, which are a continuation of that solid matter ;
and in the middle of these arises perpendicularly the futiu*e

184 rHYTOTOMY.

stalk, from the sap-vessels and spiral-vessels, formed by the
compressed cellular texture. The solid fundamental body
pushes towards the side, horizontally, the young shoot, which,
being nourished by its parent substance, is not separated from
it until it also has acquired a firm fundamental body, crowned
with scales, and is able, consequently, to maintain itself.

Between this lateral impulse and the upright one, which
produces the stalk, there is such an interchange, that the one
of these impulses languishes when the other is most active.
Hence it is usual, after the flowering of bulbs, to lay them
dry, that the quiet lateral impulse may remain undisturbed.
Bulbs, which have once completely blossomed and produced
seed, usually die.

III. On the Structure of the Stem.

H. Colta, Naturbeobachtungen uber Bewegung unci Function des Saftes in
den Gewachsen. Weimar, 1806, 4to.

J. Chr. F. Meyer, Naturgetreue Darstellung der Entwickelung, Ausbildung
und des Wachsthums der Pflanzen. Leipsig, 1808, 8vo.

C. Pollini, Saggio di Osservazioni e di Sperienze sulla Vegetazione degli
Alberi. Veron. 1815, 8vo.

H. L. du Hamel de Monceau, La physique des arbres. A Paris, 1758, 4to,
Vol. I. 2.

P. Keith, System of Physiological Botany, Vol. I. p. 284 — 362.

290.

The internal structure of the stem varies according to the
great divisions of the vegetable kingdom, which we have no-
ticed above, (171. and Part II. Chap. 6.)

In plants the seed of which contains an undeveloped and
rich albuminous body, the bundles of woody fibres, consisting
of sap-vessels and spiral- vessels, are spread through the whole
stem, and are every where divided by cellular texture. This
is most distinctly perceived in the trunks of Palms, in tlie
3tems of the Scitamineoe, Musca?, Orchidese, and Coronarise,
This dispersed situation proceeds from these plants having no

ANATOMY or PLANTS. 1S5

cotyledons wliich embrace the young plant during its growth,
and its consequence is the parallel progress of the nerves in
the leaves, without veins, and without a reticular distribution.
In the Ferns alone we observe a construction difterent in
this respect, that strong bundles of numerous vasa scalaria
are intermingled with the sap-vessels ; and, being surrounded
by a peculiar brown cellular membrane, they stand in definite
number and in fixed order between the rind and the pith.
Here, also, the nerves of the leaves soon pass into veins, and
into numerous ramifications.

291.

In all perfect plants there is formed, where the two seed-
lobes embrace the rising plumula, and out of the knot which
vmites these, a connected circle of spiral-vessels and sap-vessels,
which rises perpendicularly between the pith and the bark,
and thus forms the concentrical layers of the parts of the stem.
In the knots of the stem this circle is inteiTupted, at the same
time that the cellular texture which is there crowded, affords an
opportunity for the production of new spiral-vessels and sap-
vessels. In the mean time a similar circle proceeds from the
knots upwards. The first spiral-vessels which take their
place are always the innermost: these maintain, for a long
time, their original shape, and even their green colour.
Those of later growth take their place more towards the
outer parts of the stalk, have a greater disposition to become
woody, and shew this by their speedy transition into vasa
scalaria and punctured vessels.

292.
It follows from this, that the innermost and outermost layer
of the stem is purely cellular, while the middle ring, on the
contrary, is composed of the higher primitive forms. The
outermost layer is called the Rind ; it consists of the proper
rind and the epidermis, which covers the former. The latter
is probably formed by the deposition of sap, and by its hard-
ening under the influence of the ingredients of tlic air. It
has always a different colour from the proper rind : it is, for

186 PHYTOTOMY.

instance, white in the Birch and in the Melaleuca leucaden-
dron ; of a golden yellow in the Aucidja Japonica ; in a more
advanced age, it exhibits slight rents ; by and by it thickens
into a substance resembling cork, and, in consequence of the
increasing thickness of the stem, it is thrown off, as is very
distinctly seen in the Platanus. This latter phenomenon is a
proof that the epidermis, in this condition, is no longer orga-
nised, nor is of any use to the tree. However, in a consi-
derable number of trees, it has a certain permeability, by
means of which the ingredients of the air can have an in-
fluence through it upon the interior layers.

293.

The proper rind, which, in its earliest state, is of a green
colour, assumes other hues at a later period. Its cells contain
concentrated and peculiar juices, which, by being deposited
upon its sides, make them imj:>enetrable to the eye. Many
of these cells are so extended by the sap, that they appear
like proper sap-vessels; because they are stretched out in
length, are surrounded by a very fine cellular texture, and
are closed at both ends. In Pines, in Celadine, and also in
the Rue species, these peculiar sap-passages can be most dis-
tinctly observed.

The rind cells proceed horizontally through the interior lay-
ers of the stem towards the inmost, and open by this means
a very remarkable connection between ail these layers, which
is of consequence to the explanation of many phenomena. In
most trees, however, this connection is interrupted at certain
periods of their growth. The juices which rise in the inner
bark, pass more readily the higher they ascend, into the gene-
rative sap, a kind of slimy organizing fluid. This sap, forcing
its way from the outermost layers of the inner bark, tears
the rind cells asunder, and fills the space which is thus form-
ed between the rind and the inner bark. It is in this way
that at the periods I have mentioned the rind is loosened,
and a foreign branch, or a bud of another tree, can now much
more easily be brought into this space, that it may derive its
nourishment from the generative sap, and as it were take i;oot

ANATOxMY OF PLANTS. 187

in It. This is a short explanation of the artificial production
of trees, to which we shall again return, (306.)

294.

The bark cannot arise directly from any of the layers that
lie beneath it. It owes its origin entirely to the generative
sap, and may be reproduced when this flows outwards.

As the bark forms the place of deposition for the peculiar
juices [of the plant, and as these are frequently of a thick,
hard, balsamic or oily nature, it becomes by these means a
sluggish conductor of heat, and protects the interior layers
from the cold as from other external causes of injury. It
maintains also the connection of all the interior layers with
each other, by means of the radiated cellular vessels, which
proceed from it to the pith.

Great as these benefits are which the bark affords especial-
ly to the shrubby plants, its removal and the wounding of the
rind are not however attended with immediate danger to the
life of the tree. On the contrary, when the peeling of the
bark is effected cautiously, the young layers of inner bark
and of wood, which lie under it, arrive much earlier, though
rather violently, at the state of hard and perfect wood, from
the influence of the air. Even the fruitfulness of the tree
may be encreased by this peeling of the bark, because the in-
ner bark and the alburnum, laid open to the direct influence
of the atmosphere, are more powerfully excited, and the juices
become more concentrated. Nevertheless, a peeled tree of
this kind must necessarily die sooner, unless its superabun-
dant vital power affords an opportunity for the production of
new bark from the wood.

295.

The layer which lies under the bark, and which is called
the Inner Bark (liber), is readily distinguished by its whit-
ish colour, and by its distinctly fibrous and often mesh-
formed structure, as well as by its great flexibility, its tough-
ness, durability, and power of resisting the ordinary causes of
destruction, especially putrefaction. A closer examination

188 PHYTOTOMY.

shews, that its apparent fibres are really, tubes, entirely of
the same construction with tlie sap-vessels which have been
already described. The bundles of these tubes ai'c bent
from one another, where the horizontal and radiated cells of
the bark intersect them. It is hence that the appearance of
meshes is formed ; (Tab. V. Fig. 3.) No trace of spiral ves-
sels is found in the inner bark.

296.
This is peculiarly that part of the stem in which the juices
ascend, as may be distinctly seen by a horizontal cut into the
trunk during spring. The higher these juices ascend, the
more are they changed into the organic slime, which is de-
nominated the Generative Sap , and, in this sense, the inner
bark may be considered as the organ from w hich all the other
parts are produced.

297.
The peculiar woody circle, which lies beneath the inner bark,

is composed of all the three primitive forms. In its earliest
state, when it most resembles pith, it consists only of the pri-
mitive spiral vessels, together wdth the sap-vessels which con-
stantly accompany them, and which are intersected by the ra-
diated and converging rind-cells, sent towards them through
the inner bark. It is evident that these latter vessels must al-
ways become closer set, the nearer they approach the pith. The
more recently deposited layers contain for the most part vasa
scalaria and punctured vessels, but more seldom a primitive
spiral vessel between the individual layers.

298.
In the older branches and stems of many trees, the distinction
between the younger and older woody layers, is easily ob-
served. The former, which are usually called the alburnum
{alburnum)^ are known by their white colour, spongy texture,
and inferior durability. Many trees, which either grow ra-
pidly, or whose organisation is peculiar, deposit nothing but
alburnum ; in many trees, what is called debility of the al-

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 189

burnum (splint swache) proceeds from their bad situation,
and from other causes, which^ hinder the quiet lateral im-
pulse, (416.)

As the growth of most trees takes place in determinate pe-
riods, it is from this circumstance that the annual rings,
which we observe in the wood, take their origin. The ear-
liest spring growth is commonly the richest ; hence the great-
est number of new layers are deposited by it, but, on ac-
count of the continued ascent of the sap during the summer,
these layers do not experience the gentle lateral pressure to
such a degree, as is necessary for the thickening of the sides
of the cells and of the sap-vessels, and for the consequent
production of wood. The second growth proceeds somewhat
more softly ; fewer new layers are deposited ; but the sub-
sequent lateral pressure from the bark-cells assists the thick-
ening and hardening of the wood more powerfully, on which
account the outermost layers of any annual circle are always
the firmest and the richest in resinous and oily juices. In
many tropical trees, the same distinction of the annual
rings is perceived, because in these also there is a periodical
change of vegetation during the dry and wet season. On the
other hand, the wood of many trees even of our climate shews
no annual circles, because they either undergo no double pres-
sure from the sap, or because their organisation resists the
alternate thickening we have mentioned. Even what is call-
ed the Silver-grain {Quer-gefuge), is not equally distinct
in all woods, — although it is present in them all, since in all
cases the bark pushes the silvery horizontal processes towards
the pith. The firmest woods have commonly the most dis-
tinct silver-grain, as may be seen in the Oak, the Beech, and
the Elm.

299.
The innermost part of the stem, namely the Pith, is as
completely cellular as the bark. In young shoots it is full
of sap, and is closely united with the woody circles. At a
later period the juices are dissipated ; the pith becomes dry
and white, and seems no longer to be so closely connected
with the wood. The quicker the plant grows, the more is

190 PIIYTOTOMY.

the pith detached from the wood, until at last it entirely dis-
appears, and leaves the stem hollow, as we commonly observe
in the umbelliferous plants ; or vacant spaces occur, and the
pith is found only about the joints. Sometimes these vacan-
cies are divided by regular partitions, as we observe in Jun-
cus glaiicus, in Cictita virosa, in trees of the Walnut kind,
and in Rose bushes; in which last, from the regular con-
struction of these spaces, a connected cellular texture may
be remarked.

The pith vanishes in the hardest woods, because these press
ever more and more towards the centre, and, by uniting with
the cells of the pith, render them at last completely indistin-
guishable.

300.

As the layers of the stem become united in the joints, and
the primitive vessels are there crowded together and take a
different direction, the pith cannot be supposed to proceed
through the joints unchanged. There are indeed no pecu-
liar partitions, which intersect the cavity of the pith in the
joints ; but it is so intermingled with the other parts, that its
continuation is evidently interrupted. But the stronger
branches are excepted from this remark ; for they are knotted
and push out new shoots, without our being able to observe
the interruption of the pith. The forming sap hei-e pushes
into the space between the bark and the inner-bark, to fonn
a reservoir from which new shoots may be unfolded.

301.

From the interruption of the pith in the joints, it follows,
that this substance is by no means so essential to the produc-
tion of the fruit, as some naturalists have believed. And this
idea is still further opposed by the fact, that in the Syngene-
s\a necessaria we observe the perfect seed only in the circum-
ference ; whilst in the middle, where the pith might have had
some effect, we see the seed either imperfectly formed, or en-
tirely wanting. There are also a gi'eat many trees, which,
without having any peculiar pith-cavity, yet produce rich

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 191

fruits. Finally, the nature and structure of many fruits are
quite inconsistent with this origin, since the soft, spongy, and
entirely cellular pith cannot possibly generate organs, which
are often as hard as bones, and therefore contain a crowd of
spiral-vessels and sap-vessels, which are entirely wanting in
the pith.

Besides, the use of the pith is evidently altogether confined to
the time when the young shoots are sent out, when the connec-
tion between its cells and the radiated cell-vessels of the wood
seems to be subservient to the deposition and preparation of
the sap. In more advanced age, when the formation of wood
takes place, the radiated vessels themselves afford the means
of this deposition, and render the pith cells superfluous.
Hence we often enough observe, that in hollow trees, while
not only the pith, but the whole of the wood is destroyed,
they yet continue to grow, provided only the inner bark
remains.

IV. On the Structure of Buds.

F. C. Medicus's Beytra^-e zur Pflanzen-Anatomie. Manheim, 1799,
1801.

Dessen^s Pflanzen-physiologische Abhandlungen. Leipsig, 1803.

Darwin's Phytonomia.

Aubert du Petit-Thouars* Essay on the Organization of Plants. Paris,
1806.

302.

We must first establish a general idea respecting germs,
before we proceed to a more particular consideration of the
formation of buds, because these latter are only germs un-
folded, and matured into a variety of shapes, although in
Latin, and its kindred dialects, the word Gemmae is used as
well for germs as for buds. By genns, we understand every
condensation of the peculiar juices, or of the particular matters
from which new individuals of the same kind can be produ-
ced. In their simplest fomi these germs may be observed in
the small granular or spherical bodies, which arc produced in

192 PHYTOTOMY.

the vessels of Confervae, as also in those which ooze out upon
the epidermis of Lichens. These, when they have come to
their mature state, are separated from their parent body, and
constitute new individuals, which retain not only the essential,
but the accidental nature of the parent plants; for it is a leading
character of propagation by germs, that these are properly to
be regarded as a continuation of the parent plant, by the con-
densation of its substance, on which account even accidental
peculiarities and diseases propagate themselves in this way,
and from this cause the shades of colour in the Lichens and
Sponges are so constant, that we are forced to assume them
also into the characteristic description. But this very circum-
stance renders the determination of species, in these lower or-
ganic bodies, a matter of doubt, for propagation by seed is,
in their case, out of the question.

303.

In trees and woody plants, the structure of the germ is of
a more complex nature. The parts of the stem and branches
become crowded in particular positions, pass into the sub-
stance of each other, and, in this manner, reservoirs and
joints are produced, which we observe both in the leaf-
stalk of trees of the citron kind, and in the fleshy leaves
of other plants. These reservoirs consist of a compact cellu-
lar texture, and of the congregated rudiments of new sap-
vessels and spiral-vessels, and may be artificially produced,
namely, by making an incision in a branch, and thereby pro-
moting the appulse of the sap. In every attempt to pro-
duce buds artificially, it is a necessary condition of success
that these reservoirs should first be formed. They are in-
deed produced in all woody plants, even when no proper
buds appear, as, in tropical trees especially, we observe them
occupying the place of buds.

304.

These last mentioned bodies, in the case of our fruit and
forest trees, commonly appear, during the time of the second
growth, in the axis of the leaves, or at the extremity of the

ANATOMY or PI- ANTS. 19.'{

branches, and, towards harvest, increase gradually in circum-
ference and size. They always arise out of those reservoirs,
are outwardly surrounded by variously coloured scales, which
are often bound together by a substance of a resinous nature,
and contain within them leaves or leafy scales, which are
placed upon one another and bound t(jgether in a peculiar
manner. They are found, for instance, in the Ash, (Tab.
IV. Fig. 5.), mutually riding, as it were, on each other ; and
they have a similar construction in the Alder; (Tab. IV^
Fig. 2.) In the Salisburia they stand clenching each other ;
(Tab. IV. Fig. 7.) In the Horse-Chesnut, and in the Medlar,
they are folded into each other; (Tab. IV. Fig. 6.) In some
trees these scaly coverings are in a very small number, as in the
Guelder-rose bush, (Tab. IV. Fig. 8.) ; and especially in tlie
Tuhp-tree ; (Tab. IV. Fig. 3. 4.) These scales have either
the future leaves lying between them, as in the Alder, (Tab.
IV. Fig. 2.) ; or the leaves are found only in the centre of
the bud. In most instances the future leaves are folded and
bent in a variety of ways. A woolly sort of substance also is
often found between them, which evidently serves to keep off
the cold, to prevent the influx of superfluous moisture, and
to be a defence against other external injuries. The bud is of-
ten so protected by the closely shut and firmly agglutinated
scales, that no external power can have effect upon it, unless
it is inflicted by a very powerful cause. Until these cover-
ings unfold themselves, the bud can only be nourished by the
reservoir from which it arises.

305.

In many instances buds contain only leaves, but in other
cases they inclose also the rudiments of the future blossom.
Hence, in fruit trees, we commonly divide them into Wood
and Fruit buds. The former, which are of a smaller size and
more pointed, contain only the future leaf; the latter of
greater roundness, discover, when they are cut through, the
germ of the coming flower. However, they pass into one
another ; for the active and more perpendicular movement of
the unformed sap is their producing cause ; but the fruit-buds

N

require a slower lateral movement and the co-operation of the
rnid-cells, on which account stinmli and v/ounding of the rind
often force the tree to put forth fruit-buds. The same purpose
is promoted by the constrained, horizontal, and bent jx)sition
of the branches. It is on this account that gardeners so ma-
nage their fruit-trees, as to remove the branches which rise
directly upwai'ds, and lead out into a fan-shape only those
that rise obliquely, that in this wav the tree mav be urged to
put out more fruit-buds.

:306\
The idea is altogether false that wood-buds are produced
by the wood-circle, and fruit-buds by the pith or bark.
Every bud, as we have already said, arises from a reservoir,
which owes its origin to the generative sap. As this is the
product of the inner bark, all buds originate properly in
tlie inner-bark, and in so far as the wood also contains
inner-bark vessels, these may be considered as contributing
to the formation of buds. But we must more especially at-
tend to the connection of the buds \rith the inner-bark itself,
to understand particularly the success of the insertion of
buds, at the time when the rind is loosened from the inner-
bark, and the intervening space is full of generative sap, (293.)

307.

Finally, the position of buds on the stem is worthy of
notice. Generally we find them either placed opposite to
each other, or alternating. If, however, we attend to the
series of their positions on the stem or branches, we frequent-
ly, at least, perceive a spiral line on which they are set. We
see in this case, again, the continually equalised and ever
renewed contest between the perpendicular and horizontal
direction.

Buds plant their roots, which i'.re properly continuations of
the sap-vessels, between the inner-bark and the rind^ and
every bud ought to be considered as a new individual, which,
separated from its parent body, has the power of being pro-
pagated. Hence the art of the multiplication of trees. In

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 19:>

imperfect plants, propagation is commonly by means ol' buds.
The forms and colours still remain in this way, after the pa-
rent plant has been completely divided.

Those plants must be related whose buds are fitted to be
propagated together ; but to what extent this relationship
must exist is not quite clear. It is certain that evergreens
may be propagated on plants which are deciduous, if they be-
long to the same genus, (Hopkirk, Flor. Anom. p. 19) *

It is certain that the usual mode of propagation by layers,
grafts, and shoots, diminishes the power of the plants to pro-
duce seed. It is hence that Salisburia adiantifolia, Sac-
cliarum officinarum^ and Bamhusa aruiidinacea, very seldom
produce blossoms or seed with us.

V. On the Structure of the Leaves.

C. Bonnet, Recherches sur I'usage des Feuilles dans les Plantee. Geneve,
1754.

308.

The leaves are an expansion into a surface of those primi-
tive forms which in the stem stand near each other, or were
inclosed within one another. We hence find the leaves to be
altogether of a cellular structure, in those plants whose stem
contains no other form, as in the Mosses, among which, how-
ever, the Sphagnum ohtusifollum shews the same fine spiral
fibres in its cells, which we find on the surface of the stem ;
(Tab. III. Fig. 25.)

• Virgil speaks as a poet, not as a natural historian, when he sings, (Georg.
II. 69.)

Inseritur vero et foetu nucis arbutus horrida,
Et steriles platani malos gessere valentes :
Castaneae fagus, ornusque incanuit albo
Flore pyri ; glandemque sues fregere sub ulmis.

The best introduction to the artificial propagation of trees is in Munchau-
sen's Hausvater, Book V. vid. 675—758.

N2

196 PHYTOTOMY.

The leaves of those plants, whose stems comain scattered
and parallel bundles of spiral vessels and sap-vessels, with in-
tervening cellular texture, exJiibit only parallel nerves, with-
out the appropriated veins, as in the Grasses, the Pahns,
the Coronaria?, the Iridea^, and the Scitaminese. In Fern^
we observe a peculiai* distribution of the nerves and veins.
These seldom anastomose with one another, but more com-
monly issue in clear and pellucid points, which, by a more
careful dissection, shew the extremities of the spiral vessels in
a vermicular form. Something similar is observed in the
Hypericum duhhim of Smith, and in some species of Crassio-
la. The distribution of the nerves and veins is carried pe-
culiarly far in the leaves of the Aroidese, and the Melasto-
mea?, for they are united on the margin of the leaf by large
anastomoses, which run parallel with the margin.

309.

The nerves and veins of leaves are a continuation of the
bundles of spiral and sap vessels, and therefore they remain
uninjured during the maceration of the cellular texture.
They thus exhibit, frequently, a beautiful skeleton, the de-
licacy and almost endless ramifications of which are astonish-
ing ; (Seligman's Nahrungsgefasse in der Blattern der
Baume, Nurnberg, 1748, folio.) But the cellular texture,
which fills the interstices of this net-work, and which, on ac-
count of its juicy consistence, is distinguished by the name of
Parenchyma, is of as much importance as the net-work itself.

The cells of leaves have a different structure, according as
they are nearer the upper or lower surface. Near the upper
surface, they are more extended in length, and take the form
of prisms or cylinders, in preference to any other shapes.
Besides, the upper surface of leaves is frequently covered by
an apparently impermeable, and somewhat brilliant epider-
mis, in which we observe no further remarkable organization.
On the lower surface, again, the cells are more extended in
width ; here and there also spaces void of juice occur, or
some of the cells seem to have lost their sap, and to have be-
come filled with air. Their partitions undergo a change,

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 19^

since they often, instead of the right-lined direction, assume
a crooked, folded, or winding form; and the cells or spaces
of the cellular texture, which want their sap, are thus placed,
by means of peculiarly constructed slits, in immediate com-
munication with the external atmosphere.

310.

These slits are commonly oval-shaped, and pointed at the
extremities, being encompassed by a border, which consists of
a granular or glandular mass, and can frequently be torn
off; (Tab. V. Fig. 2.) The partitions of the cellular texture
either unite with this border, or they pass round it without
touching it.

The size of these organs is as various as their number. In
the Coronariae, where they are largest, their longitudinal dia-
meter is from the twelfth to the twentieth part of a geometri-
cal line, and their diameter, in the cross direction, is from the
twenty-fourth to the fortieth part. They are exceedingly fine
in the most perfect plants, as the Myrteae, Rosaceae, Legu-
minosae, and Caryophylleae. Two hundred of them, at least,
might lie upon a geometrical line.

Their number is as various. The smaller they are, the
more numerous they usually are. In general, we can count
from fifty to two hundred of these slits upon a square line.

311.

These organs have some resemblance to the air-vessels of
insects, especially when we compare them witli the raised
pores of the chrysalis of the Sphinx populi ; (Mein. Comment,
depart, quibus insect, spirit, ducunt. Tab. II. Fig. 16.) But
there is this difference between these two kinds of organs,
that the pores of insects always contain the stem of the air-
pipes, whilst the slits of plants are in no immediate contact
with the spiral vessels. Yet it is very worthy of notice that
these two sets of vessels are produced together ; and as the
Ferns first shew the spiral vessels, the first symptoms of slits
arc also seen in them.

198 PHYTOTOMY.

312.
' The appearance of these slits, in certain families, has, how-
ever, some other remarkable circumstances, which at least
somewhat limit the relation of the spiral vessels to these organs.
Among plants of an entirely cellular structure, slits have been
actually observed, although they are but rare, in the Marchan-
tia, and in some species of Splachnum. Those plants of the
higher orders, which have no green leaves, are destitute also
of slits. Although, commonly, they appear only on the un-
der surface, they are yet observed on both surfaces in the
Coronaria?, the Grasses, the Palms, and even in Pines. But
they are found only on the upper surface of water plants,
whose leaves are spread out flat upon the water, and in such
land plants as have their leaves lying flat upon the ground.

But these slits are found on every leafy integument, pro-
vided it be not too much set with hairs. They are according-
ly observable on the exterior surface of the calyx, and serve,
when the calyx takes the place of the corolla, or is united
with it, as an excellent mark of distinction between these two
coverings of the sexual parts. They are as invariably want-
ing in the proper corollar integument, as in the sexual parts
themselves, (175.) Yet in one instance they have been ob-
served in the epidermis of the Cherry ; (Vom Bau und der
Natur der Gewachse, Tab. IX. Fig. 43.)

313.

The use of these organs is by no means confined to one
function ; but, as in plants, and even in the lower animals,
the same organ can perform two apparently opposite func-
tions ; so these slits appear to be destined as well for the re-
ception and preparation of gaseous matters, as for exhalation.
The former of these functions seems to be established by the
facts, that leaves absorb more powerfully with their under
than with their upper surface, and that the slits are more nu-
merous in juicy plants, which are nourished more by the sur-
faces of the leaves than by the roots. And that the slits ex-
hale, and even serve for evaporation, wo learn frcjm the expe-
riments of Trcviranus, in which plates of ghiss. fixed to the

under surface of leaves, were covered, after some time, with
drops of dew, while they were little or not at all stained when
they were fastened to the upper surface.

314.

Generally the leaves, and leafy integuments, are the or-
gans, which, by exhalation and absorption, like the breathing
organs of animals, maintain the proper composition of the
plant, and contribute essentially to nourishment and propa-
gation.

Experiments and observations have instructed us, that
healthy and green leaves, during sunshine, take in carbonic
acid, and give out oxvgen in the state of gas. In the shade,
and at night, as also when they are sickly and take a differ-
ent colour from the green, they take in oxygen gas, and give
out carbonic acid. By these two functions, however, the
condition of the atmosphere is not to any great extent alter-
ed, either with respect to its quantity of oxygen, or of car-
bonic acid. Let us then enclose the green parts of vegetables
in a definite portion of air. In this case the quantity of oxy-
gen, during sunshine, is increased to such an extent, that
from twelve square inches of green blades, ten cubic inches of
oxygen are produced in a few minutes. The increase of car-
bonic acid from plants, which are confined in the shade, may
also be observed from the resolution of lime-water placed in
a similar confined space. In the open air, on the contrary,
scarcely more than the usual quantity of oxygen is imparted,
by this means, to the atmosphere, because it is impossible
that all the lea\es can be at the same time illuminated by the
sun ; for in bushes, forests, and gardens, a greater pro|X)r-
tion of leaves is always in shade, and, consequently, by the
production of carbonic acid, the quantity of oxygen giis is
balanced. It thus happens that the produced oxygen is
constantly consumed^ as well by the shaded leaves as by
animals, and also by the soil, which is incessantly taking
it up. It maintains an equality with the carbonic acid given
out in the shade. This carbonic acid is constantly deposited,
during the night, along with liic dc\v : jnul dnrin<; ^\ui-]iin(\

200 PIIYTOTOMY.

plants consume as much as they give out when they art in
the shade.

It has been observed, that a smaller quantity of carbonic
acid is always given out in the shade, than the quantity of
oxygen absorbed ; and, also, that tlie (quantity of the latter in-
creases when branches or leaves are cut off. Both circum-
stances seem to shew, that oxygen is not merely concerned
in the formation of carbonic acid, but is also appropriated as
a part of the plant : and the more so, because, according to
the latest experiments, juicy plants, and those with fleshy
leaves, consume the greatest quantity of oxygen, and form
the smallest product of carbonic acid.

315.

Which of the two surfaces of the leaves performs these
functions, or how they are divided between the two, is not
yet completely ascertained. Most experiments favour the
idea that the upper surface of the leaves is especially employ-
ed in exhalation. This surface is also the better adapted
for this purpose, as it is better exposed to the light of the
sun, and can give out the oxygen through the closed parti-
tions of its cells, just as easily as, in perfect animals, this same
substance forms a communication for itself through the shut
vesicles of the lungs, and the equally impervious partitions of
the other vessels.

316.

The exhalation of oxygen gas, during sunshine, is an ef-
fect of several conspiring circumstances. One necessary in-
ternal condition is the vital activity of the plant, which being
excited by the light of the sun, decomposes the carbonic acid
watei" in such a way, that while the oxygen is given out, car-
bon and hydrogen are fixed and become appropriated. The
exhaled oxygen gas is by no means derived from the decom-
position of water into its constituent partsj because, some-
times, the quantity of the oxygen corresponds exactly with
the quantity of carbonic acid which has been consumed ; and
because, sometimes, no oxygen gas is produced, when water,

ANAT()?;iV OF P1.A>.TS. 201

deprived of its carbonic acid, is exposed to the light of the
sun. Universally this effect ceases when the leaves begin to
fade, to become discoloured, and to fall. It is most power-
ful in leaves which fall periodically, because their irritabi-
lity is considerably greater than that of evergreen and fleshy
leaves. This effect is, in the last place, most actively produ-
ced, when the electrical excitation of the atmosphere is great-
est, on which account the greatest quantity of oxygen is ex-
haled from leaves during Spring, after a storm, and in the
morning.

317.

But the exhalation of oxygen gas is closely connected
with a remarkable property of leaves, namely, their green co-
lour. As this colour in the rainbow stands exactly in the
middle, between the two outermost tints, the red and the vio-
let,— as it is bounded on the one side by the yellow, and on
the other b}^ the blue, — as all experiments further shew that
the red and yellow tints are more of an oxygenous, and tlie
blue and violet more of a hydrogenous nature, — it is extreme-
ly probable, that the green colour is the effect of a neutrali-
zation between the two extreme colours, or that it arises, when
the light has attracted exactly as much oxygen as was requi-
red by the hydrogen and carbon which remained. And this
theory seems to be conffrmed by the following observations.
All plants, so long as they are withdrawn from the light of
the sun, are of a pale yellow colour, and regain this same hue
when, as in the instance of the Endive and Cardoon, they
have been covered with earth and blanched. In this condi-
tion, they are rich in oxydized juice, as theii' sweet taste, and
the tenderness of their parts, shew. Besides, these blanched
plants give out nothing but carbonic acid water, saccharine
matter, and mucilage. As soon, however, as the light of the
sun has called forth the proper activity of the plant, it emj)-
ties itself of its superfluous oxygen, and forms those partly
resinous, partly oily substances^ which we find connected
with the green colouring matter. The green colouring mat-
ter evinces its resinous nature by this circumstance, that it

2!02 PHYTOTOMY.

dissolves completely in spirit of wine ; but, as it is not ckp>-
sited by water from this solution, but continuing mixed witli
it, gives out a very nauseous hepatic smell, it is likely that
azote goes also to the composition of this green colouring
matter. We shall come back again to this subject, and only
notice farther here, that a higher degree of vital activity in
leaves, awakened by the light of the sun, often produces a
blue colour from the green. In tliis case, there is probably
an excess of hydrogen above carbon, as the putrefactive fer-
mentation of woad and indigo, which is encouraged for the
production of the blue colour, seems to shew. The blue
colour of woad and indigo passes again, with mineral acids,
into green, and lastly into yellow.

Decayed and falling leaves are yellow and red, because the
oxygen remains in them after the vital activity is gone.

318.

This peculiar breathing of plants through the leaves has
the most important influence upon their whole economy. Bv
this only the proper mixture of the juices, and the produc-
tion of fruit, is accomplished. It is hence that the leafing (jf
plants is so necessary to the setting and ripening of the fruit,
and that an attack of lightning, by which the leaves are de-
stroyed, is injurious to hops and to all other plants. The re-
ception of gaseous matters is equally important to tlie foi-
mation of the proper juices, and to the perfection of every
other vital function.

319.

But we must also treat of the absorption of fluids in the
shape of drops or of vapours, and of their evaporation, as be-
ing important functions of the leaves.

That the vapours and rain-drops are absorbed by leaves,
is evident to sight. This also is confirmed by the fact, that
a multitude of plants which have insignificant roots, yet grow
very freely by absorbing with their green surface the nourish-
ing fluidity of the atmosphere. In the parched deserts of
Africa, where the cjuantily of rain in a century rises scaiccly

ANATOMY OF PLANTS OQ^

to the height of an inch, the most juicy plants are often
found to grow to an astonishing height. They can only be
nourished by means of their green surfaces. In hot-houses,
t03, we never attain a brisk growlh so much by watering the
roots of the plants, as by an artificial wetting and sprinkhng
of the plants from above. Evident as all this is, it is still
a difficult matter to explain this absorption, upon com-
mon principles, through the closed sides of the cells. We
might indeed ascribe this effect to the under surface of the
leaves, on which principally the slits are seen ; but as dew
and rain much more frequently fall than ascend, we cannot
avoid confining this absorption of the vapours and fluid drops,
to the upper surface, on which supposition, we are again
forced to betake ourselves to an organic perspiration.

320.

The evaporation of leaves is one of the most obvious and
important of their functions. No person can deny it, who
has noticed the drops of clear moisture on the }X)ints of leaves,
even in hot-houses, where they cannot be affected by the dew ;
or who has traced the movement of a mist in a still evening,
as it raises itself from fields planted with vegetables ; or who
has seen the rising of clouds from forests, and the ascent of
vapoury columns from the same places before the formation
of a storm. In fact, plants lose, by evaporation from their
leaves, the greatest part of the moisture which they take in
by their roots ; the proportion of the water absorbed, to that
lost by evaporation, is as 15 to 13, seldom as 4 to 1. It is
hence that a branch without leaves, when it has been placed
in water, becomes heavier than one in a state of frondescence,
because it wants the organs through which it may relieve it-
self of its superfluous nourishment. The organs whicli are
chiefly employed in evaporation are the slits, and also the
hairs, which latter organs are therefore more abimdant in
young shoots, and in those parts whose evaporation is most
active.

204? THYTOTOMY.

321.

Evajx)ration has an essential influence on the economy of the
plants themselves, and on the whole economy of nature. The
activity by which tlie plant empties itself of its superfluous
matters, operates as an incitement to the other functions, and
a plant is, in truth, the more healthy, the more freely it eva-
porates. Yet there may be an excess in this also, especially
when not only unformed juice, but the prepared and proper
sap, is given off". The sudden and powerful operation of
the sun-beams after a passing drizzling rain, favours not un-
frequently the perspiration of oxidized slime and of sweet
drops, which are known by the name of " honey-dew.^
Swarms of insects are thus invited, whose young brood over-
spread the surface of the leaves as a fine powder, and ren-
der them incapable of performing their functions. Tliis is
the simple explanation of the blight, or of the mildew, as
every person may convince himself by observation, (426.)

322.

The evaporotion of leaves has a great influence on the ge-
neral economy of nature. As in the transition from the form
of drops to that of vapour, a greater portion of heat is con-
sumed, the quicker this transition takes place ; we find in
this fact a principal cause of the low temperature which the
juices of living plants exhibit even during the greatest sum-
mer heat. Nay, the shade of a leafy tree will alwaj^s afford
a greater coolness to sentient animals, than the shade of life-
less objects.

The influence which the evaporation of leaves has upon the
whole atmosphere, as well as upon the earth and its waters,
produces very extensive effects. Forest regions are not only
cooler, but also more productive of rain, than steppes and
sandy deserts, where vegetation is entirely wanting. All the
streams of the world have their sources in mountain chains
covered with woods ; and although the melted snow is their
immediate cause, they would neither continue to be poured
along, nor grow to a river, unless forests and woods, by their
evaporation, incessantly afforded tlie necessary stores of wa-

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 205

ler. The largest rivers in the world flow in South America,
in Upper India, and in Northern Asia, through forests of
immeasurable extent.

323.

We perceive in leaves a remarkable difference in point of
duration. Some of them, the evergreens, remain very long,
and fall off at least without any regularity. These are com-
monly of a firmer and more tough consistence, as they are
very small and needle-shaped, and contain a number of pecu-
liar, resinous, or oily juices. This characteristic leads us to
the conclusion, that the irritability of such leaves is not ade-
quate to their complete exhaustion.

With respect again to other leaves, which have a fixed pe-
riodical change of budding and falling, we can find no other
cause of this but their more perfect irritability, which, having
been exposed for a length of time to stimuli, is at last ex-
hausted, as in all the higher organised beings the vital activi-
ty acts periodically. External accidents have indeed an influ-
ence upon these phenomena, but the weathering of the sea-
sons cannot be the only cause of this change, since in hot-
houses and green-houses, we see that tropical plants, which
enjoy the same heat and the same nourishment during the-
whole year, yet undergo this periodical change.

VI. On (he Structure of Blossoms'.

324.

We refer to the distinction which we have stated above,
(89, 90. 101.), between the calyx, the corolla, and the nec-
tary, whilst we now apply ourselves to a more careful exami-
nation of the structure of these parts. We have already
stated, (185.), that the calyx has the same structure with the
leaves, as it springs from them.

It is the Corolla, therefore, which must chiefly occupy us
at present. When it is not united with the calyx, it is distin-
guished by a surface, which, in general, is of an extremely

^06 PHVTOTOi\IY.

fine cellular structure, and the superficial cells of which rise
up into fine prominences or pyramidal shaped knobs, on
which we often perceive fine drops of a fluid. This construc-
tion occasions the brilliant appearance which many blossoms
assume in the light of day, and especially during sunshine.
We call this fine surface the CoroUar Integument. When
the calyx and corolla are united, when, as in the Rosaceae,
the filaments seem to be fixed in the calyx, it is, however,
from this ccrollar integument that they arise. The parts of
the corolla, also, frequently alternate with those of the calyx,
as in the Ribes, the Rhamneae, the Salicariae, and the Melas-
tomeae, because both these parts spring from one base, and
shew the corollar integument sometimes only on the inner
surface and sometimes on both surfaces. In the Polygoneas
we find this same transition of the parts of the corolla and
calyx into each other, evincing that these two organs, not>
withstanding their usual separation, are yet very nearly re-
lated, and can pass into each other.

This corollar integument covers the proper parenchyraa,
which is the seat of the colouring matters, and which dis-
plays a great variety of tints in different blossoms. The cel-
lular texture is by no means regulai' in blossoms; yet the
sides of the cells are not so bent, as they are seen to be on
the epidermis of the under surface of leaves. When this
cellular texture, the seat of the coloured fluid, is taken
away, we then perceive the spiral vessels, and less frequently
the sap-tubes: they appear in bundles on the basis of the
petals. But most frequently we observe them single towards
the circumference, apparently ramified, and anastomosing with
each other in great arched lines, until at the margin they
gradually pass away, so that the most powerful magnifiers
are scarcely able to shew us distinctly their extremities.

As the spiral vessels resist maceration, very fine skeletons
may be prepared and kept, as well from the blossoms as from
the leaves.

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 207

325.

The structure of nectaries, and the apparatus belonging to
ihem, corres])onds, in this respect, with die structure of die
corolla, that the nectarilyniata and the nectarotheca? are often
parts of the corolla, or such likenesses of the parts of the co-
rolla, that we sometimes hesitate to which of the organs they
should be assigned. In order to be convinced of what has
now been stated, we may examine the nectarilymata of Phy-
lica, (Tab. II. Fig. 15.) ; of Agathosma, (Tab. II. Fig.
^22.) ; and of Biittnera, (Tab. IV. Fig. 18.) The proper
nectaries, in the strict sense of the word, are cellular or glandu-
lar organs, which we find on the receptacle, or at the base of
the filaments.

326.

If we attend to the appearance of the corolla in the differ-
ent families of plants, we observe, in those of the simplest and
lowest organization, that there is either no trace at all of this
organ, or a feeble one ; but where it does shew itself, it is no-
thing but a colourless scale, or it consists of a fine and very
pellucid membrane. Coloured coverings for the sexual
parts, first appear in the Musci frondosi, which, beside these,
have also a permanent cap, by which the fruit is covered till
it be perfectly ripe. In the Piperea?, and most of the
Naida?, we find scarcely any thing but some fine scales below
the sexual parts, which it is difficult to consider as representa-
tives of the corolla; (Tab. III. Fig. 4, 5.) The Aroideag
supply the want of the corolla by sheaths, which are often of a
beautiful colour, and from which the spadix projects, or here
and there some white hairs arise, which may be considered as
the representatives of the corolla ; (Tab. II. Fig. 11.) In
the Cyperoidae there are also some scales only ; whilst, in the
Grasses, there are fine pellucid membranes, which we must
regard as the corolla. But the outermost valves are some-
times coloured, as in Triodia, J vena versicolor, and Ses-
leria coerulea. The Restiacea3 and Junceae begin to exhibit
a regular corolla, which, in some genera, is beautifully co-
loured. The colouring of the corolla proceeds through the

208 . PTIVTOTU.MV.

Palms, Sarmentace.T, and Coronaria\ onwards to the Iri-
deae, Scitamineac, and Orcliidete, where it is evolved in the
greatest magnificence. Although these, in some respects, are
families of a lower rank, we yet thus see, that in the progress
of nature towards a more complete evohition of forms, it is
seldom that a harmonious construction of all the parts takes
place, but that commonlv one organ is exquisitely fashioned,
while others remain imperfect ; since the Pine tribe, the
ArmentaccfB and Urticea*, which, in many respects, stand
higher than the before named families, yet want, w ith some ex-
ceptions, a proper corolla, their sexual ])arts being commonly
protected merely by scales.

The Polygoneae and Chenopodeae also shew only a corollar
integument of the calyx. In the Santale;e, Thymela^a^
Proteacea^, Laurina?, and Tricocca?, the calyx is also formed
with the same integument, and might be mistaken for a true
corolla. It is in the Nyctagina^ and Primulea? that the co-
rolla first begins to be distinctly separated from the calvx, and
to take the place of a pecjuliAr organ.

327.

If we attend more particularly to the colour of blossoms^
as their most striking characteristic, it is evident that the
operation of the light of the sun upon the exceedingly line
structure and on the juices of the delicate parenchyma of the
corolla, is the principal cause of the evolution of these colours.
This is evident from the fact, that not only tropical plants
have the utmost magnificence of colour in their blossoms, but
that also in the polar regions some very warm tints appear
upon the flowers ; because every person knows, that where the
sun does not set for several weeks, he must exert an uncom-
monly powerful influence on vegetation,— as is also apparent
from the rapid ripening of the summer crop in the polar
countries.

As an internal cause of the colours of blossoms, we must
attend also to the green colouring matter of the leaves. The
tints of the blossoms arise from this, by a change in the pro-
portion of oxydation, as we perceive in the corollar integu-

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 209f

iiient of the calyx, and as we also see it in the colouring of
the bracteae : since most of these pass again, when treated
with alkalies, into the green hue. The red juice of many
blossoms becomes, by means of alkalies, first blue, then green,
and, lastly, yellow. The iron in the soil has also a consider-
able influence in changing the red colour of the Hydrangea
into a blue. When, from all these facts, we conclude, that
the green colouring matter, as it passes into the corolla, frees
itself from its superfluous hydrogen and azote, and, in that
way, becomes more oxydized, we are supported in this con-
clusion by a variety of considerations ; not only by the before-
noticed change of colours by alkalies, but also by the solubility
of the colours of blossoms in water ; and more than all this,
by the frequent exhalation of azotic and hydrogen gas from
blossoms.

328.

It cannot be denied, however, that a multitude of diffi-
culties still remain, and that many hypotheses must yet be
adopted and rejected, before we can flatter ourselves that we
have come near the truth.

Of the utmost consequence, in particular, is the great va-
riation of colour, of which the Hibiscus midabilis, and Gladio-
his versicolor, afford the most striking examples, although
the fact is seen, in an inferior degree, in many other blossoms,
which, when they are first unfolded, are coloured by tints
different from those which they afterwards assume. It seems
that this variation of colour passes most frequently into the
red, because many white and blue flowers take this colour
in their later stages ; nay^ in a few cases, the yellow colour,
as in the Medicago media Pers., passes into the violet. It
cannot well be denied, that a variation in the proportion of
oxygen lies at the foundation of this fact.

329.

The smell of blossoms is another lemarkable property, the
explanation of which will be facilitated, at least, in some de-
gree, by vvhat we have already said respecting colours. It

O

'210 PHYT0T03IY.

cannot be denied, tliat in all odorous matters hydrogen pre-
dominates. Along with this, the finest parts of the peculiar
juices are drawn out, and occasion the manifold smell of
flowers. That hydrogen is given out by flowers, may also
be concluded from the powerful evaporation of blossoms,
which, according to some observations on the Arum cordifo-
Ihim Bory, can even generate drops of water. To the same
purpose, also, are the experiments which have been made re-
specting the inflammability of the atmosphere of White Dit-
tany, by lighted bodies, as well as respecting the flashes given
out by many flowers on sultry summer evenings.

That azotic gas is produced from flowers, and that they
even regularly exhale it along with carbonic acid, at the same
time that they inhale oxygen, has been shewn by Saussure,
(Recherches Chimiques sur la Vegetation, p. 127.), and by
Grischow, (Untersuchungen iiber die Athmungen der Ge-
wachse, sect. 154.) ; but we shall return again to this im-
portant observation. Saussure, indeed, has denied that hy-
drogen is exhaled from flowers, and he attributes the in-
flammation of the atmosphere of dittany to the burning of es-
sential oils ; but these also consist, for the most part, of hy-
drogen.

330.
Every thing seems to shew, that the corolla is not only a
covering of the sexual parts, but an organ by which the po-
larised primitive matters are directed to their evolution, and
to their different attractions. The return of the sap to a
more oxydized condition, and the evident evacuation of hy-
drogen and azote, appear to have as essential an influence on
fructification, as the deposition in the honey-juice of flowers
of oxydized mucilage, during the evolution of hydrogen,— of
which we are about to speak.

331.

The situation of the nectaries, at the basis of the sexual
organs, shews us, that the oxydized sap must be deposited in

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 211

these organs, before the more volatile matters can ascend into
the parts of fructification.

It is hence that the nectaries have connnonly such a posi-
tion, that the evacuation of the pollen from the antherai is di-
rected towards them. This is so evident in the Iridea?, that
it is impossible to deny the connection between the nectaries
and the organs of fructification. This relation is still more
striking, when we observe an inclination of the pistilla, with
their stigmata, towards the nectaries, at the period when the
former have attained their perfect state. Finally, the evolu-
tion of the sexual organs at different times, or what is called
the Dichogamy, is a very obvious proof that in many cases
fructification is accomplished by the nectaries. When Ave thus
observe, that, in the same flo^v er, the antherae are much sooner
ripe than the stigmata, or the reverse, it is evident that these
latter organs cannot be impregnated by the former, in so far
as they belong to the same plant. It hence happens that the
first blossoms always fall off, and the fruit fails, when tlie
dichogamy is gynandrous, because the early unfolded stigma
finds no antherae to impregnate it; and when these become
capable of this office, the stigma of these first blossoms has
already lost its susceptibility. When the dichogamy is an-
drogynous, the last blossoms suffer the same failure, because,
when the stigma of the last blossoms has come to perfection,
there are no antherae remaining to impregnate it.

332.
From all these considerations it is evident, that there must
be some other helps to impregnation ; and this becomes the
more obvious, when we observe that tlie sexual organs ai-e often
so placed, that, according to any usual and mechanical plan, the
fructification cannot happen. We must, no doidjt, ascribe some-
thing to the efficacy of the winds, in transporting j)ollen from a
distance ; and it is certain, that in the Grasses, and some other
plants which have no nectaries, this cause may operate, espe-
cially as the antherae of these plants are large and pendant.
Insects, also, which suck the honey from the blossoms, are
most excellent assistants in impregnation. They wipe off the

O 9,

212 PHYTOTOMY.

pollen from the bent anthera?, and bring it to other blossoms
of the same species. Nor is there much danger of a mixture of
species, and a production of hybrids in this way, because it is
proved respecting bees at least, that in each excursion they
gather only from flowers of the same species ; (C. K. Spren-
gel, Entdecktes Geheimniss der Natur im Bau, und in der Be-
fruchtung der Blumen ; Berlin, 1793, 4to. Smith's Intro-
duction to Botany, ed. 3., p. 256, 257.)

VII. On the Structure of the Sexual Organs.

333.

The analogy between the filaments and the petals, which
was formerly stated, (181. and 187.), as well as their fre-
quent union, lead us to conclude that the former have a
similar structure with the latter. Where the filaments are
so fine that they cannot be dissected, their structure, of
course, remains hidden from us. But in some of the greater
flowers among the Liliaceae, we meet with filaments of consi-
derable diameter ; and the filaments of the Malvaceae can also
be easily examined. In these instances, we observe that very
fine bundles of spiral vessels proceed through the whole length
of the filaments to their summits, and are so lost at their
points, that we cannot exactly point out their mode of con-
nection with the antlierae. The filaments hkewise contain a
very fine cellular texture, and have sometimes also a corollar
integument.

This simple structure, however, varies according to the
manifold variations of the external form of the filaments.
Particularly, we observe in the Urticeae an articulated struc-
ture of the filaments, by means of which, in the Parietaria,
Forskolea, and Antiaris, they are inclosed in the lobes of the
calyx, previous to their being fully ripened, and afterwards
spring forward with great elasticity to scatter the pollen from
the anthcra?. More minute experiments have not yet been made
respecting the internal structure of these joints in the fila-
ments. IMeanwhile the contracted portions seem to occasion a

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 213

considerable swelling of the parts which lie between them, so
that, upon the slightest touch, the elasticity of the filaments
is set in motion, and their tendency to the upright position is
favoured. In a similar manner the filaments of the Erica
aggregata, (Tab. III. Fig. 13.) are bent, before they are
fully ripe, into a large curve, and it is by their elasticity that
they afterwards become erect. The same thing is observed
in the Hirtella^ (Tab. VII. Fig. 4.), the filaments of whicli,
after the antherae are ripe, become of considerable length.

In the Euphorbiae, the filaments appear to be geniculated,
or as if they had a joint, (Tab. VI. Fig. 5.) But probably
each filament consists of two parts, the lower of which is a si-
milar stalk for the monandrous male blossom, as that which
supports the germen. According to this idea, which was first
advanced by R. Brown, {General Remarks on the Botany
of Terra Justralis, page 24.), what is commonly called the
corolla in the Euphorbia, is properly a common covering of
the flower, and incloses several male, and one female floret.
This idea is further confirmed by the fact, that in some species
of Euphorbia, we observe on the joint small laciniae or lobes,
which apparently are nothing else but the rudiments of the
interior covering, or of the proper corolla.

The filaments of most of the syngenesious plants have also
a peculiarly jointed structure, as they have been represented
by Schkuhr, in the Cacalia, (Tab. 236.) ; and still more dis-
tinctly in Baccharis, (Tab. 244. Fig. h.) But, in this case,
the joints seem rather to occasion a shortening and drawing
back of the cylinder of the antherae, because, in the more ri-
pened state, the pistillum, with its stigma, which was before
included in this cylinder, rises above it.

334.

With respect to the structure of tlie antherae in general,
we find, that for the most part they resemble an extended
purse, surrounded by a very fine celkilar texture, wliich is
found throughout their whole substance, and contains, in
each of its cells, a small pollenous body. It is worthy of re-
mark, that the circumference of the antherae is not inci'cased

?14 PHYTOTOMY.

by their ripening, but that they have the same size in blos-
soms that are not yet evolved as at a later period.

We are still destitute of any exact information respecting
the manner in which the antherae are connected with the
filaments, or in what w^ay the opening of the antherae takes
place. Meanwhile we observe in a great many plants, in the
Irideae, the Laurels, in Jsarnm, and Stratiotes, that the an-
therae cling to the side of the filaments in such a manner,
that these latter bodies, in some degree, overtop them. In
most cases, the antherae either lie horizontally, or swing on
the points of the filaments, or these latter parts pass into the
substance of the anthera?. Very fine sap-vessels extend from
the points of the filaments into the anthera?, and conduct
nourishment to them.

The ripening of the antherae, like the ripening of the fruit,
seems to be a kind of desiccation. Although sufficient sap be
supplied, it ceases to be taken up. The partitions of the
cells become thinner and drier. The cavities, in which the
pollen is lodged, press it outwards by means of their elasti-
city, and when the extenuated and dried partitions of the
cellular texture do not yield, they are rent by force.

This tearing open, or bursting of the antherae, however,
takes place according to fixed and secret laws of nature. The
antherae of Solanum^ Galanthiis, Calectasia (R. Brown), open
at their summits. In Galeopsis this opening takes place by
means of a fringed flap. The antherae of the Syngene-
sious plants open longitudinally, each into two compartments.
The antherae of the Cucurbitaceae open in winding lines.
The antherae of the Laurels burst from the lower to the upper
surface, as also those of Epimedmm^ and of Leontice. The
antherae of Triglochin open around the circumference, and
those of Bros'wiiwi open in a circle which surrounds the
middle of the body. We have already noticed, that in flowers
which have nectaries, this opening of the anthera? corresponds
with the position of the nectaries^ (i531.)

335.

If we attend to the pollen, as it appears in most plants, we
perceive it to have diff'erait forms in the different families.

ANATOMV Ol I'LANTtJ. 215

In the Malvacea; and the Compositae, its form is tlie same,
(Tab. IV. Fig. 15.) It appears, in these instances, to con-
sist of regular spherical bodies, with bristly openings. In
the Liliacea3 and the Geraniums, it consists of oval-shaped
bodies, surrounded by elastic rings or hoops, (Tab. II. Fig.
24.) In the Onagra? we find obtuse triangular bodies con-
nected by slimy threads. In the Proteaceae the pollen is cy-
lindrical, and somewhat bent; (Bauer's lUustr. Nov. Holl.
Tab. III. Fig. H.) The two first forms seem to be very
common. But the pollen varies its shape when it is put into
water or oil. In the former it becomes inflated, takes a more
or less perfectly globular form, and gives out, often with great
elasticity, its contents, like a small cloud, which do€s not mix
with the water. In mild oil it remains pretty much un-
changed, only it becomes by degrees surrounded by a dark
coloured ring, which by and by passes into the oil. In spirit
of wine it contracts pmverfully, and takes frequently, when it
is treated with nitric acid, an obtuse triangular form, which
originates in the contraction of the three rings. In nitric acid
it gives out its contents in the shape of rays, which do not
unite with the fluid.

386.
There are some remarkable variations from these forms of
the antherae and pollen, most of which we have already noticed,
(107.) There is, however, still one variety in the structure of
the pollen in some of the Naiadae, particularly in Chara and
Zostera, to which we must attend. In these instances, the
antherae seem to contain nothing but strings of conferva?,
which do not unite with the water. These are as distinctly
inclosed in particular reservoirs, as in tlio Fuci ; and in some
Ferns they stand single beside the germen.

337.

So many varieties, which might easily bo nuiiti plied, in the

structure of the pollen, naturally lead us to a difference of

chemical contents. Hitherto, however, experiments of tlii>

kind have only been made with the pollen of common plants,

216 PHYTOTOMY.

which could be procured in abundance, and even in these the
results of the experiments have been very various and even
contradictory.

A variety of the albuminous matter, which is called by
John, poUenin^ seems, in fact, to be the chief ingredient in
pollen. This substance is uncommonly hable to decomposi-
tion, readily becomes corrupted, gives out a great quantity
of ammonia, and communicates to the pollen the naseous
animal flavour which we frequently perceive in it. It is
insoluble in the ordinary menstrua. Beside this, the pol-
len, in all probability, contains wax, although not in the
same state of mixture in which we have it from the cells of
bees, on which account some chemists entirely deny the exis-
tence of wax in the pollen. Extractive matters, of a gummy
or resinous nature, constitute the other component parts of
the pollen, (John in Schweigger's Neuen Journal, B. II. Heft.
3. s. 247. Grotthuss in the same Journal, B. II. Heft. 3.
Stolze, in Berlin Jahrb. der Pharmacie, B. VII. s. 159.)
Although these results are not universally admitted, they yet
entitle us to conclude, that an animal matter predominates in
the pollen, and that it is made up of azote and hydrogen, in
union with albumen and gluten. After the deposition in the
nectaries, and in the coloured portions of the corolla, of the
superfluous oxygen, hydrogen and azote make their appear-
ance, as the chief product of vegetation ; and of this product
we are speedily made sensible by the before-noticed exhalation
of azotic and hydrogen gases from the flower, by which means
the substance of the plant assumes a resemblance to animal
matter, whilst the plant is preparing to give, by its fructificar
tion, the highest proof of its vital activity,

338,
We naturally begin the consideration of the female parts
of the flower, with that of the Germen. This, in its unim-
pregnated state, is principally a cellular organ, in which the
ovula, or rudiments of the future seed, appear like small ve-
sicles filled with pure water, and can scarcely be distinguished
from the cells themselves. From the fruit-stalk, or from tlic

AXATOxMY OF TI^AXTS. 217

receptacle, bundles of spiral and sap-vessels proceed into the
germen, disperse themselves through it when it is furnish-
ed with partitions, and become united in the central column
or placenta. From this central column arise, by the mere
act of vegetation, those vesicles I have mentioned ; and at a
later period, when impregnation takes place, a new activity,
awakened by this peculiar stimulus, is called into action. In
some instances, the exterior covering of the germen secretes
nectar, because at that time there is an evident overflowing
of the mild oxydized mucilage into the germen,

339.
The Pistil is commonly a solid column, but sometimes it is
observed to have a hollow space throughout its length, al-
though this is always shut at the point in which it passes in-
to the germen. On the other hand, the communication be-
tween the pistillum and the germen is maintained by means
of sap and spiral vessels, which pass into the dissepimentum,
into the central column or placenta, and constitute the pas-
sage to the ovula. We have already endeavoured to shew,
that the number of the pistilla corresponds with the loculi
of the germen, and that where the pistillum is single, it has
in all probability become so from the union of several pis-
tilla, (188.)

340.

The structure of the Stigma is as wonderful as it Is sim})le.
Universally, wherever we have examined it, we have found
its surface moist, and studded with very fine warts or hairs,
which are always closed as in the roots. Whatever, there-
fore, passes into the interior of the stigma, or pistillum, must
in this case also make its way through the impervious and
shut extremities of these organs. In many plants, particu-
larly in the Lobelias, nature has been careful to protect the
tender structure of the stigma from external injuries, by a
particular contrivance. This is a peculiar veil (Tab. II,
Fig. 23.) which covers the stigma, and which, in some gene-
ra allied to Lobelia, consists evidentiv of two valves.

218 THYTOTOMY.

341.

The {X)sition of tlie stigma, as well with respect to the
male parts as to the pistillum in particular, presents remark-
able differences. We know that in the Orchideae, a com-
mon coliimna genitalium supports both the stigma and the
two antherae. The same union takes place in the Stylidea%
in Cleone, in Podostevwn, and in Andrachne, as well as in
Aristolochia. In some of the Proteaceae and Scitamineaf,
the two sorts of sexual organs become united at their base,
and thus furnish a proof of the kindred nature of their struc-
ture.

A remarkable difference of arrangement takes place in the
stigmata of the Syngenesious plants. The proper surface of
the stigmata appears to be less intended for the collecting of
the pollen, than what are called by Cassini the Collectors, or
hairy surfaces which are placed opposite to the proper stig-
mata. In many of the Caryophylleae, the greater part of
the pistillum is of the same consistence with the stigma, whilst
in the Saxifrages and Oxalidae, as also in the Ericoe, only
the extreme point of the pistil can be called the Stigma.

CHAP. II.

PHYTOCHEMY, Oil DOCTllINE OF THE COMPOSI-
TION OF PLANTS.

Sennebier, Physiologie vegetale, torn. ii. p. 298.

Keith, Physiological Botany, vol. i. p. 375, vol. ii.

K. Sprengel, Von der Natur und dem Buu der Geuachse.

J. Ingenhousz, Versuche uber die Ernahrung der Pflantzcn.

Treviranus, Biologic. B. 4.

A. V. Humboldt, Aphorismen aus der Chemischcn-Physiologie der PHantzen.

Einhof in Hermbstadt's Archiv fur Agricultur-Chemic.

H. Davy, Elements of Agricultural Chemistry.

J. F. John, Ucber die Ernahrung der Pflantzen.

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 219

G. Wahlenberg, de sedibus matcriarum immediatarum in Plantis.
H. Steffens, Beytrage zur innern Naturgeschichte der Erde.
Rauch, Regeneration de la Nature vegetale.

I. General Remarks:

342.

The composition of organic bodies is distinguished by
more than one circumstance from the union of the elementa-
ry matters in unorganised substances ; and, on these accounts,
the examination of them becomes as difficult as it is instruc-
tive.

The first peculiarity in the composition of organic bodies, is
their great liability to change, and their constant tendency to
decomposition ; while, at the same time, as long as life remains,
this tendency never perfectly succeeds. As soon, however, as
organic juices are withdrawn from the dominion of life, thev
undergo a change of their elements, and a decomposition of
their constitution, which are attended with remarkable conse-
quences.

Since we can thus only examine the composition of organic
bodies, after they have ceased to live, we cannot be always
certain that the results of our chemical examination really ex-
plain the way and manner in which the juices are mixed in
living substances. Indeed, a highly etherial matter, which,
as it were, gave life to the sap, seems often to make its escape,
at the moment when the fluid or organic matter loses its in-
dividual character, and is subjected to examination. We are
thus often reminded of the spiritus rector of the blood, which
our predecessors admitted, and which we have no reason to
treat with too much contempt.

The change which organic matters undergo when they
cease to live, is of so pecuHar a kind, that it cannot take
place in inorganic bodies, unless they arc mixed witli or-
ganic matter. It is an internal change, which, in the juices
of plants and in other vegetable matters, conmu)nly begins
with the evolution of carbonic acid, and ends with the plenti-
ful production of acetic acid. It is called Fermentation. In

220 PMYTOCHEMY.

animal matters, again, and in those juices of plants wliich ap-
proach to an animal nature, another decomposition takes
place, during which hydrogen and azote })rincipally are disen-
gaged. This change is called Putrefaction. Both of these
changes afford products, which did not previously exist as
such in the organic body, and from which, therefore, we can-
not conclude, with any certainty, respecting the component
parts of the living substance.

343.

The second peculiarity of the composition of organic bodies,
is, that it is more or less independent on the inorganic bo-
dies that may happen to be present. It cannot be denied,
indeed, that the comjX)sition of the earth and water, by
which plants are nourished, has a considerable influence on
their ingredients, and that at all times plants, and especially
tlie lower orders of them, partake more than animals of the
composition of the substances by which they are surround-
ed. In general, however, it is a law of nature, that every
organic body forms its own ingredients out of the elemen-
tary materials which surround it ; and that the quantity of
lime contained in plants which grow in pure sand, or whicli
spring amidst granite, is not less than the quantity of the
same material contained in those plants which grow on a cal-
careous soil. In a few instances, some compound matters
seem to pass unchanged into plants and the presence of com-
mon salt and of soda in plants which grow on the sea-shore or
on calcareous soils, is as undeniable as the passage of metallic
substances, and of many odorous and colouring matters, into
the blood and secreted juices of the animal body. On the
other hand, it is estabhshed, that neither odorous nor colour-
ing matters pass unchanged into the un wounded roots of
plants ; and that we cannot accomplish the absorption of co-
loured fluids by these parts in any other way, but by cutting
the twigs, so as to bring these fluids into direct contact with
the sap-tubes.

COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. 2i>l

344.
The third pecuharity of the composition of organic Ixxliesy
respects the ahsence, commonly, in such bodies, of any of the
ordinary chemical ingredients in an entirely disengaged state.
Completely disengaged acids are as seldom to be met with in
the vegetable as in the animal juices. For the most part
they are united to a base, and are first disengaged during fer-
mentation, by the influence of mineral acids, or by some other
operations. It is equally seldom that we find, in a free state,
in the vegetable kingdom, any of those ingredients of which
hydrogen is a part. These, like alcohol, are first disengaged, in
consequence of a change which takes place during the saccha-
rine fermentation. It is true, that, in a few instances, free acids
are fovuid in plants, and that volatile oils are given out by them.
But these matters are for the most part to be considered as
excrementitious, as the oxalic acid which is exhaled from the
Chick-pea ; besides, the hydrogen, in volatile oils, is too close-
ly united to other matters, to be regarded as an entirely free
body.

345.

The fourth pecuharity in the composition of organic bo-
dies, consists in a kind of circulation, which the simple con-
nections of the elementary bodies in the sustaining juices un-
dergo. As in the higher animals, the chyle by degrees be-
comes freed from its oxygen, while it is mingling with the
gall and passing through the glands of the intestines, that at
last, in the thoracic duct it may pass into the state of bl(X)d
by the union of azote, by the evolution of phosphorated iron,
and of the colouring materials ; as this neutral fluitl Irees
itself in the secreting organs from its hydrogen, azote,
oxygen, and carbon, that it may suffer a new oxydation in
the lungs, and be prepared for undergoing again tlie same
changes; — in the same manner plants attract carbonic acid
water saturated with azote ; mix it with their own substance,
and sometimes add more evolved hydrogen and carbon to the
oxygen ; and at other times free themselves Ironi their super-
fluous oxygen and carbonic acid by exhalation from thi'

2221 PHYTOCHEMY.

leaves. But, in tlie same manner, they repair their loss of
oxygen, by which means new affinities take place, until at
last the elementary substances in the blossom separate from
one another, from which separation the decay and partial
death of this organ take place.

In this ceaseless circulation, we cannot consider deoxyda-
tion as the ultimate object of the chemistry of the vegetable
kingdom, especially as a manifest progress to a still more
powerful oxydation may often be remarked. It is in this
manner, that, by means of the more complete predominance
of oxygen, resin is produced from oil, gum from mucilage,
and fixed substances from those that are volatile.

346.

These general considerations shew us the difference be-
tween the composition of animals and vegetables. The diffe-
rence evidently consists in this, that azote and hydrogen are
the prevailing matters in animal substances, oxygen and car-
bon in the vegetable world ; on which account, animal juices
commonly putrefy, but vegetable saps pass into a state of fer-
mentation. Not as if these matters were confined exclusively
to each of the two organic kingdoms, since not only do albu-
men and gluten pass into a state of putrefaction, and disen-
gage ammonia ; but we have also shewn the evolution of
azote and hydrogen from blossoms, and the predominance of
both these matters in the pollen. Our concern at present is
chiefly with the general difference of composition, which al-
'ways observes the assigned relations in the two great king-
doms of nature. It is hence that in transition forms, and in
organised bodies of the lower orders, we usually regard it as a
common proof of an animal or of a vegetable nature, if, when
the body is burnt, it gives out an animal odour, which arises
from a pecular union of azote and hydrogen with carbon.

COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. 22'i

II. On the Common Sap.

347.

The matters which plants attract from the soil, are not
for tlie most part its compound ingredients ; tliey do not
attract either earth, or metals, or salts, or extractive mat-
ter ; but, according to all observations and experiments,
they take up only carbonic acid water, united with azote ;
and all improvements of the soil, all manuring of it, have
no other object than that of increasing this sap, for the
purpose of evolving more powerfully, and in due proportion,
its proper products. From the time of Helmont, it has been
understood, that water is the only source of all the nourish-
ment of vegetables. Plants have long been reared amidst
circumstances of such a nature, that no earthly ingredients at
least could be taken up by them. The experiments of Bon-
net, Kraft, and Duhamel, are the most decisive on this
point. In later times, it has been completely established by
Ingenhousz, Percival, Schrader, and Braconnot, that plants
thrive amidst substances that are altogether insoluble, pro-
vided they are supplied with carbonic acid water, and that
they even present the same constituent parts, as when they
are reared in the earthy soil.

And this account is strengthened by the necessity which is
known to exist, for exposing any soil, the chief ingredient of
which is carbon, to the influence of the air, that oxygen may
be attracted, and carbonic acid be thereby formed. The
careful and complete turning up of Clover and Lucern fields
in spring, not only loosens the soil, but promotes also the pro-
duction of carbonic acid. Hence the repeated ploughings,
by means of which Peter Kretschmar, seventy years ago,
wished to render manure needless, must have turned out very
unprofitable.

If we reflect still farther on the recent experiments which
have shewn, that there is a considerable consumption of
carbonic acid from absorption by the leaves ; and if we con-
sider that all those circumstances are favourable to the growth

224 phytochp:my.

of plants, which increase the quantity of carbonic acid in the
moisture of the soil, as well as in the atmosphere, we shall
find ourselves obliged to admit that this substance is the pro-
per nourishment of vegetables. To these circumstances belong
dew and rain, which convey more carbonic acid to plants,
than tliat which is sup])lied by spring water ; on which account,
this latter fluid is always inferior to rain-water for the sprink-
hng of plants. From the same cause arises the vmcommon
fertility of volcanic countries, which, according to Gagliardo,
give out a peculiarly great quantity of carbonic acid. Our
own black mould is also so productive for the same reason,
namely, because the extractive matter which it contains is in-
cessantly attracting oxygen from the atmosphere, to form car-
bonic acid. Hence also arises the advantage in horticulture
of screens for fruit trees, because the surface of the earth,
when overshadowed by great leaves, attracts carbonic acid
vapours more strongly, and these also can less readily escape
than they must do from a bare field. On the same account,
Vetch-Oats and Summer-Rye succeed better when sowed
among Peas. Beans also are sowed among Oats, and this
mixture is called Rough-east. Clover is commonly sowed
with some other crop, in particular with Rape, Flax, Peas,
and even with winter-crops.

It is hence that heath is so little injurious to forests, that
it rather affords to the young shoots the advantage of shade,
and a more powerful attraction of carbonic acid.

But every just theory of the effects of manure, is in the high-
est degi'ee favourable to this assertion. Manure consists com-
monly of intermingled animal and vegetable matter ; in the
excrements of swine in particular, we find this latter sub-
stance, and especially seeds, so unchanged, that they readily
vegetate. But the excrements of animals are extremely apt
to become putrid, and it is necessary, in order to subject
them to a slower fermentation, during which carbonic acid
is produced, to mix them with straw, and other refuse of
vegetables. The manure of sheep, when mixed with
straw, is therefore much more lasting than the excrement
by itself ; and the refuse of the fold, unless it is very

COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. 225

poWGifuI, produces little effect upon the second crop. When
the manure, liowever, has passed through this fermentation,
it will for ever connnunicate extractive matter and carbon to
the soil ; but before these can serve for the nourishment of
})lants, they must again be combined with the oxygen of the
atmosphere.

The burning of the soil, too, operates by the production of
oxygenised carbon, because every burning ends with the attrac-
tion of oxygen. Hence also arises the advantage of smoking
the ground, as it is practised in Italy ; (Bertuch Garten Ma-
gazin, b. 3. sec. ilSd.) Ashes must be considered as carbon
half oxidated durinjj the burnins:, and united with alkali.
Accordingly, when they are laid out, they have a powerful
influence in the melioration of the }X)orest soils, as is proved
by the excellent example of the improved agriculture around
Dankerode, south from Harzgerode ; (Georg. in den Mogelin-
schen Annalen, b. 3. s. 419, 448.)

The green manuring (sovescio of the Italians) proves tlie
same fact ; but the slow fermentation of green vegetables
should only be employed in fertile and warm soils. Potato
plants, Zostera marina, and the common sea-ware, serve as
manure, in the same manner, by the fermentation which they
undergo in the soil.

Lastly, Nothing proves the truth of this account more
clearly, than the distinguished advantage which the soil de-
rives from calcareous matter ; since the attraction of this sub-
stance for carbonic acid is, as every person knows, very pow-
erful. The most luxuriant vegetation arises on calcareoua
soils ; the strongest wood in the wc^-ld grows in the calcareous
islands, which are formed by the Coral Reefs of the South
Sea, as also upon the volcanic tei'ritory of IVIascaren's Island.
By a mixture of lime, we prepare tlK? best compost, when it
is placed in layers between animal manure, clay, and old
mud. The powerful effect of Chara vulgaris in fertilising
land, depends on the calcareous shme with which it is covered,

348.
Not only carbonic acid water, but also the azote which is mix-
ed with it, constitutes a principal part of the peculiar nourish-

2^6

PIIYTOCIIEMV.

ing sap of vegetables. Azote is produced in the cai'th, partly
Iroiii the corrupted refuse of animals, partly from the clay or
loam which in a greater or less quantity are mixed with the soil
or mould, and partly, in the last place, from the atmosphere,
which, in three out of four parts, is composed of azote. The
advantage of a certain portion of clay in the soil, is not only
evident from this circumstance, but also from the further
consideration, that it retains the moisture for a longer time,
and supplies it to tlie roots.

Azote appears also to be taken up into plants from ma-
nures. Tobacco derives its pungent taste and unpleasant
flavour from animal manure. Grain produced on land
highly manured with sheep dung, contains too mucli gluten
to be employed in the brewing of ale. Manure composed
of the refuse of animals, as pieces of horns and claws, pro-
duces abundance of straw fit for litter, but little meal, and too
much gluten.

349.

it having been shewn, that the moisture drawn up by
})lants is only carbonic acid-water impregnated with azote,
the crude ascending sap of plants must have in a great de-
gree the same composition ; and the only difference will be,
that the living principle has operated upon the fluid, and has
mixed it, the higher it has ascended, with the greater num-
ber of peculiar vegetable matters.

In fact, the crude ascending sap exhibits properties which
completely confirm this account. As it mounts in the inner
bark of trees, it appears as a clear fluid, of a pleasant taste, and
producing a titillating eflect upon the tongue. It easily fer-
ments, and evolves during tliis process carbonic acid gas, which,
when united with hydrogen, is known as an intoxicating drink.
If the fermentation is continued, azote is disengaged, Avhich
swims upon the surface, and the liquor itself becomes of the
taste of vinegar. As this composition of the ascending sap is
the same in almost all plants, it is evident that it is directly
derived from the moisture of the earth, and that it is distin-
guished from it only by the oxygenised slimy matter which
it has attracted.

c'OMrosiTioN Or plants. 2^7

350.

The attraction of sap from the earth, differs in the same
plants in the different periods of their growth, In the first
periods, before tlie plant has blossomed, a greater quantity of
nourishment is taken up, the more the plant is covered with
leaves; because we have already seen (321.) that the evaporation
|)romoted by the contracting power and irritability which the
plant maintains, is a very important function, and one which
must therefore strengthen its absorbing power. But we must
take into account, that, by means of the more powerful fron-
descence, the ground is more shaded, and carbonic acid is de-
posited in greater quantity. Perhaps we ought also to take
into account the evacuation of superfluous sap from the roots,
(285.) It is certain that any species of grain succeeds so
much the better among the stubble of a previous crop suitable
to it, as, for instance. Wheat after Clover or Pulse, the more
luxuriant that previous crop had been, which must be as-
cribed to the shadowing of the soil ; so that clover in general
promotes the fertility of the soil, the more luxuriantly it
springs. It is possible that this proceeds from the more live-
ly attraction of sap from the soil, by means of which exactly
such a quantity of the latter crop is called up, as is best for
the crop of grain which is to succeed it. We must also take
into account the extractive matter which a plant imparts to the
soil by its decay ; in comparison with which, the portion of
matter which the plant takes from the soil is scarcely worth
reckoning. At least a strong and rank fallow may always be
regarded as a manure. The thick grass sward, which is
produced on the soil after a long rest, increases its fertility in
an uncommon degree.

It is an undeniable fact, however, that a plant draws the
greatest quantity of nourishment from the soil, at the time
when it blossoms and forms its fruit. On a suj)crficial con-
sideration, we might have supposed the reverse. yVe might
have thought, that as the period of growth ends with the
blossom, a more powerful absorption could not take place
than formerly ; but when we reflect, that the blossoming and
setting of the fruit are entirely new operations nhich increase

P2

^28 rHYTOCHEMY.

the contraction in the whole body, and raise its entire irri-
tability, we must be sensible, that this is the time when the
expenditure of sap must be the greatest, although we should
not take into consideration the fresh exhalation from tlie blos-
soms, or the evolution of azote ^nd hydrogen from them.

In fact, all our experience, both on a great and on a small
scale, confirms this remark. In horticulture, it is known, that a
plant requires the most powerful irrigation, when it puts on
its blossoms and fruit. In agriculture, it is kno^\^l, that it
makes an important difference whether the juicy or the ripen-
ed stalk remains in the ground. The latter exhausts it so
much the more powerfully, as the dead roots are no longer
able to give out again the superfluous sap. It is certain,
that from this cause Flax in particular exhausts the soil so
much, that no winter crop at least can be obtained after it.
It even seems to be true, that the richer the crop of grain is,
and the more nutritious its parts, the more is the soil exhaust-
ed by it ; not that the moisture of the earth passes directly in-
to the fruit, but because a greater expense of power, and a
more lively elasticity in all the parts, is required for the for-
mation of the nutritious parts of the fruit, so that the ab-
sorption of fluid sap must also be brisker. Einhoff's calcula-
tions teach us, that among common plants, French Beans con-
tain the greatest quantity of nutritious matter, namely 85
per cent. ; Wheat contains 78, Pease 75 J, Lentils 74, Rye
70, Barley Qo, and Oats 58. From this we may judge of
the exhausting power which these plants exert upon the
soil.

At the same time, it cannot be denied, that plants with
strong and deep-seated roots, or with juicy tubercles, take a
great quantity of nourishment from the ground, even when
they are not in flower. Among these we may reckon Beet
and Potatoes. Recent experiments have taught us, how
much the former of these roots contributes to the manuring
of the land, when it is suffered to remain in it, and when,
in the end of harvest, the sheep are enclosed in a field of this
plant after its leaves are shed, and time is allowed them to
gnaw its roots, and to manure the field. These putrefying

I

COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. 229

roots replace completely to the soil, Avhatever it had lost by
nourishing the plants. Potatoes, when planted in a field which
had previously been fallow, keep back the winter crop. For
this reason, they are rather reared in a field which had before
been under crop ; dung is applied after them, and tlien pease
are sown.

III. More intimate Cwistituents of Vegetahks.

351.

It is not possible to state precisely how every one of the
more intimate constituents of plants is formed from the com-
mon sap ; but in a great many instances we can give a dis-
tinct explanation, and in others, where the component parts
are still unknown to us, we must satisfy ourselves with pro-
bable conjectures.

The first matter formed from the common sap, is the or-
ganizing mucilaginous matter, or the forming juice, respect-
ing which we remarked above (271), that it contains the two
primitive forms, namely, spherules or vesicles, and ray-shaped
or straight-lined bodies. The mucilaginous matter is a taste-
less and inodorous fluid, which, without undergoing the ace-
tous fermentation, passes, after a considerable lapse of time,
into a kind of putrefactive decomposition. When treated
with mineral acids, it forms oxalic and saccho-lactic acid. By
dry distillation, mucous acid, with a burnt smell, is disengaged
from it, and from this ammonia is formed by fixed alkali. We
thus see that the common sap, when it passes into mucilage,
changes its constituent principles, and that azote in particular
is disengaged during this process. With respect to the acids
which mucilage exhibits, they can scarcely be considered as
present in the living plants, because they arc first disengaged
by means of mineral acids and distillation. However, as car-
bonic acid consists of 72 parts of oxygen, and 28 of carbon,
the oxalic acid, which we find as a constituent part of some
plants, may easily be derived from it ; for ihis acid con-
sists of 70 parts of oxygen, 26 of carbon, and 2 of hydrogen.

230 rHVTOCHE3IY.

Mucilage passes into gum and starch. Into the former of
these it passes only after it has escaped from the plant, when it
is thickened by the influence of the oxygen of the atmosphere.
It then allows the azote to escape, which forms ammonia, or
the azote becomes united to lime, of which we find a consi-
derable quantity in gum. Gum has no longer the same ten-
dency to become putrid as mucilage.

In tlie same manner starch is produced, probably from
a similar thickening of the mucilage, only this takes place in
the living plant ; because by the microscope we distinctly see
the grains of starch, like a deposit in the cellular texture.
Starch gradually passes, when mixed with water and ex-
posed to the M^arm air, into the acetous fermentation, during
which it becomes covered with mouldiness,

352.

Mucilage undergoes a further change when it passes into
saccharine matter. As, according to pretty good authorities,
saccharine matter consists of 74 parts of oxygen, 17 of car-
bon, and 8 of hydrogen, it is evidently formed by a higher
oxydation of mucilage, and, at the same time, by a change
in the proportions and quantity of hydrogen. The azote
seems in this case to have entirely vanished, since, during the
dry distillation, not a trace of it a])pears. From starch and
mucilage is formed sugar by oxydation. The tendency of
mucilage to oxydation favours the production of sugar.
When Beet, therefore, is exposed to the powerful action of
the sun's light, it affords less sugar, and it is accordingly
covered with earth to withdraw it from the light. When su-
gar is treated with spirit of wine, it loses its sweet taste,
and passes into the nature of gum. It is worthy of remark,
that saccharine matter, dissolved in water, undergoes the vi-
nous fermentation, which must arise from the disengagement
of hydrogen, and from a change in its proportions. Sugar
is produced in a dry and crystallised state, as a secretion
of some plants, and in union with quartz ; and in innumerable
plants, it appears as a honey juice or nectar, but, in these cases,
it is often united with the peculiar and even with the poison-

COMrOSlTlON OF PLANTS. 231

ous ingredients of the plants, as is shewn by the hurtful pro-
perties of the honey produced by bees from the Azalea j)oiu
Oca and Kalmia latifolia.

353.

Azote being thus a constituent part of mucilage, it is
also, in an especial manner, evolved in albumen and ghi-
tcn, so that these are considered as properly the ingredients
of animal matter. In the leguminous fruits, tliese are the in-
gredients which render the plants so peculiarly nutritious.
In the juice of the Agave Americana^ which is the favourite
drink in Mexico, there is so much of these animal matters,
that tJiis liquor smells strongly of putrid flesh. Albumen, in
moderate warmth, passes into a putrid decomposition, during
which sulphurated hydrogen gas and azotic gas are disen-
gaged, and sulphur and phosphorus are generated. With
weak nitric acid, it disengages azotic gas, and in a stronger
heat it gives out cyanogen : by distillation we obtain carbo-
nated hydrogen, ammonia, and empyreumatic oil. It con-
sists, according to the French analysis, of 52 parts of carbon,
23 of oxygen, 15 of azote and of hydrogen.

Gluten is only distinguished from albumen by its greater
consistence, and by this further circumstance, that it is inso-
luble in water, but moderately so in spirit of wine.

354.

We further find extractive matter, tannin, and colouring
matter, all existing as ingredients of plants. The extractive
matters are indeed very various, but they seem to be formed
from mucilage by a difference in the pro}X)rtion of their
oxydation, and by a mixture of the peculiar matter of plants.
Extractive matters are insoluble in water, and they also so
far partake of the nature of mucilage, that they enable oil to
mix with water, and to be used as soap. They contain also so
much oxygen, that they redden the blue juices of vegetables,
and the bitter taste of most of these substances proceeds from
carbon oxy dated to a certain pitch, and whicli has been dc-

232 PHYTOCHEMY.

rived from hydrogen ; (Braconnot, in Berlin Jahrbuch der
Pharmacie, b. 20. s. 205.)

Tanning matter is produced by such a change in extracli% c
matter as renders it fit to coagulate animal jelly, and to
cause a black deposition of salts of iron. There is also a
dark green deposition of salts of iron, by means of the common
extractive matter ; and tanning matter may be almost com-
pletely changed into extract, by repeatedly evaporating a so-
lution of it, by means of heat. Caustic alkali also takes
from tannin its astringent taste, and it is hence also probable,
that a difference in the proportion of oxygen distinguishes
those two substances from each other. This is also in part
evident from the disengagement of the gallic acid during the
mouldincss which takes place on a solution of the gall-nut ;
because, during the production of this matter, the characters
of tannin are lost, and that acid probably does not exist in
the matter previously, but is produced during the change.

We have already stated, when speaking of the green co-
lour of leaves, (317.), and of the tints of blossoms, (327.),
that the colouring matters of plants are of very different
kinds. They can sometimes be removed by water, and
sometimes by spirit of wine ; very frequently they are united
with a residuary powder, or a substance containing azote, which
gives the putrid smell to the colours of many plants, and with
ft weak nitric acid even produces azotic gas.

355.

An important ingredient of plants is the mild oil, which
we procure in its purest state from the fruit of the Olive and
Beech, but which we also very often obtain from the coty-
ledons, and alliuminous bodies in the seed. As, according
to corresponding analyses, mild oil consists of seventy-live
parts of carbon, and twenty-five of hydrogen ; as nature also
prepares the same matter from the saccharine juices of fruits,
and art can again change this oil into saccharine matter, by
treating it with the oxide of lead, it is extremely probable
that it owes its origin to a complete deoxidation of the saccha-
rine matter, and to an increased proportion of hydrogen.

COMPOSITION or TLAXTS. 23ii

356.

Mild oil passes into a kind of wax, wlien it is slightly oxi-
dated, and attains, by that means, a certain degree of firmness ;
for art can produce wax from oil by nitric acid, and can change
it into oil again, by taking away the acid. Wax is produced
by Nature herself, in the fruit of the StiUingki seblferay
Rhifs succedanea, Myrica cenfera, and in the bark of the
Wax-palm (Ceroxylon Andicola).

357.

Volatile oils, which are commonly united with extractive
matters, are distinguished from mild oils, by containing a
greater proportion of hydrogen than of carbon. Of the for-
mer substance, they seem to contain, in many cases, two-
thirds, or even three-fourth parts. It is remarkable that
they are chiefly found in the covers of seeds, and, in the case
of the Scitaminea?, in the vitellus even, but almost never in
the albuminous bodies, and in the cotyledons of the embryons.
When volatile oils are oxydated, they run into a hard sub-
stance, which is called Camphor, and in which it has been
supposed that a peculiar acid resides, although good chemists
consider it as the same with the benzoic acid. This last sub-
stance is found in most of the balsams, or in those bodies
which, beside volatile oil, contain also resinous extract. The
strong smell of this acid, and its inflammability, as well as its
weak aflinity to the alkaline base, point it out as rich in hy-
drogen.

The volatile oils pass through the balsams into resin ; l)c-
xjause, by evaporation and the application of acids, we can
procure these oils from resinous substances.

358.

We must now consider those bases in plants which can Ix?
united with acids, — the origin of which is involved in much
obscurity.

With respect to the alkalies, it is certain that jx)tassa
is one of the most common substances to wliich the vege-
table acids are united ; but it is undoubtedly not drawn

234 niYTOCHEMY.

from the soil in the state in which it is known to us, but is
prepared, by the organizing powers, from original materials,
the nature of which we only conjecture, but cannot state with
certainty. As annnonia is undeniably composed of azote and
hydrogen, and is found especially in gluten and albumen, we
may, without incurring the reproach of being hasty in our
conclusions, assume the same ingret^lients for potassa and soda,
only in quite different pro jx)rt ions, and probably with a cer-
tain share of oxygen, by which they are put in the state of
oxydes. The latter substance, soda, is cither drawn by
plants from the soil, or it is first decomposed by them into its
constituent parts, and with these the plants form salts similar
to those which are found in the soil, (343.)

The increase of the quantity of potash in woods which
have been subjected to putrefaction, and which was observed
by Schreber, Wiegieb, and John, (John, Uber die Ernah-
rung der Fflantzen, s. 156. 157.), favours the opinion, that
alkalies are produced by the disengagement of hydrogen and
azote.

359.

We must form the same opinion respecting the earths which
plants contain. Lime is found not only in the ashes of plants,
but in albumen and in gum : it cannot, however, be derived
from the soil, because, as we remarked formerly (343.), it is
found even in those plants which have grown in pure sand, or
amidst granite, or which have been reared in porcelain ves-
sels, and nourished only by carbonic acid water. If we should
suppose, that still the pure carbonic acid water might contain
dissolved lime, this is merely a supposition, which rests on no
foundation of proof.

Nor is the production of siliceous matter in plants more
easily accounted for. This substance is not only found in
considerable quantity in the larger Grasses, which grow in
boggy places, {Arundo phragrnitcs^ Poa aquatica, Festuca
Jluitans) ; it forms also the chief constituent of the saccharine
matter which exudes from the joints of the Bamboo. But
this siliceous matter cannot come from the soil, . because it

C031P0SIT10N Or PLANTS. 235

cannot be dissolved but by a red heat with alkahes. We
shall not, therefore, be too hasty, if we suspect that plants
form siliceous earth, from carbon and hydrogen, especially as
the diamond, which is the most perfect of the gems, is
almost entirely composed of carbon and hydrogen. Lime,
also, as it is a principal product of the animal kingdom, and
is found almost every where along with azote, is probably a
compound of this latter body with carbon.

360.

With respect to the metals which we find in the ashes of
plants, they may be reduced, so far as is known to us, to the
following, namely, iron, manganese and copper. The last of
these is found in the tubercles of the Scitaminea\ Iron is
found in the ashes of almost all plants, and frequently united
with oxide of manganese.

Although we know not the elementary bodies from which
metals are formed, it is very probable according to Do-
bereiner's experiments, that carbon, in union with hydrogen
and azote, suffers a change during the process of vegetation,
which assimilates it to a metallic nature ; perhaps this change
has an influence upon the colours of blossoms, and by the
power of heat, the metal in the organic body is transformed
to a metallic oxide.

361,

When we proceed to the consideration of the more remote
constituents, a wide field is opened to conjecture. Sulphur,
phosphorus, the elementary matter of cyanogen, the fundamen-
tal principles of halogen, and iodine, are more or less related
substances, which, by their great inflammability, and tendency
to assume the gaseous form, attract oxygen from air and wa-
ter, and thus form peculiar acids.

Sulphur exists in albumen, and in other vegetable juices;
and sulphuric acid salts are found in the ashes of almost all
plants. Albumen also contains phosphorus, and phosphorated
lime, and salts compounded with the same acid are produced
in the juices of many plants. The phosphoric light of putrid

236 PHYTOCHEMY.

wood is a proof of the existence of this substance, and of its
gradual oxydation by the admission of air. A. F. Mornay
has observed a phosphorescent plant, of the family of the
Contortae, in Brazil, (Philosophical Transactions, 1818.) The
nauseous smell which phosphorus gives out, and the existence
of the same in the salts of cyanogen, favour the suspicion, that
phosphorus is produced by a certain combination of hydro-
gen and azote. We can scarcely doubt of the existence of
this combination in the base of cyanogen. We find this
matter commonly in a slight state of oxydation, as cyanogen,
there being scarcely 2 per cent, of oxygen in it, in the Bit-
ter Almond, in the Cherry Laurel, in the Black Alder, and
in various other narcotic plants, (Gay Lussac in Schweigger's
neuem Journal.) Halogen or chlorine has the same disposi-
tion to become volatile, and the same tendency to assume the
gaseous form. Its strong attraction to oxygen is the cause
why we commonly meet with this substance as hydrochlorous
acid, and why we find it in the ashes of plants, in combina-
tion with alkahes.

Iodine is very nearly related to this substance : it is com-
monly found as an oxyde in the ashes of sea- weed ; it smells
like chlorine, and evaporates, when exposed to heat, with a
pui^le colour, and a smell of chlorine. It does not affect the
colours of plants either as an acid or an alkali : it is most so-
luble in alcohol and ether, but it takes from water, as do also
chlorine and azote, nearly two parts and a half more of oxy-
gen than its own weight. Even the highly poisonous nature
of iodine, which has been lately remarked, favours the idea
of its being a compound probiibly of hydrogen and azote.

362.

There are some other newly discovered matters In plants,
which may be arranged more or less with those. At least,
there are some bases of acids, which are probably similar
combinations of the elementary matters, as tiiose which form
the alkalies. Morphium, which is vniited in opium with the
mcconic apid, proves its affinity to alkalies by this circum-
stance, that it restores to their forincr colour the blue vege-

COMPOSITION or PLANTS. 237

table juices, after they had been reddened by acids. Besides,
it shoots out into fine needle-formed, or prismatic crystals, and
is scarcely soluble in hot water, but very much so in alcohol.
Of precisely the same nature is Strychnin, which Pelletier has
found, by means of corrosive alkali, in the crow's eye, and in
Ignatius' beans. Many strong-tasted matters owe their ori-
gin, probably, to the same element ; (Annales de Chimie,
tom. X., 1819.)

Other peculiar substances have quite different relations, al-
though they stand in the same class with that we have now
considered, as being the bases of acids. Cinchonin, which is
found in the chinarinde, combined with the acid of cinchona,
]X)lychroit in saffron, and inulin in the Alant, are but indivi-
dual examples of such matters, being formed by different
proportions of the same elements of plants*

363.

From all these facts we conclude, that the simple elemen-
tary bodies which plants take up from the soil, are united
and separated again in the most varied and multiplied pro-
portions, and that it is in this manner that all the more inti-
mate constituents of plants are produced. If, with the view
of illustrating this conclusion, we attend to the relations of the
vegetable acids, we perceive that the further vegetation has
proceeded, there is less oxygen, and more hydrogen and azote
in the acids. We remarked formerly (351.), that the oxalic
acid, next to carbonic acid, is the richest in oxygen. To
these succeeds the tartaric acid, which we find in a free state
in the pith of the Tamarind, and in other plants, combined
with a base. It is distinguished from the oxalic acid only by
4 per cent, additional of hydrogen, and 1 per cent, less of
oxygen. The citric acid, which is found in great quantity
in orchard fruits and berries, contains as much hydrogen, 9
per cent, more of carbon, and 10 per cent, less of oxygen,
than the tartaric acid. The malic acid is still richer in car-
bon, but less plentifully stored with oxygen, on which account
it is possible, by means of nitric acid, to change it into oxalic
acid.

l?38l I'HVTOXOMV

CHAP. III.

PROPER PIIYTOXOMY, OR ON THE LIFE OF PLANTS.

I. Effects of Slwudi.

Mustel, Traite Theoriquc et Pratique sur la Vegetation, Vol. I. 4. Rouen,
1781.

Sennebier, Physiologic Vegetale, Vol, I. 5. A Geneve, 1800.

P. Keith's System of Physiological Botany.

G. R. Treviranus's Biologic.

R. Sprengel, Von dem Bau und der Natur der Gewachse.

J. Sennebier, Experiences sur I'Action de la Lumiere Solaire dans les Ve-
getaux.

Linne, De Somno Plantarum, in Amcen. Acad. Vol. IV.

J. Hill, The Sleep of Plants.

Hunter, Versuche uber das Vermbgen der Pflantzen und Thiere, Warme zu
erzeugen.

Al. Wilson, Beobachtungen uber der Einfluss der Klima's auf Pflantzen und
Thiere.

J. Ingenhousz, Vermischte Schriftcn.

Bertholon de S. Lazare, Uber die Electrizitat, in Beziehung auf die
Pflantzen.

Saussure, Recherches Chimiques sur la Vegetation.

Plaudus Heinrich, m Hermbstadt's Archiv fur Agricultur-C hemic

Balde, in Laurop's Annalen der Forstkunde.

Salome, in Hermstadt's Archiv.

V. Marum, in Rozier Journal de Physique.

364.

Plants live, not merely in the common sense of the word,
which includes activity of every kind, but in that stricter
sense, by which a higher and self-dependent activity is ex-
pressed.

If we compare natural bodies with one another, we find
some which are produced by an attraction of primitive mat-
ters, and which are destroyed by a process of the same kind.

un: or pi.axth. ogc)

But others are reared by the internal powers of their own
constituent parts,— occasion, by means of motions, which me-
chanics and chemistry have not yet explained, the ascent of the
sap, its resolution, and an evident chan^^e of their own exter-
nal proportions, — and even extend their agency beyond the
bounds of their own existence, by propagating themselves.
These three operations — the assimilation and maintenance of
the sap, — activity arising from internal impulse, — and the pro-
duction of new individuals, are the characteristics of the life
of plants, which we have partly already considered (343.),
and which we have partly yet to illustrate. At the same time,
we must pay some attention to the slight traces of sensitive
life, which is the highest degree of vital activity in plants.

365.
The vital activity of organized bodies is excited by stimuli,
and receives the name of Irritability, since we cannot explain
its effects either upon mechanical or chemical principles ; for
these last admit neither of extension nor contraction of parts,
—of no remarkable attraction nor removal of matters, — and we
consider the power of producing these changes, therefore, as
one of a higher kind, than the lower powers with which mere
matter is endowed. The explanations which we give of this
peculiar power we term Dynamical : yet it is impossible to
determine sometimes, whether a particular phenomenon is to
be explained purely on dynamical principles, or whether it
may also be illustrated by mechanical and chemical means.
It cannot be denied, that the recent discoveries of chemistry,
respecting many operations of Natia*e, have also given more
light to the science of plants, than was formerly connnuni-
catcd by dynamical explanations. In particular, we are in-
debted to the introduction of the science of imponderable
bodies, for a more connected view of many vegetable pro-
cesses, than we formerly possessed, But still these im}K:)ndcr-
able substances act partly dynamically, at least contrary to
the laws of gravity, and not always according to the laws of
chemistry.

240 piivroxoiiY.

366.

Light is the principal stimulus for all living bodies, and
for the vegetable world in particular : without its agency no
plant grows, nor continues to exist. We have already con-
sidered (317.), the chemical attraction of light for the oxygen
of plants, as a very important phenomenon, and have also re-
marked, that the consequences of this atti*action of light for
oxygen do not take place without the exertion of the internal
activity of the plant, and we must therefore admit a real con-
test between light and the power of the plant. The light
of the sun, however, is not a material substance, but a pure
principle of activity, because, witliout any perceptible loss of
time, it traverses the immeasurable extent of heaven, — be-
cause it penetrates even through space that is deprived of
air, — and because it every where acts in opposition to the
laws of gravity. It operates, therefore, on plants, simply as
a vital stimulant, and excites all the functions of the plant to
such a degree, that all its secretions are more powerfully per-
formed ; on which account even corn is not so nutritious in
wet seasons, when there have been many tempestuous days.
It is hence that branches and leaves push towards the light.
We hence also remark, that plants, which have long been
withdrawn from the light, suffer an exhaustion of their powers,
become white, and wither, when light has suddenly been ad-
mitted to them. Nay, in one instance, (Ciudius in der Gar-
ten Zeitung, b. i. s. 386.), after a long removal of light, an
evident quakirg of the plant was observed, as if it had been
agitated by the shivering of a fever, and even a leaf of tlie
Dionaa miisc'rpula, which has been torn off, makes repeated
attempts to open itself to tlie Hght. These attempts are seen
in undulating movements of the marginal ciha, during whicli
the surface of the leaf is successively opened and shut, until
it entirely opens, and thereby loses its excitability ; (Nuttal,
Genera of North American Plants). It seems even to be es-
tablished by ancient and modern observations, that the light
of the moon has some influence on plants ; (Wilson, Uber
der Einfluss der Klima's auf Pflantzen und Thiere, s. 16.)

LIFE OF PLANTS. 241

367.

The periodical change in the direction of leaves, which
has been called the Sleep of Plants, is undeniably connected
with this stimulating operation of light. It is established, that
during the clear light of the sun, the leaves become erect, and
move their upper surface to the light, whilst, on the contrary,
during the absence of light, they either hang downwards, and
turn to the horizon, or they take an upright position, so that
the under surface of the leaves is turned more outward. On
account of this particular position of what have been called
Sleeping Plants, vre cannot properly ascribe this direction to
sleep, because the leaves do sometimes even raise themselves
during this state with greater energy, and press upon the
stem or leaf-stalk, for the purpose of turning their lower sur-
face outwards. This change is much rather, therefore, the
consequence of the contest we have already mentioned, be-
tween the activity of the plant, and the great activity of na-
ture. This change is the more evident, and the sleep of
leaves the more striking," the fin.^r and more compounded
the organization of the leaves is. We hence most frequently
observe it in the pinnated leaves of leguminous plants, al-
though also in some others, as in Atriplex.

That an internal and self-dependent activity is to be taken
into account in this sleep of plants^ is plain from the fact that
this sleep does not equally follow from a short withdrawing
of the light, but only from its complete and long continued
removal; as also from this other circumstance, that leaves
fall asleep or awake at fixed hours, whether the sky be serene
or troubled, exactly as happens with regard to animals. Other
stimuli, too, and especially heat, have a great influence upon
this phenomenon, because, in the cold, leaves awaken later, and
fall more easily asleep, notwithstanding the influence of light.

368.
Blossoms also experience a similar change from the in-
fluence of light. Most of them unfold themselves in the
morning at stated hours, and again close in the evening,
{Blurnen-Uh?). A considerable number, especially the Oxa*

Q

24 2^ I' H V T () X a ,^1 ^' ,

lidse of the Cape, and the Mesembryanthema, require a very
warm sunshine, and the full light of day, to unfold them-
selves. Bory St. Vincent forced them to open themselves,
by means of a powerful light artificially produced by burning
glasses, (Ann. Gener. des Scien. Phys.) Many again only open
themselves during the hours of mid-day, as the Mescmbryan-
iJiemum noctijioi'um, pojuerldianum, cblahrjforme, and stra-
mineum. Some others seem to be too tender for the strong
stimulus of the clear light of the sun : they hence open only
during the evening hours, and shut again when the sun has
attained a certain elevation. Of this description are many
Silense, CEnotherae, the Cudus grandiftoi-us and U'iangu-
laris.

369.
Light displays its stimulating influence also upon plants
that are beginning to germinate. But necessary as it is for the
springing plant, it is equally injurious when it is permitted
to exercise too powerful an influence, especially upon very
fine seeds and unusually tender plants. The seed of Ferns, of
the Ericae, and some others of a similar nature, only germinate,
when, with sufficient warmth and moisture, they receive as
little of the sun's light as possible. For larger seeds, and more
hardy plants, the clear light of the sun is not too powerful a
stimulant,

370.
The second common stimulus which the life of plants re-
quires is Heat, which is as little a material substance as light,
since, like it, it operates contrary to the laws of gravity^ dif-
fuses itself in rays on all sides, and passes through the Torri-
cellian vacuum. Without a certain proportion of warmth,
no plant can spring or thrive : this principle exalts the activity
of plants, and when it is very powerful it exhausts their
powers, as it does also those of animals. Its long absence ren-
ders plants as susceptible of a new excitement as animals. It
operates most advantageously upon the vegetable world, when
there is a regulated change of temperature, and when thus

LIFE OF PLANTS. 243

cool days are interchanged with warm weather, wlience we
account for the luxurious vegetation of alpine regions and of
tropical climates, where a considerable coolness during the
night succeeds the heat of the day.

371.

It is worthy of remark, that seeds and bulbs most perfectly
withstand the cold, because they suffer no considerable in-
crease of susceptibility, by the withdrawing of the vital sti-
mulus during sleep. Generally, the effects of heat and cold
in plants must be considered in connection with the action of
their internal powers. As the powers of plants are connected
with a certain organization, no plant will accommodate itself
to a certain temperature, unless its organization permits this
change. We can transplant vegetables from foreign coimtries
into our own ; but we cannot, by centuries of cultivation,
force plants from warmer regions, to become perennial in
colder climates, as the common examples of Cucumbers,
French Beans, and Potatoes, shew. It is believed respecting
many plants, that by custom they become more hardy and
agree with our climate ; but this is a deception which proceeds
from our want of information respecting the nature of many
regions, which, on account of their latitude, we presume to be
very hot. It is true that we have partly accustomed to our win-
ter some Japanese plants from the fortieth degree of north lati-
tude ; but Japan contains mountains, and lies east from Asia,
where the temperature is always lower than in western re-
gions. The Japanese plants, too, are not more hardy than
those from the mountainous districts of America, which lie
under the same degree of latitude, (391 •)

372.
Another very important stimulus for the whole vegetable
world is presented by electricity. Obscure as the science of
atmospherical electricity still is, we yet know with certainty that
the influence of electrical excitation, and the discharge of po-
sitive electricity, is one of the most powerful stimulants to
the vital action of plants. We })erceive this from storms.

Q2

244 PIIYTOXOMY.

Even ilie blighting of corn in low lands, by means of power-
ful storms of lightning, shews the operation of the exhausting-
stimulus, which the discharge of atmospherical electricity af-
fords. In the same manner Buck-wheat fails to be produc-
tive when it has been exposed to lightning ; (Thaer, Grund-
satze der Rationellen Landwirthschaft.)

We cannot state, in opposition to this, that artificial elec-
tricity from a machine produces little effect on very fine leaves,
when tliey are disposed to sleep, because this change of state
is one of those vital phenomena which depends principally
upon the effects of light. It is certain that seeds germinate
more actively, and that branches put forth buds more early,
when they are electrified.

373.

The kind of electricity which is excited by two bodies of
different susceptibilities of oxydation, with intervening moist-
ened conductoi*s, and which we call Galvanism, or the Gal-
vanic Activity, has a powerful influence upon the whole of na-
ture, particularly upon organized nature, and, therefore, upon
the vegetable world. Indeed, neither simple galvanism, nor
the voltaic pile, has any remarkable influence on the motions of
sensitive plants ; but it has been })roved that still the germina-
tion of seeds is very much promoted by the positive pole of
the voltaic pile, when no extraordinary discharge takes place.
On the contrary, the negative pole of the voltaic pile exhausts
in every case the vital activity of plants.

We are more generally concerned, howe\'er, witli the pro-
cess of natural galvanism, which incessantly takes place in
every organized body, where opposite principles are evolved,
where an excitation of the elementary matters takes place,
and where layers of different capacities of oxydation are con-
nected by moistened conductors. In all these cases, that ac-
tion takes place which we call Galvanic, and produces effects,
wliich chemistry can then only in some degree imitate, when
she avails herself of artificial galvanic batteries.

The organic perspiration through impervious coverings,
whicli we have often spoken of, is a \ ital function, which Wol-
kston has successfully imitated at the pole of the voltaic pile.

1,1 ri: OF PLANTS. 2t.5

The wonderful eombination of primary matters, and the cl wmgcs
which are produced in ingredients derived from the soil and
from water, can only be explained by this influence of the gal-
vanic power, and it is in the same manner that we daily jK'i-
ceive more distinctly that wherever heat assists in the solution
of bodies, electricity is produced, as in every chemical proces^j
the electrical relations are changed. Art has ah-eady imitated,
by means of the voltaic pile, many of these operations of" na-
ture, by proving that carbon, colouring matters, alkalies, and
earths, are but oxides of metals, which distinctly resume
their metallic nature at the negative pole of the voltaic pile.
Finally, even in the operation of impregnation, there is unde-
niably an electrical or galvanic process, which is evolved by
the elementary contraction of opposite substances, as ancient
observers of the physiology of vegetables had observed.

374.
Oxygen is one of the most important and common stimu-
lants in the vegetable world. We have already (314. 329),
seen that plants attract oxygen, and it is certain, that in the
germination of seeds the influence of this body is of consider-
able importance. It has, indeed, been long known, that
salts, lime, and weak acids, powerfully promote germina-
tion,— that seeds, which have long been laid by, are forced to
unfold themselves by hydrochlorous acid, — and even that an
excessive excitement is produced by too powerful an applica-
tion of these salts and acids. For experiments have made it
obvious to sight, that plants, treated with these acids, spring
up speedily indeed, but on account of their too speedy and
active growth, are destitute of any proper power of increase,
and that they hence easily decay without bearing fruit. This
experiment, which has been confirmed by Lampadius in
particular, shews, that oxygen is not properly a nourishing
substance, nor becomes assimilated to the plant, but that it
only increases the vital activity in the capacity of a stimulus ;
(Hermstadfs Archiv der Agricultur-Chemie). This, also,
is further evident from other experiments, in which wc sec
that almost as much oxvgen is either exhaled or employed in
the composition of the carbonic acid which is exhaled, as had

246 I'llYTONOMY.

been taken into the plant. It is also evident from the fact, that
lime, in combination with sulphuric acid, as we find it in gyp-
sum and marl, properly connnunicates no fertility to the soil,
but only a stimulating power ; on which account, marl, as a
manure, must always be interchanged by animal manure, if
we would not render the soil altogether barren ; (Mogehn-
sche Annalen). Free acids in the soil, especially when the
latter stands commonly under water, are rather hurtful to
vegetation, since the extractive matter of vsuch soils is not dis-
solved ; (Thaer, Grundsatze der rationellen Landwirth-
schaft). On this account, the mud which is taken from
streams and pools, must first be mixed with lime, if we would
assist by it the fertility of the soil.

375.

Experiments have shewn that the other stimulants act upon
plants as well as on animal bodies. Arsenic destroys the ir-
ritability of plants and germinating power of seeds. Opium,
too, acts on plants, although in a different manner from the
poisonous body we have last mentioned, which exalts the sus-
ceptibility to an extreme degree, but entirely destroys the
power of action. Opium, on the contrary, exhausts the sus-
ceptibility, by increasing the active power. Cherry-laurel
water, and Ticunas poison, bring plants speedily to a state of
decay, and take from them their irritability.

Hydrogen gas seems, on the contrary, to act less injuriously
on plants than on animals, as it has also been found, that
plants with juicy and green leaves live entirely uninjured in
azotic gas, and exhale carbonic acid gas. But they die when
we take from them, by means of lime water, the carbonic
acid gas, which seems to be constantly changed by them into
a source of nourishment.

II. Other Proofs of the Higher Lrf'c of Plants,

Brugmans et Coulon, de mutata humoruin in regno orgamco indole a vi vi-
tali \asorum derivanda.

Carradori Sulla Vitalita delle Piantc.

G. Bell, in Memoirs of the Society of Manchester.

LIFE OF PLANTS. 24?

V. Maurum, Diss, qua disquiritur, quousque motiis lluidonim ci cetera:
quaedam animalium i)lantarumque functiones consentiant.
Medicus in Act. Theodoro-palat.
Calp. Fr. Wolf, Theoria Generationi«.
Patr. Blair, Botanical Essays.
Seb. Vaillant, Discours sur la Structure des Fleurs.
Lefebure, Experiences sur la Germination des Plantes.
C. Richard. Analyse du Fruit, considere en general.
I- C. Treviranus, Von der Entwickelung des Embryo.

376.

We find other proofs of the higher Hfe of plants in the as-
cent of the sap, and in the distribution of it through all the
organs.

It is impossible to overlook the fact, that the sap-vessels,
on account of Jie similarity of their structure to that of hair-
tubes, are chiefly appropriated to the purpose of raising the
sap to a certain height, (276.) But were the sap-vcsscls
simply hair-tubes, it were impossible to explain why the sap
in them rises constantly to a greater height, since the hair-
tube retains the fluid which it has once taken up, at one fixed
height. It would also be impossible to explain why light
has so powerful an influence upon the ascent of the sap, since
fluids, in hair-tubes, stand as high in the dark as in the light
of the sun.

Neither heat, nor the pretended hygroscopical nature of the
vessels of plants, can altogether explain this phenomenon ; be-
cause, were the ascending sap attenuated by heat, and were
the upper parts of the sap- vessels rendered, by the same
means, more fitted for receiving the attenuated sap, the heat
of the upper aerial strata must always be greater thiui tliat of
the earth around the roots. But in hot-beds, and in hot-
houses, we only bring plants to a lively growth, when we ren-
der the earth about the roots much Avarmer than the strata of
air above the earth ; and it is not possible, therefore, to ex-
plain the ascent of the sap from this attenuation by heat. The
hygroscopic nature of the vessels of plants is scarcely worthy
of a refutation, since the moisture, which constantly sur-
rounds them on all sides, directly contradicts this explana-
tion.

248 PHVTUX031Y.

There remains nothing further, therefore, than to assume
a higher power in the sap-vessels, which being excited by the
sap and strengthened by hght, heat, and electricity, and
being also probably favoured by the elastic air, or by the ex-
halations which are produced in the spiral vessels, forces the
fluids upwards. The periodical change of the ascent of the
sap, without any stated change of the external influences,
must also lead to this idea, since the repeated motion of the
sap in our trees, during, perhaps, a similar temperature of
the atmosphere, and the similar repeated ascent of the sap in
tropical trees, and in those which are reared in hot-houses,
completely establish this opinion, (298.)

377.
To confirm our conclusion respecting the higher life of
plants, we must further remark, that they are capable of re-
sisting the external influences of heat and cold, — although
many of the phenomena of this kind can partly be explained
by chemical effects. It is certain that plants in warm baths,
the temperature of which is from 150° to 180° of Fahr., and
that others on the brink of the margin of volcanoes, fjrow
briskly, where the air is warmed above the boiling ]X)int.
On the other hand, we see a great many trees in the po-
lar zone resist a cold which is from 20° to 25° of Fahr.
We see that the internal temperature of trees in winter is al-
ways higher than the temperature of the atmosphere, — so
much so, that this internal temperature of some trees seems
never to fall belov/ 52°, and never to rise above 75°.

If we reflect on the manner in which plants and other living-
bodies withstand external cold and heat, we shall find that
this is a necessary consequence of their internal activity. By
means of this, evaporation must go on incessantly so long as
the plants are in leaf. In consequence of this function, the
heat that previously existed in a free state is employed in the
maintenance of the evaporation, and a diminution of the de-
gree of temperature must thus of necessity arise. To explain
the power by which plants resist cold, we might refer to the
production of an internal heat from the transition of fluid in-

LIVE or PL.iXTS. 219

to solid parts, by which means heat must always be disen-
gaged ; but this would be to avail ourselves of a process of
nourishment, which is speedily accomplished, and of which
we can scarcely take advantage in winter. We must there-
fore recollect, that the roots of trees stand in a layer of earth,
which is not easily freezed, especially when it is covered with
snow ; that the sleeping life of plants in winter indures the
removal of stimuli as easily as that of animals, who, during
their winter sleep, are surrounded by very cold air or by ice.
We must recollect, that when the thermometer, lield in a
hole bored in the stem of a tree, rises during winter, this is a
natural consequence of the slow transmission of heat through
the rind filled with resinous sap, and that, besides, snow around
living trees does not dissolve sooner than around dry stakes.

The production of an internal heat in plants is therefore at
least very doubtful ; and we must as yet limit it to the rare
cases in which a considerable heat is generated, namely, in
the spadix of the Ai'um species, and, according to one report,
also in the Pandanus when it flowers ; although this pheno-
menon proceeds less from any preponderance of vital activity,
than from a process which is truly chemical, and which re-
lates to the evolution of elementary bodies in the blossoms ;
(Sennebier, Phys. Veget. ; Hall in Bradley's and Adams'
Med. and Phys. Jour. ; Bory St Vincent in Ann. Gener. des
Sciences Phys.)

378.
We come now to another vital phenomenon in plants,
namely, visible motions. As, however, there are a multi-
tude of brisk and often of wonderful movements, which may
be explained by mechanical or physical arrangements, we arc
led to inquire to what class we must refer these peculiar vi-
tal motions. Now, when we attend, in the first place, to the
absence of mechanical arrangements, — next to the fixed order
which occurs in these movements, — and, lastly, to the excit-
ing cause, which operates by irritation, — we shall find it dif-
ficult to consider this kind of motion as of any other tlian a
dynamical nature.

250 PHYTONOMY.

When we see the anthcrae, which previously were included
within the concave parts of the corolla or calyx, suddenly and
powerfully raise themselves up and scatter their pollen, we
can only attribute this to the relaxation of the contraction of
the parts. When we see fruits or capsules spring up with
yet greater elasticity, or scatter their seeds, we find upon ex-
amination that this also is a consequence of the preceding
contraction, which in the Acantheae, for example, is occasion-
ed by peculiar hooks on the dissepimentum ; (Tab. I. Fig.
37.)

To the same class we refer other phenomena, which, in our
opinion, are falsely considered as effects of higher powers.
The springing back of the sexual parts of the Medkago spe-
cies on the vexillum, by the contact of the carina, is as cer-
tainly a consequence of the excited elasticity of the parts, as
the elevation of the fruit-stalk of the Stylidiue, which was pre-
viously pressed into double curvature, and was held in a state
of contraction by a peculiar pointed petal, until, after the
complete evolution of the blossom, this petal relaxes, and thus
leaves the fruit-stalk at liberty, which then stretches and
raises itself up, although it still continues curved ; (Fred.
Bauer, Illustr. Nov. HoU.) The irritability of the arched
margin of the corolla of the Leeuwenhoekia, R. B. is to be ex-
plained in the same manner. An irritability has also been
ascribed to the parts of the glume oi the Leersia lenticularh',
Mich., which is known in North America under the name
of the Fly-catching Grass ; but it has been lately shewn,
that the notched cilia of the valves detain the proboscis of
flies, when they stick in them, in a manner entirely mechani-
cal ; (Nuttall, Genera of North American Plants.) In our
Di'osera also, as in the Roridula of the Cape, the catching
of flies seems to be merely a consequence of the sticking of
the insects to the glands of the leaves.

We cannot determine with certainty whether the opening
and shutting of the lid of the water-bladder in the Nepen^
tUes distillatoria^ Ccphalotus Jbllicidaris, and of the hollow
leaves in the Sari-accn'tcr, is merely the consequence of a me-
chanical arrangement. In the Ccphalotus at least, there is a

LIFE OF PLANTS. 251

ring on the opening of* the water-bladder, with numerous
rib-shaped processes, to which we might ascribe a function
similar to that of the elastic ring of the capsules of the
Ferns.

Finally, the alternate approximation and separation of the
cilia in the setting of the orifice of the Mosses, is a j)urely
hygroscopic phenomenon, since every change in the quantity
of vapour contained in the atmosphere sets this alternation
a-going.

379.

But what, without doubt, are automatic motions, or such
as vve cannot account for by mechanical causes, but by higher
powers, are, in the first place, the movements of fresh-water
Oscillatoria? during their growth. By the microscope, we
observe these motions under the influence of sunshine so
striking during the rapid increase of the bodies, that we can
scarcely refrain from supposing, that we perceive a trace of
animal life, or from considering these bodies as holding a
middle place in the two organic kingdoms. Equally striking
are the movements of the Hedysarum gyrans during its ra-
pid growth. It is the smaller side leaves, however, which
incessantly exhibit this circumvolving motion. Even the
power of detaining flies which belongs to the Dlouaa musci-
pula^ may be ascribed, notwithstanding the wonderful mecha-
nical means for producing it, to the irritability which, from
other proofs, we know to belong to the leaves of that plant.

The collapsing of the leaves of what are called Sensitive
Plants, which belong to the species Mimosa, Schrankia,
^schynomene, Averrhoa, Oxalis, and Smithia, is, notwith-
standing all earlier attempts to explain it mechanically, an in-
dubitable consequence of irritability ; and this is the more evi-
dent that in one of them, the Averrhoa Caramhola, it is not
the leaves which were touched, but those placed opiK)site to
them, whicli collapse and fall down.

252 PHYT0X03IY.

380.

But the most important proof of the higher, and even of
the sensitive Ufe of plants, is derived from the events that oc-
cur during fructification. The regular order in which the
antherae free themselves by degrees, and indeed one after an-
other, from their pollen, is a phenomenon which we cannot
well account for but by the admission of higher powers.
This regular order is seen most distinctly in the Garden Rue
and the Parnassia paluatris.

The splitting of the two-lipped stigmata in the Mimiiliit
and Gloxinki before fructification, and the quick shutting of
the two lips, the moment that a particle of pollen is placed
upon the inner surface of the stigma, also announces the ex-
istence of a susceptibility which does not require to be much
exalted, in order to pass into the feeling of an animal body.
But we must also take into account the consequences of the
increase of the plant, — of the gradual unfolding of its parts,
and of dichogamy ; because in the Malvaceae, as well as in
the Syngenesious plants, the late appearance of the stigma,
and its prolongation above the filaments, are to be ascribed
to the latter causes.

381.

Finally, we think we shall be able to prove, that the whole
process of fructification is truly a dynamical operation, in
which every thing depends on the excitement of a new life
in the germen.

The times are past when previously formed embrya were
supposed to exist in the ovula of the unimpregnated germen.
This previous existence of embrya is contradicted in the
strongest manner, not only by the production of hybrid
plants, when two different kinds are forced together for the
purpose of artificial impregnation, by which means the pro-
duced plants exhibit the combined characters of both the pa-
rents, (Jos. Gottl. Koelreuter, Vorlaufige Nachricht von eini-
gen das Geschlecht der Pflantzen betreffenden Versuchen.
Gallcsio, Theorieder vegetabilischen Reproduction) ; but also
by the changes of form which a plant undergoc^s by reproduc-

LIFE OF PLANTS. 253

tion, and still farther by the difference in the number and in-
sertion of the unimpregnated ovula, from that of the impreg-
nated seeds, and by the constant failure of the former, when
they are not awakened by the pollen into new life.

We might indeed suppose, with the natural historians of
the early part of the eighteenth century, that there is a direct
passage of the pollen into the ovary, and a material union of
this substance with the ovula; by which supposition, we
should explain the germination of the seed entirely on atomi-
cal principles, (Sam. Moreland, Phil. Trans, vol. xxiii.) ; but
tlie following reasons lead us to reject this supposed direct
passage. In the first place, there are no visible canals through
which this passage could take place, except the sap-vessels
of the pistillum and the spiral vessels, both of which connect
the germen with the stigma. But sap-vessels and spiral ves-
sels perform quite different functions, as we have already
seen.

In the next place, the surface of stigmata, as we have al-
ready remarked (340.) is covered with shut warts and hairs,
which equally prevent this direct communication.

It must also be noticed, that in the Labiatae, Asperifoliae,
some of Urticae, and Rosaceae, the pistillum only directs itself
sideways towards the ovula, without appearing to stand in di-
rect communication with them ; and that in the Contortae the
pistilla ar^ covered by a shield-shaped surface resembling the
stigma, without being directly united to it. Finally, we must
ajlow its privilege to analogy, which informs us, that in the
lower animals, particularly in the Mollusca^ impregnation is
accomplished without the passage of any material substaiicc
from the impregnating organ into the receptacle of the seed.
In this case it is purely a galvanic process, in which, by
means of a chain of different organs lying together, the vital
activity is unfolded to the degree necessary for the production
of new individuals. A process exactly similar takes place in
the vegetable kingdom. The pollen, brought into contact
with the stigma, awakens in it, as well as in the germen, a
new life. New secretions and depositions of organising mat-
ters take place, by means of which now forms; are ])n)diicrd

254 PHYTONOMY.

corresponding to the pattern which properly belongs to each
plant.

That electricity performs an important part in impregna-
tion, has long been suspected ; and the contraction of electri-
cal matters in the blossom, and in the parts of fructification,
seems to favour this idea.

382.

As we thus consider the stimulus of the pollen to be a ne-
cessary condition of the evolution of seed from the ovula, we
must at the same time defend ourselves against both the an-
cient and later objections to this doctrine, and must be pre-
pared to encounter the reproach of having taken a partial
view.

It is true that diclinous plants often seem to bear fruit
without having been impregnated by pollen. Not only an-
cient pretended observations respecting the setting of the
fruit in the female hemp plants, after the male plants had
been taken away, but more recent experiments, which have
the appearance of having been carefully made, have bred a
doubt respecting the necessity of impregnation by pollen to
the evolution of the seed (Spallanzani, Fisica animale e vege-
tabile.) Supposing these experiments to have been always
made with indisputable exactness, fidelity, and care ; suppo-
sing also that perfect seed has been obtained from female
plants of Spinage, Hemp, and Mercury, which were com-
pletely isolated, the reason of this is to be sought in the fre-
quently androgynous nature of diclinous plants. For Glei-
chen has shewn respecting Spinage, Schkuhr respecting Mer-
cury, and Kastner respecting Willows, that female plants of-
ten bear hermaphrodite blossoms, at least that they are an-
drogynous. Something similar must take place with respect
to Hops ; for when only female plants are set, male plants
are found to have risen among them ; (Thaer, Grundsatze
der rationellen Landwirthshaft.)

LIFE OF PLANTS. 255

383.

If we examine still further the changes which take place
in the germen after impregnation, we find this idea of a new
life being awakened, confirmed, in the first place, by the
swelling v/hich this organ exhibits at the expense of the other
parts of fructification, and their coverings. These last decay
and fall off. The ovary and the receptacle, and in Hovenia
dulcis the fruit-stalk, begin to swell ; and the ovula, which
before were only simple vesicles or spherical cells, being now
filled with })ure water, begin to undergo wonderful changes.

The skin of the seed begins to thicken by depositions from
the organising fluid. After some time, which cannot exactly
be defined, we are able to distinguish a double covering of
the seed ; the exterior, which from analogy is called the
Chorion^ and the interior, which is denominated the Amnios.
The latter, which is for the most part full of a sweet and slimy
fluid (liquor ainnii), shews after some time a small point,
either swimmimg or fixed to the side of the vessel, which is
the first trace of the embryon. It seldom occurs that we
find more than one embryon in the same ovulum, although
this is observed in the Agrumae and in Fuchsia. It still
more seldom happens that no embryon is found in a proper
seed, but that it first makes its appearance in the shoot.

The farther evolution of the seed is different according to
the type of its structure ; that is to say, the embryon either
does not increase, but remains imevolved, and continues to
be hke a point, a line, or a fungus. In that case, it does not
consume the moisture appropriated to the nourishment of the
germ, but this matter becomes thickened by^the absorption of
of its more volatile parts, and passes at last into the nature of
albumen. When this occurs, as in the Grasses and Scitami-
neae, we can discover the scutellum or the vitellus appearing
as an instrument of evolution. In other instances, the em-
bryon becomes thickened at one end, by which also it attaches
itself to a substance, which holds the place of the cotyledons,
and is called the Cotyledonous Body. In some of the Naiadas
and Zamiae, as well as in the Pine tribe, this body incloses
the germ within itself. By the germ it is itself divided, and

2oG PHYTONOMY*

thereby its transition to the true cotyledons becomes evident.
According to the observations of L. C. Treviranus, the thick-
ened cotyledonous termination of the Riippia has the struc-
ture, and supphes the place of the albuminous substance ;
(Von der Entwickelung des Embryo.)

In most of these albuminous plants, the cotyledonous body
is first formed along with the germ. The Palms, for instance,
the Liliaceae, Junceac, and Sarmentaceae, send out from the
seed, along with the germ, a horizontal thread, which be-
comes thickened into a tubercle, and from which the root
proceeds downwards, and the plant upwards. A great many
families of plants retain the thickened fluid of the germ, as
albuminous substance, and yet the embryon is evolved with
its cotyledons. We observe this in the Umbellatae, Polygo-
neae, Nyctaginae, as well as in the Caryophylleas, in which
the albuminous substance remains in the middle, and the em-
bryon is placed around it. In plants of the higher orders,
however, it commonly happens that the evolution of the em-
bryon with its cotyledons is performed so much at the ex-
pense of the albuminous substance, that this substance is
either entirely consumed, and becomes one with the chorion,
or there remains only a small trace of it.

384.

Although the chemical changes in the germ are of very
high moment, yet this process cannot otherwise be funda-
mentally explained but in a dynamical way.

The object of first importance in germs is their vital acti-
vity ; and this in many plants dies so speedily, that acorns
and coffee-beans cannot be preserved above a few months,
without losing their power of germinating. On the other
hand, this power is retained in many other seeds for an ama-
zing length of time, especially when light and air are ex-
cluded ; and it is from this cause that we must account for
the otherwise incomprehensible phenomenon, that the bottom
of dried pools, or earth which has been stirred to a great
depth, produces plants, which do not make their appearance
for maiiv miles round ; (Thaer, Grundsaze der rationelleu

LIFE OF PLANTS. 25?

Landwirthschaft.) The peculiar power of plants seems even
to be increased by this long keeping of their seeds, apparent-
ly because, by the drying up of the albuminous substance
and of the cotyledons, the constituent parts become more
concentrated and powerful. We hence choose old seeds of
melons, for the purpose of obtaining a rich crop of the best
flavoured fruit. Old Lint seed also gives commonly the
finest and best Flax.

It is a further consequence of the different varieties which
the internal power of seeds exhibits, that many seeds germi-
nate very early, and others very late ; for we cannot find a
sufficient foundation for this difference, either in the structure
or in the apparent composition of the parts of the seed.
While the Umbellatas, Rosaceae, and Proteacea?, often do not
appear till after two years, most of the Grasses, Cruciform,
and leguminous plants, on the contrai-y, germinate in a few
days.

385.

There is also a series of chemical changes, connected with
the germ, by means of which, as a sort of conditional causes,
the vital power of the germ is awakened. In the first
place, the seed attracts carbonic acid water through its
umbilicus, by which means a swelling of the albuminous
substance or of the cotyledons takes place, and an evident
effervescence is begun. During this latter operation, carbo-
nic acid gas is disengaged, and hydrogen is in part set free.
The external heat, the regulated influence of the light of the
sun, and the oxygen of the atmosphere, are the stinuili which
now awaken the life of the germ, and enable it to make use
of its proper nourishment, the carbonic acid water impivo-.
nated with azote, for its full evolution.

If the embryon remains still undeveloped in the seed,
more arrangements and preparations must be had recourse to,
before it will completely unfold itself. In many of the lower
plants, the necessity of these preparations consists in this,
that the awakening life, directed by no fixed original tvpe,
produces fluctuating forms, which have often no resemblance

11

358 PHYTOXOMY.

to the type of the family or species. The germinating
mosses thus produce conferva forms, which often remain for
a long time after the young ]\Ioss has attained its full size ;
(Nees, de Muscorum propagatione Dissertatio.) Germinating
Ferns and Alga* produce lobed cellular forms, which remind
us of the structure of the Musci hepatici, and which are im-
properly named Cotyledons, since the existence of these can-
not be suspected or proved in 4:he seeds of these lower organic
bodies. We have formerly shewn, that in the Naiadae and
in some other families, the thickened cotyledonous end of the
germ, and, in the Pahna? and Junceae, the lateral tubercles,
furnish the apparatus, by the help of which the further evo-
lution of the embryon takes place. In the Scitamineae and
in the Grasses, the vitellus or the scutellum are the organs
by which the sap, when prepared, is conducted to the embry-
on, and by which its evolution is favoured.

We must here also, as in most of the lower families, take
into account the sheath of the root, or the warty promi-
nences from which the radicle first proceeds, and which are
equally instrumental in preparing the evolution of the germ.

These warts, or club-shaped appendages, attract also, in
higher plants, the moisture of the earth, and push the radicle
from the umbilicus. This is always the first external ap-
pearance which indicates the germ. The distinction which
Claud Richard makes between Endorrhizes and Exorrhizes,
is in so far correct, that in the former, the entire embryon not
being developed, the roots are first formed from the warty
substances ; while the latter, on the contrary, possess a root
already formed ; but this also urges on the roots and warts,
by which it is succeeded ; (Link, Anatomic der Pflantzen.)

Plumula? and radicles are separated by what is called the
Knot, which constitutes the partition between the descending
and ascending motion. From the knot sap-vessels pas§ into
the cotyledons. These take up the sap from the radicle,
and prepare it, by means of the processes for respiration,
with which they are furnished by the slits in their epidermis.
From them the sap proceeds, apparently through the same
sap-tubes, but at different times, back again to the upper

T.IFK OF TLA NTS. <;>59

part of the knot, and rises from thence into the plant. We
thus perceive, that in plants of the higher kinds, the cotyle-
dons are a necessary instrument of germination and growth ;
on which account, when both the cotyledons are cut off, t he-
plant of necessity dies.

386.

The distinction which has been made, chiefly since the
lime of Ray, between the Acotyledonous, Monocotylcdonous,
Dicotyledonous, and Polycotyledonous plants, — a distinction
which still prevails in the system of Jussieu, — entirely vanishes
upon a more exact and more general observation of nature.

Among the Acotyledonous plants were mentioned the Fun-
gi, Algae, Lichens, Homallophyllae, Musci hepatici and fron-
dosi, Ferns, and Naiada?. But it has been already shewn
(30^, 307.), that Fungi, Alga?, and Lichens, are propagated
l)y germs only ; and that Homallophylla?, Musci hepatici and
frondosi, and Ferns, during gennination, produce fluctuating
fonns, which might be regarded as representatives of the co-
tyledons. In the Naiadas, the thickened cotyledonous end of
the root renders, in most instances, the cotyledons superfluous,
and in some cases the albuminous substance, {Zostcra, Riip-
pia^ Zannichellia^ Potamogeton.) \\\ other Naiada? {Lemna,
Hipptirls), the embryon is entirely unevolved in the middle
of the albuminous substance ; and in others (CaUifriche, Ce-
ratophyllum, Myriophyllum), the embryon evitlently divides
itself into two cotyledons.

With respect to what are called Monocotylcdonous plants,
Jussieu has reckoned them in this order, the Aroida^ Cy}3e-
roidae. Grasses, Palma?, Restiaceae, Juncea^, Sarmentaccjv,
Coronariae, Irideae, Hydrocharidae, Scitaminea», IMusejc, Or-
chideae, and Pipereae. But in none of these plants can we
admit the existence of a proper cotyledon. Lidced, iMirbel
(Annal. du Mus.), Fischer (Ueber die Existen/ der Mono-
und Polycotyledonen), Smith (Linn. Trans.), and Trevira-
nus (Entwickelung des Eyes), consider the vitellus in the
Scitamineae, or the bodies resembling scutella in the Grasses,
as cotyledons; because there is a distinct tr?nisiti(.n U:a\\

\{ 'I

260 niYTONOMY.

these bodies into the stem. But, without entirely denying
this connection, which, however, cannot be shewn in all cases,
there is a complete objection to this account in the structure
of the vitellus, and in the composition of its juices. In the
vitellus those small granular bodies are wanting, which are
deposited by the mucilage and albumen, and which we ob-
serve in the cotyledons ; while, on the other hand, it contains
in the Scitaminca; peculiar ingredients, namely, volatile oil
and aromatic matter. Other authors, as Claud Richard
(Analys. du Fruit, p. 27. ; Ann. de Mus.) consider the
sheath of the first leaves (called hlastus) as the cotyledon,
though with still less propriety, because these are no way dis-
tinguished from the leaves that come after them. In fact,
the Grasses and Cyperoidae have no proper cotyledon. As
little have the Aroidae, in which the embryon for the most part
lies, with the end of its root thickened, in the middle of the
albuminous substance : the Naiad ae also are destitute of this
structure. In the Junceae and Palmae, a tubercle proceeds
during germination out of the first horizontal shoot, and
from this tubercle the plant and radicle are first evolved,
(385.) Intermediate forms, as Zamia and Cycas, have a
distinctly divided cotyledonous body, which also shews itself
in the Pipereae. The same organ is found in the trees of the
Pine tribe, which have been falsely ranked among the po-
lycotyledonous plants ; because their first leaves are different
from those that follow in number and form. But, notwith-
standing this, they are still leaves, and not cotyledons. In
the Sarmentaceae and Coronariae, the embryon is unevolved,
and stands either in the centre of the albuminous substance
or surrounds it. It has sometimes a thickened cotyledo-
nous end (HemerocaUiSy Hcemanthus) ; in the Gloriosa it is
even divided into cotyledons. In the Hydrocharidae the
thickened end of the embryon seems to hold the place of the
albuminous substance ; and in the Orchidea?, where, from the
fineness of the seed no parts can be distinguished, the young
plants unfold themselves in the same manner as Ferns, tliat
is to say, first a soft, cellular, lobed body, and after it a tu-
bercle arises, out of whicli the young plant springs.

LIFE OF PLANTS. 26 1

We thus perceive, that what are called the Monocotyledonous
plants have no proper cotyledons. As little do wc find polv-
cotyledonous plants, from the number of Mhicli the Pine
tribe, as we have remarked above, must be struck out. If,
in the case of dicotyledonous plants, the seed-lobes are di-
vided or cleft, as in Erodium, Canarlum^ and Lcp'ulhim,
tliey are fundamentally still but two, and all perfect plants,
reckoned upwards from the Polygoneae, must iluis be con-
sidered as dicotyledonous.

387.

In the study of nature, we must accustom ourselves to sus-
pect that in all bodies there are transition forms, and never
to believe that one and the same type remains without change.
There are thus transitions from cotyledons to leaves (in the
Liliaceae) ; transitions from albuminous substance to cotvle-
dons, and even to the root of the embryon. There are transi-
tions from leaf-stalks, and even from brandies, to leaves, as in
the Cereag and Acaciae, (181.) ; transitions from leafy appen-
dages to leaves in the Cistae ; from leaves to bractea? and to
the calyx ; from the calyx to the corolla in the Liliaceae ;.
from petals to filaments {Pancratium)^ and to nectaries {Con-
iortcE.) Nay, in the Canneae and Orchideae, the opposite
parts of fructification are so run into each other, that even
here transitions must be admitted.

388.
When we are examining the evolution of the parts of
plants, we must further attend to the law of nature, which
was before stated (183.), namely, that simple forms always
j^recede those that are complex and subdivided. In imperfect
plants, where the embryon resembles a line or a point, and is
unevolved, the expansion of it takes place in pai-allel sur-
faces, when the plant unfolds itself, (290.) A more complex
expansion takes place when this complexity was prefigured in
the manifold subdivisions of the parts of the seed, and when
a more powerful crowding towards the first knot is evident,
i'rom ihis law (183.) that the more early forms are always

262 PHVTONOMY.

simpler than tlic later, as, tor example, that the root leaves
are simpler than the stem leaves, there are, however, manv
apparent exceptions in the Acacise of New Holland, the first
leaves of which are separated into many parts, while those
that come later appear to be simple. These later leaves,
however, are rather intermediate forms between the leaf-stalk
and the leaves. These last have not arrived at their evolu-
tion ; they have thus become abortive, and the leaf-stalks
supply their place, (181.)

389.
Another law to which the coiisidoation of the evolution of
plants leads us, is that of numerical {iroportion. As all divi-
sion and unfolding of parts proceeds from the spiral vessels,
and where these fail, from the sap-vessels, no other division,
according to the rule formerly given (279), can be fundamen-
tal, but that which proceeds from one to three ; because two
new vessels always place themselves on the sides of the origi-
nal spiral vessels. Hence, the number three prevails in all
the lower organic bodies, as far as the Amaranthejc. By
doubling this number we have six, and by tripling it we have
nine. Hence BiUoimis and Hydrocharls belong to the same fa-
mily. In more perfect plants two new vessels place themselves
on both sides of the original spiral vessels, and in them, there-
fore, the number five must prevail, the double of which gives
ten. When we perceive a fourfold and eightfold subdivision,
we may assume an abortion or union of parts, as the law of
nature in these cases, (178.)

=GEOGKAl'HV OF 1M.AX1\S. 263

CHAP. IV.

OX THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS UPON THF
EARTH.

Linne, Stationes plantarum, in Amoen. Acad. vol. iv.
Giraud Soulavie, Geographic physique de regnc \egetal.

F. Stromeyer, Historiae vcgetabilium geographicae Specimen. ; Dissertatio

G. R, Treviranus, Biologic, b. ii. s. 44, 137.

Humboldt et Bonpland, Essai sur la Geographic des Plantcs.

Willdenow, im Magazin der Berlin, Gesellshaft naturforschender Freundc.

Wahlenberg, Flora Lapponica.

Dessen, Flora Carpathorum principalium.

Dfissen, de Vegetatione et Climate Helvetioe septentrionalis.

Brown's General Remarks, geographical and systematical, on the Botany
of Terra australis.

Brown's Observations, systematical and geographical, on the Herbariuir
collected by Professor Smith in the vicinity of Congo.

Humboldt, Prolegomena ad nova genera plantarum.

Schouw, de sedibus plantarum originariis.

Jahrbucher der Gewachskunde.

Ritter's Sechs-Karten von Europa, mit erklarendcm Text.

Titford's Sketches towards a Hortus botanicus Amcricanus. Table of cli-
mates and habitats of plants.

390.

The geography of plants makes iis acquainted with the
present distribution of plants upon the earth and in tlie
Abaters, and endeavours to refer their growth to external
causes. It is thus a part of tlie Phijswloirtj of Plants^ si nee
it investigates the laws according to which climate, tcmj^era-
ture, soil, elevation above the surface of the sea, and distance
from the equator, as also accidental external circumstances,
operate upon the production of plants. It is connected in some
measure with the History of Plants^ or with investigations
respecting the origin, diffusion, and gr-adu;d dislrihution oi

264

GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS.

plants. Yet it must be distinguished from this ; and when
a sure foundation of facts is laid and arranged, it exerts an
essential influence on the science of the cultivation of gardens
and fields, on the rearing of forests and other civil occupa-
tions.

391.

We may investigate the laws of the distribution of the fa-
milies and tribes of plants in different climates by two me-
thods.

In the first place, we divide the surface of the Earth into
certain zones, in wliich we seek for the plants that are pro-
duced, and thence draw general results. This method is in-
deed a laborious one, and is especially difficult on this ac-
count, that we are not yet completely acquainted with all the
parts of every zone of the earth ; while the lower families of
plants have commonly been neglected by most travellers.
Yet we can draw conclusions, with some probability, respect-
ing unknown plants from those that are known ; at least, this
method leads to greater certainty than the following, on which
only, however, most of our labours have been conducted. In
this second method, we place the Floras of countries of diffe-
rent climates before us ; we compare the plants which they
contain, and in this way form conclusions respecting their dis-
tribution. But, as we are not in possession of complete Flo-
ras of all countries and their individual regions, it cannot but
happen that false inferences and contradictions will arise,
while we do not take into account the productions of neigh-
bouring countries, or of those that lie between the districts
which have been examined. Besides, we can only make use
of the Floras of particular degrees of latitude and longitude,
but not those of the whole zone ; because most of the com-
pilers of Floras have been acquainted with the products of
vegetation only within a certain circle.

392.
Without entering, in this place, into the history of plants,
we may state it as the fundamental law of the geography of

GEOGRArilY or TLAXTS. 265

plants, that the lower the organization of the body is, the
more generally is it distributed. As infusory animalcuhe are
produced in all zones, when the same conditions exist ; we
find, in the same manner, that Fungi, Sponges, Alga', and
Lichens, and even Musci frondosi and hepatici, are distri-
buted every where upon the earth, in the sea, and in the wa-
ters, when the same circumstances propitious to their produc-
tion occur. We have seen that the idea of genera and
species can be applied with so much less strictness, the less
perfect the vegetable is ; and hence, although the same or si-
milar forms of Conyomici, Nematomici, Gastromici, and
Sponges, are produced in all zoneS;> we cannot pronounce in
all cases respecting the identity of the species. If travellers had
not so much neglected the imperfect plants of foreign coun-
tries, this assertion might easily have been proved by innu-
merable testimonies. But we must receive with caution
and limitation, even what they have told us respecting the
growth of common European cryptogamous plants in the
most distant regions and waters of the earth, because many
of these travellers had no exact knowledge of the crypto-
gamous plants. The most distant countries of the earth, Eu-
rope and New Holland, the inhabitants of which are anti-
podes to each other, have, according to the testimony of
Brown, a witness of the best information and highest credit,
a considerable number of Lichens, almost indeed two-thirds
of those that have hitherto been discovered in New Holland,
of the same species with those that exist in Europe. Of the
Musci hepatici and frondosi, nearly one-third belong equally
to New Holland and to Europe. And, with respect to the
Alga?, not only Confervae, but Fuci, are common to the
most distant seas. Laminaria Jgarum, Lam., for instance, is
found in Greenland, in Hudson's Bay, in Kamtschatka, and
in the Indian Ocean. Halidrys siliquosa, Lyngb., Spharo-
coccus ciliatus, Ag., and many others, have a distribution
equally extensive.

The Naiadae and lihizospermae also are found in the same
manner almost in all waters, as the MarsHea quadrjfolUt,
Zostcra marina^ and ihc niilive rolaniogetons and Lcimue

266 GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS.

shew, which Brown found also in New Holland. Even the
Grasses and Cyperoidje share in this general distribution. A
great many native members of these families, as the Carex
raspiiosa, Scirpus liicustris^ Glyceriafluitans, Ariindo phrag^
mites, Panicum Cms Gallic and so forth, grow also in New
Holland. Humboldt has confirmed these observations, in re-
spect to the growth of European Mosses, Grasses, and Cy-
peroida?, in South America.

Higher and more perfect plants, on the contrary, are less
generally distributed by nature, although, by cultivation, they
also can be forced to vegetate in the most distant countries,
provided favourable circumstances occur. Of these circum-
stances, a considerable number must always co-operate for
the perfect evolution of plants of the higher orders. Yet
there are some exceptions to this rule. Verbena ojfficinaU-s,
Prunella vulgaris, Sonchus oleraceus, Hydrocotyle vulgaris,
Potentilla anserina, and some other common European plants,
grow also, according to Brown, in New Holland. Almost
the seventh part of the phanerogamous plants that vegetate
in North America are found in Europe ; yet we cannot deny
that many of them have been transplanted hither, (401.) On
Mascaren's Island, Bory St. Vincent found Cladium Germa-
nicum, Schrad., Cyperus Jusctis, Potamogeton natans, Hy-
drocotyle vulgaris, and some other European plants.

393.

The same distance from the equator, or the same degree
of latitude, produces rather a resemblance in the forms, — an
agreement in the families and genera, — than the same species,
chiefly because, besides this geographical latitude, the height
4ibove the surface of tlie sea, the temperature during the
growing season, the soil and constitution of the mountains,
even the degree of longitude, and several other circumstances,
have an influence on vegetation.

There are a great many perfect plants which exclusively
belong to the tropics, which never pass beyond them, and
which are found equally in Asia and Africa, in America
and the South Sea Islands, and even in New Holland. Al-

c;i:OGKAPIlY OF PLANTS. ^67

thougli, as \vu have said, these are rather faniiUcs, as Pahiia-,
Scitamincae, Muscat, Myrtea?, Saphidea^, and Aiionca'; or
genera, as Epidcndrum, Santalum^ Olax^ Cymhidiuvi, and
so forth : yet there are particular species, which grow in all
parts of the world only between the tropics, as, for instance,
Heliotrop'mm Indlcum, Ageratum coni/zokles, Pist'ia stra-
tiotcs, Scoparia dulcis, Guilandina Bo?iduc^ Splicnoclea zey^
lanica, Ahrus precatorms, Boerhavia rtwiahiUs, and so forth.
But most commonly there are other species, which, under
the same degree of latitude, supply in the new world the
place of related species in the old. Dnjas octopetala, in-
deed, grow s equally upon the mountains of Canada, and in
Europe ; but Dryas tenella of Pursh, which is very like the
former, grows only in Greenland and Labrador. Instead
of th.e Platanus orientalis^ there grows in North America the
Platanus occidcntalis ; instead of Thiiia orlenUdls, Thuia
occidentalis ; instead oi Pinus Ccmbra^ in Europe and Asia,
there grows in North America, Pinus Strobus ; instead of
Prunus Laurocerasus^ in Asia Minor, there grov,s under the
same latitude in North America, the Prunus Caroliniana.

394.
There are many exceptions to this rule, however, depending
on circumstances that have been already noticed. In the first
place, countries are wont to share their Floras with neighbour-
ing regions, especially islands lying under the same latitude,
as the Azores possess the Floras of Europe and of Nortiiern
Africa, rather than those of America, because they are scarce-
ly ten degrees of longitude from the coast of Portugal. Si-
cily, and still more Malta, possesses a Flora made up of those
of the south of Europe and the north of Africa. The Aleu-
tian Islands share their Flora with the north-west c(Kist ot'
America and the north-east of Asia. But the most distant
countries, lying under the same latitude, may have the
same, or a similar vegetation, while countries, or islands
which lie between them, have not the least share in this ])arti-
cular Flora. The island of St Helena, which is scarcely
eighteen degrees of longitude from tlu> wcsi coast of Alrica,

268 GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS.

and which lies a little further south than Congo, has yet no
plants, which are found in those last named regions ; (Rox-
burgh's List of Plants seen in the Island of St Helena, Ap-
pend, to Beatson's Island of St Helena.) Japan has a great
many plants common to southern Europe, which, however,
are not found in these regions of Asia that lie under the same
latitude.

395.
We must further remark, that the eastern countries of the
old world, and the eastern shores of America, as far as the
Alleghany Mountains, have a much lower temperature than
the western regions ; or that it is always colder in Siberia
and the north-east of Asia, than under the same latitude in
Europe; and that even Petersburgh is colder than Upsal,
and Upsal than Christiania, although they all three lie in the
60th degree of north latitude. In North America the differ-
ence is still greater, and there are commonly fifteen degi'ecs of
Fahrenheit's thermometer between the temperature of the east
and west coast. It hence happens tliat many plants, which in
Norway grow under the polar circle, scarcely reach the 60th
degree on the limits between Asia and Europe. To this class
i)elong the Silver-fir, Mountain-asli, Trembling Poplar,
Black Alder, and Juniper. Even in the temperate zone,
the vegetation of many trees ceases sooner in the east than in
the west. In Lithuania and Prussia, under the 53d degree,
neither Vines, nor Peaches, nor Apricots thrive ; at Jeast
their fruit does not ripen, as also happens in the middle of
England. The most remarkable example of this great differ-
ence of temperature is furnished by the Mesp'ilus Japonica^
which grows at Nanga sacki and Jeddo, under the 33d and
36th degrees of N. Lat., and which also grows in the open air
in England, under the 52d degree of N. Lat., when it is
planted against a wall, (Botanical Register, vol. v.)

396.
The same degrees of latitude, in the southern and northern
hemif=phcfc, arc connected with very different temperatures,

GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS. «69

and produce a completely different vegetation. This, how-
ever, must be understood rather of the temperate and frigid
zones, than of the tropical climates, which, as we have al-
ready noticed, are pretty much the same over all the earth.
But the summer is shorter in the southern hemisphere, be-
cause the motion of the earth in her perigee is more rapid.
The summer is there also colder, because the great quantity
of ice over the vast extent of sea requires more heat for dis-
solving it than can be obtained ; as also, because the sun
beams are not reflected in such quantity from tlic clear sur-
face of the sea water, as to afford the proper degree of heat.
It hence happens, that in the southern hemisphere, the Flora
of the pole extends nearer the equator, than in the northern.
Under the 53d and 54th degrees of south latitude, we meet
with plants which correspond with the Arctic Flora. In Ma-
gellan's Land, and in Terra del Fuego, Betula antarctlca cor-
responds with Betula nana, in Lapland ; — Empetrum ruhrum
with Empetrum nigrum, — Arnica oporina with Arnica vion-
tana, — Geum Magellanicum with Geum rivale, in England, —
Saxifraga Magellanica with Saxifraga rivularis, in Fin-
mark. Instead of Andromeda tetragona and hypnoides, of
Lapland, Terra del Fuego produces Andromeda myrsiniics :
in place of Arbutus alpina and Uva Ursi of the Arctic po-
lar circle, Terra del Fuego produces Arbutus mucronata,
micropliylla, and pumila. Aira antarctica reminds us of the
Holcus alpina of Wahlenberg; and Pinguicula antartica
recalls to our recollection Pinguicula alpina.

We must recollect, however, that in South America, the
great mountain chains of the Andes stretch from the tropical
regions, almost without interruption, to the Straits of ^lagel-
lan, (from the 52d to the 53d degree of S. Lat.) ; and that, on
this account, tropical forms are seen in that frigid southern
zone, because, as we shall have occasion to remark more fully
afterwards, the tract of mountains every where determines
vegetation. It is hence that the Straits of Magellan are ])r(x-
lific of Coronaricp, Onagra:, Dorstoiio', and Hciiotropifr^
which in other parts of the world grow only within the tro-
pics, or in their neighbourhood.

270 GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS,

In general, the vegetation of the southern liemisphere is
very different from that of the northern, and there is a cer-
tain correspondence between tlie Floras of Southern Africa,
America, and New Holland. Most of the trees are woody,
with stiff leaves, blossoms sometimes magnificent, but fruit
of little flavour. In Southern Afiica, as well as in Nev/
Holland, it is the form of the Proteae which prevails as if
appropriated to these regions. Instead of the South Ameri-
can Erica', we find the Epacrida of New Holland. LoheU^y
DiosmeeE, and a great number of rare forms of compound
blossoms, and of Uvihellata, are common to all these south-

397.

For understanding the growth and distribution of ])lants,
we must also attend to the soil. Similar plants are found in
similar soils, completely separated from each other, and with
respect to which no supposition of interchange can be enter-
tained, provided only the climate be not too different. Salt
soils produce almost every where particular Chenopodeae,
species of Chenopodium, A triplex, Salsola, Salicornia, and
Anabasis. Calcareous soils produce always the most nume-
rous and distinguished forms of plants. Volcanic mountains,
particularly basalt, produce few forms, but those of a distin-
guished kind and very variable. Alluvial mountains, parti-
cularly in the neighbourhood of streams, usually, like marshes,
produce forms that are always the same. The primitive
mountains, on the other hand, almost every where separate
the Floras of countries. Thus the Pyrenees, — the Alps
which divide Italy from France and Switzerland, — those
which separate Upper Italy from the Tyrol and Carindiia, —
and the Carpathian mountains, — divide the Floras of the
southern from those of the northern countries.

It is hence of so much importance, along with Floras, to
describe the mountain rocks and the different soils, (258.)
The first example of a map of this kind was given by De
CandoUe, in the second volume of his Flore Fran^am, in

GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS. 271

which, however, the mountains only, the southern shores, and
the alluvial land, are distinguished, and the heights above
the sea are given. Wahlenberg's ]\Iap of Lapland, in his
Flora Lapponica^ is much more correct. Maclure has given a
Map of the constitution of the Mountains in the Free States
of North America, (Geographische Ephemeriden). I know-
not that any person has given a more pleasant and instructive
account of the soils and mountains of his country, in relation
to their Floras, than the excellent Villar, respecting the iVlps
which divide Italy from Switzerland, in the Preface to the
Hlstoire des Platdes de Daiiphine.

398.

This brings us to a very important circumstance, which
must be taken into account in every examination of the
causes of the growth of plants, namely, the height of their
station above the level of the sea. As, upon the whole, the
temperature on the highest mountain tops seems to be the
same w ith the temperature at the polar circle, it is commonly
believed, that under the snow-hne, and near to it, the same
vegetation is found as in the polar regions. The limit of
perpetual snow, under the Equator, is at the height of 15,000
feet ; in the 35th degree of N. Lat. it is at 10,800 ; in the 45th
degree, at 8400 ; in the 50th degree, at 6000 ; in the 60th de-
gree, at 8000 ; in the 70th degree, at from 1200 to 2000 feet
above the level of the sea ; and, at the 75th degree of N. Lat.,
the snow- line lies almost upon the ground In general, it
has been ascertained by observations, that the same vegeta-
tion is produced at the same distance from the snow-line. It
must be considered, however, that tow^ards the pole, the sum-
mer is shorter, but hotter, than under the snow-line upon the
tropical mountains, where winter and summer cause no
change of temperature. On this account, a better vegetation
must be produced in the polar regions during summer, espe-
cially as the plants are there exposed to the uninterrupted
hght of the sun : while, on the other hand, from the uniform
temperature on the highest tropical mountains, throughout
the year, a very different Flora is there produced from that

272 GEOGRArHY OF PLANTS.

which springs towards tlie pole. As yet we know only,
from Humboldt's immortal labours, the vegetation upon the
highest chains of the Andes, in South America; for the
Floras of the much higher mountains in Noithern India,
which are called the Himalaya Mountains, and of the Moun-
tains of the Moon, in Africa, are entirely unknown to us.
The Flora of tlie Andes, at the height of 14,760 feet, is al-
most entirely of a peculiar kind ; and if a pair of Ranunculi,
a Gentiana, and a Bihes^ remind us of the Flora of" the poles,
the remaining productions are completely peculiar, and prove
that the height above the level of the sea is very far from
producing universally the same forms. Yet we must add,
that in Europe, at least, many northern and even polar forms
appear under the snow-line of the Pyrenean and Helvetian
Alps. Of this the Dwarf Willow, Dwarf Birch, Saxifrages,
Ranunculi, Cerastia, and other genera, are striking proofs.

Of perfect plants, the Daplme Cneorum seems in Europe
to hold the most elevated station, since, on Mont Blanc, it
stands at 10,680 feet ; and, on Mont Perdu, at 9036 feet
high. The growth of woody plants ceases, on the Alps of
central Europe, at the height of 5000 feet ; and, on the Rie-
sengebirge, at 3800. Oats grow on the Southern Alps at
3300, and on the Northern scarcely at 1800 feet. The Fir
grows on Sulitelma, in Lapland (68 degrees N. Lat.), scarce-
ly at the height of 600, and the Birch scarcely at the height
of 1200 feet. On the other hand, upon the Alps which
divide Italy from France and Switzerland, Oaks and Birches
grow at 3600, Firs at 4800 ; and the same plants grow on
the Pyrenees above the height of 600 feet.

In Mexico, the mountain chains, and, in particular, the
Nevado of Toluca, are covered, above 12,000 feet high, with
the occidental Pine {Pinus occidentalis) ; and, above 9000
feet, with the Mexican Oak {Queirus Mexicnna, spicata) ;
as also with the Alder of Jorullo {Alnus Jomllcnsls.)

On the Andes, Palms grow at the height of 3000 feet.
The woody Ferns, {Cyathea speciosa, Menlscmm arhoj^cscenSy
J.spid'wm rostrahim)^ are found as high as 6600 feet ; as are
also the popper species, Melastomea',Cinchonye, Dorsteniae,and

GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS. 273

some Scitamineae, rise to the same elevation. At the height
of 14,760 feet, we siiU find the Wax Palnis, suv.e CiiaI.. ».,<,
Wintera?, Escalloniae, Espelettias, Culcitia, Joanneae, Valka
stipidm'is, Bolax aretioidcs, and some othei's.

399.

The growth of plants in society, or as individuals, is very
interesting. Many forms are so appro})riated to certain re-
gions, that amidst constant changes they still take in a great
tract of land, and are produced in exuberant abundance.
Others, on the contrai'y, stand quite insulated, and seem as if
they would utterly disappear, did not Nature, in a manner
which is often inexplicable, provide for their continuance.

While with us. Polygonum aviculare^ Erica vulgaris^
Poa annua. Air a canescens, Vaccinium Myrtillus, grow al-
ways in society, and cover great tracts of country, we ob-
serve, on tlie contrary, that Marrubium pcregrinumy Car-
duus cyanoides, Stellera Passerina, Carta: Bua:baumii, Cir-
slum eriojphorum, Lathyrus Nissolia, Hypericum Kohlianumy
Schodnusferrugineus, and Heliantliemum Furaana, are con-
fined, in an insulated state, within a very narrow space, be-
yond which they never pass. The Cedar of Lebanon, Fors-
tera sedifolia of New Zealand, Mclastoma setosum on the
Volcano of Guadaloupe, and Disa longicornis on some spots
of the Table Mountain of the Cape, are examples of this
completely insulated growth, which renders the idea of the
migration of plants at least very doubtful.

400.

If we proceed through the separate families, we shall find
their geographical distribution pretty exactly ascertained, and
their increase or diminution determined according to the tlif-
ferent zones. But, as many famihes consist but of single
groups, which are limited to certain zones or countries, — this
circumstance occasions always a variation in the account. If
we attend, for instance, to the Rubiacete, it is almost im}X)s-
sible to pronounce any general opinion respecting the geogra-
phical distribution of this family, because the first group of

S

274! GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS.

this family, the Stellatae, is ahTiost pecuUar to the temperate,
and especially to the northern temperate zone, while the
Spermacoceae and CofFeaceae are confined to the tropical zone.
The Cinchonese, indeed, grow chiefly between the tropics,
but always at a fixed height above the level of the sea, and
they also pass beyond the tropics. Plants with compound
flowers are indeed generally *more abundant between the
tropics, but the group, which I have named Perdiciea? (La-
biatiflorae, De Cand.), is peculiar to South America, and
descends even into the southern frigid zone.

Respecting Ferns, it is understood that, in the temperate
7one, they constitute the sixtieth part of the whole vegetable
kingdom. But how little certainty attends such conclusions,
may be understood from this, that in New Zealand, the num-
ber of Ferns is to the number of other plants as 1 to 6 ; in
Norfolk Island, and Tristan d'Acunha, as 1 to 3 ; in Ota-
heite as 1 to 4 ; in Mascaren^s Island as 1 to 8 ; in Jamaica
as 1 to 10 ; in St Helena as 1 to 2 ; and in Egypt we have
as yet found but one species. The Grasses seem in all zones
to maintain nearly the same proportion : They constitute the
tenth or fifteenth part of the whole Flora. The Umbellata2
are evidently in greatest number in the temperate zone.
They constitute about the thirtieth part of other plants. To-
wards the pole they diminish in number ; and in the torrid
zone there are scarcely any other Umbellatai but some inter-
mediate forms, which only appear at a very considerable
height upon the mountains. The Cruciform plants exhibit a
similar proportion. In the temperate zone, they are to the
remaining plants perhaps as 1 to 20. Towards the pole they
decrease in number, and between the tropics we find scarcely
a trace of them. The reverse is the case with the Malvaceae.
Whilst these constitute, between the tropics, the fiftieth part
of the other plants ; in the temperate zone they bear to them
the proportion of 1 to 200, and in the polar zone they fail
entirely. The Leguminous plants are in greatest quantity
between the tropics, where they form the twelfth part of the
whole Flora. In the temperate regions they fail considerably,
and in the polar zone they are to the other plants as 1 to 35.

GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS. 275

The Primuleae are almost the only plants that are common
to the frigid and to the temperate zone. The Contortae be-
long to the tropical region, where they form from tlie fortictli
to the fiftieth part of the whole. In the temperate zone they
diminish in number, until, towards the polar circle, they al-
most entirely cease.

401.

It is interesting also to know the limits within which the
cultivation of the useful plants is confined. The cultivation
of Cocoa, Coffee, Anatto, Cloves, and Ginger, is limited to
inter- tropical regions. The Sugar Cane, Indian Figs, Dates,
Indigo, and Battatas, pass the tropics as far as the 40di de-
gree of N. Lat. Cotton, Rice, Olives, Figs, Pomegranates,
Agrumse, and Myrtles, gi*ow in the open air, as far as the
45th and 4Gth degree. The Vine succeeds best with us
within the 50th degree of N. Lat. ; this, also, is the limit, es-
pecially in the West of Europe, of the cultivation of ]\Iaize,
Chesnuts, and Almonds. Melons also succeed to the same
latitude in the open air.

In the West of Europe, the cultivation of Plums, Peaches,
Wheat, Flax, Tobacco, and Gourds, ceases at the 60th de-
gree of N. Lat. In the East of Europe, the cultivation of
Apples, Pears, Plums, and Cherries, terminates at the 57th
degree ; but Hops, Tobacco, Flax, Hemp, Buckwheat, and
Pease, succeed there even under the 60th degree. Hemp,
Oats, Barley, Rye, and Potatoes, are planted by the Nor-
wegians under the polar circle; and the Strawberry flourish-
es, even at the North Cape, under the 68th degree.

S 2

276 HIS.TOKY OF THE

CHAP. V.
MISTOllY OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

Linne, de Telluris habiiabilis incremento : in Amcen. Acad. vol. ii.
Zinn, Vom Ursprung der Pflanzen : im Hamburgishen Magazine.
Bergman, Jordklot. Phys. beskrifn. ii.
Zimmerman, Geographische Geschichte des Menschen.
Schouw, Diss, de Sedibus Plantarum originariis.

402.

We come now to answer the questions, in what manner
plants have originated, and how they have distributed them-
selves. Are we to admit, that plants have been distributed
from one point on the surface of the earth, to all its parts ?
or must we believe that they belong properly to every coun-
ti'y in which they grow ? The founder of Scientific Bo-
tany has defended the former of these opinions at a great ex-
pence of ingenuity, acuteness, and learning ; but we appre-
hend that we must adopt the latter conclusion, with some h-
mitations.

403.

When we examine the remains of the primeval world, we
find the first traces of vegetable impressions in the slate for-
mation. These remains of the former vegetable world be-
long almost entirely to the lower families : they consist, for the
most part, of Grasses, Reeds, Palms, and Ferns, — the latter,
however, being almost always destitute of fruit. But although
these forms cannot be referred to any one of the species which
are at present known, they have yet so much the appearance
of tropical productions, that Ave are forced to admit a very
high degree of heat at the surface of the earth during its

DISTRIBUTION OT PLANTS. 277

former state, which heat must, at that time, have been diffu-
sed over all the zones, because we find the same productions
in the slate formation of all parts of the earth *. In order
to explain this, it has been supposed, that the plane of the
ecliptic, during the former state of the globe, was completely
different in its position, and that, consequently, our planet had
then another situation in respect to the sun. But Bode, the
worthy veteran of Prussian astronomers, has srhewn, that the
plane of the ecliptic has been, for 65,000 years, between the
20th and 27th degree ; and that at present it is about 2g
minutes less, and, consequently, the inclination of the axis oi'
the earth as much greater, than in the time of Hipparchus,
who lived about two thousand years ago. The former solu-
tion must, therefore, be entirely abandoned ; (Neue Schrif-
ten der Berlin Gesellschaft naturforschender Freunde).

Shall we then consider as satisfactory another explanation,
which has been advanced by one of the most ingenious and
learned investigators of the ancient stcite of the globe ? Ac-
cording to this author, the Earth, during its primeval
state, was completely surrounded by water. By slow de-
grees the sea retired ; the highest mountain tracts were laid
bare, and the lowest and densest atmospherical stratum,
supported by the surface of the sea, now rested upon the
highest primitive land, which, like an island, emerged but a
little way above the ocean. While the heat was chiefly gene-
rated in the lower strata of the air, it must also, at that time,
have been equally diffused throughout all parts. The naked
summits of the mountains were gradually mouldered by the

* It seems, indeed, that all the carbonaceous matter of the more ancient
slate formation ought to be considered as the oldest remains of plants which
had been growing, but which had been stopped in their progress; and
that all calcareous matter ought to be considered as the remains of a begun, but
suppressed creation of animal bodies ; (StefTen's Beytri^ge ziir innern Natur-
geschichte der Erde, s. 27. Dessen, Handbuch der Oryctognosic, b. ii.,s. .3.53.)
In what manner mineral substances are formed from corrupting vegetal)lc.s,
we perceive from the ])roduction of iron-i)yritcs, in our Peat Mosse^^, where it
is found in layers, under the thin, broad, reed leaves, after they have become
putrid.

278 HISTORY OF THE

influence of light, of aerial matters, and of moisture. To the
primitive and transition rocks succeeded the horizontal flcetz
formation. A multitude of bodies was now formed, which
light elicited from the organizing water. These bodies de-
cayed, and left behind them the original materials of carbon
and lime, from which still more perfect forms were to spring,
until, at length, Ferns, Grasses, and Palms, were produced,
which, during the high level of the waters, enjoyed upon the
declivities of the mountains, a high and equal temperature.
With these forms, creative nature remained contented, till
new revolutions of the surface of the earth gave the waters an
opportunity of retreating still further, when new formations
arose.

This hypothesis, which is favoured by the Geognosy, de-
rives particular support from the concurring testimony of the
most ancient inhabitants of the world, respecting universal in-
undations and floods ; as also, more especially, from the Per-
sian Cosmology, in which Albordsch, the highest primitive
mountain, the hill of light, or navel of the earth, plays a
principal part, while it is yet surrounded by water. The pri-
mitive light produces, upon this mountain, during an ever
equal temperature, all living things; (Kanngiesser Alther-
thums wissenschaft, s. 8. u. 18. ; Algemeine Encyclopaedic,
th. ii. s. 375.)

404.

What revolutions the surface of the earth underwent, be-
fore it assumed its present state, we know not. But with the
period of the alluvial mountains begins the present vegetation
of the earth's surface, and those forms which we now see in
unvarying perpetuity, have been so for several thousand
years, or since the earth assumed its present state, (142.)

Whether now, as Linnaeus maintained, one example only
of every genus of plant existed at the beginning : whether
all these single genera were produced by the hand of Nature
upon the highest mountain ridge of the earth, along with the
single pair from which the human race has proceeded, and
with similar individual pairs of all other animals : whether.

DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 279

at least, the highest mountain ridges may, in general, be re-
garded as the birth-places of the vegetable world, as Will-
denow asserted ; and whether, therefore, plants have been dis-
tributed from single stations, by their own migrations, and by
other means, which nature provides, — these are questions which
ought to be examined and answered with the greatest care.

405.

We are not disposed altogether to deny the migration of
plants in similar climates, because we know from experience,
that the Datura Stramonium^ Erigeron Canadense, and
^sculus Hippocastanum^ are not natives of Germany ; but
that the first was imported, as it is said, by the gypsies, — the
Horse-Chesnut, by the Austrian embassy which was sent to
Constantinople at the end of the sixteenth century, — and the
Erigeron Canadense^ in consequence of some commercial re-
lations which we had with North America; — as this latter
country has also probably received from us, in the course of
commerce, the Jgrostis Spica Venti, Trichodium canimnn^
Anthoxantlmm odoratum, Alopecurus prate?isis, Poa trivialis,
Bromus secalinus, mollis, Dactylls glomei'ata, Hordeum
mdgare, Dipsacus sylvesti'is, and many other plants, (392.)
We know that a great many plants have passed from India
into Italy, along with the cultivation of rice : we know that
the West Indian negroes have introduced into the western
world a great many plants from Africa, which at present
grow wild there, as the Cassia occidentalis, and Chrysobala-
nus Icaco.

It is certain, that sea plants have been brought by ships,
from the southern into the northern sea, as has been the case
with Fucus cartilagineus. Turn., Fucus natans^ and hacci-
ferus. West Indian fruits are every year driven ujxin the
coasts of Norway, and of the Faroe Islands, during storms
from the south-west; as Cocoa Nuts, Gourds, the fruit of
Acacia scandens, Piscidia Erythrina, and Anacardiiim occi-
dcntale. But after all this has been granted, we are still far
from being in a condition to maintain the migration of plants

280 HISTORY OF THE

and tlieir distribution from one point over the surface of the
earth.

406.

It betrays very limited ideas respecting the laws of vege-
tation to suppose, that all the plants upon the face of the
earth, which require such different climates, such a differ-
ent constitution of the mountain-rocks, so various a composi-
tion of soil and of water, could ever have been assembled upon
one and the same high mountain ridge. All testimonies, indeed,
confirm the supposition, that the human race, and the domes-
tic animals, descended from the high mountain plains of cen-
tral Asia, between the 27th and 44th degrees of N. Lat. We
may also conjecture, that the different kinds of grain grow
M'ild in these latitudes, as it is also probable that the domes-
tic animals are there found in their native state. But the in-
numerable other wild growing plants, of all quarters of the
globe, which are so frequently confined to a single island, or
to a single circle of the continent, cannot possibly have their
native seats in those regions ; otherwise the remains of that
vegetation which is now dispersed over the whole face of the
earth, would be found in Northern India and Persia, in Thi-
])ct, and in the Mogul empire. It is physically impossible,
that plants, which in Germany grow only upon calcareous
soils, or upon basalt and other peculiar mountain rocks, could,
at an early period, have flourished upon the primitive granite
and gneiss of the Himalaya Mountains.

407.

As little can we assent to the opinion of those who consider
the high mountain tracts as so many birth-places, or foci of
vegetation, and of the neighbouring Floras. We admit, that
when a particular moinitain chain stretches into the level
country beneath it, its peculiar plants will also appear in the
low land. The flcetz limestone of central Germany confirms
this conclusion in the strongest manner. But when this is
not the case, the low country never partakes of the Flora of
the neighbouring mountains. Otherwise, Scsrll Hipjwma-

DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 281

rathrum^ Teucrium montanum, Poa alp'ma, and Stellera
Passer ina^ would soon diffuse themselves irom our calcareous
hills to the flat country, and even over our porphyry moun-
tains.

It is true that mountain tracts commonly form the boun-
daries of Floras. But this happens, not because these moun-
tains are the birth-places of the vegetable world, but because
climate and temperature change with them. The Rhaetian
Alps separate Germany from Italy ; on their southern decli-
vities we observe Laurels, Pines, Beeches, Cypresses, Jas-
mins, and other similar plants, which do not grow on their
northern sides. But the temperature on the opposite sides
of these Alps is also completely different.

It must also be added, that the limits of Floras are not defined
by mountain tracts alone, but that even in a great extent of le-
vel country the Floras have their proper boundaries. Andro-
pogon IschtEmum, Asperula cynaiwhica^ glauca^ M. B. Coh-
tunculus minimus^ Lycopsis pulla, Bupleurum rotundifolium,
Peucedanum officinale, Cnidium silaus, Silcne noct'iflora
and conoidea, and Centaurea calcitrapa, seem not to pass be-
yond the 52d degree North Lat. into central Germany. At
that point, Angelia Archangelica, Lonicera peridymejiuvi,
Andromeda polifblia, Arbutus uva ursi, and other forms
begin to appear. In completely level countries, the Acer
campestrCy Pseudoplatanus, Populus alba, nigia, and Sam-
bucus nigra, cease to grow at the 56th degree N. Lat. The
Myrtle, Mastick, Oak and Cork tree, the flowering Ash,
and the Caper tree, pass not beyond the 44th degree North
Lat., whether mountain tracts or level countries occur at this
limit. The heights of the Wolga, or Alaunian Mountains of
the ancients, are said to be the limit between the eastern and
western Floras ; but according to Pansner's recent examina-
tion, the entire Wolga heights are only alluvial land, covered
with sea sand. Besides, the eastern Flora is seen a great
way on this side of the Wolga heights, (Neue Geographische
Ephemeriden, b. v. s. 14L) The Weichscl on the north,
and the Oder on the south, seem better entitled to be con.^i-
dered as the limits of the western and eastern Flora. On the

282 HISTORY OF THE

farther side of these streams, we find Plantago arenaria. Kit.
Anchusa BarreUeri, Vilm., Flcerkia Ulifolia, Angelica praten-
sis, M. B., Acer platanoides, Andromeda calyculata, Silene to-
tarica, Dianthus serotinus, Kit. (east from Cracow), Anemone
patens. Ranunculus cassubicus, Teucrium LaxTnanni, Dra-
coceplialum Moldavica (east from Grodno and Jaroslaw), Bur.
nias oiientalis (east from Lemberg). Isatis tinctoria (beyond
Warsaw), Astragalus Onohrychis, Meliloius polonica. Pen-
taphyllum Liipinaster, Hieracitim coUinum, Bess., Orchis cu-
cullata (beyond the Niemen.)

408.

Had plants been distributed from single, and, as it is
thought, from elevated points on the earth's surface, the
Floras of contiguous regions would necessarily have been
confounded, and could not have been so distinctly appropria-
ted, as we see them to be. It must be added, that winds
and birds, rivers, and the waves of the sea, are far from be-
ing able completely to have effected the universal dispersion
of plants. There can be no doubt, that the wind is able to
diffuse to a certain extent some particular seeds, which are
furnished with crowns, hairs, and other appendages. But it
is not able to disperse to any distance the Carduus cyanoides,
which grows on a single grassy hill near Halle, and on the
steep banks of the Elb above Tochheim, although the seeds
of this plant are furnished v, ith a crown of bristly hairs. The
Syngenesious plants, too, the seeds of which can be so easily
transported by the wind, are by no means common in the
greater number of countries. If the wind favoured the mi-
gration of plants, we might determine their correspondence in
most countries from the distance. But we have already noticed
(397.)? that the most distant countries have common plants,
whilst the most dissimilar Floras are found in neighbouring
lands, and some plants grow quite insulated, (395.) The
dispersion of plants over large tracts of country has also been
ascribed to birds, because they devour the fruits, and often al-
low them to pass from them undigested. But no example of
this can be produced except the Miblctoe, and therefore this

DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 283

assertion deserves no particular refutation. Streams, indeed,
can carry down seeds ; and plants from those higher regions
through which the streams flow are accordingly often found
growing on their banks. But the Flora on the banks of one
and the same stream, is very different in the different districts
through which it passes, as is seen in the clearest manner up-
on the shores of the Elbe ; for in Bohemia very different
plants appear from those which spring in the neighbourhood
of Dresden, — others, again, make their appearance near Wit-
tenberg and Barby, — and a yet different set near Lauenburgh
and Hamburgh.

These considerations lead us to conclude, that the vege-
table world has neither descended from one common birth-
place, nor diffused itself from one country into another ; but
that vegetation is in every case the product of the joint in-
fluence of temperature, soil, and the particular composition
of the moisture of the earth.

Nor is the conclusion of Brown (on Congo, p. 50.), that
the native country of a genus is always where the greatest
variety of species is found, by any means to be admitted,
since the example of Nicotiana shews the contrary. The
greatest number of its species are found in South America ;
yet the Nicotiana Chinensis, Lehm. txxid Jruticosa are cer-
tainly indigenous to Eastern Asia.

CHAP. VI.

ON MALFORMATIONS AND DISEASES OF PLANTS.

Linne, Philosophia botanica. S. 119, 131.
Jager, Uber die Missbildungcn der Gewachsc.
Gallesio, Theoric der vegetabilischen Reproduction.
Keith'3 System of Physiological Botany.

284 MALFORMATIO.N.S AND DISExVSES

Hopkirk's Flora Anomoia, a general view of the anomalies in the Vegetable
Kingdom.

Ginanni, Delle Malattie del Grano in erba.

Tessier, Des Maladies des Grains.

Fabricius, in Norske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrift.

Plenck, Physiologia et Pathologia Plantarum. Vienna.

Seetzen, Systematum de morbis plantarum dijudicatio.

Burdach, Systematisches Handbuch der Obstbaum-Krankheiten. Berlin.

F. Re Saggio, teorico-pratico ncUe Malattie delle Plante.

Cir. Pollini, nella Biblioteca Italiana, torn. vi.

F. W. Gothe, Zur Naturwissenschaft iiberhaupt, besonders zur Morpholo-
^ie. Tubingen.

409.
We have considered (176, 192.) the Abortion, Degenera-
tion, and Union of Organs, as effects of a constant law of na-
ture. If we would distinguish from these the Malformations
or Anomalies, we must consider these latter as variations or
degenerations of forms and colours, which are less permanent,
and which are not inconsistent with the health of the entire
plant. We say that malformations are variations or degene-
rations which are less permanent, because very often they
disappear by reproduction, although there are instances of
their being propagated for a short time. We distinguish
malformations from diseases by this circumstance, that in the
former all the organs continue to be propagated with their
due proportions.

410.

With respect to the causes of malformations, wc may re-
mark, that most of them arise from cultivation, and from
that too great attention which in cultivation is paid to some
particular organs; or they arise from too great luxuriancy of
growth, which is injurious to the constancy of the fundamen-
tal type of forms. AVe hence observe, that malformations
are again lost, when the sterility of the soil, and a coarser
method of treatment confine the growth. Even climate lias
an undeniable influence on many of tliese variations of form,
as we observe in the full or doul)le Hyacinths, which, after
bulbs have been brought from Holland, iniCold only once in

OF PLANTS. 285

Germany and Italy the complete magnificence of their double
>tructiire, and then pass again to their simple form. I^ut it
is also true, that want of fertility in the soil is another fre-
quent cause of malformations, as we observe distinctly in the
Stunting and Speckled structure of the stem and branches.

411.

In the stem and in the branches, we observe sometimes the
speckled structure, sometimes the witch knots, and sometimes
the downward direction of tlie branches, as consequences of
malformation. What we call the Speckled structure, is an ad-
mired form of the wood, in which the knots are more nume-
rous and more mixed with each other than is usual, and a
great quantity of buds seem to have been but half formed.
Many woods, as the Birch, Poplar, and Yew wood, have a
particular disposition to become speckled, especially when
they grow on dry, stony or rocky soils. Even art can aid in
the production of this structure, by a frequent withdraw-
ing of the branches from the light ; (Marten's Theorie uber
die Entstehung des Masernholzes.) Connected with these
spots, are the witch-knots of the Scots, which are chiefly
found upon the Highland birches. They consist of buds in-
termingled in a great variety of ways, from which, however, no
proper branches proceed, but a crowd of thin twigs, in the
form of a bush or shrub, shoot out, as we often find in the
Pines of the very dry sandy plains of Germany ; (Keith, ii.
278 ; Hopkirk, p. 62.)

From a similar cause proceeds the downwai'd direction of
the branches of the Birch and Ash, which must be consider-
ed as a malformation, because, by propagation, it finally dis-
appears.

The stem of herbaceous plants is often fascicular, or has
that structure which is called Fasciation. In Asparagus,
Hieracium cerinthoides, Carduus paJustris, Cdos'ia crhtatUy
and Ranunculus bulbosu^, this structure is observed to be
more or less permanent, in so much, that in the case of Cela-
sia, it remains almost unchanged, provided the mode of treat-
ment be entirely the same. This fascicular form seems to
arise from the union of a number of branches, as may be dis-

5J86 MAI.FOR^MATIONS AND DISEASES

tinctly seen in Asparagus. The union of the flowers on the
summit of such fascicular stems favours this explanation ;
since the Hieracium already mentioned, as well as the Ranun-
culus bulbosus, shew distinctly this union of the flowers;
(Gilibert Demonstr. elem. de Bot.)

412.

Among malformations, we place also the discoloration of
the leaves, particularly the fascicular streaks, the silvery or
golden margins, and many other varieties of spots which are
common among garden plants, — as in Myrtle, Sage, Ivy,
Holly, the Agave Americana, Semper vivum arboreum, and
many of the Pelargonia?. These spots are not diseases, be-
cause the whole plant has all the signs of being in a perfect-
ly healthy state. But neither are they effects of a law of na-
ture, like the spots of Orchis maculata, and the red coloured
leaves of Caladiuin hicolor and Amaranthus tricolor, be-
cause they are not continued by propagation. But it is like-
ly that such discoloured spots are incapable of performing
their function, namely, the exhalation of oxygen gas, as in-
deed experiments shew ; (Sennebier, Physiologic Vegetalc,
iv. p. 273.

413.

Luxuriancy of growth produces a manifold subdivision of
the leaves and a curling of their margin, as we find strikingly
exemplified in Pclypodium camhricum, Scolopendrium offici-
nale, Acer platanoides, and Fraxinus excelsior. We can-
not consider these forms as permanent, or form peculiar
species from them, because they are by no means propagated
by seed, but only by buds and layers. The manifold inden-
tations of the leaves of the common Alder, and of the Pivi-
pinella saxifraga, are of the same nature, and, on account of
their little durability, deserve to be considered rather as va-
rieties.

414.

Retrogradations sometimes occur in vegetation (Goethens
imregelmassige Metamorphose), when the more perfect organs

OF PLANTS. 287

are not unfolded, but leaves and other lower organs arise
instead of them. We thus observe, that the blossoms of the
Juncus subverticillatus, when it remains as Junciis Jluitans
constantly under water, degenerate into long stem leaves.
In the same manner, it is not uncommon, with the Rubus
fruticosus, when in dark forests it is deprived of the sun's
light, to put forth only leaves instead of blossoms. In the
double flowers of Hesperis matronalis, we frequently remark
the transition into the leaf form. In the Colchicum autum-
nale, not only the blossoms, but even the filaments and pis-
tils, have been seen to assume the colour and form of stem-
leaves ; (Bernhardi in Homer's Archiv. b. 2.) When the
garden tulip is very double, the outermost petals are of-
ten mai'ked with green streaks, and even the innermost,
which have arisen out of the pistillum, shew the same colour-
ing.

When seeds pass into bulbs, as has been observed in Bui-
bine Asiatica and Moi^ea Northianay the same kind of retro-
gradation in the process of vegetation takes place, as when we
observe that the siliques of Clover degenerate into leaves, or
that a pear pushes out leaves (Keith, ii. tab. 9. fig. 12.), and
that one flower arises from another ; a mode of growth which
in some cases is a law of nature, but which in our Centifo-
liae, and in other instances, is a consequence of malformation
produced by luxuriant growth.

415.

These retrogradations in the process of vegetation, explain
the circumstance of blossoms becoming multiplicate, and j>er-
fectly double or full. Cultivation stimulates the organs of
nourishment, and the instruments of propagation pass into
these. Yet there are inferior gradations of this disposition to
become double, in which the organs of fructification remain un-
confined in their evolution, and in the exercise of then- fimc-
tions. When in the Hydrangea of our gardens, the jiarls of
the calyx expand, and become of the nature of a corolla,
the evolution of the filaments suffers so little by this, that we
frequently observe eight of them instead of five. In the t^ame

288 MALFORMATIONS AND DISEASES

manner, the fructification of the full Balsam is not injured. In
the more perfect instances of double flowers, not only the fila-
ments, but the pistils, and even the nectaries, when they are pre-
sent, pass into the corolla. In the common Columbine of our
gardens, this last change happens. Yet the nectaries are often
multiplied to the greatest degree, while the petals remain un-
affected. It seems to be established by a very remarkable
observation, that the nectaries even sometimes supply the
place of the instruments of fructification ; (MuUer in Vcr-
handlungen der Gesellschaft zur Beforderung der Natur-
kunde und Industrie Schlesiens, th. i. s. 214.)

AVhen monopetalous corollse become full, they are divided
during this process, as is distinctly seen in Antirrhinum majtis,
and Jasminum Samhac. When compound flowers are filled,
they either return, when they are radiatae, to the origmal tube-
form of the disc florets, as we see in the quilled China aster
of our gardens, and in Tagetes ; or the disc florets degenerate
into ray florets, which is almost constantly the case with the
Calendula qfficmalis^ Pyrtthrum Parthenium, and Anthemis
graudiflora. It is remarkable, that the papilionaceous flow-
ers almost never are full. Spartium ju7icemn is the only ex-
ception with which I am acquainted. Some Japanese flowers,
Anthemis grandrflora, Ramat., Clerodendron fragrans^ Vent,
and Keria Japonica, De Cand., grow always full.

416.

To malformations of the fruit, we refer partly its formerly
remarked retrogradation to the form of bulbs and leaves, and
partly its want of seeds, which also is a consequence of
luxuriant growth, and of the ceaseless propulsion of the juice
increased by art. The Musa almost never bears seeds.
Our Figs always contain only female flowers, the ovaries of
which are consequently abortive. The Italian Azarole, the
Chinese Cedrat, our Ananas, our Barberries and Plums
without seeds, are malformations of the same kind, which may
be considered as the consequences of cultivation. The growth
of one fruit in another, which is partially observed in the
Agrumae, belongs to the same class of facts; (Linne, in

OF PLANTS. i>Hi)

Amial Transalp. i. p. 414. ; Meidinger in Beschaftigungeii dw
Berlin Gesellscliaft natiu'forschender P'reunde.)

417.

We now come to what are called the Diseases of Plants, or
to those varieties in the form and in the composition of their
parts, which are injurious to the fulfilment of their functions,
and to the conthiuance of their life. As plants are organic
bodies endowed with vital activity, the same causes which af-
fect animal bodies must produce similar effects upon vegetation.
They must, therefore, be affected in the same manner as ani-
mal bodies, by heat and by cold, by moisture and drought,
by a deficiency and by a superfluity of the ingredients of the
atmosphere. We have partly stated above (369, 370, 372,
376.), the effects of the great natural agents upon the vege-
table world. Among other effects, we have mentioned the
blighting of corn during severe storms of lightning. The
aerial smoke or dry-fog, which Pfnff (lleber den hcissen Som-
mer von 1811, s. 52.) calls a dry electrical vapour, and which
is apparently an impregnation of the atmosphere with sul-
phurous acid gas, is likewise very hurtful to plants, because,
by means of it, an over excitement and parching are produced,
and the lively green of the leaves is changed into a dirty
brownish-veJlovr

418.
But vegetables are s;.dijected to a still greater number of
causes of disease than animals, because an innumerable crowd
of small parasitic plants and insects beset them, suck out their
juices, disturb their functions, and are injurious to their life.
In many cases, a diseased tendency in the ])lant seems to
favour the production, or at least the increase of these ene-
mies. We have already (321.) stated the production of
what is called INlildew, or of the sprinkling of plants with
aphides, to be a consequence of the unnaturally increased
evaporation of saccharine matter. In the same manner,
we observe a much more rapid and general production of
Lichens on gooseberry bullies wliich grow upon an unfruit-

T

590 \ r A I . F ( )l^ M A T 1 0 \ S A X T) }^ I S K A S E S

fill soil, than on those which are reared in good garden land.
The blight also in Wheat, which is a degeneration of the
"Tain, bj vhich it passes into Coniomvci, seizes for the most
part on grains tiiat are not ripened, btit not on those that have
attained their perfect state. VVe can hence partly provide
against the occurrence of this disease, by permitting the seed
to become pei-fectly ripe and hard before it is taken in ; and
even then it ought not to be stacked, but instantly thrashed
out to such an extent, that only about two-thirds of tlie grain
may be beaten out, and the less ripe seeds left behind.

That a diseased tendency must, for the most part, pre-
viously occur, when diseases are generated in plants, even
by parasitic plants, is evident from the growth of Fungi
on sickly stems and branches. On our Alder we find the Bo-
letus alneus ; on our Willow, Boletus adustzis, fumosuSy and
suaveolens ; on our Beech, Boletus fomentarms ; on our Birch,
Boletus hetulinus ; on our Ash, Boletus Jraxineus ; and on
the stem of the Oak, Dadalca quercinay — as proofs of the
diseased state of the plant, and of the tendency of its juices^
to corruption. In like manner, a number of Fungi, as al-
so the RMzoviorpha suhcorticalisy appear upon the roots of
trees when they stand in too moist a soil, shewing the diseased
disposition of the roots.

419.

The barks of our trees are subject to cracks, to the flowing
of resinous matter, to leprosy, and seal), — all of which dis-
eases either pass into others that are still more dangerous, or
invite a crowd of parasitic plants and insects, by which the
evil is made worse.

The cracking of tliC bark in our fruit trees is for the most
part the consequence of an over luxuriant growth, during which
too many layers of alburnum are deposited, so that the inner
bark and the rind cannot yield and make room for them.
The inner bark being thus rent, usually makes way for the
passage of the nutritive sap through the rent, and this sap,
when it reaches the air, assumes the consistence of gum. By
this means the tree must naturally be enfeebled, and finally

OF PLANTS. 291

perish. When the bark cracks, becomes liard and scaly,
without this flowing of resin, it seems to suffer these injuries
either from being exposed to too powerful a heat ol' the sun,
from the influence of too dry seasons, or of too barren a soil.
The leprosy or scab which we have mentioned, destroys
the Olive-trees in Italy ; (Giovene in Opuscoli scelti, xiii.
p. 106.) In our Cherry trees, the Spharia pidchella lodges
between the torn rind and the inner bark. But slill worse
guests are the earwigs, the wood wasps, and the drilling
worms, which often make long excavations under the rind,
and thus become injurious to the life of the stem,

420,

A superabundance of raw j uice in trees, which have been
rendered feeble by management or weak by frost, produces
the dropsy or jaundice. The bark becomes spongy, and,
when pressed, gives out a great quantity of water ; the young
shoots are thin and powerless, the leaves pale and yellow, and
fruit is seldom produced. Stimulating and powerful nourish-
ing matters from animal dung, mud, lime, and even soot, when
they are applied in time, take away the disease, and shew the
correctness of the explanation we have given of it.

AVe may attribute in some measure to the same cause
the debility of the alburnum in forest trees ; because, where-
ever it occurs, either early frost, or other weakening causes,
have prevented the concentration of the sap, and the proper
formation of wood; the unformed sap thus remains in the
alburnum, (^98.) ; (Mezieres, De la Force de Bois, p. 94 ;
Slevogt, in Laurop's Annalen.)

421.
We meet with blotches and canker, as diseases of trees, the
former of which are manifested by dark spots in the rind and
wood, and commonly have their origin in the sterility of tlie
soil, and in other enfeebling causes. This disease chiefly lays
waste the Mulberry trees in Italy, and has given rise to
manifold and very anxious investigations ; (Scoj)()li, Ann.

T2

992 :\rALFORMATio>:s and diseases

Hist. Nat. iv. p. 115. ; Palletta, in Atti della soc. patriot, di
Milano, Re. p. 303.

The canker proceeds mostly from a hardening of the bark,
in consequence of wliicli the juices become sharp and corro-
sive, make tlieir way through the rents and slits of the rind,
consume the parts that are below them, and at last complete-
ly destroy the wood.

422.

Our Corn crops are injured chiefly by parasitic plants of
the lowest class. The rust upon the leaves and stalks is no-
thing but a Puccmia, which closes up the epidermis of the
leaves, and thereby destroys their functions. Whether this
plant is generated by the jEcid'mm Berberides^ is a matter of
much uncertainty ; (Sir Jos. Banks on the Blight in Corn,
in Ann. of Botany, ii. p. 51.)

The flying blight, by which Oats and Maize are chiefly in-
jured, consists, as we formerly remarked, of an innumerable
multitude of spherical black Coniomyci (Ustilago segetum),
which presuppose a degeneration of the grain, and by which
it is completely consumed. The soiling blight (Uredo sito--
phila, Ditmar.), on the other hand, contains smaller grains
within a spherical covering, and is instantly discovered by
its disagreeable smell, resembling herring-pickle. ^Vhat more
remote causes, beside the formerly mentioned predisposition of
the grain of AVheat, contribute to the production of this evil,
is not quite clear. But the infectious nature of this species
of Coniomyci cannot be denied. So strong, indeed, is this
tendency, that it clings to the glumes or caps of the wheat
grain, and even to the iine hairy bodies Vvhich rise upon
the jx)ints of the grain. The steeping of the grain in lime,
and in a solution of common salt, cleans the Wheat indeed in
most instances from any adhering rust ; but the manure itself,
if it be mingled with wheat-straw that had been blighted,
communicates to the wheat, which is grown upon lands so ma-
nured, the diseased tjuality. It is not impossible, that even the
want of a free circulation of air in v/heat fields, or the too

OF PI, ANTS. 293

deep ploughing of* the furrow in iron-shot soils, may contri-
bute to the diffusion of Wight or rust.

423.

The innumerable kinds of Coniomyci which are connect-
ed with blight or rust, are undoubtedly individual forms ;
but they seem to owe their origin to a peculiar transforma-
tion of the spherical and vesicular bodies, which the genera-
tive sap contains. We hence see them appearing in abun-
dance upon healthy leaves, in which we observe either a su-
perfluity of juice, or a perspiration of the generative sap.
This is obviously the case with the Uredo Candida, which ap-
pears in abundance upon the Thlasp'i bursa, and is coveretl
with an inflated epidermis. The same thing is distinctly per-
ceived in the Uredo tremellosa and cincia of Strauss, the pro-
duction of which is commonly attended by the perspiration of
a fluid having the appearance of a jelly. And the Neinaspo-
ra, of which a great many kinds appear upon the branches of
the Poplar, shews, beyond all doubt, that it owes its origin to
the generative mucilage.

Again, we frequently see the degenerating j uices of the leaves
becoming hard and producing shapeless masses of a blackish
colour, which are called xyloma, and have the appearance of
new shoots that have died. But if, by the influence of the
original vital powers, a new activity is awakened in the juice
which had been thus entirely changed or dead, the primitive
forms again appear in their simplest state. They appear as
spheres or vesicles, as in Eurotium, Camptosporium, Spodo-
phlciun (Tab. V. Fig. 5, 7.), Podismay Phacidhwi, and other
Fungi ; among which, however, there are some that seem
but slightly to injure the health of the leaves, because they
seem to be formed from the perspired sap upon the ejViderrais
only, as in the instance of Phijllerium. It often happens,
however, that the epidermis of the leaf is torn at the snxm^
time, and surrounds, in a definite and peculiar liirm, a crowd
of Coniomyci, which have been generated in the sap, (/E<7-
dium, Rostelia.)

294 MALFORMATIONS AND DISEASES

424.

A quite different kind of decomposition is that to which Rye
is subject, when it degenerates into davits, which has a great re-
semblance to what in German is called the stone blight in Wheat.
The grain swells, bends itself, and comes out from its husk.
It has a sharp taste, and contains neither gluten nor saccharine
matter, but putrid oil, free phosphorous acid, ammonia, and
corrupted starch ; (Buchner, Repertorium fur die Pharmacie,
b. iii. s. 100.) It is remarkable, that infusory insects, like
vinegar eels, are found in it. But whether these were for-
merly present, and occasioned the disease of the grain, or
were produced by the degeneration, has not been well ascer-
tained. Meanwhile it is certain, that very moist yeai's and
wet lands contribute in a very great degree to the production
ofclavus.

425.

Insects occasion a numberless crowd of diseases, and of the
causes of death, to plants. Some of these have not yet been suf-
ficiently investigated, as the round navel-shaped bodies, which
we find in such quantities on our fading Oak leaves, and
which, by some authors, are called Xyloma pezizo'ides, and in
the Flora Danica (1492), Sclerotium fasc'iculatuvi^ but which
have been best examined by Hopkirk, (Flor. Anom. p. 10.
tab. XI. fig. 1 .) It is impossible, and it is not indeed suited
to our present purpose, to mention all the kinds of injuries
which insects occasion to plants. We seek only to present
the most important facts, according to the common division of
insects.

Among the Coleoptera we mention, first, the May Bug,
(Melolantha vulgaris), the larvae of which are known as
grubs, and live four years under ground, where they
occasion the greatest devastation among the roots of trees.
In their perfect state, too, they lay waste the leaves and buds
of orchard and other trees. Equally injurious, but not so
common, is the Spring beetle, (Elator Segetis) : the larva con-
tinues five years in that state, and is equally hurtful with
th€ former kind to the roots of grain ; (Spence and Kirby,

or IM.ANTS. 29o

Introd. to Entoniol. i. p. 181.) The Carahm gibbus^ also,
not only in its larva state, but as a perfect insect, destroys
the wheat crops throughout great tracts of country; (Ger-
inar'^s Magazine, i.) There is a Staphylinus, the larva of
which insinuates itself into the grain of wheat, while it is
springing, and kills it ; (Walford, in Linn. Transact, ix.
p. 156.) The Bosti^ychus typographus lives entirely upon the
inner-bark of Pines, and so hollows it out into winding cavi-
ties, that six and thirty years ago, a million and a half of
the Pinus picea and Pinus sylvestris, upon the Hartz alone, fell
a sacrifice to it ; (Trebra, in Schriften der Berlin Gesellschaft
natur-forschender Freunde, b. iv. t. 4 ) The Anobru7u te,s-
sellatzim, which is also called the Death-watch, devours both
decayed and living wood. Two Attelabi, also, may be men-
tioned, of which the one, A. Bacchus, is destructive to Vines;
the other, A. pomorwn^ to the buds of Apple-trees. To the
same order belongs the Buprestis viridh, the larva of which
gnaws the alburnum of the red Beech, and produces the
same kind of winding excavations, as the Bo.strychii.s ti/po^ra-
phits ; and, lastly, there is the well known EarLh.-flea {Hal-
tica okracea), which, during dry -seasons, is so des'tructive to
Greens, particularly to plants with cruciform blossoms, as
the Raj)e, and C'abbage species. The Crambus Brassica;
the larva of which lays waste also the fields of Caraway and
C'oriander, is the greatest enemy to the Ra})e (Bi-assica ole-
racea laciniata.)

The second family of destructive insects is (lie IIenn|)-
tera, among which the leaf-lice, or aphides, from their incre-
dible fecundity, and endless increase, destroy most of the
plants upon which they alight. Almost every plant has its
own kind of aphis, and of these many bring forth twenty
times in a year. Even under the bark of Apple trees, a very
destructive kind had long been found, the Aphis Inn'igcru^
which occasioned great devastati(ms, especially in England,
(Sir Jos. Banks, in Transact. Horticultural Soc. ii. \iVZ.)
The want of a free circulation of air is partitiilaiK favour-

296 ?.IALroi{MATIONS AND DISKANES

able to the production of Heiiuptera. They are accordingly
produced in hot-houses to which little air is afforded. Cab-
bage plants are less subject to their depredations in the open
field than in gardens. To this family belong-s also the
ChervieSj on.e species of which, Ch. cadi, produces the Cochi-
neal ; a second is found u})on the Oaks of the South, and
produces the French Chcrmcs ; a third kind, Ch. polai^icus,
nestles in the roots of the SclerantJms ijerennis ; and all the
three kinds produce colouring matter. To this order belong
the Cocci, w hich fix themselves almost immoveably, and quite
flat, upon the plants of our hot-houses, and suck out the sap
of the plants, with their j)roboscis, which springs from their
breast. We are acquainted with two species. Coccus hespei'l-
dum and C. adonidum. There is also the Cercopis spumaria,
which sucks the juices of Grasses, and especially of Willows,
and gives it out again in the sha})e of foam : it is called
Cuckow's Spittal, — and when, as sometimes happens, it falls
down in drops, it has given rise to the expression of Drop-
ping-Wiilow s.

The small TJirips physapus is also very common in the
flowers of many plants, and perhaps assists in the impregna-
tion, but frequently, also, it gnaws the germen.

The flowers of Juncus ohtus'iflorus, and acutiflorus, are
disfigured by the puncture of the Livia juncorimi, and the
mischief done in corn fields by the Acheta grylloUdpa, is known
to every person.

427.
The innumerable crowds of butterflies, particularly in the
caterpillar state, are exceedingly destructive to plants. The
greatest enemies to fruit-trees are the caterpillars of Bomhyx
d'lspar, chrysorrhaa^ caerultocephala, Hiapaniola, processio-
nea, Neustrla, and of Noctua brumata. The caterpillars of
Papilio Cratagi, B?'assica, Rapa, and Napi, suck princi-
pally the garden vegetables. In Fir Avoods, the larvae of
Bomhyx Pini, Hadena piniperda, and Phalcena geometra
pmiaria ; and in Oak woods, the larva? of Bomhyx nw^iacha,
and Noctua brumata, occasion very great devastation. The

or TLANTS. 297

soft woods of the Willow and Poplar arc attacked by Bomb,
cossus, Sesia crahroniformis^ and Nitidida grynea. The ca-
terpillars of B. graminis, lay waste the meadows, (De Geer,
Mem. sur les Insects, ii. p. 341.) ; and those of Hepiolus
Humuli, destroy the Hop-gardens.

428.
Among insects of the order Hymenoptera, the Gall Insects
are the most remarkable, for they deposite their eggs in plants,
which consequently exhibit remarkable excrescences, and
these are often distinguished by the most singular shapes and
peculiar colours. The mossy and crisped excrescences upon
the Wild Rose, which are known by the name of Bedeguarj
proceed from Cynips Rosfc ; the gall-nut, from C quercu-s,
which produces different kinds, however, according as it ap-
pears on the leaves, on the leaf-stalk, or on the flower-stalk.
Hierac'mm sahaudnm^ Sidvia j^om'tf'era, and Glcchoma hc-
deracea, exhibit similar excrescences. The AVild Figs, too,
are punctured by similar insects, and although the swelling
of the fruit is thus assisted, the animals have no effect in pro-
ducing tlie impregnation of the plant ; (Pontedera Anthol.
ii. p, 33; Olivier Voy. dans Temp. Othom. ii. p. 171.)

The origin of what is called the Willow Rose, from the
puncture of C. Salicis, is in the highest degree remarkable.
In spring, this insect deposites its eggs in the leaf-buds of the
Saliw Heli{v, alha^ and riparia. The new stimulus attracts
the sap, — the type of the part becomes changed, and, from
the prevailing acidity of the animal juice, it happens, that in
the rose or stock-shaped leaves, which are pushed out, a red
colour, instead of a green, is evolved. Superstition is thus
frequently cheated in its hopes, but it is also delivered from
its fear ; (Grass, in Eph. Nat. Cur. Dec. i. ann. 5. ; Winder
eben Dass. ann. vi. vii. n. 117. 229- ; Albrecht, in Act,
Nat. Cur. vol. ix. ; Schroter, in Berl. Samml. b. ii. ; Sims,
in Ann. of Rot. i. p. 374.)/

The Hylotoma Fabr., the larva of which are distinguished
by two prominent eyes, and eleven pair of feet, are extremely
injurious to Pines, especially one species of the insect (HylO'

298 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

tonia pini). The yellowish green caterpillar shews itself in
incredible numbers, and destroys the cones completely.

429.

Among gnats and flies we mention, first, the Musca pumi-
lionis, Bierk., or the Mos'illiis arcuattis, Latr. This fly lays
hold of the Wheat and also of the Rye crops, while they are
young, but these frequently shoot out more luxuriantly af-
terwards ; (Spence and Kirby, Introd. to Entom. i. p. 170.)
A small yellow gnat, Tipula tritici, eats into the blossoms of
Wheat, and destroys them ; (Linn. Trans, iii. p. 242.)
Lastly, we may enumerate, among the unwinged insects, the
small red acarus of our hot-houses {Acai'us telarius), which,
when enough of air is not given to the plants, or when they
are kept too warm, overspreads them with a fine web, and so
destroys them.

CHAP. VIL

HISTORY OF BOTANY.

I. Aticient History till the Revival of Science,

430.

Scientific Botany is indebted for its origin to the philoso-
phical schools of ancient Greece. But it was the physics of
plants, much rather than descriptive botany, which was then
cultivated, because, in the first place, from the small number
of plants which were then known, and which, among the
Greeks and Romans, scarcely exceeded a thousand, it was
not found necessary to think of classifying them, — of forming
a theory for this purpose, — of arranging them according to a
scientific system, — and of giving them a regular nomenclatuie ;
secondly^ Because the views of the ancients, with respect to

HISTORY OF BOTANY. 2{)9

natural bodies, were entirely confined to tlie explanation of
phenomena, and to the employment of physical substances in
arts and trades: and, in the last place, because the physics of
plants, like physics in general, were then derived from mere
processes of reasoning. It is hence that, in the writings and
fragments of the Greek philosophers, we find chieHy some phy-
sical notices respecting the life and nourishment of plants,
which they endeavoured to explain by the analogy of the ani-
mal kingdom ; and along with these many happy ideas re-
specting the rank which plants hold in the scale of natural
bodies, and respecting their relations to external animals.

At the time when the Athenian Republic was in its most
flourishing condition, it is true that several persons, who were
called Rhizotomae, devoted themselves exclusively to the dig-
ging of roots and finding of herbs, for the advancement of
arts, and particularly of medicine. Some of these persons,
who were called Pharmacopolae, seem even to have issued from
the schools of the philosophers, and to have acquired for them-
selves a comprehensive knowledge of plants, whence they
were called Cultivators of Physics. But the greater number
pursued their occupation as market-cryers, and observed a
multitude of superstitious customs, on which account thev
are rather to be regarded as traders, than as men who had
been trained in a scientific manner.

431.

The first founder of the natural science of plants, was un-
doubtedly Aristotle of Stagira, to whom the nick-name of
Pharmacopolist was even given, because, for a long time, he
employed himself in collecting medicinal plants. But his ge-
nuine works respecting plants have been lost, and what we
now possess under this name, is but the insipid forgery of an
ignorant Greek of the middle ages.

Aristotle's follower and favourite scholar, Tyrtanuis of
Lesbos, to whom his master gave the name of Theophrastus,
on account of his eloquence, drew his principles, utidoubtedh .
from the information of his great teacher. lie also cultivated
the knowledge of plants entirely after the fashion of the Peri-

300 HISTORY OF BO'l'ANV.

patetic School. But he seems to have undertaken lew jour-
neys and travels, since he always appeals to the testimony of
the diggers of roots, the cutters of wood, and the inhabitants
of the mountains. But, as he lived between the years 371
and 286 before Christ, the ever-memorable march of Alex-
ander the Great through Asia and Africa, aftbrded him an
opportunity of becoming acquainted with many foreign plants.
Although he notices these but occasionally, and without of-
fering any exact descriptions of them, yet his works, under
the title of A History of Plants, and On the Causes of Plants,
are immortal memorials of his ceaseless attention to the vege-
table world, and of his excellent observation of the ]^hciio-
niena which it presents. But we must not expect from him
either a scientific arrangement of objects, or a systematical
enumeration of the plants known to him ; but we must view
the whole as the production of a philosopher, wlio, almost
without predecessors, endeavoured, for the first time, to em-
ploy the reasoning faculty upon the phenomena of the vege-
table w^orld. The best edition of his works is that by
Schneider, and w^as published, in four octavo volumes, at
Leipsig, in 1818. Theophrastus v/as also the first who kept
a garden for plants, and in his legacy he named some of his
scholars as keepers of this property.

432.
But he found none of his scholars worthy of being a successor
to himself. Notwithstanding the foundation, during his time,
by the liberality of the Ptolemies in Alexandria, of the most
celebrated school of antiquity ; and, although, from rivalry
with the kings of Pergamus, the libraries in Alexandria
were raised to the rank of the best in the world ; yet the very
liberality of the Egyptian kings produced, by means of the
superfluity of literary helps, such a learned indolence, and
such a predilection for dialectic and grammatical investiga-
tions, that the study, as well as the science of nature, were
entirely neglected. Nay, the Pharmacopolgc were again se-
parated from the learned physicians and teachers of that

HISTOKY OF BOTANY. . 301

school, and employed themselves, as formerly, in the digging
of roots, — a low and superstitious trade.

The kings Mithridates, Eupator of Ponlus, and Attains
Philometer of Pergamus, promoted, to a certain extent, the
knowledge of plants, by maintaining botanical gardens, in
which they reared poisonous plants, and made experiments
with other plants, as antidotes to poison. In the courts of
these kings lived the two most learned rhizotoma? of antiquity^
Cratevas, and Nicander of Colophon. The work of the for-
mer exists only in manuscript. But Nicander has left us two
very obscure works respecting poisons and antidotes, both of
which have been excellently edited by Schneider, in 1792 and
1816.

j 433.

After Greece was subdued by the Romans, the knov ledge
of the conquered so iar passed over to the victors, that the
latter, who always sought out only what was useful, cultiva-
ted the study of plants to as great an extent, as it aiforded
advantages to the arts and trades.

In the works of the old Romans, Cato, Varro, and Co-
lumella, respecting Rural Economy, the best editions of which
are those published by Schneider, in 1794'; as also, in the Geor-
gics and Eclogues of Virgil, we find a multitude of plants
named, which were useful in horticulture and agriculture.
It is much to be lamented, that we no longer possess the wri-
tings of the younger Juba, king of Mauritania, whom Caesar
had caused to be educated in Rome. These works consisted
of a Treatise on the History of Nature, — a Description of the
Canary Isles, which were discovered by him, — Notices re-
I specting Lybia, — and a Plistory of Arabia. According to the
testimony of the ancients, he described plants, on all occasions^,
with the most scrupulous care.

434.

The most celebrated writer among the oldest botanists,

I is Pedacius Dioscorides, of Anazarbus, in Silicia. He lived

in the middle of the first centurv of" our a-ni, was i\ ])liv-

'J02 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

.sician, and followed the Roman armies in their expeditions
through the greatest part of tlie Roman empire. The work
of his which we possess, and the best edition of which was
published by Sanaceniis, at Frankfort, in 1598, is entided
Materia Medica, and contains, therefore, an enumeration of
all the medicinal plants which were known to the ancients.
These are arranged in rather a capricious order, and are de-
signated not only by the common Greek names, but also by
the Roman, Punic, or African, and other barbarous names :
they are frccjuently described at great length, their situation
assigned, and proofs of their medicinal efficacy produced.
This work, next to that of the elder Pliny, has exercised the
most enduring dominion over the schools, since it was held,
for more than fifteen hundred years, to be the only fountain
of all knowledge relating to natural history, and particularly
of botanical information.

435.

Caius Plinius Secundus, commonly called the Elder, a
commander and statesman during the middle of the first cen-
tury of our aera, left behind him a Summary of all Science,
Knowledge, and Arts, which, for the most part, he had ex-
tracted from the Greek and from some Roman writers. The
work bears the title of a History of Nature, or of the World,
and the best edition of it, in ten octavo volumes, is that pub-
lished by Franz, after Harduin, at Leipsig, between 1778
and 1791. The plants are treated in it, in alphabetical or-
der, according to the descriptions of Theophrastus and Dios-
corides. Here and there also, some notices are added, and
plants are described, which were unknown to his predecessors ;
and he himself has informed us, that in his youth he acquired
his knowledge of plants in the garden of Antonius Castor, a
son-in-law of the well known King Dejotanus.

436.

Among the later Romans, the number of persons who cul-
tivated the knowledge of nature diminished, in proportion as
the night of barbarism descended, and, for a long time, the

HISTORY OF BOTANY. 303

remains, even of Greek and Roman learning, weie entirely hid.
The Arabians, indeed, after tliey had instituted schools
of learning, infirmaries, and laboratories, applied themselves
dihgently to the study of medicinal plants. But they drew
their knowledge entirely from Dioscorides, whom, however,
they did not peruse in the original, but in a translation which
had been made from a Syrian copy. But, as it is probable
that neither of the translators was a botanist, they could nei-
ther avoid the grossest mistakes, nor be of the least advantage
to the science.

Nevertheless, the flourishing trade which this nation car-
ried on, for some centunes, from Madeira to China, made
them acquainted with some remarkable oriental plants, which
had escaped the notice of the Greeks. There were also, in
the western parts of the Arabian empire, some inquisitive stu-
dents of nature, who endeavoured to correct and to extend
their knowledge by travel, among whom was Ebn Beitar, a na-
tive of Mallaga, who flourished in the thirteenth century,
and whose work we possess only in manuscript.

437.

About the beginning of the eleventh century, the Arabians
became the teachers of the other nations of western Christen-
dom, who now formed their schools of learning according to
the Mahometan pattern, and translated their books from the
Arabian. In this manner arose a four times repeated transla-
tion of Dioscorides, which served as the foundation of the
knowledge of medicinal plants ; and we may easily imagine
how completely changed this work must have seemed to be,
and how little advantage science could gain from it.

The first faint spark of a sure knowledge of plants gleamed
during this darkness of the middle ages, when, after the ex-
ample of the Minorite Monks, whom the Pope sent, in the
thirteenth century, as missionaiies into the Mogul empire,
and to the court of the pretended Prester John, several
merchants undertook the same expedition. Among these,
the most illustrious was Marco Polo of Venice. He exa-
mined, during fifty years, most of the regions of Middle

301 HISTOliV Ol HOT A XV.

and SoutlKrn Asia, as well as the eastern coast of Africa,
brought from thence nianv riire fruits and seeds, and, foi-
the first time, described, from actual inspection, the plants of
India, and of the islands of the Indian Ocean. This treatise
is found in the original, in the second volume of Ramusio's
great collection.

Meanwhile, in the cloysters of the West, some know-
ledge of medicinal and garden plants had been preserved, —
which plants were endeavoured to be made extensively known
by Avhat was called the Hortus Sanitatis. This contained
an alphabetical catalogue of useful plants, to w hich miserable
[)lates were added, and which was translated from one lan-
guage into another.' The Latin edition of Meidenbach, at
iMentz, in 1491 ; the German of Schonsperger, at Augs-
burgh, in 1488; and that in the Lower Saxon dialect, by
Cube, at Lnbeck, in 149^, are well known.

II. First Establishment of' Scientific Botany.

438.
During the flourishing condition of the free states of Italy,
which had been raised to distinction by trade, and by their
constitutions, science and art were first established on a pro-
])er basis, and those Greeks that had been banished by the
Turks, namely, Emanuel Chrysoloras, Bessarion, and Theo-
dore Gaza, in particular, first made the Italians acquainted
with the great masterpieces of ancient Greece. Hence arose
a very active and well known rivalry, — in the search for memo-
rials of Grecian art and science, — in the multipUcation and il-
lustration of the genuine works of the ancients by wTiting
and printing, — and even in the imitation of their celebrated
works. It was now that Dioscorides and Pliny were, for the
first time, studied in the original, — the belief being universal
that their works are the only and the abundant fountain of
the knowledge of plants. But, at the same time, attempts
were made to ascertain what native plants properly bore the
names which the ancients had assimied.

HISTORY or BOTANY. .'iO.>

439.

The Italians, Hermolaus Barbarus, Marcellus Virgilius,
Nicolaus Lconicenus, John Manardiis, and Antony Miisa
Brassavola, became celebrated and useful, indeed, in their
age, by such investigations ; but they pursued these studies
rather as grammarians, than as natural historians.

The proper fathers of the later botany were Germans, who,
independent of the ancients, examined and made known the
plants of their native country. Among these, the most an-
cient was Otto Brunfels, schoolmaster in Strasburgh, after-
wards a physician, who died in 1534. His Herbarum vivae
Icones were published at Strasburgh, in folio, with wood cuts,
in 1532 and 153(i.

To him succeeded Leonhard Fox, professor at Ingolstadt,
and afterwards at Tubino^en. He died in 1565. His Historia
Stirpium appeared at Basil, in folio, in 1542. In this work,
we find wood cuts, true to nature, of about four hundred
German plants, and here also we find the first catalogue of
technical terms in botany.

Hieronymus Tragus, schoolmaster at Zweybrucken, after-
wards a physician at Hornbach, who died in 1554, had also
collected plants on the Hundsruck, the Eyfel, the Ardennes,
the Vogeses, on Jura, and in the countries on the Rhine.
His book on herbaceous plants appeared in German, at Stras-
burgh, in 1551.

Valerius Cordus, also, who was taken from the world by
an early death, at Rome, in 1544, had carefully examined
the plants of Germany. His literary remains were published
by Conrad Gesncr, at Strasburgh, in 1561.

This Gesner, one of the most learned and excellent men of
his time, was schoolmaster and corrector, afterwards physi-
cian and professor, at Zurich, and died in 1564. He ac-
quired the highest merit as a botanist, by not only collecting
and describing the plants of Switzerland, but also by leaving
behind him a great number of excellent designs, wood cuts,
and copperplates, of foreign plants, in which he was the first
wlio attended to the parts of fructification. These remams
canic two hundred vears afterwards into the hands of Schmidel,

r

rjOt) HISTORY or BOTANY.

who publislied them in 1754 and 1771, under the name oi
Opera Botanica.

Tlie plants of the Hartz were published by John Thai, a.
physician at Nordhausen, who died in 1587, in a work en-
titled Sylva Hercynia, at Frankfort, in 1588, in quarto.
This publication, after the death of the author, was taken
care of by Joachim Camerarius.

A scholar of Tragus, named Jacob Theodore Tabernamon-
tanus, a native ol' Bergzabern, in Alsace, puUished a work
similar to that of his German predecessor, the best edition of
which is that published by Hieronymus Bauhin, at Basil, in
folio, in 1731. xVlthough this work contains many things
copied from other authors, we also find in it a multitude of
plants which were not known to his predecessors.

440.
The inhabitants of the Netherlands, who had been incor-
porated with the German empire under Charles the Fifth,
being urged by the tyranny of his successor, Philip the Se-
cond, freed themselves from the Spanish sovereignty, and ob-
tained their independence, after an opposition of many years.
This bloody struggle promoted the trade and prosperity of the
nation. Arts and Sciences were cultivated in the Nether-
lands, with German diligence and zeal, and botany prospered,
in proportion to the opportunities that were afforded of ob-
taining plants from foreign countries.

Rembert Dodongeus, a native of West Friesland, an Aus-
trian physician, afterwards a professor at Leyden, who died
in 1586, was one of the oldest and most distinguished founders
of botany. His Stirpium Historiae Pemptades VI. were pub-
lished at Antwerp, in an enlarged edition, in folio., in 1616.

Matthias Lobelius, of Flanders, who was afterwards super-
intendant of the garden of Queen Elizabeth of England, and
died in 1616, not only discovered a multitude of plants
during his travels in France, the Netherlands, England, and
Germany: he also made the first attempt to arrange them
according to a certain natural affinity. His Stirpium Nova
Adversaria, published at London in 1570 and 1605, in folio.

HISTORY OF BOTANY. :J07

was succeeded by his Plantarum Historia, published ai AiU-
werp in 1576 ; and, at last, all the plates of his works, and
those of his predecessors, Mere republished in the Iconibus
Stirpium, at Antwerp, in 1591, in quarto.

In ardent zeal for the discovery of plants, — in submitting to
sacrifices of every kind, — and in the very successful issue of his
labours, Charles Clusius, of Antwerp, excelled all his prede-
cessors. As companion of the noble Fuggerius, through the
whole south of Europe, he enjoyed every opportunity of col-
lecting, describing, and drawing, the plants of Germany,
France, Spain, and Portugal. He lived several years in
England, and also hi Vienna, as superintendant of the impe-
rial gardens, from whence he made the tour of Austria and
Hungary. At last he was professor at Ley den, and died in
1609. His chief work is the Rariorum Vlantarum Historia,
pubhshed at Antwerp, in folio, 1601.

441.

Among the Italians of the sixteenth century, some also
distinguished themselves by an extensive and careful search
for plants, especially Anguillara, who was for a long time
professor at Padua, afterwards at Ferrara, and died 1570.
No person was better acquainted with the plants of his native
country, of the large islands in the neighbourhood of Italy,
of Greece, also of Dalmatia, and of the Grecian islands. He
described them, with a constant reference to their names in
Dioscorides and Pliny, in his Semplici, published at Venice,
in octavo, 1661.

Peter Andrew Mattioli, a native of Sienna, and an Aus-
trian physician, who died in 1577, was one of the best in-
formed discoverers in botany. His Commentaries on Dios-
corides, are either cited according to the edition of Valgri-
sius, with small figures, piibli:^hed at Venice, 1560, in folio,
or according to that of 13auhin, with large figures, at Basil,
1674, in folio.

One of the most active and eminent discoverers of Italian
plants, was Fabius Columna, a Neapolitan of high birth,
whose bad health was the occasion of his prcdilerti(^n Wtv bo-

r '>

308 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

tany. We possess a work of his called Phytobasanos, pub-
lished at Naples, 1592, and anotlier denominated Ecphrasis
Stirpium, published at Konie, 1G16, in quarto, in which the
drawings of plants, after the model of Gesncr, are connected
with representations of the parts of fructification.

442.

The knowledge of Indian plants was promoted in the six-
teenth century, by the victories of the Portuguese ; and the
two PorUigLiese physiclaiis at Goa, Garcia ab Orto, and
Christopher da Costa, published accounts of many medicinal
plants, which Clusius translated in his Exoticis, printed at
Antwerp, in folio, 1605.

The discovery of America also unexpectedly enriched the
science, and the Spanish governor in the West Indies, Gon-
zalo Hernandez Oviedo, was the first to give a proof of the
advantages thus obtained.

The east was investigated by Peter Belon, who was sent to
travel at the expenceof the Cardinal Tournon ; by Leonhard
Rauwolf, and by Prosper Alpinus, professor at Padua, who
died in 1617. The observations of the first of these are
translated in the Exoticis of Ckisius. Rauwoirs Travels
were printed in German, at Lauingcn, 1582, in quarto; and
the works of Alpinus, De Plantis v^Egypti, in 1640, in quar-
to, and l)e Plantis Exoticis, at V^enice, 1627, in quarto,
contain excellent plates and descriptions of a number oi'
very rare plants.

US.
U has ahendy been mentioned, that Lobelius made the
first attempt to establish a definite arrangement of plants.
But Andrew Cesalpinus, piofessor at Risa, who died in 1603,
gave a wrong direcuon to the search after fixed scientific prin-
ciples; for, in his work De Plantis, ]iublished at Florence,
1583, in quarto, he first constructed a systens the foundations
of which were the fruit and its parts, especially the embryon,
and its situation in the seed.

HlSTOllY OF BOTANV. .'JOO

As, about the end of the century, an ahnost infinite iiuil-
titude of plants was discovered, and different names were
given to these by eacli writer, it became a matter of urgent
necessity, to review the synonymes, in order to give some
certainty to the knowledge of plants. This difficult la})our
was undertaken by Caspar Bauhin, professor at Basil, who
died in 1624. His Pinax Theatri Botanici, printed [it l^asil,
162-3, in quarto, is still a necessary aid in the complete study
of the science. The Theatrum Botanicum, which was in-
tended to contain the natural families of plants, has not been
fully published, but we possess only the Prodromus, publish-
ed at Frankfort, 1620, in quarto, with excellent plates, and
the first part of the larger work, wliich was published at Ba-
sil, 1658, in folio. Caspar's brother, John Bauhin, physician
to the chief of Mumpelgard, who died 1613, collected a
great many plants, and arranged them according to a plan si-
milar to that of his brother. But his Historia Plantarum
Universalis, which was published in three volumes, at IfJcr-
ten, 1651 and 1653, disappointed expectation, both in regard
to the arrangement, and to the plates.

III. First Establishment of the Doctiinc rcspc'ctiiii^' tlw Stria-'-
tare and Systematical Arrangement of Plants.

444.

We are principally indebted to the establishment of learn-
ed societies in the seventeenth century, and to the iinention
of the microscope, for the first attempts at a more minute
examination of the structure of plants. In the Society of
London for the Promotion of Science, which was liberally
supported by Charles the Second, several men were fovnid,
under the management of the King himself, who occupied
themselves exclusively with the dissection and microsco]>ical
examination of plants. Of these, the most distinguished was
Nehemiah Grew, secretary to the society, who died in 1711.
His discoveries are recorded in the immortal work, the Ana-
tomv of Plants, London, 1682, in folio. In ibis \unk wo

310 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

find the first notice of the twofold sex of plants, which doc-
trine he had learned from Thomas Millington, a professor in
Oxford.

The same British Scientific Society also published the ex-
cellent and peculiar investigations of INIarcellus Malpighi, a
professor at Bologna, who died 1694, in the Anatomc Plan-
tarum, 1675 and 1679, in folio.

A citizen of Delft, named Antony Leuwenhoek, who died
1723, also contributed very nuuh to the establishment of this
science, by his minute investigations respecting the structure
of plants.

The French Academy of Sciences, founded in 1665, also
distinguished itself by discoveries respecting the structure and
nature of plants ; its first members, Claude Perrault, who
died 1688, Denis Dodart, who died 1707, and Edme Ma-
riotte, who died 1684, having instituted a multitude of in-
teresting investigations, especially respecting the nourishment
of plants.

445.

Joachim Jung, a German, born in Lubeck, and Professor
at Hamburgh, who died 1657, first improved the technical
language, and published in his Ijctures more acciu-ate notions
respecting the relations and nomenclature of plants. Al-
though his Opuscula were first })ublished a himdred years af-
ter his death, at Coburg in 1747, yet copies of his Institutes
had been circulated in Great Britain, and the natives of that
country, who appeared as reformers of scientific botany, fol-
lowed, according to their own confession, these copies.

Among these Britons, the first was Robert Morison, a
Scotclixnan, who, during the usurpation of Cronnvell, lived in
France, and afterwards was Professor at Oxford. He died
in 168 5. We Lave already (211.) m. ntioned his Pra^udia
Botanica as the work in which the first criti([ue on the ar-
rangement wliicli at that time was in use is found. He also
laid th.e Ibundalion in the same work for a better discrimina-
tion of genera. He became chiefly meritorious by the publi-
cation of his Historia Plantarinn Universalis, which appeared

HISTOKV or BOTANY. :il)

in three volumes, at Oxford 1715, in folio, and contains more
than 3600 species of plants, arranged according to the natu-
ral method, and illustrated with good plates. In the steps of
Morison followed John Ray, an English clergyman, who, af-
ter having travelled during many years through the whole of
Europe, lived without preferment, and died 1 705. His Me-
thodus Plantarum emendata, the third edition of which was
published in 1 733, contains the true principles according to
which the genera and species of plants ought to be distin-
guished. At the same time, a natural method is pointed out
in the same work, in which attention is paid as much as pos-
sible to all and each of the parts, and no preference is given
to one above the rest. Ray also distinguished himself with
respect to the British Flora, by his Synopsis Methodica Stir-
pium Britannicarum, published for the third time by Dille-
nius in 1724. He likewise published a general view of the ve-
getable kingdom, according to the natural method, under the
title Historia Plantarum, in three volumes, London,. 1686 till
1704, folio.

Paul Herman, a Professor at Leaden, who died in 1695,
attempted to improve this method, by paying more regard
to the fruit ; as did also Herman Boerhaave, who was Profes-
sor in the same place, and died 1738. The Flores Flora?
Lugduni-Batavae, Leyden 1690 — 12, of the former author ;
and the Index I. and II. Plantarum, qua? in Horto Lugdu-
nensi aluntur, of the latter, Leyden 1720-4, deserve here to
be noticed.

446-

Although botanists were now in a fair \n ay of introducing the
natural method, attempts were not wanting to lay the foun-
dation of an artificial system, for the sake of beginners. The
corolla was the first part that drew attention, and its division
and form were the foundations of the earliest artificial system.
Augustus Quirinus Rivinus, Professor in Leipzig, who died
1725, set out in liis great work, Introductio generalis in Rem
Herbariam, Leipzig 1690 till 1699, in folio, from the prin-
ciple that the corolla, as being the part which nuu'k> the |>e»-

312 HISTORY UK LOTANV.

fection of the plant, is the most important part. Hence he
divided plants according to the parts of the corolla, but chief-
ly according to the regularity or irregularity of its form. But
he extended the idea of irregularity so far, that he regarded
even the bent form of the pistil as an instance of the irregu-
larity of the corolla, without reflecting, that, in the first place,
the pistil in some species of, the same genus, as Pyrol a and
Epilobium, is bent downwards, and in others is erect ; and,
in the second place, that this bent position is often the conse-
quence of dichogamy. This system no doubt suiFered much
well founded opjx)sition, particularly from Ray and Dille-
nius; but in Germany it was so great a favourite, that at a
later period it was with difficulty overcome by the Linnsean
system.

447.

An excellent French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tourne-
fort, who, after having travelled for many years through the
South of France, and among the Pyrenees, had also examined
the Levant, and died as Professor at Paris 1708, founded a
system similar to that of Kivinus, but with more regard to
the form of the corolla than to its regularity. He proposed
this system in a work which appeared at Paris, imder the
name of Institutiones Rei Herbaria^, in 1719, in three vo-
lumes, with 489 plates, in which the characters of most of
the genera are given in a masterly manner. An excellent
account of his travels in the east, Relation d'un Voyage du
Levant, was published at Amsterdam 1718, in two parts ;
and the new plants which were foimd there, 1356 in number,
were inserted in the Coi-olliuium of his Institutions.

448.
Meanwhile, the know ledge of foreign plants was promoted
in various ways. The Dutch took Brazil from the Spaniards ;
and ('ount Moritz of Nassau, as governor of the newly con-
quered territory, took with him a natural historian, William
Piso, and an artist, George Marcgraf, whose observations
on the ])lants and animals of Brazil were pubhshed at Am-

IIISTOJIV OF liOTANV. 313

sterdam in 1658, in I'olio, under the title, De India; utriusquc
re naturali.

In the East Indies, also, the sovereignty of the Dutch was
favourable to science. The Governor of Malabar, Henry
Adrian van Rheede, commanded the plants of IVIalabar to be
marked and described in a style of kingly magnificence.
Hence originated the Hortus IN^alabaricus, published between
1676 and 1703, in twelve folios. This work was surpassed,
not in the number of species, bu.t in the value of the defini-
tions and descriptions, by the Herbarium Amboinense, which
was patronized by George Eberhard Humph, governor at
Amboina, and was published by John Burmann, in seven vo-
lumes, at Amsterdam, between 1741 and 1751.

The West India plants were investigated by Hans Sloane,
a learned Irishman, who was physician to the Governor of
Jamaica, and afterwards to the King of Great Britain, and
president of the Royal Society. He died 1753. His prin-
cipal work is entitled a Voyage to Madeira ; in two \oJumcs,
London, 1707 to 1727, in folio.

449.

Botanical gardens also became extremely common during
the seventeenth century. In Padua a botanical garden had
been laid out since the year 1533; in Pisa since 1544; in
Pavia since 1556 ; and in Bologna since 1563. About the
end of the 16th century, Peter Richier de Belleval laid out
the first botanical garden at Montpelier in France, in whicli
he reared the plants of the south of France, and left behind
him a multitude of notices respecting them, which, at the dis-
tance of two centuries, were published by Villars and Gilli-
bert in the Demonstrations Botaniques of the latter, at Lyons
1796, in quarto. The Royal Garden at Paris was first laid
out in 1635. In England, the Royal Garden at Hampton
Court, and the garden of medicinal plants at Chelsea, had
been richly stocked since the time of Queen Elizabeth. The
superintendant of the former was John Parkinson, whose
Theatrum Botanicum, published at London 1640, in foho,
contains an arrangement of the plants according to their uses

314 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

and situations. His disciple was Leonhard Pluknet, who
became known by drawings of very rare plants in his Alma-
gestum Botanicuni, j)ublished in London 1697 and 1705, in
quarto. The garden for medicinal plants was superintended
by Jacob Petiver, who died in 1718, and whose works, pub-
lished in London 1764, in three folio volumes, also contain a
multitude of plates of })lants.

In the Netherlands, the most celebrated garden was that
at Amsterdam. Its rare plants were ordered to be engraved in
copper and described, by the chief councillor John Conmielyn.
We have thus obtained the work entitled Horti medici Am-
stelodamcnsis rariorum plantarum descriptio et icones, pul)-
lished at Amsterdam in 1697 and 1702, in two volumes fo-
lio. The garden at Leyden, laid out in 1577 by Bontius, was
now superintended by Paul Hermann. His Catalogus Horti
Lugduno-Batavi, published at Leyden 1687, in octavo, and
Paradisus Batavus, at Leyden 1705, in quarto, are valuable
works. The most remarkable plants of the Dutch gardens
were ordered to be engraved with great care by Jacob Breyn,
a merchant in Dantzig, and he has described them in his Exoti-
carum plantarum centuria, published at Dantzig in 1678, in
folio. Among the Dutch gardens, that which was suj)}X)rted
by the Bishop of Eichstadt, under the inspection of liasilius
Besler, an apothecary at Nurnberg, was very celebrated.
A description of its rare plants is contained in a magnificent
work, entitled Hortus Eystettensis, published in 1613 in
folio.

Among the gardens of Italy, that at Bologna Avas most cele-
brated,— the superintendant of which, Jacob Zanoni, caused to
be engraved and described a multitude of rare plants, in his Is-
toria Botanica, published at Bologna in 1675 in folio. What
was denominated the Catholic Garden, the owner of which
Avas the Pope, and its superintendant Francisco Cupani, was
remarkable for a multitude of rare plants, natives of Sicily.
The great work entitled Panphyton Sicukmi, which contains
)ilates of these plants, is now only, in some of its fragments, an
ornament of libraries.

IlISTOllV OF BOTANV. 315

450.

Native Floras were also objects of very careful investiga-
tion during tlie seventeenth century.

Jacob Barrelier, a Dominican, a native of Paris, wlio died
1673, bad carefully examined the vegetable kingdom through-
out the whole of the south of Europe, and made a multitude
of discoveries, which were published long after his death, un-
der the title Planta? per Galliam, Hispaniam, ct Italiam ob-
servatae ; Paris 1714, in folio, with 1324 copperplates. His la-
bours were rivalled by those of Silvius Paul Boccone, an Ita-
lian Cistercian monk, who travelled over the greatest part of
Europe, and died in his native town Palermo in 1704. His
most important works are his Icones et Descriptiones rario-
rum plantarum Siliciag, Oxford 1674, in quarto ; and liis Mu-
seo di Piante rare, Venice 1697.

The Flora of Prussia found an editor in John Losel, pro-
fessor at Konigsberg, who died 1656, and whose Flora Prus-
sica was published at Konigsberg 1703, in quarto.

IV, Events preparatory to the RefdnnatUyn ()/' Linnaus.

451.

During the time which intervened between Tournefort and
the publication of the Linnaean reformation, the appearance
of the latter author was introduced by some learned men.
In particular John Henry Burkhard, a physician in AV^olfen-
bnttel, published in an epistle to Leibnitz, which was again
edited by Lorenzo Heister 1750, the passing thought, that
plants might be divided according to the number of their fila-
ments. But, as he almost immediately opposes this idea, he
can by no means be considered as properly a predecessor of
Linna:us.

But the doctrine of the sex of plants, which had been ol)-
scurely hinted at by Grew, was exj)erimcntr.lly illustrated by
Jacob Bobart, and established by John Bay. liudolph Ja-
cob Camerarius, professor at Tubingen, endeavoured circum-
stantially to prove it, by observations and ex[)eriments, in a

316 HISTORY OF BOTANV.

letter to VaJentini. That letter was again copied by Giiielin,
in liis treatise De Novo Vegetabiliiim exortu.

At this time, during the prevaihng love for atomic expla-
nations, the discovery of the seminal animalcules, gave an op-
]X)rtunity for their employment in accounting for the fructifi-
cation of plants. Samuel Moreland, Stephen Francis Geoffrey,
and others, maintained that the matter of the pollen penetrated
into the ovarium, (381.) But this account was opposed in
the strongest manner by Sebastian Vaillant, professor at Paris,
who died 17^1, in his Discours sur la Structure des Fleurs,
Ley den 1718, in quai'to. Vaillant also obtained distinction
by his disquisitions respecting many families of plants, as well
as by his Parisian Flora, Botanicon Parisiense, Leyden 1727>
in folio.

452.

The most accomplished predecessors of Linnaeus were Ja-
cob Dillenius, John Scheuchzer, and Peter Antony Micheli.
The first was early a professor in Giessen, afterwards super-
intendant of the Sherardian garden at Eltham in England, and
lastly professor at Oxford. He died 1 747. How little he was at-
tached to the systems of his time, how completely he under-
stood the manner of investigating the parts of fructification,
even of Cryptogamous plants, had been already proved by
his Catalogus Plantarum, Giessen 1718, in octavo. In Eng-
land he published the Hortus Elthamensis, London 1732, a
Avork which was intended to combine unexampled beauty of
plates, with the most minute investigations and the most care-
ful descriptions. But every thing which had hitherto been
done in this department, was surpassed by his Historia Mus-
corum, Oxford 1741, in quarto.

The merits of John Scheuchzer, professor at Zurich, who
died 1737, are chiefly confined to an examination and arrange-
ment of the Grasses, which we find in his Agrostographia,
Zurich 1775, in quarto.

Peter Antony Micheh, superintendant of the gardens of
the Grand Duke of Florence, and who died 1737, laboured in
I he same spirit as Dillenius, searching chiefly for the sexual

HISTOKY OF BOTANY. 317

parts of tlie lower organic bodies. His Nova Plantaruui
Genera were publislied at Florence 1729, in small folio,

453.

The l)oundarics of our knowledge of plants were also un-
commonly extended, and the reception of the I/uma-an system
prepared by travels into foreign countries, undertaken by
acute and well informed natural historians. The most re-
markable of these travellers was Charles Plumier, a monk of
the order of the Minimi, who at different times spent several
years in the West Indies, and died 1704. His Nova Plan-
larum Genera, Paris 1703, contains descriptions and plates of
120 new genera. He described the West Indian Ferns in
his expensive work, Traite des Fougeres de TAmeritjue, Paris
1705, and live hundred descriptions of plants Mhich he had
lei't behind him were published by J(.)hn IJurmann, luider
the title Plantarum Americanum fasciculus 1 — 10; Am-
sterdam, 1755 to 1760, folio.

Another monk of the order of the Minimi was Lewis
Feuillee, who lived two years in Chili and Lima as royjd bo-
tanist and mathematician. He died 1732. In his Journal,
written in French, Paris 1714 to 1725, we Ihid a nudtitude
of rare plants of these regions described and figured.

454.

Asia was very diligently and thoroughly examined by En-
gelbrecht Kampfer. He was a native of Lemgo, and went
with the Swedish deputies to Persia, where he staid some
years, and then sailed with the Dutch fleet to the East Indies,
remained a year in IJatavia and two years in Jajian, and at
last returned, at the distance of ten years. He died 1716.
In his Amoenitates Exotica?, Lemgo 1712, in (piarto, he pub-
lished excellent descripticms and plates of Japanese and of
some Persian plants.

Asia Minor and Armenia were first examined by John
Christ. Buxbaum, a native of Merseberg, who was physician
to the Russian Embassy at Constantinople. He died 1730.

318 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

His principal work is entitled Plantarum minus cognitarunv
centuria, 1—5, St Petersburg, 1728 to 1740.

Northern Asia was traversed during ten years, at the com-
mand of the Empress Anna, chiefly by John George Gmelin.
He died 1755. His Flora Sibirica, in four volumes, St Peters-
buriT 1747 to 17G9, contains a multitude of the most remark-
able and rare plants.

John Burmann, professor at Amsterdam, who died 1780,
made use of the collections of other travellers in his Thesau-
rus Zeylandicus, Amsterdam 1737, and in his Rariorum Af-
ricanum Plantarum, dec. 1 — 10, Amsterdam 1734 to 1739.

A magnificent work of Marcus Catcsby, on the Floras of
the southern provinces of North America, the Natural His-
tory of Carolina, kc. was published in two volumes, Lon-
don 1731 and 1743.

V. The Linnaan Pei'iod.

Charles Linne gave their new form to all the parts of Na-
tural History ; but he deserves to be in a peculiar sense call-
ed the Founder of the Historical Part ; for he first regulated
the artificial language, — fixed the laws of Classification, —
unfolded the generic characters, — was the first to settle the
idea of species, — invented trivial names and specific charac-
ters. He enriched the science of plants by a more exact in-
vestigation of exotic Floras, and by a more sure determina-
tion of some thousand new species discovered by others. In
the last place, he formed a system, the value of which has
been already estimated, (133.) If we were disposed to find
fault with him and with his system, we might derive occasion
from his neglect of microscopical examinations, — from his su-
perficial study of Cryptogamous plants, — from his giving too
little attention to the anatomy and physiology of plants, —
and from the following circumstances : That he often exhi-
bited in a defective manner the characters of the southern
plants, owing to the want of actual inspection ; — that he set

HIST(M{y OF 150TAXY. 319

a higher value upon the corolla and petals than ujxjn the
fruit and seed ; — and, lastly, that he overlooked many species,
from incorrectly regarding them as subspecies.

He was born at Roshult, in Sweden, 1707, and performed,
in 1732, his memorable journey through La])land, from
which he brought, as a sort of botanical booty, his admirable
Flora Lapponica, the second edition of which was published,
by Smith, at London, 1792. In Hartecamp, in Holland,
where he was superintendant of the Clifford Garden, from
1735 to 1737, he first pubHshed his Systema Natura?, Ley-
den, 1735, folio; then the Hortus Cliffortianus, Ley den, 1736,
folio; and, besides other treatises, the Genera Plantarum,
Ley den, 1737, in octavo. In 1741 he was professor at Up-
sal, and published, 1745, his classical Flora Suecica ; in
1751, the Philosophia Botanica ; and, in 1753, for the first
time, his Species Plantarum, in which 7300 species were enu-
merated. In 1762, the second edition of this work appeared,
in which the number of species had been increased by about
1500. His later discoveries were published in the Mantissa
Prima and Altera, and he died 1778.

456.

In his own time, a certain degree of opposition continued
to be made in Germany and France, to the innovations which
he introduced. In Germany this was occasioned, in the
Jirsi place, by the favourers of the system of Rivinus, to
whom belonged, in particular, Chr. Gottl. Ludwig, professor
at Leipsig, who died in 1773 ; and by whom the system of
Rivinus was always considered as fundamental, in his Defini-
tiones Plantarum, although he endeavoured to connect it
with the Linnajan System. In the second place, the autho-
rity of Haller, who was too much an enemy to the innovations
of Linnaeus, was detrimental to their extension. And, in the
last place, attempts were made to substitute other systems in
the place of the Linnaean, among which that proposed by
John Gottlieb Gleditsch, professor at Berlin, who died 1786,
deserves chiefly to be mentioned. This system appeared
in 1764, and founded the arrangement of plants simply

320 HISTORY OF BOTANY.

upon the situation oC the filaments, (140.) In France, tlie
same thini!; liappeneil, ])artly from the too great favour with
wliicli tlie system of Tournefort was received, partly because
Michael Adanson, of the Academy at Paris, who died 1806,
had again directed the attention of botanists, in his Fa-
milies des Plantes, to the i^.atural affinities (1G4), and Bern-
Iiarcl Jussieu, professor at Paris, who died 1777, founded
upon tliem a Natural jMethod, which is usually denomi-
nated the System of Trianon, because the plants were ar-
ranged according to this system in the royal garden at that
place ; (Mem. de f Acad, de Paris, 1774, p. 175—197.) The
Ibunder of this system took, as the principle of arrangement,
and the bond of the natural families, {)artly the pretended
number of cotyledons, partly the number of the petals, and
partly the insertion of the filaments on the receptacle, the
<-alyx, the corolla, or the pistil.

Meanwhile, the principles of the sexual theory were dis-
cussed during the time of I^innaeus, and this doctrine was se-
cured against objections and misapplications. Joseph Gott-
Heb Kolreuter, professor at Carlsruhe, who died 1799, in his
preliminary notices respecting some experiments relating to
the sex of ])lants, 1761 to 1766, threw great light on the ne-
cessity of the co-operation of the two sexes. William Frede-
rick Von Gleichen, counsellor to the Margrave of Anspach,
who died 1783, raised some doubts respecting the actual pas-
sage of the pollen, and proposed many objections to the sex-
ual theory, (Das Neueste aus dem Planzenreich, Nurnberg,
1768, folio) ; and Caspar Frederick Wolf, of the academy at
Petersburgh, who died 1794, gave, in his 'J^heoria Genera-
tionis, Halle, 1774, the most complete discussion of the phe-
nomena of fructification, as he also gave tlie first explanation
of the evolution of the organs of plants from one another ;
(Nov. Comment. Petrop. xii. p. 403; xiii. p. 478.)

457.

The anatomy of plants was neglected in the time of Lin-
naus. But George Christian Reichel, professor at Leipsig,
wlu) died 1771 ; John Hill, phv^ician in I^ondon, who died
177-3; and Hornce Benedict de Sau^siire, who died 1799,

lUSTOliy OF DOTANV. 321

were celebrated exceptions. The first gave the earliest cor-
rect representation of tlie primitive form of tlic spiral vessels ;
(Diss, de V'asis Plantariim Spiralibus, Leipsig, 1758, 4to.)
Hilfs Construction of Timber, London, 1770, 8vo. contains
good investigations respecting tl)e structure of wood, as also
respecting the effects of the absorption of coloured fluids, — and
it is adorned with good plates. Saussure's Observations sur
TEcorce des Feuilles et des Petales, Geneva, 1762, contains the
first correct researches respecting the slits. Nor must we forget
the excellent researches of Charles Bonnet, who died in 1793,
respecting the uses of leaves. These were first published at
Gottingen, 1754. Above all, however, Henry Ludwig du
Hamel du Monccau, inspector of the French Navy, who died
1782, deserves to be celebrated as the greatest writer of that
period respecting the physiology of plants. La Physique des
Arbres is the title of his immortal work, which was published
in two volumes at Paris, 1758.

458.

Foreign countries were examined, during the time of Lin-
naeus, chiefly by his scholars, among whom Frederick Has-
selquist, who died 1752; Peter Forskol, who died 1763;
Peter Lofling, who died 1756 ; and Peter Kalm, avIio died
1779, deserve particularly to be named. Hasselquist's Tra-
vels in Palestine were published by Linnaeus himself, 1757;
ForskoPs Flora vEgyptiaco-Arabica was published by Nie-
buhr, at Copenhagen, 1775; Ldfling's Travels in the Spanish
Dominions of America were published by Linn^rus, 1758;
and Kalm's Travels in North America were published in
three volumes, at Stockholm, 1753 to 1761.

The botanical treasures of Philibert Commerson, the fellow
traveller of Bougainville, who died 1773, could be of no ser-
vice to Linnaeus, because they were deposited with the French
Academy, and have been partly employed by Antony Lorenz
Jussieu.

Northern Asia was examined in the most careful manner,
during the time of Linnaeus, by Peter Simon Pallas, who
died in 1811. His Travels through the various Provinces of

X

the Russian Empire, in three vohimes, St Petersburgh, 1771
to 1776, produced a rich harvest of botanical discoveries.
Tiie Indian Flora also became more known, from tlie labours
of Nicholas Lorenzo Burmann, professor at Amsterdam, who
(Hed 1793, because, in his Flora Indica, Leyden, 1768, he
has formed a great number of new species from the collec-
tions of others.

The West Indies were examined in the most complete
manner, during the age of l.inna^us. Patrick Browne pub-
hshed his Civil and Natural History of Jamaica, Lon-
don, 1756, in foho; Nicolaus Joseph de Jacquin, his excel-
lent Historia Stirpium Selectarum Americanarum, Vienna,
1763, in folio; and a French apothecary, Fusee Aublet, his
incomj)arable Histoire des Plantes de la Guiane Franc^-aise, in
four volumes, Paris, 1775, in quarto.

Lastly, the treasures of the South Sea Islands were made
known by Cook's two companions during his second voyage,
namely, John Reinhold, who died 1798, and George Forster,
who died 1794. The Characteres Generum Plantarum ap-
peared at London 1776.

459.

Among the native Floras which became known in the time
of Linnaeus, we may mention the Flora Carniolica of John
Antony Scopoli, professor at Pavia, afterwards chief physi-
cian in Idria, who died 1788, published at Vienna 1772 ;
i>ut more especially tlie Flora Austriaca of Nicolaus Joseph
de Jacquin, in five centuria^, Vienna, 1773 to 1776, folio;
also the Historia Plantarum in Palatinatu Electoral! cres-
centium of John Adam Pollich, physician to the imperial
miners, who died 1780, three volumes, Manheim, 1776, and
the Flora Herbornensis of John Daniel Leer, 1775. Al-
brecht von Haller, originally professor at Gottingen, after-
wards landamman of the canton of Bern, who died 1777, pub-
fished a masterly work, his Historia Stirpium Helvetiae indi-
genarum, Bern, 1768, folio.

Among the French Floras of that period, the preference is
due to Lewis Gerard's Flora Gallo-Provincialis, Paris, 1761,

HISTOUY or BOTANY. .S2.'3

in octavo. Antony Gouan's Flora Monsj)cliaca, I-.yons,
1765, and the Ulustrationes et Observationes Botanicje of the
same author, pubhslied at Zurich, 1773, in folio.

The plants of Italy were examined with great (llligence by
Francis Seguier. His Plantar Veronenses appeared in three
volumes at Verona, 1745 to 1754.

A Spanish Flora was published by Don Joseph Quer y
Martinez, professor at Madrid, who died 1764. It appeared
in four quarto volumes at Madrid, 1762 to 1764.

An excellent English Flora was published by William
Hudson, apothecary in London, who died 1793, a second
edition having appeared in 1778 ; and the valuable Flora
Scotica of John Lightfoot, who died 1788, was published in
two volumes, London, 1777.

The Danish government did a permanent service io the
science, by causing the plants of Denmark to be engraved
at its own expence, and by devolving the care of the work
first upon George Christian Oeder, and afterwards u]:>on Otto
Frederick M tiller. In consequence of their labours ajipeared
the masterly work entitled Flora Danica, the four iirst volumes
of which were published from 1 761 to 1777. Nor ought we to
forget the Flora Norwegica of John Ernst Gunnerus, bishop
of Drontheim, who died 1773, two volumes, 1766 and 1772.

460.

Among the botanical gardens wliich were most celebrated
in the time of Linnaeus, we may notice particularly that at
Vienna, the rare plants of which were marked, by Jacquin, in
the Hortus Botanicus Vindoboncnsis, Vienna, 1770 to 1776.
three volumes. The garden at Upsal had been already de-
scribed by Linnaeus himself, in the year 1748.

VI. Recent History of Botany.

461.
Since the death of Linnaeus, the chief labours of botanists
have been employed in perfecting his svsteni, in applying it

' X 2

ti24> HISTORY or BOTANY.

10 the lower families of plants, in correcting it, and in fol-
lowing out with more attention those views which he had
neglected. Hence their chief attention has been directed to
the improvement of the generic characters, — more care has
been used in the examination of fruits and seeds, and, by de-
grees, the Linna?an System has come to be regarded simply
as an assistance to beginners, whilst the forming of a Natural
Method has been viewed as the highest object of botany.
Among the individuals who have examined the sexual sys-
tem, especially in the lower organic bodies, Casimir Christo-
pher Schmidel, professor at Erlangen, who died 1793, John
Hedwig, professor at Leipsig, who died 1799, and Joseph
Gottlieb Kolreuter, deserve to !)e first mentioned. Schmidefs
Icones et Analyses Plantaruni, Nurnberg, 1782, in folio ;
Hed wig's Theoria Generationis, Leipsig, 1798 ; his Funda-
mentuni Ilistoriye Naturalis Muscorum frondosorum, Leip-
sig, 1782; and his Stirpes Cryptogamica?, in four volumes,
Leipsig, 1787 to 1797 : and Kolreuter's Entdecktes Geheim-
iiiss der Kryptogamie, 1787, are the works in which princi-
pally the existence of the sexual parts, in the lower organic
bodies, are treated of. Yet that these excellent natural histo-
rians only followed out an idea which had formerly been con-
ceived, has been shewai by Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (Historia
Fucorum, St Petersburgh, 17G8), and Phihp Cavolini, (On
the Animal Plants ol' the Mediterranean, translated by Wil-
liam Sprengel, Nurnberg, 1813). The effect of the nectaries
t)n fructification, was completely developed by Christian Con-
rad Sprengel, who died 1816 ; (Das Entdeckte Geheimniss
der Natur im Bau, und in der Befruchtung der Blunien, Ber-
lin, 1793, 4to.)

The Linna'an Species Plantarum lias found several editors of
very unequal merit. John JiicobReieluird, phvsit ian at Frank-
iort on ihc Maine, who died 1789, produced nothing in his
edition, which was published in 1779 and 1780, in four vo-
lume;, but the supplements from the Mantissa? of Linnaeus,
and here and there some scattered remarks. The Systema
Vegetabilium of John Frederick Gmelin, professor at Got-

UlSTOllV OF BOTANV. .12.5

tingeii, 1791, soon fell into neglect, because it was conduct-
ed with little discrimination. Charles Lewis Willdenow,
professor at Berlin, who died 1812, edited an excellent edi-
tion of the Species, especially in that part which embraces the
ten latter classes. His edition appeared between 1797 and
1810, in ten volumes, and goes as far as the end of the
Ferns. An early death took from us a still more excellent
follower of Linnaeus. This was Martin Vahl, professor at
Copenhagen, who died 1804, and whose Enumeratio Planta-
rum includes only the first and second, and a part of the
third class. Christian Henry Persoon, in his Synopsis Plan-
tarum, 1805 and 1807, gave an Abridgment of Willdenow,
and added to it the recent discoveries of the French. Of late,
John Jacob Romer, professor at Zurich, who died 1819, and
Joseph August Schultes, professor at Landshut, have com-
menced an undertaking, to which we cannot but wish a more
successful progress, but to which the well-founded objection
of too great diffuseness, and of the want of critical discrimi-
nation, may be made ; (Systcma Vegetabilium, vol. i. 4to.,
Tubingen, 1817 to 1819.)

463.

The science has made the most important advances, since
the attention of natural historians was directed to the most
essential product of vegetation, namely, the seed and fruit ;
and since, by this means, the idea of natural relationship has
been again awakened. This zeal has been excited in the live-
liest manner by the masterly work of Joseph Gaertner, physi-
cian at Calw, in Wirtemberg, de Fructibus et Seminibus
Plantarum, whicli appeared in two volumes, at Stutgard,
1788 and 1791, with 180 copperplates, and to which his sou
added a Supplement, svith 45 copperplates, in 1805.

Independent of this author, Antony Lorenzo Jussicu, prow
fessor at Paris, in the spirit of his uncle, formerly mentioned,
constructed a natural method, which was published under the
title Genera Plantarum, 1789, and is distinguished chieHy by
its correct and carefully constructed generic characters. Ste-
phen Peter Ventenat, professor at Paris, who died 1808, also
Was of much service to the natural method, bv his Tableau

326 HisTOKV or botany.

du llegne \'egctal, Paris, 1799, iour volumes ; as also Au-
gustus Jolm George Cliarles Batsch, professor at Jena, wlio
died 1802, by his Tabuhe Affiuitatuiu Regni Vegetabilis,
Weimar, 1802 ; and, it is to be hoped, that Augustus Pyra-
nuis de Candolle, professor at Geneva, will gain the highest
credit, ])y the continuation of his Sy sterna Naturalc Regni
Vegetabilis, Paris, 1818.

464.

The anal(nnv and physiology of plants have gained new
life, especially in Germany, France, and Italy, since the
structure of plants has been examined, without reference to
preconceived ideas. John Hedwig, along with many import-
ant tiuths, had also given currency to some obvious mistakes,
especially in the collection of his scattered works, Leipsig,
1 793, in two volimies ; and the correct view (Prodrcmo di Fisi-
ca Vegetabile, Padua, 1791) of Andrew Camparetti, professor
at Padua, obtained little success, at least in Germany. Antony
Krocker, (Dc Plantarum Epidermide, Halle, 1800), and the
author of this history, in his Introduction to the Knowledge of
Plants, Halle, 1812, endeavoured, indeed, to lay open these
mistakes, and to shew the true structure of plants. But more
attention was paid in France to the frequently mistaken ideas
of C. F. Brisseau Mirbel, of the French Academy, in his
Traite d' Anatomic et de Physiologic Vegetales, Paris, 1802.
Meanwhile, Flenry Frederick Link, and Charles Asmund
lludolphi, professors at Berlin, as also Ludolph Christian
Treviranus, professor at Breslau, published more correct
views ; (Link, Grundlehen der Anatomic und Physiolo-
gic der Pflanzen, Berlin, 1807; Rudolphi, Anatomic der
Pflanzen, Berlin, 1807 ; and Treviranus, vom Inwendigen
P*au der Gewachse, Gcittingen, 1806.) Since then, Mir-
bel has come nearer the truth ; (Exjx)sition et Defense de ma
Theoric de V Organization Vegetale, Amsterdam, 1808.)
John Jacob Paul Moldcnhawer, professor at Kiel, by his
Contributions to the Anatomy of Plants, Kiel, 1815, quarto;
and George Kieser, professor at Jena, by his Memoire sur
r Organization dcs Plantes, Haarlem, 1813, quarto; and by
his Grundzuge der Anatomic der Pflanzen, Jena, 1815, have

IIISTOIIY OF BOTANY. .'327

()l)taiiied great distinction. On the })h)'si()l{)o y oi' plants in ge-
neral, several introductory works have appeared, nanvly, the
Traite Theorique ct Pratique sur la Vegetation, by Mus-
tel, a Frencli officer, published at Rouen, 1781, in four
volumes ; the Physiologic Vegetale of John Senebier, a
Genevese clergyman, who died 1809, Geneva, 1800, in five
volumes ; the Vegetable Physiology of Darwin, ])hysician
at Derby, who died 1802, translated at Lei])sig, 1801 ;
the System of Physiological Botany of P. Keith, clergy
at Bethersden, in England, London, 1816. in two volun.

auci

465.

Native plants have recently been exair.incd whh g\vA\
care.

To begin with Germany. — In the Manual of Botany, by
Christ. Schkuhr, mechanician at Wittenberg, who died 1811,
published at Wittenberg between 1791 and 1803, in three vo-
lumes, with nearly 500 plates, we have a multitude of very
excellent drawings and dissections, chiefly of native, but also
of many exotic plants. The Flora of Germany, in plates, by
Jacob Sturm, artist at Nurnberg, in three parts, and sixty-
five numbers, likewise deserves, in every respect, the most
honourable mention. The Flora Germanica of Henry Adoi-
phus Schrader, professor at Gottingen, of which the first vo-
lume appeared in 1806, is distinguished by the most perfect
accuracy and care. It is only to be lamented, that it has not
been continued till the present time. Among the Floras
of particular districts of Gernuiny, we may mention, espe-
cially, the Flora Badensis, in three volumes, by Charles
Christ. Gmelin, physician at Baden, ])ublished at Carlsruhe,
1805 and 1810 ; the Flora Cryptoganiica Erlangensis of
Charles Frederick Phihp Martins, published at Nurnberg,
1817; and the Prodronuis Flora^ Neomarchicje oi" John Fre-
derick llebentisch, published at Berlin, 1804.

A general Flora of France was published by Augustus
Pyramus de Candolle, in the Flore Fran(,'aise, Paris, 1805
to 1816, in six volumes ; and by Loiseleur Dc^longchanijjs.
in his Flora GalJica, Paris, 1806 and 1807. Anions the

iJ28 UKSTUKV cjI' JurrANv.

Floras of particular districts we may mention, especially^ the
classical Ilistoire dcs Plantcs de Dauphine, by Villars, professor
at Strasburg, who had carefully examined the Alps which divide
Italy from Switzerland, the Vogeses, and the south of France,
along with Chaix, a clergyman at Gap, and Clapier, physician
at Grenoble. He died in 1813. The work was published in
four volumes, 1786 to 1789, at Grenoble, with 55 copper-
plates. The Histoire Abregee des Plantes des Pyrenees,
Tlioulouse, 1813, in octavo, also belongs to the class of ap-
proved works.

Among Italian Floras, the following deserve the most re-
spectful notice, namely, the Flora Pedemontana of Charles
Allioni, professor at Turin, who died 1804, published in
three volumes, at Turin, 1785, with 92 copperplates, folio ;
the Flora Neapolitana, Naples, 1811, in folio, by Michael
Tenore, professor at Naples ; and the Flora Ticinensis, Pa-
via, 1816, by Dominicus Nocca, professor at Pavia, and John
Baptiste Balbis, professor at Lyons, Pavia, 1816. The Si-
cilian Flora has found its votaries in Antonin Bivona^Ber-
nardi, who published Plantar um Sicularum cent. 1 — 2, Paler-
mo, 1806, 1810, in octavo ; and Stirpium Rariorum in Sici-
lia provenientium Manip. 1 — 4, Palermo, 1813 to 1816, in
quarto ; and in Constantin Schmalz Rafinesque, who pub-
lished Carattcri di alcuni Gcneri di Piante, Palermo, 1810,
octavo.

The Flora of Portugal, which had long been neglected,
was carefully edited by Fehx Avellar Brotero, professor at
Coimbra, in his Flora Lusitanica, Liitbon, 1804, two volumes;
and by Henry Frederick Link, and the Count Hoffmansegg,
in the Flore Portugaise, Berlin, 1809 to 1814, folio.

Great Britain can boast of an excellent work, with copper-
plates, on the native Flora, published under the title English
Botany, by James Sowerby and Sir James Edward Smith, in
thirty-six volumes, from 1790 to 1814. The latter author
also published a Flora Britannica, in three volumes, London,
1800 to 1804, which possesses distinguished scientific merit.
Not less meritorious is the Muscologia Britannica, by William
Jackson Hooker and Thomas Taylor, London, 1818.

HIS'lOKV Ol" JtO'i'AN^ . 229

With respect ti) the other northern countries, tlie Flora
Danica, by Martin Vahl and James AViJkin Hornemann, was
continued to the end of the ninth voknne. In Sweden, J. W.
Pahnstruch and C W. Venus, pubhshed a Swedish l^olany,
beginning in 1802, after the model of the English Botany ;
and George Wahlenberg published a masterl)/ work, entitled
Flora Lapponica, Berlin, 1812.

Among the districts of Poland, those which are most south-
erly were examined in a very complete manner by W. S.
J. G. Besser, professor at Krzeminiec, in Podolia, and his
Primitia3 Flora? Galiciae, Vienna, 1809, in two volumes, be-
long to the class of the most perfect works of this kind.

The rich treasures of Hungary, and of the neighbouring
territories, were examined at the cxpence of Count Francis
von Waldstein, by Paul Kitaibel, professor at Pesth, who
died 1817, and were made known in his masterly work, en-
titled Descriptiones et Icones Plantar um Ilariorum Hunga-
rise, Vienna, 1803 to 1812, in three volumes. The Tran-
sylvanian Flora also, found an editor in Job. Christ. Gottl.
Baumgarten, physician at Schiisburg, whose Enumeratio
Stirpium Transylvaniae was published in three volumes, at
Vienna, 1816.

466.

Among foreign countries, which, in recent times, have been
examined by botanists, we begin with the Levant. Johi\
Sibthorp, professor at Oxford, twice examined Greece and
Asia Minor, and was only prevented by death from {)ub-
hshing his discoveries. In consequence of his will, however,
a magnificent work, entitled Flora Gra^ca, has been published
since the year 1806, — a useful compend of which work has
been pubhshed, in two volumes, by Sir James l^dward Smith,
in the Prodromus Flora? Gra?ca>, London, 1806 to 1813.
The Icones Plantarum Syriae Ilariorum of Jacob Julius la
Billardiere, published at Paris, 1791, also deserve to be
mentioned with applause. The Aiabian plants, brought by
Forskol, were re-examined by Martin Vahl, and described,
along with many other plants brought from Malabar, by

TM lIlSTOliY OF BOTANY.

Konig, and the West Indies, by Pflug and Rohr, in his Sym-
bolis Botanicis, vol. 1—3, Copenhagen, 1790 to 1794, foHo.

Since the Russian dominion extended itself over Caucasus,
this very important country lias been examined by several
excellent natural historians, and, in regard to its botany, it
has been most carefully investigated by Baron Frederick
Mai'shall von Biebeistein. His excellent Flora Taurico-Cau-
casica appeared in two vokmics, at Cracow, 1808.

The dominion of England in the East Indies gave new life
to the zeal for the search of plants in these regions. The
most important work on the subject was that published by
WilHam Roxburgh in his Plants of the Coast of Coromandel,
London 1795, three volumes. The Flora Cochin-Chinensis
of John de Loureiro, a Portuguese missionary, which was
published at Lisbon 1790, is also very valuable. With re-
spect to Japan, we have the admirable Flora Japonica of
Charles Peter Thunberg, published at Leipzig 1784, with
forty copperplates.

In regard to Africa, the learned companions of the expedi-
tion of Bonaparte to Egypt, in the year 1798, have enriched
the science with many important contributions, in the magni-
ficent work entitled Description de TEgypt, Paris 18LS. A
compend of this was published by A. R. Delile, under the
title of INIemoires Botaniques, Paris 1813. On the Flora of
northern Africa, appeared a valuable work of Renatus Des-
fontaines, professor at Paris, Flora Atlantica, Paris 1800, in
two volumes, with 261 copperplates. One part of the coast
of Guinea was examined by A. M. F. J. Palisot-Beauvois,
Flore d'Oware et de Benin, Paris 1804 to 1810, in folio.
Charles Peter Thunberg described the rich Flora of southern
Africa in his Prodromus Plantarum Capensium, Upsal 1794
and 1800; and in the Flora Capensis, Upsal 1813. iVIasca-
ren's Land and Madagascar were examined by Aubert du
Petit-Thouars, Histoire des Vegetaux recueillis dans les Isles
Australes d'Afrique, P^ris 1806, in quarto.

We possess excellent Floras of North America by Andrew
jNIlchaux, Flora Boreali-Americana, Paris 1803 ; by Frede-
ric Pursh, Flora Americjje Septentrionallcj, I^ondon 1814;

HISTOllV OF BOTANY. 331

and by Thomas Nuttall, Genera of North American Plants,
Philadelphia 1818, hi two volumes. S'Lcphen Elliot exa-
mined the southern states ; Botany of the Southern States,
Carolina and Georgia, Charlestown 1817, 1818. Some con-
tributions were furnished by Henry Muhlen})ero-, clergyman
at Lancaster, who died 1816, Catalogus Plantarmn Americfe
Septentrionalis, Lancaster 1813, octavo ; by Const. Schmal/
Rafinesque, Florula Ludoviciana, translated from the French
of C. C. Robin, New York 1817, octavo; and by C. W. Ed-
dy and J. Torrey ; (A Catalogue of Plants growing sponta-
neously within thirty miles of the city of New York, Albany
1819, octavo.)

Olaus Swarz, professor at Stockholm, who died 1817, des-
cribed in a very complete manner the West Indian Hora in
his Flora India? Occidentahs, Erlangen 1797 to 180G, in
three volumes.

The Spaniards Hippolytus Ruiz and Joseph Pavon, have
made us acquainted with a multitude of new genera and spe-
cies belonging to Peru and Chili, in their Flora Peruviana
et Chilensis, Madrid 1798, in folio. But Alexander von
Humboldt has gained immortal honour by his numerous bo-
tanical discoveries, the fruits of his travels through Spanish
America. He published them along with Amatus Bonpland,
in his Plantes Equinoxiales, and with Charles Kimth in his
Nova Genera et Species Plantar um, Paris 1815, in three vo-
lumes.

Lewis Nee, the companion of Malaspina, examined with
much care the South Sea Islands. Antony Joseph Cava-
nilles, professor at Madrid, who died 1804, availed himself of
his treasures, and described them in his Icones et Descrij)-
tiones Plantarum, Madrid 1791 to 1799, in six volumes. Jiu
cob Julius la Billardiere published an excellent Flora of New
Holland, under the title Novae Hollandia^ Plantarum Speci-
men, Paris 1804, in folio, with ^65 copperplates. A\'e owe
the greatest obligations to the ingenious Robert Bi'own, whose
Prodromus Florae Novfe HollandicT, London 1810, very rare,
and his General Remarks on the Botany ol" Terra Aust rails,
London 1814, are uncommonly valuable.

332 IIISTOUV OF BOTANY.

467.

Some particular fiimilies and genera have been examined in
recent times with the most perfect care, and the science has
thus been extended.

The Fungi have been represented in good plates by
Augustus John George Charles Batsch, professor at Jena,
who died 1802, (Elenchus Fungorum, Halle 1783, 1784) ;
by BuUiard, (Herl)ier de la France, div. ii. 1791, in
folio) ; by Jacob Bolton, (History of Funguses growing
about Halifax, vol. i. iii. suppl. tab. 1, — 182, Huddersfield
1788, — 1791, quarto); and by James Sowerby, (Coloured
Figures of English Mushrooms, n. i — 29, London 1799 to
1814, folio.) The scientific knowledge of Fungi and their
genera was first established by Henry Julius Tode, clergy-
man in Mecklenburgh, who died 1799, (Fungi Mecklenbur-
gensis Selecti, fasc. 1. 2. Luneburg 1790, 1791, quarto.) He
was followed by Christ. Henr. Persoon, whose system was
long the only one ; (Synopsis Methodica Fungorum, Gottin-
gen 1801, octavo ; Observationcs Mycologicae, vol. i. ii.
Leipzig 1796, 1798.) J. B. von Albertini and L. D. von
Schweinitz extended the knowledge of species ; (Conspectus
Fungorum in Agro Nicskiensi crescentium, Leipzig 1805, oc-
tavo.) But Henry Frederick Link (Berlin Magazin, iii.
s. 1 — 42, vii. s. 25 — 45), and C. G. Nees von Esenbeck
(Das System der Pilze und Schwamme, Wurzburg 1817,
quarto), were the founders of entirely new views and divi-
sions of these families.

Our knowledge of the Algae was chiefly extended by Al-
bert Wilkelm Roth, physician at Vegesack ; (Catalecta Bo-
tanica, fasc. 1 — 3, Leipzig 1797, 1806.) Afterwards John
Peter Vaucher, clergyman at Geneva, examined the fresh
water Confervae, and divided them into natural genera ;
(Histoire des Conferees d'Eau douce, Geneva 1803, quarto.)
Lewis Weston Dillwyn published excellent plates of the
same, (Synopsis of the British Confervae, fasc. 1 — 20, Lon-
don 1802, and following years) ; and J. A. P. Ducluzeau de-
scribed them as they grow in the south of France, (Essai sur
THistoire Naturelle des Conferves des Environs de Montpel-

HISTORY OF BOTANV. f^33

lier, 1805, octavo.) ' The Fuci have lately been more cor-
rectly classed by J. B. F. Lamouroux, professor at Caen,
(Ann. (le Mus. xx. p. 21, IIG, 267.) ; by Job. Stackhouse,
(Nereis Brittanica, ed. ii. Oxford 181G, folio; by Charles
Agardh, (Synopsis Algarum Scandinaviae, London 1817, oc-
tavo) ; and by H. Christ. Lyngbye, (Tentamen Hydrophy-
tologia* Danica.', Copenhagen 1819, quarto, with 70 co])-
perplates.) Dawson Turner published valuable plates of
ihe known species, (Fuci, or coloured figures and descrip-
tions of the plants referred by botanists to the genus Fucus,
vol. i.— iv. London 1807—1811.)

George Francis Hoffman, professor at Gottingen, now at
Moscow, published good plates of the Lichens, (Plantar Li-
chenosas, vol. i. — iii, Leipzig 1789 to 1801, folio). But for
the system of this family, we are indebted to Erick Acha-
rius, physician at Badstena, (Lichenographia I'niversalis,
Gottingen 1810, quarto ; Synopsis Methodica Lichenum,
Land. 1814, octavo.)

The Jungermannia} were chiefly studied by William Jack-
son Hooker, (Jung-ermanniarum Icones, fasc. 1 — 20, Lon-
don 1813, quarto.)

The Musci Frondosi were investigated in a very excellent
manner by John Hedwig, and a system proposed by him,
which deserved and obtained almost universal approbation,
because the parts of fructification in particular were examined
and represented with great skill, (Fundamenta Hisitoriye Na-
turalis Muscorum frondosorum, vol. i. ii. Leipzig 1782-«-4;
Descriptiones et Adumbrationes Muscorum frondosorum, vol.
i. ii., Leipzig 1189 to 1797, in folio; Species Muscorum
frondosorum, Leipzig 1801, quarto.) His worthy follower,
Fr. Schwagrichen, enriched botany with a great number of
new species, (Supplcmentum ad Species Muscorum, vol. i. ii.
Leipzig 1811, 1816, cpiarto). We are also much indebtml
to W. J. Hooker for our knowledge of British (Musco-
logia Britannica, London 1818, octavo,) and exotic Mosses,
(Musci Exotici, vol. i. ii. London 1818, 1819, octavo). A
new system of this family has lately been constructed by Sam.

334 HISTOKV OF liOTAXY.

El. von Bridel, (Methoclus Nova Muscorum, Gotha 1819,
quarto.)

Sir James Edward Sniitli had already given much attention
to Ferns, and has established the principles according to which
they ought to be divided, (Mem. de TAcad. de Turin, vol. v.
p. 401.) ;• But Olaus Swartz completed this system, (Synop-
sis Filicum, Keil 1806, octavo.)

Christ. Schkuhr published a good monograph on the
Reeds, (Besclireibung und Abbildung der Ried-grasser, Wit-
tenberg 1801 to 1806, octavo, with 93 copperplates. The
Austrian Grasses were excellently delineated by Nicolaus
Thomas Host, an Austrian physician, (Icones et Descrip-
tiones Graminum Austriacorum, vol. i. — iv. Vienna 1801
to 1814) ; and John Gaudin, clergyman in Waadtland,
described the Grasses of Switzerland, (Agrostologies Hel-
vetica", vol. i. ii. Paris 1811, octavo.) John Christian Da-
niel Schreber, professor at Erlangen, who died 1810, in-
stituted excellent investigations respecting particular grasses,
and published very good figures of them, (Besclireibung
der Grasser, th. 1 — 3, Leipzig 1769 to 1810, in folio.)
An entirely new and peculiar system was formed by A. M.
F. J. Palisot de Beauvois, (Essai d\me Nouvelle Agrosto-
graphie, ou Nouveaux Genres des Graminees, Paris 1812,
octavo.)

Amoncr the Pine tribe tbe o^enus Pinus was described
by Aylmer Bourke Lambert, (A Description of the Genus
Pinus, London 1803, in folio).

The Coronariag and Liliaceae were studied by Augustus
Pyraraus de Candolle and P. J. Redoute, (Histoire de Plantes
Grasses, i. — xxii. Paris 1799 to 1811, in folio ; and Les Li-
liacees, vol. i.—viii. Paris 1802 to 1816, in folio.) The text
of the latter work was furnished for the first four volumes by
De Candolle, and for the fifth, sixth, and seventh, by F. de la
Roche, and for the eighth by A. R. Delile. The genus Aloe was
thoroughly and carefully examined by Charles Lewis Willde-
now (Berlin Mag. v. s. 163. f.), and by the Prince of Salm-
Dyck, (Veizeichniss der verschiedenen Arten des Geschlechtes
Aloe, 1817, octavo.) These, and other succulent plants were

HISTOKV OF liOTAXV. 335

described by Adrian Hardy Haworth in several works, (Synop-
sis Plantaruni succidentarum, adjungitiir Narcissoruni revisio,
London 1819, octavo ; Miscellanea Naturalia, London 1803,
octavo; Transactions of Linn. Soc. vol. vii. p. 1. s.) The
Spathaceae were divided by John Bellenden GaAv ler, now Kcr,
into several Genera, (Ann. of Bot. i. p. 216.)

The Scitamineae were subjected by William lloscoe (Trans.
Linn. Soc. vol. viii. p. 330.), and by William Roxburgh
(Asiat. Research, vol. xi. p. 200.) to a new revision. The same
was done by Glaus Swartz with the Orchideje, (Act. Soc.
Scient. Upsal, vi. p. 59. s. ; Stockh. Acad. Handl, 1800,
p. 202. s. ; Schrader's Journal, 1799, st. ii. s. 201 ; and
Neues Journal, st. i. s. 1. f.)

Of the Chenopodeae, Peter Simon Pallas studied the salt
plants of the East ; (Illustrationes Plantaruni imperfecte aut
nondum cognitarum, Leipzig 1803, folio.)

Among the Thymelaeae, the genus Daphne was examined by
John Em. Wikstrom; (Diss, de Daphne, Upsal 1817, quar-
to.)

A complete revision of the Proteacese was published by
Robert Brown ; (Trans. Linn. Soc. vol. x. p. 15. — ^226.)

Of the Amentacea?, the Willows were examined by George
Francis Hoffman, (Historia salicum, iconibus illustrata,vol.i.ii.
Leipzig 1785 to 1791, folio) ; and by W. C. Seiinge, teacher
at Bern, (Essai d'une Monographic des Saules de la Suisse,
1815, octavo).

The North American Oaks were studied by Andr. Mi-
chaux; (Histoire des Chenes de PAmerique, Paris 1801, in
folio.)

Of the Tricoccae, the genus Croton was made the subject
of an inquiry by Edward Ferdinand Geiserl ; (Crotonis Mo-
nographia, Halle 1807, octavo.)

The genera Primula and Nicotiana were studied by J. G.
C. Lehmann, professor at Hamburgh ; (Monographia generis
Primularum, Leipzig 1817, quarto ; Historia generis Nico-
tianarum, Hamburg 1818, quarto.) The same author pub-
hshed a classical revision of the Asperifoliae ; (Planta' e fami-
lia Asperifoliarum nuciferae, vol. i. ii. Berlin 1818, quarto.)

3*36 111 STOP. Y OF U OTA NY.

Michael reiix Dunal, professor at Montpellier, examined
the genus Solanimi ; (Ilistoire cle Solanum, Montpellier 1818,
quarto ; Solanoriim Generunuiiie aftinium synopsis, Mont-
pellier 1816, (xtavo.)

A complete revision of the Contortae was published by Ro-
bert Brown, (Transact. Wern. Soc. vol i. p. 40. s.) ; and ex-
cellent montjgraphsof the genus Stapelia have been drawn up
by Francis Masson (Stapeliie Novae, London 1796, folio), and
by Nicolaus Joseph von Jaetjuin (Stapeliarum Descriptiones,
iconibus illustrata?, ^'ienna 1806, folio.)

The species of the genus Erica have been described and
figured by H. C. Andrews, (Coloured Engravings of Heaths,
vol. i. — iii. London 1803 to 1809, folio) ; and by John Chris-
topher Wendland, (Ericarum Icones et Descriptiones, fasc,
1—17, Hanover 1798 to 1806, quarto.)

A new tribe of the Composita^ was constructed by Marian
Lagasca (Amoenidades Naturales de las Espanas, Orihuela
1811, quarto), and by Augustus Pyramus de Candolle, (Ann.
du Mus. xix. p. 59. ; Ilecueil de Mem. sur la Botanique, Pa-
hs 1813, quarto). But Henry Cassmi (Journ. de Bot. Nouv.
iv. p. 231. s. ; Dictionnaire des Scien. Nat. x. p. 131. s.), and
Robert Brown (Trans. Linn. Soc. vol. xii. p. 75.) have pub-
lished interesting observations on the whole family.

The Valeriantx? were examined by P. Dufresne, (Histoire
Naturelle de la Famille des Valerianees, Mont})ellier 1811,
quarto.)

Of the Rubiacca?, the genus Cinchona was described by
Aylmer Bourke, (A Description of the Genus Cinchona,
London 1797, quarto.)

The umbelliferous plants were examined after Peter Cus-
son, professor at Montpellier, who died 1783, (Hist, et Mem.
de la Soc. Roy. de Medec. 1781, 1782, p. 275.), by George
Frederick Hoffman (Genera Umbelliferarum, ed. nov. Mos-
cow 1816, octavo,) and the author oi' this history, (Plantarum
Umbelliferarum denuo disponendarumProdromus, Halle 1813,
(x:tavo ; Species Umbelliferarum minus cognita', Halle 1818,
({uarto.) The genus Eryngium was described by Francis de
la RocIk , (Ervngiorum Ilistoria, Paris 1808, folio.)

HISTORY OF iiOTANY. o'M

Caspar Count von Sternberg gave excellent (igurcs ot the
Saxifragae, (Revisio Saxifragarum, iconibus illustrala, Re-
gensburg 1810, folio.)

The Anoneae were arranged by Michael Felix Dunal,
(Monographic de la Famille des Anonacees, Paris 1817,
quarto.)

The cruciform plants were revised by Robert Brown (Ailon.
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. vol. iv. p. 71—130.), and by Desvaux
(Journ. de Bot. Nouv. iii. p. 145. s.) ; the genus Bisculella
by De CandoUe, (Recueil de Mem. sur la Botan. 1813, cjuar-
to) ; the Papavereae by L. G. A. Viguicr, (Histoire Natu-
relle des Pavots, Montpellier 1814, quarto) ; the Ranuncu-
lese by J. A. J. Biria (Histoire Naturellc des Rcnoncules,
Montpellier 1811, quarto.)

Of the leguminous plants, the Clover species were more ac-
curately determined by Joh. Christ. Dan. Schreber, (Sturm's
Deutsche Flor. No. 17.) ; and by Gaetan Savi, (Observationes
in varias Trifoliorum Species, Florence 181 0, octavo). Augus-
tus Pyramus de CandoUe (Astragalogiie, Paris 1802, folio),
and Peter Simon Pallas (Species Astragalorum descriptae et
iconibus illustratae, Leipzig 1800, folio,) revised the genus
Astragalus. Humboldt and Kunth arc now publishing the
American Mimosae.

Charles Lewis THeritier (Geraniologia, Paris 1787, 1788,
folio,) and H. C. Andrews (Geraniums, or a Monography of
the genus Geranium, London 1805,) examined accurately the
Geraniae.

Nicolaus Joseph von Jacquin published an excellent mono-
graph of the Oxalidnc, (Oxalis Monographia, Vienna 1794,
quarto.)

The Malvaceae, Melica*, Passiflorac, and Malpighieac, were
revised by Antony Joseph Cavaniilcs, (Monadelphiir Classis
diss. X. Madrid 1790, with 296 copperplates, (piarlo) : the
Ochnea^ and Simarubea? were revised by Augustus Pyramus
de CandoUe, (Recueil de Mem. sur la Botan. 1813.)

Of the Aizoidje, the Mesembryanthema were examined by
Adrian Hardv Haworth, (Observations on the genus Mesem-

Y

33B HISTOr.Y OF BOTANY.

bryamlieiTium, London 1794, octavo; Miscellanea Naturalia,
London 1803.)

The Melastomea?, collected during the travels of Hum-
boldt, were revised by Amatus Bonpland in a magnificent
work, (Monographic des Melastomes, fasc. i. — vi. Paris 1809,
quarto.)

Of the Roseaeece, the Potentillae were subjected to a new
revision by C. G. Nestler, professor at Strasburg (Monogra-
phia de Potentilla, Strasburg 1816, quarto), and by J. C. G.
Lehman. The splendid works on Roses by Miss Lawrence
(Collection of Roses from Nature, London 1799, folio,) and
by P. J. RcdoiUe (Les Roses, liv, i. — xi. Paris 1816, folio,)
have not been of any particular advantage to the science.

468.

Among the botanical gardens of recent times, that at
Schonbrun near Vienna deserves to be first mentioned. Its
treasures were described by the elder Jacquin, in the Hortus
Schonbrunnensis, Vienna 1797, in four volumes. To this
department belong also his Icones Plantarum rarioriim, in
three volumes, Vienna 1781 to 1795, and the Eclogae Planta-
rum rariorum of his son Joseph Francis von Jacquin, Vienna
1811 to 1816. Next to this, the garden at Berlin has be-
come celebrated by the zeal of Willdenow, and the rare ta-
lents of its present superintendant Otto. The Hortus Bero-
linensis of Willdenow, Berlin 1809, folio, rivals the work of
Jacquin ; and his Enumeratio Plantarum Horti Berolinensis,
BerHn 1809, is a very rich, scientific, and useful catalogue.

Among the botanical gardens of France, that established by
Josephine Bonaparte at Mahiiaison has been celebrated from
the splendid work which the superintendant Ventenat began
to publish in 1803, in folio, under the title Jardin de la Mal-
maison, and which Amatus Bonpland continued, (Description
des Plantes rares cultivees a Malmaison et a Navarre, hvr.
i.— i. Paris 1803 to 1816, in folio.) Ventenat pubhshed fi-
gures o( the rarer plants in a nursery-garden, and described
them under the titles. Description des Plantes dans le Jardin

HISTORY OF BOTANY. .'339

de M. Cels, Paris 1800, folio, and Choix des Plantes dans Ic
Jardin de Cels, Paris 1803, folio.

The gardens of Great Britain are the richest and most ce-
lebrated of modern times. In the first rank stands the Royal
Garden at Kew, of which a description was published by its
first superintendant WiUiam Aiton, who died 1793, under
the title Hortus Kewensis, three volumes, 1789. The new
edition of this work was published by the younger Aiton,
with the assistance of Robert Brown, in five volumes, from
1810 to 1813. The treasures of the English gardens had
been previously figured and described by Charles Lewis
L'Heritier, who died 1800, in his Sertum Anglicum, Paris
1788, and in his Stirpes novae aut minus cognitae, fasc. i. — vii.
Paris 1784, folio ; also by Sir James Edward Smith in his
Exotic Botany, London 1804 to 1808, and by Richard An-
tony Salisbury in his Paradisus Londinensis. But the finest
works in this department, are the expensive copperplate works
of Henry Andrews, The Botanist's Repository, London 1797
to 1808 ; The Botanical Magazine of Curtis and Sims, and
the Botanical Register, edited by Ker. An intelligently con-
ducted Catalogue of the Plants in the English Gardens was
published by Robert Sweet, under the title Hortus Subur-
ban us Londonensis, 1818.

Among the other gai'den catalogues, the following deserve
to be particularly noticed : Agustus Pyramus de Candolle's Ca-
talogus Plantar um Horti Botanici Monspeliensis, 1813, octavo,
andMarian Lagasca's Elenchus Plantarum quae inHortoRcgio
botan. Matritensi colebantur, Madrid 1816, quarto ; Genera
et Species Plantarum, quae aut novae aut sunt nondum rccte
cognoscuntur, Madrid 1816, quarto.

Y9

PRACTICAL PART.

PRACTICAL PART.

CLASS I

Hippuris vulgaris.

Kazenzahl, Weisse Seetannc, Tannwcdel. — Fren. Pesse com^
mime. — Eng. Mare's-tale, Paddow-pipe, — Ital. La Corre-
g iola femmina. — S wed. Hastswants.

There are few of the higher plants which have so simple a
structure as this, or which have so much simpUcity in the re-
lations of the essential parts.

In deep ditches, in standing and running waters, there
arises in spring a round stem, from one to two feet above the
water, straight, perpendicular, almost stiff (41.), and simple
(45.) Its colour is reddish ; and its circumference is iu size
about that of the quill of a pigeon's or hen's feather. It is
also jointed (40.), and shoots out under the water, first, ho-
rizontal fibrous roots, and, next, pellucid, linear-lanceolate
leaves. On dissection, we discover in the circumference a
compound cellular texture, with distinct regular interstices
(299.) ; and in the centre there is a firm cord, composed of
spiral vessels and sap-tubes (280.)

Above the water, there spring from each joint of tlie stem
conmionly from eight to ten leaves, arranged in a circle (36.) ;
sonictinies also, especially under the water, fasliioned into a
s}>iial shape (37 ) horizoiitul, Iliu-ai-lanccolale, somewhat oh-

344 1. HIPPUIUS VULGARIS. [CL. I.

tuse {55.), quite entire, without nerves, opakc, of the length
of a finger-nail, or of the thumb, (16.) These leaves, espe-
cially on their lower surface, have pretty large slits, (309.)

At the base of the leaves, or in the axis of the leaves, there
appear in spring, in the first place, some larger bodies, which
we may consider with Haller (Hist. Stirp. Helv. 1752), as
buds ; and, secondly, small ovaria, surmounted by a simple
pistil, on both sides of which, the rudiments of llie two-lobed
anthers stand directly over the germen. The anther after-
wards is elevated upon a simple filament, about the length of
the pistil, by the side of which it stands, and continues till the
seed is almost fully ripe. The external cover of the germen
maylx? considered as the calyx, which in ihat case will be a su-
perior one, (34.) Tlie germen shews as its fruit, whilst the ex-
ternal cover swells, a smooth, oval nut, with a similar shaped
cavity, in which the seed lies. This contains, amidst the near-
ly consumed albumen, a filamentous embryo in the centre,
ha\nng its radicle directed upwards.

Geographical Distribution.

With res].iect to the geographical distribution of the plant,
it seems to thrive only in the waters of the Northern Hemi-
.sphere. It grows as far as the Polar circle, (Wahlenb. Flor.
Lapp. p. 1.), in Europe, Asia, and America, (Pursh, Amer.
Sept. p. 3. ; Nuttal, p. 3.) But the American form is con-
sidered as a distinct variety, since it has almost always only
six leaves in the circle. But it does not grow farther south
than the north of Italy, the south of France, and the north
of Spain. Hence its southern limit in Europe seems to be the
44° N. Lat. In Asia, it scarcely passes beyond the 5^. But
in Nortli America it is found even under the 35°.

Syn&ivijmes and Figures.

Polygonum femina, Label, ic. 792. — Matth. Valgri.% 485. —

Dodcn. U^.-^Dahch. 1072.— J. Bauh. Hht. 3. 732.
Cauda equina femina, Gerard. Evinc. 1114.

CL. I.] 1. HIPPUIIIS VULGARIS. 345

Equisetum palusire, brevibus foliis polyspermum, C. Bauhluy

15. Parkin's Theatr. 1200.
Pinastella, Dill. Giess. Jpp. 168. Biuvb. Hal. 261.
Limnopeuce, V. Cord. Hist. p. 150. Vaill. Mem. dc Paris,

1719, p. 15. t. 1. f. S. Hall. Stirj). n. 1572.
Hippuris vulgaris, Linn. Fl. Dan. 87. Engl. Hot. 76'J.

Gdrtn. Friict. t. 84. Richard in Ann. da Mu^-. J3. t. '30.

f. 8.

Affinity.

The first authors who arranged this plant in a natural or-
der, placed it beside Ceratophyllum^ Myriopliyllum^ Zanni-
chellia, and immediately after it they placed Pilnlaria, {Ray,
syn. p. 136.) Linna?us also placed it along with similar
plants in his 15th tribe, which he called Inundates, {Giseke
Ord. Nat. p. 327.) Batsch followed the same plan (Tab.
Ajffin. Regn. Veget. p. 161.), denying at the same time, very
improperly, to the Inundatae, the albumen in the seed. And
Jussieu opened with this plant his family of the Naiada?,
placing Chara immediately after it, {Jussieu, Gen, Plant.
p. 18.) But Adanson was the first who thought of a higher
place, for he placed his Limnopeuce among the Elaeagna> be-
tween Thesium and Cynomorium, {Adanson, Famill. 2.
p. 80.) More lately Jussieu has approved of this arrange-
ment, {Ann. du Mus. 3. p. 323.) ; and De Candolle has
placed the plant among the Onagrae, {Fl. Franc. 4. 415.)
Lastly, Nuttal thinks it has no afiinities.

But when we direct our attention to the existence of a cen-
tral bundle of spiral vessels, and to the slits on the surface,
and recollect the law, that essential differences of internal
structure almost always correspond with differences in the
formation of the seed, and in external relations (170.), Adan-
son's idea gains considerable strength. If we compare Ela-
agnus and Hippophde with this plant, the formation of the
seed, and the position of the embryon, on which most de-
pends, agree completely, (171.) Instead of the nut in oui-
plant, these others have a drupe. The calyx, whitli in
the Hippuris is not unfolded, consists in Elrrngnus of four

346 2. agahdhia cKYrTANTHA. [cl. i,

parts, aiid in Hippophdc of two ; but, in both cases, it standi
above tlie Iruit. It is true, lliat in the two latter plants, the
filaments ai'c four ; but we know that a uniform abortion ac-
counts for the want of organs of the same kind, (180.)

Uses.

Only goats eat this plant. It contributes to the purifica-
tion of air in standing water.

2.

Agardhia cryptantha.

Char. Gen. Cal. 3-sepalus, inferus. Cor. 5-petala, convo-
hita. Stam. 1, anthera magna. Drupa 3-locularis, 3-val-
vis.

Ramum florentem habeo e Brasilia, cortice fusco. Folia op-
posita, ovata, inaequalia, coriacea, integerrima, acuta, nervo-
so-venosa, duos poUices cum dimidio longa, duos fere pol-
lices lata, utrinque glaberrima ; petioli fusci ; canalicula-
ti, semipollicares, patentes. Racemus terminalis, aphyllus,
nutans. Flores flavidi. Calyx trisepalus, subimbricatus.
iEstivatio convolutiva. Corolla 5-petala, extus sericea. Re-
ceptaculum villosum. Stamen unicum laterals. Anthera
ratione reliquarum parti um maxima, curvata, bilocularis.
Plstilliim triquetrum. Drupa ovalis pollicaris, atra, trival-
vis, trilocularis.

Planta affinis Cryptostomo Schreb. (MoutabeaAubl. Guian.
t. 274.) ipsique mangifera*. Sed ha^c turn calyce 5-sepalo,
tum drupa monosperma, ilia antheris quinque stamini uni-
co insidentibus, et calyptra corollae differt. Videtur tamen
Tcrcbinthaces adnumeranda esse.

Dixi in honorem Agardhii, prof. Lundincnsis, qui algarum
hibtoriam egregic illustravit.

CL. II.] 3. CIRC^EA LUTETIANA. 347

CLASS II.

Circaea Lutetiaiia, L.

Hexenkraut, Stephanskraut, Waldkletten. — Freii. Hcrhc dc
St Etienne. — Engl. Enchanters Night-shade, — Swcd. GuU
sirse.

About St John's day, an interesting plant appears in our
dark and moist woods. It has a woody, articulated, creeping
root, which is commonly tliickly entwined with the roots of
the tree, and is hence difficult to be torn up. From this root
a small stem arises, about the thickness of a corn-stalk, straight,
round, simple, with fine and undistinguishable hairs, green in
its colour, and from a foot and a half to two feet in length.

From the stem, leaf- stalks shoot out, opposite to one ano-
ther, at distances which are about an inch from one another,
having undistinguishable hairs, angular, almost marginated
(28.), an inch long, and standing open ; and upon these ai'e
leaves completely oval-shaped, almost in the form of a heart,
with undistinguishable hairs, obtusely pointed, with notches
at intervals on the margin, nerved and veined, an inch and a
half long, and an inch broad.

On the top of the stem stands the many-blossomed bunch
(84.), the principal and secondary stalks of which are more
strongly ciliated than the lower part of the stem. Tlie se-
condary stalks, from three to four lines in length, stand al-
most horizontal, afterwards they are reflex ; they bear at
their lower part the ovaria, of a round shape, afterwards
pear-shaped, studded with hooked bristles (80.) ; over the
ovariii arc two calyx-leaves, of an oval or oblong form, re-
flex, of a rcddith coloiu-, and two petals of a pale nd, of [i\\

S48 3. CIIIC^.A LUTETIANA. [CL. II.

inverted heart-shape, shorter than the two filaments. The
filaments stand before tlie calyx leaves, and alternate like
them with the petals, (19().) The stigmata are two. The
ai'stivation is valvular.

The capsule consists of two loculi, opens from below, and
t'ontains in each loculus a seed, which, without any albumi-
nous matter, contains a com})letely unfolded embryon, with
two erect, thickish cotyledons, and a radicle scarcely distin-
guishable.

A subspecies of this plant is produced in mountain forests,
and especially in North America, with a smoother stem, with
the leaf-stalks completely linear and smooth, and with leaves
more softly ciliated. This is the Circcea hitermedlay Ehrh.
beytr. 4. s. 42. St^irm Deutsch. Flor. Heft. 23. C. Lute-
tiana Canadensis Michaux^ bo. ram. 1. p. 17. Pursh, Amei'.
Sept, 21. Nuttall, 18.

The Circ^a alpina, again, is essentially distinguished
by a smooth, branchy stem, which is never longer than a
small span, and by small cordate leaves. There is also a
small bractea under every flower, which is Avanting in our
species.

Geographical Distribidion.

The Circdca lutetiana appears to be diffused in the northern
hemisphere from 37° to the 64° N. Lat. For Sibthorp found
it in the Bithynian Olympus, and Marshall of Biberstein in
Tauris. On the other hand, it is wanting in Lapland, where,
instead of it, the Circtea alpina grows. Its limits in North
America have not yet been exactly determined. But it seems
to grow from 40 '' to the 50^ N. I.at.

Sijnonymcs and Figures.

C'irc.Ta lutetiana, Loh. Hist. 137, ic. 206. Gcr. Emac. 351.
Ocymastrum verrucarium, J. Bauli. H'lsi. 3. 977. Solani-
folia C'ircaia dicta, C. Bauh. Pin. 68. Park. Theatr. 351.
J/o/7'.s. s. 5. t. 34. (C. lutetiana, Dalcch. 1338. is C. alpU

CL. II.] '3. CIRC^A LUTETlxVXA. *]40

na.) Fi Dan. 210. Engl Bot. 1056. Sturm DcuUJi.
Flor. Heft 23.

Affinity.

Ray was completely mistaken when he placed Circ^a along
with Callitriche, Stratiotes, and Hydrocharls., {Ray Syn.
p. 289.) Linnaeus also shewed no great insight into its affi-
nities, when he placed Circa^a along with Boerhaavia and
Valeriana, among the Aggregatae, {Orel. Nat. 48.) Adanson
first perceived its true relations, when he placed the plant
among the Oenagrae, {Famill. des Plantes^ p. 85.) Later bo-
tanists have followed Adanson more readily, since we have
become acquainted with a Mexican plant which is very like
the Circcea, namely Lopezia, Cav. in which we find only a
different numerical proportion. Ditmaria, too, {Eriama
Rudg.) lays claim to a still greater resemblance. The num-
bers 2, 4, 8, prevail in this family ; and although (Enothera
and Epilohium are removed from Circaa by different propor-
tions, yet Gaura and Haloragis fiu-nish intermediate mem-
bers of the series ; and Escallonia, Sm., although the num-
ber 5 prevails in it, opens its capsule exactly like the Circaa.

Uses.

The name Circaa was given to the plant by Lobelins, because
superstition regarded it as a charm ; hence, too, the English
name Enchanter's Night-shade. The well known witch
Circe is understood to have made use of this charm, and Ge-
rard affirms, that the Mandragora had been confounded
with this plant. At present no other use of it is known, ex-
cept that in America a yellow dye is procured from the root.

4.

Salvia Brasiliensis.

6. calyce ampliato colorato tridentato corollam excedcnto, lb-
liib ovatis scrratii; acuniinatis glabris ba^i cuiicalis.

350 4f$ SALVIA ERAZILIENSIS. [CL. II.

Habitat in Brasilia.

Caiilis herbaceus, quadrangularis, glaber, nodosus. Folia
opposita, longe petiolata, petiolis sesquipollicaribus, angulatis,
glabris, ovata, acuminata, basi cuneata, inaequaliter obtuse
serrata, nervoso-venosa sesquipollicem longa, supra pollicem
lata. Raccmi terminales, pubescentes. Flores subverticilla-
ti, ebracteati. Calyx puniceo-roseus, unguicularis, amplia-
tus, nervosus, pubcscens, apice tridentatus. Corolla inclusa,
sordide rubra, bilabiata, labio suj^eriori fornicato, inferior! tri-
lobo. Stamina duo, basi appendiculata. Pistillum apice fis-
sum. Achenia quatuor.

Proximae S. lieg'la, Cav., et S. gakata R. et P., sed diife-
runt colore calycis, et corolla calycem excedente.

CLASS III.

Poa trivialis, L,

Gemeines Wiesen-, Vieh- oder Rispengras. — French, Pdtu-
rin rude. — Ital. La fienarola comvne. — Engl. Rougldsh
Meadow-grass. — Swed . Angs-grds.

This grass, although a very common one, may easily be
confounded with others which are nearly related to it. We
have, therefore, subjoined an exact description and compa*
rison of it with these others.

From a fibrous root there rises a round stalk, sharp to the
touch, about the length of an ell or arm. AVhcre the leaves
rise from the sheath, a long ligula remains, (77.) The leaves
are small, and, at the same time, sharp to the touch. The
flowers are produced on a uniform, spreading panicle, the
subordinate stalks of which are horizontal, or even reflex,
and also sliarp to the touch. The individual ears consist

Ct. III.] 5. POA TRIVIALIS. 351

of three glumes, the valves of which are observed to liave
five fine nerves ; on the margin they are of a reddish colour,
and at the base they are united by tufts of hair, (94.)

The generic character of the Poa is constituted by the
oval shape of the ear, and by the valves being destitute of
awns.

The species most nearly related to this are the P. pratcn-
sis, serotina Ehrh. and nemoralis. The former is distin-
guished by its creeping root, its smooth stem, its short,
truncated, and luiprojecting ligula, and by its earlier season
of flowering. For it is in full flower in May, whilst the Poa
trivialis begms to blossom in June.

The Poa serotina Ehrh., is distinguished from our grass
by a root slightly creeping ; by a ligula, which projects but a
little, and which is truncated ; by a panicle of a more pyra-
midal shape, having its subordinate stalks open, but not re-
flex ; by its ear being smaller and more of a spear-shape, its
glumes being commonly five, and coloured yellow at tlie
point. This species also blossoms later than the P. trivialis.

The Poa nemoralis is distinguished by a stalk as smooth
as that of the P. trivialis, being, at the same time, a little
compressed. The ligula is also truncated. The panicle is
not uniformly spreading, but tapering, and inclining towards
one side. The ears are lanceolate, contain commonly three
glumes, which are open, and have long projecting }X)ints.
At their base, too, they are almost completely free, although
some small hairs appear here also.

Geographical Distrihntion.

The Poa trivialis is one of the plants which have the most
extensive distribution in Europe. Towards the north it ex-
tends beyond the polar circle, and constitutes the principal
produce of the meadows in Lapland. It is also very com-
mon in Northern Asia, and in North America. Towards
the south it constitutes the chief riclies of llie meadows in Vc~
loponnesus. All the countries of Europe, Asia, and Ame-
rica, which lie between the o(5^ and G8'' N. L;it., furnish

352 5. roA trivialis. [cl. hi.

this grass. But towards the south it does not appear to
grow beyond the 36° N. Lat. It is wanting entirely in Afri-
ca, and every where between the tropics. In hke manner it
is not found in New Holland, nor in the islands of the South

Sea.

Syyionyrnes and Figures.

Gramcn pratensc, Loh. k. 1. (Gramen minus D^. est P. se-
rotina, and Gramen miliaceum 3. Poa pratensis), Gra-
men pratense, 1. Dodo7i. 560. Gerard Emac, 9>. Par-
kins. Theatr., 1156. Gramen pratensc paniculatum me-
dium, C. Bank. Pin. 2. Scheicchz. Agi'ost. 180. Gra-
men pratense vulgatius, minus, Moris, sect. 8. t. 5.

Poa scabra, Ehrh.

P. dubia, Leer'^s Hcrhorn. t. 6. f. 5.

P. triviahs, Linn. Engl. Bot.^ 1072. Host. Gram, Atislr.,
9. t. 62. FL Dan., 1444.

Uses.

It is one of the most productive of the meadow and feed-
ing grasses. In England, a great deal has been said, since
the time of Ray, respecting what has been called the Orches-
ton Grass. Ray cites it under the name of Gramen canbium.
.supinum longissimum in the Indiculus plant, duhiarum of
his Synopsis : he mentions, as its liabitat, a meadow near Mad^
dington, two miles from Sahsbury, and says, that the plant
is twenty-four feet long. Maddington and Orcheston St
Mary, from which latter place the grass has its name, lie
close by one another. It has lately been established by
Swayne and Maton, that this remarkable grass is nothing
but a mixture between the Poa trivialis and the Alopecurns
■pratensis^ and that its extraordinary length arises from the
richness of the soil, and from the annual irrigation of the
meadoAv with the water of a spring, which, having the high
temperature oi' 48^ or 49 '^ Fahr., necessariiy gives an uncom-
mon stimuhis to vegetation; (IVitrterlng^s Arrangement of
British Plants, 1>. p. 100.)

CL III.] 6. TOXTELEA TRINERVTA. ti53

Sir Humphry Davy and Sinclair state the ]jrut!uce of this
grass to be equal to that of the Antliomuithinn odoraliini, of
the Brovms tectoriim, of the Lolium perennc, of tlie Mc~
lica cccrulea ; (Sir Himiphry Davy's Elcmcnt.H of A^ricuU.
CUemiHr. p. 100.; Landwirthschaftl. Zeitung, 1815, \Jd.
303.

6.

Tontelca trinervia.

T. foliis oblongis acuminatis trinerviis intcgerrimis utriuque
glabris, panicula terminali dichotoma pubescente.

Hab. in Brasilia.

Rami teretes, glabri, fusci, cicatricula tuberculosa albida
sub quovis ramulo et petiolo. Petioli sparsi, erecto-patentes,
pubescentes, subpollicares. Folia subdigitaha oblonga, basi
rotundata, acuminata, integerrinia, trinervia, venosa. Pani-
cula terminaUs, erecta, pubescens, dichotoma, aphylla. Cul.
quinquefidus, minimus. Cor. quinquepetala, calyci affixa,
extus pubescens. Stamina tria e membrana urceolata pro-
gredientia. Pistillum unicum. Bacca uni-locularis tetra-
sperma.

Genus hoc, Tonsella a Vahho dictum, idem cum Antho-
donte Ruiz et Pav., satis adfine Chaetocrateri R. et P. Sa-
laciae Lour, et Hippocrateae L., in systemate artificiali locum
obtinet prope ab Hippocratea. Hace vero differt potissinunii
capsulis tribus bivalvibus, medio dchiscentibus.

In ordine naturali Casearia% Samydae, Athenaea? Sehreb.
et Cedrelae Aubl. coonatum, cum his constituit tribum sinou-
larem Samydearum, qua? cum IVIeheis et jVIal])ighieis nuilta
habet communia. Stamina urceolo aut membranula' pecullari
insidentia, et embryo cotyledonibus plicatis, constituunt cli.i-
racterem tribus.

Nostra species Tonteleae scandenti Aubl. t . 10. vieina.
Haec tamen scandit, ramos habet divaricates, folia hand tri-
nervia. Reliquae species gaudent vel foliis serratis aut denli-
culatis, vel pedunculis laterahbus congestis.

Z

^554 1. ASTERQCEPHALUS CANESCENS. [CL I\

CLASS IV

A sterocephaliis caiiesceiis.

Graue Scabiose. Aj)oslemkraiit. — FivncI), Scahleuse grise-
atrc. — Engl. Gni/'isli. Scabious. — Sued. Gru vddd.

This remarkable species was confounded with Ast. Coliim-
haria^ till Kitaibel first taught us to distinguish them ; {Plant.
Hungar. 1. p. 53. t. 53.)

The brown perennial root creeps almost horizontal, and
pushes out first oblong leaves, tapering at both ends, quite
entire, rarely having two teeth, set with indistinguishable
hairs on both sides, ciliated on the margin: the leaves are
nearly an inch long, four lines broad, with a strong nerve in
the middle, and some lateral veins.

By the side of this first shoot, and often at a later pe-
riod quite separated from it, there springs up a simple stem,
about a foot long, round, thickly beset with greyish reflex
hairs : below, this stem is set with half pinnated, cihated
leaves, having indistinguishable hairs, the tufts of which are
lanceolate, linear-shaped, and stiff at the point. The upper
leaves become always finer, stand at wider distances, lose the
pinnated shape, and, at last, become entirely simple. The
joints of the stem have the same greyish colour.

On the tip of the stem stands the compound flower, of a la-
vender blue colour, and having a fine smell, almost like that
of Orchis nigra. The common calyx consists of about
twelve very small uniform obtuse leaves, which are much
shorter than the ray. The flowers are five-lobcd, dissimilar,
radiated on the margin, externally set with fine white hairs.
The receptacle contains chaffy leaves, which upwards be-
come broader, and are thickly set with white hairs. Between

CL. IV.] 7. ASTEllOCErilAlATS CANESCENS. 355

the geniien and the flower there stancls a nienibraiiaceous
rown, and within it fiv^e white bristles, which are nuuh short-
er than the gernien, and not much larger than the mem-
branaceous crown. Four white filaments are comiected with
the tube of the corolla, and vcdry reddish anthers. The
pistillum is linear, and has a ])relty thick stigtiia. The
nectary is the u])per surface of the germen. 'I'his swells to
an eight-cornered, strongly haired achenium, which continiK>
to exhibit the five white short bristles, and tlie j)appus, and
contains the evolved embryon in consumed albumen, with tlie
radicle turned upwards.

Diag'nosis.

If we compare the related species, particularly Jsi. Cohim-
baritty with this plant, we find this other species, in tlie first
place, much taller, somewhat ciliated also, but by no means
of a greyish colour. The leaves of the root are mostly lyre-
shaped, very seldom ovate, and deeply serrated. The joints
of the stem are reddisli, the leaves of the cahx pointed, and
a little shorter than the ray, the chaffy leaves of the rece}>-
tacle are finely pointed, and, above all, the bristles of the paj)-
pus are brown, and almost as long as the germen. The co-
lour of the flower is violet or sky blue.

A-s't. agrest'is^ also, (Scabiosa agrestis Kit. PI. Hungar. 3.
t. 204.) may be confounded ^nth our plant. But that
species has always lyre-shaped root-leaves, and bi- or tri-jMu-
nate stem-leaves, — the stem is branchy, and sprinkled with
grey hoar ; the leaves of the common calyx are lanc-colate
and ciliated ; the flowers are of a lilac colour, and the bristles
of the pappus of a brown colour, and nearly as long as the
germen. Sc. pyrenaica AIL, which some confound with our
plant, is completely distinguished from it by white soft to-
mentum, and by broader lacinid'. BcrtoL Jma'n. Ital. p. 12.

Geographical Distribution.

This species grows on the calcareous soil of central Ger-
many, France, Austria, and Hungary. It seems not to pass
beyond the 54" N. I.at. We cannot determine with cLMtnin-

Z 2

CJ;5() 7. ASTKHOVEPIIALUS CANESCKXS. [ci.. IV.

ty, on account of the inaccuracy of synonynies, how far it ex-
tends towards the south, av.d whetlier it passes heyond tlie
4i3<^ \. Lat.

Stjno-nipncs and Figures.

Scabiosa nunor, 1. 3. ix. xi. Tahcrn. 443. Scab, media,

Gerard euutc. 7~0.
Sc. capitulo <^loboso minor, Moris, sect. 6. t. 14. Bujchcwm

Hal. 295. Tourncf. In.st. 4G5. Hist, des Plantcs aiix

Environs de Par'is^ p. 141, (probe jam distinxit spcciem).

DuUbard Flor. Par'iss. 45.
Asterocephalus tbhis ad lerrani ovahbus, Haller G'ott. 352.
Scabiosa descripta in Wicgel Flor. Pomer. p. 25. n. 91. C. F.

ejus Obs. Dot p. 23.
Sc. asterocephala, Tliv'ul. Flor. Par'iss. p. 72. (var Hore

albo).
Sc. suaveolens, Desfont. Cat. Hort. Par'iss. ed. 2. p. 131.

De Cand. Fl. Fran^. 4. p. 229.
Sc. canescens, Kit. Plant. Hung. 1. p. 53. t. 53. Pohl. Bo-
hem. 1. p. 133. Pcrs. Syn. 1. p. 22. W'dld. Enum. 1.

p. 14(). Baumgart. Trans. Sylv, 1. 77. Wallroth. Ann.

Bot. p. 143. R6m et SchuU. 1. p. m. JD'ierbach, Flor.

He'idelb. 1. 39
Sc. Columbaria, «,. y. Poir ene. 6. 711- var. ,3. Gmel. Bad.

1. p. 323. var. s. Marsch. Bieb. taur. cauc. 1. 96.

.^ Sc. tomentosa Sibth. Smith, Prod. Fl. Gra-c. 1. 85.

On the Family of the Scahiosa.

The Scabiosge, otherwise called Aggregatge, evidently con-
stitute a peculiar family, which are neai'ly related to the
Syngenesistae, by their compound flowers, by their common
calyx, by the chaffy leaves on their receptacle, by their mo-
nopetalous flowers, to the tube of which the filaments are fix-
ed,— by their fruit being iiiferior, forming achenia?, or cary-
opses, and carrying pappi. But they are distinguished by
the free situation of the anthers, by the number of the fila-
ments, which are always but four, by the simplicity of the
stigma, and by the direction of the radicle of the embryon

CI., v.] 8. PHYTKAMA SPICATU^F. .T.57

upwards, whilst, in the Syngenesista^ the radicle is directed
downwards.

Sebast. Vaillant, long ago, divided the Scabiosa^ into seve-
ral genera, which I have adopted with the names given by
Vaillant; (Vaillant in Mem. de Paris, 17^22. Anleit. zur
Kentn. der Gewash. 2. te Aufl. th. 2. s. 584.) Other writers
have unnecessarily given new names to them.

Asteroceplialus Vaill. is one of those genera the character
oi' which consists in its many-leaved, almost simple calyx, in
having its flower divided into iive parts, and in its double
pappus, which is partly formed by a membranaceous circle,
and partly by five bristles. The Scabiosa, again, has its
flower divided into four parts, and the pappus consists sim})lv
of chaffy leaves. Sc. arvensis, succisa Vaill. has a scaly calyx,
a flower divided into four parts, and chaffy leaves, passing
into bristles, as its pappus. Sc. Succisa^ Pterocephalus Vaill
has a bristly receptacle, and a pinnated pappus. {Sc. pup-
posa.)

CLASS V

Phyteimia spicatum, L.

Wald-Rapunzel, Taiibonkropf. — French, Ud'qmncc en rp'i
— Engl. Ravipion, spikc-Jiowcrcd. — Dan. Tnicvlckronc.

This plant blossoms in our woods in June. From a root
about the thickness of a finger, whitish, tuberculous alxwe,
and fusiform below, which continues for several years, there
springs a herbaceous, smooth, simple stem, reddish at the un-
der part, green above, round, or slightly angular, commonly
about a foot and a half high, frequently, also, of the length
of an arm. The leaf-stalks are a small span long, alternate,
open, far from one another, smooth, marked by furrows, and
embracino- the stem at their base: higher uj) they hi>(()i)ir

358 8. {•HVTEu:\fA spicatum. [cl. v.

shorter, and, at last, entirely disappear. The lowermost
leaves are cordate, oblong, unequally crenate and dentate,
smooth on lx)th sides, three inches long, and one inch broad.
The upper leaves are smaller, and, at last, are entirely lanceo-
late, and without stalks. On the upper part of the stem
stands the spike, frecjuently of a finger's length, the yellowish
white, sometimes blue flowers of which open from below up-
wards, (84.) Immediately imder the spike a pair of small
stem-leaves are found, which are quite entire.

The calyx surrounds the germen, and terminates at the
upper part in five pointed teeth. The corolla consists of five
long pointed petals, which, with their upper greenish ends, at
first are united around the pistil, and form a short tube, but
at their under part they are open. Afterwards they spring
from one another, and stand quite open. The filaments are
broad and hairy below, form a kind of arch over the up-
per part of the germen, by degrees become pointed above,
and pass into long yellow anthers. The pistil is simple, up-
wardly hairy, terminates in two convoluted stigmata, and is
much larger than the corolla and the anthers. On this ac-
count, and because androgynous dichogamy takes place here
(103. 331.), the stigma cannot be impregnated by the anthers
of the same flower, but from the superior flowers, which blos-
som later. The nectary is the surface of the germen. The
fruit is a capsule of two loculi, surrounded by a calyx,
containing in each loculus, on a separate free-standing pil-
lar, a number of fine seeds, which inclose, in the middle of
the albuminous substance, the erect embryon, with its two
cotyledons.

Diagnosis.

The nearest to this species is the Ph. hetonictrfornnn,
Vmll. (Dclj)h. t. 12.), which is distinguished only by longer
and smaller leaves, and by an oblong obtuse spike. The
Ph. amlatum V'lll. (t. 11. mgrwn Sclnn'uU.)^ also is nearly
related, but its blossoms are constantly of a dark violet co-
lour, and the bracteae are subulate. The otlicr species arc
more distantly related.

€L, v.] 8. PIIYTEUMA SPICATU:M. 359

Geographical Distributioii.

This species is found throughout the whole of Germany,
Poland, Hungary, Transylvania, Upper Italy, and France.
It docs not grow either in Great Britain or Denmark (the
German States excepted), or in Sweden and Russia. As lit-
tle does it appear to exist further south than the 44° N
Lat., since it is neither found in Sicily nor Spain, neither in
Greece nor in Tauris,

Si/noiiymes and Figures.

Rapunculum sylvestre, Trag. p. 277. a. (ed. 1551.)
Rapunculum alopecuron. Dodon. 165. Barrel, ic. 892.

alopecuroides, Clus. Hist. 2. 171.
Rapuntium majus, Lohel. Hist. 178. ic, 329. (nrard^ Emac.

453.
Rapunculus major, Dodon. Dalcch. 641.
Rapuncuhis V. nemorosus 1. Taherii. 794
Rapunculus spicatus, C. Bank. Pin. 92. (R >picatus cccru-

leus, C. Bauh. Prodr. 32, is evidently Th. hetonica*-

folium.) J. Bauh, Hist. 2. 809. Parkin's Theatr. 648

Tourn. Inst. 113.
Rapunculus corniculatus, folio urticae Moris, sect. 5. t. 5

Rap. corn, spica longiore, Riv. Irr. Monop. Hall.^ Hist

Stirp. n. 684.
Phyteuma spicata, Limi. Fl. Dan. 362. Schk. t. 39.

Affinities of the Genus.

When we compare the most important organs, m pariicu-
lar the structure of the filaments, the form of the capsulo and
of the seed, we cannot but be struck with the resemblance of
this genus to the Campanula. Rut the distimtion betwcvii
them lies in this, that the lacinia: of the contlla are at firsi
united at the top, that two stigmata are found, and that tin
capsule consists of two loculi ; whilst, in the Campanula.
there arc three stigmata, and three loculi in the capsule
But these, and some related genera, constitute a peculi.u

360 9. CiENTIANA PNEUMONANTHE. [CL. V.

family, the Campanuleae, which stands belween the Ericea^
and Lobelijr ; (Anleit. 2. s. 522.)

Uses.

The root affords a milky substance, and is edible ; hence
the name Rapunculus, instead of which they use the term
Wild Rape, in Germany. In some countries the plant is
reared in gaidens, antl the root and young leaves are used in
spring as greens.

9.

Gentiaiia pneumoiianthe, />.

Lungenblume, schmalblattriger Herbst-Enzian. — French,
Gentiana PneitmoiiantJie. — Engl. Marsh Gentian., Cala-
thian violet. — Swed. Klach genzian^ Host-klackor.

This plant grows (m peat-mosses and moist meadows in
August, and is distinguished, at first glance, by its beautiful
Berlin blue flowers, which are of considerable size.

From a small yellowish-brown fibrous root, there rises a
stem of the thickness of a straw, of a large span long, simple,
somewhat angular, sharp to the touch, but otherwise smooth.
"J^he leaves, which are almost linear, somewhat obtuse, quite
entire, of an inch long, of a shining green on their upper
surface, sharj) to the touch on their lower, embrace the stem
with their tapering base, stand opposite to one another, but
so that the nearest pairs form a right angle with one another,
and are thus cruciform, (36.)

On the uppermost axillae spring the flowers upon short
stalks. The flowers consist of a tubular five- toothed, or
five-lobed calyx, the teeth of which, at an after period, are
reflex, — and of a monopetalous corolla, bell- shaped, of a
Berlin blue colour, internally adorned with yellow points.
The margin of the corolla has five larger, and as many small-
er teeth. The a\stivation is twisted, (99-) Five filaments
are united at their lower parts, with tlie base of the corolla.
The yellow, ahuosl arrow-shaped anthers, also stand at first
in a clu>ter aiound the simple pistillum; afterwards they sc-

(I., v.] 9, (iENTlANA PNEUMONAXTIIK. 36l

parate i'nnn one another, but always stand lower than tin-
margin of the corolla. Tlie stigma is two-lobeil. The Iruii
is a superior, simple, two lobed capsule, the valves of which
being bent inwards, form, with their inner margins, the a{)arl-
nient for the numerous seeds. These contain the erect
embryon, with its evolved cotyledons, in the middle of the
albuminous substance.

Diag7iosu:

The most nearly related to this species is the Gcnt'unui, tri-
fiora Pall. ; but, in this last species, the linear leaves are alwut
two inches long, and pointed. The flowers, though of the
same size, are }H'operly without stalks, and are placed by
threes on the uppermost axilla'. This species grows in east-
ern Siberia. G. algida Pall, has much broader, longer, lan-
ceolate, three-nerved leaves. G. asclcpiadca is much larger,
more branchy, and has ovate-lanceolate leaves. The other
species are still more imlike.

Geographical Distribution.
In Europe this species seems to grow i'rom 45° to 64"
N. Lat., for it is not found more southerly than Gretx:e, nor
more northerly than Lapland. In North America it seems
to be confined to the space between the 40^ and 50" North
Lat.

Syrwnymcs and Figures.

Campanula autumnalis, Dodon. 168.

Pneumonanthe Cordi, Lobel. Adv. 130. Hist. 166. Ic. SOf).
Tahcrn. 1176. Gerard. Emac. 438. Parkins. Tin air.
406. Barrel. Ic. 52. 122.

Gentianae iv Species, Clus. Hist. 313

Gentiana minima, Matth. ed. C. I3auh. p. 481. Uarrd.
Ic. 51.

C'alathiana viola ct Campanula pratensis, Didech. 184. Bar-
rel. Ic. 54.

Gentiana? species, calathiana quibusdam, ./. Uauli. Hist. 3.
527.

362 10. VIBUKNUM OrULUS, [CI.. Y.

Gentiana angustifolia autuninalis major, C. Bank. Phi. 188.

Moris, sect. 12. t. 5. Tournof* Inst. 31. G. palustris

angustifolia, C. Bank. I. c.
Ky^v/j" Rcncalm. spec. (^S.

Gentiana alis floriferis, Hall. Hist. Stir p. n. 641.
Gentiana Pncumonanthe, Linn. Flor. Siiec. n. 288. Flor.

Dan. 269. Engl. Bot. 20. Bot. Mag. 1101. Lam. Ill,

t. 109.

Affinity.

The Gentians constitute, along with Chirania, Erythrcea^
Swertia^ Chlora, Exacum, and Mcnyanthes, a peculiar fa-
mily, which is distinguished by the numerical proportion of
the essential parts, by the situation of the fruit, by the inser-
tion of the seed, — and which stands between the Jasmineae and
Contortae. (Anleit. 2. 471.)

Uses.

As the composition of the juices corresponds with the fa-
mily character, we may suspect that those ingredients, which
arc found in one genus, or species of gentians, will also be
found in the others, (170.) Bitter extractive matter is that
by which Gentiana lutea, Erythrtra Ce7ita2irium, and Meny-
anthes trifoliata, are distinguished. The same bitter ex-
tractive matter exists in our species. Formerly the root was
used as a tonic for the stomach. It has also a powerful ef-
fect upon the urine, and hence the Mccklenburghers call the
plant, Sta up unn gah wcg-, ([Vredozifs okwi. Flor. von
McHenb. 1. 456.) It used to be employed in France as a
cure for sprains; (Commerce. Lit. Nor. 1743, helxl. 7)

10.

\^ibiirniim opiiliis, L.

Schneeball, Wasserholdcr, Hirschholder, Schwclken-liaum,
Kalinen, Drossclbeercn, Wasserahorn, Schlingcn-bauni, in
PoincraniUy Goosflcdcr. — ^Frcnch, Viornc obicr, Hose ilc

CL. v.] ](). viiU'iiNUM oruLrs. 363

Gueldrc, Pain Idanc, Pomme de nicgc. — Ital. Sainhiuo
oquatico, Magg'w.-~F,ng[. Common Gucklcr-Ilosr, Walcr-
Eldcr. — Swed. Olvon, Hals-hdr.

This is a shrub, which grows from the size of a nuiii in
height to twice that size : its stems, which are al)()iit the
thickness of an arm, having a grey, rifted, hut, in t)thcr re-
spects, smooth bark, and white spongy pilli. Tlie branches
stand opposite to one another. The sulcated smooth leaf-
stalks, an inch in lengtli, are also placed opposite to one ano-
ther, and have from four to six kidney-shaped knobs. At
the base of each leaf-stalk there are two deciduous pointed sti-
puhe. The leaves are about four inches long and broad, ha-
ving three short lobes, somewhat round at the base, cunei-
form, with sharply dentated margins, smooth, and having
deep nerves and veins on the upper surface, and slightly fin--
nished with hairs on the under surface. The flowers grow
on a stalked false umbel, at the top of the branch.

The calyx is very small, and has i\\Q teeth. The corolhe
are not uniform. At the circumference of the flowers we ob-
serve large, white, wheel-shaped, five-lobed coroljfe, without
ovaria, commonly without anthers, although sometimes these
last parts are seen. The central flowers are yellowish, and
also divided into five parts. Five filaments, longer than tlie
corolla, are united with its base, and carry yellow anthers,
consisting of two parts. The germen stands below the calyx,
and is surmounted by three reddish stigmata. Its up|)er-
most part is also the nectarium. It passes into a red, edible,
one-seeded berry. The embryon stands in a small hole of
the albuminous matter, with the radicle tiu'ned upwards.

In the wild state, the marginal flowers alone are unlruit-
ful, because the sexual parts are abortive, (181.) and the co-
rolla is uniblded instead of them. Luxuriant growth in gar-
dens makes the abortion general, all the flowers become un-
fruitful, and the false umbel is contracted into a ball.

:36t' 10. VJBUKNUM OrULUS. [CL V.

Diagnosis.

The essential character of the species consists in the g.an-
( hilar leaf-stalks, and in the threc-lohed leaves, which are
somewhat rounded at the base, but which also taper, and
Jiave their lobes short and unequall}^ dentated. The most
nearly related to this species are two North American species,
V. Oxycoccos Pursh, and edule Pursh ; for both of them
have the same glandular leaf stalks, the same general form of
the leaves, the same unfruitful marginal flowers in the false
umbel, and the same colour of the berries. But in V. Oxy-
voccos the leaves taper at the base into a long wedge shape,
have three distinct nerves, in the axillae of which are some
hairs : the lobes of the leaves are drawn out to a great length,
and have few teeth. In V. cdule Pursh, the lobes of the
leaves are also shorter than in V. Opulus^ but the teeth are
produced into a fine point. Viburnum acerifolium also agrees
in the three-lobed form of the leaves, but the glands are
wanting on the leaf-stalks, these last named parts being fur-
nished, instead of glands, with long white hairs. The leaves
are mwe rounded at the base, have stronger hairs on their
lower surface, and the flowers are all alike. Other species have
still more numerous differences. The case is the same with
V. orientale Pall., which has quite the appearance of V. aceri-
folium, and is distinguished from it simply by its larger and
more obtuse teeth, and by the oval form of the seed^ which,
in V. acerifolium, is heart-shaped.

Geographical Distribution.

Viburnum Opulus grows throughout all Europe, from 40 •^
to 60° N. Lat. Its southern hmit seems to be Constanti-
nople, its most northerly Upsal. In America, the three
sj:)ecies already mentioned, V. Oxycoccos, edule, and acerifo-
lium, and in Asia, V. orientale supply its place. It grows in
^reat abundance on Caucasus, along with this latter species.

CI., v.] 10. VinURNUM OVULUS. 365

Synonymes and Figures.
Sambiicus a(],uatica, Trage^ f. 378. h. Muttliiol. cd. C.

Bank. 874. Dalcch. 270. Tahern. 1440. C. Bauh. Pin.

456. S, palustris Dodon. 864. ^S*. rosea, Loh. ic. 2.

201. Gtr. jEwac. 1424. Tabern. 1440. J. /ir////^ Hist.

1. 552. /^ar^- r//r«^r. 209.
Opuliis Ruellii, Toiwn. Inst. 607. O. glandulosus, Monch.

Mcth. 505. Baumg. Transylv. 1. 261.
Viburnum Opulus, Lirin. Fl. Dan. 661. Engl. Bot. 332.

iS^r^A^ t. 81. Kerner Baumz. t. 35.

Affinity of the Genus.

The old writers perceived distinctly the affinity of this ge-
nus with Sambucus, and hence they chose for it the names
Sambucus aquatica and palustris. Indeed Vibui'num is dis-
tinguished from Sambucus, simply by its berries having but
one seed, while the latter genus contains three seeds in the
berry. If we pass by the unessential parts, and attend only
to the relations of the most important, both the genera Ikv
long, with Lonicera, to one family, which we called the Ca-
prifolio' ; (Anleit. 2. vid. 617.)

Uses.

The wood is used in Norway for making weavers combs.
The shoemakers use it for pegs. The stronger branches ai*e
used for tobacco pipes. The leaf is eaten only by cows.
The berries are favourites with the thrush. In Courland
they make vinegar with these berries, and the inhabitants of
Northern Asia form an intoxicating drink from them.

S66 11. LEUCOIT^M VERNUM. [cT.

CLASS VI.

11.

Lciicoiinii venniiii, L.

Grosses Schnecolockc'hoii, Soniiiiertluerchen, Frucklings-Kno-
lenblumc, ]\larz<»lc)ckchen. — French, Perce-mige, N'lveolc
printanmere. — Engl. Great Siiow-droj). — Ital. Primestro,
Jior marzajuolo. — Swed. Varhviter.

This lovely flower appears in April among bushes, and on
the pastures. From a wliite bulb of the size of a walnut,
there first spring several lanceolate leaves, quite entire, ob-
tuse, smooth on both sides, having the upper surface shin-
ing, about the length of a finger, and nearly an inch broad.
In the middle of these arises an even divided stalk, about a
small span in length, at the top of which there stands a two-
lobed calyx, of a whitish green colour, and streaked. From
this arises a round flower-stalk, nodding or bent downwards,
smooth, about an inch long, which supports, over the obtuse
three-cornered, smooth, streaked, green germen, a six-leaved,
bell-shaped, downward-hanging corolla, the divisions of which
are callous at the points, and marked by a small green spot.
The exterior integument of the corolla is of the natiu'e of
a calyx, and has slits, (90. 312.) On the receptacle stand
six short white filaments, which carry on their summits yel-
low, long, bilocular antheroe, containing an oval pollen. In
the middle of the filaments stands the club-shaped green pis-
til, with a stigma somewhat tapering. The thick part of it
secretes the nectar, (SprengePs entd. Geheimniss, vid. 182.)
The fruit is a capsule of three loculi, the round seeds of
which contain the unevolved embryon opposite to the um-
bilicus in the albuminous substance. The strophiolus con-
tinues as a withered, folded membrane.

CI.. YI.J 11. LEUCOIUM VEKXUM. 3G7

Diagnosis.
This species is distinguished from the other species of the
same genus by its single blossomed ilower, the L. (tstivinn
and autumnale having several blossoms, — and by its club-
shaped pistil, the L. autumnale and 7'oscnin, Mart, having a
linear pistil. GalaniJius, or the small snow-droj), is indeetl
very like this plant, but is distinguished by its double three-
leaved corolla, the interior petals of which are emarginatcd,
and by its anthers which pass at the summit into a bristle.

Geog raphical Distribution.

This plant grows throughout the greatest part of Europe,
from Upper Italy to Upland in Sweden, and from Spain to
Transylvania. It is remarkable, that it is not found it Great
Britain, nor does it appear in Tauris, or in Greece. In
these countries its place is supplied by L. (Estivum. It is
therefore confined (with the exception of Great Britain) be-
45° and 60^ N. Lat.

Synonymes and Figures.

Narcissus Brunfds^ 1. 129, n. vii. Maitli. ed. BauU. 860.

Viola alba, Fuchs. 486. 487. Dalecli, 1527.

Le,ucoium bulbosum hexaphyllon, Dodan. 230. CI us. Hist.

1. 168. L. bulbosum, i. Tahern. 1005. J. Bauli. Hi.st.

2. 590. Ger. Emac. 148. (L. bulbosum serotinuni, (pia-
si esset L. aestivum, sed est vernimi.)

Leuconarcissolirion, Lohel. Ic. 123.

Leucoium bulbosum vulgare, C. Bauh. Pin. 55.

Narcisso-leucoium vulgare, Tourn. Inst. 387.

Galanthus uniflorus, Hall. Helv. n. 1253.

Leucoium vernum, Linn. Hort. Upsal. 74. Jaccju. FJ. Austr.

t. 312. Batsch. Annal. Flor. t. 2. Schk. t. 89. :jSlurvi,

Heft. 11.

Affinity.

Its affinity with Galanthus., Narcissus, Pancratium, is olv
vious, and therefore this genus belongs to the Coronaria^, and

368 12. TRIENTALIS EUllOPvEA. [CI.. VII.

indeed to that subdivision whicli has the fruit below the
flower, (Anleit. ii. vid. Ml.)

Uses.

Formerly the bulbs of this plant were used instead of the
scjiiill, but they have now fallen into disuse.

CLASS VII.

12.

Trieiitalis Europsea.

Schirmkraut, Sternkraut, Meyerblume. — French, Tricntale
d' Europe. — Engl, Chickenweed Winter-gree7i. — Swed.Z^z^
kulla.

On the northern declivities of our forest hills, there appears
in June among the bilberries and heath, a gentle, handsome
plant, which is particularly interesting, from the numerical re-
lations of its parts.

From a very small woody tuber, which is surrounded by
fibrous roots, there rises, about the length of a small span, a
simple, even, round stem, about the thickness of a strong-
linen thread. At the lower part of the stem stand, in a
sparse state, very short, roundish or oblong, obtuse leaves.
On the upper portion, there grow from five to seven leaves,
an inch and a half long, smooth, oblong, tapering at the
base, with short stalks, quite entire, or indistinctly crcnated,
somewhat obtuse, with numerous nerves and veins. From
their axillae arise two or more linear, smooth flower-stalks, two
inches in length, having single flowers on their summits.

The calyx consists commonly of seven small sharply point-
ed leaves ; the corolla, which is entirely white, of seven ob-
long open parts. Opposite to the latter there stand, upon a

CL. VII.] 12. TRIENTALIS EUROPyEA. 3^9

peculiar membranaceous, glandular circle, commonly seven
filaments, almost of the size of hairs, somewhat shorter than
the corolla, and bearing curved anthers. The germen is su-
perior, and has a simple pistil. The fruit is a spherical, dry
berry, the seeds of which are fastened to a spherical cavity.
The embryons stand upriglit in the albumen.

Affinity.

Although the external appearance of this plant corresponds
with that of the Stellariac, the situation of the embryon, how-
ever, is completely different. In the Stellariac, the curved
embryon surrounds the central albumen ; in the Trientcdisj
it stands upright, almost in the axis of that substance. By
this circumstance, our plant becomes associated with the Ly-
simachia?, AnagaUiSy and the family of the Primuleae. The
peculiar numerical proportion probably arises from an imper-
fect union of two flowers (185.) ; in consequence of which,
instead of ten, there are only seven divisions of the calyx,
seven petals, and seven anthers. However, there are ex-
amples of five, six, and ten filaments.

Synonymes and Figures.

Herba trientalis, Valer. Cord. Sylv. Obs. p. 222. /. Bauh.

Hist. 3. 537.
Alsinanthemon, Thai. Here. 15.
Pyrola al sines flore, C. Bauh. Prodr. 100. Moris. Sect. 12.

t. 10.
Pyrola Brasiliana, alsines flore. Park. Thcatr. 509-
Pyrola longifolia, flore albo. Barrel. Ic. 1156.
Trientalis Europa^a, Linn. Fl. Dan. 84. Engl Bot. 15.

Schh t. 103. Sturm, Fl. 17.

Geographical Distribution.

Few plants are found so far north as diis. For it is found
at the North Cape, and in Siberia on the Lena, under the
70° N. I.at. It grows also in North America as far as Hud-
*!on's Bay, but with smaller, and more sharply pointed leaves.

A a

370 12. VACClNiUM OXYCOCCOS. [CI.. VIII.

Carinthia and Transylvania seem to be its fartliest southern
limits.

( IIAP. VIII.

13.

Vacciniiim oxycoccos, L.

Moosbeere, Sumpfboerc. In Pomerania, Kramsbeercn, — Fren.
Coiisshict^ Cannchergc. — Engl. Cranberry. — Swcd. Tran-
bar.

In our marshes and moors, where much Sphagmcm grows,
this plant is found on the rising plots which have been formed
by shrubs. The feeble stems, frequently a foot in length,
are completely level with the ground, send out here and there
fine fibrous roots into the moss, and push forth sparse, bent
twigs, which also lie low, but at the points where the flowers
spring, are somewhat raised. The leaves stand alternate on
short stalks, are evergreen, ovate, quite entire, having the
margin somewhat reflex ; on the upper surface they are
splendent, and of a dark green ; on the lower surface greyish,
from nearly three to four lines long, and two lines broad.
On the points of the shoots appear the flower-stalks, an inch
long, reddish, even, set with small red bractese : on the end
of the stalk rises the calyx above the gcrmen ; it consists of
four obtuse, cihated lobes. The corolla consists of four lan-
ceolate, red, curved petals. The eight filaments are flatly com-
pressed and hairy. The anthers are deeply cleft, of a brown
colour, and pour out their pollen from the pores of the two
white points. The pistil is simple, and projects above the
anthers. The nectary is the surface of the germen, and is
completely protected by the filaments which stand together,
and arc hairy ; as also bv the hanging position of the flower.

CL. VIII.] IS. VACCINIUM OXVC OCCOS. 371

The pollen is spherical, surrounded by three rings. The
fruit is a beautiful red berry, of many loculi, in each of
which there ai*e numerous seeds, and these contain the em-
bryon in an erect position in the middle of the albumen. It
is ripe in October.

Diagnosis and Affmiiij.

There is no species in Europe which is very nearly related to
this ; but in North America tliere grows the Vacciniuni macro-
carpon, wliicli resembles our species in its creeping stem, re-
sembling a root, — in its evergreen leaves, which are of a light-
grey colour on the loAver surface, — and in the general form of
the flowers. But the leaves are oblong-ovate, and obtusely
rounded at the extremity; the petals also are smaller and longer,
and the berries larger. Michaux, however, thinks he has de-
tected transition forms, and lience he considers V. maa'ocar-
pon as a subspecies of V. oxycoccos. A North American spe-
cies, V. hispidulum L., has also a creeping stem, but this, like
the back of the leaves, is furnished with reddsh brown stiff
hairs. The small, almost stalkless flowers, are placed in the
axillae of the leaves ; the anthers are included within the bell-
shaped corolla ; and the berries are of a snow-white colour.

V. oxycoccos and macrocarpmi are distinguished from the
other species by the shape of the corolla, which in these is
deeply divided, quite open, and seems to have the petals re-
flex, whilst the other species have a pitcher or bell shaped
corolla ; hence Tournefort long ago formed them into a pe-
culiar genus, under the name Oxycoccos, in which arrange-
ment he has been followed by Persoon, Pursh, and others.
Roth named them Schollcrn. Sometimes, however, this dis-
tinction is not so marked ; and in V. stamineum L., and vie-
ruUondlc Sw., we observe transitions from the one form to
the other ; whilst in these last menti(^.ied instances the bell-
shaped corolla is deeply divided.

The affinity of this genus with Bcvohotrys and Empciruvi
is striking ; through StyphcVia and Epacr'is it is coimected
widi Erica, to v/hich family it belongs; (Anleit. ii. 521.)

A a 9.

572 13. VAC'CIXIUM OXYCOCCOS. [CL. VITT.

Synonymes and Figures.
Oxycoccos, Val Cord. Hist. cd. Gesner. f. 140. b.
Vaccinia palustria, Dodon. 790. Lohel Ic. 2. 109. J. Bauh.

Hist. 1, 525. Gerard Emac. 1419- P^rA*. Theatr. 1229.
Erica vi. baccifera, DalccJi. 187.
Vaccinium oxycoccos, /.f/i??. Fl. Dan. 80. Engl. Bot. 319-

>S'cM'. t. 107. a. L«m. Ill t. 286. f. 3. Batsch Anal. Flor.

t. 7.
Oxycoccos palustris, Pers. Syn. 1. 419. O. vulgaris., Pursh

Amcr. Sept. 1. 263.
Schollcra oxycoccos, Roth. Fl. Germ. 2. p. 442.
Schollera paludosa, Bawngart. Transylv. 1. 381.

Geographical Distribution.

It is chiefly in the highest northern latitudes that this plant
grows, namely, Greenland, Iceland, Lapland, Siberia, Kanit-
schatka, Unalaska, and North America as far as Baffin's Bay.
Its most southern limit seems to be 46* N. Lat. ; for it is
found in the Floras of Switzerland, of Carinthia, and of Tran-
sylvania, but it does not grow in Italy and Greece.

Uses.

Cranberries are an article of food ; but in their natural
state they are too sour, and they must have been subjected
to frost, in order that they may become palatable. If they
are kept during the winter in snow, they become a pleasant
article of food in spring. In Scotland they constitute so con-
siderable an article of commerce, that at Longtown, on the
borders of Cumberland^ from L. 20 to L. 30 Sterling worth
are sold every day during five or six weeks. The I'nglish
prepare them with sugar, and use them in tarts ; (Lightfoot,
Flor. Scot. 1. p. 203.) This luxury, however, cannot be en-
joyed by every body, for the Cranberries have a peculiar
taste. In Petersburg they are sold in spring, water is pour-
ed on them, which thus assumes the colour of madder, and a
cooling drink is procured, (Gorter Flor. Ingr. p. 59.) The
Swedish apolhccarics make syrups and jellies from these ber-

3

CL. IX.] 14. BUTOMUS UMBELLATUS. f)73

ries. The goldsmiths also use the powerful acid of lliis berry
to give silver a white colour, because the copper, with which
silver is alloyed, is soluble in it.

CLASS LS.

14

Butomus umbellatus.

Blumenbinse, Deutsches Blumenrohr, Wasserviolc.— -French,
Joncjleuri.-^ltal. Giuncojlorido, — Engl. Flowering Bush.
— Swed. Blomwass.

This beautiful plant grows in our streams, pools, and other
deep waters. The root is a horizontal lying tuber, about the
thickness of a thumb, frequently still thicker, covered with a
blackish rind, from which the fibres of the root, about the
thickness of pack-thread, pass downwards, and the flower-
shoots rise upwards. The leaves spring from the tuber;
they are triangular below, but towards the point they be-
come flat ; throughout nearly their whole length they ai'e of
the same size ; and though their length is about four or five
^eei, they are scarcely an inch broad.

Between these leaves, and surrounded by them, rises the
round, even flower-stalk, four, five, and six feet high, and
about the thickness of a finger. This contains a white, spon-
gy pith, which consists of a compound cellular texture, and
shews some scattered bundles of spiral vessels. At the top of
the stalk stand the flowers in an umbel, which contains alxnit
fifteen flowers on stalks ; and at its base there is a membra-
naceous sheath of four, five, and six membranaceous, dry,
pointed leaves, which contained the flower before its evo-
lution, l)ut after it has flowered are reflex. The flower
consists of six ovate, rose-coloured ju'tnls, which externally
.ire of the nature of a ealvN, and have slits; but inteTnally
arc of the nature of a corolla, and ha\e the rc(iuisite intcgu^

374 14. BUTOJMUS U311iELLATUS. [CL. IX.

ment. On the receptacle there stand nine reddish, uniform
filaments, with yellow bilocular anthers, which are more early
developed than the stigmata, and are thus an example of the
androgynous dichogamy. Six ovaria stand together in the
centre, of a star-shape, and in their corners we perceive
ssx honey-drops oozing out. These ovaria are surmount-
ed by flat stigmata, somewhat emarginated, reflex, and
warty. The withered flower continues after the decay. The
germen consists of six simple capsules, which open laterally
and contain the oval, furrowed seed, fixed in two rows at the
sides. The seeds contain a great deal of mealy albumen,
and at one end is the unevolved embryon, in the shape of a
point,

Affinity.

The nearest related to this plant are the genera Hydro-
dels, Commers. {Richard in Mem. du Mus. i. t. 18.), and
Hydrogeton, Pers., which are distinguished from it almost
solely by the numerical proportions. In the latter genus, there
is but half the number of petals and ovaria, and but six an-
therae. The seed contains no albuminous substance, which is a
remarkable circumstance, (Enc. Suppl. iv. p. 237.) Altsma,
Sagittaria, and Llmnocfiaris, are related to this plant, al-
though the embryon in them lies folded together in a pud-
ding shape, without albumen. Hence, if we attend to the
character of the embryon only, we cannot exactly place our
plant with the Alismeae of De Candolle. But if, as is proper,
we take all the other marks into consideration, we must place
it among the Hydrocharidas, from which, however, the genus
Nectris Schreb. must be banished, because, according to la-
ter observations, its embryon is unfolded, and has distinctly
two cotyledons, {Rafinesque in Silimmi^s Journ. of New
York, vol. i. p. 374.) Respecting the Hydrocharidae, vid.
Anleit. ii. s. 262.

Synonymes and Figures.

Gladiolus palustris, Vul Cord. Hist. 100. Gcr. Emac. 29.
Gl AqmitiUs Dudon. 601.

CL. IX.] 14. BUTOMUS UMBELl.ATrs. 375

Juncus floridus, Matth. ed. Bank. 7J31. J. cvjK'ioicUs i\ov\-

dus, Lobel. Adv. 44. ic. 86. Dalcch. 989. J. Bank. Hint.

2. 524. J. cyperinus floridus, Tahcrn. 5()7. Parkins.

1197.
Calamagrostis, I. Dalcch. 1006.
Sedo affinis JLincoidcs palustris, Moris, sect. 12. t. .j.
Butomus florc roseo, Town. Inst. p. 271.
B. umbellatus, /,«;?7l /7. Dan. 604. lycV/A. t. 111. Ln^l

Bot 651. ^^wrm, F/. 18.

Geographical Distribution.

Rudbeck and Linnaeus found this plant (Fl. L(ip. n. 159)
in the Kemi-elf, therefore under the polar circle. Wahlenberg,
however, who searched this stream in the year 1802, has not
mentioned this plant, as if it did not grow in Lapland. But
it is certain, that in Europe and Asia it passes beyond the 6'3'*
N. Lat., for J. G. Gmelin found it on the banks of the Obi
and Jrtisch, {Fl Sib. 1. p. 77.) How far towards the Equa-
tor it stretches, has not been determined ; but Sibthorp found
it in Asia Minor, as far as the 38^ N. Lat. {Smith, Prodr.
Fl. Grac. 1. p. 269.) From east to west, it stretches from
Ochozk to Lisbon. It is not found in America. Between
the tropics, Hydrogetcni and Hydrocleis seem to supply it.^
place.

Uses,

Baskets are made of its leaves, and in Holland matts are
formed from it. The tuber of the root, rich in starch, is pre-
pared and used as an ingredient in bread, (Wrcdow's Oekf>-
nom. Elor. Mecklenb. 2. 209.)

^75 lo. PYllOLA SECUXDA. [Cj.. X.

CLASS X.

15.

Pyrola secunda, L.

Birnbaumchcnkraut, Einseitiges Wintergrun, Wald-mangold,
— Frencli, Pi/role un'ilaterale. — Engl. Serrated Whiter-
green. — Swed. Hult-vintergr'6n.

This plant grows in moist shady spots in our pine forests,
during June and July, not singly, but in numbers. The root
is woody, yellowish, creeping ; it strikes fibres here and there
into the soil below, and pushes out an ascending stem, about
a small span's length, simple, even, roundish, about the thick-
ness of a pack-thread. Over the whole of the stem, small,
green, lanceolate, and stalkless bracteas are found scattered.
The leaf-stalks also stand sparse and open, are even, and about
half an inch long. The leaves are ovate, oblong, unequal at
the base, serrated on the margin, having a herbaceous spine
at the point, even on both surfaces, full of nerves and veins,
and of a beautiful light-brown colour. The end of the shoot is
void of leaves, but the stipulee appear as bracteae. The flowers
stand in a one-sided cluster, are of a greenish-white colour,
and consist of a small quinque-partite calyx, membranaceous on
the margin, somewhat indented, and of five oblong, some-
what concave petals. The red filaments, ten in number, sur-
round the germen, and are at first bent doubly, whence the
bilocular anthera? have their pores turned downwards. Af-
terwards the filaments become erect, and the antherae then
stand with their pores turned upwards. The germen has
five furrows ; the pistillum is simple, and stands perpendicu-
lar ; the stigma is shield-shaped and fivc-lobed. The cap-
sule is superior and consists of five loculi, which burst at th(^

CL. X.] 15. PVKOLA SECUNDA. /J77

corners. The seeds are surrounded with a reticulated, s|x)iigj
membrane. The embryon stands erect in the albumen.

Diagnosis and Affinity.

This species could only be confounded with Pyrola mu
i\or. But P. minor has its leaves more rounded, obtuse,
slightly serrated ; it has pale red flowers, which are not
turned to one side only, but to several. The other species
are still more dissimilar. The genus Pyrola is most nearly
related to the Chimaphila Pursh, which is distinguished
merely by a thick, circular stigma, which, without a pistil-
lum, is placed immediately upon the germen. It borders on
GauUheria, Cletlwa^ Diapensia, Andromeda, Morwtropa,
and Erica, along with which it forms the family of the Eri-
.ce^.

Synonymcs and Figures.

Pyrola II. Clus. Pannon. 506. Hist. 2. 117. Gerard Eviac,

408.
Ambrosia montana, Dalcch. 1148.
Pyrola folio serrato, /. Bauh. Hist. 3. 536.
Pyrola tenerior, Park. Theatr, 509,
Pyrola foUo mucronato serrato, C. Bauh. Pin. 191. Moris.

sect. 12. t. 10. Riv. Pcntap. Jrreg.
P. racemo unilaterali, Hall. Stirp. Helv. n. 1008.
P. secunda, Linn. Fl Dan. 402. Eng. Bot. 517. Sturm,

Fl 13.

378 16. ASAllUJM EUROPIUM. [CL. XI,

CLASS XI.

16.

Asarum Europaeum, L.

Haselwurz, Weihrauchkraut. — French, Cabaret, Rondclli\
Oreille cThomme. — Engl. Asarabacca. — Ital. La baccJtera,
spigo salvatico. — Swed. Hasselbrt

This small, unostentatious, but interesting plant, grows in
our forests, particularly under hazel bushes. Its stem is of
a brown colour, about the size of a pigeon's quill, lies low,
and throws out fibrous roots. These last are externally brown,
internally white, and have a strong smell and a sharp taste,
which may be compared to that of pepper or ginger. The
ascending shoots, like the leaf-stalks, are set with hairs, and at
the base of the leaf-stalks are two membranaceous, brownish
stipula: or sheaths. The leaf-stalks are roundish, set with
hairs, and always grow in pairs. The leaves are kidney-
shaped, very obtuse at the point, hairy, but of a shining
dark-green colour, ciliated, quite entire, intersected by veins
an inch long, and two inches broad. Between two of
the leaf-stalks springs the flower-stalk, also set with hairs,
nodding, half an inch in length, and carrying over the ger-
men a brownish coloured calyx, externally hairy, of the na-
ture of a corolla, and terminating in three pointed, upright
vstanding lobes. Twelve pointed, reddish filaments surround
the pistillum, are longer than it, but shorter than the calvx.
A little below their summits, the bilocular yellow anthera^
are as it were stuck to them. The pistillum is a thick co-
lumn, which carries at its top a six-lobed, radiated, reddish
stigma. The capsule is six-celled, and in each of the cells
it contain^ two seeds concave on one side, which consist chiefly
of albumen, and contain the uncvolvcd embryon, like a pointy

CL. XI.] 16. ASAllU.M EUROPyEUM. 379

lying at one end. During germination two cotyledons arc
unfolded, but continue under the earth.

Diag}iosis and Affinitij.

The other species grow in North America, and are distin-
quished by the folk)\\ing circumstances. — As. Canndoise lias
more cordate, pointed, and hairy leaves, and the lobes of the
calyx are open and reflex. As. Virginkiiiii has cordate,
roimded, even, white spotted, coriaceous leaves, and an al-
most stalkless even flower. As. arifoUum Mich., has leaves
that are almost spontoon-shaped, coriaceous, white spotted,
and a tubular calyx, with a very short margin.

The affinity of this genus with Ai'lstolochm is striking in
its numerical proportions, in the general shape of the leaves,
and in the structure of the seed. The colour of the flowers,
and even the composition of the juices, in the case of most of
the Aristolochi >?, agree with the corresponding qualities of
this plant. But we must not push this idea of affinity so far,
as, with Pursh, to place Asarum in the class Gynandria ; be-
cause in Asarum the filaments stand on the germen, and con-
sequently the antherag are not united with the female parts,
as must be the case in Gynandria. But between Aristolochia
and Asarum, although more neaily related to the former, stands
the RJwplum Schreb. or Mehorea Aubl., because in this plant
each of the three pistilla carries two double antherae below
the stigma. Tacca is more distantly related to them. These
genera constitute together the family of the Aristolochiae,
which stands between the higher and lower forms, and are
conterminous with the Polygoneae, (Anlcit. ii. ^01.)

Synonymes and Figures.

Asarum, Braunschw. f. 68. a. Brunf. 1. 71. Fucks, 10.
Dodon. 858. Matth. 36. Tabern. Ilf2l). Dalcch. 914.
Ger. Emac. 836. /. Bauh. Hist. 3. 548. Park. Thcatr.

Nardus agrestis, Frog. f. 24. b.

Asarum baccliaris, Lob. Hht. 3f28. ic. 601.

Asarum vulgare, Moris, sect. 13. t. T.

380 16. ASARUM EUROPiEUM. [CL. XL

Asaruiii Europaeum, Linn. Fl Dan. 633. Engl Bot. 1083.
Schk. t. 127. Sturm, Fl 2.

Geographical Distribution.

The geographical hmits of this plant cannot be determined
for want of precise information. How far Asarum Euro-
p(£um extends towards tlie north, may perhaps be conjectured
from the fact, that Linnaeus, Liljcblacl, and the Flora Danica,
place it in Smaland and Jutland, and Gorter in Ingria, but
that it is wanting in the Catalogues of the Northern, Iceland-
ish, and Lapland plants. It must grow, therefore, as far as
the 60° N. Lat., but not beyond this. Towards the south,
it grows in Peloponesus, where Sibthorp found it. According
to him, it extends as far as the 37^ N. Lat.

Uses.

The root, when distilled, gives out a volatile oil, which
smells like camphor, and has the same relations, as camphor,
to re-agents. On being dryed, however, it passes into the
atmosphere, and becomes invisible. We also obtain from it
a resinous extractive matter, by means of which the root,
when pulverized, or dissolved in wine, serves as an emetic.
But its efficacy is not certain, because, when the root is be-
come old, little good can be expected from it. The inhabi-
tants of Britain use the leaves, pulverized, and mixed with
maijoram and lavender, as a sternutatory, in doses of five
and six grains, in the case of violent inflammation of the eyes,
or headachs proceeding from catarrh.

CL. XII.] 17. nuBUs. 381

CLASS XII.

17.

Rubus. (Brombeere, Himbecre.)

This genus stands, in the Linnaean System, between Ro-
sa and Fragaria — a situation which is natural enough, when
we recollect, that all the three genera possess the family cha^
racter of the Rosaceae ; for the genus Rubus is shrubby, like
the Rosa, yet there are several herbaceous species, by means
of which they are connected with the Fragaria. In all of them
the leaves are compound ; only some species of Rubus, Rosa
herherifolia Pall., and Fragaria monophylla Willd., are an ex-
ception. In all of them the calyx is quinquepartite, internally
of the nature of a corolla, and carries five petals, and an in-
determinate number of filaments. The ovaria are also inde-
terminate in number, and each of them has its pistillum on
its summit. But there is this remarkable difference, that in
the genus Rosa the lower part of the calyx swells into the
forni of a berry, and contains the seed within it, whilst, in
the Rubus and Fragaria, the seeds lie upon the receptacle,
and are often surrounded by the lower calyx. The two lat-
ter species are essentially distinguished by the following
circumstances. In the first place, the calyx of Fragajia
has five subordinate leaves between its principal divisions,
and may therefore be called decempartite, whilst in Rubus,
on the other hand, the calyx is only quinque|)artite. In the
second place, the receptacle of Fragaria swells, and eon-
tains the naked caryopsis imbedded in its surface, whilst
Rubus carries compound, one-seeded, juicy berries. All the
Rosaceae, however, agree in this, that the seed contains no
albumen, but only the evolved embryon, with its cotyledons
turned downwards, and its truncated radidc diitctLiI up-

382 17. RUBUS. [CL. XII.

wards. All these relations assign to the Rosacere a place in
the highest famihes of plants. (Anleit. 2. 859)

The diagnostic character of Ruhus also consists in the
simple quinque-partite calyx, and the compound berries,
uliich stand above the calyx. DaUharda. Mich., which for-
merly was reckoned of this genus, is distinguished by its
having from three to five, and ten caryopscs, which stand on
the dry receptacle. We arrange the species of Rubus, ac-
cording as they are shrubby or herbaceous, and as their leaves
are compound or simple. The following is a view of the
species that are present known.

* Fruticoat.

•f- Aculeatl.

a. Foliis compositis.

1. R. idaus I.., foliis quinato-pinnatis ternatis supra gla-
bris subtus albido-tomentosis, aculeis rectis, petiolis canalicu-
latis, floribus racemosis, laciniis calycinis reflexis.

R. id^us, Trag. f 367. a. Dodon. 743. Matth, 715.
Clus. Hist 1. 117. Lohel ic. % 212. Dalech. 123. Ger.
Emac. 1272. Tabern, 1298. J. Batch, 2. 59. Parle. Pa^
rod. 559. Fl Dan, 788. Engl Bot. 2442. Dttham. Arhr.
2. t. 56.

In sylvaticis montosis per omne hemisphaerium boreale a
circulo inde ai'ctico ad 37^ lat. bor. et Kamtskatka inde ct
Japonica ad fretum Nutka, Sinum Hudsonis, per Lapponiam
ac Siberiam, per omnem Europam, usque ad Olympum ct
Parnassum provenit.

Himbeere. — GalL Framboise. — Aiigl. Raspberry. — Huh
Lampione. — Suec. Hallon.

Fructus vulgo ru])ri, interdum et albi : occurrit etiam va-
rietas inermis.

2. R. c^sms L., caule repenti tcreti caesio-pruinoso, acu-
leis subrecurvis, foliis ternatis subpubescentibus, calyccerecto-
glanduloso pubcscente, petalis obovatis emarginatis.

CL. XII.] 17. iiUBUS. 383

R. minor, Dodon. 742.

R. caesius, Fl Dan. 1213. Engl Bot. 826. Schk. t. 13G
Hayne Ar::neygew, 3. t. 9.

Ad margines agrorum ab Upsala inde per totam Euro-
pani ad Thessaliani usque, denique in ipsa Japonia, (GO" —
48'>).

Brombeere. — Gall. Ronce bleuatre.— >4/?^/. Dewberry. —
Itai Rovo lurchino. — Succ. Bla Hallon.

3. R. fruticosus L., caule erecto quinquangulari sublo-
mentoso, aculeis recurvis, foliis quinatis ternalisque petiolatis
supra glabris subtus tomentosis, calyce subtomentoso reflexo,
petalis obovatis integris.

Rubus Fuchs. 152. Dod(y)i, 742. MattK 714. LoheL
Hist 619. ic. 2. 211. Dalech. 119. Gcr, Emac. 1272.

R. fruticosus, Linn. Fl(yr. Dan. 1163. Engl. Bot. 715.
Hayne Arziieygew^ 3. t. 12.

Brombeere — Gall. Ronce. — Angl. Bramble. — Ital. Rovae.
Suec. Brombar.

Ab Uplandia Sueciae inde ad Algeriam usque per onincni
Europam et Asiam borealem in sylvis et nemoribus. Occur-
rit variis formis, caule glabriusculo, minus aculeato, vel plane
inerme, foliis magis minusve incisis, petalis rubicundis, flori-
bus plenis, fructibus albis.

4. R. corylifolius Sm., caule erecto teretiusculo, aculei,
confertis rectiusculis, foliis quinatis subtus pubescent ibus, la-
teralibus sessilibus, calyce fructus subreflexo,

R. major fructu nigro, Schrnidel, ic. t. 2.

R. corylifolius, Smith, Fl. Brit. 542. Engl. Bot. 827-
Svensk. Bot. 187.

R. nemorosus, Hayne Arzneygcw, 3. t. 10. Willd. Bert.
Baumz. ed. 2. p. 411.

R. suberectus, Engl Bot. 2572.

In sepibus et nemoribus passim. Pra?cocius florcns quani
R. fruticosus, fert albos et fructus bruntHj-nigriusculos.

Per omnem Europam.

384 17. EUBUS. [CL. XII.

5. R. tomentosus Willd., caule angulato, aculeis recurvis,
foliis tcrnatis obovatis acutis iucTqualiter serratis utrinque to-
mentosis, latcralibus subincisis, calyce tomentoso reflexo.

R. creticus triphyllus flore parvo, Tmirn. Cor. 43.

R. sanctus, Schreh. Die. t. 8. p. 15. Willd. Sp. PI 2.
1083.

R. tomentosus, Willd. Sp. PI 2. 1083. Enum. 548.
Berl Baumz. ed. 2. p. 409. Nocc. et Balb. Fl Ticin.
p. 235. t. 9.

? R. tomentosus, Thmll. Paris* 253. Dubitatur, eamdem
esse speciem, Poir. Enc. SuppL 4. 694.

R. triphyllus, Bellard. ArU Tanrin, 3. 231.

R. argenteus, Gmel. Bad. 2. 434.

R. canescens, Cand. Monop. 139. R. collinus, ib* et Nocc.
Fl. Ticin. p. 238. 1. 10.

Passim per omnem Europam et Asiam Minorem. R. oMtt.-
sifolius, Willd. Berl. Baumz. ed. 2. p. 409. et R. agrestis,
Kit. Hung. 3. p. 297. t. 268, hue pertinere videntur, licet
aculei rectiusculi sint.

6. R. glandulosus Bellard., caule angulato, aculeis rectius-
culis subrcflexis, foliis tematis subrotundo-ovatis acuminatis
mucronato-serratis glabris ciliatis, venis subtus pubescentibus,
caule, petiolis, pedunculis calycibusque glanduloso-hispidis.

R. glandulosus, Bellard. Jpp, Ad. Fl. Pcdem. p. 24.
Willd. Enum. 548. Berl. Baumz. ed. 2. p. 410. Bauntg.
Transylv. 2. 5Q.

In Germania, Italia superiore, et Transylvania.

7. R. hirtus Kit., caule subangulato, aculeis subrecurvis
setisque confertis rubicundis, foliis ternatis cordato-ovatis
acutis in^equaliter serratis hirtis, nervo medio subtus aculeato,
pedunculis inermibus calycibusque glanduloso-pilosis.

R. hirtus Kit., Hung. 2. p. 250. t. 241. Willd. Enum.
549. Berl. Baumz. ed. 2. p. 413. Batimg. Transylv^
2. 55.

In svlvis Banatus et Transvlvaniae,

CL. Xll.J 17. RUBUS. »S»

8. R. laciniaius Willd., caule subanj^ulnto, aculeis recur-
vis4 foliis quinato-digitatis ternatisque subtiis ])ilosis, foliolis
plnnato-incisis, calycibus reflexis aculeolatis, ]xaaris trilohis*

R. laciniatus, Willd. Emcm. 550. Hurt. Btroi. t. 82.
Berl. Baum-:. cd. 2. p. 416.

Patria iguota. E seininibus educatus idem nianet.

9. R. occidentalis L., caulc tereti glabro pruinoso, aiuU is
recurvis alternis, petiolis teretlbus aciiU'utis, fcliis ternatis
ovato-acuminatis incisis argute duplicato-serratis subtiis lo-
mentosis*

R. idseus, fructii nigro^ Virginianus, Dill. Elth. 3.^7.
t. 287. f. 319.

R. occidentalis, Willd. Sp. PI 2. 1082. Bcrl Baitm::. cd.
2. p. 407. Pursh, Amer. Sept 347.

In rupestribus et montibus a Canada ad Pennsylvaniam.
Virginian Raspherry. Fructus nigri aut rubri. Petiolis
teretibus et foliis acuminatis duplicato-serratis pracipue dif-
fert a R. ida^o ct ca^sio.

10. R. hispidiis L., caule sannentoso procunibt nle tereti,
aculeis recurvis setisque sparsis, foliis ternatis inciso-inax^ua-
liter dentatis basi subcuneatis glabriusculis, racenii pedicellis
elongatis setosis, petalis obovatis.

R. hispidus, Willd. Sp. PI. 2. 1083.

R. trivialis, jMich. Bor. Am. 1. 296. WilUl. Enum. 549-
Berl. Baumz. ed. 2, 414. Ait Hort. Kuc. ed. 2. vol. 3.
p. 269. Pursh, Amer. Sept 347.

R. flagellaris, Willd. Enum. 549. Bcrl Banmr.. ed. 2,
412. Purshy Amer. Sept 347.

R. procumbens, Miihlcnh. Catal. p. 50.

In arvis a Canada ad Pennsylvaniam. Fructus nigri.

11. R. heterophyllus Willd., caule procunibente subangu-
lato glabriusculo> aculeis raris rccunis, petiolis peduncu-
liscpie raccniosis inennibus villosis, foliis ternatis glabriusc-ulis
profunde serratis, calyce tomentoso reflexo, petalia integri».

R. hetemphvllus, Willd. Berl. Bmimz, c«d. 2. p. 413.

TJb

38(5 17. RUiiiii. [ex. Xll.

R. villosus, Torreyy in CataL Nov. Eborac. p. 4<7.
Ad Novum Eboracum. R. triphylluSy Thunb. Fl. Japon.
SI 5. est sola vaiietas, foliis subtus pubescentibus.

12. R. villosus Ait , caule Iiispido, aculeis reflexis, foliis
digitatis ovato-oblongis acuniinatis serratis utrinque villosis,
petiolis aculeatis, pedunciilis racemosis laxis.

R. villosus, Ait. llort. Klic. ed. 1. vol. 2. p. 210. WiUd.
Sp. PI 2. 1085. Mich. Bar. Amer. 1. 297. Purah, Avier.
Sept. 346. Poir. Enc. 6. 243.

In arvis a nova Anglia ad Carolinam. Blackberries.

13. R. cunc'ifolius Pursh., ramis petiolis peduuculisque to-
incntosis, aculeis sparsis recurvis, foliis digitatis obovatis apice
inaequaliter dentatis plicatis basi revuiutis sul)tus tomeiitosis,
pedicellis paniculai ditai'icatis nudiusculis.

R. paivifolius, Walt. Carol, 149.

R. caneifolius, Piirsh^ Amer. Sept. 347 Nuiiall, Gen. \.
308.

In Nova Caesarea

14. R. roS(jefoUus Smith, caule tereliusculo piloso, aculeis
recurvis, foliis pinnatis pilosis, foliolis ovato-lanceolatis dupli-
cato-serratisj pedunciilis sub-unifloris terminalil)us.

R. rosafolius, Sm. ic. ined. 3. p. 60. t. 60. Willd. Sp. PI.
2. 1080.

R. borbonicus, Pers. Syn. 2. 51.
R. Commersonii, Poir. Enc. 6. 240.
In insulis Mascarenis et Java,

15. K. pinnatiis, Willd., ramis villosis, aculeis recurvis,
foliis quinatis ternatisquc rugoso-venosis duplicato-serratis
utrinque glabrisj nervo medio aculeatOj pedunculis racemosis
calycibusque villosis.

R. pinnatus, Willd. Sp. PL 2. 1081. Ait^ Hart, Kew-
ed. S. vol. 3. p. 270.

Ad C. B, S. ct in insula S. Helena>

CL. XII.J 17. RULUS. 387

16. R. australis Forst., caale glabro teretiusculo, aculeis
raiKorum secundis recurvis, foliis tcrnatis utrinque glabris
ovalibus argute dentatis subcoriaceis, floril:us raceniosis dice-
cils, sepalis obtusis patentibus.

R australis, Forst. Prodr. Fl Ausir. p. 40. WUld, Sp.
PI. 2. 1081.

In Nova Zellandia,

17. R. roseits Polr., ramis flexuosis glabris, foliis ternalia
ovato-lanceolatis crenulatis utrinque glabris, nervo medio acu-

eato, stipulis ovalibus, pedunculis solitariis, petalis calyco
glabro minoribus.

R. roseus, Pair, in Efic. 6. 245.
R. coriaceus, ib. 237.
In Peruvia.

18. R, parvifoUus h., caule tereti tomentoso, aculeis re*
curvis confertis, foliis tematis ovatis subtus albo-tomentosis,
floribus raceniosis.

R. Moluccanus, Runiph, Amho'in. 5. p. 88. t. 47. f. 1.
R. parvifolius, Linn. Sp. PI. 707. WUld. Sp. PL 2. 1083.
In insulis Moluccis.

19. R- Jamaicensis L., caule glabriusculo, aculeis recurv-is,
foliis quinato-ternatis inciso-serratis subtus villoso-tomentosis,
paniculis terminalibus diffusis.

R. foliis longioribus, Shane^ Jam. t. 212. f. 1.
R. aculeatus, P. Brown, Jain. 242.

R. Jamaicensis, Linn. Mant. 75. Sxo, Obs. 205. WlUd.
Suppl. 2. 1084,

In Jamaica et Antillis.

20. R. urticafolius Poir., ramis anguljitis sctosis, aculeis
raris rectiusculis, foliis tematis simplicibus utrinque sericco
tomentosis, panicul^ ramis hirsutissiniis, calyce albido.

R. urticsefolius, Poir, in Enc. 6. 246.
In Peruvia-

B b«

oSS 17. KL'liUS. [CL. XI!.

iiJl. 11. Jrajrini/bliii^ Puir., ramis giabr'ts teretibus, aculeis
rails, foliis seplenato-phiualis uLiinque glabri.s, foliolis ovato-
iicuminatis inciso-serratis, paniculie ramis filifornnbus glabris.

R. fraxinifolius, Poir. in Enc. 6. 242.

In Java.

atl. R. apttaliis Toir., r.iuns teretiuscubs pubescentibus,
aciilei.s sparsis, foliis scpicnato-pinnalis subtus albido-tonien-
to.sis, fbliolis ovabbus serrulatis, racemi axillaris rainis pubes-
centibus, floribus apetali.s.

R. apetalus, Pu'tr. in line. 6. ^!4id.

In InsiiJa Francia', Coinmrrstn.

mp!

B-i. U Moluccanus I..., ra^ni.s liirsnlis, aculeis recurvi**,
foliis curdato-lobatis scrralis .sul)lus iunitiitc>is, pedunculii
subracemosis axillaribus.

It. Moluccanus latifolius, Rmnph. Amb. 5. p. 88. t. 47*
t 2, Lm7i: Sp, PL 707. Tlumtj. FL Jap. 219. WUId.
Sp. PL 2. 1086.

U. ak"ea:;folius, Po?7-. in /:.;,r. 6. i^-47. CaU cibus inflatis
difTLrre dicitnr.

In insuli-^ Molucc.is, Java ct Ja}-onia.

24. K. m'iCropliyUu^'i L. fil., ramis teretibus flexuosis gla-
bri.s, aculeis sparsis recurvis, foliis cordatis trifidis ina^qualiter
dentatis glabris, venis subtus pid)escentibus, pedunculis soli-
tariis, calyce villoso,

K. mirrophyllus, Limi. Svppl. 268. WUM. Sp. PL 2.
1086.

.R. palmatus, Tlmnb. FL Jap. 217*

In Japonia. Fri ictus lutei.

2o. R. inci.fus Tbunb., ramis glabris, aculeis sparsis sub-
recurvis, foliis cordato-snbrolundis inciso serratis utrinque
glabns, f)cdvnirulis solilariis glabris.

CL. XII. J 17. UUBUS. 38<}

R. inci^is, Thunb. FL Jap, 217.
In Japonia.

26. W-Corchorifolius L.fil.,ramis tomentosis, aculcis rcciirvis,
foliis cordato-ovatis acutis sublobatis serratis villosis, nervo
medio supra aculeato, pedunculis axillaribus solitariis touitrii
tosis.

R. corchorifolius, Lhm. Suppl 26i3. WUld. Sp. Fi 2.
1087.

R. villosus, Thuiib. Fl Jap. 218.
In Japonia.

27. R. clongatus Smith, ramisviscoso-pubesccntibu?, aculeis
sparsis, foliis cordato-acuminatis duplicato-crcnatis subtus to-
mentosis, paniculae ramis glomeralis, calyce obtuso.

R. elongatus, Smith Ic. Ined. 8. t. 62. WUld. Sp. PI. 2.

1087. Poir. in Enc. 6. 248.
In Ja-va.

28. R. pyrifolius Smith, ramis flcxuosis, acukis pparsis,
foliis oblongis acuminatis serratis ntrinque glabris, panicu-
Ite ramis corymbosis, bracteis incisis, petalis calyce minori-
bus.

R. pyrifolius, Smith, Ic. Ined. 3. t. 61. WUld. Sp. PL 2.

1088. Polr. in Enc. 6. 248.
In Java.

-)*-f- Incrmes.

29. R. atiigosus Mich., caule tereti liispidissuno, foliis
quinato-tcrnatis ovatis acuminatis ina^(iualiter serratis subtus
lineatis candido-tomentosis, pedunculis subtrifloris calycibus-
que hispidis. -

R. strigosus, Mich. Bor. Amer. 1. 297. WUhl, Bcrl.
Baumz. 408. Pjirsh, Amer. Sept. 346.
R. Pennsylvanicus, Poir. in Enc. 6. 246.
In montosis a Canada ad Virginiam.

390 17. RUBUS. [CL. XII,

30. R. Canadensis L., caule purpureo glabriusculo, foliii
digitatis denis quinis ternatisque, foliolis lanccolatis argute
serratis utrinque nudis, stipulis lincaribus subaculeatis.

R. Canadensis, Linn. Sj). PI. 707. ^n.^. Ic. t. 223. Willd.
Sjj. PL 2. 1085. Pursh, Amer. Sept. 347.

In rupestribus sylvaticis a Canada ad Virginiam.

81. R. hiermis WiWd., caule procumbente glauco-tomento-
so, foliis ternatis sublus albido-tomentosis, foliolis ovatis acu-
tis subincisis inocqualitcr serratis, stipulis subulatis.

R. inerniis, Willd. Enum, 548. Berl Baumz, 410. Pursh^
Amer. Sept. 348.

In Pennsylvania,

32. R. ohovalis Mich., caule hispido, foliis ternatis obova-
to-subrotundis serratis nudis, stipulis setaceis, racemis subco-
rymbosis paucifloris, bracteis ovatis, pedicellis elongatis

R. obovalis, Mich. Bor. Am. 1. 298. Pursh, Amer Sept.
349.

In paludibus sphagno abundantibus a Novo Caesarea ad
Carolinam,

33. R. spedahilis Pursh, caule ramisque flexuosis glaberri-
mis, petiolis pubescentibus subaculeatis, foliis ternatis ovatis
acutis angulatis inasqualiter duplicato-scrratis subtus pube-
scentibus, pedunculis terniinalibus solitariis unifloris, petalis
ovatis calyce longioribus.

R. spectabilis, Pursh, Amer. Sept. 348. ♦ t. 16.
In ora occidentali America? borcalis. Flores speciosi pu-
nicei,

34. R. odoratus L., caule erecto, petiolis pedunculisque
glanduloso-p'losis, foliis simplicibus quinquelobis inasqualiter
dentatis, venis subtus pubescentibus, calycibus appendicu-
latis.

R. odoraius, Corn. Canad. t. 150. Mill. Ic. 223. Linn.
HorL Cliff. 192. * Willd, Sp. PI 2. 1085. Berl. Bauniz,
416 Bot, Ma^. 823.

CL. XII.] 17. RUBUf. 301

In sylvis Americae borealis. Folia suaveolentia. Flores
rubri. Fructus flavi.

35. R. parviflorus Nuttall, foliis palmato-loballs, pcduncu«
lis subirifloris, calycibus villosis acuniinatis, petalis cal} cc bre-
vioribus ovato-oblongis,

R. parviflorus, Nuttall, Gen. 1. 308.

In insula Michillimakinak lacus Huronuin.

•* Hcrbacei,

36v R. saxatilis L., flagellis reptantibus, caule obtusangu-
lo, foliis ternatis rhombeis acutis inciso-dentatis nudis, pcdun-
culis subternis elongatis, petalis linearibus.

R. saxatilis alpinus, Clus. Paiinon. 116. Hist. 1. 118.

R. alpinus humilis, J. Bank. Hist. 2. 61.

R. saxatilis, Ger. Em. 1273. Park. Thcatr. 1014. Fl
Dan. 134. Bug. Bot. 2233.

In rupestribus per Europam, Asiam, ct Aniericani. In
veteri orbe a Caucaso (45°), inde ad Islandiam et Lapponiam
(66°) ; in America a Virginia (38°) ad Canadam (50°).

37. R. a^'ctJcus L., caule simplici glabro, foliis ternatis ovatis
obtuse-dentatis glabris, pedunculis solitariis, petalis obovatis
emarginatis.

R. humilis flore purpureo, Bu.rh. Cent. 5. t. 26.

R. arcticus, Linn. FL Lap. t. 5. f. 2. FL Lkin. 488. Eng.
Bot. 1585. Bot. Mag. 132.

Arcticus jure dicitur : namque in Succia et Norvcgia baud
citra 60° provenit ; vera patria est regio ab occidente Sinui
Bothnico contermina, (Helsiugeland, jNIedelpad, Angcmian-
land.) In Scotia tamcn et Sibiria a Kamtschatka ad i>6^ de-
sccndit ; in America ad 52°. In Succia Boreali nomine Aker-
bdr fructus flavidus sapidissimus fragrans delicias summas
constituit.

38. R. pistUlatus Sm., caule unifloro, foliis ternatis argute
scrratis glabris, petalis oblongis integris, stylis approximatis.

:^Q2 17. KUBUs. [CL. xii.

l\. plstillatus, Smithy Ejcot. But. J^. t. 86. Pursh, Amer.
Sept. 349.

R. acaiilis, Mkh. Bor. Amcr. 1. 298.

In paiudibus Canada? ct in ora America; Borealis occid^fn-

taJi.

-'^O. R. rad'icans Cav., caule prostrate sarmentoso aculeato,
foliis longc petiolalis tcriialis orbiculatis sublobatis crenatis
utrincjue villosis, pcdunculis solitariis elongatis, calycis laci-
niis dentatis, petalis ovalibus.

R. radicans, Cav. Ic. 5. t. 413.

in sylvis Chili. Nisi flores esscnt riibri ct folioriim forma
aliena, Duclicsneamfrogifbrmcm Sm. subesse crcdiderim.

40. K. cliamcemo7'us^ radice repente, caule simplice unifloro,
foliis simplicibus subreniformibus rotundo-lobatis plicatis, ca-
lycis laciniis oblongis incisis, floribus dioeciis.

Chamaemorus, Clus. Pannon, 118. Hist. 1. 118. Gcr.
Emac. 1273. 1420. Park. 1014. Pontopfid. Norg. Naturl.
Hist. 1. 215.

R. Chatnaemorus, TAnn. Fl. Lap. t. 5. f. 1 . Lig^i^tf- Scot.
9.m. • t. 13. FL Dan. 1. Eng. Bat. 716.

In Succia Boreali, praesertim in paiudibus Lapponia?, per
omnem Norvegiam, Islandiam, insulis Faeroer, Scotia borea-
li et Cambria, in Pomerania, ad Fontes x\lbis, in Meisnero
monte Haffiae, in Curonia, Livonia, Ingria, Sibiria, Kamt-
schatka, Canada et Nova Anglia. In Europa, si citra 60°
occurrit, amat uligines alpestres. In summo jugo Sudetum
(50° 50') fere 4000 pedes altam habet sedem. In peninsula
Dars Pomeraniae (54'' 30') paludem mari a^qualem habitat.
In America Boreali sub 44^" in paiudibus montosis invenitur.
Sueci dicunt Hjortron^ Dani et Pomerani Afidtebdr, Scoti
Cloudberry, Flos albus, fructus aurantiacus.

41. R. sfellatus Sm., caule crccto unifloro, foliis simplici-
bus cordatis trilobis rugoso-venosis, ])etalis lanceolatis.

R. stellatus. Smith, Ic. Ined. t. 64. Wiild, Sp. Pi 2
10S9. Pur.sh, Amcr Sejit 349.

CL. XIII.] 18. PAPAVEK DUinUM. S93

In ora occidentali America? Borcalis. Flores purnu-

rei.

42. R. tr'ifidus Tliunb., caule glabro simpllci, follis simpli-
cibus cordatis trifidis scrratis utrinque glabris, pcdunculis so-
litariis.

11. trifidus, Thuiih. Jap. 217. Wilhl Sp. PI 2. 1089.

Ilubus pcdatus Sm., gcoides Sm. ainandandi sunt ad genus
Dalihardam. Rubus Japonicus, Linn. Willd. et Cliorcliorus
Japonicus Thunb., eamden) constituunt plantam, Kcriam a
De Candollio dictam,

CLASS XIII.

18.

Papaver diibium, L.

Ackermohn, Klatschrosen, Feldniohn. — French, Pavot doit-
ieux, CoqucUcot.' — Ital. Rosolacno. — Papavere silvntko.
— Eng. Red poppy, Smootli-headcd poppy. — Swcd. Syster-
vallmo.

This plant blossoms in our fields in June and July. From
n fibrous, whitish root, there rises a round, herbaceous stem,
of the thickness of an oat-slraw, two feet high, and, like the
leaves, furnished on the lower part with distarit, pretty stiff
hairs. The leaves are doubly pinnated, and embrace half
the stalk; the lobes are lanceolate-linear, and distant from
one another. The flower-stalks are nearly a foot long,
and furnished with thick accumbent stiff hairs or bristles.
The flowers stand single, and have a two-leaved deciduous
calyx ; four broad, pale scarlet-coloured j)etals, crenated on
the marfjin, and smooth ; an indefinite number of linear fila-
ments, which stand on the receptacle ; yellow anthera? of two
loculi ; a superior, longish, smooth, angular gernun, 5ur-

394 18. PAPAVER DUBIUM. [CL. XIII.

mounted by the six or eight rayed, shield-shaped stigma,
\vithi)ut a pistilkim. The capsule is unilocular, and the
seeds are placed in several flat cavities, which proceed in a ra-
diated fcrm from without half-way inwards. It opens under
the persistent stigma with as many holes as there are rays in
the capsule. The seeds have a wrinkled covering, and con-
tain the small, evolved embryon on the side of the albuminous
matter.

Diagnosis and Affinity.

This species, which is very like the common Poppy (Pa-
paver rhoeas)^ is distinguished from it by the thickly accum-
bent bristles on the flower-stalk, — these bristles, in the other
species, standing horizontally from each other. The flowers,
too, are by no means of so fiery a red, but are somewhat paler.
P. argemone^ which also, although more rarely, grows among
the corn, has a club-shaped, bristly capsule, small and still
paler petals, and bluish antherge, and filaments which are
thick above. P. hybrulum^ which grows still more rarely
in Germany, has an almost spherical, sulcated, bristly capsule,
dirty dark red flowers, and bright blue antherae.

The affinity between the genus Papaver and Chelidonium
and Glauchim is striking, although in the two latter the
form of the fruit is different. Among exotics, it is still more
nearly related to Argemone, and this affinity is expressed by
the peculiar juices, which in the Poppies are white; in Che-
UdoniuiJi, Glauciinn^ and Argevione^ yellow ; and in Abatia^
black. The Papavereae are related, through Hypecoum and
Fumaria, to the Cruciform plants, and through Actaoa to the
Ranunculeae, (Anleit. ii. 727.)

Synonymes and F'lgiires.

Argemone capitulo longiori glabro, Moris, sect. 3. t. 14.
Pavaver erraticum, Toiirn. Inst. 238, Rupp. len. ed. Hal-.

kr, p. 79. Hallcr, Stirp Helv, n. 1065.
P. dubium, Linn. Engl. Bot, 644. Schk. t. 140. Fl. Dan.

902.

CL. XIV.] 19. GALEOBDOLON LUTEUM. 395

Geographical Distribution.
This species seems to extend, as well as P. rJuras, froin
60° N. Lat. towards the Tropics. In Lajiland it is as seldom
met with as in countries between the Tropics. It is ako
wanting, together with its related genera, in America.

CLASS XIV.

Okder I.

This is called Gijmnospcrniia, because four naked carvop-
ses stand an und the pistillum, at the bottom of the calyx,
(Tab. III. Fig. 17.) But there are transitions to capsules.
In Verbena^ for examj)le, the four seeds, as long as they arc
not quite ripe, are included in a membranaceous bladder,
which disappears when the seeds are matured. In this in-
stance, the pistillum stands directly on the germen, whilst in
the proper Gymnospermae, it stands in the middle of tlie four
caryopses. These latter bodies lie, in this family, on the
thickened and swollen germen {gynobasis). The Asperifo-
lioe, again, which also have four caryopses, have no gynobasis,
but the caryopses are surrounded by a ring of nectaries. Of
the four filaments, two are commonly shorter than the others,
(Tab. IV. Fig. 16.) The pistillum is cleft. The corolla
has a disposition to become irregular, and exhibits frecpient-
ly tW'O lips ; hence this division forms the natural family of
the Labiatae ; (Anleit. ii. 427.)

19.

Galeobdolon lutcuni, Huds.

Gelbe Hanfnessel, Goldnessel, gelber Hahnenkopf. — French,
Agripaume javnCy Lamicr des hois. — Ital. Ortica morfa

^96 19. GALEOBDOLOX LUTEUM. [CL. XIY.

gialla. — Engl. Ydloic arcJtangcl, Weasel s7ioui, — Swed.

This plant appears in our forests at the end of May, "with a
knotty root, from which rises a four-cornered stem, its lower
part being of the form of a root, furnished with reflex hairs,
and from one foot to a foot and a half hioh. The leaf-stalks
stand opposite to one another, are furnished with long, soft,
white hairs, and are half an inch, and even somewhat longer.
The leaves are ovate, unequally crenated, and the teeth are
furnished with a small point. At the base they are almost
cordate, in other parts they are hairy, of a dark green,
sometimes spotted with white, an inch long, and not quite
so broad. The uppermost are much smaller, and without
stalks. They surround the flowers, which stand by fours
and sixes in verticilli, and are surrounded, beside the stem
leaves, by smaller bristle-shaped leaves. The calyx has a
short stalk, is smooth, and properly has two lobes. The
upper lip forms an almost erect, long pointed tooth. The
lower lip consists of four teeth, which are also pointed, and
almost bristle-shaped. The yellow corolla is two-lipped :
the upper lip is arched, without a stalk, and furnished with
jointed hairs : the under lip consists of three flat, small, and
spotted laciniac. These brownish red sjx>ts are the nedaro-stig-
mata : the nectary is the surface of the gynobasis : the lower
part of the tube of the corolla, furnished with hairs, forms
the nectarilf/ma. Four soft haired filaments, broader below,
stand on the tube of the corolla : two are shorter than the
other two. They carry four anthera3 with double loculi,
and are nearly as long as the upper lip of the corolla.
The pistillum is cleft at the top : the stigmata are pointed.
Four three-cornered, longish caryopses are persistent in the
bottom of the calyx, and contain, like all the Labiata?, the
erect embryon, without any albuminous matter.

Affin'itij.

This plant is so nearly related to the genera LecmuruSy
Gahnpsh, and Lamium, that it is sotnctimes rla-^sed with the

ORD. I.] 19. GALKOBDOLON LUTEUM. 397

one, and sometimes with the other of tlicni, IJut Lcminru^
is distinguished by the five-cawned tetth of iis calyx, two of
which form the upper, and tliree the under Tip ; and by the
three rounded lobes of the lower lip of the corolla, of which
the central one is the largest. Galcops'is haa a calyx similar to
that of Leonurus ; but the lateral lobes of the lower lip of
tlic corolla form, at the entrance of the tube, a pair of kiH)ts,
the upper lip is shortly cleft, and the anthera? o})en with
fringed valves. Lam'ium has a similar calyx to the fonner,
only with long-pointed teeth : the tube of the corolla is in-
flated above: the lateral lobes of the lower lip pass into a
pair of reflex teeth, the central lobe is emarginated : the lobet
of the antherae are furnished Vith long hairs. A\'e must,
therefore, regard Galeohdolon as a peculiar genus, the cha-
racter of which is to be sought in the structtu'e of the calyx
and corolla. The single long-pointed tooth, which forms
the upper lip of the calyx, and the three small lacinia? of
the under lip of the corolla, form this character.

Synonymes and Figures.

Urtica iners, in. Dodon, 153.

Lamium luteum, Loh. Adv. (223. Ic. 521. Tabcrn. 923.

Gerard. Emac. 702. Parle, thcatr. 606. folio oblongo.

Moris, sect. 11. t. 11. Hiv. Monop. Irr.
Galeopsis s. Urtica iaers, J. Tiauh. Hist. 3. 323. Touni

Inst. 185.
Galeobdolon, Dill. Giess, 49.

Leonurus foliis ovatis acutis serratis, Linn. Hort. Cl/Jf. 313.
Galeopris Galeobdolon, Li7m. Fl. Suec. cd. 2. p. 205. Fl

Dan. 1272.
Leonurus Galeobdolon, Scop. Cam. n. 705. W:U>1. Sp.

PL 3. 115. .Sdik. t. 157
Lamium Galeobdolon, Grant::, Austr. 262.
Pollichia Galeobdolon, Roih. Germ. 2. 26.
Galeobdolon luteum, Huds Fl Angl.^iiS. Smith, FL But

631. Engl. Bat. 787.

398 '20. A. CRISTA GAXLI. [CL. XIV.

Geographical Distribution.
The temperate part of Europe is tlie native region of this
plant. Its most northern limits, as far as is yet known,
are Wasa in Finland, Jamtcland in Sweden, and Dron-
theim in Norway, (63°.) Its most southern limit is Ha?mus
in Rumilia, (41°.) Only thus far, too, the plant grows to-
wards the east ; but in Lithuania it grows as far as the Wol-
ga Heights, (33° E. Lat.) Westward it extends as far as
the Pyrenees.

OHDEE II.

This order is called Angiospermia^ because the fruits are
capsules, or drupes. In the natural arrangement, the plants
of this order belong to the Personata?, Acanthea?, Bigno-
nieae, and Vitice^ ; (Anleit. 2. 390—426.)

20.

Alectorolophus Crista Galli, M, B*

Hahnenkamm, Klapperkraut, Wiesenrodel. — Fren. Crete de
coq. Cocrisie. — Ilal. Crista di gallo. — Engl. Yelloio-rattle.
— Swed. H'6-skaller^ Paininge-grds.

This is one of the most common weeds in our meadows and
iiclds, blossoming during summer^ and withering entirely
during harvest. From a soft fibrous root there rises a four-
cornered stem, commonly simple, sometimes considerably
branched, smooth, or somewhat sharp to the touch, and some-
times marked with dark red spots. It is about a foot in
height. The leaves are set opposite to one another, without
stalks, lanceolate, rough, sharply serrated, and cordate at the
base, an inch, or an inch and a half long, and from three to
four lines broad. In the neighbourhood of the flowers they
supply the place of bracteae, are ovate, and somewhat mem-
branaceous, but otherwise are as much serrated and rough to
the touch a^ thopc farthest down. The flowers stand oppo-

ORD. II.] J^O. A. CltlSTA GALLI. 399

site to one another, and compose together a richly furnisljt-d
ear. The calyx is almost stalkless, inflated, menibranaceous,
having reticular veins, with a contracted lour-loolhcd (>jAn-
ing. The corolla is yellow, about one-hall longer than the
calyx, w4th two hps, and almost personate. 1 he upper lip
is arched, compressed, externally set with short hairs, with
an obtuse, often an emarginated, sometimes a violct-colourcd
beak. The lower lip has three short, yellow lobes, which
press upon the upper lip. Four filaments of unequal length
are fixed in the tube of the corolla, and carry lour an-
thera? of two loculi, pointed laterally, and ciliated, which
never rise above the upper lip. The germen has on its
lower margin the nectary, as an insulated gland, and car-
ries a simple pistillum, with a somewhat thickened stigma.
The fruit is a double, compressed capsule, the partition of
which goes right across the loculi. On this partition are
placed the flat compressed, marginated seeds, containing the
embryon opposite to the umbilicus in the albuminous sub-
stances.

Diagnosis ami Affimty.

We find, according to difference of soil, many subspecies
of this plant, of which Alcct. Idrsutus Allion. {U/iliKuU/m.f
AlcdorolopJnis, PoHich.), is distinguished by its size and
hairs. It is about two feet high ; the stem is furnished wiili
red spots and with soft hairs : so also is the calyx. "^Ve are
prevented from constituting it a peculiar species, by its mark-
ed ti*ansitions, and by its want of uniformity. Still less could
we form a new division in regai-d to Rhlnanthus mhior
Ehrh., and alpinus Baumg. The former is distinguished
simply by its less size, smaller leaves, and inck)sed pistillum.
But in this species, as in several plants, the jjistillum has a
different length according to the diflerent age of tlie blossom.
At first it is inclosed, afterwards it projects a little. Lastly,
if the Rhlnanthus alpinus Baumg. is to be dislinguishtd by
its variegated, violet, and yellow flowers; this colouring is
also found in the common yellow rattle, and we can onl\ ,
therefore, regard these difPrrent frrms as sn(fs|xcies

400 20. A. CRISTA GALLI. [CL. XIV.

Very similar, although essentially different, is Rhinanthui
versicolor Lam., which grows on the shores of the Mediter-
ranean, in Italy and Africa. It has small, linear leave?, the ser-
rated teeth of which are somewhat ohtuse, and go very deep,
so that the leaves seem to he half-pinnated : the uppermost
leaves are dentated only at the base. The corolla is of a red-
dish purple, and is much longer than the calyx. This latter
part is not inflated, but it has also four teeth. The seeds
are not flatly compressed, but angular ; hence this species
properly belongs to the genus Bartsia, which, very like the
Alectorolophus^ is distinguished from it by its tubular, coloured
calyx, and by its angular seeds. The same is the case with
Rhlnanthus Trixago Linn. This plant of the South of
France, with a stem of an ell long, branched, and lanceolate^
and with large and deeply serrated leaves, has its calyx and
seeds similar to those of the former species, and belongs,
therefore, to Bartsia, with which it is classed by De Can-
dolle.

Allioni and Marschall of Bieberstein, have very properly
separated the genus Alectorolophus from Rhinanthus. The
latter genus is distinguished by its two-lipped calyx, and by
a tubular, beak-shaped upper-lip of the corolla, having a
broad appendage at the j)oint. To it belong RJunantlius
orientalis Mill., and Rh. cleplias L. These genera are ar*
ranged in the natural method with the Personata?, andj in-
deed, with the subdivision of the llhinanthe^e ; (Anleit.2. 397.)

Synonynies and Figures.

Crista galli, Dodon. oB^. Lohel Adv. '^IP.I. Hist. '285. Ic.

5529. Dali'ch. 10T3. Mas et Fcemhia. J. Baiih. Hist.

3. 436. Ger. Emac. lOTL Parh T/ieafr. 713. Riv.

Monop. Irr.
Pedicularia lutea, Tabern. 1180. Prate nsis, Moris, sect. 11.

t. 23. Tourn. hist. \1±
Alectorolophus calycibus glabris et hirsutis, Hall. Stirp.

Helv. n. 313. 314. AlUon. Pedem. n. 205. .906. Al. Crista

galli, Marsili. Bleb Taur. Caiic. 2. 68.

ORD. II.] 20. A. CRISTA GALI.I. 401

Rliinanthus Crista galli Linn., Willd. Sp. PL 3. 188. /7.

Dan. 981. Engl. Bot. 637. Schk. t. 1G9.
Mimulus Crista galli et Alectorolophus, Scop. Carn. n. '751.

im.

Geographical Distribution.

This is properly a northern plant, which grows in Europe
as far as the North Cape (70°), in Iceland, Siberia, Kamts-
katka, and North America ; as far as Hudson's Ba)-, and
scarcely passes, towards the south, beyond the 44° or 43^ ;
for Tauris, Transylvania, and the South of France, appear
to constitute the most southern limits of its distribution.

Uses.

I am not acquainted with any useful property of it. Orr
the contrary, the rattle is a hurtful weed in our meadows,
and is not eaten by any animal. Its seed, mixed with
meal, gives it a dark appearance, and makes the bread indi-
gestible.

CLASS XV

Order I.

This Order is called that of the SiUcuhsn', or siliclo-bear-
ing plants, because their fruit is almost as long as broad,
(96.) Yet here, as every where else, there are transitions.
Farsetia R. Br., on the one side, and Brmja Stcrnb., and
Nasturtium R. Br., on tlic other, arc so nearly related to this
order, that we may sometimes call their fruit a Silicula, some-
times a Siliqua. Several of these silicles are fruits of another
species, nuts, in particular, which do not burst, as in Bu~
nias, Crambe, Cakilfy Succovia, Monch. But, as the plants

. C c

402 21, TEESDALIA XUDICAULIS. [CL XV.

correspond with this order in their other relations, we can-
not separate thera from it.

21.

Teesdalia nudicaulis, R. JSr.

Sand-Bauernsenf, Taschelkraut, Felsenkresse. — Fren. Ta-
bouret a iige nue. — Eng. Naked-stalked Candytuft. — Swed.
Sand-iber.

This plant blossoms with us in spring, on high sandy,
open places. From a soft fihrous root, a number of lyre-
shaped, smooth leaves, expand themselves into a circle, ha-
ving their margins sometimes ciliated, but undivided, and
about half an inch long. In the midst of them, perpendicular,
smooth, round flower-stems arise, about three inches, or, at
most, half a foot in length, and of the thickness of a thread.
These stalks are furnished with a few lanceolate, or oblong,
coloured, scaly leaflets : in other respects they are entirely
void of leaves. On the upper part of these appears the small
white flower-bunch, the upper part of which resembles an
umbel. The single flower-stalks are scarcely two lines in
length.

The calyx consists of four pieces ; the corolla of four pe-
tals, which, for the most part, are dissimilar, the two outer
being larger than the two inner. The filaments are six, and
stand on the receptacle. Two of them are longer than the
others. On each of the filaments, at its lower part, and turn-
ed inwards, there is a whitish leaflet, which is larger in the
longer filaments, and smaller in the shorter. The fila-
ments carry bilocular, yellow antherae. The germen is su-
perior, emarginated above, and carries a short thick pistil-
lum, with a warty stigma. The fruit is a bilocular silicle,
with boat-shaped wingless valves, having two round seeds
without a raised margin in each loculus,— attached to long
funiculi umbilicales, and containing the embryon without al-
bummous substance, its radicle being turned towards the
opening of the cotyledons.

ORD. I.] 21. TEESDALIA NUDICAULIS.

40:i

Diagnosis and Affinity.

This plant has some resemblance to Draha vcnm, -which
blooms somewhat earlier however, and is much mt)re com-
mon. Both are of nearly similar stature, but Draha vema
is commonly the smaller ; its individual flower-stalks arc much
longer, the root leaves are undivided, and furnished with
three-pointed hairs. The petals are deeply indented, and the
fruit is a longish, pointed silicle, with many seeds. Lcp'uVium
nudicaulc L., which grows about Montpellier, and is figured
by Magnol (Bot. Monsp. p. 187.)? is also distinguished from
it, by the smaller lobes of its lyre-shaped root-leaves. But
De Candolle has shewn (Flor. Franc. 4. 708.), that this plant
is only a subspecies of ours. Thlaspi Bursa, also, has some-
times an appearance, which might lead us to take it for Tees-
dalia, since it has lyre-shaped root leaves, and white flowers.
But its stem is always branched and furnished with leaves :
the silicles, also, are inversely triangular, and contain many
seeds. Lepidium alp'mum and petraium L. have also some
resemblance to it ; but they have peculiarly pinnated leaves,
which grow on the stem, and lanceolate siliculae, furnished
with pointed extremities.

This plant is commonly classed with Iberis, because its pe-
tals are somewhat unequal. But Iberis has the Valves of its
siliculae distinctly marginated, and has no appendages to the
filaments. These two circumstances constitute the diagnostic
character of the two genera. This plant cannot be classed
with Lepiduirn, because, in this latter gcnus^ the petals are
uniform, the filaments are without appendages, and the ra-
dicle of the embrvon is turned towards the ridge of the coty-
ledons. Thlaspi is still further distinguished by the winged
or marginated valves of the sUlcida, by the want of ap})end-
ages to the filaments, by having many seeds in its \(k\\\\, and
by the direction of the radicle towards the ridge of the coty-
ledons.

Cc2

4fOJ? 21. TEESDALIA NUDICAULIS. [CL. XV.

Synonymcs and Figures.

PaStoria bursa minor, Dodon. 103. Park. Theatr. 866. Mi-
nima, Lob. Ic. 221. Ger, em. 276.

Bursa pastoris parva, folio glabro, J. Bauli. Hist. 2. 937.

? Bursa pastoris media, Moris, sect. 3. t. 20. {Nasturtium
petrtEwin, Ger. Park. Tahern. Moris., the plant more com-
monly identified with this is Lepidium petrtEum.)

Nasturtium minimum vcrnum, Magnol. Bot. Monsp. 186.
Toiirn. Inst. 214. Formerly, however, he classed Nas-

' turtium petraum of his predecessors, with Pastoria bursa
miiior.

Iberis foliis pinnatis. Hall. Stirp. Helv. n. 521.

Iberis nudicauhs, Linn. Ft. Suec. ed. 2. p. 228. Willd. Sp.
PI. 3. 458. Fl. Dan. 323. ScM: t. 179- Engl. Bot.
327. Sturm. Fl. 11.

Lepidium nudicaule, Gouan, III. p. 40. Willd. Sp. PI. 3.
432.

Thlaspi nudicaule^ Desfont. Atl. 2. 67. De Cand. Fl,
Fran^. 4. 708.

Guepinia Iberis, Desvaucc, Journ. de Bot. 3. 167.

Teesdalia nudicaulis, R. Brown, in Ait. Kew., ed. 2. torn. 4.
p. 83.

Geographical Distribution,

This plant seems chiefly to inhabit the south-west regions
of the Old World. Its eastern limits seem to be Grodno and
Translyvania, (20° E. Lat.) Northward it extends to the
^4°, for it does not grow in Lapland. Southward it extends,
with some variety of form, (with smaller lobes of its root-
leaves), as far as Peloponnesus, the south of Spain, and even
Algiers, (35" N. Lat.)

ORD. II.] 21. ERYSIMUM CHEIRAXTHOlDrs. 105

Order II.

SiUquosa^ with long extended Sili(|u<T.

22.

Erysimum cheiranthoides, L.

Leucoienartiger Hederich, Schotendotter. — French, Velar
girqflee. — Engl. Treacle hedge-mustard. — Swed. Akcr-
rym.

This plant, the fibrous root of which lasts two years, is
pretty common among the shrubs of our pastures, in mea-
dows and moist fields. Its somewhat angular, branched,
ferect, leafy, herbaceous stem is furnished with mnncrous ac-
cumbent sharp hairs. The leaves of the stem stand alternate,
are lanceolate, without stalks, or lengthened into the leaf-
stalk, generally two inches long, and half an inch broad, fur-
nished with indistinguishable, scattered teeth on the margin,
which almost entirely disappear in the upper leaves. The
surface appears smooth to the naked eye ; but with a glass we
observe small, contiguous, three-pointed hairs. The branches
stand open, and carry rich bunches of flowers ; the individual
flower-stalks are a line and a half long; at first they are
erect, afterwards, when the fruit has I'ij^ened, they become
horizontal. The calyx consists of four lanceolate, erect, yel-
lowish-green pieces, furnished with a membranaceous margin :
the corolla consists of four spoon-shaped, more or less emar-
ginated yellow petals, somewhat longer than the calyx. The
filaments are six in number, four of which are longer than
the other two ; but they are all as long as the pistillum, ami
as the claws of the petals. The anthera* are oval, yellow,
and bilocular. The nectaries stand at the base of the fila-
ments, those on the shorter filaments being half ring.sha|xxl,
riiose on the longer crcnated. After flowering:, both tlie si-

406 Q.2. ERSYIMUM CHEIRANTHOIDES. [CL. XV.

liquae stand erect, are quadrangular, having the remains of
the simple stigma at their points, and containing the seed in
two row s, the radicle of the embryon being turned towards
the ridge of the cotyledons.

Diagnosis and Affinity.

The plant which most resembles this is Cheiranthus ery-
simoides Linn., or Erysimum hiernc'ifoUiim Linn. Ehrh. (not
Jacqu.), or Er. lanceolatum R. Br. But this latter plant is
distinguished by its liabitat being confined to dry, sunny
places, along the wayside, — by its erect stem, distinctly den-
tated leaves, and by its white flowers being larger and whiter.
Er. huraci folium Jacq., or odoratum Ehrh. Willd., is also
extremely similar, but it has commonly a simple stem, dis-
tinctly dentated leaves, golden-yellow flowers, w^hich have a
pleasant smell, circular petals, and a two-lobed stigma at the
end of the siliqua. Er. repandum Linn, has an almost pro-
cumbent stem, the flower-branches of v/hich stand opposite to
the leaves : it has also lanceolate, angular dentated leaves,
and horizontal siliquae. Er. diffusum Ehrh. has linear,
greyish, slightly dentated leaves, the hairs of which have
merely a simple cleft, and the flowers are of a pale yel-
low colour, and large. Er. angustrfolium Ehrh. has revo^
lute, linear, sulcated, entire, greyish leaves, sulphur-yellow
flowers, and a long pistillum on the end of the siliqua.

Synonymes and Figures.

Viola lutea sylvestris, Trag. f. 212. b.

Myagrum alter um, Thlaspi effigic, Lohcl. Hist. 112. Ic.

225. Dalech. 1137. Amarum, Park. Theatr. 868.
Myagro affinis planta, siliquis longis, J. Bank. Hist. 2. 894.
? Erysimon in. Tabern. 840. (It may also, however, be

Cheiranthus ery simoides).
Camelina, Ger. em. 273.

Eruca sylvestris, Thlasplos effigic, Moris, sect. 3. t. 5.
Turritis leucoii folio, Tourn, Inst. 224.
Erysinuun cheiranthoidcs, Linn. Willd. Sp. PI. 3. 51 L

CL. XVI.] 23. GERANIUM KOTUXDll OIJIM. 407

Jacq. Fl Austr. t. 23. FL Dan, 731. 923. En<yL But.
942. Schh. t. 183.
Cheiranthus turritoides, Lam. Enc. 2. 716.

Geographical DistrihiUiwi.

This plant is found from 68° to 44° N. Lat., ibroiigliout
tliG whole northern hemisphere. It grows in Lapland, Silic-
ria, and North America ; but it does not grow farther south
than the South of France.

CLASS XVL

23.

Geranium rotuiidifolium, L.

Rundblattriggcr Storchschnabel. — French, Geranium a feu-
illes rondes. — Engl. Dove'sfoot CranesbilL. — Swed. Gdrd
Storhnqf.

This plant flowers about the middle of summer, in gar-
dens and fruitful fields. From a soft, fibrous root arise se-
veral herbaceous, roundish stems, furnished with soft, white,
erect hairs, somewhat glutinous, much branched, of the thick-
ness of a thread, and from one to two feet higli. The branches
and leaf-stalks stand opposite to one another, and, where
they grow, the stem and branches are somewhat thickened
and reddish. Among these divisions stand reddish, mem-
branaceous, lanceolate, pointed leafy appendages, which in
time become dry, and fall oft'. The leafstalks, which are
nearly horizontal, are almost an inch long, and furnislied
with shaggy hairs. The lower stem-leaves are nearly circu-
lar, liaving a deep small indentation, where the leaf-stalk is
inserted : they are five-lobed, having tlie lobes standing thick
together, obtusely dentatcd, of a pale green, furnished on

408 23. GERANIUM ROTUNDirOLlUM. [CL. XVI.

both sides with the same soft shaggy hairs. The upper leaves
are more broad than long, so that they are almost reniform ;
they have no indentation at the base, but sometimes they ta-
per into a wide shape, sometimes they are directly truncated.
Their circumference is also divided into five obtuse lobes,
standing at some distance from each other, and furnished
with three obtuse teeth : their surfaces also are hairy. In
the neighbourhood of the flowers the leaves are frequently
three-lobed. Their size varies, the lowermost having a diameter
of an inch and a half, the uppermost of scarcely half an inch.
Opposite to the leaf-stalks, and higher up even between the
leaf-stalks, appear the flower-stalks, likewise an inch long.
They stand erect, or open, and are divided, half way their
length, into two distinct stalks, under which two fine, white,
pointed bractca?, or stipulre, stand. The calyx consists of five
oblong, pointed, streaked, strongly cihated pieces. The
flower consists of five spoon-shaped, pale red, quite entire pe-
tals, the claws of which are ciliated at the base : they are ra-
ther longer than the calyx. In the bottom of the latter stand
ten filaments, enlarged at the base, and clinging to one ano-
ther. On their outer side we perceive five nectaries, covered
by the cilia? of the petals. The antheras are reddish, and
contain a yellow, oval pollen, surrounded by three circles.
In the middle of the filarhents rises the pistillum, inclosed by
the five, rostrate, connate, shaggy appendages of the germen.
At its summit, the pistillum is expanded into a five-lobed,
reddish stigma. After the fall of the flower, five ciliated, but
not bunchy or wrinkled utriculi, remain, which open laterally
from below upwards, and whose beaks are externally set
with the same parallel white liairs which cover the whole
plant. The spotted, or warty seed, contains the embryon
without albumen, with convoluted, membranaceous cotyle-
dons, and the radicle turned upwards.

Diagnosis and Affinity.

This plant is most nearly related to Geranium molle and
puhiUum. But the former of tliese two is distinguished by
its cleft, or dcej)ly cmargined })ctals, and by its wrinkled ulri-

CL. XVI.] 23. GERANIUM ROTUND! FOtlUM. 409

cuius having a smooth beak. Geranium pus'dlum has cmar«;i,
nated petals, only five antherae, and its flowers are much
smaller, although also ])ale-red. The beak of the vtrkulus
is not furnished with distant, but with thick crowded hairs.
G. pyrenaicimi^ which is most nearly related to G. molk^ has
a perennial root, is much larger in all its parts, has also large
flowers, the petals of which are deeply cleft, and it has not a
bunchy utriculus. G. dissectum is distinguished by its pal-
mate, cleft leaves, the lobes of which are linear, and stand at
regular distances from each other ; the emarginated petals
are as long as the awned calyx: the beak of the utriculus is
furnished with shaggy hairs: the flower-stalks are shorter
than the stem-leaves. G. columbinum, on the other hand,
which is very like G. dissectum, has very long, wavering,
flower-stalks, stem-leaves of the same kind, large flowers, anct
a smooth beak of the utriculus.

The genus Geranium cannot be distinguished at first sight
from Erodium Ait. But the latter has among its ten fila-
ments, five that are unfruitful and abortive : the beak of the
utriculus is turned into a spiral shape, and is intcrn:illy fur-
nished with hairs, which may be most easily seen in E. cicu-
tariuniy the most common species. Pelargonium Ait. has a
similar beak of the utriculus, but the corolla is irregular and
two-lipped : the nectary is in the bottom of the tubular calyx.
The diagnostic character of Geranium, therefore, is as fol-
lows : the corolla regular, ten fertile filaments, five nectarie<>
at the base of the filaments, and a straight beak of the utri-
culus, internally without hairs. The Geranijc constitute a
natural family, which stands between the Agrunia- and Mul-
yacese, (Anlejt. ii> vid. 793.)

Sijnonijme^ mul Figures.

Geranium alterum, Fuclis. 205. Maitli. ()21.
Pes columbinus, Dodon. 61. Lubcl Hist 37C. Ic. Go8
Ger. ahud fecundum, Dalech. 1277. Tabcrn. 12J3.
Ger. columbinum, Ger. cm. 938. Pari'. 70().
Ger. folio rotundo, J. Bnuh. 3. 173., is intencK^l for it, ))UL
the figure is quite a failure.

410 24. LATHYRUS TUBEROSUS. [CL. XVII.

Ger. folio malvae rotundo, C. Bauh. Pin. 318. Tourn. Inst

268.
Ger. annuum, folio malvaceo rotundo, Moris, sect. 5. t. 15.
Ger. viscidum, caule decumbente, Hall. Stirp. Helv. n. 941.
Ger. rotundifolium, Linn. Willd. Sp. PI 3. 712. Cav.

Diss. 4. t. 193. f 2. Engl Bot. 157.

Geographical Distribution,

This species delights in the temperate and warmer regions
of the earth. In Sweden it does not grow beyond the 61*^.
On the other hand, it extends throughout the whole of Eu-
rope, as far as the islands of tlie Archipelagus, and it is even
found in the northern coasts of Africa. Its diffusion east-
ward seems to be limited by the Wolga Heights ; for it is
found in Lithuania, but not in the other parts of Bussia, in
Tauris, or in Asia.

CLASS XVII.

24.

Lathyrus tuberosus, L.

Erdnuss, Erdmandel, Grundeichell, Akereichell, Sand-brot.
—French, Anette, Marcusson.

This beautiful plant is common enough in the corn fields of
Germany. The stem rises from an irregular, yet, for the most
part, round tuber, externally of a brown colour, internally
white, and of an agreeable taste. The stem is herbaceous, erect,
commonly quadrangular, without leafy or membranaceous
appendages : its upper part is divided into branches, and it
attaches itself, by cirrhi, to other plants and objects. It is an
ell or arm in length, and, at its lower part, is of the thick-
ness of a pack-thread. Where the leaf-stalks and branches
arise, there arc linear, long, and fine pointed stipulae, which

CL. XVII.] 24). I.ATIIYllUS TUBEROSLS. ill

are half arrow-shaped, by having the lower teelh reflex. The
leaf-stalks stand open, are at least half an inch long, angular,
and carry each two opposite, oblong, entire leaves, tajR'iing
at the base, somewhat rounded at the point, furnished with
an herbaceous spine, penetrated by many nerves and veins,
but in other respects smooth, and which are an inch long, and
rather more than half an inch broad. The leaf-stalk passes
above these leaves into divided crooked cirrhi.

At the extremity of the shoots grow^ the flower-stalks,
about a finger in length, frequently still longer, without
leaves, smooth, roundish, and erect. The beautiful red flowers
stand in a six or eight blossomed bunch. The individual
flower-stalks stand open, are from three to four lines in length,
and have beneath them a linear stipula, wliich is about one
half shorter than the flower-stalks.

The calyx is divided into five lanceolate teeth, two of svliich
commonly lie on the vexillum of the corolla, and three stand
beneath it. The corolla is papilionaceous. The vexillum is
emarginated, reflex, white in the centre, of a beautiful red
above, and marked wdth red streaks below. The aUe and the
carina, likewise of a beautiful red, are inferior to it. The
carina incloses a cylinder of filaments, one of which becomes
separated from the rest towards the vexillum. The other
nine are completely united : all of them carry round, yellow-
ish antherae. In the middle of tliem stands the longisli,
compressed germen, with the ciliated, broad pistillum, and a
yellow, roundish stigma. The fruit, which is superior to the
calyx, is an unilocular, two-lobcd, rather compressed legume,
which contains ten roundish seeds, fixed to one suture.
The embryon fills the whole seed with its two rounilish
strong cotyledons.

Diagnosis and ^JjinKi/.

This species cannot easily be confounded with any other.
It is true that in Lathyrus pratcnsis the cirrhus also springs
from tw^o opposite leaves ; but these leaves are lanceolate, laixr-
ing at tlie point, and the Howers are always yellow. In L. .sy//-
Vestrls Sindi lafj/oHus, also, the flowers lue red; but m ihr

412 24. LATHYRUS TUBEROSUS. [CL. XVII.

former they are more soiled, and the carina is green ; both
have leafy appendages on the stem and on the branches. The
leaves of L. sylvestris are about three inches long, and sharp-
ly tapered at their point. L. latifoUus has flowers of a rose-
red colour ; oblong, rounded leaves, with an herbaceous spine,
and these leaves arc also much larger than those of the other
species, and almost coriaceous. The stipulae are broad lan-
ceolate, and rather dentated. With other species it has still
less affinity.

The genus Lathyrus has a very distinct character in the
flat pistillum, although in other respects it is nearly related to
Vicia, which, however, is distinguished by the hairs of the
roundish pistillum ; and Orohus^ which is related to both of
them, is distinguished only by the want of cirrhi. These ge-
nera belong to the natural family of leguminous plants, which
stand between the Polygalea? and Capparideas ; (An. 2. vid.
740.J

Synonymes and Figures.

Apios, Fuchs, 131. Dalech. 1596.
Pseudoapios, Matth. ed. Bauh. 876.
Terrae glandes, Dodon. 550. Lobel Ic. 2. 70. Ger. Emac,

1237.
Cham^ebalanus, Tahern. 891. J. Bauh, Hist. 2. 328.
Arachydna Theophrasti, Column. Ecphr. 1. p. 304. t. 301.
Lathyrus arvensis. Park. Theatr. 1061, radice tuberosa,

Moris, sect. 2. t. 2. Riv. Tdrapet. Irreg,
J., tuberosus, Linn. IVilld. Sp. PI. 3. 1088. Fl. Dan. 1463.

peograpliiQcd Distribution.

It is as yet completely unknown according to what laws
this plant is distributed. We find it so dispersed from 30"*
to 56^ N. Lat. in the Old World, that some countries have it,
whilst others, lymg in the same latitude, want it. Thus, it
is very conmion on the north coast of Africa ; on the other
liand, it is wanting in Greece and Asia Minor : it is found in
'^Fauris and Transylvania, in Germany, France, and Poland ;
but is wanting in Sweden and Great Britain. In Denmark

CL. XVIir.] 25. HYPERICUIM MONTANUM. 413

it is only found near the fort at Copenhagen. In Siberia,
again, it grows along the upper Jcnisei as far Krasnojarsk.

Uses.

The tubers are edible. In Siberia they are much rehshed
by the Tartars, under the name Tschina. Tlie common
people in Germany also use them. They contain three limes
more starch than potatoes.

CLASS XVIII.

25.

Hypericum montanum, L.

Berg- Johanniskraut, Grossblattriges Hardieu, — French, Mil-
lepertuis de montagne. — Engl. Mountain St John's-icort.

This graceful plant grows single, in woods and on calca-
reous soils. The stem, which is an ell long, round, sim})le,
and smooth, springs from a brown, woody, fibrous root, and is
about the thickness of a pack-thread. The stem-leaves are
oblong, smooth, and stalkless : they stand above and oppo^iie
each other, at intervals, which are an inch and a half long,
and they partially embrace the stem. The margin of the
leaves is adorned with black points, and its lower surl'ace is
reddish. The leaves are rather tapering at the point, yet not
pointed. On their lower surface we perceive some ribs pro-
ceeding from the base. The length of the leaves is an incli,
the breadth half an inch. The leaves, when rubbed, before
the flowering, give out a reddish juice. On the upper part
of the stem they are less frequent, and much smaller. Tlie
flowers stand on the top of the stem in crowded panicles, len-
der each flower-stalk there is a lanceolate brattea, set roumi
with black stalked glands. In the same manner are tlu' live
lanceolate leaves of the calvx Inclosed. Of tlic <evir:il tlow-

414 25. HYPERICUM MONTANUM. [CL. XVIII.

crs in the panicle, only a pair is ahvays quite open : they
consist of five oWiqiie, entire, citron-yellow leaflets. From
the bottom of the calyx rise the yellow filaments, in indeter-
minate number, and in three bundles : they carry oval anthe-
ra?, likewise of a yellow colour, and are for the most part
longer than the petals. The germen is superior, and carries
three remote pistilla, with button-shaped stigmata. After
flowering, the corolla withers, without falling off^", and be-
comes somewhat twisted, for its aestivation is complex. The
fruit is a thrce-lobed capsule, the valves of which form
double dissepimenta with their inverted margins. The nume-
rous fine seeds contain the embryon evoh ed, with albuminous

Diagnosis and Affinity.

The species most related to this is the H. elegans Willd.,
{Kohlianum Fl. Hal.) But this is distinguished — by its
shrubby stem, which with us is seldom longer than a small
span, — by its leaves, which, being much smaller, are furnish-
ed on the margin, not with black, but with bright points, and
have their margins for the most part reversed. This species is
limited in Germany to a single calcareous hill. But it grows
also in Volhynia, where it is an ell in length, and in Siberia.
H. perfoliatum L. or ciliatum Willd. has a two-edged stem,
and pellucid points in the leaves, which embrace the stalk.
Of exactly the same nature is the structure of //. ThomoMi
from Calabria. It has cordate leaves, completely embracing
the stem, furnished with bright points, and pellucid cartilagi-
nous margins, an obtuse quadrangular stem, the bractea? and
the leaves of the calyx completely set round with glands having
stalks. Very much resembling our plant is aiSo H. macula'
turn Wall. Mich. ; but here also the stem and the petals are
furnislied with dark points. The panicle is expanded, with
branches distant from one another, and forming together
an umbel. H. coiipnbosuui Willd., and pnnctahim Lam.,
belong to this species. But H. pimctafum Willd. seems to
be a different species, although one that is related to H. mon-
ianuiii. The dark points shew themselves through the whole

CL. XVIII.] 25. HYPERICUM MOXTANUM. 415

leaves, and the round stem also is set with tlicm ; llie leave:*
also are much smaller. H. alpinum Kit. (Hung. 3. t. ^65.)
is also very nearly related, but is distinguished l)y fine hairs
on the ])etals, and by having the upper part of its stem two*
edged. H, dentatum Loisel. (Fl. Gall. 2. p. 499. t. 17.)
has completely the external appearance of //. montnnmn ;
but the leaves are not studded on the margin with black, but
every where with pellucid points, and those farthest up are
fringed and ciliated on the margin. We cannot, with l*oiret,
(Enc. Suppl. 3. 700.) suppose it to be a subspecies of our
plant. H. pulchrum, to which H. montanum is also very si-
milar, has quite short, ovate leaves, embracing the stem, and
fine dark points. //. liirsutuvi is distinguished by the shag-
gy hair which covers the stem, and the lower surfiicc of the
leaves.

The genus Hypericum, along with some others, constitutes
a natural tribe, which includes the Guttifer.-e {Marcgraviccc
and Mesuea), and has, in common witli them, the coloured
peculiar sap, the indeteraiinate number of the almost united
filaments, and the number five prevailing in the calyx and
in the corolla. As we do not observe any nectaries in most
of the species of Hypei^icum, we distinguish as a ])eculiar
species, under the name Martia (Elodea Adans.) the //. Vir-
ginicum L. smd petiolatum Wall., on account of three necta-
rious glands on the base of the petals, between the bundles
of filaments. Jndrosamum Tourn. also is distinguished by
the berry-shaped fruit, and Ascyrum by its four-leavcxl ca-
lyx and corolla, and by its two-valved capsule. On the other
hand, the diagnostic character of Hypericum is its five-lcaved
calyx ; its corolla, consisting of five petals ; its filaments in
three or more bundles ; no nectaries ; three or five pistilla ;
a three or five valved capsule, with the margins of the valves
involuted. To this genus also is now added Sarothra L.,
the filaments of which vary from five to ten.

Synmymcs and Figures.

Hypericon II. Trag, 28.
Androsaemon, Fuchs. 7G.

416 25. HYPERKI'M .MONTANUJf. [CL. XIX.

Hypericum elegantissimum non ramosum, J. Bauh. Hist. S.

'383. Tour7i. Inst ^55.
Androsaemum campoclarensc, Colunm. Ecphr. 1. 74.
Ascyron, s. Hypericum bifoUum, C. Bauh. Pin. 280. (excl.

synon. Dodon. et Matth., qu£e ad H. quadrangulare.)

Moris, sect. 5. t. 6.
Hypericum montanum, Lifin. Willd. Sp. PI. 3. p. 1463,

Fl. Dan. 173. Engl. Bot 371. Trattin. Ostr. Fhr. H. 3.

Geographical Distribution.

Desfontaines places this species on the mountains of Al-
giers, and Sibthorp near Messenia in Peloponnesus. It is dif-
fused from 30° N. Lat. throughout the whole of Europe.
How far it proceeds towards the north, is not yet established.
It grows at Bornholm, and in the south of Sweden ; but not
in Lapland, nor in Norway. Its northern boundary in Swe-
den seems thus to be the 61° N. Lat. How far eastward it
extends, is not yet determined. It is found in Lithuania^
Gallicia, and Transylvania^ but not in Tauris, the other
parts of Russia and Siberia. Its eastern limit may therefore
be the 30° E. Lat.

GLASS XIX

Order I.
a chore a J or Semijlosculosir.

Thrincia hirta, Roth.

This plant grows in July and August on some pastures and
fields in Germany. The root is perennial and fibrous. Here
and there appears a somewhat thickened, tuberous radix. From
this spring, in the first place, several- lanceolate leaves, taper-

CL. XIX.] 26. THlilXClA Hliri A,

417

ing towards the base, having sparse teeth on llie niargin, ami
sinuses between ; these leaves are set with scattered white
hairs, rather stiff, separated in the form of cirrhi at the ex-
tremity. The lengtli of tlie leaves is at most that of a finger,
the breadth about three lines. At the side, not in the centre,
of this plot of leaves, there arise several round stalks, either
quite smooth, or having their under suriace furnished with a
few scattered hairs, of a reddish colour below, a small or great
span long, of the thickness of a thread, and carrvi ng single
flowers. The flowers, before blossoming, are pendant. The
calyx is smooth, or slightly ciliated, simple, divided into eight
or ten pieces, and furnished at the base with some small short
scales. The calyx has as many corners as parts.

The flower consists of an indeterminate number of uniform,
yellow, tongue-shaped florets, whicli are penetrated longitu-
dinally by five fine parallel veins (Vid. 2G0. II. Brown in
meinen. Neuen Entdeckungen, i. 1G6.), and the upper end
of which terminates in five teeth, between which run those
veins or nerves. The ray-florets, or those on the margin,
are of a lead or copper colour on their lower surface. In
each of the florets is a cylinder of yellow antherac, tlie fila-
ments of which are ciliated, remote, and inserted into the
lower tubular part of the floret. Through the middle of the
cyhnder of antherae proceeds the pistillum, which terminates
above, in two linear stigmata, internally warty, outwardly
furnished with small hairs, (Collectores, vid. 273.) At first
the pistillum is included in the cylinder of anther.^ ; after-
wards the former comes forth, and its stigmata become ex-
panded, and revolute. The pollen is spherical, set round
with fine spines, (271.) The nectary is the up{X'r part of
the germen, within die pappus. The receptacle is full of
very fine cavities, set with extremely delicate bristles. The
seed is longish, brown, sulcated, having cross ridges, and a
varying pappus: For the ray-florets bear seeds the pappus
of which consists altogether of short chaffy leaves ; the setnis
in the centre, on the contrary, have a pinnated pappus. The
seed is a caryopsis, in which the evolved embryon stnmh
erect, without albuminous matter.

l)d

418 2C. TiniTXriA IiniTA. [OL. XIX.

Diagnosis and Affimty.
This plant is commonly classed with Hierachim pUoselln
and Aparglu hispida. With these two it might most readi-
ly be confounded. But //. pihsclla is distinguished by
trailing shoots, — by its entire, more strongly ciliated leaves,
having their under-surface set with a white tomcidum^ —
by its citron-yellow flowers, the lower parts of which are
of a bright red, and which, upon the whole, are much lar-
ger than the flowers of Thrincia ; — finally, by its simple,
hairy pappus. Apargia hispida has runcinate leaves, the
hairs of which are universally divided into a forked shape.
In the centre, not at the sides of these leafy plots, arise, pret-
ty perpendicularly, the flower-stalks having each one blossom,
and more strongly ciliated. The calyx is covered by strong
hairs, scaly, and the scales lie like tiles on one another. The
flowers are larger than those of Thrincia, and of a darker yel-
low ; each floret lias a bush of loqg yellow hair at the en-
trance of the tube, and the five teeth of the upper extremity
have five brown glands on their lower surface. In other re-
spects the lower surface of the florets is of the same colour
as the upper. The pappus is ovate and pinnated. In
the south of Europe there grows a species, Avhich is
uncommonly like this, namely, Thrincia hispida Roth.
This is distingiiished by its annual root, — by its runcinate
leaves, every where furnished with forked hairs, — by its
roughly ciliated calyx and long-stalked pappus. There
grows also in the south of France and in Italy, a Thrincia
tuberosa De Cand. Sav., which is distinguished by its beet-
shaped tuberous roots, its runcinate, nearly smooth leaves, and
by its calvx being but slightly ciliated. Its florets also are
discoloured on the back. Apargia iuhcrosa Wilkl. does not
altogether correspond with this, but the following more an-
cient synonymes are applicable to it : Cichorium Constanti-
nopolifanum, Mattli. cd. Bauh. 388. ; Dens Lconis Monspcli-
ensiinn, Dodon. 636. ; Monspeliensium dens Lconis, asphode-
li bulbulis, Lobel. Hist. 117. ic. 5232.: ChondriUa altera
D'toscor'nVis, t't^lvnnb Plivlob, t. 4. These, therefore, are

ORD. 1.] 26. TITRi:<CIA MIUTA. 419^

the true Thrhicia iuberosa. Aparg'm iuhcrom grows smooth
and cihated : the ciliae are sliort and forked. The leaves arc
shaped pretty mucli in the same way as thosi* of Thr. lirfu.
The flowers are large, the calyx distinclly scaly and cillattHl,
the pappus uniformly pinnated. The plant which has the
greatest resemblance to this is Aparg^'ia hast'dU Willd. parti-
cularly because here also the calyx has the r.amc shape, ami
the marginal florets have the same leaden colour on their
lower surface. I also think that the two sj)ecics coulil only
be artificially distinguished. For Ap. hastills has an ovaU:
pinnated pappus, and is quite smooth. Are there not transi-
tions from the one form to the other ? I think there are.
Jacquin fifty years ago attempted in vain to discover these
transitions, {Enumer. Plant. Vindob. p. 270.) I.achenal,
(Act. Helv. 1. p. 272.), indeed, has remarked transitions to
Leontodon Jmpulum ; but can we believe that he had our
plant actually in his eye ?

Synonymcs and Figures.

Hieracium ;^jajMa<A«<r<oTg«;cy?'«^^''y, Richard de Bellrc. Ic. 1. 119-
Hier. hirsutum parvum, caule aphyllo Magnoh Bat. Monsp.

131.
Hier. montanum latifohum non sinuatum, Loscl. Boruss.

p. 125.*
Dens leonis foliis hirsutis Zannich Vend. p. 86. t. 183. f. 1.
? Hieracium dentis leonis folio, Bua:b. Hal. 157.
Rhagadiolus foliis semipinnatis asperrimis. Hall. Stir p. n. 7.
Leontodon hirtum, Linn. Sp. PI. cd. Rcic/i. 3. G34. (excl. sy-

non. Bauh. et baud apta descriptione.) Houtuyn. 9. CO.

Gouan Fl. Monspel 349. Wither. Arrang. 3. 837. (excl.

Syn. FL Dan. 901. qua? Apargia hispida.) Roth. FL

Gerin.%%\^5. Jacqu. Vindob. 139. Lcer.s, Hcrborn.

168. * Leyss. Hal. cd. 2. p. 191.
Leontodon proteiforme, Vdl. Delph. 3. p. 87. t. 24. (>ed excl.

plerisque synonymis.)
Apargia hirta, Scop. Cam. n. 984. (excl. syn. J. Bauh.)

Hqfm. Germ. 274. Host. Syn. Austr. 424. Synith.

Prodr Grar 2. 131. SM: t. 220.

\) i\ 2

420 2G. THllIXCTA TIIP.TA. [CL. XIX.

Jlyosciis taraxacoides, Lam. Enc. 3. 159. (Sed pianta dici.

tur annua.) Snv. Ph. 2. f?30. Sanfi it, Tosc. 3. p. 360.

t. T.
Rhacradiolus taraxacoides, AUimi. Peduti. p. 83G.
Let)ntodon hlspiduni, PolUch. Pulat. n. 737. * (Scd de pap-

})i diversitate nil dicit.)
Colobium hirtum, Roth, in Rem. Arch. 1. 37.
TInincia hirta, Roth. Catal Bot. 1. 98, 2. 103. WilU. Sp.

PI 3. 1554. Pcrs. St/n. 2. 368. De Cand. Fl. Fran. 4.

51. Sav. Bot. Etrtcsc. 3. 12^. Bertoloti. Amccn. Acad.

183. Ilagcn. FL Boruss. 2. 153. Sprcng. Hal 228.

Baiimg. Transylv. 3. 15.

Geographical Distribution.

Tliis plant seems to be limited to a few countries. Ger-
many, from 50' N. Lat. going onwards to the south, France,
Italy, and Transylvania, are the countries in which it is found.
Whether it grows in the Island of Great Britain is still unde-
termined ; because Hedypnois hirta Huds., although called a
ThrinciOf has many circumstances that distinguish it from
this, especially as Hieracium pumilum saxatih Rai Syn. 167.
along with which Hicr. montarnim saxatile C. Bauh. Prodr.
66. and Column. Ecphr. 1. 243, is classed, is by no means
our plant, but a subspecies of Apargia hispida or A. Villar-
sii Willd. But the plant of Ray is figured in the Engl. Bot.
555.

Cynarcce ; (Anleit. ii. 532.)

Cirsium Eriophorum, Scop.

Wolldistel. — French, Cliardon aiix uncs. — Engl. Woolly-
headed thistle.

This remarkable and beautiful thistle only grows in Germany
within very confined limits, on mountain meadows. It has a

• Apargia hirta (distinct from A. hispida) is now ascertained to be a native
Lotli of England and .'Scotland.

UllD. I.] 127. CIKSIUM KUlOrilOKUM. 421

biennial, Avhitc root, of the tl)icknci.s of n thiinih, und an
ell in length, from which, during the second year, a stem
shoots up, about the height of a man, of the tliickncss of a
finger or thumb, straight, green, angulai-, and entirely wool-
ly. The leaves are deeply semi-pinnate, the lowermost being
often two feet long, covered on their under-surface with thick,
woolly, white tomnUum, and having their upper surface green,
set with stiff, somewhat crowded hairs. On the lower leaves
the lacinios are remote and upright, again divided into two
other lacinia^, the larger of which is linear, the smaller
spear-shaped ; both of them are entire, but furnished with
thorns, and terminated in two strong yellowish thorns,
which are placed alternately upwards and downwards. The
middle rib is strong, projects downwards, and also terminates
in a long, stift* thorn. The stem-leaves are not so long, em-
brace the stem without rnnning downwards, and are not so
regularly pinnated, but in other respects resemble the loot-
leaves. The flowers on the top of the shoot, together with
the calyx, are about eight inches in circumference. The ca-
lyces, several of which often stand together, are fiu'nished at
their base with very small, semi-pinnate, thorny covering
leaves, about the size of an ordinary apple : the small thorny
scales of the calyx are set with thick white wool, which, how-
ever, in many instances passes into something resembling a
mere cobweb. The florets are all uniform, tubular, of a purple
red colour, and their margin is divided into five segments. The
cylinder of antheras is longer than the floret ; the pistillum is
furnished with a divided stigma ; the receptacle is set with chaf-
fy leaves, which are divided into bristles. The pappus, stalk-
less and pinnated, rests upon a ring, which seems to be in
the act of disengaging itself from the oval seed. The seed is
a caryopsis, in which the embryon, without albuminous mat-
ter, stands erect, with its cotyledons unfolded.

Diagnosis and Affinitij.

The most nearly related to this species is Cirsium lancco-
latum Scop. ; yet the calyx of the latter is not woolly, but
merely covered by a fine web, and the leaves, wliich are not

4252 27. CIRSIUM ERIOPHOllUM. [CL. XIX.

so deeply semi-pinnate, run down the stem. The stem itself
is not so tall, and the flowers are not so large as in our spe-
cies. Cnlcus luniflorus M. B. is still more nearly related to
it, and is distinguished by having the scales of its calyx
broader ; — these are of a reddish colour. As this corresponds
with the figure in the Engl. Bot.y it becomes a question,
Avhether the Tauric and British plants be not the same
variety of C. eriophorum. The other species have a less
perfect resemblance Cirsiiim, long ago very correctly dis-
tmguished by Tournefort, has been named Cnicua by some
later writers, who have not recollected, that Seb. Vaillant a
century ago, had given the name to the well marked Centau-
rca henedicta as a peculiar genus. We appropriate the name
Cirsium, therefore, to those thistles the pappi of which ai*e
pinnate and the scales of the calyx thorny. If the scales of
the calyx are unarmed, it is tlie genus Saussurea De Cand=
If the pappus is simply hairy, it is the genus Carduus.

Synonyritej and Figures.

Carduus eri(x:ephalus, Dodon. 723. Clus. Pann. ^(iii. Hist

J^. 154. Gerard, Emac. 1152.
Carduus tomentosus, Lobel. Hist. 482. ic. 2. 9. C. capite

tomcntoso. J. Bank. Hist. 3. 57. Parkins, 978.
Cirsium foliis pinnatis, Hall. Helv. n. 168.
Carduus criophorus, Linn. Hort. Upsal 249. Mill. Ic. 293.

Willd. Sp. PI. 3. 1669. Jacq. Fl. Austr. 171. ? Eng.

Bot, 386.
Cu-sium eriophorum^ Scop. Cam. n. 1008.

Geographical Distribution .
In England, v/here diis thistle is not rare, its farthest nor-
thern limit is Cumberland*, (between 54° and 55" N. Lat.)
In Germany, again, it extends only a little beyond 51° ; but
southward from this, it is very connnon in all hilly regions,
especially in the Palatinate, Austria, Hungary, Transylvania,
If Gillibert's account (Jundzill, Fl. Lithuan. 244.) be correct,
it grows again more eastward, as far as 55°, for it is found be-

* It grows albu in Scotland, bat spiiringly ; as near the foot of Largo Law
in Fifeshire.

GUI). II.] <28. AKNICA .MONTANA. lli.'>

tween Grodno and Wilna. In France, Italy, nnd (ircicc, as
well as in Asia Minor, near Smyrna (30), it grows pretty
frc(]ucntly.

Order II.
liudiata', ( Polygamia supcrjlua. )

Arnica montana, L.

Fall kraut, Wolvcrley. — French, Tabac dcs Fosgt^v, Tabac
Savoymd-s. — Swcd. St Hanshlomster.

This remarkable plant grows in open woods and on moun-
tain meadows. Its root is perennial, brown, of the thickness
of a quill, almost horizontal : it shoots out several root leaves,
which are opposite to one another, oblong or elliptical, entire,
set on both sides, especially on the upper, with sparse, crook-
ed hairs, ciliated, and furnished with five nerves. They pass
downwards into a short sheath-shaped leaf-stalk, which is
composed of- the two opposite leaves. The lowermost leaves
are from two inches to a finger in length, from an inch to an
inch and a half broad, rounded at the point, and commonly
they stand in pairs, one above the other. The simple, round-
ish, furrowed or angular stem, set with crooked glandular ci-
lia, and of the thickness of a pack-thread, rises from about a
foot to an ell in height. About its centre are two lanceolate,
small, pointed leaves, which embrace the stem on both sides.
Commonly' the stem is divided at the upper end, but frequently
also it remains simple, and carries a single large copper-yellow
coloured flower, of a strong, pecidiar smell. The common
calyx consists of four ciliated, lanceolate leaflets, which stand
in two rows. The ray-florets arc Ungulate, terminate in
three points, and are penetrated by nine parallel nerves. At
tlie entrance of the tube of tliese ray-florets are lour or live
free, short filaments, inserted in the floret, with the same
number of j»oinled, cm[)ly, evidently abortive anthenc. The
florets of the disc are tubulai', with a (ivc-lobed margin. The

42i 2S. AllNICA .MONTANA. [cL. XIX.

yellow cylinder of antlierae surrounds the pistillum, Avhich
here, as in the ray-florets, is divided. The receptacle is fur-
nished v'ith short cilia. The fruit is an angular caryopsis,
of which the inferior umbilicus is furnished with a persistent
funiculits umbilicaUs. The caryopses are provided with sharp
cilia, and have a sharp-haired pappus.

Diagnvs'is and Affinity.

There is a distinct variety of this plant, with small
lanceolate leaves, which is figured in the Fl. Dan. 1524.
yis the Arnica angustifolia Vahl. of Greenland. Linnaeus
(Fl. Lappon. n. 305.) mentions the same plant under Doro-
oiicwn foUis lanccolatis^ and maintains that it is a peculiar spe-
cies. But he cites, at the same time, Doromcum IV. Clus.
Pannon. 5S2. and Alisma MatthioU J. Bauh. Hist. 3. 20,
both of which figures perfectly correspond with our A. mon-
iana. Chryscmtlievium laUfoliuvi mbius Ger. Emac. 742.
might also be mentioned on the same occasion. In the later
editions of the Species Phmtarum this plant is mentioned in
the Flora of Lapland, as a variety of A. montana. Nut-
tall (Amer. Plants, 2. 164.) also recognises A.fidgens scad.
j)Iantogincce Pursh, as varieties which grow in Labrador,
and on the Missouri. The former small-leaved species is
mentioned by Linnaeus in a letter to J. G. Gmelin (Fl. Sib.
2. 153.) as a variety, produced by its situation on high moun-
tains. That which bears the greatest resemblance to our
plant is A. chronicumy which is distinguished, however, by the
alternate position and dentated margin of its upper leaves.
The genus Arnica is in other respects difficult to be distinguish-
ed from Doromcum^ for both have a double row of leaflets in
the calyx, both have a hairy receptacle, abortive filaments in
the ligulate florets, and a pappus with sharp-pointed hairs. The
only difference is, that in Doromcum the marginal seeds have
no pappus. Doronicum plantagineum, which is very like our
plant, is distinguished from it, partly by the generic charac-
ter, partly by the alternate, imperfectly dentated teeth, and,
by the pale yellow, almost inodorous flowers

OllD. 11.] 28. AUMCA .MONTANA. 425

Syiionijrnes and Figures.
Chrysanthemum latifolium, Dodon. 263. Dalcch. 1358.

Gerard, Emac. 742.
Alisma, Matth. cd. Bauh. 666. J. Bank. Hist. 3. 20.
Doronicum IV. Clus. Pannon, 522. V. VI. Clus. HisL 2.

18.
Nardus Celtica altera, Lohel. Ic. 313.
Ptarmica montana, Dalcch. 1169.

Damasonium s. Alisma Mattli. Dalcch. 1057. Tabcrn. 1116.
Caltha alpina, Tahern. 714.
Doronicum Germanicum, Park. Theat. 321.
Aiov^nriKvi Renealm. Spec. 119.
Doronicum plantaginis folio alterum, C. Bauh. Pin. 185.

Tourn. Inst. 487. Lin7i. Fl. Lap. 304, 305.
Arnica montana, Linn. Sp. PL 1245. Fl. Dan. 63. Schh\

t. 248.
Doronicum oppositifolium, Lam. Enc. 2. 312,
Cineraria cernua, Than. iMnd. 344.

Geog raphical Distribution.

IC A. angusiifoUa VohX., fulgens and plantaginca Pursh,
belong to our species, it is diffused northward as far as
Greenland and Labrador; which cannot be wondered at,
since Messerschmid and John George Gmelin found it on the
banks of the Tungusca and the Jenisei (beyond 60° N. Lat.),
and Steller found it on Behring's Island. It is remarkable
that Linnfcas found it at Torneo (68^ N. Lat.) ; but Wah-
lenberg found it not in Lapland. To the south, it grows
throughout Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Prussia, Lithuania,
Galicia, Hungary, Transylvania, France, and Switzerland.
The farther south, the higher it ascends the mountains. It
IS even found on ihp Pyrenees.

Uses.

It is one of the most important medicines, the stimulating
power of which is seen particularly in the vascular system, and
niust be ascribed to the resinous ingredient which accompanies

426 28. AllMCA MONTANA. [cL. XIX.

the volatile oil. The root contains tanning matter also ;
the flowers are very rich in volatile oil and resin ; the
leaves contain more soapy extractive matter. In warm solu-
tions we employ it in palsy and typhus, for awakening sus-
ceptibility ; we employ it also for stoppmg the blood after ex-
ternal wounds, and as a diuretic and sneezing powder. From
this last use its present name is derived, for i^^ivov has passed in-
to Arnica. Under the latter name it was used in the fifteenth
century, and the first person who suspected its medicinal qua-
lity was unquestionably Lobelius (Adv. 133.), where he
praises the plant on account of its diuretic powers. Taber-
namontanus extols it for its power of stopping bleeding after
wounds, (Krauterb. 417.) The name Tabac de Savoyards
et de Vosges, is derived from its being smoked and snuffed by
the Savoyards and inhabitants of the Vogeses.

Order III.
Centaurco', (Polygamiajrustranea.)

29.
Calcitrapa stellata, Lam.

Sterndistel, Wegedistel. — French, Chaussc-trape, Char don
eto'ilc. — Eng. Star-thistle. — Ital. La scardigUona.

This plant grows abundantly in central Germany, by irr.
way side, and on dry fields. It has a white, rather creeping
root, which lasts only one summer. The woody, branchy
stem is perhaps two feet high, divided from below upwards
into branches which are squarrose and sm(X)th, or furnished
with a few soft hairs ; they are round also, and of a yellowish
white. The root-leaves are lyre-shaped, but soon fall off.
The stem-leaves are alternate, embrace the stem, or are with-
out stalks, lanceolate, pointed, an inch long or somewhat long-
er, >Nemi-piimatcd at th«: base, with bharp teeth on the margin,

OKD. 111.] ;29. CAT.dTRArA STELLATA. 427

smooth on both sides, or sUghtly cihated. Above the divisions
of the branches spring the flowers, on very short stalks, surround-
ed by leaves similar to those on the stem . The cal y ces arc ovate,
smooth, of a pale green colour, and about the size of a hazel-
nut. The scales of which they consist, pass into very strong
thorns, of a whitish yellow, half an inch or more in length, and
have subordinate thorns at their base. Tlie florets are all of
a pale red colour and tubular, with a quinque-partite margin :
the marginal florets contain no sexual parts, and the seed
below them is therefore abortive. They are somewhat lar-
ger than the florets of the disc, which shew the pistillum with
a cleft stigma within the cylinder of antherae. If the cylin-
der of antheraj be touched at a certain period during flower-
ing, it contracts, and the pistillum comes more strongly for-
ward, (816.) The germen is furnished with cilia. The fruit
is an oval caryopsis, without a pappus, with its umbilicus at
one side.

Diagnosis and Affinity.

Calcitrapa lanceolata Lam. (Centaurca Calcitrapoidcs
Linn.), is the most nearly related to this plant. But it is
distinguished by its taller growth, its linear-lanceolate leaves,
its woolly scales of the calyx, and its white pappus. Cenlau-
rea myacanthus De Candolle, also resembles our plant, and
the seeds are likewise without a pappus. But the leaves
are woolly, the scales of the calyx have appendages which
are surrounded with small thorns. Centaurea soIstiUaUs, al-
though the scales of the calyx are armed with similar thorns,
is yet sufficiently distinguished by its decurrent leaves, which
make the stem winged, and by its yellow flowers. The ge-
nus Calcitrapa is separated, by Vaillant and Jussieu, from
the CentaurejE : it is distinguished by its want of a pap-
pus, and by compound or double thorns on the scales of the
calyx, (Anleit. ii. 540.)

Synonymcs and Figures.

Kryngium, BranfL f}. 59.

Carduus stellatus. Vodoi:, 7oo. MatiJ(. aL Banh. 501.

428 29. CALCITIIAPA STELLATA. [CL. XIX.

Lohel Hist. 482. ic. 2. 11. J. Bank, Hist 3. 89. Gcr,
ernac. 1166. C. Bauh. Pin. 387. Zann. IsL t. 155.

Carduus muricalus, Clus. Hist. 2. 7.

? Myacanthus Theophr., Dalech, 1473.

Spina Stella, Tabcrn. 1080.

Calcitrapa vulgaris, Parle. Theatr. 969.

Hippophaestum, Colum. Phytob. t. 24.

Ccntaurea Calcitrapa, Linn. Hort. Ups. 273. Willd. Sp.
PL 3. 2317. Engl. Bot. 125. Stimn. 4.

llhaponticum Calcitrapa, Scop. Cai'n. n. 1018.

Calcitrapa stellata. Lam. Fl. Franc^. 2. 34.

Calcitrapa Hippophaestum, Gdrtn. Friict. 2. 376. t. 163.

Geographical Distribution.

This plant is a proof of the principle laid down, p. 399.
that, in the same latitude, the temperature diminishes towards
the east ; and that hence southern plants grow at a higher
latitude in the west than in the east. This plant does not
grow in Germany beyond 52° N. Lat. In England, again,
it is found as far as Yorkshire, (54°). Eastward from Ger-
rnany it seems to have a still more southern limit, since it has
not once been found in Galicia, although it grows in Hun-
gary and Transylvania. But towards the south it extends
as far as Peloponnesus and Sicily.

Uses.

Formerly this plant was celebrated for its medicinal powers.
The root was used in decoctions as a diuretic, of which use,
in particular, Tournefort {Hist, des Plantes aux Env. dc
Paris, p. 12, 13.) has adduced proofs.

OUT). IV.] 30. CALENDULA OFFICINALIS. 429

Ordeii IV.
{Polygamia iiecessaria.)

30.

Calendula officinalis, L.

^ingclblunic, Dotterblume. — French, Soiici des jardins. —
Ital. Fior rancio. — Engl. Marygold. — Swed. RmgMom-
ma.

This well known plant propagates itself by seed in our
gardens. It has a pretty strong, whitish root, and a branchy,
round, sulcated stem^ furnished with short hairs, and having
open branches. All the leaves embrace the stem and
branches, are rather glutinous, and hjlve a peculiar strong-
smell : the lower ones are spathulate, quite entire, set with
short, soft hairs, which also make the margin ciliated. The
upper leaves are lanceolate, imperceptibly dentated, and fur-
nished with a herbaceous spine at the extremity : they are
also more hairy than the lower. The flower-stalks, at the
points of the shoots, are woolly. The common calyx is
divided info several lanceolate, woolly laciniae, with taper-
ing points. The flowers are of a golden-yellow coloiu* : the
ray florets are tongue-shaped, furnished with three pointed
extremities, and with several parallel nerves. The florets of
the disc, having a cylinder of anthers^ are tubular, and have
commonly abortive seeds under them. The fertile are com-
monly on the margin, are lanceolate, ot boat-shaped, and in-
ternally have spines on their back.

Diagnosis and Affinity.

Calendida arvensls is very nearly related to our plant,
but it has no spathulate, but only cordate-lanceolate leaver :
it has smaller flowers, and the extenor seeds stand erect, ami-
are «^mall lanceolate^ C. sancla is dlstinouishod by liavin*'-

430 30. CALENDULA OFFICINALIS, [CL. XIX.

its calyx notched, or furnislied with herbaceous spines. C.
stcVata Cav. lias flowers of a sulphur-yellow colour, and five
below the fruit on the margin are horned, and stand very re-
mote, (Schk. t. 235.) The genus Calendula is related to few
others, principally to Mdampodium and S'dphium.

Synonymes and Figures.

Calendula, Brunf. 3. 77. Dodon. 254. i — viii. Tahern.

711, 712. I.— VII. Ger, cm, 739.
Ringelblumen, Trag. f. 55.
Caltha, Fuchs. 382. Matth. 894. Dalech. 811. J. Bauh,

Hist. 3.101.
Chrysanthemum ct Caltha poetarum, Lohcl. Hist. 298.

ic. 552.
Clymenum Colum. Phytob. t. 13.
Calendula officinalis Linn. WiUd. Sp. PL 3. 2340, Sturm. 8.

Geographical DiMribiition.

Although this plant propagates itself in the gardens of
Germany, it is properly, however, a native of the south of
France, where it grows in the fields. It does not seem to
grow in the other southern countries of Europe.

Uses.

In the sixteenth century, this plant, from its strong smell,
was reckoned medicinal, and was employed in the case of
diseased female organs, especially in cancer, {Matth. Val~
grls. C28 ) This practice has been lately renewed by West-
ring, (Erfahrungen uber die Heilung der Krebsgeschwure.
Aus. dem Schwed., Halle 1817, 8vo.) Exact chemical ana-
lyses have been given by Geiger (Diss, de Calendula offi-
cinalCj Heidelb, 1818.), and by Stolze (Berlin. Jahrb. fur
die Pharm. 1820, s. 282. f.) According to the analysis of
the latter, its principal constituent parts are green vegetable
wax, albumen, lime united to malic acid, Myricin and Calen-
(lulin, (a peculiar matter which might readily be mistaken
for jell vV

ORD. v.] 31. ECHTNOPS SPH^.ROCEPHALUS. 431

Order V.
Cynarc^. (Polygamia segregata.)

SI.

Echinops sphaeroceplialus, L.

Kugeldistel. — French, Echhiope, Boidette. — Engl. Globe-
thistle. — S wed. Bol-tidel,

This plant is frequently observed in hedges and bushes,
by the way side, and in rocky places. From a w(X)dy tap-
root, the stem rises to the height of two ells, frequently
to the height of a man. It is of the thickness of the finger,
angular, completely covered with wool, and with a glutinous
moisture, which may also be observed on the leaves. The
leaves are alternate, short-stalked, the upper ones with-
out stalks, a large span in length, frequently still longer,
deeply semi-pinnate, having their upper surface green and
hairy, their lower entirely white, covered with a woolly to-
mentum : the laciniae of the leaves are angular, and termi-
nate in thorns. The upper part of the stem is divided into
several branches, on the tips of which grow the compound
flowers, resembling bluish spheres of the size of a middling-
sized apple. The spherical receptacle is properly naked,
(Meese Het. xix. class, t. 3. f 5.), and a calyx for each floret
is formed of chafly leaves, which are stiff* and hairy. At the
base of these calyces bristles appear, which are attached to
them, and upon superficial observation seem to belong to tlie
receptacle. The florets are all similar, tubular, with a quinque-
partite margin, and of a whitish-blue colour. The cylinder
of the antheraj is violet coloured : the stigma is divided. The
aestivation is valvular, and the florets expand from the centre
of the sphere towards the circumference. The roughly cilia-
ted seed (a caryopse), is surmounted bv a membrane : {Bcrl-
hey, E.vpos. FL Camp. t. 3. f 18.)

432 31. r.ciTixors sPH.T:KOCErHAi. us. [cl. xix.

DiagTiosts and Affinitij.

The most nearly related to this species is E. exaUatus
Schrad., which is distinguished, however, by wanting branches,
by the absence of the glutinous integument, and by having
the teeth of the laciniae of the leaves more closely set ; (Schrad.
Hort. Gott. t. 9.) E. paniculaius Jacq., also is nearly rela-
ted to it, and is distinguished by its very branchy stem, by
having its flowers in panicles, and by its wrinkled leaves, die
upper surface of which is without hairs, the under surface
covered Avith a bluish-green tomentum, and the lacinia?
of which are squarrose ; (Jacqu. Eclog. t. 48.) E. Ritro L.,
has likewise its leaves smooth on the upper surface, and co-
vered with a snow-white tomentum on their lower, and it has
five flowers on one stem ; (Schk. t. 269-) E str'igosus L.,
has its leaves strigose on the upper surface, and tomentose
beneath. The flower-tops are not spherical, but properly
form tufts, the exterior calyx of which is protracted and abor-
tive ; {Herm. rarud. 224.) This species affords an oppor-
tunity of taking an important view of the inflorescence : it
is a compound, compressed spike, the flowering of which is
always from above downwards; (s. 74. Neue Entdeck. 1.
174.) The genus Echhiops is related to the Boopideae of
Cassini, or the Calycerea? Br,, to which belong Boopis Juss.,
CaJycera Cav., and Acicarpha Juss. These also have a'
calyx for each floret, but they have a receptacle furnished
with chaffy leaflets, and a common calyx. They are dis-
tinguished from all the other syngenesious plants by their
simple pistil, which is united to the tube of the corolla, by
the rich albuminous matter in the seed, and by the direction
of the radicle upwards. In Echhiops, on the contrary, the
structure of the seed corresponds with the family character.

Synonymes and Figures.

Chamgeleon verus, Trag. f. 322. Fiichs. HS^.
Carduussphaerocephalus, Z>oJo?z. 722. Tahciii. 10G9. Acu-

tus major, Parh. 977. Bcsler. Syst. uEst. xi. t. 7. f. L

Latifoliiis major, Moris, sect. 7- t. 35.

CL. XX.] 32. OPHRYS MYODES. 433

Spina alba altera, Matth. 494.
Ritro, Lobcl. Hist. 481. ic. 2. 8.
Chalceios, Dalcch. 14^83.
Spina Arabica, Dalcch. 1467.

Echinops major, /. Bauh. Hist. 3. 69. Tourn. Inst. 463
Carduus globosus, /. Ger. cmac. 1151.

Echinops spha^rocephalus, Linn. Sp. PI. 1314. WHM. Sp.
PI 3. 2396. Lam. Illustr. 719.

Geographical Distribution.

This plant is diffused from the north of Africa (30° N.
Lat.), over all the temperate regions of Europe. Rut Bar-
by, on the Elbe, (52° N. Lat.), seems to be its northern
limit. It grows, indeed, here and there, even in Sweden,
beyond Liljeblad ; but, as it is not mentioned by Linnaeus, it
has probably been propagated from the gardens.

CLASS XX.

Gynandria. (Orchideae.)

32.

Ophrys my odes, Jacqu,

Insecten-Ragwurz. — French, Ophrys mouche. — Engl. Fly-
orchis. — S wed . Flug-blo7nster.

This beautiful and interesting plant grows sparingly in
June, in our mountain woods, on clay soils. From a tuber,
of a yellowish-brown colour, and of the size of a hazel-nut,
by the side of which a second commonly stands, and on the
top of which several fibrous roots are expanded, arise, in the
first place, convoluted, whitish sheaths, afterwards three or
four leaves, embracing the stem, oblong lanceolate, smooth on
both sides, quite entire, penetrated by parallel nerves, some-

Ee

434 32. OPIIRYS MYODES. [CL. XX.

Avhat pointed at the top, about the length and breadth of a
finger, hi the centre of wlilch the round, smooth stem, of the
thiclaicss of a strong packing thread, rises straight, erect, to the
height of a foot. The blossoms are arranged on the top of the
stem in a spike, but distant from one another, seldom to the
number of six. Amotig them we observe erect, Avhitish-green,
small, nearly linear bracteae, a little longer than the flowers.
These last consist of a three-leaved calyx, which externally
is green ; internally, and at a later period, it is brown. The
leaflets are oblong, somewhat obtuse, and penetrated by three
nerves. The labellum is four-lobed or three-lobed, with the
central lobe emarginated or divided ; the lateral lobes are
somewhat distant, but they are all obtuse. The whole la-
bellum is reddish-brown, or of a rusty colour, hairy, ciliated,
and has a bluish spot in its centre, by which means the
whole flower resembles a fly. Above it, the reddish-brown
fruit-column rises, with two linear, remote, lateral honis, of
the same length. Two yellow pollenous masses, each of
which is divided into two parts, rest on stalks, which are at-
tached to the fruit-column by small spheres ; on the upper part
they are surrounded by two folds, from which they gently issue,
when they are fully ripe. The stigma, on its lower side, is
splendent with a glutinous moisture ; (s. 90, 91.) The ger-
men is cylindrical, a little twisted, stands below the fruit, and
opens with three valves, which last are connected by particu-
lar ribs, and carry on their sides the exceedingly fine, small
seeds surrounded by a spongy membrane.

Diagnosis and Affinity.

The most nearly related species are O. aranifera and ajyi-
fera. But the latter, the flowers of which have a great re-
semblance to a bee, are distinguished by their broader and
shorter stem-leaves, by three large pale-red calyx leaflets, and
two others that are small, green, and fringed. The labellum
is brownish-red, with a yellow hairy setting, and the central
lobe is turned backwards with a small process. The fruit
column passes above the antherae into a distinct rotellum. It
flowers in July. Three months earlier, in April, appears

CI.. XX.] 32. OniRYS MYODE.S. 435

(). arauifira, llic ilowcrs of which entirely resemble a spider.
The leaflets of the calyx are all obtuse, and of a ycllowish-
grecn : the labellum is brownish-yellow, strongly set witli
hairs, three-lobed, w ith the margin bent inwards ; the fruit
column terminates in imperceptible rostclla. O. arachnites^
which bears the greatest resemblance to 0. ap'ifera^ has also
a browttj hairy labellum, but this part is three-lobed, the
central lobe being: again divided into three obtuse lobes.
O. tcnthrcdimfera Desfont., which also grows in Calabria and
Sicily, has very long, rose-coloured bractea*, three obtuse
oblong calyx-leaflets, and two very short : the labellum is
two-lobed, with a process between the two lobes.

The genus Opliyrs is most nearly related to Epipactis
Sw. ; but the latter is distinguished by the jointed structure
of the middle lobe of the labellum, and by its four round
pollenous masses. Richard distinguishes Opliyrs Mcniorchis
as a peculiar genus, under the name Herminium, the charac-
ter of which consists in the short, spur-shaped sack of the
hastate labellum, and in the naked large retinaculum. Re-
specting the family of the Orchidea?, vid. Anleit. ii. 280. f.
880. f.

Synonyraes and Figures,

Orchis Serapias tertius, Dodon. 238.

O. myodes, i. Lohel Hist. 90. ic. 181. Ger. em, 213. J.

Bank. Hist, 2. 767, 768. Pa?-^. 1352.
Triorchis Serapias tertius, Dalecli. 1555,
Testiculus muscarilis, ii. Tabern. 1050.
Orchis musca? corpus referens, Bauh. Pin. 83. (excl. synon.,-

quae hie non sunt.) Rudb. Elys. 2. 201. f. 11. VailL

Bot. Paris, t. 31. i". 17, IS. (flores soli.) Minor, Tmirn.

Inst. 434.
Ophrys insectifera «. myodes, Linn. Sp. PL 1343. Gunner,

Fl. Norw. 2. t. 5. (icon gigantea.)
Orchis n. 1265. Hall. Siirp. Hdv. t. 24.
Ophrys myodes, Jaeqit. Misc. 2. 373. Ic. Bar. t. 184.

FlDan. 139S.

Ee2

436 33, sPATiGANirM simplex, [cl. xx^

O. muscifera, Smith. Fl Brit. 3. 937. Etigl Bot G4.
Wither hi^^ Arrang. 2. 43.

Gcog t aph ical D Iftiibu twn .

The northern Hmit of the growth of this plant is another
proof of the principle formerly laid down, that in the western
countries, plants are found at a higher latitude than in the
eastern, on account of the warmer temperature. In Sweden,
O. myodcs is found only in Gothland and Oeland, (57*^ N.
Lat.) In Norway, on the contrary, it is found, according to
Gunnerus,. at Snaasen, (64° N. Lat.) ; and, according to Fl.
Dim.., it is even found on the island Langoe, (69 N. Lat.)
•It is diffused throughout England, France, Germany, Hun-
gary, Italy, and Transylvania. Its southern limit seems to
be Peloponnesus, (38°.) The four varieties mentioned by
Desfontaine (Fl. Atl. 2. 320.), under the name Ophyrs insec-
iife7'a, do not belong to this. I have also a doubt, whether
O. myodes of Hagen (Pruss. Flor. 2. 215.), be really our
plant. Its eastern limit north^vard would then be 20^ W
Long., southward 25.°.

CLASS XXL

33.

Sparganium simplex, lliuh.

Einfache Igelsknospe. — French, Ruhanier simple. — Engl.
Simple Bu r-reed, — S wed . Rak-trdgjan .

This peculiar plant flowers in July and August, in our
standing waters and ditches, especially where the bottom is
gravelly. From a creeping, perennial, fibrous root, arises
about perhaps a foot or a foot and a half high, a round,
green, smooth stem, which is wholly undivided, and about the
thickness of a quill. All the leaves embrace half the stem with

CL. XXI.] T3. SPARC ANIUM SIMPLEX. 437

a shcatli, which is membranaceous on the sides ; the lowei-
leaves, when cut across, are trianguhir, with smooth interior
surfaces: the upper are somewhat concave, and do not exlii-
bit a triangular section. Besides, the leaves are almost all
longer than the stem, frequently tv/o feet high, and scarcely
the breadth of a little finger, uniformly small throughout,
smooth and entire, tapering at the point, and furnished with
parallel soft nerves. Their cellular texture is spongy and
compound ; the cells full of air. There are slits on both
sides of the leaves. In their centre rises a simple flower-
stalk, which carries below two petiolated spherical flower-tufts,
and above one stalkless female tuft, and several stalkless male
spherical flower tufts. The individual female florets consist
of three or four lanceolate scales or leaflets, in the centre of
which rises, on an oval germen, the simple, green, sometimes
cleft pistillum, having the stigma placed laterally at its sum-
mit. The male flowers contain, in the centre of the some-
what spoon-shaped scales, imperceptibly dentated at the top,
commonly three filaments of a white colour, on the top of
which stand the bilocular straw-yellow anthera\ containing
an oval pollen. The fruit is a brown nut, or drupa, contain-
ing in the centre of the albuminous matter, the uncvolved
-embryon in a reversed position.

Diagnosis ami Affiuiti/.
The most nearly related species is Sp. ruiiiosnin. But
this species is much larger, its flower-stalk is branchy, the
sides of the leaves are concave, not smooth. The scales of the
calyx are also of a deeper brown colour. Sparg: vntans^ on
the other hand, has leaves entirely of a grass shape, swim-
ming on the surface of the water, rather concave, and very
long ; the flower-tuft is much smaller, and onlv the one that
is uppermost is male. This genus evidently borders on
Typha. I also find Chrysithrix related to it, the dividetl
shaft of which pushes out laterally the flower-tuft. Acorns
and Oroniium form the transition to (he Aroide-e, to whid)
these plants belong; (Anleit. ii. 1^7.)

438 33. SPARGAKIUxM SIMPLEX. [CL. XXL

Syiionijmcs and Figures.

Platanaria altera, Dodon. 601.

Sparganium alterum, Lob. Hist. 41. ic. 80. J. Bank. Hist. 2.

541. Dalech. 1019. rabern. 560.
Sp. latifolium, Ger. cmac. 45.
Sp. non ramosum, Park. Thcatr. 1206. Moris, sect. 8.

t. 13.
Sp. foliis natantibus planoconvexis, Linn. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2.

p. 280. Fide Smith.
Sp. ercctum, Linn. Var. /3. Sp. PI. 2. 1378.
Sp. simplex, Huds. Fl. Angl. 401. Engl. Bet. 745. Sclik.

t. 282.
Sp. americanum, Nuttcdl, 2. 203. Admunerandum jiixta

dcscnptionem.
[Sp. maius S. ramosum virginianum, Park. Thcntr. 1206.

rcpet. in Moris, sect. 8. t. 13. non Sparganii species, scd

forte Carex lupulina W .^]

Geog raphical Distribution.

Sp. simplex is a northern plant. According to Linnteus^s
description and Smith's assertion, n. 345. in the Fl. Lapp&n.
can be nothing else but this plant. Yet AVahlenberg says
i^Fl. Lapp. p. 822.), it is Sp. natans ; and Sp. erectum (by
-which he understands Sp. ramosum and simpleoc) does not
grow beyond Medelpadia 63" N. Lat. How shall we re-
concile such evident contradiction of two equally credible eye-
witnesses ? As Linnaeus says respecting this plant, that it has
from ten to twelve male flower-tufts at its top, it cannot be
Sp. natans. Linnaeus found this plant in the Great Calix-
elf, (67^), where, according to our opinion, Wahlenberg
never was. J. G. Gmelin found it in Siberia, in the Jenisei,
and in the province of Lsezk. In North America it is found
every where as far as the river St. Lawrence, (50^). It does
not seem to extend far south, for it is not met with either in
Greece or Tauris ; but it is found in Transylvanit\ and tlic
south of France, (45*').

CL. XXII.] 34. bALlX CAPIIEA. 439

CLASS xxir.

34.

Salix Caprea, L.

Sohlweide. — French, Saule marceau- — Engl. Great rounds
leaved salloxv, — Ital. Salcio a grandefogVte. — Swed. S'dlg-
pihl.

As the willows of all known plants shew least constancy in
their forms, so the Salix Caprea, is perhaps of all willows, that
which is subject to the greatest variations of fgnn, Situation
has a powerful effect upon it ; for commonly it grows on a
somewhat dry soil, but frequently also upon a moist and
boggy one, where it undergoes a remarkable change in the
size of the stem, and in the shape of the leaves. But even
on the same soil we observe such differences in its structure,
and particularly in the form of the leaves, that those persons
may easily be excused who have regarded such different
forms, when they have seen them single, and in dried speci-
mens, as peculiar species. We are most secure, when we
hold to those characters which never vary. These are —
1. Early catkins, w^hich appear before the leaves. 2. Fe-
male catkins, short and thick. 3. The germen tomen-
tose, or covered with silky hairs, and also ventricosc. 4.
Broad, almost ovate or oblong leaves, quite entire when they
are young, afterwards dentated and undulated, either green
or hairy above, but always tomentose, and intersected by re-
ticular veins below. 5. Lunulate dentate stipula?, which are
either persistent or fall off. 6. Smooth filaments.

The size varies uncommonly. The Salix Caprea is usually
a moderate sized tree, from eight to ten feet high : frequently
it is a branchy shrub, with a greyish-brown, pretty smooth

340 34. SALIX CAPREA. [ci.. XXII.

bark. The shoots of the })resent year are commonly dark-
brown and liairy, when ihey are viewed late in the sum-
mer. The leaf-stalks are alternate, strongly ciliated, and even
tomentosc, from two to four lines in length, with round-
ish or lunulate, dentated stipulae at their base ; and in the
axillae of the upper leaves are found the buds of the coming
year, when they are examined in the middle of summer.
The leaves are about three inches long, and half an inch
broad ; tapering slightly at their base, rapidly at their sum-
mit, dentated on the margin, the teeth being bent towards
the point. The upper surface is for the most part green,
properly, however, not smooth, but partly wrinkled, partly
furnished along the nerves and veins with white, soft, short
hairs. Hairs also are found on the interstices, when we
avail ourselves of the aid of the microscope. The lower sur-
face is more or less strongly ciliated ; often it is covered with
silky hairs, often also it is shaggy, and even tomentose.

The male and female flowers appear, in April, in catkins
on different trees, on the smooth shoots of the preceding year.
Both of these spring from buds, the splendent silky scales of
which are persistent, and give a pleasant appearance to the
flowering, but still leafless tree : both of them, during the
time of flowering, are scarcely an inch long, obtuse, and ob-
long ; the female flowers afterwards increase to three inclics
in length. The scales of the male catkins are brown, oblong,
and ornamented with long soft hairs. Two filaments, which
are longer than the scales, carry quadrilocular yellow an-
therae, and have at their base a longish, nearly cylindrical
honey-gland. The female flowers have the same scales and
glands, and also a petiolated, strongly ciliated germen,the lower
part of which is swollen, and crowned with three or four
short stigmata. The fruit is a bivalved capsule, having se-
veral seeds attached to the inner surface of the valves, and
surrounded from the base upwards by long soft hairs.

Va7'ietie.<{.

1. This species is not unfrequently found almost quite en-
tire, and without perceptible teeth, whence we might be

CL. XXII.] 34'. SALIX CAPHKA. 441

tempted to consider it as a peculiar species. l^iil, when
transplanted, it shews the transition by distinct teeth on the
margin of the leaves. As the tip of the leaf is often wither-
ed and discoloured, Smith has named it S. •sphacelata.

2. On the young shoots, which spring from the cut root-
stems, the leaves are uncommonly long and broad. They
are sometimes seen more than six inches long, with verv long-
tapering points, and the stipula? very large, cordate, and
strongly dentated ; {Sal tomentosa, J. macrophylla, Ser.
p. 17.)

3. This species grows often with small, almost lanceolate
leaves. In this case, the germen also is usually drawn out to
a greater length. This is S. acuminata, Mill., Hofm.,
Smith., Willd. But this variety has many evident transitions
into tlie usual form of S. caprea.

4. AVith completely round, and even with cordate leaves,
which scarcely taper at the point. This is S. tovicntosa, H.,
rotimclifolia, Ser v. p. 17.

5. With oblong leaves, the lower surface of which is grey-
ish, and furnished with a few hairs, (S. aquatica. Smith).
The moist situation seems to produce this variety.

6. With androgynous catkins, (S. Tinimii, Schk. 3. s. 457.
S. tomentosa D., androgyna Ser, p. 16.), Vorgl. s. 322.
Numerous malformations also are produced by the puncture
of insects, and by parasitical plants.

Diagnosis and Affinity.

This species is most nearly related to S. aurita L., {S.
rugosa Ser.), and as both of them are alike various in their
aspects, they approach each other in their forms. But *V. au-
rita is principally distinguished by its wrinkled leaves, which
taper at the base, and have their tips drawn oblicpiely {nui-
cronc adunco), by its great cordate stipulae, by its hairy fila-
ments, united at their lower part, by its long tapering ger-
men, and by its low growth, seldom exceeding six feet, com-
monly only from two to four feet in height. To S. aurita L.,
belong, as varieties, S. ambigita Ehrh., spathulata W., and
uli^ino^a W.

44'2 3'L SALIX CAPllEA. [CL. XXII.

The second species, with which S, caprca might easily be
confounded, is S, grandrfolia Ser. In particular, it has a
great resemblance to the third variety. But the principal
character of S. grandifoUa consists in this, that the catkins
appear at the same time with the leaves, whilst, in S. acumi-
nata, they appear earlier : that the leaves are much larger,
often six inches long, and properly lanceolate, nearly quite
entire, — the stipulae large, pointed, and semi-cordate, — and
the honey-gland drawn out to a great length. S. stipularis
Sm., does not belong to this species, because its catkins ap-
pear much earlier.

S. patula Ser., olecrfolia Vill., lias also some resemblance
to the small-leaved variety of S. caprca, but the catkins ap-
pear late, first in May, when tlie leaves come forth. The
other species are less liable to be confounded.

The natural affinity of Willows to Poplars is obvious : the
distinction of genera lies in the flowers, which, in the case of
Willows, consist only of simple scales. But in Poplars, be-
side scales, there is also a funnel-shaped corolla, with eight
or more filaments. Both belong to the catkin-bearing trees,
or the Amentaceae ; (Anl. ii. 344.)

Synonymes and Figures.

Seilweiden, Trag. f. 406. a.

Salix aquatica, Lohel. ic. 2. 137. (var. 3.)

S. platyphyllos leucophloeos, Dalech- 276.

S. caprea latifolia, Tabern, 1452. Ger. em. 1390.

S. latifolia inferne hirsuta, J. Bauh. Hist. 1. p. 2. 215. Ro-
tunda et oblongior. Park. Theatr, 1432. Bauh. Pin. 474.
Rai Syn. 449. Tmrn. Inst. 591.

Salix foliis obscure crenatis, Linn. Fl. Lapp. n. 365. t. 8.
f. 1.

S. caprea, Linn. Sp. PI. 1448. Fl. Dan. ^4<5. Engl. Bot.
1488. Hofm. Sal. t 3. f. 1, 2. t. 5. f. 3, 4. t. 21. f. a,
b, c, d. Schk. t. 317. c. n. 15.

S. foliis ovatis rugosis. Hall. Stirp. Hcho. n. 1653.

S. acuminata, Hofm. Sal t. 6. f 1, 2. t. 22. f. 2. Engl

CL. xxn.] :M-. rsAi.ix CArjiiLA. -143

Bot 1434. (var. 1.) Ser. Sal p. 12. ^V/Ju t. 317. c.

n. 12.
S. sphacelata, Engl Bot 2333. (var. 3.)
S. Janata, Light/. Scot. 602. (var. 3.)
S. aquatica, Smith, FL Brit. 3. 1065. Engl Bot. 1437.

(var. 5.)
S. tomentosa, Ser. Sal p. 14.

Geographical Distribution.

Few trees have so extensive a distribution. It grows
throughout the whole of Europe, from the forests of Arca-
dia (37°), to the woody heights of Kautokeimo, ont he Alten-
Elf, in Lapland, (69°). It passes also into Siberia, where
it is found abundantly in all its varieties. But it is not a na-
tive either of Japan or of North America.

Uses.

The bark contains tanning matter, and is hence used iii
the preparation of leather ; and in Sriuilcmd it is employed
in the manufacture of the gloves called Klipping. The bark
is also used in the making of Danish gloves, and of Russian
leather. The bark of the young shoots is used, instead of
Peruvian bark, in medicines for the poor. It operates simply
as an astringent and tonic, and, as it wants cinchonin, and
the spicy matter of Peruvian bark, it may be used in common
intermittent fevers, with ammonia, and to prevent inflamma-
tion. In other diseases it lies too heavy on the stomach, and
must be taken in too great quantity, if it is expected to ope-
rate. The bark also contains colouring matter, which may
be applied to woollen cloth, that has previously been treated
with bismuth, and produces a beautiful apricot-yellow colour.
Linen yarn is dyed bkvck by it, when it has previously been
mixed with alder bark.

The wood is very tough, and is easily cleft. Hence in
Thuringia, sieves, and other plaited utensils, are constructed
of it. Ra,y maintains, that very good straps are made of it,
on which knives may be sharpened. It is also used for ma-
king handles to knives, and other instruments. Although it

444 35. ATlilPLEX PATULA. [CL XXI J I.

properly aflbrds no good burning wood, because it consists
almost entirely oP alburnum, and the heat soon passes away,
it yet affords a light charcoal, which readily takes fire, and can
hence be used, in particular, for gun-powder. The tree is
also well adapted for forming quick hedges, because it grows
rapidly, because its branches can readily be twisted, and in
early spring the flowers are anxiously sought for by bees.

The leaves are eagerly eaten by all sorts of cattle. In
Sweden, calves are foddered with them.

The wool of the seeds is often used as native cotton ; (Her-
der's Gesch. der hierlandi.ichen Baumwollenarten. Munchen,
1788. Rafn's Danmarks Flor. 1. s. 417. f.)

CLASS XXIII.

35.

Atriplex patula, L.

'Sparrige Melde. — French. Arroche etaUe. — Engl. iSpr-eadlng
orache. — Ital. Jtrepice spalancante. — Swed. Gull^ro^ Alar-
molla.

This plant grows in August and September, commonly
on salt soils, or on fatty soils, on heaps of rubbish and dung.
From a short, thin stake-shaped root, rises directly up-
wards a stem, which for the most part is thin and angu-
lar. This pushes out its branches from below upwards near-
ly in a horizontal, and therefore a squarrose direction on
all sides, and is about an ell high. The leaf-stalks are
half an inch long, somewhat concave and squarrose. The

leaves are triangular, hastate, tapering at the base, furnish-
ed with three nerves, and set on both sides, but especial-
ly on the lower side, with whitish scales, which give the leaf
a brilliant appearance. The margin of the leaf, for the most
part red, terminates below on lx>th sides in two wing-shapetl
distant points, which produce the hastate form. Towards the

CL^ XXIII.] 35. ATRIPLEX PATULA. 445

point are projecting teeth, and sinuses between them. The lat-
ter disappear in the up]5erniost leaves, which are hence simply
hastate, and very small. Tlie frequently red coloured flow-
ers are in fasciculi or glomeruli, which form spikes at in-
tervals, and are separated by leaves. The flowers are partly
male, partly herma})hrodite, partly female. The two former
consist merely of a quinque-partite calyx, with five filaments,
and the same number of yellow bilocular anthera?. The her-
maphrodite and the female flowers have two linear pistils.
The calyx of the female flowers consists of two thick leaflets,
which are triangular, have long projecting points, dentated
margins, and herbaceous waily spines on the surface. This
calyx also is covered with whitish scales. Between these
elastic leaflets of the calyx, lies the fruit, a caryopse, which
contains the evolved, bent embryon around its circumference,
and in its centre the remainder of the albuminous matter.

Diagnosis and Affinity.

This species has the nearest affinity to A. angustifolia Smith,
with which it has also been frequently confounded. But the
angustifolia is much more common in central Germany, grows
every where by the road side, is much taller, has not the
reddish colour nor the crowded stem, but has its branches at
a distance from each other. Fewer scales are observable, and
the lowermost leaves only are hastate, those farther up being
lanceolate and quite entire. The leaflets of the calyx are
nearly smooth, at least they have only some small bunches on
the margin.

A. hastata L. is also frequently confounded with our species.
This indeed has similar leaves, but the leaflets of the calyx
are intersected by reticular veins, and have bristly teeth.
A. laciniata L. is less nearly related : it grows only by the
sea-shore, and is entirely covered ^vith white and red spots ;
the stem lies low ; the leaves are more oblong, sinuated, and
dentated; the leaflets of the calyx are enlarged, and have
strong warty bunches. A. nitens Schk. has similar leaves,
but it grows much taller, and has quite smooth, and entire ca-
lyx leaflets.

4-i-O :J5. ATUiPLEX PATULA. [CL. XXIII.

Atriph'x is essentially distiiiguished from Chcnopodium. by
its polygamous flowers, and by the two-leaved calyx of the
female flowers ; (Anleit. ii. 308.)

SyTuyiiymcs and Figures.

? Atriplex sylvestris, Dodon. G15.

Atriplicis marinoe species Valerando, J. Batih. Hist. 2. 974*.

Atriplex folio deltoide triangulari sinuato, Moris, sect. 5. t.

A folio liastato s. deltoide, Tourn. Inst. 585. Hist, des

Plantes aux Envir. de Paris, p. 10. Magnol. Bot. 34.

A foliis sagittato-lanceolatis, Li7in. Lapp. n. 377.
A foliis triangularibus basi productis, Hall. Stirp. Helv.

n. 1617. A caule herbaceo, valvulis foemineis magnis

deltoidibus, Oer^ Prov. 329.
A. hastata, Linn. FL Suec. n. 921. (Manifesto nostra, cum

Morisonii synonymon citet. Hinc confusio posteriorum,

quae tandem herbario Linnaeano soluta est.) Scop. Cam.

n. 1245. Pollich. Pallat. n. 942. Selioll Barh. n. 809.

Leyss Hall n. 1015. Sclik. t. 348. Huds. Angl. p. 443.

Lightf. Scot. p. 636. Gouan, Fl. Momsp. 433. Host,Austr.

545. Rafn. Dan. 2. 238. Vill. Delph. 2. 56Q. Lam. Enc.

1. 275. Fl. Dan. 1286. De Cand. Fl Franc. 3. 386.
(Omnes hi ahique auctores, si A. patulam enumerant, A.
angustifoliam intelligunt.)

A. patula, Linn. Herb. Smith, Fl Brit 3. 1091. Eng.
Bot. 936. Fl Dan. 1285. MarscL Bicb. Taur. Cauc.

2. 443. Spreng. Hal n. 293<
A. laciniata, Besser Gallic. 1. 194.

Geographical Distribution .

This species is distributed from 44 ^ to 64° throughout the
whole of Europe ; for Tauris, Bologna, and Montpellier,
seem to be its southern limits; Umea and Angermanland
its northern. How far it stretches eastward is not clear, be-
cause the Siberian plants which pass under this name are
still doubtful.

CL. XXIV.] 36. BLECHNUM BORKAI.E. U7

CLASS XXIV.

I. True Ferns,

Blcchnum borealc, Stv,

Nordlicher Rippenfarrn.

This handsome fern grows in our woods. The root \%
about the thickness of a Uttle finger, of a brownish red colour,
covered with scales, chaffy leaves, and the remains of old
stalks. It pushes downwards fibrous roots, which are ex-
panded on all sides. From the root arise the fronds, at first
of a snail-shape, and every where set with hairs and chaffy
leaves. Afterwards these last-mentioneil substances disap-
pear in a great measure, so that the mature stalk is only fur-
nished at its lov/er part with a few scattered chaffy leaflets.
The fronds are partly fertile, partly barren. These last arc
from a large span to a foot in length, lanceolate, deeply half-
pinnated. The kciniae alternate in such a manner, that one
is always in the centre of two others that are opposite to it,
and, when seen from above, it seems to unite with them.
The lacinias are from half an inch to eight lines in lengthy
quite smooth and entire, somewhat falcated, pointed or some-
what obtuse, and penetrated by a principal nerve and piu'al-
lel veins. The lower laciniae are always more obtuse, rounder
and shorter, the wider they stand ; the uppermost unite into
one entire point. The stalks of these barren shoots are sharp,
angular, yellowish brown below, and become whitish where tlie
frond begins ; but sometimes also the yellowish brown colour
stretches a little higher. The barren fronds are always green
and lie in a circle upon the ground. The stalks of the fertile
fronds rise in the centre of those that are barren : thev are

448 36. BLECHNUM BOREAI.E. [CL. XXIV.

dark brown to the point, compressed, and an ell in length.
The fronds are also lanceolate, pinnated below, deeply halt-
pinnated above. The leaflets are linear, opposite, and dis-
tant or alternating, pointed, half an inch or more in length.
On both sides of the middle rib, on the back, lie the so-
ri in continuous lines, and are covered by a membrana-
ceous indusium, which opens towards the middle rib. When
young, the capsules are petiolated, and have sap-tubes be-
tween them. Afterwards they become brown, consist of a re-
ticular membrane, and are surrounded by an elastic, jointed
ring, by the springing of which, rough, angular seeds are
thrown out. In a state of greater maturity, the whole back
is so covered with sori, that the more early structure is no
longer distinguishable : hence the plant can now be readily
classed with the genus Achrostichum,

Diagnosis and Affiiiitij.

The older fronds can scai'cely be distinguished from Acrosti-
chum, but by attending to the presence of the indusium, which
is always persistent at the margin of the leaflets ; but in Aero-
stichum it is wanting. The genera Struthiopteris and LornOr-
ria Willd. might also be confounded with this plant, were it
not that in the former the indusium is formed by the margin
of the frond, and is laid in the fonii of scales over the sori.
In Lomaria the two margins of the leaf unite continuously
over the sori, (Billard. Nov. Hall. t. 246.) Compare Anleit.
2. 101.

Synonymes and Figures.

Walt-asplenon, Trag. f. 208. b.

Lonchitis aspera minor, Matth. 661. Dodmi. 469- Dalech.

1221. Ger. Emac. 1140. Pari.:. 1042.
Lonchitis altera Neotericorum, Clus. Hist. 2. 213. Lobel.

Hist. 475. Ic. 815. Foemina, Tahern. 1190. J. Bauh.

Hist. 3. 737.
Asplenium sylvestre, Dalech. 1217.
Lonchitis minor, C. Bauh. Pin, 359- Altera foliis Polypo-

dii, Moris, sect. 14. t. 2.

CL. XXIA".] 36. BLECHNUM BOREALE. 449

Polypodiuiii aiigustifolium folio vario, Tourn. Il'istt (Jes

Plantes aux Envir. de Paris, p. 519. In.st. 540.
Spicant Tragi ct Gcnnanorum, Rupp. Icn. ccl. Hall. 346.
Acrostichum Osmiintla, Linn. Sp. PL 1522.
Osniuda spicant, Linn. Fl. Suec. n. 936. Fi Dan. 99.

Bolt. Fil. t. 6. Gouan Fl. Monsp. 439. Light/. Scot. 2.

654.
Strutliiq:)teris, Hall. Hist. n. 1687. BiiJnii. Fl. Lips., 296.
Str. Spicant, Scop. Cam. n. 1258. Weis, Crypt. Goit. 287.
Acrostichum Spicant, Vill. Delpli. 4. 838.
Acr. nemorale, Lam. Enc. 1. 35.
Blechnum Spicant, Roth. Ge?m. 3. 44. De Cand. Fl. Franc.

2. 551.
Onoclea Spicant, LLofrn. Germ. 2. 11. Liljihl. Fl Svec. 385.
Blechnum horeale, Sw. Syn. Fil 115. Eng. Dot. 1159.

Schk. Fil X. 110.

Geographical Distribution .

This fern grows in Europe from 43° to 60°. Tiie south of
France and Genoa (Bertol. Amoen. Ital. 212.) seem to be its
most southern stations; the south of Norway and Scot-
land its most northern. Whether it grows in Siberia, I know
not ; but Lewis found it on the north-west coast of America,
(Pursh, Amer. Sept. 669)

Uses.

The power of healing wounds has been ascribed to this
plant. It is also mixed, in some places near Jena, with beer,
to increase its salutary qualities, {Rupp. Fl. Lcn. p. 346.)

n. Pteroido'.

37.
Botrychium lunaria, Siu\

Mondkraut. — French, I^unaiir. — Engl. Moonwort.'^^^^wed,

Ldsgrds.

450 37. BOTRYCHiU3I LUNAHIxV. [cL. XXIV.

This plant grows with us in June, on stony, almost on
barren places, and woody heights. The root consists of thick
brown fibres, of the thickness of a pack-thread. These send
out first two sheath-shaped leaflets, and from them a smooth,
round, herbaceous stem, a large span high at most, and of
the thickness of a pigeon's quill. This stem stands quite
erect, and is divided at about two inches high, pushing out
laterally a pinnated frond, about a small finger long. This
frond consists of nine or ten dull green, flabelliform (29.) leaf-
lets, which stand alternate, are irregularly crenated on their
convex margin, and penetrated by radiated fine nerves. They
are about the size of the nail on the little finger. Sometimes
the capsules shew themselves on the margin of these leaflets ;
not unfrequently the frond sends out, besides the principal
fruit-stalk, one or two subordinate stalks, which are formed
in the same manner. The principal fruit-stalk forms a branch-
ed, compound spike, with angular, somewhat open branches,
on which the yellowish brown, spherical, smooth fruit is placed,
without stalks, for the most part on one side. These sphe-
rules, of the size of mustard seed, split transversely when
they are ripe, and scatter their fine seeds. The plant springs
from these, like a green, lobed, cellular texture.

Diagnosis and Affinity,

This species is related to two others of more rare occur-
rence,— B. rutaceum Sw. and matricariodes Willd. The for-
mer has a bi-pinnated frond, the extreme lobes of which are
obtusely dentated. In this species the frond comes along with
the stem out of the root-sheath ; the frond is tri-partite, bi-
pinnate, and the extreme lobes are oblong and obtuse. The
latter species is very rare : I have it from Courland. The ge-
Botrycliium borders on Ophioglossmn, which is distinguished
by its simple spike : together they form the tribe of Stachy-
opterida?, under the Pteroidae, (Anl. ii. 107.)

Synwiymes and Figures.

I.unaria minor, Fucfis. 482. Dodon. 139. MattJi. G47. Da-
lech. 1313. Gcr, Em. 405. Parh, 507. Moris, s. 14. t. 5.

CI,. XXIV.] 37. BOTRYCIIIUM LUNARIA. 4.51

L. racemosa, Loh. Hist. 470. Ic. 807. J^otrytis minor, CI us.

Hist. 2. 118. J. Baiih. Hist. S. 710, 711.
Ruta lunaria, Tahcrn. 413.
Osniunda (bliis luiiatis, Tourn. Inst. 547.
Osmunda lunaria, Lmn. Sp. PL 1519- Fl. Lapp. n. 389.

Fl. Dan. t. 18. f. 1. Sturmy FL 1. Enn^. Boi. 318.
Botrychium lunaria, Sw. Syn. Fil 171. Willd. Sp. PL 4.

61. Schk. Fil. 154.

Geographical Distribution.

In the north this plant extends not only to Iceland and
Lapland, where it is found in those crevices of rocks which
are turned to the sun, but in V/estcrn Finnmark, as hx as
the Island of Masoe, (70^ N. Lat.) How far south it ex-
tends, I know not exactly, but it grows at Montpellier a:id in
Calabria, but not in Greece.

As the plant grows and fades so quickly, without leaving a
trace behind it, it vras formerly believed, that during the in-
crease of the moon it sprung up, and that with the wariing of
of the same it died. Hence the alchemists of the middle ages
made use of it in their researches ; (C Gesncr dc herhisy qua:
Lunaria: nominajiiur. Tiguri 1555. 4.)

III. Musci Frondosi

38.

Cinclidotus fontinalioidcs, Pal. Bcaiiv.

This beautiful moss grows on stones and wood in our
streams and flowing waters. It sends out brown fibres into
the mud with which the stones or wood are covered ; and
from thence rise several branched stems, from four to six
inches long, of the size of a linen thread, and of a green co-
lour, and covered from below upwai'ds with leaves. These
last-mentioned parts grow close together, without lying like
tiles on one another : they half embrace the stein and brandies,
are oblong-lanceolate, quite entire, a little tapering at the

V f 2

452 38. CINC. rONTIXALIOIDKS. [CL. XXIV.

point, of an olive-green colour, which, by drying the part, be-
comes dark green. The texture of the leaves is very thick
granular, almost opake, indistinctly cellular. A strong green
nerve runs to the point : this also is persistent, when the pa-
renchyma of the leaves is consumed by water, and these re-
mains of the leaves appear as merely short iibrcs on the low-
er part of the stem.

In the axillae of the leaves we find sometimes male, some-
times female buds, in considerable numbers. The covers
of these buds are of a yellowish red colour. In the male
buds the covering leaflets have no nerves, and are ovate;
in the female they are lanceolate. In the male buds we find
green knobs, with intermingled sap-tubes ; in the female we
find tender red pistilla, with fine sap-tubes standing between
them. From these buds rises the fruit, but on a very short
stalk, scarcely half a line in length, whence it is commonly
overtopped by the covering leaves. The capsule is perfectly
elliptical, smooth, olive-green, and afterwards of a brownish
red colour. Where the operculum rests on the capsule, the lat-
ter is of a red colour. The former is conical^ with the point
standing rather obliquely, and the twisted peristome is im-
pressed upon it. The calyptre is even, mitre-shaped, and
sphts transversely at the base. After the operculum has fal-
len off*, the peristome appears, which is beautifully red and
simple. It consists of thirty-two pretty long, hair-shaped,
divided, and in the dried state, twisted teeth, which at the
base are partly united with, and partly penetrate each other.
The seeds are small dirty-green spheres.

Diagnosis and Affinity.

The moss which most nearly resembles this is Anooctangi-
urn aquaticiim Hedw., which likewise grows in running water,
and has a dark green colour. But tlie leaves of the latter
are much longer and smaller, always falcated, and bent to one
.side : the fruit-stalks are father longer, and hence the cap-
sules are more prominent than in our species. But espe-
cially the peristome is wanting in An. aquaticum : it like-
wise grows only in waters south of Austria. Our moss can

CL. XXIV.] 38. cixc. roxTiXALioiJ)i:s. 4,53

less readily be confounded with Fmitinalis cmtipi/rctica^ wliicli
grows almost in all running waters, but is distinguished by
its triple direction, by its want of nerves, and by the some-
what keel-shaped nature of its leaves, whitli are also much
larger, and more remote. The capsules are envelo})ed by
short round scales : the peristome consists in a trellis-
shaped net. The olher aquatic mosses are still less similar.
Hypnum fluitans L. is distinguished by very small leaves,
separate from one another and alternating ; by long iVuit-
stalks, and by a double peristome ; H. ruscifbrium Neck, by
its ovate, serrated leaves, the nerves of which extend almost
to the point, by its long petiolated nodding capsules ; H. ri-
parium, by the fibres which every where proceed Irom the
axilla? of the leaves ; H. JluviatHe Hedw. almost solely by its
peticlated capsules with a double peristoma.

The genus Ciiididotus, first estabislied by Falisot-Beau-
vois, and admitted by Hooker, stands Ix^tween Tricliostommu
and Barhiila. From the former, with which this moss used
to be classed, it is distinguished by having the teeth of the i)e-
ristome united below, and twisted above. Barbiila is distin-
guished by this circumstance, namely, that the twisled cilia of
the peristome are tender, and must be considered merely as
prolongations of the internal membrane of the capsule. The
calyptre, too, is laterally divided.

Synonyracs and Fignrc^^

FontinaUs minor lucens, J. Bauli. Hist. 3. 770. Foliis trir
angularibus minus complicatis. Rat Syn. p. 79. Trian-
gularis minor carinata. Dill, Hist. Mksc. p. 257. t. 33. f 2.

Muscus aquaticus frutescens pinnatus, Moris. 3. p. G^G. s. 15.
t. 6. f. 32.

Muscus squamosus, fohis acutissimis, in aquis nascens, Tourn.
Inst 554.

Fontinalis minor, Liini. Sp. PL 1571. Ed. Ueich. 4. 452.
Gunner, Fl. Norv. n. 969. t. 3. f 2. Eng. Bot 557.

Hypnum, Hall Stirp. Helv. n. 1795.

Hypnum nigricans, Vill. Dclph. 3. 905.

Tnchostomum fontinalioidcs, Iledic. Stirp. Crypt. 3. t. 14.

454 39. JUNGERMANNIA TllILOBATA [CL. XXIV.

Roth. Germ. 3. 195. SmUh, Fl Bnt. 3. 1248. Turn.

Muse. Hihern. 41. Hcdw. Sp. PL 114. Bridel. Muscol

% 133. SeJtwdsrrieh. SuppL 1. 160.
Hypnum fontinalioidcs, Hcrfm. Germ. 2. 79.
Fontinalis alpina, Dicks. Fuse. 3. p. 2. t. 4. 1". 1.
Cinclidotus fontinalioidcs, Palis. Beauv. Aethclog: p. 2S. 52.

Hooh Mns. Brit. p. 29. t. 11.

Geog rapliical Distribution.

Norway and the nortli of Scotland seem to be the most
northern regions where this moss is found. It extends, so
far as I know, only into the south of Germany. But it is
not found either in Hungary or in the more southern coun^
tries =

IV, Musd hepatici.

39.

Jimgermaniiia trilobata, L.

This beautiful moss grows, early in spring, on stiff clay
soils, in our woods. It climbs on the roots and stems of our
forest-trees. The stem, which is about five inches high,
is dichotomous, branched, every where set with leaves, attaches
itself by its tendrils, which spring at considerable distances,
and are covered by small scales, to all objects. The leaves
are green, but are generally inclined to yellow, stand thick
together in two lines, nearly opposite to one another, and ho-
rizontal. They are oblong, almost quadrangular, embrace
the stem or branches with their base, have a thick, granular,
cellular texture, no nerves, and are provided at their broad
extremity with three, more rarely with four distinct teeth ; in
other respects they arc entire. On the upper surface they
are somewhat convex, on the lower a little concave. On the
lower surface of the stem are found very small amphigastrio',
which are also nearly square, with three larger doubly den-
fated teeth, and with their margin somewhat bent. The

CL. XXIV.] 39. JUNGERMANIA TlllI.OEATA. 455

membranaceous, cylindrical, deeply notched calyx sprinpjs
from the axillae of the lower part of the stenj, (by no means
from the top, as Roth maintains.) The fruit-stalk is tender,
white, pellucid, erect, snjooth, about the size of a fine linen
thread. It carries a brownish-red capsule, which at first is
closed like a splendent sphere ; afterwards it opens with four
valves, which stand cruciform from one another, and have
the seeds hanging by a chain-shaped apix^ndage.

Diagnosis and Affinity.

The species most nearly related to this are J. Fl'&ndi Web.
Mohr. and Naumanni Nees. But the former is distin-
guished by sending out tendrils only below the stem, by
having its leaves not so much lengthened, and rather verti-
cal, and chiefly by the size and multifarious division of the
amphigastria?, {Mart. Fl. Crypt. Erlang. p. 144. t. 4. f. 17.)
J, Naumanni has still shorter leaves, placed still more re-
mote from each other, and deeply divided, ciliated amphi-
gastriae, (^Mart. 143. 4. f. 16.) /. qidnque-dentata L. is very
like our species, but it wants the amphigastriae, and the leaves
are much shorter. J. nitida (convexa Thunb.) is distin^
guishes by its uniform, quadri-partite amphigastriae, the la-
ciniae of which are subulate. There is a smaller variety,
which passes into that of Roth, and the amphigastriae of which
are merely crenated : This is J. tricrcnata Wahlenb. Car-
imih. p. 864.

Synonymcs and Figures.

Muscoides terrestre repens, ex obscuro viresccns, Michel.

Nov. Ge7i. p. 10. t. 6. f. 2.
Lichenastrum pinnulis obtuse trifidis, Dillcn. Hist. Muse.

p. 493, t. 71. f 22. A. B. {End. Syn. Michel.)
? L. multifidum majus, ab extremitate fiorcns, DHL Hist.

Muse. p. 494. t. 71. f. 23.
Jungermannia alpina nigricans major, Hupp. I en. 404.
Jungermannia, Hall. Stirp. n. 1866.
J. trilobata, Lmn. Sp. PL cd. Reich. 4. p. 507. Roth. Germ,

4:56 40. LECANOllA SAXICOLA. [cL. XXlV.

a 396. E7igl BoL 2232. IVcb. Prodr. HepaL p. 42.

Mart. Fl. CrypU Erlang p. 141. t. 3. f. 14.
J. radicans, Hofin. Germ. 2. 87.
J. stolonifcra, Sw. Fl. Ind. Occid. 3. 1862.

Geographical Distribution.

This plant is disixirsed throughout tlie temperate zone of
the whole northern hemisphere. It is found in the south of
Sweden, in Norway, and Scotland, as well as in France,
Italy, and Germany. I have also received it from New
York. As J. stolmiifera Swartz, and J. trier enata Bridol,
brought by Bory S. Vincent, are the same with this plant,
it grows also between the tropics, at least in Jamaica, and
Miiscaren's Island.

V. Lichens.

40.

Lccanora saxicola, Ac/i.

This lichen grows abundantly on field-stones, on porphyry
and sandstone rocks. Its tlialli?s is thick accumbent, scaly,
wrinkled, dissimilar, often as it were broken, and of a dirty
palegreen, or yellowish-green colour, whitish, and smooth he-
neath, but formed into radiated lobes on the margin. The
whole lichen has often a diameter of several inches, and in
its perfect state, on level stones, it is circular. The pale gem-
miferous dust exudes in spring, on the surface. The appa-
rent fruit is flat, round, without stalks, and pressed together,
of a dirty, reddish-yellow colour, surrounded by a pale mar-
gin resembling a thallus, and of the size of lentil or mustard
seed. It stands in closely crowded heaps, commonly in the
centre of the thallus, is frequently irregular, without the
margin resembling a thallus, and contains opake grains in
fine tubes.

CL. XXIV.] iO. LKCANORA SAXICOLA. 457

Diagnosis and Affinity.

This species has a great resemblance to Lccanora slra-
minca Ach., (Tab. II. Fig. 3). But, in this last named
species, the thallus is straw-coloured. The lobes are quite
linear on the margin, roundish when cut through : the cen-
tral lobes are also as it were inflated. The colour of the ap-
parent fruit is darker, and the margin, which resembles a
thallus, is as it were swollen. Lcc. versicolor Ach. also re-
sembles it : but this species grows almost exclusively on cal-
careous rocks. The thallus is whitish on the margin, of a
a dirty-green in the centre. The apparent fruit, when young,
is of a flesh colour, and has a white margin : afterwards it
is of a dark dirty red, and the margin vanishes. Lee. crassa
Ach. corresponds, indeed, in the colour of the thallus, and of
the apparent fruit ; but the structure is quite different, for
it consists of single, cartilaginous, crenated, undulated, bent
lobes, which lie like scales on one another : the lower surface,
koo, is brown, and the apparent fruit stands dispersed.

Synonymes and Figures.

? Lichen pulmonarius saxatilis farinaceus glauco-virescens,

Michel. Nov. Gen. p. ^4<. t. 51. f. 4.
Lichen saxicola, Pollieh. Palat* n. 1098. Engl. Bot. 1695.

Achar. Lichenogr. Suec. Prodr. p. lOi. WaJdenh. Fl.

Lappon. p. 415.
L. murahs, Schreb. Spec. Fl. Genn. p. 130. Wither. Arrang.

4. 31.
L. ochroleucus, Wulff. in Jacqu. Coll. 2. t. 13. f. 4. a.
Tsora muralis, Hqfm. PL Lichen, t. 16. f. 1. (male.)
Parmelia saxicola, Ach. Method, p. 191- Mart. Fl. Crypt.

Erlang. p. 215.
Lccanora saxicola, Ach. Lichenogr. p. 431. Syn. j). 180.

Geographical Disirihuiion.

Although this lichen i;> dispersed through Kuropc, from
Lapland to Italy, and from the Pyrenees to Tauiis, no traces
pf it are to be found in more distant countries.

458 41. S. INTESTINALIS. [CL. XXIV.

VI. AlgtE.

41.

Scytliosiphon intestinalis, Lyngh.

In summer, tlierc appear upon our running and stagnant
waters, yellowish-green, membranaceous, spongy tubes, which
frequently cover a large surface of the water. When young
they are filiform, and of a bright green. These threads are
firmly attached to stones with a shield-shaped expansion, and
ascend as tubes, which gradually become wider, but are con-
tracted in particular places, without exhibiting any partitions,
and swim on the water, where they are then filled with water,
and throw up air-bubbles. When in their perfect state, they
resemble the intestines, and are about the thickness of a fin-
ger : towards harvest they always become discoloured, more
yellov/, and finally dissolve into slimy matter. When we
examine the fine sides of the tubes with a microscope, we
observe fine grains collected together in fours.

Diagnosis and Affinity.

The species which stands nearest to this is Sc, comprcssus
Lyngb., but this latter plant grows only in salt water, is
branched and compressed, and is not so thick as Sc. intes-
tinalis. Formerly both of these were arranged under Ulva ;
but Roth remarked (Catal. 1. 158.), that the definition of
Ulva includes the level, expanded, but not tubular nature of
the frond. Hence he classed the Ulva intestinalis with the
Confers^ae; but the latter has always jointed tubes, and these
furnished with partitions. Hence Lyngbye very properly
formed the genus Scytosiplion, the character of which consists
in its membranaceous, uninterrupted tubes, the seeds of
which contain the granular germs.

CL. XXIV.] 12. CEKATOSTOMA riMlHUATLM. 459

Synonymes and Figures.

Cava, Lnperat. Hist. Nat. p. 858.

Fucus cavLis, C. Bank. Pin. J. Bmih. Hist. 3. 791.

Lactuca marina tubulosa, Rai Hist. 1. p. 77.

Folliculus marinus, Loscl.> Fl. Priiss. p. 75.

Conferva marina tubulosa, DiUcn. Giess. App. p. 16.

Conferva latifoiia flavescens et tubulosa major, Bitxb. Hal.

p. 79.
Fucus tubulosus intc&tinoruai forma, Tourn. Inst. p. 568.

Bua;b. Cent. 5. t. 13. f. 1. (male).
Ulva marina tubulosa, Rai Syn. p. 62.
Ulva tubulosa simplex, Linn. Lapp. p. 348.
Tremella marina tubulosa, Dill. Hist. Muse. p. 47. t. 9- f. 7.
Ulva tubulis cjlindricis, Hall. Stirp. n. 21:28.
Ulva intestinalis, Linn. Fl. Suec. n. 1154. Sp. PI. cd. Reich.

4. 583. Lightf. Scot. p. 368. Huds. Angl. 568. Wither.

Arrang. 4. 141. De Cand. Fl. Fran<^. 2. p. 8. Lamour.

Thalass. p. Qt5. Agardh. Syn. p. 45.
Conferva intestinalis, Roth^ Catal. 1. 154. ^Vulff. Crypt.

Aqu. p. 13. Schumach. Suelland. 2. p. 103.
Scytosiphon intestinalis, Lyngb. Hydroph. p. (51.

Geog raphieal Distribution .

This alga is found in all waters, from the polar circle to
the tropic, in the northern hemisphere : whether it also grows
in the southern hemisphere I know not.

VII. Mycohmyci.

42.

Ceratostoma fimbria tiim, Fries.

On the leaves of beeches and ha/el bushes, we observe dark
spots during summer, — results of the decaying vegetation
of the leaf, and of another kind of vegetation which has be-
gun, but which is often interrupted in the germ. In this la^t

3

460 42. CERATOSTOMA FniBRIATUM. [CL. XXIV.

case it remains a Xylonia^ (Aul. ii. 17.) Otherwise small
spherules, of a black colour, and scarcely distinguishable
by the naked eye, arise during liarvest on these spots. It
sometimes happens, especially with regard to hazel leaves,
that single spherules project above tl)£ common layer. These
pass into stiff, straight rostella, thick above, about a line in
length, and of the fineness of a hair, between which and the
spherule, a white, membranaceous rim, resembling a ruffle,
stands in a circular form. This rostellum is not the peristome,
which in the Spha^ria supplies the place of the operculum of
the Mosses, but it is a continuation of the perithecium ;
(Fries, Obs, Myc. 2. <318, 319.) The spherule contains the
germ-sacks, which are club-shaped, nearly pellucid bodies,
filled with eight fine grains. But what purpose does the
white rim of the rostellum serve .'' Batsch thought that it
was the reflex interior cellular membrane, which opinion I do
not assent to. But Rebentisch^s idea is more probable, name-
ly, that it is the remainder of the epidermis of the leaf, and
disappears in spring.

This species cannot be confounded with others, because
the above-mentioned rim is not found in any other species.
In other respects it is nearly related to C. pidchellum and
cornutu7n.

Synwiymcs and Figures.

Sphseria spiculosa, Batsch, Eh Fung. 1. p. 273. t. 30. f. 182,

Sph. Coryli, Ih. 2. p. 131. t. 32. f. 231.

Sph. Carpini, Hofm. Veg. Crypt, 1. t. 1. f. 1. Timm. Fl

Megap. p. 279.
Sph. fimbriata Pers., Obs. Myc. 1. p, 70. Syn. p. 36. Alb.

et Schwein. Fung. Niesc. p. 17. Rebentish, Neom. p. 329.

Schultz, FL Starg. p. 425. Mart. Fl. Crypt. Erlang.

p. 479.
Ceratostoma fimbriatum, Fries, Obs. Myc. 2. p. 340.

CL. XXIV.] 43. SPATirULARIA FLAVIDA. 4Gl

\'III. Proper Fungi.

43.

Spatliularia flavida, Pcrs.
Lclstcnsciiwamm, Nccs.

In our fir woods, sekloni among hard woods, this funo-us
is observed, in the end of summer, and in hardest. It grows
on the fohage of the fir, and on other fallen leaves, com-
monly surrounded by moss. The whole fungus is commonly
only two inches, at most a little finger in length. The stem
has its base thick, like a tuber : it is of a straw-yellow co-
lour, smooth, about the size of a writing c^uill. Its length v^
somewhat more tlian an inch. Internally it is sometimes hol^-
low when it is old : commonly it consists of a double sub-
stance, an exterior fibrous part, and an interior cellular. It
carries a compressed pileus, of a yellow or reddish-yello-w co-
lour, which runs downwards on the side of the stem, and lias
the shape of a spade ; at most an inch long and broad, it is
smooth all round, but frequently crenated or notched on the
margin. It consists of two united hymenia, which internally
contain a fine, white cellular texture. At a more advanced
age these hymenia separate from each other : the pileus ap-
pears then to be inflated, and internally full of soft fibres.
From the stem, branchy wrinkles are extended through the
cap, which have been regarded by many as veins. In the
hymenium we observe,, by the microscope, fine ])cllutid, club-
shaped sporidia, with intervening sap-tubes. In the former
lie five double-ringed spora?, exactly in the same manner as
in Gcoglossum virlde (Tab. I. Fig. 34.), with which this
fungus is found in company. During warm sunshine these
sporae give out dust like a fine shining cloud, and the plant
becomes, by this means, like Pe:nr:a, a bladder fungus ;
{Fungus Utrinus, Nces, p. 243.)

462 44, CRATERIUM TYUIFORME. [CL. XXIY.

Diag-nosls and yljjinitij.

This genus is most nearly related to the genus Helvella.
The two hymenia, which are here united, are separated in
Helvella, and hang down in tlie form of a mitre. The co-
lour of the pileus is also commonly darker. Geoglos-mm
forms a peculiar club, which is distinctly separated from the
stem.

Synonymcs and Figures.

Elvella clavata, Sch'dft. Fung. t. 149.

Clavaria Spathula, Flor. Dan. 658.

CI. spathulata, Schmid. ic p. 196. t. 50. f. 1. (alter).

Helvella spathulata, Afzel Stockh. Handl 1783. p. 302.

Sowe7'b. Fung. t. 35.
Helvella farctoria, Bolt. Fung. ed. Willd. 3. p. 10. t. 97.
Spathularia flavida, Pers. Dispos. Mcth. Fung. p. 36. Com-

ment. de Fung* clavfeform. p. 34 — 36. Syn. p. 601.

NceSj Syst. p. 174. t. 17. f. 156. (Sp. rufa eadem, icones

malae).

IX. Gastromyci.

44.

Craterium pyriforme, Ditmar.

(Tab. I. Fig. 25—28.)

In harvest, this fungus is observed on the rind of birch
trees in moist places. It is scarcely a line in size, and of a
brownish-yellow colour. On a short stalk stands the pear or
flask shaped peridium, contracted below the mouth. The
mouth is covered by a whitish round operculum, which opens
and shews the spora?, with intermingled tufts of hairs as the
contents of the peridium.

Ditmar, in den Pilzen Deutschl. b. 1. n. 10.

CL. XXIV.] 46. FUSIDIUM GRYSEUM. 463

X. NematomycL

45.

Botrytis polyspora, Link.

(Tab. I. Fig. .SI.)

This fungus appears in harvest, a line in height, in thick
plots, on dry twigs. The branchy flocci are furnished below
Avith dissepimenta, and are of a greyish-green colour. The
spherical, olive-green sporag are placed in heaps on the
branches, especially towards their extremities.

Link, in Berl. Mag. 3. s. 14.
Ditraar, in den Pilzen Deutschl. n. 35.

XI. Coniomyci.

46.

Fusidium gryseuni, Link,

(Tab. I. Fig. 3S.)

On dry beech leaves we observe this fungus, during har-
vest, in the form of heaps of whitish-grey spots, wliich,
being examined by the microscope, are seen to consist of
fusiform, very fine sporae.

Link, in Berl. Mag. 3. s. 8.
Dkmar, in den Pilzen Dentschl

INDICES.

( 465 )

INDICES

G

( 167 )

INDEX

TO THE

LATIN TERMS.

The Number

s indicate, not the Page, but the Section.

A

alternans

31

Abbreviatus

19

alternatim pinnatus

47

abortiens

60

alternativus

99

abrupte pinnatus

47

alternus

31

acaulis

11, m

alveolatus

26

accrescens

57

Ambitus

28

accumbens

38

Amentum

84

Achenium

109

Amnios

383

acinaciformis

31

Amphigastrium

78

Acinus

116

amplexans

40

acotyledones

386

ampliatus

19

Aculeus

80

Ampulla

81

acuminatus

56

Anastomoses venarum

49

acutiusculus

ib.

anceps

30

acutus

. ib.

androgynus

51

adnatus

40

Anfractus

103

Adumbratio

. 243

angiospermus

109

aequabilis

26

angulatus

30, 53

aequalis

18

Angulus

28

ffiquans

ib.

angustissimus

19

aeruginosus

23

Anisostemones

131

-^stivatio

99

annotinus

. 62

aggregatus

38, 97, 108

annulatus

26

Ala

98

Annulus

ss, 117

alatus

31

annuus

62

albescens

23

Antliera

107

albidus

ib.

Antliesis

100

Albumen

. 121

Anthocoryniiun

86

albuminosus

ib.

Antliodinni

87

Alburnum

67

anticus

:j4

alb us

. 23, 25

antrorsum

. ib.

(i iT.

J

468

LAtlN TERMS.

apetalus

.

11

bimus

62

Apex

. 28

,55

binatus

46

aphyllus

.

11

binervius

. 49

apiculatus

.

56

bipinnatifidus

54

Apophysis

,

28

bipinnatus

48

Apothecium

118

Blastus

386

appressus

42

brachialis

. 16

aqueus

.

23

brachiatus

42

Arbor

.

67

Brachium

. 16

arboreus

.

ib.

Bractea

86

Areola

.

26

brevissimus

. 19

areolatus

.

ib.

brunneus

23

argenteus

.

23

Bulbus

65

argo-

.

ib.

bullatus

26

argyro-

.

ib.

C

Caducus

Arillus
Arista

109,

120

80

58

ari status

56,

109

caesius

23

Arma

80

caespitosus

38

articulatus

40

calcar

95

ascendens

42

callosus

26

Ascidium

81

calycinus

11,89

asper

.

26

calycostemon

33, 140

asperrimus

ib.

calyculus

87

ater

23

calyx

87,89

atropurpureus

.

ib.

calyptra

88

auctus

57

campaniformis

32

aurantiacus

23

campanulatus

ib.

Aurantium

115

canaliculatus

ib.

aureus

2S

, 25

candidus

23,25

Auricula

78

canus

ib. ib.

auriculatus

ib.

capillaceus

16, 30

avenius

11

capillaris

16, 109

axilis

,

33

capillitium

119

Axilla

.

76

capillus

16

axillaris

34, 76

capitatus

31

Axis

26

1,47

Capitulum

84

azureus

•

23

capsula
Carina

115

. 28, 98

B

carinatus

. 32

Bacca

.

113

carneus

23

badius

.

23

carnosus

30

barbatus

.

25

Carpel lum

109

basilaris

,

33

Carpidium

108

Basis

,

28

cartilagineus

30

berillus

.

23

caryophyllaceus

98

biennis

.

63

Catenula

. 109

bifariam

,

37

Cauda

ib.

bifidus

50

Caudex

69

bimestris

.

62

Caudicula

. 107

LATIN Tr.nMs*.

46f^

caulescftiis

66

compositus

. 46, 97, 108

caulinus

33

compressus

30

Caulis

66

concavus

32

centralis

33

con col or

22

centrifugiis

ib.

conduplicatus

44

centripetus

ib.

confertus

38

Cephalodium

118

confluens

40

Cephalophonim

83

con form is

20

cerinus

9.3

congestus

38

cernuus

42

Conglomeratus

, ib.

cervlnus

23

conicus

30

Chalaza

120

conjugatus

. 46

Character

142, 230

connatns

40

Character artificial is

230

Connectivum

. 107

factitius

ib.

connivens

38

naturalis

. ib.

contiguus

ib.

chartaceus

SO

continuus

. ib.

chloro-

23

con tortus

99

Chorion

383

contrariiis

. 36

chryso-

23

convexus

30

cicatricosus

11

convolutivus

. 99

Cicatriciila

120

convoliitus

44

Cicatrix

iCy

cordatus

29

Cilia

51

coriaceus

30

ciliatus

ib.

Cor m us

09

cinereus

23

corneus

30

eircinnatus

44

covollinus

.89

circumscissus

114

Corolla

90, 94

Cirrhus

79

Corona

93

citrinus

23

Cortex

67

clausus

32

cortical is

ib.

clavatus

31

Cortina

88

Clinandrium

107

Corymbus

, 84

Clinanthium

85

Costa

. 109

clypeatus

31

Cotyledones

121

coaetaneus

59

cotyloideus

31

coarctatus

38

crenatus

51

cocciiieus

. 23

crenulatus

ib.

Cocculus

109

crisp us

26

Coccum

110

cri status

31

coeruleus

23

croceus

23

cochlear is

99

cruciatus

36

cochleatiis

. 41

cruciformis

ib.

cohaerens

40

Crusta

70

Collectores

. 3il

crustaceus

. 30

CoUum

G9

cubitalis

16

coloratus

22

Cubitus

ib.

Coma

25, 86, 109

cucullatus

. 32

comosus

25

Culmus

70

complicatus

44

cuneatus

. 29

470

LATIN TEEMS.

cimeiformis

. 29

dodrantalis

16

cupiilatus

31

dolabvifomnis

31

euspidatus

b(S

dorsalis

33

cyaneus

23

Drupa

112

cylindricus

30

Cyma

84

E

J

Eburneus

23

D

echinatus

. 26

Deciduus

. 58

effiguratus

27

declinatus

43

effbetus

103, 107

decompositus

48

eglandulosus

11

decumbens

42

ellipticus

29

decurrens

40

elongatus

19

decursive pinnatus

47

emarginatus

55^

decussatus

m

Embryo

121

deflexus

43

emergens

40

dehiscens

32

Endorrhizae

385

deltoideus

SO

Endospermium

121

demum

57

enervis

11

dentatus

51

ensiformis

. 29

denticulatus

ib.

ephemerus

61

deorsum

34

Epidermis

. 67

depressus

c 30

epigaeus

42

dextrorsum volubilis

. 41

epigynus

^5

diaphanus

23

epipetalus

. ^^

Dichogamia

5% 103

Epiphragma

117

dichotomus

50

equitans

40

Diclinia

138

erectus

. 42, 121

Dicotyledones

386

erosus

6S

difFormis

20

erythro- ,

23

difFusus

39

evanescens

58

digitalis

16

evanidus ,

49

digitatus

46

exalbuminosus

121

Digitus

16

excedens

IS

dilutus

23

excentricus

^^

dimidiatus

30

excurrens

49

dimorphus

20

Exorrhizas

. 385

dioecius

. 103

exsculptus

32

disciformis

31

exstipulatus

11

discolor

22

exsuccus

S^

discretus

, 39

extrafoliaceus

34

Discus

28

dispar

20

F

Dissepimentum

110

Falcatus

29

dissimilis

20

Familia

155

distichus

37

farinosus

27

diurnus

61

fasciculatus

38

divaricatiis

42

Fasciculus

84

divergens

ib.

Faux

92, 96

Dod rails

16

favosus

26

LATIN TETIMS.

471

ferrugineus

Fibrillas

Filamentuin

filiformis

fimbriatus

fistulosus

flabelliformis

flaccidus

liammeus

flavus

fiexuosus

Flocci

floralis

Flos

Flosculi

foliaceus

foliatus

Foliolum

foliosus

Folium

Folliculus

fornicatus

fragilis

Frons

Fructificatio

Fructus

Frutex

fiigax

Fulcrum

fuligineus

fulvus

Fundus

Funiculus umbilicalis

furcatus

fusiformis

fusinus

Galacto-

GalbuJus

Galea

geminatus, geminus

Gemma • '

Gemmatio

geniculatus

Genus

Germ en

gibbus

giganteus

gilvus

23, 25
64

107
30
51
32
29
39
. 28
ib.
41
25
86
82
95
11
ib.
48
11
75

114
31
30
70

103

108
68
61
79
23
ib.
69
. 120
51
31
ib.

23

116

96

. 36

74, 302

72,74

41

147

72, 104

30

19

23

glabcr

Glandula

glanduloso-ciliatus

glaucescens

glaucus

glebosus

globosiis

glocliidatus

Glochis

glomeratus

Glomerulus

Gliima

glutinosus

Gongylus

granulatus

gregarius

griseus

gmmcsus

gymnospermus

gynandrus

Gynizus

Gynobasis

Gynostemiura

gyrosns

II
Halonatus
hamosus
Hamus
hastatus
Haustorium
helvolus
hemisphaericus
hepaticus
h ei-maphrod itu s
hetero-
hetcromallus
Hilum
hinc
hirsutus
hirtus
hispidus
homomallus
horarius
horizontal is
hornus
hyalinus
Hymenium
Hypha
hypocrateriformis

24
81
57
22
ib^
27
30
80
ib.
84
ib.
88, 9-i
27
72
26
38
23
26

109
59, 103

106
85, 105

107
37

22
80
ib.
29
79
23
33
23

103
20
43

120
43
25
ib.

,26
43
61
42
62
23

119
70
33

472

LATIN TERMS.

hypogaeus

.

42

lacteus

23

hypogynus

.

35

laevis

24

hypophyllus

.

33

lamellatus

49

Hypostroma

•

83

Lamina
lanatus

28, 72, 93
25

I

lanceolatus

29

Imbricativus

.

99

lanuginosus

25

imbricatus

,

40

lapideus

SO

immersus

.

ib.

larvatus

96

impari-pinnatus

.

47

Latera

28

impuber

.

103

lateralis

33

inaequabilis

.

24

lateritius

23

inaequalis

20

.51

laxus

39

incanus

23

,35

Legumen

114

incarnatus

23

lenticularis

31

inconspicuus

11

lepidotus

27

iiicrassatus

,

55

leprosus

^6

incumbens

.

38

leuco-

23

induplicativus

.

99

Liber

67

Indusium

88,

106

liber

34

inermis

H

, 80

Lignum

67

in feme

.

34

Ligula

77

inferus

,

ib.

ligulatus

29.95

inflatus

.

30

lilacinus

23

Inflorescentia

82

liliaceus

9S

infra

,

34

Limbus

28,92

infractus

,

41

Limes

69

infundibuliformis

.

32

limitatus

28

Insertio

,

33

Linea

16

integerriraus

51

linearis

16, 29

intense

.

23

lineatus

26

Internodium

.

51

Lirella

118

interrupte-pinnatus

.

47

lobatus

52

intrafoliaceus

.

34

Lobus

52,91

intrapetiolaris

.

ib.

Loculus

110

intricatus

.

38

Lodicula

94

inversus

.

43

Lomentum

114

Involucrum *

86

,87

lucidus

24

involutus :

.

44

lunulatus

29

irregularis

.

20

luridus

23

Isostemones

.

131

luteus

23

Jugum

47,

109

lyratus

54

L

M

Labellum

,

95

Maculatus

22

labiatus

96

mammillatus

31

Labium

91

,96

marcescens

58

laceratus

.

53

marcidus

58

Lacinia

52

,91

marginal us

28

laciniatus

.

52

Margo

ib.

LATIN TERMS.

475

Massa granulosa

107

obcordatus

2c>

Massa sectilis

107

obliquus

42

matutiiius

61

oblongus

29

maximus

• 19

obovatus

ib.

Medulla

67

obsoletus

11

mela-, melano-

. 23

obtusiusculus ,

55

membranaceus

30

obtusus

ib.

meniscoideus

31

obvolutus

44.

menstruus

62

ocellatus

22

meridianus

61

ochraceus

23

Micropyle

120

Ochrea

78

miniatus

23

ochroleucus

23

minimus

19

olivaceus

ib.

mitrasformis

30

opacus

ib. 24.

mollis

25

Operculimi

117

mollissimus

ib.

oppositifolius

34

moniliformis

31

oppositus

. 3G

Monocotyledones

386

orbiculatus

29

monoecius

103

Orbilla

118

mucronatus

56

Orgya

16

multifidus

53

orgyalis

ib.

muricatus

26

Os

77, 117

murinus

23

osseus

30

mutabilis

. 20

ovalis

29

muticus

11,55,80

ovatus

ib.

Ovarium

104

N

Ovulum

ib.

Naucum

112

navicularis

32

P

nebulosus

23

Pagina

28

Nectarilyma

102

Palatum

96

Nectarium

94

Palea

27, 94.

Nectarostigma

102

paleaceus

• 27, 109

Nectarotheca ,

ib.

pallidus

23

nervosus

11

palmaris

. 16

Nervus

49

)almatus

46, 54

neuter

103

Palmus

16

nidulans

40

panduroeformis

• 29

niger

23

Panicula

84

nitidus

24

papilionaceus

98

niveus

23

papillosus

26

nocturnus

. 61

wpulosus

ib.

Nodus

51

Pappus

109

notatus

22

partialis

48

nudus

11,24, 117

Patella

118

nutans

42

patelliformis

31

Nux

112

patens

42

patentissimus

ib.

O

pectinatiis

31

Obconicus

•'o

pedalis

16

474

LATIN TERMS.

pedatus

pedicellatus,

Pedicellus

Pedunculus

pellucidus

peltatus

pendidus

penicillatus

pentagonus

Pepo

l^erennans

perennis

perfoliatus

Perianth i urn

Pericarpiiim

Pericha^tium

Peiicliniiim

Peridium , .

perig-ynus

periphericus

Periphoranthium

Perispemiium

Peri stachy urn

Peristomium

Perithecium

persistens

personatus

pertusus

Perula

Pes

Petalostemon

Petalum

petiolatus

Petiolus

phaeo-

Phyllodium

piceus

pileatus, pileiformis

pilosus

Pinna

pinnatifidus

pinnatus

Pistillum

Placenta

Placentatio

planus

plicativus

plicatus

plum be us

plumosus

78 Plumula

40 Podetium

83 Podospermium

ib. Pollen

23 Pollex

40 pollicaris

43 Polycotyledones
25, 109 Polygamia . l

30 aequalis

1 1 5 frustranea

•'^7 necessaria

63 segregata

40 supei5lua

87 polygamus
108 pomeridianus

88 Pomum
87 porosus

88, 119 posticus
35 prascox
28 praemorsus

87 prasinus
121 primarius

88 prismaticus
117 proboscideus
119 procumbens

57 prominulus

96 Propago

32 Propagulum

95 proprius

16 prostratus
140 Pruina

91 pruinosus

40 Pubertas

75 Pubes

23 pubescens

75 puUus

23 pulposus

31 pulveraceus
25, 109 pulvinatus

47 Pulvis

54 pumilus

47 punctatus
j06 puniceus
1 1 1 purpureo-cceruleus

ib. purpureus
30. 44 pusillus

g9 Pyramidalis, pyramidatus

26 Pyrena
23 pyi'ifot'mis
25, 109 I^yxidium

12t

83

120

107

16

ib.

386

31, 137

137

ib.

. ib.

ib.

. ib.

103

61

115

26

34

59
55
23

135
30
32
42
40
72
ib.
48
42
27

ib.

103

25

ib.

23

30

27

31

27

19

26

25

ib.

ib.

19

30
116

30
114

LATIN TERMS.

475

Q

Quadrangularis

quadrifariam

quadrifidus

quadrijiigus

quadrilobus

quadripartitus

quaternus

quinatus

quincuncialis

quinquangularis

quinquefariam

quiiiqiiefidus

quinquenerveus

quinquepartitus

quintuplinervius

quinus

Racemiis

Rachis

radialis

radians

radiatus

radicans

radicatus

radicinus

Radicula

Radius

Radix

Ramentum

Ramus

rarus

Receptaculum

reclinatus

rectus

reflexus

regularis

remotus

renifoi-mis

repaiidus

repens

resupinatus

reticulatus

Reticulum

Retinaculum

retrorsum

retusus

revolutus

R

Rhizoma
rhomboideus

30 rigidus

37 rimosus

52 ringens

47 rosaceus

52 roseus

ib. rostellatus

36 Rostellum
46 rostratus

100 rotatus

30 rotundatus

37 ruber

52 Rudimentum

. 49 rugosus

52 ruminatus

49 runcinatus

3Q iniptinervius

84
47,83
28
37
ib.
42
11
ib.

64, 121
28, 67
64
76
71
39

85, 111
43
41
43
20
39

53
42
43
26
77
107, 120
34
55
44

Sagittatus

Samara

sanguineus

Sarcobasis

Sarmentum

saterrime

scaber

scabeiTimus

scandens

Scapus

scariosus

scobiformis

scrobiculatus

Scutella

scutelliformis

Scutellum

scyphitbrmis

sectus

secundus

Segmentum

Semen

Semiflosculus

semilunatus

semiteres

semivalvis

Sepalum

septatus

septenatus

septiferus

serial is

. 66
29
41
26
96

37,98
23
56
107, 121
56
32

29, 55
23
60
26
ib.
54
49

. 29

109
23
85, 105
71
23
26
ib.
41
83
SO, 184
31
26

118
31

121
31
52
43
52

109

■ 95

29

30

no

S9
26
46
110
37

476

LATIN TERMS.

sericeus

25

squarrosus

42

serotinus

59

Stamen

107

serratus

51

Staminodium

ib.

serrulatus

ib.

stellatus

2, 5, 36

sessilis

40

stigma

108

Seta

80, 83

stipes

70

setaceus

109

stipitatus

47

setosus

25

Stipula

78

sexfariam

37

Stoma

119

Silicula

114

Stragula

94

Siliqua

ib.

stramineus

23

similis

20

striatus

26

simplex

45, 108

Strictura

51

sinistrorsum

41

strictus

41

Sinus

28, 53

strigosus

25

sinuatus

53

Strobilus

84, 116

smaragdinus

23

Stroma

83

solitarius

38

Strophiola

l20

solutus

40

Struma

28

sordide

23

stupeus

25

Soredium

72

Stylopodium

105

Sorus

84

stylostemon

140

spadiceus

. 23

Stylus

106

Spadix

84

suberosus

30

sparsus

38

Subiculum

83

Spatha

87

subrotundus

29

spathulatus

29

Subspecies

145

Species

142

subulatus

31,56

Spermapodium

111

succulentus

30

Spermapodophorum

. 83

SufFrutex

68

sphacelatus

22

sulcatus

26

sphaericus

30

Sulcus

ib.

sphseroideus

ib.

sulfureus

23

Spica

84

superne

34

Spicula

ib.

supra

ib.

Spina

80

supradecompositus

48

spinoso-ciliatus

51

sursum

34

spiralis

37

Sutura

110

Spithama

16

Syngenesia

137

spithameus

ib.

splendens

24

T

spodo-

23

Tephro-

23

spongiosus

30

teres

30

Spora

119

teretiusculus

ib.

Sporangium

ib.

terminalis

33

Sporidium

, ib.

ternatim sectus

52

Sporophorus

ib.

ternatus

46

spurius

11

ternus

36

Squama

27,81

tessellatus

26

squamulosus

27

tetragonus

30

LATIN '

lERMS.

tetraqueter

30

undulatus

Thalamium

118

unguicularis

thalamostemon

140

Unguis

Thallus

70

urceolatus

Theca

117

Utriculus

Thecapodium

. 119

Thyrsus

84

tomentosus

25

Vagina

Tomentum

ib.

vaginans

torosus

26

Vallicula

torulosus

ib.

Valva

tortilis

41

valvaris

tortus

ib.

variabilis

trapezoideus

29

variegatus

triangularis

29,30

Varietas

Tribus

154

varius

Trica

118

Vasa scalaria

trichotomus

50

spiralia

trifidus

52

Vena

trigonus

30

ventricosus

trinervius

49

vernicosus

tripartitus

52

Verruca

tripinnatus

48

verrucosus

triplicato-pinnatus

48

versatilis

triplinervius

49

verticalis

triquetur

SO

verticil] atus

trisectus

52

Verticillus

trochlearis

31,37

vespertinus

Truncus

66

vexillaris

Tuber

ib.

Vexillum

Tuberculum

118

villosus

tubulosus

32

violaceus

Tubus

92

viridis

tumidus

30

viscosus

turbinatus

30

Vitellus

Turiones

71

vitreus
Vitta

U

volubilis

Ulna

16

Volva

ulnaris

ib.

Umbella

84

Umbilicus

28, 120

Xantho-

umbraculiformis

31

xerampelinus

Uncia

16

uncialis

ib.

uncinatus

80

Zonatus

Uncus

ib.

X

177

26

16

16, 93

31

109

77
40

109

87, 109

99

20

22

145
20

282

277
49
81
24
76
26
40
42
84
ib.
61
99
. 98
25
23
ib.
27

121
23

109
41
88

23
ib.

( 479 )

INDEX

TO THE

PRINCIPAL DEFINITIONS AND NAMES.

The Figures indicate the Seclions.

Abortion of organs^ 60, 177

Acharius, 467

Acids of plants, 363^ — in the

soil, 374
Acotyledonous, 386
Adanson, l64, 456
Aerial smoke, what it is, 417
Agamia, 139
Agardh, 467
Agrumas, 115
Aiton, 468
Albertini, 467
Albumen in seeds, 1^21, 3So, —

in plants, S5S
Alburnum of trees, 67; — its

structure, ^^^, — debility of,

420
Alexandria, botany studied in

its schools, 432
Alkalies, 358
Allioni, 465
Alpini, 442

Alterations of organs, 184
Ammonia in plants, 358
Analogy, its use, 179
Andrews, 467
Angidllara, 441
Anomaloecia, 139

Anthers, 107, — their .-structure,
334

Aphides, hurtful to plants, 426

Appendage of parts, 28

Apple, 115

Arabians, 436

Aristotle, 431

Armour of plants, 80

Arsenic, its effects on plants, 375

Ashes, in what way they im-
prove the soil, 347

Aublet, 458

Auriculae of plants, 78

Axilla, 76

Axis of parts, 28

Azote, whence derived to plants,
349

Azotic gas, inhaled from flowers,
329

B

Bidbis, 4()5
Barrelier, 450
Base, 28

Bastard phuits, 381
Batsch, 463, 467
r. Bauhin, 211, 413.
J. Bauhin, 443
Bauwuartcr, 465

3f80 PRINCIPAL DEFINITIONS AND NAMES.

Beard, 25

Beitar, 436

BeJon, 442

Berry, 113

Beslier, 449

Besser, 46?

BilUirdiere, 466

^zna, 467

Bivona-Bemardi, 465

Blight, of trees, 421, —of corn,
422

Blisters, 26

Blossomin|r, lOO

Bobart, 451

Boccone, 450

Boerhaave, 141, 445

5o/^ow, 467

Bonnet, 457

Bonpland, 466, 467

Borkkausen, 140

Boundaries of parts, 28

Bracteae, 86

Branches, 71

Breyne, 44<9

jSrzffe/, 467

Bristles, 25, 80

BroterOy 465

P. Brown, 458

i2. Brown, 466, 467

Brunfeh, 439

Buds of trees, 72,-^their struc-
ture, 302

Bulbs, 65, — their structure, 289

Bulliard, 467

Burkhard, 451

J. Burmann, 454

iV. L. Burmann, 458

Butterflies, hurtful, 427

Buxbaum, 454

Camerarius, 451

Camphor, 357

Cancer in trees, 421

Candolle, De, 463, 465, 467,
468

Capsule, 115

Carbonic acid absorbed and ex-
haled by plants, 315, — their
nourishment.^ 347

Cassini, 467

Catesby, 454

Catkins, 84

Calo, 433

Cavanilles, 466, 467

CavoUni, 46 1

Cellular texture,272,— of leaves
309

Cesalpin't, 141, 443

Chaffy leaves, 27

Characters of plants, their deli-^
neation, 228

Charts of plants, 397

Chemistry of plants, 342

Cherry-laurel water, its effects
on plants, 375

Chlorin m plants, 36 1

Cinchonin, 362

Circumference of parts, 30

Citric acid, S6S

Classification, theory of it, 122

Clavus, 424

Clusius, 440

Coleoptera, 425

Collections of plants, 266

Collectores on the pistilla of
the syngenesious plants, 341

Colouring matter, 355

Colours, 21, — of the leaves, 317,
— of flowers, 327

Columella, 433

Columna, 441.

Comelyn, 449

Commersoji, 458

Commissura, the surface by
which the two parts of a
double fruit touch each other^
(PI. VIII. Fig. 6, 7.)

Comparetti, 464

Composition of plants, 342,—
different from that of ani-
mals, 346,— of parts, 45

Copper in plants, 360

Cordiis, 439

Corolla, 90, — its structure, 321

Corollista?, 141

Corymb, 84

Costa, Da, 442

Cotyledons, 121,- — their evolu-
tion, 383,-their functions, 385

PRINCIPxVL DEFINITIONS AND NAAfKS. 481

Crop, 29

Cryptogamia, 131
Cupani, 449
Cusson, 467

Cyanogen in plants, .Slii
Cyme, 84

D

Darwin, 46'4

Decandria, lo\

Delile, 465, 46?

De-oxydation not the ultimate
object of vegetation, 345

Description of plants, 243

Desfoiitaines, 46'()

Desvaux, 467

Diadelphia, 131

Diandria, ib.

Dichogamia, 59, 103, 331

Diclinia, 131

Diclinous plants, frequently an-
drogynous, 382

Didynamia, 131

Dlllemu.s, 452

Dillwyn, 467

Dioscorides, 434

Direction of parts, 41

Diseases of plants, 418

Distribution of plants upon the
earth, 390

DoJart, 444

Dodecandria, 131

Dodonaeus, 440

Dropsy of plants, 420

Drupe, 112

Drying of plants, 266

Diichizcau, 467

Dvfresne, ib.

Dtmal, ib.

Duration of parts, 57

Ear, 56, 80

Earth in plants, 359

Eddi/, 417

Electricity, its influence on

plants, 372
Elliot, 466

Embryon, its origin, 383
Enneandria, 131

Equator, distance IVoni it de-
termines the iurnis of })lant'^,
393

Euphorbia^, structure of their
filaments, 333

Evaporation of j)lants, 320

Extractive matter, 354

Families of plants, 154, — na-
tural, 210,— their distribu-
tion, 400

Fasciation, 411

Ferm.entation, what it is, 342

Feuillee, 453

Figures of plants, 263

Flies, hurtful to plants, 429

Floral leaves, 86

Flower-stalk, 83

Flowers, 90, — their structure,
324, — opening and sluitting,
367, — that open during day
and shut at night, 368, — their
filling, 415

Follicle, 114

Form of parts, 29

Forskul, 458

Forsfer, ib.

Fringes, 51

Fructistae, 141

Fruit, 108

Fuch.'f, 439

Fungi, their fruit, 11 9, — on
other plants, 418, 423

Gall insects, 428

(-'alvanism, its effects on plants,
373

Gardens, botanical, their de-
scription, 2()1

Gartner, 1()5, 463

Gamlin, 140, 467

Gaivlcr, 467

Geiselcr, ib.

Genera of plants, 147

(icojf'roi/, 451

Geography of plants, 3f)0

Gerard, 45f)

Geimen, 101

H h

4.82

linXC ITAL DKFIXITIONS AND Xa:MKS.

Germs, 72, 384
Geaner, 439
Glands, 81
GleidiUch, 140, iof.)
Gleichen, 45()
Glume of j2:rasses, 88, 94-
Gluten, 35 o
C. C Gmdin, 46;>
J. F. GmeBi, 462
J. G. Ginelin, 454
6'. G. Gmelin, 46 1
Gnats, hurtful, 420
Gouan, 4.59
Grains, 26
6r{?7y, 444
Gum, 351
Gunner us, 459
Gynandria, 131

Gypsum in the soil, its effects
on plants, 374

H
Hairs of plants, 25
Half floret, 9^
Hallcr, 459

Halogen in plants, 36 1
Hamel du Aloncrau, Du, 457
Hasselquist, 458
Hawurlh, 467
Heat, its effects on plants, 370,

376, — production of it in

plants, 377
Iledwig, 461, 467
Height above the level of the

sea determines the forms of

plants, 398
Helmet of flowers, 9(^
Hemiptera, 426
Heptandria, 131
Heritier, L', 467, 468
Hermann, 141, 443, 449
Hexandria, 131
Hill, 4.57

History of Botany, 430
Hoar of the surface, 27
Hoffmann, 46?
Honey dew, 321
Hooker, 465, 467
Hooks, 80
Horneman, 465

Horti sanitatis, 437
Host, 467
Hudson, 459
Humboldt, 466, 467
Hybrid names, 217
Hysterandria, 139

I, J

J. F. V. Jacquin, 468

N. J. V. Jacquin, 458, 459, 460,
467, 468

Jaundice in plants, 420

Icosandria, 131

Imponderable substances, their
influence on plants, S65

Impregnation assisted by in-
sects, 332, — its progress, 381

Inflorescence, 82

Inner bark, 67, — its structure,
295

Insects, their air-vessels com-
pared with those of plants,
31 1, — assist in impregnation,
332, — occasion diseases in
plants, 425

Insertion of parts, 33

Inulin, 362

Iodine in plants, 36 1

Iron in plants, 360

Irregularity of organs, 180

Irritability of plants, 365

Juba, king of Mauritania, 433

./. Jung, 211, 445

A. Jussieu, 386, 463

B. Jussieu, 456

K

Kalm, 458
Kampfer, 454
Keith, 464
Ker, 467, 468
Kieser, 464,
Kitaibel, 465
Kolreutcr, 456, 46 1
Kratevas, 432
Krocker, 464
Kunth, 466, 467

La^asca, 467, 468

PUINCIPA], ni-.I IMTU^NS aXD xamks. 483

Lamarck, i()6

Jjamhert, 4()7

Lamouroux, 46?

iMpeijrousc, 46.5

Lawrence, 467

Leaf, 15, — its stalk, ib.

Leaves, their surfaces, ^(), —
composition, 46, — structure,
308, — functions, 313, — sleep,
367, — irritability, 379, — cli**-
coloration, 412

Leers, 4.59

Leeuwenhoeh, 444

Lchmanii, 467

Lichens, 1 1 8

Life of plants, 364

Light, its influence on plants,

Lightfoot, 459

Lime, how useful to soils^ 317,

— its production, 3o9
Link, 464, 46.5, 467
Linne, 131, 212, 455, 46 1
Lips of flowers, 9L 9.^i
Lobel'ms, 440
Lobes, 52, 91
Loculi of the fruit, liO
Lofting, 458

Loiselriir des Longchamps, 4()5
Loftel, 450
Loureiro, 466
Ludwig, 456
Lyngbye, 467

M

Magnol, 141

Malic acid, SQS

^alpighi, 444

Manganese in plants, 360

Manure, theory of it, 347

Manuring, green, ib.

Marcgrqf, 448

Margin of parts, 28

Mariolle, 444

Marl in the soil, 374

yinrscholl von Bicberslem. ()(^

Martins, 465

jMassnn, 1-67

MafUoli, 441

Meal on the surface, 27

Measure of parts, 14

Metals in plants. 360

Metamorphose, Goethe's. 41 1-

Method in Botany, 122

Michanx, 4()(), 467

Michcli, 452

Migration of plants, 405

Mildew, 321, 418

Mi/ ling fan, 444

Mirbe), 464

Moldcniiawcr, \h.

Monadelphia, 131

Monandria, ib.

Monch, 140

-Monoclinia, 131

Monocotyledonous. .']s6

Mona^cia, \S\

Monographs of plants, 255

Monstrosities. 414

Mori son, 7 41, 211, 44. >

Mor/and, 431

Morphium, 362

Mosses, their fruit, 1 17

Motion in plants, 378

Mould, of what it consists, .3()7

?vluciiai'e, a constituent part of

plants, 351
Muhlenberg, 466
Midler, 459
Maslel, 464

X

Nail on the leaves of flowers.

93
Names of plants, 211
Nectaries, 101,— theory ofthcm,

331
Nvr, 46()

Nces V. Esenbccli, 467
Nerves of the leaves, 40, — tlicir

structure, 309
Xes/ler, 467
\ecandcr, 432
Nocra, 465
Nimierical proportion of parts.

135, 197, 389
Nut, 112
Nijttall, 446

484 PllIXCirAL Di-LFiXlTlOXS AND NAMES.

o

Octandria, 131

(Edcr, 459

Oil in plants, 355

Opiumj its effects on plants,
375

Organic bodies, their proper-
ties, 34a

Organs, their value, l68, —
means which nature presents
for knowing them, 174, —
their change, 18,'^, — union of
them, 185

Orto, 442

Ovarium, 104

Qviedo, 442

Oxalic acid, 351

Oxygen exhaled from leaves,
314, — its effects on plants,
374

PaUsot-Beauvois, 466, 46?

Pallas, 458, 467

Pahmtruch, 465

Panicle, 84

Papilionaceous flov/ers, 98

Paraphysis, sap-tubes in the
neighbourhood of the sexual
parts of mosses, (PL 2. Fig.
6.)

Parasitic plants, 418, 423

Parenchyma of leaves, 309, — of
flov/ers. 324

Parkinson, 449

Partitions of li'uit, 110

Pavon, 466

Pentandria, 131

Perrault, 444

Persoon, 462, 467

P'eiiver, 449

Phanerogamia, 131

Pharmacopolists of ancient
Greece, 430

Phosphorus in plants, 36 1

Phvase, 235

Piso, 448

Pistil, 106,— its structure, 339

Pith of plants, 67,— Its struc-
ture, 299

Placenta, 1 1 1

Plinius, 435

Plukuet, 449

riumier, 453

Polarised matters in flowers,
630, — ar2 never free in or-
ganic bodies, 344

Pollen, 107, — its structure, 335,
33i^, — ^^composition, 337, — ef-
fects, 381

Pollich, 459

Polo, 437

Polyadelphia, 131

Poiyandria, ib.

Polychroit, 362

Polycotyledonous, 386

Polygamia, 131

Porous vessels, 283

Potash, a production of plants,
358

Primeval world, 403

Primitive forms of plants, 270

Punctured vessels, 283

Pursh, 466

9

J. Qucr y Martinez, 407

R

Racemus, 84

llqfinesque, 465

Raphe. See Commissura.

Ramvolf, 442

Raij, 141, 445

Rebentisch, 465

Receptacle, 85, — its structure,

changes after impregnation,

383
Redoutc,

Regularity of parts, 20, 203
Reichard, 462
Reichcl, 457
Resin in plants, 357,— its flow

in trees, 419
Retrogradation in vegetation,

414
Rheidc, 448
Rhizotomisth of ancient Greece,

430
Richard, 139

rillXCIPAL DEFiNlTIOXS AND XAMI^S. 185

Ricliier dc BeUeval, 44y
Rind of trees, 67, — its structure,
292,— clefts and diseases, 419
lUvinus, 141, 44^6
fxoc/ie, De la, 46?
Roll, 78
Homer, 462
Roscoe, 467
Roth, 467

Roxburgh, 465, 467
Rudolphi, 464
Ruiz, 466
Rumph, 448

Saccharine matter, 351

Salisbury, 468

Salm-Dijck, Prince of, 467

Sap, 34*7, — ascending, 348

Sap-tubes, 274, — how they act,

^ 376

Sannents, 71

Saussure, 457

Sauvages, 141

Savi, 467

Scab of the bark, 419

Scales of the surface, 27, 81

Scheuchzer, 452

Schkuhr, 465, 467

Schmidcl, 46 1

Schrader, 465

Schreber, 467

Schultes, 462

Schwagrichen, 467

Schweiuitz, 467

Scopoli, 459

Screens, 347

Seeds, 108, — ^^iheir evolution,
383

Scquier, 459

Senncbier, 464

Seringa, 467

Sexual parts, 103, — tht'ir struc-
ture, 333

Sheath, 77

Shoots, 71

Shrub, 66

Sibihdrp, 466

Silcx, 359

Silique, 1 M

Simplicity of parts, 45

Situation of parts

Size of parts, I9, 203

Sleep of plants, 367

Slits of the surface, 309

Shave, 448

Smell of flowers, 329

Smith, 4()5, 466, 467, 468

Soil, what plants take up fioin
it, 347, — wliether it be ex-
hausted by plants, 350,—
how it influences plants, 397

Sotverby, 465, 467

Species, idea of, 122

Speckled structure, 41 1

Spiculae, 84

Spike, ib.

Spines, 71

Spiral vessels, 277

Spreugcl, 461

Spurs, 95, 102

Stackhouse, 467.

Stalk, 70

Starch in plants, 351

Stem, 66,— ^-its structure, 299

Sternberg, Count of, 467

Stigma, 106,— its structure, 340

Stipe, 70

Stiplda, 78

Storms, their effect on plants,
372 ^

Strobilus, 84

Structure of plants in general.
270

Strychnin, 362

Sturm, 465

Substiuice of parts, 30

Sulphur in plants, 'MU

Supports of plants, 7f)

Surface of the parts, 24

Sutures, 1 10

Swartz, 4()6

Sweet, 468

Symj)hysandria, 1 .'JO

Syanthera, 139

Sy ngenesioiis plants, 131, —
structure of llieir filament.^.

Synonymy, '.'50
System of j)lants,

186

PRI^X•IPAL DEFIXITIOXS AND NAaMES.

TabcrnamoniamiSy 439

Tannin, "il^^

Tartaric acid, 20)^

Technical language of botany, 5

Teeth, 51

Teiiore, 465

Tetradynamia, 131

Tetrandria, 131

Thai, 439

Theophrast, 431

Thouars, Petit, 466

Thunbcrg, 466

Thyrse,^84

Ticunas-poison, its efTects on

plants, 375
Tips of the parts, 28, 55

Tode, 467

Torrcy,

Tourneforl, 141, 447

Tragus, 439

Trees, 67

Treinramis, 464

Triandria, 131

Tribes of plants, 154

Trivial names, 223

Tubers, 65^ — their structure,

288
Tubes of flowers, 92
Turner, 467

Under-shrubs, 6S
Union of organs, 185

Vahl, 464
Vnillant, 451
Valves, 87, 110
Variety, 145
Vaucher, 467

Veins of leaves, 49, — their struc-
ture, 309
Vcntenal, 463, 468
Vignier, 467
PlUors, 465
Virgil, 433

W

Wnhlaiherg, 465

Warts, 26"

Wax, S5G

Wendland, 467

Wik.sirom, 467

Willdeno7v, 462, 467, 46(S

Willow-rose, 428

Wings of flowers, 98

Witch-knots, 411

Wolf, 456

Wood, 67, — its structure, 297

Wrinkles of parts, 26

U

Umlxjl, 84

Znnoni, 449

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